GlassT X (n L 3 Book -,, O 3 COPYRIGHT DEPOSfT. 1 s DOMESTIC SCIENCE Principles and Application A TEXTBOOK — FOR— PUBLIC SCHOOLS BY PEARL L. BAILEY Formerly Supervisor of Domestic Science and Domestic Art in the Saint Paul Public Scfools REVISED 'j^rile>ttort WderCto 7"<=> -Seiwr * Fig. 1. A plumbing system for a house, show- ing arrangement of fixtures, traps, and pipes. (Mo. Eng. Exp. Sta. Bui.) 10 DOMESTIC SCIENCE sewer pipe must be provided with a trap near the street sewer. Of the many kinds of traps the most commonly used are the S trap and the bottle or pot trap. The S trap (See illustrations) is perhaps the most satisfactory for most purposes, for it does not contain much water, flushes readily, and does not easily get out of order. A trap may become in- — effective because: 1. It may not have a deep enough bend to retain sufficient Fig. 2. A trap. The enclosed water wa ter tO form a Complete prevents poisonous sewer gas from entering ^ the room. sea ^ 2. It may be clogged by foreign matter, like lint, hair, grease, etc. This will break the seal. 3. The water may have evaporated from the trap, if the fixture has not been used for some time. To prevent evaporation, pour sufficient oil in the pipe to cover the top of the water. When houses are to be closed for a time, this precaution is necessary. Inspection. — All plumbing should be inspected fre- quently, and should be so constructed as to make this easy. All joints should be air-tight, and all traps should be sup- plied with means for cleaning. Faulty plumbing is too often the cause of serious illness. Note. — Carefully inspect the plumbing in your home and school. Notice where the traps are located. Care of the Ice Box. — Keep the ice box perfectly clean. See that the waste from the ice is properly carried off. It should drain into an open end of a trapped drain-pipe. See INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 11 that the trap is open and works correctly. Keep a brush for cleaning out the trap. Scald out the ice box and trap once each week with hot soda or borax water. Wipe the ice box dry, and always wipe off the shelves as soon as anything is spilled over them. Do not put hot food into the ice box; never put food with strong odors into the ice box. Keep milk bottles covered and keep the milk and butter in the lower part of the box, for they absorb odors readily. Do not put unnecessary dishes into the ice box. Set the food away in clean dishes, and in as small dishes as possible. Do not put anything on the top of the ice box; it clutters up a room and makes it harder to keep things neat and clean. Care of the Sink. — Sinks with open plumbing are best; but even the best need constant care. In selecting sinks, avoid those with wood around them. Good porcelain sinks, with rim and drain board of the same, are the best and the easiest to keep clean. Iron sinks are very hard to care for. To remove the rust from iron sinks, at night rub all over with mutton fat and in the morning rinse well with hot suds. Keep a sink strainer in the sink and pour all waste liquids through it. Do not put garbage into the sink strainer; put it into the garbage can. Sink strainers are for liquids only. When through work, empty the strainer, wash in hot soapsuds, wipe dry, and hang up. Once each week pour a strong solution of sal soda (about }/2 cup soda to two quarts water) down the pipes. Flush the sinks frequently with plenty of hot soapsuds and boiling water. When through work always leave the sinks per- fectly clean. Wash them with hot water, using Dutch cleanser or sapolio to remove any stains or grease. Rinse well and wipe dry. Kerosene cuts any grease readily. Rinse well after using. 12 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Never hang utensils or dishcloths around the sink. Only the soap dish and sink strainer need be kept there. Never hang anything under the sinks. Wash and rinse all sink cloths and hang in the air to dry. Care of the Garbage Can. — Each day place a clean news- paper in the can. This is easily removed and all the con- tents burned, buried, or carried away. Put only solid materials in the can. Liquids must first be drained off. The can must be kept perfectly fresh. Scald and scrub out the can thoroughly each week, and set in the sun and open air. Keep can covered when garbage is in it. Care of the Pantry. — Closed cupboards are much better than open shelves, but are not always available. Cover the pantry shelves with oilcloth. Tack it down firmly over the edges of the shelves. Oilcloth is easily wiped off, and is durable material. Plain white paper may be used if oilcloth is too expensive. Renew the paper frequently. Put like dishes together. Keep all spices and staple things together. Keep food supplies in covered jars properly labeled. Do not leave supplies in sacks. Never arrange supplies in more than two rows. This saves time and prevents confusion. When the last of anything is used, report the fact at once to the instructor, or make a note of it. Prepare bread crumbs from all dry pieces of bread ; roll and sift and keep in covered jars ready for use. Watch canned goods and jellies and report any that appear to be spoiling. Care of the Table. — When the dishes are all washed, clean the table by scrubbing with a brush dipped in hot water and then in Dutch cleanser or in scouring soap. INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 13 Use little water; scrub thoroughly with the grain of the wood. Rinse well and wipe dry as possible with a cloth wrung out of clear water. See that the edges of the table are kept clean and dry. Clean under the stoves thoroughly. Ammonia or borax will remove grease spots. Spread on the spots and let stand for a few minutes; then rinse with cold water. Hot water dissolves grease and drives it into the wood. Care of Floors and Woodwork. Hardwood Floors. — A long-handled soft brush is best for sweeping polished floors. A broom with a soft cover made of cotton flannel sewed into a bag to fit the broom and tied on with tapes, is a good sub- stitute for the brush. Use little or no water on hardwood floors. Brush dry. Sweep from the outside of the room towards the center; be sure corners and baseboards are well dusted. Use short strokes of brush or broom, and keep it close to the floor to prevent raising a dust. Gather dust into a small spot and take up with brush and dustpan; burn, if possible, at once. A little oil on the brush or broom bag collects the dust together better. Sweeping Ordinary Floors. — Sweep dry in the same way as with hardwood floors, using an ordinary broom. Scrubbing. — Use plenty of hot soapsuds and a stiff brush. Do not wet a large surface at a time. Scrub with the grain of the wood ; then rinse thoroughly and wipe dry with a cloth wrung out of clear water. Avoid wetting baseboards, furniture, and doors. Grease spots on unfinished wood may be removed by covering with borax, letting stand over night, and then rinsing off with clear water. 14 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Carpets. — To sweep, tear old newspapers into small pieces, dampen them, and sprinkle over the carpet. Use a stiff broom and sweep as in method for hardwood floors, taking short strokes to avoid raising dust. A carpet sweeper may be used in the center of the room after sides are brushed. To brighten the carpet, put a few drops of ammonia into a little warm water, dip a cloth into it, wring out, and rub over the carpet after it has been swept. Woodwork. — After sweeping and when the dust has settled, wipe off the woodwork carefully, using a soft cotton cloth. Hemmed cheesecloth dusters are preferable. Gather the dust into the folds of the duster, not stirring the dust up in the room, and shake duster out of doors. Dust higher objects and woodwork first. Chemically-prepared dust cloths are for sale and are good for most woodwork, but must not be used on mahog- any furniture. Care of Brooms, Brushes, and Dust Cloths. — Brooms. — In using a broom alternate first one side and then the other, so that it wears evenly. Clean broom off after sweeping, making it ready for use again. Always hang broom up; do not allow it to rest on the bristles. The broom should be washed in good warm suds every week to keep it in good condition. Brushes. — Brushes should be cleaned well after each using. Later they may be washed in cold water, but great care must be taken not to wet the glue which fastens the back of the brush. Dry thoroughly. Dust cloths. — Wash dust cloths frequently in hot soap- suds, scald, rinse in clear water, and dry in the sun and air. Explain why this precaution is always necessary. LESSON 1 LIFE ESSENTIALS— AIR, WATER, FOOD. FURTHER WORKING DIRECTIONS Three things are essential to life: (1) air, (2) water, and (v3) food. In addition, most forms of life need sunlight and a favorable temperature. AIR Air is the most immediate need of the body, since we can live but a few minutes without it. Composition of Air. — Pure air is composed mainly of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportion of 1 part of oxygen to about four parts of nitrogen. A certain amount of water vapor in the air makes it easier to breathe. Impure air may contain, in addition to nitrogen and oxygen, harmful gases, dust, and other impurities. In dwellings the harmful gas is usually carbon dioxide, which is noticeable when the room is poorly ventilated. Sources of Carbon Dioxide Gas. — Carbon dioxide gas is formed by the union of carbon and oxygen in a process called oxidation. This takes place in — (1) All burning of carbon material. (2) Decaying vegetable and animal life. (3) The process of respiration. In the latter process the oxygen in the air passes through the thin walls of the lungs into the blood, which carries it to all parts of the body. The union of this oxygen with the carbon in the cell tissues forms carbon dioxide as a waste product, which in turn is carried back by the blood to the lungs and given off. (15) 16 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Ventilation. — How may pure air be brought into a room and the impure air sent out? How is your home venti- lated? How is your school ventilated? The natural means of ventilation are doors, windows, cracks, and chimneys. Special ventilating systems, flues, etc., may be spoken of as the artificial means of ventilation. WATER Water ranks next to air as a supporter of life. Pure water is a liquid, clear, odorless, colorless, and almost taste- less. Composition. — Chemically pure water is composed of 1 part oxygen to 2 parts of hydrogen. The flavor of drink- ing water is due to the mineral salts and carbon dioxide gas dissolved in it. Sources. — (1) Rain. (2) Surface water, as from rivers, brooks, lakes, ponds. (3) Ground water, as from wells, open and artesian, and some springs. Uses. — Water has many uses. It enters into all plant and animal life. It constitutes about three-fourths of the weight of the body. (a) Uses in the body: — 1. It quenches thirst. >* 2. It aids in regulating the body temperature. 3. It aids digestion, since it forms a part of all the digestive secretions of the body, and acts as a solvent; that is, dissolves*most substances and reduces them to a condi- tion to be of use to the body. 4. It acts as a carrier. It enters into the formation of blood, which carries food to the various parts of the body. It also carries off waste materials. ESSENTIALS TO LIFE 17 (b) Uses out of the body: — 1. In power production. 4. In cooking. 2. In transportation. 5. For plant growth. 3. In cleaning. 6. Other uses. Kinds. — (1) Soft water, as already explained. (2) Hard water, temporary and permanent. (3) Mineral water, which is water containing a com- paratively large percentage of certain minerals, such as soda, sulphur, and iron, and is valuable for medicinal purposes. Daily Requirement. — An average person requires about two quarts of water a day. This is supplied by vegetables, meat, and other food, as well as by beverages. Temperatures. — Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit (which is zero on the Centigrade scale). Water simmers at 185° F. Water boils at 212° F., or 100° C. Impure water cannot always be detected by color, taste, or smell. One should always know the source of water before using it. Water is contaminated in many ways, but the most common are — 1. In open wells, by surface water and foreign sub- stances. 2. By having water supply too close to outbuildings or sewage disposals. Water is purified more or less by filtering through the earth, but this does not necessarily remove harmful bacteria, especially when the filtering distance is short. 3. By carelessness in diseases. To Purify Water. — Water from springs and artesian and bored wells is usually pure. 1. Boiling will purify most water, but this destroys —2 18 DOMESTIC SCIENCE the flavor as well as the bacteria. Pouring boiled water from one jar to another partially restores its flavor. 2. Filtering water through stone filters is quite effec- tive. The filters must be thoroughly cleaned frequently or they will be worse than none. In city systems water is often filtered through large sand beds to purify it. Small cloth filters fastened on the faucets do not purify the water. Cautions in the Use of Water. — 1. Do not use water left standing in open vessels. 2. Draw off the first water from pipes before using any. Water takes up the lead of the pipes when allowed to stand in them for any time. 3. Do not drink water in the dark. 4. Use freshly boiled water for cooking purposes, never that from the hot- water faucet. 5. Keep all pitchers and water jars washed clean and free from the lime deposits that accumulate on the bottom and sides. FOOD Food is anything which taken into the body builds and repairs the tissues or furnishes heat and energy. Foods contain many elements, but the most important are those which enter into the composition of the body; as, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, phos- phorus, and others. Where have you found these elements before? Some of them are more abundant in certain foods than in others, and therefore foods perform different functions in the body. For this reason we have foods classified according to their composition and function. Classification of food. — (A) Organic foods, of animal and vegetable origin, include — 1 . Proteins which include — a. Albumin, as in the white of egg. ESSENTIALS TO LIFE 19 b. Casein; as, milk curd. c. Fibrin; as, lean meat. d. Gelatin, as found in sinews and bones, c. Extractives, as in the juices of meats. /. Gluten, as contained in wheat. g. Legumin, as contained in peas and beans. 2. Carbohydrates, which include— a. Starch, as contained in potatoes and cereals. b. Sugar; as, cane, beet, and fruit sugars. c. Cellulose, the fruit and vegetable fiber. 3. Fats, including — a. Animal fats; as, butter, lard, fat meat. b. Vegetable oils; as, olive oil, cottonseed oil. (B) Inorganic foods, or those not having animal or vegetable origin, include — 4. Mineral matter, as found in the ash of foods. 5. Water. — Water is usually not thought of as a food ; it is used in tissue building, but it does not give heat or energy. Composition and Functions of the Food Classes. — Proteins contain nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, sul- phur, and often phosphorus. Because they contain nitrogen, proteins build and repair tissues, and are called nitrogenous or tissue-build- ing foods. The protein of the body, as contained in the muscles, blood, and other tissues, can be built up only from the protein of food. Proteins may also be used in the body to produce heat and energy. But carbohydrates and fats, especially the former, are much cheaper as a source of heat and energy, and are much more easily used for this purpose in the body. If less protein is eaten than is re- quired, the protein of the body itself will be consumed. If more protein is eaten than is needed for tissue building, the excess is thrown off as waste, the process forming 20 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Nutrients- Non -nutrients. Fuel valne. Fig. 3. Food chart of comparative composition and fuel value of food materials. (U. S. D. A. Bui.) ESSENTIALS OF LIFE 21 harmful' products in the body and enforcing greater work on the excretory organs. Excessive consumption of pro- tein food is harmful. Carbohydrate is the general name for a large class of familiar food materials that do not contain nitrogen. In order to maintain its temperature and to do work, the body must obtain energy, and this is supplied very largely by the carbohydrates. Starches and sugars are produced in plants on a very generous scale for our use. When eaten in excess, carbohydrates are stored in the body as fatty tissue. Fats and oils are composed of the same elements as car- bohydrates; namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and are used in the body for the same purpose. The propor- tion of carbon is much greater than in carbohydrates, for which reason they give about twice as much heat and energy. The fats, however, are harder to digest. They also add to the fatty tissue. Mineral matter, consisting of compounds of sodium, lime, iron, potash, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., are found principally in cereals, milk, meat, fish, and fruits. Min- eral substances enter into the composition of all tissues of the body, especially bone and blood, and are very neces- sary to young and growing persons. Water. (Composition and function given on page 16.) Vitamines are disease-preventing substances found in various articles of food but which have not yet been isolated and whose chemical composition has not yet been deter- mined. While it is thought that phosphorus does not enter into the molecule of the vitamine, the vitamine and the phosphorus content of the food are closely related. If less than 4 per cent of the pentoxide (P2O5) of phosphorus is present, the food does not have sufficient disease-preventing 21A DOMESTIC SCIENCE properties. Vitamines have no direct relation to the pro- tein, fat, and carbohydrates contained in the diet. Three vitamines are recognized: (1) fat-soluble A, present in butter-fat, cod-liver oil, green leaves, etc. These prevent an eye disease called xerophthalmia, and rickets, (2) water-soluble B, found principally in plants, and pre- venting polyneuritis in birds and beriberi in human beings, and (3) water-soluble C, an antiscorbutic vitamine which prevents scurvy. All these vitamines are necessary for growth as well as for health. Fat-Soluble A. Butter-fat is the general source of this vitamine. It is also found in the yolks of eggs, yellow beef fat, fish oils and pure animal oleomargarines. Of the vegetables spinach, and, generally, leafy vegetables, along with carrots, sweet potatoes and yellow corn are the rich- est in it. The alkali of baking soda, unless counteracted by sour milk, destroys this vitamine. Experiments have shown that such temperatures as are used for ordinary cooking may destroy the essential prop- erty of the vitamines. There is, therefore, greater necessity for the employment of some of these foods at least in their natural state. Water-Soluble B. This vitamine is present in milk and animal foods in a lesser degree but more widely distributed in plants, among which are cereals, legumes, spinach, cab- bage, potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, beets, and toma- toes. The parts of the cereals which contain the vitamine are the germ and the outer coating, or bran, the part that in the higher milling process is eliminated. Yeast also is a very rich source of this vitamine. The effect of cooking temperatures is likely to deterio- rate if not to destroy the efficacy of this vitamine. Water-Soluble C. This vitamine is not found in yeast, ESSENTIALS OF LIFE 21B t fats, and cereals, in only small quantities in fresh milk and meat, and in greatest amounts in fresh fruits and vegetables. Raw cabbage, orange juice, and tomatoes are excellent antiscorbutics. This vitamine, like the others, is rendered practically of no value by high temperatures. Hence boiled or pasteurized milk would be deprived of its natural efficacy as an antiscorbutic. Drying and storing, generally speaking, impair the effec- tiveness of all vitamines. Bacteria are a group of widely distributed vegetable microorganisms of transparent protoplasm. They perform a great variety of functions, such as converting dead organic matter into soluble food materials for plants, fixing atmos- pheric nitrogen in legumes, and causing fermentation and disease. Some are helpful; some are harmful. They multi- ply, and, often, very rapidly by division. Their growth de- pends on their food supply, moisture, and temperature. The problem is to control the useful bacteria and to pre- vent the multiplication and action of the harmful ones. Fresh air, direct sunlight, sterilization, and germicidal agents are the principal antagonists. Cleanliness and protection are necessary precautions in the case of foods. A further treatment of this subject will be found on page 189. Table of Abbreviations For the sake of convenience in cookery, a few abbre- viations are used. Those used throughout this text are: tsp. for teaspoonful oz. for ounce tbsp. for tablespoonful f. g. for few grains ssp. for salt spoonful r. for rounded c. for cupful h. p. for heaping pt. for pint sc. for scant qt. for quart min. for minute lb. for pound hr. for hour 22 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Table of Measures 3 tsp. are equivalent to 1 tbsp. 12 tbsp. are equivalent to 1 cup wet material 16 tbsp. are equivalent to 1 cup dry material 2 c. are equivalent to 1 pt. 2 pt. are equivalent to 1 qt. 4 qts. are equivalent to 1 gal. 8 qt. are equivalent to 1 peck, (dry) 4 c. (about) flour equal 1 lb. 2 c. sugar (gran.) equal 1 lb. 2 c. butter packed solid equal 1 lb. 2 c. chopped meat equal 1 lb. 2 tbsp. butter equal 1 oz. 1 tbsp. sugar equals 1 oz. 1 tbsp. liquid equals H oz. 9 or 10 eggs, depending on size, equal 1 lb. The juice of 1 lemon equals 3 tbsp. All measurements used in this book are level. Great care must be taken to measure accurately. Directions for Measuring. — 1. For a spoonful, dip the spoon into the material, lift it, and level off true with a spatula. 2. For a cupful, fill the cup with the aid of a spoon, and level off with a spatula. 3. For a half spoonful, level off a spoonful and then divide lengthwise through the middle. The spoon is larger at the back than at the point, and a more accurate measure may be obtained in this way. 4. For one-fourth spoonful, divide the half-spoonful cross-wise, dividing a little back of the middle. 5. For one-eighth spoonful, divide a fourth-spoonful diagonally across from center of spoon to outer rim. 6. In measuring dry material, as flour, baking powder, soda, powdered sugar, spices, sift or shake up lightly before measuring, and do not dip cup into the material, which packs it, but fill with a spoon. 7. To measure butter or lard, pack solidly into cup with a spoon. RULES FOR WORKING 23 8. A heaping teaspoon or cup means all it will hold. 9. A scant teaspoon or cup is a little less than level measure. Fig. 4. Measuring: Y 2 c. liquid, 1 c. dry, y 2 tbsp. dry, K tsp. dry, tbsp. butter. 24 DOMESTIC SCIENCE RULES FOR WORKING 1. Wash your hands with soap and water and scrub and clean your nails. If you handle anything not clean, wash your hands again. 2. Have your hair neatly fastened back. 3. Wear no jewelry. 4. Wear a wash dress, if available. 5. Never dry dishes with a hand towel or an apron. 6. Never taste with the mixing spoon. 7. See that gas or oven will be ready for use at the time it is needed. 8. In beginning work collect all necessary material and utensils, also provide a utility plate on which to lay sticky knives, etc. 9. Save dishes by measuring dry material first, then liquid, and lastly fats. 10. Break eggs separately in a cup or saucer, to be sure they are fresh. 11. Save a little milk to rinse the bowl in which the eggs are beaten. 12. Tin dishes and iron spoons will discolor batters; so use earthen dishes and wooden spoons. 13. Do not let vinegar or lemon juice stand in a tin cup or dish. 14. Clean up your work and put egg and batter dishes to soak as soon as empty. 15. Stand egg beaters in cold water, but take care not to wet the cogs. 16. Stir and beat with a tablespoon or mixing spoon, never with a teaspoon. 17. Hang a piece of paper on the oven door when the oven is in use, to remind you of the baking. RULES FOR WORKING 25 RULES FOR WASHING DISHES AND FOR CARE OF UTENSILS Preparations.— 1. Collect all dishes to be washed; scrape, clean, and pile like dishes together. 2. Soak dishes that have contained dough, batter, eggs, or starch in cold water; those soiled by sugar, in hot water. 3. Prepare two pans of good hot water. Use one for rinsing and one for washing dishes. 4. Wipe out all greasy pans with paper and put paper in the garbage can or stove. 5. Remove the hot-plate board from the table and place on the stove, providing a clean, dry place clear for clean dishes. 6. Serviceable towels for drying dishes are made by hemming flour sacks. Glass toweling or linen crash absorbs moisture readily. A good dishcloth should not be too large and should be sweet and clean. Have one for china and one for kitchen dishes. Instructions for Washing.— 1. Put glasses into hot water sidewise to prevent uneven expansion of glass, which breaks them. 2. Glass and silver ware are brighter if wiped directly from clean, hot suds. Do not rinse. 3. Wash cut glass in warm water and dry carefully. A sudden change of temperature breaks cut glass. 4. Rinse all dishes, except glasses, in clean, hot water, and wipe quickly with a clean, dry towel. 5. Do not put bone or wooden knife or fork handles in water. Wipe with a wet cloth and then dry them. 6. Scour kitchen knives and forks with bath brick or sapolio and then wash and rinse well. 7. Scrape rolling pin and molding board and wipe off with a wet cloth. Do not use much water on either. 26 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 8. Do not wet the cogs of egg beaters. 9. Wash the teapot and the coffeepot clean with hot water, wipe dry, clean spout carefully, and leave with covers open. 10. Get clean water several times during the washing process. 11. Wash the dish pan thoroughly, rinse, and wipe dry. 12. Rinse out the dishcloth and towels and hang in the air and sun to dry. APPLICATION 1. Practice measuring, both liquids and dry materials. 2. Learn to know sections on measuring cup. 3. Wash dishes. 4. Do general housekeeping work, — sweeping, caring for sink, stoves, pantry, etc. LESSON 2 HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL Carbon. — All vegetable and animal matter contains carbon. This can be easily shown by simple experiments : — 1. Heat a little sugar in a test tube over a gas flame. What does the heat do? What is left? 2. Heat a little starch in a test tube over a gas flame. 3. Heat a tiny piece of meat in a test tube over a gas flame. 4. Hold a cold plate for a moment over the red part of the gas flame, over a lighted lamp, or in the red flame of a coal or wood tire. In like manner, any organic substance may be heated to a black char, which is mostly carbon. How is charcoal made? Animals get the carbon of their bodies from plants, which in turn get it from the air. Animals breathe in the pure air and give off impure air containing carbon dioxide gas. The plants take up this gas through their leaves and stems, and by the aid of water and the energy from the sun the carbon is manufactured into sugar, starch, and cellu- lose in the plant fiber. When carbon burns, it again liber- ates the sun's energy. Heat is natural or artificial. Sunlight gives natural heat; fire, artificial heat. The sun is the source of all energy. Experiments Illustrating Burning. — 1. Light a short candle, place it on the table, and watch it burn. (V7\ 28 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Turn a tumbler over it and see what happens. 3. Turn a chimney over the lighted candle, raising the chimney a little from the table. Then cover the top of the chimney and see if there is any change. 4. Light a small piece of paper, and uncovering the top of the chimney quickly drop in the lighted paper. What happens? What do these experiments indicate? What element in air is necessary to a burning candle? 5. Clean two half-pint milk bottles. Insert a lighted paper into one of the bottles and then cover. Pour a little clear lime water into the bottle. Is there any change in the clearness of the lime water? 6. Breathe into fresh lime water in the second bottle, through a straw. Is the result similar to that of Exp. 5? Clear lime water turns milky when carbon dioxide gas mixes with it. Is any of this gas present in Experiments 5 and 6? If so, explain where it came from. Things Essential for a Fire. — Three things are essen- tial for fire (1) air (oxygen), (2) fuel, and (3) a means of raising- the temperature to the kindling point. Oxidation (Combustion). — Oxygen unites readily with many other elements, and the process is called oxidation. / ^ When this takes place so rapidly that heat and light are produced as in fire, we call it combustion. It may also go on very slowly, yet the results are the same. Food is oxidized slowly in every living cell of the body, giving heat and the energy to do work. The Kindling Point.— -By the kindling point of a sub- stance we mean the lowest temperature at which it burns, or unites with oxygen. Fuels differ as to this temperature, some having a much lower kindling point than others. For this reason, matches, paper, and wood burn more HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 2t readily than coal. The phosphorus of the match is ignited by the friction of striking, and burns. This in turn is used to ignite larger pieces of wood which have a higher kindling point. In the making of a coal fire, wood is used to raise the temperature high enough to ignite the coal. Products of Combustion.— The most common products of combustion are steam, carbon dioxide gas, smoke, soot, and ashes. In incomplete combustion a gas is formed, called carbon monoxide, which is very harmful to breathe. The carbon that is not burned passes off as smoke and soot. Soot contains some oily substances and sticks to cooking utensils and to the chimney and should be removed often. When allowed to accumulate in the chimney, soot is apt to cause fires. FUELS The most common fuels are wood, coal, kerosene, and gas. Being of vegetable origin, they all contain carbon. Wood is either hard or soft. Soft wood kindles quickly and produces a quick fire but which is of short duration. Pine and birch are soft wood. Hard wood burns more slowly, but a fire of hard wood keeps longer than one of soft wood. Oak and maple are examples of hard wood. Coal is of many kinds and is all formed from ancient vegetation which has been buried deep in the earth for a long time and subjected to a high degree of heat and pres- sure. Coal has a higher kindling point than wood, burns with a strong, steady heat for a long time, and holds fire much longer than the hardest wood. Kerosene, or coal oil, is prepared from petroleum and is used in stoves made especially for it. It is a cheap fuel and is safe if a good grade is used and care taken to keep the stove clean and in good condition. JO DOMESTIC SCIENCE Gas is either natural or manufactured. Both are ex- cellent for fuel. Natural gas is cheap and can best be used only in localities where it is found. Manufactured gas is made from coal, petroleum, oil, wood, or peat, and is a clean fuel. In most cities where such gas is used it is cheaper than wood or coal. Gasoline is very inflammable and not safe to use in homes and schools. THE COAL RANGE Fire is used by all people as a means of preparing food. Many forms of cooking arrangements have been adopted, from the primitive camp fire, the grate fire and stove, to the coal range and the gas and electric appliances of modern times. Stoves differ widely in construction, yet all have the same essential parts, and in all the same principles apply. Study the stoves at school and at home and compare them. Parts of coal range to be studied are : — Fire box, which contains the fuel. Grate, or floor of the fire box. It is made in two parts, and may be opened. Dampers, which are (1) creative and (2) check, to con- trol the draft, (3) chimney and (4) oven, to direct the hot air currents. Ovens, used for baking food. Top, with covers of various sizes for surface cooking. Ash pan, for ashes and clinkers. Stovepipe, to carry off smoke and other products of combustion, and to afford a draft. To lay a fire: 1. Have fire box free of ashes. 2. Remove lids from over the fire box. 3. Place pieces of twisted paper or shavings crosswise in fire box. HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 31 4. Place a few pieces of soft wood and a couple of pieces of hard wood on top. 5. Put on a shovelful of coal. 6. Close top of stove before applying match. To start a fire: 1. Open lower and chimney dampers. 2. Apply lighted match underneath to twisted papers. 3. When the fire has a good start, add more fuel. 4. Never fill the box more than two-thirds full. Fig. 5. A range, showing how the oven is heated. The purpose of dampers is to control the air currents, — to direct them and to make them hotter or not so hot. (Courtesy Kalamazoo Stove Company.) To regulate a fire: For a hot fire, open the creative and chimney dampers. Close oven damper. As soon as coal burns red on top, add more coal. When coal is red under- neath and black on top, close dampers. To heat the oven, open oven and chimney dampers and close others. This forces the hot air current around the oven and out the back of the range to the chimney. 32 DOMESTIC SCIENCE If the oven bakes too hard on bottom, open the slide in front of and below the grate. If the oven bakes too hard on top, lift a cover slightly from the top of the fire box. To hold a fire, fill fire box with coal, close all dampers, open check half way. The check is in front of and above the fire box, and causes a current of air to pass over the fire instead of through it, thereby checking oxidation. General Care of the Coal Range. — 1. Clean oven flue once a month when in constant use. The accumulation of fine ashes prevents free circulation of hot air, besides absorbing heat. 2. Clinkers, egg shells, etc., should be avoided in the fire box. Put sheik in only when the fire is burning freely. 3. Do not allow coal to reach the top of box. It reddens the covers and causes them to warp. 4. Empty the ash pan regularly and do not let it over- flow. An overflowing ash pan hinders the draft of air as well as makes extra work. 5. Keep the stove clean. Brush off at once anything that is spilled over it or in the oven. 6. A cloth with a few drops of kerosene on it rubbed over the stove when cold will keep it from rusting and is sufficient to keep the stove in good condition. 7. If a polish is preferred, select one of good quality, moisten a small quantity with water, and apply sparingly with a brush, just as the stove is warming up. A study of fuels, — wood and coal, with varieties of each, cost, and suitability, — may be taken up in this connection. THE GAS RANGE Gas ranges differ in construction as widely as coal ranges, but all are built on practically the same general plan. Study gas ranges at home and at school and compare. HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 3S The parts of a gas range that should receive attention are: The main pipe, which leads the gas into the range. It has a shut off. Locate it. The oven, for baking. This is regulated by gas stop- cocks. It is sometimes controlled by a pilot light, some- times by direct action. Explain. The broiling oven and toaster. The gas flow for these is controlled by gas cocks. Top burners, for surface cooking. Each has a separate cock. Locate the cock for each burner. The simmering burner, a small burner on top. The stove pipe, a connection of range to chimney to carry off smoke and gas. To light the gas burners: See that the main stopcock is open. This may be left open from day to day, but should be closed when gas is not used, as in vacations or when mak- ing repairs. Light the match, open the cock of the burner you wish to light, and apply match to burner. If it "fires back," close gas cock, and open again to permit the flow of gas through the cock for a moment to drive out the air. Close again and then relight as before. Each burner has an air regulator, which should be adjusted to the air pressure in the city where it is used. The flame should burn blue; if the flame is yellow, adjust air flow at once. Caution: In discontinuing use, always see that all stop- cocks are shut off tight. To light the gas oven: Open the oven doors. If a pilot-light, turn on the pilot and apply lighted match through hole for that purpose in the side of the oven. When lighted, turn on first one gas cock in the oven and then the other. 34 DOMESTIC SCIENCE See that the entire coil burns with a blue flame. If a direct action, apply lighted match directly to the coil as cock is turned on, always with oven doors open. Bad explosions often occur if one fails to observe these directions. To regulate the fire and save gas : As soon as a kettle boils, turn down the gas enough to just keep contents boiling. If the gas is turned too high, the yellow flame will blacken the kettle. A blue flame is clean. Use sim- merer instead of a large burner, when long, slow cooking is needed or to hold warmth. In heating the oven, light gas a few minutes before the dish is ready to go in, to insure heat; then reduce the flame to hold the heat. Turn off the gas entirely a few minutes before removing baking from oven, since the oven retains enough heat to finish the cooking, and the extra gas would be a waste. Care of the Gas Range. — 1. Keep air holes clean. 2. Wipe off sheet iron under top burners clean when through cooking each day. 3. If anything is spilled on the stove, wipe off imme- diately. 4. Rub daily with cloth containing a few drops of kero- sene, to keep black and clean and free from rust. THE ELECTRIC STOVE Electric stoves are not very commonly used, but are cleaner and more convenient than the gas stove. They are more expensive to operate, however, on account of the high rate of the electricity consumed. Electric stoves vary in size and construction. HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 35 The parts of an electric stove are : — Electric coils, placed under the covers and around the oven. These become red hot when the current is turned on. The oven, for baking. Electric attachment, where the stove is connected with current. A switch button is used as with electric lights. Electric Appliances. — There are various appliances for cooking food by means of electricity; as, toasters, chafing dishes, percolators, and combination cookers. These may be attached to any light connection in a minute's time, are very convenient, moderate in first cost, but comparatively expensive of use. OIL STOVES Kerosene is used to a large extent in country homes and summer residences where gas is not available. Good, vaporized blue-flame kerosene stoves give satisfaction and are quite safe when placed where there is no draft. The parts of oil stove to be studied are : — The tank, for oil. Several lamps, each consisting of a chamber for oil and wicks, which need daily care, and cylinders, which carry the heat to the burner above. Care of oil stoves: — 1. Clean wicks and cylinders every day. See that the tank for oil is refilled and never allowed to run dry. 2. Wipe off surface of stove and keep perfectly clean. FIRELESS COOKERS Fireless cookers are made from a variety of materials, but all have the same underlying principle of operation. Construction. — Fireless cookers consist of a covered box lined with tin or zinc; packing, usually felt or excelsior, or any materiaLthat is a non-conductor of heat ; food chambers, 36 DOMESTIC SCIENCE for cooking; and radiators, consisting of iron or stone discs, which are heated and placed under and over the dish con- taining the food to be cooked. The efficiency of the cooker depends largely upon how nearly the packing is a non-con- ductor of heat. Care of fireless cookers: 1. Keep all parts clean and dry. 2. Keep cooker tightly fastened when in use. 3. Air out frequently to keep sweet and clean. APPLICATION 1. Practice laying a fire in the range. 2. Practice lighting gas burners, gas ovens, and the water heater. 3. Baked Potatoes Method. — Select smooth, medium-sized potatoes. Wash well with a small vegetable brush kept for the purpose. Bake in a hot oven about 45 minutes or until done. This may be determined by testing with a fork. Break the skins to let the steam escape, and serve at once. If baked potatoes stand they become soggy. 4. Stuffed Potatoes 6 medium-sized potatoes, baked 4 tbsp. hot milk 2 tbsp. butter 2 egg whites Yl tsp. salt Pepper Method. — Cut the end from each baked potato, or cut in half lengthwise, scrape out the inside with a fork, and mash the center with a fork. Season it with the salt, pepper, butter and milk. Add the beaten white, reserving part of it for the top. Fill the skins with the mixture, brush over the top with the egg and return to the oven until browned. Grated cheese may be sprinkled on the top for a change. Minced meat may be added to the potato. Ham or chicken would be good. (Basis for 2 girls, 1 potato.) LESSON 3 COOKING. CARBOHYDRATES— POTATOES Cooking is the application of heat to food to prepare it for eating. Reasons for Cooking. — Food is cooked for any or all of the following reasons: — 1. To make it more easily chewed and digested. 2. To improve its flavor and appearance. 3. To kill any germs and parasites it may contain. Methods of Cooking. — The method to be used in cook- ing a food depends, among other things, upon (a) the nature of the food and (b) whether it is desired to extract, partially extract, or retain the juices. The heat is applied in a variety of ways: by (1) radiation, (2) hot water or steam, (3) hot fat, (4) hot metal, and by combinations of these. 1. Boiling is cooking in boiling water. In this case the cooking water is usually drained off and not used. 2. Stewing is long, slow cooking in water below the boiling point. The pot is tightly covered, and the enclosed steam assists in the cooking. The liquids are usually served with the dish as gravy or are made into soup. 3. Steaming is cooking by either moist steam, as in a steamer over boiling water, or by dry steam, as in a double boiler. 4. Roasting\ In the olden days meats, especially, 5. Broiling J were commonly cooked in the direct heat of a glowing fire or over a bed of coals. Small pieces were broiled and larger ones roasted, a tin reflector being used for the latter. (37) 38 DOMESTIC SCIEXCE 6. Pan broiling is cooking in a hot frying pan. It is used when it is not convenient to broil directly over the fire. 7. Baking is cooking in an oven. It is quite the same as roasting and broiling, which it has superseded. Batters, doughs, and vegetables are usually spoken of as baked in an oven, and meats as roasted. 8. Pan baking is cooking on a hot griddle, as pancakes are cooked. 9. Frying is cooking by dipping or immersing in hot fat. Fat, unlike water, will heat to a temperature of 500° or greater. Doughnuts, fish, and potatoes are foods com- monly fried. 10. Santeing is cooking in a small amount of hot fat. Omelets and hashed browned potatoes are sauted. 11. Braising is cooking in a small amount of water or stock in a covered dish in an oven. It is a combination of stewing and baking. 12. Fricasseeing combines sauteing and stewing. STARCH Starch, in prepared form, is a fine white powder, con- sisting of tiny starch grains. It is a carbohydrate. Source. — It is found in the vegetable world and is most abundant in the cereals, tapioca, potatoes, and other vegetable products. Starch is not formed in the animal body. Food Value. — Starch gives heat and energy to the body but does not build or repair tissues, and when used alone it cannot sustain life; it must be used with tissue-forming foods. Starch must be changed to sugar by digestion before it can be used in the body. Test for Starch. — Iodine turns starch a deep blue. (Demonstrate.) CARBOHYDRATES— POTATOES 39 Use. — Starch in the prepared form is used to thicken liquids and sauces. Starch Experiments. — 1. Put a tsp. of starch in a glass containing }/± c. of water. Watch it. What happens? 2. Mix 1 tsp. of starch with l ± c. cold water to form a paste. Add }/& c. boiling water. See what happens. 3. Pour ¥2 c. boiling water over 1 tsp. of starch, with- out first mixing cold water. What happens? Break one of the lumps. 4. Mix starch grains with melted butter; add boiling water. 5. Mix starch with granulated sugar; add boiling water. Compare results of experiments and draw conclusions. Fig. 6. Effect of cooking on starch: a, cells of a raw potato, showing starch grains and fram«work; b, cells of a partially cooked potato; c, cells of a thor- oughly boiled potato. (Hutchison.) The Cooking of Starch. — Heat and moisture are needed to soften starch. Starch grains must be separated in some way before boiling water is added. Starch needs long, thorough cooking and a high tem- perature to make it easier to digest. 40 DOMESTIC SCIENCE POTATOES (Irish, or White) A potato is an enlargement of an underground stem. It is a storehouse of starch, which furnishes food for the young plants. Composition. — Potatoes contain — Water, about z /i their weight. For this reason they may be baked, since they contain enough water to soften the starch. Starch, about 1/5 their weight. Protein, aoout 2.5 per cent. Cellulose, which forms the walls of the cells. Mineral matter, which is mainly potash salts. What food principle is wholly lacking? Which is defi- cient in amount? Structure. — The potato is made up of cells with thin walls of fiber, and these cells contain starch grains and water. Surrounding the mass of starch cells and just beneath the skin is a layer of nutritious mineral matter and protein material. This is wasted if the potato is peeled too thickly. Manner of Growth. — Potatoes are grown from cuttings, each cutting planted producing several tubers beneath the soil. They are best when fully matured; those immature are soggy when cooked. Large potatoes are likely to be hollow at the center. Care in Storage. — Potatoes should be kept in a cool, dark, dry place. Do not let potatoes sprout. The sprouts use moisture and starch from the potato, and thus decrease its value for the table. Food Value. — Owing to their large content of starch, potatoes are excellent as heat and energy producers. Pota- toes are healthful and are easily and thoroughly digested. They furnish 12.5 per cent of the average American diet. CARBOHYDRATES— POTATOES 41 Rules for Paring Potatoes. — 1. Always pare potatoes thinly. 