AMERICAN HISTORY SECOND BOOK I. PERRY AND PRICE Class. Book. ^-H- zL Copyright N' COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr Patrick Henry cried, ' We must fight AMERICAN HISTORY SECOND BOOK (1763 TO THE Present Time) • \. BY ARTHUR Q PERRY, Jr., Ph.D. u DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS NEW YORK CITY AND GERTRUDE A. PRICE TEACHER IN PUBLIC SCHOOI. NEW YORK CITY NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Copyright, 19 14, by Arthur C. Perry, Jr., and Gertrude A. Price Copyright, 1914, in Great Britain Am. Hist. Second Book w. P. I APR lb 1914 ,A371391 PREFACE The general practice of our elementary schools is to study the subject of American History in two cycles. This volume Is the second of a two-book series intended to serve as textbooks for pupils in the first cycle of their study, and to cover two years' work. Each book, however, is so planned that it can be used independently of the other. The books aim to introduce the pupil to the history of his country in accordance with accepted pedagogical method. It is not their purpose to give the student a detailed and comprehensi\'c study of the philosophy of history, or to appeal especially to the judgment and those other faculties whose fuller development comes with adolescence. The books are deliberately organ- ized, as regards both subject matter and vocabulary, on lines of adaptability to children of ten or twelve years of age. The interest of the child must be aroused — and his interest at this age is not in the philosophy of cause and effect. His interest is in the drama of events rather than in their causal sequence: it is in adventure, not politics; in heroism, not statesman- ship; in deeds, not philosophy; in people, not sta- tistics. Later in his school career he may turn toward iv PREFACE the technical and philosophical phases of the sub- ject; but to arouse his present enthusiasm we must appeal to his immediate interests, and these are ele- mental, simple, almost barbaric. Hence these books attempt to enlist the interest of the pupil in the stirring narrative of our country's progress, and to give him such narrative in plenty. That the tastes of the pupil at this age are of an elemental quality Is not a reason for reducing the subject matter in quantity. Therefore, it has not been the aim of the authors to write a "brief" book. The arrangement of the subject matter is on a three-fold plan. Each chapter has a central thought about which important events are grouped in narrative form. Following the narrative there is a summary for careful study; and then comes a concise statement of the fact or facts that seem most vital. It is sug- gested that in using this volume as a textbook, the pupil read the narrative, study the summary, and memorize the facts. For convenience in review study, the facts to be memorized are brought together in one series in an appendix. Whether the student is obliged to leave school without further formal study of history, or whether he is privileged to continue his schooling through the second-cycle study of the subject, this series of facts, thoroughly memorized, will serve as a background and setting for all his future study of history, civics, and politics. To this skeleton resume PREFACE V he may refer all the events of history, placing them properly both as to chronological order and as to causal relations. Other appendixes contain reference material for the teacher's use. The pronunciation of difficult words is indicated in the Index. The selection from " Uncle Remus," by Joel Chand- ler Harris, on page 140, is used by permission of the publishers, D. Appleton and Company. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Rebellion i II. Independence 21 III. Recognition 45 IV. The Unitini; of the States 63 V. Democracy 83 VI. Progress and Invention 109 VII. Slavery 135 VIII. Secession 147 IX. The Civil War 173 X. The Turning of the Tide 197 XI. Reconstruction 217 XII. The Great West 235 XIII. Expansion 263 XIV. Recalling the Past 287 Appendix A. Facts to be Memorized 307 Appendix B. Reference Table of the States 311 Appendix C. Reference Table of Presidents and Vice Presidents 312 Appendix D. Reference List of Important Events in Chron- ological Order 313 Appendix E. Declaration of Independence 317 Appendix F. Constitution of the United States 32 1 Index 339 AMERICAN HISTORY CHAPTER I REBELLION "The people, I believe, are as truly loyal as any subjects the king has; but they are a people jealous of their liberties, who, if those liberties should ever be violated, will vindicate , . , colonies, 1763 them to the last drop of their blood." Thus spoke a member of the British House of Com- mons during a heated discussion concerning the British colonies in North America. For years England had possessed thirteen colonies stretching along the coast between Canada and Florida. In 1763, by the treaty that followed the French and Indian War, her sway had been extended over the greater part of North America. Though England was immensely proud of the large territory her colonists had helped her to win from the French, she used strange means of showing her gratitude. Like the other leading nations of Europe, she believed that colonies were particularly useful for trading pur- poses. One reason why England maintained colonies 2 REBELLION was that she might sell goods to them at great profit. So her Parliament made many laws that benefited the English merchants. For instance, if a prosperous Virginian wished to buy for his wife some shimmering silks from Paris, the law forbade him to send directly to ^ 7 France for them. He was allowed to Acts purchase them only through English mer- chants, which added greatly to the cost. Again, al- though another country might be willing to pay him a better price for his tobacco and his rice, England was the only land to which he was allowed to send them. For these reasons, and many others, the colonists felt that they were being unfairly treated. Naturally they began to do what they could to secure better conditions. In fact, even as early as 1676 a spirit of rebellion had appeared in Virginia. A number of colonists had been killed by the Indians. Governor ReiTn'^ Berkeley was asked to take action, but he refused. It has been said that he was trading with these Indians and wished to keep on friendly terms with them. When they attacked the plantation of a young lawyer, Nathaniel Bacon, and killed his overseer, he asked the governor's permission to punish the red men. The governor again refused. Then Bacon, with a party of young men as bold and vigorous as himself, marched against the Indians and punished them so severely that they troubled the BACON'S REBELLION 3 colonists no more. But, because Bacon and his men had acted without permission, the governor declared them outlaws. Bacon, however, had the support of many of the people of the colony and the governor was afraid of his power. For some months the two men waged a contest for the control of the government. First one and then the other would gain possession of Jamestown. Finally, Bacon completely destroyed the village by fire, to make sure that it would not again shelter the governor. When rebuilding time came, a more healthful site was chosen. The new House of Burgesses at Williamsburg, Virgiaia capital was known as Williamsburg. Bacon's Re- bellion was only one instance of trouble between the 4 REBELLION colonists and their governors. There were many other cases of dispute, which, however, did not lead to open revolt. By the year 1750 England had passed many laws to encourage trade with her colonies. Some of the laws forbade them to trade with other Smuggling . . countries or even, m some cases, with one another. Had all these laws been rigidly carried out, the great Revolution might have come before it did. But they were not so enforced. The colonists were able to e\ade them in many ways. For example, they smuggled goods into the country and out, in violation of the laws. The royal governors made the best of it and pretended not to see what was going on. At the same time, they did many things that displeased the liberty-lo\"ing colonists. Sent over by the king, the governors felt and acted as though they had his power. But the colonists came to regard their Assemblies as having more authority than the governors. This, of course, angered the governors and the king. While France Avas a power in America, England had seen that she must keep on- good terms with her colonists, lest France step in and win them over to her side. Now that this assistance danger was past, the English government thought it quite time to enforce the laws. It deter- mined to stop the secret trading between the colonists and other countries. Customs officers were encouraged WRITS OF ASSISTANCE 5 to search for smuggled goods. This they could do by using warrants known as " writs of assistance. " Such a writ gave the officers the right to enter, in their search, any store or even any private residence. They could break down doors and open trunks, on the mere suspicion that goods had been smuggled. The colonists were indignant. James Otis, of Massachu- setts, argued eloquently against these writs of assist- ance, but the courts decided that such writs were lawful. The French and Indian War had given the colo- nists new confidence in themselves. Fighting side by side, they had learned to respect one another. They had discovered that their men were good fighters and that they had able leaders, such as Washing- ton, Stark, and Putnam. They had lost both men and money in the war, but they gloried in the loss, because they were Englishmen fighting for England. We must not think of the colonists at that time as rebellious people, anxious to be rid of the mother country. Far from this, they were true patriots asking but for the rights of Englishmen. Their anger was fanned to greater heat by England's next move. She decided to keep a standing army in the colonies for their protection, and to , . V r . Stamp Act force the colonists to bear a part of its cost. To help raise the needed money the Stamp Act was passed. This law compelled the people to buy stamps that had to be placed upon business REBELLION contracts and legal papers, and even upon newspapers, or to buy and use paper already stamped. Some of stamps used for taxing the colonists Representation the stamps cost but a penny or two; others, from twenty to fifty dollars. The colonists were incensed, not because of the tax, — that was fair enough, — but because of the way in which it was levied, and because of its purpose. One of the rights an English- man holds most precious is that of being represented in the lawmaking body that decides upon the taxes. It is true that the Americans had their own Assemblies, but they were not represented in Parliament, the English taxing body. And it was Parliament that had levied the Stamp Tax and had made other un- satisfactory laws for the colonists. Moreover, the colonists did not admit that a standing army was needed in America in time of peace. The Boston people greeted the Stamp Act as they would have greeted some great sorrow. The church THE STAMP ACT 7 bells were tolled and the flags were put at half-staff. A storm of protest broke forth. In New York, copies were made of the law, but in place of the king's coat of arms, usually printed on all legal papers, a grinning skull appeared. The people even went so far as to destroy boxes of the hated stamps and stamped paper, and to threaten the men who were appointed to collect the stamp tax. James Otis suggested that a Congress be called to take action. Nine of the colo- nies sent delegates to this Congress, which was held in New York. It sent a petition to the king and to Parliament. At last Parliament saw that a great mistake was being made