Class Book Gop)Tight}l?. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. TRAINING IN NIGHT MOVEMENTS BASED OW ACTUAL EXPERIENCES IN WAR TRANSLATED FROM THE JAPANESE By Major C. BURNETT, Field Artillery, N. A. SECOND EDITION U. S. CAVALRY ASSOCIATION Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 1917 Uli^7' .s 19/7 NsVj COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY U. S. CAVALRY ASSOCIATION. COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY U. S. CAVALRY ASSOCIATION. KETCHESON PRINTING CO., LEAVENWORTH,' KANSAS. m 28 1918 ©CI.A492085 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. The importance of night movements and night at- tacks in the militar^/^ operations of the present day is so generally recognized, that any discussion on that point would be more than stiperliuous. That the Japanese arm}^ from the standpoint of practical experience, is best qualified to discuss such operations, would seem to follow as a matter also beyond discussion. For this reason it occurred to me that the translation of this work of a Japanese officer who was a company commander during the Japanese-Russian War, might, and I ven- ture to say, does contain much that will be of interest and profit to our own service. Night movements are admittedly among the most difficult operations of war; the margin between victory and defeat is so small that it is a difficult matter to say to just what comparatively trivial reason success or failure may be due. Such being the case, it naturally follows that minute and painstaking training is abso- lutely necessary if success can be even hoped for. Mili- tary writers on this subject have usually recognized that fact, but their treatment of the matter has con- sisted so largely of vague generalities that they are not of much assistance to Captain Jones in the train- ing of his company and are absolutely useless to Ser- geant Smith in leading his squad. This work is not an academic discussion of night movements in general, but is full of valuable practical hints on the training of the small units that go to make up the great military machine; hints not evolved from the inner conscious- ness, but ideas stamped in the mind by actual experi- ences of nights on Manchurian battlefields. Due perhaps to national characteristics, Japanese army training of all kinds proceeds along more exact and minute lines than is usual in our own service. While many may consider that this work errs in that direction, it would be well to consider carefully the necessity for such careful training in the most delicate of all military movements. If Private Brown has not been thoroughly trained and accustomed to night movements, he is sure to make mistakes; multiply him by a hundred or a thousand, and the margin of safety for success will become rather small, to say the least. This work has been translated at odd times in the press of much other work of the same general character. For this reason there has been no time to spend on nice- ties of expression or in polishing up the English; and indeed I am not sure but that following the author's words rather closely does not more than compensate for faulty diction. If the meaning can be comprehended I shall be satisfied and beg indulgence for all the things lacking. Tokyo, Japan. October, 1913. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. A new edition of this volume having become neces- sary, the translator desires to take advantage of the opportunity to invite attention to the vindication of its basic principles in the present world w^ar. As foretold by the author, night movements have become a most important factor in modern warfare, and No-Man's-Land has become a busy thoroughfare from dusk to daylight. Practically all movement is made under the friendly cover of darkness ; while night reconnaissances arid night raids are of constant occur- rence, not only for material ends, but for the great oppor- tunity they afford in gaining and keeping a superiority in morale over the enem3^ All front-line troops are now practiced in "going over the top," and their chance of accomplishing their mission and returning safely, is directly proportional to their training. It is believed that the careful, painstaking course of instruction outlined in this book will go far toward preparing our men for the crucial test. They have the courage, and many of them the natural ability for the night-stalker's game, but without careful, detailed training, success cannot be expected. The Second Edition of this book goes forth in the hope that it may do its part in laying the foundation for this training in our new armies. C. Burnett, Major, F. A., National Army. Camp Grant, Ills. November 1, 1917. CONTENTS. PAGE. I. Psychological action at Nighttime 15 Night and morbid watchfulness, p. 15; night and illusions,, p. 16; at night, suggestion is easy, p. 16; night brings out the weak points of the individual, p. 17. II. Important Measures Which Correct Unfav- orable Psychological Action at Night 18 At night, especially, strict discipline is neces- sary, p. 18; a high morale and a firm defensive spirit, p. 18; silence in night movements, p. 19; night and massed formations, p. 20; night movements and self-confidence, p. 20; night movements and self-possession, p. 21. III. How to Dress 21 The requirements of dress, p. 21; order of dressing, p. 22; peace time preparations — preparedness, p. 23. IV. Training in Dressing 23. Occasions, p. 23; orderly methods, p. 24; number of times practiced, p. 24. V. Night and Vision 25 Importance of cultivating the vision at night, p. 25, vision at night can be improved by training, p. 25; night vision — detecting and losing sight of, p. 26; night vision and objects and color of surrounding objects, p. 26; night vision and relation of light -and shadow, p. 27; relation of the seasons to night vision, p. 27; night vision and our own posture, p. 28; night vision and field glasses, p. 28. 