2. Remove sprouts and eyes with the point of a knife. 3. Drop potatoes in cold water as soon as they are peeled, but allow them to soak as little as possible. Explain why. 4. Soak old potatoes in cold water an hour before cooking, to restore part of their freshness. Points on Cooking Potatoes. — 1. Drop potatoes into boiling water to cook, not into cold water. Why? 2. Too vigorous boiling tears the outside of the pota- toes before the inside is cooked. 3. Pour off all the water when the potatoes are tender and let them stand uncovered. Why? 4. Baking potatoes and boiling them with the skins on are the most economical methods of cooking them. There is less loss of nutrients and flavor than with any other method. The Sweet Potato. — The sweet potato, which is an enlarged root, is a warm-climate plant and is grown in the United States as far north as New Jersey. It is about as common an article of food in the South as the white potato is in the North. While the sweet potato is somewhat higher in food value than the white, it may be regarded and treated similarly. It contains about 26 per cent of starch and sugar, of which 10 per cent is sugar. It also has about 69 per cent water and 1.3 per cent cellulose, requiring a longer time for cook- ing. Yams are the tropical substitute for the potato. These roots are larger, similar in structure, but coarser and less palatable, than either the white or the sweet potato. 42 DOMESTIC SCIEXCE APPLICATION 1. Test the potato for starch with iodine. 2. Test for simmering point and boiling point of water. Is the temperature increased by more rapid boiling? 3. Boiled Potatoes Method. — Select potatoes that are smooth and of uni- form size. Wash and pare them. Cook them in boiling salted water until soft. Test with a fork; if it withdraws easily, the potatoes are done. Allow one tablespoonful of salt to every seven potatoes and enough water to cover. Drain off the water and let stand uncovered in a warm place until served. Serve hot. Potatoes may also be scrubbed well and boiled with the skins on. (Basis /w - gtris, 1 potc 4. Riced Potatoes Method. — Put boiled potatoes through a hot potato ricer and serve at once. Do not pack or mash in putting into the serving dish. 5. Mashed Potatoes 2 tbsp. butter 4 tbsp. hot milk boiled potatoes } 2 tsp. salt Pepper Method. — Mash the boiled potatoes with a potato masher or a fork until soft, add the butter, salt, pepper, and the milk, and beat all until light and foamy. Serve piled lightly in a hot serving-dish. 6. Sweet Potatoes Method. — Cook sweet potatoes with the skins on. They may also be mashed, riced, or baked. 7. Potato Cakes Method. — Press cold mashed potatoes into small round cakes about J _> inch thick. Brush over with milk, and saute them in butter until a rich brown on both sides. CARBOEYDRATEE-FOTATOEM 43 8. Creamed Potatoes 1 c. cooked potatoes 3^ c. medium white sauce 1 tbsp. finely chopped parsley Method.— Cut the boiled potatoes in half-inch cur - Make a medium white sauce according to first method in Lesson 4, and combine with the potatoes while hot. Add the finely cut parsley and serve. 9. Au Gratin Potatoes 1 c. boiled prtat M c buttered crumbs y 2 c medium white sauce Method.— Cut the boiled potatoes in half-inch cubes; put a layer of potatoes in a buttered baking dish, and cover with half of the white sauce; then add the rest of the pota- toes, the rest of the white sauce, and lastly the buttered crumbs. Allow 1 tbsp. of butter to each H C of crumbs. Bake in the oven until the top is nicely browned. 10. Delmonico Potatoes Add a layer of grated cheese to the top of Au Gratin Potatoes before adding the crumbs, and bake the same as Au Gratin. 11. Glazed Sweet Potatoes Mdhod— Wash and pare 6 medium-sized sweet potatoes. Cook in boiling salted water 10 minutes. Drain, cut in halves, lengthwise, and put into a buttered baking dish. Make a sirup by boiling Vi c. sugar with 4 tbsp. of water 3 min., then add 1 tbsp. of butter. Brush the potatoes with the sirup, and bake 10 to 15 minutes until tender. Baste the potatoes with the sirup once or twice while baking. 12. Baked Sweet Potatoes Prepare and bake the same as white potatoes. LESSON 4 CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES Vegetables include most of the plants used for food with the exception of grains and fruits. Classes of Vegetables. — Different parts of vegetable plants are used for food, and these may be arranged in classes as follows: — Tubers, or the enlargements of underground stems; ex- amples, white potato, artichoke. Roots; examples, sweet potato, beet, carrot, radish, parsnip, turnip, oyster plant. Bulbs; examples, onion, garlic. Stems; examples, asparagus, celery, chives. Leaves; examples, lettuce, spinach, water cress, cab- bage, and greens. Flowers; example, cauliflower. Fruits; examples, corn,* pea, bean, tomato, squash, cucumber, and eggplant. Composition. — The edible portion of most vegetables is a storehouse of nutriment that the plant has laid up either for its own later use or for the benefit of the seedling, or young plant. Thus the radish uses the food in the enlarged root to produce a seed stalk, and the young bean and grain plants use the nutriment in the seed to get a growing start in the soil. Legumes are a class of plants that have the power to take nitrogen from the air and make it into a form that is available to man. They include peas, beans, lentils, and *The term "fruit" here includes seeds. (44) CARBOHYDRA TE8— VEGETABLES 45 peanuts. Legumes contain from 18 to 25 per cent protein, mostly in the form of legumin. In European countries, they are used to a great extent in place of meat, which is there very expensive. The Composition of Vegetables Food material (as pur- chased) Vegetables: Beans, dried Beans, Lima, shelled . . Beans, string Beets Cabbage Celery Corn, green (sweet), edi- ble portion Cucumbers Lettuce Mushrooms Onions Parsnips Peas, dried Peas, shelled Cowpeas, dried Potatoes Rhubarb Sweet potatoes Spinach Squash Tomatoes , Turnips Vegetables, canned Baked beans Peas, green Corn, green Succotash Tomatoes Refuse % 7.0 20.0 15.0 20.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 20.0 20.0 40.0 20.0 50.0 30.0 Water % 12.6 68.5 83.0 70.0 77.7 75.6 75.4 81.1 80.5 88.1 78.9 66.4 9.5 74.6 13.0 62.6 56.6 55.2 92.3 44.2 94.3 62.7 68.9 85.3 76.1 75.9 94.0 Pro- tein % 22.5 7.1 2.1 1.3 1.4 .9 3.1 .7 1.0 3.5 1.4 1.3 24.6 7.0 21.4 1.8 .4 1.4 2.1 .7 .9 .9 6.9 3.6 2.8 3.6 1.2 Fats % 1.8 .7 .3 .1 .2 .1 1.1 .2 .2 .4 .3 .4 1.0 0.5 1.4 .1 .4 .6 .3 .2 .4 .1 2.5 .2 1.2 l'.O .2 Car- bohy- drates % 59.6 22.0 6.9 7.7 4.8 2.6 19.7 2.6 2.5 6.8 8.9 10.8 62.0 16.9 60.8 14.7 2.2 21.9 3.2 4.5 3.9 5.7 19.6 9.8 19.0 18.6 4.0 Ash. % 3.5 1.7 .7 .9 .9 .7 .4 .8 1.2 .5 1.1 2.9 1.0 3.4 .8 .4 .9 2.1 .4 .5 .6 2.1 1.1 .9 .9 .6 Fuel value per lb. calories 1,520 540 170 160 115 65 440 65 65 185 190 230 1,565 440 1,505 295 60 440 95 100 100 120 555 235 430 425 95 The leaves of plants are the means by which the plant breathes in carbon dioxide and gives out oxygen, and they contain very little nourishment. It is here that sugar and 46 DOMESTIC SCIENCE starch are largely manufactured, to be then carried to other parts of the plant for growth or for storage. Greens, which are chiefly the leaves and stems of plants, consist largely of water, with much cellulose, considerable mineral salts, and comparatively small amounts of protein, starch and sugar. Food Value. — All vegetables are of value in the diet for their mineral salts, some furnish considerable carbohydrates, and a few furnish, in addition, protein. All contain a large amount of water and indigestible material. For this reason they are suitable to eat with concentrated foods, such as meat and eggs. The cellulose, a fibrous, woody, indigestible substance, is important because it gives bulk to our food. This bulk is necessary to stimulate the flow of digestive juices and to promote the movement of food along the digestive tract. Many greens should be eaten raw, since mineral salts are lost in the water in cooking, and the cellulose is best eaten crisp. The legumes have a high food value and are classed with meat and cheese as a tissue-building food, since they contain such a large percentage of protein. The digesti- bility of food is an important factor in determining food value, for unless a food is available to the body it cannot serve the full purpose of food. Vegetables with hard cellulose fiber require long, slow cooking to soften the cellu- lose walls and to cook sufficiently the starch and protein. Some, like cabbage, are more digestible eaten raw. Vegetable protein, being surrounded by cellulose walls, is not so completely digested as animal protein, and can not be counted on to build as much tissue as the same amount of animal protein. Dried beans and peas are usually sold at a comparatively low price, and are among the most eco- nomical sources of both protein and energy. CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES 47 Selection of Vegetables. — Select vegetables in season — they are less expensive then, and of better quality. Select medium-sized vegetables, for large ones are likely to be old and tough, requiring longer cooking. See that they are fresh ; green vegetables are crisp. Care of Vegetables. — Keep winter vegetables in a cool, dark, dry place, and exclude air if possible. Why is this necessary? Keep green vegetables on ice until ready to use. Cook summer vegetables as soon after they are gath- ered as possible, in order to preserve the flavor. Rules for Preparing Vegetables. — 1. Wash all vege- tables in cold water. It is a good plan to keep a small brush for this purpose. 2. Let wilted vegetables soak in cold water to freshen them. 3. Soak dried vegetables in cold water. 4. Empty all canned vegetables from the can as soon as opened. Drain off the liquor and rinse peas and beans. Rules for Cooking Vegetables. — 1. Cook vegetables whole when practical, using enough water to cover. 2. Use vegetable water for flavoring purposes, since it contains some nutritive substances. 3. Keep the water boiling. 4. Cook green vegetables uncovered , to retain their color. 5. Cook vegetables with strong odors, such as cabbage, onions, and turnips, uncovered. 6. Change the water several times during the cooking. 7. Allow 2 tbsp. of salt to 1 qt. of water. 8. The time for cooking vegetables depends on the kind, size, and age of the vegetables, and one must use judg-, ment rather than depend on a time-table to tell when the I vegetables are done. 48 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 9. Vegetables are served with butter, salt and pepper, or with a medium white sauce. Time Table Guide for Cooking Asparagus 30 to 45 min. Beans, (string) 1 to 2 hr. Beans, (lima) 1 to 13^ hr. Beets • 1 hr. Cabbage l A hr. Cauliflower 3^ hr. Carrots 30 to 40 min. Corn (green) 15 to 20 min. Onions 40 to 60 min. Parsnips 1 to 2 hr. Potatoes 20 to 40 min. Peas 30 to 40 min. Spinach 20 to 30 min. Squash (summer) 30 to 45 min. Turnips 40 to 60 min. WHITE SAUCES 1. Thin White Sauce 2 tbsp. butter 1 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk J4 tsp. salt Dash pepper This is used for cream soups and scalloped dishes. 2. Medium White Sauce 2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk. 34 tsp. salt, dash of pepper This is used for creamed vegetables, fish, meat, and cream toast. 3. Thick White Sauce 2 tbsp. butter 4 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk Y± tsp. salt; dash of pepper This is used for binding materials in croquettes. Three Methods of Making White Sauce. — 1. Melt the butter but do not brown, add the flour and seasoning, and stir until smooth. Add the milk slowly, stirring con- stantly until all is added and is perfectly smooth. Let it boil up once to thoroughly cook the starch in the flour. 2. Mix the flour with an equal quantity of cold water or milk until smooth, and then add enough more milk to CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES 49 make it pour easily. Heat the remainder of the milk in a double boiler, and when hot add the flour mixture gradually, stirring all the time until the mixture thickens. Add the butter and seasoning. This method takes longer (15 min.). 3. Cream the butter, add the flour and seasonings and stir until all is well mixed. Scald the milk and pour slowly over the butter and flour, stirring all the time. APPLICATION 1. Boiled Carrots Method. — Wash, scrape, and cut carrots in half-inch cubes or slices. Cook in boiling water until soft. Drain and season with salt and pepper. Serve with a medium white sauce, Method No. 1. (Basis for two, \^ c. white sauce.) 2. Boiled and creamed turnips, onions, or potatoes are prepared in the same manner as boiled carrots. 3. Boiled Beets Method. — Select small young beets. Wash, and cook them in boiling salted water without peeling, until tender, — about one hour. When done, put in cold water and rub off the skins. Slice them and serve with salt, pepper, but- ter, and vinegar. 4. Corn on the Cob Method. — Remove the husks and silk from the ears. Cook the corn in salted boiling water for 10 minutes. Drain well. Serve hot. 6. Cauliflower and Tomatoes Method. — Soak the cauliflower in cold water, head down, for Yi hour. Cook in boiling salted water for 3^ hour. Drain, and place the head on a hot serving dish. Serve with Tomato Sauce. 50 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Tomato Sauce 2 tbsp. butter }/£ tsp. salt 2 tbsp. flour 1 c. strained tomato Pepper Method. — Make according to white sauce using the strained tomato in place of milk. Or use half tomato and half milk, and add a speck of soda to keep it from curdling. 6. Creole Green Corn 6 ears corn 2 ripe tomatoes 1 tbsp. olive oil 1 /l tsp. salt 1 small onion Dash red pepper 2 sweet peppers 1 tsp. of sugar Method. — Cut corn from the cob, and put into a frying pan with olive oil. Cook for 10 or 12 minutes, add the chopped sweet pepper and the onion, then the chopped ripe tomatoes, salt, sugar, and dash of red pepper. Cook a few minutes and then serve. 7. Corn and Pimentos 1 can corn 2 tsp. butter 3 chopped pimentos Salt and pepper Method. — Put corn and chopped pimentos in frying pan with butter and cook a long time until very thick. Green peppers can also be used. 8. Baked Beans 1 qt. beans 1 tsp. soda 1 hp. tsp. salt 1 tsp. mustard 1 tsp. ginger 2 tbsp. N. O. molasses x /2 lb. sliced bacon Method. — Soak beans over night. In morning scald in hot soda water, drain, add fresh water, and cook 15 minutes. Pour off the water, add the other ingredients, cover with fresh water, and bake in covered jar 4 or 5 hours. Remove the cover the last half hour. 9. Stuffed Tomatoes 6 medium-sized tomatoes 2 tbsp. melted butter 1 c. soft bread crumbs 1 tsp. salt 1-16 tsp. pepper CARBOHYDRATES— VEGETABLES 51 Method. — Wash tomatoes. Cut a thin 1 slice from the stem end of each. Take out seeds and pulp and drain off most of the liquid. Mix the crumbs, butter, and seasoning and add to the tomato pulp. Sprinkle the inside of the tomato with salt and pepper. Refill the tomatoes with the mixture ; replace the tops. Place in a buttered pan. Sprin- kle with buttered crumbs, bake 20 minutes in a hot oven. Chopped meat, oysters, green peppers, sweet corn, mushrooms, or celery may be added to the stuffing. (Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 10. Fresh Peas Method. — Shell peas just before using, look them over carefully and put in a kettle containing enough boiling water to cover. Boil slowly until tender. Add butter, salt and pepper, and serve hot. 11. Canned Peas Method. — Canned peas should be opened at least one hour before using. The air helps to restore to them their natural flavor. Turn out of the can as soon as opened, drain off the liquid, and add fresh water. Cook in a sauce- pan, with 1 tbsp. of butter and salt and pepper to taste, for 5 minutes, when, if of good quality, they will be done. Peas and carrots make a nice combination. 12. Eggplant Method. — Two hours before time for cooking, peel and slice the eggplant quite thin, sprinkle each slice with salt, lay slices together and place a plate on top. The salt draws out the disagreeable flavor. Before cooking wipe each piece dry, dip in beaten egg f then in finely sifted cracker or bread crumbs, and fry in plenty of hot fat. Drain on a piece of brown wrapping paper to absorb the fat, and keep in a warm place until ready to serve. Serve on a hot plat- ter, the slices overlapping one another. LESSON 5 CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE Cereals, or grains, are grasses the seeds of which are used for food. They are the most important of vegetable foods. Kinds. — There are many kinds, but the most com- monly used are wheat, rice, rye, oats, Indian corn, and barley. From these are prepared the various breakfast foods found on the market. Name some. Composition. — Cereals for the most part contain all the food principles, but not in the right proportions. All contain much starch, considerable protein, and some woody fiber, with very little water; so they require long cooking. Composition of Cereals Oatmeal Corn meal Wheat flour (spring) Wheat flour (winter) Entire wheat flour. . Graham flour Pearl barley Rye meal Rice Buckwheat flour Macaroni Protein Fat Starch matter 15.6 7.3 68.0 1.9 8.9 2.2 75.1 0.9 11.8 1.1 75.0 0.5 10.4 1.0 75.6 0.5 14.2 1.9 70.6 1.2 13.7 2.2 70.3 2.0 9.3 1.0 77.6 1.3 7.1 0.9 78.5 0.8 7.8 0.4 79.4 0.4 6.1 1.0 77.2 1.4 11.7 1.6 72.9 3.0 Water 7.2 12.9 11.6 12.5 12.1 11.8 10.8 12.7 12.4 14.3 10.8 Structure. — Most grains are covered with an outer husk of hard, indigestible fiber. This is removed either in the threshing process or in milling. Underneath this coat are (52) CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE 53 the bran coats, which are rich in mineral matter and are sometimes removed with the husk. The rest of the kernel consists of the germ, which is the vital or living part of the grain, surrounded by a large food supply of starch and pro- tein. The germ is rich in fat and other nutrients. Food Value. — Cereals, containing much starch, are val- uable as heat and energy producers, and at the same time most cereals build and repair tissues, since they contain nitrogen. The great amount of carbohydrates in all cereals indicates that they should not be eaten alone, but along with other foods richer in fat and protein. On the whole, cereals are well absorbed in the body, ranking in that respect next to, and in some cases even above, the animal foods. This fact, combined with their compactness and richness in nutrients and their abundance and cheapness, places chem in the front rank of human food. Wheat breakfast foods are quite similar to graham and whole-wheat flours in composition, and are about equal to them in nutritive value. Oats are sold principally as oatmeal or rolled oats. Oat- meal is richer in food material than some other cereal foods, but, on account of its fiber, is not completely digested. It should be very thoroughly cooked. It is best adapted to strong, hard-working persons. Of all cereal foods cornmeal furnishes the largest amount of energy for a given cost. It is less digestible than wheat flour, owing to its coarse nature. Breakfast foods prepared from corn are, at reasonable prices, economical materials. Rice is almost pure starch and, being notably deficient in protein and fat, as compared with wheat and oats, needs to be eaten with cream or butter. Buckwheat and rye are similar to cornmeal as sources of protein and energy, but are more expensive. 54 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Table for Cooking of Cereals Kind Oatmeal . . . Rice Rice Hominy. . . . Wheat mixtures 1 Amount 1 C. 1 C. 1 c. 1 c. 1 c. Twice as much 4 or 5 times as much 4 or 5 times as much 4 times as much 4 times as much Salt Method 1 tsp. Steam 2 or 3 tsp. Steam 2 or 3 tsp. Boil 1 tsp. Steam 1 tsp. Steam Time 4 to 5 hrs. 2 to 3 hrs. 1 hr. 4 to 5 hrs. 1 to 3 hrs. The prepared breakfast foods give directions and time for cooking on the package, but in most cases longer cook- ing is necessary. How to Cook Cereals. — Cereals are either boiled or steamed. To boil cereals, allow about one tsp. of salt to each cup of cereal, and plenty of water to properly swell the starch grains. Put the water in a saucepan, and when it is boiling stir in the cereal gradually. Keep the water boiling and stir the cereal frequently to prevent the grains from sticking to the bottom. Cereals must be thoroughly cooked ; it takes a long time to soften cellulose. Steaming cereals in a double boiler is a better method than boiling, for it insures a more even cooking and re- quires long slow heat. A double boiler consists of two parts: (1) Lower part, which is for the water, and must be about half full, and the water kept boiling. Never let the boiler boil dry. (2) Upper part, in which the food is cooked. Put the cereal, with water and salt, into the upper part, and place in the lower part. Cover all and place over a fire. Steam until properly cooked, adding more water below, also more to the cereal when needed. CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE 55 RICE Rice is a cereal, a native of southeastern Asia, and now grown in large quantities in China, Japan, Central America, and our Southern states. Cultivation. — Marshy places are necessary for rice cul- tivation, and a system of irrigation or flooding is used. The water is drawn off when the planting is done. When the rice has a good start the water is allowed to flood the field to a depth sufficient to keep the top of the rice above the water. The water is drawn off to harvest the rice. Rice is prepared for market much the same as wheat. It is shocked, stacked, thrashed, and then sent to a hulling mill. Here the coat is separated from the white grain, which is polished. This polishing removes a coat rich in mineral matter; so the finished product is not as rich in minerals or protein. Rice is best when six months old. In China they prefer it three years old. Food Value. — Rice is the lowest in food value of all cereals, for it is almost pure starch. It must therefore be eaten with other forms of food rich in protein and fat in order to supply all the needs of the body. Starch grains are easily digested. Rice is the principal food of one-third of the people of the world. The people in the countries where it grows use it to supply their starchy food as we use the Irish potato. It is in season the year round. Ways of Cooking. — 1. Boiling — like any cereal. 2. Steaming — in milk or water. 3. Boiled rice may be combined with tomatoes or cheese and baked. 4. Rice is used in soups. 5. Rice with eggs makes a good pudding. 6$ DOMESTIC SCIENCE Fruit with rice or other cereal adds sugar and flavoring to the dish, and is a pleasant change. Use dates or raisins. To Wash Rice — Put in a strainer and place in cold water. Rub thoroughly, changing the water several times until the rice is clean. APPLICATION 1. Boiled Rice 1 c. rice 2 tsp. salt 2 qt. water Method. — Pick over and wash the rice. When the water boils rapidly drop in the rice slowly, so as not to stop the boiling. Stir occasionally to keep the grains from settling to the bottom. Boil rapidly, uncovered, 20 to 30 min., or until the grains crush easily between the fingers. Add the salt when nearly done. Pour into a strainer to drain, rinse with hot water to remove the loose starch. Set the strainer in the oven or put the rice in the serving dish and set in the hot oven a few minutes to dry the rice. Good boiled rice is white and soft and each grain is separate. (Basis for 2 girls, 2 tbsp. rice.) 2. Steamed Rice Method. — Prepare rice as for boiling, and cook with water or milk and salt, in the double boiler. Cover and cook one hour, or until tender and all the liquid is absorbed. Milk is best to use for steamed rice. Raisins may be used and the rice served with milk or cream as a pudding or dessert. 3. Cream of Wheat 1 c. cream of wheat 4 c. boiling water Y2 tsp. salt Method. — Mix the cream of wheat and salt, add slowly to the boiling water in the upper part of the double boiler, stirring constantly. Cover and steam until done, about 45 to 50 minutes. Serve with sugar and cream. CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. RICE 57 4. Oatmeal Mush 1 c. oatmeal 4*^ c. boiling water 1 x /2 tsp. salt Method. — Put the boiling water in the upper part of the double boiler and gradually add the oatmeal and the salt. Cook over the fire without the lower part for 5 or 10 min- utes; then set in the lower part of the boiler and steam for 5 or 6 hours. Stir it once in a while. Oatmeal is best cooked one day and served the next morning, to insure its being well cooked. Note. — Berries, sliced peaches, bananas, apple sauce, and dates or figs cut in pieces are good additions to cereals. 5. Cornmeal Mush 1 c. cornmeal 1 c. cold milk 1 tbsp. flour 2 c. boiling water l}/2 tsp. salt Method. — Mix the meal, flour, and salt together thor- oughly. Put in the upper part of a double boiler, add the cold milk and stir until smooth. Add the boiling water slowly and cook all directly over the fire for 10 minutes, stirring constantly. Put in double boiler over boiling water ; cover and cook 5 hours. Serve hot with cream and sugar. 6. Fried Cornmeal Mush Method. — Use cornmeal mush prepared as above, and pack in a wet mold or bread pan. Set away to cool for several hours. When cold cut in thin slices and saute in hot butter or drippings in a hot frying pan, until well browned on both sides. Serve plain or with butter or maple sirup. 7. Left-overs of Cereals Method. — The cold cooked cereals may be cut in slices 34 inch thick and sauted until a nice brown and served as Rule 6. Or, grated cheese may be added and the cereal made into croquettes and fried in deep fat. LESSON 6 CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. WHEAT Wheat has been called the king of cereals, since it is the best for bread making and is cultivated in a greater variety of soils and climates than any other cereal. Source. — Wheat is grown chiefly in Europe, the United States, (in Kansas, Minnesota, the Dakotas, Nebraska, Ohio) and Canada, India, The Argentine, and Australia. Russia and the United States produce about one-third of the wheat used. History. — Wheat was first used in the eastern countries, in the earliest times. Mummies of old Egypt have been found with wheat wrapped in them. It was carried across to the western continents by the earliest explorers. Kinds. — Wheat is known as (1) spring wheat and (2) winter wheat. Spring wheat is sown in the spring and matures the same season. This is a hard wheat rich in gluten and is the wheat from which most bread flour is made. Winter wheat is sown in the fall and harvested the following summer. It is softer and contains less gluten than spring wheat. Pastry flour is made from winter wheat. Structure. — 1. Bran coats, — there are three coats, or layers, of bran, which contain most of the mineral matter, and all are removed in white bread flour. Graham flour includes the entire kernel; whole-wheat flour, all but the coarser bran. 2. The body of the grain, or endosperm, composed of cells filled with the starch and protein. This nearly sur- rounds the vital part of the grain, or the germ. (58) CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. WHEAT 59 3. Germ, the tiny plant that holds the life of the seed. This is removed more or less, in the process of milling, because it makes the flour yellow and injures its keeping qualities. Composition of Wheat. — Wheat contains all the food principles, and is rich in protein and starch. See page 52 and compare with other cereals. Food Value. — Wheat is high in food value. It builds and repairs tissues and gives heat and energy. It is so nutri- tious, so widely and cheaply grown, and its cooking and baking qualities are so favorable, that it has become the basic food of the people of the civilized world. Wheat bread is in reality the "staff of life." Macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and Italian pastes are made from a hard- wheat flour that contains a large amount of gluten. The Italians place macaroni in the same position in their diet as we Americans do our bread. Manufacture of Macaroni. — The flour is mixed with hot water to form a stiff paste. This is placed in a steam- heated iron cylinder, the bottom of which is filled with holes. The paste is forced through these holes by a press, and comes out in the form of rods or threads, according to the shape of the opening. These rods are then cut into lengths suitable to handle and are hung up to dry for four or five days. In Italy, macaroni is hung in the open air on racks and is not as clean as that manufactured in our own country, where it is dried on racks in large, clean drying rooms for the purpose. Spaghetti is in the form of rods and is solid and smaller. Fig. 7. Diagram- matic section of a wheat kernel: a, bran coats; b, aleurone layer; c, germ; d, body. (U. S. D. A. Bui.) SO DOMESTIC SCIENCE Vermicelli is solid, thread-like, and smaller still than spaghetti. Appearance. — Good macaroni is rough, yellowish in color, and breaks clean without splitting. When cooked it swells and is elastic and firm. Food Value. — Macaroni is rich in gluten and starch, and is both a tissue-building and an energy-giving food. Combined with protein foods, like milk, eggs, or cheese, it makes an inexpensive dish that is a good substitute for meat. Cooking Macaroni. — Owing to the starch, macaroni absorbs about three times its weight of water and must therefore be cooked in plenty of water. Wash macaroni thoroughly when tender to remove out- side starch, preventing it from sticking together. To Butter Crumbs. — Sift crumbs in a strainer first to make them fine. Add y 8 c. melted butter to 1 c. of dry breadcrumbs, mix thoroughly before using. To Grate Cheese. — Use a dry cheese that will grate, but do not pack in measuring it. Grate on a common grater. APPLICATION 1. Boiled Macaroni Method. — Break the macaroni into inch pieces. Drop into boiling salted water, allowing 1 tbsp. of salt to 1 qt. of water. Cook until tender, 20 to 25 minutes, or until it can be easily pierced with a fork. Keep plenty of water on to cover while cooking. When tender, pour into a colander and wash thoroughly in cold water to remove the starch that causes the pieces to stick together. Season, and serve with thin white sauce or with Tomato Sauce. 2. Baked Macaroni with Cheese 1 Yz c. macaroni 1 c. thin white sauce Yi c. grated cheese 1>£ c. buttered crumbs CARBOHYDRATES— CEREALS. WHEAT 61 Method. — Prepare the macaroni as for boiled macaroni. Butter a baking dish, put in a layer of boiled macaroni; then cover with one-half of the white sauce, half of the grated cheese and one-half the buttered crumbs. Then add the remainder of the macaroni, sauce, cheese, and crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until the crumbs are nicely- browned and the sauce boils up around the sides. (Each two use 4 sticks macaroni, 2 tsp. cheese, and Y 2 c. white sauce.) 3. Baked Macaroni and Tomato Method. — Use 1 J^ c. of stewed tomatoes in place of the white sauce, and arrange the macaroni in layers with the tomato and crumbs in place of the white sauce and the cheese. 4. Tomato Sauce 2 tbsp. butter 1 c. strained tomato 2 tbsp. flour Y A tsp. salt Pepper Method. — Make according to White Sauce, using the strained tomato in place of milk. Or use half tomato and half milk, and add a speck of soda to keep it from curdling. 6. Macaroni and Dried Beef 2 c. cooked macaroni l A lb. dried beef 2 c. medium white sauce, without salt Method. — Alternate layers of macaroni and finely cut dried beef in a buttered baking dish. Cover each layer with white sauce and buttered crumbs. Bake in the oven until brown on the top. DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY Purpose of Digestion. — The food that we eat, as we have learned, nourishes the body. Every living cell that composes the tissues must have food particles brought to it by the blood in order to grow or produce energy. This means that the food as eaten must be reduced to a very fine state to enable it to pass into the blood and be used in the body. This process of dissolving the usable portions of food is called digestion. The parts of the body that have this work to do are called the digestive organs, and the organs that form the path through which the food passes form the alimentary canal. How Food Is Dissolved. — The greatest changes that food undergoes in digestion are brought about by sub- stances called enzymes, or ferments, which are contained in the different digestive juices. These ferments have the power to reduce toods to simpler substances that dissolve in liquids and pass readily into the blood. In some way they bring about great changes and are not themselves affected. There are many of these ferments, each acting on a different class of food. In the Mouth. — In order to make it easy for the digestive juices to act, the food is first ground fine in the mouth by the teeth. The saliva softens the food and makes it easy to swallow. At the same time the ptyalin in it begins to act on starch, changing it to sugar. In the Stomach. — In the stomach the food is mixed with the gastric juice secreted from the walls of the stomach. This juice contains the ferment rennin, which curdles milk. and pepsin, which partially dissolves proteins. The stom- (62) DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY 63 ach by muscular movement churns the food and makes it like moderately thick soup, and gradually passes it into the small intestine. In the Intestines.— In the small intestine digestion goes on most extensively. Here the bile from the liver, the pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and the intestinal juice from the walls of the intestine pour in and are mixed with the food. Starch is changed to simple sugars, proteins are changed to simpler substances, and fats are emulsified. Here also by far the largest part of the food is absorbed into the blood and lymphatics. In the large intestine the processes of digestion and absorption continue at a slower rate, until all digestible food substances are absorbed. The indigestible matter is finally eliminated from the body. Relation of Cookery to Digestion.— In the proper diges- tion and nutrition of the body, one thing depends upon another. Food cannot be digested without the aid of gen- erous quantities of the digestive juice; and when there is no flow of the digestive juices, there is no appetite. Some things which influence appetite and digestion are:— 1. Foods vary greatly in ease of digestion, due to dif- ferences in composition and structure. It is important to know these differences. 2. Foods differ also in their effects on the body. ^ Some kinds are needed for their tonic effects, some for their laxa- tive properties, and so on. It is essential to have variety and balance in the diet. 3. The method of cooking may be favorable or un- favorable to digestion. Some foods should not be cooked; others, only in certain ways. It is important to know the effects of cooking on food. 4 1 § ■S o DOMESTIC 00 i s >• •o o 5 SC71Z3 • O *J 2 S 7 • Q 3 cd X! a sa n o '■3 a u o CO X> *> •S? 1*4 o d d cd O CO— 1 »*H O a> co o P Dm (4 o o to .s u u d cd jd u n H O 3 ■M 00 ■M 73 O Sis C u cd O U I H-j 1 CO CO *• > S 9 S jy 5 .5 o-n^r d d2 , o __ l> O *-> eS i c 'c c a Pi c 1 L # d "3 a c S "S >• E S £ < c- d 'to a fc cd C5 1 b 9 Si > 4. U C 55- ' 2 O o (LI U u a > "a? "cd (J .CJ co j™, cd^ O ■SSI .a l rt CO d "5 *C CD s o 00 «) 0) d 1 to _ "cd a »-i « ."5 1 •S3- *-'-*-» est 3 • a 2 « £ ft O d 51 C u .- 3 00 60 DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY 65 CO "3 CO CO > O O 5 • Second to small intestine in amount of ab- sorption Undigested matter eliminated Some cellulose dissolved Protein putre- fied Carbohydrates decomposed Splitting and dissolving pro- cesses continue Bacterial action continues Cellulose, pro- tein, carbohydrates CO . .5 • 'S3 : M to «_> co rt ta ■AS ^3 < 3 — *j a .2 a CO CO SI pa" Ferments from small intestine continue to act Bacteria (in upper part) t t 'Z o * &' a c J" 3 C "-I — 5 •« ,3 <+* ej +-> O 3 a; .s^og 4J I c a; Z .2 > " rt'i- 3 *» • r; x) i-i o ° ii 3 rt to OJ .El 3 „, a a ^&3 rt s >> « co M ... > >> - 12 y ^ rv 3 to_ *' d 2 2" c a;T3 o o o +■» o •» tp CO CO CO «J CO %> . O a «6 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 4. Pleasing flavors stimulate the flow of gastric juice and create appetite. Knowledge of the use of soups, extractives, and seasonings, and how to retain natural flavors is useful. 5. Even the sight of food may influence the appetite for it. It is of value to know how to serve food properly. 6. Thorough mastication and mixing of the food with saliva in eating is a very helpful aid to digestion. 7. Moderation, — not over-eating or eating at all hours, — is necessary in order not to exhaust the stomach or cause indigestion or other disorders of the body. 8. A pleasant frame of mind when eating, induced by pleasing surroundings, agreeable company and conversa- tion, and absence of worry, — all favor good appetite and good digestion. To have all things contribute to cheer- fulness at mealtime, is a supreme test of good housekeeping. It will be seen that those who control the selection and preparation of food have far-reaching influence on the health and, therefore, on the happiness of those whom they serve. It is the purpose of domestic science studies to teach the principles of foods and their preparation and use, and the application of those principles. LESSON 7 CARBOHYDRATES— FRUIT Definition. — Fruits, in the popular sense, are the seed vessels of plants. Composition of Fruit Fruit Apples Apricots Bananas Blackberries Cherries Cranberries Currants Grapes Oranges Peaches Pears Pineapples Plums Black raspberries Red raspberries . . Strawberries. . . . DRIED FRUITS Apples Apricots Currants Dates Figs Pears Prunes Raisins Protein per cent A 1.1 1.3 1.3 1. .4 1.5 1.3 .8 .7 1. A 1. 1.7 1. 1. 1.6 4.7 2.4 2.1 4.3 2.8 2.1 2.6 Carbohy- drate per cent Fat per cent 13. 13.4 21. .5 .6 .4 16.5 8.4 12.8 14.9 11.6 5.8 15.7 9.3 20.1 12.6 9.7 6. 62. 62.5 71.2 74.6 68. 66. 71.2 73.6 1.6 .2 A .5 .3 2:2 1. 1.7 2.8 .3 5.4 3.3 Cellulose (crude Mineral fiber) matter per cent per cent 1.2 .3 .5 1. .8 2.5 .5 .2 6 1.4 15 .7 ,5 4.3 .5 3.6 .4 1.5 .4 .4 .3 .5 2.9 .6 .6 1.4 .6 6.1 2.0 2.4 3. 4.5 3.8 1.3 6.2 2.4 6.9 2.4 2.1 2.3 2.5 3.4 Water per cent 84.6 85. 753 86 3 809 88.9 85. 77 4 86.9 89.4 80.9 89.3 78.3 84.1 85.8 90.4 26.1 29.4 17.2 15.4 18.8 16.6 22.3 14.6 Composition. — Fresh fruits contain water (75 to 90 per cent), sugar, cellulose, acids, and salts, with very little, if any, protein or fat. When ripe, fruits contain no starch, (67) 68 DOMESTIC SCIENCE for the ripening process changes the starch to sugar and gums. One of the gum-like substances is pectin, a sub- stance in plants similar to gelatin in meat. Kinds. — There are many kinds of fruit. The most com- mon fresh fruits are apples, peaches, pears, cherries, plums, grapes, bananas, pineapples, and berries. Food Value. — Most fresh fruits are low in food value; but they refresh and cool the system and furnish us with mineral salts, of sodium, calcium, phosphorus, etc., which purify the blood. The large amount of cellulose aids digestion, as it supplies bulk to the food and excites the flow of the digestive juices. The acids which fruits contain stimulate the appetite for other food. Dried fruits have for their chief food value a high percentage of sugar. The common dried fruits are prunes (dried plums), raisins (dried grapes), figs, dates, apricots, and apples. Rules for Eating Fruit. — 1. Use only sound, ripe fruit. Unripe fruit is not digestible, unless cooked, and overripe fruit is of inferior flavor and is apt to interfere with diges- tion. 2. Fruit from street venders should not be used, as it is nearly always too ripe and unclean. 3. Do not eat acid foods with milk or cream. Why? 4. Cook overripe fruit to make it safe for use. 5. Use sweet fruits, as dates and figs, with cereals, since they supply the necessary sugar. 6. Do not swallow the tough skins of fruits or the seeds of such fruit as the grape and apple. 7. Serve fruits cold. 8. Serve fruits in season. They are more economical. Care of Fruit. — 1. Fruit should be kept covered and cool. CARBOHYDRATES— FRUITS 69 2. Wash or wipe off all fruit when it comes from the market. Rinse off berries quickly and drain. 3. Do not soak fruit, as it loses its flavor. 4. Cook fruit in dishes other than tin, as the acid acts on tin and forms a poison dangerous to the body. 5. Pare peaches just before serving, for they discolor quickly. Cooking Fruit. — Fruit is usually either baked or stewed. Baking is used with large, watery, whole fruit; as, peach- es, apples, or pears. Stewing. — Cut large fruit in pieces. Leave small fruit and berries whole. Put into a saucepan with one-half as much water as fruit, and allow }i to J^ c. of sugar to each pint of fruit. The juice must cover the fruit. If it does not, add more water. Cook fruit until soft, but not mushy. If more sugar is needed, add it when nearly done. If the sirup is too thin, remove the fruit and boil down the sirup; then pour it back over the fruit. Hard fruits, like quince, should be cooked until tender before adding the sugar. Cook cranberries and strawberries without sugar ; add it just at the last. The berries are a brighter red and the jelly clearer than when cooked with the sugar, besides less sugar will be required. Why? Dried fruit. — Wash fruit well in several waters. Soak the fruit in fresh water several hours or over night. Cook until tender; then sweeten to taste and cook a few minutes longer. APPLICATION 1. Baked Apples Method. — Pare and core good, uniform apples. Put into a baking pan, fill the center of each apple with sugar, and add a bit of butter on the top. Add enough water to cover the bottom of the pan. Cinnamon or nutmeg may 70 DOMESTIC SCIENCE be sprinkled on top if desired. Bake in a hot oven until soft; baste with the juice in the pan. 2. Apple Sauce 6 tart apples Small piece of lemon rind }/2 c. water 6 whole cloves (if desired) Yz c. sugar Method. — Wipe, core, peel, and quarter the apples. Some apples may be cooked with the peel. Put the water, sugar, and lemon rind into a saucepan and cook 4 or 5 minutes; then add the apples. Cook until tender, being careful not to mash the apples much ; remove the lemon peel and cloves and serve cold. If apples are quite soft and cook up much, mash them or put through a vegetable press. (Each two use 1 apple.) 3. Cranberry Sauce 1 pt. cranberries 1 c. sugar 2 c. water Method. — Pick over and wash the cranberries. Put into the saucepan with the water and cook about 10 minutes; then add the sugar che last few minutes of cooking. Cran- berries cooked without the sugar, and uncovered, retain their color and make a clearer sauce. (Each two use % rule.) 4. Stewed Prunes 1 lb. prunes 3^ c. sugar 1 qt. water 2 or 3 slices of lemon Method. — Wash the prunes thoroughly; put in clean water and let soak over night. Next morning put the prunes on to cook in the same water they soaked in ; cook slowly, covered, till the skins are soft. Add the sugar and the lemon juice when nearly done. Apricots are cooked in the same way. (Basis for 2 girls, Y% rule.) CARBOHYDRA TE8— FRUITS 71 6. Fruit Cocktails These are served as an appetizer at the beginning of a dinner, and may be made from a variety of fruits. Serve them in dainty tall glasses, or in baskets made from half oranges or grapefruits. Orange and Grapefruit. — Mix equal parts of diced orange and grapefruit pulp. Sprinkle with sugar and a little lemon juice. Place on ice until chilled. Fill the chilled glasses just before serving, garnish with wedges of fresh or pre- served pineapple and a candied or Maraschino cherry. Strawberry and pine- apple make a nice com- bination, as do also grape- fruit and strawberries. Watermelon. — Cut with a vegetable cutter into little one-inch balls. Chill and serve in a tall glass with chipped ice. Garnish with mint. Fig . 8 . A fruit cocktail . LESSON 8 SOUPS Kinds. — There are two kinds. of soup: (1) soups with stock and (2) soups without stock. Soups with stock have as a basis the juices of meats, and are divided into several classes, which we shall study in connection with the meat lessons. Soups without stock have as a basis milk or cream, together with the pulp of vegetables. There are three divisions of soups without stock: — (a) Cream soup, made of vegetables or fish together with milk, cream, and seasoning or with a thin white sauce. (b) Purees are made of boiled vegetables or fish put through a strainer, together with a thin white sauce. These contain more vegetables than the cream soups and are therefore thicker. (c) Bisques are made of shellfish or vegetables with thin white sauce, and are served with fish dice. Soups without stock, when allowed to stand, separate; that is, the vegetables separate from the milk or cream, unless bound together. Materials that bind or keep the solid part from settling to the bottom are called binding materials, examples of which are flour and cornstarch. The best way of binding materials is by using a thin white sauce. Left-over vegetables or those too old to serve whole are good for use in cream soups. They make an economical dish, as well as a very nourishing one. Removing the hard cellulose fiber by forcing the pulp through a strainer makes cream soups very easily digested. (72) SOUPS 73 General proportions for cream soups or soups without stock are: About one half as much vegetable pulp as white sauce, plus the seasoning — salt and pepper. Proportions for white sauce: — 2 tbsp. butter Salt and pepper 1 tbsp. flour to 1 c. of milk If the vegetables contain a large amount of starch, use less flour. If lacking in starch, use from 1 to 3 tbsp. of flour. Name an example where less flour is necessary. Name an example where more flour is necessary. General Directions for Soups without Stock. — 1. Cook the vegetables in water until very soft; then press them through a vegetable press or strainer. Add the water in which the vegetables were cooked. 