.^°.;^^%X .X:^«kX oo^s^i^^X. 40^ : V oV'* < lO-a C" *J * o. o.''^:^-.oo -u:'f^f!^\,^^ ^o:^my^ >"■ ./.-^Ur.V co\c;^.*<'o >.i^%^ •^^0^ .•1°^ \'^i^''*\/' %:^iwyy "\*'??f^-f'* .*^" '.* .♦^'"♦. o ^0, 1., *^ Wiy*^ • O °o 0^'" »!**' V ^. # .^^I'a^ ^^^^^ ^ ^4^ o«-** <^- ,4^. ♦ - . « • ;* «lK ° s '^^ • ■ < ■ .* »* tU a^ 0^ *i*^-. "^^ v" .* ,% ^ ,^ .r o "-^^^♦^ o ,»» .-ate-- %/ .-^ir, %/ ••' / .♦V'V. HISTORY UNITED STATES AMERICA, WRITTEN IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE PRINCIPLES OP PEACE. BY v/ M. MUERAY. BOSTON: BENJAMIN B. MUSSEY & CO NEW BEDFORD : C. & A. TABER. 1 852. Km A Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, by M. Murray, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. ^\'\% >^«^^^ Feinted by Damrell & Moore, IG Devonshire Street, PREFACE The following work is offered to those, who, not wishing to withhold from the reader or student, the knowledge of the American wars, regard it as im- portant that this knowledge be communicated in such a manner as to strengthen a love of peace, and to excite reflections' not inconsistent with those suggested by the words of the apostle, " Whence come w^ars and fightings among you ? Come they not hence, even of your lusts that war in your members ? " The most approved authors have been consulted to obtain accurate information on all subjects worthy of notice in a work on American History, some of which are not usually embraced in similar works ; such, for example, as the United States Exploring Expedition and the Manners and Customs of the North American IV PREFACE. Indians. At the same time much which has appeared uninteresting and useless has been omitted. Where authorities have differed, great care has been espe- cially taken to consult the best sources of knowledge. The facts given in the account of the Mexican war, are derived chiefly from the works of Jay and Liver- .more. Histories may hereafter be written, which shall give a different view of the causes which led to this war, by persons who adopt the motto, "Our country, right or wrong." The writer of the following work, not approving a motto so evidently at variance with universal and eternal justice, has endeavored to treat both governments with impartiality in the delineation of the war and its causes. AUTHORITIES, The following are some of the Authorities made use of : — Robertson's America. Bancroft's United States. Frost's United States. Hinton's United States. Marshall's Life of Washington. McIntosh's Indians. North American Review. Review of Graham's Colonial History. Jay's Review of the Mexican War. Livermore's Review of the Mexican War. CONTENTS, CHAPTER I. Discovery of America, 1 CHAPTER n. Attempts at Colonization, 21 CHAPTER m. Colonization of Virginia — Early History of Jamestown, 29 CHAPTER lY. State of the Continent, when first visited by Europeans — Some account of the North American Indians,- • • * 48 CHAPTER V. Virginia, (continued,) 57 YUl CONTENTS. CHAPTER Aa. Colonization of IVIaryland, 62 CHAPTER Vn. Attempts to colonize New England — The Pilgrims,- • • • 71 CHAPTER .Vm. Further Colonization of New England, 83 CHAPTER IX. The United Colonies of New England, 9.9 CHAPTER X. The United Colonies of New England, (continued,)- • • • 108 CHAPTER XL New England, (continued,) -- 124 CHAPTER Xn. New Netherlands, until its final transfer to England,- • • - 136 CHAPTER Xm. New Jersey, as a separate Province, 146 CONTENTS. IX CHAPTEK XIV. New York, continued from New Netherlands, 149 CHAPTER XV. Carolina, 153 CHAPTER XVI. Pennsylvania and Delaware, 161 CHAPTER XVn. Georgia, 172 CHAPTER XVm. The French War, and some of the causes which led to it, 1 76 CHAPTER XIX. Difficulties with the British Government, — From 176-i to 1775, • 191 CHAPTER XX. War— The Revolution, 212 CHAPTER XXL Continuation of the Revolutionary War — Declaration of Independence, 225 X CONTENTS. CHAPTEK XXII. Continuation of tlie War, 230 CHAPTER XXIII. Campaign of 1778 and 1779, 260 CHAPTER XXIV. Campaign of 1780, 276 CHAPTER XXV. Campaign of 1781 — Conclusion of tlie AVar — Treaty of Peace signed, 293 CHAPTER XXVI, Adoption of the Federal Constitution, and Administration of George AVasliington, 313 CHAPTER XXVII. Administration of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison, 338 CHAPTER XXVIII. War of 1812, 364 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XXIX. From the Treaty of Peace with England in 1815, to the Mexican Controversy, 388 CHAPTER XXX. The MexicanWar, with some of the causes which led to it, 403 CHAPTER XXXI. Exploring Exjfedition under Captain Wilkes, 432 CHAPTER XXXH. ConclusioH, 437 ii HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. / CHAPTER I. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. The country in which we live, teeming with a thriving population, studded with cities, towns and villages, was, in all probability, unknown to the ancients ; and was mostly one vast wilderness, frequented by wild beasts, and inhabited only by tribes of Indians, savage and warlike, who subsisted by hunting and fishing. It was discovered in 1492.* Previous- ly to that time mariners were accustomed to short voyages only, and seldom ventured out of sight of land. But the spirit of adventure was high in the wish to find a more direct passage by water to India, the trade with which was then * The Norwegians and Icelanders have claimed the honor of having first discovered the American continent. The Royal Antiquarian So- ciety at Copenhagen has published some of the Icelandic authorities, which seem to render it quite probable that Greenland was visited by a party from Iceland as early as 986 ; and that in the year 1000, an. exploring voyage was made by Norwegians, in which the company proceeded as far south as Labrador and Newfoundland, and possibly Nantucket. It is stated that several voyages were made, and that a colony ex- isted for several years in Greenland. But there is no reason to sup- pose that Columbus had any knowledge of these explorations. 14 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Christopher Columbus. Sails from Palos. conducted over land, attended witb great expense and danger. For this purpose Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, first conceived the design of venturing into the unexplored waters of the ocean. He was a navigator of great skill, and a man of a bold, enterprising and persevering spirit. There were some indications which had tended strongly to incite a spirit of inquiry. Pieces of carved wood, a canoe and two human bodies, different in complexion from any Eu- ropeans, had been washed upon the shores of islands in the neighborhood of Europe. The shape of the earth was then known to be round, and Columbus was thus induced to think that the East Indies might be reached by sailing west. In pursuance of this opinion he applied to the king of Portugal for aid, but the subject was treated with ridicule. Persevering in his efforts, Columbus sent his brother to Henry VII of England. The voyage was attended with so much delay, that the favorable views of that monarch did not become known to Columbus until after his return from the first voy- age, when the discovery had been made. This indefatigable man, after the failure of his application to the court of Portuojal, sou2;ht assistance from Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. At first they also regarded the idea as chimerical, but by the representations of Columbus, the queen, after a long delay, was induced to lend him all the assistance in her power, even offering to pledge her jewels for this purpose. By her directions three small vessels were fitted out. They were provided for twelve months, and had on board one hundred and twenty persons. AVith these, Columbus sailed for the Canary Islands, from the port of Palos, in Spain, on the 8d of Eighth month, (Aug.,) 1492. At these islands ho stopped to refit, and sailed again en the 6th of Nintli month, (Sept.,) into a wide and DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 15 Discontent of the seamen. Discovery of land. unexplored sea. In about eight da^s, when they had pro- 1492 ceeded six hundred miles, the compass was observed to vary from its direction to the north polar star. This alarmed them much. It was totally unaccountable, never having before been observed. With difficulty Columbus allayed their fears, being unable himself to explain the cause. He appears to have satisfied them, by telling them that the star had mo- tion, and not the needle. Not however meeting with land as soon as they had anticipated, they again became uneasy, showed symptoms of insubordination, and agreed among themselves that Columbus should be forced to relinquish the undertaking, and even talked of throwing him into the sea. Amidst all the difficulties and dangers of his sit- uation, Columbus appeared calm and composed, and dis- played those traits of character which proved his qualifica- tion for the undertaking ; sometimes by assuming a tone of authority, again by soothing his companions, he preserved his ascendency. Meanwhile they proceeded, and signs of land began to appear. Flocks of birds were observed; a piece of cane freshly cut was taken up ; the water had become more shallow. These and other indications satisfied Colum- bus that land was not far distant ; but his unbelieving mar- iners still demanded to be taken back to Spain ; and it re- quired all the energy and tact of which Columbus was master, to obtain their consent to persevere a little longer. Soon afterwards, at night, a light was seen at a distance, giving evidence not only of land, but of inhabitants also. A little after midnight, a gun from the foremost vessel proved the land to be in sight, and when the day dawned, an island was in full view about two leagues to the north. On the morning of the 12th of Tenth month, (Oct.,) about seventy days from the time they left Spain, the boats were manned. 16 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Return of Columbus. Amerigo Vespucci. 1492 and the Spaniards rowed to the shore, bearing the royal standard. Columbus first set foot on the island, and took possession in the name of the Spanish sovereigns. The natives, who had assembled in great numbers on the first appearance of the ships, beheld the strangers with aston- ishment, not being aware of the existence of any country from which they could have arrived. They regarded them as beings of a superior order, who came rather to confer ben- efits than to despoil them of their land. The island was called by the natives Guanahani ; Colum- bus gave to it the name of St. Salvador. It is one of the l^ahamas, distant about three thousand miles from the Ca- naries. Columbus afterwards touched at other islands of the same group, and also discovered Cuba and Hayti, to the latter of which he gave the name of Hispaniola, when the eagerness of his men to return to their native country induced him to make preparations for departure. These islands Columbus sup- posed to be at no very great distance from India, and, having been reached by a western passage, they were called the West Indies. The return of Columbus with the news of the discovery, filled the kingdom with astonishment and joy ; and he received many proofs of royal favor, proportioned to the magnitude of his services. He made three voyages, and in 1498, he reached South America, at the mouth of the river Orinoco. Columbus, although the discoverer of America, was pre- vented from giving a name to the continent. Amerigo Ves- pucci, a Florentine, visited the country some years afterwards, and on his return published an account of his voyage, with observations on the natural productions of the places which he had visited, the inhabitants and their customs. This was DISCOVERY OP AMERICA. 17 Gabofc discovers the continent. The coast explored. the first narrative given to the public, and led to the idea that the author was the real discoverer, and the continent, in con- sequence, received the name of America. Columbus was also deprived of the rewards promised by Ferdinand and Isabella, and "after having attracted the admiration and applause of the whole civilized world by the brilliancy of his achievements, he was suffered to die in com- parative poverty and neglect." Soon after the return of Columbus from his first voj^age, 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, resident in England, in- terested Henry VII in plans for discovery. In the year 1497, accompanied by his son Sebastian, he crossed the At- lantic, discovered the Island of Newfoundland, and arrived at the continent in the neighborhood of lat. 56^. In the hope of discovering a northwest passage to India, they then sailed to the north a short distance ; but returning, cruised along the coast as far south as Florida. It was in consequence of discoveries made during this voyage, that England laid claim to the eastern part of the continent of North America, not considering that the soil was already owned by those who occupied it, and from whom it could only rightfully be ob- tained by purchase. Sebastian Cabot, a native of England, pursued the discov- eries which his father had begun, and explored the coast from Labrador to the southern boundary of Maryland ; but the maps which he made, as well as the records of the voyage, have in some way been lost. These successful explorations were the means of inciting 1523 other adventurers into the newly discovered world. In the year 1523, Francis I, king of France, sent John Verrazzani, also a native of Florence, on a voyage of discovery to the re- gions which had excited so much wonder and ambition. He 18 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Florida. Search for gold. 1523 cast anchor on the shores of North Carolina, where Euro- peans liad never landed, and was received with kindness by the natives, who had not yet learned to fear the white man. Proceeding northward, the coast was explored as far as Nova Scotia. Voyages to America now became frequent. Some were for fishing, others for trading with the natives, and attempts soon began to be made to plant colonies, many of which were without permanent result. Florida was discovered under the auspices of Spain, in the year 1512, but no settlement was made for many years. The Spaniards gave the country the name of Florida, from the day on which land was first seen, being that called Easter Sunday, Pascua Florida, as well as " from the aspect of the forests, which were then brilliant with a profusion of blossoms, and gay with the fresh verdure of early spring.*' In 1541, adventurers from Spain also travelled west- ward beyond the Mississippi, in search of gold, disturbing the peaceful Indians in their course, taking many prisoners, putting some to death, and enslaving others. One of their battles was so terribly destructive to the Indians, that two thousand of their number are said to have been slain, 1541 suffocated or burned. In the course of the march of the Span- iards, natives were met with who were an agricultural people, with fixed places of abode. But neither the happiness, the rights nor even the lives of the Indians appear to have been at all regarded. Nothing having been met with to satisfy the avarice of the adventurers, their leader at length sunk under repeated disappointments, and the remnant of the com- pany left the country, unable to possess themselves of the soil. The Spaniards claimed, under the name of Florida, the whole gea-coast as far as Newfoundland, but as yet had planned no settlement, DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 19 French Protestants in Florida. Settlement of St. Augustine. Under the auspices of France, a colony of Protestants had 1564 sought an asylum in the peninsula of Florida. It had been a cherished desire of Coligny, the leader of the Protestant party in France, to establish a refuge for the Huguenots, and a Protestant French empire in the new world. The first expedition failed. In 1564, he renewed his solicitations with Charles IX for the colonization of Florida. The king approbated the measure. Emigrants were quite ready, for "men still dreamed of rich mines of gold in the interior," and Laudonniere was appointed to conduct them. They established themselves on the banks of the river now called St. Johns. The French were hospita- bly welcomed by the natives, but soon lost their confidence by unjust dealings with them. In the spring, supplies of every kind were received, with fresh emigrants, and Calvinism appeared about to become established in the inviting regions of Florida. But Spain had no inclination to surrender to France what she considered a portion of her dominions; neither would Philip II, the Spanish king, willingly permit heretics to plant themselves in the neighborhood of his Cath- olic provinces. An expedition for their extermination was accordingly fitted out in 1565. It had been the intention of Melendez, the Spanish commander, to select a favorable site for a settlement, and when fortifications had been constructed, to attack the French. After sailino- alon^^ the coast, they discovered a " fine haven and beautiful river," to which they gave the name of St. Augustine. 15G5 Having taken possession of the continent in the name of their king, they immediately commenced the foundation of the oldest town now existing in the United States, more than forty years before the first settlement in A^irginia. The French colony was soon attacked, the Spaniards gained the ascen- 20 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Settlement of Port Royal. dency, and a scene of carnage ensued in which nearly two hundred persons were killed. *' A few Catholics were spared ; some mechanics were reserved as slaves ; the rest were massacred." Thus ended the Huguenot settlement, and France resigned all claims to Florida. In 1540, the French had made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a colony in Canada. For many years afterwards, being involved in difficulties at home, no further discoveries were made by that government. Under the enlightened reign of Henry lY, the spirit of enterprise and the hope of found- ing colonies in America, revived. An expedition was pre- pared, and resulted in the establishment, in 1605, of a colony, which they named Port Royal, afterwards called Annapolis, on a harbor in the Bay of Fundy ; difficult of access, but possessing some advantages. Thus was the first French set- tlement made on the American continent, three years before the founding of Quebec by the same nation, and two years before Jamestown was settled by the English. In the establishment of all these colonies, the European monarchs seemed to forget that the natives of America had exclusive right to the soil, and appeared to think that they themselves could bestow the government on whomsoever they pleased ; the only claim required being to obtain possession before any other European power. CHAPTER II. ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION. Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Walter Raleigh. While the fisheries of Newfoundland were frequently 1579 visited, and the minerals of Labrador sought as containing gold, the attention of Sir Humphrey Gilbert was directed towards plans of colonization. He succeeded in obtaining a charter from Queen Elizabeth, and in 1570, sailed from England with a small fleet. But the wreck of one of his vessels, and other difficulties, obliged him, for the time, to relinquish the undertaking. In 1583, a second expedition was fitted out by Sir 158r Humphrey Gilbert and his near relative, Walter Ptaleigh, attended with no other result, however, than the "empty ceremony " of taking possession of the Island of New- foundland in the queen's name, and conve3;ing home some earth which was supposed to contain silver. On their re- turn, the vessel in which Gilbert sailed was lost at sea, and all on board perished. This sad incident did not discouraf^e Walter Raleifrh. He D O had taken part in the civil contests between the Huguenots and the Catholics in France, where he received information respecting Florida and the navigation to those regions, and resolved on the establishment of a settlement there, in order to secure to England those countries which had been repre- sented as so delightful. He had no difficulty in obtaining from Elizabeth a patent as ample as that which had been 90 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Amadas and Barlow in Virginia, Colony of Roanoke. conferred on Gilbert, and two vessels, well laden with men and provisions, and under the command of Philip iVmadas and Arthur Barlow, were soon on their way to the Western World. 1584 They took the usual route by the way of the Canary Islands and the West Indies, and after a short stay, ar- rived opposite the shores of Carolina in Seventh month, (July,) 1584, a little more than two months after leaving home. They sailed along the coast about one hundred miles in search of a convenient harbor, and landed on the Island of Wocoken, bordering Ocracock Inlet, taking posses- sion in the usual manner, for the Queen of England. The English received a friendly welcome from the natives, whose timidity was overcome by the desire of trading. Having made but a short stay in America, and explored Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds and Ptoanoke Island, they returned to Eng- land, taking with them two of the Indians, who had been in- duced to accompany them. On their arrival, they gave such glowing descriptions of the country, its beauty, fertihty, mild- ness of climate and serenity of atmosphere, that Elizabeth, as a memorial that this happy discovery was made under a maiden queen, gave it the name of Virginia. Raleigh was knighted as the reward of his enterprise. 1585 Encouraged by this pleasing report, the next year, 1585, llaleigh sent to the shores-of Carolina, seven small vessels, with upwards of one hundred persons. Ralph Lane, a man of considerable distinction, was appointed governor of the colony, and Sir Richard Grenville, commander of the fleet. It sailed from Plymouth, accompanied by several men of em- inence, among whom were Cavendish, who soon after cir- cumnavigated the globe, and Hariot, a distinguished math- ematician. Having arrived on the coast they were in much ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION. 23 Treatment of the natives. Sketch of the Indians. danger of being wrecked on the point of land, then first called 1585 Cape Fear, and passing through Ocracock Inlet, the fleet reached Roanoke. Soon after landing, an excursion was made to examine the country. The party was "well entertained of the savages," but a trifling theft having occurred, Grenville ordered an Indian town to be burned, and the standing corn to be destroyed ; an act not only wrong in itself, but very impol- itic, when the adventurers might, in a great measure, soon ■ be dependent upon the friendship of these sons of the forest. Soon after this, the colonists having landed, the fleet sailed for England ; and on their return, took a Spanish prize. The dangers of a passage across the Atlantic at this time were great, as the vessels of Spain and of England felt mutually authorized to attack each other whenever they met. Hariot, Cavendish and other scientific men who remained in the colony, gave considerable attention to the examination of the country, its soil and productions, with a view of obtain- ing articles for commerce. The Indians were divided into numerous small tribes, in- dependent of one another, and arc described as too feeble to inspire terror. They were clothed in mantles and aprons of deer-skins. Their towns were small, the largest containing but thirty dwellings. The walls of the houses were made of bark, fastened to stakes. They were not ignorant of religion, but had a confused belief in the existence of one Supreme Power, in continued existence after death, and in retributive justice in a future life. The fire-arms of the English filled them with terror ; and the Indians began to dread their power. Fearing there were more of these wonderful people coming to kill them and take 24 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Treachery of the English. Return of the Colonists, 1585 a^ay tbeir lands, they began to devise means to get rid of them. Lane, governor of the colony, and his associates, infatuated with the desire of obtaining gold and silver, neglected the culti- vation of the soil, and listening to the tales of the Indians concerning rich mines which were to be found in the in- terior, went in pursuit of the hidden treasure. The na- tives had hoped to destroy the colonists by thus dividing them ; but in this they were defeated, as Lane and his asso- ciates were soon compelled to return for want of provisions. The Indians next formed the design of leaving their lands unplanted, supposing that famine might drive away these in- truders. This plan was not carried into effect, yet the English began to fear that a general conspiracy was preparing. Ke- quesling an audience of Wingina, the most active among the native chiefs, Lane and his attendants were received by him without suspicion, and although no hostile intentions were discovered, the English fell upon the king and his principal followers, putting them to death without mercy. The colony was now assailed with hostility and famine. The men began to despond, and were longing for the com- forts of the homes they had left, when Sir Francis Drake vis- ited them with a fleet of twenty-three vessels, on his return from the "West Indies to England. lie supplied the gov- ernor with a bark containing all necessary provisions for the colony, and induced two sea-captains to remain to complete the surveys along the coast and rivers. Should their suffer- ings become extreme, the whole company were to return to England. But an unexpected storm destroyed the vessel containing their provisions; and although Drake devised means for supplying them a second time, yet their desire to leave the country was so strong that he yielded to it and conveyed ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION. 25 Second colony on Roanoke. them to their native land. The delay of a few days would have obviated this necessity, for a ship, laden with supplies, which had been sent out by Raleigh, then arrived, and in another fortnight Sir Richard Grenville reached there with three well-laden vessels. He left fifteen men on the Island of Roanoke, to retain possession in the name of England, and returned home. The colonists on the Island of Roanoke, introduced into England the general use of tobacco, a favorite indulgence of the lethargic Indians. Not discouraged by the unfavorable result of his efforts to establish colonies, Raleigh next determined to send out emi- grants with wives and families, who should at once feel their homes to be in the new world, and be induced to devote their attention to agriculture. In 1587, with John White ap- pointed as governor, the fleet set sail, carrying with them an 1587 ample provision of the implements of husbandry. They ar- rived at the Island of Roanoke about midsummer, and en- deavored to find the small company left there by Grenville ; but of their fate they could learn nothing. "It is most probable that their misconduct had caused their dispersion, perhaps their death ; the bones of one person were seen." " Wild deer were reposing in the untenanted houses, and were feeding on the productions which a rank vegetation still forced from the gardens. No vestige of surviving life ap- peared." Raleigh had designed that the new settlement should be made on the Chesapeake Bay, but the unwillingness of the commander to explore the coast, compelled them to remain on Roanoke. Here many hardships were encountered. Some of the Indians were friendly; others were fearful of the encroachments of strangers, and killed one of the party. 26 HISTORY OF TUE UNITED STATES. The Island found deserted. This the Enj^lish determined to revenge, and meeting with a company of Indians whom they took for enemies, the work of destruction was begun before it was discovered that they be- longed to a friendly tribe. Thus with the existence of a mutual spirit of animosity, the colonists felt their dependence on England, and urged the governor to return in the vessel which had brought the emi- grants, that he might intercede for supplies. On his depar- ture, he left behind him his daughter, and his granddaughter, Virginia Dare, the first offspring of English parents on American soil. When he arrived in England, the attention of the nation was excited with the threatened invasion of the great Spanish Armada. Raleigh, however, found means for sending two vessels vith supplies for the needy colony. But so great was the desire for Spanish prizes, that the governor and those entrusted with the vessels, neglected the object of their voj^age, until one of the vessels being boarded and rifled by a man-of- war, they were both obliged to return to England. And when, after two years' delay, in 1590, White, the governor, returned to search for the colony, the island was found to be 1590 deserted. "An inscription on the bark of a tree pointed to Croatan ; but the season of the year, and the dangers from storms, were pleaded as an excuse for an immediate return. Had the emigrants already perished? or had they escaped with their lives to Croatan, and through the friendship of Manteo, become familiar with the Indians? The conjecture has been hazarded, that the deserted colony, neglected by their own countrymen, were hospitably adopted into the tribe of Hatteras Indians, and became amalgamated with the sons of the forest. This was the tradition of the natives at a later day, and was thought to be confirmed by the physical charac- ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION. 27 GosnolJ explores part of the New England coast. tor of the tribe, in which the En^^lish and the Indian race seemed to have been blended. Raleigh long cherished the hope of discovering some vestiges of their existence ; and though he had abandoned the design of colonizing Virginia, he yet sent, at his own charge, and, it is said, at five several times, to search for his liege-men. But it was all in vain ; imagination received no help in its attempts to trace the fate of the colony of Roanoke." * In 1G02, Bartholomew Gosnold conceived the idea of a direct voyjige across the Atlantic, instead of the route pre- 1G02 viously pursued by the way of the Canaries and the West Indies. Sailing in a direct westwardly coast, in accordance with this view, he reached the continent in Massachusetts Bay. Proceeding southward, he discovered Cape Cod, the Elizabeth Islands, and Buzzard's Bay. Upon one of the Elizabeth Islands, the foundations of the first New Enirland colony were intended to be laid ; but dread of the Indians, and fears of not obtaining seasonable supplies of food, ren- dered the company unwilling to be left. "When GosnolJ, by traffic with the natives, had completed his freight, the whole party returned to England. The favorable accounts given by Gosnold and his com- panions, induced others to pursue the discoveries. The reports made by these navigators, confirmed those previously given, and led to a more extensive scheme of colonizatioa than any that had yet been attempted. " The daring and skill of these earliest adventurers upon the ocean, deserve the higliest admiration. The difficulties of crossing the Atlantic were new, and it required the greater couraj^e to encounter hazards which ignorance exajr^eiated. * Bancroft. 28 UISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Perils of the voyagers. The character of the prevalent winds and currents was un- known. The possibility of making a direct pa.ssage was but gradually discovered. The imagined dangers were infinite ; the real dangers exceedingly great. The ships at first em- ployed for discovery, were generally of less than one hundred tons burden ; Frobisher sailed in a vessel of but twenty-five tons ; two of those of Columbus were without a deck ; and so perilous were the voyages deemed, that the sailors were accustomed before embarking, to perform solemn acts of de- votion, as if to prepare for eternity. The anticipation of dis- asters was not visionary. Columbus was shipwrecked twice, and once remained for eight months on an island, without any communication with the civilized world. Hudson was turned adrift in a small boat by a ciew whom suffering had rendered mutinous. Willoughby perished mlh cold," * while many others were lost at sea. * Bancroft. CIFAPTER III. COLONIZATION OF VIRGINIA. EARLY HISTORY OF JAMESTOWN. North anil South Viryiuia. Londoa and Plymouth Companies. We have luthcrto traced navigators on voyages of discov- ery,. and followed men of various nations in their attempts to form permanent settlements "in America. But now the period had arrived when these efforts were to be crowned with suc- cess, and places of refuge for the oppressed were founded in the western world. The attention of many persons of intelligence and rank had become directed to Virginia ; and Gosnold, after soliciting the concurrence of his friends for the establishment of a colony, prevailed upon John Smith, an adventurer of remarkable genius and great perseverance, in company with others, to consent to encounter the perils of an expedition. King James I favored the design of enlarging his dominions, and when a company of men of business and men of rank applied to him, he promoted the noble work by readily issuing an ample pa- tent. He divided into two districts that portion of North Amer- ica extending from the 34th to the 45th degree of latitude. One of these he called South Virginia, the other North Vir- ginia ; and formed two companies for planting colonies within their limits. The southern district he granted to a company res- ident in London and its vicinity, called the London Company ; the northern district, to a company of merchants and others in the west, styled the Plymouth Company. Each was to own the soil extending fifty miles north and south of its first settlement, so that neither company could establish a colony 30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Departure of emigraDts for Virginia. within one hundred miles of the other. The present States of Virginia and North Carolina were comprised within the limits of South Virginia ; and North Virginia embraced the New Eno-land States. The land was to be held on the condition of homao-e to the crown, and a rent of one-fifth of the net produce of the gold and silver, and one-fifteenth of copper, from the mines to be discovered. The right of coining money was granted to the colonists. The superintendence of the whole colonial system was confided to a council in England, appointed by the king ; the local administration of each colony was entrusted to a council residing within its limits, to be named by the council in England. "Not an element of popular liberty was introduced into the form of government. Religion was specially to be estab- lished according to the doctrine and rites of the Church of England. Kindness to the savages was enjoined, with the use of all proper means for their conversion." Early in the winter, on the 19th of Twelfth month, (Dec.) 160G, forty-one years after the settlement of St. Augustine, the company of adventurers, consisting of 105 men, set sail for Virginia. Among them there were but twelve la- 1606 borers, — few mechanics, and no men with families. The in- structions to the council, with the names of its members, had been concealed in a box, which was not to be opened until the arrival of the vessels in Virginia ; consequently no com- petent authority existed to repress the disorders which arose during the voyage. Newport, who commanded the ships, being acquainted with the old passage, by the way of the Canaries and the West Indies, lost much time in taking this course. When approaching the coast a severe storm carried the fleet bi'yond the Island of Roanoke, the original place of destination, into Chesapeake Bay, more than four months after COLONIZATION OF VIRGINIA. 31 Landing and organization. Powhatan. their departure from England. The head lands of the bay received the names of Cape Henry and Cape Charle.s, in honor of the sons of King James. The country within the capes appeared to the emigrants as delightful as any they had ever beheld. They soon entered the river, called by the natives Powhatan, to which they gave the name of James, from their sovereign. After a search of seventeen days, they selected a site for the infant settlement, about fifty miles above the mouth of the river, and conferred on it the name of James- town.* The emigrants landed on the 13th of Fifth month, (May,) 1607. The box containing the instructions of the council in England, and the names of the local council, kav- 1607 ing been opened, that body became duly organized, and chose Edward Wingfield for their president. They then, as they had power to do, excluded Captain Smith from their number, on a charge of sedition, his superior abilities having excited their jealousy. He was, however, soon restored, his peculiar talents being required to restrain the insubordination and vices of the colonists. A few huts were immediately constructed, and a part of the men were soon employed in felling timber, and in pro- viding freight for the ships, while Newport and Smith, with a small party, ascended the James river, and visited the native chief Powhatan, at his principal seat, a village of twelve wig- wams, just below the present site of Richmond. The king received them in a friendly manner, but his subjects feared the intrusion of the English, In the early part of the summer, Captain Newport sailed for England. It was then the English began to realize their situation ; in the midst of a wilderness, inhabited only by *The place is now cultivated as a farm, and the only remaining relic left to mark the site of Jamestown is the ruin of an old meeting-house. 32 UISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Hardships and discouragements. Captain Smith. 1607 savages, their number small, and without habits of industry. The provisions brought \Yith them from England were either consumed, or had been spoiled in the long voyage ; the heat of the summer they found difEcult to support ; and so dis- heartened were they, that very soon after the departure of tho fleet, scarcely any of them were able to work. They took no care to provide for their future subsistence, and planted no crops. Famine and sickness ensued. Before fall, one half of their number perished, and among them, Bartholomew Gosnold, the projector of the enterprise, a member of tho council, and whose salutary influence in preserving harmony there, was much mis.sed. The management of affairs was now confided to Smith, whose courage and cheerfulness once more animated the colo- nists. His talents and personal activity, which, in more pros- perous times, had been viewed with jealousy, now, in adver- sity, excited regard and deference. It required much skill and tact on his part, to defeat the conspiracies which were formed to abandon the country ; the danger of which contin- ued to be great until the approach of winter rendered the home navigation perilous, and the fear of famine was removed by provisions received from the Indians, and the abundance of game with which the forests abounded. To explore the country, frequent excursions were made into the interior. In one of these, the party was surprised by the Indians, and all but Smith put to death. His life was preserved through self- possession. Showing them a pocket compass, he interested them in the explanation of its properties ; and in endeavoring to give them some general ideas of the nature of the universe, and the form of the earth, he excited their admiration. They allowed him to send a letter to Jamestown. The effect of the little paper increased their astonishment. He was evidently COLONIZATION OF VIRGINIA. 33 His return from captivity. Passion for gold. a being of a superior order, but tbej were at a loss wbether to regard him as a friend, or to dread him as an enemy. lie was conducted to Powhatan, who would have put him to death, but for the intercession of his dauglitcr, Pocahontas, an interesting girl of about ten or twelve years of ago. The Indians now endeavored to secure the friendship of Smith, and gain his assistance in the destruction of the col- ony at Jamestown. By his wisdom and prudence, he suc- ceeded in averting their design ; when they allowed him to leave with mutual promises of friendship. Thus the captivity of Smith was the means of establishing a peaceful intercourse between the colony and the Indians, and was of other advan- tage, as he had made himself acquainted with the country, and had gained some knowled2;cof the lanojuai>;e and manners of the natives. On his return. Smith found the colony reduced to forty 1608 persons ; most of whom were making preparations to leave the country. With great difficulty he induced them to re- linquish their design. In the spring, Newport arrived at Jamestown, with 120 emigrants and a quantity of provisions. The hopes of the colonists revived, but the character of those who had now joined them was not such as to add much strength to the settlement, being chiefly '' vagabond gentlemen and goldsmiths," who, instead of attending to the cultivation of the soil as a means of their subsistence, only fostered a passion for gold. They fancied they had discovered grains of this metal in a glittering earth found near Jamestown, and notwithstanding the remonstrances of Smith, the energies of the colonists were at once directed to collecting this worthless earth and sending; it to Endand. The consequences were soon severely felt, in famine and disease. In the hope of obtaining some relief by opening an 34 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Arrival of fresh emigrants. New charter. intercourse with more remote Indian tribes, as well as to ex- plore the Chesapeake and its tributaries, Sinith, with a few companions, during the summer of 1608, and with a scanty supply of food, in a small open boat, made two voyages, which occupied three months, sailing nearly throe thousand miles. He not only surveyed the bay, and explored most of its rivers, but penetrating the country, established friendly relations with some native tribes. The map which he prepared and sent to the London Company was a correct delineation of the country which he explored. Although the coloni.^ts had been unwilling to submit to the judgment and authority of Smith, yet three days after his return he was again chosen president of the council, and habits of industry and subordination began to prevail. About this time Newport again arrived with a second sup- ply of provisions and seventy emigrants. But " experience had not taught the Company to engage suitable persons for Virginia," and Smith wrote to them, " When you send again, I entreat you rather send but thirty carpenters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers of trees' roots, well provided, than one thousand of such as we have." 1609 After the departure of the ships. Smith employed his authority to enforce industry, requiring the people to work six hours in the day. Yet so unskilful were they in agri- culture, and so little land had been cultivated, that it was still necessary to depend in part on the Indians for food. The health of the colony improved ; only seven died this season, out of a populatron of two hundred. At this period, a new charter was granted to the Company, conferring on them additional privileges, and bestowing powers which had been heretofore reserved to the king. COLONIZATION OF TIRGINIA. 35 New emigrani-s. DisorJer. Smith returns to England. Sufferings. The council in Virginia had been abolished, and the gov- icOO ernment vested in a London council, who were empowered to nominate a governor in Virginia, to carry their orders into execution. To this important station, Lord Delaware was appointed ; but as he could not immediately leave England, the authority was temporarily delegated to others. The Company now fitted out nine ships, conveying five hundred emigrants, in company with the officers appointed to assume the charge of the government. A violent hurricane separated the vessel in which these officers were embarked from the rest of the fleet. The re- mainder arrived safely at Jamestown. Again, however, were the new comers such as should properly have remained at home, being more likely to ruin a colony than to assist in raising one. They assumed to themselves the power of dis- posing of the government, and all was disorder and confu- sion. But Smith hesitated not what course to pursue, and declared that his authority would only terminate with the arrival of those appointed to supersede him. He imprisoned the leaders of the sedition, and restored regularity and obe- dience. Soon after Smith received a severe wound by an accidental explosion of gunpowder ; and not being able to obtain relief in Virginia, returned to England for surgical aid. At his departure, there were nearly five hundred persons in the col- ony ; but these, no longer restrained by his energy and pru- dence, abandoned themselves to idleness. Their provisions ■were soon consumed ; the Indians refused further supplies, and in sis months their number was reduced to sixty, by " in- dolence, vice and famine." The sufferings of the settlers during this period, were so great, that it was distinguished for many years, as the "Starving Time;" and the small 36 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Relief. Lord Delaware. number that survived must also have perished before many days, had not relief arrived as it did, and that from a source altogether unexpected. The officers and others who had sailed from England in the missing vessel, arrived at Jamestown on the 24th of Fifth month, (May,) 1610. They had been wrecked on the Bermudas, yet none of them had perished, and 1610 a considerable part of their provision was saved. Having constructed two vessels, they embarked for Virginia, hoping there to join a prosperous colony. The relief which they were able to afford the survivors, though it saved them from immediate death, was only temporary. Nothing, therefore, appeared to remain, but that they should all abandon the col- ony, and seek relief from their countrymen, employed in the fisheries at Newfoundland. With a small supply of pro- visions for the voyage, they set sail, but before they reached the mouth of the river, they were met by Lord Delaware, who had arrived on the coast with emigrants and supplies. He prevailed upon them to return to Jamestown. The mildness and assiduity of the Governor, restored order and content- ment, and the colonists performed their task with alacrity. At the commencement of every day, they received their al- lowance of food. Comfort was returning. The houses were warm and secure, covered above with strong boards, and matted on the inside like the Indian wigwams. But the wise administration of Lord Delaware was of short continuance ; ill health soon obliged him to leave the coun- try. There were at this time about two hundred men in the colony, but the declining health and departure of one so well qualified to govern, cast a gloom over Jamestown. In the mean time Sir Thomas Dale had been sent out with liberal supplies. On his arrival he took charge of the government, and wrote to the council, informing them of COLONIZATION OF VIRGINIA. 37 New settlements. Marriage of Pocahontas. the small number and weakness of the colonists, but speak- ing very highly of the country. In consequence, they were soon gratified and delighted by the arrival of Sir Thomas Gates, with six ships and three hundred emigrants, and a plentiful supply of provisions. Gates immediately assumed the government, amidst the thanksgivings of the colonists for this unexpected relief. Encouraged by these reinforcements, the English extended 1613 their plantations along the banks of the river, and several new settlements were formed. The rights of the Indians were, however, but little respected. During this year, a treaty of peace was concluded with the Powhatans and with the Chickahominies, both of them powerful and warlike tribes. The immediate cause of this, was the marriage of Pocahontas with John Rolfe, a young and respectable planter, under the following circumstances : — A party of the colonists, while on a trading voyage to the Potomac, visited Pocahontas, and persuaded her to go on board their vessel, where she was respectfully treated, but de- tained and carried to Jamestown. The captain presumed that the possession of Pocahontas would give the English an as- cendency over Powhatan, who was known to be much attached to his daughter. In this, however, he was disappointed. Powhatan was indignant at this instance of treachery in the English, and offered a ransom for his daughter; but he would not consent to any terms of peace, until she was re- stored. But Kolfe winning the favor of Pocahontas desired her in * marriage, and to the delight of the native chieftain, the nuptials were accomplished. The consequence of this marriage was not only peace with her father, but with all the tribes who stood in awe of his power. Having been instructed in HISTORY OF TUE UNITED STATES. Argall sent against the French. the En the savages were mingled with the roar of the musketry, the crackling of fire, and the screams and wailings of the women, children and old men, who were roasting in the wigwams ; for if they escaped for a moment from their burning shelter, they were driven back by the muskets." Those who did escape hid themselves in a swamp, where, without food or shelter, many of them perished in the snow. Scenes like the foregoing were better buried in oblivion, but that the record of them is necessary to the proper solu- tion of the question, why the red man fades away at the ap- proach of civilization. The English seemed bent upon the destruction of the Indians and made use of those who were their allies, in the work of death. At length, many of them became suppliants for peace ; 118 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Narragansetts destroyed. Death of Philip. 1676 to use the words of Cotton Mather, having "neither strength nor sense left them to do any thing for their own defence." But Philip refused to submit. He was still a wanderer, chased from one hiding place to another. Finding at length his wife and only son were taken prisoners, " My heart breaks," the chieftain exclaimed, *' now I am ready to die." The colonists wore at a loss how to dispose of the son, an in- teresting boy of about nine years of age, but they concluded to sell him into bondage ; and the last of the family of Mas- sasoit, of him who had welcomed the Pilgrims to the shores of New England, and had ever after been their friend, was sold to toil as a slave in the Island of Bermuda. The sword, fire, famine and sickness had now nearly swept the once powerful Narragansetts from the earth. Scarcely one hundred men remained of the tribe. This cruel war was brought to a close by the death of Philip. He and his few remaining men were surprised in their en- campment, and so surrounded by whites and Indians in ambush, that there was no escape. Thus perished Philip of Pokanoket.* To certain of the tribes the colonists would grant no terms of capitulation. Even some who had surrendered on condi- tion of life being spared, were executed by the government. In the disposition of the prisoners taken in the war, many- were put to death, and others sold as slaves, most of whom were sent to Bermuda. The land belonginoj to the tribe of the Pokanokets, was annexed to the colony by right of conquest. The estimated number of the English who fell in battle, who were massacred in their houses, or who were taken pris- * See "History of King Philip's War," by Captain Church. THE UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND. 119 Results of the war. oners and afterwards expired under torture, is six hundred. There was scarcely a family that had not lost one of its mem- bers. Besides this loss of life, we find the following summary of the cost of the war : *' Thirteen towns in Massachusetts, Plymouth and Rhode Island, destroyed, and many others greatly injured ; six hundred dwelling houses burned ; a vast amount of goods and cattle, one hundred thousand pounds in money, and an incalculable amount in crippled limbs, broken health, ruined morals, and the conversion of men, who might have been producers, into worthless drones, wasteful spend- thrifts, or unprincipled plunderers. The loss to the Indians cannot be told. It is estimated that not less than three thousand of them were slaughtered during this terrible strug- gle."* The Mohegans remained faithful to the English, and the soil of Connecticut escaped these disasters ; not a drop of blood was there shed. During this perilous period, the Society of Friends, who believe all wars, both offensive and defensive, to be contrary to the spirit of Christianity, refused to take any part against the Indians, or to place themselves under the protection of English garrisons. Those who were faithful to these principles, were preserved, without an exception. Their peaceable aspect invited no aggression ; and the evident con- fidence which they reposed in the Indians, disarmed all feel- ing of hostility. One of the unhappy results of this war, was the breaking up of the settlements of the " Praying Indians, "converted through the labors of Eliot. Through difficulties and discouragements he had for thirty years pressed forward in his labors, and had * Review of Graham's Colonial History. 120 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Further results of the -war. been cheered by the blessing that had crowned his exertions. But the scene was now changed, and the close of his life was saddened by a dark cloud upon his hopes. Possessing the confidence of neither party, Eliot's converts suffered harsh injustice. The Indians looked upon them as allies of the English ; the English regarded them with suspi- cion. It was believed that they would at any moment render assistance to the hostile Indians, and being acquainted with the habits and force of the English, would be the more dan- gerous should they go over to the enemy. This opinion was strengthened by the fact, that a few actually joined Philip, though by far the greater number remained true to the English. On the most groundless suspicion, they were attacked, and in one instance a lad was killed, and some other persons wounded. One who had acted as guide and inter- preter, was killed, another taken prisoner, and sold as a slave. A number were seized and sent to Boston for trial, on an ac- cusation without any foundation, and those who befriended them during the trial, brought indignation upon themselves. In consequence of the excitement against them, one com- pany was removed to Deer Island, where they necessarily endured much suffering ; others, forsaking their settlement, fled far into the forest, where they were exposed to cold and hunger. " We are sorry," said they, *' that the English have driven us from our praying to God, and from our teacher." At the close of the war the survivors were allowed to re- turn to their settlements, but a blow had been inflicted on the progress of Christianity among the Indians, from which it never recovered. In relation to this disastrous result. Cotton Mather remarks: " Had we but done half so much as the French papists have THE UNITED COLONIES OP NEW ENGLAND. 