8 PAGE. VI. Method of Training Night Vision 28 General principles, p. 28; important points of training, p. 29; methods of training, p. 30; experiments, p. 31. VII. Hearing at Night 32 Character of the ground and sound, p. 32; kinds of covering substances, p. 32; the size of the detachment and the relative weight of materials, p. 33; weather, p. 33. VIII. Training in Hearing at Night 34 Important points to be considered, p. 34; the march of infantry, p. 34; the march of cavalry, p. 34; the march of artillery, p. 34; the noise of intrenching, p. 35; methods, p. 35; inferences to be drawn from sounds, p. 36. IX. Quiet March at Night 37 Importance, p. 37; important cautions in a , night march, p. 37. X. Training in Quiet Marches at Night 39 Dress, p. 39; order of training, p. 39; method of carrying out the above training, p. 39; cautions p. 39. XI. The Crossing of Rough Ground at Night 40 Importance of practice, p. 40; summary, p. 40. XII. Training in Crossing Rough Ground at Night 41 Clothing, p. 41; order of training, p. 41. XIII. Determination of Direction at Night 42 Importance, p. 42; methods of determining direction, p. 42; by fixed stars, p. 42; by the moon, p. 44; by the map, p. 44; by compass, p. 44; other methods, p. 44. XIV. Training in Determining Direction 45 How to find the north star and how to use it, p. 45; method by compass, p. 45. PAGE. XV. Method of Making a Light at Night 46 Importance, p. 46; manner of making a light, p. 46; individual training, p. 47. XVI. Connection and Connecting Files at Night.... 47 Methods, p. 47; by sound, p. 47; by signals, p. 48; connecting files, p. 49; messengers, p. 50; relays, p. 55. XVII. Night Firing 57 Cautions for individuals., p. 57. XVIII. Training in Night Firing 57 Horizontal firing and posture, p. 57; method and order of training, p. 58: formation, p. 58; opportunities for training, p. 58; methods, p. 58. XIX. Night Bayonet Exercises 59 Importance of such drill, p. 59; cautions in ^ the use of the bayonet at night, p. 59. ' XX. Training in Night Bayonet Fencing 60 Scope of training, p. 60; method of training, p. 60; against dummy figures, p. 60; funda- mental training, p. 60. XXI. Night Intrenching 61 Importance, p. 61 ; important points in train- ing, p. 61. XXII. Training in Night Intrenching 63 Methods, p. 63; cautions, p. 63. XXIII. Methods of Recognizing Friendly Troops at Night 64 Importance, p. 64; methods of recognition, p. 64; disadvantages of speech, p. 64; suit- able methods of recognition, p. 65. XXIV. Night Demolition Work 65 Training, p. 65; requisites for demolition work, p. 65; important principles of demoli- tion work, p. 66; methods of training, p. 66. 10 PAGE. XXV. Methods of Using Hand Grenades at Night.. 66 XXVI. Night Sentinels 67 Training, p. 67; position of sentinels, p. 67; posture, p. 69; reconnaissance, p. 69; chal- lenging, p. 70; firing, p. 70; reports, p. 72; ■ connection, p. 72; friendly patrols, p. 74; reliefs, p. 75. XXVII. Training of Night Sentinels 76 Amount of light, p. 76; terrain, p. 76: senti- nels and squads, p. 76; example of such train- ing, p. 77; character of such training, p. 78, XXVIII. Night Patrols 79 Methods of connection, p. 79; methods of maintaining direction, p. 79; methods of pas- sing and reconnaissance of various terrain and physical objects, p. 81; indication, p. 84; reconnaissance of the enemy's line of senti- nels, p. 85; night patrols and quiet, p. 86; night patrols and their roads, p. 86; recon- naissance and recollection of terrain, p. 86. XXIX. Night Hidden Patrols 87 Suitable characteristics, p. 88; distribution, p. 88; position, p. 89. XXX. Training of Night Patrols 89 Training and terrain, p. 89 ; methods of train- I ing, p. 89. XXXI. Movements of a Detachment at Night 92 Leadership at night, p. 92; to accustom troops to change of formation at night, p. 94; individual cautions in movements by squads, p. 95. XXXII. Training in Squad Movements at Night 96 Order, p. 96; night movements and strict- ness, p. 96. XXXIII. A Squads Night Firing 96 When carried out, p. 96; important points in the preparation for night firing, p. 97; 11 PAGE. method of firing, p. 100; collective and in- dividual fire, p. 101. XXXIV. Method of Training in Squad Firing at Night 101 Orders and methods of training, p. 101. XXXV. Squad Night Intrenchments 101 Method of tracing, p. 101; methods relative to the line of trace, p. 102; cautions for in- dividual soldiers and execution of work, p. 102; method of filling sandbags and in- trenchments in which used, p. 102. , XXXVI. Method of Training in Night Intrenching.... 104 XXXVII. Training and Method of Passing Obstacles AT Night 105 Importance of passing obstacles by detach- ment, p. 105; cautions for the Commanding Officer with respect to obstacles, p. 105; cautions for soldiers when crossing obstacles, p. 106. XXXVIII. Night Marches and Training 107 Occasions when night marches are essential, p. 107; cautions for staff officers, p. 107; cautions for individual soldiers, p. 109; articles carried by officers, p. 110. XXXIX. Night Battles — (A) The Offensive Ill Causes of success in night attacks, p. Ill; cause of non-success in night attacks, p. Ill; cautions in night movements (General regula- tions), p. 112; the Commanding Officers and soldiers in night attacks, p. 113; character- istics of night attacks, p. 114; method of night attacks, p. 115; night attacks and arms of the service, p. 116; the point of attack at night, p. 117; reconnaissance and plans, p. 119; hour for night attack, p. 120; posi- tion-when beginning a night attack, p. 121; night orders or instructions, p. 123; distribu- tion and formation for night attacks, p. 124; the advance to the attack, p. 125; night at- 12 PAGE. tacks and firing, p. 126; preparations against the enemy's changes of disposition, p. 128; the night charge, p. 129; movements after a successful charge, p. 130; pursuit after a night attack, p. 130. (B) The Defensive 131 Psychological disadvantages, p. 131; action of the defense at night, p. 132; steps taken when anticipating the enemy's night attack, p. 133; the defender's night battle, p. 133; steps when the defender has driven off the enemy, p. 134. TRAINING IN NIGHT MOVEMENTS BASED ON ACTUAL EXPERIENCES IN WAR 15 I. PSYCHOLOGICAL ACTION AT NIGHTTIME. From an educational standpoint, a thorough knowl- edge of psychological processes at night is a most im- portant matter, because the weightiest considerations in night movements are mental ones. **iTherefore, I will explain this matter at the very beginning. Having seen a thing with my own eyes, I can form my