2. Make the white sauce in a double boiler, using Method 2, Lesson 4. 3. To make the soup richer, use part cream instead of all milk, or add beaten egg or a couple of spoonfuls of whipped cream to the soup just before serving. 4. Combine vegetable pulp and white sauce and serve. Do not let soup stand long, as it is likely to become too thick. 5. Serve soups very hot. 6. Serve crisp crackers or toasted bread in sticks or cubes with soup. Vegetables best suited for soups are: potatoes, peas, beans, celery, tomatoes, asparagus, carrots, and turnips. Onionsare used foradditionalflavoringin any soup, if desired. Food Value. — Soups without stock have a higher food value than soups with stock. The milk or cream of the white sauce furnishes the protein to build and repair tissue and the vegetables contain starch and mineral substances. Soups are easily digested, are nourishing, and are appetizers for the courses that follow. 74 DOMESTIC SCIENCE APPLICATION 1. Cream of Pea Soup 1 pt. can of peas 1 tsp. sugar 1 pt. cold water 1 qt. thin white sauce Method. — Boil the peas in the water until soft. Rub them through a coarse strainer or vegetable press, and to the pulp add the water the peas were cooked in. Make a thin white sauce and combine with the peas. (Each 2 use % c. white sauce and % c. peas.) 2. Cream of Corn Soup 1 pt. can of corn 1 slice onion 1 pt. cold water 1 qt. thin white sauce Method. — The method is the same as in Cream of Pea Soup. 3. Cream of Potato and Cream of Celery Soup Method. — These are both made with the same propor- tions and in the same way as Cream of Corn Soup. (Each 2 use same basis as in 1.) 4. Cream of Tomato Soup 1 c. tomatoes 1 pt. milk }/i tsp. soda 2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. salt Pepper Method. — Cook the tomatoes for 10 minutes. Remove from the fire, strain, and add the soda. Return to the fire and keep hot until ready to serve. Make a thin white sauce of the rest of the ingredients, using Method 1, Lesson 4. Keep sauce hot until ready to serve. Immediately before serving pour the tomato into the white sauce. This soup will curdle if combined too long. (Basis for 2 girls, % c. white sauce, % c. tomatoes.) 5. Croutons Method. — Cut slices of bread J^ inch thick; then cut into cubes. Put in the oven and toast to a delicate brown. Serve with soup. (Housekeepers prepare croutons for class.)' LESSON 9 PROTEIN— EGGS The eggs most commonly used in cooking are hens' eggs, although eggs from other domestic fowls and wild birds are used where available. Structure. — A hen's egg consists of the following parts : — 1. The shell. 2. Two tough membranes just inside the shell. 3. The white, a clear, jelly-like substance. 4. The yolk, which is surrounded by a thin membrane and held in place by — 5. Two twisted cords. 6. The embryo, in the yolk. This embryo is the living part of the egg, from which the chick grows, much as the wheat grows from the germ in the grain. The contents of the egg furnish the embryo food, just as the starch does the germ of the grain. 7. Air space, found at the large end of the egg between the two membranes. Composition. — The shell is composed of mineral matter, chiefly lime. The white, or albumen, is nearly pure albumin and water. Albumin is a sticky substance, and is a protein. The yolk contains much fat or oil, some albumin, mineral matter, and water. The mineral matter consists of phos- phorus, calcium, iron, lime, and sulphur. What food principle is lacking in eggs? Composition of Eggs Protein Fat Mineral matter Water 14.9% 10.6% 1% 73.5% (75) 76 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Food Value. — Owing to the large amount of protein in eggs, they are valuable as a tissue-building food, and may be used as a meat substitute. One pound of eggs, usually about nine, contains as much nutriment as one pound of meat. Raw eggs and those properly cooked are very easily digested and assimilated in the body. Trace protein through the process of digestion. Tests for Fresh Eggs. — 1. Fresh eggs have slightly rough shells. 2. Fresh eggs sink to the bottom in a pan of cold water. Stale eggs float. What is the reason for this? 3. Fresh eggs are clear when placed between the eye and a bright light in a dark room. Stale eggs are cloudy. This method of testing is used extensively in egg markets and is called "candling." Care of Eggs. — 1. As soon as eggs come from the mar- ket wipe any soiled ones with a damp cloth, and put only clean, fresh eggs in the ice box. 2. Keep eggs in a cool, dry place. 3. Do not keep in a place containing food with strong odos's, which eggs readily absorb. 4. Egg yolks will keep fresh for some time if covered with clean, cold water and kept in a cool place. Uses for Eggs. — Eggs are used very extensively in the dietary and in cooking. Name as many uses as you can and state why they are so used. Preservation of Eggs. — Preserve only fresh, clean eggs in the spring and early summer, when they are plentiful and cheap. Any method which excludes the air helps to keep eggs fresh. The packing or preserving material for eggs must be absolutely clean, since eggs are easily tainted in flavor. Eggs may be preserved in the following ways: — PROTEIN— EGGS 77 1. Pack dry in sawdust, salt, bran, oats, or sand, with the small end down. 2. Put in jars containing salt brine, limewater, or water glass enough to cover the eggs. 3. Coat with paraffin, lard, or oil. 4. Put in cold storage. What is the object of preserving eggs? What causes eggs to spoil? The Water-glass Method. — The water-glass method is the most satisfactory home means of preserving eggs, and is very easily applied. For every quart of water glass (silicate of soda) solution use 9 quarts of boiled water that has been cooled. Mix the ingredients thoroughly and put into a clean stone jar. Place the eggs in the solution and see that all are covered by several inches of the liquid. Keep the jars in a cool place and well covered to prevent evaporation. Eggs preserved in this manner are as good as fresh eggs for all cooking purposes. The Cold Storage Method. — Eggs are produced in great- est abundance in the spring and summer months. For- merly they were very plentiful and very cheap during those months, and very scarce and expensive in the winter. Now, the cold storage system and refrigerator cars have changed this. Both the time of marketing and the market area of eggs have been extended, and as a result egg prices have become more uniform throughout the year. When properly handled and kept at a temperature just above freezing, 32° to 40°F., cold storage eggs are whole- some. They are usually kept not over eight or nine months. EFFECT OF HEAT ON ALBUMEN Experiments. — 1. Put some egg white into a tumbler of cold water and shake or beat well. Notice any results. 7f DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Put some egg white in boiling water. What hap- pens? 3. Put an egg into boiling water, remove from the fire and let stand ten minutes. Notice the consistency of the white. 4. Put an egg into boiling water and boil ten minutes; remove from the fire and compare with the result of Experi- ment 3. 5. Put an egg into cold water and bring to the boiling point. Remove from the fire and compare with Experi- ments 3 and 4. From the experiments what do you find is the correct temperature for cooking albumen? Why? Compare with the temperature for cooking starch. Cooking of Eggs. — Eggs and egg mixtures must be cooked at a moderate temperature, of from 160° to 185° Fahrenheit. How to Break an Egg. — 1 . Hold the egg in the left hand and strike it with a knife blade. Press the thumbs into the crack and pull the shell apart. 2. Or strike the egg against the side of a mixing bowl and then open with the thumbs. To Separate White from Yolk. — Crack egg, hold yolk in one half of the shell and let the white run on a plate. Then slip the yolk to the other half of the shell, holding the edges of the shell together, and drain off all the white. Put yolk into a bowl. Note. — Always break eggs separately into a dish to make sure they are fresh before adding to other eggs or to a mixture. APPLICATION 1. Soft-Cooked Eggs Method. — (a) Allow about one pint of water, or enough to cover two eggs. Place eggs in cold water in a saucepan. PROTEIN— EGGS 7t Bring water to boiling point slowly. Remove eggs and serve in hot cups. (b) Place eggs in a saucepan containing enough boiling water to cover. Let stand on back of the stove from 8 to 10 minutes. 2. Hard-Cooked Eggs Method. — Place eggs in a saucepan containing enough boiling water to cover. Let stand where water will keep hot, but not boil, for 40 or 45 minutes; or boil slowly for 8 minutes. 3. Poached Eggs Method. — Prepare a slice of buttered toast for each egg. Cut with a round cutter or muffin ring. Keep warm. Have ready a shallow pan containing enough salted water to cover the eggs (let the water boil and then remove pan to back of stove). Break each egg separately into a saucer and slip it gently into the water, being careful that water does not reach the boiling point. Cook until the white is firm and a film forms over the top of the yolk. Remove the egg from the water with a skimmer or a griddle-cake turner. Drain, and place the eggs on toast. Garnish with parsley, if you like. An egg poacher may be used. (Basis for 2 girls, 1 egg.) 4. Eggs a la Suisse 4 eggs Salt x /2 c. cream White pepper 1 tbsp. butter Cayenne 2 tbsp. grated cheese Method. — Melt butter in a small omelet pan ; add cream. Break eggs separately into a saucer and slip gently into the pan, one at a time; sprinkle with salt, pepper, and a few grains of cayenne. When whites are nearly firm, sprinkle with cheese. Finish cooking, and serve on buttered toast. Strain cream over the toast. 80 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 5. Baked Eggs Method. — Butter a ramekin or muffin tin. Line with fine cracker crumbs. Break egg into a cup and slip into ramekin; season, and cover with buttered crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven until crumbs are brown. 6. Baked Egg in Potato Method. — Remove inside of each baked potato, mash and season. Refill shell, leaving room for an egg. Break the egg into the potato, bake until firm. Eggs may also be baked in small tomatoes. Cut a slice from stem end of tomato. Scoop out pulp and slip in an egg. Season, cover with buttered crumbs, and bake. 7. Stuffed Eggs 1 tsp. vinegar 1 tbsp. melted butter yi tsp. mustard Salt and pepper Hard-boiled eggs Method. — Put eggs into cold water, bring slowly to boil- ing point, and boil 3 to 5 minutes. Drop into cold water. Remove shell, cut egg in half lengthwise, take out the yolk, mash, mix with mixture, and refill whites. 8. French Toast 2 eggs 1 c. milk Y2 tsp. salt 6 slices of bread Method. — Beat the eggs slightly, add salt and milk. Strain and dip the bread in the mixture, cook on a hot well greased griddle until brown, turn and brown the other side. The center of each piece of bread may be cut out with a small biscuit cutter and after it is placed on the griddle an egg slipped into the center of each piece. Saute as plain French Toast. LESSON 10 PROTEIN— EGGS (Continued) Beating Eggs. — Eggs are beaten in order to introduce air into a mixture. The elasticity of the albumen of the egg makes it possible to enfold air into the egg. Is it pos- sible to introduce air into materials like sirup, flour, paste, etc.? Why not? Ways of Beating. — 1. Beat yolks in a bowl with a Dover beater. 2. Beat whites on a platter or in a large bowl with a wire whisk or a fork. Consistency when Beaten. — Yolks when well beaten are thick and lighter colored than before beating. Whites are beaten stiff when the whisk comes out clean. Whites are beaten dry when the gloss is gone and the beaten mixture comes off the beater easily. Methods of Combining Mixtures. — (1) Stirring, (2) beating, (3) folding, and (4) cutting. Stirring is used in combining when air is not neces- sary to the ingredients. Use circular motion, round and round until all is mixed. , Beating is used to introduce air into a mixture, and is done by lifting the mixture up and over on a spoon with a rapid movement. Continue until the mixture is full of bubbles. Folding is used (a) to add a beaten mixture to another; as, in adding beaten whites to a batter; or (b) to add ingre- dients, as baking powder, for example, to a batter having beaten eggs in it, without breaking the air bubbles already contained in the mixture. —6 (81) 82 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Folding is done by carefully turning the mixture over and over and drawing it constantly from the bottom of the bowl to the surface. Cutting is mixing by means of kni /es, as is done with shortening. APPLICATION 1. Puffy Omelet 3 eggs \i tsp. salt 3 tbsp. water White pepper 1 tbsp. butter Method. — Separate yolks from whites of eggs. Beat yolks until thick; add water and salt. Fold in beaten whites of egg. Melt butter in an omelet-pan , turn in egg mixture, spread evenly, cook slowly, occasionally turning the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly. Then when it is well puffed up and delicately browned underneath place pan in hot oven to finish cooking the top. The omelet is cooked if it is firm to the touch when pressed with the finger. Fold, and turn on a hot platter. Serve at once. (Basis for 2 girls, 1 egg.) To Fold an Omelet. — Hold the omelet pan by the handle with the left hand. Crease the omelet slightly across the center at right angles to the handle of the pan. Slip the spatula under the edge of the omelet farthest from the handle of the pan and, tipping the pan up, fold the omelet over half way towards the handle. With the right hand invert a hot plate over the pan, and with a quick movement turn the omelet out of the pan upon the plate. Garnish with parsley and serve immediately. The success of an omelet of this kind depends upon the amount of air en- closed in the egg and the expansion of the air in cooking. 2. Fancy Omelets A fancy omelet may be made by the addition of grated cheese, minced ham, or other meat sprinkled over the top PROTEIN— EGGS S3 p egg Method. — Mix coffee, egg, and cold water. Allow it to come to a boil and boil for 1 minute. Pour a little cold water into the spout to settle coffee. Allow it to stand in a warm place for 10 minutes. Strain and serve in usual way. 3. Filtered Coffee y 2 c. coffee 4 c. boiling water Method. — Put finely ground coffee into upper part or strainer in the top of a coffeepot, and pour the boiling water slowly upon it. Allow the water to filter slowly through, then pour it out, and let filter through again. The coffeepot must be kept hot while coffee is being made, but 106 DOMESTIC SCIENCE filtered coffee must never be boiled. This produces a clear, bright coffee and requires about 5 minutes for making. Serve at once, or the bright flavor will be lost. (Makes 4 cups of coffee.) 4. Percolated Coffee Method. — Use same proportion of coffee as for Filtered Coffee. Place the coffee in the strainer in the upper part of the pot and let the water boil up through the tube, percolat- ing through the coffee into the lower part, where it is sent boiling to the tube again. The glass top renders it easy to see when the coffee is strong enough. The flame can be turned low so as to keep the coffee hot but not boiling. 5. After-Dinner Coffee Method. — Allow 2 tablespoonfuls finely ground coffee to each large coffee cup of freshly boiled water. Filter accord- ing to directions given. 6. Chocolate 1 sq. Baker's chocolate Pinch of salt 2 tbsp. sugar 1 qt. hot milk 2 tbsp. hot water Method. — Put chocolate, sugar, salt, and 2 tablespoon- fuls of hot water in a pan. Cook until smooth, stirring constantly, add gradually the hot milk. Boil for several minutes. Serve with whipped cream or a marshmallow on the top of each cup. (Basis for 2 girls, }<£ rule.) 7. Cocoa 1 pt. scalded milk 2 tbsp. cocoa 1 pt. boiling water 2 to 4 tbsp. sugar Method. — Mix cocoa and sugar in a saucepan, stir in the water gradually, and boil 5 minutes. Add the milk, and cook 5 minutes longer or until smooth. Note. — If this is to stand, beat well to prevent the albu- minous skin from forming. BEVERAGES 107 8. Lemonade 1 lemon (juice) x /i c. sugar 1 pt. water 2 thin slices of lemon Method. — Wash the lemon, cut thin slices from the center, and remove the seeds. Squeeze the juice into a bowl, add the sugar, water, and cracked ice. Serve very cold with a slice of lemon for each glass. Note. — Variations l>1 this lemonade may be made by adding fruit juices or mineral water. LESSON 14 QUICK BREADS— THIN BATTERS Quick breads are mixtures of flour and liquid, together with some sugar, salt, shortening, and a leavening agent. They are so named to distinguish them from the yeast breads, which require a longer time in making. Quick-bread mixtures are either batters or doughs, depending upon the amount of liquid used. Batters are mixtures that are beaten. There are two kinds : — 1. Pour batters, which are in the proportion of 1 meas- ure of liquid to 1 of flour. 2. Drop batters, which are in the proportion of 1 measure of liquid to 2 of flour. Dough is a mixture that is kneaded. There are two kinds : — 1. Soft dough, in the proportion of 1 measure of liquid to 3 of flour. 2. Stiff dough, in the proportion of 1 measure of liquid to 4 or more of flour. The proportions vary to some extent according to the flour used. Materials for Quick Breads. — The liquids used are milk, water, or molasses. Eggs are regarded as so much liquid. The fats used are butter, lard, suet, or beef drippings. This fat is spoken of as shortening, as it makes the mixtures more tender. The flour used is wheat flour or meal (corn, rye, or graham). Leavening Agents. — Flour mixtures when baked would be very hard and indigestible if no leavening agent were (108) QUICK BREADS— THIN BATTERS 109 used. Air, steam, and carbon dioxide gas are the agents used for this purpose. Air is introduced into flour mixtures (1) by adding eggs and then beating the mixture, or (2) by beating the eggs first and adding to the mixture. Can you name a case where air was used to make a mixture light? Steam. — The liquid in a heated mixture is converted into steam and is expanded many times. This puffs up the mixture. The heat of the oven hardens the mixture and holds the steam in. Mixtures without flour fall when cool, as steam changes back to water when cold. Carbon dioxide gas is produced in mixtures to lighten them, by the addition of — 1. Soda and an acid (cream of tartar, sour milk, or molasses). Soda and cream of tartar riake baking powder. 2. Yeast, as in bread making. Directions for Mixing Quick Breads. — 1. Sift and mix the dry materials. 2. Add the wet materials to the dry. 3. Beat eggs separately and add to the mixture, and beat thoroughly. 4. Rub or cut shortening in cold; or melt and add to the mixture. 5. Use a large mixing spoon. 6. Mix quickly and put into the oven to bake quickly. Baking. — Quick breads should be baked as soon as mixed, in order to hold all the leavening material (air, steam, and gas) in the mixture. This is especially neces- sary with thin batters, also those raised by air or those raised by soda and liquid acids (sour milk and molasses). The gas in the latter case is produced more readily in the presence of moisture. 110 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Temperature of Oven. — Different mixtures require differ- er t temperatures, and most recipes designate the tempera- ti re of the oven. In order to ascertain the temperature, some simple tests similar to the following are used: — 1. A moderate oven turns a piece of white paper golden f »rown in 5 minutes. 2. A hot oven turns a piece of white paper dark brown in 5 minutes. Pans. — Grease pans thoroughly. Use a small brush or a piece of paper for greasing. The time for baking is divided into quarters, as follows: — 1. Mixture rises. 2. Mixture continues to rise, and browns slightly. 3. Mixture finishes rising and browns all over. 4. Mixture finishes baking and shrinks from the pan. Time Guide for Baking Quick Breads (with gas). — Pop-overs 30 min. Biscuits (baking powder) 10 to 20 min. Corn bread (thin) 15 to 20 min. Corn bread (thick) 30 to 40 min. Muffins (baking powder) 20 to 25 min. Gingerbread 30 to 45 min. APPLICATION 1. Pop-overs (thin batter) 1 c. flour 14 tsp. salt 1 c. milk 2 eggs Method. — Put the flour in a bowl, make a well in the center, and drop in the salt. Add the milk gradually, and stir well. When smooth add the unbeaten eggs and beat hard until light. Bake in hissing hot muffin pans in a hot oven 45 minutes. Serve hot. (Makes 8 pop-overs.) {Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) QUICK BREADS— THIN BATTERS 111 2. Sour Milk Griddle Cakes 2 c. flour 1 egg 1 tsp. soda Y 2 tsp. salt 2 c. sour milk Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients; add the sour milk and egg well beaten. Bake by spoonfuls on a hot, greased griddle. (Beat the batter well before pouring a fresh batch of cakes on the griddle.) When puffed full of bubbles and cooked on the edges, turn and cook on the other side. Grease pan, and repeat. If large bubbles form at once on the top of the cakes, the griddle is too hot. If the top of the cake stiffens before the under side is cooked, the griddle is not hot enough. (Basis for 2 girls, }4 ride.) 3. Griddle Cakes (baking powder, sweet milk) 3 c. flour \i c. sugar 1 ^ tbsp. baking powder 2 c. milk 1 tsp. salt 1 egg 2 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients; beat egg, add milk, and then add the wet mixture to the dry. Beat thoroughly and add the butter. Cook the same as Sour Milk Griddle Cakes. Begin cooking cakes at once or more baking powder will be required. (Basis for 2 girls, }/i rule.) 4. Bread Griddle Cakes \\ic. fine stale bread crumbs 2 tbsp. butter \ l /2 c. scalded milk 4 tsp. baking powder 2 eggs y 2 c flour % tsp. salt Method. — Add the milk and butter to the crumbs, and soak until crumbs are soft; add eggs well beaten, then the flour, salt, and baking powder mixed and sifted Cook the same as other griddle cakes. (Basis So* 2 girls. Vi rule.) 112 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 6. Waffles 1 c. milk 14 c melted butter 2 eggs 2 sc. tsp. baking powder Pinch of salt Flour to make soft batter (about Method. — Beat flour and milk, add butter, and beat. Add the well-beaten yolks and beat again; then add baking powder and a little salt and beat very hard for a few minutes. Fold in the well-beaten whites lightly. Have iron very hot; bake, and serve at once. 6. Brown Sugar Syrup FOR WAFFLES AND CAKES— 1 c. brown sugar 1 tbsp. butter l /i c. water % tsp. vanilla Method. — Boil the sugar and water 5 minutes, then add the butter and vanilla and serve hot or cold. LESSON 15 QUICK BREADS— BAKING POWDER Composition. — Baking powder is made up of substances that react and form carbon dioxide gas in the presence of heat and moisture. It contains one part of baking soda (saleratus) and two parts of an acid (cream of tartar, phos- phate, or alum) with a little starch to keep it dry. Cream of tartar is an acid substance obtained from the argols or crystals formed on the- inside of wine casks. Soda is an alkaline product made from common salt and contains a carbonate. Experiments to show the action of soda and an acid : — 1. Mix J4 tsp. of soda and Y2 tsp. of cream of tartar. What happens? 2. Add yi cup of cold water to the mixture. What happens? 3. Add }/i cup of boiling water to a similar mixture of soda and cream of tartar. Compare the results with Experiments 1 and 2. Action of Baking Powder. — Carbon dioxide gas is pro- duced rapidly by the action of baking powder in the pres- ence of a liquid and heat. As the bubbles of gas are formed and expand they lift up the mixture and make it light. Baking must be accomplished while the bubbles are forming if best results are to be obtained. If too hot an oven is used, a crust is formed before all the gas is liber- ated and as a result the bread is heavy. Quick breads baked in too hot an oven often crack open on the top. If too cool an oven is used the gas forms and passes off before enough heat is present to produce a crust. —8 (113) 114 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Mixtures containing eggs do not require as hot an oven since albumin is coagulated at a moderate temperature. Kinds of Baking Powder. — Baking powders are classed according to the acid used; as (1) cream of tartar, (2) tartaric acid, (3) phosphate, and (4) alum, baking powders. r~\ ^ttM^ttB^ ~ ; . . ■ v. \ . | 1 *';-•■. ^IShI || .£ ^^ Fig. 12. Muffina. The first three named are regarded as more healthful than alum powders, since they leave in the bread no harmful residues which are the objection to baking powders contain- ing alum. The proportion of baking powder to use with flour u 2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cup of flour. If egg* are used in a mixture, use less baking powder. Why 1 * APPLICATION 1. Muffins (plain egg) 2 c. flour l A tsp. salt 3 tsp. baking powder 1 egg 4 tbsp. sugar 4 tbsp. melted butter 1 c. milk QUICK BREADS— BAKING POWDER 115 Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, separate the egg, beat the yolk slightly and the white to a stiff froth. Add the milk, beaten yolk, and melted butter to the dry ingredients. Fold in the stiffly-beaten whites. Bake in buttered muffin pans 25 minutes. (Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 2. Blueberry Muffins Add to the preceding plain-egg recipe: — ■ 1 c. blueberries }/% c. sugar Method. — Mix the same as the plain-egg muffins. For blueberry muffins use a little less milk. (Basis for 2 girls, x /± rule.) 3. Rice Muffins 234 c. flour 1 c. milk % c. hot cooked rice 1 egg 5 tsp. baking powder 2 tbsp. melted butter 3 tbsp. sugar y 2 tsp. salt Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients; add J^ the milk and the well-beaten egg. Mix the remainder of the milk with the rice and add to the first mixture, beating thoroughly. Then add the melted butter and bake in buttered muffin tins. (Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 4. Invalid Muffins 1 c. flour y 2 c. milk 1 tsp. baking powder 2 eggs (whites) Y2 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the milk gradually, the eggs well beaten, and lastly the melted butter. Bake in a moderate oven in buttered gem pans. After baking, let stand in the oven, with door open, until the crust is dry and crisp. Serve hot or cold. 116 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 5. Date Muffins }?£ c. butter % c. milk 34 c. sugar 2 c. flour Y /i tsp. salt }/i lb. dates 1 egg 4 tsp. baking powder Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually and the dates chopped fine. Cream all together, add the beaten egg, then half of the milk, and half of the flour. Beat thoroughly. Add the remainder of the milk and the flour, beating hard. Sift the baking powder over the top and carefully fold it into the mixture. Bake in hot greased muffin pans for 20 minutes. 6. Oatmeal Muffins (Conservation Recipe) \ l /2 c. milk 2 c. rolled oats 1 tbsp. syrup 1 c. wheat flour 1 egg 1 tbsp. oil Y± tsp. salt 4 tsp. baking powder Method. — Pour the hot milk over the rolled oats, let stand half an hour. Add the well-beaten egg, syrup, and oil. Then add the dry materials sifted together. Beat hard, turn into well-greased muffin pans and bake in a moderate oven for J/£ hour. 7. Potato Muffins (Conservation Recipe) 1 c. mashed potatoes 1 c. milk 1 c. cornmeal 2 tbsp. oil Yl tsp. salt 1 egg 4 tsp. baking powder 1 tbsp. sugar Method. — Mix the dry material together. Beat the egg well, add the milk and add the wet mixture to the dry. Then add the oil and beat hard. Turn into well-greased muffin pans and bake in a moderate oven twenty-five to thirtv minutes. LESSON 16 QUICK BREADS— CORN, THICK BATTERS Review leavening agents (Lesson 14). CORN Source. — Corn is a native of America, and ranks first in importance of all crops raised in this country. Kinds. — There are three kinds of corn of interest in cook- ery: (1) dent (field) corn, (2) sweet corn, and (3) pop corn. Dent corn is large and coarse and is used for making cornmeal, cornstarch, corn sirup, and hominy. Name other uses. Sweet corn is finer grained and contains sugar. It is used as a table vegetable and is served both on the ear and off the ear. The Golden Bantam variety of sweet corn has very yellow ears, and is sweeter and more tender than any other variety. Pop corn has small, sharp, hard kernels. This corn when exposed to the heat bursts open, and the inside of the kernel, which is composed mainly of starch, swells into a mass of fluffy white. It is served hot and fresh with salt and butter, or with a sirup and made in the form of balls. It may also be used as a garnish around red apples filled with apple salad. Composition. — Corn is similar in structure and com- position to wheat, with the exception of the protein. Corn contains more fat than wheat and the protein has not the tenacious, elastic properties that gluten of wheat has. It cannot be baked into a light, porous loaf. Cornmeal is very heavy when used alone, and most recipes call for (117) 118 DOMESTIC SCIENCE the addition of white flour, as the gluten in the flour helps to hold the air in the mixture. Corn contains a small quantity of cellulose compared with other grains. Composition of Corn Foods Corn (whole) Hulled corn. . Hominy Pop corn Cornmeal . . . Protein Fat Carbohy- drates Minerals 10.5 5.4 71.7 1.5 2.3 .9 22.2 .5 8.6 .6 79.6 .3 10.7 5.0 78.7 1.3 8.9 2.2 75.1 .9 Water 10.9 74.1 10.9 4.3 12.9 CORN PRODUCTS Hominy is the corn kernel with the skin removed and may be either whole or cracked into coarse pieces. The skin was formerly removed by soaking in strong lye, but this is now done by machinery. Cornmeal is made in two grades. A rather coarse meal is made by grinding the whole kernel and removing only the coarsest bran. This meal is darker in color than the fine grade and does not keep well in summer, owing to the large amount of fat in the germ. A fancy grade is made by removing both the skin and the germ from the kernel and grinding the remainder quite fine. Cornstarch is the pure starch of the corn grain, made by washing the flour. Potatoes are now coming to be used more for this purpose. Glucose, or corn sirup, is made by boiling corn starch with dilute acid. It is about three-fifths as sweet as cane sugar, and is wholesome for table use and for candies. Corn Oil, a more recent product, is the pure vegetable oil from the heart of the corn. It is purified and is an excellent fat substitute for animal fat in all kinds of cook- ing. QUICK BREADS— THICK BATTERS 119 Food Value of Corn. — Corn, being rich in fat and starch, furnishes much heat and energy to the body. It is deficient in protein and salts, which necessitates its being used with foods containing tissue-building materials. Cornmeal cooked in the form of mush, hoe-cake, johnny- cake, and brown bread is a very popular dish in the South and in some European countries. Such food is easily masticated and digested, may be quickly prepared, is cheap, nutritious, and may well be used more extensively. APPLICATION 1. Cornmeal Muffins Y2 c. cornmeal 1 tbsp. melted butter 1 c. flour Yi tsp. salt 3 tsp. baking powder % c. milk 1 tbsp. sugar 1 egg Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients, add the milk gradually, then the egg well beaten, and the melted butter. Bake in a hot oven in buttered gem pans for 25 minutes. (Basis for 2 girls,. Yi rule.) 2. Graham Muffins 1 c. graham flour 1 c. milk \i c. flour 1 egg x /i c. sugar 1 tbsp. melted butter 1 tsp. salt 4 tsp. baking powder Method. — Same as for Cornmeal Muffins. 3. Corn Bread 1 c. cornmeal Y2 tsp. salt 1 c. flour 1 c. milk Y c sugar 2 eggs 4 tsp. baking powder 4 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the milk, then the well-beaten egg, and lastly the melted butter. Beat thoroughly. Bake for 25 minutes in a shallow but- tered pan in a moderate oven. (Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.) 120 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 4. Muffins (without eggs) 1 c. buttermilk 1 tbsp. sour cream Yi tsp. soda 2 c. flour Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients together. Then gradually add the wet mixture to the dry. Beat hard and bake in hot muffin pans in a moderate oven for 20 minutes. 5. Southern Spoon Bread 2 c. milk y% tsp. salt 1 c. corn meal 4 eggs Method. — Scald the milk, and slowly stir in the corn- meal, add the salt and let boil 2 or 3 minutes. Remove from the fire, add the beaten egg yolks, beat well, then care- fully fold in the stiffly beaten whites of eggs. Pour into a buttered baking dish and bake in a moderate oven }/£ hour. Serve hot from the baking dish at the table with a large spoon. 6. Cereal Muffins (Conservation Recipe) 1 c. barley flour l^c. milk 1 c. cornmeal 1 egg 1 c. wheat flour 1 tbsp. corn oil 4 tsp. baking powder 1 tbsp. corn syrup or molasses 1 tsp. salt Method. — Sift the dry ingredients together, add the wet, beat hard and bake in a moderate oven x /i hour in well- greased muffin pans. LESSON 17 QUICK BREADS— SODA Quick breads are often made light by the use of soda with material containing acid, like sour milk or molasses. The acid and soda form carbon dioxide gas throughout the mixture, which causes it to rise. The acid material being liquid, the action is quicker than when baking powder is used, and mixtures raised in this way must be prepared quickly and put in a hot oven at once. Experiments to produce carbon dioxide gas with soda and a liquid acid: — 1. Put J4 tsp. of soda in Y2 c. of sour milk. 2. Heat the mixture. Watch it. The action in the case of soda gives the same results a9 baking powder, and makes mixtures light. Proportion of soda with acid material: — ■ To 1 c. thick sour milk use 3^ tsp. of soda. To 1 c. of molasses use 1 tsp. of soda. APPLICATION 1. Soft Molasses Gingerbread 1 c. molasses 2 hp. c. flour \i c. melted butter 2 tsp. ginger XYi tsp. soda Y2 tsp. salt 1 c. sour milk Few drops of vanilla Method. — Put the soda into the sour milk, then add to the molasses. Sift dry materials together and add the wet to the dry; beat vigorously. Bake 25 minutes in buttered muffin pans, having pans % filled with the mixture. (Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) Note. — A few floured raisins might be added to this recipe. (121) 122 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Hot Water Gingerbread 1 c. molasses 13^ tsp. ginger }/£ c. boiling water 1 tsp. soda 234 c flour l A tsp. salt 4 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Add the boiling water to the molasses. Mix and sift the dry ingredients and add the wet mixture to the dry; then add the melted butter; beat hard. Pour in buttered pan or muffin tins, and bake in a moderate oven for 25 minutes. }/± cup of floured raisins may be added to make a variety. 3. Brown Nut Bread 2 c. graham flour }/2 c. molasses 1 c. white flour % c. sugar 2 c. sour milk 1 /l c. raisins 2 tsp. soda H c - nu ts 1 tsp. salt Method. — Mix the dry materials together; cut and flour the raisins and the nuts or add them to the dry materials. Add the sour milk to the molasses, and then add the wet materials to the dry. Grease one-pound baking powder cans thoroughly and pour in the mixture, cover, and let stand an hour; then bake 45 minutes in a hot oven. This makes 3 loaves. Fill cans only % full, for the mixture rises before baking. LESSON 18 QUICK BREADS— FLOUR, SOFT DOUGH FLOUR Flour is made from cereals — wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn, buckwheat and rice. Kinds of Wheat Flour. — (1) Graham flour, (2) whole- wheat flour, (3) bread flour, (4) pastry flour. Turn to les- son 6, on wheat. Notice the structure of wheat, also note the difference between spring and winter wheats. Graham flour is made by grinding the entire grain of spring wheat, including the outer bran coverings. Whole-wheat flour is made by grinding the whole grains of spring wheat, with the exception of the two outer and coarser bran coats. Bread flour is made by grinding the remainder of the grain of spring wheat after the bran coats and much of the germ are removed. Pastry flour is made from the starchy part of the grain of winter wheat. The outer bran coats and the germ are not used. i Manufacture of Flour. — Wheat is taken into the mill and carefully washed to remove all dust. It is soaked to soften it some, then passed between either millstones or rollers, which grind the grain. There are two chief methods of breaking or grinding the grain, but that used in the best mills for high-grade flour is called roller milling. The wheat may pass through as many as eight different sets of rollers, each crushing or grinding finer than the preceding. After each grinding, the fine flour is sifted, or bolted, through silk cloth of different degrees of fineness. Many by-products* (123) 124 DOMESTIC SCIENCE as, bran, middlings, shorts, etc., are produced. Graham and whole-wheat flour are usually ground between millstones, in one operation. The flour is finally packed into barrels and sacks, ready for the market. A barrel of flour weighs 196 pounds, and sacks may be had containing 24^, 49, and 98 pounds. Grades of Flour. — There are many grades of flour made in every mill. The grade depends upon the quality of the wheat and upon the sorting in the milling process. Inferior flour is sometimes sold as best flour, and we pay the price of the best. We must be able to detect poor flour and to demand a grade of flour worth the price we pay. Composition of a bread flour is as follows: — Protein Carbohydrates Fat Mineral matter Water 11.3% 74.6% 1.1% .5% 12.5% How to Tell Good Flour — 1. In color it is white with a yellowish tinge. 2. It has a gritty feeling, not being too smooth and powdery. 3. It absorbs water readily. 4. It falls loosely apart after being squeezed in the hand, indicating that it does not contain too much moisture. 5. Good bread flour makes an elastic dough. Experiments to determine the presence of starch and gluten: — 1. Test flour with iodine for starch. 2. Make a cup of flour into a stiff dough with a little cold water. Knead in a strainer set in a bowl of water for a few minutes. What washes away? What is the nature of the substance that is left? 3. Compare bread flour and pastry flour. QUICK BREADS— SOFT DOUGH IK APPLICATION Demonstrate Baking Powder Biscuit: — (a) Method of cutting in shortening, (b) Method of handling dough on a board. 1. Baking Powder Biscuit 2 c. flour 4 tsp. baking powder 2 tbsp. shortening 1 tsp. salt % c. milk Method. — Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, and salt. Cut in the shortening, using two knives, or rub in with the Fig. 13. Baking powder biscuits. tips of the fingers. Add the milk gradually, mixing with a knife, to make a soft dough. Transfer to a well-floured board, and pat or roll out to one inch thickness. Handle as lightly and quickly as possible. Cut with a biscuit cutter, first dipped in flour. Place close together on a greased pan, and bake in a hot oven 10 to 15 minutes. (Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 2. Emergency Biscuit 2 c. flour 4 tbsp. butter % c. milk 4 tsp. baking powder Yi tsp. salt 126 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients; chop in butter with knives; then add the milk, and do not stir more than necessary. Bake in buttered gem pans. (Basis for 2 girls, Y /± rule, with x /i c. milk.) 3. Nut Bread 4 c. flour 1 c. chopped nuts 1 tsp. salt 2 c. milk 4 hp. tsp. baking powder y% c. sugar 1 egg Method. — Sift dry ingredients and add nuts. Beat the egg, add the milk, and stir wet mixture into dry. Put in well-greased bread tins. Let stand about 20 minutes to rise. Bake J^ hour in a moderate oven. This makes 2 loaves. 4. Fruit Roll Baking Powder Biscuit Rule Yi c. chopped raisins and nuts Method. — Prepare the biscuit dough and pat or roll out on a slightly floured board to the thickness of Yi inch. Sprinkle with finely cut raisins and nuts and a little sugar. Begin at one end and roll up. Cut into pieces one inch thick and bake on pans in a hot oven about 20 minutes. Serve hot for luncheon or tea. 5. Barley Biscuit (Conservation Recipe) 3 c. barley flour 6 tbsp. baking powder 4 tbsp. fat 1 tsp. salt 1 c. milk Method. — Same as for any baking powder biscuit. LESSON 19 VARIETIES OF BAKING POWDER BISCUIT DOUGH Baking powder biscuit dough is made richer and sweeter when used for desserts— shortcakes and dumplings— but the method of preparation is very much the same as for biscuits. APPLICATION 1. Shortcake, Peach 2 c. flour -i tsp. baking powder 4 tbsp. shortening (butter or M tsp. salt lard) % c. milk 1 tsp. sugar Method— Mix and sift the dry ingredients, cut in the shortening as for baking powder biscuit. Add enough milk Fig. 14. Individual peach shortcakes. gradually until the mass adheres together. Turn out on a slightly floured board and pat out to \i inch in thickness. Cut in size to fit tins and put one piece on top of the otner, with butter between. (Individual shortcakes may be made by cutting with a cutter and placing one piece on top of the (127) U8 DOMESTIC SCIENCE other.) Bake in a hot oven for 20 minutes; then split open ready for fruit. To prepare peaches, peel them, cut in small slices, and sprinkle with sugar. Have the fruit warm, place some on the lower half, put other half of cake on top, and put fruit over the whole. Serve with cream or whipped cream. (Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 2. Berry Shortcake Method. — Make shortcake same as for peach shortcake. Sweeten berries to taste, and warm. Crush slightly and put between and on top of the shortcake. LESSON 20 VARIETIES OF BAKING POWDER BISCUIT DOUGH (Continued) Review batters and doughs. Review baking powder. APPLICATION 1. Apple Dumplings 1 c. flour 2 tbsp. shortening 2 tsp. baking powder }/$ c. water or milk 34 tsp. salt 4 apples V 2 c. sugar Method. — Mix and sift flour, baking powder, and salt. Cut in the shortening with knives, add the liquid, mixing to a soft dough. Roll on a well-floured board to 34 inch thickness. Wipe, pare, and cut apples in halves. Cut dough in 4- or 5-inch squares. Place half an apple in center of square, and sprinkle with sugar and cinnamon. Moisten edge of dough; bring the four corners together around the apple. Pierce with a fork to allow steam to escape. Bake on a greased tin in a moderate oven until soft, — about 25 minutes. Serve warm with cream or any pudding sauce. (Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 2. Dutch Apple Cake 2 c. flour 1 egg Yl tsp. salt % c. milk 3 tsp. baking powder 2 sour apples \i c. butter 2 tbsp. sugar 34 tsp. cinnamon Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients except sugar and cinnamon, cut or rub in the butter, add the milk and beaten egg. Spread 3^ i ncn thick on a shallow pan. —9 (129) 130 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Pare and cut the apples in sections lengthwise and set in rows on the dough with the sharp edges pressed lightly into the dough. Sprinkle the top with sugar and cinnamon. Bake in a hot oven 25 or 30 minutes. Serve hot with lemon or hard sauce. 3. Vanilla Sauce }4 sc« c. of sugar 1 c. boiling water 1 tbsp. corn starch or 2 of flour 1 tsp. vanilla 1 tsp. butter Method. — Mix sugar and corn starch in a sauce pan. Pour on the boiling water, stirring rapidly. Boil and stir until clear, add butter and vanilla. Serve hot or cold. 4. Lemon Sauce 3^ c. sugar 2 tbsp. butter 1 c. boiling water 1^ tbsp. lemon juice 1 tbsp. corn starch Few gratings nutmeg Pinch of salt Method. — Mix the sugar and corn starch, add the water gradually, stir constantly. Boil 5 minutes, remove from fire, add the butter, lemon juice, and nutmeg. Serve hot. (Housekeepers make full rule.) 5. Hard Sauce }i c. butter ]4 tsp. lemon juice 1 c. powdered sugar % tsp. vanilla Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually and the flavoring. Set away to get cold. Serve cold. LESSON 21 STEAMED MIXTURES General Directions for Steaming Mixtures. — 1. Use a tin mold or can with a tight-fitting cover. 2. Grease the inside of the mold and the cover thor- oughly. 3. Fill cans only % full. 4. Tie covers on securely. 5. Set mold on a rack in a kettle containing enough boiling water to come half way up on the mold. Why is a rack necessary? Or set mold in a steamer over boiling water. 6. Cover the kettle or steamer tightly. 7. Keep water boiling all the time, and add more water as needed. 