121 Controversy with Charles II. done to proselyte the Indians unto the Christian faith, instead of being snares and traps unto us, and scourges in our sides, and thorns in our eyes, they would have been a wall unto us both by night and by day. What a sting was there in those words which the Indians have used unto some of our cap- tives : * Had the English been as careful to instruct us as the French, we had been of your religion.' " During these difl&culties, Massachusetts did not apply to the parent country for assistance, and nothing was received to repair the losses. While the war raged, Charles II was endeavoring to re-assume the government of Massachusetts and to regain possession of New Hampshire and Maine. He had been treating with the heirs of Gorges ; but before any negotiation was completed, Massachusetts purchased their claims, and thus came into possession of the State of Maine as far as the Kennebec. New Hampshire became a royal province, but through its general assembly, expressed its sense of the kindness of Massachusetts, while under its gov- ernment. The merchants and manufacturers of England feared the colony as their rival. Their complaints had been received with favor, and laws restricting commerce hence became a subject of dispute between the colony and the crown. The controversy with Charles II was continued until 1684, when 1684 Massachusetts, unwilling to submit to the arbitrary requisitions of the king, which she considered inconsistent with her char- tered rights, was compelled to relinquish that charter, which had been cherished with so much anxiety, and on which the liberties of New England had rested. In 1686, after the accession of James II to the^throne of England, Sir Edmond Andros was appointed governor of all New England. James wished to break the several charters, 11 122 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Oppressive regulations. Andros governor-general of the northern colonies. and by uniting the northern colonies in one, more effectually 1686 to resist the encroachments of the French from Canada. The governor was authorized to make laws and levy taxes, with the approbation of a council to be originally appointed by the crown, but the members of which might be removed by Andros. He was also instructed to sustain his authority by force, to allow no printing-press in the colony, and to encour- age Episcopacy. A series of oppressive regulations followed. Land titles were declared void, and great profits anticipated from the new grants which must be taken. Additional taxes and duties were imposed. None were allowed to leave the country with- out special permission, and the schools of learning were left unsustained. In Rhode Island, Andros dissolved the government. In the fall of 1687, he proceeded to Connecticut to assume the control of that colony. He demanded the surrender of the 1687 charter, but that was concealed in the hollow of an oak, the ** Charter Oak," held in remembrance to this day. Yet the colonists were obliged to submit to his jurisdiction. In 1688, the provinces of New York and New Jersey were added to the dominion of Andros. He quickly hastened 1688 south to take possession ; and now the whole territory from Maine to the Delaware was united under his despotic rule. The New England colonies could not submit without a struggle. Increase Mather, son of Cotton Mather, was sent to England to make an appeal to the king, and embai-ked without detection. But relief came by the revolution of 1688. When the news arrived in Boston of the invasion of England, and that the Prince of Orange had been declared king, the whole town rose, with determined resolution ; the former THE UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND. 123 Andros imprisoned. Former government restored. magistrates were reinstated, and Andros, with his most 1689 prominent adherents, was imprisoned. Town meetings were held throughout the colony, when nearly all the towns voted to restore the former government. The example of Massachusetts was followed by the other New England colonies. CHAPTER XI. NEW ENGLAND. {Continued.) Regulations of king William. By the revolution of 1688, the people of Massachusetts had anticipated the restoration of their charter. In this they were disappointed, although king William was finally induced to grant another, less liberal in its nature than the former. He reserved to himself the appointment of governor, who might call and dissolve the legislature at his pleasure. The judicial officers were also to be appointed by him, with the consent of his council. A considerable addition was made to the terri- tory of Massachusetts. The new charter embraced Plymouth colony, and the Elizabeth islands, Maine and Nova Scotia ; also the country extending north to the river St. Lawrence. New Hampshire was omitted, and ever afterwards remained a separate government. Sir William Phipps, the first governor appointed by king 1692 William, arrived in Boston in 1692. The general court was immediately convened and the new charter accepted without opposition. Meantime difficulties with the Indians continued, and at- tacks were frequently made on the settlements and forts. Deep in feelings of revenge, as well as of friendship, they were led in some instances to particular massacres, which of course only increased hostilities. In 1689, the natives found an opportunity of avenging a violation of good faith which had occurred some years before, when three hundred and fifty NEW ENGLAND. 125 Expedition against the French at P. Royal. General Congress in N. Y. Indians, who had come to Dover to trade, after having en- tered into a treaty, were seized, and sent to Boston to be sold as slaves. The same person then in command was now stationed at Dover. The Indians surprised the people by night, gained access to the forts, and destroyed those who opposed them. The commanding officer and about twenty others were killed ; nearly thirty were taken into Canada, and sold to the French. War between France and England was deemed sufficient cause for corresponding aggressions on this side of the Atlantic. French privateers from Acadia, now Nova Scotia, were de- stroying the shipping on the coast. This induced the general court of Massachusetts to send an expedition against Port Royal, its chief town, which was successful, and the whole of Acadia submitted, but was recovered by France in 1696. The history of these times is fraught with difficulties and dissensions, skirmishes and surprises, between the English on the one hand, and the French alone, or the French and Indians combined, on the other. The spirit of Him who com- manded "Love your enemies," found little place in the feel- ings of the English or French colonists toward one another. On the 1st of Fifth month, (May,) 1690, at the instigation of Massachusetts, a general congress, the first held in America, 1690 assembled in New York. Danger, it was thought, showed the necessity of union. The design was formed of reducing all Canada to the British government ; in pursuance of which an army was sent against Montreal, by way of Lake Cham- plain, while Massachusetts sent a fleet to attack Quebec. Both expeditions entirely failed ; the ships on their return were scattered by storms, and some were wrecked. The loss to Massachusetts is estimated to have been one thousand men, and by the undertaking, the colony was involved in great 126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Superstition. Delusion not confined to New England. expenses, to defray which, it became necessary to issue bills of credit. This afterwards caused much dissatisfaction, as their value greatly depreciated. At this time the minds of the people were deeply imbued with superstition. Imagination, aided by this powerful stim- ulus, produced mysterious appearances, and a belief in witch- 1690 craft spread throughout the land. In more recent times, also, we have perceived traces of the same feeling when we have heard of spectres rising up among the tombs. This strange delusion was not confined to New England ; it existed to a greater or less extent in many civilized countries. In England, a law had been enacted punishing witchcraft with death, and many had there been tried and executed. In France still more were condemned, and in Scotland much per- secution and suffering were endured on this account. Narra- tions of trials and confessions had been published, and having reached New England, were widely circulated. " They were read in a time of deep distress and gloom, by a people natu- rally sedate, and accustomed to regard with awe the surpris- ing and unaccountable incidents and appearances, which, in this new world, were often presented to their contemplation." But whatever may have been the cause of this remarkable superstition, it prevailed to an astonishing extent. It was used as a means of oppression and cruelty, and under the same commission, persons were punished for heresy and witch- craft, and Cotton Mather, a prominent preacher, asserted that the " devils broke in upon the country after as astonishing a manner as was ever heard of." Soon after the arrival of the new governor, a court was instituted for the trial of persons accused of the evil influence. In 1G88, Cotton Mather drew up an account of the inves- tigation of a case, said to have been conducted ** with a de- NEW ENGLAND. 127 A case at Danvers. gree of solemnity, that made a deep impression on the minds 1692 of the people." This was printed and circulated throughout New England, and published also in England, where Richard Baxter wrote a preface to the narrative, in which he concluded *' every one who refused to believe it an obdurate Sadducee." It may not be uninteresting to trace particularly one case. Early in 1692, two children in the family of Samuel Parris, the minister of Salem village, now Danvers, his daughter and his niece, '* began to behave in a strange manner ; they would creep under chairs, sit in uncommon attitudes, and utter lan- guages which none could understand. As they were pitied and indulged, their freaks increased, until it was thought they must be bewitched, and the physicians, when called in, con- firmed the opinion." In this family were two Indian slaves, John and Tituba, his wife ; the latter informed Parris that •' although no witch herself, she once served a mistress who was, and who taught her how to find them out ; and she would try upon the children without hurting them. Parris eagerly took with her scheme, and saw her take rye meal and knead a cake which she salted in a peculiar manner, and which she said, when baked in green cabbage leaves in the embers, and eaten by the two girls, would make them see their tormentors ; and she continued the experiment. But although she and her master affected to talk and act mysteriously, yet the children, as they crept about shrewdly under the chairs, eyed the cook- ing with a very jealous interest ; and when they became con- scious that the unsavory morsel was for their mouths, they grew restive, for no necromancy could satisfy them that Titu- ba's briny bread was like gingerbread, or any thing good, and they began to show a rational opposition. But Tituba said they must eat, and Parris began to use authority. One of the children said she would smell of the cake, and begged for 128 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. A case at Dan vers. Sf — — ■ that to answer. But the girl shook her head. Said the father, ' How natural they seem ! ' About the same time the 1692 girl pulled the rank cake from the embers, and as the hot scent filled the room, Abigail cried out, * There, there, I see them as plain as day.' ' And so do I,' said little Elizabeth ; * how many ! and there's old Tit, too : she torments us,' * Old Tit torments us/ said they both. It was now all over with the magician. In vain she frowned and coaxed by turns, or denied that the girls could see witch spectres by the smell of her cake only. She discredited her own magic. The more she labored, the more they professed to be tormented ; until Parris himself took their part, and threatened Tituba with punishment, unless she confessed and disclosed her confederate witches. And John, too, her husband, when he saw her in distress, meanly deserted her. He told master Parris that the girls no doubt spoke the truth ; that she had a long time tormented him, and was an old hand at it. But discouraged and deserted as she was, her master's whip alone, as she after- wards affirmed, brought her to lie, and to confess that the devil had engaged her to sign his book, and to afflict the chil- dren." Tituba was saved as a living witness to the reality of witchcraft. She was imprisoned, and afterward sold as a slave. These persons were thought to have made '* a cove- nant with the devil," resigning to him " both soul and body," promising " to honor and serve hira forever," and signing "his book." The book in which their signatures were said to have been written, or marks made, sometimes with blood, is minutely described by Cotton Mather, giving the length, breadth, color, etc. The delusion spread, and accusations increased. " So firmly convinced were the magistrates, that the prince of darkness was in the midst of them, using hu- man instruments to accomplish his purposes, that the slightest NEW ENGLAND. 129 The delusion spreads. testimony was deemed sufficient to justify commitment for trial." Children accused their parents ; one of the ministers, Geo. Burroughs, and an aged man named George Jacobs, were condemned on account partly of the evidence of the grand- daughter of Jacobs, who was terrified into confession by the threat of being hanged, and used as a witness, for which she was liberated. But upon their being condemned to death, she sent to the magistrates a recantation, and was again com- mitted to prison. " There on her knees, and with many tears, she begged pardon of those whom she had so deeply injured ; they kindly strove to console her, prayed with her, and forgave her." But her statement to the magistrates was of no avail ; her grandfather and Burroughs were hung." Those who confessed witchcraft, after having been con- demned, were released ; while those who retracted a confes- sion, were either hung, or imprisoned for trial. The life of this young woman, however, was saved by a fit of sickness, which necessarily deferred her trial, until the last session of the court had terminated, which so readily condemned those brought up before it ; and she was tried before one newly or- ganized, where she was found not guilty. Burroughs declared his innocence to the last, and denied that there could be such a thing as witchcraft. It was a new thing to hang a minister as a witch, and the spectators were much affected ; but Cotton Mather asserted that " the devil could sometimes assume the appearance of an angel of light," and the proceedings continued. In the commencement of this delusion, the persons accused were in the lower walks of life, and in many cases, guilty of some crime, but now no one seemed exempt, and every one became alarmed for himself or his friends ; twenty persons had been put to death ; the jails were full of the accused. 130 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Calef ridicules the subject. Recantations. But the night of darkness soon began to pass away. The 1693 error was combated by writers of ability. In the autumn of 1693, Ilobert Calef, a Boston merchant, published a narrative in which he boldly exposed the whole subject to ridicule, and for which he brought upon himself the displeasure of those who had taken an active part in the trials. But a new court had been instituted. Those brought up for trial were in most in- stances acquitted, others were reprieved by the governor, and those in prison were set at liberty. Many of the witnesses afterward came forward and published " the most solemn re- cantations of the testimony they formerly gave, both against themselves and others, apologizing for their perjury by a pro- testation, of which all were constrained to admit the force, that no other means of saving their lives had been left them." But the dead could not be recalled ; and the loss of a father or mother, a brother or sister, remained to remind many fam- ilies of the dark days of New England superstition. Under the new charter, all former acts restricting colonial commerce were renewed ; this being deemed necessary to pro- tect the interests of the landholders at home. The industry of the colonists was much restrained by taxation, and the convey- ance of wool in any form to any of the other colonies, was entirely prohibited. At this early day, the increasing power and wealth of the colonists began to excite apprehension in the minds of the English, that their dependence on the mother country would, after a few years, be entirely thrown off; and that they would declare themselves an independent nation, if not now kept in check by being made subject to the king. The horrors of savage warfare were not yet over in New England ; New York was spared by being at peace with the Five Nations, with whom the French also had executed a treaty. The renewal of war in Europe increased the hostil- NEW ENGLAND. 131 Incursions of the French and Indians. ity between the French and English colonies. The French from Canada, with their Indian allies, after a long march through the snow, would suddenly burst upon some peajeeful village, setting fire to the houses, and either killing or making captives of men, women and children. In this way Deerfield was destroyed. Forty-seven of the inhabitants 1704 were killed, and one hundred and twelve made prisoners. Of these, if any became fatigued or feeble, while on their march to Canada, the tomahawk ended their temporal sorrows. For two years or more after this, the Indians roamed stealthily over the country, executing their murderous work, and then suddenly disappearing. In 1708, a general attack on New England was planned. The French were ready, but many of their Indian allies gave out, and did not meet at the place of rendezvous. Although prevented from carrying out their original designs, they re- 1708 solved to accomplish a part of their object, and with those In- dian allies who were not yet weary of the cruel work, they suddenly burst on the town of Haverhill, at daybreak, attack- ing simultaneously different parts of the village. The toma- hawk and the rifle spared not their victims, and many of the inhabitants were slaughtered on the spot. The heart sickens at the relation of these barbarities ; yet they form a part of the history of our country, ^nd are re- corded in that book which human eye sees not. The desire was excited among the New Englanders to exterminate the natives, and a reward was offered for every Indian scalp. The conquest of Newfoundland had been repeatedly at- tempted by the EngHsh, and unsuccessful expeditions against Canada and Acadia, now Nova Scotia, had been fitted out by the colonies. At length in I'F^O, the New England colo- nies, with some assistance from England, succeeded in taking 132 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Subjugation of Nova Scotia. Expedition against Quebec and Montreal. Port Eoyal, and gave to the place the name of Annapolis, in honor of Queen Anne. From this period, the British gov- ernment has retained possession of Nova Scotia ; her right to it having been confirmed by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Encouraged by success, as well as stimulated by fear, on ac- count of the extent of the possessions of the French on the west and southwest, by which they could pass from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, an expedition was fitted out the fol- lowing year, against Quebec and Montreal. Information of this was timely received by the French. Friendship was re- newed with the natives, and through the influence of the Jes- uits, who had been as missionaries among them, extended to other tribes. The British fleet, however, never reached Que» bee. Eight ships were wrecked in the St. Lawrence, with the loss of upwards of eight hundred lives ; the remainder re- turned home. 1' 1^ At length the European war terminated, and the treaty of Utrecht put an end for a time to hostilities between the Eng- lish and French colonies in America. The New Englanders now found themselves encumbered with a heavy public debt. Bills of credit were allowed to be issued, the value of which depreciated, notwithstanding the exertions of the different legislatures, occasioning much dis- satisfaction to the holders of those bills. The people of Massachusetts, always firm in the maintenance of whatever they considered their rights, after the reception of their second charter, and when they were required to receive a governor appointed by the king, had refused him any fixed sala- ry, but had voted annually such donations as his services ap« peared to deserve, with the view of attaching him to the interests of the people by rendering him dependent on them. All efforts for a fixed salary had been strenuously resisted. In 1728, the NEW ENGLAND. 133 Attacks by the French. Louisburg besieged by the British. controversy was renewed ; Burnet, the governor, being in- structed by the king to insist on an established sum. The people were firm. Burnet threatened an appeal to Parliament, and the possible dissolution of the charter. The general court persevered, until finally leave was obtained from the king to accept the annual donations. Massachusetts had gained her point. In 1744, war was renewed between France and Eno-land. o Before information of this was received in New England, the French from Cape Breton attacked the English settlement at 1744 Canseau, in Nova Scotia, destroyed the buildings and took the garrison and inhabitants prisoners of war to Louisburg, on Cape Breton. The French then attacked Annapolis, and from this town were with difficulty driven back. These attacks led the governor of Massachusetts to fear that by a revolt of the inhabitants, who were of French de- scent, the province might again revert to France. He there- fore formed the design of attacking Louisburg, a strong fortress on the Island of Cape Breton, which protected the French commerce and fisheries. The general court, after much deliberation, and influenced by the people, who feared for the safety of their fisheries, united with the prop- osition. Assistance from England was solicited, and Com- modore Warren, from Antigua, with a considerable fleet, joined the army which had been raised in New England and proceeded to Canseau. The walls of Louisburg were forty feet thick at the base, and from twenty to thirty feet high, surrounded by a ditch eighty feet wide. The fortifications of the place had cost nearly six millions of dollars, and a number of years had been spent in their construction. The English, however, knew not their strength.] 134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Surrender of Louisburg. Peace between England and France. The New Englanders succeeded in landing, and ap- proached the town. Hedges were constructed for dragging the cannon over the bogs, which the men accomplished, sink- ing to their knees in mud, and the siege was commenced. No breach had been made in the walls, and it was only after the capture of a French frigate, which had been de- coyed into the English fleet, and which had on board a supply of military stores and of provisions, that the French governor began to despond, and soon afterwards offered to capitulate. The terms were accepted, every thing was surrendered, and as the New England troops beheld the fortifications, they were satisfied that no assault could have been successful. The news of this conquest was received in New England with great joy. France, however, not only laid plans for the recovery of this strong fortress, from which they had been able to annoy the British in the prosecution of their com- merce and fisheries, but also for the destruction of the English colonies. In 1746, a large fleet was sent for this purpose, but encountering severe storms and disease, having lost their commander, and some of the vessels being wrecked, the remainder returned to France. In the following year a fleet was sent out with troops for Canada and Nova Scotia, but was encountered and overcome by the English. 1 * ^" Soon afterward, the treaty of Aix la Chapelle restored peace to France and England. As is often the case, nothing had been gained by the war. In the colonies, the treaty restored to the French the possessions that had been taken by the New Englanders, so that the victory at Louisburg availed nothing. The boundaries between the French and English colonies remained unsettled. From this period New England enjoyed a season of repose. NEW ENGLAND. 135 Advancement. of the colonies. In 1760 the population numbered half a million, and the colonies had acquired considerable importance. Their trade had very much increased, notwithstanding the restrictions laid upon it by the British government. Hats were to some extent manufactured, but the transportation of them from one colony to another was forbidden, as it interfered with the hatters of England; and in 1719, it was declared by the House of Commons, that " the erecting of manufactories in the colonies, tended to lessen their dependence on Great Britain.'* Large quantities of lumber and jSsh were sent annually to the West Indies. Linen cloth was manufactured to a con- siderable extent. Ship-building was carried on from an early period. A large part of the trade of the other Ameri- can colonies was conducted by means of vessels owned in New England. The first periodical published in the country was the Bos- ton News Letter, commenced in Boston in 1704, issued weekly on a sheet of foolscap size. After fourteen years, an extra sheet was issued each fortnight, to enable the publisher to keep up with the news from Europe, in which the paper had fallen behind thirteen months. Some of the first num- bers of this paper may now be seen at the Antiquarian Hall at Worcester. Another paper was commenced in 1719 ; and in the same year one in Philadelphia, being the third in the country. The New England Courant was next published by James Franklin, in 1721, assisted, as an apprentice, by his brother Benjamin, whose talents contributed to the interest of the paper, until, wishing for greater liberty of the press than was there allowed, he left New England, and found his way to Philadelphia. 136 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Remarks. Accustomed as we are in the nineteenth century, to floods of newspapers and other periodicals, many of them far worse than useless, we can scarcely imagine the avidity with which the first efforts of the kind must have been greeted, with no other means of information from distant points than the product of the pen, or the relation of an occasional trav- eller. CHAPTEE XII. NEW NETHERLANDS, UNTIL ITS FINAL TRANSFER TO ENGLAND. Henry Hudson. Discovers the Hudson River. The Dutch partook of the desire of other commercial nations to discover a northwest passage to India. It was in one of the voyages made for this purpose, that the Hudson river was discovered and explored. In 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman, in the employ- 1609 ment of the Dutch East India Company, sailed in search of the long sought passage in a small vessel manned with Hol- landers and Englishmen. Hudson had made two voyages to the arctic regions with the same object, and had been within eight degrees of the pole. Passing by Grreenland he now sailed along the coast as far south as Virginia ; then turn- ing to the north, he discovered and examined Delaware Bay, and in five months after leaving Holland, anchored within Sandy Hook. Passing through the Narrows, ten days were employed in exploring the river as far as the site of the present city of Hudson, and a boat advanced to the site of Albany. Having completed the discovery, Hudson sailed down the river which now bears his name, and returned to Europe. Frequent intercourse had been held vrith the Indians who welcomed these strange visitors amono- them. Although Hudson had not attained the object of his voy- age, he gave a glowing account of his discoveries to the HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Trading establishments at Manhattan and Albany. Dutch East India Company, but never himself revisited that part of the continent, and perished in one of his voyages amid seas of ice. The Dutch claimed the country bordering on the Hudson river by right of discovery, and a vessel from Amsterdam "was fitted out by a body of merchants to trade with the natives. The voyage was prosperous and was renewed. Thus commenced the trading establishment on the Island of Man- hattan, now New York. 1614 The States-general granted a patent for the exclusive trade of the newly-discovered lands, and in consequence, several ships sailed for America. Careful records of these voyages have not been preserved, but the coast appears to have been examined as far as Cape Cod, and the Connecticut river explored. A trading station was established on an island just below the present city of Albany in 1615 ; and, although a fort had been erected on Manhattan Island, now New York, as yet there was no colony. Families had not emigrated ; and it was not until 1621, when the disturbances at home had subsided, that the attention of the Dutch West India Com- pany was turned toward colonization. In that year the Dutch republic granted them an extensive territory on both sides of the Hudson river, extending as far south as the Del- aware, and east to the Connecticut. For some years the settlement at Manhattan was little more than a trading establishment. Indians from a distance came to procure articles of European manufacture in ex- change for their furs. In 1627, a delegation was sent to the Pilgrims of Ply- mouth, proposing to establish a treaty of friendship and com- merce. It was well received ; but the Pilgrims, in common NEW NETHERLANDS. 139 Conveyance of land by the Indians. Good Hope. with other English, questioned the right of the Dutch to the Hudson river, and recommended a treaty with England. With the expression of mutual good wishes the parties sepa- rated. It had been stipulated by the Directors of the Company that the soil should be purchased of the Indians ; and in 1629, a deed was ratified and duly recorded for the purchase 1629 of the territory extending from Cape Henlopen, thirty miles north. The opposite shore in New Jersey, Staten Island, the country round Hoboken, and the land from Albany to the mouth of the Mohawk, were also conveyed. The Company had designed to favor colonization, and yet retain the trade of the province ; and that the monopoly of the Dutch manufacturers might not be impaired, the colo- nists were forbidden to make any woollen, linen, or cotton fabrics. An attempt was made to establish a colony in the tract on Delaware Bay, purchased from the natives. Vessels sailed laden with seeds, cattle and agricultural implements, and a settlement was planted near Lewistown. But those to whom the colony was entrusted during the absence of the founder, could not avoid contests with the Indians. The life of a chief was lost, and the death of every emigrant was the consequence. The Dutch had been the first to discover the Connecticut. They had purchased of the natives the country around Hart- ford, and commenced a small settlement there called Good Hope, two years before the emigrants from Boston began the commonwealth of Connecticut. But this was not considered sufficient to secure the territory against other settlers on a soil which England claimed as her exclusive right. Alter- cations continued for years, until the Dutch were obliged to 140 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. New Sweden. yield the land they had first visited, which they had also pur- chased from the natives, and where they had first traded. The territory claimed by the Dutch was also encroached upon at its southern extremity. A commercial company, with the right of planting colonies, had been incorporated by the States of Sweden, and received the favor of the king, Gustavus Adolphus. Men of different nations were invited to join in the enterprise. Slave labor was not to be allowed. The Swedes appeared to be sensible of the advantages of free, compensated labor, performed by persons of intelligence. In 1638, a little company of Swedes and Fins arrived in Delaware Bay. The Swedish government had provided them with provisions and merchandise for trafiic with the 1638 natives. The lands from the southern cape to the falls in the river near Trenton, were purchased of the Indians; and near the mouth of Christiana Creek, within the limits of the present State of Delaware, they began their settlement. The plantations were gradually extended, and to preserve their ascendency over the Dutch, who protested against their oc- cupancy of the land, the governor established his residence at Tinicum, a few miles below the subsequent location of Phila- delphia. The whole country occupied by them became known as New Sweden. While the limits of New Netherlands were thus becomins: narrowed on the east and on the south, the colony was almost annihilated by the neighboring Algonquin tribes. Bloody quarrels had arisen between dishonest traders and natives to whom they had sold intoxicating liquors. Re- venge dwells in the bosom of the savage, and the son of a chief, in return for the murder of one of his friends, sought the first opportunity of killing a Hollander. The river chieftains expressed their sorrow, and offered to console the grief of the NEW NETHERLANDS. 141 Massacre of the Indians. widow by " two liundred fathom of the best wampum," but refused to deliver the murderer to the Dutch, remindino- them that they were the cause of the evil, by " crazing the young Indians with brandy." Just at this time, the Algonquins were alarmed by the 1643 approach of the formidable warriors of the Mohawks, and begged assistance of the Dutch against their Indian enemies. But governor Kieft, instead of improving the opportunity of making friends of the Algonquins, and acting as arbiter between them and the Mohawks, chose an exterminatins: massacre. In the stillness of a dark winter's night, led by a guide who knew every by-path, the soldiers from the fort, joined by others from Dutch privateers, crossed the Hudson for the purpose of destruction. Nearly a hundred of the unsuspect- ing Indians were killed. The massacre was held in detestation by the colonist?, who, after a treaty of peace had been made with the natives, de- posed their governor, and sent him to Holland. The ship in which he sailed was dashed to pieces on the coast of Wales. As might have been expected, the unsubdued savao-es burned with revenge for the midnight attack ; and by their ambushes, surprised the Dutch in every direction. Villages were destroyed, men were murdered in the open country, chil- dren were carried into captivity. The Dutch colony was threatened with ruin, and some of the settlers returned to Holland. A convention of sachems met envoys from Manhattan in the woods of Rockaway, to deliberate on terms of peace. The issue would have remained uncertain, but for the presence of Roger Williams, on his way to England. Through his mediation, terms of peace were settled. But the young men among the Indians were still 142 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Adjustment of claims. Subjection of the Swedish colony. unsatisfied, and the war was renewed. With this little inter- mission, it lasted two years, until, both parties desiring peace, a solemn treaty was signed. The Dutch had now learned by sorrowful experience, to pursue a different system toward the natives, and when Peter Stuyvesant became governor of the province, in 1646, it was resolved to treat them with lenity. 1648 The monopoly in regard to trade, established by the Dutch "West India Company, they had not been able to enforce. Some restrictions were taken off, and the prosperity of the colony increased. In 1650, Stuyvesant entered into negotia- tion for the preservation of the Dutch claims on the Con- necticut. He repaired to Hartford, and after several days' controversy on the subject, articles of agreement were signed, by which the Dutch were to retain possession of Long Island as far as Oyster Bay, and of those lands on the Connecticut which they were actually occupying. The governor next turned his attention to the banks of the Delaware, where the Swedes had established themselves ; and for the security of their commerce, he built a fort on the site of New Castle, near the mouth of the Brandywine, within five miles of Christiana, a Swedish settlement. Jealousies resulted from this encroachment. The garrison at the fort was attacked, and a war followed, which ended in the subjection of the Swedish colony to the Dutch, after having maintained a separate existence for seventeen years. They had succeeded in making permanent settlements on the Delaware, and had preserved peace with the Indians. Emi- gration to the country near the Hudson increased. Religious toleration was allowed. Although the zeal of Stuyvesant for Calvinism had led him sometimes to persecute Lutherans and others, yet the Directors of the Company wrote to him. NEW NETHERLANDS. 143 British squadron at New Amsterdam. " Let every peaceful citizen enjoy freedom of conscience," so that wanderers from many a country found a home on the Island of Manhattan. French Protestants came in great num- bers, and the Hollanders themselves, being of various origin, made the population indeed a mixed people. Amid the tide of voluntary emigration, there was another class, torn from their homes and transported to the New World, to serve only as slaves. The Dutch West India Company did not scruple to engage in the slave trade, and in proportion to the population. New York in 1664 had im- ported as many Africans as Virginia. They were sold at public auction, to the highest bidder. Many discontents had arisen in the colony by the un- 1664 willingness of the people to submit to the arbitrary laws of the home government. There were many English at Manhattan, whole towns had been settled by New Eng- land men, and the colonists listened with complacency to the hope of obtaining English liberties, by submitting to English jurisdiction. That country had never been satisfied with the possession of New Netherlands by the Dutch. Cromwell had planned its conquest, and now it was threatened with danger from Charles II. Massachusetts had not relinquished its claim to an unlimited extent of territory to the west, and Connecticut by its charter extended to the Pacific ; that colony was advancing, not only on Long Island, but toward the Hudson. Stuyvesant remonstrated, and repaired to Boston ; but with no success. In 1664, Charles II granted to his brother, the Duke of York, the whole territory from the Connecticut river to the shores of the Delaware. In order to enforce this claim, the English squadron which carried the commissioners for New England to Boston, was sent out. Having touched at that 144 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Surrender of the colony to Great Britain. New Jersey. 1664 place, the fleet proceeded to New Amsterdam, the name by which the town on Manhattan Island was then known, and demanded its surrender. The governor endeavored to assert the rights of the Dutch ; but the local government, knowing that resistance would be useless, wished to surrender without bloodshed. The British commander, Nichols, offered secu- rity to life, liberty and property, on condition of England's sovereignty being acknowleged. A capitulation was finally agreed upon, and quietly effected. Security was promised to the customs, religion and local government of the Dutch, and Manhattan now first became known as New York. The colonists were satisfied ; very few embarked for Holland. The surrender extended to Albany, and to the settlements on the Delaware. The tract between that river and the Hudson had already been conveyed to Lord Berkely and Sir George Carteret, proprietaries of Carolina, and received the name of New Jer- sey. New England Puritans, as well as some of the Society of Friends, had already established themselves on the Raritan. To encourage the rapid settlement of the province, the pro- prietaries allowed the establishment of a representative govern- ment, with freedom from all taxation, except by the act of the colonial assembly, and the undisturbed enjoyment of liberty of conscience, by every peaceful citizen. Lands were promised at a very low quitrent, payable after 1670. The proprietaries of New Jersey not only encouraged the slave trade, but added to the injustice, by offering a bounty on the importation of every able-bodied slave. Nichols, who had assumed the command of the territory he had conquered, as deputy-governor for the Duke of York, pro- tested against the division of his province. But the people of New Jersey were satisfied with the liberties they had received, and acknowledged Philip Carteret as their governor. NEW NETHERLANDS. 145 Surrender to the Dutch and re-transfer to the English. The population and prosperity increased. Elizabethtown became the capital. The rights of the natives were respected, and in the sale of their lands they were satisfied. The vi- no terms of agreement existed between the several THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 241 Articles of Confederation. colonies. Having now formed some bond of union by the 1777 Declaration of Independence, it became necessary that further steps should be taken. Accordingly, a committee was appointed to bring forward the form of a confederation. They reported a plan, which was considered, referred to a committee, and after full and free discussion, was finally adopted in the autumn of 1777, and approved by the several State legislatures. The thirteen colonies were thus formed into a confederacy, with the title of "The United States of America," and by the articles of confederation were bound to each other for the security of their liberties, and for mutual defence in all attacks on account of their religion, trade or any other pretence. Each State was to retain its sovereignty and every right not expressly surrendered to the United States. The powers of Congress were defined by the Articles of Confederation, as well as the rights of the several States ; and these articles remained in force until the adoption of the Constitution in 1788. The only means which Congress at this time possessed of defraying the expenses of the war, was by the emission of bills of credit to be redeemed at a subsequent period. These soon became greatly depreciated in consequence of a want of confidence in the government. Much distress ensued, and many families were involved in ruin. An attempt to sustain the value by altering the price of commodities, proved of no avail, and introduced much confusion. It was not long before Congress agreed on a national flag. Thirteen stripes were to represent the thirteen States, and the same number of white stars, surrounded by blue, a new con- stellation. They also made known their determination to listen to no terms of peace, which required the sacrifice of the independence of the country. 21 24^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. General La Fayette. 1777 The commissioners who had been sent to the court of France, were instructed to solicit a loan of money, a supply of munitions of war and an acknowledgment of the indepen- dence of the United States. They were well received at Paris. Dr. Franklin, one of the commissioners, was already known as a philosopher and statesman, and the cause of liberty met with much sympathy in France. Yet an acknowledgment of independence could not at this time be obtained, nor any open support of the cause. The ministry, however, permitted arms, privately taken from the public arsenals, to be conveyed to the United States, and connived at the sale in their West India Islands, and in the ports of France, of prizes taken by American privateers. Sympathy for our countrymen in the struggle for liberty in which they were engaged, had taken such deep hold of the mind of the Marquis de La Fayette, one of the first noblemen in France, then only nineteen years of age, that he resolved to devote his energies to the cause of freedom in America, and communicated his design to the commissioners. Not deterred by the unfavorable accounts of the campaign of 1776, which so destroyed the credit of the commissioners that they were unable to procure a vessel for his passage, he prosecuted his design, purchased and fitted out que for himself, and arrived in Charleston in the spring of 1777. By the laws of France, La Fayette, in so doing, hazarded his large fortune. His sovereign had forbidden his proceed- ing, and despatched vessels to the West Indies, with orders to arrest and detain him, if found there. He, however, avoided those islands, and reaching America safely, was warmly received and appointed major general in the army. The example of La Fayette was afterward followed by many other French officers. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 243 Battle of the Brandy wine. It has already been stated, that General Howe, being foiled in his attempts to bring Washington to a fixed battle, em- 1777 barked his troops, on the 5th of Seventh month, (July.) Leav- ing Staten Island, they sailed south, their point of destination being carefully concealed. It soon became evident, however, that General Howe was planning an attack on Philadelphia. Having ascertained, on arriving off the capes of the Delaware, that the Americans had obstructed the navigation of that river, he proceeded further south, entered the Chesapeake and landed his troops at the head of Elk river, fifty miles south- west of Philadelphia. Washington, desirous of preventing the approach of the British to Philadelphia, immediately marched toward that city. The people, impatient of delay, demanded that a general engagement should be hazarded for the defence of the place. Yielding to their wishes, Washington took a position on Brandy wine creek, Ninth month, (Sept.) 11th. His men numbered eleven thousand. The British army, consisting of sixteen thousand men, advanced and commenced an attack on one division of the Americans, which was soon broken, and fled in confusion. A reserve corps arrested the progress of the British, who had commenced a pursuit. The battle was renewed. It was severe, and continued throughout the day, until the Americans could not be rallied, when a retreat became general. At Chester, they halted for the night, and then proceeded to Philadelphia, many of the men marching without shoes, and sleeping on the ground without blankets. The exhaustion of the British troops prevented their pursuing the defeated army. Three hundred Americans were killed in the disastrous en- gagement of the Brandywine, besides six hundred wounded or taken prisoners. The loss of the British was about half 244 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. The British enter Philadelphia. 1777 as great. General La Fayette first served in this battle, as "well as Count Pulaski, a native of Poland. The situation of Washington's forces prevented him from long impeding the advance of the British. After spending two days in Philadelphia, collecting his scattered troops and replacing his stores, he marched up the Schuylkill, leaving the British in possession of the roads to the city. Congress having resumed its sittings in Philadelphia, was again compelled to leave, and removed first to Lancaster, and afterward to York. The British army crossed the Schuylkill, north of the city, on the 23d of Ninth month, (Sept.) and encamped at Germantown ; and on the 26th, Cornwallis took peaceable possession of Philadelphia. The next object of the British was to remove the chevaux- de-frise and other obstructions to the navigation of the Dela- ware, which prevented their fleet from ascending the river. The force at Germantown being consequently weakened, Washington determined to surprise them, and having marched through the night, commenced an attack on the 4th of Tenth month, (Oct.) An advanced guard was obliged to retreat; but the British soon recovered from the effects of the surprise, and a thick fog concealing the position of the parties, occa- sioned mistakes. The Americans were finally obliged to re- treat, and lost in the engagement two hundred men killed, besides three hundred wounded, and about four hundred made prisoners. The loss of the British, in killed and wound- ed was six hundred men. Admiral Howe, having received information of the result of the battle of the Brandywine, had left the Chesapeake, and sailed for the Delaware. To open a free communication with the fleet was now the object of General Howe. A little below the place where the Schuylkill flows into the Delaware, three THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 245 Obtain possession of the Delaware. rows of chevaux-de-frise had been sunk across the channel, 1777 formed of large beams of timber with iron spikes. These were guarded by floating batteries and fortifications at Ked Bank, on the New Jersey side of the river, and by Fort Mif- flin, on Mud Island. An attempt made by two thousand Hessians to reduce the fort at Red Bank was ineffectual. They were repulsed with great loss, and two of the ships which joined in the attack were grounded. The Americans, perceiving the situation of these vessels, fired on them, and also sent fire ships against them. One of them caught fire, and the flames spread so rapidly, that it was with great difficulty that any of the crew could escape ; two of the officers and some of the men perished. The crew of the other vessel set fire to it and abandoned it. Preparations were still going forward for the reduction of Fort Mifflin. Batteries were erected on the Pennsylvania side of the river opposite Mud Island. Much time was con- sumed in their construction, as well as in transporting the artil- lery over the swampy ground. The garrison also at the fort had exerted themselves to retard the operations of the British ; but, the works being completed, a terrible cannonade was commenced, which was returned by the Americans from the fort, the floating batteries and the works on the New Jersey side of the river. In the course of the day, the walls of the fort were mostly destroyed ; the garrison escaped during the night to Red Bank, which two days afterward was also evacuated. The American shipping in the river was now left entirely unprotected. Some of it, by keeping on the east side, passed the batteries at Philadelphia, during the night, and escaped up the stream ; the rest was set on fire and abandoned. A 21' 246 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Washington at Valley Forge. General Burgoyne. 1777 free communication between the British sea and land forces ■was thus obtained, but a great part of the season had been consumed, many lives lost, and a vast amount of property destroyed. Soon afterward both parties retired to winter quarters; General Howe to Philadelphia, and Washington to Valley Forge, about twenty-six miles distant, where the army endeavored to shield themselves from the weather, though poorly clothed and to a great extent destitute of tents or blankets. During the occurrence of these proceedings in the middle section of the country, a plan was formed by the British ministry, for penetrating the United States from the north. They were very anxious to possess themselves of the country extending from Canada to the city of New York. This would cut off the direct communication between New Ens:- land and the Southern States, and by dividing the provincial forces would render their subjugation more easy. The co- operation of several Indian tribes was secured, seven thou- sand well-disciplined, well-furnished troops -were allotted to the service, and the command was given to General Burgoyne. This powerful army marching from Montreal was to penetrate the State of New York and advance toward the Hudson. On the 2d of Seventh month, (July,) the British army en- camped near Ticonderoga. To that strong fortress the Amer- icans had retreated after the invasion of Canada, and Gene- ral St. Clair was now stationed there with about six thousand men. Being entirely unable to compete with so powerful an army, and wishing to avoid surrendering his men prisoners of war, he retreated toward Lake George with great rapidity. A considerable part of the stores was sent up the stream, which connects the two lakes. These vessels were attacked by the English, and either wholly or partially destroyed, and TUE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 247 Americans retreat. They are reinforced. the provisions and military Stores lost. A body of provincials, 1777 forming the rear of the army, who had halted on account of fatigue, was defeated by German soldiers under charge of Gen- eral Reidesel. In the engagement, four hundred Americans were either killed or made prisoners, and about five hundred wounded ; upwards of one hundred and seventy of the Brit- ish also were either killed or wounded. At length the American army, by various routes, worn and exhausted, hav- ing suffered from the inclemency of the weather and want of provisions, reached Fort Edward on the Hudson, where General Schuyler had established his head-quarters. The united forces of Generals Schuyler and St. Clair were about four thousand four hundred men. With these they could not meet the British army ; their energies, therefore, were directed toward impeding the advance of General Bur- goyne. Detachments of the men were ordered to obstruct the navigation of Wood creek, a small stream which runs into Lake Champlain at its head, to destroy bridges, and to fell trees so as to fall across the roads, particularly at places where another course could not be taken. All the horses and cattle which might be brought into requisition by the royalists were ordered out of the way, and the ammunition and stores were removed from Fort George. Exertions were also made by General Schuyler to strength- en his own army. Beinforcements of troops were solicited, and Washington sent them to his aid. General Lincoln was appointed to raise and command the militia of New England ; and tents, military stores and provisions were supplied. General Burgoyne had been obliged to halt, to give some rest to his troops, who were exhausted from the fatigues of the march, as well as to re-organize his army, which had been 248 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The British encamp near Saratoga. 1777 thrown into some disorder, and to make the necessary prepa- rations for advancing toward Albany. On proceeding up Wood creek, much time and labor were employed in remov- ing the impediments placed in the channel by the Americans. The roads were afterward to be cleared, and bridges con- structed. All obstacles being overcome, the army reached Fort Edward, which had been evacuated by the Americans a short time previously ; General Schuyler having retreated to Saratoga. At Fort Edward, Burgoyne was again obliged to halt. The army had been disappointed of receiving horses which had been ordered from Canada, and General Schuyler having removed all that could be brought into use by the British, they were in great difficulty to know how to transport the provisions and military stores from Fort George. Although that place was only a few miles distant, yet the roads had been so much injured by recent heavy rains, that notwith- standing the utmost exertions of General Burgoyne, at the expiration of two weeks, the army had only transported pro- visions for four days in advance, and conveyed twelve boats into the Hudson. The difficulty of procuring supplies from this quarter in- duced General Burgoyne to conceive the design of surprising Bennington, where a large quantity of provisions, as well as carriages, had been deposited. With this view, he moved down the east side of the Hudson and encamped nearly op- posite Saratoga, which place General Schuyler had left a short time previously, and retreated to the mouth of the Mohawk. Burgoyne now despatched Colonel Baum, with five hun- dred Hessian soldiers and one hundred Indians, to attack Bennington. General Stark, with four hundred of the New THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 249 Defeated at Bennington. Hampshire militia, was at that time in the immediate vicinity, 1777 on his way to join General Schuyler. Hearing of the approach of the hostile party, he called on the militia of the neighborhood to join him, and prepare for battle. Baum, learning that their numbers were superior to his own, had halted in an advantageous situation, and sent back for rein- forcements. Several skirmishes between smaller detachments having occurred, in which the militia were successful, a council of war was held, and an attack on the whole force sent against the place, determined. On the 16th of Eighth month, (Aug.) a furious battle occurred, which lasted nearly two hours. The British commander was mortally wounded ; a few of his troops escaped into the woods, the remainder were either killed or taken prisoners. After the action terminated, the militia had dispersed in search of spoil ; when a reinforcement arrived, which had been sent to Baum. They immediately commenced an attack on the scattered militia. Just at that time, however, a continental regiment arrived, and by their assistance the British were obliged to retreat. The victory at Bennington once more encouraged the Americans to renewed activity and zeal. They now hoped to frustrate Burgoyne's plans, and prevent his joining Gen- eral Clinton at New York. About this time, also, information was received that the British forces had been unsuccessful in an attempt to take Fort Schuyler, situated near the source of the Mohawk. Before reaching Crown Point, Burgoyne had sent a detach- ment of about eight hundred regular troops, and nearly as many Indians, under Colonel St. Lcger, to make an attack on this fort, and afterward join him on his march to Albany. 250 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Siege of Fort Schuyler. 1777 The party reached Fort Schuyler on the 2d of Eighth month, (Aug.) and on the refusal of the garrison to surrender, commenced a siege of the place. On the approach of the British, Greneral Herkimer assem- bled about seven hundred of the militia of the neighborhood, intending to advance to the relief of the garrison. St. Leger, having been informed of this intention, laid an ambuscade of regulars and Indians, who sent a heavy discharge of mus- ketry on the astonished militia. The Indians immediately sounded the war-whoop, and commenced an attack with their tomahawks. In the confusion which followed, the royal troops and militia became closely crowded together, and being prevented from destroying one another in the usual way, many on both sides fell, pierced by the daggers of their opponents. Greneral Herkimer and about four hundred of his men were killed. About the same time Colonel Willet, with two hundred men, made a sortie, killed a number of the British, destroyed their provisions, and carrying off some spoil, returned to the fort. Gansevoort, the commander, having succeeded in sending information of the situation of the garrison to General Schuy- ler, he immediately despatched Arnold with a body of troops to their assistance. The numbers of the British and their allies being superior to those of Arnold, he had recourse to stratagem, and offered to a person who had been arrested as a spy, that he should be liberated, and his estates restored to him, if he would faithfully execute a mission to alarm the British camp, especially the Indians, by representing the force which was proceeding against them as very large. He undertook the execution of the design, and the plan succeeded. The In- dians became alarmed, many of them sought safety in flight, the rest threatened to follow if the sieo-e were continued. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 251 Jane McCrea. All the exertions and promises of St. Leger were not suf- 1777 ficient to make them desist from their purpose ; he therefore broke up his encampment in great haste, leaving his tents, cannon and stores, which fell into the hands of the Ameri- cans. Two days afterward Arnold reached the fort ; but finding the besiegers had left, he returned to General Schuyler. At this period of the campaign, General Schuyler was superseded in the command of the northern army, by General Gates, who arrived on the 19th of Eighth month, (Aug.) The savage allies of the British could not always be kept under control. When Burgoyne with his army entered the United States, he had charged the Indians to commit no cruelties on those who made no resistance ; and for a while they attended to this injunction. But in the excite- ment of battle, their old habits of massacre and plunder sometimes gained the ascendency, and several persons fell victims to their brutality whose lives would otherwise have been preserved. The resentment of the Americans which was thus roused, probably more than counterbalanced any advantages which the British army may have gained by the assistance of their Indian allies. One circumstance particularly excited their indignation. An American loyalist, or Tory, an oflBcer in Burgoyne 's army, was engaged to be married to Jane McCrea, the daughter of an American clergyman, also a Tory. Fearing she might be subjected to some danger, the officer sent two Indian chiefs of different tribes, attached to Burgoyne's army, to the late residence of her deceased father, not many miles distant, promising a keg of rum to him who should deliver her safe to him. The young lady dressed herself in her bridal attire, and accompanied the Indians. On the way, 252 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. The British encamp at Saratoga. 1777 they disputed which of them should deliver her to the officer, and receive the promised reward. A struggle for the pos- session of the prize followed, in which, while one drew the trembling and affrighted girl to him, now imploring his protection, the other buried his tomahawk in her brain. The scalp was then taken off and carried to the officer, in her stead, whose arrival he was anxiously anticipating. Burgoyne, on receiving the intelligence, demanded the murderer, and threatened him with death ; he was, however, afterward pardoned. Intense feeling was excited among the Americans, and indignation against those who could employ such savage allies. But it is not the Indians alone, who commit acts of great atrocity ; war uncivilizes and unchristianizes man. What but murder would be the slay- ing of hundreds on the field of battle, if divested of the false halo of military glory ! Burgoyne did not yet despair of joining the British at New York, although surrounded with difficulties. The attack on Bennino;ton havina; failed, he was ao-ain obliged to have recourse to Fort George for provisions. By great and persevering exertions, a supply for thirty days was transport- ed ; and having constructed a bridge of boats over the Hud- son, in place of the rafts which had been carried away by a freshet, on the 13th and 14th of Ninth month, (Sept.) the whole army crossed the river, and on the 17th encamped on the heights and plain of Saratoga, within four miles of the American army. General Gates had been considerably reinforced, and leav- ing the position occupied by Schuyler at the confluence of the Hudson and Mohawk, he had advanced sixteen miles up the river to Stillwater. Burgoyne'e situation was now becoming more and more TEE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 253 Battle of Stillwater. Critical situation of Burgoyne. critical. He feared the communication with Fort George 1777 would be cut off, and resolved on a battle, as a victory would place it in his power to advance or return. About noon on the 19th, ail action commenced between certain portions of the armies, which were respectively reinforced, until the engagement became general. Both parties fought with determined resolution, and were alternately driven back. Men and officers were continually falling around them, until night put an end to the battle. The Americans retired to their canijD ; the British lay all night on their arms near the field. Three hundred and nineteen of the Americans were killed or wounded, and upwards of five hundred of the British. Each party claimed the victory, but Burgoyne did not obtain the advantages he had anticipated. His progress was arrested, his communication with the lakes cut off, and ho was consequently unable to obtain provisions. His men were on half allowance, and his horses were dying in great numbers. The Indians being restrained by Burgoyne from scalping and plundering the unarmed, withdrew from the British service. Many Tories and Canadians also forsook the standard. The strength of the Americans, on the other hand, was increasing by the arrival of recruits, and the resources of the country were open before them. The day after the engagement at Stillwater, intelligence was received which still further encouraged the Americans, and had a proportionably disheartening effect on the army of Burgoyne. General Lincoln, who had been sent to collect the militia of New England, had assembled two thousand, and resolved, before joining General Gates, to make an attempt to gain possession of some of the posts in the rear of the royal army. Accordingly, he sent three parties of five 254 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Second battle of Stillwater. 1777 hundred men each, who succeeded in taking all the stations excepting Ticonderoga and Mount Independence, and liber- ating one hundred American prisoners. Three hundred English prisoners were taken. Near the end of the month, General Lincoln joined the American array. In this situation Burgoyne made urgent applications to General Clinton at New York for aid, and informed him that in the expectation of receiving assistance, he would maintain his present position until the 12th of Oct. Having waited until the 7th without receiving any communication from Clinton, he determined to make another attack on the Americans. On that day another furious and bloody battle took place at Stillwater, commenced by an attack from one detachment of the British; but the whole of both armies soon became engaged, and the action continued until nearly night, when the British gave way. A large part of their artillery and ammunition had been taken, and nearly two hundred men made prisoners. General Wilkinson, in de- scribing this battle, states that after performing some service assigned him, he regained the ground from which the first detachment of the British had just retreated, leaving many men and several officers killed, wounded or captured, fifty- two minutes after the first shot had been fired. "In the square space of twelve or fifteen yards lay eighteen grena- diers in the agonies of death, and three officers propped up against stumps of trees, two of them mortally wounded, bleeding and almost speechless." He continues, " With the troops I pursued the hard-pressed and flying enemy, passing over killed and wounded." The Americans lay on their arms through the night, intending to renew the battle the next day. But Burgoyne, by a change of .position, extricated himself from the imme- THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 255 Surrender of Burgoyne. diate danger with which he was threatened, and made some 1777 attempts to induce Gates to attack him ; but the American general, knowing the difficulties to which Burgoyne was reduced, instead of engaging in another battle, sent strong detachments to guard the fords up the river, in order to prevent his retreat. In the evening of the 8th, the British general withdrew his forces and set off for Saratoga, leaving behind him three hundred sick and wounded men, and several boats loaded with provisions and baggage. It was evening of the next day when they arrived, after a fatiguing march over bad roads and through constant rain. Preparations were next made for retreating to Fort Edward, but the passes were found to be all strongly guarded. In this situation, a council of war was summoned. The British were now almost surrounded by the Americans, and their strength was much exhausted by incessant exertion. An account of provisions was taken, and a supply for three days only found to be on hand. By the advice of the coun- cil, a negotiation was opened with General Gates, and terms of capitulation were agreed on. The British troops were to surrender their arms ; they were to be permitted to embark for England or Germany, and were not to serve again in the war unless exchanged. On the 17th, the whole army surrendered prisoners of war, having been reduced from nine thousand to less than six thousand men. Burgoyne had strongly anticipated assistance from New York. General Clinton, however, felt that he cou^d not take the necessary troops without endangering that place, and therefore waited for reinforcements from England. These arrived near the end of Ninth month, (Sept.) and assistance might have been rendered in season, but that 256 histohy op the united states. Its consequences. The effect in France. 1777 Clinton imagined that by diverting the attention of Gates, Burgoyne would be able to extricate himself from the diffi- culties by which he was surrounded, and if the British could obtain command of the Hudson river, Burgoyne might then join the forces in New York. The forts on the river were therefore attacked, and after obtaining possession of these, a considerable time was consumed in removing the obstruc- tions which had been placed in the river. Before this could be accomplished Burgoyne surrendered. A detachment of the British received this information at Esopus, now Kings- ton. They immediately resolved to burn the town ; not a house was left standing. Another village was also destroyed, and the party returned to New York. In consequence of the capitulation at Saratoga, the British were prevented from retaining the forts on the lakes. They therefore left Ticonderoga, after destroying the works and throwing the artillery into the lake, and retired to Canada. The northern portion of the country was thus once more left in tranquillity, having experienced for several months the devastations of war. Information of the success of the American arms was re- ceived with great joy over the country, raising the hopes of the friends of Congress, and adding to their numbers. In France, its influence was also felt. That nation, although friendly to the cause of American independence, had never openly lent any assistance. It was a serious thing to involve herself in a war with Great Britain by taking part with her rebellious subjects, who it was supposed would soon be sub- jugated. But affairs now wore a difForent aspect, and the resistance of the colonies seemed likely to be crowned with ifltimate success. The American commissioners in Paris had continued to solicit the acknowledgment of the independence THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 257 Treaty ■with France. Commissioners from England. of the country ; a proposed treaty had long been under 1777 consideration, and from time to time deferred. The commis- sioners were at length informed that it was decided to ac- knowledge the independence of the country, and to enter into a treaty of amity and commerce. In the treaty, which was subsequently fully ratified, it was stipulated that, if war should break out between France and England, during the existence of that with the United States, the two countries should make common cause, and that neither of the parties should conclude peace, or a truce, without the consent of the other. They also mutually engaged not to lay down their arms until the independence of the United States should be fully acknowledged by England. The British Parliament was much occupied with discus- sions respecting the war. Various propositions were intro- duced ; and conciliatory measures were now adopted, granting to the colonies all that had been demanded previously to the commencement of hostilities. Several of the members advo- cated the recognition of American independence as the only means of avoiding a war with France. Fearful of the effect of the treaty with that country, commissioners were at once sent to America with copies of the plans of conciliation, before they had become laws. They were received by General Washington and the governors of some of the States, previously to their having any knowledge of the treaty with France ; but Congress concluded that the United States could not consistently treat with any commissioners from England, until the British fleets and armies had been with- drawn, or until the independence of the States had been expressly acknowledged. Bribery of some of the principal officers of the government was then tried, but without effect ; 22* 258 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Sufferings of the army at Valley Forge. 1778 and after threatening a war of extermination, the commission- ers returned to Europe. A few days after the decision of Congress, Silas Deane, one of the commissioners to France, arrived with the treaties which had been made with that country. Congress was not now in session, but immediately assembled, and on the 4th of Fifth month, (May,) 1778, the treaties were unanimously ratified. The joy and gratitude of the nation at this intelli- gence were great in the extreme ; they now became more sanguine that their liberties would eventually be established, and felt in a measure reconciled to present hardships and calamities. Many royalists who had till this period taken part with Great Britain, now joined their countrymen. It has already been mentioned that the British army had retired to Philadelphia for winter quarters, and that Wash- ington had established himself at Valley Forge, about twenty- six miles from the city, where he was sufficiently near to annoy the British, and cut off their foraging parties, as well as to keep the posts near the city well guarded. Log huts, with the interstices filled with mud, erected fcr the occasion, formed comfortable habitations for troops that had been so much exposed to the inclemency of the weather. But they suffered extremely from the want of provisions and clothing. Their march from White Marsh to this place, with bare feet over rough and frozen roads, was marked with their blood. The winter was severe. The non-importation agreements had rendered clothing scarce at the commencement of the war ; importation in any quantities was now precluded ; and the home manufacture was not equal to the demand. The necessities of the army induced Congress to authorize the commander-in-chief to seize all provisions that could be found within seventy miles, either paying for them with money, or THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 259 Intrigues agaiast Washington. certificates, for the redemption of which the United States 1X78 were pledged. Sufficient confidence was not felt in the government to keep up the value of the continental scrip, as these certificates wcce termed ; and they were fast depre- ciating. It was with great reluctance that Washington availed himself of the liberty given him by Congress ; but the neces- sities of his men compelled him to it. He was illy provided with money, and could only pay for the provisions with scrip ; while the British were ready to give gold for articles furnished them. Many of the country people in the neigh- borhood were willing, under these circumstances, to convey their produce into the city ; but this was attended with much difficulty, and was often followed by detection and punish- ment. If the American patroles could intercept any party going into the city with provisions, they would seize them without offering payment of any kind. Although the strict integrity and disinterested patriotism of Washington had won for him great respect and esteem, yet there were those whose private ambition, rather than the welfare of their country, led to jealous feelings ; and a plan was laid to remove him from the chief command of the army. It did not however succeed ; nor did the knowledge of these intrio-ues induce Washino-ton to swerve from what he con- sidered his duty. Regardless of them, he continued his applications to Congress for the completion of arrangements for the ensuing season. By his recommendation, Baron Steuben, an officer in the Prussian army, who arrived in the United States in the course of the winter, was appointed inspector-general of the army. A system of discipline was by his efforts introduced among the hitherto raw troops, which, it is said, contributed much to the success of the American arms. CHAPTER XXIir CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1779. General La Fayette at Barren Hill. 1778 The British in Philadelphia passed the winter in gayety and ease, until^ by the vigilance of the American patroles, they began to suffer for want of fresh provisions and for for- age. Their first efforts this year, were to procure some sup- plies of this kind for the army, in which they were sometimes successful ; destroying also in these excursions, merchandise and shipping. Intelligence of the treaty with France had now arrived, and it was suspected that the British troops would evacuate Philadelphia. To annoy the rear of the army, in case they should take this step, as well as to form an advanced guard of the Americans, in Fifth month, (May,) General La Fayette was sent forward with upwards of two thousand chosen men, and took post on Barren Hill, east of the Schuylkill, seven or eight miles in front of the army at Valley Forge. Howe, having received information of this movement, sent General Grant with five thousand of his best troops, to surprise him and cut off his return. Some of the militia patroles, having deserted their posts, the design was very nearly effected ; but, on the discovery being made. General La Fayette acted with so much promptitude and judgment, that he eluded the Brit- ish, and returned to the camp without loss. The French ambassador in London having by order of his CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1779. 261 British evacuate Philadelphia. Battle of Monmouth. government given information of the treaties formed with the 1778 United States, left the country; about the same time the Brit- ish ambassador left Paris. This was considered equivalent to a declaration of war. Apprehending that a French fleet would be sent to block up the British ships in the Delaware, orders were given to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate the British forces in New York. Accordingly on the 18th of Sixth month, (June,) the royal army crossed the Delaware into New Jersey, under the command of General Clinton ; Howe having resigned his office, by permission of the king, and sailed for England. Washington immediately left his station and advanced in pursuit with the whole army, watching for an opportunity to give battle. General Lee, with five thousand men, was sent forward to commence an attack, unless there should be very strong reasons to prevent it. Perceiving the whole body re- turning to meet him, Lee retreated ; but on the arrival of Washington, he was sent back, and a warm engagement en- sued at Monmouth. Leo was compelled to retire. At this juncture, Washington came up and joined in the action until the British fell back. It was now almost night; the day had been warm, and the troops were exceedingly fatigued. Further operations were therefore suspended, and before morning, the British withdrew toward Sandy Hook. In this battle, the Americans lost, in killed and wounded, nearly three hundred men ; the British, after burying some of their dead in the night, left on the field nearly two hun- dred and fifty killed, and upwards of forty wounded, besides those who were able to be removed, and whom they had taken with them. The heat and extreme fatigues of the day had proved fatal to some on both sides, who expired without a wound. 262 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Admiral D'Estaing at Newport. 1778 After the battle of Monmouth, the British proceeded to New York "without further molestation. Washington marched to Westchester county in New York State, and took a posi- tion near his old camp at White Plains. Here he remained, watching the movements of the British till late in the autumn, when he removed to Middlebrook, New Jersey, for winter quarters. Not ten days after the British fleet left the Delaware, Ad- miral Count B' Estaing, with twelve French ships of the line and three frigates, arrived at the bay. Being informed that the British had left, he sailed for New York. On sounding at the entrance of the harbor, he found that his largest ships could not enter. By the advice of Washing- ton, he therefore sailed for Newport, to assist in the re- duction of that place, which had been in possession of the British about eighteen months. A combined attack by land and water was projected. General Sullivan, with about two thousand men, mostly mili- tia, was stationed at Providence ; and it was determined that he should cross to Khode Island and move toward New- port. On the 9th of Eighth month, (Aug.,) Admiral Howe^ with his fleet, appeared off the island, and D'Estaing im- mediately sailed out of the harbor to give him battle. An engagement was declined by Howe ; both parties put to sea and were soon out of sight. Having spent l;wo days in ma- noeuvring, the fleets were separated by a violent storm, in which both of them were so much damaged, that the British returned to New York ; and D'Estaing, having again arrived at Newport, announced his intention of going to Boston to refit. No arguments could induce him to remain ; and on the 22d, he set sail. Being deserted by the fleet, it was not thought prudent to CAMPAIGNS OP 1778 AND 1779. 263 General Sullivan retreats. remain on the island, as large reinforcements of British 1778 might easily be transported from New York. General Sulli- van therefore commenced a retreat in the night of the 28th, and was immediately pursued by the British on their making the discovery next morning of the march of the Americans. On the north end of the island, the Americans halted. Here they were met by the British, and a severe conflict ensued, which lasted about half an hour, when both parties withdrew. Their loss had been nearly equal. On the 30th, the two armies cannonaded each other, but neither ventured to attack the other. The British were expecting reinforcements ; and Sullivan, while deceiving them by an appearance of main- taining his post, was preparing to evacuate the island. In the night, the Americans succeeded in crossing the ferries and escaping to the continent, with all the artillery, baggage and stores. The next day, Clinton reached Newport with four thousand men ; a force which would have entirely pre- vented the retreat of the Americans^ had they arrived in season. They had been detained in the sound four days by adverse winds. In tracing the movements of the main bodies of the oppos- ing armies, it must not be supposed that the remainder of the people entirely escaped the devastating effects of war. The marauding parties were too numerous to mention, and private dwellings, mills and barns were often burned. If such steps would aid the cause in which a party was engaged, full lati- tude appeared to be given. Many lives were lost in skir- mishes. Numbers of privateers and small government vessels were fitted out, which captured many British vessels engaged in commerce ; while some were destroyed by the British ships. In the spring of this year, the Bandolph, an American 264 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Destruction of the Randolph. Paul Jones. 1778 frigate, commanded by Captain Biddle, having on board three hundred and five men, sailed from Charleston on a cruise, accompanied by four other vessels. The Randolph soon fell in with the Yarmouth, a British frigate, and fired the first broadside. About twenty minutes after the action commenced, the Randolph blew up, and all on board perished excepting four men, who floated on a piece of the wreck, ■without any subsistence for four days but rain water, which they caught in a blanket. At the expiration of this period, they were rescued by the captain of the Yarmouth. Paul Jones, captain of one of the privateers, sailed around the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. He seized several Brit- ish vessels, and took two hundred prisoners. Some parts of the country suffered much from incursions of the Indians, aided by Tories who had fled for safety to the back settlements. At the commencement of the war, many of the Indian tribes seemed friendly to the United States ; but afterward the Americans became unable to pro- vide them with those articles of British manufacture to which they had latterly been accustomed, while the Briti>h in Canada liberally furnished them, and prevailed on them to take up arms against the United States. The frontier consequently became much exposed to their attacks. In the summer of this year, the beautiful district of Wyo- ming, situated on the east branch of the Susquehannah river, and containing nearly three thousand inhabitants, was made the scene of barbarities, from the contemplation of which, the mind recoils with horror. They strongly exhibit the cruelties of which men are capable, when the vindictive passions become excited and uncontrolled by the practice of war. The inhabitants of Wyoming, feeling the danger attendant on their romoto eituatloD, had constructed four forts, which CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1779. 265 Massacre in Wyoming. were garrisoned with about four hundred and fifty men. In 1778 the course of this summer, a body of sixteen hundred men, a large proportion of whom were Tories, disguised as Indians, approached the settlement. They soon gained possession of one of the smaller forts. The garrison were enticed out of it for the purpose of holding a conference, and then fell into an ambuscade, from which only a small portion escaped. The following day, one of the other forts was besieged. The commander wished to know what terms would be granted on surrendering. Learning that no mercy would be shown, the fort was defended until most of the men were either killed or wounded. It was then surrendered. Many of the in- habitants of the place had sought refuge in the fortress. A few of them were taken away as prisoners ; the remainder were shut up in the fort, which was then fired, and men, women and children perished in the flames. The other forts soon after fell into the hands of the furious assailants, and all show of resistance ceased. The whole dis- trict was laid waste ; buildings were burned with the occupants in them, and the work of destruction did not cease until regular troops Avere advancing to the spot. But very few of the inhabitants of the district escaped to the other settlements. In the latter part of this season, when active operations had ceased in the north, the attention of the British commander-in- chief became directed to the Southern States. Some royalists, who had left the southern provinces, and fled into Florida, had made destructive incursions into Georgia. One of the parties had burned the town of Midway, the dwelling houses on the roads through which they passed, had destroyed the grain, and carried off horses and cattle. An attempt to retaliate these incursions was made. A force of two thousand men was assembled; and proceeded to 23 266 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Operations in the South. 1778 Florida for the reduction of St. Augustine; but disease car- ried off nearly one-fourth of the troops, and the remainder returned to Georgia. A plan had been projected by the British for obtaining possession of Georgia. Accordingly Colonel Campbell was sent from New York, with about two thousand five hundred men, and arriving off the mouth of the Savannah, proceeded up the river, and six days after, effected a landing on the 29th of Twelfth month, (Dec.) For the defence of the place. General llobert Howe, with nearly nine hundred Americans, had taken an advantageous position about two miles below Savannah. Here he was sur- rounded by a marsh and the river, excepting in front ; and the approach in this quarter was well guarded. A negro, however, gave information to the British of a small path through the morass, which led to the rear of the American army. They were therefore attacked both in front and rear, and after fighting desperately, less than one-half effected an escape to South Carolina. About one hundred Americans were killed, and four hundred and fifty taken prisoners. The shipping in the river and a large quantity of provisions fell into the hands of the British, who soon after obtained the command of the whole province. 1779 The scene of the war now became changed. Having planted their standard in the south, the British commanders resolved to approach the Middle States from this direction, at the com- mencement of the ensuing campaign, having gained nothing in the north during the preceding season. Early in the year. General Lincoln, having been appointed to the command of the southern army, established his head quarters at Purysburg, on the Savannah river, about thirty miles from its mouth. His force consisted of twenty-four CAMPAIGNS OP 1778 AND 1779. 267 Conflicts between the Tories and militia. hundred men, a large portion of whom were undisciplined 1779 militia, deficient in the usual equipments. The British, after making an unsuccessful attempt on the island of Port Royal, in which they lost many of their officers and a large number of private soldiers, resolved to establish themselves more firmly in Georgia, and to use endeavors to induce the Tories in South Carolina to take up arms in the royal cause. The principal posts of the British were at Augusta and Ebenezer, both on the Savannah ; while their emissaries were scattered among the Tory settlements in the upper parts of the State. Several hundred of the Tories as- sembled, and began a march toward Augusta. Among them was a body of unprincipled men, and their course was marked by plunder and atrocities. These excited the peaceful inhabitants to such a degree that Colonel Pickens collected about three hundred of the Whig militia to oppose them. The parties met and fought. The Tories were defeated and about forty of them killed. Some fled to North Carolina ; others surrendered themselves, and were tried for violating the sedition law. About seventy were condemned to die, but all were afterward pardoned excepting five leaders. With the view of circumscribing the limits of the Tories who were scattered over the country, and of repressing their incursions, a detachment of fifteen hundred militia was sent into Georgia. These were stationed on Briar creek, which empties into the Savannah, below Augusta. Here they were surprised by the British, who by a circuitous route came upon their rear. The militia were immediately thrown into confusion, and fled. One hundred and fifty were killed, still more were taken prisoners, and a few wore drowned in attempting to cross the Savannah. The greater part of those who escaped returned to their homes ; only about four hundred and fifty went back to the camp. 268 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. General Lincoln in Georgia. 1779 Lincoln was soon after reinforced, and resolved aoain to enter Georgia, in order to carry the war into the quarters of the British. With most of his forces, he crossed the Savannah, and marched toward the centre of the State. Prevost, the British commander, immediately seized the opportunity of attacking Charleston. Lincoln hastened back to its defence, when Prevost thought it expedient to retire, and withdrew his forces to some adjacent islands. Here he was attacked by Lincoln, who was repulsed, after an engagement of one hour and twenty minutes, with a loss, in that brief period, of more than one hundred and fifty men. A few days after- ward, the British re-commenced their retreat to Savannah, leaving a garrison at Beaufort, on the island of Port Koyal. The American militia mostly dispersed ; and Lincoln, with about eight hundred men, stationed himself at Sheldon, not far from Beaufort. The heat of a southern climate had put a stop to active operations for the present. Early in Ninth month, (Sept.,) Admiral D'Estaing appeared off the coast with the French fleet. At the close of the preceding season, he had sailed to the West Indies, where he had been engaged in hostilities with the British. The militia was soon collected, and the united armies agreed to besiege Savannah, in the hope of driving their opponents from the southern provinces. D'Estaing, who arrived first before Savannah, summoned the town to surrender, and allowed a cessation of hostilities for twenty-four hours, for the purpose of settling the terms of a capitulation. The British forces had been engaged day and night since the arrival of the French fleet, in strengthening the place, yet the works were incomplete, and the commander was desirous of gaining time. During the interval allowed, Colonel Maitland, by very great exertion, reached the place CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1779. 269 Siege of Savannah with a reinforcement from Beaufort. Prevost now informed 1779 D'Estaing that he would defend the place to the last extremity. Preparations were therefore made for besieging the town. Several days were consumed in bringing heavy artillery and stores from the vessels. All the arrangements being completed, the siege commenced. For some days the garrison was ex- posed to a fire from batteries consisting of thirty-three pieces of heavy cannon and nine mortars ; but the cannonade made little impression on the works. D'Estaing became anxious to return to the West Indies for the defence of the French Islands ; and findino; that a lono; time would be required to take the place in this way, he de- termined on an assault. The French and American forces advanced to the attack ; and after about one hour's severe fighting, they were driven from the works, and obliged to retreat. The loss sustained by the British was not great. Of the French, nearly seven hundred were killed or wounded, and upwards of two hundred of the Americans. Among the killed was Count Pulaski, a Polish ofiicer. As no hope remained of taking the town, the militia re- turned to their respective homes. General Lincoln retired to South Carolina, and D'Estaing, having re-embarked his troops, sailed for the West Indies. During these occurrences at the South, the British in the North made several predatory excursions, which were productive of distress and devastation. Having concerted a plan for interrupting the commerce of the Chesapeake, and destroying the magazines on its shores, the British general, Matthews, sailed from New York for this purpose with about two thousand men. Having arrived at Portsmouth in Vir- ginia, the troops landed and took possession of the town without opposition. Small parties were then sent to Norfolk 23* 270 UISTOllY OP THE UNITED STATES. General Washington at West Point. 1779 and other places, where they seized many vessels, and took or destroyed a large quantity of provisions and military stores, burnin;^ magazines as well as some private residences. For two weeks, their course was marked by devastation and ruin. One hundred and thirty American vessels fell into the hands of these marauders, who, with their prizes and booty, returned to New York. By having command of the ocean and navigable rivers, the British were enabled to make sudden attacks on distant parts of the country, thus keeping the Americans in a constant state of alarm. They also interrupted the communication by sea, between the New England and other States. It was therefore considered a matter of great importance by Wash- ington, to preserve the communication as far down the Hudson as possible. He removed his head-quarters from Middlebrook to West Point. Fortifications were constructed on Stony Point, a high bluff on the west side of the river, a few miles below, and on Verplanck's Point, which projects into the river on the opposite side. Before the works were complete, Clinton sent detachments from New York, who succeeded in getting possession of both forts. The garrison at Fort La Fayette on Verplanck's Point were completely surrounded, their escape was cut off, and they were obliged to surrender themselves prisoners of war. Clinton made arranojements for completinG: the fortifications at both posts, garrisoned them, and finding that he could advance no further up the river, returned to New York. The British commander next determined to ravage the coast of Connecticut ; partly with the view of drawing General Washington from his strong position at West Point, for its defence. For this purpose, about twenty-six hundred troops, under command of General Tryon, formerly governor of the CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1779. 271 Devastations of the British. Stony Point taken. province of New York, sailed from Throg's Neck, on the 177' East river, a few miles from the city of New York, and on the following day landed at East Haven. On the appearance of the fleet, the militia assembled in great numbers, but they could not prevent the British from effecting their ruinous designs. This town was burned, New Haven plundered, and the artillery and ammunition were either taken or destroyed. Fairfield and Norwalk were burned, after having been plun- dered of every thing of value, with abusive words to the citizens. This devastating work was accomplished in about ten days, when the British returned to New York. Washington felt himself obliged to keep his forces concen- trated, lest by dividing their strength, the different detachments should be severally overcome. His endeavor therefore was to resist any attack of the main body of the British army, and to guard the passes of the highlands. Having made himself acquainted with the state of the works at Stony Point, which had been taken from the Americans in the spring, he deter- mined to make an effort to surprise the garrison there. For this purpose he sent General Wayne with a detachment of troops. The road was exceedingly difficult, and the heat intense. Having secured every person on their way, whom they thought likely to give information of their approach, they succeeded in reaching Stony Point unobserved, about mid- night, and immediately commenced an attack. A determined resistance was made, but the fort soon fell into the hands of the assailants, and the garrison surrendered themselves prisoners of war. About twenty of the British had been killed, and seventy-four wounded. The Americans lost sixty- three killed, and forty wounded. Although the Americans had thus gained possession of Stony Point, General Washington did not think he could 272 HISTORY OP the united states. Powles Hook surprised. Gen. Sullivan sent against the Indians. 1 i 79 spare a sufficient number of men to garrison the place ; as it would require a large force, on account of its entire exposure to the British shipping in the river. He therefore abandoned it, after having destroyed a great part of the works. The fort was soon after repaired, and again occupied by the British. Being successful in this instance, Washington ventured further, and planned a surprise of the British post at Powles Hook, opposite New York. The command of the expedition was committed to Major Lee. He was ordered to surprise the garrison, to attempt the removal or destruction of the stores, and immediately to retire with as many prisoners as he could secure. Under cover of the night, they effected their design, and lost about six men, killed and wounded. They took one hundred and sixty prisoners, and killed in the affray about thirty of the British. In the following month, an unsuccessful attempt was made to drive the British from a fort which they had just erected at Penobscot, in Maine. The government at Boston were alarmed at this step, and resolved on an attempt to dispossess them. The fleet sent for the purpose was captured ; fifteen vessels were either blown up or taken. The sailors and troops on board of the remainder, landed in an unsettled part of the country, and, having burned their vessels, had to proceed one hundred miles through a wilderness, in which many of them perished. During the summer of this year, an army of four thousand, under command of General Sullivan, was sent against the Indians of the Six Nations, all of whom had joined the British excepting the Oneidas. By the assistance of Tories, some fortifications were raised to oppose the progress of the army. These were assaulted. After a siii^ht resistance, the Indians CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1779. 273 Expedition of Paul Jones. gave way and fled to the woods, retreating as they were pur- 1779 sued. They deserted their towns, which denoted a higher state of civilization than had been heretofore observed among the aborigines. Eighteen of these were destroyed, besides many apple and peach orchards, and the corn, then growing luxuriantly. After the return of the army, the Indians at- tacked some of the frontier settlements, and killed and cap- tured many of the inhabitants. This led to further retalia- tion on the part of the Americans. Eight more villages were burned, together with the crop of corn in the neigh- borhood. In the course of the summer, the American commissioners at Paris fitted out a small squadron, the command of which was given to Paul Jones. In Seventh month, (July,) he sailed from Port L' Orient in the Bon Homme Kichard, ac- companied by three other ships. In sight of the port of Leith in Scotland, he captured several vessels ; and off the coast of England, he attacked the Serapis, a superior and somewhat larger vessel than his own, which, with a frigate of half the number of guns, was convoying several merchant- men. The fight was desperate. During the engagement, the frigates approached so near each other, that Jones seized the opportunity of lashing them together, in which situation they continued for two hours, and were both frequently on fire. At length one of the men of the Bon Homme Rich- ard, carried a basket of shells out on the mainyard and threw them among the crew of the Serapis. These soon exploded among the men, and blew up a cartridge-magazine, which de- stroyed the guns on one side of the ship. The merchant vessels having by this time made their es- cape, and the Serapis being so much injured that the cap- tain could no longer defend it, he struck his flag. The Bon 274 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Sufferings oif the army. 1779 Homme Richard was at this time in a sinking condition ; and her crew and the wounded men were immediately transferred to their prize. The frigate in company with the Serapis was also captured by one of the other vessels belonging to the squadron. Jones soon after sailed for Holland, with his prizes, the value of which was estimated at more than forty thousand pounds. Jones received the thanks of Congress, and a gold medal was struck in commemoration of his victory over the Serapis. At the close of the season, one division of the army under Washington was quartered for the winter at Morristown, New Jersey; the other at West Point. Their sufferings were intense from cold, hunger and want of clothing. By midwinter, the soldiers were put on allowance, and more than once the stock of provisions was entirely exhausted. Appli- cation for relief was made to the magistrates of the neighbor- hood, who exacted a certain quantity of provisions from every county in the State, to be brought into the camp before the expiration of six days. The people promptly complied with the requisition, and the soldiers were by this means restrained from desertion. These sufferings were produced by a want of confidence in the ability of the government to redeem its bills of credit, known as the " Continental Currency." In order to defray the expenses of the army, it had been absolutely necessary to issue these bills, for the redemption of which, Congress was pledged. They were used as currency, and supplies for the army were purchased with them. At first, two millions were issued ; soon afterward, another million. This was at the commencement of the war, in 1775. The credit of the country was then good, and the bills were readily received. By the close of the following year, the amount in circulation CAMPAIGNS OF 1778 AND 1779. 275 Depreciation of the currency. was twenty millions. This was a very desponding period, 1779 The people were discouraged as to the result of the war ; consequently their faith in the ability of Congress to redeem the paper money became less, and its value depreciated. At the close of the year 1779, one silver dollar was considered equal in value to thirty dollars of the continental money. Confidence in Congress was at length exhausted ; and to purchase provisions with this money, was impossible. Each State was therefore directed to send a certain proportion of provisions and forage. This afforded temporary and partial relief Loans were next solicited from capitalists both in America and Europe. All however was not sufficient, and discontent could not be avoided. The pay of the officers was not enough to procure for them the necessary clothing. Another year was ended, and the war seemed no nearer its termination. The British had been obliged to return to as narrow encampments as they had occupied the preceding winter, but it had been a year of suffering, of anxiety and of fear. Hundreds of men had been sacrificed, many more had been wounded, others made prisoners. Fertile districts of country had been laid waste, towns and villages burned, hun- dreds of inhabitants rendered homeless, and many vessels destroyed. CHAPTER XXIV. CAMPAIGN OF 1780. Gen. Clinton sails for the South. 1780 The operations of the preceding year, especially the unsuc- cessful attack on Savannah by the French and Americans, had induced Greneral Clinton to believe that the southern portion of the Union might be more easily subjugated than the eastern and middle States. Leaving the army in New York under command of General Knyphausen, Clinton sailed for the South with a considerable force, a few days before the close of the year 1779, and reached Savannah about the end of the following month. The voyage was boisterous. Several of the transports were lost, with nearly all the horses, and one ordnance ship sunk with all her stores. After some delays, Clinton proceeded north, and landed his troops on John's Island, about thirty miles from Charleston, on the 11th of Second month, (Feb.) On the arrival of Clinton, Governor Rutiedge issued orders for the assembling of the militia ; but, disheartened by the result of the attack on Savannah, few obeyed the call. He then ordered all the militia who had been drafted, and all the property holders in Charleston, to join the American standard, under penalty of the confiscation of their property. The fortifications in Charleston were industriously repaired ; and in expectation of reinforcements. General Lincoln re- mained in the place. Clinton waited for additional troops from New York, and then cautiously advanced toward the CAMPAIGN OP 1780. 277 Siege of Charlestoa. town, erecting fortifications as he proceeded. On the 29th 1780 of Third month, . (March,) the British army reached Ashley river, ten miles above Charleston, and crossed it with- out opposition, the garrison being unable to resist thera. The artillery, baggage and stores were all conveyed across the river, and on the 1st of Fourth month, (April,) the British commenced the siege of Charleston. On the 9th their fleet, taking advantage of both wind and tide, passed Fort Moultrie without stopping to return the heavy fire "which was discharged at thera, and thus gained entire com- mand of the harbor. Their ships were somewhat damaged, and twenty-seven men killed or wounded. On the same day, the British works being completed, and a battery constructed within eleven hundred yards of the American fortifications. General Lincoln was summoned to surrender the town. This he refused to do, and a destructive fire from the batteries was immediately commenced. The Americans were soon cut off from all means of retreat, and every hope of assistance failed- The posts which had been established at various places, to facilitate the passage of the garrison, should it be necessary to evacuate the town, were all surprised. The British were advancing nearer. An offer to capitulate was made, but the terms were refused by the British commander, and hostilities re-coramenced. A negotiation was afterward opened, and a capitulation signed on the 12th of Fifth month, (May,) about three and a half months after Clinton arrived at Savannah. The militia were to be allowed to return to their respective homes as prisoners on parole, and were not to be molested in their persons or property while they remained faithful. The loss of Charleston was much felt by the Americans, and was an equally great cause of encouragement to the 24 278 niSTORY OF the united states. Colonel Tarleton. 1780 British, who already had the command of Greorgia, and by obtaining possession of the capital of South Carolina, would now have the control of the southern portion of the Union. Clinton immediately took measures for inducing the inhabi- tants to return to their allegiance to the king. A proclama- tion was issued, offering pardon for all past offences on con- dition of submission, and exemption from taxation excepting by their own legisUiture. This latter offer, if made to all the provinces, would at one period have prevented dissension between the two countries. There had always been in the Southern States, many who were favorable to the British interests. Some of these had been deterred from taking any active [)art by the superior force of the Americans, but were now induced to espouse the cause of Great Britain. Clinton also established garrisons in different parts of the State, to overawe the militia, and sent a party of two thou- sand men under Cornwallis toward North Carolina, to repel any forces that might be advancing to the relief of Charles- ton. Being informed of the position of Colonel Buford, who, with four hundred men, was advancing for this purpose, and was now near the borders of North Carolina, a detach- ment of seven hundred men, under Colonel Tarleton, was sent forward to surprise them. By a march of one hundred and five miles in fifty-four hours, they came up with the Ameri- cans at a district called the Waxhaws, and ordered them to surrender. On Buford's refusal, an attack commenced. The Americans were soon obliged to submit to the superior strength of the British. They threw down their arms, and called for quarter. No attention was paid to their submission, and the slaughter was continued until nearly all the regiment were killed, or so badly wounded that they could not be removed from the field, A few bad saved themselves bj flight. CAMPAIGN OF 1780. 279 Colonel Sumpter. Beiiig thus entiicly successful, Clinton considered the State 1780 subdued. He therefore sailed for New York, early in Sixth month, (June,) with a great part of his forces, leaving Cornwallis with an army of four thousand men, to keep down all oppo:;-ition. Admiral Howe having been censured for not employing the inhabitants in the royal service, Clinton instructed Corn- wallis to absolve the South Carolinians from their paroles, and to restore to them all the riglits antl duties of citizens. A pro- clamation was therefore issued to this effect ; which also stated that whoever would not take an active part in " settling and securing his Majesty's government," should be treated as rebels. Most of the inhabitants had either given their parole, or submitted as British subjects ; many of them influenced by the hope of obtaining tranquillity. By the orders of Clin- ton, this was now denied them. Indignant at the violation of the terms of their submission, multitudes resumed their arms, and resolved on a vindictive war; whilst many left the State, and joined the army which Congress was raising for the recov- ery of South Carolina. A party who had fled for safety to North Carolina, choos- ing Colonel Sumpter for their leader, returned to their own State, where they attacked and defeated several detachments of the royal army. Each victory served to encourage others, and increased the number of Sumpter's men, until they amounted to nearly six hundred. In one of these engage- ments, the British regiment was reduced from nearly three hundred men to nine ; many were killed, the remainder were dispersed. The Maryland and Delaware troops had been ordered to South Carolina for the relief of Charleston, but they had been so much delayed, that they were not in time for this 280 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Sufiferings of the army in the South. 1780 service. Their number amounted to about four thousand, and the command had been given to Baron De Kalb ; but being unacquainted with the country, and not accustomed to undisciplined troops, General Gates was ordered to take charge of the southern army. Accordingly he joined them on the 27th of Seventh month, (July.) De Kalb had been advised not to take the direct road for Camden, South Carolina, where the main body of the British was sta- tioned, as it led through a sterile country of pine barrens, which could not afford subsistence for the army. When Gates took the command, he thought it best to proceed by the shortest course, and soon experienced the privations which De Kalb had endeavored to avoid. The want of provisions was early felt, and in the course of the march, the army suf- fered much from famine and fatigue. Disease and death among their number were the necessary consequence. On the 13th of Eighth month, (Aug.) the army reached Clermont, thirteen miles from Camden. The following day, they were joined by a large body of Virginia militia, which increased the number of tlie army to three thousand six hundred and sixty-three. Gates at this time received information from Sumpter, who, with a body of mil- itia was encamped on the west side of the Wateree, that an es- cort of clothing, ammunition and other stores for the British, was advancing from Charleston to Camden, and must cross the Wateree at a ferry about a mile from his encampment. Gates immediately sent a detachment of four hundred men, with some artillery, to enable him to capture the party. This they succeeded in doing, taking three hundred prisoners and all the stores. On hearing of the approach of Gates, Cornwallis hastened to join the army at Camden, and take command of it in per- CAMPAIGN OP 1780. 281 Battle of Camden. son. The number of tlie British had also been reduced by 1780 sickness, and after calling in the outposts, they did not exceed two thousand men. When Gates entered South Carolina, he issued a procla- mation, calling on the citizens to aid him in delivering the State from its conquerors. Although this had not the full effect anticipated by the American general, yet many joined the army, and Cornwallis found that he must retreat to Charleston, or risk a battle. His position at Camden being unfavorable to resist an attack, on the night of the 15th he marched out with his whole force, intending to assault the Americans in their camp at Clermont. The iVmericans were also moving to a more favorable posi- tion, seven miles from Camden. About two in the morning, the advanced guards of the hostile armies unexpectedly met. Firing instantly began. In several skirmishes which ensued, the British had the advantage. This considerably depressed the militia. Early in the morning both armies prepared for battle. At the first advance of the British, the Virginia militia threw down their arms and fled. Their example was followed by others, until only one wing of the army was left to contend with the superior force of the British. They made a deter- mined resistance, but were at length overpowered by num- bers, and fled. The relentless Tarleton pursued them with great fury for twenty-two miles, until all were killed, cap- tured or dispersed. Two hundred and ninety xlmericans were made pri.