in the treatment of the colonists. Within a few months it repealed the Stamp Act. But here the king stepped in and made matters worse. Tradi- tion tells us that the Queen Mother had said to George III when he came to the throne, "George, be king." This, George determined to do. We do not doubt that he meant to do right, but he was head- strong and conceited. He would not listen to his best advisers, but only to those who gave the advice that he wanted to hear. One man who came into a position of influence was Charles Townshend. He, like the king, believed in showing the colonists "their place." So, through his influence and that of the king, p^°^^^ Parliament, a few months after the repeal of the Stamp Act, passed several laws taxing the 8 REBELLION New York skirmish colonists in other ways. Duties were laid upon various imports such as glass, lead, paper, and tea. The levying of these taxes, together with the pres- ence of British troops sent to the colonies, caused much bad feeling. One day in January, 1770, some of the soldiers stationed in New York cut down and destroyed a lib- erty pole which enthusiastic citizens had set up. The result was a conflict between soldiers and citizens which lasted for two or three days. The chief en- gagement occurred on Golden Hill (now Cliff Street). Peace was restored only after one man had been killed and several wounded. Two months later, a similar clash occurred in Boston. One stormy evening, a party of boys taunted a British sentry in front of the custom- house door. The guard came out and a crowd gathered. Pres- ently, in the excitement, shots were fired. Four citizens were killed and several wounded. But the disturbance was quieted without further bloodshed. The resentment of the colonists grew. Through- out the country rang the bold words of Patrick Boston skirmish Boston Massacre Monument THE TEA T.\X 9 Henry, of \'irginia, "Taxation without representa- tion is tyranny!" The colonists refused to buy goods from English merchants until the Tea tax taxes should be repealed. This, in turn, called forth a protest from the merchants, who were rapidly losing money. But the king's party argued that if every one of the taxes placed upon the colonists were taken away, the colonists would feel that they had won. So another plan was adopted. Most of the taxes were removed, but a very small tax upon tea was retained. So small was this tax, that it was cheaper for the colonists to buy their tea from England than to smuggle it from Holland. It was believed that the colonists would be glad to get the cheap tea, that the English merchants would get back their trade, — and the colonists would still be paying a tax to the British government! But they were not to be tricked in this fashion. They cared less for money than they did for their rights. As Englishmen they insisted upon having a voice in levying their taxes, however small these might be. In 1773, despite their protest, three shiploads of tea came into Boston harbor, and the colonists decided to act. They warned the ship's master that "it was at his peril, if he suffered any of the tea brought by him to be landed." They urged him to take his tea back to England. But the governor would not permit him to sail out of the harbor, and kept warships on the watch to prevent his doing so. Finally, one morn- lO REBELLION ing in December, thousands of people gathered at a town meeting. "How will tea mingle with salt water?" some one hinted. Action was taken that very evening. At about nine o'clock there rang through the quiet streets the war whoop of Mohawk Indians. Fifty white Boston Tea . , i- • i • • i i p^j.^ men m Indian guise, natcMct in hand, rushed down to the wharf and boarded the ships. Soon the decks resounded with the thud, thud, of the hatchets, as the tea chests were opened and their contents thrown overboard into the sea. On shore a quiet, orderly crowd gathered to witness this direct defiance of the mother country. The work completed, the crowd and the "Indians" quietly returned to their homes. The news of this daring spread to the other cities to which tea had been sent — New York, Phila- delphia, and Charleston. They were inspired by the action of brave little Boston and they, too, refused to buy the tea. Boston's punishment came quickly. Her port was ordered closed until she should pay for the destroyed tea. This meant that nearly all her business was stopped, and that she could get no sup- plies by sea. The English government thought that, by making an example of Massachusetts in this way, it would frighten the other colonies into submission. But it was mistaken. The colonies felt that Boston was suffering for them all, so they loyally rallied around her and sent her supplies, accompanied by FIRST CONTINENT.VL CONGRESS messages of courage. The women, in societies known as the "Daughters of Liberty," pledged themselves to wear homespun clothes and not to drink tea. In 1774 representatives from all the colonies, except Georgia, met at Philadelphia. This meeting was known as the First Continental Con- pirgt gress. It sent a petition to the king and Continental Parliament protesting against the way Congress the colonies were being treated. More than this, it was agreed that the people throughout the several colonies should act together in with- standing English tyr- anny. Before adjourn- ing, the representatives settled on a date for a second Congress, in case it should be needed. Meanwhile, in all the towns, the men were meeting at . Minute Men night, se- cretly, in cellars, in empty stores, wherever it was safe. Sturdy men in their prime, youths in their teens — all were practicing and drilling, that they might be ready for war at a ininute's notice. For this reason they Statue of the Minute Man, at Concord 12 RKBKLLIOX Nvorc called Miuiiio Men. I'unhor preparations wore nuulc In sioriug awa\ , a little at a time, powder and shot, together with such food supplies as could best be iiseil in war beet", tish, tloin-, oatmeal, salt. All this was done secretU , >et somehow word came to (u>\ernor C^uige ot' Massachusetts that supplies were being- stored at C^oncord. About this time he recei\ed orders to arrest and send to haigland for treason two oi the leading spirits. Samuel Adams and John Hancock. But neither Adams nor Hancock was to be fmind in Boston; it was reported that the\- were in Lexington. Cunenu^r Clage tlunight that if he cotild make a ciuick, iinex[X\'ted clash li>r l.exingtiMi and Con- co\\\ he might succeed in capturing the men and the hidden stores. AccordingK-, in the dead of night, April iS, 1775, he seal a force oi British soUliers ivoxu BostiMi to make their wa\- secreth- to Lexington. But the Americans were not to be sur- prised. A messenger was at hand ready to spread the alarm. "So througli the night rodo Paul Revere: And so through tJio night wont his er\ of alarm To every Middlesex village and farm, - A cry of dofianeo and not of fear, A \ nice In tl\o darkness, a knock at tJie door, And a word that shall echo foro\erniore ! " * * Longfellow: l\uil Revore's Ride. LEXIXCiTDN AND CONCORD 13 W'luMi the British arri\ ctl at Lexington in the cool of the morning, Adams ami Hancock had i;oni\ The British found awaiting them a compaii)' r Ai- . Ai 1 ^ i^T Ml Skirmish at ot Mmiite Men thawn up on the \illage ^ . ^ * _ "^ Lexington green. 'Die astonished EngHsh com- mander ordered the patriots to disperse. As they stood tlieir ground, lie ch'cw iiis own pistol and gave tlu> ortler to thv. With the hrst ^'olley, eight of the Miiuite MiMi fell ilead and ten more were wounded. War. with all its horrors, had begun, — a war that was to stand out as a landmark in the world's history. The British now continuc^d tlu-ir a(hance. in order to make a quick, hold dash for Concord and get posses- sion of the supplies. Again their plans came t(^ naught, for at Concord most oi the supplies had nnsteriously disappeared. Still more surprising than the disappearance of the ston-s was the goodl>- num- ber of Minute Men who had sprimg up, as it were, from the ver>- earth. "B>- tlio rudo bridge tliat arched the Hood, Their tiag to April's breeze unfurled, Here once the embattled farmers stood, And tired the shot heard rouiul tlie world." * These farmers dnn'c back two hundred Redcoats from Concord Bridge, ami about noon ,,...,, ", . „ Retreat from the British began their retreat to Bos- _ , '^ Concord ton. 1-^-om behind the bushes of the roadside, little groui)s of Minute Men hred upon the * Enicr^on: Concortl H\inn. 14 REBELLION Concord Bridge British soldiers. Every bush along the roadside hid a gun, and all the stone walls seemed to have eyes. The English soldiers were tired; they were hungry ; and the day was hot. There seemed to be no end to the soldier- farmers hidden along the highway. Bos- ton, their only place of safety, was a weary distance away. When they finally did reach that city, they had suffered three times as great a loss as had the Minute Men. The news of the war quickly spread through the colonies. On all sides came the call, "Minute Men to arms ! " How this call was answered is well Bo^ston illustrated by the zeal of Israel Putnam, an old fighter of the French and Indian War, who had gone back to his farm and his plow. On the day after the battles of Lexington and Con- cord he was working In his field. A horseman galloped by so swiftly that Putnam could scarcely hear his cry to arms. But even a whisper would have been enough for that soldier. Without saying good-by to his family, he rode posthaste to Boston. Here the Minute Men had gathered from all parts BUNKER HILL 15 of the colony. They were a sturdy company, un- trained, most of them without any experience of war, yet possessed of the spirit that overcomes all difficulties. In colonial days Boston occupied only one of the several peninsulas which the city now covers. On it the British army was quartered. Across the channel was the village of Charlestown, and beyond it, Bunker Hill. The Americans saw that if they could fortify and hold this hill, they would command Boston. So, one night their men crept up the slope and set to work throwing up rude fortifications. When morning dawned they stood in firm possession of the hill. The British realized that if they were to keep Boston they must dislodge the Americans from their position. They debated as to the best method of attack. Had they gone by sea to the rear of the hill they might have been easily successful ; but they decided to make a charge at the front. The Americans had little powder, so their two commanders, General Putnam and Colonel Prescott, warned the men to wait until the enemy was close upon them. Up the hill „* ,^ ° .