8. Set the mold in the oven for a few minutes to dry off after steaming is done. * Time for steaming mixtures : The time for steaming depends on the nature of the mixture to be steamed and the kind of a mold used. Mixtures which contain much fruit and suet require longer time for steaming than plain mixtures. Tin con- ducts the heat more readily than granite or porcelain and mixtures require less time for steaming in tin molds than in heavy molds. STEAMED MIXTURES Molds Mixtures Individual, tin Plain Pound, tin Plain Pound, tin Fruit Larger than 1 pound Plain Larger than 1 pound Fruit (131) 'ime for Steaming 3^-1 houi 2-3 hours 3-4 hours 3-4 hours 4-5 hours 132 DOMESTIC SCIENCE APPLICATION 1. Steamed Boston Brown Bread 1 c. rye flour % tbsp. soda 1 c. cornmeal 1 tsp. salt 1 c. whole wheat % c. molasses 2 c. sour milk or l^c. water Method. — Mix and sift dry ingredients; add molasses and liquid ; stir until well mixed ; turn into a well-buttered mold and steam 3J^ hours. Butter the cover before placing it on the mold. Fill mold % full. Baking-powder tins may be used for molds. Steam according to directions. (Basis for 2 girls, }/$ rule.) 2. Quick Individual Puddings 1 c. flour yi tsp. salt 2 tsp. baking powder 1 tsp. sugar ^2 c. milk Fruit Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, and add the milk gradually to the dry materials. Grease each indivi- dual mold or cup thoroughly. Put Y% c - of fruit in the bot- tom of each cup and add batter to fill the cup. Set cup in a steamer over a kettle of boiling water. Cover the steamer tightly and steam for 30 minutes. Turn the pudding out of the cup and serve hot with cream and sugar. Any cooked fruit, jam, jelly, or fresh berries may be used. LESSON 22 YEAST— BREAD YEAST Yeast is a mass of very tiny plants, each plant consisting of a single cell. Source. — Wild yeast is present in the air and on the skins of grapes. Desirable varieties are cultivated. Growth. — Yeast plants grow by budding, each bud breaks away from the parent cell and in turn forms new Duds. Under favorable conditions the growth is so rapid that-' often many buds are formed on one cell at one time, and these in turn are budded before they separate from the parent cell. Under certain conditions yeast forms spores, which grow when they lodge in a favorable place. Conditions favorable to growth are: (1) Warmth (77° to 95° F. is best). (2) Moisture. (3) Food (starch and sugar) . Freezing (32° F.) checks the growth. Hot water, or a temperature above 130° F., kills yeast. Forms.— (1) Liquid, (2) dry, (3) compressed. Liquid yeast is not as much used now as in earlier times. It is made from potatoes, hops, sugar, and water. A few yeast plants are added, which feed upon the mixture and multiply very rapidly until the mixture is alive with them. A small amount of this mixture added to dough produces the necessary leaven. Dry yeast is a market form of yeast. The yeast plants are skimmed from vats of wort, a dilute sugar solution, and are washed, dried, and mixed with starch to keep dry. Then the mass is pressed into sheets which are cut into small squares and put in packages for the market. Dry U33) 134 DOMESTIC SCIENCE m &k *m ** : V? © v7 yeast will keep for a long time and will start to grow only when proper food, heat, and moisture are present again. This form of yeast is convenient for any one living a long distance from market. Compressed yeast is prepared in the same manner as dry yeast, with the exception that not enough starch is used to keep the yeast dry. The life of the yeast in this case is not entirely sus- pended, and so compress- ed yeast cakes must be strictly fresh. If dark spots appear, it means that some of the little yeast plants have died, and the yeast cake will not do its work as well. Compressed yeast is wrapped in tinfoil to keep it moist and free from dust. Action of Yeast. — When the yeast plant is put into the bread mixture it feeds upon the starch (which it first changes to sugar), and as it feeds, alcohol and carbon diox- ide gas are formed. This change of the sugar is called fer- mentation. The substance causing the change is a ferment. In this case the yeast is a ferment. If fermentation con- tinues too long, the mixture becomes sour. Dough sours when allowed to rise too long or at too high a temperature. When the dough is light enough, the bread is baked. Bak- ing kills the yeast plants quickly, and causes the alcohol to pass out of the bread as vapor. Experiments to show effect of temperature on yeast: — Fig. 15. Yeast plants (greatly enlarged). (U. S. D. A. Bui.) YEAST— BREAD 135 1. Mix a yeast cake with 1^ c. lukewarm water and 2 tsp. of sugar. How can you tell when water is lukewarm? 2. Put a third of the above mixture in a glass. Keep at a freezing temperature for an hour. 3. Put a third of the mixture in a glass and keep at the boiling point for an hour. 4. Put one third of the mixture in a glass and keep at a lukewarm temperature for an hour. 5. Set No. 2 in a warm place for an hour. Notice the change. Examine each one at the end of the hour and write conclusions. Why, in order to have the best results in bread making, should an even temperature be maintained while the dough is "rising?" BREAD Bread is one of man's earliest and most-used foods. Ingredients necessary for white bread are: Wheat flour, liquid (water or milk,) and yeast. Sugar, shortening, and salt are used to flavor it. Methods of Making Bread, — There are many ways of making bread, but all come under either of two main heads: (1) slow process or (2) quick process. In the slow process, mix the ingredients into a batter or a sponge and set to rise until it is full of air bubbles, usually over night. Then add enough flour to make a stiff dough. Knead on a floured board until smooth and elastic. Let rise again until double its bulk. Shape into loaves on the board; let stand in greased tins until double their size. Bake in a moderate oven 40 or 45 minutes. In the quick process, use more yeast. Mix ingredients into a sponge, and beat the sponge hard until it is full of air bubbles. This beating takes the place of one rising. Add enough flour to make stiff enough to knead; turn on 136 DOMESTIC SCIENCE a floured board and knead as in slow process. Let it rise once to double its bulk, shape into loaves, double bulk again, and bake. This process takes 5 hours. Setting the Sponge. — 1. Put yeast to soak in a little lukewarm water. This dissolves the starch with the yeast and frees the yeast plants so that they can act more quickly. 2. Use half milk and water or all water. Half and half makes a richer loaf. All-milk bread dries out rapidly. 3. Scald the milk in the upper part of a double boiler. 4. Put shortening (lard or butter), sugar, and salt in a large, earthen bowl. 5. Pour the scalded milk into the bowl and stir all until the sugar and butter are dissolved. 6. Add the water to the ingredients in the bowl. 7. When all is lukewarm, add the dissolved yeast mixture. Stir thoroughly. 8. Add as much flour as liquid, slowly, and beat contin- ually until smooth. 9. Add enough flour to make a drop batter. Beat this until full of bubbles. This drop batter in bread is called a "sponge" Making the Dough. — 10. Add enough more flour to make the batter stiff enough to handle on a board. 11. Take mixture upon a board, leaving bowl per- fectly clean. 12. Knead until it is smooth all through and springs back into place when pressed with the finger. Well- kneaded dough does not stick to the hands or board and can be kneaded without using flour on the board. 13. Set in an earthen bowl in a warm place, and cover with a dry cloth. Wet the top of the dough slightly to keep it from getting so dry that it can not rise. YEAST— BREAD 137 First Rising. — 14. When the dough has doubled its bulk, remove from the bowl and knead just enough to shape into loaves. Cut in the right size for loaves. 15. Prepare the pans by greasing thoroughly on bottom and sides. Be sure corners are well greased. 16. Shape the loaves well; make them the length of the pans and the same width. 17. Set the pans with bread in a warm place to rise and double bulk again. Baking Bread. — When bread is nearly ready /or the oven, test the oven, which should be hot enough to turn Fig. 16. Bread and rolls, with utensils tor makmj. a piece of white paper dark brown in 6 minutes. Place pans on lower part of the oven and as near the center as possible. Time. — Small loaves require about 35 minutes; larger loaves (about 4 inches thick), 50 or 60 minutes. Divide time into quarters as follows: — 1st quarter, bread should rise and begin to brown. 2nd ' J ~~" Vead continues to rise and brown. 138 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 3rd quarter, it finishes browning and rising. 4th quarter, baking is finished and the loaf draws away slightly from the sides of the pan. Turn the loaves so that they will brown evenly. Tests when Done. — Bread draws away from the sides of the pans when done, and sounds hollow when tapped with the finger. Care after Baking. — Remove loaves from pans, and turn on the side. If crisp crust is desired, let stand un- covered so the air can circulate around the loaf. If tender crust is desired, rub well with butter or milk. Good bread has a fine even grain, with no large holes in it. It has an even, golden brown crust. Uses for Stale Bread. — Stale bread may be used for crumbs, for toast (buttered and French), and for scallop dishes. Save and use all left-over pieces of bread. The large pieces are good for toast. Dry the smaller pieces or remnants of bread in a pan in the warming oven until they are crisp, but not brown. Crush the dry pieces with a rolling pin, and sift through a strainer. Put in a glass jar and keep covered until ready for use for croquettes, scalloped dishes or crumbing. Stale bread not dried may be used in puddings and griddle cakes. To freshen stale bread, put in a steamer over a kettle of boiling water, and steam 10 or 15 minutes until the bread is light and fresh. Suggestions on the method of conducting bread lessons in iy 2 to 3 hours Each girl makes one loaf and works alone. Preliminary Preparations. — Have double boiler ready, flour meas- ured, and the required amount of yeast at each desk, also pitchers filled with cold water when lesson begins. .Scald the milk for the entire class. Class Management. — Mix the soft batter in the double boilers over lukewarm water. (Allow about 15 minutes.) Beat the batter and add the rest of the flour. (Allow 10 minutes.) Demonstrate the kneading. (Allow 5 minutes.) YEAST— BREAD 139 Class knead the dough (Allow about 15 minutes.) First rising — in double boiler. (Allow 3^ hour.) Wash dishes and grease tins while bread is rising. Demonstrate the shaping of the loaves. (About 5 minutes.) Class shape loaves and grease tops. (Allow about 10 minutes.) Second rising takes 3^ hour. Baking Y 2 hour. General Suggestions. — Use double period for bread lesson. Aim to have uniform work. One girl can delay the whole class. Increase the standard proportion of yeast to hurry the lesson. Hurry the measuring as much as possible. Hurry the first rising by the use of double boilers. Hurry the second rising by placing the loaves in the gas range slightly warmed; both the oven and broiling oven may be used. Guard against over-heating of dough. Small loaves require only 3^2 hour for baking. APPLICATION 1 Slow-Process Bread 1 c. scalded milk 1 tbsp. lard 1 c. cold water 1 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. sugar 34 cake compressed yeast About 6 or 63^ c. flour 34 c. lukewarm water Method. — Soak the yeast in lukewarm water. Scald the milk and pour over the salt, sugar, and lard in a bowl. When dissolved, add the cold water. When lukewarm, add the dissolved yeast and enough flour to make a drop batter. Beat hard until smooth. This sponge must stand several hours or over night to rise until very light. Pro- ceed as for kneading and baking. (Makes 2 loaves.) 2 Quick-Process Bread 1 c. scalded milk 1 tbsp. butter or lard 1 c. cold water 1 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. sugar 1 cake compressed yeast About 6 or 63^ c. flour 34 c. lukewarm water {Basis for 1 girl, \i rule, with double the amount of yeast for lY^-hour method.) Method. — Soak yeast in lukewarm water. Scald the milk and pour over the salt, sugar, and butter in a bowl. Then add the cold water, dissolved yeast, and flour to make a batter. Beat this batter until it is full of bubbles; then add enough more flour to knead on a board. Take upon a 140 DOMESTIC SCIENCE floured board and proceed as directed for kneading. This method requires only 5 hours and two risings, one being in loaf. The thorough beating of the sponge takes the place of one rising. (Makes 2 loaves.) 3 Whole-wheat Bread 1 cake compressed yeast 2 tsp. 3alt % c. lukewarm water l /i c. sugar 1 sc. qt. whole-wheat flour 1 pt. warm milk Method. — Soak yeast cake in the warm water. Sift the flour, salt, and sugar; add the warm milk; beat the batter well until smooth; then add the yeast, and beat hard. Gradually add the sifted flour until the dough is stiff enough to be handled on a board. Handle lightly, place in a greased bowl, cover with a clean cloth, and let stand in a warm place. When double its bulk, shape into two small loaves, and let rise a few minutes. Brush with soft butter, and bake in a moderate oven for 45 minutes. For nut loaves, add V/i cups chopped pecans or walnuts with the flour. One cup of chopped floured raisins may be added before the last rising. 4 Graham Bread 1 c. hot water % c. warm water \ l /2 c. hot milk }/i cake yeast % c. molasses 3 c. Graham flour 1M tsp. salt 3 c. white flour Method. — Add the hot liquid to the salt and molasses in a bowl, let cool, and when lukewarm, add yeast dis- solved in the lukewarm water. Sift the Graham flour and use only the sifted part. Mix with the white flour and grad- ually add to the yeast mixture. Beat well, cover and let double its bulk. Beat down again, put into greased pans and let nearly double bulk again before baking. YEAST— BREAD 141 6. Yeast Cornmeal Bread (Conservation Recipe) \% c. liquid (milk or water) 1 J/£ cake compressed yeast sof- 2 tbsp. sugar tened in \i c. of liquid 1 tbsp. fat 1 c. cornmeal 2 tsp. salt 2 c. flour This amount makes one loaf of bread. Method. — Add sugar, fat and salt to liquid and bring to boiling point. Add the cornmeal slowly, stirring con- stantly. Bring to the boiling point. Remove from the fire and cool. These proportions of cornmeal and water result in so thick a mixture that to add the given amounts of flour looks impossible. It can be done, however. Add compressed yeast softened in 1 cup of water. Add flour and knead. Let rise till about double its bulk, knead again and put into pans. When light, bake in a moderate oven for at least an hour. If dried yeast is used, a sponge should be made from about Yi cupful of liquid taken from the amount given in the proportions and some of the flour. Allow to rise before adding the cornmeal mixture and the remainder of the flour. 6. Yeast Oatmeal Bread (Conservation Recipe) 1 c. liquid (milk or water) 3^ cake compressed yeast sof- 2 tbsp. sugar tened in \i c. liquid 1 tbsp. fat 1 c. rolled oats 1 tsp. salt 2Yz c. wheat flour This proportion makes one loaf of bread. Method. — Scald liquid and pour over rolled oats, sugar, salt and fat. Let stand until lukewarm. Add yeast soft- ened in warm water. Add flour and knead. Let rise until double its bulk. Knead again and place in pans. When light, bake 45 minutes to 1 hour in a moderate oven. Substitute flours may be used in any recipe for breads if the sponge is made with wheat flour and the substitutes added after the first rising. LESSON 23 BREAD— ROLLS Review setting sponge for bread. Review temperature for yeast. The objects of kneading bread and rolls are: — 1. To make the gluten in the dough elastic. 2. To break the large air bubbles, and distribute the carbon dioxide evenly through the dough. The objects of baking bread are: — 1. To make a more digestible and palatable food. 2. To cook the starch. To expand the gas. 3. To form a crust to hold in the gas. 4. To kill the yeast plants. 5. To drive off the alcohol formed by the yeast plant. Rolls. — Rolls differ from bread in that they are richer and sweeter. This is done by using all milk for the liquid and adding more butter and sugar to make them shorter or more tender. Kinds of Rolls. — A variety of rolls is made from the same sponge, but may vary in size, in shape, and by the addition of fruit (currants, raisins) or spices (cinnamon). Suggestions to teachers on conducting a lesson on rolls in 13^ hours. Use twice the amount of yeast. Prepare the sponge before class- time, and let it rise ready for first mixing. At the beginning of the lesson measure out the light sponge for each desk. (Allow 10 minutes.) Mix flour into the sponge. (Allow 10 minutes.) Two girls should work together. Knead dough. (15 minutes.) Demonstrate shaping of rolls. (Allow about 10 minutes.) Class shape rolls. (Allow about 15 minutes.) Omit the second vising for class work. Let rolls rise in slightly warmed ovens ^ hour. Class wash dishes. Bake rolls 15 to 20 minutes. (142) BREAD— ROLLS I 43 APPLICATION 1. Parker House Rolls (3 hr.) 2 c. milk l A c. butter 1 tsp. salt 1 cake compressed yeast 2 tbsp. sugar % c. lukewarm water 6J/£ c. flour (more or less) Method. — Mix yeast with the lukewarm water. Scald the milk and add the butter, sugar, and salt ; when lukewarm add the dissolved yeast. Add enough flour to make a drop batter. Beat well and let rise until double in bulk. Add enough more flour to make a stiff dough. Knead and let rise until double in bulk. Roll out to about }4 mcn m thickness. Cut with a cooky cutter, spread with melted butter, and crease the middle with a knife handle. Fold double, put close together in the pan, let rise until double their size. When ready to bake, brush with milk or slightly beaten egg. Bake in a hot oven 12 or 15 minutes. (Basis for 2, % /i cup sponge.) 2. Clover Leaf Rolls Method. — Use the same rule as for Parker House Rolls. For one roll, shape three small balls of dough about an inch in diameter. Place the balls together in a greased muffin tin. Let rise, and bake as other rolls. 3. Cinnamon Rolls Method. — Use the same sponge and method as for Parker House Rolls. Roll out sponge to }4 inch thickness, brush with melted butter, sprinkle with sugar and cinna- mon. Roll up the dough and cut off rolls an inch thick. Place in buttered pans, let rise, and bake as other rolls. LESSON 24 PROTEIN— MEAT Stock Soups Meat includes the flesh of all animals used for food; as, beef, veal, mutton, pork, poultry, and game. Beef is from the ox, steer, or cow. Veal is from the 6 to 8 weeks' old calf. Mutton is from the sheep over 1 year old. Lamb is from the young sheep, 6 to 8 weeks to 1 year old. Pork is from the pig. Poultry includes chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese. Game includes wild animals and fowl; as, deer, quail, partridges. Structure of Meat. — Meat consists of muscles, bone, and fat. The muscles are made up of bundles of fibers or cells bound together by connective tissue. The muscle fibers contain protein, extractives, and water. The connective tissue is very tough. Those of much-used muscles, as in the neck or legs, are much stronger than those of muscles not greatly used, as in the back. The bones consist of about half solid matter and half water. The solid part is composed of two-thirds mineral matter and one-third animal matter, chiefly fat and ossein. Some bones are hollow, and contain a fatty substance called marrow. At the ends of bones and connecting bones at the joints are bands of cartilage or gristle, which is like soft bone. In young animals the bones are soft, becoming harder with age. (144) PRO TEIN—MEA T 145 The fat occurs under the skin, between the bundles of fibers, and around the internal organs. Composition of Meat. — Meats are similar in composi- tion, but different cuts of thesame animal will differ in the proportion of food prin- ciples, as will also the same cuts from different animals. This is due to the nature and condition of the animal and the manner of feeding. Meat contains large percentages of protein, fat, and water. Protein. — The amount of protein is about the same — 13 to 20 per cent — in all meat. The principal meat proteins are: — Fibrin, which is the substance in the blood that makes it coagulate when shed. Gelatin, extracted from the connec- tive tissue, tendons, and cartilage and bone, by long, slow cooking in water. Gelatin is dissolved in hot water, but thickens when cold. Albumin, which is similar to that found in eggs, and is the main form of protein in meat. Extractives or juices of meat, which give the meat its flavor. Young animals have more albumin, while old ones have more nitrogenous extractives. Fat in meat varies in amount very widely. Much is lost in the preparation for market, in cooking, and at the table, so that only about one-half the amount of fat is available to the body. Older animals well fed have more fat than young animals. The fat takes the place of some of the water, and does not affect the protein. —10 Fig. 17. Diagram illustrating structure of meat: a, muscle fibers; b, fat cells; c, connec- tive tissue. (Hutchi- son.) 146 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Water makes up about three-fourths of the weight of meat, but varies greatly — from 50 to 75 per cent. It is much more abundant in the young animal than in the old. Veal and lamb contain more water than beef and mutton. Mineral matter in meat is less than one per cent. This is found in larger proportions in the older animals and is abundant in the extractives. There is no carbohydrate in meat. Approximate Composition of Meat Prote r Water Fat Ash 20% 70 to 75% 2 to 5% 1% Food Value.— Meat is the most important of the protein foods It is like the human body in structure and com- position and tully supplies the necessary protein and fat to build and repair body tissues and give heat and energy. It is easily and thoroughly digested when used in proper amounts. Fat meats are harder to digest than lean meats, because the fat interferes with the digestion of the protein in the stomach. Meats with loose fibers are easier to digest than those with close fibers, for the digestive juices can act more readily upon them. The extractives stimu- late the body activity, and people who use animal food in their diet seem to have a greater vitality than those who live entirely on vegetables. The objects of cooking meat are: — 1. To extract the juices, as in soups, beef tea; or 2. To retain the juices, as in broiling and roasting. 3. To develop the flavor. 4. To soften the connective tissues and make it more digestible. 5. To kill any bacteria and parasites that may be present. PRO TEIN—MEA T 147 Experiments to show the effect of heat on meat: — 1. Put a small piece of meat into cold water. Let stand. 2. Put a small piece of meat into boiling water. Let stand. 3. Put a small piece of meat into a hot frying pan, turn several times. Note the changes that occur in each instance, and com- pare. What substance in meat coagulates with high temper- ature to cause the result in Experiment 2? How should meat be cooked to extract juices, as in soups? To retain juices, as in steaks and roasts? Meat Soups. — Soups that have meat as their basis are called stock soups. The stock is the essential element which gives it flavor and nutritive value. Stock is also used in meat gravies to make them richer. Kinds of stock soups are: — 1. Bouillon is made from beef stock, delicately sea- soned. 2. Brown soup stock is made from beef and is highly seasoned with vegetables and sweet herbs. 3. White soup stock is made of chicken or veal, deli- cately seasoned. 4. Consomme is made of several kinds of meat (beef, veal, and fowl), highly seasoned with vegetables, and cleared. Food Value. — Meat soups contain very little nutriment, but have a strong meat flavor, due to the extractives. They stimulate the flow of the digestive juices, warm the stomach, and prepare it for solid food. 148 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Proportions of ingredients for soup stock are: Use % lean meat to J/£ bone and fat, and 1 quart of water to each pound of meat and bone. Meats for Soups. — The much-used muscles of meat contain more juice; the hard connective tissue is softened by long, moderate cooking. Select meat from the legs or neck. Use left-overs from roasts and steaks to add to the flavor, and utilize all other scraps. Any of the following may be used as seasoning for soups: vegetables, cereals, herbs, spices, and noodles. Directions for Soup Making. — Use all trimmings from roasts and steaks with soup meat. Cut up meat in small pieces. Break the bones, so that the juice may escape easily. To give color and flavor to the soup, sear a small amount of the meat in a frying pan until brown. Put meat, bone, and fat in cold water. Soak for half an hour until the water is red. The cold water draws out the juices. Simmer 5 to 6 hours, never allowing temperature to reach the boiling point. Boiling toughens the albumin and does not permit the flow of juices. Clean and cut up vege- tables and add at the last hour of cooking. When done, strain out the meat and vegetables. Put into several small jars, so that the entire amount is not disturbed each time some is used. Cool quickly, and keep in cold place. Keep a layer of fat on top of stock to exclude air. Why? Remove the fat from the soup stock before making soup. Use soups often, and vary by different additions. PROTEIN— MEAT liV APPLICATION (Extracting juices) 1. Brown Soup Stock 4 lbs. beef shin 6 cloves 2 qts. cold water y 2 bay leaf Yl tsp. pepper 2 sprigs parsley Carrot ] Onion f one "half c. each cut in dice Celery J 1 tsp. salt NOTE. — A few tablespoonfuls of German dried vege- tables for soups may be successfully substituted for fresh vegetables to give flavor. Method. — Wipe beef, and cut the lean meat in small pieces. Brown a third of it in a hot frying pan in marrow from a marrow bone. Put remaining two-thirds with bone and fat in soup kettle, add cold water, and let stand for Y 2 hour. Place on back of range, add browned meat, and heat gradually to boiling point. As the scum rises, it' should be removed. Cover and cook slowly 6 hours at a temperature below the boiling point. Add vegetables and seasonings, cook \]/ 2 hours longer, strain, and cool as quickly as possible. 2. Bouillon Method. — Bouillon is made from Brown Soup Stock by removing the cake of fat, and clearing. It is served clear in bouillon cups. To Clear Soups.— Put stock over fire, and add a slightly beaten egg white with the shell. Stir, let boil 2 or 3 min- utes, and then simmer 10 to 15 minutes. The albumen of the egg coagulates and entangles the particles of meat and vegetables as in a net. Remove the scum, and strain the soup through a cloth or fine strainer. Serve clear. 150 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 3. Vegetable Soup Method. — To 1 quart of stock, add 3 tablespoonfuls each of celery and turnip, either chopped or cut with vegetable cutter; 1 tablespoonful of carrot; and 1 cup of cooked and strained tomato, and a little fried onion; or omit the tomato and onion and add small green peas, cauliflower, asparagus tips, or all three. 4. Noodle Soup Method. — To 1 quart of stock add ]/i cupful of noodles. Macaroni, vermicelli, rice, or barley may be added to the stock for variation. Serve with soup: croutons, toasted crackers, or cheese balls. LESSON 25 PROTEIN— BEEF Broiling and Roasting Beef is obtained from the steer, ox, or cow. It is the most used and the most sustaining meat. It should hang about three weeks to ripen and develop flavor. Appearance. — Good beef is bright red, fine grained, and well marked with fat. The fat is fine and light yellow in color; the fat around the vital organs is white and crumbly and is called suet. Flabby, dark, coarse beef with yellow fat indicates a poor quality. Beef from an old or underfed animal has very little fat. Cuts of Beef. — The beef animal is cut into halves lengthwise along the back. Each half or side weighs about 450 pounds and is divided into the fore and hind quarters by cutting between the 12th and 13th ribs, leaving one rib on the hind quarter. The Cuts of Beef Fore Quarter Cuts Cuts Use Cost 1. Neck Hamburg steak, soup. 2. Chuck Stew, pot roast, boil 3. Ribs Roast, stew 4. Shoulder ckx 4 Boil, stew 5. Shin or f jreshank. . .Soup stock 6. Brisket Corned, stew 7. Plate Boiled, corned, stew Hind Quarter Cuts 1. Rump Pot roast, stew, mince meat 2. Round Pot roast, steak, stew, beef tea. 3. Loin Fine roast, steak (a) Porterhouse Steak (b)Sirloin Steak, roast (c ) Tenderloin Steak 4. Hind shank Cheap stew, soup A. Flank Corned, stuff, stew, roll (151) 152 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Fig. 18. The wholesale cuts of beef: /, round; 2, rump; 3, shank; 4, loin; 5, flank; 6, rib; 7, chuck; 8, clod; 9. neck; 10, plate, which includes //. brisket; 12, shank. PROTEIN— BEEF 151 Other Parts. CogT 1. Heart Braise 2. Tail Soup 3. Tongue Boil 4. Kidneys Stew 5. Brains Scallop, cream 6. Tripe (lining of the stomach) Stew, fry 7. Suet Try out, use as fat 8. Thymus gland and pancreas (calf), or sweetbreads . . Care of Meat. — 1. Remove meat from paper as soon as delivered. 2. Keep meat in a cool place, but not directly on ice. 3. Before cooking always wipe meat off well with a damp cloth wrung out of cold water. Why? Never wash meat in water. Why? Retaining Juices. — Juices may be retained in the cooked meat by broiling, roasting, frying, or sauteing, which sears over at once the outside of the meat and seals up the little tubes that contain the juices. Only the tender cuts of meat can be used in this way, since tough meats require a long, slow heat. Broiling. — Cuts best for broiling use are (1) porterhouse, (2) sirloin, (3) tenderloin, and (4) round. Roasting. — Best cuts for roasting are the top or middle of sirloin, back of rump, or the first three ribs. Time Guide for Broiling Beef (rare), per pound 8 to 10 minutes Beef (well done), per pound. . . 12 to 15 minutes APPLICATION 1. Broiled Steak — Oven Sirloin steak 1 to 2 inches thick Butter, salt, pepper Parsley and lemon for garnishing Method. — Wipe the meat with a damp cloth and trim off the extra fat. Have the broiler smoking hot; rub with a 154 DOMESTIC SCIENCE little fat. Place the meat in the broiler and broil, turning every 10 seconds for the first minute. (Use two large spoons for turning, as a fork would pierce the meat.) After the first minute turn occasionally until well cooked on both sides. Remove to hot platter, spread with butter, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Garnish with slices of lemon and parsley. Serve with Maitre d'Hotel Butter or Mushroom Sauce. 2. Roast Beef Method. — Wipe, put on a rack in a dripping pan, skin side down, and rub over with salt and dredge with flour. Fig. 19. Beef: cuts from rump and ribs. Place in a hot oven, that the surface may be quickly seared, thus preventing the escape of inner juices. After the flour in the pan is browned, reduce heat, and baste with the fat that has melted; if meat is quite lean, it may be necessary to put trimmings of fat in the pan. Baste every 10 minutes. If this rule is followed meat will be found more juicy. When meat is about half done, turn it over and dredge with flour, that skin side may be uppermost for final browning. If PROTEIN BEEF 155 there is danger that the flour in the pan may burn, add a small quantity of water. Allow 15 to 20 minutes to each pound of beef in roasting. Beef, to be well roasted, should be started in a hot oven and the heat later decreased, so that when carved the slices will be red throughout, with a crisp layer of golden brown fat on top. Beef roasted at a temperature so high that the surface is hardened before heat can penetrate to the center is most unsatisfactory. Sirloin of rib roast may have the bones removed, and be rolled, skewered, and tied in shape. Roast Beef Gravy Method. — Remove some of the fat from the pan, leaving 4 tbsp. Place on the front of the range, add 4 tbsp.flour and stir until well browned, the flour browned in the pan giving additional color to the gravy. Add gradually V/2 cups boiling water, cook 5 minutes, season with salt and pepper, and strain. If the flour should burn in the pan, the gravy will be full of black carbon particles. 3. Yorkshire Pudding 1 c. milk 2 eggs 1 c. flour }i tsp. salt Method. — Mix salt and flour, gradually add the milk, stir until smooth, add eggs, and beat hard. Spread on the bottom of baking pan after removing the roast, until mix- ture is one-half inch thick. Bake 20 minutes in hot oven. Baste, after the mixture is well risen, with some fat from the roast. Cut in squares and serve on platter surrounding the roast. 4. Maitre d'Hdtel Butter }/i c. butter 1 tbsp. chopped parsley 3^ tsp. salt 1 tbsp. lemon juice ^ ssp. pepper Method. — Rub the butter to a cream, add the salt, pep- per, parsley, and the lemon juice. Spread on hot steak. 156 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 6. Dried Beef, White Sauce yi lb. dried beef sliced thin 1 tbsp. flour 1 c. milk }/i tsp. salt 2 tbsp. butter Speck of pepper Method. — Remove the skin and separate dried beef in pieces, cover with hot water, let stand 10 minutes, and drain. Make a medium white sauce. Add beef to white sauce and heat. Serve on squares of hot toast. (Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 6. Dried Beef and Macaroni See page 61. LESSON 26 PROTEIN— BEEF (Continued) Pan Broiling Food Value of Beef. — Beef has the greatest food value of all meat and is in season the year round. Lean meat is chiefly protein, of a kind that the body can use easily and quite completely. Because meat is high in protein, it is easy to eat more than the body needs, which is harmful. Only very active persons doing much phys- ical work need meat more often than twice a day. For most persons a meat dish once a day is enough. Meat must be accompanied with dishes of the carbohydrate class. Name some. What to Serve with Beef. — With steak, serve fried onions, French fried potatoes, au gratin potatoes, combination salad, or mushrooms. With roasts, serve either mashed, creamed, or roast brown potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas, corn, currant jelly, or Yorkshire pudding. Pan broiling is the application of heat to food by means of hot metal. The same results may be obtained as in the oven broil, but it is especially good for the coarser cuts of steaks. Name some. APPLICATION 1. Panbroiled Steak Round steak, %-l inch thick Salt, pepper, butter Method. — Wipe meat with a damp cloth and remove the extra fat. Heat the frying pan very hot. Rub a piece of fat in pan. Put the meat in and as soon as one (1571 158 DOMESTIC SCIENCE side is seared turn to sear the other side. Turn frequently for the first minute. Cook 6 or 8 minutes, turning occa- sionally. Spread with a little butter and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Remove to a hot platter and garnish with parsley for serving. (Basis for 2 girls, 1 piece 2J/£ inches square.) 2. Hamburg Steak Method. — Chop fine some raw lean beef, season with salt and pepper, shape in small flat cakes, panbroil in a hot frying pan. A few drops of onion juice or onion cut fine may be added, and also one egg slightly beaten. In forming the cakes, handle as little as possible. Cakes that are pressed too compact will be hard and solid. (Basis for 2 girls, % c. chopped meat.) 3. Mushroom Sauce 1 can mushrooms ]/i c. flour 14. c butter 2 c. brown soup stock ^ tbsp. lemon juice or mushroom liquor Salt and pepper Method. — Drain and rinse the mushrooms and chop fine one half of them. Cook 5 minutes with butter and lemon juice; drain. Make brown sauce of butter, flour, and soup stock or mushroom liquor according to Method 1 for white sauce. Cook 10 or 15 minutes, add remaining mushrooms, cut in quarters or slices, and cook 2 minutes. Use fresh mushrooms in preference to canned ones. Mushrooms become tough easily if handled much ; they require only a few minutes to cook. (Basis for 2 girls , \i rule.) LESSON 27 PROTEIN Cooking Tough Meats and Left-overs In order that there be no waste to the beef animal, all parts are used. The tough meats require a long, moderate heat to soften the connective tissue and hard muscles. This is accomplished by using them for stews, hash or meat loaf. Stewing is a combination of extracting part of the meat juice and retaining part by cooking a long time in a limited quantity of water. APPLICATION 1. Beef Stew 2 lbs. beef (cut into inch cubes) Salt and pepper }/i c. flour 1 carrot \ ^ • -., . . j* Water 1 turnip )f ut m ^ inch dlce 4 potatoes (sliced) 2 small onions (sliced) Method. — Wipe the meat and cut best portions into inch cubes. Put the bone and poorer portions of meat, cut fine, into cold water and cook them slowly. Try out some pieces of beef fat in a frying pan and remove scraps Roll the best portions of meat in flour; cook in a frying pan until brown, stirring with a knife so that all surfaces may be browned. Brown the onions also. Put the meat and onions into the kettle in which the stew is to be cooked. Rinse out frying pan with hot water and turn the water into the stew. Cover meat with boiling water and cook slowly at least 2 hours or until the meat is tender. Remove the bone and poorer portions of meat, strain the liquid (159) DOMESTIC SCIENCE PROTEIN— BEEF 161 into the stew* add the vegetables (excepting potatoes) , and cook stew about 45 minutes longer. Parboil the potatoes for 5 minutes and add them to the stew and cook 15 minutes. Add seasoning. If the stew is not thick enough, add a little thickening of flour and water and boil it 5 minutes longer. (Class work as a unit.) 2. Lamb Stew with Dumplings 2 lb. lamb (shoulder) 1 c. tomato 3 c. boiling water 2 small potatoes 1 small onion 2 tbsp. rice Salt and pepper to taste Method. — Wipe meat and cut best portions into 2-inch pieces. Put the bone and poorer portions of meat into cold water, let them stand 1 hour, and then cook them slowly. Brown the onions a golden brown in hot fat in a frying pan. Then add the best portions of the meat and brown them also. Put the onions and meat into a saucepan, cover them with boiling water and let simmer 2 hours. Add the washed rice when meat has cooked 1 hour. Parboil the potatoes, add them to the stew and cook 20 minutes longer. Add the strained tomato 10 minutes after the potatoes are put in. Add the season- ing. The tomato may be omitted and boiling water used in its place. 3. Dumplings for Lamb Stew 2 c. flour Yl tsp. salt 4 tsp. baking powder % c. milk Method. — Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the milk slowly until a smooth drop-batter is formed. Drop by the spoonful into the boiling stew on top of the pota- toes and meat. Cover closely to keep in the steam, and cook 10 minutes without lifting the cover. Take out the dumplings, which should be light and fluffy, put the meat and vegetables in the center of a hot platter, and the dump- —li 162 DOMESTIC SCIENCE lings around the edge. Dumplings may be dropped into a steamer and steamed over the hot stew or over a kettle of boiling water. (Basis for 2 girls, }4 rule.) 4. Boiled Dinner 4 lb. corned beef 2 small carrots 2 beets i turnip 1 small cabbage 6 potatoes Method. — Wash meat with damp cloth and put it to soak for }/£ hour. Put it in a kettle with boiling water to nearly cover and cook until tender (about 3 hours). Wash the vegetables, scrape carrots and turnip, and cut in small pieces. Cut the cabbage into quarters. Pare potatoes and cut into halves. Two hours before dinner time skim all the fat off the liquid and add more boiling water. Re- move meat when tender; then put in the carrots, after- ward the cabbage and turnip, and Y2 hour before dinner add the potatoes. Cook beets separately. When tender take the vegetables up carefully, drain the water from the cabbage by pressing in a colander, slice the carrots and beets, and cover the beets with vinegar. Put the meat in the center of a large dish, and serve the carrots, turnips, and potatoes around the edge. 6. Browned Hash 2 c. chopped cold roast beef 2 c. chopped cold corned beef 2 c. cold boiled potatoes 2 tbsp. hot milk Few drops of onion juice Salt and pepper to taste Method. — Mix all ingredients thoroughly. Put into a frying pan 2 tablespoonfuls of beef fat or butter. Spread the meat mixture in the frying pan and cook, without stirring, over a moderate flue for about 30 minutes. When it is browned underneath, fold it over like an omelet and place on a hot platter. PROTEIN— BEEF 163 6. Meat Loaf 2 lb. beef (cut from the round) 1 tsp. onion juice 1 tsp. salt i^ tsp. pepper 1 beaten egg j| c. milk 1 tbsp. chopped parsley 2-inch cube salt pork lac 1 c. bread crumbs Method. — Wipe the meat with a damp cloth and put through a meat chopper with the pork. Add seasoning, mix well, add the crumbs, well-beaten egg, and the milk gradually. Place in a well-greased pan. Put small pieces of butter or strips of bacon on top. Bake 40 minutes in a moderate oven. Baste every 10 minutes with 1 tabie- spoonful of butter melted in 1 cupful of boiling water. Strips of pimento and a couple of hard-boiled eggs placed in the center of the loaf add a pleasing garnish to the loaf when sliced. 7. Chartreuse of Rice and Meat or Fish 1 c. rice 1 pt. cold meat or fish 2 qts. boiling water 1 c. tomato sauce 1 c. stock 1 egg Method. — Cook the rice in the boiling water until tender. Drain and Jine a mold about a half inch deep. Beat the egg slightly and mix with the finely cut meat or fish, then add the stock. Fill the center of the mold with the meat mixture, cover the top with rice and steam 30 minutes. Turn from the mold and serve with tomato sauce. Boiled hominy or mashed potato may be used in place of the rice. LESSON 28 PROTEIN— VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON VEAL Appearance. — Veal is pale pink and the fat is clear white. The best comes from a calf two months old. Cuts of Veal Cut Use Cost 1 . Leg Cutlets 2. Loin Chops and roast 3. Ribs Roast Saddle [(1) and (2), or two hind quarters)] Roast Rack [ (3), (4), (5), or two fore quarters)] Chops 4. Breast Roast 5. Shoulder Stuffed whole for roast 6. Neck Stew LAMB Appearance. — The meat of lamb is red and the fat is white. The bones are red and turn white with age. Kinds. — Spring lamb is from 6 to 8 weeks old. Year- lings are about one year old. The best lamb comes from animals 6 weeks to 3 months old. Lamb may be used as soon as killed. MUTTON Appearance. — The meat of mutton is bright red, the fat is yellowish, and the bones are white. The layer of fat next to the skin in mutton has a very strong flavor of oil and wool, which makes it very distasteful to most persons. This should be removed before cooking. Mutton must hang to ripen. (164) PROTEIN— VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON Fig. 21. Cuts of veal: /, leg; 2, loin; 3, ribs; 4, breast; 5, shoulder; 6 aeck. (111. Bui. 147) Fig. 22. Cuts of mutton: 1, leg' 2 r loin; J. ribs; 4. breast; 5, shoulder 166 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Cuts of Lamb and Mutton Cut Use Cost 1. Leg Roast and chops 2. Loin Chops, saddle roast 3. Ribs Chops and roast 4. Breast Stew and soup 5. Shoulders Roasts Back[(2),(3)] Food Value. — Mutton comes next to beef in food value. The red meat of beef and mutton is more stimulating than the white meat of veal and poultry. Veal and lamb are less nutritious than the flesh of the full-grown animals. What to Serve with Veal. — With cutlets or chops serve peas, rice croquettes. With stewed veal serve dumplings, baked potatoes. With veal loaf or roast serve peas, asparagus, spinach, cauliflower, rice, white or sweet potatoes. What to Serve with Mutton. — With broiled chops serve creamed potatoes, peas. With leg of mutton serve caper sauce, rice, mint sauce, cabbage, or creamed turnips. With saddle of mutton serve baked macaroni without cheese, peas, or asparagus tips. With cold mutton serve sliced tomatoes with French dressing. What to Serve with Lamb. — With roast lamb serve mint sauce, boiled rice, cucumbers, white or sweet potatoes, squash, parsnips, eggplant, new peas, or asparagus tips. With cold lamb serve lettuce, mint salad with French dressing. APPLICATION 1. Lamb Chops Broiled Method. — Wipe chops and put in red-hot frying pan. As soon as the under surface is seared, turn and sear the other side. Turn often, using spoon, so as not to pierce PROTEIN— VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON 167 surface. If liked rare, cook 6 minutes. Let chops stand on edge in the frying pan to brown the outside fat. When nearly cooked, sprinkle with salt. Drain on brown paper, spread with butter, and serve with Tomato Sauce. Rib chops which have the bone cut short and scraped clean nearly to the lean meat are called French chops. Chops for pan broiling should have the flank and most of the fat removed. 2. Breaded Veal Chops Method. — Wipe, trim off superfluous fat, sprinkle with salt and pepper, dip in crumbs, in egg, and then again in crumbs, and fry until well browned on each side. Care Fig. 23. Veal: cuts from leg and loin. should be taken in turning not to shake off the crumbs. Cover closely and continue cooking over a low fire until thoroughly cooked and tender (15 to 20 minutes). Veal cutlets may be cooked in the same way. These may be cooked in deep fat. (Basis for 2, 1 chop or cutlet.) 3. Roast Lamb Method. — Wipe meat (leg of lamb), sprinkle with salt and pepper, place on a rack in dripping pan, and dredge meat and bottom of pan with flour. Place in hot oven, and 168 DOMESTIC SCIENCE baste as soon as the flour in the pan is brown and every 15 minutes afterward. Cook about \ z /i hours. If the flour in the pan burns, add a small quantity of water while the meat is cooking. Serve with Mint Sauce. 4. Mint Sauce }/% c. mint leaves chopped fine 2 tbsp. powdered sugar 1 c. hot vinegar Method. — Dissolve the sugar in the vinegar and pour over the chopped mint leaves. Let stand 30 minutes to infuse. If the vinegar is very strong, dilute with water. Serve hot. 5. Veal Birds Method. — Select slices of veal from the leg, cut as thinly as possible, remove bone, skin, and fat. Cut in pieces 2Y2 inches long by V/2 inches wide, each piece making a bird. Fig. 24. Lamb: cuts from ribs and loin. Chop trimmings of veal and a small piece of fat salt pork, and add one-half their measure of finely crushed crackers. Season with pepper, cayenne, poultry seasoning, lemon juice, and onion juice. Moisten with beaten egg and water. Spread each piece with a thin layer of stuffing, PROTEIN— TEAL, LAMB, MUTTON 169 taking care not to have the mixture come too close to the edge. Roll, and fasten with skewers or toothpicks. Sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and saute in hot butter until a golden brown. Put in a stew pan, add rich milk to half cover meat, and cook slowly 25 min- utes or until tender. Serve on small pieces of toast and garnish with parsley. 