judgment concerning it; by knowing that there is no danger to my own body, I will be calm. On ac- count of my being calm, there will be no uncertainty; on account of there being no uncertainty, all things, neces- sarily, will be clear. In order that there may be that clearness, a broad field of view and a clear understand- ing of facts are necessary. However, at nighttime, a person is not able to see his surroundings; accordingly it is only natural that there should be uncertainty. One cannot know when there will be danger in the darkness just a little ways ahead. In such cases there is a feeling of apprehension, of doubt and uncertainty, and finally there is extremely cautious watchfulness and fear. In short, at nighttime, the mind is agitated and excited. ' Night and Morbid Watchfulness. — Attention is the term applied to a condition of ajffairs when the con- sciousness is concentrated on certain substances or certain ideas. At night, as the field of view is very limited, great attention must be paid to the multitude of surrounding objects; if this is not done, one will quickly fall into danger. In the presence of the enemy, how much more must the amount of watchfulness, on 16 account of its relation to life and death, give rise to the greatest of care — and one becomes unable to dis- tinguish between fact and fancy. As a result of too much care and concentration, what has hitherto been imagination almost ceases to be such, and approaches reality. The imagination is so vivid that unreal things seem real. Night and Illusions. — At night, illusion is easy; there are various kinds of such illusions, as: 1. Confusion which arises from an error of the senses. 2. An illusion which forms a mistaken impression through not having made a proper impression on the senses. 3. An illusion arising entirely from confusion of mind. At nighttime, illusions very often arise. For ex- ample, white clothes hanging on willow trees, or white flags in a cemetery, become ghosts; an old rope in the grass seems a snake; tall pillars, or bundles of Man- churian millet, an enemy, etc. In the presence of the enemy, such illusions are dangerous. ' At Night, Suggestion is Easy. — Whenever the mind is agitated, the nerves also become keen. Insignificant causes, also, have the power to suggest things quickly. These suggestions are of various kinds— imitative, in- ductive, synchronic, etc. On account of such sugges- tions, confusion, mistakes, false reports, etc., in one de- tachment, will extend quickly to the entire body. On this account there are not a few examples where a single soldier at nighttime, who fancied that he saw an enemy, 17 quickly gave the whole force the impression that there was, in reality, an enemy present. Again, if one per- son unexpectedly lays down, or halts, those accompany- ing him, not understanding the reason for his action, in their uncertainty, do the same. Did not such a thingc ause the rout of the Heishi clan at Fushigawa? At first, probably hearing the noise of a flying bird and thinking it was the enemy, the movement or cry of a single man extended to the whole army. During the Japanese-Russian War, a detachment of the Russian army in a seacoast fortification was thrown into "dis- order on account of one or two men in front crying out that there was a night attack, thereby causing the whole force to fall into disorder. Night Brings out the Weak Points of the Individual. — ■ A state of uncertainty at night gives rise to the idea of danger ; from this there develops a state of fear. Man- kind, in crowds, has an excessive mental action. That is, a crowd is conscious of vast power; hence, certain movements, though difficult for the individual, will be bravely carried out by several men together. While one man is fearful and uncertain, a number of men together, will enter into the movement almost without consideration. Therefore, at night, although one man, alone, will be afraid, several together will show no in- decision whatever. This fact should' be borne in mind in all night movements. In the matter of mental phenomena, the man who has weak points in the daytime will be spurred on by vanity, love of fame, or perhaps by a self-denying spirit; but when night comes, on account of the lack or the slackness of supervision of his officers and com- rades, the individual weakness will quickly show. It 18 is not a good thing to leave the individual without supervision at night, neither is it a good thing to place him in such circumstances as will bring out these weak- nesses. n. IMPORTANT MEASURES WHICH CORRECT UNFAVORABLE PSYCHOLOGICAL ACTION AT NIGHT. Although nighttime has the disadvantages men- tioned above, there will be times when it will be also- lutely necessary to employ soldiers individually. It is, therefore, necessary to train them so that the evils due to fits of characteristic weaknesses will never arise. At Night, Especially, Strict Discipline is Necessary. — Nighttime is the touchstone which determines the value of an army. As supervision is difficult, strict discipline ' is necessary. The greatest influence of discipline is to repress the weaknesses which grow out of individuality, and to prevent the expression of those weaknesses. An army which does not have good dis- cipline at night, will completely fall to pieces. If the individual is allowed to follow his own desires, an army is ruined. Therefore, successful night operations de- mai;d the strictest discipline; it is such discipline that spurs night operations to success. A High Morale and a Firm Offensive Spirit. — Mental agitation depends upon the state of morale. If the morale be high, there will be no such agitation; there- fore, the evils, i. e., the mental phenomena previously described, will not arise. In general, a negative mind always acts unfavorably; therefore, in the case of in- 19 dividuals whose morale is low and who are negative in principle, the following psychological action will arise : 1. A morbid watchfulness. 2. Illusions. 3. Suggestions. 4. Weak points of individual character. Therefore, a high morale is necessarily required to successfully overcome such weaknesses. As a matter of fact, a high morale is the foundation of successful night operations. A person with a high morale does not stand, by passively, but acts, perhaps unconsciously, •in a positive manner. Silence in Night Movements.