„ ^ ^ Bunker Hill marched the well-trained soldiers of Eng- land. Closer and yet closer they came, and still no sign from the Americans. Then quick and sharp came the order from behind the breastworks, "Fire!" A great volley broke forth, scattering the British and forcing them down the hill. Again they formed, and i6 REBELLION again they climbed the hilL Again that death-deal- ing volley forced them back and down. A third time they tried. The American powder was nearly ex- hausted; yet the valiant defenders fought on, with guns, with stones, with knives, even with their fists. But the British were too strong. The Americans were forced back, and the Brit- ish held the hill. Putnam was disappointed. It seemed to him that after such gallant fighting the patriots should have held out longer, but others said that the defense put up that day was wonder- ful, even though it ended in defeat. Throughout the coun- try there was great rejoicing. Meanwhile, on the appointed date, May lo, 1775, the Con- tinental Congress had met for the second time at Philadel- phia. This time it was really It was but a month or two before, that Patrick Henry had stood up in old St. John's Church in Richmond, Virginia, and cried, " We must fight. I repeat it, sir, we must fight. I know not what course others may take, but, as for me, give me liberty or give me death!" And he had but \'oiced the feelings of the greater part of Bunker Hill Monument to prepare for war. SECOND CONTINENTAL C0N(;RESS 17 the colonists. For a long time they had been work- ing together to avoid war. Now they had to work together to prepare for it. But there were great difficulties ahead. An army was needed, but it was hard to get each colony to promise its share of men. Each feared second that it might do more than its neighbor. Continental Throughout the entire war this bickering Congress in Congress greatly weakened its power and dis- couraged the people. One wdse thing they did agree upon, however. They appointed George Washing- ton commander in chief of the Continental army. His remarkable military skill, already shown in the French and Indian War, and his high character made him a fitting leader in a great cause. Besides, Wash- ington was in command of the Virginian forces. Thus far the fighting had been done by the men of Massa- chusetts. A southern commander would unite the armies of the north and the south. When told of his appointment, Washington said, " I beg it may be remembered by every gentleman in this room, that I this day declare, with Washington, the utmost sincerity, I do not think my- commander self equal to the command I am honored ^^ ^^^^^ with." We shall see how this man, in spite of his modest doubts, brought honor and glory to himself and to his country. It was beneath a famous old elm tree, at Cambridge, on the third day of July, 1775, that Washington, tall and dignified, first stood before i8 REBELLION the eager young soldiers and drew forth his sword as commander of the American army. "Firmly erect, he towered above them all, . . . Soldier and statesman, rarest unison — " * No one knew better than Washington the great task that was before him. The drilling of the soldiers until they were weary, the constant begging for supplies, which were so slow in coming, the petty cjuarrels among the soldiers themselves — all these difficulties, together with the great responsibility of the position, would have daunted most men. " Not honored then or now because he wooed The popular voice, but tliat he still withstood; Broad-minded, higher-souled, there is but one Who was all this and ours, and all men's, — Washington." * FOR CAREFUL STUDY England, like other European nations, prized her colonies because of their commercial value. In her eagerness for trade, however, she came to disregard the interests of the colonists. The British Parliament passed many laws that favored British merchants and hindered the colonists in their trade with other countries. This led the colonists to smuggle goods contrary to law. Then the English began to search the homes of the colonists for smuggled goods. In 1765 England levied a stamp tax on business papers. The Stamp Act was repealed the next year, but the repeal was soon followed by taxes of another * Lowell: Under the Old Elm. CAUSE OF THE RE\OLUTION 19 sort. Heavy duties were placed upon many kinds of imports. To meet this measure the Americans made a point of not buying any British goods, thus kilHng the English trade with them. English troops were sent to Boston, which further irritated the colonists. In 1770 disturbances between soldiers and citizens took place in New York and Boston. These events ha\e been given the exaggerated titles of the Battle of Golden Hill and the Boston Massacre. Finally, England withdrew all duties except that on tea. But the colonists were standing for a prin- ciple — that they should not be required to pay any tax, however small, unless they had a voice in laying that tax. So when tea was brought into Boston harbor a party of colonists boarded the ships and dumped the tea overboard. This was in 1773. England punished Boston by closing her port. This brought matters to a crisis. The colonies banded together, and sent members to a Continental Congress at Philadelphia in 1774. This Congress petitioned the king and Parliament for relief. Meanwhile, men throughout the colonies were secretly preparing for war, drilling and gathering ammunition and supplies. Governor Gage sent a British force to capture such stores at Concord. On the way there, at Lexington, April 19, 1775, was fought the first battle of what became a war of revolt of the colonies against England. The American soldiers besieged the British in Bos- ton, and two months later took possession of Bunker Hill, from which they were dislodged only after a stubborn fight, June 17, 1775. 20 REBELLION Meanwhile, the Continental Congress had met for the second time, and prepared for war. It appointed George Washington commander in chief. In July, at Cambridge, he took command of the troops. FACT TO BE MEMORIZED The Revolutionary War, 1775-1783, was caused by England's treatment of her colonies as to taxation and trade laws. Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill Bibliography Bacon. — Cooke: Stories of the Old Dominion. Bunker Hill.— Kaler: With Warren at Bunker Hill. Otis: Boston Boys of 1775. Otis: Meal the Miller. Otis: Signal Boys of '75. Otis: Under the Liberty Tree. Concord. — Tappan: American Hero Stories. Putnam. — Bouve: American Heroes and Heroines. Hale: Boys' Heroes. Ober: "Old Put," the Patriot. Tappan: American Hero Stories. General. — Gordy: American Leaders and Heroes. Pratt: American History Stories, Vol. L Chap. 2. Retold from St. Nicholas: Colonial Stories. CHAPTER II INDEPENDENCE In spite of Lexington and Concord the Americans still hoped that the king and Parliament would grant them the rights of Englishmen. If so, the colonists would gladly and loyally support the English govern- ment. The Second Continental Congress even sent one more petition to George III asking for fair treat- ment. The king paid no attention to it, but closed American ports and called the people rebels. Even as they waited, hopeful of a peaceful settle- ment, the Americans were not neglecting the mili- tary features of the struggle. On the Ticonderoga very day Congress met they captured and Crown British stores and ammunition at Ticon- ^°*°*^ deroga. The attack was made by Ethan Allen and a party of hardy frontiersmen — the Green Mountain Boys. Although the fort was equipped with two hundred cannon, the attacking party, striking unex- pectedly in the dead of night, easily took the startled garrison prisoners. Two days later Crown Point, near by, also surrendered. The Americans hoped to win over Canada to their side as a fourteenth colony. Whether Canada joined 22 INDEPENDENCE them or not it would be to their advantage to gain control of the region. Two expeditions, there- fore, were formed to invade it. The first one, under Montgomery, succeeded in capturing Montreal. The second, under Benedict Arnold, started in the winter of 1775 to march through the wilderness to Quebec. The sol- diers endured unspeakable hardships. Food gave out, and the cold caused dreadful suffering. Many died by the way, others returned home carrying the sick with them. But Arnold pushed on. By the time he reached Quebec his numbers had been so reduced that an attack was impossible. Finally, Montgomery came to his aid. With joined forces they stormed the citadel, but without success. In six months the Americans were compelled to leave Canada. For the first few months after Washington's ap- pointment as commander in chief, the people watched him to see what he would do. They „ ^ likewise found fault with him because he Boston seemed to be doing nothing. Yet Wash- ington was busy drilling his men and watching his chance to seize Dorchester Heights, on the south side of Boston, and thus compel the British to fight or retreat. The English general, Howe, neglected to protect this hill. As a result the English lost Bos- ton, for Washington succeeded in fortifying the Heights. The British dreaded to meet the fight- DEFENSE OF FORT MOULTRIE 23 ing Americans on a hill. They had learned their lesson at Bunker Hill and were not to be caught again. Therefore they folded their tents, went on board their ships, and sailed out of Boston on the 17th of March, 1776. ■ The fighting was not all at the north. In Feb- ruary, at Moores Creek, a party of North Caro- lina Minute Men had defeated a large force of colonists who were loyal to the ^ , ^„ „ . •' Fort Moultrie king. . A British force under Clinton and Cornwallis, together with a fleet, was sent to subdue the people of North Carolina. But 10,000 armed men were awaiting them, and so they went farther south, planning to take Charleston. Here they found that the colonists had fortified an island in the harbor. Fort Moultrie, as it was named, was strongly built of sand and logs and was well armed with large cannon. The British fleet bombarded the fort, while the army tried to reach the island from the rear. But both fleet and army were badly repulsed, and the British sailed away to the north. All this while, England really did not want a war any more than did the colonists. Her funds were low. She needed all her strength to drive back the great nations of Europe who were pressing in upon her. France particularly, — how France hated her! Perhaps, if England's colonies did openly rebel against her, F'rance might help a little, if only to spite Eng- land. 24 INDEPENDENCE But King George was determined to show his authority. He hired 17,000 German soldiers, called Hessians, to help him subdue the colo- nists. Thereupon, the indignation of the Americans burst all bounds. They seriously con- sidered the matter of independence. Some of the colonies had already driven away their royal governors and had begun to govern themselves. In May, 1776, the Continental Congress agreed that the colonies should no longer consider themselves under the English crown, but that they should rule them- selves. Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, put his ideas on paper in the form of a resolution. It began: "Resolved: That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." It was not until July 2 that Congress agreed to this resolution. The next step was to declare to the whole world that we were free. It had Declaration of ^^jj^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ Thomas Jefferson to Independence write one of the most famous papers of history, our Declaration of Independence. This was adopted July 4, 1776, and changed the dependent colonies to free and independent states. Proud indeed are the families who can trace their descent from one of its signers. Some one remarked, as he put his signature to the great paper, "We must all hang together." "Yes," answered Franklin, "if we do not hang together we shall hang separately." THE LIHERTV BELL 25 Liberty Bell Within a few days copies of the Declaration were printed and sent to each colony. In front of the state house at Philadelphia, where the Declaration had been adopted, a great crowd gathered to hear it read. As the last words died into silence there came a joyful peal from a bell which hung in the state house tower, and which bore the words, " Proclaim liberty throughout the land unto all the inhabitants thereof." How fitting it was that this bell should be the first to peal out the glad tidings of freedom ! A huge crack now mars its silver voice, but the old bell, though silent, still sings its joyful song in the hearts of the American people. 