6. Veal Loaf 2% lbs. veal 3^ c. catsup }/2 lb. salt pork 1 c. cracker crumbs 4 eggs Cayenne, salt, pepper Juice of small lemon Bit of butter Method. — Mix ingredients thoroughly and shape into a loaf, placing butter on top. Bake 2 hours in covered pan. May be served with border of peas. 7. Crown Roast Method. — Use lamb rather than mutton. Select parts from two loins containing the ribs; scrape flesh from the bone between ribs, as far as lean meat, and trim off back bone. Roll meat displaced into a semicircle, having ribs outside, and sew ends together to form a crown. Put a cup in the middle to hold the roast in place. Trim ends of bones even and bind each bone with a thin strip of fat salt pork. For a small roast allow about 50 minutes for roast- ing. Remove the pork from the bones before serving. Fill the center of roast with mashed potatoes or peas. Be sure the ribs are separated at the joints before roasting, so that they may be easily served. LESSON 29 PROTEIN— PORK Appearance. — Fresh pork is pale red in color and firm in texture; the fat is white. Pork is more liable to be diseased than any other meat. Diseased pork appears speckled or lumpy. The specks are little worms, called trichinae, which get into the muscle of the hog. When taken into our bodies, these are very harmful. They become active and produce a disease called trichinosis, which is nearly always fatal. For this reason pork should be cooked very thoroughly to kill the trichinae. Pork requires 20 to 30 minutes per pound for cooking. Smoking does not kill trichinae. The frequent use of smoked ham without further cooking is liable to be very injurious. Cuts of Pork Cut Use Cost 1. Loin and ribs Chops, roast, broil 2. Ham, whole or in halves Cured, salted, smoked, — boiled sauted, or baked 3. Back Spareribs 4. Shoulder Cooked as ham, but not as good. 5. Belly — bacon Cured, salted, smoked, — boiled, or sauted 6. Head Headcheese, sausage 7. Kidney fat Tried out to make "leaf-lard." Food Value. — Pork is usually so fat that it is difficult to digest. This is due to the large amount of fat between the fibers. It furnishes so much heat and energy to the body that, together with other foods in the diet, it may furnish an excess of heat, and for most persons must not be used as (170) PROTEIN—PORK 171 Fig. 25. Cuts of pork: /, ham; 2. loin; 3, belly; 4, 5, 7, 9, shoulder, 6, jowl; S, 9, (at back. (111. Bui. 147) 172 DOMESTIC SCIENCE regularly as beef. Bacon is not difficult to digest and can be eaten by persons to whom other fats are intolerable. What to Serve with Ham or Pork. — White or sweet potatoes, squash, beets, greens, cauliflower, cabbage, apple sauce, fried apples, fritters or croquettes, all go well with pork dishes. APPLICATION 1. Broiled Ham Method. — Soak thin slices of ham one hour in lukewarm water or milk. (Milk makes the ham more tender and Fig. 26. Pork: cuts of loin and bacon. juicy.) Drain and wipe dry and broil in a hot frying pan for 5 minutes. If cooked too long, ham is hard and dry. Boiled ham sliced about Yi mc h thick and broiled is very good, but more expensive. 2. Liver and Bacon Method. — Cover slices of liver cut 3^ mcn thick with boiling water and let stand 5 minutes to draw out the blood ; drain, and remove the thin outside skin and veins. Cut in pieces for serving, sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge PROTEIN— PORK 173 with flour and cook in bacon fat. Use thin slices of bacon. Put in a hot frying pan and cook until bacon is crisp and brown, occasionally pouring off the fat from the pan. When crisp and an even brown, drain on paper and serve. Fried sliced apples are very good served with crisp bacon. (Basis, each a piece of liver and bacon.) 3. Mustard (to serve with ham) 2 hp. tsp. dry mustard Vinegar enough to thin 1 hp. tsp. flour 1 hp. tsp. sugar 14, n P- tsp. salt Method. — Mix thoroughly and pour boiling water on to it to make a paste; cover until cold, and then thin with vinegar. 4. Pork Chops Method. — Wipe chops, sprinkle with salt and pepper, place in a hot frying pan, and cook slowly until tender Fig. 27. Pork: cuts from loin and ribs. and well browned on each side. Pork chops require about 20 minutes for thorough cooking. A little freshly ground sage adds a nice flavor to pork 174 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 6. Baked Ham Method. — Select a piece of ham about 4 or 5 pounds in weight. Soak several hours in cold water to draw out the salt. Place in baking pan and cover with a thick layer of brown sugar, with fine bread crumbs on top. Stick a few cloves in the ham and fill the pan with milk or cream to come two-thirds as high as the ham. Raisins may be put on the ham (stuck on with toothpicks), giving a very pleasing flavor. Bake, allowing J^ hour for each pound. 6. Pigs in Blanket Method. — Select long, thin slices of bacon. Place 2 or 3 ovsters in these, sprinkle with salt and pepper, close, and tie vith string or fasten together with toothpicks. Saute in a ikying pan until nicely browned. 7. Fried Pork (salt) Method. — Cut fat salt pork in thin slices. Put enough hot watei over the slices to cover. Let stand a few min- utes, draii. and saute in a pan until crisp. It may be rolled in crumbs, egg, and crumbs again, and fried in deep fat. Serve w 'th salt fish, fried mush, or baked potatoes. LESSON 30 POULTRY Selecting Poultry. — Spring chickens are those about five months old. A chicken over a year old is called a fowl. Poultry has a better flavor when full-grown than when too young. The bird should be short and plump in proportion to its weight. The skin should be clear and smooth, but not the smooth- ness due to scalding. The legs should be smooth; toes pliable. The end of the breast bone should bend readily; it should not be broken. There should be a large amount of meat on the breast. Pin feathers indicate a young bird ; long hairs and long sharp spurs, an old one. Old fowls usually have a large amount of fat, and the flesh has a purplish tinge. Dressing a Fowl. — All poultry should be dressed as soon as killed. The feathers come out easily when the fowl is warm and when stripped off towards the head. Remove the pin feathers with a knife, and singe the hairs by holding the bird over a gas burner or a lighted paper. Cut off the head and the feet. Turn down the skin of the neck and cut off the neck close to the body; remove the crop and the windpipe from the end of the neck rather than by a cut in the skin, which, if made, must be sewed up. Remove the tendons in the legs by pulling out carefully one at a time, taking pains not to tear the flesh. The leg of the fowl is more tender if the tendons are removed. (175) 176 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Remove the oil bag in the tail. Make an incision near the vent, and loosen the fat from the body of the fowl. Loosen everything before drawing out, so as to avoid rupturing any part. Insert the hand carefully between the walls of the body and the entrails and draw the entrails out, using care not to break the gall bladder on the liver. Be sure the lungs and kidneys are all removed from the hollows of the backbone. Wash thoroughly, holding under a faucet to rinse the inside well. Fig. 28. Roast chicken, dressed for serving. To clean the giblets: Detach the heart, liver, and the gizzard. Cut through the thick muscle of the gizzard and peel it off slowly without breaking through the lining inside. Cut the heart open. Remove the gall bladder very carefully from the liver. Wash all thoroughly and let soak in salted water before cooking. To Stuff a Fowl. — Place the fowl in a bowl and stuff the neck until the breast is plump; then draw the skin over the POULTRY 177 neck and sew it firmly. Fill the inside of the fowl with the stuffing, and sew up with a coarse thread, taking large stitches. To Truss a Fowl. — Draw the thighs close to the body, cover the legs over the tail, and tie firmly with twine. Fasten the wings to the body with skewers. To Cut up a Fowl. — Separate the legs from the body by cutting through the loose skin between the leg and the body, bend the leg over and cut through the joint. Pull out the tendons from the lower leg, or "drum stick." Cut off the tip of each wing. Separate the collar bone and the wishbone from the breast, and break the backbone just below the ribs. Separate the side bones from the back and also the breast. Always divide a fowl at the joints smoothly; never break the bones. Food Value. — The light meat of poultry is tender, but poorer in flavor than the leg, a difference similar to the loin and the round of beef. The muscle fibers in the breast are short, more open, and less used, which make the breast tender and more easily digested than the dark meat. Poul- try is not as rich in food value as beef, but is easily digested, very palatable, and especially suitable for the sick. What to Serve with Poultry. — White or sweet pota- toes, rice croquettes, celery, cucumbers, mushrooms, apple croquettes, cranberry jelly in molds, and either oysters or chestnut dressings are good to serve with poultry. With tur- key, chestnuts, oysters, or sausage are excellent for dressing. APPLICATION 1. Roast Chicken Method. — Put dressed bird on a rack in the roaster, rub its entire surface with salt, and spread breast and legs —12 178 DOMESTIC SCIENCE with 3 tbsp. butter creamed with 2 tbsp. of flour. Dredge bottom of pan with flour. Roast in a hot oven, basting every 10 minutes until done. Use 34 cup melted butter in % cup boiling water for basting at first; later the fat in the pan may be used. Turn the bird frequently to brown evenly. If a thick crust is desired, dredge with flour a couple of times. When the breast meat is tender, the bird is done. A four-pound bird requires about lJ/£ hours for roasting. 2. Stuffing 1 c. cracker crumbs. J^ c. boiling water Y /i c. butter Salt and pepper Powdered sage Method. — Melt the butter, pour over the crumbs, add seasonings. 3. Oyster Dressing 3 c. stale bread crumbs Salt and pepper 3^ c. butter, melted 1 pt. oysters Method. — Mix in the order given, adding the t>ysters cleaned and drained from their liquor. 4. Fried Chicken Method. — Wipe each piece of chicken with a clean, dry cloth; dredge with salt, pepper, and flour. Put plenty of salt pork fat or lard and butter in the pan, and saute the chicken in the hot fat until brown and tender (about 30 minutes). Only spring chicken ought to be fried, as old birds require longer cooking. 5. Broiled Chicken Method. — Split a young chicken down the back. Break the joints, remove the breast bone, clean, and wipe with a dry cloth. Season with salt and pepper and rub well with soft butter. Put into a broiler or toaster and broil over a clear fire about 20 minutes. Spread with butter and serve hot. Garnish with parsley and lemon. POULTRY 179 6. Fricasseed Chicken Method. — Cut and prepare the chicken as for frying. Cover with boiling water, and add 1 tbsp. of salt and a little pepper. Simmer 2 or 3 hours, or until tender. Reduce the water until about a pint remains. Remove all the large bones, dredge with flour, salt, and brown in hot fat. Strain the liquor from the chicken, remove the fat, add 1 cup of milk or cream to the' liquor, and reheat. Thicken with 2 tablespoonfuls of flour, moistened with J/± cup milk; add to the liquor. When the gravy or sauce is cooked and thickened, add to the chicken. Serve with or without hot biscuits. 7. Chicken Pie Method. — Chicken fricassee put in a baking dish and covered with a crust of pastry and baked, makes a chicken pie. 8. Jellied Chicken Method. — Remove the skin and bones from a cooked chicken. Pick the meat apart and mix the light and dark meat. Remove the fat from the chicken liquor; season the liquor highly with salt and pepper and a little lemon juice. Cook down to about one cupful. Butter a mold and dec- orate the bottom and sides with slices of hard-boiled eggs. Pack the meat in solid and set away to cool for several hours. When ready to serve, dip the mold in warm water, turn out carefully. Garnish with celery tips and lemon. LESSON 31 PROTEIN— GELATIN Source and Manufacture. — When the bones, connective tissue, hoofs, skin, etc., of animals are cooked a long time, much of the material becomes a jelly, and is called gelatin. Scraps of hide, horns, etc., are used in the same way to make glue, which is a crude form of gelatin. The purest and best gelatin is made from the air bladders of fish, especially sturgeon, and is called isinglass. Appearance. — Gelatin is transparent and tasteless. Commercial gelatin is in three forms, (1) granulated, (2) shredded, and (3) sheet. There are many kinds of each on the market. Food Value. — Although gelatin contains nitrogen and is classed as a protein, it is not a tissue-builder. The body uses it to produce energy, and as such is a great protein- sparer. By this we mean that it saves protein for tissue- building that might otherwise be consumed for heat and energy. It is one of the most easily digested of foods, and for this reason is very suitable to serve to the sick and con- valescent. Effects of Water on Gelatin. — 1. Gelatin does not dissolve in cold water; it only softens and swells. 2. Gelatin dissolves in boiling water. 3. Dissolved gelatin gets thick when cool. A solution as weak as 1 per cent will set. 4. Gelatin will not thicken if boiled before cooling. Directions for Use. — 1. The ordinary proportion is 1 oz. of gelatin to about 1 quart of liquid. In hot or cold weather, more is required. As served, then, the jelly does nam PROTEIN— GELATIN 181 not usually contain over 3 per cent of gelatin. Granulated gelatin is more easily measured than either the shredded or the sheet form. A 2-oz. box holds 5 tablespoonfuls. Too much gelatin makes the jelly taste of it. 2. When gelatin is well soaked, dissolve with boiling water, but do not boil or stir much. 3. If fruit is used, more gelatin is needed. 4. Add sugar to gelatin while the water is hot, to dis- solve the sugar. 5. Add flavoring and fruit juice after gelatin is dissolved. 6. Strain through a wet cloth or a fine strainer into a wet mold. - 7. Put on ice or in a pan of ice water to stiffen. This takes from 3 to 5 hours. 8. To vary the flavor and color, use different flavors; as, cinnamon, fruit, meat; or a good coloring, sparingly. 9. To make jelly and fruit in layers, put a part of the gelatin with fruit into the mold, let stiffen, keeping remain- der warm in a pitcher set in warm water. Then make a second layer, and repeat until all the gelatin is used. 10. To remove jelly from the mold, dip mold into, and immediately out of, hot water. Turn upon a serving dish. APPLICATION 1. Lemon Jelly 1 V 2 tbsp granulated gelatin Spk. salt M c. cold water 3^ c> s 1 V 2 c. boiling water y 8 c . Iemon juice Method.— -Soak gelatin in cold water to soften (about 5 minutes). Add the boiling water and the sugar and stir until dissolved. Add the flavoring or fruit juice. Strain through a wet cheesecloth or fine strainer into a cold, wet mold. Let stand in a pan of ice water to stiffen. {Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 182 . DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Orange Jelly 2 tbsp. granulated gelatin % c. sugar 34 c. cold water Spk. salt \}/2 c. boiling water }/2 c. orange juice 2 tbsp. lemon juice Method. — Same as Lemon Jelly. 3. Snow Pudding Use the Lemon Jelly rule. Method. — Beat white of 3 eggs until stiff and dry, and when the jelly begins to thicken add the beaten whites. Beat until the jelly is stiff and nearly firm; then pour it into a cold, wet mold or into custard cups. Serve with soft custard made from — 2 c. scalded milk 4 tbsp. sugar 2 eggs (yolks) Spk. salt }/2 tsp. vanilla Method. — Beat yolks slightly, beating in the sugar and salt; add the hot milk, slowly stirring the mixture all the while. Pour into a double boiler and cook, stirring con- stantly, until the custard coats the spoon (about 5 minutes). Strain at once and add the vanilla. 4. Tomato Jelly Salad 1 can stewed and strained tomatoes 1 tsp. salt 1 tsp. powdered sugar 3 tbsp. gelatin Method. — Soak the gelatin 15 minutes in J/£ cup of cold water; add the tomato, sugar, and salt. Pour into small cups and chill. Turn the jelly out of the mold, place on lettuce leaves and garnish top of each with mayonnaise dressing. 5. Pistachio Salad }/2 box gelatin Juice of 2 oranges and 1 lemon y /l c. cold water % c. sugar 2 c. boiling water 3^ lb. walnuts 4 c. celery Method. — Soak the gelatin in cold water; add boiling water and fruit juice, and color green with very little color- PRO TE IN— GEL A TIN 183 ing; add the sugar and, when entirely dissolved, strain. Pour into molds, and when it begins to thicken add the nuts and celery. Serve as a garnish with meats or as a salad with cooked dressing. 6. Meat Jellies Method. — Jellied veal or chicken is made by cooking the meat a long time, reducing the meat stock, removing the meat from the bone, and packing in a mold with the meat liquor. Enough gelatin is extracted to mold the meat with- out adding commercial gelatin. 7. Junket % c. milk 14 junket tablet 1 tbsp. sugar 1 tsp. cold water 34 tsp. vanilla Pinch of salt Method. — Dissolve the junket tablet in the cold water. Heat the milk until lukewarm, add the salt, sugar, vanilla and the junket-mixture. Pour quickly into small molds, let stand in a warm place until firm, then chill before serving. Remove from the molds, serve with cream. 8. Caramel Junket Method. — Caramelize 2 tbsp. of sugar and add 2 tbsp. of boiling water. Boil together until reduced to 1 tbsp. Use in place of vanilla for flavoring in the above rule. LESSON 32. PROTEIN— MEAT SUBSTITUTES Food authorities agree that as a race the American people eat too much meat. To reduce the amount of meat in the diet and frequently substitute dishes consisting of vegetable protein or meat equivalents would give greater powers of endurance and prevent many ills. Protein is essential in the diet, but there are many different forms in which it may be served. Meat is the chief protein food on account of its high protein content together with its valuable mineral salts which give it rich flavor. Eggs and milk are also valuable protein foods, but are lacking in flavor. Meat substitute dishes, include any protein food which furnishes an equivalent amount of nourishment in the diet. Such foods include: milk, eggs, cheese, nuts, peas, beans, lentils, alone or in combination. Cheese and nuts are very concentrated foods, expensive, and are better served in combination with bread crumbs or rice, to avoid digestion disturbances and keep the food cost at a minimum. Form of Dishes. — Most meat substitute dishes consist of two or more foods in combination. They are usually served in the form of a loaf and steamed or baked and served with a white or tomato sauce, or prepared in a cas- serole, as a scalloped dish or souffle, or served together in a salad or cream soup. Left-over vegetables from dinner may form the basis for a meat substitute dish for the next day's lunch or dinner and not only serve to utilize econom- ically all bits of food, but go to make an attractive dish rich in food value. Dry bread, rolled fine and sifted may (184) PROTEIN— MEAT SUBSTITUTES 185 be used on the top of many of the casserole dishes with bits of butter giving the dish a rich brown color when baked. 1. Pea Souffle 1 c. split dried peas or 1 tsp. salt 1 c. canned peas 4 tbsp. milk 4 egg whites Look over and wash the peas in cold water. Put in a kettle with cold water to cover and bring to a boil. Drain, cover with fresh boiling water and boil 1 hour. Press through a sieve, add the salt, pepper, and milk. Beat the egg whites stiff and fold into the pea mixture. Butter a baking dish, turn in the mixture and bake in a moderate oven 20 minutes. Serve as soon as removed from the oven. 2. Peanut Butter Loaf 1 c. peanut butter 2 tsp. salt 1 c. mashed potatoes 2 tsp. grated onion 1 ^gg Yl tsp. grated nutmeg 2 tbsp. finely chopped parsley y% tsp. paprika To the hot mashed potatoes add the peanut butter, 1 well beaten egg, parsley, onion, nutmeg, salt and paprika. Mix well. Put in a baking pan which has been brushed with butter and bake in a hot oven from 35 to 40 minutes. 3. Lima-Bean Loaf with Bacon }/i lb. thinly sliced bacon 1 tbsp. grated onion 3 c. lima beans 1 tbsp. parsley 1 tsp. salt 1 egg Ys tsp. pepper 2 tbsp. egg crumbs 1 c. cream sauce Wash and soak the beans over night; drain; cover with boiling water; cook until tender; drain, and mash through a coarse strainer; add seasonings, egg well beaten and cream sauce. Keep 1 teaspoon of beaten egg for top of loaf. Mix all together. Brush a baking pan with drippings, fill with the mixture, brush top with beaten egg and sprinkle with bread crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven 40 minutes. Turn out on a platter and garnish with bacon curls and parsley. 186 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 4. Scalloped Corn 1 can corn Spk. pepper 1 c. milk 2 tsp. sugar 2 tbsp. flour 1 c. bread crumbs (stale) 2 tbsp. butter M c. melted butter 1 tsp. salt Method. — Make a white sauce of the milk, flour, butter, salt, and pepper, and add the corn and sugar. Cover the bottom of a buttered baking dish with a layer of corn and sprinkle heavily with buttered crumbs. Repeat until the dish is full. Add buttered crumbs and grated cheese to top, and bake until nicely browned (about 20 or 30 minutes). (Basis for 2, % rule.) 5. Salmon Souffle 2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour 1 c. .milk 1 c. salmon 4 eggs y s tsp. salt Method. — Make a white sauce of the butter, flour, milk, and salt. Add the salmon (minced), with bones and skin removed. Remove from the fire and add the well- beaten egg yolks. Cool, and fold in the stiffly beaten whites. Pour into a buttered baking dish or into custard cups; set in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven for 20 minutes — a little longer when baked in a large dish. (Basis for 2 girls, 34 rule.) 6. Cheese Souffle (Recipe and method are given under Lesson 12.) Domestic Science Principles and Application SECOND YEAR SECOND YEAR LESSON 1 % PRESERVATION OF FOOD— CANNING FRUITS Preservation as applied to food is the process of pre- venting decomposition, which is caused by the presence of bacteria. Bacteria are single-celled forms of plant life so small as to be seen only by the aid of a powerful microscope. Al- though they are so tiny, they increase in number so rapidly where they have plenty of food, moisture, and warmth, that they are able to cause extensive changes, especially in foods. It is believed that there are as many kinds of bacteria as there are kinds of other plants, and they are found everywhere, in the dust of the air, in soil, water, and food. During the absence of proper conditions for their growth they are inactive and often remain so for several months or years, but spring into life when brought again into the right conditions. All bacteria, however, are not harmful, and some are of great use to us. Common products that owe their flavor largely to the work of bacteria are butter, cheese, and vinegar. The action of bacteria is very useful in the pro- duction of linen, hemp, liquors, and many other products. (180) r Y tsp. salt 1 tbsp. lemon juice Cayenne, a few grains Method. — Wash the butter, separate it into three parts, and put one piece in the double boiler with the vinegar or lemon juice and egg yolks; stir constantly with a wire whisk. Add second piece of butter, and, as the material thickens, the third piece. Remove from the fire and add the salt and cayenne. If left over the fire a few seconds longer it will separate. If a richer sauce is desired, add Yi tablespoon heavy cream and J^ teaspoon hot water. {Housekeepers make full rule.) 4. Drawn Butter Sauce Y c. butter 3 tbsp. flour 13^ c. hot water y 2 tsp. salt Y tsp. pepper Method. — Put half the butter in a pan; when bubbling, but not brown, add the salt, pepper, and flour and stir until smooth. Add the water and stir while it thickens. Add the remainder of the butter and stir until it is absorbed. 5. Caper Sauce 2 c. boiling water 4 tbsp. flour Y c. butter Y tsp. pepper Y2 tsp. salt Yi c. capers 248 DOMESTIC) SCIENCE Method. — Melt half the butter, add the flour. Stir while gradually adding the boiling water. Boil five min- utes, add salt, pepper, remaining butter, and drained capers. 6. Tartar Sauce ^ c. mayonnaise dressing 1 tsp. parsley, washed and chopped 1 tsp. chopped pickle 1 tsp. chopped olives Method. — Mix the parsley, pickle, and olives, and add them to the mayonnaise dressing. LESSON 13 PROTEIN— FISH (Continued) Review Lesson 12. APPLICATION 1. Fried Fish Method. — Clean fish and wipe as dry as possible. Sprin- kle with salt and pepper, dip into flour or crumbs, into egg, and again into crumbs. Fry in deep hot fat ; drain on soft paper. Serve on a hot dish, garnishing with parsley and slices of lemon. Cornmeal may be used in place of the flour. 2. Broiled Fish Method. — Bluefish, cod, haddock, and mackerel are split down the back and broiled whole, removing head and tail if desired. Salmon, halibut, and swordfish are cut in inch slices for broiling. Smelt and other small fish are broiled whole without splitting, but the entrails are squeezed out carefully so as not to bruise the fish. Clean and wipe the fish, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and place in a well- greased wire broiler, cooking the flesh side first. Turn it and cook the skin until crisp. Sliced fish should be turned often while broiling, slip upon a hot platter, or place platter over fish and invert platter and broiler together. Small fish require 10 to 15 minutes for broiling. Large fish require 15 to 20 minutes for broiling. 3. Sauted Fish Method. — Prepare the fish as for frying, and cook in a frying pan with a small amount of fat. The fish may be dipped into cornmeal in place of flour. Smelts are best cooked in this way. (249) 250 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 4. Boiled Fish Method. — Large fish are cut in thick pieces for boiling. Clean and wipe the fish; tie in a piece of cheesecloth to prevent the deposit of scum on the fish and to hold the fish together. Place the fish on a rack or frying basket to preserve its shape and to make it easier to remove. Cook gently in enough boiling salted water to cover the fish, using i teaspoonfuls of salt and 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar to each quart of water. The salt gives flavor; vinegar or lemon juice keeps the flesh white. Allow about 10 minutes to the pound. The fish is cooked when the flesh is firm and separates easily from the bone. Remove from the water, take off the cheesecloth, put on a hot platter and serve with Hollandaise Sauce. 5. Salmon Mousse 1 lb. salmon, either chopped or pounded fine 4 eggs 2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour 1 c. stock, or milk or cream Method. — Chop the salmon in small pieces, the finer the salmon the creamier the mousse; add the yolks of eggs, melted butter, flour, and stock; put all through a strainer. Add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt and J4 teaspoonful of pepper; fold in the beaten whites of eggs. Turn into a well-buttered mold. Set the mold in a pan of hot water and bake in a moderate oven Y2 hour. The mousse is done when it is light to the touch. Serve with or without sauce. Potato balls are appropriate with it. This rule serves 6 persons. (Basis for 2 girls, \i rule!) 6. Fried Frogs' Legs 6 pairs frogs' legs Fine bread crumbs 1 egg Salt and pepper Method. — Skin and wash the legs in cold water and dry them on a clean towel. Season with salt and pepper and a little lemon juice. Beat up the egg slightly, and dip the FISH 251 legs into the beaten egg, then into the fine crumbs, and fry in hot fat for about 5 minutes. Drain on plain paper. A wire frying basket is best to fry them in. Serve hot with Tartar Sauce. 7. Salmon Loaf 1 can salmon 1 c. stale bread crumbs 2 eggs Y2 c. milk 1 tsp. lemon juice 1 tsp. salt Method. — Mince the salmon and remove the bones. Add the bread crumbs, beaten eggs and the milk. Season with salt and lemon juice. Put into well greased molds and steam or bake 30 minutes. Turn from the mold, serve hot or cold with white sauce, sour sauce or lemon. 8. Codfish Puff x /l c. shredded codfish 2 eggs 1 c. potatoes diced Dash of pepper 1 tbsp. butter Method. — Soak the codfish in cold water for 15 minutes. Shred it into bits. Pare and dice the potatoes, and cook with the codfish in boiling water until tender. Mash, add the butter and pepper. Beat well with a fork until the codfish is in fine threads. Beat the eggs very light and fold into the fish mixture. The mixture should be soft and creamy. Have an omelet pan hot. Grease the bot- tom, add the fish mixture, spread evenly about 3^2 mcn thick and cook slowly until a brown crust is formed. Loosen the edges and roll one side over half way and turn out on a hot plate like an omelet. LESSON 14 PROTEIN— FISH (Continued) Preservation of Fish. — Fish are preserved by salting, smoking, drying, or a combination of these, and by canning. Many fish are preserved in oil. Name some examples of each. Cost. — Fish are never plentiful except in seaport towns or near lakes and rivers where they abound. Fish are very perishable and must be transported in refrigerator cars or else frozen or preserved by one of the above mentioned methods. For this reason the price of fish is never very low, where fish is not easily available. Using Left-overs. — Cooked fish left-overs may be broken up into small pieces and used with cream sauce, or scalloped, or made into hash, croquettes, or fish balls. APPLICATION 1. Creamed Codfish ^ c. salt codfish 4 tbsp. flour 2 c. milk 2 tbsp. butter Spk. of pepper Method. — Wash, pick the codfish into small pieces, and soak it a few hours in lukewarm water until soft. Drain and add to a white sauce made from butter, flour, pepper, and milk. The beaten yolk of an egg may be added just before serving. Serve on or with hot buttered toast. (Basis for 2 girls, % rule). 2. Fish Balls 1 c. salt codfish 1 egg 2 c. potatoes % tbsp. butter Pepper Method. — Pick the codfish into small pieces and soak in lukewarm water until soft. Boil and mash the potatoes, (362) FISH 253 season with butter and pepper, and add beaten egg. Drain the fish, add to the potato mixture, and beat well. Take up by heaping tablespoonfuls and shape into balls; fry about six at a time in deep fat. Drain on brown paper. Garnish with parsley and serve. (Basis for 2 girls, }{ c. codfish.) 3. Fish Croquettes l}/£ c. flaked salmon 1 tbsp. flour % c. halibut 2 tsp. butter Salt and pepper 34 c. milk Method. — Put the butter and flour together, add the hot milk slowly, and press out all lumps. Stir the mixture and cook it until it is smooth and thick; add the salt, pepper, and flaked fish. Spread the mixture on a plate to cool. When cool, shape, roll in crumbs, in egg, and then in crumbs. Fry in deep fat and drain on brown paper. Serve on a hot dish and garnish with parsley. 4. Fish and Macaroni Method. — Pieces of left-over fish may be combined with boiled macaroni and white sauce and served as a luncheon dish. 6. Finnan Haddie Method. — Soak the fish in cold water for % hour; then lay them in boiling water for 5 minutes. Wipe very dry, rub butter and lemon juice into the fish, and broil for 15 minutes. Serve with a hot butter sauce. 6. Creamed Finnan Haddie Method. — Put the fish in cold water, cover and let soak 20 minutes. Gradually bring the water to a boil and simmer Yi hour. Drain, rinse, and separate the fish into flakes, using a fork. To each cup of fish use % cup of medium white sauce, heat together, season with salt, pepper, and plenty oi paprika, and serve. LESSON 15 PROTEIN— SHELLFISH Shellfish used for food include oysters, clams, scallops, lobsters, shrimps, crabs, and mussels. OYSTERS Source. — Oysters are found in shallow salt water, the supply for this country coming mostly from the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. They are cultivated in large quantities in the Chesapeake Bay. Season for Oysters. — Oysters are in season from Sep- tember to April, or in any month containing an r. Avoid them in hot weather, when they are flabby and poor. Growth. — An oyster shell has two parts, connected by a hinge. The part on which the oyster grows is deeper and rounder than the part covering it. There are two strong muscles that open and close the shell. The oyster has neither head nor tail, but has a mouth near the' hinge end of the shell. Oysters spawn during the summer. One oyster lays millions of eggs in a season. Small oysters are planted along the coast, much as young fish are put into streams. Food Value. — The nutrient of the oyster is mainly pro- tein, which is very delicate and requires a moderate tem- perature and not long cooking. Oysters are more easily digested when raw, and are nutritious. Bulk for bulk they compare favorably with milk in food value. Oysters live on plant and animal life brought to them in the water. If the water in which they grow is impure, they are likely to become carriers of disease. SHELLFISH 255 To Open Oysters. — Run a thin knife blade under the back opening and cut forward through the strong muscle which holds the shell together. Then open the shell and remove the oyster. To Clean Oysters. — Drain off and save the liquid from the oysters. Put the oysters in a strainer and pour cold Fig. 38. Blue points, as served. water over them to rinse them. Pick over the oysters separately to remove any pieces of shell. Use the oyster liquid in stews. Blue points are small oysters so named because the first came from Blue Point, Long Island. They are regarded to be of extra quality. OTHER SHELLFISH Clams are similar to oysters. The hard-shell varieties are known as little neck clams, and are served in the half shell, in coast towns. The soft-shelled clams are used more in New England. Lobsters are abundant from June to September, but are used all the year. A lobster weighs about 2 pounds, and is 256 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 12 to 15 inches long. Lobsters are more difficult to digest than other shellfish. They are broiled or boiled. Shrimps are in season from May to October, and are found more abundant in Southern waters, the best coming from Lake Pontchartrain. Canned shrimps are much used for salads. APPLICATION 1. Oyster Stew 2 c. milk (scalded) 1 tbsp. butter 2 c. oysters % tsp. white pepper 1 c. oyster liquor Salt to taste Method. — Pick over the oysters, wash in a strainer set in a bowl of water, removing any adhering pieces of shell. Heat the oyster liquor; then add the oysters and cook until the edges curl, which requires only a few minutes. Add the hot milk, butter, and seasoning, and serve at once. Oysters become tough if not served immediately or if over-cooked. 2. Fried Oysters 1 doz. select oysters 3^ c. cracker crumbs 1 tsp. salt 2 eggs }4 tsp. pepper 4 tbsp. water Method. — Clean oysters, and dry them thoroughly between two towels; season with salt and pepper. Roll in fine crumbs and then in beaten eggs to which has been added the water; then roll in fine crumbs again, and fry in a wire basket in deep, hot fat until nicely browned. Drain on a piece of plain paper. Serve hot, garnished with pars- ley or cabbage slaw and lemon. 3. Creamed Oysters 1 pt. oysters 13^ c. medium white sauce 3^8 tsp. celery salt Method. — Clean and cook the oysters in their liquor until the edges curl; drain, and add to hot medium white sauce; add the celery salt. Serve on squares of toast, in timbale SHELLFISH 257 cases, or in toasted buns. Cut off top of bun, scoop out the center, leaving shell whole. Spread with butter, toast in o\en. Fill with creamed oysters. Garnish with parsley and lemon. 4. Oysters on the Half Shell Method. — Allow 6 oysters on half shell for each plate. Arrange the shells on crushed ice on deep plates, with the shells radiating out from the center. Place a quarter of a lemon and a piece of parsley in the center of each plate. Serve with salt, pepper, horseradish, cocktail sauce, or Worcestershire sauce. 6. Scalloped Oysters 1 pt. oysters 1 c. cracker crumbs 4 tbsp. oyster liquor 14 C. melted butter 2 tbsp. milk 1 tsp. salt ^ c. stale bread crumbs Pepper Method. — Mix the bread and the cracker crumbs and the butter. Put a thin layer in the bottom of a buttered baking-dish, cover with oysters, sprinkle with salt and pepper; add half of the. oyster liquor and half of the cream or milk. Cover with another layer of oysters, add the remainder of the liquor and milk and cover with crumbs. Never make more than two layers of oysters, for oysters should be evenly cooked through. Bake 30 minutes in a hot oven. A sprinkling of nutmeg to each layer adds a good flavor. 6. Lobster a la Newburg 1 lb. lobster }£ c. cream }4 c. butter 2 egg yolks 3^ tsp. salt Grating of nutmeg Cayenne, a few grains }/£ tsp. lemon juice Method. — Cut or break up the lobster meat into cubes. Melt the butter in a pan,' add the lobster, and cook until thoroughly heated. Season with salt, cayenne, and nutmeg —17 258 DOMESTIC SCIENCE and add the lemon juice. Cook 1 minute; then add the thin cream and yolks of eggs well beaten, and stir until the sauce thickens. Serve on squares of hot toast, gar- nished with parsley and lemon. 7. Shrimp Wiggle 4 tbsp. butter l^c. milk 3 tbsp. flour 1 c. shrimps Yl tsp. salt 1 c. canned peas Paprika Method. — Make a white sauce of the butter, flour, milk, and seasoning. Wash the shrimps, remove the dark vein, and break the shrimps into pieces. When the sauce thickens add the shrimps to it, also the canned peas drained from their liquor and thoroughly rinsed. Cook all 4 or 5 minutes and serve on squares of toasted bread. Garnish with parsley, and a stuffed olive. 8. Cabbage Slaw % c. vinegar 1 small head cabbage 3 tbsp. sugar 2 tsp. salt 1 c. sweet cream White pepper Method. — Shave the cabbage very fine, place in a dish, season with salt and pepper. Stir the sugar into the vinegar until all is dissolved; then add the sweet cream gradually and stir thoroughly until the mixture thickens. Pour over the cabbage and serve in place of a salad or as a garnish to accompany fried oysters. LESSON 16 SALADS Salads originally consisted of crisp, green vegetables dressed with oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper. Today salads are made of raw 01 cooked vegetables, fruit, meat, or eggs, separately or in combination, with a salad dressing. The essentials in salad making are: — 1. Salads must be cold. All greens used must be crisp. 2. The ingredients in the dressing must be carefully blended and not be too strong of either acid or oil. 3. The whole must be well mixed just before serving. 4. Materials must be nicely cut and arranged. Points in favor of salads as a frequent dish in the diet:— 1. Salads have considerable food value, since the greens used furnish the body with needful mineral salts and fur- nish bulk to food. The dressing contains oil and acid. 2. Vegetable and fruit salads are refreshing and appetizing. 3. Meat salads contain much food value and may be substituted for the meat dish. 4. Salads may be made an economical dish, as much left-over food may be used. Greens used for garnishing salads are lettuce, water cress, parsley, nasturtiums, or chickory. Wash greens thoroughly in cold water. If wilted let lie in cold water an hour, dry in a towel, roll up carefully in a damp cloth, and put on ice until ready to use. Greens wilt readily, and the dressing must not be added until just before serving. (259) 260 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Classes of salad dressing are : — French dresssing, — used with crisp greens and vegetable salads. Cooked dressing, — used with any kind of salad. Mayonnaise dressing, — used with almost any kind of salad, but especially with egg, meat, and fish. It is not good with fruit salads. Oils for Salad Dressings. — Use only the best olive oil for salad dressings. Much of the oil sold as olive oil and under foreign labels is nothing more than a cotton-seed Fig. 39. Tomato and green pepper salad. oil made in this country. This is pure and good for many purposes, but not for salads, and is easily detected by its strong flavor. In most cases foreign labeled goods bring higher prices than home brands. Home products are usually more economical and of better quality than foreign goods, contrary to the opinion of some American women. Be sure to read all labels carefully. Preparation of Materials for Salads. — 1. Clean the greens and vegetables. SALADS SOI 2. Remove all bones, skin, and fat from fish and meat. 3. Cut up materials into uniform size, not too large. 4. Chill all materials before combining. What to Serve with Salads.— Serve crisp crackers, cheese straws, small sandwiches, nutbread, or small slices of angel food spread with preserved figs and rolled as a jelly roll. APPLICATION 1. French Dressing X A tsp. salt 2 tbsp. vinegar M tsp. pepper 4 tbsp. vegetable oil Method— -Mix ingredients and stir until well blended and it thickens slightly. A few drops of onion juice may be added. French dressing is more easily prepared than any other, and is almost always prepared at the table, as greens soon wilt if allowed to stand in the dressing. 2. Boiled Dressing 2 tbsp. sugar Dash paprika 2 tsp. mustard 2 eggs 2 tbsp. flour 1 c . weak vinegar 2 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. butter Method.— Mix dry ingredients well. Beat eggs well. Add the vinegar. Combine wet and dry materials slowly. Put all in double boiler and beat with dover beater while thickening. When thick and fluffy add the butter and re- move from fire. Serve cold. Whipped cream may be added just before serving. 3. Boiled Dressing 1 c - weak vinegar y 2 tbsp. salt Yolk 6 eggs y 2 tbsp. mustard £ c. sugar Red pepper, a pinch 1 tbsp. butter 1 c . whipped cream Method.— Heat the vinegar and butter in a double boiler. Beat yolks in a bowl slightly. Mix mustard, sugar, salt, and pepper together, and add to yolks; beat 262 DOMESTIC SCIENCE well. When vinegar is hot, pour it slowly over the beaten yolks in the bowl, stirring constantly to prevent cooking of eggs, making a smooth mixture. Return all to double boiler and cook until thick, stirring while it thickens. This dressing may be kept several days or a week if placed in glass jars and kept in a cool place. Just before using add whipped cream. (Basis for 2 girls, x /z rule.) 4. Mayonnaise Dressing* 1 tsp. mustard 1 egg (yolk) 1 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. lemon juice 1 tsp. powdered sugar 2 tbsp. vinegar A few grains cayenne 1 Y% c. vegetable oil Method. — Mix the dry ingredients, add the egg yolk, and when well beaten add Y2 teaspoonful of vinegar. Add a drop or two of olive oil, stir constantly. Continue add- ing oil a few drops at a time as the mixture thickens and becomes of uniform consistency. When the mixture be- comes quite thick, add lemon juice or vinegar alternately with the oil, until all is used, always beating the mixture. (Basis for 2 girls, }/i rule.) 5. Thousand Island Dressing 1 c. mayonnaise 1 tbsp. chopped pimentos }/2 c. olive oil 1 tbsp. chopped green peppers 1 tbsp. tarragon vinegar 1 cooked egg yolk sifted 14 tsp. paprika 1 tbsp. walnut catsup 1 tbsp. chopped chives Y§ c. chili sauce Method. — Make the mayonnaise and keep in a cold place until ready to use. Chop the ingredients fine, blend with the oil and seasoning and keep cold. When ready to use, add the chopped mixture to the mayonnaise quickly and carefully and serve on quarters of clean crisp heads of lettuce. *To prevent mayonnaise dressing from separating, mix 3 tbsp. of cornstarch and 1 tsp. of salt with J^ c. of cold water. Add % c. boiling water. Cook till smooth and thick. Cool, and fold into the finished mayonnaise. SALADS 263 SALAD SUGGESTIONS Mayonnaise, or cooked, dressing may be used with the following combinations : — 1. 1 c. apples, 1 c. celery, Y 2 c. walnuts (Waldorf salad). 2. 1 c pineapple, 1 c. bananas, Y2 c. cherries. 3. Bananas rolled in chopped nuts. 4. Prunes stuffed with pecans, whipped cream. 5. 1 c. celery, 1 c. apples, green peppers. 6. 1 c. grapefruit, 1 c. marshmallows, 1 c. white grapes, l /i c. nuts. 7. 1 c. pineapple, 1 c. marshmallows, 1 c. white grapes, % c. nuts. 8. 1 c. oranges, 1 c. Bermuda onions. 9. 1 c. peas, 1 c. cheese, cut in small cubes. 10. 1 c. lobster, 1 c. celery. 11. x /l pt. oysters, 3 grapefruits. 12. 1 chicken, an equal amount of celery (about 1^ c), \i c. olives, Yi c. nuts. 13. 1 c. cooked chicken, 1 cucumber, 1 c. walnuts, 1 c. peas. 14. ' Sweetbreads, 1 pt., equal amount of cucumbers. 15. 1 c. olives cut lengthwise, 1 c. almonds cut the same. 16. Canned pears cut in halves, shredded almonds. Place almonds in the pears like quills in a porcupine. Serve on lettuce, one for each guest. 17. 2 c. salmon, 1 c. celery, cut fine, Y doz. sour pickles. 18. Head lettuce and Roquefort cheese. 19. Cooked asparagus, rings of green peppers, slices of pimentos. 20. Sliced hard-boiled eggs, cucumbers, celery, and lettuce. 21. 2 c. cold string beans, 1 tsp. chives cut fine, 3^ doz. radishes sliced thin. 22. 1 can strained tomatoes, % box gelatine, 1 tsp. salt, 1 tsp. powdered sugar. Make a jelly, put into molds, serve on lettuce. 23. Dressing for head lettuce: 1 tsp. parsley chopped fine, 1 tsp. beets, chopped fine, 1 egg hard-boiled cut fine, added to mayonnaise, also a little vinegar, paprika, and chili sauce. 24. 1 pt. beets, 1 pt. cabbage, ^ c. horseradish. LESSON 17 CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER Cakes are divided into two classes: (1) Cakes without butter; examples, sponge cake, angel food, sunshine cake. (2) Cakes with butter; examples, cup and pound cakes. Things Essential in Cake-Making. — 1. Use only the best ingredients, — fresh eggs, fine granulated sugar, best butter, and the best pastry flour. 2. Use accurate measures. 3. Never grease pans for cakes without butter. Grease pans for cakes with butter. 4. Have a uniform heat for cake-baking. 