— Silence causes an agi- tated mind to become cool; on the contrary, disorder causes more confusion. Although, at times, it is both a material and abstract advantage to powerfully excite a man in order to drive him toward a certain objective, the importance of maintaining silence at night, must not be lost sight of. There are, naturally, two reasons for this, viz: 1. In order not to be discovered by the enemy. 2. In order to avoid falling into confusion, your- self. At night, as it is impossible to discriminate by sight, judgment must be formed from the sounds heard. However, in what way will an ordinary sound which arises in one detachment, be transmitted to others, especially in the case of those detachments who hear this disquieting sound and already believe themselves in danger? 20 Therefore, at night, in order not to be discovered by the enemy, as well as to prevent falling into disorder, yourself, it is absolutely necessary to remain quiet. Night and Massed Formation. — On account of its large numbers, great things can be accomplished with a massed force; for the self-consciousness of great strength causes great energy. At night, a large massed force destroys those individual characteristics, the vari- ous evils of which I have aready clearly explained. On account of the difficulty of leadership, communication and contact, confusion and separation are easy. From a psychological standpoint, as well, it is advantageous to avoid the distribution of columns, and to use the close columns instead. A brave, determined advance is of special importance in night movements. Night Movements and Self -confidence. -^Seli-confi- dence is the foundation of bravery ; it is the requisite of a high morale. If one wishes to obtain self-confidence, there must be no indecision; in order that there may be no indecision, there must be no obscurity. There- fore it follows that conditions should be clearly under- stood, and that we become rich in experience. That is the reason why thoroughness of reconnaissance, obser- vation, and training are particularly necessary for night movements. If the state of the enemy as well as the terrain be well known, and if the troops be well trained in night movements, there will be no indecision, and the movements can be carried out by methods and means which may be deemed best. A thing carried out in the belief that success is certain, will be carried out in a recklessly brave manner; that is the reason for the necessity of self-confidence at night. 21 Night Movements and Self-possession. — At night, one cannot tell at what distance or at what time there will be personal danger. If the enemy be heard, the danger seems the same whether he be a hundred, or only ten paces away. Therefore, a person of negative spirit feels the enemy pressing upon him, even though in reality, he is far away; and an imaginary enemy be- comes the same as a real one. Therefore, in order not to make rash and disorderly movements, causes must be judged cooly. III. HOW TO DRESS. The Requirements of Dress. — Dress must conform to the following requirements : 1. Speed. 2. Propriety. 3. Reliability. To carry out these requirements, training is neces- sary. It is a bad thing to attach too great weight to speed at first, and make^light of propriety and relia- bility. Therefore, at first, the following requirements must be observed : 1. Do not demand useless rapidity, but rather coolness. 2. Proper arrangement. 3. As far as possible, quietness should be preserved. The necessary things should be taken from their fixed places only when about to be put on, so as to avoid confusion. 22 Coolness. — More haste, less speed. If one be con- fused, he will mistake the proper order or forget import- ant things, and sometimes it will be necessary to change what has already been put on. Order. — Order is the shortest road, and if followed, there will be nothing forgotten. However hurried one may be, it is important not to curtail or change the order; therefore, it is necessary to plan carefully, the most suitable order of procedure — a practical impossibility for one without experience. For these reasons, it is a good thing to fix a suitable order of procedure, and carry it out strictly. Quietness.— At night, quietness is very necessary, especially in the proximity of the enemy, Therefore, it is important, in time of peace, to demand quietness, and to carry out such a training that there will be no talking or noise. If the soldier has had this training, it is an easy thing to remain quiet. If he has not, it is a very difficult matter. While a sudden demand for quiet is no hardship upon persons accustomed to it, it is most irksome to those who are not so accustomed to it. Order of Dressing. — In order that dressing may pro- gress smoothly, a proper order is necessary. In this order, it is important that mind and hand follow natural movements. The following example of correct pro- cedure is from my own experience : 1 . Clothing, shoes and leggins will be worn and put on in the following order: socks, trousers, leggins, blouse, cap. 2. Hang haversack and water bottle over the shoulder. 23 3. Place the required articles in the knapsack, roll the overcoat; attach tools, spare shoes, and mess tin to the knapsack, and put it on. 4. Take the rifle in the hand (at this time, take off the muzzle cover and place it in its prescribed place). Although there are times when this order will not be adhered to, and it will be necessary to arrange the clothing so as to take rifle and ammunition fl.-st, the habit of handling these articles in their proper order in time of peace is most necessary. Peace Time Preparations — Preparedness. — During peace time, weapons, clothing and equipment are nat- ura ly arranged in a prescribed place in barracks. Each article should be so arranged that the soldier will put his hand on it naturally, even in the darkness, or in emergencies. On account of the articles being in a fixed place, the Soldier often does not realize the ad- vantage of being able to grasp them readily. If the difficulty of searching for obscure articles in the dark be considered, one must realize the great advantage of being able to reach them naturally and easily. Accord- ingly, while resting on the march, in camp, billet, or bivouac, articles will always be arranged in an orderly manner, so that they may be seized quickly and cer- tainly. IV. TRAINING AND DRESSING. Occasions. — This training should be carried out at the same time as the ordinary day training. There are two opportunities for this: 24 1. At the time of changing the daytime course of training. 