-oners. The number of killed and wounded could not be ascertained. Among those whose lives were lost at tlie battle of Camden, was the Baron De Kalb, second in command. Tarleton with his men next took the route toward Sumpter's 24* 282 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES- Rigorous treatment of the Carolinians. '80 encampment. Hearing of the defeat of Gates, this officer had retreated up the Wateree with his prisoners and stores, and believing himself safe, had halted to rest his troops. Owino- to the sleeping of the sentinels at their posts, the British rode into the camp before any alarm was given. Between three and four hundred were killed or wounded ; the remainder were dispersed. Three hundred British prison- ers were released, and all the baggage and stores fell into the hands of the captors. On the 17th and 18th, General Gates endeavored to assemble the remnant of his army at Charlotte, in North Carolina. After being joined by the militia of the State, his forces had amounted to upwards of four thousand men ; only one hundred and fifty of them could now be mustered. Cornwallis adopted measures of extreme severity, in order to intimidate the inhabitants from again revolting. He ordered that all who had once submitted to British authority, and had again taken up arms in the American cause, should be imprisoned and their property confiscated ; that all who had once " borne arms with the British, and afterward joined the Americans, should be put to death." In consequence of these orders, several were hanged, and many were brought to poverty. The disadvantages of slavery in these seasons of deep dis- tress, were severely felt, and the conquest of the State was facilitated by the willingness of many of the slaves to aid the British cause. They were not identified with the interests of the country, and felt that they had nothing to lose. The rifmrous measures of Cornwallis could not destroy all spirit of opposition. Many were yet unwilling to relinquish their independence. These formed themselves into bands in CAMPAIGN OP 1780. t283 Success at King's Mountaia. various parts of the State, under different leaders, the most 1780 prominent of whom were Marion and Sumpter. They would often emerge from some morass or piece of woods, and fall unexpectedly on parties of the British which were marching through the country to overawe the inhabitants. Several of these parties were cut off. The militia having assembled in considerable numbers, their leaders planned an attack on Major Ferguson, who, with a detachment of Tories, was endeavoring to cut off the retreat of a body of Americans, after an unsuccessful attack on Augusta. Major Ferguson awaited the Americans on King's mountain, in the western part of North Carolina. The militia divided themselves into three parties, which were to ascend the mountain from different directions. One of these was exhorted b}'" its leader not to wait the word of com- mand from him, but to five as quickly, and to stand as long as they could. If obliged to retreat, to get behind trees, but not to run away ; afterward to return and renew the fight. The different divisions arriving separately were each repulsed ; but retreating only a short distance, and getting behind trees and rocks, each renewed its fire when the attention of the British was diverted by an attack from one of the other par- ties. In this manner the battle was continued for an hour. The British, being entirely unprotected, were shot down in great numbers. At length Ferguson was killed, and his men surrendered. Eight hundred of the royal troops became prisoners, one hundred and fifty were killed, and about as many more wounded. Cornwallis was advancing to Salisbury in North Carolina, but hearing of the defeat and death of Ferguson, he returned to South Carolina, not without being much harassed by the militia. 284 niSTORY OF the united states. Distress of Washington. Mutiny. 1780 Gates had by this time assembled an army of fourteen hundred men, but was soon afterward recalled by Congress, in consequence of the defeats and disasters of the Americans under his command at the South. General Greene was with- drawn from the northern army, and appointed to succeed Gates. To return to Washington. The division of the army with him remained at Morristown during the winter and spring, without attempting more than to restrain the incursions of the British from New York. Washington's situation at this time was very trying ; unable to supply his half-famished men with the absolute necessaries of life, and yet unwilling to have them return to their homes for the alleviation of their sufferings. Many of the horses had died, or been ren- dered useless. Although Congress promised to make good the losses which the soldiers had sustained by the deprecia- tion of the paper money, with which they were paid, yet this did not relieve their present sufferings. At length, mutiny broke out, and two of the regiments announced their inten- tion of leaving, or of procuring subsistence by force ; and it was with the greatest difficulty they were induced to submit. The British commander, availing himself of the distressed situation of the army, sent emissaries among them, inviting them to join the Biitish standard, promising them comfort and abundance. Yet attachment to their country was so strong, that these offers were disregarded, and on the arrival of a fresh supply of pi'ovisions, cheerfulness was for a while restored, and desertions were rare. The l^ritish troops in New York, however, were not witli- out their privations. The winter was unusually severe, and the waters around the city were frozen, by which the supplies were to a great extent cut off. Gold was offered to the CAMPAIGN OF 1780. 285 Incursion of the British. La Fayette, country people around for provisions and fuel brought within 1780 the lines. Many were thus induced to endeavor to convey their produce to the British. The attempt on one side to protect this intercourse, and on the part of the Americans to prevent it, gave rise to much skirmishing. In one of these engagements, fifteen men were killed, several wounded, and a number were made prisoners. General Knyphausen, who commanded in New York, in the absence of Clinton at the South, availed himself of reports which were probably exaggerated, of discontents in the Amer- ican camp, to pass into New Jersey w^ith about five thousand men. He conceived that the American troops were ready to desert, and this movement was designed to encourage them to join the British standard. Detachments of the army were sent to oppose his progress ; many of the inhabitants also seized their arms. Knyphausen was obliged to retreat. In one rencontre, the Americans lost eighty men, the British more. Their line of march was marked by devastation. The town of Springfield, a few miles west of Newark, was burned, as well as other houses. In the spring, General La Fayette, who had returned home at the commencement of hostilities in Europe, arrived at Boston with the intelligence that the government of France had resolved to send a considerable land as well as naval force, to the assistance of the United States. While in Europe, La Fayette had used his influence with his sove- reign, to gain more effectual support for the Americans in their war for independence. This point being gained, he obtained his consent to return to America. The expected assistance from France arrived in Seventh month, (July,) at Newport, this post having been evacuated by the British. It consisted of seven ships of the line under 28G HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Arrival of the French fleet. Blockaded at Newport. ii80 Chevalier De Ternay, convoying a fleet of transports, having on board six thousand troops under Count De llocliambeau. A few days afterward, Admiral Arbutlinot, who com- manded tlie ]>ritish ships vA New York, l)eing reinforced from England, sailed for llhode Island, and blockaded the French fleet in the harbor. Clinton al^o proceeded with eight thou- sand troops fur tlie purpose of attacking their land forces. Hearing, however, that Washington was preparing to take advantage of his absence, to advance against New York, he relinquished his design and returned. Washington with his forces now withdrew to West Point, and soon afterward, accompanied by La Fayette and other ofiicers, he went to Hartford to hold a conference with Count Rochambeau and Admiral Ternay, leaving the command of West Point wiih General Arnold. The post now entrusted to Arnold was the most important in the possession of the iVmericans. It gave them the con- trol of the river farther north, and defended the camps on both sides of the Hudson. It was generally deemed impreg- nable, and in it were deposited the most valuable stores. Arnold had been engaged in the war from the commence- ment, and had given many proofs of bravery and fortitude. At the battle of Stillwater, three years before, he had received a wound in the leg which disijualified him from active service. So far were his countrymen from luiving any doubts of his attachment to the cause in which they were mutually engaged, that applications were made to Washing- ton, to confer on Arnold the command of this important station. But his feelings had changed. After the evacuation of Philadelphia by the British, he was appointed to the com- mand of that place. There he lived in a sumptuous nianner, CAMPAIGN OF 1780. 287 Treason of Arnold. and involved himself in debts, ■which he was entirely unable 1780 to pay. He had frequently had in his charge the adminis- tration of public money, of which he rendered very unsatis- factory accounts, and he was finally accused of embezzlement. Much had been passed over on account of his military skill ; yet afterward, when he made large demands on the public money, a considerable part of his claim was rejected. This led to a course of conduct and expression, which subjected him to trial by a court martial, and to a sentence of reprimand from the commander-in-chief. From this time he became alienated from the cause of America, and finally resolved to betray his country. For this purpose, he sought a situation which would give a double value to treason. In a letter to a British ofiicer, he informed him of his change of principle, and expressed a wish to join the royal army and restore himself to the favor of his king. This led to a correspondence between Arnold and General Clinton, in which the former proposed to deliver West Point into the hands of the British. Ilis plan was, that the garri- son should be drawn out to figlit the assailants in the defiles, while a designated pass was to be left unguarded, through which tlie fortress might be surprised, and the Americans would be obliged to surrender. Having communicated this proposition to Clinton, the Yulture, sloop of war, was stationed in the river, near the American lines, but sufiiciently distant to avoid suspicion. Major Andre, adjutant-general of the British army, through whom a correspondence with Arnold had already been car- ried on, under the assumed names respectively of Anderson and Gustavus, was appointed by Clinton to have an inter- view with Arnold and complete the arrangements. Fur this purpose, he ascended the river in the Yulture, and in the 288 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Capture of Andre. 1780 night of the 21st of Ninth month, (Sept.,) he was conveyed to the shore, without the posts of both armies, in a boat sent by Arnold. Here he met the American commander. Their interview lasted until daybreak, when Andre was informed that it would be necessary for him to be secreted until the following night. For this purpose his regimentals were con- cealed by a surtout coat, and without his knowledge, he was conducted within the American lines. On the following night, he proposed to return to the Vulture. The boatmen refused to convey him, as she had been fired on from the American works, and compelled to remove lower down the river. The only alternative was to attempt to reach New York by land. Andre was therefore furnished by Arnold with a pass, under the name of John Anderson, and laying aside his regimentals, and assuming the garb of a traveller, be set out on horseback. Having passed the American guards and outposts, he believed all danger to be over. But the American army had a scouting party, who patroled the country between the lines of the two armies. As Andre was riding along believing himself safe and his mission accom- plished, his horse was suddenly stopped by a man who sprang from concealment. Being taken entirely by surprise he lost his presence of mind, and mistaking the man for a British soldier, instead of offering his pass, he declared himself a British officer on urgent business, and begged that he might not be detained. Two other militia men then came up, and Andre discovered his mistake. He manifested so much con- fusion that they proceeded to examine his person. In his boot they found papers, in Arnold's handwriting, containing a description of the works at West Point, and a particular statement of the strength of the garrison, with other informa- tion calculated to facilitate the capture. CAMPAIGN OP 1780. 289 His execution. Andre offered the men a purse of gold and a valuable 1780 watch, with more liberal reward from his government, if they would let him pass. But they would not be bribed, and conducted him to the captain of the militia. Here Andre, anxious for Arnold, begged permission to write to him, which was inconsiderately granted, and an express sent with the let- ter. Arnold immediately made his escape to New York. Having allowed Arnold sufficient time for this step, An- dre made himself known as the adjutant-general of the Brit- ish army. He then addressed a letter to Washington, which was enclosed, with the papers found on his person, to the commander-in-chief. In this he stated his real name and rank, related some particulars of the circumstances which had just transpired, and gave reasons why he should not be con- sidered a spy. The bearer of these communications took a different road from that which Washington pursued on his return from Hart- ford. He therefore did not receive any information of what had occurred in his absence, until he reached West Point ; when Arnold had fled. The necessary precautions against an attack from the British were immediately taken, and the case of Andre was referred to a court-martial, consistins: of fourteen officers. Before this tribunal Andre manifested frankness and candor. He concealed nothing respecting himself, but endeavored to avoid implicating others. His behavior won the sym- pathy of the officers, but they reported that having been found within the lines,* in disguise, according to the law of nations he was a spy, and as such he should suffer death. * The Americans considered as their lines all the country not actu- ally occupied by the British 25 290 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Subsequent career of Arnold. 1780 This sentence was accordingly carried into execution. An- dre petitioned that he might die as a soldier, hy being shot, and not as a criminal, by hanging. On consultation with the officers, it was decided that tlie public good required his death in the usual way. He submitted, and met the execu- tion of his sentence with composure. Major Andre had enlisted much sympathy during his short detention, and had given proofs of disinterestedness and ingenuousness of character. His death excited regrets in the minds of the American officers, and to Washino'ton the cir- cumstance was deeply trying. General Clinton, by whom he was much esteemed, made every exertion in his power to rescue him, first by negotiation and then })y threats, but nothing could avail. The thanks of Congress were voted to the three captors of Andre. It was also directed tliat they should each receive a silver medal and two hundred dollars in specie annually, as a reward of their fidelity. Arnold was immediately taken into favor by Clinton, and appointed brigadier-general in the royal army. But he could not be respected by his new associates, nor did Clinton feel en- tire confidence in him. At a subsequent period, having appoint- ed him to the command of an expedition to the Chesapeake, it is said that he authorized, by a " dormant commission, " two colonels, who were in the detachment, to supersede him and put him in arrest, if they had reason to suspect Arnold of any sinister interest. In a letter to the British government, speaking of this expedition, Clinton says : " This detachment is under the command of General Arnold, with whom I have thought it right to send Colonels Dundas and Simcoe, as being officers of experience and much in my confidence." Arnold survived the war, and spent the remainder of his life in England, exiled from his native country. He died unlamented in 1801. CAMPAIGN OF 1780. 291 Dissatisfaction in the army. Toward the end of the year 1780, an agreement was 1780 made for the exchange of prisoners. Hitherto Congress had considered that such a step would be unfavorable to their cause. They well knew the great expense to which the Brit- ish were subjected, in getting recruits from England; as well as the comparatively little increase of strength that would be afforded the American army by the release of American pris- oners, owing to the shortness of the enlistments. By the capitulation of Charleston and the defeat of Gates at Camden, however, many regular troops had fallen into the hands of the British, and Congress was at length induced to agree to a general exchan2;e. The season being over, the American army once more re- turned to winter quarters, principally at Morristown and West Point. Although the harvest had yielded an abun- dance, the sufferings and privations of the soldiers were again great. So much distressed were they, that officers were sent out to seize provisions, wherever they could be found ; the only payment given being a certificate of the quantity and value of the articles taken. The troops from Pennsylvania had enlisted for " three years, or during the continuance of the war," which they supposed would be a shorter period. They now complained that they were retained in service contrary to their enlistment. Worn with privations, thirteen hun- dred paraded under arms and declared their intention of marching to Philadelphia, and demanding of Congress a redress of grievances. The ofiiccrs endeavored in vain to induce them to relin- quish their purpose. In the attetiqit, one was killed and several were wounded. At Princeton they were met by emis- saries from General Clinton, with tempting offers to place themselves under the protection of the British. These offers 292 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Relief of the troops. 1780 were instantly rejected, and the agents seized. At this place they were also met by a committee of Congress, who, by yielding in part to their demands, persuaded them to return to the camp. The emissaries of Clinton were afterward tried by a board of officers, convicted as spies, and hung. This revolt, and one among the New Jersey troops, which was repressed by the death of two of the leaders, awakened the people to the miserable condition of the army. The amount of three months' pay was raised and forwarded to them in specie, which was joyfully received. V CHAPTER XXV. CAMPAIGN OF 1781. CONCLUSION OF THE AVAR. TREATY OF PEACE SIGNED. Battle of the Cowpeus. When General Greene took the command at the south, the 1781 army consisted of two thousand men, very deficient in cloth- ing, and dependent on frequent collections of food for sub- sitetence, while the number of Tories in tliat part of the countiy rendered it very difiicult to bring provisions from any distance. Soon after the arrival of the new commander, he sent a detachment of his men, under General Morgan, into the western part of South Carolina, where the king's troops and the Tories were plundering the inhabitants without restraint. Morgan was to watch the motions of the British at Camden^ as well as to find provisions for his men. Against this detachment, Cornwallis sent Tarleton, with a superior force, consisting of nearly eleven hundred troops. Tarleton moved rapidly in the hope of surprising Morgan ; but the latter, hearing of his approach, arranged his men for battle, at a place called the Cowpens, near the division line between North and South Carolina, on the 17th of First month, (Jan.,) 1781. The British soon after appeared in sight, and commenced the attack, expecting an easy victory. jMistaking certain movements which Morgan had directed, for a retreat, the 25* 294 HISTORY OP TUE UNITED STATES. Pursuit of the Americans. 1781 British rushed forward in disorder, and were met by an unex- pected and destructive fire from the infantry. Their confu- sion was increased, and after a sharp conflict, they surren- dered. One hundred of the British were killed, upwards of two hundred wounded, and five hundred made prisoners. Tarleton escaped. The Americans had twelve men killed and sixty wounded. The result of this battle deranged the plans of Cornwallis for the subjugation of North Carolina. Having learned that Morgan, immediately after the engagement, had set oflf with his prisoners and all his forces toward Virginia, he deter- mined to intercept him, if possible, prevent his joining the main body of the army, and compel the restoration of the prisoners. He therefore destroyed nearly all his baggage, retained no wagons, excepting those containing the stores, and four for the sick and wounded. On the 19th the race com- menced. Both armies were equally distant from the fords of the Catawba, where it was necessary to cross that river, and each strove to reach them first. On the tenth day of the march, Morgan and his party arrived and crossed. Two hours afterward, Cornwallis appeared. It being then dark, he encamped for the night. The river at that time was rising, and a heavy fall of rain rendered it impassable before morning. He was detained here two days, which gave the American commander an opportunity of sending forward the prison- ers until they were beyond the reach of Cornwallis. Mor- gan was preparing to defend the passage of the river, when Greneral Grreene arrived and took the command. He had left the main body of his army, with orders to march toward Vir- ginia, and had ridden one hundred and fifty miles to join Morgan. The fords of the river were guarded, but owing to the CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 295 Their escape. death of one of the officers, and the misconduct of the militia 1781 under his command, the passage was effected by the British. Greene now set off for the Yadkin, and Cornwallis marched after him, hoping to overtake him before he reached the fords of that river. On the second night, the Americans arrived. Before all had crossed, the British appeared in sight. The two armies lay encamped on opposite banks, and before morn- ing this river also was rendered impassable by a heavy rain. Cornwallis then marched higher up the stream, where he crossed, and Greene proceeded to Guildford Court House. Here he was joined by the other division of the army. The British commander still had a force superior to that of Greene, who was expecting additional troops from Virginia. He therefore endeavored to intercept the retreat of the Amer- icans over the Dan, near the borders of that State, distant one hundred miles. Both armies were without tents, and sub- sisted on food that could be procured during their hasty marches. Both suffered from the inclemency of the season, heavy rains and bad roads. The British were well clothed ; the Americans were illy provided in this respect, and nearly destitute of shoes. In marching over the frozen ground, their feet were often much cut, and their course was marked with blood. The knowledge that at the Dan the pursuit would ter- minate, kept up their spirits. On the fifth day, the Ameri- cans reached that river, and crossed in boats, which had been collected for the purpose. So closely had they been pursued, that although they had marched forty miles on the last day, they were scarcely over when the British appeared on the opposite shore. Further pursuit was impracticable. The river was too deep to be forded, and no boats could be pro- cured. 296 IlISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. Battle of Guildford. 1781 Tlie Airiericans having thus eluded the grasp of Cornwal- lis, he marclied to Hillsborough, where he endeavored to incite the friends of the king to join his standard. Several companies of them were formed. One of these, on the march to join Cornwallis, was met and slaughtered by a body of Americans, whom they had mistaken for British. Between two and three hundred were killed. Grreene, having been reinforced by six hundred militia from Virginia, determined to return to North Carolina. He there- fore re-crossed the Dan. For three weeks he avoided a battle, and employed his troops in cutting off the foraging parties of Cornwallis. The British next left Hillsborough and encamped near Guildford Court House. Greene, having been farther strengthened by new recruits, pursued and offered battle. On the 15th of Third month, (March,) a deadly conflict took place, which lasted for two hours, and resulted in the retreat of the Americans. The slaughter that had been made in the ranks of the British prevented pursuit. The Americans lost four hundred killed and wounded ; and eight hundred of the militia were missing. These returned home and did not again join the army. Of the British, nearly one hundred were killed, upwards of four hundred wounded, and twenty- six missing. This battle is said to have been one of the most severe that was fought during the war. After it was ended, the field presented a sad and awful spectacle. There were the dead and wounded lying promiscuously together. As soon as practicable, the wounded were removed by the British, who considered themselves the victors. But little assistance or relief could be bestowed on them, and before another day many of them were released by death from all physical suffering. CONCLUSION OP THE WAR. 297 Battle of Camden. In the expectation of being attacked, Greene made prepa- 1781 rations for a second engagement, but the army of Cornwallis had been much lessened, and the difficulty of finding pro- visions in that part of the country was so great, that he thou2;ht it best to retreat toward the seaboard. On the third day after the battle, the British began their march, leaving a number of their own wounded, as well as their wounded prisoners, in a Friends' meeting-house, which they had con- verted into a hospital. The Americans pursued for a few days, but their sufferings had been so great from hunger and fatigue, that they halted at Ramsay's Mills for refreshment and rest. Here Greene concluded to give up the pursuit, sensible that his force was inferior to that of Cornwallis, and proceed to Camden, South Carolina, where Lord Rawdon was stationed with a portion of the British army. Having arrived near Camden, the Americans took a posi- tion about one mile from the British encampment. Here they were attacked on the 26th of Fourth month, (April.) The action continued at intervals, through a great part of the day, when the Americans retreated, taking with them their wounded, and about sixty prisoners. The loss on both sides was nearly equal, each party having about two hundred and fifty killed, wounded and missing. After the battle, the British returned to Camden ; the American army withdrew a few miles. Some days afterward Lord Rawdon was joined by four hundred additional trcops, and planned a surprise of the American camp. Greene, hearing of the reinforcement, took a more favorable position. The British followed them, but after viewing the camp, con- cluded it unsafe to make any attack. The situation of Raw- don and his men was becoming critical. Many of their out- posts had been cut off, and it was with difficulty that supplies 298 HISTORY OF THE. UNITED STATES. Siege of the British post, Ninety-six. 1.781 could be obtained. A few days afterward they burned some private houses and otlier buildings, with a part of their stores, and leaving Camden, marched farther south. Several British posts in South Carolina soon after full into the hands of different parties of Americans ; also Fort Corn- wallis at Augusta, in Georgia. The presence of the American army, their activity and success, caused the disaffection of the inhabitants to burst furtli, and the greater part once' more revolted from British authority. Greene next turned his attention to the western part of the State, and marched with the main body of his army against a British post styled Ninety-six, from being that num- ber of miles from the town of Kecowee, in the Cherokee territory. It was strongly fortified, and garrisoned with five hundred men. Greene determined to besiege it. At first there was a prospect of success, but the Americans were soon informed that Kawdon had received reinforcements from Ire- land, and was marching to the relief of the garrison with two thousand men. No hope remained, but of taking the place by assault. A strong eff^jrt was made, but the assailants were repulsed, and retreated northward beyond the Saluda. They had lost, in the siege and assault, one hundred and fifty-five men. Eighty-five of the garrison were killed or wounded. The Polish general, Kosciusko, who had joined the Ameri- can army, was very active in this siege. Soon afterward Lord Bawdon arrived and pursued Greene as fiu- as the river Enoree, when, despairing of overtaking him, he divided his forces, and leaving a garrison at Ninety-six, reestablished himself on the Congaree. It is probable that Ilawdon sup- posed Greene had left South Carolina, but the American commander had resolved to recover tlie State, or die in the attempt. Within two days after the arrival of the British at CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 299 Battle of Eutaw Springs. the Congaree, one of their foraging parties was cut off, and 1781 forty prisoners were taken. Thus notified of Greene's ap- proach, they left tlie Congaree, and retreated to Orange- burgh. Here the Americans offered battle. This was de- clined, and the garrison at Ninety-six was summoned to join the forces under Rawdon. This union the American general endeavored to prevent. Not succeeding, however, he sent detachments to interrupt all communication between Charleston and Orano'eburffh. The supplies of the British were thus cut off, and they found it necessary to evacuate all their posts in the northern and western parts of tlio State. From Orangeburgh, Lord Raw- don returned to England on account of ill health. The com- mand then devolved on Lieutenant Colonel Stuart. In order to drive his opponents still further to the south-east, Greene approached the British camp. The British then withdrew to Eutaw Springs, about sixty miles from Charleston. Here the army received a supply of provisions, and were reinforced by the arrival of some additional troops. On the 7th of Ninth month, (Sept.) the Americans encamped about seven miles distant, and Greene resolved to attack the British next day. The forces of the two parties were nearly equal, each having about two thousand men. At four in the morning of the 8th, the Americans moved toward the British encampment. On their approach, the British prepared for the attack. This battle was perhaps more bloody than any which had occurred during the war, and lasted for four hours. It is said that at one time, the officers fought hand to hand, with the sword. The British were at length driven from the field, and fled on all sides, leaving their wounded in the hands of the Americans. The loss was very great in proportion to the numbers engaged. Of the Brit- 300 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The British -withdraw to Ch rleaion Loans from Europe. 1781 ish, six hundred were killed or wounded, and upwards of five hundred taken prisoners; in all, more than half of the whole number engaged in the contest. The Americans had over five hundred killed or wounded, including sixty officers. After this disastrous battle, the British abandoned the interior of the country, and vv'ithdrew to Charleston. The Americans established a chain of posts, at a short distance from that place, and thus protected the State from their incur- sions. During the year the inhabitants had been exposed to various calamities. With two hostile armies traversing the country, the State nearly equally divided between Whigs and Tories, and each party apparently aiming at the extirpation of the other, the country presented a scene of carnage and misery. General Greene received a gold medal from Congress for his success in driving the British within the fortifications of Charleston. At this period of the war, the continental currency had ceased altogether to circulate. Its depreciation had been so great, that Congress had anticipated such an event, and had taken measures to prevent any evil result. A loan of six millions of livres, nearly a million of dollars, was obtained from the king of France, and ten millions of livres were bor- rowed in the Netherlands, for the payment of which, the king of France became responsible. The revival of trade with the French and Spanish West Indies also introduced much gold into the country. In the early part of this year, Virginia was invaded by a detachment of British, under Arnold. With about sixteen hundred men and a number of armed vessels, he sailed up the Chesapeake. Having landed his troops, they proceeded to Richmond, where large quantities of public stores were destroyed, Then, making Portsmouth their head-quarters, CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 301 . . 1 La Fayette near the Chesapeake. small parties were sent over the country, destroying public 1781 and private property and burning the shipping in the Chesapeake. To protect the State, as well as to get possession of Arnold, for which some attempts had already been made, General La Fayette was sent to oppose him, with twelve hundred men. Before his arrival, two thousand troops, under General Philips, joined Arnold, and La Fayette found himself unable to pre- vent the British from marching through the country, com- mitting depredations. At one time, he feared that his men would very generally forsake him. They were mostly from New England, and dreaded the southern climate. By his judicious management and urgent appeals they agreed to con- tinue with him, and desertions became rare. He also raised money among the merchants of Baltimore, on his own bills of credit, to purchase for them shoes and some other articles of clothing. Soon afterward he marched to Bichmond, where he saved a large quantity of stores and provisions from falling into the hands of the British. It has been stated that after the battle of Guilford, Corn- wallis marched to Wilmington. At that place he remained three weeks, and then proceeded to Petersburgh, in Virginia, where he arrived on the 20th of Fifth month, (May.) Here he was joined by the British forces already in that State. La Fayette was at this time expecting a reinforcement of eight hundred men from Pennsylvania, under General Wayne. The junction with these Cornwallis endeavored to prevent, and also made a further attempt to get possession of the supplies which La Fayette had removed from Richmond. For this purpose, he stationed himself between the Americans and the stores, and when he felt sure of obtaining possession of them, the Americans, by opening in the night a short 26 302 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Cornwallis at Yorktown. 1781 road which the British supposed impassable, encamped suffi- ciently near to preserve them. Cornwallis now withdrew to Williamsburgh, and La Fay- ette followed, having been joined by the troops from Pennsyl- vania, as well as other reinforcements. Here the British general received orders to send immediately a detachment to New York, as Clinton had learned, by intercepted letters from Washington to Congress, that an attack on New York was in contemplation, by the combined French and American forces. Cornwallis believing that with a diminished number of troops, he would not be able to maintain his position at Williamsburgh, crossed the James river with his army, and proceeded to Portsmouth. When he entered the State he was sanguine of success, but La Fayette had eluded his efforts to intercept him, had frustrated some of his plans and followed him with an army continually increasing in strength, and now it required the utmost vigilance to maintain his ground. Before the troops for New York had sailed, counter directions were received, Clinton having now no expectation of an attack. Cornwallis was also directed not to leave the Chesapeake, but to establish a defensive post for the recep- tion of ships of the line, as the British fleet would probably soon arrive there from the West Indies. Yorktown, on the south side of York river, and Gloucester Point, on the opposite side, were selected as the most suitable places. Portsmouth was evacuated. The army proceeded up the Chesapeake bay and York river, and on the 1st of Eighth month, (Aug.,) took possession of these two places and were immediately employed in strongly fortifying them. At an interview held on the 21st of Fifth month, (May,) between General Washington and the French commanders, it had been resolved to unite the French and American CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 303 Arnold at New London. forces in an attack on New York. Plans were made for 1781 considerable reinforcements, but the militia arrived slowly. During the delay, Clinton was strengthened by the addition of three thousand Germans. This augmentation of the Brit- ish force, with information of the position of Cornwallis at Yorktown, also that a French fleet was destined for the Ches- apeake, induced Washington to change the plan of opera- tions and march south in order to join the army in Virginia. The appearance of preparations for an attack on New York was maintained. The fact of Washington's letter de- tailing the plan having been intercepted, rendered it more easy to deceive Clinton. Leaving the command of the posts on the Hudson to General Heath, Washington commenced his march in such a manner as to lead Clinton to suppose his first object was to obtain possession of Staten Island. The British commander therefore increased his exertions to strengthen his position, and it was not until the whole army had crossed the Delaware, that he was undeceived. It was then too late to make arrangements for pursuit. He therefore sent an expedition against New London, which he hoped would call the Americans back, but Washington persevered in his undertaking. The command of the detachment sent against New Lon- don, was given to Arnold. On the 6th of Ninth month, (Sept.,) the troops were landed. A part, under Lieutenant Colonel Eyre, attacked Fort Griswold at Grot on, on the east side of the river, while Arnold proceeded to New London. But little resistance was made at the latter place, and the British entered the town. Fort Griswold was defended by the small garrison, but after desperate fighting, the assailants obtained possession. The commander was killed by a British officer^ after resistance had ceased. This seemed to be the 304 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Burniog of the town. Americans strengthened in Virginia. 1781 signal for a general massacre. Of one hundred and sixty men composing the garrison, all but forty were killed or wounded, many of them after the surrender had been made. The British lost forty-three killed and one hundred and forty- five wounded. New London was then burned and a very large amount of property destroyed. Having consummated this vindictive proceeding, Arnold and his men returned to New York. At Chester, Washington learned that Admiral De Grasse had entered the Chesapeake, with a fleet of twenty-eight sail of the line. This was a force suflQciently strong to pre- vent the escape of the British by water. Cheered by this in- formation the army pressed forward, and on the 25th of Ninth month, (Sept.,) the last division of the allied forces reached William sburgh, the place appointed for their meeting, a few miles distant from York. The whole number of troops amounted to twelve thousand. A partial engagement had already taken place, between the British and French fleets. On the arrival of De Grasse, three large ships and some frig- ates were sent to blockade James river; the remainder anchored in the bay. Thirty-two hundred troops were landed, and effected a junction with La Fayette, who was stationed to prevent the escape of Cornwallis into North Carolina. When the British vessels, which were expected to arrive from the West Indies, appeared off the capes, De Grasse sailed out to meet them. Some fighting took place, but more manoeu- vring on the part of the French. The object of this was to afford an opportunity for a French fleet from Newport, which De Grasse was expecting, to enter the Chesapeake. These vessels had met with some detention, and sailed into the bay in the course of the following night. De Grasse now returned to his former position in the bay. The British, in CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 805 Siege of Yorktown. consequence of this accession of strength to their opponents, 1781 sailed for New York. Cornwallis had determined to await the issue of a siege, hoping to be relieved by the fleet from the West Indies, and also, having received despatches from Clinton, announcing his intention of sending assistance from New York. His main army was encamped about Yorktown, within a range of fortifications. Tarleton, with six or seven hundred men, was stationed at Gloucester Point, on the opposite side of the river ; a communication being kept up between them by bat- teries and several ships of war. On the 27th of Ninth month, (Sept.,) the main body of the Americans marched, by different routes, toward Yorktown. Having reached the ground assigned them, they encamped for the night, after driving in some of the British outposts. The next day the plan of attack was arranged. A detach- ment was sent to enclose the garrison at Gloucester Point. The French fleet in the river effectually prevented escape in that direction, as well as cut oflf all supplies or reinforcements. The besieging army was employed until the 26th of Tenth month, (Oct.,) in making various arrangements and convey- ing the artillery and stores from the landing place on James river, a distance of six miles. On that night they com- menced erecting a parallel within six hundred yards of the British lines. The night was dark and rainy. The besiegers worked with silence and diligence, and were not discovered until morning, when their works were raised sufficiently to protect them. By the afternoon of the 9th, several batteries were completed, and a heavy cannonade was commenced. The continual discharge of shot and shells damaged some unfinished works of the British, dismounted some of their guns and killed a number of men. Some of the sheila 806 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Surrender of CornwalHs. 1781 passed over tlie town, and reaching the shipping in the har- bor, set on fire several vessels. On the 11th, another parallel was commenced, three hun- dred yards in advance of the former, and three days were employed in completing it. The fire from these batteries was more furious and destructive than that from the others. It was next considered necessary to gain possession of two redoubts, about two hundred yards from the British works, the fire from them beine; destructive to the Americans in their new position. To encourage a spirit of emulation, the command of the enterprise against one of these, was commit- ted to an American, that against the other to a Frenchman. Both were successful, though attended with considerable loss of life. A sortie was made from the garrison on the 16th. The party committed some damage to the American batteries, but was soon obliged to return. Cornwallis now concluded that the only hope of avoiding a surrender, was by crossing to Gloucester Point, and forcing his way through the troops sur- rounding it. Reduced to this necessity, he prepared as many boats as could be procured. The first division of his army landed in safety. A storm of wind and rain afterward arose, which forced him to abandon the project. On the 17th, several new batteries were opened. The works of the British were sinking rapidly under the powerful cannonades. Cornwallis begged for a cessation of hostilities for twenty-four hours. In reply, Washington expressed his desire to spare the further effusion of blood, but refused to suspend hostilities for more than two hours. Cornwallis then proposed that commissioners should be appointed to ag!ce on terms of surrender. On the 19th, the terms were ratified by the respective commanders. Yorktown and Glouces- CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 307 Terms of capitulat.ion. ter Point, with all the British troops, seven thousand in 1781 number, and the stores, were surrendered to the United States ; the naval force to France. The troops were to remain prison- ers of war in Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, with officers for their protection and government. The remainder of the officers were allowed to return to Europe, or to reside in any part of the United States not held by the British ; and all, both officers and soldiers, were permitted to retain their private property. The privilege was granted to Corn- wallis, of sending a sloop of war, unsearchod, to New York, with despatches to General Clinton, the vessel to be after- ward given up. On board of this sloop many Tories escaped. General Lincoln was appointed to receive the submission of the royal array in the same manner as had been prescribed to him on his surrender at Charleston. During the siege, five hundred and fifty of the garrison were either killed or wounded ; and three hundred of the French and Americans. The British commander in New York had been anxious to relieve Cornwallis from his perilous situation, but the fleet had sustained damage in the engagement with De Grasse, and considerable time was necessarily spent in repairing it. On the 19th of Tenth month, (Oct.,) the day on which the terms of capitulation were signed, Clinton embarked with seven thousand of his best troops. The fleet did not reach the entrance of the Chesapeake until the 24th. Here informa- tion was received of the event which proved so fatal to the British cause in America, and Clinton, with his troops, returned to New York. The surrender of Cornwallis caused the liveliest sensations of joy and gratitude throughout the country. A prospect seemed now to open for a speedy termination of the war. Congress passed a vote of thanks to each of the commanders, and to all engaged in the siege. 308 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Debates in Parliament. 1781 The British forces in the United States from this time were confined to New York, Charleston, and Savannah. From these places, they occasionally made excursions for the purpose of foraging and plunder, but found themselves unable to undertake any thing for the active prosecution of the war. The loss of a second entire army extinguished the hope which the people of Great Britain had entertained of the success of their cause in America, and they strongly and urgently demanded the termination of a ruinous war. Greorge III, however, felt unwilling to relinquish his hold on the colonies, and in a speech to Parliament, declared that he could not consent to sacrifice '* to their temporary ease and relief, those essential rights and permanent interests, on the maintenance and preservation of which, the future strength and security of the country must forever depend." Earnest debates ensued in the House of Commons. Lord North, prime minister, avowed the intention of the ministers still to prosecute the war. Excellent speeches were made in favor of peace. Burke spoke of the rights which it had been contended could not be given up. ''Valuable rights ! that have cost Britain thirteen provinces, four islands, one hun- dred thousand men, and more than seventy millions of money." " That have taken from us our trade, our manu- factures and commerce." Various motions were made for the discontinuance of the war, but Lord North was strenuous in his opposition. At each renewal of the debate, his majority lessened, until finally the peace party gained the ascendency. The prime minister consequently retired from office, and was succeeded by the Marquis of Rockingham. His efforts were directed to the cause of peace, but in consequence of his decease, the Earl of Sbelburne was very soon appointed to fill the office The CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 309 Suspension of hostilities. other ministers afterward generally resigned, and a new cab- 1782 inet was formed. The energies of the ministry were now directed toward the negotiation of peace with the United States, and commis- sioners were appointed for this purpose. Early in the spring of 1782, pacific overtures were made, and hostilities were suspended. Congress had already commissioned John Adams, of Mas- sachusetts, to treat with the British government, whenever they should express a desire for peace. He had been appointed minister to Holland, and had been the means of obtaining a treaty of amity and commerce with that nation. The treaty was concluded on the 8th of Tenth month, (Oct.,) 1782, the independence of the United States having been acknowledged on the 19th of Fourth month, (April.) With Adams were now united Benjamin Franklin, John Jay and Henry Laurens. Franklin was minister to France, Jay was a citizen of New York, and much beloved for the excellence of his character. He represented the United States in Spain. Laurens was a native of South Carolina, and had been appointed minister to Holland. In crossing the Atlantic, the vessel was captured by a British cruiser, and Laurens was sent to the tower of London, on a charge of treason. Ed- mund Burke plead his cause in Parliament, and he was soon after liberated, and exchanged for General Burgoyne. Other nations had been involved in the war between the United States and Great Britain, and all parties were now desirous of peace. The French fleet, after sailing to the West Indies, had been defeated in an engagement with the English, and De Grasse taken prisoner. Spain was discour- aged by the loss of Gibraltar, which she could not retake from the English, and Holland was anxious to renew her com- merce. BID HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Treaty of peace signed. 1782 The commissioners met at Paris. Their negotiations were protracted by the claims of the several parties interested. They had been instructed, in conformity to a treaty with France, not to conclude a peace without the consent of that government. Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the thirteen United States, but the right of fishery on the banks of Newfoundland and the boundaries of the States, subjects of importance to the young nation, and in which France felt little interest, were matters of controversy. The Spanish envoys exerted themselves to procure the restoration of Gibraltar by England to Spain. In this they were unsuc- cessful. Preliminary articles of peace were at length signed on the 30th of Eleventh month, (Nov.,) 1782. The con- clusion of the treaty was deferred until the ratification of peace between France and England. This took place on the 1783 20th of First month, (Jan.,) 1783, when the articles were signed by Great Britain, France and Spain. Early in Fourth month, ofiicial information of the general peace reached the United States, and was proclaimed to the army on the 19th of that month by General Washington. By the terms of the treaty between Great Britain and the United States, the independence of the thirteen States was completely ac- knowledged. A line running through the middle of the great chain of lakes and their connecting waters, and through the river St. Lawrence was to be their northern boundary. The Mississippi was to be the extent on the west. The right of fishing on the banks of Newfoundland was ceded to them forever. While the negotiations were proceeding, the American troops were retained at their various stations, where they remained unemployed. They now feared they should be dis- missed without being paid for their arduous and perilous ser- CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 311 Dissatisfaction among the troops. Army disbanded. vices, and were in a state of high dissatisfaction. Many of 1783 the officers, for want of payment, had expended their private fortunes, and they were fearful of being left without any pro- vision for future support. In 1780, Congress had passed an act, granting to the officers half-pay for life, after the close of the war ; but nine of the States refused to ratify this grant, and there seemed but little prospect of its being carried into* effect. The officers now petitioned that all arrears which were due them, might be paid, and that instead of half- pay for life, a sum equal to five years full pay should be advanced or secured to them, when disbanded. Congress delayed granting the request. This occasioned feelings of indignation among the officers, especially those stationed at Newburgh, who manifested some inclination to procure redress, in the same manner that the independence of the country had been acquired. Washington, being in the camp, assembled them together, and by a judicious appeal persuaded them to rely still longer on the disposition of Con- gress to do for them whatever the limited means of the nation would permit. He then addressed a letter to that body, in which he so strongly enforced the claims of the officers, that Congress was induced to grant the request so far as to agree to secure to them five years' full pay instead of half-pay for life. Soon after this, the news of the general peace was re- ceived and proclaimed to the army. Large arrears were still due, and many apprehensions were felt of a revolt, in case the army should be disbanded without pay. The treasury was empty ; and before the Superinten- dent of Finances could issue his notes for three months' pay, Congress had declared that all the soldiers engaged in the war, were to be discharged on the 3d of Dec. Many of them had not money enough to supply their most pressing 312 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. The British evacuate New York. 1783 wants, yet most of thera peaceably returned to their homes, in submission to their allotment. A few marched to Philadel- phia, where Congress was assembled. Having posted senti- nels at the doors, they sent in a message, threatening vengeance if their requisitions were not complied with. This availed nothing. Washington immediately sent a strong detachment fo Philadelphia, but the tumult had subsided. On the 25th of Eleventh month, (Nov.,) the British troops evacuated New York. Greneral Washington soon after entered, accompanied by a number of civil and military officers and other citizens. On the 4th of Twelfth month, (Dec.,) he met the officers col- lectively, and took an affectionate leave of them. Then pro- ceeding to Annapolis, where Congress was now sitting, he publicly resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the American armies ; after which he retired to his residence at Mount Yernon, in possession of the gratitude and respect of his countrymen. CHAPTER XXVI. ADOPTION OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION, AND AD- MINISTRATION OF GEORGE WASHINGTON. State of the finances. Articles of Confederation insufficient. Although the country was now at peace, the legitimate effects of the war on the finances were seriously felt. Public and private debts pressed heavily. The nation had incurred expenses of forty-two millions of dollars, for the payment of which its faith was pledged. But Congress had no power to raise money. All that body could do was to make requisi- tions on the States ; and as these had their several debts, in- curred during the Revolution, and each its domestic govern- ment to support, the requisitions were often disregarded. The wealth of the country had been exhausted, and the means of eliciting it could not at once be brought into action. Taxes could not be collected. The Articles of Confederation, which bound the States together when they were threatened with a common danger, were now found insufficient for the purposes of government. They conferred no power to regu- late commerce, which was at present regarded as the most valuable source of revenue. Congress could make no treaty with foreign nations, which would be binding on the several States. Each State made its own commercial regulations, and these frequently came into collision. In their foreign intercourse one would sometimes pursue a system injurious to another. The trade between the States was also fettered by 27 314 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Insurrection in Massachusetts. 