26 INDEPENDENCE Throughout the land the Declaration was read to other eager throngs, sometimes by the chief magis- trate in the public square, sometimes by the minister from the pulpit. The news was received in different ways by different people. The serious Puritans of New England went to church, there to breathe their thanksgiving and to pray for the success of their beloved country. The gayer people expressed their joy by building big bonfires, by firing guns, and by having torchlight processions. In some such fashion has each succeeding Fourth of July been celebrated. Now that war for independence was formally de- clared, England saw that she must change her plans. There was no use in continuing to worry ngan s Massachusetts in order to make an exam- plans for war pie of her. All the colonies must be treated as in rebellion. In consequence, England thought out two lines of action. If either failed, she could fall back upon the other. One of these was to begin at the south and, working northward, conquer the states one by one, until all should acknowledge Great Britain's rule. According to the other method she would first take New York and gain control of the Hudson valley. For several reasons the second way seemed the better. In the first place, England was mistress of the seas. The Americans had no navy except small fishing boats whose owners, forsaking their business, armed their boats and went out upon the high seas. MANEUVERS ABOUT NEW YORK 27 It turned out that even these made considerable trouble for the English. They would swoop down upon English merchant ships and seize the cargoes. When this could not be done, they would content themselves with making commerce difficult and im- safe. Such private vessels were given permission by Congress to carry on this warfare and were known as privateers. England had another advantage in that Canada was at her command. Here was a safe and easy base from which to start an attack upon New York. Then again, England felt that the Six Nations in the Mohawk valley would surely help her, because of their loyalty to Sir \Mlliam Johnson, of French and Indian War fame, and to his son. The Johnsons were Tories; that is, they were loyal to the king. For these reasons it seemed wise to gain immediate possession of New York. That would sever New England from the other states and make intercourse between them almost impossible. As the New Eng- land states would then have no means of getting supplies by land or by sea they might soon be brought to terms. Washington guessed what the British would do, so from Boston he marched his army to New York. To protect this city he fortified Brooklyn Maneuvers Heights. These heights held the same about New important relation to New York that ^°^^ Dorchester Heights did to Boston. In August, 1776, 28 INDEPENDENCE Howe, with 20,000 men, landed on Long Island. Meeting a smaller body of American troops he worsted them in a short, quick en- counter, and forced them to with- draw to Brooklyn Heights. If Howe had followed up this vic- tory and quickly besieged the Ameri- can army, he would certainly have captured it. Here was a rare chance for the British to bring the war to a speedy close. Too wise to storm the hilltop on which the en- emy was encamped, they planned to surround Brook- lyn Heights and starve its holders into surrender; but they did not act quickly enough. Washington real- ized the enemy's plan, and, ever ready for an emergency, he outwitted them. He sent trusted messengers across the river to gather together boats of all sorts, from sloop to rowboat. Into these, at nightfall, Washington loaded his entire force, with firearms, horses, and supplies. Through the still darkness the needed trips were made, with Washington on the bank, keeping order and quiet. He was the last man to leave the shore. Battle Monument in Prospect Park, Brooklyn RETREAT ACROSS NEW JERSEY 29 When the British awoke, about seven o'clock the next morning, they found, Hke Old Mother Hubbard, that the cupboard was bare. Howe crossed the river in pursuit and Washington retreated northward to Harlem Heights. Several skirmishes took place in the vicinity, but after a few weeks Washington w^as forced to abandon New York. With part of the army he retreated to New Jersey, sending orders to General Charles Lee to join him with other troops. But Lee was jealous of his superior officer, and found some excuse for not obeying. Washington, depri^'cd of the aid he had been count- ing on, found himself in a most critical position. The British were in hot pursuit. They pushed him hard across New Jersey. He skill- .^ _ ° •' -^ _ New Jersey fully hindered their progress by burning bridges and destroying supplies. Sometimes the rear- guard of his army looked up from their work of destruc- tion to see the British advance appearing upon the horizon. Nor was it diflicult to follow the American line of march. The soldiers were ill-clad. Many of them, shoeless, left behind them footprints of blood upon the frozen ground. Many were going away be- cause their term of enlistment had expired; others were deserting. It was nearly Christmas time, and they wanted to go home. This state of afifairs became known to the British. (\)rnwalHs, their commander, concluding that the war would soon be over, began to pack his trunks for home. 30 INDEPENDENCE Battle of Trenton But Cornwallis was to unpack those trunks and do some hard fighting before he again saw old England. Washington had been forced to put the Delaware River between himself and his pursuers, but at last he was reenforced by the troops Lee had been holding back. At Tren- ton were more than a thousand Hessians, comfortably settled in winter quarters. Washington planned to surprise them. He chose Christmas night of 1776 for his attack. A furi- ous wind whistled down the chimneys; sleet snapped against the window panes. Safe indoors, the Hessians ate the good things of their Christmas dinner, and drank the wine that warmed their blood and made them noisily merry. Little did they suspect that in the bitterness of a driving snowstorm Washington was bearing down upon them. Despite the fact that the river was clogged with cakes of floating ice, some fishermen-soldiers undertook the difficult task of rowing Washington's army across. It was slow work and it was biting cold work. Those who first landed walked up and down upon the cold ground, beating their arms back and forth, and blowing their breath upon their freezing fingers, while they waited for the others to cross. Then came the long march of nine miles to Trenton. On the way Hessian trooper BATTLE OF TRENTON 31 two men died of cold. The sleet made the muskets damp. When some one suggested to Washington that they would be of no use, he replied, " Use bayo- nets, then. We must take that town." Separating into two parties, the patriots at dawn entered Trenton from two different directions. Their cannon were placed where the volleys would sweep the streets. When the first boom rang out like a sunrise gun, the Hessians, stupefied, half-dressed, rushed into the streets. Their senses dulled with sleep, they hurried this way and that, but nowhere was there a place of escape. Here they ran towards a cannon, there into a line of bayonets. The dazed commander tried in vain to gather his men in line. All too late he recalled the fact that in the midst of the Christmas merriment, some one had handed him a note which he had thrust into his pocket. It was a warning brought by a spy, and told of the coming of Washington and his troops. Next day the note, unopened, was found on his dead body. In about an hour Washington was in command of the town, with one thousand Hessians as his prisoners, together with a great store of war supplies. This was the most welcome kind of Christmas present to the weakened American army. Cornwallis came posthaste from New York to Princeton, and advanced with an army. The second day of the new year, 1777, found him just south of Trenton. Nothing but a small creek separated 32 INDEPENDENCE Battle of Princeton him from the American army. His men were tired. It seemed advisable to him, since he had the enemy where he could watch them closely, to wait until the morning and then make a brilliant capture. So narrow was the separating stream that the British sentinels heard the American soldiers talking together as they piled wood on the campfires and dug intrenchments. Next morning Cornwallis awoke to find the opposite side of the stream deserted. The British had been sadly deceived. Those campfires and the noise of pickaxes had been kept up only to cover the flight of the Amer- icans in the darkness. The dis- tant roar of cannon, in the rear, told the English that Washing- ton had marched his men around their army. Near Princeton Washington met some British who were go- ing to reenforce Cornwallis. The "old fox," as Cornwallis called him, routed them successfully and pushed on to a strong po- sition at Morristown. This was a wonderful piece of work on Washington's part. It really un- did all that the English had accomplished in six months. Except that they had gained New York, Old cannon at Princeton CONTINENTAL MONEY 33 they were no better off than when they started. Here was Washington safe at Morris town, and in control of most of New Jersey. At the same time he was where he could reach the Hudson valley in case of need. Washington had conducted a whole campaign in nine days. The patriots were cheered by the skillful leadership of the commander in chief and by the sturdy bravery of his men. Nevertheless they had not raised money to pay their soldiers in a long time. The reason for this was that Congress had no money — nor any means of getting money. It could say to each of the several states: "We need so much for our troops; your share will be so many dollars," but it could not compel the state to pay that amount. All through the war. Congress was hard pressed to raise money. In 1775 the gov- Paper money ernmen t had started making paper money — bills which were nothing but printed promises to pay. It continued throughout the war to issue these bills, asking the people to accept them in place of coin. We use paper money to-day and we are all glad to get as much of it as we can. That is because we l- slow^ to take the i)aper money in return for things they had to sell or for ser\ ices rendered. The result was that the paper gradualh' became al- most ^\()^lhK>ss. As Wash- ington once said, it would take a load of jiapir bills io \)\xy for a load of potatoes. In fact, the C\)nlincM\tal currenc}', as it was called, had so little \alue that we even yet say of any worthless thing that it is " not worth a continental." By the end of tlu« war many million dollars of this jxiper mone>' had l)eea issued, and it was never redeemed. With so much trouble over money matters, Wash- ington found it hard to hold the troops Robert Morris ' t 1 • together. In desperation he wrote to his friend, Robert Morris, a wealtlw banker of Phila- [Continental paper uioiioy PLANS OF rill': Hki'i'isii 35 dclphia, askint; liim to get ^$5(),<)()() in money as (liiiekly as he ecnikl. On New Year's Day Morris went eailing. At the door of friend and stranger he knocked and asked lor lielp. Hy noon he had raisi'd the re(iiiired amount, and Washington received il in time to save the army. While Washington was trying to strengthen his army the British were planning for the c(jming summer. They saw plainly that it was British plans not enough to hold the city of New York, to gain They needed to concjuer the entire state. ^^^ ^'^^^ So they laid a threefold plan, (i) (General Piurgoyne was to invade New York state by way of Canada and Lake Champlain. (2) Cok^nel St. Legcr was to go by way of the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario into the Mohawk valley. Marching through this valley, he was to join Rurgoyne on the Hudson. (3) Gen- eral Mowe, with the greater i)orti()n of his army, was to leave the city of New York and go uj) the Hudson, joining the other two at Albany. All this seemed an excellent plan and easy to carry