5. Watch the cake during the baking. Utensils for Mixing. — Use a deep, earthen mixing-bowl and a slotted wooden spoon. General Method for Cakes without Butter. — Separate the yolks and whites of eggs. Beat the yolks until lemon- Cwlored and thick; add the sifted sugar slowly while beating. Add the flavoring; then fold in the whites beaten stiff and dry. Sift the flour several times, cut and fold it into the mixture, until all is well blended. Pour into a pan wet with water and kept for cakes of this class. Sponge cakes and others of the class are raised mainly by air and steam and, containing many eggs, need a mod- erate oven. Baking. — Oven test for sponge cake: Turns white paper light yellow in 5 minutes. Put the cake in the center of the lower rack in the oven at first. Later move above if the oven does not brown (264) CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER 265 enough. Do not open the oven door too much, and avoid any jar or the cake may fall. The Baking of Cakes.— Divide baking time into quar- ters : — 1st quarter y — the mixture rises. 2nd quarter, — it continues rising, begins to brown. 3rd quarter — it continues to brown. 4th quarter, — it finishes baking, settles and shrinks from the pan. If oven is too hot, cover cake with tent made of paper, turn gas down or check fire, or place a pan of cold water in oven. Cake should not be moved in oven before it has risen to full height. Tests for Cake. — 1. Cake is done when it shrinks from the sides of the pan. 2. Press the top of the cake with the finger; if it springs back into place it is done. 3. Insert a small straw in the center of the cake; if it comes out clean and dry, the cake is done. Care after Baking. — Remove cake from the pan as soon as it is baked. Run a knife around the edge and invert the pan on a wire cooler or board covered with a cloth. Note. — If cake sticks to the pan, cover the bottom of the pan with a cold damp cloth for a few minutes. APPLICATION 1. Sponge Cake Yolks 6 eggs Whites 6 eggs 1 c. sugar Grated rind Y 2 lemon 1 tbsp. lemon juice 1 c. flour \i tsp. salt 2 tbsp. water Method. — Beat the yolks until lemon-colored and thick; add the sugar gradually, continue beating; add water, 26$ DOMESTIC SCIENCE lemon juice, and rind. Fold in the whites of the eggs beaten to a stiff froth. Cut and fold in the flour mixed and sifted with the salt. Bake in a slow oven 1 hour in a deep, narrow pan. {Boms far 2 girls, }/i rule.) 2. Cheap Sponge Cake 1 c. sugar 1 tbsp. lemon juice 5 tbsp. cold water lj^c. flour 2 eggs 2 tsp. baking powder Method, — Beat the yolks thick, add the sugar and con- tinue beating, and then gradually add the water and lemon juice. Mix and sift the baking powder with the flour and add to the yolks. Beat the egg whites until stiff, and carefully fold into the cake mixture. Bake in an unbut- tered tin in a moderate oven. The baking powder takes the place of some eggs as a leaven. 3. Angel Food Whites 1 doz. eggs M tsp. salt \y 2 c. sugar 1 c. flour 1 tsp. cream of tartar 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Beat the whites of the eggs until frothy, add the cream of tartar, and continue beating until eggs are stiff. Sift the sugar several times and then add gradually to the beaten eggs. Sift the flour and salt four or six times; then fold into the mixture, and lastly add the vanilla. Bake in an unbuttered pan in a moderate oven for 45 to 50 minutes. 4. Sunshine Cake Whites 10 eggs 1 tsp. lemon juice 1 }/2 c. powdered sugar 1 c. flour Yolks of 6 eggs 1 tsp. cream of tartar Method. — Beat whites of eggs until stiff and dry, add sugar gradually and continue beating; then add the yolks beaten until thick and lemon-colored, add the extract. CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER 267 Cut in the flour sifted with the cream of tartar. Bake 50 minutes in a moderate oven in an angel cake pan. (Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 6. Jelly Roll 3 eggs 1 tsp. baking powder 1 c. sugar }4 tsp. salt 1 tsp. milk 1 c. flour Jelly 1 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Beat eggs until light, add the sugar gradually, and then milk, flour, salt, baking powder, and melted butter. Line a dripping pan with buttered or oil paper, turn in the mixture, spread evenly, bake 12 minutes in a moderate oven. When baked turn on a cloth covered with powdered sugar. Cut a thin strip off of sides and ends of cake, spread with jelly while still hot, and roll up cake by means of the cloth. Keep roll in shape until cake cools. Rolling must be done quickly while cake is hot, to prevent cracking. 6. Uncooked Frosting 2 egg whites 1 tsp. vanilla 1 tbsp. water 2 c. powdered sugar Method. — Put water and egg whites in a deep dish and gradually add the sugar and vanilla; beat constantly until the frosting is of the consistency to spread without running. More or less than 2 cups of sugar may be required, depend- ing on the size of the eggs. Chocolate uncooked frosting is made by adding 2 squares of melted chocolate to the above rule when about half of the sugar is in. LESSON 18 CAKES WITH BUTTER Method of Mixing Cakes with Butter. — Measure ingre- dients, dry first and then the liquids and butter. Cream the butter; then add the sugar and cream together until the sugar is dissolved and the mixture is creamy. Beat egg yolks with a Dover beater. Beat the whites with an egg whip. Add beaten yolks to creamed mixture; then add liquid alternately with sifted flour, to keep the mixture about the same consistency. If spices are used, sift in with the flour. If fruit or nuts are used, cover them with flour to prevent them from sticking together and settling to the bottom. Add the whites beaten stiff at the last, by cutting and folding in very carefully ; add the flavoring and baking powder at the same time. Do not stir the mixture after the egg whites are in. Why? Pans for Butter Cakes. — Grease pans thoroughly for butter cakes, sift a little flour in the pan after it is greased. See that the corners of the pan are well greased. Fill the pans only two-thirds full of the cake mixture. Oven Test for Butter Cakes. — White paper turns light brown in 5 minutes. Butter cakes require a hotter oven than those without butter. If the oven gets too hot, place a cover of paper o\«er the cake or set a pan of cold water in the oven. Frosting a Cake. — Cake may be frosted as soon as baked, if desired. Either cooked or uncooked frostings may be used for either class of cakes; but for cakes without butter, uncooked frosting is very good and keeps the cake more moist. (268) CAKES WITH BUTTER 269 General Proportions of Ingredients. — For butter cakes use — 3^ to }/2 as much butter as sugar. }/2 as much liquid as flour. Regard butter or shortening as so much liquid. Sour milk or molasses does not thin a mixture as much as sweet milk or water. Mixtures for fruit must be a little stiffer than those without. The proportion of baking powder and flour is the same as in quick breads, but the more eggs in a cake the less baking powder is needed. Variations for Plain Butter Cakes. — Many kinds of butter cakes may be made from a plain-cake recipe. The following are examples: — 1. White cake, — use 3 egg whites. 2. Yellow cake, — use 4 egg yolks. 3. Chocolate cake, — add one ounce melted chocolate (use less flour). 4. Spice cake, — add 3^ tsp. cinnamon, 3^ tsp. mixed allspice, nutmeg, and cloves. 5. Fruit cake, — add 3^ c. raisins, 34 c. currants, 34 c. cut citron. 6. Nut cake, — add Yi c. cut walnuts or almonds. Make in layers and use different fillings and frostings. If bread flour is used, use a little less than when pastry flour is used. APPLICATION 1. Plain Cake 34 c. butter 3^ c. milk Yl c. sugar 13^ c. flour 34 tsp. salt 3 tsp. baking powder 1 egg 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Cream the butter, add sugar gradually, and egg well beaten. Sift the flour and add alternately with the milk. Then add the vanilla, and lastly fold in the baking powder, sifted over the top. Bake 30 to 40 minutes in a shallow pan. This rule may be varied in many ways, as stated above. (Basis for 2 girls, % rule.) 270 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. Cup Cakes % c. butter 1 c. milk 2 c. sugar 3 c. flour 4 eggs 4 tsp. baking powder 1 tsp. vanilla or lemon • Method. — Cream the butter and sugar, add yolks of eggs, beat hard, add the milk, and then the flour mixed and sifted with the baking powder. Fold in the beaten whites, add flavoring, and bake in individual tins. Cover with uncooked frosting. Makes 3 dozen cakes. (Basis for 2 girls, x /± rule.) 3. Lemon Queens 3^ c. butter 1 c. flour 1 c. sugar 2 tsp. baking powder 4 eggs 1 tbsp. lemon juice Grated rind of 1 lemon Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar, add eggs one at a time without beating. Beat mixture hard after adding each egg. Add flour, baking powder, and lemon juice. Bake 25 minutes in small muffin pans. Frost with uncooked frosting or orange frosting. Makes 16 cakes. (Basis fo? 2 girls, \i rule.) 4. Orange Frosting 2 egg yolks 1 tsp. lemon juice 5 tbsp. orange juice 2 c. powdered sugar 1 tbsp. grated orange rind Method. — Mix orange and lemon juice with rind and let stand 10 minutes; then strain it. Add to egg yolks, slowly add powdered sugar, and beat until all is added and of the right consistency to spread. LESSON 19 LAYER CAKES Time. — Bake layer cakes 15 to 30 minutes. Points of a Good Cake. — 1. A good cake is smooth on top and baked to an even brown. 2. Cake rounds slightly toward the center, but does not rise abruptly in the center, crack on top, or sink at the edges. If any of these difficulties occurs, either the cake has been baked too rapidly or too much flour was used. 3. The inside of a good cake is fine, even grained, moist but not sticky, and of the same texture throughout. Coarse-grained cake is caused either by a lack of beating or by too slow an oven. APPLICATION 1. Spanish Chocolate Cake J^ c. butter 1 tsp. vanilla 1^ c. sugar 2 sq. choc, melted 4 eggs 5 tbsp. boiling water 14, c milk or water 1 M sc. c. flour 4 tsp. baking powder Method. — Melt the chocolate, add the boiling water. Cream the butter, add sugar, and cream all thoroughly. Add yolks, and beat hard; then add the milk, melted chocolate, and gradually the flour. Beat vigorously. Fold in the stiffly beaten whites of eggs, vanilla, and baking powder. Mix quickly and bake in two layers in a moderate oven. Frost with chocolate or caramel frosting. (Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) (271) 272 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 2. White Layer Cake }/2 c. butter 3 c. flour 2 c. sugar 4 egg whites or 1 c. water or milk 2 whole eggs 1 tsp. vanilla 6 tsp. baking powder Method. — Same as for Chocolate Cake. Makes 3 layers. (Basis for 2 girls, x /% rule.) 3. Cooked Frosting 1 c. sugar 1 egg white ]/2 c. water 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Boil sugar and water together without stir- ring until it spins a thread when tested. Pour slowly over stiffly beaten egg white. Beat until it holds its shape when dropped from the spoon. Add flavoring, and spread on the cake. 4. Chocolate Frosting Method. — Add 2 squares melted chocolate to Cooked Frosting. 6. Caramel Filling 2 c. dark brown sugar 14 c. cream 1 c. white sugar l /i c. butter 1 c. hot water Method. — Boil sugar and water together until it ropes; then add the cream and butter and cook 4 or 5 minutes longer. Spread between layers and on top. Good with Spanish Chocolate Cake. 6. Cocoanut Filling Method. — Use uncooked frosting rule, add freshly grated cocoanut, and spread thick between layers and on top. 7. Fig Filling 3^2 lb. figs chopped fine Y /i c. boiling water 14 c. sugar 1 tbsp. lemon juice Method. — Mix ingredients in the order given, and cook in a double boiler until thick enough to spread. Spread ^rhile hot. Figs can be put through a meat chopper. LESSON 20 LOAF CAKES Review proportions for cakes. Review methods of making cakes with and without butter. Review oven tests. Time for baking loaf cakes: 40 to 60 minutes. APPLICATION 1. Gold Cake l /i c. butter 5 egg yolks Yi c. sugar 1 sc. c. flour 34 c. milk \ l A tsp. baking powder 1 tsp. orange extract Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the yolks of eggs beaten until thick and lemon-colored. Mix and sift the baking powder with the flour, add alter- nately with the milk to the butter mixture. Bake 40 to 45 minutes in a deep loaf pan. (Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.) 2. Caramel Cake 1 c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla Y c butter 2 c. flour Yz c. milk 5 egg whites 13/2 tsp. baking powder Method. — Same as any butter cake, folding beaten whites in last. Bake in a shallow loaf cake pan 40 to 45 minutes in a moderate oven. Frost with Caramel Frost- ing (Lesson 19). {Basis for 2, 34 rule.) —18 (273^ 274 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 3, Nut Cakt> 1 Yi c. sugar 1 c. walnuts Y c. butter 4 egg whites y± c. cold water 4 tsp. baking powder 2 c. flour 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Cream butter and sugar, add the cold water, the flour, half of the beaten egg whites, then the nuts cut and floured, the rest of the beaten egg, and lastly the baking powder and the flavoring. Bake in an oblong loaf cake pan for 50 minutes. Frost with white uncooked frosting, {Basis for 2, Y Tide,) 4. Spiced Loaf Cake Y c. butter 2 c. flour 1 c. brown sugar 1 tsp. soda Y c. molasses 1 tsp. cinnamon 2 eggs ^ Y2 tsp. salt % c. raisins Y tsp. cloves Y c. strong coffee Y c. currants Method. — Cream butter and sugar, add the molasses and well beaten eggs. Sift the flour, soda, and spices together, add }/2 the flour to the batter, and then the fruit, which has been cut and floured. Add the coffee, finally the balance of the flour. Bake in a loaf cake pan in a moderate oven for 1 hour. 6. Potato Cake 1 c. butter 2 c. sugar 1 c. almonds Y c. milk or cream 1 tsp. cinnamon Y tsp. cloves Y tsp. nutmeg lYc. flour 2 tsp. baking powder Y cake melted chocolate 1 c. mashed potatoes 4 eggs Method. — Cream butter and sugar, add the fineiv mashed potatoes while warm, then the yolks of eggs well beaten, then the milk or cream, melted chocolate, and spices. Mix and sift the flour and baking powder, cut nuts fine and dredge with flour. Add flour and nuts to the batter, and lastly the whites of the eggs beaten stiff. Bake LOAF CAKES 275 in square loaf cake pan 50 to 60 minutes in a moderate oven. This is a very large cake. Frost with Chocolate Frosting. 6. Fig or Date Cake 1 c. raisins ^ c. butter 1 c. figs or dates 1 c. sugar 1 c. walnuts 2 egg yolks 1 c. boiling water 3 egg whites 1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon 1 tsp. vanilla 2 c. flour yi tsp. allspice and cloves Method. — Look over and chop the raisins, figs, or dates, and pour boiling water (in which has been dissolved the soda) over them. Cream the butter and sugar, add the beaten egg yolks, then the spices and fruit with the water, then the flour, fold in the beaten whites, and add vanilla. Bake 1 hour in a loaf cake pan in a moderate oven. Frost with White Frosting. 7. Eggless Cake 2 c. sugar 1 c. currants 2 c. water 1 tsp. cloves z /i c. lard 1 tsp. allspice 1 c. raisins 1 tsp. nutmeg 1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon 3}/2 c. flour 2 tsp. baking powder 1 c. walnuts 14 tsp. salt Method. — Put the sugar, water, lard, fruit, and spices together in a saucepan and cook for 5 minutes. Let cool a little and then add 1 tsp. soda dissolved in a little hot water. Add the baking powder and salt to the flour and sift the flour into the cooled mixture; add the walnuts; beat well, and bake in a slow oven 45 to 50 minutes. This is a large cake and keeps a long time. LESSON 21 HOT DESSERTS— PUDDINGS Rich desserts are too heavy to use with a hearty dinner and should be used only to form a part of the meal or lunch. For the most part, fruit is best for dessert with a dinner. Methods of Cooking. — Hot desserts are either steamed or baked. Steaming is done in a steamer over boiling water (moist steaming), or in a double boiler (dry steaming). Moist steaming is required for heavy puddings, and for those that contain citron or fruit. Dry steaming is neces- sary for custard, and insures a more even cooking. Steaming is a slow process and requires several hours. Preparation of Materials. — Suet. — Break into small pieces, remove the membranes, and chop on a board. Dredge with flour to prevent suet from being sticky. To Clean Raisins. — Look over and pick out any imper- fect ones and stems. Wash in a strainer set in a bowl of water. Drain, and cut into small pieces. Always dredge with flour before adding to a batter; this prevents the raisins from sticking together. If raisins are not seeded when pur- chased, pour boiling water over a few at a time, drain, and press out seeds clean before cutting up the raisins. To Clean Currants. — Wash currants thoroughly in a strainer in a bowl of warm water. Rub them well and change the water several times until it remains clean and all the grit and fine stems are removed. Drain, and dry between towels. Dredge with flour. Citron. — Cut up citron into small pieces; dredge slightly with flour before adding to a mixture. (276) PUDDINGS m APPLICATION 1. Suet Pudding \ c. suet cut fine 1 y tsp. salt 1 c molasses y tsp. ginger 1 c. milk y 2 tsp. cloves 3 c. flour y 2 tsp. nutmeg 1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon Yz c raisins y c. currants Method. — Mix and sift the dry materials, add the raisins and currants cut fine and floured. Add the molas- ses and milk to the suet. Add wet mixture to dry. Pour in buttered mold, cover, and steam 3 hours. Serve hot with a pudding sauce. (Basis for 2, y rule.) 2. Bread Pudding 2 c. stale bread crumbs 2 eggs 1 qt. scalded milk y tsp. salt y c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla or M c. melted butter y tsp. spice Yz c. raisins \y c . currants Method. — Soak bread crumbs in milk, let cool, add the sugar, butter, eggs slightly beaten, salt and flavoring, and the raisins and currants. Bake 1 hour in a buttered dish in a slow oven as for custards. Do not us. outside crusts. (Basis for 2, y rule.) 3. Queen's Pudding Metliod. — Spread plain Bread Pudding with currant or plum jelly and then add a meringue, as for Lemon Pie. Set in oven to brown. 4. Apple Tapioca 1 c. Pearl or Minute tapioca y 2 tsp. salt 2 c. cold water 8 sour apples 2% c. boiling water y c. sugar Method. — Soak the tapioca in cold water an hour or more, drain, and add the boiling water and salt. Cook in double boiler until transparent. Core, pare, and slice the 278 DOMESTIC SCIENCE apples, put in buttered baking-dish, cover with sugar, then with tapioca. Bake in a moderate oven until the apples are done. Serve with sugar and cream. Minute tapioca does not require soaking. (Basis for 2, l /% rule.) 5. Date Pudding 2 eggs 1 tsp. baking powder 3^2 c. sugar 1 lb. dates 3 hp. tsp. flour 1 c. walnuts 1 c. whipped cream Method. — Beat eggs separately until very light; add sugar to the beaten yolks; cut the dates and walnuts up fine, flour thoroughly, and add to the egg mixture. Fold in lightly the remainder of the flour, the stiffly beaten whites of the eggs, and the baking powder. Bake in a moderate oven Y2 hour, and as soon as taken from the oven pour over it the whipped cream. Serve while hot. 6. Snow Ball Pudding }4, c. butter ^2 c. cornstarch 3^2 c. sugar 3 tsp. baking powder 1 c. flour }/i c. milk 4 eggs (whites) Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar. Sift the dry ingredients three times, add to the butter mixture alternately with the milk to keep an even consistency. Fold in the beaten whites, put all in greased molds, steam 1 hour. Roll in powdered sugar and serve hot with Berry Sauce. Makes 12 cups. 7. Plain Steamed Pudding 1 c. molasses 1 egg 1 c. warm water 23^ c. flour 1 c. chopped raisins 1 tsp. soda Method. — Sift the soda with the flour, clean and chop the raisins, and add the flour. Beat the egg, add the warm water and molasses. Combine wet mixture with HOT DESSERTS 279 dry. Put in buttered molds and steam 2^ hours. This is less expensive than suet pudding. 8. Plain Sauce 1 c. brown sugar 1 tbsp. flour 3 tbsp. butter 1 c. water Method. — Boil all together until thick, like sirup. Add juice of 1 lemon for a sour sauce. (Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.) 9. Berry Sauce Y c. butter 1 egg yolk 13^ c. powdered sugar 1 c. mashed berries Method. — Cream the butter, add sugar and cream, then the beaten egg yolk, and berries. 10. Hard Sauce YL c. butter % tsp. vanilla 1 c. powdered sugar Y tsp. lemon extract Method. — Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, add the vanilla, and work to keep sauce creamy. Beat until light and creamy. Set in ice box to harden. Serve cold. 11. Foamy Sauce Y c. hot milk 2 egg whites 1 c. powdered sugar 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Beat whites stiff and dry, add sugar gradually, beat hard, add the hot milk and vanilla, beat with Dover beater 2 minutes. Serve at once. 12. Chocolate Sauce 1 Y c. water 1 tbsp. cornstarch Y c. sugar Y c. cold water 6 tbsp. grated chocolate Pinch of salt Y tsp. vanilla Method. — Boil sugar and water 4 to 5 minutes to make a sirup. Mix chocolate, starch, and Y^ cup cold water; add the salt, then the hot sirup, and cook 3 minutes. Flavor, and serve hot. LESSON 22 COLD DESSERTS General review. APPLICATION 1. Floating Island 1^5 c. scalding milk Y% tsp. salt 3 eggs (yolks) 3 egg whites % c. sugar 3^ tsp. vanilla Method. — Scald the milk, beat the whites until stiff and dry. Fold in 2 tbsp. sugar, and carefully cook whites in the hot milk 2 or 3 minutes. Remove them with a large spoon to a serving dish. Make a custard of the other ingredients, the same as boiled custard. Cook until it coats the spoon. Remove at once, add the flavoring, and pour around the cooked whites. Serve cold. (Basis for 2 girls, x /$ rule.) 2. Chocolate Cream Pudding 2 c. scalded milk 3^ c. cold milk 5 tbsp. cornstarch 13^ sq. Baker's chocolate l /2 c. sugar 3 tbsp. hot water }/i tsp. salt Whites 3 eggs 1 tsp. vanilla Method. — Mix the cornstarch, sugar, and salt, add the cold milk, stir thoroughly, and then add to the scalded milk. Cook in a double boiler 8 to 10 minutes, stirring constantly until custard thickens. Melt the chocolate in the hot water, stir until smooth, and then add to the mix- ture. Add the stiffly beaten whites and vanilla. Mold, chill, and serve. {Basis for 2, % rule.) (2sn\ COLD DESSERTS 281 3. Prune Whip 2 c prunes ^ c. sugar 2 egg whites 1 tsp. lemon juice Method. — Pick over and wash the prunes well, and let soak several hours in cold water to cover them. Cook in the same water until soft, remove the stones and rub the prunes through a strainer. Add the sugar, and cook 5 minutes to the consistency of marmalade. Beat the whites until stiff, add the prune mixture when cold, together with the lemon juice. Pile lightly in a buttered pudding dish and bake in a slow oven about 15 or 20 minutes. Serve cold with a boiled custard. {Basis for 2 gi^ls, Y% rule.) 4. Cornstarch Pudding 2 tbsp. cornstarch 2 eggs 1 qt. milk 1 tsp. butter 4 tbsp. sugar Pinch salt Method. — Mix the cornstarch with a small amount of milk and stir until a smooth paste. Heat the remainder of the milk in a double boiler. When scalded, add the hot milk to the paste mixture. Add the sugar and salt. Stir till the sugar is dissolved. Then pour slowly into the well beaten eggs. Return to the boiler and cook a few minutes until the mixture thickens, stirring constantly. Cool and add the flavoring, turn into molds, and serve cold with boiled custard, cream, or chocolate sauce. LESSON 23 SANDWICHES Sandwiches form the basis of most lunches, whether it is the simple lunch put up for the school girl or the more elaborate picnic basket. Materials for Sandwiches. — Bread to cut well must be at least a day old, when it makes the best sandwiches. Some delicious sandwiches, however, may be* made with new bread. The kinds of bread used are white, brown, rye, whole wheat, corn or nut bread, or a combination of two or more. The butter, to spread more easily and evenly, must be creamed, as in cake-making. The fillings used determine the kind of sandwich, and a great variety is made from cooked (warm or cold) meat, fish, fresh greens, eggs, nuts, cheese, fruits, pickles, and jellies. Mayonnaise and cooked salad dressings are used to combine many of the materials used for fillings. Shapes. — Sandwiches are made in a variety of shapes and cut very thin. Those made for picnics or a child's lunch are best made of bread cut about }/± inch thick and cut in squares, triangles, oblongs, or circles, with substantial fillings. For afternoon teas, slices of bread are cut not over }/$ inch thick with a sharp knife, and the slices are then cut into different shapes with fancy cutters. The sweet fillings, like jellies and marmalades, are best adapted to serve at small teas. Methods of Making. — Cut the bread for sandwiches with a sharp knife and make all slices of uniform thinness. (282) SANDWICHES 283 Remove the crust of the bread and spread each slice with the creamed butter before cutting. If the sandwiches are to be cut with fancy cutters, it is best to shape before Fig. 40. Sandwiches, showing various shapes. spreading, in order not to waste any butter. Spread half of the number of slices with the filling to be used, and fit the remaining slices on top. To keep sandwiches moist when they are prepared several hours before they are served, wrap them in a damp napkin until ready to use, or wrap them in paraffin paper. Keep in a cool place. Serving. — Serve sandwiches piled neatly on a doily on a plate or basket, garnished with parsley, lemon, celery tips or nasturtium leaves or blossoms. Suggestions for Sandwiches. — Many dainty and deli- cious combinations are possible in sandwiches. The following are suggested : — 284 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 1. Equal parts of finely cut nuts and grated cheese with salad dressing. 2. Equal parts of grated cheese and olives cut fine mixed with mayonnaise. 3. Equal parts of cream cheese and pimento. 4. Ham, veal, or sweet breads sliced thin or minced fine with boiled egg cut fine. 5. Beef or tongue chopped fine with Worcestershire or horseradish sauce. 6. Raisins and nuts chopped fine and moistened with grape juice- 7. Nasturtium blossoms and stems and bread and butter packed in a box over night to perfume the bread. Garnish with fresh blossoms. 8. Crushed maple sugar with thick cream with whole-wheat bread, or nut bread. 9. Marmalade and chopped nuts on white bread or sponge drops. 10. Sardines (split and boned), lemon juice and paprika. 11. Peanuts chopped and salted with salad dressing, with white or wholewheat nut bread. 12. Rye bread, chives, and Swiss cheese. 13. Cut fresh bread while warm, spread with a sweet mixture, roll up and tie with ribbon. 14. Chopped green peppers with mayonnaise dressing. 15. Fresh crisp lettuce with mayonnaise dressing. 16. Cold chicken or lobster, chopped, seasoned, and moistened with lemon juice or salad dressing. 17. Preserved canton ginger in thin slices with plain bread and butter. 18. White bread, cold chicken, lettuce, slice ripe tomato. 19. Alternate about 6 layers of white and graham bread. Use nut or fruit filling and slice across. 20. 3^ CU P- chopped dates, 34 chopped apple, salad dressing; cut in different shapes. Hot Sandwiches 21. Chicken liver with brown sauce and toast. 22. Brown bread, hot fried oysters, and Tartar sauce. 23. Clubhouse, — freshly made toast, lettuce, chicken, and hot bacon with mayonnaise. 24. Caviar, onion juice, lemon juice, with rounds of toast. 25. Combination, — freshly-made toast, chicken, tongue, bacon, fresh tomato and lettuce, with mayonnaise dressing. APPLICATION Demonstrate cutting bread thin and in fancy shapes. SANDWICHES 235 1. Egg Sandwich 12 slices of bread 1 tsp. salt 6 egg yolks, hard-boiled 2 tbsp. melted butter Method. — Mash the hard-boiled yolks through a strainer, season with salt, and moisten with the melted butter to right consistency to spread. Cut and trim the bread to the shape desired, spread half pieces with mixture, cover with the other half of bread. Boiled dressing may be used with the mixture. (Basis for 2 girls, }/§ rule.) 2. Chopped Meat Sandwich Method. — Chop remnants of cold veal, beef, pork, or fowl; put through a meat cutter, moisten with rich meat stock; season with salt, pepper, celery salt and salad dress- ing. Spread on bread. 3. Raw Beef Sandwich Method. — Scrape beef, cut from the round, using a silver fork. Scrape first on one side and then on the other to remove the soft part of the meat. Season with salt and a very small amount of pepper. Spread between thin slices of bread. This may be toasted to a delicate brown on both sides. (Basis for 2 girls, 2 slices of bread.) LESSON 24 FROZEN MIXTURES— ICES Classes of Frozen Mixtures. — There are two general classes of frozen mixtures made in a freezer; namely, ices and ice creams. By varying the ingredients many different varieties may be produced in each class. Ices are frozen mixtures of fruit juice, water, and sugar, with or without eggs. They are named from the kind of fruit juice used for flavoring. Ices include the following frozen mixtures: — 1. Water ice, which is made from fruit juice diluted with water, sweetened, and frozen quite firm. Water ice is served principally with the meat course at dinners. 2. Frappe is a water ice, half frozen and of granular consistency obtained by using an equal quantity of salt and ice in freezing. 3. Punch is a frappe with the addition of wines, fruit, or charged water. 4. Sherbet is made by adding either a little gelatin or the beaten whites of eggs to water ice. When eggs arc used, they are added when the mixture is nearly frozen, and the freezing is continued until the mixture is firm ana will hold its shape when served. 5. Milk sherbet is made by substituting milk for water in water ice. Care must be taken to thoroughly dissolve the sugar in the fruit juice before adding the milk, to pre- vent the mixture from curdling. Sherbets are richer than water ices, and are served for desserts, like ice cream. (286) WtilS hi The Freezing Mixture. — Ice and salt form a freezing mixture. The salt thaws the ice, consuming heat, and makes a brine several degrees below the freezing point. This draws the heat from the contents of the metal can and causes the freezing. The smaller the pieces of ice and the more salt used, the more rapidly the mixture freezes. If too much salt is used, the frozen mixture has a coarse, granular consistency, as in frappe. One part of salt to three parts of ice freezes a smooth, fine-grained cream mix- ture. Equal parts of salt and ice freeze sherbets and water ice to the right consistency. Preparing the Ice. — Pound the ice in a burlap bag with a wooden mallet or an ax until it is in small pieces of about uniform size. Large pieces may interfere with the smooth turning of the freezer. Prepare enough ice to more than fill the freezer, and have plenty to pack the can in until time to serve. The Freezer. — A satisfactory freezer is one that is strongly built, that turns easily, and that is free from rust. If a freezer is not accessible, one may be made from a tin can or pail together with a wooden bucket or tub for the cracked ice. The can must be turned constantly during the freezing process the same as with a freezer. Owing to the absence of a dasher the mixture freezes to the sides of the pail quickly and must be scraped down frequently to insure a more even consistency to the frozen mixture. General Directions for Freezing. — Adjustment. — Scald the can, cover, and dasher of the freezer thoroughly and then chill. Set the can in the tub part of the freezer and adjust the dasher. Pour the mixture into the can, filling it not over three-fourths full, as a mixture expands in freez- ing. Cover the can and adjust the crank. Be sure that the can revolves with the crank. 288 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Packing. — Fill the space around the can with alternate layers of ice and rock salt until the ice comes up nearly to the top of the can. Turn the crank occasionally to make sure the can turns and to pack the ice and salt closely. Freezing. — Turn the crank of the freezer steadily and slowly, so as to expose as much surface to the cold as possi- ble. If the ice melts rapidly, add more ice and salt to keep the bucket well filled above the height of the frozen mixture. The icy brine aids in the freezing and may be left in the freezer, unless it comes up so high that there is danger of its getting into the can. When the freezer turns very hard the mixture is sufficiently frozen. Packing after Freezing. — After the mixture is frozen, draw off the water through a little hole in the side of the bucket. Wipe off the cover of the can to avoid getting any salt inside, and carefully and quickly remove the dasher. Scrape the cream down from the sides of the can and pack down well with a spoon. Put the cover on the can and fit a cork into the hole on top. Pack ice and salt around the can and on the top and throw a heavy piece of carpet or a blanket over it all to keep in the cold and exclude the heat. Frozen mixtures improve by standing at least an hour. Use of Frozen Dishes. — Frozen dishes are for the most part highly nutritious, cooling, refreshing, and attractive desserts that may be used for luncheons, dinners and after- noon or evening entertainments any time of the year. They are especially suitable during hot weather, and are of in- estimable value for invalids. Ices and sherbets are quite often served during a dinner with the heavy meat course. APPLICATION 1. Lemon Ice 4 c. water 2 c. sugar % c. lemon juice Method. — Boil sugar and water to a sirup (about 20 minutes), add lemon juice, cool, strain, and freeze. ICES 289 2. Orange Ice 4 c. water J4 c. lemon juice 2 c. sugar Grated rind of 2 oranges 2 c. orange juice Method. — Same as Lemon Ice; add fruit juice to sirup, cool, strain, and freeze. 3. Orange Milk Sherbet 4 oranges V/i c. sugar 4 lemons 4 pts. milk Method. — Beat orange and lemon juice and sugar to- gether until sugar is dissolved. Add the milk quickly and freeze at once. {Basis for class, full rule.) 4. Three-of-a-Kind Sherbet 3 oranges 3 c. sugar 3 lemons 3 c. water 3 bananas 3 egg whites Method. — Prepare juice from oranges and lemons, mash bananas, put all through a strainer, add the water and sugar, and stir constantly until dissolved. Put into freezer and freeze until the consistency of mush, then open the top carefully and quickly and stir in the egg whites beaten stiff. Repack and finish freezing. (Basis for class, full rule.) 5. Sherbets (with gelatin) 1 tbsp. gelatin 3^ c. boiling water 3^ c. cold water 1 c. sugar Fruit juice 1 c. cold water The fruit juice for this recipe may be any of the follow- ing:— Juice 6 oranges 1 pt. fresh pineapple Juice 6 lemons 1 pt. raspberry or strawberry Method. — Soak the gelatin in 3^ cup cold water 20 min- utes. Add the boiling water, stirring until dissolved. Add the sugar and the rest of the cold water, together with the fruit juice to be used. Freeze as any other ice. —19 LESSON 25 FROZEN MIXTURES— ICE CREAMS Ice creams are mixtures of cream, sugar, and flavoring, and frozen to a firm consistency in a freezer. Being com- posed mainly of cream, they are richer in nutrients than the ices. Ice creams are used extensively for desserts. Classes. — Many variations of ice cream may be made from the same founda- tion, by simply varying the flavoring and by the addition of fruits or nuts. The foundations of all ice creams, however, are of two classes, as follows: — 1. Those made with all cream, sweetened and flavored. 2. Those made with a custard (milk, eggs) and cream, sweetened and flavored. Ice creams made with custards are not as ex- pensive or as rich in food value as those made of all cream, and are commonly spoken of as "plain ice cream." Fruit ice cream is made by adding crushed and sweetened fruit to the foundation rule for ice cream. The amount of sugar to be used depends upon the acidity of the fruit. (290) Fig. 41. Ice cream. ICE CREAMS 291 • Fruits best adapted to ice creams are pineapple, peach, apricot, strawberry, raspberry, cranberry, cherry, currant, and all candied fruits. Nut ice creams are made by adding chopped nuts to an ice cream rule, and any of the following nuts may be used : walnuts, pecans, almonds, filberts, chestnuts, peanuts, and pistachio. Frozen puddings are made with any ice cream rule by adding plenty of fruit, nuts, preserved or candied fruits, or macaroons, etc., together with flavoring, such as maras- chino, and freezing the mixture the same as ice cream. Frozen puddings are sometimes packed in ice and salt for several hours, and are frozen without stirring. Frozen Mixtures Not Stirred. — Some mixtures frozen without stirring are: — Mousse is made of the whip of heavy cream, sweetened, flavored, and packed in a mold in ice and salt (1 part salt, 2 parts ice) for 3 or 4 hours. Parfait is made of cream, sugar, egg yolks, flavoring, w/ith or without the addition of fruit or nuts. The mixture is packed in a mold and set in ice and salt for 2 or 3 hours. Owing to the presence of egg yolks, it does not require as long a time for freezing as mousse. Cream. — The quality of cream depends to some extent upon the animal from which it is derived and the manner of feeding, but largely upon the care given the milk and cream. The fat globules in the milk rise to the top when the milk stands several hours, or they are separated out by putting the fresh milk through a separator. Separator cream may be kept longer, since it is taken from fresh milk, while cream formed by allowing the milk to stand is usually from 12 to 24 hours old. 292 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Cream may be separated thick or thin, and for com- mercial purposes is designated as "thin" and "double" cream, according to its thickness. Thin cream, containing from 18 to 25 per cent fat, may be used for ice cream, with or without a custard foundation. Double cream, usually containing about 40 per cent fat, is very thick, and is best for whipping. This sells for 60 cents a quart, and if used for ice cream must be greatly reduced by milk or the action of the freezer is likely to produce butter. Condensed milk is sometimes used for ice cream, but it must be reduced with water. Custards are mixtures of milk, sugar, flavoring, and eggs. Flour or cornstarch may be substituted as thicken- ing in place of eggs, but requires thorough cooking and does not make as rich a custard. An ice cream with a custard foundation does not require as much cream as one without custard. Custards or any mixture that is frozen requires about twice as much sugar to sweeten as those not frozen. To make fancy shapes or bricks of ice cream, put the molds where they will get ice cold; then put in the ice cream by spoonfuls. Pack the mixture in solidly and fill the molds so full that when the cover is put on every part of the mold is filled. Two or more kinds of ice cream may be combined in one mold by packing them in layers. This makes what is called Neapolitan ice cream. A water ice may also be combined with ice cream in the same way. Cover the mold with oiled paper or wrap with cloth. Pack in salt and ice, using 1 part of salt to 4 parts of ice, and let stand an hour or two. To remove ice cream from the mold, remove the mold from the packing, take off the cover, and let stand a minute or two. Run a knife around the inside of the mold, if it is regular in shape, invert over a serving dish or platter, and ICE CREAMS 293 the cream will slip out. If it does not come out easily, dip the mold into warm water and out at once, or wipe it with a cloth wrung out of hot water. APPLICATION 1. Vanilla Ice Cream (custard foundation^ 2 c. scalded milk 1 egg 1 tsp. flour y % tsp. salt 1 c. sugar 1 qt. thin cream 2 tsp. vanilla Method. — Mix flour, sugar, and salt, add the egg slightly beaten, and then the scalded milk gradually. Cook over hot water in a double boiler for 15 to 20 minutes, stirring constantly at first. Remove from the fire, cool, add the cream and flavoring, strain, and freeze. If custard has a curdled appearance it will disappear in the freezing. Serve with Chocolate Sauce. (See Lesson 21, page 279.) {Basis for class, whole rule.) 2. Vanilla Ice Cream 1 qt. thin cream 1 pinch of salt 1 c. sugar 1 y 2 tsp. vanilla Method. — Add the sugar, salt, and vanilla to the cream, and freeze. 3. Chocolate Ice Cream Vanilla Ice Cream rule plus 4 ©z. bitter chocolate 1 c. water Method. — Boil chocolate and water 5 minutes, and add to vanilla ice cream just before freezing. 4. Caramel Ice Cream Method. — Same as Vanilla Ice Cream, adding 1J^ cup- fuls of caramelized sugar. Then freeze. To caramelize sugar, melt sugar in an omelet pan slowly, stirring constantly until melted and heated to a rich brown color. Then add slowly to hot custard. 294 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 6. Strawberry Ice Cream 3 pts. thin cream 2 c. sugar 2 boxes berries Pinch of salt Method. — Wash and hull the berries, cover with sugar, and let stand 2 hours. Mash, and press through a fine strainer, add the salt and cream, and freeze. Red rasp- berries may be substituted for strawberries. 6. Peppermint Cream 9 sticks red and white peppermint candy 1 quart thin cream. Method. — Heat the cream in a double boiler, put candy in, and let dissolve. This takes some time; when thorough- ly dissolved, freeze. The candy colors, sweetens, and flavors the cream. LESSON 26 FROZEN DESSERTS (Continued) To Whip Cream.— Thoroughly chill the cream before whipping. Put cream into a deep bowl and set bowl in a pan of cracked ice. Add a little water to the ice— it chills the cream more thoroughly. Dilute heavy, double cream about one- third its bulk with milk; undiluted heavy cream will turn to butter if beaten a minute too long. Use a Dover beater or egg whisk to beat with. Cover the top of the bowl with a paper to keep cream from spatter- ing, making a hole in the center for the beater and weighting the corners of the paper under the bowl. A cream whip or churn is suitable for beating thin cream, and is also used in a bowl set in cracked ice. The first whip of cream which appears on the top is filled with large air bubbles, which break easily. This is not good to use. Stir it into the cream and continue beat- ing. When the cream beats up thick, remove the top whip by spoonfuls as fast as it forms and put into a strainer over a bowl. The thin cream drains off and may be put back into the bowl to be whipped. The thick whip is ready for use. Continue until all the cream possible is thick. Cream about trebles its bulk in whipping. A charlotte is a combination of cream and gelatin. APPLICATION 1. Charlotte Russe 1 tbsp. granulated gelatin y z c. powdered sugar M c. cold water $y 2 c . thin cream whip y$ c. scalded cream 1 y 2 tsp. vanilla 6 or 8 lady fingers Method— Soak gelatin in cold water, add scalded cream, (295) 296 DOMESTIC SCIENCE stir until it dissolves, strain into a bowl, add the sugar and flavoring. Set the bowl in ice water, stir constantly until it begins to thicken; then fold in whip from cream, adding about one-third at a time. Line a mold with lady fingers, placing on end side by side Y2 inch apart with the crust side out. Pack the mold with the mixture, and chill. May be made in individual molds. (Basis for 2, }/% rule.) 2. Pineapple or Strawberry Charlottes Method. — Pineapple and strawberry charlottes are made by adding 1 cup pineapple pulp and juice and grated rind of half a lemon, or 2 cups mashed strawberries and more sugar. 3. Bavarian Cream 1 pt. cream (whipped) 1 tsp. vanilla 1 pt. of thin cream or milk Pinch of salt l /2 c. sugar 2 tbsp. granulated gelatin Yolks of 4 eggs Y2 c. water Method. — Whip the pint of cream and set aside to drain. Scald the thin cream or milk, add slowly to beaten egg yolks, add the sugar and salt. Return to fire a moment to set egg, remove as soon as it begins to thicken, add the soaked gela- tin and flavoring. Stir until the gelatin has dissolved and then pour through a sieve. When cold fold in the whip of the cream, turn into a wet mold, and chill. Pineapple or strawberries may be used to vary the flavor and to garnish. Line the mold with large fresh strawber- ries cut in halves, or use the grated pineapple and juice in place of the thin cream. 4. Neapolitan Mousse 1 qt. cream 2 tbsp. granulated gelatin }/2 c. maraschino sirup 4 tbsp. milk ^ c. candied fruit, cut fine 1 sc. c. powdered sugar Method. — Whip the cream, drain in a strainer. Use only whip. Soften the gelatin in the milk, dissolve by set- GOLD DESSERTS 297 ting bowl in boiling water, strain into a bowl, add powdered sugar and flavoring. Fold in the whip from the cream care- fully, and the candied fruit, cut fine and softened in the maraschino sirup. Pack closely in a wet mold, cover tight, bind with buttered cloth. Pack in ice 3 or 4 hours. 5. Maple Parfait 4 eggs 1 pt. cream 1 c. map.e syrup Pinch of salt Metliod. — Cook egg yolks and syrup together and add salt. Cool the mixture. Beat the cream and add to the egg mixture. Add the stiffly beaten egg whites and pack in salt and ice for three hours. 