1786 many restrictions. Under these circumstances, commerce languished, and the development of the resources of the country was retarded. In New England, a large class had been reduced to com- parative destitution during the Revolution, in consequence of the blockade of their ports by the British fleets, which pre- vented the prosecution of the fisheries, an important branch of business ; as well as of all commerce. Consequently when laws were passed in Massachusetts for the collection of taxes and debts, a portion of the inhabitants were incited to open insurrection. A number, supposed to be nearly fifteen hun- dred, assembled under arms, and demanded that the collec- tion of debts should be suspended. The general court passed some laws for lightening the burdens of the people, but not satisfied, three hundred of the insurgents marched to Springfield, and took possession of the court-house in order to prevent the sitting of the court. The number of rioters then increased so considerably that a large body of militia was ordered out to disperse them; when on the point of seizing the State arsenal, they were scattered by the fire of the militia. The leaders, on trial, were sentenced to death, but were afterward pardoned. A similar spirit, manifested in New Hampshire, was at once quelled by the rigorous measures of the governor. Some difiiculty having occurred in the execution of the articles in the treaty of peace, John Adams had been ap- pointed minister to England. Here he had an opportunity of observing the defects of his own government in commer- cial intercourse with other nations, and as early as 1783, sug- gested to Congress the necessity of effecting a closer union of the States, and the propriety of enlarging the powers of the general government. Washington and other prominent ADOPTION OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 315 Convention of delegates meet. men were convinced that a change in the Constitution of the 1786 country was necessary. Various propositions had been made to remedy the existing evils, but none met with the cooperation of all the States. They were thus prevented from being carried into effect. In the autumn of 1786, on the suggestion of James Madi- son, of Virginia, a convention of delegates from five of the Middle States met at Annapolis, the other States not having responded to the call. The object of the meeting was to de- vise a more uniform system of commercial regulations. After careful consideration of the subject, the commissioners came to the conclusion that nothing short of a thorough change in the existing government should be attempted. They there- fore adopted a report, which was laid before Congress, in which they proposed that a general convention should be held for the revision of the Articles of Confederation, and provided for such alterations as would meet the exigencies of the nation. Congress, in consequence, recommended that a convention of delegates from all the States should assemble at Philadelphia, " for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation, and reporting to Congress and the several Legislatures, such alterations and provisions therein, as should, when agreed to in Congress, and confirmed by the States, render the Federal Constitution adequate to the emergencies of government and the preservation of the Union." In compliance with this recommendation, all the States excepting Rhode Island appointed delegates. In Fifth month, (May,) 1787, the convention met, composed of the most able statesmen of the country. George Washington was unanimously elected President. After deliberating and dis- cussing the subject for four months, they agreed on a draft of a constitution. Having been reported to Congress, it was 316 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The proposed Constitution examined. 1787 afterward submitted for ratification, to conventions of dele- gates in the several States, chosen by the people. For several months, the proposed Constitution underwent a critical examination by the people of the United States. Its various articles were discussed in the public journals, and the inhabitants were made familiar with its provisions. A series of essays, written by Madison, Jay and Hamilton, with the signature of " The Federalist," urged its adoption. It had, however, many oppose rs, who, much attached to liberty, feared the effects of the power to be conferred on the rulers. Two parties consequently arose, the Federalists, who were in favor of the new government, and the Anti-Federalists, who opposed it. It was provided in the Constitution, that its ratification by nine States should be sufficient for its establishment between the States thus ratifying it. Conventions met in the different States, and in some instances, but a small majority decided in its favor. It required a mutual compromise of conflicting interests for the advantage of the whole, but after nearly a year, all the States excepting North Carolina and Khode Island, had given it their sanction, although with some pro- posed amendments. By the new Constitution, the States were connected much more closely than under the Articles of Confederation. One important point of difiference was in giving Congress the regulation of commerce, as well as the ability to raise a revenue. The general government was made to consist of three de- partments, legislative, executive, and judicial. The legisla- tive or law-making department, is composed of a Senate and House of Representatives, collectively styled Congress. The former body is composed of two members from each State, ADOPTION OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 317 Its provisions. who hold their office for six years, and are appointed by their 1787 respective legislatures. The Senate confirms the appoint- ment of officers nominated by the President, and ratifies treaties. The members of the House of Representatives are elected by the people for two years, a prescribed number of inhabitants to each district being entitled to send one mem- ber. In the States where slavery exists, this required num- ber is made up of slaves as well as of free persons, five slaves being counted as three freemen ; thus allowing to the slave States a much greater number of representatives for the free inhabitants, than is accorded to the free States. The executive of the government is the President. He is appointed by electors, in the several States, chosen by the people ; or by the House of Representatives, in case no per- son should receive a majority of all the votes of the electors, those from each State having one vote collectively. He is elected for four years, but may be removed from office by impeachment, in case of conviction of misconduct. He nom- inates, subject to confirmation by the Senate, all civil, mili- tary and naval officers of the general government, and is commander-in-chief of all the land and naval forces. He ratifies treaties, subject to the approbation of two-thirds of the Senate. The President also has power to pass a veto or negative on such acts of Congress as he may disapprove ; which acts may subsequently be passed and become laws, by a majority of two-thirds in both Houses, without the concur- rence of the President. A Vice-President is elected at the same time, and in the same manner as the President, to fill that office in case it should become vacant by death or any other cause. In Congress is vested the power to declare war ; to raise and support armies ; to provide and maintain a navy ; to collect a 27* 318 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Ratification. Washington elected President. 1788 revenue by direct taxes and duties ; to regulate commerce, coin money, and in general, to provide for the security and welfare of the nation. Both Houses must coincide in any bill, previously to its becoming a law. The judicial department is vested in a supreme court and such district courts as Congress may establish. All questions arising under the laws of the United States come under the cognizance of these courts, as well as those concerning trea- ties, and cases arising between individuals of different States, and between foreigners and citizens. The requisite number of States having agreed on the Con- stitution, Congress took measures for organizing the new gov- ernment. The first electors for the office of President were chosen, and the eyes of the country were turned on George "Washington, to fill the office of chief magistrate. He was unanimously elected the first President of the United States, and John Adams Vice-President. Washington received the information of his election while enjoying the retirement of his home at Mount Vernon. He was earnestly solicited by his friends, and yielding to the call of duty, accepted the office with diffidence and reluctance. In a letter to a friend he says, " My movements to the chair of government will be accompanied by feelings not unlike those of a culprit who is going to the place of his execution ; so unwilling am I, in the evening of a life nearly consumed in public care, to quit a peaceful abode for an ocean of difficul- ties, without that competency of political skill, abilities and inclination, which are necessary to manage the helm." ** Integrity and firmness are all I can promise ; these, be the voyage long or sliort, shall never forsake me, although I may be deserted by all men ; for of the consolations that are to be derived from these, the world cannot deprive me." Washington's administration. 319 His journey to New York. His presence in New York, then the seat of government, 1789 being immediately required, Washington left Mount Vernon the second day after receiving intelligence of his appoint- ment.* His journey was marked with public attentions, from a people ardently attached to him. A committee of Congress, accompanied by the heads of several of the departments of government, met him in New Jersey. On arriving in New York, they were joined by the governor and other officers of the State, and the corporation of the city, all of whom united in warm demonstrations of respect and attachment to him who had, by the united voice of the people, been chosen the first President of the United States. * The promptitude with which the President left his residence at Mount Vernon upon receiving official information of his election, may perhaps be regarded as evidence that his reluctance to engage in the toils of a new political scene, were rather affected than real. But it may be considered that while he freely declared to his most particular friends the aversion which he felt to the proffered honors, he was fully aware that with the generality of mankind he would receive little credit for sincerity. Besides, he must have clearly foreseen, long before the election took place, upon whom the choice would fall. The most sagacious actors of the day united in the opinion, and were not slow to declare it, that the office of President 7nust, till the new government had passed through the first stages of its operation, be filled by George Washington. By the manner in which he had con- ducted the revolutionary conflict, he had acquired an influence which no other man possessed; he had given the whole weight of his char- acter in support of the new Constitution, and had presided over the convention which formed it. He therefore could not, consistently with the principles on Avhich he had acted through life, decline a ser- vice, however contrary to his private inclination, to which he was called by the voice of the nation. The struggle was unquestionably past before his election was announced to him, and his presence at the seat of government was indispensable. 320 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Inauguration. 1789 The 30fch of Fourth month, (April,) was fixed for the inauguration. The oath of oflnice was administered by R. R. Livingston, Chancellor of the State of New York, in the presence of both branches of Congress and a great con- course of citizens. It is in these words : — " I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, pre- serve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." During this ceremony, silence prevailed through- out the multitude ; but when the chancellor proclaimed Wash- ington President of the United States, it was immediately responded to, by the discharge of thirteen guns and cheers from the thousands of spectators. The President then retired to the Senate chamber, where in an impressive speech addressed to his " Fellow Citizens of the Senate and House of Kepresentatives," he set forth the feelings of his heart in accepting the high honor conferred on him. He expressed a sense of incapacity ' ' for the weighty and untried cares" before him, and trusted that the "Almighty Being, who rules over the universe, who presides in the councils of nations, and whose providential aids can supply every human defect," might " consecrate to the liberties and happiness of the people of the United States, a gov- ernment instituted by themselves for those essential pur- poses." He afterward addressed himself to the House of Repre- sentatives, telling them that when he was first honored with a call into the service of liis country, the light in which he con- templated his duty, required that he should renounce every pecuniary compensation. From this resolution, he stated that he had in no instance departed ; and that he would decline, as inapplicable to himself, any share in the personal Washington's administration. 321 The first session of Congress. emoluments which might be indispensably included in a per- 1789 manent provision for the executive department. He desired, therefore, that the pecuniary estimates for the station in which he was placed, might, during his continuance in it, be limited to such actual expenditures as the public good should be thought to require. The first object of Congress, after the organization of the government, was the establishment of a revenue to meet the annual expenses, and to defray the debt incurred during the revolutionary war. For this purpose duties were laid on all imported goods, and on the tonnage of vessels. Laws cre- ating the several departments of the state, of the treasury, and of war, were then enacted ; the former to include foreign as well as domestic relations. Thomas Jefferson was ap- pointed Secretary of State, Alexander Hamilton of the Treas- ury, and General Knox Secretary of the War Department. A national judiciary was also constituted, and John Jay appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Some amendments to the Constitution were proposed ; which were afterward ratified by the States, and which made it more generally acceptable. The first session of Congress lasted six months. Imme- diately after the adjournment, Washington made a tour through the New England States, and was every where welcomed with the greatest enthusiasm. The officers and soldiers of the army, who had been with him in suffering and in danger, greeted him with delight, and to all classes he was endeared by his virtues and talents. During the recess of Congress, North Carolina gave up her objections to the Constitution, and entered into the com- pact with the other States. In First month, (Jan.,) the next session of Congress com- 322 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Report of the Secretary of the Treasury. 1790 menced. The President, at the opening, recommended sev- eral subjects to the members as claiming their consideration ; among which were a uniformity in the currency, weights and measures; the promotion of agriculture, manufactures and commerce ; the encouragement of new and useful inventions ; and the establishment of post-oj0&ces and post-roads. He also suggested for their action, the forming of some provision for the defence of the country, and for the arming and disci- plining of the militia. This, with Washington's views of war and of the policy of nations, he considered necessary. At the last session, the Secretary of the Treasury had been directed to propose a plan for the establishment of the credit of the country. Accordingly he now presented a report, in which he proposed that the public debt should be funded ; but that the original loaners should be paid off by raising a loan equal to the whole amount of the debt ; also that the debts incurred by the several States for the support of the war should be assumed by the national government, and like- wise funded. The interest on these debts, he proposed, should be paid by the imposition of taxes on certain articles of lux- ury, such as wines and teas ; also on spirits distilled within the country. An animated discussion arose on the subjects contained in the report. The debts contracted by the continental Con- gress amounted to about fifty-four millions of dollars ; those of the States, to about twenty-five millions. The proposed measure of funding the debts was objected to, on the principle of aversion to public debt ; but it was finally carried ; that of assuming the debts of the States, excited a warm debate. The northern and eastern sections of the Union having been the principal seat of the war, the expenses had been mostly incurred by those States, while the southern portions of the Washington's administration. 323 Change of the seat of government. Union owed but little. It was also objected that so much 1790 power assumed by the general government would be inconsis- tent with the independence of the separate States. It was shown, however, that as Congress had entire control of the revenue arising from commerce and navigation, justice required that this step should be taken. The measure there- fore prevailed, making a funded debt of upwards of seventy- five millions of dollars. The imposition of additional duties to meet the interest of this debt, was deferred until the next session. These measures had a great effect in reviving the credit of the nation. The paper money, which had fallen to twelve or fifteen cents on the dollar, immediately rose to its par value. The original receivers had lost, however, as well as those through whose hands the paper had passed, who had been obliged to receive it at par, as it continued to be a legal tender in payment of debts. The difference was now gained by those who had bought it for speculation, and who thus received a great accumulation of wealth. During this session of Congress, it was decided to remove the seat of government from New York to Philadelphia for ten years, and subsequently to establish it permanently at some place on the Potomac river ; the selection of the spot was left with Washington as President. The next year the territory now forming the District of Columbia, was sur- veyed under his direction, and the city, named in honor of the President, was planned and laid out. The territory be- longed to the States of Maryland and Virginia, and was ceded by them for the purpose of establishing there the national seat of government. The relations of the United States with other governments were at this time in a very unsettled condition. The hostile 324 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. National bank. feelings in England, engendered by the war, had not ceased; and no minister had been sent to this country. The revolutionary disorders in France produced misun- derstanding with the United States, and Spain manifested jealousy on account of the successful revolt of some of her colonies. Florida and Louisiana were under her dominion. The possession of the latter province gave Spain the control of the Mississippi, and its navigation was refused to the peo- ple of the United States. A treaty had been formed with the Barbary States. This was not found sufficient, however, to protect the ships of the new government, the vessels frequently being seized, and the officers and crew sometimes kept in bondage for several years. 1791 During the session of Congress held early in 1791, the States of Vermont and Kentucky were admitted into the Union. Vermont had been formerly claimed both by New York and New Hampshire, but in 1777, the inhabitants had de- clared themselves independent, and refused to submit to either. Kentucky had been a part of Virginia, but was encouraged by that State to form a separate government, and on its appli- cation to Congress, an act was passed for its admission, to go into effect the first of Sixth month, (June,) in the following year. Rhode Island, one of the original thirteen, had given up her objections to the Constitution, and had joined the Con- federacy in 1790. Congress proceeded now to consider a proposition made by Hamilton for the establishment of a national bank. This measure was violently opposed, and pronounced by the anti- federalist or republican party, to be aristocratic and adverse to republicanism. It was insisted that Congress had no power to incorporate such an institution ; and its necessity wa Washington's administration. 325 Further measures of Congress. denied. The bill, however, passed both Houses, and was sent 1791 to Washington for his approval. Being extremely guarded against infringing the Constitution, he obtained the opinions of the Secretaries of the Treasury and of the State, and having examined the subject in all its bearings, he approved the bill, and the establishment of a national bank was decided. It was chartered for twenty years, with a capital of ten millions, to be located in Philadelphia, then the seat of government. Branch banks were authorized in several of the seaports. The bill for laying taxes on wines, teas and some other luxuries, was now passed, as well as for an excise on spirits distilled within the country, agreeably to the suggestion of the Secretary of the Treasury for raising a revenue to meet the interest on the national debt. The latter tax was violently opposed, but no more suitable means of raising the necessary revenue could be shown. The effect of the measures which Congress had taken for the prosperity of the country, was soon felt. Property, which had been greatly depreciated, rose in value, and a new impetus was given to different departments of industry. In order to determine the ratio of representation, the Constitution required that a census of the population should be taken once in ten years. The first was completed this year, when it appeared that the whole number of inhabitants was three millions nine hundred and twenty-one thousand three hundred and twenty-six, of whom six hundred and ninety-five thousand six hundred and fifty-five were held as slaves. For several years a warfare had existed between the Creek Indians and the inhabitants of Georgia. In 1790, they were induced to accept pacific overtures which were made to them, and their chief went to New York to conclude a treaty. 28 326 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Expedition against the Indians. 1791 The Indians northwest of the Ohio cherished vengeance for past hostilities, and carried on a desultory warfare, attacking and plundering the settlers, and burning their houses and vil- lages. All offers of peace having been rejected by them, Washington considered it necessary to send an array against them. Accordingly in the autumn of 1790, about fourteen hundred men, under the command of General Harraer, were sent to destroy their settlements on the Sciota and Wabash rivers. A detachment going forward to ascertain the position of the Indians, the latter set fire to their principal village, and retired to the woods. A second detachment comins; in sight of the Indians, the militia were alarmed and fled. A small body of regular troops encountered their opponents, who were much superior in number. Twenty-three being killed, the survivors, who were but seven, made their escape, and rejoined the army. After this defeat, the American commander proceeded to burn all the Indian towns on the Sciota. He then despatched a force of three hundred and sixty men, to bring on, if possi- ble, a battle. They were soon attacked by a large body of Indians, and being overpowered by numbers, they retreated, leaving one hundred and nine men dead on the field. Emboldened by these victories, the attacks of the Indians on the frontier settlements were more vigorous, and for a time the inhabitants were exposed to all the sufferings of an Indian war. In the autumn of the following year, 1791, an army of two thousand men was raised, the command of which was given to General St. Clair, then governor of the North- West Territory. With this force he marched into the wilderness, with the intention of destroying the Indian villages on the Miami ; a course not very well calculated to soothe the savages, or put an end to their thirst for revenge. About fifteen 327 Retreat of the Americans. miles south of the villages they halted for the arrival of 1791 a detachment which had been sent in pursuit of some deserters. The next morning before sunrise, they were unexpectedly attacked and surrounded by the Indians, who, protected by the trees, fired on them, and were seldom seen excepting when springing from one hiding place to another. Shooting at a concealed enemy producing little effect, the Americans had recourse to the bayonet, and drove the Indians a distance of about four hundred yards. They soon, however, returned. The slaughter continued very great among the Americans, until their only resort was to attack a body of Indians who had intercepted their retreat, and thus to reach the road. Being successful in this, a disorderly fight commenced. The Indians pursued for about four miles, when their desire for plunder induced them to return to the camp of their vanquished foes. In this battle six hundred and thirty-one of the Americans were killed, and two hundred and forty-two wounded. The loss of the Indians could not be estimated. It was probably much smaller. This disastrous defeat induced Congress to resolve on a vigorous prosecution of the war, and to raise the military force to five thousand men. Washington's term of office being about to expire, he had 1792 entertained a strong wish to retire from the cares of public life, and had already prepared a farewell address to the peo- ple. He was, however, induced to relinquish this determina- tion, and was again unanimously elected President. John Adams was chosen Vice-President. The French Revolution had at this time reached its height. Louis XVI had been beheaded, and the form of a republic instituted. To the general war, which had arisen in conse- 328 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. French revolution. Neutrality of the United States. 1793 quence of the effort to overthrow royalty in France, the peo- ple of the United States could not remain entirely indifferent. In the early stages of the Revolution, but one sentiment respecting it prevailed. The people looked to it as a means of extending the blessings of liberty, and regarded the war in which the powers of Europe were engaged, as one for extirpating free governments. Washington hoped for a favorable result from the efforts of France to establish a republican form of government, yet he did not wish to involve his country in the event, nor did he forget that the aid rendered the United States in her efforts for independence, had been furnished by the family whose fall was now the triumph of the republican party. He there- fore determined on neutrality as the course for the United Stated to pursue. A disposition had already become manifest in some of the seaports of the United States, to fit out privateers and attack the enemies of France on the high seas. Washington im- mediately wrote to the Secretary of State on the subject. In this letter, he expressed his opinion that the government should "use all the means in its power, to prevent the citi- zens thereof from embroiling this country with the powers of France or Great Britain, by endeavoring to maintain a strict neutrality." In a cabinet council a proclamation was unani- mously agreed on, forbidding the citizens of the United States "to take part in any hostilities on the seas with or against any of the belligerent powers," and prohibiting " all acts inconsistent with the duties of a friendly nation toward those at war." The new government of France had withdrawn the minis- ter appointed by Louis XVI, and was about sending another in his place. There were members of the cabinet who con- Washington's administration. 329 Citizen Genet. sidered the treaty with that nation as not now binding. The 1793 fury and injustice of the Jacobin club at Paris, had raised scruples in their minds, as to the validity of the course of the French republican party, and excited a doubt whether that party was now in power by the consent of the people, or by violence, and whether the new system would be permanent, or only temporary. They were therefore of the opinion that the United States " should reserve for future consideration and discussion, the question whether the operation of those treaties ought not to be deemed temporarily and provisionally suspended." It was finally agreed that the new minister should be received without any mention being made to him relative to the discussion on the validity of the treaty. The person selected to fill the office of minister to the United States, was citizen Genet, a man of considerable talent and of an ardent disposition. His instructions and the letters which he brought to the President, were respectful and flattering to the nation. He arrived at Charleston in the spring. Instead of proceeding immediately to Philadelphia, he remained in the former place several days, authorizing the fitting out and arming of vessels, to cruise as privateers against nations with whom the United States were at peace. He was welcomed in Charleston with a great deal of enthusiasm, and on his land journey to Philadelphia, received many marks of public favor. These attentions led him to suppose that the people and the government were actuated by similar feelings. A large body of the people were still favorable to the French interests, many of them willing to aid a country struggling for liberty, but more who were anxious to repay the obligation which they felt their country owed to France, and who were yet ignorant to which party their obligations were due. Intelligence of the proceedings of Genet reached Philadel- 28* 330 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The minister's recall. 1793 phia before his arrival in that city, yet he was there welcomed with warm demonstrations of friendship. The British minister complained of his course at Charleston, which had already resulted in the capture of a British vessel, sailing from Phil- adelphia, by a French frigate within the capes of Delaware Bay. When remonstrated with for his entire disregard of the proclamation of the government, recommending neutrality, he replied that the treaty between France and the United States sanctioned such measures, and that " any obstructions put upon them would not only be infractions of the treaty, but treason ao;ainst the rio;hts of man." Two individuals were arrested for cruising in the service of France. Their release was demanded by Genet. In this requisition, he was supported by numerous adherents, and was so far encouraged by the countenance received from American citizens, that he actually sent out a privateer from Philadelphia, the seat of the federal government, during the absence of the President. Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State, was directed by Washington, to lay before the French minister, the principles which would regulate the conduct of the Executive, on the subjects at issue. The manner of the minister was insolent and offensive, and he threatened to appeal from the President to the people, who only, he said, possessed the sovereignty in a democratic State. This threat opened the eyes of those who had sustained him in the course he had pursued. Their confidence in Washington remained unabated, and they became sensible of the danger of permitting a foreigner to cause dissensions among them. The warmest admirers of Grenet now de- serted him, and the President demanded and obtained his recall. Washington's administration. 331 Defeat of the Indians. Treaty of peace. Although the conduct of Genet lessened the numbers of 1793 the republican party, yet many retained a strong sympathy for the French nation, whom they considered as struggling for liberty, with the combined forces of Europe. Much warmth of feeling was manifested in the contests between the two parties, and over them Washington watched with anxious solicitude. After the defeat of General St. Clair by the Indians in 1791, General Wayne was appointed to the command of the American forces. After protracted endeavors to negotiate a peace, he marched against them in 1794, at the head of three thousand men. In an action which took place in the vicinity of one of the British garrisons, on the banks of the Miami, the Indians were totally defeated, and fled without renewing the engagement. Their houses and corn-fields were then destroyed, and a considerable extent of territory was laid waste. The following year a treaty of peace was concluded, which gave security to the frontier settlements. The tax which had been imposed on spirits distilled within the country, was unpopular in some parts of the Union, especially in western Pennsylvania, where whiskey had be- come an extensive article of trade. A spirit of opposition there became manifest, as soon as the law had been published. Meetings were held in order to excite public resentment against those who should willingly pay the tax, but especially against the officers appointed to collect it, and forcible resist- ance was encouraged. In the summer of 1792, the law was revised^ but the prin- ciple of excise was unpopular. Legal order was set at defi- ance, and the officers were prevented from the discharge of their duties. A proclamation was issued by the President, admonishing all persons to desist from illegal proceedings, 332 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Riotous proceedings in Pennsylvania. and calling on the magistrates to use their endeavors to bring those who still continued to offend, to justice. This proved of no avail. The marshal was resisted and fired upon, while in the performance of his official duties. The house of the inspector of the revenue was attacked by a body of five hun- dred insurgents, who set fire to contiguous out-buildings, and thus obliged the soldiers who were guarding the house, to surrender. The females had previously been removed, and the inspector had also withdrawn to a place of conceal- ment. 1794 The insurgents had avowed their determination to oppose, by force, the authority of the United States, in order to ex- tort a repeal of the obnoxious law. The President now felt bound to compel obedience, and concluded to overawe the rebels, by a show of superior force. The greatest strength of the insurgents was known to be about seven thousand men. Washington therefore called out a part of the militia of Pennsylvania and the neighboring States, to the number of about fifteen thousand. These were placed under the command of Governor Lee, of Virginia, who marched into the disaffected counties. The insurgents shrunk from a contest with a force so superior, and offered no resistance. A few of the most active leaders were seized and detained, although they were subsequently pardoned. In order to insure peace, a detach- ment of militia was stationed for the winter in the disaffected country. Early in ] 793, a report had been made to Congress, by Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State, showing that the ex- ports of this country, in articles of domestic produce and manufacture, then amounted to nineteen and a half millions of dollars, and the imports to nearly twenty millions. The following year Jefferson resigned the office of Secretary of Washington's administration. 333 Differences with England. State, having performed the duties with great ability. He 1794 was considered the leader of the republican party, and was succeeded as Secretary of State, by Edmund Randolph of Virginia. Since the conclusion of the revolutionary war Great Britain and the United States had each complained that the other had violated the stipulations contained in the treaty. The former power retained certain military posts in the western section of the United States, the possession of which interfered with the Americans in their pursuit of the fur trade. By the terms of the treaty, these were to have been relinquished. In consequence of an order of the British government for the seizure of provisions going to the ports of France, American vessels were continually stopped and searched by English cruisers. Merchantmen belonging to the United States were also entered, in port as well as at sea, for the purpose of claiming any who might be considered British subjects, and carrying them off to be employed in the royal navy. On the other hand the American government was accused of preventing the loyalists from regaining possession ^ of their estates, and British subjects from recovering debts contracted before the war. John Jay having been appointed Envoy Extraordinary to the court of Great Britain, by a firm, dignified and judicious course of conduct, succeeded in negotiating a treaty with that government. By the treaty, England agreed to evacuate the posts hith- erto occupied by her, within the limits of the United States, and the latter nation to allow every facility for the recovery of debts to English creditors. Indemnification was promised for several illegal captures, although no provision was made to prevent the searching of American merchant vessels, or 334 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Treaty with England. the impressment of American seamen. Vessels of the United States, under seventy tons, were allowed to trade with the British West In^ia Islands, provided the products of the Islands were carried to the ports of the United States only, and provided no such products, raised in the United States, were conveyed to Europe. This would prevent the cotton of the Southern States being shipped to the ports of 2795 Europe. A few years previously, this article had been raised in small quantities, scarcely sufficient for domestic consump- tion, but now, by the invention of the cotton gin, it had become a staple production. In the spring of the following year, the treaty was laid before the Senate. It was the most favorable that could be obtained, and both the minister and the President believed it for the interest of the country that it should be ratified, as the conviction was felt that from the nature of the existing diflferences, war was inevitable should this attempt to adjust them prove unsuccessful. After a considerable discussion on the subject, the Senate concurred with the President in the ratification of the treaty. While this document was under discussion, the republican party were violent in their denunciations respecting it, con- sidering it as a mark of ingratitude to France. Public meetings were held in various parts of the Union, at which, decided disapprobation was manifested, and an earnest wish expressed that the President would withhold his approbation. When, however, the determination of Washington became known, such were his popularity and influence over the minds of the people, that the clamor against it became less violent, and the friends of the treaty ventured to speak out more boldly in its favor. The increased prosperity of the country and the stimulus given to commerce demonstrate the wisdom of the President's decision. Washington's administration. 335 Treaty with Spain. Jealousy of France. During this year, treaties were concluded with Algiers and 1795 with Spain. The latter country, fearing the influence of republican principles on her American provinces, had contin- ued to be unfriendly to the United States, and still denied the settlers west of the AUeghanies, access to the ocean through the Mississippi. The utmost exertions of the Execu- tive had hitherto been unable to effect an adjustment of the difficulties, but becoming embarrassed at home by a war with France, Spain now signified her willingness to enter into negotiations, should a special minister be sent to Madrid for that purpose. Accordingly Thomas Pinckney was appointed, and the terms of a treaty were arranged. In the autumn of this year, it was signed, and the free navigation of the Missis- sippi secured to the citizens of the United States, as well as the privilege of landing and depositing cargoes at New Orleans. While amicable adjustments were thus being made with different nations of Europe, the conduct of France toward the United States continued to be a source of increasing trouble. Having assisted them in their struggle for indepen- dence, she looked for something different from neutrality, now that she had become engaged in a war for the liberties of her people. The treaty with England particularly excited her resent- ment. The arrival of a new minister from France, and his extravagant addresses, enlisted the feelings of many in the United States, and showed that party spirit was still very strong. Washington, however, firmly adhered to the neutral policy, and the administration was charged with hostile feelings toward the allies of the nation. Another change was soon after made in the ministry. The present envoy brought with him the colors of France. 336 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Washington's Farewell Address. 1791 They were received by the President and Congress with great ceremony, and were deposited with the national archives. A resolution was passed by the House of Representatives, ex- pressing their interest in the French republic, and their hope that the liberty and happiness of the French people might become perfectly established. Mere professions were not sufficient to satisfy the govern- ment of France. She wished to make the United States a party to the war in which she was engaged with the nations of Europe. Jealous of the negotiations which had been carried on with England, she adopted regulations detrimental to American commerce, and directed her cruisers, in certain cases, to attack the shipping of the United States. Many vessels loaded with valuable cargoes were consequently taken, and every thing was confiscated. Washington's second term of office was about to expire. He had devoted a great portion of his life to his country, and now saw her in the enjoyment of prosperity, with an increas- ing population, wealth and commerce, and without difficulties with any country excepting France, and there was reason to hope these would soon be adjusted. He now determined to retire to private life, and no consideration could induce him to accept a rc-nomination to the presidency. His age excused him from further service, and two terms he Considered long enough for one person to fill the highest office in the gift of the people. In the autumn, Washington announced his decision to his fellow citizens in a farewell address, strongly marked with wisdom, and with the deep interest he felt in the lasting pros- perity of the country. From experience he had become acquainted with dangers to which the country was exposed, and warned his countrymen against them. He spoke of the Washington's administration. 337 His retirement from office. baneful effects of party spirit, and gu^irded them against its 1796 excessive indulgence. He was well aware, and expressed his conviction, that "virtue or morality is a necessary spring of popular government," and urged the importance of promoting institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. This address was read throughout the country with feelings of veneration for its author. Several of the State legislatures inserted it entire on their records, and most of them passed resolutions expressive of their high sense of the character of Washington, of the services he had rendered his country, and of the deep feelings with which they contemplated his retirement from office. The two great political parties brought forward their respective candidates for the presidency. The federalists were active in their exertions to elect John Adams, with the desire that the system of measures pursued by Washington, might be carried out. The republicans were equally anxious for the election of Thomas Jefferson. The result was the choice of the former for President, and the latter for Vice- President. Washington witnessed their inauguration on the 4th of I797 Third month, (March,) 1797, and then, released from public duties, retired to his estate at Mount Vernon, to the enjoy- ment of domestic life in the country, and to the pursuits of agriculture. 29 CHAPTER XXVII. ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN ADAMS, THOMAS JEFFERSON AND JAMES MADISON. DifiBculties with France. 1797 The most important subject which at once engaged the attention of the new President, was the state of afiairs with France. Despatches were received from Charles C. Pinck- ney, the American minister at Paris, recently appointed in the place of James Munroe, conveying the information that the French Directory, at that time holding the executive power, had refused to accredit him, and expressed their de- termination not to receive another minister from the United States, until existing grievances had been redressed. He was soon after obliged, by a written mandate, to leave the country, and the French Directory authorized the capture of American vessels, wherever found. Congress was immediately convened. The President laid before them, in a speech which evinced much firmness of pur- pose, the aggressive conduct of France. While he urged upon them to provide effectually for the defence of the nation, he announced his intention of making one more attempt at negotiation ** on terms not incompatible with the rights, duties, interests and honor of the nation." In pursu- ance of this intention three envoys were appointed to proceed to the French republic; Charles C. Pinckncy, the former minister, who had gone to Amsterdam on being obliged to leave France, John Marshall of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry JOHN ADAMs's ADMINISTRATION. 339 American envoys not received. of Massachusetts. They were instructed to seek a recon- 1797 ciliation by means consistent with the honor of the United States, but the rights of the government were not to be sur- rendered. Whilst anxiously awaiting the result of this mission, most of the important business in the United States was at a stand, and the minds of the people were excited by receiving ac- counts of the captures of American vessels by French cruisers. A proposition to arm for defence was postponed by a very small majority in Congress. On arriving in Paris, the envoys were informed that they could not be received by the Directory. They were, how- ever, informally addressed by the agents of Talleyrand, the minister of foreign affairs. A large sum of money was de- manded before any negotiation could be opened, besides an amount to be held at the disposal of Talleyrand, designed for the Directory and ministers. The envoys decidedly refused to comply with this demand. Strong efforts were made to bring; over the ministers to the views of these agents, until the envoys declined holding any further communication with them. They remained several months in Paris, endeavoring to obtain a reception, when two of them, who were federalists, were ordered to leave France. E. Gerry, being a republican, was permitted to remain. The information of these proceedings excited general indig- 1798 nation in the United States. Congress adopted vigorous measures. The treaty with France was declared to be no longer in force. Authority was given for capturing French armed vessels which might appear off the coast. Provision was made for raising a regular army, and for increasing it if occasion should require. Additional taxes were laid, and an alien law was passed for getting rid of French emissaries. 340 mSTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Negotiations with France. Treaty of peace. By this law the President was authorized to compel suspected foreigners to leave the country. A minority in Congress op- posed these enactments, and opposition subsequently showed itself when preparations were made for carrying them into effect. George Washington was once more appointed com- mander-in-chief of the army. He expressed himself satisfied that every endeavor had been made to avert war, and accepted the office with great reluctance. It did not appear, however, that France had any idea of invading America. Several desperate engagements took place at sea. The French frigate L'Insurgent, of forty guns, was captured after a severe action by the Constellation^ of thirty- eight guns, commanded by Commodore Truxton. 1798 I^ ^^s deemed necessary by the American government to send cruisers to the West Indies for the protection of the commerce of the United States. Many French vessels were captured by these, others were injured, and one arrived in port in a sinking condition. In some instances a large part of the crew was either killed or wounded, generally of the defeated party, while the victors lost but comparatively few. Two American vessels were never heard of after sailing, and it is supposed they foundered at sea. The French Directory, by this time, had become desirous of peace, and made overtures for a renewal of negotiations. The President appointed Oliver Ellsworth, Patrick Henry and William Yan Murray envoys to Paris. On their arrival, they found that the Directory had fallen, and Bonaparte had succeeded to the authority. The envoys were promptly ac- credited, and a treaty of peace was concluded, which was duly ratified by both parties in the autumn of the year 1800, While these negotiations were pending, the earthly career of the illustrious Washington terminated. He died at his JOHN ADAMS's ADMINISTRATION. 341 Death of Washington. residence at Mount Vernon, on the 14tli of Twelfth month, 1799 (Dec.,) 1799, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, after an illness of one day, of inflammation of the throat, produced by a cold. When the information reached Congress, much emotion was manifest. In the House of Representatives, one of the members proposed an adjournment, saying that "after receiving intelligence of a national calamity so heavy and af- flicting," they were illy fitted for any public business. Both Houses adjourned until the next day. On again assembling, the House of Representatives resolved '' that the speaker's chair be shrouded with black, and that the members and officers of the House wear black during the session ; " also that a committee, in connection with one from the Senate, be appointed to consider " the most suitable manner of paying honor to the memory of the man, first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his fellow citizens." In an address to the President on the occasion, the Senate wrote as follows. " This event, so distressing to all our fel- low citizens, must be peculiarly heavy to you, who have long been associated with him in deeds of patriotism. Permit us, sir, to mingle our tears with yours. On this occasion, it is manly to weep. To lose such a man, at such a crisis, is no common calamity to the world. Our countr/ mourns a father. The Almighty Disposer of human events has taken from us our greatest benefactor and ornament. It becomes us to submit with reverence to Him who ' maketh darkness his pavilion.' " " Let his countrymen consecrate the memo- ry of the heroic general, the patriotic statesman and the vir- tuous sage. Let them teach their children never to forget that the fruits of his labors and his example are their inherit- ance." Marks of afl^iction were exhibited throughout the United 29» 342 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Thomas Jefiferson elected President. States, and in every part of the country funeral orations were delivered. 1800 Public buildings having been erected, the officers of gov- ernment removed during this year to Washington ; and in Eleventh month, (Nov.,) Congress met at the new seat of government for the first time. The term for which John Adams was elected President bein*'- about to expire, another opportunity was afforded for a warm contest between the federal and republican parties. The latter party had of late been gaining ground, as some of the acts of the present adm.inistration had been unpopular. The expenditure of money for building a navy had caused dissatisfaction, as well as the alien and sedition laws. The latter of these enactments provided that the authors and pub- lishers of false and malicious accusations against the Presi- dent and members of Congress, should be prosecuted and punished. But the impression that the federal party enter- tained opinions less favorable to liberty than the republi- cans, as well as their suspected partiality for Great Britain and coldness toward France, had perhaps the most influence. The candidates of the federalists for President and Vice- President were John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney. Those of the republicans were Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. The latter two received a majority, and each an equal number of the electoral votes. By the Constitution, the se- lection of one of these for President conserjuently devolved on the House of Eepresentatives. The federalists regarding Thomas Jefferson as more uncompromising in his hostility to their views, gave their votes to Aaron Burr. It was therefore not until the thirty-fiftli ballot that the republicans succeeded in electing Thomas Jefferson. Aaron Burr consequently became Vice-President. The inauguration took place on the 4th of Third month, (March,) 1801. Jefferson's administration. 343 Measures of the new administration. The control of the government was now transferred to the 1801 republican party. At the next session of Congress, by the recommendation of the Presdient, the judiciary department was re-organized. By the change, twelve judges of the Supreme Court, recently appointed, lost their offices. The army and navy were reduced, and many of the government offices abolished. These and other retrenchments in the ex- penditures of the nation, enabled Congress to suppress the internal taxes, ab the same time that provision was made for gradually paying off the public debt, leaving no more in the treasury than sufficient for the wants of the government. An overflowing treasury was pronounced by the democrats of that day as detrimental to the interests of republicanism. During the year 1801, a second census of the people was completed, showing an increase in population in ten years, of nearly one million four hundred thousand. It now amounted to more than five millions and three hundred thousand. The exports had increased from the value of nineteen to ninety- four millions of dollars, and the revenue from nearly five millions to about thirteen millions of dollars. This prosper- ity must be attributed to the liberal institutions of the coun- try, which, were it not that color formed an exception, might be said to secure equal privileges to all the citizens. It is deeply to be regretted that these privileges were not made universal. In the following year, the State of Ohio was admitted into 1802 the Union. It was previously a part of the northwestern territory, from which slavery had been prohibited by an act of the continental congress in 1787. Aware of the blight- ing influence of that iniquitous system, they resolved that it should be excluded from all the territory northwest of the Ohio. This is one great cause of the unparalleled increase 344 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Prosperity of Ohio. Slave labor in Kentucky. in wealth and population of that fertile region, while Ken- tucky, tilled by the labor of the slave, and otherwise possess- ing equal advantages, has fallen so far behind the States lying north of the Ohio river. In ISO 3 the population of Ohio was seventy-six thousand ; in thirty years from the date of its first settlement, the number of its inhabitants exceeded half a million. Tennessee, previously a part of North Carolina, was admitted into the Union in 1796. 1803 The difficulty which had arisen in the choice of a President, by the House of Representatives, after the last election, led to a change in the Constitution, requiring that the individuals designed for the respective offices of President and Vice-Presi- dent, should be so designated by the electors. Formerly he who received the greatest number of votes became President, and he who had the nest number, Vice-President. The meas- ure was frequently debated in the session which commenced this year, but did not receive the requisite majority of two thirds until 1804, when it became a law. By the general treaty of peace in Europe in 1801, Spain re-transferred Louisiana to France, after having; held it in possession since its cession by France in 17G2. Napoleon, then first consul, had fitted out an expedition to reestablish slavery in St. Domingo, after which the array was to take possession of Louisiana. The United States could not remain passive, and see this transfer made to so powerful a nation. The President wrote to the American envoy at Paris, stating the reasons for objecting to the change, and proposing to open negotiations for acquiring it by purchase. He considered that New Or- leans^ through which " three-eighths of our territory must pass to market," could not be possessed by impetuous France, with the same prospect of quiet as by Spain, and that the Jefferson's administration. 345 Purchase of Louisiana. two countries could not long remain friends when placed 1803 in this position. The right of deposit at New Orleans, conceded to tho United States by Spain, and from that period to this time freely enjoyed, was prohibited by the Spanish authorities in that place, in the autumn of 1802. This measure, which suspended the commerce of the Western States, produced much excitement, and many of the people were in favor of resorting immediately to arms. But the negotiations which were going on in France, were soon after brought to a close, and all cause of difficulty was removed. The army which had been sent to St. Domingo for the re- establishment of slavery in that island, had been entirely un- successful. The attempt gave rise to one series of those cruel massacres at which humanity revolts, and resulted in the in- dependence of the colony. Having tasted for a few years the sweets of freedom, the blacks became desperate in the enforcement of their rights. Napoleon, defeated in this in- stance, and fearing a breach with England, and perhaps his inability to retain the province of Louisiana, consented to its sale. The funds of the nation, moreover, were nearly ex- hausted by her recent wars. In 1803, a treaty was concluded, transferring to the United States, for the sum of fifteen mil- lions of dollars, that extensive region, embracing all territory owned by this country, west of the Mississippi, previously to the Mexican war, including the present States of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri and Iowa. This cession gave to the United States the entire control of one of the noblest rivers in the world. To obtain an accurate knowledge of the newly acquired region, with its geographical and mineral features, an expe- dition was fitted out to proceed across the Rocky Mountains ;i4«3 UISTOIIY OF THE UNITED STATES. ^Expedition of Lewis and Clarke. to the Pacific Ocean, under the commaud of Captains Lewis and Clarke, They were directed to explore the Missouri from its confluence with the Mississippi to its source, and after crossing the mountains to proceed down the first naviga- ble river they should meet with, to the ocean. 