out, especially as there were many Tories in New York who doubtless would lend their aid. With the colonies thus cut in two, the British thought they would lind little difhculty in putting down first one and then the other group of rebels. Let us see how each of these three plans worked out. (Plan I.) Burgoyne came up Laki' (^hamplain in June, 1777, and cn|)lurcd Ticonderoga. Il is saitl that 36 INDKPKNDENCE when the news of this victory was brought to the king he clapped his hands and exclaimed, "I have beaten them. I have beaten all the Americans!" However, Burgoyne, in passing from Lake Cham- plain to the Hudson, found his way blocked by fallen trees and ruined bridges. If the Amer- Battle of . , , , ^ ^ , . -, . ^ leans were not strong enough to meet hrni Bennington ^ ° * in battle, they were at least clever enough to hinder his advance. Burgoyne had to leave be- hind him many soldiers to safeguard the transportation of his supplies, which came from Canada. Hence his progress was slow. He knew that the Americans had stores at Bennington, Vermont, so he sent about a thousand Hessians to secure them. The invaders were met by Colonel Stark with a body of militia, and so successfully did the Americans fight that only about seventy of the Hessians got back to the British camp. This was a hard blow to Burgoyne. (Plan 2.) St. Leger gathered a number of Tories and Six-Nation Indians about him and proceeded to the Mohawk valley as planned. His first ^ . , move was to besiege Fort Stanwix, which Onskany _ ° was held by six hundred Continentals. One day he learned that an army of eight hundred patriots was on its way to reenforce the garrison at the fort. St. Leger sent a detachment of troops to meet it. At Oriskany the Americans were caught in a ravine and a terrible struggle followed. The gal- lant American commander, General Herkimer, was BATTLE OF ORISKANY 37 severely wounded, but, seated at the foot of a tree, he continued to shout his cheering orders to his men. The Americans held the field, and the British retreated. This has been called " the bloodiest conflict in the war of the Revolution." " As men who fight for home and child and wife, As men oblivious of life In holy martyrdom, Tiie yeomen of the valley fought that day, Throughout thy fierce and deadly fray, — Blood-red Oriskany. " Heroes are born in such a chosen hour; From common men they rise, and tower. Like thee, brave Herkimer! Who wounded, steedless, still beside the beech Cheered on thy men with sword and speech. In grim Oriskany." * It was in this campaign that the American flag of stars and stripes was hoisted for the first time. While holding Fort Stanwix, the Continentals made a sortie in which they captured five British flags. These they hoisted, upside down, over their fort. Then above them they raised their own flag, which the men had hastily put together. In June, 1777, Congress had decided upon a national flag. It was to be of alternate red and white stripes, thirteen of them, with a blue field containing thirteen * Charles D. Helmer: The IJattlc of Oriskany. 38 INDEPENDENCE Our first flag white stars in a circle. Red was the emblem of strength, blue of unity, and white of purity. Mrs. Betsy Ross had, some weeks earlier, made the first flag of this design. But she would have found little resemblance to her beautiful handiwork in the first Red, White, and Blue raised over Fort Stanwix on August 6. One man gave his white shirt, another his blue coat, and a third, strips of his wife's red flannel petticoat. It was a curious makeshift, but the three colors went up with a lusty hurrah from the throats of the proud Americans. St. Leger continued to besiege the fort, but help for the defenders was near at hand. Benedict Arnold was approach- ^""^^ national ing with a strong force of pa- triots. When the two armies were about twenty miles apart Arnold played a clever trick upon the enemy. Through a captured Tory and a friendly Oneida Indian he spread abroad exaggerated stories of the size and strength of the American army that was coming. The Indians were frightened and fled. In a very short while St. Leger, with what was left of his army, pushed back to Oswego and embarked. This left Burgoyne with no one to depend upon but Howe. / Retreat of St. Leger HOWE OCCUPIES PHILADELPHIA 39 (Plan 3.) Howe was at New York. Here he was in daily conference with a man whose name makes a dark l)lot on the pages of our history, General Charles Lee. It was he who had . Lee refused to obey Washington. Now, taken prisoner by the British, he turned traitor. Forget- ting the loyalty due his country, he laid before Howe the plans of the American army. He assured Howe that Washington had sent so many soldiers into New York that his forces were greatly weakened. Since Howe had not yet received direct orders to join Burgoyne, this seemed his chance to cap- ture Philadelphia. He first tried to draw the Americans away from their strong position at Mor- ristown, but found that Washington was not thus to be caught. Then Howe started over again, this time sailing southward to Chesapeake Bay, with the hope of reach- ing Philadelphia in that way. Soon after Brandywine he landed, Washington met him at and Brand>wine Creek. Here, owing to the Germantown superior strength of the British army — 18,000 against 11,000 — the Americans were defeated. But Washington so hindered Howe in his march to Phil- adelphia that it took him two whole weeks to make the twenty-six miles. Again, in October, he attacked Howe, this time just outside of Philadelphia, at German town. Again Washington was defeated, and people wondered what he was doing. They could 40 INDEPENDENCE not understand why he was continually putting his army in a position to be beaten. But this was not carelessness on the part of the great general. It was a well-laid plan to keep Howe, since he had deliber- ately walked into Washington's hands, so busy that he could not spare a single man to be sent to Bur- goyne in New York. And indeed Burgoyne's need was very great. The American forces under Gates were pressing him hard. Expecting Howe to join him, he crossed urren er o ^^^^ Hudson and stationed his men just Burgoyne below Saratoga. At this move, a detach- ment of Americans pushed northward and cut him off from Ticonderoga, his supply headquarters. Now he was fairly trapped. There was naught to do but fight. This Burgoyne did right gallantly. Two battles were waged. In the first the British were driven back; in the second they were defeated be- yond question. On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne surrendered his whole army. Thus, by forcing St. Leger to retreat and capturing Burgoyne, the Ameri- cans completely defeated England in the first of her two great plans for subduing her rebels. In Europe the capture of Burgoyne's army pro- duced a tremendous stir. The French rejoiced. Now indeed they would be safe in helping the struggling little country. So they recognized the United States as an independent nation and prom- ised her aid. EARLY BATTLES OF THE WAR 41 FOR CAREFUL STUDY On July 4, 1776, the American colonists declared to the world that they were free, and independent of England. This action was taken only after they had appealed to the king to give them their rights, and he had ignored their appeal. There remained, it seemed, but one thing to do — to declare war for independence. The British had already sailed away from Boston. Their next move was to gain control of the region about New York. They defeated the Americans in the battle of Long Island, August, 1776. Washington skillfully retreated through New Jersey, hard pressed l)y the enemy. Suddenly he fell upon the Hessians at Trenton, December 26, 1776, taking them prisoners and capturing valuable supplies. Washington won the battle of Princeton and closed his campaign by gaining the strategic position of Morristown. He spent the remainder of the winter strengthening his army. Robert Morris rendered valuable service by responding to Washington's appeal to raise money for the troops. The summer and fall of 1777 marked defeat for the British. They hoped to gain control of the Hudson valley, thus separating New England from the other colonies. Burgoyne came down to the Hudson from Lake Champlain, but part of his army suffered defeat at Bennington. Burgoyne was to be met by St. Leger, who was to come through the Mohawk valley. But St. Leger was obliged to retreat to Oswego. EARLY BATTLES OF THE WAR 43 Howe, also, was to join Burgoyne, comino up from New York. But Howe got the idea that Burgoyne could take care of himself. So he sailed to Chesa- peake Bay in order to occupy Philadelphia. Wash- ington harassed the British in their march north to Philadelphia, and although he was beaten at Brandy- wine and Germantown, he kept the British busy for many days. By this means Washington kept Howe away from Burgoyne. Burgoyne, thus left to him- self, was defeated at Saratoga . and forced to sur- render, October 17, 1777. One result of this victory was that France recognized the independence of the Americans and planned to aid them. FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED The Declaration of Independence was adopted at Phila- delphia, July 4, 1776. The capture of Burgoyne's army, 1777, prevented the English from dividing the colonies in two along the Hudson, and secured French aid for the Americans. Bibliography Trenton. — Blaisdell and Ball: Hero Stories from American His- tory. Valley Forge. — Tappan: American Hero Stories. Washington. — Parsons: George Washington. Scudder: George Washington. Scelye: Story of Washington. General. — Brooks: Century Book of the American Revolution. Hart and Hill: Camps and Firesides of the Revo- lution. Henty: True to the Old Flag. Holden: Our Country's Flag. Kaler: Boys of Fort Schuyler. Mason: Tom Strong. Mitchell: A Venture in 1777. 44 INDEPENDENCE Perry: Three Little Daughters of the Revolution. Smith: Boys and Girls of Seventy-seven. Stoddard: Battle of New York. Stoddard: Guert Ten Eyck. Stoddard: Red Patriot. Tomlinson: A Jersey Boy in the Revolution. Tomlinson: In the Hands of the Redcoats. Tomlinson: Lieutenant under Washington. Tomlinson: Rider of the Black Horse. Tomlinson: Under Colonial Colors. True: Scouting for Washington. Wright: Children's Stories in American History. w: ft CHAPTER III RECOGNITION For some time before France formally recognized the struggling Americans as a nation, many French noblemen had been privately aiding them. Even the king had secretly sent money for the cause of freedom. This generosity was largely due to the influence in the French court of one x'\merican, Benjamin Franklin. Franklin had been a printer. For many years he published " Poor Richard's Almanac," whose numer- ous quaint sayings soon became widely , T- 1 r Franklin known. Even to-day we quote many of them, such as " Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise." Franklin was also a student of the sciences, and his reputation as a thinker was now almost world-wide. It was he who first proved that lightning is caused by electricity. Franklin had served his country in many ways. He had founded the first hospital and the first circu- lating library in America. He had been a postmaster and had made great improvements in the methods of carrying the mails. Franklin was sent to France in order to plead the American cause. His arrival in Paris was a great 45 46 RECOGNITION Hale persuaded diplomat. event. His portrait appeared in the shop windows, and snuffboxes bore his picture on their covers. To the French people he seemed to represent the best of American qualities, fairness and common sense. Benjamin Franklin was our greatest influence abroad. It thus seems that there are several ways in which to serve one's country. Washington devoted to it his remarkable skill as a statesman and a general. Morris lent his money and others to lend theirs. Franklin was a Nathan Hale served as a spy and gave his life for his country. When, after the battle of Long Island, Washing- ton needed some one to go into the enemy's camp to find out their plans, it was Hale who offered his services. He secured the much needed infor- mation, but was caught on his way back, tried, and condemned to death as a spy. As he was led out to be hanged, a British officer taunted him with, "This is a fine death for a soldier to die." "If I had ten thousand lives to live, I would lay them down in defense of my injured and bleeding country," gallantly retorted Captain Hale. His farewell letters to family and Statue of Nathan Hale, New York VALLEY FORGE 47 friends were torn up before his eyes; but he never flinched. His last words were, "1 regret that I have but one hfe to lose for my country." These are some of the great names of our history, and along each line of service there were other men, all giving and doing their best, though their names have slipped out of mind as quietly as their services were given. The glad tidings of French support came in May, 1778, after the saddest winter in the history of the Revolutionary War. The British troops, under Howe, had been quartered in ., ".