6. Bavarian Cream (without custard foundation^ % c. fruit juice 1 tsp. gelatine y% c. lemon juice 1 tbsp. cold water Y z c. sugar 2 eggs Method. — Mix the fruit juice, lemon juice, and sugar with the egg yolks. Put in a saucepan and cook over a slow fire, stirring constantly until the mixture thickens. Remove from fire, add the soaked gelatine, and pour the mixture over the whites of eggs beaten stiff. Set in a pan of ice and beat until the mixture holds its shape. Turn into one large mold and chill. Any fruit juice may be used. LESSON 27 TABLE SERVICE AND ETIQUETTE The dining room should be a pleasant room located near the kitchen, with a butler's or china pantry adjoining. The butler's pantry is used for serving and for the prepara- tion of salads, bread and butter, cakes, etc. The decorations in the dining room should be pleasing, harmonious, and quiet in tone, as well as simple, and the pictures suitable. The light must be good, yet not too strong, and the temperature about 70° F. The furniture of the dining room includes a china closet, chairs, table, buffets or sideboards, and a serving table. The buffet or sideboard contains the silver and linen, and should always be covered with a white linen cover. The serving table is also covered, and is used for dishes containing food. The table may be round, oblong, or square, according to the shape of the room and the size of the family. It occu- pies the center of the room. The place for the hostess is opposite the pantry door, through which the waitress enters. In this way the hostess can direct the movements of the waitress in case of emergency without attracting the attention of the guests. The chairs are arranged around the table with the front edge of the .seat just touching the cloth. Place only one chair at each end of the table, for host and hostess, opposite each other, and space the chairs evenly for the guests. Table Appointments. — The table is nearly always cov- ered with a tablecloth, but doilies are pretty used on a well- polished table in place of a cloth. (298) TABLE SERVICE 299 A pad or service cloth must be used under a tablecloth next to the table. It deadens the sound and gives the linen a firmer and better appearance, as well as keeps the table from becoming marred. Asbestos pads can be pur- chased to fit the top of the table, or use heavy table felt or Canton flannel. Linens must be absolutely spotless, carefully laundered, and plainly folded. Use pure linen or damask cloths and napkins of as good quality as can be afforded. A coarse linen is better than a mixture of cotton and linen. The best time to buy linens is in January, for the latest patterns and summer bleached linen are imported in December and there is a better selection at that time. Good standard patterns are the best to buy, but most patterns can be du- plicated within two years. The Shamrock, Irish linen, denotes the best qualities obtainable. These are hand woven, and the strict British laws compel the manufactur- ers to state if hand woven on the margin of all linen, and to produce the same measurements for their goods. As a result Irish linens are dependable. Avoid linen that is stiff and that crackles when bent, as it has been starched to give it a better appearance. Good damask has an elastic texture. German linens are very desirable and come in good patterns, but are not as pure white as the Irish linens. Table cloths that come in patterns are more satisfactory than those that come by the yard, and there is but a slight difference in the prices of the two. Napkins to match should be bought with each table- cloth. Avoid extreme sizes. The standard sizes for dinner napkins run from 22 to 27 inches. To Launder Table Linen. — Heavy damask requires no stiffening, and must be ironed while wet. Thin tablecloths 300 DOMESTIC SCIENCE remain fresh longer if slightly stiffened with a very thin starch and ironed quite wet. Avoid many folds in ironing a tablecloth; make one lengthwise through the center and roll the cloth on a roller, or fold carefully without creasing. Napkins are folded perfectly true at the corners and are ironed quite damp. Fold over half way, then over again the same way, then fold end to end, and again to form a square, leaving the corners of the napkin folded out. To spread the tablecloth, put the single crease of the cloth directly in the center of the table, lengthwise, with the fold straight with the table. Crease the cloth slightly around the edge of the table that it may drape smoothly. The cloth should be wide enough to hang over the edges of the table a quarter of a yard. A centerpiece of white linen either embroidered or trimmed with lace, is used in the center of the table. A table reflector, or mirror, may be used as a basis for table decoration. On this place a basket or vase contain- ing flowers or ferns. If flowers or ferns are not accessible, a candelabra or a plant may be used. Avoid too high a basket or vase of flowers. Select flowers free from heavy odors, and those that harmonize with the coloring of the dining room. Dishes and Silver. — Use the best china that can be afforded. White china or china having a delicate design is the best. Never use two kinds for the same course, but different patterns may be used lor different courses. Select good styles, and if only a limited number of dishes can be had, buy from open stock and get dishes that may be used for the greatest number of purposes. Knives and forks should be of medium size and of a simple pattern TABLE SERVICE 301 that cleans easily. Plain silver is harder to take care of than that having a simple pattern. Setting the Table. — A "cover" marks the individual place and includes all the silver for one person. From 20 to 25 inches of length and 15 or 16 inches of depth are allowed for each cover. Plates, silver, and napkins are placed one inch from the edge of the table in the order of service, the silver for the first course being farthest from Fig. 42. The proper arrangement for a cover. the plate. A service plate marks the center of each cover, and is placed on the table at the beginning of a meal. Place the knives to the right of the service plate with the cutting edge turned towards the plate; then place the spoons beside them, in the order of service. The number of pieces depends upon the meal to be served. Place the forks to the left of the service plate, tines up, and the napkin 302 DOMESTIC SCIENCE to the left of the forks, with the corners of the napkin towards the edge of the plate and the lower edge in a straight line with the row of silver and plate. The bread and butter plates are placed at the left, at the top of the forks. Put the butter spreaders on the plates with the handle convenient to the right hand. The tumbler for water place at the right-hand side, at the end of the knives, and the individual salts at the top of the cover in the center. The uniform of a waitress includes a neat, simple wash dress, either black or white, and a plain white apron. A small cap may or may not be worn. A waitress must be neat, quick, careful, quiet, clean, and observing in her work. The duties of a waitress include the care of the dining room and room from which the food is served, also the care of the silver, cut glass, fine china, and linens. She must prepare the salads, butter balls, beverages, and cut the bread. She must keep hot things hot and cold things cold. Styles of Serving. — There are two ways of serving meals: (1) a la russe or Russian style, where only flowers and perhaps dessert are placed on the table at the beginning of the meal. The several courses are served from the side, each person helping himself when the dishes are passed ; or the plates are served in the kitchen and placed before each guest. This style is best adapted to serving large numbers. (2) The English style of serving is used at small dinner parties and in the home. The host carves and serves the meat and vegetables and the hostess serves the soup, salad, dessert, and coffee. Only one course appears on the table at a time. Bread, butter, pickles, and relishes are placed on the tables and passed by the waitress. The waitress also passes the plates and dishes served by the host and hostess. TABLE SERVICE 303 Service without a Maid.— The average home can not afford a maid and many homemakers that can afford one prefer to do their own work. It is quite necessary that every girl should learn to do for herself and be able to assume the duties of cook, hostess and maid, easily and gracefully, whenever she chooses to do so. Entertaining without a maid is more informal and nec- essarily more simple than when a maid is employed, but the charm of any home dinner lies in its being properly planned and served. Successful entertaining in the home depends largely upon the hostess. She should be natural and appear at ease. When her work is well planned, so that she has no anxiety as to the outcome, she can be at ease. She should attempt only simple things at first until she gains con- fidence. Then practice will help her. Rules for serving remain the same for all meals and at both the formal and informal occasions. Where there is no maid to attend to the wants of the guests at the table, much of the table service is performed at the table by the host and hostess and may be done very suc- cessfully and with added hospitality. Rules for Serving without a Maid.— lo Warm all dishes used for hot foods,' and chill all dishes used for cold foods. 2. Fill water tumblers % full, just before guests sit down. Keep the glasses filled. 3. Place butter on butter plates just before guests are seated, replenishing when necessary. 4. Use a round tray covered with a doily for serving and removing dishes. 5. Cut the bread just before serving, so that it will not dry out. Hot breads should be covered with a clean 304 DOMESTIC SCIENCE folded napkin or linen square to keep them hot. 6. Be sure that all the silver is in place at each cover and at the host's and hostess' places for serving. 7. Have all dishes for each course ready for serving. 8. The hostess should put on a small white serving apron before announcing the meal if she must serve. 9. The hostess assigns each guest to his or her chair at table. Guests should take their places quietly. 10. Keep all hot dishes hot by keeping them in the oven with heat reduced 11. Leave nothing cooking which requires the atten- tion of the hostess to make her uneasy. 12. Creamer and sugar with cups and saucers should be arranged on a large tray on the side table ready for the coffee pot. The tray should be set before the hostess at the time to serve the coffee. 13. Some other member of the family may have such duties as filling water glasses and serving vegetables. 14. Remove dishes containing food, one at a time first, in each course, then the soiled plates and silver of each cover in turn. 15. Remove everything pertaining to one course be- fore serving the next. 16. Use a folded napkin and small tray to crumb the table with, if crumbing is desired. 17. Fill finger bowls Yz full of warm water. These should be ready on the serving table before announcing the meal 18. Make the conversation cheerful and interesting at table and one in which all may join. 19. The host and hostess sit at opposite ends of the table. The honor guest, if a woman, sits at the right of the host; if a man, at the right of the hostess. TABLE SERVICE 305 Serving Breakfast without a Maid. — Before breakfast is announced the fruit and cereal courses should be on the table. Fruit may be in one large dish or basket, ready to be passed, or on small plates on the service plate at each cover. The tureen with cereal with individual dishes for serving should be at the hostess' place. Where fruit is handled with the fingers, a finger bowl is necessary. Individual ones may be set at the top of each cover before breakfast is announced, if fruit is on the plates, or on the plates and removed by each guest to the top of cover when fruit is passed and ready for the plate. • When the fruit course is finished, the cereal dish may be set on the service plate and the small fruit plate set above the cover to simplify the service. If preferred, the fruit plates may be passed to the hostess, who puts them on the serving cart or side table by her. When the cereal is finished, dishes from both courses are removed to the kitchen. Bring in dishes of food to be served first and place at the top and side of the host's place. Then plates, in a pile, should be set in front of the host. The coffee service on the tray is moved to the host- ess' place, the bread is brought in, and glasses refilled. The host serves the plates, which are passed down the side of the table — never across. The hostess receives hers first, the guests next in turn. Coffee cups are passed in the same manner. The host- ess may use the cream and sugar for each one, if she knows their particular wants. Serving the Dinner without a Maid. — Dinner without help must be simple and more informal than when help is available. Three courses are usually as much as can be managed successfully and are sufficient for the average dinner. These consist of soup, meat course, and dessert. 306 DOMESTIC SCIENCE If a fourth course is desired for special occasions, either a fruit or fish cocktail may be served preceding the soup course; or a salad course may be served after the meat course. When a salad is served with the three-course dinner, it is a simple one served with the meat course. Before dinner is announced the first course should be Tn the table at each cover. Soup is served in individual dishes set on the service plate and should be very hot when served so that it will not be too cool. Wafers may be served on the side of each soup dish or placed on one plate to be passed. Celery, olives, radishes and any ac- companiment to the course must also be on the table. The service plate is a large plate at each cover upon which the cocktail or soup dishes stand. It remains on the table until the meat course is served, being removed before the dinner plate is placed. For the home dinner it may be removed at the same time the soup plate is removed. The meat platter is brought in first, followed by the vegetable dishes for the main course. The meat is set direct- ly in front of the host at the top of the cover within easy reach. The plates, in a pile, are set in front of him. The platter for the meat must always be large enough to make serving easy. For a large fowl an extra platter or plate may be of assistance in serving. Dressings and carved portions may be laid on it to make more room. If a vegetable is served in small dishes, the hostess or some member of the family may serve it. The vegetable dish and small dishes are placed before the one whose duty it is to serve them. If the salad is served with the meat course, the most attractive way is for the hostess to serve and dress each TABLE SERVICE 307 plate. A large bowl with all the salad materials prettily arranged in separate groups, ready to be assembled on each salad plate, is placed before the hostess, together with the salad plates and dressing materials. The art of arranging the salad at table is soon mastered and adds a bit of charm to the home dinner which any hostess will welcome. The dressing may be served from an attractive bowl or a French dressing may be prepared at the table by the hostess. French dressing bottles are convenient and attractive. Water glasses should be refilled between courses. A second helping may be offered guests at the informal home dinner — never at a formal dinner. Do not insist on guests' taking a second helping, if they decline the first invitation. When the course is finished by everyone the hostess rises and removes the dishes according to rules 14 and 15. Soiled dishes left in the dining room detract from the dessert course. It is always best to remove all dishes of preceding courses from the dining room before serving the dessert. Piling on a side table is not a time saver. One moving of dishes is best. Crumbing is seldom necessary at informal dinners. Desserts are best served at table by the hostess. The large bowl or plate with the dessert and individual dishes are set at the hostess' place — at the right side. The coffee tray service is set in front at the top. The hostess then pours the coffee or tea, as the case may be, and the cream and sugar may be added by her or passed. The dessert is then served. Finger bowls are seldom used for the informal dinner. Serving the Luncheon or Supper without a Maid. — Luncheon or supper depends upon the time of day it is SOS DOMESTIC SCIENCE served. If at noon, it is a luncheon; if at evening, a sup- per. It consists mainly of two courses, a hot dish with bread, beverage, and a simple dessert. If a hearty meal is desired, a cream soup or additional hot dish may be added. The table setting is more simple than for dinner. A small cloth or doilies take the place of the dinner cloth. The hostess serves, if the host is absent. The hot dish usually consists of a left-over, casserole dish of two or more materials. Many attractive combi- nations may be developed. The service may be as dainty and attractive as the hostess desires. Serve omelets or creamed dishes over toast on an at- tractive platter or chop plate. Serve two hot foods on serving platter, one in the center, the other as a border, to economize dishes and lend at- tractiveness, as omelet with white sauce border, or border of peas, bean loaf with tomato sauce. Serve salads at table from attractive salad bowls and arrange individual plates attractively. Serve the hot beverage with the main course. Some member of the family may pour it, if the hostess is busy serving the plates. Have all dishes, food to be served, with beverage tray service on table when meal is announced. Remove dishes of this course before serving dessert course. Desserts are always served at table for informal luncheons or suppers. If a more elaborate meal is desired, a fruit cup or cream soup preceding the main course makes a pleasant addi- tion. This is served in the same manner as at dinner. Service with a Maid. — All rules for serving are prac- tically the same, the main difference being that the host- TABLE SERVICE 309 ess does not leave her place at table during a meal — and the waitress attends to the service of dishes in and out of the dining room and passing dishes to the guests in place of having dishes passed along at table. The maid remains in the dining room while the guests are seated, and until each course is served completely. Dishes which admit of choice as rolls, jelly and olives, are passed by the waitress to the left of each guest in turn. The dish is held low and near the guest. Dishes to be placed on the table, as vegetables, coffee cup, are placed at the right of each guest. Dishes are removed from the right, unless doing so necessitates reaching in front of a guest. The hostess is always served first, the honor guest next. A folded napkin or small tray is used under all dishes carried by the waitress. Fruit courses should be on table as in service without a maid, when the meal is announced. In the main course the waitress stands at the left side of the host when he is serving the plates. As one plate is served the waitress takes it and passes to the right of the hostess. She removes the service plates with the left hand and places the dinner plate with her right. The waitress then returns to the left of the host in time to receive the next plate served. The order of serving guests is always the same, hostess, honor guest, and so on. Bread and rolls are passed by waitress. Salads may be served as a separate course from the pantry. If served at table the waitress places the plates for hostess at each cover. Desserts may be served at table or from the pantry, but the coffee is best served at table. 310 DOMESTIC SCIENCE The formal dinner with a waitress consists of many courses, and is served between the hours of 6 and 8 P. M. The courses consist of (1) Fruit or oyster cocktail, (2) Clear stock soups and relishes, (3) Fish fillet, (4) Entree, (5) Meat course with one or two vegetables and an ice, (6) Salad, wafers, (7) Dessert — sherbet, mousse, cake, (8) Coffee, cheese, nuts or bonbons. Coffee is served clear at the last in small after-dinner cups. If the Russian style of serving prevails, most dishes are served from the pantry and placed in front of each guest by the waitress. The meat course may also be served from the pantry, if many guests are present. Formal luncheons are also served from the pantry by the waitress. Table Etiquette and Hostess Courtesies. — Invitations to dinner or luncheon should be made several days prior to the day of the engagement. An invitation should be accepted or declined as soon after the invitation as possible so that the hostess will know definitely and may plan accordingly. If an invitation is accepted, only cases of illness or very urgent business should prevent keeping the engage- ment. Guests should be prompt in arriving about five to ten minutes before the hour named. To be late for a dinner or luncheon is a very grave offense for which there is seldom an excuse. Courtesy. It shows culture to speak deliberately and quietly and avoid monopolizing the conversation. Try to be interested in the conversation of others. After the dinner or luncheon is over guests should not be too hasty with their departure. To leave too abruptly is discourteous to the hostess. Remain at least half an hour, if necessity demands an early departure. TABLE SERVICE 311 In taking leave of your host and hostess express your pleasure and appreciation of their invitation in a simple but sincere manner. Make all dinner calls within two weeks after the dinner engagement. At the Table. — When invited into the dining room take your place at the back of the chair indicated by the hostess until she gives the sign to be seated. The gentle- men should assist in placing the chairs for the ladies at their right hand. The chairs, if properly placed, need not be pulled out before sitting down. Always sit down, and rise at the left side of your chair. If uncertain what to do at any time during the meal, observe the hostess and do as she does. In opening the napkin, do not lift it above the table, simply draw it off carefully and unfold half way and draw across the lap. If a bread stick or roll is folded in the nap- kin, place it on the service plate, in case there is no bread and butter plate. When the meal is ended simply lay the napkin up at the side of the plate, after the hostess disposes of hers. If a guest for more than one meal, fold the napkin neatly. Sit erect at the table without leaning against the table, and keep the arms off the table. Use of Silver. — Do not handle or play with the silver during the meal, or gesticulate with the knife or fork in speaking. The silver is placed in order of serving with that to be used first at the outer edge of the cover. Remove and use them in this order. In cutting, grasp the handles of the knife and fork firmly with the palm of the hands over each handle. The knife is used only to cut with and to spread the bread. A small knife is often used for spreading butter. 312 DOMESTIC SCIENCE The jor\ is used to hold food in place while cutting with the knife, to carry food to the mouth, and to cut any soft food which does not require a knife. The spoon is used to convey soft food to the mouth; to stir the sugar into a beverage and to test the flavor and temperature. After testing, it should be removed from the cup and placed at the side on the saucer. Never let it remain in the cup. Also drink a beverage from the cup. Usages. — To use the soup" spoon, dip it away from you in filling the bowl and take all food from the side of the spoon, never from the tip. Never put crackers or bread into the soup. Avoid talking when any food is in the mouth. Keep lips closed while masticating food. Eat quietly and chew all food thoroughly. Do not raise food on the fork or spoon while talking. Never scrape dishes or tip soup or dessert dishes to remove the last of the food. Celery, wafers, olives, radishes and salted nuts are eaten from the fingers. yln eating green corn from the cob, break the cob into short lengths and convey to the mouth with one hand only. Oranges and grape fruit are nearly always prepared in the kitchen to make serving easy. Large fruits, as apples, peaches and pears may be pared and cut in sections at the table and small fruits, as cherries, plums, grapes and berries on stems are conveyed to the mouth with the fingers. In passing dishes take care not to let the fingers get over the edge of the dish. Use the handles when passing creamer and sugar bowl. TABLE SERVICE 313 If you do not care for any food served, simply leave it on the plate untouched without any comment to draw attention to it. Be careful about taking too hot food in the mouth. Wait until it cools. Drink slowly and raise the glass with the right hand. ^To use the finger bowl, dip the tips of the fingers of first one hand then the other lightly in the water and dry them on the napkin. A second helping of food may be taken at the informal dinner if the host offers it but at the formal dinner the second helping is not offered. In offering to serve any one or pass anything simply say, "May I help you?" or "Let me give you." The personal appearance of hair, hands and dress must always be neat and clean before appearing at table. A man should never appear at table in his shirt sleeves. True politeness should be the real guide for table etiquette and an unselfish thought for others means good manners at all times. APPLICATION 1. Demonstrate kinds of linen and methods of fold- ing. 2. Demonstrate placing a cover, setting a table for first course for breakfast and first course for dinner. 3. Practice serving, students taking part of waitress, of hostess and of host. 4. Give examples of table etiquette. LESSON 28 DIETARIES— PLANNING MENUS Some Points to Consider in Selecting Food. — In the planning of the meals, it is necessary to consider many things besides just the dishes that are to be served. The kinds, cost, and amount of nutrients contained in each dish must be carefully considered, together with the number, sex, age, and occupation of the persons for whom the food is provided. All persons must have protein for the building and repair of body tissue, and fuel material for warmth and work. Individuals differ in the amounts and propor- tions they require, and even among those who are in good health there are many who are obliged to avoid certain kinds of food. For guidance in the selection of food, nature provides us with instinct and taste, but we are apt to be influenced too much by taste and to overlook instinct and experience. We need also to acquire the knowledge of foods that science has made possible through the laboratory. When more food is eaten than is needed, the digestive organs are over- taxed or injured and much energy is wasted which might have been used to better account. Food Requirements for Different Conditions. — Propor- tions vary greatly in the amount of nutrients required by persons of various age, sex, and activity. A young child needs less food than an older one, a man more than a woman, and all require more when at work than when at rest. The following table shows the comparative food requirements (314) PLANNING MENUS 315 of persons of different ages and occupations as compared with the needs of a man in full vigor at moderate work. Proportionate Food Requirements for Different Conditions Man, full vigor, at moderate work inn Man, full vigor, at hard work. 1 90 Man, full vigor, at sedentary work Woman, full vigor, at moderate wc Woman, full vigor, at hard labor. . . . Woman, full vigor, at sedentary labor. 7n 80 Man or woman, old age . . . Man or woman, extreme old age ... . " hc\ V^ so Boy, 15-16 years old on Boy, 13-14 years old ' ™ Boy, 12-13 years old '" 5)J Boy, 10-11 years old ^ Girl, 15-16 years old " " Sx Girl, 13-14 years old SX Girl, 10-12 years old " vi Child, 6- 9 years old Sx Child, 2- 5 years old ^0 Child, under 2 years old 30 These figures illustrate the fact that there is an increase in food consumption from infancy until full vigor and that there is a decrease in old age. They also show that the amount of muscular work performed greatly affects the food requirement. Climate and season are other factors to be considered. In winter the energy requirement per day is greater by about 800 calories than in summer. Heat Value of Food.— A calorie* is the unit of measure in determining quantity of heat. It is used in designating the fuel value of a food, or the amount of heat that a given quantity of the food will produce in -the body. 1 pound of protein yields 1820 calories. 1 pound of carbohydrates yields 1820 calories. 1 pound of fat yields 4084 calories, or 2J4 times as many calories as carbohydrates. 1 calorie 6 heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 4°F. equale —20 316 DOMESTIC SCIENCE The standard requirement per day has been estimated as follows: — Man at light work 2450 to 2800 calories Man at moderate muscular work 2800 to 3150 calories Man at hard muscular work 3150 to 4200 calories Man at rest 2100 to 2450 calories A woman, .8 as much as a man Since protein foods are indispensable in the building of muscular tissue, fats and carbohydrates should be sup- plied in the right proportion and quantity, so that the proteins will not be utilized as fuel. Fats and carbohy- drates are more abundant and cheaper foods for fuel, and when oxidized leave waste substances that are easily elim- inated from the body. Protein consumed for energy leaves a nitrogenous waste which necessitates additional work on the part of the excretory organs. The approximate energy requirement of an average size man: When sleeping, is .4 calorie per pound per hour. When sitting, .6 calorie per pound per hour. At moderate exercise 1.0 calorie per pound per hour. At active exercise 2.0 calories per pound per hour. At severe exercise 3.0 per pound per hour. The Approximate Energy Requirement of a Child During Growth. Age Calories per pound per day Total calories per day First year 45 45-40 40-36 36-30 30-27 27-20 i 900 1-2 years 1200- 900 3-5 years 1500-1200 *6-9 years 2000-1400 10-13 years 2200-1800 14-17 years 3000-2200 PLANNING MENUS 317 A diet, moderate in the amount of protein but consisting of plenty of fuel foods, is much the best for growth. Ten to fifteen calories in every hundred is sufficient to be de- rived from protein. A family requiring 12,000 calories per day should have 1,200 as the protein calories. The kind of protein food to be selected is also of great importance. The protein material should be varied in order to secure the different kinds needed for maintenance, growth and activity. Less meat should be used and the protein sup- plied by such foods as eggs, cheese, legumes, and whole wheat breads and cereals. Milk, being rich in calcium, is very essential to the growing child and should be used freely in the diet. The nutritive ratio of foods is the proper ratio in which digestible protein should be taken in relation to the diges- tible fats and carbohydrates, so as to secure a diet which will produce the greatest efficiency at the least cost and waste. The nutritive ratio has been estimated by Atwater to be 1:63^, or 1 part protein to 6J^ parts carbohydrates. The best proportion of fat to carbohydrates is 1:2J^; that is, 2J^ times as much carbohydrates as fat. Ash Constituents. In addition to the consideration of the number of calories supplied the body by the proteins, carbohydrates and fats, the ash requirement is important in planning the dietary. The ash which exists in the body consists mainly of phosphorus, iron, calcium, potassium, sodium, sulphur, magnesium and chlorine. All these mineral substances are necessary for the proper growth of the body, although no definite proportion of ash in the diet is required; but ash supplying foods must be freely used. The following list of foods rich in ash material is given as an aid in menu planning. 318 DOMESTIC SCIENCE PRINCIPAL ASH CONSTITUENTS OF FOODS In the approximate order of their proportions Iron Calcium Phosphorus Fruits Fruits Fruits Strawberries Strawberries Raspberries Grapes Lemons Strawberries Lemons Oranges Grapes Dates Raspberries Peaches Raisins Figs Figs Figs Currants Prunes Cherries Vegetables Vegetables Vegetables Spinach Cauliflower Spinach Lettuce Celery Celery Asparagus Spinach Lettuce Beans — string Lettuce Cauliflower Cabbage Rhubarb Cucumbers Celery Turnips Asparagus Radishes Cabbage Rhubarb Peas Beans — string Radishes Carrots Asparagus Turnips Potatoes Radishes Parsnips Nuts Nuts Nuts Peanuts Almonds Peanuts Chestnuts Almonds Walnuts Cereals Cereals Cereals Wheat flour, Graham Oatmeal Wheat flour, Grah'm Oatmeal Bread, Graham Rye flour Bread-Whole wheat Bread-Whole wheat Oatmeal Wheat flour-white Bread — white Bread — whole wheat Barley, pearled Barley, pearled Meats Meats Meats Beef, lean Frog's flesh Frog's flesh Ham Veal, lean Beef, lean Beef, lean Veal, lean Chicken Chicken Ham Fish Fish Fish Salmon Pike Cod Cod Herring Pike Halibut Haddock Haddock PLANNING MENUS 319 Dairy Products Dairy Products Dairy Products Milk Buttermilk Buttermilk Cheese Cheese Milk Milk Eggs Eggs Eggs Yolk- Yolk Yolk Whole Whole Whole From these tables various diets may also be arranged depending upon the particular case or the patient. For example, the anaemic patient would have a diet selected mainly from the foods containing iron and blood forming properties such as the following type of meal : Menu Spinach Soup Crackers Beefsteak Creamed Carrots Graham Bread and Butter Lettuce Salad Prune Whip Oatmeal Cookies In order to obtain a working basis for the comparison of foods in menu making, a common unit of foods is neces- sary. For this purpose the Standard Portion, which is the amount of each food which yields 100 calories of energy in the body has been established. For the proper working out of dietaries it is best to know what the standard portions or 100 calorie portions of many of the common foods are. Balanced meals come logically and easily when one thinks in 100 calorie portions, as, for example, 100 calories as one banana, or % glass of milk, etc., instead of 100 calories of banana as 5 ounces. Dietaries are made for an entire day or week, since it is not practical or necessary to have each meal balance. In some cases several days may not average up, but at least every week should meet the standard requirement. 320 DOMESTIC SCIENCE TABLE OF APPROXIMATE 100 CALORIE PORTIONS 100 Calories Approx. Cost to be Foods Approx. Meas. Wt. in No. of Cal. worked out oz. from Pro- by Stu- tein dents Berries Blackberries Y. c. Blueberries Y c. Cranberries V% c. Currants Yz c. Strawberries % c. Beverages Cocoa IVi tbsp. Chocolate Yz sq. Breads Biscuits 1 Boston brown 1 slice Graham bread 2 slices Graham crackers .... 2 Rolls 3 Rye bread 1 large slice Soda crackers 2 Toast, white 2 small or 1 large White bread 2 slices Y* thick Whole wheat 2 slices Cake Chocolate layer 1 medium slice Cookies 2 medium Doughnuts Y Fruit Cake 1 small slice Gingerbread 1 serving Macaroons 2 Sponge 2 pieces Cereals Cornmeal, uncooked.. 3 tbsp. Cornflakes Y c - Cream of wheat Yi c. Hominy 3 tbsp. Macaroni, uncooked.. 4 sticks Rice, uncooked 2 tbsp. Rolled oats, uncooked 1 tbsp. Shredded wheat 1 biscuit Cheese American 1 Yi in. cubes Cheddar 13^ in. cubes Cottage Yi c Swiss YYl in- cubes 6 4 7.5 6 9 .7 .5 2 1.5 1.5 .75 1.5 1.5 .75 .8 1.5 1.4 .75 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .75 .75 3.25 .8 9 3 3 10 10 17 8 14 9 14 10 14 14 10 10 14 15.9 7 6 6 6 6 6.1 6 10 10 10 9.2 15 9.2 16 12 25 24 76 25.5 PLANNING MENUS 321 Foods 100 Calories Approx. Meas. Desserts Apple Pie 1/12 of pie Cornstarch pudding. . 3^ c. Chocolate cornstarch . 1 serving Custard pie 1/12 of pie Gelatine jelly 4 tbsp. Lemon pie 1/12 of pie Mince pie 1/16 of pie Plain ice cream 1 serving Pumpkin pie 1/12 of pie Eggs 2 small Fats Butter 1 tbsp. Cottonseed 1 tbsp. Lard 1 tbsp. Oleomargerine 1 tbsp. Olive oil 1 tbsp. Fish Bass 1 serving Codfish }i c. Halibut steak 1 serving Herring, smoked 1 whole Lobster 1 serving Oysters 5 medium size Salmon 1 serving White fish 1 serving Flour Cornmeal 3 tbsp. Buckwheat 3 tbsp. Graham 3 tbsp. Rye 3 tbsp. Wheat 3 tbsp. Whole wheat 3 tbsp. Fruits Apples 2 medium Apples, dried 4 Apricots, dried 2 Bananas 1 Berries, (see list) Dates 4 Figs, dried 1 Lemons 3 Oranges 1 large Olives 7 Approx. Cost to be Wt. in No.of Cal. worked out oz. from by Stu- Protein dents .25 ,5 5 2 75 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2.3 .5 .5 .5 .5 .5 4 7 3 1.25 4.25 4.9 1.5 2.3 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1.25 6.2 3.5 4 11 15 10 98. 5. 8 10 8 36 8 80 90 61.2 54 86 48.5 38 58 10 7.5 15 8 12 15 2.7 3 7.8 5.1 1.25 1.1 4 8 1.4 3 5.2 5 9 2 322 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Foods 100 Calories Approx. Meas. FRUITS— (Continued) Peaches, fresh 2 medium size Peaches, canned 1 serving Pears . . . : 3 Pineapple, fresh 5 slices Pineapple, canned 1 serving Prunes 4 Raisins 2 tbsp. Rhubarb, cooked. . . .3}^ c. Meats Bacon 1 slice Beef, corned 1 serving Beef, dried 4 slices Beef, round, lean .... 1 serving Beef roast ." 1 serving Beef sirloin 1 serving Beef porterhouse 1 small steak Beef rump roast 1 serving Chicken, young 1 serving Ham, fresh 1 serving Ham, smoked 1 serving Lamb, chops 1 small Lamb roast, leg I serving Pork, chops 1 small Pork, tenderloin 1 serving Pork sausage 1 small Turkey 1 serving Veal, chops 1 chop Veal, roast 1 serving (All servings are of Milk Buttermilk V/ 2 c. Condensed 1 c. Cream, 20% \i c. Skimmed milk 1 c. Whole milk % Co Nuts Almonds 1 doz. Brazil nuts ^c. Chestnuts 1 doz. Cocoanut, grated .... 2 tbsp. Peanuts, shelled 1 tbsp. Pecans 1 tbsp. Walnuts Yi doz. Approx. Cost to be Wt. in No.ofCal. worked out oz. from by Protein Students 8 6 7 6 6.2 6 8.1 3 2.25 4 1.25 3 1 3 15 3 .5 1.5 21 2 67 2.25 60 2 43 1.5 31 1.3 33 1.5 40 3.3 7. 1.1 19 1.3 30 1 24 1.5 38 1.4 21 1.75 39 .75 12 1.2 27 2.3 52 2.3 50 average size) 9.8 32 2 12 1.75 5 9.5 36 5 19 .5 12. .5 13 1.4 9 .5 4 .7 19 .5 10 .5 10 PLANNING MENUS 323 Foods 100 Calories Approx. Meas. Soups Celery 1 serving Corn 1 serving Pea 1 serving Cream of tomato .... 2 servings Vegetable 2 large servings Sugars, Syrups Loaf sugar 3 lumps Granulated sugar .... 2 tbsp. Powdered sugar 6 tsp. Maple syrup ^c. Molasses 2 tbsp. Honey 2 tbsp. Vegetables Asparagus, fresh .... 1 doz. stalks Beans, baked ^c. Beans, dried 3^ c. Beans, string 4 large servings Beans, lima 1 serving Cabbage 2 large servings Carrots 2 Celery 1 bunch Corn, canned 1 serving Corn, green 1 ear Cucumbers 2 Lettuce 2 large servings Onions 3 small Parsnips 1 Peas, canned 2 servings Peas, fresh 1 large serving Peas, dried 2 tbsp. Potatoes, white 1 medium size Potatoes, sweet 1 small Pumpkin, cooked .... 1 c. Radishes 1 doz. Spinach 3 servings Succotash 1 serving Tomatoes, canned.. . . 1% c. Tomatoes, fresh 1 large Turnips 2 after cooking Approx. Cost to be Wt. in No. of Cal. worked out oz. from by Protein Students 6.4 3.2 7 9 25.8 .9 .9 .9 25 7.5 2.75 1 11.2 4.5 11.25 7.75 19 3.5 3.5 20.3 18.5 7.25 .25 .5 .5 .25 .5 5. 6. 3. 1 4. 2. 13 12 14.75 3.5 15.6 15.5 9 15.3 12 27 15 85 3 .2 18 21.2 25.5 21.3 21 20 9.8 24 12 12 18 24 13 10 26 28 27 11 5.5 15.5 17.9 35 14.5 21 15.8 13 Finished dietaries should always be tested for the balanced ra- tion. The test to apply being 1. Does it contain the fuel value? 2. Is there a good distribution of protein, fat and carbohydrates? 324 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 3. Is the distribution of concentrated with dilute foods good? 4. Is the approximate cost moderate or low? 5. Is there a good supply of ash materials? 6. Is there a balance of acid and base forming material? TYPICAL BALANCED MENU For a laboring man for one day Food Amount Calories Cost Breakfast Oatmeal 1 c. 250 $.01 Sugar 2 tbsp. 50 .002 Milk %c. 100 .02 Banana 1 100 .015 Bacon 4 slices 150 .03 Milk 1 glass 150 .025 Graham gem 2 200 .02 Oleo 1 tbsp. 100 .005 1,100 $.127 Dinner Beef stew Beef H 200 .05 Carrot 1 100 .005 Onion 1 100 .005 Potato \y 2 150 .01 Flour 2 tbsp. 100 .002 Fat 2 tbsp. 200 .003 Bread 3 slices 150 .01 Apple pie 1 piece 200 .02 Coffee 1 c. .008 Milk.... 2 tbsp. 25 .005 1,225 $.118 Supper Baked beans 1 c. 250 $.015 Rye bread 2 large slices 200 .01 Oleo 1 tbsp. 100 .005 Prunes M c. 200 .02 Doughnut 1 200 .02 950 $.07 1,100 1,225 950 $.127 .118 .07 Total for day 3,275 $.315 PLANNING MENUS 325 Standard dietaries can be worked out from any table of food materials (as given in Farmers' Bulletin 142, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture) showing the percen- tage of nutrients and calorie equivalents, by keeping in mind the relation of protein to carbohydrates plus the fat reduced to carbohydrate values. Substitution of one food for another will be necessary to keep the nutritive ratio correct, and with a little practice and experience in working out a few dietaries, one obtains a better knowledge of food compositions than in any other way. Dietaries are made for an entire day or week, since it is not practical or necessary to have each meal balance. In some cases several days may not average up, but at least every week should meet the standard requirement. APPLICATION 1. Work out dietaries for school girl, at 15c, 25c and 35c a day. 2. Girls work out and demonstrate with materials 100 calorie portion of different foods. 3. Plan dietary for family of five at $1.50 per day, where the wage earner gets $4.50 to $6.00 per day. 4. Calculate your own energy requirement, also your father's. 5. Plan a day's dietary for yourself, and one for your father. LESSON 29. MENU BUILDING To plan a daily menu which will provide the kind and amount of food required by each member of the fam- ily is the most important part of the housewife's duties, and requires much time, thought and a knowledge of foods. To plan for the day's meals as a unit or even a week at a time is much better than to plan for each separate meal. The menu builder must have a general idea of the classes of food and the specific functions of food in the body, to- gether with a knowledge of the food and energy require- ments of each member of her family. All five of the food classes should be represented in the diet in at least two meals each day and, if there is not the proper balance of food in a day's menu, it should be righted the second day. Menus should contain, in addition to the proper bal- ance of the food classes, foods supplying the mineral sub- stances; iron, phosphate and calcium, which play an important role in the body, together with those which furnish bulk, as coarse breads and the cellulose of green vegetables. Factors Governing Meal Plans. — The first things to determine are the types of menu plans which fit the require- ments of the family. Age and occupation are the chief factors governing the type of menu, although season, nationality and condition of health also must have con- sideration. If several children of varying ages need to be provided for, milk and eggs must have a generous place in their diet, on account of the mineral and protein material which is present in very desirable form for growth. Old persons require much the same food materials as children. (326) MEN U B UILDING 327 Adults leading an active life must have more hearty foods and meals than those of sedentary occupation and a man more than a woman. Climate and season require a change in food plans. In cold weather more energy-giving foods and those which necessitate greater digestive activity may be used. Such foods as pork, baked beans, rich pastry, sausage, hot breads, and plum puddings may be served to adults in cold cli- mates and during the winter months with no apparent difficulty in digestion or ill results, while it would be almost criminal to serve them during hot weather. Foods easy of digestion, as fresh fruit and green crisp vegetables, that serve to cool the body, lean meat, and meat substi- tutes should prevail during the hot summer days. Too frequent and rapid drinking of ice-cold beverages, as well as eating ices and all frozen dishes rapidly, is harm- ful, since they chill the digestive organs and retard the digestive action. It would be impossible to plan set diets for every one of the same age and occupation, since nationality and food habits of the family must be considered. A very pleasing food combination or dish for one family may not please an- other one in the same block. Food habits of children are easily formed and right habits are just as easy to establish as wrong ones, if the menu builder will plan wisely and never let exceptions occur. Where poor health and disease require special diets these must be planned separately in severe cases. In mild cases, simply providing some foods in the menu which are easy of digestion and especially suited to the needs of the patient in the case of adults would be all that would be necessary and the patient may omit such foods as would be harmful. 328 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Digestion must always be considered as a part of any meal plan. Foods of varying nature, such as liquid and solid, easy or difficult of digestion, should make up the menu, in order to gain the best results, and not place too much work upon any of the digestive organs. It is a poorly planned menu which offers two foods difficult of digestion in one day. One is a sufficient tax on the digestive organs. Such foods may be distributed along in a week's plan and not be harmful. These foods comprise the fatty foods, fried foods and concentrated food, such as cheese. The flavor, color, texture and manner of serving a food have much to do with the interest and appetite. Never serve a meal lacking in color, flavoring, or variety no mat- ter how well balanced it may be, but avoid serving two dishes of the same flavor in the same meal, as pea soup, creamed peas, or tomato salad and tomato soup. Courses should contrast in flavor, a mild course being followed by one more pronounced. Strong seasonings which destroy natural food flavors are harmful. Bread, butter and milk may be served in the same form each day. The bread may be changed easily, but no other food should be served in the same form twice the same day. Several foods which do not harmonize in color may easi- ly spoil the whole appearance of the meal, such as carrots, and tomatoes. Only natural colorings, such as green pep- per, parsley, tomatoes, pimentos, grated egg yolks, and orange rind should be used to form a color scheme. The artificial colors are seldom necessary. Center pieces of simple flowers in a pretty vase or basket, or fruit, may be used for a color effect. Garnishes should be simple and edible. Too lavish a garnish is worse than none. MEN U B UILDING 329 The texture of dishes should vary, that is, do not serve two creamed dishes in one course. Courses should vary in texture also. A liquid course like soup should be fol- lowed by a solid food. Many combinations of food are quite generally used, which bring out a pleasing contrast in flavor and texture. Chief among those commonly used are crackers with soup, cranberry sauce with fowl, wafers with cheese, apple sauce with pork. The manner of serving a food should always be simple, dainty, attractive, varied. To always serve a food in the same dish becomes monotonous. Keen interest may be maintained in simple common foods with a little change in service. Perfectly fresh linen and dishes are great assets in proper table service. Where seasons are short of fruit and vegetables, it is necessary to make frequent use of them in the diet. Var- iety may be obtained by preparing them in different ways. Use of seasonable food is a great aid in reducing the cost of meals. Dried fruits are high in food values and also aid in reducing cost, but often fail to appeal to the appetite in preparation. Many attractive methods of serving them should be used instead of always stewing. Variety is very desirable in meals, but too much at one time makes it more difficult to plan for the future. Dishes which are especial favorites with the family may be re- peated more often than others but they should not be served too often; for few dishes will withstand such a test. Never repeat a week's menus, or have regular days for a dish. It is much more interesting for the family to wonder "what we will have for dinner," than to know "this is the day for pork or meat substitute." An entirely new dish or combination of dishes occa- sionally is welcome. 