1804 The party consisted of forty-fivo persons. In Fifth month, (May,) 1804, they embarked in three boats, two of them being open, the other halfdecked, at a point near the junction of the Mississippi and Missouri. They first sailed up the Missouri to the great falls of that river, a distance of ten or eleven hundred miles in a direct line, and nearly three thousand by water, on account of the very winding course of the river. They then performed the difficult task of crossing the mountains, and after examining various streams, they reached the Columbia. The course of this river they fol- lowed for upwards of six hundred miles, which brought them to the Pacific in Eleventh month, (Nov.,) 1805, the preced- ing winter months having been passed in the Indian country, between the Missouri and Yellow Stone rivers. The climate of the different regions through which they passed was ex- ceedingly various. In 47*^ of latitude, the thermometer fre- quently stood at 20" below zero, and was at times still lower. In the summer in latitude 45°, an entry is made in the jour- nal, of the thermometer at 90*^. The land is described as generally rich, with more of pasturage than extensive forests. Among the trees were the aspen and the pine, and the wild grape abounded. Some interesting and remarkable animals were discovered by this expedition, among which were the prong-horned ante- lope and swift fox. The former was so remarkable for its fleet- ness, that while Captain Lewis was passing a few hundred yards toward a ridge on which seven of them were stationed, Jefferson's administration. 347 Animals. The grizzly bear. they had fled to a distance of three miles, whence he inferred ISOt their speed to be equal to that of the most celebrated race horse. But this swiftness, great as it was, was far exceeded by that of the swift fox, which could pass the antelope with ease, and the celerity of whose motion was so great, that it was compared to the flight of a bird along the ground, or to an indistinct line drawn rapidly along the surface. Large herds of deer, elk, buflfalo and antelopes were ob- served, as well as many wolves. The most formidable ani- mal encountered was the grizzly bear, which is scarcely equalled in any country in its fierceness and tenacity of life. The lives of six hunters of the party were greatly endangered by an encounter with one of these animals. Although he had been repeatedly shot, and his shoulder-blade broken, they were closely pursued, and two of them were compelled to jump down a perpendicular bank of twenty feet, into the river. The bear followed, and had nearly overtaken one of them, when he was killed by a shot from the shore. On ex- amination it was found that eight balls had passed through his body in different directions. The country was occupied by scattered tribes of Indians, who were friendly to the travellers. Their numbers appeared to be decreasing, in consequence of the ravages of the small-pox, the use of spirituous liquors, and their almost con- stant state ot warfare. The Great Falls of the Missouri are described as highly magnificent and picturesque. They extend for a length of nearly twelve miles, the river varying in width from three hundred to six hundred yards. The principal fall is eighty feet, with perpendicular cliffs on either side, one hundred feet high. The irregular and projecting rocks cause the spray to be thrown in high columns of various shapes, which, when 348 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Return of the expedition. 1805 illumined by the sun, form an exquisitely beautiful sight. By a succession of smaller falls and of sleep rapids, the river descends three hundred and eighty-four feet. Above the falls, the river is quite smooth, and herds of buffalo were seen feeding on the plains. The journey across the mountains, with all the assistance the party could procure from the Indians, who were very friendly, was extremely arduous. The steep and stony ascent, with the difficulty of procuring provisions, rendered their progress slow. The weather was cold ; during the night of the 21st of Eighth month, (Aug.,) water froze to the depth of one-fourth of an inch. Crossing the mountains occupied seven weeks from the time they left their canoes on the Missouri, until they embarked again on the west side of the mountains in canoes of their own makins;. The Columbia was occasionally broken into rapids, around which the travellers were obliged to carry their canoes. On the 7th of Eleventh month, (Nov.,) they caught the first view of the ocean. Their delight can scarcely be conceived ; they had reached the goal, and were rewarded for their toils. It was during the rainy season, and they encamped for the winter. The natives west of the mountains are described as more mild and gentle than those on the eastern side. They were not unacquainted with white men, as British*and Ameri- can vessels frequently stop on the coast, for the purchase of furs. As soon as the weather admitted, the party explored the neighborhood, anxious to return home. Having accomplished the object of the expedition, they re-crossed the mountains and again descended the IMissouri. They were so delighted at once more beholding a trace of civilization, that when they Jefferson's administration. 349 War with Tripoli. saw, for the first time, cows feeding, they almost involuntarily 1806 shouted for joy. They arrived at Fort Louis, on the Missis- sippi, on the 23d of Ninth month, (Sept.,) 1806, after an absence of about twenty-eight months, and having been given up as lost. Since the year 1801, war had existed between this govern- ment and Tripoli, one of the Barbary States. The bashaw of Tripoli complained of partiality by the United States toward the rulers of Algiers and Tunis, and of less respect- ful treatment, he having received a smaller amount of m.oney than they, to secure the friendship of the Tripolitans. He therefore made further demands, with which this govern- ment did not comply, and war was the consequence. Early in the summer of 1801, a squadron, consisting of four ves- sels, was sent to the Mediterranean, for the protection of the commerce of the United States. Soon after their arrival, a Tripolitan ship of war was captured. She made a vigorous resistance, and did not strike her colors until after sustaining a cannonade for three hours, during which twenty o her crew were killed and thirty wounded. A Greek ship was also taken, which had on board some Tripolitan soldiers. In 1802, Congress passed an act for the protection of the commerce and seamen of the United States, which authorized the seizure of all vessels and goods belon^ng to the bashaw of Tripoli or his subjects. They also empowered the Presi- dent to commission privateers for annoying the commerce o Tripoli. In the course of the year, six vessels were equipped and sent out, which it was thought would be sufficient to compel the Tripolitans to sue for peace. The port of Tripoli was blockaded. During the blockade a large ship was attacked by the Americans, and after a 30 350 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. American squadron in the Mediterranean. contest of about an hour, the Tripolitan ship blew up with a tremendous explosion, destroying all the men that remained on board, some having previously escaped to the shore. 1803 In 1803, another squadron was sent to the Mediterranean, under command of Commodore Preble. While cruising off Tripoli, the frigate Philadelphia, in pursuit of a small vessel, advanced too near the shore and grounded. Every effort made to get her off, proved unavailing. The Tripolitan gun- boats immediately came out to attack her, and after a combat of five hours, the Philadelphia was compelled to surrender. The officers were taken as prisoners of war ; the crew were treated as slaves. The Philadelphia was soon afterward retaken and burned by Lieutenant Stephen Decatur. 1804 About midsummer, all the American force in the Mediter- renean was concentrated before Tripoli. The number of men on board the different vessels was one thousand and sixty. The batteries on shore were defended by twenty-five thousand Arabs and Turks. An unsuccessful attempt had been made to ransom the American prisoners, all that could be effected being the privilege of sending them supplies. On the 3d of Eighth month, (Aug.,) the Tripolitan ship-> ping and batteries were attacked. The action commenced by ' throwing shells into the town. The contest was very severe on both sides. Several of the gun-boats of the Tripolitans were soon driven on the rocks ; three of their vessels wer# captured. Before night, the American fleet retired wim their prizes. -? Two other attacks were made in the course of the montl, in which the town, as well as the batteries, sustained mulh injury. A plan was also formed for sending a fire-ship ir^o the harbor, to destroy the shipping, and throw shells into tfce town. One hundred barrels of powder and a hundred ^d Jefferson's administration. 351 Treaty of peace. jBfty shells were placed in the hold, and a fusee provided by 1804 which the vessel might be fired, and the crew have time to escape. The vessel was sent at night, and was expected to enter the harbor without being discovered. Before she gained the place of destination, however, she suddenly blew up with a terrible explosion, and in the morning, not a trace of her was to be seen. All on board had doubtless perished. During these occurrences, a plan was formed by the United States consul at Tunis, for cooperating with an elder brother of the reigning bashaw of Tripoli, who had been driven from the throne, and by restoring to him his rights, to establisli peace for the United States. An interview was obtained with him, an army of adventurers was collected, and the Tripoli- tan territory invaded. The city of Derne was taken. Alarmed at the progress and success of this force, the reigning bashaw offered more favorable terms of peace than any yet proposed. These, with some stipulations, were ac- cepted by the authorized agent of the United States in Sixth month; (June,) 1805, and subsequently ratified by the Presi- dent and Senate. Sixty thousand dollars were to be given as a ransom for the American prisoners, and the forces of the United States were to be withdrawn from Derne. The pro- vision was inserted that the wife and children of the ex-bashaw, who had been detained for years, should be restored to him. Some of the captives, liberated by this treaty, had realized e sufferinf^s of barbarian servitude for more than eisfhteen onths. During the years 1803 and 1804, a considerable accession of territory was made to the United States. The tribe of Kaskaskia Indians, having been very much reduced in num- bers, by wars and other causes, were unable to defend them- selves against the neighboring tribes. They occupied the V 352 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Hamilton and Burr. 1804 fertile district lying between the Illinois and Ohio rivers. This, with the exception of a sufficiency to support hy agri- culture the few who remained of their tribe, they transferred to the United States, who agreed to extend protection to them, and to assist them annually in money, implements of agriculture and other articles. In 1804, the Delaware Indians relinquished, for a sum of money, their claim to the district occupied by them, which was situated east of the Wabash, extending three hundred miles up the Ohio. This year, Thomas Jefferson was again elected President, and George Clinton of New York, Vioe-President, the new termcommencingonthe4thof Third month, (March,) 1805. 1805 Colonel Burr, the former Vice-President, became a candi- date for the office of governor of New York. Alexander Hamilton, believing him to be an unprincipled politician, openly opposed his election ; and certain offensive publica- tions appearing in one of the public journals, Burr accused Hamilton of being the author. This, Hamilton neither acknowledged nor denied. The result was a challenge to a duel from Burr. They met at Hoboken in New Jersey, and Hamilton was killed. His death caused deep sensations of regret throughout the country. By yielding to false honor, the nation was deprived of a valuable citizen, of eminent talents and great popularity. 1806 Burr now entirely lost his political influence. A career of ambition opened to him in the south-west. He purchased and built boats to descend the Ohio river, with the avowed object of establishing a settlement in Louisiana. Incautious disclosures from his associates, however, and other circum- stances, excited the suspicion that he was either aiming to get possession of New Orleans, and to erect into a separate i Jefferson's administration. 353 Capture of American vessels. British orders in council. government the south-western portion of the Union, or else to 1806 invade the Spanish province of Mexico. He was therefore watched by the agents of the government, and arrested. Sufficient evidence not appearing to convict him, he was dis- charged, although never acquitted in the minds of the people. During the wars which raged in Europe subsequently to the French revolution, the Americans derived great advantage to their commerce by their neutral position. While France had become preeminent on land, England ruled the sea, and any other flag than hers was seldom seen upon the ocean, excepting that of the United States, whose neutral position gained for her citizens this advantage, and threw into their hands the carrying trade between the West Indies and the ports of Europe. But England could not be satisfied to have American mer- chants grow rich by so lucrative a commerce. The harvest was too great to remain unmolested. American vessels carry- ing to Europe the produce of French colonies, were captured by British cruisers and condemned as lawful prizes. In 1806, several European ports under the control of France, were declared by British orders in council, to be in a state of blockade, although not invested by British cruisers. This plan of blockading ports has since been styled paper blockades. American vessels attempting to enter these ports were cap- tured and condemned. The merchants of the United States complained loudly to their government of these outrages. But this was not the only difficulty. England had never been able to man her numerous fleets by voluntary enlistments, and had resorted to the practice of impressment, or seizing her subjects wherever found, and compelling them to serve on her ships of war. 30* 354 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Impressment of American seamen. First steamboat. 1807 She had for some years claimed the right of searching for her subjects on board of neutral vessels, while traversing the ocean, and had actually seized sailors from American vessels, on the ground of their being British subjects. In this way, citizens of the United States were dragged from their friends, and compelled to fight with nations at peace with their own. Washington, Adams and Jefferson had remonstrated against this outrage, but without effect. It not only continued, but increased.* In 1807, the power of steam was first applied to propelling boats, by Robert Fulton, a resident of New York city. Under his auspices, a rude boat was constructed, and the experiment was first made on the Hudson river. The boat left the city amid the hopes and fears of many of the citizens, and reached Clermont, a distance of one hundred and ten miles, in twenty- four hours ; thence to Albany, forty miles, in eight hours, or at the rate of five miles an hour. The fare from New York to Albany was ten dollars. Early in the summer of 1807, the feelings of the people were much exasperated by an attack made on the American frigate Chesapeake, near the coast of the United States. The British consul at Norfolk had demanded the surrender of three seamen, who had entered the United States service after deserting from a British ship. On investigation, the men were found to be American citizens, who had been im- *It is but just to England to state that the higher wages offered by America, was a great temptation to British seamen to desert. This gave offence to Great Britain. In America it was asserted that a set- tler, having been admitted to the privileges of citizenship, had a right to fight with the country of his adoption ; while in England it was contended tliat allegiance to Great Britain could not thus be relin- quished. JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION. Hostile feelings toward England. Berlin Decree. pressed by tlie British, and subsequently had escaped from 1807 their service. They were therefore not delivered. A few weeks afterward, the Chesapeake, on board of which these men were engaged, sailed for the Mediterranean. She passed through a British squadron, stationed on the coast, without molestation ; but some hours after, was overtaken by the Leopard, whose captain had orders to take from the Chesa- peake the three men said to be deserters. On the refusal of the American commander to allow his crew to be mustered, a heavy fire was commenced, which killed three men and wounded eighteen more. Being unprepared for action, the Chesapeake struck her colors. She was then boarded by the British, and four men were carried off. The Chesapeake, being much injured, returned to port. The distinctions of party were forgotten in the indignation which was felt on account of this outrage. Public meetings were held, and resolutions were adopted to support the gov- ernment in any measures taken to obtain redress. The President issued a proclamation prohibiting all British ships of war from remaining in or entering the harbors of the United States. He also sent instructions to the American minister at London, to demand satisfaction for the insult, and summoned Congress to meet. This act of aggression was disavowed by the British government. No reparation was, however, made, and the officer engaged in the transaction, was soon afterward appointed to a more important station. The occurrence, therefore, served to strengthen the hostile feelings already excited toward England. The commerce of the United States also suffered from the vindictive feelings of the French. In Eleventh month, (Nov.,) 1806, Napoleon, now Emperor, had issued a decree 356 nisTOKY OP the united states. The embargo. Milan Decree. 1807 at Berlin, declaring the British Islands in a state of blockade. All neutral vessels attempting to trade with them, were consequently exposed to capture. The introduction of Eng- lish goods to the continent Of Europe, was prohibited, even in neutral vessels, and the ports of France were closed against any vessel that should touch at an English port. The British government having avowed its determination to adopt measures in retaliation of the French decree, and continuing to assert the right of search and impressment, the President recommended to Congress that the seamen, ships and merchandise of the United States should be detained in port to preserve them from the dangers which threatened them at sea. An embargo was consequently decreed, in Twelfth month, (Dec.,) 1807, and all merchant vessels were called home. Shortly after the passage of the embargo law, information was received that Great Britain had prohibited neutrals from trading with France, or any of her allies, excepting on condi- tion of paying to her a tax or tribute. In a few weeks, Napo- leon's famous Milan Decree followed. In this he declared that every neutral vessel submitting to pay the tribute should be confiscated, if ever afterward found in his ports, or taken by his cruisers. Thus, between the two rival nations, almost every American vessel sailing on the ocean, was liable to capture, and it was in vain that the United States remon- strated. 1808 The embargo was rigidly enforced by the government, and the commerce of the country, recently so flourishing, was now reduced to a coasting trade between the States. Hence the people began to turn their attention toward the production of those manufactures, which, until now, had been imported from England. When the law was carried into operation, Madison's administration. 357 Change in the embargo law. much opposition was felt toward it, although resolutions, 1808 passed at public meetings all over the country, had urged the adoption of efficient measures against the belligerent parties. In New England the merchants severely felt the effects of the law, and there the strongest opposition show^ed itself. The southern and western States were more agricul- tural. The administration became unpopular in New Eng- land, and Massachusetts recommended the repeal of the law. In the autumn of 1808, an election for chief magistrate again took place. Thomas Jefferson, believing with Wash- ington, that no person should hold the office for more than eight years, had signified his intention of retiring at the close of his second term. James Madison was now elected to the Presidency, and inaugurated on the 4th of Third month, (March,) 1809. George Clinton was reelected Vice- President. In Third month, (March,) Congress repealed the embargo, 1809 and substituted in its place an act prohibiting all intercourse with both France and England ; a provision being inserted in the act, that if either of those nations should revoke her hostile edicts, the law should cease to be in force with respect to that nation. This change in the law was thought by the British govern- ment to afford a favorable opportunity to open negotiations for the adjustment of the difficulties between the two countries. Accordingly David M. Erskine, the British minister at Washington, proposed an arrangement on the following terms : That reparation should be made for the outrage on the frigate Chesapeake ; that the orders in council should be withdrawn, so far as respected the United States, provided the latter country would repeal the prohibition of intercourse 358 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Non-intercourse law expires. New act of Congress. 1809 with Great Britain; and that an envoy extraordinary should be sent from England, with power to conclude a treaty on all the points of diiference between the two countries. These terms being accepted by the President, a proclamation was issued, suspending the non-intercourse with England, after the 10th of Sixth month, (June,) the day on which the orders in council were to be revoked. The British government refused to ratify the proceedings of their minister, on the ground that he had exceeded his instructions. This information was sent to the American government, and the British minister was recalled. The President consequently declared the non-intercourse act again in force ; and the relations between the two nations continued on their former footing, excepting that those vessels which had left the United States relying on the negotiations of the British minister, were not to be endangered. In the autumn, Francis James Jackson, the new minister from England, arrived. He was coldly received. Popular prejudice was strong against him, and all attempts to negotiate failed. He was shortly afterward recalled. 1810 ^^^ non-intercourse law expired in Fifth month, (May,) 1810. An act of Congress was therefore passed, which pro- vided that, if either Great Britain or France should revoke its edicts before a stipulated day in the following year, the restrictions imposed by the non-intercourse act should be discontinued, in relation to such nation. If the other nation should not, within three months afterward, revoke its edicts, then the non-intercourse law should be revived respecting that nation. Napoleon had declared that his edicts were meant as re- taliatory toward Great Britain, and that they formed part of a plan to wrest from her the power to tyrannize upon the Madison's administration. 359 Trade -with France restored. British orders in council enforced. ocean. The aet of Congress having been communicated to 1810 the government of France, her minister addressed a note to the minister of the United States at Paris, declaring that the decrees of Berlin and Milan were revoked. The revocation was to take effect on the Ist of Eleventh month, (Nov.,) fol- lowing. He also stated that this measure was taken, in full confidence that the act of Congress would be enforced against England, if she did not revoke her orders in council. The President consequently issued a proclamation, announc- ing that all restrictions on the trade of the United States with France had ceased. An appeal was then made to Eng- land to revoke her orders in council ; but the ministry objected that the French decrees could not be considered as repealed, a letter from the minister of state not being sujffi- cient authority for that purpose. She therefore persisted in enforcing the orders. Congress then renewed the non-inteicourse law against that country, to continue in force until she should revoke or modify her edicts, and the President of the United States should announce the fact by proclamation. In order to carry out the orders in council, Great Britain 1811 had stationed ships of war before the principal harbors of the United States. American merchantmen, departing from these ports, or returning to them, were boarded and searched. Many sailors were impressed. With the ships of England in the waters of this country, and for such an object, it was scarcely probable that no actual collision should take place between the vessels of the respective countries. Commodore Rogers, of the United States frigate President, while cruis- ing off the capes of Virginia, discovered a vessel which appeared to be a man-of-war. He sailed in pursuit, hailed and inc[uired her name. Instead of returning an answer, 360 UISTOllY OF THE UNITED STATES. Preparations for war with England. Indian confederacy. 1811 the commander of the other vessel hailed, and a shot was soon fired which struck the mainmast of the President. The fire was returned, and continued for a few minutes, when finding the guns of his opponent almost silenced, Commodore Rogers desisted. On hailing again, an answer was given, that the vessel was the British sloop of war, Little Belt, of eighteen guns. Thirty-two of her men were killed or wounded during the action, and the vessel was much in- jured. The arrival of a British minister in the summer of 1811, availed nothing toward an adjustment of the dijfficulties. He could give no assurance that his government was dis- posed to repeal the orders in council, or to make an arrange- ment on the subject of impressment. On the contrary, the orders were rigorously enforced, and now that a free trade with France was restored, many American vessels, laden with rich cargoes destined for the ports of that country, fell into the hands of British cruisers. There seemed a strong prospect that war would soon be declared between the two countries, and preparations were accordingly going forward. To meet the expenses, Congress authorized the President to borrow, on the credit of the United States, a sum not exceeding eleven millions of dollars. The whole amount was advanced by individuals and corporate bodies, at an interest of six per cent. For several years the Indian tribes residing in the Indiana territory, had shown symptoms of hostility toward the settlers on the north-western frontier. A confederacy was formed, at the head of which were Tecumseh, their chief, and his brother. The latter pretended to be a prophet, and preached to the Indians that all their disasters were owing to their having forsaken the simple habits of their ancestors. Several Madison's administration. 361 Tecumseh. Battle of Tippecanoe. different tribes were united, and a spirit of animosity was 1811 stirred up against the white inhabitants. Tecumseh main- tained that the country belonged to the red men in common, and that no portion of it could be sold without the consent of all ; that no one tribe had any more right to sell its land than it had to darken the bright rays of the sun. In the autumn of 1811, the outrages committed by Tecumseh and his followers, induced the government to send General Harrison, then governor of the Indiana territory, with a small force, to negotiate, if possible, but to fight if no redress could be obtained. Arrived at Tippecanoe, their principal town, a deputation of the chiefs met him.* An agreement was made that neither party should commence hos- tilities before the next day, when a conference should be held. In violation of this engagement, the American camp was furiously attacked before daybreak. Not feeling confidence in the promises of the Indians, the Americans had slept on their arms, and made a vigorous resistance. Great slaughter took place on both sides. The Indians were finally dispersed. At the time of this battle, Tecumseh was in the south, en- deavoring to induce other Indians to join the confederacy. Having burned Tippecanoe, and laid waste the surrounding country, from which his opponents were obliged to retreat, Harrison returned to the settlements. * At the commencement of this interview, when Tecumseh first came into the presence of General Harrison, the latter directed a chair to be handed him, which was done, with the remark of the American interpreter, "Your father desires you to sit down." The immediate reply of this remarkable chieftain is characteristic of his eloquence and of his proud spirit. Raising his hand aloft, he said, "il/y father ? The sun is my father, and the earth my mother, and on her bosom I will repose ; " at the same time taking his seat upon the ground in the usual Indian mode. SI 362 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Mission of John Henry, 1812 Early in 1812, John Henry, a resident of Canada, gave information to the Secretary of State, that in 1809 he had been employed by the governor-general of Canada, as a secret agent in the United States. Documents and papers were submitted by him, which were laid by the President before Congress. From these it appeared that he had been instruct- ed to proceed to Boston, to confer with those who were opposed to the restrictions laid by the American government on commerce ; to obtain information of the true state of affairs in that part of the Union, which from various causes would possess great influence and probably lead the other States ; and to observe the state of public opinion with regard to a war with England. He was also to learn whether the Federalists, in case they gained the ascendency, would exert their influence to bring about a separation of the Union ; and in case of such an event, whether they would look to England for assistance, or be disposed to enter into a connection with that nation. The mission of Henry was entirely unsuccessful; and the British government consequently refused the required remu- neration. He therefore made a full disclosure of the facts to the American government, and received for the information the sum of fifty thousand dollars. This intrigue removed still farther the prospect of an ami- cable adjustment with England ; and preparations for war continued. On the 20th of Fifth month, (May,) a sloop-of-war arrived from London with the intelligence that no prospect existed of a change in the measures of Grreat Britain toward this country. On the 1st of Sixth month, (June,) the Presi- dent sent a message to Congress, in which he set forth the various injuries received from that nation, and recommended for their early deliberation, the question whether the United States should continue passive under these progressive usurpa- tions, or whether force should be opposed to force. Madison's administration. 863 Declaration of war. The message was seriously considered with closed doors. 1812 On the 18th, an act was passed declaring war with the United Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. For the prosecution of the war the President was authorized to issue treasury notes to an amount not exceeding five millions .of dollars, and additional duties were imposed on all goods, wares and merchandise imported from foreign places. The declaration was condemned by a considerable portion of citizens, who believed that an adjustment of all disputes might have been obtained by further negotiations, and that such a step was unwise at this time, as the nation was not prepared for war. Many believed, also, that the expenses and sufferings which war must occasion, would more than coun- terbalance the advantages sought to be obtained. Decided opposition was made to it in the New England States, where much distress was occasioned by the suppression of their commerce. Several commercial cities protested against the measure, while in others the act was received with illumi- nations and rejoicings. A majority of the people were favor- able to the war. CHAPTER XXVIII. WAR OF 1812. Invasion of Canada. Eetreat of General Hull. 1812 It is not designed to give a minute account of the three years' war with Great Britain. The time will come when such records shall have fallen from their present importance and, divested of all false glory, shall sink into insignificance before the truly noble achievements of humanity. The plan of operations at the commencement of the war, was to garrison and defend the seaboard, and to attack the British posts in Upper Canada, with the design of invading and con- quering Lower Canada. General William Hull, then governor of Michigan territory, received command of the army appropriated for the invasion of Canada. Having entered the province, he issued a procla- mation, offering peace and protection to such Canadians as should remain at home, but threatening extermination to those found in arms, associated with the Indians. Many joined his standard, or returned to their homes relying on his promise of protection. After considerable delay, and nothing special having been attempted, information was received that the post of Mackinaw had surrendered to a large body of British and Indians, who were marching south. General Hull immediately retreated to Detroit. Here he awaited the approach of a force of British and Indians superior to his own, from the fort at Mai- den, on the Detroit river. A white flag was hung out in WAR OP 1812. 365 His surrender. Attack on Queenstown. token of a wish to capitulate, and Hull's whole force, the 1812 fortress and the entire territory of Michigan, were surrendered to the British. The American troops had anticipated an easy victory, and were greatly indignant at the unexpected submission of General Hull. When released by an exchange of prisoners, the government brought him to trial by a court-martial in 1814. He was sentenced to death for cowardice and neglect of duty, but subsequently pardoned in consideration of former services. The surrender of Michigan left the north-western frontier exposed to the incursions of the British and Indians. The neighboring States were alarmed, and nearly ten thousand volunteers, under the command of General William Henry Harrison, marched toward the territory of Michigan. Many difficulties were encountered, arising in part from the undis- ciplined state of the army, and winter set in without anything being accomplished, excepting incursions into the territory of the Indians, who, instigated by British agents, had generally become hostile. In Eleventh month, (Nov.,) an attack was made on Queens- town, in Upper Canada. The Americans were at first suc- cessful, and gained possession of the fort. It was, however, retaken by the British, after a severe engagement, and a heavy loss on both sides in killed and wounded. Of one thousand Americans who crossed into Canada, but few escaped. In the latter part of the same month a third invasion of Canada was attempted. An array of four thousand five hun- dred men was assembled, and a day fixed for their embarka- tion. The British appearing on the opposite shore of the Niagara, with a formidable force, the crossing of the troops was postponed, and finally abandoned for the season. 8G6 HISTORY OP the united states. Naval victories. Orders in council revoked. 1812 The operations of the American navy were more successful, and Britain's claim to the dominion of the ocean was entirely destroyed. The first of a series of victories was by Captain Hull, of the American frigate Constitution, over the British frigate Guerriere, which was reduced to a complete wreck in thirty minutes, every mast and nearly every spar being shot away. The Guerriere was burned, not being in a state to be conveyed to port. In Tenth month, (Oct.,) the sloop-of-war Frolic was cap- tured by Captain Jones, of the Wasp, after a hard-fought battle of forty-five minutes. The Wasp was subsequently taken by a British ship. In the same month, Captain Deca- tur, of the frigate United States, captured the Macedonian. One hundred and four of the British were killed or wounded during the engagement. In Twelfth month, (Dec.,) the British frigate Java was reduced to a wreck off the coast of Brazil, by the frigate Consti- tution, Captain Bainbridge, after an action of one hour, in which one hundred and sixty-one of her crew were either killed or wounded. The commerce also of the British suffered severely. Many British merchantmen were captured by the American navy ; but more were taken by privateers, which sailed from almost every port. These vessels were built with a view to rapid sailing, and were able not only to overtake the merchant ves- sels, but to escape from the frigates of the British. During the first seven months of the war, upwards of five hundred British merchant vessels were taken by privateers or by American cruisers. France had for some time withheld the formal announce- ment of the revocation of the decrees of Napoleon. When, however, that announcement took place, Britain revoked WAR OF 1812. 367 Measures of Congress. General Harrison in Michigan. her orders in council, and proposed a suspension of hostilities. 1812 The President demanded some effectual provision against the impressment of American seamen, which being declined, the war was continued. Tlais gave great offence to the federal party, who maintained their opposition to the war. They also declared it to be unconstitutional to employ the militia in offensive warfare ; and on this ground, the States of Mas- sachusetts and Connecticut had refused their proportion of men for the invasion of Canada. When Congress again met, resolutions were adopted, approving the President's course ; and in order to defray the expense of the war, bills were passed, authorizing a loan of sixteen millions of dollars, and empowering the President to issue treasury notes, to an amount not exceeding five millions of dollars. An appropri- ation of one hundred thousand dollars was made for estab- lishing a dock yard for the repair of vessels of war. In the autumn, the presidential election again took place. The anti-federalists, by their continued support of the Pres- ident, showed their approbation of his course in regard to the war. The federal party made a strong opposition, but James Madison was reelected to the office of President, and Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, Vice-President. The desire of the citizens of the Western States to regain Michigan was so strong, that General Harrison determined to undertake a winter campaign. This led to much suffering on the part of the army, as the State of Michigan did not afford adequate supplies, and it was impossible, as General Harrison stated in one his letters to the administration, to get supplies forward " through a swampy wilderness of near two hundred miles, in wagons or on pack-horses," which also had to carry their own provision. The distress of the troops was great for want of clothing. 368 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Americans attacked. Surrender. Massacre. 1813 General Winchester was sent forward with a detachment to the rapids of the Miami, where he was directed to com- mence the building of huts, in order to deceive the British, and lead to the impression that the Americans were going into winter quarters. In pursuance of these instructions, he formed a fortified camp on an eminence surrounded by prai- ries. Soon afterward, he received an urgent call for assist- ance from the inhabitants of Frenchtown, on the river Raisin. They had been attacked by the British and Indians from Maiden, a British post in Canada on the Detroit river. Gen- eral Winchester marched toward Frenchtown, but before reaching it, the British had gained possession. They were assaulted and dispersed, with considerable slaughter. The Americans then encamped in an open lot, and but little caution was taken to guard against a surprise. Here they were attacked by British and Canadians with one thou- sand Indians, One wing of the army, consisting of one hundred and fifty men, was entirely unprotected. These were soon thrown into disorder, and in attempting to escape, were nearly all massacred by the Indians. One hundred men, sent to their relief, were also mostly killed. The conflict was maintained for some hours, when the Americans surrendered. The British soon afterward marched back to Maiden, leaving a few soldiers only, in charge of the wounded Americans, and no guard for the protection of the prisoners from the fury of the Indians. These accompanied their allies but a few miles toward Maiden, when they returned to Frenchtown, the" scene of the battle. At sun- rise on the succeeding day, a melancholy work of destruction commenced. The houses were set on fire in which the pris- oners were confined, and they generally perished in the flames. Some, in attempting to escape, were thrust back as WAR OP 1812. .^()0 Siege of Fort Meigs. York attacked. they appeared at the windows, while others reached the 1813 streets, there to encounter the tomahawk. The ensuing three months after this tragical event, were employed by General Harrison in fortifying his camp, which he named Fort Meigs. Here he was joined by reinforce- ments from Kentucky and Ohio. In the spring, General Proctor advanced toward Fort Meigs with a company of two thousand, British and Indians, and commenced preparations for a siege, General Harrison having refused to surrender. Soon afterward. General Clay, with twelve hundred Ken- tuckians, attacked the besiegers and drove them from their works. Eight hundred of the party, having dispersed in the woods in pursuit of the Indians, contrary to the order of their commander, were afterward obliged to surrender to these allies of the British. Only one hundred and fifty escaped ; the remainder were either slain or captured. The British having returned to Fort Meigs, the defence was continued ; but the Indians, unaccustomed to sieges, became discontented, and finally deserted. The British, see- ing no prospect of success, withdrew their forces to Maiden. In the latter part of Fourth month, (April,) an attack was made on York, the capital of Upper Canada, which re- sulted in the surrender of the British land and naval forces, and of the public stores. As the Americans approached the main fortifications, the magazine blew up with a tremendous explosion, sending among the troops large masses of stone and timber. Numbers were at once killed, and many more wounded ; the American commander, Gen. Pike, was so severely injured that he survived but a few hours. The approach of the Americans was only temporarily checked ; recovering from the shock, they pressed forward, and gained possession. 370 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. British squadron in the Chesapeake. 1813 Fort George, on the British side of the Niagara river, was soon after taken by the Americans. A detachment was also sent to cut off the retreat of the British forces, concentrated on Burlington Heights, at the head of Lake Ontario. The party was surprised by an attack at night ; some of the troops were taken prisoners, the remainder joined the Americans at Fort George. These operations diminished the force at Sackett's Harbor, at the other end of the lake. The British therefore seized the opportunity of making an attack on that post. The militia of the neighborhood were collected at the first alarm, but, with the regular troops, were compelled to retire after a short conflict, and poured upon their opponents a destructive fire as they withdrew. By a stratagem of the American commander, the British feared that the object of the Ameri- cans was to cut off their retreat. They therefore immediately reembarked, leaving most of their wounded and some pris- oners to the mercy of their enemies. While these events were passing in the north, a predatory war was carried on at the seaboard, by detachments from the navy of Great Britain. A squadron arrived in the Chesa- peake early in the spring, and one in the Delaware, about the same time. A demand being made on the inhabitants of Lewistown, in the State of Delaware, for supplies, it was promptly refused. The destruction of the town was threat- ened. The refusal being persisted in, a bombardment of the place was commenced. The firing was returned, and the cannonading continued for twenty-two hours. Being unable to effect anything in this way, many attempts were made to land, for the purpose of obtaining water. The boats, however, were repulsed by the militia, who assembled on the shore. Finding no advantage could be gained by remaining, the WAR OF 1812. 371 Sacking and burning of towns. British burned some merchant vessels which were within 1813 reach, and sailed for Bermuda. The squadron stationed in the Chesapeake was more pow- erful. Small vessels were captured, farm houses and country seats on the bay and rivers were plundered. The villages and towns were next attacked. Frenchtown, Havre de Grace, Fredericktown and Georgetown were sacked and burned. Norfolk and the villages in its immediate vicinity, were saved by the determined resistance of the militia. From these places the British were compelled to retreat, leaving behind them two hundred in killed, wounded and prisoners. After this disappointment, an attack was made on Hamp- ton, about eighteen miles from Norfolk. The militia made a strong resistance, but the British gained possession, and the town and inhabitants were abandoned to the brutal outrages of the soldiery. Some other towns were threatened, but no fur- ther attack was made, and the fleet proceeded southward, where the same system of plunder and devastation was pursued. The port of New London was also blockaded. The pro- ceedings of the squadron stationed in this place, were char- acterized with more humanity. The frigates United States and Macedonian were detained there in a state of inaction. In the north-west, an attack was made on Fort Stephenson, on the Sandusky river, by a large force of British and In- dians. The advancing parties were met by a very heavy fire, which committed so much destruction, that the assailants were dismayed and fled. The British and Americans had both been engaged in pre- paring a naval force to be employed on Lake Erie. Early in Ninth month, (Sept.,) nine vessels being constructed for the American service, they sailed from Erie, under the command of Commodore Perry, and soon encountered the British fleet. After a violent contest, the whole of the British squadron 372 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Commodore Perry's victory. Death of Tecumseh. 1813 surrendered. This victory occasioned great joy throughout the country, and had an important influence on the subsequent events of the war. Soon after the victory on Lake Erie, the British commander, at Maiden, anticipating the approach of the American forces to that place, abandoned it, and passing by Detroit, ascended the river Thames. The Americans under General Harrison pursued. They took possession of Maiden vyithout opposition, and on the 5th of Tenth month, (Oct.,) overtook the British army. A battle ensued, in which the British were defeated, and six hundred made prisoners. The Indians sustained a severe loss in the death of their celebrated leader, Tecumseh. This victory was the means of restoring all the posts that had been surrendered by General Hull. Extensive preparations were made during this season for an attack on Montreal. Various delays enabled the British to fortify the important posts on the St. Lawrence ; and in con- sequence of scarcity of provisions, sickness in the army, and a want of unanimity of action, the expedition was finally abandoned. Orders had been sent to the American commander at Fort George, to destroy the British town of Newark, situated in its vicinity. In midwinter this order was executed, and the inhabitants were thus rendered homeless in that inclement season. At a subsequent period of the war, this act was re- taliated by the burning of Niagara, Lewistown and other villages between lakes Erie and Ontario. At sea, during this year, the vessels of both nations were, at different times, successful. Several naval battles occurred. The commerce of the British also suffered severely from private armed vessels of the Americans. The Indians at the south, residing within the limits of Florida, had manifested hostility. In the early part of the WAR OF 1812. ^78 Burning; of Forh Mimms. war, tiiey had been visited by Tecumseh, who had stirred up 1813 a spirit of opposition to the white inhabitants, persuading the Indians that the Great Spirit required them to resist their encroachments, and holding up to their view the diminution and probable extinction of their race as a consequence of the usurpation of the whites. The effect of these arguments soon became apparent. Some acts of hostility followed, and General Jackson was sent against them, with twenty-five hundred volunteers, in the autumn of 1812. The Indians were thus overawed for a time, but in the summer of 1813, fresh outbreaks occurred. About three hundred persons, men, women and children, settlers at exposed points on the Alabama, sought a refuge in Fort Mimms. Here they were off their guard, and were surprised by a party of six hundred Indians, who, after a desperate conflict, drove the people into the houses enclosed by the fort, and set fire to them. A dreadftd carnage ensued. Many persons were burned ; those who escaped the flames were mostly killed by the tomahawk, and only seventeen reached the neighboring stations.* * A striking contrast with this treatment of the Indians is furnished by the conduct of those who visited the Friends Meeting House, near Easton, Pennsylvania, during the revolutionary war. Most of the in- habitants had fled for protection, but the Friends, not willing to trust to arms for defence, and submitting to an overruling Providence, remained at their homes, and continued their religious meetings. Whilst sitting with open doors, during one of these meetings, an Indian peeped in at them. He presently entered, followed by a num- ber of others, who laid aside their arms and took seats. They afterward stated that they had come to the house, intending to destroy all who were in it; but added, "When we saw you sitting with your door open, without weapons of defence, we had no disposition to hurt you ; we would have fought for you." A peaceable and inoffensive aspect serves immediately to disarm all feelings of war and aggression. 32 874 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Negotiations for peace. 1813 After the destruction at Fort Mirams, General Jackson, at the head of thkty-five hundred militia, once more marched south. Several sanguinary engagements took place, in which the Indians fought with desperation, but were finally over- powered. They were unwilling to ask for quarter, and the battles generally continued until most of the warriors were killed. General Jackson's army suffered much from want of provisions, which occasioned discontent and a mutinous spirit among the men. By great exertions the necessary supplies were obtained, and Jackson continued to prosecute the war. Nearly fifteen hundred warriors were killed in the various engagements. The spirit of those who survived was at length subdued, and they sued foi* peace. The power of the Creeks was gone ; their hopes were crushed. In the early part of 1813, the Emperor of Eussia offered his services as mediator between the United States and Great Britain. The President, having accepted this proposal, ap- pointed John Quincy Adams, then minister of the United States at St. Petersburg, Albert Gallatin and James A. Bayard, commissioners, with full powers to conclude a peace with commissioners to be appointed by Great Britain. The British government, declining to treat under the mediation of Russia, proposed a negotiation at London or Gottenburg. The latter place was accepted, and Henry Clay and Jonathan Bussell were added to the commission. The place of meeting was afterward transferred to Ghent. 1814 Hostilities were not suspended during the progress of the negotiation, and a loan of twenty-five millions of dollars was authorized by Congress ; also the issue of treasury notes for five millions. No important movements of the army were made before summer. During this period, information was received from WAR OE 1812. • S75 Battle of Bridgewater. Europe of the fall of Napoleon, and of the general peace. 1814 These events left England at liberty to direct her whole force against the United States. Provision was therefore made for the better defence of the seaboard. Early in Seventh month, (July,) the American army, con- sisting of about three thousand men, crossed the Niagara river? and took possession of Fort Erie, which surrendered without opposition. The garrison were made prisoners of war. The Americans then advanced to Chippewa, where about three thousand British troops were stationed. Here an ob- stinate and severe conflict took place, which ended in the flight of the British, after one hundred and thirty-three of their number had been killed, who were left dead on the field of battle. Three hundred and twenty were wounded, and forty six taken prisoners. The Americans had sixty killed, up- wards of two hundred and sixty wounded and missing. On the 20th of Seventh month, (July,) the battle of Bridgewater was fought^ near the cataract of Niagara. It commenced at six in the evening, and continued until midnight. The engagement was a very sanguinary one, and left the Americans in possession of the field. The British lost in all upwards of eight hundred men; of these, eighty-four were killed, five hundred and fifty-five wounded, and the remainder either missing or made prisoners. The loss of the Americans was not very different. After this battle, the Americans retreated to Eort Erie. On the 4th of Eighth month, (Aug.,) the place was invested by the British with five thousand troops. Ten days after- ward, an attack was made on the fort, which was repelled by the garrison, with the loss of about eighty men. The assailants lost more than nine hundred. The siege was continued after this disastrous defeat, and a large body of 376 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Siege of Forfc Erie. 1814 men arrived from Plattsburg, to the relief of the garrison. The batteries of the British becoming constantly more for- midable, the American commander determined on a sortie for their destruction. The parties were engaged in severe fighting for thirty minutes, when the Americans obtained possession of the intrenchments. Having killed and wounded five hundred of their opponents, taken three hundred and eighty prisoners, and destroyed the works of the British, the labor of forty- seven days, the Americans returned to the fort. Their own loss was severe; seventy-nine killed, upwards of two hundred missing and as many more wounded. The result of this sortie discouraged the British. The troops were withdrawn soon afterward. The siege had continued forty-nine days. Several ineffectual attempts were then made to dislodge the British from Chippewa, v/hither they had retired. After this the Americans evacuated Canada, having first destroyed the works at Fort Erie. They then went into winter quarters at Buffalo, Blackrock and Batavia. In most of the naval engagements which took place during the year 1814, the British vessels were obliged to surrender. Their commerce was also much interrupted, and many mer- chant vessels were taken. During the summer of this year, the British forces were much augmented by the arrival of victorious troops, who had served in the wars of Europe. It was determined, as soon as these could be organized, to make an attack on Plattsburg, both by land and water. This place is situated on the north side of the river Saranac, near its entrance into Lake Cham- plain. Its defence was much weakened by the departure of the reinforcements for the garrison at Fort Erie. It was now commanded by General Macomb. On the Sd of Ninth month, (Sept.,) General Provost entered the territory of the United States, with an army of fourteen thousand men. WAR OF 1812. 