^ ^^ ^ ^ Valley Forge Philadelphia. Washington, in order to keep close watch on them, stationed his troops at Valley Forge, only twenty miles away. It was a good location for the army to hold, but the men spent a dreadful winter there. Much of this suffering might have been avoided if the Continental govern- ment had managed better. The soldiers were without proper shelter. Some lived in crudely Iniilt loghouses; but most of them, lived in huts made of piled up sods, or of fence rails tied together at the top, the holes being stopped with clay. This might not have been so bad if the soldiers had been furnished with clothing, blankets, and food. All of these supplies could have been provided if Congress had managed properly. As it was, the fare was worse than wretched. There were days when no one tasted meat, and times when the soldiers were even without l)read. In the bitter cold of night 48 RECOGNITION they huddled about the campfires, fearing to leave the grateful warmth lest they freeze to death. Those who were fortunate enough to have blankets gener- ously gave away strips of them to their brother soldiers to wrap about their bleeding feet. Remembering that there were among these suffer- ers men who were accustomed to living in comfort, or even luxury, we realize that our forefathers paid a heavy price for the freedom that we enjoy. Wash- ington suffered with his men and for them. It is told that a Quaker one day came upon Washington in a lonely bit of deep woods. The commander of many men was on his knees. Tears streamed down his cheeks as he prayed. Reverently the Quaker withdrew. Relating this incident to his wife, he said, " I tell thee, George Washington will succeed! The Americans will surely win their independence ! I have heard him pray in the forest to-day, Hannah, and the Lord will surely hear his prayer." Washington's enemies added to the bitterness of that winter. Even members of Congress, who should have known better, found fault with Lafayette him. It was such loyal friends as the young Marquis de Lafayette who comforted him. Lafayette was a very rich and very popular young nobleman of the French court. The cause of the Americans had won his heart. He had written to Congress offering himself as a volunteer, and prom- ising to pay his own expenses. Needless to say, V FRIENDS FROM OTHER LANDS 49 his offer had been joyfully accepted. He liked the Americans immediately, and, in turn, quickly made for himself a warm place in the hearts of the struggling people. That this man so used to luxury should cast his lot with the sufferers of Valley Forge, increased their own courage. Another foreigner who became interested in the Americans was a Prussian officer. Baron von Steuben. The French Steuben government sent hmi across the waters to give the raw American troops the drill and discipline they so greatly needed. When he saw their poverty and misery at Valley Forge, he paid Washington a high compliment, saying, "There is not a com- mander in Europe who could keep together troops so wretched as these." Steuben began to work with a will. First he scolded and ' yelled at the men because they were so ^Iwor?'^ stupid. In the next breath, in queer half- German, half-English talk, he complimented them on their ability to learn quickly. Then, like a flash, he turned on them a torrent of anger for some blunder. Nevertheless, before the winter had passed, he was proud of his troops, and with good cause. When the French fmally decided to help, they made good their word by sending over a fleet. At its approach Sir Henry Clinton, who was now in com- 50 RECOGNITION mand in General Howe's place, left Philadelphia and moved to New York. Washington followed and partly surrounded him by stretching his The British ^ \ ,^ . .,7 tT • in New York army from Morristown to West romt. Clinton began sending out war parties who scattered destruction as they went. He hoped, by making raids upon the people of Connecticut, to draw Washington to their rescue and thus get him away from New York. Instead of failing into this trap, Washington planned an attack on Stony Point, hoping that the British would be tempted to leave Con- ap ure necticut. Stony Point was wonderfully well fortified. But with his usual good judgment Washington chose Anthony Wayne for the difhcult task. "Mad Anthony," his soldiers called him because of his reckless daring, but they were always ready to follow his lead. Now, under cover of darkness, Wayne led his men through the woods to the fort. There they separated into two columns, and at a signal, bayonet in hand, rushed upon the fort, which went down before them. It will be remembered that St. Leger, in his expedi- tion through the Mohawk valley, had depended largely upon the Indians and the Tories of the roquois region. His expedition had been a fail- punished * f ure, but the Indians, urged by the British, continued to conduct scalping and burning parties. Washington sent General Sullivan to subdue them. JOHN PAUL JONES 51 He destroyed fully forty Indian villages and so weak- ened the power of the Six Nations that they were nev^er troublesome again. Other Indians were active on our western frontier. In 1778 George Rogers Clark marched into the country north of ciark in the the Ohio. He defeated the English and Northwest their Indian allies so completely that the Territory Americans were later able to claim all the land from the Ohio northward to the Great Lakes. Before taking up the final campaign of the war, we must turn for a moment to the high seas. Small as was the American navy, it still man- aged to snatch a bit of glory from old j° " England, the Mistress of the Seas. The na\al hero of the American Revolution was John Paul Jones. He was a Scotchman by birth, but a mighty fighter for America. He succeeded in making his name a word to be feared in the coast towns of Eng- land and Scotland. Jones was in command of five ships, most of them, provided by the French. One evening in September, 1779, while off the eastern coast of England, he sighted two men-of-war escorting some merchant vessels. He attacked the larger. In the heat of action Jones's vessel, the Bonhomme Richard, and the English ship, Serapis, came close to each other. Jones seized this opportunity boldly to lash the two ships together. Climbing their rigging, his men hurled hand grenade^s down upon the enemy's deck. Terror seized the English crew. Their com- 52 RECOGNITION mander was forced to surrender, and John Paul Jones was the hero of the hour. England had failed to conquer New York state. There now remained to her the second large plan of attack, that is, beginning with Georgia and working northward, to subdue the states one by one. But England really did not want to carry on the war. There were many in her land who urged the king and Parliament to acknowledge American independence. Our stanch friend, William Pitt, came from a sick bed to make a last great speech in Parliament. In it he said, "No man more highly esteems and hon- ors the English troops than I do. I know their virtues and their valor; I know they can achieve anything but impossibilities; and I know that the conquest of English America is an impossibility. You cannot, my Lords, you cannot conquer America. ... If I were an American as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop was landed in my country, I never would lay down my arms — never, never, never One reason why England could not conquer America was the part played by France. When France be- Loss of friended the rebellious colonies, as Eng- Georgia and land termed them, there was nothing left South Carolina f^j. ^^^ mother country to do but to declare war against France. That country in turn provoked a quarrel between Spain and England. Thus England was kept quite busy with her affairs THE ENGLISH IN THE SOUTH ;3 in Europe. She had few troops to spare for America. In December, 1778, howexer, England sent an expe- dition to the far south. Savan- nah was taken, and a royal go\'- ernor placed over Georgia. In 1780 Clinton captured Charles- ton, and soon gained control of South Carolina. Things seemed to be going well with the English plan. But before long the Ameri- cans were successfully annoying the \-ictors. Small parties of dar- ing men captured supply wagons, broke into camp during the night, and kept the intruders ever anx- ious, ever in danger. W^ashington wished to send General Greene to relieve South Carolina. But Gen- eral Gates wanted the position, and, hav- ing much power in Congress, obtained it. He encountered Cornwallis at Camden, South Caro- lina, where the Americans suffered one of the worst defeats of the war. Now indeed the outlook was dark and gloomy to the Americans. To add to their troubles, one of their brilliant fighters turned traitor. Bene- dict Arnold, the hero of many a battle, let love of money and disappointed ambi- tion conquer his better self. Clinton was in command An American soldier of the south Camden Arnold's treason 54 RECOGNrriON ill New York, having left the south when the English had gained a firm footing in South Carolina and Georgia. Arnold secured command of West Point, and then began to make arrangements to give it over to the English. For his treachery he was to receive from the English a large sum of money and a high office in their army. Fortunately, the plot was dis- covered. Arnold escaped to the English, and served under them to the end of the war. 'Hiose who knew him best said that his guilt weiglied upon him like an (Acrpowering burden during the remainder of his life. With success behind him in ( leorgia and South Carolina, Corn- Wcillis sent twelve hundred men At West Point BATTLES IN THE SOUTH 55 into the western part of North CaroHna. These were met by a strong though untrained force of mountaineers, who defeated and cap- jyiQ^ntain tured them at Kings Mountain. Congress was now willing to let Washington send Greene into the south. Greene had fine men to help him, Morgan, Marion, " The Swamp Cowpens Fox," "Light Horse" Harry Lee, and Washington's cousin, William Washington. But his army was only 2000 in all. poorly clothed, and with few weapons, and the soldiers had been without pay for man>- months. With such a force he feared to risk open battle. Yet the Americans won the next important conflict, — the battle of Cowpens, in which Morgan's men completely routed the British under Tarleton. During the next few weeks the two armies pursued each other from place to place. First Cornwallis drove Greene out of North Carolina and into \'irginia. But somehow he could ^ °lj => Court House never catch him. Then Greene came down upon Cornwallis, and they fought a terrible battle at Guilford Court House. The British, while not actually beaten, lost so many men that they had to fall back to the coast. Cornwallis then marched into Mrginia and established himself at Yorktown. This gave Greene his chance to advance through the three southern colonies and win back all except the cities of Wilmington, Charleston, and Savannah. 