2. It can be carried out especially as a drill in dress- ing. In the first instance, have the men dress in a fixed place, with each article in a special place. It is im- portant to employ the time so as not to encroach upon time allotted to other drills. Orderly Methods. — In the second instance, the fol- lowing points are important: 1. A comprehension of the method of dressing. While explaining this in barracks, or in a fixed position, give a signal by a whistle, and say : ' ' Now put on such and such a thing." While assistants instruct and in- spect the men, teach them the basic principles of what they are doing. 2. Make them dress, unexpectedly, in daytime. 3. Explain the method of dressing at night. 4. Make them dress, unexpectedly, at night. By such method of training, the objective may be attained. At this time, without fail, coolness, order and quiet must be maintained. At first, pay no atten- tion to the time consumed; after a little while, demand more speed, and finally have the movement executed at the rate desired. Number of Times Practiced. — Whenever an army is accustomed to a certain manner of dressing in its daily life, the dressing is not a difficult matter. On that account, time is not specially allotted for such training, but practice will be had whenever there is a good opportunity. However, the following important prin- ciples must not be forgotten : 25 1. To guard against negligence. 2. To review the methods of dressing. For this reason, it should be practiced every month or so, and whenever the men become careless about it. V. NIGHT AND VISION. Importance of Cultivating the Vision at Night. — At night, one is able to see according to the degree of darkness. The amount of vision also differs naturally and it is important to know the amount under various circumstances. Especially is this true under circum- stances where the judgment cannot be formed by hearing, i. e., in rainy weather, or under other noisy conditions, where vision, though insufficient, is superior to hearing. Therefore, the training of the eye at night it a most important matter, as, to a certain degree, it can be strengthened "by experience and practice. In the Japanese- Russian War, the judgment by sight of soldiers accustomed to the terrain and to night movements, was surprisingly good, and was entirely due to experi- ence. Vision at Night Can be Improved by Training. — One accustomed to night movements, compared to one not so accustomed, is much more able to form correct judgments by sight'; for experience sharpens the nerves and increases the faculty of attention. From indica- tions, from methods of comparison, together with other assisting factors, one's judgment soon becomes accu- rate. 26 Night Vision — Detecting and Losing Sight of. — Vision at night differs in degree, also, according to the con- centration of attention; in this connection, the follow- ing principles are from my own experience : 1. When you follow with your eyes a thing once discovered, you will be able to see it for a long distance. 2. The distance at which you first discover an ob- ject, is less than the distance where you lose sight of it. Therefore, at night, when you lose sight of an object you have once discovered, it is difficult to find it a second time. When you follow it with your eye vision is easy, and the distance at which the object is visible becomes much greater, especially if there are supple- mentary indications. In such a case a thing liable to be unnoticed, will be seen by the observer. Night Vision and Objects, and the Color of Surround- ing Objects. The color of the dress has great bearing on vision; and I have learned the following facts from my own observation: 1 . On a dark night a white coat can be seen farther than a black one. 2. When there is moonlight, often a black coat can be seen farther than a white one. 3. In any case, a light brown or mouse color can be seen a long distance. 4. A black color against a black background is more difficult to see than white; the latter against white surroundings is more difficult than black. From these facts, the importance of bearing in mind the color of surrounding objects when fixing the kind of dress, or determining one's movements, is apparent. 27 Night Vision and Relations of Light and Shadow. — • Night vision differs greatly accord rig to one's position relative to a luminous body and shadow : 1. When a luminous ]:»ody such as the moon, is faced, vision is decreased. 2. When the light is behind, vision is increased. ~ 3. When a luminous body is overhead, the mean of increase and decrease is the same. 4. Even though facing the light, if it does not strike the eyes d rectly, it injures vision but little. 5. One can see when looking from darkness into light, but not when looking from light into darkness. 6. While holding the light yourself, only your own surroundings can be seen. 7. When a light is behind an object, the latter's outlines are clearly visible. 8 A black object or a moving object covered by shadow, is difficult to see. 9. Small objects seem far away, and large ones seem near, 10. Bright objects appear near, and obscure ones, far away. The above facts teach one that, when covered by dark objects, or when moving in the shadow, to look at the bright side from the dark as much as possible, and not have the light directly in front. Relation of the Seasons to Night Vision. — 1. In level, open country, the field of view is ex- tensive. 2. In close country, the opposite is true. 28 According! 