377 Siege of Plattsburg. Battle on Lake Champlain. The militia having flocked in great numbers to the stand- 1814 ard of Greneral Macomb, every effort was made to impede the approach of the British, and to prepare for the attack. Bridges were destroyed, fortifications were strengthened. On *he 6th, the British arrived at Plattsburg, which they en- tered, the Americans retiring to the south side of the Saranac, tearing up the bridges and guarding the fords. An advance party of the British had dispersed a body of militia who met them a few miles from Plattsburg. Several ineffectual attempts were made to cross the stream. From this time, until the 11th, the British were employed in erecting bat- teries opposite the American lines ; while a number of skir- mishes took place at the fords. The Americans, at the same time, were strengthening their intrenchments, and their forces were becoming much increased by the arrival of militia and volunteers. On the 11th, the British squadron appeared off the harbor of Plattsburg, where that of the Americans, commanded by Commodore McDonough, lay at anchor, awaiting their arrival. The former was manned with upwards of one thousand men, the latter with more than eight hundred. The fleets were furiously engaged for more than two hours, when the flag ship of the British struck her colors, and the battle termi- nated. One after another of the British vessels surrendered. At the same time that the engagement on the lake com- menced, the land troops of the British began a heavy canj nonade on the American lines, under cover of which several efforts were made to cross the Saranac. As often as the troops advanced into the water, they encountered a destructive fire from the militia, and were obliged to retreat with consid- erable loss. The surrender of the fleet was announced by cheers from the American troops. It took place in the sight 32* 378' IIISTOP.Y OF THE UNITED STATES. Retreat of the British. 1814 of both armies, and served to encourage the one, and propor- tionably to dishearten the other. The efforts of the assailants became less vigorous, and in the afternoon they withdrew to their intrenchraents. In the night, they began a precipitate retreat, leaving their sick and wounded and much of their eamp equipage behind them. As soon as their Sight was discovered, a pursuit was commenced, but the British had already proceeded eight miles. A few prisoners were taken. In these two engagements, the loss of the British was twenty-two hundred in killed and wounded, besides five hundred deserters and eight hundred prisoners. The Amer- icans lost, in killed and wounded, about two hundred. These events terminated the active warfare on the Canada fron- tier. Other parts of the country had been suffering the calamities of war during the same period. In the spring of 1814, the British government declared the whole coast of the United States to be in a state of blockade, and vessels were stationed at different points for the purpose of maintaining it. In Fourth month, (April,) a detachment from the squad- ron in Long Island Sound ascended the Connecticut river, and burned twenty-two vessels, which had been sent there for safety. A village at Pettipaug Point was set on fire in several places, but the flames were extinguished by the inhabitants. Some weeks afterward another detachment from the same squadron made an attack on Stonington. A bombardment was continued for two days, wheri the British gave up the contest and withdrew. About forty buildings were injured, but none of the inhabitants or militia were killed. The seaboard in the district of Maine offered an easy conquest to the British. By means of their squadrons, tbcy WAR OF 1S12. 379 Grievances in New England. took possession of the principal towns on the coast, and made 1814 a proclamation, declaring the conquest of the country be- tween the Penobscot river and Passamaquoddy bay, and requiring the submission of the people to British authority. Various islands on the New England coast were obliged to submit to the British naval commanders. The inhabitants of Nantucket were compelled to promise neutrality during the remainder of the war. The people of Cape Cod, where fishing was the most important branch of business, were re- duced to great distress, being entirely prevented from pur- suing their usual employment on the banks of Newfound- land. A majority of the people in New England had from the first been opposed to the war, and their dissatisfaction had continued to increase, as their most profitable pursuits, com- merce and the fisheries, were interrupted. They complained that the government did not afford them sufiicient protection, but appropriated elsewhere the resources drawn from New England. It was now proposed that the militia and the revenue should be retained under their own control, and em- ployed for their defence and protection. A convention of delegates from the different New England States, assembled at Hartford, Twelfth month, (Dec.) 15th, 1814, to take the subject of their gi'ievances into consider- ation. After continuing in session three weeks, they ad- journed. An address to the people was published, in which they set forth the measures supposed to be detrimental to the interests of New England, and proposing amendments to the federal constitution, for the purpose of preventing the adop- tion of such measures in future. A committee was sent to Washington, when further proceedings were rendered un- necessary by the arrival of news of peace 380 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. British fleet in the Chesapeake. Battle of Bladensburg. 1814 While the events which have been related were transpiring on the northern frontier and in New England, the people of the Middle and Southern States were not quiet. They had been thrown into a state of suspense and dread by news of the embarkation of troops from Europe, now thrown out of employment by the general peace. The point of attack was not known ; of course, the whole seaboard was in fear and excitement. Exertions were made to increase the defence of all exposed situations. Early in Eighth ^onth, (Aug.,) a British fleet, consisting of many vessels of war and transports, conveying a large number of troops, arrived in the Chesapeake, and proceed- ed to the mouth of the Potomac. Here the forces were divided. A squadron entered that river and endeavored to force a passage ; another division was sent to threaten Balti- more ; while the remainder, under General Boss, proceeded up the Patuxent to the town of Benedict, where five thou- sand troops were landed on the 19th of Eighth month, (Aug.) The flotilla of gun-boats in that river was burned to prevent its falling into the hands of the British. General Ross advanced toward Washington. The Amer- icans retreated before him, and concentrated their forces at Bladensburg, five miles from the city. On the 24th, the British commenced the attack. Many of the militia fled on the approach of danger. The British were at first repulsed by a body • of seamen and mariners under Commodore Barney, but soon rallied, and put the Americans to flight. The American forces then assembled on the heights not far from the Capitol in Washington ; but General Winder, who commanded them, considering them unable to make any effectual resistance, retreated to Georgetown. The President, heads of department, and most of the inhabitants then left the city. WAR OF 1812. 381 Burning of Washington. At eight o'clock, the British entered. Terms of eapitula- 1814 tion were offered; that the city might be ransomed by the payment of a sum of money, equal to the value of the public and private property which it contained, and that then the British troops should retire unmolested. As the civil and military authorities had left the city, there was no power to enter into such an engagement, even if the desire to do so had existed. General Ross immediately proceeded to destroy the city, and at nine o'clock it was set on fire. The Capitol, Presi- dent's house, offices of the heads of departments, and many private buildings were burned. The Post Office was the only public building that escaped. This wanton act was declared to be in retaliation for the burning of York and other places in Canada. It occasioned feelings of strong resentment throughout the country. Having accomplished this object, General Ptoss retired and reembarked his troops. The squadron which entered the Potomac was suffered to pass up to Alexandria without opposition. The inhabitants of that place agreed to a capitulation, by which all their merchandise, shipping and naval stores were surrendered. Having collected their booty, including the stores of provi- sions, of which this place was the depot, the squadron returned to the bay. The renjaining detachment of the British was repulsed by the Americans, and returned without accomplishing anything of importance. The next object of attack was Baltimore. On the 12th of Ninth month, (Sept.,) a British squadron sailed into Balti- more harbor, and commenced landing the troops, five thou- sand in number, at North Point, fourteen miles below the city. The Americans had prepared themselves for this attack. The 382 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Baltimore attacked. British repulsed. 1814 troops who had recently been engaged near" Washington, with the militia of Maryland and some from Pennsylvania and Virginia, had assembled for the defence of the city. A de- tachment of three thousand five hundred militia was sent for- ward to impede the progress of the invaders. In a skirmish which ensued about eight miles from the city. General Ross, the British commander, was killed. The forces continued to advance under Colonel Brook. At half past three, an attack on the American detachment was commenced by the firing of cannon. One of the militia regiments gave way, and the Americans withdrew toward the city, where the main body awaited an attack. When within two miles of the American lines, the British halted to await the result of an attack on Forts McHenry and Covington, situated on a narrow part of the Patapsco, at its entrance into Baltimore harbor. On the 13th, at sunrise, they were bombarded by the British squadron. On the fol- lowing night, twelve hundred men were detached to storm the works, and the battle raged furiously until morning. The fire from the fort was severe. One of the British vessels was sunk, with all on board. Finding that the forts could not be overcome, the British admiral, after consulting with Colonel Brook, resolved that all the forces should be withdrawn. Accordingly, the troops were rcembarked, and the whole fleet sailed down the Chesapeake. In Eighth month, (Aug.,) three British ships of war arrived at Pensacola, bringing three hundred soldiers, with military stores and provisions. The troops were allowed to take possession of the Spanish fort, and the British com- mander soon after issued a proclamation, calling on the in- habitants of Louisiana, Kentucky and Tennessee, to unite with him in the prosecution of the war. With this inforraa- WAR OF 1812. 383 General Jackson attacks Pensacola. tion, General Jackson, commander of the American army in 1814 the south-west, also learned that a great additional force was daily expected at Pensacola. A band of pirates had established themselves on the island of Barrataria, near the mouth of the Mississippi. All efforts on the part of the American government to seize these out- laws had hitherto proved unavailing, and the shipping con- tinued to be exposed to their depredations. The British commander at Pensacola now endeavored to engage them in his service, and communicated at the same time, important information with regard to his plans. Although a reward had been offered for the head of Lafitte, their chief, he could not be induced to act the part of a traitor, but immediately communicated the whole to the governor of Louisiana. A pardon was offered to the band, on condition of their engaging in the defence of the country. The proposal was gladly accepted, and important services were performed by the Bar- ratarians. In Ninth month, (Sept.,) an expedition was sent from Pensacola, then in possession of Spain, against Fort Bowyer, which commands the entrance to Mobile, where Jackson had established his head-quarters. The expedition was unsuc- cessful, and returned to Pensacola, having lost a large number in killed and wounded. General Jackson had remonstrated with the governor of Pensacola against his conduct in harboring the British, and allowing them to fit out expeditions against the .United States from that port. The remonstrance had no effect, and the possession of that post by the British being injurious to the United States, Jackson concluded to dislodge them. Early in Eleventh month, (Nov.,) he appeared before the town, and immediately sent a flag to the governor, communicating the 384 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. General Jackson at New Orleans. 1814 object of his visit. The flag was fired upon from the batteries, and was recalled. The fort was then storraed and possession obtained. The British were compelled to retreat to their shipping, effecting their escape by blowing up a fortress be- longing to the Spaniards. The governor surrendered the town and forts, and soon after signed a capitulation by whicb Pensacola and its dependencies were delivered to the United States. A projected attack on New Orleans induced General Jack- son to repair thither with his troops. The British had for some time been assembling their forces in the West Indies, in preparation, and all who could be spared from service on ' the coast of the United States, were ordered there, as well as large reinforcements from England. Jackson arrived in New Orleans on the 2d of Twelfth month, (Dec.) He found the inhabitants in a state of confusion and alarm. The popula- tion was composed of various nations, and there had hardly been time, since the transfer of Louisiana to the United States, for a strong national attachment to be formed. Many of the inhabitants were friendly to the British ; the city was not well defended ; it could be approached from various quarters, none of which were strongly fortified, and many of the militia had refused to turn out. General Jackson immediately adopted ef&cient means for the protection of the city. He visited the exposed points, and encouraged the citizens to leave no place unfortified. Batteries were constructed to guard the approach by the Mis- sissippi, and the inlets were obstructed by various means. The spirits of the inhabitants revived, and many expressed their intention of repelling the ]5ritish or dying for their country. The 3Iississippi flows into the Gulf of Mexico by several WAR OF 1812. 385 The Bricish obtain possession of the lakes. Martial law. channels. One of these, leaving the river above the city, 1814 runs east and forms in its course Lakes Ponchartrain and Borgne. On the 14th of Twelfth month, (Dec.,) the Brit- ish entered this channel and attacked the American flotilla, stationed for its defence. Their force amounted to twelve hundred men. After a resistance of one hour, against num- bers far greater than their own, the Americans surrendered. They lost forty men in killed and wounded; the British were supposed to have lost three hundred. The British thus ob- tained the command of Lakes Ponchartrain and Borgne. This defeat induced Jackson to make use of more vigorous measures on land. All the militia were called out, the negroes were set to work on the fortifications, and disaffection continuing and threatening danger to the safety of the city, on the 16th, martial law was proclaimed by General Jackson, after consultation with the governor and other leading citi- zens. This extremely rigid measure relieved the city from the disaffected, and the citizens labored day and night at the fortifications. The bayous and canals leading to New Orleans had mostly been obstructed with great care. One pass, however, called the bayou Bienvenue, little known, and used only by fisher- men, was left open and but slightly guarded. Guided by some traitors, the British, having effected a landing from tho lakes, of which they now had possession, and having made the American guard prisoners, marched on and reacfied the bank of the Mississippi, a few miles below the city, on tho afternoon of the 23d. Jackson immediately collected about two thousand mea, and marched toward their camp in the evening. The dark- ness preventing a discovery, a furious and sudden attack was made upon them, both by land and from the schooner Caro- 33 386 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Fortifications constructed, Attacked. 1814 line. The camp fires of the British served as a light to direct the attack. These were soon extinguished, and the British made a vigorous resistance. They were however thrown into some confusion, and had lost nearly three hundred in killed, wounded and missing, when General Jackson withdrew his troops to a stronger position near the city. On the east side of the river, reaching to an extensive cypress swamp, a ditch had been dug, which now contained five feet of water. On its northern bank, entrenchments were thrown up, and large quantities of cotton bales so arranged as to protect the troops from the fire of the British. The works were well mounted with artillery, and on the western side of the river, a heavy battery was constructed. 1815 On the 28th of Twelfth month, (Dec.,) and on the 1st of First month, (Jan.,) vigorous attacks were made upon these fortifications, with rockets, bombs and heavy cannonades. The fire from the Americans was so destructive, that in both instances, the British troops were withdrawn. Shortly after- ward both armies were reinforced. The Americans then numbered seven thousand men, the British about twelve thousand. The British commander now resolved to exert all his strength in a combined attack on the Americans on both sides of the river. With great labor and industry he opened a canal con- nectino- Lake Bor2;ne with the main channel of the Missis- sippi. He was thus enabled to transport a part of his boats and troops, to assist in the attack. This work was completed on the 7th of First month, (Jan.) « Early in the morning of the 8th, the main body of the Brit- ish moved forward to the assault. While approaching, show- ers of grape shot were fired upon them, and when sufficiently near, a heavy and incessant cannonade was opened, which WAR OF 1812. 387 Battle of New Orleans. Treaty of peace. caused great slaughter in their ranks. They continued to 1815 approach^ fresh troops supplying the place of those who fell. When within reach of the American small arms, the fire was so destructive, that the British retreated in confusion. In endeavoring to rally them, their commander. General Pack- enham, was killed. The British columns approached a second and a third time, within a short distance of the ditch. In both cases the slaughter was terrible. They fell back, and retreated in confusion to their camp. Already the field was covered with the bodies of nearly two thousand dead and wounded. The Americans lost but seven killed and six wounded. On the west side of the river, the Americans, after some resistance, fled and were pursued by the Britishy until, learn- ing the defeat of the main army, they recrossed the river and returned to their intrenchraents. The British fleet, on leaving New Orleans, proceeded to Mobile Bay, and took possession of Fort Bowyer. Further acts of hostility were arrested by the arrival of news of peace. The commissioners on the part of the American government to treat for peace, proceeded to Ghent soon after their appoint- ment. The British commissioners did not arrive until after long delay. At first they were exacting in their demands, but when intelligence of more recent occurrences in America reached Europe, their views changed, and a treaty was signed by the commissioners at Ghent^ on the 24th of Twelfth month, (Dec.,) 1814, and immediately after, ratified by the Prince Regent of England. On the 17th of Second month, (Feb.,) 1815, it was ratified by the President of the United States, with the approbation of the Senate. All grounds for the war had been removed by the restora- tion of peace in Europe. The orders in council had been 388 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Terms of the treaty. 1815 repealed, and no motive now existed with the British govern- ment for the interruption of American commerce and the im- pressment of American seamen. By the treaty, the conquests on both sides were restored, with the exception of the islands in the Bay of Passamaquoddy, which were left for future set- tlement. Provision was made for arranging the boundaries between the United States and Canada. All hostilities were to cease with the Indians, provided they desisted from war- like operations, and both parties agreed to use their best en- deavors to promote the abolition of the slave trade. A treaty to reflate commerce between the two countries was signed some months after, by both parties. CHAPTER XXIX. FROM THE TREATY OF PEACE WITH ENGLAND IN 1815, TO THE MEXICAN: CONTROVERSY. War with Algiers, v The Algerines having taken the opportunity afforded by 1815 the war with Great Britain, to make depredations on American commerce, war was declared against them early in the spring. A squadron, under Commodore Decatur, sailed from New York on the 20th of Fourth month, (April,) and captured two Algerine vessels before reaching Algiers. In these engagements they took four hundred and six prisoners. The appearance of the squadron so intimidated the Dey, that he was induced to sign a treaty of amity with the United States. All claims for tribute from this government were relinquished ; all Americans in slavery were to be given up without ransom, on the restoration of the prisoners recently taken by the American squadron. Vessels of either party, if attacked within cannon shot of a fort of the other, were to be protected ; and in case of war again breaking out between the two gov- ernments, prisoners should not be made slaves, but should be treated as prisoners of war, and exchanged accordingly. These were the principal stipulations of the treaty. An American consul was left at Algiers, and Decatur proceeded to Tunis. Commodore Bainbridge having been sent out in charge of a relief squadron, arrangements were soon after made for the security of American commerce in the Mediter- ranean. 390 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. General Jackson sent against the Seminoles. 181 C The charter of the Bank of North America, established by Washington, having expired, the Bank of the United States was instituted, with a charter for twenty years. Indi- ana was admitted into the Union, during this year, forming the nineteenth State ; and treaties of peace were concluded with several tribes of Indians. President Madison's second term of office being about to expire, James Monroe was ^ elected to succeed him, and Daniel* D. Tompkins, of New York, was elected to the office of Vice-President. They entered upon their duties on the 4th of Third month, (March,) 1817. 1817 The Spanish provinces in America were at this time in a state of revolt, the United States maintaining a neutral posi- tion. In the summer of 1817, some adventurers, claiming to act under the authority of the revolted colonies, took posses- sion of Amelia Island, at the mouth of St. Mary's river, which forms the boundary between Florida and Georgia. This island had been a subject of negotiation with Spain, for territory of equal value lying west of the Mississippi. As it was now made a channel for the introduction of slaves into the United States, as well as a harbor for fugitive slaves from the neighboring States, and a port for smuggling, the American government deemed itself authorized to dispossess the intruders, which was accordingly done. The Seminole Indians, residing on the borders of the United States and Florida, had rendered themselves obnox- ious to the people of the South, by affording an asylum 1818 to runaway slaves, and had also made hostile incur- sions into the neiojhborino; States. General Jackson was therefore ordered to proceed against them with a military force. He followed theiu to their retreats, and several skir- mishes took place. His whole force, including friendly Creek HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 391 Pensacolata,ken. Purchase of Florida. Indians, amounted to three or four thousand. The Spanish fort of St. Mark was taken, the garrison not having pre- served neutrality ; the country was scoured in pursuit of the Indians, and their towns were destroyed. Jackson then proceeded to Pensacola. Some of the Indians had obtained provisions in the town, and on the ground that protection had been afforded them, the American army took possession of the place, with a fort near it, and sent the Spanish authorities and garrison to Havana. This occupancy of neutral territory occasioned much dissatisfaction in Congress, and the town and fortress were ordered by the President to be given up, whenever a sufficient Spanish force should demand them. In the year 1819, the Spanish minister at Washington 1819 agreed to cede to the United States, East and West Florida, with the adjacent islands, for the sum of five millions of dollars, a consideration having been allowed for Spanish spoliations. The Spanish government raised complaints on various points, and many delays occurred before king Ferdi- nand could be induced to sign the treaty. It was finally ratified in 1821. The Spanish residents who chose to remain were absolved from their allegiance to Spain. The posses- sion of West Florida was formally relinquished to General Jackson, who had been appointed governor of that portion of the province, and that of East Florida, to Colonel Robert Butler, American commissioner„ In 1821, James Monroe was inaugurated President for a ^321 second term of four years. During his administration, five States were admitted into the Union, in as many consecutive years; Mississippi in 1817, Illinois in 1$18, Alabama in 1819, Maine, formerly attached to Massachusetts, in 1820, and Missouri in 1821. The question of the admission of the 392 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Admission of Missouri. Treaties with Indian tribes. 1821 latter State caused great excitement, not only in Congress, but throughout the country. The existence of slavery in the country had given rise to conflicting interests between the North and South. The northern members of Congress were generally in favor of the exclusion of slavery from the new State, the southern members w^ere strenuous that it should be allowed ; each being desirous of holding or retaining the balance of power in the federal government. The North yielded, and Missouri was added to the list of slave-holding States, with a compromise establishing the parallel of 36" 30', as the boundary between the slave and free States, west of the Mississippi. In 1819, a territorial govern- ment was formed for Arkansas, and in 1822, one for Florida. James Monroe's second term of office having nearly expired, an election was held for his successor. Four candi- dates were proposed, and the choice devolved on the House of Eepresentatives. They selected John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts. John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, had been elected Vice-President. During the first two years of the administration of John Quincy Adams, treaties were concluded with several Indian tribes. The Creeks ceded the land occupied by them in the State of Georgia, the United States agreeing to give them an equal number of acres west of the Mississippi, in a favorable situation, which a deputation from the Indians was to be allowed to explore previously. The Kansas ceded most of their lands, lying within the limits of the State of Missouri. The United States agreed to pay them thirty-five hundred dollars yearly for twenty years, to provide for their education and civilization, and to supply them with a stipulated quantity of agricultural stock. A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 393 The Tariff. New treaty with Great Britain. similar treaty was made with the Great and Little Osages, residing mostly in Arkansas. During tlie year 1825, a treaty of amity, commerce and 1825 navigation was made with the Republic of Columbia ; and in the following year, one was concluded with the king of Den- mark, and another with theconfederationof Central America. The subject of establishing a Tariff of duties on imports, had been before Congress, during the administration of James Monroe. It was again brought up under John Quincy Adams, and in 1828, a bill passed for the protection of American 1828 manufactures, by charging a duty on the importation of such articles from foreign countries as were manufactured in the United States. The bill passed Congress by a small majority, and was much opposed by members from the Southern States, who had no manufacturing interest, as well as by others, who considered it detrimental to commerce. In the autumn of 1828, General Andrew Jackson was elected President of the United States, and John C. Calhoun reelected Vice-President. The inauguration took place in the following spring. At the next session of Congress, the Tariff bill again 1289 came under consideration. General Jackson, in his message, however, advocated sufficient protection to home manufactures, to enable them to compete with foreign productions, and no bill for the reduction of the duties could be carried through Congress. In 1830, a new treaty of commerce was made with Great 1830 Britain, which removed the restrictions previously existing, by which no American vessels had been allowed to trade with the British colonies^ on the payment of any duty whatever, nor could British vessels from the colonies enter the ports of the United States. 894 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. General Scott sent against the Indians. In the same year, a treaty with Turkey was signed, which opened to this country the navigation of the Black Sea, and the trade of the Turkish Empire. 1831 In the message of the President to Congress in the autumn of 1831, he announced that the public debt would be liqui- dated in the year 1833. A bill for the re-charter of the United States Bank passed both Houses by a small majority, after a long debate. Jackson had formed the opinion that the bank was prejudicial to the interests of the country, and returned the bill without affixing his signature, with a com- munication stating his reasons for so doing. A majority of two-thirds in both Houses, which the Constitution requires when the signature of the President is withheld, could not be obtained. The bank therefore was obliged to close its operations, at the expiration of its first charter in 1836. 1832 In the spring of 1832, a body of troops under General Scott was sent against the Winnebagoes and other neighboring tribes of Indians, who had committed acts of hostility on the north western frontier, arising partly from the injustice of their white neighbors, and partly from dissatisfaction with the stipulations of a treaty made with them in 1823. The war was closed by the capture of the celebrated chief, Black Hawk. He, with others of the Indians, was taken to Wash- ington and several other cities, to impress them with the strength of the country. They were then allowed to return home. Treaties were made with several Indian tribes, by which valuable lands were ceded to the United States, the Indians removing farther west. During a great part of the session the previous winter, Congress was occupied with a discussion of the Tariff bill. An act was finally passed which lowered the duties on some articles. The change was not sufficient to satisfy the Southern HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATiiS. 395 Nullifiers. States which had not engaged in manufactures, and where the 1832 raw material only was produced. In Georgia and the Caro- linas a determined opposition to the bill was manifested. In South Carolina a convention assembled from all parts of the State, and declared the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 as null and void, and not binding on the citizens of the State ; that if the United States should attempt to enforce them, the Union should be dissolved. The upholders of these procee- ings were styled Nullifiers. The Legislature of South Carolina passed an act authorizing the governor to repel force by force. While this excitement existed in South Carolina, the meeting of Congress again drew near, and all parties anxiously awaited the result. In the recess, General Jackson had been reelected President, and Martin Van Buren, to succeed John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, as Vice-President. Soon after the assembling of Congress, the Pi'esident issued a proclamation, in which he stated his views of the Constitution and laws applicable to the measures of the South Carolinians, asserted the right and power of the general government to regulate commerce and imposts, called upon the people of South Carolina to desist from their opposition, and upon the people of the United States to support him in the execution of the laws. The friends of the Union were immediately united in the support of the President. South Carolina, however, was not intimidated, and John C. Calhoun, one of their leadino; states- men, and former Vice-President of the United States, was elected to the Senate. In order to conciliate the Nullifiers, a bill was introduced into Congress for reducing the duties, after the 3d of Third month, (March,) 1833, and the Nullifiers consented to postpone any action on the resolution of the convention of citizens of South Carolina, until after that period. 396 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. New Tariff bill. Bank of the Unitt-d States. 1833 The bill, however, did not satisfy either party, and two months were spent in debates. While the tariff was under discussion, a bill for more effectually enforcing the collection of the duties passed both Houses of Congress and received the sanction of the President. The difficulties of the tariff wore at length overcome by the introduction of a bill by Henry Clay of Kentucky, which provided for a gradual reduction of the duties until 1842. This bill was supported by J. C. Calhoun and other southern members, passed both Houses of Congress, and received the siirnature of the President. On the 4th of Third month, (March,) General Jackson delivered his inaugural address, on commencing the second terra of his presidency. The principal subjects were the im- portance of the union of the States, and the dangers that would be incurred by a separation. President Jackson's hostility to the Bank of the United States led to the transfer, in this year, of the government de- posits from this institution to a number of smaller banks. His opinion was that ^^tensive moneyed corporations were detrimental to the interests of the country. He endeavored also to substitute, to a very great extent, a metallic currency for bank notes. The removal of the deposits, the President defended in a communication addressed to the cabinet ; but it was contended by many, that the measure was unconstitu- tional. Mucb commercial embarrassment was the consequence. The bank was obliged to diminish its issues and discounts. This was felt more or less in all parts of the country ; busi- ness operations were to some extent suspended, property de- preciated, and bankruptcies necessarily followed. The next session of Congress was mostly occupied with discussions connected with the late act of the President. Petitions flowed into the House of Representatives for the HISTORY OF THE UIMITED STATES. 397 ' Difficulties with France. Mediation of England. restoration of the public funds to the Bank of the United 1834 States ; but the majority of the members upheld the Presi- dent. The Senate was hostile to his measures, and a resolu- tion "was passed censuring his conduct, and pronouncing it unconstitutional. Although the country suffered much for a time, in conse- quence of the opposition of General Jackson to the Bank of the United States, yet commercial operations soon accommo- dated themselves to the new arrangement, and business resumed its wonted activity. By a treaty made with France in 1831, that government agreed to pay to the United States, the sum of twenty-five millions of francs, as indemnity for spoliations on our commerce, committed under the Berlin and Milan decrees of Napoleon. The amount had not been paid, and in the President's mes- sage, at the assembling of Congress in Twelfth month, (Dec.,) 1834, he suggested the propriety of making reprisals on French commerce, in case of further delay. The Senate was opposed to any hostile measures ; the House of Representa- tives, after much discussion, agreed that the execution of the 1835 treaty should be insisted on. The French government re- called its minister, and the American minister at Paris was requested to return home, in the event of the continued refusal of the French government to pay the money. A bill soon after passed the French Chambers, authorizing the pay- ment of the money as soon as satisfactory explanation had been made to France, of the President's language. In this state of affairs. Great Britain tendered her mediation, and both parties were willing to accept the offer. Thus, by the intercession of a friendly power, the differences were ad- justed, which might have terminated in war between the two countries. 34 398 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Seminole Tvar. 1835 The Seminole Indians in Florida continued to harbor fu- gitive slaves. The character of their territory afforded pro- tection to the refugees, and it was with difficulty that any who escaped to the Indians could be retaken. This kept up a continuous feeling of hostility between the Indians and the white inhabitants of the neighboring States. In the summer of 1835, a party of Seminoles crossed the bounds of their land, for the purpose of hunting. They were observed by some white men, who commenced flogging them with their whips used for driving the slaves. The Indians were exas- perated and fired on the whites. The fire was returned. Three white men were killed ; one Indian was killed and another wounded. This affray was the commencement of a series of hostilities which led to a war with the Seminoles that continued for seven years, and cost the country forty millions of dollars. The greater part of the regular army, with a large body of volunteers, was sent against the Indians. The Creeks and several other tribes united with the Seminoles. Great num- bers of them were killed, others captured, and many were finally transported to the western territories of the United States. During the administration of Andrew Jackson, the public debt was extinguished, and the money due from the French government for depredations under the Berlin and Milan decrees being received, caused a large surplus in the treas- ury. This money was deposited in State banks, which had arisen on the downfall of the Bank of the United States. In the summer of 1836, Congress passed a bill for distribut- ing the surplus revenue money among the several States of the Union. This bill received the sanction of the President, and the money was accordingly apportioned, and paid by HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 399 Texas. Finances of the country. instalments. During this year Arkansas was admitted into 1836 the Union, under the Missouri compromise, as a slave-hold- ing State. General Jackson's second terra of office having expired, Martin Yan Buren, of New York, was elected to succeed him. Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, was elected Yice-Presi- dent. During the following session of Congress, a bill was 1837 introduced recognizing the independence of Texas. That country was formerly a province of Mexico, but had declared itself independent, and a war on that account still existed between Mexico and Texas. The consideration of the bill in Congress was postponed. A salary was however appro- priated for a Texas charge d' affaires, whenever the President should think proper to appoint one ; which he did before retiring from office. The finances of the country were at this time much de- ranged. A spirit of spsculation had arisen, caused mainly by the bauks having made large issues of notes based on the deposits of public money held by them. This caused a large circulation of paper money, and sales of unappropriated public lands took place to an unprecedented extent. These lands were paid for in bank notes, which being conveyed to the banks by the land agents, were imme- diately put in circulation again, the government being credited by the banks with the amount of the notes thus received. Many of the banks, especially those in the Western States, were incurring a debt which greatly exceeded their immediate means of payment. Much uneasiness was felt, lest they should be unable to redeem their obligations, and the credits to the government be of no avail. A treasury circular was there- fore issued, which required the payment for lands to be made in specie, and prohibited all sales of public lands to any but settlers. 400 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The banks suspend specie payment. 1837 The inauguration of the new President took place on the 4th of Third month, (March,) 1837. The spirit of specula- tion had been carried to such an extent, that it was now suc- ceeded by a general feeling of distrust. The storm at length burst. Extensive failures occurred in the principal cities, and spread throughout the country. A general panic fol- lowed, which increased the demands on the banks. Being unable to meet them, a suspension of specie payment ensued. The value of bank notes being exceedingly uncertain, the Secretary of the Treasury gave orders to the revenue collec- tors to receive nothing but specie, or paper convertible into specie on demand, in payment of revenue bonds ; that is, bonds given by merchants in lieu of immediate payment of duties on imported goods. The distress was felt among all classes. Public works were stopped ; the manufacturer ceased operations. Thousands were thrown out of em- ployment, whose daily labor was the maintenance of their families. In consequence of the state of the finances, an extra ses- sion of Congress was held. A bill was passed deferring the payment of the fourth instalment of surplus revenue to the States until the commencement of the year 1839. Another bill authorized the issue of treasury notes equal to any defi- ciency in the revenue that might ensue, with four millions of dollars additional ; the rate of interest to be fixed by the Secretary of the Treasury, and not to exceed six per cent. A bill also passed, allowing an extension of the payment of revenue bonds, and- one authorizing the warehousing in bonds of imported goods, for a term not exceeding three years; that is, the depositing of these goods in government storehouses for three years, or until the importer should be able to pay the duty. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 401 Sub-Treasury. Rebellion in Canada. Border diflBlcuIties. A bill, organizing a Sub-Treasury system, was introduced 183" and warmly debated, but deferred for future consideration. By this bill, the funds of the government, instead of being deposited in banks, were to be placed in the hands of assist- ant treasurers, located in various places, who were .to pay them out, on the order, of the Secretary of the Treasury, under the appropriation of Congress. In the Report of this officer, presented at the following session of Congress, the receipts for the year were estimated at nearly twenty-three millions five hundred thousand dollars. In the autumn Congress again met, at the usual time. Its attention was in part occupied by difficulties which had oc- eured on the borders of the United States and Canada, in consequence of a rebellion in that province. The President had forbidden by proclamation all interference by American citizens, and ordered the United States Marshal to execute warrants of arrest against all who should violate the neutral- ity of the nation. To preserve the peace, Gen. Scott was sent to the frontier with a portion of the New York troops. The burning of a small American steamboat, called the Caroline, by order of the commander of the Canadian militia, caused a great excitement. She was at anchor at Fort Schlossen, on the Niagara river, opposite Navy Island, where a body of insurgents had collected. The commander of the Canada militia suspected her of having conveyed ammunition and supplies to the Tcbels, and on that account despatched a party of militia, who, after an affray in which several persons were killed, made themselves masters of the vessel, and set- ting her on fire, suffered her to drift down the stream, and to pass over the Falls of Niagara. The circumstance gave rise to a correspondence between the Secretary of State and the British minister at Washington, which did not result in any 34* 402 niSTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. North-eastern boundary. 1838 action. After a long debate in Congress, a bill passed for the preservation of neutrality. In the course of the session, the Sub-Treasury bill passed the Senate after a full debate, but was lost in the House. A bill granting a right of preemption to first settlers on unoc- cupied public lands, passed both Houses. During the year 1838, the banks throughout the country generally resumed specie payments, and credit revived, giving the usual life to business. A convention was held at Wash- ington for fixing the boundary between this country and Texas. The Cherokees removed west of the Mississipi, re- linquishing to the United States the land they had occupied. A dispute had for some time been going on with the British government, respecting the boundary line between the State of Maine and the British Provinces. At times it assumed a threatening aspect. Early in this year, a party of British subjects invaded the disputed territory^ and cut down a large quantity of timber. An armed force was immediately sent to drive off the trespassers, and to prevent tlie carrying away of the timber ; after which the party was to return. The American land agent, however, as he was about uniting with the agent appointed by the governor of New Brunswick, in watching the trespassers, was arrested. In retaliation the English officer was arrested by the American party, and con- veyed to Bangor. An excited correspondence followed between the governors of New Brunswick and of Maine, and preparations were made by the Province and State for hostilities. Both the prisoners were soon after liberated on parole, and the discussion of the aflBiir was transferred to Washington. After a long debate, the subject was referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs, who recoirimenfled that the President should be instructed to HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 403 General Harrison. His death. repel any invDsion of the territory of the United States, and that appropriations should be made for fortifications, and for the building and repair of vessels of war. Commissioners were afterward sent out from England to examine the dis- puted territory. In the next session of Congress, twenty-five thousand dollars were appropriated toward the expenses of the survey. The excitement subsided, but the difficulty was not finally adjusted until 1842. Toward the close of 1838, the United States Bank once more suspended specie payments. The example was followed by many other banks, again causing dismay in the commercial world. In the autumn of 1840, Gen. Wm. Henry Harrison, of Ohio, was elected President^ and John Tyler, of Virginia, Vice-President. The inauguration took place in Third Month, (March,) following. The new President had been elected by a large majority. 1841 Great confidence was felt in his ability and integrity, and strong hopes were entertained by his friends that the commer- cial and financial relations of the country would be restored to their former healthful condition. In the ordering of an overruling Providence, these high anticipations were never to be realized. General Harrison died at Washington, on the morning of the 4th of Fourth month, (April,) 1841, just one month after his inauguration, in the sixty -ninth year of his age. A national fast was pro- claimed, and demonstrations of the affection and respect of the people took place throughout the Union. According to the Constitution, John Tyler now succeeded to the office of President. His views of the policy of the government were not in accordance with those of General Harrison. By his message at the opening of Congress, it 404 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. President Tyler. 1841 appeared that the population of the country was seventeen millions, having doubled in twenty-three years. A special session of Congress had been called. One im- portant object was the passing of a bill for the establishment of a new Bank of the United States. The measure was defeated by the refusal of the President's signature. A second bill was prepared, and another exercise of the veto power took place. The members of the cabinet conse- quently all resigned their offices, with the exception of Daniel Webster, Secretary of State. They were the same who had been chosen by Glen. Harrison, and had been retained in office by President Tyler. Before the close of the session a bill passed Congress, and received the signature of the Presi- dent, for the distribution of the proceeds of the public lands. All danger arising from the difficulties in Canada was not yet over. Alexander McLeod had been arrested in New York and committed for trial, on the charge of being concerned in the attack on the Caroline. The British minister demand- ed his release, and signified that the surrender of McLeod was essential to the preservation of good understanding be- tween the two countries. The President refused to release him, and much excitement was felt throughout the country. On trial, however, he was acquitted. The government of Great Britain had united with some other nations for the suppression of the African slave trade ; and each of the parties had conceded to the other the right of search under certain restrictions. The United States would not enter into the arrangement, unwilling, under any circum- stances, to grant the right of search. The slave trade was prosecuted to a very great extent ; and in order to prevent detection, the flag of the United States was soon made use of to carry on this iniquitous traffic. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATE.'?. 405 The Amistad. Toward the close of the year 1839, a great degree of interest was excited in the minds of the American people, especially those opposed to slavery, by the seizure in Long Island Sound, of the Amistad, schooner, and imprisonment of Africans on board. On the passage of this vessel from Havana to Principe, employed in conveying some newly imported Africans, the Africans rose in revolt, killed the captain, and obtained command, some of the sailors having escaped in a boat. Montez, one of the claimants, was directed to steer for the " rising sun." This he did during day- light, but every night changed the vessel's course, and steered for the United States. The schooner was on the coast some time, and was frequently seen, and at length seized in Long Island Sound, by a government officer, and taken into the port of New London. The Africans were committed to jail in New Haven, to answer to the charge of murder. But at the meeting of the Circuit Court of the United States, the Grand Jury found that as the offence was conmiitted on board a Spanish vessel on the high seas, the men were not amenable to our laws for the act. The Spanish claim- ants demanded that the negroes should be given up for trial, in a country subject to the crown of Spain. This step, which would have been equivalent to remanding them to slavery or death, was declined. They were continued in prison for a long time, and finally set at liberty by the Supreme Court of the United States, and sent to their native country by some Christian friends, who took advantage of this opportunity to establish a mission at Kaw-mendi. Mnr- gree, one of the Amistad negroes, was converted to Chris- tianity in Africa, sent to this country to be educated, and after a residence of upwards of two years, returned to Africa, where she became a teacher in a school of eighty native children. 406 HISTORY OF TUE UNITED STATES. Brig Creole. New Tariff bill. The Spanish minister in this country has applied several times for compensation for the value of the Amistad negroes ; and although the Senate has at two different times passed a till to that effect, it has been defeated in the House of Rep- resentatives. A circumstance attendant on the prosecution of the domes- tic slave trade, and which caused much excitement, especially at the South, occurred in 1840. The brig Creole, of Richmond, Virginia, bound for New Orleans, sailed for that port, hav- ing on board one hundred and thirty-five slaves. In the course of the voyage, some of them rose on the crew, mur- dered a passenger, who, by law, owned some of them, and dangerously wounded the captain. Having obtained com- mand of the vessel, it was taken to Nassau, on the Island of New Providence. On arriving, a guard was placed on board, at the request of the American consul, to prevent the escape of the mutineers. They were, however, afterward lib- erated. The governor of the island maintained that the slaves became free on landing in British territory, and that he could not recognize the claim of American owners. 1842 In 1842, the Tariff was again the subject of debate in Congress. A new bill, which passed both Houses, was vetoed by the President. Later in the session, it was modi- fied so as to reduce the duties, and again passed. This bill received the signature of President Tyler. Several subjects of dispute, which remained unsettled, had arisen between England and the United States. In the spring, Lord Ashburton was sent to this country, as a special ambassador, with full powers to make an adjustment of all differences between the t^o governments. A treaty was negotiated with Daniel Webster, Secretary of State, on the part of the United States, and signed by the two plenipotcn- HISTORY OE THE UNITED STATES. 407 New treaty with England. Commissioners from Texas. tiaries, on the 9th of Eighth month, (Aug.,) the treaty to be 1842 duly ratified in London, in six. months from that date. The north-eastern boundary line was definitely settled. It was also stipulated that each of the two governments should maintain, on the coast of Africa, a naval force of not less than eighty guns, for the purpose of enforcing the laws, rights and obligations of the two countries for the suppression of the African slave trade. The parties were also to unite in remonstrances with those powers within whose dominions markets for foreign slaves existed, and to urge upon them the duty of closing such markets. The treaty was ratified by the Senate on the 20th of Eighth month, (Aug.,) soon after which Congress adjourned. The Tariff bill did not yet give satisfaction, and was again 1844 brought before Congress. An attempt to reduce still further the duties on imports, w^as defeated. An application had been made by the government of Texas, for annexation to the United States, and commission- ers were appointed to treat with this nation. The annexa- tion of that large district of country to this government had been a favorite project of the slave-holding interest. The territory from which slave-holding States might be formed, had been reduced to narrow limits by the Missouri compro- mise, and if the formation of free States was continued, from territory north of the prescribed bounds, the North would hold the balance of power in the Senate, and by an increased number of Representatives, would be able to control the government. The rapid increase of population, and the prosperous condition of the north-western States, gave evi- dence that this would be the ca^. A treaty of annexation^ negotiated by the Secretary of State and the commissioners on the part of Texas, was signed by President Tyler, but was rejected by the Senate. 408 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Its annexation desired by the South. 1844 There ■were other motives which influenced the slave-hold- inf' party in the wish to add this territory to the United States. Mexico had abolished slavery in all her dominions ; and so large a district of free country in immediate proximity to the Southern States, would be hostile to the mainte- nance of slavery. The desire to sustain a system of wrong leads to unjust measures ; and it is with mortification that the faithful historian is obliged to delineate the subserviency of this government to the interests of two hundred and fifty thousand slave-holding citizens of the South. It will not be until the rights of the humblest individual, irrespective of color, are sacredly upheld, that this nation will deserve the respect from the civilized world, which her noble institutions might otherwise so signally claim. CHAPTER XXX. THE MEXICAN WAR, WITH SOME OF THE CAUSES WHICH LED TO IT. Aid furnished the Texans, Emigration to Texas from the southern portion of the Union, had been encouraged by citizens in the slave-holding States, and could its independence be obtained, an important step toward its acquisition as a portion of the United States would be accomplished. Accordingly, during the struggle in that country to throw off the government of Mexico, aid was openly furnished the insurgents from the United States, and this government so far manifested its sympathy as to appoint four consuls to reside among them, for the purpose, it would 1835 seem, of facilitating the progress of independence. The remonstrances of the Mexican minister against these violations of neutrality were not sufficiently regarded to prevent a repe- tition and increase of similar acts. At this period in the revolt of Texas, the Cabinet again made overtures, without success, for the purchase of the province from Mexico. From this time the attention of the American government appears to have been turned to some other means of obtaining possession. Early in 1836, General Gaines was sent to the western frontier of the State of Louisiana, ostensibly to prevent the contending parties from entering the territory of the United States. Adventurers were at this time flocking to Texas, 3d 410 niSTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES. United States troops enter Texas. 