56 RECOGNITION Let us now see just how matters stood in the summer of 1781. Clinton was in New York, with Washington keeping close watch on him. Corn- wallis was at Yorktown, with young Lafayette watch- ing him, Greene had command of the American forces in the far south. It was now that there came to the mind of the master general one of his brilliant flashes of genius. A French fleet with a goodly number of Surrender of ^ , . rj.,. , , troops was soon to arrive. 1 his would Cornwallis ^ ^ ^ be sufficient to keep off any British re- enforcements by sea. Then, if Washington were to join Lafayette, together they might surround Corn- wallis at Yorktown. Washington turned his men from their careful watch of Clinton to a rapid march toward Yorktown. For some time Clinton did not see what this move meant. When he did finally realize how he had been outwitted, his cunning foe was too far away to be reached. Then Clinton sent a fleet southward from New York. But the French ships had ar- ri\'ed, and prevented the English from approach- British cannon captured at Yorktown ing the land. Corn- wallis was trapped. A strong force of Americans and French was before him, and a hostile fleet was at his back, cutting off supplies. SURRENDER OF CORNVVALLIS 57 For over a month he withstood the siege. But he was outplayed. Surrender he must, and did. \\'hen, a year before this, the EngHsh had captured Charleston, they had demanded that the bands of the defeated Americans play while the victorious Eng- lish army marched into the city. The Americans now insisted that the tables be turned, and the English band played a quaint old tune known as "The World's Turned Upside Down." The Americans lined up on the right, the French army on the left. "Now all is hushed; the gleaming lines Stand moveless as the neighboring pines; While through them, sullen, grim, and slow, The conquered hosts of England go." * Washington dispatched a messenger to carry the good news to the president of the Continental Con- gress at Philadelphia. It was early morning when the jubilant horseman clattered through the silent streets. He knocked loudly on the president's door. The night watchman rushed up to learn the cause of the disturbance. To him the messenger shouted the joyful tidings, as he disappeared into the house. The watchman continued on his rounds, calling through the still night, "Past two o'clock and Cornwallis is taken!" Then into the next street he went, and the next, still calling, "Past two o'clock and Cornwallis is taken!" People leaped from their beds, listened a * Whittier: \'orktown. 58 RECOGNITION moment lo \)v sure that tl\oy were hearing- aright, then witli Utile thought of how they were dressed rushed out into the streets. Sueh exeitement the staid old tow'n had seldom known. Men clasped hands and slapped each other on the back. Women laughed and cried. The war was over. It is said that when the news of the surrender of Cornwallis reached England, Lord North, the prime minister, exclaimed, "It is all over!" And so it was, except that a treaty of peace had yet to be agreed upon. To secure good terms w^as sure to be hard, for it was not England alone that had to be reckoned with. France, because she had been our devoted ally during the w^ar, felt that much was due her. Spain also, as the friend of h^rance and the enemy of England, stood by, hoi)ing to get something for herself. The United States sent to Paris as peace com- missioners three of her greatest and shrewdest states- men. These were John Jay and John reayo Adams, both level-headed patriots, and Paris, 1783 ' . t- ' Franklin, who had done so much to secure to the struggling states the friendship of France. It took them several months to argue with all the parties concerned and finally to secure for their new nation the best possible terms. But they did this work so well that in the treaty, which was signed in the latter part of 1783, they gained nearly every important point for which they had been asking. TREATY f)F PARIS 59 The chief struggle had Ijeen over the western boundary Hne of the United States. The greatest victory of the Americans was the fixing of this line at the Mississippi River. Thus the United States, bounde;d on the north by Canada, an English colony, and on the south and west by Spanish territory, began its career with a vast empire, over 800,000 square miles in extent. "Here began the kingdom not of kings, but men; Began the making of the world again. Hail, America, hail! the glory of lands! To thee high honors are given, Thy stars shall blaze Till the moon veil her rays, And the sun lose his pathway in heaven." FOR CAREFUL STUDY PVance followed her recognition of American inde- pendence by sending over an army and a fleet. Clinton succeeded Howe in command of the British forces in J'hiladelj^hia and soon moved to New York, Washington watching him closely. Clinton did little but send out raiding jjarties into the neighboring terri- tory. For the Americans, Ceneral Wayne made a Iiriiliant capture of Stony Point, July 16, 1779. Two months later John Paul Jones won an important naxal victory off the coast of England. He also captured several of the enemy's vessels in the English Channel. 6o RECOGNITION SCALE OF MILES 50 100 200 The United States in 1783 The British, failing in their northern campaign, had turned their attention southward. They took Savannah in December, 1778, and appointed a royal governor over Georgia. In 1780 CHnton captured END OF THE WAR 6 1 Charleston and added South Carolina to the English conquests. With these two states under control, Clinton returned to New York. Cornwallis, in command of the English, and Greene in command of the Americans, operated against each other in North Carolina and Virginia. They finally met in the bloody battle of Guilford Court House, which resulted in the retreat of the British to the coast. Washington now made a brilliant move. He sud- denly left off watching Clinton in New York, and, by a hurried march, was soon in front of Cornwallis at Yorktown. A French fleet made it impossible for the English to reenforce Cornwallis, and on October 19, 1 78 1, he surrendered his army. This virtually ended the war. A treaty was signed at Paris, 1783, by which Eng- land acknowledged the independence of her former colonies. The treaty also fixed the boundary lines of the new nation. On the north, the United States was bounded by Canada; on the east, by the Atlantic Ocean; on the south, by Florida, a Spanish posses- sion; on the west, by the Mississippi River. FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED The surrender of Cornwallis to Washington, at Yorktown, 1 78 1, practically ended the Revolutionary War. By the Treaty of Paris, 1783, at the close of the Revolutionary War, England recognized American independence, and the boundary lines of the United States were agreed upon. 62 RECOGNITION Bibliography Clark. — McMurry: Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley. Roosevelt: Stories of the Great West. Tappan: American Hero Stories. Franklin. — Autobiography. Tappan: American Hero Stories. Hale. — Blaisdell and Ball: Hero Stories from American His tory. Bouve: American Heroes and Heroines, Jones. — Bouve: American Heroes and Heroines. Sea well: Paul Jones. Tappan: American Hero Stories. Lafayette. — Brooks: True Story of Lafayette. Kaler: With Lafayette at Yorktown. Marion. — Morris: Historical Tales. Stony Point. — -Tappan: American Hero Stories. Wayne. — Tomlinson: Camp-fire of Mad Anthony. Tomlinson: Mad Anthony's Young Scout. Yorktown. — Stoddard: The Spy of Yorktown. Tomlinson: Two Young Patriots. General. — Brooks: In Blue and White. Brooks: Son of the Revolution. Chase: A Daughter of the Revolution. Ide: Loyal Little Red Coat. Matthews: Tom Paulding. Stoddard: The Noank's Log. Tomlinson: In the Cam]) of Cornwallis. Tomlinson: Marching against the Iroquois. True: Scouting for Light Horse Harry. " Washington took the oath of oflBce ' CHAPTER IV THE UNITING OF THE STATES By the Treaty of Paris, 1783, which closed the American Revolution, the United States was awarded a territory larger than the combined area of the present countries of France, Spain, Great Britain, and Germany. It might be supposed that the new Ship of State thus launched would have fair weather and smooth sailing. On the contrary, the following live or six years of our history have been called the Critical Period, and we do not have to look far to see the reason. In the first place, the very size of the country made it difficult to build up a strong nation. Hundreds of miles separate the states of Massachu- setts and Georgia, and those hundreds ^ ^ ' to union of miles meant far more in those days than they do now. Even the trip from Boston to New York was a great undertaking. It is now made daily by thousands of people, and requires but five or six hours. In colonial days one had to spend a week on a trying and dangerous journey by coach. So it is not strange that the people of Massachusetts did not feel very closely related to the people of Georgia, or even to those of the states nearer by. 63 64 THE UNITING OF THE STATES The colonists were separated not only by distance, but also by differences in religion and traditions and ways of living. While they were fighting side by side against England, they had forgotten these differences. But now that war was over and their independence recognized, most of the people naturally fell back into their old ways of looking at things. That is, the people of \'irginia thought of themselves as Virginians, those of Pennsylvania as Pennsylva- nians, and so on; few of them found it easy to think of themselves as all belonging to one country. In fact, people were gi\'ing most of their attention to recovering from the effects of the war. The)- wanted to lead peaceful lives and attend to their business in shop or field. They paid taxes to their state government, and most of them cared little about the central government with headquarters at far-off" Philadelphia. But there was one matter in particular that helped to make people think of themselves as a united nation. This concerned the ownership of the western lands. The union of the states made it necessary to settle a dispute of long standing. Some of the states claimed that their original charters had given them everything "from sea to sea." When they began to extend their boundaries to the iNHssissippi there was great confusion. The lines conflicted, and it was hard to decide which were right. The other states which, as colonies, had had no western lands, now THE WESTERN LANDS 6$ claimed a share in them. They argued that they had done their part in the Revolution and so had helped to gain the independence of all the territory belonging to the states. The matter was settled peaceably. The states, one after another, yielded to Congress their claims to most of the land in question. The part north of the Ohio River became known „ 1787 as the Northwest Territory. Congress proceeded to make a law for its government, called the "Ordinance of 1787." This law was important for several reasons. One of its provisions was that, when the population was large enough, the people might then elect a legislature to m.ake their laws. Another prohibited slavery forever in all parts of the Northwest Territory. As