330 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Rules for Building Menus. Serve some food from each class of food each meal. Serve whole milk, eggs, and fresh vegetables every day of the year if possible. Include in each meal the foods which are needed by each member of the family. Serve easily digested foods for children and old people. Serve the hearty energy food for active adults. Simple, well cooked foods are better than elaborate dishes. Serve a few dishes at one meal and see that no one food class predominates at a meal. For example, potatoes and rice are both starchy foods and nearly equivalent. One is sufficient at a meal. Macaroni and cheese and meat are protein and should not be served at the same time, or fried foods with rich whipped cream desserts or oil salads, which all represent the fatty class. Carbohydrate foods should have both starches and sugar well represented with more starch than sugar. Remember that many foods contain more than one class of foods and are valuable in several ways. For ex- ample, milk furnishes fat and sugar in addition to protein. Eggs furnish fat and minerals in convenient form as well as protein. There is no connection between nutritive value and price of food. One must learn to think of nutritive value when planning menus. Some of the foods richest in nu- trients are low in price, but a low price does not always signify food value. The best way to reduce cost of menus is by substitute foods of equal value but of less cost. Foods which stimulate digestive organs should come first in a meal, as fruit for breakfast and soup for dinner There should be at least one hot dish in each meal. Arrange preparation of meals to save time and fuel. MENU BUILDING 331 Use the oven for several things at one time. Never plan a roast without using the oven for the preparation of vegetables, dessert for next day's lunch or supper all at the same time. Cold desserts should be made in the early morning before washing breakfast dishes. Much of the dinner arrangements may be made ready early in the day, vege- tables made ready and desserts and soup prepared. Plan ahead for left-overs from one day to provide lunch material the day or two days after. Use a fireless cooker for long slow cooking processes, as for cooking cereals. Foundation Menus. — Foundation menus suggesting types of menus for breakfast, lunch and dinner suitable for persons with varying muscular activity have been found to be of great assistance to the menu builder. The first is suited to persons of sedentary habits and gradually increases for those of greater muscular activity. Breakfast: I II III IV Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit Bread Cereal Cereal Cereal Beverage Bread Eggs Meat Beverage Bread Another hot Beverage dish Bread Beverage Lunch or Supper: I II III IV Hot dish of Hot dish or Soup Soup soup or meat sub- stitute. Bread Beveage salad Bread Simple des- sert Beverage Hot dish or salad Bread Dessert Beverage Two hot dishes Bread Dessert Beverage 332 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Dinner: I II III Meat Soup Soup Vegetable Meat Meat Bread Vegetable Two vege Dessert Bread tables Beverage Dessert Bread Beverage Dessert Beverage IV Soup Meat Two vegetables Salad Bread Dessert Beverage Dinner. — Dinner is the heartiest meal of the day and usually contains food in some form representing each of the five food classes. In planning the menus for a day the dinner plan should be considered first. This then is fol- lowed by the breakfast the next day and the lunch. This provides a working plan from one morning to another, and, if help is employed, sufficient directions may be given one morning to suffice until the next. When unexpected guests arrive but little adjusting of the plan is required except perhaps an addition of a vege- table or a simple salad or entree. The meat dish is the basis of the dinner plan and must be decided first. This decided, the vegetables which ac- company the meat selected may be planned for, followed by the soup and dessert. The menu charts on pages 338-341 are aids in selecting the accompaniments to the meat dish. Choice cuts of meat are expensive and should be used in moderation. Cheap cuts which supply more nutriment for less cost may be prepared in many ways and serve the same purpose as expensive cuts. On account of the longer time required it is best to cook such meats in water or steam. Some persons find they are better when meat is served only three or four times a week; others require it at least MENU BUILDING 333 once every day, but only active workers should have it more than once a day. In the light dinner menus for sedentary individuals, light meats, as beef, lamb, poultry, are better than too much fat meat and pork. Active workers can use more of the heavy meat dishes in cold weather, but too much pork is never good.. Most any of the cuts of meat are adapted to the dinner menu and there are endless ways of preparation. Beef is the standard meat and furnishes more food value, along with mutton, than any other meat. Fowl and fish are easier of digestion and make pleasing additions to the diet. Meat substitute dishes take the place of meat in any menu and should never be served at the same time with meat. The vegetable which is commonly used is white po- tato in the North and rice or sweet potato in the South. Rice, hominy and macaroni used occasionally in place of white potato make a good variety, but should not be used at the same time with white potatoes. Plenty of fresh fruit and vegetable should be served also to make up for the lack of mineral salts furnished by potatoes. When two vegetables are served, never serve sweet potatoes with white potatoes. Select one fresh succulent vegetable, if possible. There is no better way of introducing mineral salts, vitamines and bulk in our food than with fresh vegetables every day. Where season and market prohibits the use of fresh ones, canned or dried may be used. Two of the same class and nature, as peas and beans, should never be served at the same time. Neither should two creamed vegetables appears at one meal. One creamed, one baked is better. In the foundation menus Dinner I contains only potato 334 DOMESTIC SCIENCE with meat. Dinners III and IV have additional vegetables. The selection of these depends mainly upon the meat selected. If a heavy meat is served, a light vegetable ac- companies it and vice versa. Compare beef-pork charts, page 340. The soup at dinner serves to stimulate the digestive organs rather than to furnish any food value. This should be well seasoned and hot, and free from fat. Many soup accessories are served, such as crackers, croutons, bread sticks, etc Stock soups, as consomme, bouillon, vegetable, with meat as their basis, are best for dinner. These may be made of many combinations of beef, fowl, and vegetable. A vegetable soup without meat is also good. The cream soups, as pea, bean, lentil, are not suitable for dinner, as their food value is very high. These make excellent lunch- eon soups, when protein material is lacking and the other dishes of the meal are lighter. Salads for dinner should consist of only fresh vegetables or fruits with crisp salad greens (lettuce, endive) served with a good dressing. Heavy salads of meat, fish and egg should furnish a main dish at luncheon or supper. Desserts for dinner should be light puddings, fruit or ices, depending on the nature of the meat and vegetable courses. If these are heavy, then a very light dessert, simple fruit or ice is better. If the meat dish is a substi- tute dish, then one of the egg puddings, as custard, or a heavier dessert may be chosen. Desserts which require little preparation, as fresh or canned fruit, aid in lessening the work where other household cares are nec- essarily heavy, and are better than rich pastries. Breakfast. — This meal contains more of the bread and cereal foods with a little fat and sugar, increased in protein MEN U B UILDING 335 by the addition of eggs, milk and meat as the activity increases. The fruit may be fresh, canned or stewed dried fruit. Fresh fruit in season may be replaced in winter by canned or dried. Serving dried fruit too often becomes tiresome. Alternate with fresh and canned fruit. Fruit canned with little sugar is better than with too heavy a syrup, which frequently interferes with digestion. Cereals may be either cooked or the prepared varieties. The cooked cereals, requiring long slow cooking, such as rolled oats, Cream of Wheat, and hominy, are preferable in the heavy diets and furnish heat and energy food for cold weather, and are the only cereal foods for children. Very little sugar should be used on the cereal, as it is a carbohydrate food requiring sugar only to give it a sweet flavor. Too much sugar on food puts added work on the organs of elimination and causes ill results in many chil- dren. Meat substitutes for breakfast consist chiefly of eggs served in various ways, but, preferably poached, soft-cooked, shirred or in an omelet. See chapter on eggs. Breakfast meats consist of bacon, sausage, creamed fish and liver. Meat and meat substitutes are not used in a light breakfast for persons of sedentary habits, but are necessary in the diet of the active worker where a hearty breakfast should always be eaten. Breakfast breads are more varied than the bread at any other meal. For the light diet simple toast is better. The hot breads are more difficult of digestion and pan cakes and doughnuts should be avoided. The active worker, however, may use them quite often without ill results. Children should never be allowed hot breads, and toast 336 DOMESTIC SCIENCE is best made from bread two days old. Corn breads are the most difficult hot bread to digest, and, unless some wheat flour is used, are very rich in fat. Breads made from the whole grains are especially rec- ommended as the most healthful and economical. Beverages for breakfast include milk, cocoa and coffee. Milk and cocoa are especially valuable. Tea and coffee should be served only to adults. They have no value as food except what the cream and sugar may contain. For luncheon or supper, the hot dish consists mainly in a meat substitute dish, or a hot cream soup or puree or the hot dish may be replaced by a salad in the diet of an adult, when preferred. Many women prefer the salad to a meat substitute dish and, if the weather is hot or their work is light, it fits in admirably well. The hot dish is best for children and tired workers. The beverage at luncheon or supper may be the only hot thing in summer. Cocoa or chocolate is better than tea or coffee. Using left-overs to make the luncheon dish is economy. The character of the left-over may be entirely changed from its original serving at dinner a day or two before, and it will not be recognized in its new form. Luncheon plans depend largely on the breakfast plans. If a very light breakfast is used, a warm substantial lunch should follow, and vice versa. The luncheon should be the one meal to balance up the food values of the day. If any one food class has been short in the dinner or break- fast, the lunch is the place to remedy the deficit. Heavy desserts or fruits are one of the best means of balancing the food value. The very light lunch may have for the hot dish a cream soup with some bread, or often a good dessert with bread is ample for many persons. MEN U B UILDING 337 On the days when a meat substitute is served for din- ner the lunch or supper will need to be more heartv as in III. Ill and IV may also be used as a basis for the company luncheon. A fruit cup or cocktail is better than a soup, if a hot dish follows. The soup is best when a salad fol- lows. The beverage is served with the warm course at a luncheon. See chart for luncheon dishes. The charts which follow are given to serve as aids in building menus. Several dishes of like nature are grouped together, anyone of which may be selected and the things which are suitable to serve with it are suggested. Only one dish from each column should be selected in one menu. That is, one meat, one vegetable or one salad and so on, depending on the choice of meats in the dinner menu. The type of breakfast or lunch menu will determine the choice of dishes and what to serve with them. Suggested dishes are taken from text. Finished menus should be tested to see if they meet all the requirements. A simple test to apply being:— 1. Is it suited to the needs of each member of the family? 2. Is it suited to season and market conditions? 3. Is it within the income and allowance? 4. Is there a good distribution of soft and solid food? 5. Does it contain more than two decidedly flavored or colored foods? 6. Does the week's menu offer variety from day to day? 7. Does it call for simple table service and preparation of dishes? 338 DOMESTIC SCIENCE O z I— t Q D CO c/3 Q c/) < < w CO CJ Ih M ,_ s a) °^ &: a: CJ OJ* 4J CJ CJ CJ CJ u V V M o S8 s« o ta kH JtS tc iC 80 na Ha U3 CJ o 2 o o o o o o o o o P3 U yU U U U U U u U j- "3 >. ■ o OJ CJ 3 E p Ih O 3 s 0> 3 a 3 >> *-> 03 2 >1 05 2 03 > o ft 03 cd 3 O JS oi" 3 CJ In M O T3 CJ 03 *J 03 3 is e o B cd o ft 03 o CJ E •a 3 CJ Ih u o 3 Ih :£ CJ *-> _. ' r - 03 03 03 03 03 m C 3 3 CO u cd cd cd +-> cd o 3 o o o O o ."j 3 O ca H H H h H S PQ h u 03 M 60 CJ T3 OJ cd O a cj 03 (11 o 3 o a cd _ 'u 03 OJ a o CJ cd X5 E cd CJ Ih CJ c -a _CJ E cd Ih o 03 M M 6 <3 o •o a o UT3 J3 03 5 O M si 'C T3 CJ Ih O 3 s "cd V E c cd u _CJ CJ 03 CJ CJ .id jo bfl bfl CJ c o o 3 03 cd Jh a 2 CJ ■a ■a c be E o CJ JO •a CJ a a 03 cd O c Ih c u 2 03 j3 3 «3 . "S C O O cj o 3 T3 C rt "a3 ■o V 0, Ih O CJ Id "33 CJ M ed 3 O 6 a CX CJ rt co jo a CJ 03 c" 03 Ss 3 3 CJ jO Ih Ih OJ > 5 4-> c Ih o E ■a 'in Ih CJ . 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CO cu a . ■a , CU > CU G S C o TO O DO en T3 01 en - CU .tl — 3 U tig to — -i cu^ J2 TO CO go? *" en o D, o p, TO s c 'ej o 4J '3 • CO eo cu If ■4-> •6 TO V Ih c£c£ 3 3 M »1 - to en en O a eo CU to CJ CO ul-0 £> ». <^< O cu -- CO S^*0 TO C O i-, t2 cu o CO --. • " — CO 4-> o- O u O jo 4-1 o en o *J Ih TO CU u n c- — u Ph CO Oh O *J ti ■4H *J cu hfl TO . TO — cu ^ CT3 O TO Ih O «J r^ •0 ;etable, t otato, he jce. J3 en cd Ih O 4-> ed CO £ fi cu aj E-* o >. '3 Ih d 4J 2 eo 3 i- h co "CU li CO 11 •J cu "cu Ph ■en"eu "53 <— > CJ ith hsh, cheese. e, ham) e, peas. TO J2 E otatoes, al cro- 1 chick- 05 -/, CU CU ££ TO f > 3 aked beans, minced ham, creamed chipped beef, salmon souffle. oysters, cheese, uisse. en 5 -t-> O aked macaroni w or dried beef or melets (jelly, nc with white sauc ghetti. rice, to reen peppers, asserole dishes. ffed baked p hicken or ve uettes, creamei n on toast. nch toast, yrup, rice cro elly. calloped dishes, corn, souffles pea, eggs a la S TO M O G d o cr cu > > «'E r -1 <^ > !*j ^ 340 DOMESTIC SCIENCE MENU CHARTS (In Lesson 29) DINNER AIDS IN MENU BUILDING Meats I. Beef roast (ribs, flank, rump). II. Beef pot roast, loaf, stew. III. Steaks, porterhouse, tenderloin, hamburg, swiss, round. IV. Sweetbreads, liver, tripe, tongue, chatreuse. V. Lamb, mutton, roast chops, stew. VI. Veal, roast, chops, cut- lets, birds, loaf. VII. Pork, roast, chops, tenderloins, spare ribs. VIII. Ham, baked, fried, loaf, casserole. IX. Chicken, fried, roasted, fricassee, or pot pie. X. Fish, baked, fried, scal- loped, finnan haddie. XI. Oysters, lobsters, clams. XII. Turkey, duck, goose, venisoD . XIII. Meat substitutes, cheese or nut loaf, baked beans, macaroni and cheese. Vegetables Starchy Browned or mashed potatoes, hominy, parsnips, Yorkshire pudding, rice. Mashed potatoes, rice, macaroni. Baked potatoes or au gratin potatoes, corn, parsnips, artichokes, potato borders. Rice, white potatoes, peas, lima beans, string beans. Baked potatoes, rice, hominy, peas. Sweet potatoes, glaced, egg- plant, corn, peas, mashed potatoes. White potatoes, parsnips, rice with tomatoes, bread dress- ing. Baked potatoes, scalloped po- tatoes, hominy, string beans. Sweet potatoes, peas, wax beans. French fried potatoes, corn, rice, macaroni, potato balls. Same as X Mashed potatoes, corn, hom- iny, bread dressing, peas. White potatoes, rice, spaghetti, Succulent Cabbage, tomatoes, onions, spinach. Carrots, turnips, onions, squash, peas. Asparagus, tomatoes, cauli- flower, green peppers, mush- rooms. Spinach, beets, celery, onions, carrots. Beet greens, spinach, onions, Brussel sprouts, squash. Asparagus, cauliflower, onions. Onions, stewed apples, apple sauce, sauer kraut. Spinach, dandelion greens stuffed onions, cauliflower in cream. Brussel sprouts, cauliflower, peppers. Tomatoes, beets, stuffed pep- pers. Same as X Tomatoes, squash. Cabbage, tomatoes, onions, squash. TABLES 341 DINNER AIDS IN MENU BUILDING— Cont. Soups Clear tomato, Celery, spinach, vegetables. Noodle, vegetable, cel- ery, chicken. Asparagus, clear tomato, chicken with rice. Noodle, clam broth, ox tail, clear tomato. Vermicelli, vegetable con- somme. Bouillon, consomme, vegetable. Consomme, Julienne Consomme. Clear tomato, bouillon, celery. Bouillon, celery, tomato. Bread Bread or rolls Bread or rolls Hot bread, bis- cuit. Salad and Accompaniments Biscuit or muf- fins. Rolls or cuit. bis- Oyster, cream asparagus. Cream tomato, cream pea. vermicelli. Bread, rolls. Bread. Bread. Biscuits, rolls. Bread. Rolls. Rolls, biscuit. Lettuce, cucumber, fruit, olives, as- paragus. Lettuce, romaine, watercress, cu- cumbers, toma- toes, cabbage slaw. Same as I and II. Dessert Apple and celery, head lettuce, thousand island dressing. Cold slaw, mint jelly, fruit salad. Head lettuce, toma- to, cucumbers. Apple, celery, let- tuce, French dressing. Same as VII. Cranberry jelly, fruit, egg. Green peppers, let- tuce, cucumbers, French dressing. Waldorf, lettuce, French dressing, cabbage slaw. Apple salad, apple sauce, currant jelly, fruit salad, grape jelly. Biscuit or cin- Same as X. namon rolls. Fruit ice, canned fruit, apple tap- ioca. Rice pudding, berry short cake, fruit. Tapioca puddings, short cakes, gela- tin desserts, sher- bets. Cup custards, choc, cream, pastry. Apricot or peach ice. Quick steamed pud- ding. Fresh fruit ices. Baked apple, fruit jelly, date pud- ding. Short cakes, fruit souffles, ice cream, cake. Prune whip, snow- ball, pudding, apple sauce. Cornstarch pud- ding, sherbets. Sherbets, parfaits, pastry, short cakes. Custard pie, steam- ed puddings. Beverage Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea Coffee or tea LESSON 30. MARKETING Rules for Marketing. — 1. The woman, to manage her home successfully, should have a definite income or allowance and know how much of that should be spent for food. 2. Order lists should be made at home before going to market. 3. What supplies are needed should be known and ordered before one is entirely out of any article. A market- ing list should be kept in the kitchen, on which should be noted the items that are getting low. 4 Marketing should be done as early in the day as possible, to allow time for delivery. 5. One should go to market and make one's own selec- tions instead of ordering by telephone. 6. One should patronize only reliable merchants who give first-class service. Weigh and inspect goods purchased and read labels to see that proper value is obtained for the money spent. 7. Only markets that are perfectly sanitary and where the dress and habits of the clerks are neat should be patron- ized. 8. Staples should be bought in quantity, if possible, and ordered therefore less frequently. Perishable foods should be purchased in small quantities every day or two. 9. It shows a lack of planning to expect or ask more than one delivery a day. Emergency supplies on hand will take care of unexpected company demands. 10. Clerks and delivery boys should not be asked for too much special service. 11. Goods should be bought in season when prices are (342) MARKETING 343 right and low. Goods out of season are always high, due to transportation and hothouse conditions. High prices do not signify quality. 12. Cheap food below prevailing market prices is either damaged or of inferior grade. Everything should be examined before buying. 13. The price of goods should be known before buying. 14. The housekeeper should learn to substitute one food for another of like composition and character, in order to secure equal results in the menu for least money. 15. Canned goods should be bought by size number of can and by trade name, never by price of can. Every whole- saler has special brand names. Test and compare grades as to weight, quality and price, then order in dozen or case lots, if possible, the brands found to be the best. 16. Fancy and extra fancy brands all command fancy prices without giving any higher food value. They should not be ordered unless one can afford to buy them and only then for especial occasions. 17. Package goods command higher prices than bulk foods. Labels and containers add to cost. Where large amounts are used, purchasing in bulk is best, if quantity will be used before food deteriorates by long storing. If small quantity is used, package goods often times are best; they are cleaner, and sanitary methods of handling make them worth an extra price. 18. Buying in quantity more food of any kind than will be used during a season is extravagant. Foods lose considerable value in long storing and a fresh stock of food is always safer. 19. Pay cash for goods when possible. If a credit system is used, bills should be paid promptly every week or month at most. Never allow a bill to go over. 344 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 20. Never buy anything it will be impossible to pay for. Live within your income, no matter what it may be. 21. Check bills and get a receipt when bills are paid. Keep all receipts. MARKET CHART Amount Material Cost pound butter pound sugar, granulated . . pound powdered sugar. . . . 24 pounds flour qt. milk qt. cream qt. molasses doz. eggs cake yeast, compressed . . . pt. vanilla box soda pound baking powder. . . . box spice pound coffee pt. olive oil pound tea pound pkg. gelatin pound lard pound cheese doz. lemons oranges apples bananas peaches pound raisins pound prunes pound walnuts pound peanuts pound pecans pound almonds pound bacon pound buckwheat 6 oz. rolled oats 6 oz. cream of wheat pounds cornmeal 5 pounds whole wheat flour. 1 pound figs doz. doz. doz. doz. Amount Material Cost 1 pound dates 1 pound suet 1 pound cheese 1 pound tapioca 1 pound rice. 1 pound macaroni 1 pound citron 1 pound peanut butter . 1 pound crackers 1 pound corn starch 1 pound sweet potatoes. . 1 pound tea 1 pound coffee 1 pound chocolate 1 pound grated cocoanut 1 pound can tomatoes. . . 1 pound can salmon 1 pound can lobster 1 pound can corn 1 pound can peas 1 pound can sardines. . . . 1 pound can shrimp 1 onion 1 carrot 1 turnip 1 bunch celery 1 bunch parsley 1 head lettuce 1 glass jelly. 1 box berries 1 pound tomato 1 pound dried beans 1 pound dried peas 10 pounds suet 1 qt. vinegar 1 bar soap MARKETING 345 APPLICATION 1. Market trips, observing conditions in markets. 2. Budget allowances for food under different conditions. 3. Study of trade brands of canned goods at local stores. Comparison of brands. 4. Personal marketing for meals, with cash. Each girl to have a definite assignment. 5. Make complete market charts with prices, sizes, weights, trade names. LESSON 31 HOME MANAGEMENT. HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS The home as we know it has grown out of a need of shelter for the family. The home-makers have always been women; the care of the home and the management of all household duties have always been in their hands. Knowledge comes from study and practice, or In the actual doing. Every man spends several months or years in preparation for the business or trade he intends to enter. So every girl should spend time and study in fitting herself for her life work. It has been estimated that 95 per cent of the girls eventually take their places in the home. So it seems necessary to include in the education of every girl some study and practice in home management, if her home is to be conducted in a business-like manner. Good home management includes the selection and care of all materials used in the continuance of the home — the food, its preparation and service; the care of children; the management of servants; and the keeping of accurate household accounts. One of the most important features of good home management is system. With a system each day and week has its special duties to be performed, and each member of the household knows what he or she is responsible for. The home-maker must be thoughtful, have a good sense of values, and exercise good judgement in expendi- tures. She must be interested in her home and willing to help others. 346 HOME MANAGEMENT 347 Servants. — Servants need wise supervision and are only too quick to recognize the worth of an employer. The woman who is able to retain good help exercises good judgement in the manner in which she treats her servants. Commending servants for things well done and refrain- ing from nagging or reprimanding them before others will result in better work and greater effort to please. A wage scale for help by which the wages increase at stated times or on the merit system will effect an im- provement in retaining efficient help. Servants are as ambitious as any other class of workers and move from one place to another in the hope of bettering themselves. Household Accounts. — The standards of living differs with individuals and families according to education, tastes, occupation, and country. The home system of accounts should be simple and easy to keep. A good plan is to divide the yearly income according to months and weeks and to keep all expenses well within the limits. Set aside a percentage of the salary for each class of expenditures — shelter, clothing, food, etc. As the income increases, the percentages of expenditures for some of the items usually increase in proportion up to a certain point. When the division of the income has been decided upon a system of book keeping will greatly aid in keeping track of each expenditure. A sample page of a simple system is here given. All stores send duplicate slips with each purchase. These should be kept together and used to check up with the monthly statement. In case of error these are of great value in correcting the account. ii*o DOMESTIC SCIENCE Household Accounts Month of (summary) Items of Expenditures Amounts Totals Food Meat Milk and cream Groceries Shelter Rent Insurance Taxes Repairs Total Shelter Clothing Total Clothing Operating Expenses Fuel Light Gas Ice Telephone Help Total Operating Education and Amusement Papers, Books, etc Traveling Total Ed. & Amus. Benevolence Church ..... Club dues Total Benevolence Personal Accounts Total Pers. Accts. Emergencies Doctor Dentist Total Emergencies Incidentals Total Incidentals Total Expenses Income Balance (loss or savings) HOME MANAGEMENT 349 The monthly statements may be carried forward each month, showing the balance; or a yearly summary may be drawn on a separate page, showing the expenditure totals and the complete credits or debits at the end of the year. Whatever the system employed in keeping the house- hold accounts, it should show: (1) The total income or cash received, (2) the total expenditures, (3) how the money was spent, and (4) the balance— savings or losses. Children should be taught to keep their own person- al accounts for each week or month, and be made respon- sible for an allowance, however small. APPLICATION 1. Work out a suggestive outline of household duties and plan for a week's work in your home. 2. Assign the duties of one maid. 3. Assign the duties of two maids. 4. Make out a household account record page for one month, using a typical family of four, including two chil- dren. 5. Make out your own home expense account for the past month. 6. Make out your own personal account for the past month. LESSON 32 INVALID COOKERY Food for the sick is an important subject, and much time can be given to this one branch of cookery. The quantity and kind of food for patients must be varied according to the nature of the disease. A housekeeper with a knowledge of foods and food values suitable to different diets is of great assistance to the physician attend- ing the case, and is able to carry out his orders satisfac- torily and often can do without the services of a trained nurse in simple cases. Dietaries are classified, to assist nurses in caring for their patients, as liquid, soft, light, and full diets. A liquid diet includes milk, beef tea, broths, beef juice, strained gruels, egg nogs, cream soups, cocoa, and all other liquid foods. Tea and coffee must be avoided. A soft diet includes dishes in the liquid diet and also milk toast, soft-cooked eggs, jellies, boiled custards, junkets, ice cream, apple sauce, and cereals. A light diet includes soft-cooked eggs, baked custard, creamed toast, sweet breads, asparagus, scalloped oysters, gelatin jellies, baked apples, stewed prunes. A full diet, includes soups, meat, fish, eggs, cereals, vegetables, fruits, and desserts that are easily digested. Never give to any patient even the smallest amount of food difficult of digestion. Special diets are those ordered by a physician for special cases. (350) INVALID COOKERY 351 Rules for Serving Invalids. — 1. Cook all food carefully and thoroughly. 2. Serve hot food hot and cold food cold. 3. Serve food daintly and attractively. 4. Use the prettiest dishes and the best linen. 5. Put a flower or a small plant on the tray to make it attractive. 6. Plan to have surprises for the patient in the kinds Fig. 44. An invalid's tray. of food as well as in the ways it is served. This helps to create an appetite, which often is lacking. 7. Always remove all bottles and signs of medicine from the sight of the patient, and remove the tray as soon as the patient has finished eating. APPLICATION These recipes are for individual portions suitable for one patient and for two girls working together in practice work in the kitchen. 1. Dry Toast Method. — Slice stale bread in J/3 inch slices, remove the crusts, place in a toaster and dry thoroughly, turning 352 DOMESTIC SCIENCE occasionally. Toast a golden brown on both sides. The starch is dextrinized and made more easy of digestion by toasting. 2. Milk Toast 2 slices dry toast % c. scalded milk Yl tbsp. butter x /i tsp. salt Method. — Butter the toast, arrange on. a hot dish, pour the hot milk over it, and sprinkle with salt. 3. Water Toast 2 slices dry toast Yl tbsp. butter 1 c. boiling water % tsp. salt Method. — Drop the slices of toast separately into the boiling water, remove to a hot dish, spread with butter, and serve at once. 4. Oatmeal Jelly % c. rolled oats 1 % c. boiling water Pinch of salt Method. — Add the oats gradually to the boiling water, add the salt, boil 2 minutes, and then steam in a double boiler 45 minutes to 1 hour. Force through a fine strainer, mold, chill, and serve with sugar and cream. 5. Barley Gruel 1 tbsp. barley flour 1 c. water or milk 2 tbsp. cold water x /i tsp. salt Method. — Add the 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water to the flour to make a thin paste; then add gradually to the scalded milk or boiling water while stirring constantly. Cook in a double boiler 20 minutes. Season and strain. 6. Cracker Gruel 1 tbsp. cracker crumbs % c. milk Pinch of salt Method. — Scald the milk, add the cracker crumbs, and cook over boiling water 10 minutes; season to taste. INVALID COOKERY 353 7. Pasteurized Milk Method. — Put milk in sterilized, small-mouth glass bottles, stop with cotton batting or absorbent cotton, place bottles in a wire basket, and immerse the basket in a kettle of cold water. Heat water gradually to a temperature of from 160° to 170° F. Keep at this temperature 30 minutes; remove and cool bottles quickly and keep in cold water. 8. Egg Nog 1 egg 1 3^2 tbsp. sherry or % tbsp. sugar 1 tbsp. brandy or rum A few grains salt % c. cold milk Method. — Beat the egg slightly, add the sugar, salt, and the liquor, and then the milk gradually. Strain, and serve. 9. Eggs in a Nest 1 egg 1 tsp. butter 1 slice of toast Pinch of salt Method. — Separate the yolk from the white of the egg, beat the whites until stiff, sprinkle with salt, and heap on a slice of toast. Make a depression or nest in the center, drop into this the whole yolk, place in a pan in the oven for 2 minutes. Place a tiny piece of butter in the center of the nest and serve at once. 10. Beef Juice Method. — Broil a small piece of round steak, cut it into small pieces, squeeze the juice from it into a cup, season with salt, and serve. 11. Beef Extract Method. — Cut round steak into small pieces. Put into a sterile canning jar, cover and place the jar into a kettle of cold water. Heat the water gradually and keep at a temperature of 130° F. for 2 hours. Turn meat from the jar and press until the juice is extracted. Season the juice with salt, and serve. 354 DOMESTIC SCIENCE 12. Beef Tea 1 pound of beefsteak cut from the round 2 c. cold water Salt to season Method. — Prepare the beef as for beef extract, put in a sterile jar or double boiler, add cold water, and heat grad- ually, keeping the temperature at 130° F. for 2 hours. Increase the temperature at the end of that time until the liquid becomes a chocolate color and the albuminous juices are slightly coagulated. This removes the raw taste of the tea. Season with salt. 13. Mutton Broth 2 pounds of mutton from the neck 2 c. cold water Method. — Cut the meat in small pieces, soak in water 1 hour. Simmer for 3 hours, strain, and remove the fat. 3 tablespoonfuls of rice may be boiled and served with the strained broth. APPENDIX EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID In all cases of emergencies, the thing to remember is self-control, and then to render first aid as quickly as possible. If the accident is serious, send for a physician at once, but many cases can be cared for by any one who understands first-aid treatments. Fainting is caused by mental impression, exhaustion, pain, heat, bleeding, overcrowded rooms, etc. The symp- toms are sudden unsconciousness, pale face, cool, moist skin, weak pulse, shallow breathing, and dilated pupils. Treatment. — If face is pale, get more blood to the brain. Lay the patient flat on his back with the head low and the legs raised; sprinkle cold water on his face, and gently apply ammonia or smelling salts to the nostrils to make him breathe. Get him out into the fresh air, and loosen the clothing about the neck and waist. An attack of fainting can often be prevented by sitting in a chair and thrusting the head down between the knees and holding it there until the face becomes flushed. If unconscious- ness is accompanied by a flushed face, elevate the head. Heat Stroke. — Heat stroke is the same as fainting. Treatment. — Apply cold water to the body and ice to the head. Bleeding from the Nose.— This is caused by excess blood pressure or from a foreign substance in the nose, and is often hard to check. Treatment. — Hold arms vertically above the head; put ice or cold water on back of the neck, between the shoulders, and over the root of the nose at the forehead ; very cold or (355) 356 DOMESTIC SCIENCE very hot water or hydrogen peroxide should be snuffed up the nose. Pressure by placing a roll of cotton or cloth under the upper lip next to the gum may be a benefit. Should the bleeding still continue, plug the nostrils with absorbent cotton; if the blood then runs in the throat from the back of the nose, the assistance of a surgeon will be required. Bleeding from a Cut. — If the blood is bright red and comes in spurts it is from an artery, and needs prompt attention. If the blood is bright red but flows slowly, it comes from a capillary. If blood is dark red or blue and flows steadily, it comes from a vein. Treatment. — Apply pressure above and below the cut. Raise the portion of the body that is cut. Bind the cut with antiseptic gauze bandage directly on the wound tight enough to stop the flow of blood. In severe bleeding use a tourniquet to tighten the bandage. This is made by putting a stick under the bandage and twisting it to tighten it. Ice, salt, and alum cause the blood to coagu- late and are used on wounds in cases of emergency Infection is caused by the presence of bacteria. Treatment. — Clean thoroughly a wound that has not bled freely, by washing with a salt solution or alcohol, or a weak solution of carbolic acid, not more than 3 per cent; then bind with antiseptic gauze. Burns are caused by contact with dry heat, as from hot metal; scalds are caused by moist heat, as from liquids, including acids. Treatment. — Cover with a wet cloth sprinkled with baking soda or dipped in boric acid, or apply vaseline or olive oil. Usually a cloth saturated with olive oil will relieve the pain. Where the skin is destroyed, watch the burn carefully to prevent infection. In case the clothing catches on fire, wrap the patient in a heavy rug, blanket, EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID 357 or coat at once to smother the flames. Send for a physician in severe cases. Frost bite is caused by prolonged exposure of the body to a very low temperature. It produces a loss of vitality and the affected part becomes stiff and white. Treatment. — Never take a frozen person into a warm room or apply heat to a frozen part. The temperature must be raised gradually. Remove the clothing, if any, on the affected part, and rub with snow or cold water; later rub with the hand carefully to restore the circulation but do not injure the skin. Stimulants, like brandy, may be given in severe cases, or allow the patient to inhale the fumes of ammonia from a handkerchief to restore con- sciousness. Asphyxia. — This is a condition of unconsciousness due to a great diminution of oxygen in the blood, caused by an obstruction in the air passages of the throat or lungs, or to the presence of poisonous gases, such as coal gas from stoves or illuminating and sewer gas. Treatment. — Remove the cause, in order that the lungs may be supplied with the proper amount of pure air. Re-establish respiration by artificial means. This is produced by moving the arms upward above the head, to elevate the ribs and expand the chest; then slowly low- ering the elbows and pressing them against the sides of the body. Repeat this movement fifteen times a minute until the patient is recovered. Stimulate the heart and the circulation by the use of stimulants, warm applications, and friction. Send for a physician and the pulmotor. Earache. — Apply hot applications. See a physician as soon as possible. Foreign Substance in the Eye. — Particles of dust or cinders may lodge under the lids or in the eyeball. 3.1S DOMESTIC SCIENCE Treatment. — In the latter situation a physician should always be consulted. To examine the lower lid, draw down with the fingers and at the same time tell the patient to look up; if the particle is not there, evert the upper lid by standing behind the patient, with his head upon your chest; and tell him to look down at his feet. At the same time press a match or the end of a finger firmly about a quarter of an inch behind the margin of the lid, draw the lid down by the lashes and turn it upward and outward over the match or fingertip. If the particle is not visible, search the ball of the eye carefully for it, and if found lift it gently by a quick movement with the point of a burnt match or toothpick. Poisons are caused by the presence in our bodies of substances which act upon the body tissues and life itself, and must be treated at once. Poisons are of several kinds : (1) Corrosive poisons, which act instantly; (2) irritant poisons, which produce inflamation of the tissues; and (3) narcotic poisons, which produce unconsciousness. Treatment. — Send for a physician at once; in the mean- time try to produce vomiting to expell the poison, and give an antidote for the poison. To produce vomiting, run the finger down the throat or give an emetic. A good emetic is a mixture of 3^ pint warm water and a table- spoonful of mustard or salt, or plenty of warm water is often effective. An acid and an alkaline substance neutralize each other when put together; so in case of acid poisoning give an alkali (baking soda) ; and in the case of alkali poisoning, give an acid (dilute vinegar) for an antidote. Antidotes injure the inside of the stomach and must be followed by some substance like milk, white of egg, or EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID 359 oil. Stir the whites of four eggs in a quart of water and make the patient drink as much as he can. Poisons and their Antidotes Corrosive poisons Acids — Carbolic Nitric Sulphuric Hydrochloric Oxalic Alkalis Ammonia Lye Potash Irritant poisons Rat poison Arsenic Paris green Iodine Phosphorus matches Bichloride of mercury Narcotic poisons Alcohol Chloroform Opium Morphine Laudanum Aconite Strychnine Camphor balls Give an emetic, — an alkali; as, limewater or a solution of soda and water. Follow later with white of eggs. Give vinegar and water, or lemon juice. Large dose of oil or milk to form a« emulsion. Give an emetic, — warm water and mustard. Follow with milk or white of eggs. Same, also Epsom salts. Give an emetic. Keep the patient awake. Gire strong black coffee. Use artificial respiration and stimulation. SCORE CARDS FOR JUDGING COOKERY* BREAD Points General appearance: Loaf well rounded, not cracked at sides, evenly baked Baking: Crust even chestnut-brown in color, and about H-inch thick; center of loaf well done, not soggy Odor: Sweet and nutty Flavor: Sweet and nutty, suggesting taste of wheat . . ... Grain and Texture: Cut surface should have silky appearance, and be evenly honey-combed with rather small holes Lightness: A well-risen loaf is about twice the size of the dough when placed in pan; cut surface elastic to touch . Crumb: Glossy and moist, not gummy when pressed, or dry and crumbly Color: Inside of loaf creamy white, not snowy white Total BAKING POWDER BISCUIT General appearance: Shape evenly risen to about twice original height, not conical or sunken; surface not too rough or too smooth and shiny, no large cracks or holes; color a nice, uniform brown, not speckled or floury . . Baking: Crust golden brown, not too thick or thin; inside light Lightness: Inside light and white, well baked Texture: Inside moist but not waxy, crumbly, or doughy .... Flavor: That of well-cooked wheat cereal Total PASTRY Baking: Brown top and bottom Texture: Brittle, flaky Flavor: Not greasy; pleasant taste Total Total WHITE COOKIES General appearance: Slightly rounded over top and sides; no flour on surface; edges smooth and unbroken Texture: Holes of aeration small and uniform in size; delicate, seeming to melt in the mouth; thinner and more brittle than butter cake, but not as brittle as a wafer Total CAKE 10 10 30 20 10 10 5 100 20 25 25 15 15 100 35 40 25 DOUGHNUTS Well rounded; baked a good brown; comparatively LOO General appearance: smooth 15 Lightness: Light; elastic to the touch 25 Texture: Holes of aeration fine and numerous 25 Flavor: Not too spicy, or oily, or sweet 35 100 50 50 100 General appearance Lightness Texture Tenderness Baking Moisture Flavor Totals Chocolate Sponge Cake (loaf, Fruit Cake unfrosted) Cake 10 10 ... . 10 30 30 35 25 25 10 15 10 20 20 5 25 10 10 100 100 100 ♦Arranged from Minnesota Extension Bui. No. 19. (360) TABLES Showing Nutrients and Energy of Digestible Portions of some Common Foods Kind of food materials ANIMAL FOOD Beef, fresh: Chuck, ribs Loin, medium Ribs Round, medium Shoulder and clod Beef, dried and smoked . . Veal: Cutlets, round Leg Mutton: Leg Loin Pork, fresh: Loin, chops Ham Pork, salted and smoked: Bacon Ham Salt, fat Poultry: Fowl Turkey ] Fish, fresh: Cod, dressed Mackerel Shellfish: Oysters, solids Fish, preserved and canned Cod, salt Salmon, canned Eggs, unoooked Dairy products: Whole milk Skim milk Cream Butter ti Per cent. 16.3 13.3 20.8 7.2 16.4 4.7 3.4 14.2 18.4 10 19.7 10.7 7.7 13.6 25.9 22.7 29.9 44.7 24.9 11.2 Per cent. 52.6 52.5 43.8 60.7 56.8 53.7 68.3 60.1 51.2 42 41.8 48 17.4 34.8 7.9 47.1 42.4 58.5 40.4 88.3 40.2 63.5 65.5 87.0 90.5 74 11 • S'fl — 3 O Per cent. 1.4 1.6 1.8 1.4 1.2 4.5 1.2 1.1 1.4 2 1.8 1.9 4.4 3.1 5.4 1.2 1.6 .5 .7 .6 5.1 1.9 1.1 .5 .3 1.1 4.9 D igestible nutrients Ch Per cent. 15 15.6 13.5 18.4 15.9 25.6 19.5 15 14.6 13.1 13 13.1 8.8 13.8 1.8 13.3 15.6 10.8 9.9 5.8 15.5 21.1 12.7 3.2 3.3 2.4 1 Per cent. 14.3 16.6 20 12.2 9.3 6.6 7.1 7.5 14 26.9 23 24.6 59.1 31.7 81.9 11.7 17.5 1.2 .4 11.5 8.8 3.8 .3 17.6 80.8 >> o Li e3 O Per cent. 3.3 5 5.1 4.5 Per cent. 0.6 .7 .5 .8 .7 5.5 .8 .7 .6 .5 .6 .6 3.1 3.2 2.9 .5 .6 .6 .5 .8 13.9 2 .7 .5 .5 .4 2.3 2-v So >% 3 fa Calo- ries. 910 1,025 1,135 890 715 790 695 625 890 1,415 1,245 1,320 2,720 1,635 3,555 765 1,060 220 370 225 325 915 635 310 165 8S5 3.410 (361 DOMESTIC SCIENCE Showing Nutrients and Energy of Digestible Portions op some Common Foods {continued) CO 3 s 6 «j ctj * 3 rt) CO If •o a; fl*E — i 3 «d c o H Digestibk ! nutrients Kind of food materials .5 *S -M O 14 fa 4-> fa to CI *•> rt h •a >> Jd o .a H 3 U u V a i> « a ;! ca 3