3^ from late in the autumn until the beginning of spring, on account of the grass having withered and the leaves fallen the field of view is ex- tensive. From late in the spring until early autumn on accoimt of the luxuriant grass and trees, the field of view is restricted. During the Manchurian winter (in level country), the field of view is greater than in Japan. In mountainous localities, trees are few, com- pared to Japan, and the field of view is correspondingly greater. Night Vision and Our Own Posture. — In looking at objects which have ground objects in their rear, a stand- ing posture is advisable; without such objects in rear, a low posture is best. Therefore, to avoid being seen, take a low posture; if moving, keep physical objects in your rear. Even though such objects be distant, they will be of great assistance. Night Vision and Field Glasses. — Whenever there is light at night from moon or stars, and at twilight and dawn, field glasses will double the power of vision. However, as the glasses narrow the field of view, it is dangerous to depend upon them, except to confirm a thing already seen, or when the locality in which the object to be seen, will appear and move, is fixed. VI. METHOD OF TRAINING NIGHT VISION. General Principles. — In this training, have the men learn thoroughly the preceding principles. After they have become somewhat experienced, :teach them the subject of relative vision under all kinds of circum- 29 stances. This will give them a suitable standard of judgment; and it is most necessary that the soldier have various kinds of experiences, so that he may learn how to act when alone. Important Points of Training. — 1. The execution of movements at night, without reference to the amount of light. In this case, the fol- lowing training is suggested for the vision: (a) A single soldier moving quietly, first toward the soldier under instruction and second away from him. The reason for the quiet movement is to prevent any assistance from sound, thus training the soldier in rela- tive vision. (b) A single moving soldier allowmg some noise, such as the noise of the bayonet scabbard, water in the canteen, footsteps, etc., first toward the man under instruction, and second away from him. (c) A single soldier in different co.ored clothing, both toward and away from the man under instruction. (d) After a little while, increase the number of soldiers and have them move under the following con- ditions: 1. Quietly; 2. Under ordinary conditions; 3. With different colored clothing; Toward the one under instruction (discovery), and away from him (losing sight of). (e) With a squad under the same condit ons as paragraph (d). 2. Taking the light nto consideration. (a) With the light (moon, lantern, etc.), above and in the rear. (6) With the light at a high place in the front. 30 (c) With the light in rear of the object to be seen. (ci) When the object to be seen bears the light. (e) When the man under instruction bears the light. (0 When the object to be seen is on the sky-line, and when not. (g) Movements in the shadow. (/?.) The relation between one hidden by an ob- ject and one covered by a shadow. The above practice should be carried out, first, quietly; second, under ordinary conditions; third, with different colored uniforms. Method of Training. — When the number of soldiers under instruction is small, one instructor supervises the instruction in one squad; if the number be large, there will be assistant instructors in charge of each squad. The instruction of all squads will be carried out at the same time, taking care that they be so placed so as not to interfere with each other. :& •^QAiady 31 For example, place a squad at A. From this squad send one man (later several men) in the direction B. When he is about to disappear from view, halt him and estimate the distance. Again, based on these princi- ples, send one man (later, several) outside the field of view, in the direction B, with instructions to advance toward A. When he enters the field o'f view, halt him and estimate the distance. Try these experiments just mentioned in the fol- lowing cases and make each man judge distance, etc., for himself, first, quietly; second, under ordinary con- ditons (singly, several men, squad) ; third, with differ- ent colored uniforms. Experiments. — When this kind of training is finished cultivate the understanding and power of judgment by movements at will over various kinds of terrain and under varying conditions of weather, darkness, etc. Teach them to utilize trees, light, terrain, etc., the instructors correcting and criticising the movements. For example, form the men into a squad, and have other soldiers, from a considerable distance outside the limit of vision, move toward the squad, making use of light, terrain, shadows, etc., as already explained. The squad will watch and criticise the movements, the in- structor also adding his criticism. Select suitable occa- sions for teaching the relations of terrain, natural objects, weather, luminous bodies, etc. 32 VII. HEARING AT NIGHT. At night, on account of the difficulty of vision, the ears must be trained Ud listen attentively, and with judgment; the military objective must be attained b'y a combination of sight and hearing, even when you cannot approach an object close enough to see it. In many cases, the terrain and the state of the enemy will enable you to accomplish your object by hearing. Again, in many cases, hearing enables one to judge of the proximity of the enemy, and of his movements. Therefore the scope of practical use of hearing at night is very extensive; and it is important that the hearing be well trained so that one may be able to guess all in- dications coming from sounds, and at the same time so plan his own movements so as not to furnish the enemy with such indications. On that account, it is necessary to have a criterion by which indications may be judged, and a self-consciousness by which one can regulate his own movements. The Character of the Ground and Sounds. — • 1. If the ground be hard, the echo is loud. 2. If the ground be soft, there is but little echo. That is, if the ground be hard, the noise is sharp; if soft, it is dull. Kinds of Covering Substances and Sound. — Noise varies according to the kind of covering substance; therefore it is very necessary to know the relative amount of sound when walking over various kinds of ground. 