1836 and Texan agents were organizing, in the Southern States, military forces to assist in the revolt. No directions appear to have been given to General Gaines to prevent the passage of these into Texas. A few months later, the forces under General Gaines were allowed to proceed to Nacogdoches, within the limits of the province ; and on the remonstrance of the Mexican minister, the United States Secretary of State, John Forsyth, replied that " to protect Mexico from Ameri- can Indians, and to protect our frontiers from Mexican Indians, our troops might, if necessary, be sent into the heart of Mexico." There appears to have been no evidence that the Indians contemplated any attack, but a pretext was necessary to explain the occasion of United States troops marching into a neighboring country, at peace with this government. On the 21st of Fourth month, (April,) 1836, the Texans gained an important victory over the Mexicans at San Jacinto, in which Santa Anna, the president of the Mexican republic, was taken prisoner. This battle rendered the result of the war more certain. Mexico was comparatively exhausted, the number of the Texans was rapidly increasing by recruits from the United States, and the independence of the province was scarcely doubtful. For the purpose of adding to the political power of the southern portion of the Union, the slavcholding power desired its annexation to the United States. This step would involve the nation in a war with Mexico, and the opposition to the measure which was felt at the North, was strengthened by the view of this obvious con- sequence. The object of the administration, therefore, hence- forward was to induce Mexico to commence hostilities against the United States, that Texas might be attached to this gov- ernment by right of conquest, and with the unanimous con- sent of her inhabitants. TUE MEXICAN WAR. 411 The Mexican minister leaves Washington. On the pretence of protecting the frontier against the In- 1836 dians, American troops under General Gaines had advanced into Texas. On the 10th of Ninth month, (Sept.,) the Mex- ican minister at Washington wrote to the Secretary of State, affirming that if this invasion was sanctioned by the govern- ment, his mission must terminate. The reply stated that Amer- ican troops were then stationed at Nacogdoches, and orders had been given for them to enter the Mexican territory, in case General Gaines should be satisfied that any Indians, dis- turbing the peace of the iVmerican frontier, were receiving assistance or shelter within the Mexican territory. The min- ister denied any wish on the part of Mexico to excite the Indians against the United States, and formally demanded the withdrawal of the troops from Texas. This demand was promptly refused, and the minister was informed that, by treaty, each party was bound to restrain its own Indians from making hostile incursions upon the territories of the other, and Mexico being unable to fulfil her engagement, the United States had the right, in self-defence, to occupy her ter- ritory. No evidence was offered to show that the frontiers of the United States were menaced by Mexican Indians, and two days subsequently the minister demanded his passports. Thus far the efforts for the suspension of diplomatic inter- course with Mexico were successful. Shortly after the vic- tory at San Jacinto, the Secretary of State forwarded to Pow- hatan Ellis, American minister at Mexico, a list of fifteen complaints against the Mexican government, which he was expected to present without delay ; although the acknowl- edgment was made at the same time, that " the Department is not in possession of proof of all the circumstances of the wrong done in the above cases." Such reparation was to be demanded, " as these accumulated wrongs may be found to 412 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Alleged grievances. 1836 require ;" and if no satisfactory answer were given in three weeks, the minister was to announce that unless redress were afforded without unnecessary delay, his further residence in Mexico would be useless. If this threat were of no avail, he was to notify the government that unless a satisfactory answer were returned in two weeks, he should ask for his passport, and at the expiration of that period, he was to return home, if no satisfaction had been received. It is unnecessary to enumerate the accumulated wrongs complained of. Two of them were settled before the dispatch from the Secretary of State reached Mexico. They were all of comparatively recent occurrence; one of them had stood five years, nine had occurred within twelve months. Proof of the statements could not be produced, and if cor- rect, were injuries for which redress could be sought in the Mexican courts. Not one had been justified by the government. On the 26th of Ninth month, (Sept.,) Ellis laid before the Mexican minister, the thirteen remaining grievances, and was promptly assured that they should be investigated. In less than four weeks afterward, he announced to the govern- ment that unless the wrongs complained of were redressed, without unnecessary delay, his further residence in Mexico would be useless. The next day Ellis received a reply to his communication, stating that to decide on the grievances pre- sented, documents were to be collected from various parts of the republic ; that measures had been taken to procure these documents, and promising that when these were received, the decision of the government would be communicated to him. Notwithstanding this reply, on the 4th of Eleventh month, (Nov.,) Ellis, in pursuance of his instructions, gave notice that unless his complaints were satisfactorily answered, in two weeks, he should demand his passports. TUE MEXICAN WAR. 413 The American minister leaves Mexico. Before the expiration of the allotted time, a final answer 1836 was received. It was stated that by the existing treaty, citi- zens of either country were entitled to bring their grievances before the tribunals of the other ; hence it was unnecessary for their respective governments to interfere to procure that justice for them which the courts of law were ready to afford. Nevertheless the government had not declined to examine the complaints preferred by the minister. The replies to the several charges followed, and would have been entirely satis- factory to a government wishing alone for justice, but the object was to provoke Mexico to a war, that a part of her ter- ritory might be added by conquest to that of the United States, and the slave-holding power thereby strengthened. On the 7th of Twelfth month, (Dec.,) the minister de- manded his passports. The Mexican government desired to know the cause of such a step. Ellis made no reply. Dip- lomatic intercourse between the two countries was thus at an end ; and the way was opened for obtaining by force, satisfaction for alleged grievances. The report of Powhatan Ellis having been received by 1007 President Jackson, he sent a message to Congress, in which he complains of the conduct of Mexico, speaks of the inju- ries that have been committed, the unavailing applications for redress, and considers that these circumstances, independently of the insults offered to this government and to the people, by the late Mexican minister, would justify immediate war. He would, however, give Mexico one more opportunity to atone for the past, and recommended the passage of an act authorizing reprisals, and the use of the naval force of the United States, by the Executive, against Mexico, in the event of her refusal to come to an amicable adjustment of the mat- ters in controversy, upon another demand thereof, made on 35* 414 HISTOEY OP THE UNITED STATES. Texan constitution, 1837 board one of our vessels of war on the coast of Mexico. The proposition of the President was rejected by Congress. The nation was not yet prepared for war. In the mean time the Texans were making exertions to favor the cause of annexation, and holding out greater incen- tives to the South. Within fifteen days after their declara- tion of independence, they adopted a constitution, giving the rights of citizenship to all white emigrants, after a residence of six months, authorizing emigrants to bring their slaves with them, and depriving the legislature of the power to abolish slavery. The importation of all slaves excepting from the United States, was prohibited ; and every negro or mulatto remaining on the soil of Texas was doomed to bondage. By vote of the Texans, Twelfth month, (Dec.,) 1836, their territory was made to include, not only the Mexican province of Texas, but the whole of the territory included between the United States and the Rio Grande, from its source to its mouth ; forming an area for slavery, calculated to strengthen, if annexed to the United States, the slave-holding power in Congress for an indefinite period of years. In the year ISoG, President Jackson sent an official agent into Texas, from whom he received a report, near the close of the year, on the " Political, military, and civil condi- tion of Texas," which he laid before Congress. In this document, the boundaries of the territory claimed by the new government were defined, and the President, in a message accompanying it, stated that the people of Texas had insti- tuted the same form of government with our own, and had openly resolved on obtaining the acknowledgment by the American government of their independence, and declared their intention to seek admission into the Union, as one of the THE MEXICAN WAR. 415 Independence of Texas acknowledged. Federal States. He also stated that the title of Texas to the 1837 territory she claimed, was identified with her independence, and that she asked this government to acknowledge her title, with the avowed design of immediately transferring it to the United States. It was by this time presumed that Mexico would not prob- ably be provoked into war with the United States. The acknowledgment of Texan independence by this government seemed therefore a necessary preliminary to annexation. The people of the free States were opposed to the acquisition of any more slave territory, and great pains were taken to weaken this opposition, or to quiet its apprehensions, by delu- sive assurances that any action on the subject would be postponed. Notwithstanding these assurances, on the first of Third month, (March,) two days before the close of the session of Congress, and in the absence of six members, a resolution passed the Senate, acknowledging the independence of Texas. The resolution afterward passed the House of Kepresenta- tives; and another important step was thus taken toward the acquisition of a large extent of slave-holding territory. Before the adjournment of Congress, a schedule of griev- ances, amounting in number to forty-six, was laid before that body. Thirty-two of these were founded on acts said to have been committed prior to 1832, the date of a treaty of friendship between the two republics, when every thing was considered as settled. The alleged grievances, for which complaint was to be made to the Mexican government, were entrusted to a courier of the Department of State. On the 20th of Seventh month, (July,) he arrived in the city of Mexico, and de- manded redress. Before his arrival, the Mexican govern- 416 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Arbitration. 1837 ment had passed an act, offering to submit the claims of the United States to the arbitration of a friendly power. A minister was also appointed and sent to Washington. Immediately on the recognition of Texan independence by the United States, the new republic appointed a minister plenipotentiary, who arrived in Washington, Eighth month, (Aug.,) 1837. Martin Van Buren had succeeded Jackson as President. A proposition for annexation was made on behalf of the Texan government, and declined on the ground that such a step at the present time would result in war with Mexico. For such a consequence the nation was at that time unprepared. It was known that one-third of the senators would withhold their assent. The Mexican minister, after his appointment, proceeded to Washington, and in Twelfth month, (Dec.,) communicated to the American government, the proposal of Mexico to refer the subjects in controversy to arbitration. At the expiration 1838 of four months, he was informed of the acceptance of the offer by the President. Negotiations were commenced, and it was finally agreed that all the claims should be referred to a board of four commissioners, two of whom were to be appointed by each party. The board were to meet in Washington, and to sit not more than eighteen months. The award of the commissioners was to be final, but the cases in which they could not agree were to be decided by an umpire, to be named by the king of Prussia. 1840 The session of the board commenced on the 17th of Eighth month, (Aug.,) 1840, and in nine months they had decided upon every claim which had been presented, with the neces- sary vouchers, at the opening of the session. At the expira- tion of eighteen months, they were dissolved by the terms of the treaty. The king of Prussia had named his minister at THE MEXICAN WAR. 417 American claims. Wasbington as umpire. The total amount of claims sub- 1840 mitted to tbe commissioners was nearly twelve millions of dollars, of wbich upwards of three millions were presented too late to be examined. Of the remainder, nearly three- fourths of the amount claimed were rejected as not being due, a little over two millions being allowed. Supposing the same proportion of the claims not examined to have been just, the debt due from Mexico would be reduced from upwards of eleven millions, the amount claimed, to about three millions. Two specimens of these claims are given. A. 0. de San- tangelo was a schoolmaster and printer in Mexico. In one of the revolutionary struggles, he was obliged to leave the country, and abandoned his school and press. He fled to New York, where he became a naturalized citizen of the United States, and in that capacity, brought in a bill of $398,690 against the Mexican government for damages. The Mexican commissioners denied that anything was due ; the American commissioners allowed him $83,440. This amount the umpire cut down to $50,000, one-eighth of the demand. $1,170 were claimed for a trunk of wearing apparel, seized by a Mexican Custom House oflicer, with $311.50 inter- est, making $1,481.50. Thewholeclaim was allowed by the American commissioners, and left undecided by the umpire, John Tyler, who had succeeded to the presidency on the death of General Harrison, appointed Waddy Thompson, of 1842 South Carolina, minister to Mexico. He succeeded in nego- tiating a new treaty, by which that nation agreed to pay all the interest then due, and the award itself, in five years, in equal quarterly instalments. It had been provided that the claims might be paid in Mexican treasury notet^. These afterward became much depreciated in value, and Mexico was required by another convention to make payment in specie. The new convention stipulated for another arbitration 418 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. New arbitration treaty. Squadron sent to California. 1842 treaty, and one which was to provide for the settlement of all claims made by the government of Mexico against the United States, as well as those made by the government and citizens of the United States against Mexico. By the treaty, the claims of the two countries were to be referred to a joint commission to sit in Mexico ; the award of an umpire, to be named by the king of Belgium, was to be final. The Senate conditionally ratified the treaty. They changed the place of meeting to \Yashington, and made such alterations in it, that no further notice was taken of it by the Mexican government. The protestations of Mexico against the aid afforded Texas by citizens of the United States with the toleration of their own government were not only entirely disregarded, but the slave-holding power began to look still further. Texas had been the immediate object of ambition. It was now thought that California might be the means of extending slavery to the Pacific Ocean. Considerable settlements of Americans had already been established in that section of eountrv ; and it was now affirmed that they were not safe without the pro- tection of a naval force from the United States. The force, if sent, might fully explore the Gulf of California, which would be a means of employing for a long time one or two vessels. Commodore Jones, a Virginian, was therefore despatched with a squadron to the Pacific, and was instructed to pay par- ticular attention to the examination of the bays and harbors they might visit. On the 19th of Tenth mouth, (Oct.,) 1842, the vessels entered the harbor of Monterey. The Americans immediately proceeded to take possession of the fort, under pretence of anticipating the British government, who, it had been falsely stated, had purchased California from Mexico. No resistance was offered. Proclamations were immediately circulated, THE MEXICAN WAR. 419 Treaty of annexation rejected. printed in the Spanish hinguage, offering liberty of conscience and'security to all. On ascertaining that California had not been sold to Great Britain, Commodore Jones lowered the flag of the United States, apologized to the Mexican com- mander, and withdrew to the vessels. The independence of Texas had now been acknowledged 1843 by France and England. With the latter government, a treaty had been made for the suppression of the African slave trade ; and apprehensions were excited among the slave- holders that if left to herself, owing to emigration from abroad, slavery might be abolished within her borders. They resolved therefore to press immediate annexation. On the 17th of Tenth month, (Oct.,) Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia, then Secretary of State, proposed to the Texan agent a treaty of annexation. The Mexican minister consequently gave notice, that if Texas were received into the Union, he must ask for his passports. On the 22d of Fourth month, (April,) 1844, 1844 the treaty was laid before the Senate, and rejected by that body by a vote of thirty-five to sixteen, a majority of two- thirds being necessary. The Mexican government had not recognized the indepen- dence of Texas, and although hostilities had ceased for some years, the war was not terminated, and Mexico had given evidence of her intention to prosecute it still further. The friends of liberty, after the rejection of the treaty of annexation by the Senate, considered the danger as passed. But what could not be accomplished in a constitutional manner, 1345 was yet done regardless of the Constitution, before the session of Congress closed. A joint resolution of the two Houses of Congress, which requires only a majority in each, was allowed to supersede a treaty. This in the present crisis might be effected. A presidential election had taken place, and James 420 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Texas annexed. 1845 K. Polk, a warm advocate for annexation, would succeed to the presidency on the 4th of Third month, (March,) 1845. The partisans of Texas gained strength by his arrival in Wash- ington, and on the 1st of Third month, the important ques- tion was decided, after a severe struggle and with a small majority, by the passage of a joint resolution in both Houses of Congress, authorizing the annexation of Texas to the Fed- eral Union, as one of the States. A messenger was imme- diately despatched to Texas. Her consent to the measure was obtained, and on the 22d of Twelfth month, (Dec.,) she was formally enrolled as one of the States of this Confederacy. The consequences of this unconstitutional proceeding have not yet become fully developed, and it has been remarked by a distinguished citizen, "Ages may not see the catastrophe of the tragedy, the first scene of which we have been so ready to enact." One addition having been made to the territory of the United States, the leaders of the administration party began more openly to turn their attention to California. In order to obtain possession of this large territory an attempt to nego- tiate with Mexico was first tried. Diplomatic intercourse between the two countries being suspended, an envoy was sent to Mexico, with full powers to adjust all questions in dis- pute between the two governments. The Mexican govern- ment, regarding the annexation of Texas to the United States as an act of war, had only consented to receive a commissioner to settle the dispute concerning that province. When, there- fore, it was ascertained that the envoy had come as a minister plenipotentiary, and not as a commissioner to offer reparation for injury done to Mexico by the annexation of Texas to the United States, the Mexican government refused to receive him. Previously to the information of this refusal being received THE MEXICAN WAR. 421 Aggressions on Mexico. at Washington, United States troops, under General Taylor, 1845 were ordered to march to the Rio Grande. This movement not only laid Texas open to the troops, but also parts of New Mexico, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas, which Texas, after the victory at San Jacinto, had been emboldened to claim as a part of her territory. The object as given in the President's orders, was "to repel invasion, and to protect what, in the event of annexation^ will be our western frontier." At the time these orders were sent, the consent of Texas to the annexation resolutions of Congress had not reached Washing- ton. In addition to the regular troops placed under the com- mand of General Taylor, requisitions were made upon the governors of five of the slave-holding States for volunteers, for the payment of whom, they were informed, Congress had made no appropriation, not having foreseen the emergency which would make such a step necessary. War being antici- pated only by the Cabinet, the representatives of the people had of course made no arrangements to meet it. It was the design of the Executive of the United States to induce Mexico to strike the first blow, in order that the war might be considered by the people of the north, as one of defence. An army of four thousand men, besides volunteers, was sent to the Rio Grande, and the apology was that Texas was in danger j yet, although Mexico continued to threaten her revolted province, no hostile force had entered it since the disastrous defeat at San Jacinto, in 1836. Having made these preparations for hostilities, the admin- istration now concluded to wait the result of the proposed negotiation with Mexico for the purchase of California. Early in 1846, the President received information from Slidell, the envoy sent to Mexico, that the Mexican government would enter into no negotiation, excepting m reference to Texas. m 422 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. General Taylor at the Rio Grande. 1846 Consequently there was no hope of a cession of California. Further orders were therefore sent to Taylor, and several sit- uations on the Rio Grande for the army were suggested for his consideration, opposite Metamoras and other towns in Mexico. With the American standard thus displayed before them, the Mexicans would be more likely to be provoked to hostilities. A protest was received against these proceedings, concluding with this assurance : — *' So long as the army shall remain in the territory of Tamaulipas, the inhabitants must, whatever professions of peace you may employ, regard you as openly committing hostilities, and for the melancholy conse- quences of these, they who have been the invaders must be answerable in the view of the whole world." Having arrived at the Rio Grande, batteries were erected, and the guns made to " bear directly upon the public square of Metamoras, and within good range for demolishing the town." Further remonstrances were sent to Taylor, re- quiring him to remove his camp within twenty-four hours, and retire beyond the Neuces. If they insisted on remaining in Tamaulipas, arms alone must decide the question. This threat was considered by Taylor as a hostile act, but an expedient was still wanting to justify him in bombarding Metamoras. He therefore blockaded the mouth of the Rio Grande, thus cutting off all communication with Metamoras by sea, and states his object to be, to " compel the Mexicans to withdraw their army from Metamoras, where it cannot be sustained, or to assume the offensive on this- side of the river." Notwithstanding these provocations, and the expedient for starving the Mexican array, no attack was yet made on the American forces, nor had a single shot been fired by the Mex- icans. It therefore became necessary to take another step. THE MEXICAN WAR. 423 Hostilities commenced. " With a view to cbeck the depredations of small parties of 1846 the enemy on this side of the river," Taylor writes, he had sent a party to scour the country, and " capture and destroy any such parties that they might meet." A Mexican camp was surprised ; the men were driven away, and their horses seized. Soon after this, a party of dragoons, discovering a small body of Mexicans on a hill, " immediately charged upon them." Others, however, who were hidden by the rising ground, advanced and captured the assailants. Taylor imme- diately wrote home, " Hostilities may now be considered as commenced." On the 26th of Fourth month, (April,) the President of Mexico issued a proclamation containing tbis language : " Hostilities have been commenced by the United States of America, in making new conquests upon our territories within the boundaries of Tamaulipas and New Leon." The battle at Palo Alto, situated east of the Eio Grande, occurred on the 8th of Fifth month, (May,) between the two armies under General Taylor and the Mexican General Arista. It was sustained for five hours, when the Mexicans were defeated with great loss in killed and wounded. On the following day the two armies again met at a ravine called Resaca de la Palma. A battle ensued which lasted for one hour and a half, when the Mexicans were entirely routed and pursued to the Rio Grande. Multitudes were drowned in attempting to cross to Metamoras. The reverses sustained at Palo Alto, and at Resaca de la Palma, spread dismay among the Mexicans, and on the 17th Arista sent a flag of truce, requesting an armistice of six weeks, giving as a reason, his wish to communicate with his own gov- ernment. The proposition was rejected, and on the following day, Taylor crossed the Rio Grande and took possession of the 424 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. War proclaimed. 1846 city of Metamoras without opposition. The valley of the Rio Grande was thus opened to American arms, and in the course of the summer, the troops occupied without any difficulty sev- eral lesser Mexican towns, and advanced upon Monterey. Immediately after the receipt of information from General Taylor that hostilities had commenced, a message was sent by the President to Congress, in which he stated that Mexico had passed the boundary of the United States, had invaded our territory, and shed American blood upon American soil. He asked that the existence of the war should be recognized, that means should be furnished for prosecuting it with vigor, in order to hasten the restoration of peace. The message was received on the 11th of Fifth month, (May,) and the decision on these important subjects occupied but a small por- tion of a single day ; every opportunity for debate being cut off by the " previous question." A bill was introduced into the House of Eepresentatives and passed, which declared that war existed by the act of Mexico, placed the army and navy at the disposal of the President, provided for the employment of fifty thousand volunteers, and appropriated ten millions of dollars for the prosecution of the war. The bill was passed by the Senate, and thus the war was recog- nized by Congress without any examination or any evidence of aggression on the part of Mexico. On the loth, a proc- lamation of war was issued by the President. The legislature of the State of Massachusetts adopted the following resolution, in reference to the act of Congress. *' That such a war of conquest, so hateful in its objects, so wanton, unjust and unconstitutional in its origin and charac- ter, must be regarded as a war against freedom, against humanity, against justice, against the Union, and against the free States : and that a regard for the true interests and THE MEXICAN WAR. 425 Attack of Monterey. highest honor of the country, not less than the impulses of 1846 Christian duty, should arouse all good citizens to join in efforts to arrest this war, and in every just way aiding the coun- try to retire from the position of aggression which it now occupies towards a weak, distracted neighbor, and sister Kepublic." On the 19th of Ninth month, (Sept.,) General Taylor appeared before Monterey, the capital of Nuevo Leon, and invested it with seven thousand men. The attack combined the horrors of a battle, a siege and an assault. Bomb shells were thrown into the city, which exploded, followed by the most terrific cries. The attack lasted two days ; and no ces- sation was allowed to bury the dead or remove the wounded. General Ampudia, the Mexican commander, surrendered on the 24th, and the Americans entered the place. All efforts on the part of General Taylor that the rights of the inhabitants should be respected were disregarded. They were subjected to the brutal treatment of the soldiery, and in many cases their lives were not spared. The next movement of Taylor's troops was to Saltillo, sixty- five miles from Monterey. Another army, under General Wool, had also entered Mexico, and crossing the Rio Grande, occupied Monclova and Parras. Santa Anna determined to strike a decisive blow on the invaders of his country. He had returned from his exile in the West Indies, had reentered the capital of Mexico, and was placed at the head of the l^^"^ Mexican forces. On the 22d of Second month, (Feb.,) with an army of twenty thousand men, he met General Taylor in the valley of Buena Vista. After a terrible and sanguinary battle, which lasted two days, the Americans were again com- pletely victorious. The Mexican army was disorganized and scattered; the route by which they retreated was strowed 36* 426 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, General Kearney. 1847 with dead and dying. Santa Anna returned to the city of Mexico, and Taylor advanced to Encarnacion. The question of peace was frequently proposed by General Taylor, but the Mexican government as often declared itself unwilling to listen to any terms, while her soil was covered with hostile forces. The proposition being made to Santa Anna, he said in reply, "We sustain the most sacred of causes — the defence of our territory, and the preservation of our nationality and rights ; we are not the aggressors ; our gov- ernment has never offended that of the United States. * * * We are resolved to perish or vindicate our rights." Three invasions of Mexico from different points had been planned, in order to divide and distract her forces. The results of the movements of the main army under General Taylor, and of the division under General Wool, have been given. A third expedition was to proceed from Missouri, and to occupy first New Mexico, and subsequently California. The command of this expedition was given to General Kearney. Early in the summer of 1846, the '' Army of the West," under Gen. Kearney, left Fort Leavenworth, on the Missouri river, in the Indian territory, and after along march of nearly nine hundred miles, took possession of Santa Fe without opposition, on the 18th of Eighth month, (Aug.) Having made provision for a temporary government of New Mexico, he marched toward California. On the way he learned that that territory had already been subjected under the following circumstances. Confidential orders were sent as early as the 24th of Sixth month, (June), 1845, to Commodore Sloat, then commander of the United States naval forces in the Pacific : — '' If you as- certain with certainty that Mexico has declared war against the THE MEXICAN WAB. 427 Subjection of California, United States, you will at once possess yourself of the port of 1846 San Francisco, and blockade and occupy such other ports as your force may permit." Accordingly the day after receiving intelligence of Taylor's conflicts on the Rio Grande, the Commodore sailed for Monterey, and took possession of the place without opposition on the 7th of Seventh month, (July,) 1846, Two days afterward the American forces obtained possession of San Francisco ; and a proclamation was immediately circulated, "Henceforward California will be a portion of the United States." Pueblos des los Ange- les, the capital of the province, was soon after taken by Com- modore Stockton, who succeeded Sloat, Captain Fremont, of the United States army, had been sent by government on a tour of scientific exploration beyond the E-ocky Mountains. Secret orders ' were subsequently conveyed to him, which induced him to abandon his scientific pursuits and cooperate with the naval force in the war against California. In the course of the winter, the inhabitants of the province rose and offered resistance to their invaders. After some severe skir- mishes they were entirely overcome by Colonel Fremont and Commodore Stockton, and subsequently by General Kearney ; and the whole province fell into the hands of the Americans. The inhabitants of New Mexico revolted against those placed in authority by General Kearney. The American troops were reinforced from the States, and overcame the Mexicans at several different places, after some sharp con- tests. The battle of Sacramento was fought on the first day of the week, (Sunday.) In addition to the invasions of Mexico, already mentioned, her seaports were blockaded ; many of them were also occu- pied by American troops and many vessels were captured. The town of Tobasco was taken after being nearly demolished by severe cannonading. 428 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Bombardment of Vera Cruz. 1847 In the early part of 1847, plans were laid to seize Yera Cruz, the principal seaport on the Gulf of Mexico, and afterward to advance into the heart of the country, and take the city of Mexico. Accordingly in Third month, (March,) Vera Cruz and the castle of San Juan d'Ulloa, which guards the harbor, were invested by land and sea, with the American forces under General Scott and Commodore Perry. A sum- mons to surrender having been rejected, on the 22d the batteries were opened on the city. The bombardment lasted nearly four days. It was computed that three thousand shells, each weighing ninety pounds, were thrown into the city, besides about the same number of round shot. In some in- stances, whole families were killed by the explosion of the murderous shells. Parts of the city were entirely destroyed, and the bodies of the inhabitants buried in the ruins. Terms of capitulation were executed on the 29th, and possession was given of the town and castle.* The army under Scott then proceeded to Cerro Gordo, fifty miles from Vera Cruz, on the heights of which another battle * The following is an extract from a Mexican accovxnt of the terrible bombardment. " The enemy, in accordance with his character, selected a barbarous mode of assassinating the unoffending and de- fenceless citizens, by a bombardment of the city in the most horrible manner, throwing into it four thousand one hundred bombs, and an innumerable number of balls of the largest size ; directing his shots to the powder magazine, to the quarter of hospitals of charity, to the hospitals for the wounded, and to the points he set on fire, where it was believed the public authorities would assemble with persons to put it out, to the bakers' houses, designated by their chimneys ; and during the night, raining over the entire city, bombs whose height was perfectly graduated with the time of explosion, that they might ignite in falling, and thus cause the maximum of destruction. *' At the second day of the bombardment, we were without bread or meat, reduced to a ration of beans, eaten at midnight, beneath a shower of fire." THE MEXICAN WAR. 429 Negotiations for peace. was fought. After engagements on the 17th and 18th 1847 of Fourth month, (April,) the latter being the first day of the week, the Mexicans were entirely defeated. The American army continued its march toward the city of Mexico, and on the 15th of the following month, Puebla, about one hundred miles from the capital, was taken without opposition. At this place the American army remained for a number of weeks, and was repeatedly reinforced. Leaving a garrison here, the march toward the capital was resumed on the 17th of Eighth month (Aug.) In the immediate neighborhood of the city, several battles were fought in which the Americans were victorious, and many Mexicans were killed and wounded. The determination of Mexico to enter into no negotiations of peace while her soil was covered with hostile forces, now yielded. An armistice took place, and negotiations were opened between N. P. Trist on behalf of this government, and commissioners on the part of Mexico. The peace proposed by the United States was the cession of one half of the Mexican dominions, exclusive of Texas proper.* Although the power of Mexico was much weak- ened, and her citizens were being slain by thousands, she could not consent to the proposed dismemberment of her territory, and the negotiations were ineffectual. She had offered a great and valuable cession ; but it was mainly situ- ated north of the Missouri compromise line, leaving space for only two slave States. It would therefore not secure the * This includes all the territory eventually obtained by the United States, and Lower California in addition, making an area of eight hundred thousand square miles ; while the area of the whole Republic is estimated to have been one million six hundred thousand square miles. 4S0 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. Bombardment of the city of Mexico. 1847 real object of the war, the acquisition of slave territory, and was accordingly not accepted by the President of the United States.* At length the American army reached the city of Mexico. The strong fortress of Chapultepec, outside of the walls, was stormed and carried. The defences at the gates were assaulted and captured. The city was bombarded for a day and a half, and on the morning of the 14th of Ninth month, (Sept.,) it surrendered to General Scott. The destruction of life to the Mexicans is not precisely known. It has been esti- mated at four thousand ; among them, women and children. Many were killed by the blowing up of the houses ; many by the bombardment ; some by the confusion which prevailed in the city. The American loss was small in proportion. It has been stated at one thousand. Santa Anna, flying from the capital, assisted, with large reinforcements, in the investment and assault of Puebla, which had been undertaken by the Mexicans after Greneral Scott's departure for the city of Mexico, The siege was continued for twenty-eight days, when ftie Americans were relieved by the arrival of General Lane with two thousand troops from Vera Cruz. Other engagements form a part of the history of the war. They are but a record of bloodshed. Detachments of Ameri- can troops, in marching from one place to another, were fre- * Many speeches were made in Congress, which prove that the ob-. ject of the South in carrying on the war was the acquisition of slave territory. In addition, the following extract may be given, from the message of the governor of Virginia. "It is unquestionably true that if our slaves are restricted to our present limits, they would greatly diminish in value, and thus seriously impair the fortunes of their owners. The South can never consent to be confined to pre- scribed limits." THE MEXICAN WAR. 431 Treaty of peace. quently attacked by guerilla forces, the loss of the Mexicans being usually far the greatest. General Scott retained possession of the capital, until it was relinquished by the treaty of peace, which was signed by com- missioners on the 2d of Second month, (Feb.,) 1848, and with 1848 some amendments ratified by the United States Senate, and signed by the President on the 15th of Third month, (March.) It was afterward accepted by Congress, and finally ratified by commissioners on behalf of the United States, and the Minister of Relations of the Mexican Republic, on the part of that government. The capital and country of Mexico were soon afterward evacuated by American troops, and the blockade of the ports was raised. By this treaty, Mexico ceded to the United States, for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars, all Texas proper, with the territory between the Neuces and the Rio Grande, the whole of New Mexico and Upper California, making an area of more than eight hundred and fifty thousand square miles, which is equal to seventeen times the extent of the State of New York. It is said, however, not to be highly valuable either for agricul- tural, commercial or manufacturing purposes. The direct cost of the war to this government, in money, was upwards of one hundred millions of dollars. The indi- rect cost can scarcely be computed, but will probably be as much more ; and Mexico has doubtless been drained of a similar amount. The loss of life among the American troops in the battles which took place during the war, was astonishingly small in comparison with that of the Mexicans. But there was another great cause of mortality. The long marches, some of them of a thousand miles under a burning sun, proved fatal to very many ; and it appears that the number of deaths which took 432 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Mortality. 1848 place in the military hospitals exceeds those which occurred on the field of battle. To these must be added, in order to form an estimate of the loss of life occasioned by the war, the large num- bers whose constitutions were undermined by disease and vice, and whose career has since been early terminated in conse- quence. The condition of many of the poor creatures who lived to return is described as having been *^ offensive to every human sense, as well physical as moral." The number who were killed in battle, or perished by disease, during the two years' war with Mexico, is estimated to have been upwards of twenty thousand Americans and about as many Mexicans.* *The loss of the Mexicans in battle was much greater than that of the Americans ; but that of the Americans was much greater by disease. CHAPTER XXXI. EXPLORING EXPEDITION UNDER CAPTAIN WILKES. Sails from Norfolk During the year 1838, an expedition was fitted out for the 1838 purpose of exploring distant seas, for the security of navigation and for scientific research. The squadron consisted of six vessels, under command of Captain Wilkes. The services of men of science were secured, and every preparation was made for discoveries and scientific investigation. On the 18th of Eighth month, (Aug.,) 1838, the squadron sailed from Norfolk, Virginia, and proceeded first to the Island of Madeira. Here it remained one week, and then crossed to Rio de Janeiro. In this part of the voyage, many reputed rocks and shoals were carefully sailed over, and the navigation was discovered to be quite safe. The brilliancy of the sea at night in this tropical region excited great admiration. On one occasion it is said to have presented the appearance of being on fire. At Rio de Janeiro, scientific observations were made during the repairing of one of the vessels. Leaving this place a week was spent in the examination of the bar of the Rio Negro, after which the squadron touched at Orange Harbor in Terra del Fuego, where preparations were made for the first antarctic cruise. On the 25th of Second month, (Feb.,) 1839, two of the ves- sels left Terra del Fuego, and steered into the Southern ocean. They were soon separated by storms, but afterward joined 37 434 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. The Sea Gull lost. Excursions. Arrival at Sydney. 1839 company, and reached the sixty-eighth degree of south latitude. Many dangers were encountered from snow storms, heavy gales and icebergs. On the 22d of Third month, (March,) a barrier of ice formed one quarter of their horizon. One of the vessels was so much injured as to leak badly, but con- tinued to thread her course among the icebergs, and at one time was nearly surrounded by these floating islands. Some of the other vessels made short excursions and re- turned to Orange Harbor, having narrowly escaped shipwreck. The next point of destination for the squadron was Valparaiso. All the vessels reached that place safely excepting the Sea Gull, which was lost off Cape Horn. She was not seen again after leaving Orange Harbor. From Valparaiso and other places on the western coast of South America, excursions were made into the interior, and the naturalists were busily engaged. Magnetic and astronomical observatories were set up. At the village of Bancs, a hot spring was found, which cooked their eggs in three minutes. On the 15th of Seventh month, (July,) the squadron, now reduced to four vessels, left Callao, the store ship having been sent home. From this period, until the latter part of Eleventh month, (Nov.,) when they assembled at Sydney, New South Wales, the time was diligently occupied in sur- veying clusters of islands in the South Pacific ocean. The result of these labors has contributed much to the safety of the mariner. The interior of the islands was also explored by the officers and naturalists. Much information was ob- tained, and many specimens were collected. Magnetic, astro- nomical, tidal and meteorological observations were made with assiduity. At Sydney, preparations were made for the second antarctic cruise. Every facility was afforded by the governor and other UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION. 435 Antarctic Continent. Danger from icebergs. officers of the government, as well as bj the citizens gener- 1839 ally. The vessels were separated by a storm soon after sailing. Proceeding southward, the course of all was arrested by a compact barrier of ice, which prevented all approach to the antarctic continent, first discovered by this expedition. The sea was traversed between the latitudes of sixty-two and six- ty-seven degrees, from the longitude of one hundred and fifty- eight, to that of ninety-four east. The land was seen on twelve occasions, at short distances apart. It is worthy of observation that in this high latitude there was no occasion to light the binnacle lamps, as newspaper print could be read at midnight. The squadron met again at the Bay of Islands, the appoint- ed place of rendezvous, having escaped many perils. Im- mense icebergs had threatened destruction. On one occasion, one of the vessels was driven into the immediate vicinity of an ice island seven or eight miles in extent, with an elevation equalling the topgallant masthead, and its upper portion inclining toward the ship. While in this situation an oppor- tunity presented of forcing her into a narrow channel in the ice on her other side, and immediately a mass of ice and snow fell in her wake, which would have crushed the vessel had it fallen but a few moments earlier. In this high southern latitude, icebergs covered the sea in all directions. Terrific gales were experienced. The ships at times became covered with ice. The men were nearly exhausted with cold and fatigue, and sometimes little hope of escape remained. By the latter end of Third month, (March,) 1840, three of the 1840 vessels had reached the Bay of Islands ; the fourth remained at Sydney to be repaired. Several months were next occupied in exploring various clusters of islands in the South Pacific ; after which the squad- 436 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Northwest coast of America. Return home. ron met in the autumn at Honolulu, the chief port of the Sandwich Islands. During the winter and spring, the Society and various other groups of islands were examined, when the squadron, at different times, proceeded to the north-west 1841 coast of America. The ship Peacock struck a bar in attempt- ing to enter the Columbia river, and all attempts to get her off were unavailing. The crew were saved. Another ves- sel being purchased to supply the loss of the Peacock, the river was surveyed as far as the Cascades, one hundred and twenty miles from its mouth. The coast of Oregon and of Upper California, with the sounds and islands, was explored, and parties were despatched into the interior. On the first of Eleventh month, (Nov.,) 1841, the squad- ron again put to sea, and crossed the Pacific ocean. Manilla, the principal port of the Philippine Islands, was visited, and passing through the Sooloo sea, the squadron met at Singa- 1842 pore. At this place the Flying Fish was sold, leaving three vessels to return home, where they arrived early in the sum- mer, having been absent nearly four years. In addition to the Antarctic continent, four islands not laid down on any chart, and several reefs, were discovered by this Expedition. The navigator of all countries is indebted to it, for greatly contributing to his safety, as well as for affording him various facilities. Four hundred new charts have been published, accompanied by tidal and current deter- minations. Valuable information is also given as to anchor- ages, means of getting supplies, and :^the character of the people of the Pacific islands. The diurnal variation of the needle was observed whenever opportunity was afforded, and determinations were taken of the variation, both to the eastward and westward of the south magnetic pole. Two thousand sheets of drawings were brought home, UNITED STATES EXPLORING EXPEDITION. 437 Objects of interest collected. including illustrations in natural history, scenery, costumes, and portraits of individuals. Large collections in natural history have been deposited in the Patent-office at Washing- ton ; and at a museum in the same place, may be seen specimens of the implements, dress, ornaments and manu- factures of the diflferent people visited by the Expedition. 37* CONCLUSION. The reader has now been carried througli the history of the United States. A large part of it has been made up of •wars, but their delineation has perhaps not been without a good effect. Almost nineteen hundred years after the coming of the Messiah was announced by the glorious anthem, " On earth peace, good will to men," and the blessed Founder of the Christian religion had established love as the badge of dis- cipleship ; — " By this shall all men know that ye are my dis- ciples, if ye have love one for another ; " we find the pro- fessed followers of this same Teacher " slow of heart to believe," and instead of loving their enemies as He has commanded, we see them carrying devastation by the sword, filling with anguish the heart of the widow and the orphan, debasing the morals of the country, and giving thanks for victory to the God of peace. When apparent causes for war arise, its consequences are greatly overlooked. The loss of life, the sufferings of armies, the sacrifice of property in the destruction of towns and cities, the deterioration of morals, the numbers that are made widows and orphans, the desolation which often follows the track of an army and the direct cost of the war, seem to be obscured or hidden by the prospect of national glory.* * The following is an extract from a letter of one of the officers of the army, engaged in the Mexican war : — " The sight of one battle-field cures one of a desire for military life. If he could see the literal piles of mangled corpses of the slain, some CONCLUSION. 439 Cost of War. Slavery. The immense amount of money that is sacrificed in war, or in preparations for war in time of peace, cannot be appre- ciated. There is not an internal improvement of any kind that has been devised, that could not be carried on with the means thus worse than wasted. For several years past, our government has appropriated on the average nearly twenty millions annually for preparations for war, estimated to have been as much as seventy per cent, of its whole expenses. This nation is now blessed with peace, but she carries within her bosom a brand which may yet kindle a flame that will burst forth with destructive fury on our beloved country. Slavery is even now sapping the foundation of the Union, and has always been a source of contention between the South and the North. It is evil, religiously, morally and politically ; nor has it permanent pecuniary advantages to recommend it. It needs but a comparison between the slave- holding and free States, to show the disadvantages resulting to ■without heads, some without legs or arms, some with their bowels torn open, the ground strown with the wounded, dead and dying, — he would be content with his lot. "The most heart-sickening spectacle I ever beheld was the arch- episcopal palace, at Tacabaya, converted into a hospital on the day of Molino del Iley. The floors of the spacious apartments were covered with wounded officers and men, to the extent of many hundreds, who were suffering horrid agonies, while the corps of surgeons were actively engaged in amputating limbs ; some of the victims screamed with agony, while others sustained themselves with heroic fortitude. I had occasion to go through the spacious building twice that day, and witnessed many operations. I saw the amputated limbs quiver- ing with life, while the gutters of the court were filled with streams of human blood." It must not be supposed that such scenes as this are not witnessed at every battle. The very nature of war leads to mutilation and slaughter, and every considerable battle in the country has pre- sented, as a necessary consequence, just such horrors as are here described. 440 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Disadvantages of slave labor. Education. all parties from slave labor. The comparative price of land, which, but a few years ago, possessed equal advantages with that in the free States, proves the disadvantages of the sys- tem. Education is at a low ebb, labor disreputable, busi- ness paralyzed, roads and bridges are neglected, and the country, which has long been under slave cultivation, is in a state of dilapidation.* In a country like ours, where the government is in the hands of the people, it is of great importance that education should be generally diffused. Accordingly we find a system of public schools in most of the free States, supported mainly by legislative enactments in the several States. In some of the States they are of a high order, and do honor to the coun- try. Energy and enterprise being crushed at the South, by the blighting influence of slavery, common schools are but little known ; consequently there is in those States a great proportion, even of the white population, who can neither read nor write. As late as 1848, one-fourth part of the white population in Virginia were in this state of ignorance, t In the State of New York, where there is immense immigration, there was, in 1840, but one in one hundred of this class,while in some of the New England States there was but one in four or five hundred, and in Connecticut, but one in five hundred and seventy-four. In bringing this history to a close, it is but just to remark * In 1843, the deficit in the Post Office department from the slave States was over six hundred thousand dollars ; while the surplus receipts from the free States was about enough to meet the de- ficiency. t In North Carolina, some few years since, out of a jury called on a certain occasion, not one man was found who was able to write. CONCLUSION. 441 Remarks. that the aim has uniformly been to state all facts and occur- rences impartially, irrespective of national pride or national prejudice. History loses its value "when this rule is departed from. A false coloring and false statements tend alike to mislead. Hence the partisan, or he who is unwilling to see the faults of his country, may be disappointed in not finding national defects, and some instances of national injus- tice concealed. The true patriot cannot fail to see in the present condition of the country, much to love, much to ad- mire, and much to deplore ; and will rather rejoice in the discovery and cure of disease, than in its rankling in conceal- ment. And whatever may be the physical prosperity of the country, however wide its domain, whatever the increase of its rising cities, or however busy the hum of its commerce along far-reaching lines of canals and railways, the true lover of his country can never forget that it is righteousness that exalts a nation. It was never intended that man should live indepen- dently of his Creator, beneath the operation of whose rod, the mightiest monarchies and empires have sunk to impotence. Hence the promptings of true philanthropy and patriotism must look more especially to the prevalence of public and private virtue, to the support of justice and humanity, as the foundation of true national greatness and enduring prosperity. 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