33 The Size of a Detachment and the Relative Weight of Materials'. — If a detachment be large, it causes a cor- responding amount of noise, and can be heard at a distance; if it be small, the noise is small. If the ma- terials be heav}^ the noise carries a great distance, and if they be light, the contrary is true. These re- lations are coexistent with those of the character of the ground. Weather. — 1. Rain or snow. (a) When rain is falling there are great differences in hearing, depending upon the degree of rain. (b) When snow is falling, the amount of obstruc- tion to noise, compared to rain, is small. When passing over snow, it varies according to the degree of freezing. 2. Wind. (a) When there is no wind, conditions are excellent for hearing, as sound is not at all obstructed. {b) When the wind is blowing, conditions are favor- able for hearing sounds which occur in the direction from which the wind is blowing, and noises can be heard at a long distance. Opposite conditions produce ex- actly opposite results. (c) Wind blowing in one's ears is disadvantageous as the noise interferes with hearing. 3. Time of night. At dead of night, surrounding noises can be heard better than at twilight or dawn. 4. Relation of physical objects. 34 In level open country, which has no trees, buildings, etc., to interfere with the transmission of sound, noises travel far. 5. Relation of seasons. In the winter, not only is the ground frozen, but the leaves of plants, trees, etc., are fallen, the grass is with- ered and dead, and the crops cut and gathered; there- fore, sounds travel especially far. VIII. TRAINING IN HEARING AT NIGHT. Important Points to be Considered. — In the follow- ing training, have the men understand clearly the re- lations of the manner of walking, numbers and clothing, to the sound produced; then extend the training as follows : 1. The march of infantry. (a) A quiet advance. (b) Quick time not in step (single soldier, several men, squad with and without arms, in different kinds of weather and over different kinds of ground). (c) Quick time in step, under same conditions as (b) . (d) Double time. 2. March of cavalry. This should be carried out whenever there is a good opportunity, conformable to the above principles. 3. March of artillery. To be carried out as in_(l). 35 4. The noise of intrenching. (a) The noise of digging with a pick. (6) The noise of driving a shovel strongly into the ground. (c) The noise of pushing a spade into various kinds of ground. {d) The noise of a squad carrying on the work freely. Methods. — The apportionment of squads according to the number of men, is the same as previously described. For example, have the neces- A A A X "R ^^^y number of men ad- vance from the squad at A, in the direction of B. Hav- ing faced the squad at A to the rear,, have them listen to the noise of intrenching at B ; when they can no longer ' , ""^ ^ hear it, halt the squad at B, and estimate the distance. Again, have a squad at B, approach the squad at A; when the latter can hear the noise, have them estimate the distance. This training should be carried out with a varying number of men, and under varying conditions of ground and weather. By such means, each man, in- dividually, will learn the proper pace and manner of advance ; the noise of working, also, will teach them how to use their tools with a minimum of noise. The fol- lowing exercises, also, are important: The intrenching of a squad (of so many men) at what distance can it be heard, (a) in quiet weather, (b) when the wind is favorable, (c) when wind is unfavorable, etc. 36 Inferences to he Drawn from Sound. — To state it briefly, one who is accustomed to noticing sounds at night, is able to form his judgment of the causes by using the various inferences that ma}^ be drawn from such sounds. For this reason, such basic instruction is very necessary for soldiers; this instruction, also, will give them a basis for the guidance of their own move- ments. For this purpose, it is important to take ad- vantage of every opportunity for instruction in com- paring the causes which give rise to the. sounds, to the sounds themselves, as for example, the march of a de- tachment, cavalry, wagons, etc. When well trained in this, the soldier will be able to guess the direction of march, the approximate position with reference to him- self, distance, etc. If no good opportunities for such training present themselves, while moving on the many roads, or in their vicinity, listen to all the sounds which arise on the road and practice estimating their causes, direction, distance, etc. It is very necessary to be able to judge by hearing, the noise of the enemy's artillery entering a position, and the intrenching of infantry. The Japanese-Russian War taught us the necessity of often changing our positions to conform to those of the enemy made during the night ; and our only way of determining those move- ments was from the noise of batteries going into position, intrenching, etc. 37 IX. QUIET MARCH AT NIGHT. Importance. — A quiet march is not only important for the purpose of taking the enemy unawares, but at the same time, it prevents confusion in our own ranks. A quiet night march demands absolute silence and a suitable pace. In the Jap&,nese-Russian War, although it was difficult for large bodies to move without the noise of marching, the advantage of quiet movements was indisputably shown. There are many cases in which an absolutely quiet march is demanded of in- dividuals, such as patrols, outposts, etc. ; such train- ing should be borne in mind when these men become units of a larger force. Important Cautions in a Night March. — 1. Care as to clothing. It is important that there be no noise from the clothing and equipments ; this should be true at double time as well as at quick time. To carry this into effect the following points must be especially borne in mind : (a) That there shall be no noise from the ammuni- tion in the ammunition boxes. {h) That no noise arises from the movements of the bayonet scabbard. (c) The belt must be kept tight without fail. {d) That the contents of the haversack make no noise. {e) When the overcoat is worn, the skirt must be fastened ud. 38 2. Individual precautions. (a) When coughing cannot be prevented, cover the mouth with the coat sleeve. (b) Be careful to hold the rifle so that it will not strike the ground. (c) See that no noise arises from the rifle sling and swivel. 3. A detachment. (a) Each soldier will take care not to bump into his neighbor. (b) There will be no talking between adjacent files. (<:) Each soldier will take care not to make it neces- sary to leave ranks (for lost clothing, equipment, etc.). 4. Manner of walking. (a) In short grass, raise the feet high. (b) In long grass, keep the feet low. (c) In climbing a hill, plant the toe first. (d) In descending a hill, plant the heel first. ((?) Don't* stumble or fall down. 5. Connection. (a) In line, conform to the movements of the soldier on the right or left; in column, on the soldier in front. (b) Don't hang the head; if this is done, connec- tion will surely be lost. (c) Don't leave ranks, or halt unnecessarily. (d) At a halt, close up, but do not bump against the man in front. ' (e) Listen to signals, commands, etc., and be sure not to mistake them. 39 X. TRAINING IN QUIET MARCHES AT NIGHT. Dress. — -At first, the training should be without arms, proceeding step by step until fully armed and equipped. During this time, the men must study how to prevent any noise arising from any part of their dress or equip- ment. Order of Training. — General explanations will be made to the men on the ground where the quiet night march is to be made. After indicating the manner of walking, each soldier will be made to practice it under the supervision of an officer, who will explain the prin- ciples involved. When these principles have been understood, the number of men will be gradually in- creased, and the principles of the quiet march, individu- ally, and by squad, will be taught. Methods of Carrying Out the Above Training. — This training will be carried out at the same time and with the same formations as the training for hearing. Cautions. — Although a quiet night march is very important, it must not be allowed to injure the offensive spirit. A quiet movement never means a spiritless one, and it must be made clearly evident that minute care never means hesitation. In a quiet night march all noise will be prohibited, and each man must take care not to cause confusion to the entire command by his individual mistakes and errors. 40 XI. THE CROSSING OF ROUGH GROUND AT NIGHT. Importance of Practice. — At night, the different ground objects differ in aspect from the daytime. Objects, which in the day are no great obstacle, become formidable at night. Open level country which can be easily crossed at night, cannot be expected in practice; accordingly, the crossing of rough ground, orderly, quickly and exactly, without confusion and without delay, is a very important thing for an army. If proper training be had, such a movement is not very difficult; training insures a minimum of fatigue and disorder. Summary. — 1. As falling down often follows a stumble, care must be taken not to stumble. Even after stumbling, one is not liable to fall down unless leaning forward; therefore, that tendency must be avoided. 2. As falling down is' sometimes unavoidable, the following precautions must not be neglected : (a) Arrange clothing, equipment, etc., so that there will be nothing lost or broken; special care must be taken not to lose the hat. (b) Not to drop or break the rifle. (c) Not to talk or make any noise. 3. The method of carrying the rifle varies with the ground and ground objects; in a forest, etc., it is a good thing to carry it in the hand, taking properl^care not to cause any danger to the rank in front.. 41 4. If, while in a squad, the soldier only pays at- tention to what is underneath his feet, the following disadvantages must occur : (a) The march will be delayed. (b) Collision in .front and rear. (c) Loss of connection. 5. When obstacles are encountered, they will be passed in accordance with the principles laid down under that subject. XII. TRAINING IN CROSSING ROUGH GROUND AT NIGHT. Clothing. — In these movements, care in the matter of dress is especially important. If untrained men are made to carry arms from the very first, not only will the rifles get broken, but the men will sustain personal injuries as well. Therefore, if practicable, dummy guns should be substituted for the service rifles in the early stages of the training; this training should be carried out in the following order : (a) Without arms. (b) With dummy rifles. (c) With service rifles. (d) With full equipment. Order of Training. — 1. At the very first, the training should be in- dividual, allowing an abundance of time for the execu- tion of the movement; at this time the principles should be thoroughly inculcated. 42 2, Proceed, in a short time, by squad; at first, from column of fours in single rank extending to double and quadruple ranks, and in line as well. At times, have a simple change of direction or formation executed. The change of direction by .squad to the right or left is simple, and will be of practical use; it is important, also, to teach, practically, such important movements as the change of formation from column to line, line to column, company column to line, etc, 3. When well trained in these movements, require them to be made silently. " Even though the passage of uneven ground is a difficult matter, repeated practice makes it comparatively easy. During the Japanese- Russian War, the greater part of those who fell down during such movements were newly arrived reservists. XIII. DETERMINATION OF DIRECTION AT NIGHT. Its Importance. — That the determination of direc- tion, day or night, is important, is clearly evident. Especially at night, it is easy to mistake directions, and it is difficult to discover the mistake quickly. If the direction is once mistaken, the execution of one's mission is practically impossible; therefore, the quick deter- mination of direction, at any time, is a most important matter. Methods of Determining Direction. — By fixed Stars: 1. Direction can be determined by the position of the greater number of fixed stars especially by the north star. Accordingly, on a clear night, the direction can 43 be accurately fixed by this star. The north star is a fixed star in the tail of the Little Bear constellation. It is on the prolongation of the line b — a, which connects two stars of the Great Bear constellation, and at about • i. •j • fPofa