this and other problems pressed for solution, the leaders saw that if America was ever to become a powerful nation there must be a change in the form of its government. For the years preceding, the states had kept together under an agreement called the Ar- ticles of Confederation. It was under these Articles that Congress had carried on the war for independence. The Articles of Confederation, useful as they were, iiad many serious defects. All the states sent delegates to Congress, but when a _ , , vote was taken on any measure each state was allowed only one vote, no matter how many delegates it might have. 66 THE UNITING OF THE STATES Again, Congress had no power to enforce its own laws, and there was no single head like a king or a president who could enforce the laws. Worst of all. Congress had no power to get money by means of taxes. Congress had full power to declare and wage war, but this was not enough. Warfare is costly. It is one thing to say, " We are now at war." It is quite another thing to raise the money with which to carry on the war, for soldiers must be paid and ammu- nition and supplies must be bought. Congress could borrow money, and did borrow a great deal. It could also call upon the different states to pay their share of the expenses, but it had no way of compelling them to pay if they declined. The result was that the states were slow in contributing funds. Each one made the tardiness of its neighbors its own excuse for delay. This was only one of the weak points of the gov- ernment. There were many others. Matters kept going from bad to worse. The states quarreled among themselves and with Congress. At last it was seen that something must be done to patch up the weak Articles of Confederation. So Congress asked all the states to send delegates to a convention for this purpose. In May, 1787, the Federal Convention met at Phila- delphia, with delegates from every state except Rhode Island. Fortunately for the future of the nation, there were among these delegates some of the foremost patriots of America. All of them are deserving of THE FEDER^VL CONVENTION 67 grateful remembrance, but we can speak of only a few of the leaders. One figure stood out bej^ond all the others; this was Washington, the , , , ,. ... The Federal great general. A leadmg historian says, "It is very doubtful if without Washing- ton the struggle for independence would have suc- ceeded as it did. Other men were important; he was indispensable." The nation already owed him much as a soldier. It came to owe him yet more as a wise and guiding statesman. Indeed, Washington had already shown his patriot- ism in many acts of statesmanship. There had been a time, just at the close of the war, when the officers of his army, disgusted with the government, suggested that Washington be made king. Had he accepted this suggestion it is very likely that our country would have been doomed to a military government. But the noble character of Washington resented the idea, and he convinced his officers that they were wrong. And now once more he was to lead his countrymen in the paths of peace. When the con- vention came together Washington was promptly chosen its chairman. Another famous member was Benjamin Franklin, who, although far advanced in years and in service to his country, inspired the others by his very presence. One of Washington's young officers, who was to gain greater honors in time of peace than he had on the field of battle, was Alexander Hamilton, a delegate 68 THE UNITING OF THE STATES from New York. Small in stature, keen of intellect, a scholar and an orator, Hamilton soon became a leader on the floor of the convention. Hamilton's tomb, in New York Another member was James Madison, a Virginian. He had not fought in the field, but through the trying years of the war had faithfully served as a member of the legislature of his state and of the Federal Con- gress. Not only was he an active worker In the con- vention, but he rendered a service of particular value. The sessions were held in secrecy, and no outsider knew what was going on from day to day. But Madison kept a journal of all the proceedings, and it is from this record, published some fifty years later, that we learn most about what took place. THE CONSTITUTION 69 When the delegates had been eaUed together it was understood that their business was to propose changes in the Articles of Confederation. They soon realized, however, that these Articles ^.^ ^. ' _ _ constitution were so very unsatisfactory that it would be a waste of time to try to patch them up. It would be far better to begin all over again and make an entirely new agreement. So they set about to write a constitution. There were all sorts of opinions as to what should be done. The first question was: Shall we create a powerful central government, or shall we continue as a confederation of independent states? Wash- ington and Hamilton, with many other delegates, were in favor of bringing about a strong union. Against them were others, no less patriotic, who be- lieved it wiser that the states should remain important and powerful. They would keep the confederation, however, so that the states would be prepared to work together in time of trouble. Then there were jealousies between the larger states and the smaller ones. Those with many people naturally felt that they should have more control in the government than those with fewer people. But the small states maintained that each of them was just as much an independent nation as any of the larger ones. Hence they claimed equal influence for all states. There were also several other matters of difference. yo THE UNITING OF THE STATES Clearly only one solution was possible, that of com- promise. All must be patient. All must, keep their tempers. It might be possible, as to each question, to hit upon some middle course which, although it could not satisfy everybody, would be accepted be- cause it was far better than nothing. And so the con- vention labored for several weeks. At last, the spirit of compromise settled every im- portant matter. When the Constitution was finished it was at once seen to be a very great ^ improvement over the Articles of Con- of government ^ _ federation. The chief gain was that the three different powers of government were distinctly separated. These three powers are known as the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The making of the laws — the legislative power — was put in the hands of a new Congress, which was em- powered to levy taxes. This Congress was to be com- posed not of one house, as formerly, but of two — the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state sends two senators; but in the House the num- ber of representatives from each state depends upon its population. This was the compromise that brought together the large and the small states. The executive power was vested in a President, who was to see that the laws made by Congress were properly enforced. The judicial power was given to a Supreme Court and to lower courts. The business of the courts is THE NEW GOVERN]MENT 71 to decide what the laws mean and to settle disputes between parties who go to law. Thus the three powers of government were sepa- rated. But it was all so skillfully arranged that each branch is a check upon the others. For instance, the President can check Congress in its lawmaking by vetoing its bills. Again, the President must have the consent of the Senate when he appoints judges. Again, Congress establishes and abolishes lower courts. In these and in many other ways the three branches depend one upon another. It was provided by the Constitution that as soon as nine states should accept it, they should begin to live under its provisions. On June 21, jhe 1788, New Hampshire, the ninth state, Constitution ratified the Constitution and it went into '■^^^^^^ effect. Before long, the other four states came in, one by one, although the last, little Rhode Island, held off for nearly two years. Most of the states, however, accepted the Constitution only with the understand- ing that it was to be changed in certain important respects. They wanted the rights of the people made still clearer. Accordingly, soon after the new gov- ernment got under way, ten amendments were added to the Constitution. Under the new Constitution certain officers were to be elected. Able men were chosen as members of Congress. For President there could be but one choice. All looked to Washington to guide the new 72 THE UNITING OF THE STATES nation, and he was elected without any opposition whatever. For Vice President, John Adams of Mas- sachusetts was chosen. The news of Washington's election was brought to him at Mount Vernon, his quiet plantation home on the west bank of the Potomac. Soon afterward he set out on the long journey to New York, then the capital. All along the route the people turned out in force to welcome Washington the first President Washington's home, at Mount Vernon, Virginia their beloved leader and to wish him godspeed in the work of his new office. The ovation reached its height in the cities of Philadelphia and Trenton. Here elaborate arches had been erected. Under these Washington rode, a conquering hero of war and THE FIRST PRESIDENT 73 peace. As he passed under the Philadelphia arch a laurel wreath was lowered upon his head. It was a modest crown, but as stately as any worn by royal ruler. At the Trenton arch the President-elect was es- corted by schoolgirls, dressed in white, who strewed his path with blossoms and sang an ode in his hoijior. Two days later he reached New York Bay. This he crossed on a handsome barge which had been built for the memorable occasion. As the boat neared the Battery, and as Washington and his escort landed and were met by Governor Clinton, cannon boomed, flags waved, and the dense crowd of people cheered in hearty welcome. In a week's time all preparations for the inauguration had been completed. Standing on the balcony of Federal Hall, Washington took the oath of office, pledging himself to "preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Notwithstanding the glory of his inauguration and the hearty good will which the people throughout the country bore him, it was a heavy task that lay before our first President. Very ^^' /^ //^/a>^^/a/^v/^ perplexing problems, both at t,, ,.• _ , . ' '^ ° ^ ' Washington's autograph home and abroad, had to be solved by the United States before it could really be called a successful nation. Washington selected some of the foremost men of the time to aid him in his work. 74 THE UNITING OF THE STATES One of the first things to be attended to was the census. Each state was to send to Congress a num- ber of representatives in proportion to its population. The Constitution provides census '^ ^ ^ that, once every ten years, all the people in all the states shall be counted. Accordingly, the first census was taken in 1790, and the count showed the population of the entire country to be 3,929,214. By the thirteenth census, taken in 1910, the popula- tion of the United States, including its possessions, numbered more than 100,000,000. Thus the nation has increased more than twenty-fold in a little over a century. This is to be explained partly by the wonderful geography of the country and the oppor- tunities thus alTorded. It is in part, too, owing to the genius of the American people. But much is due to the right beginning which was made through the wisdom of the patriot fathers. Another question that was settled early in Wash- ington's administration was the location of the national capital. It was difficult to decide on a The capital , , , , , , , place that would be acceptable to every one. After considerable debate it was agreed to make Philadelphia the capital for ten years. After that the capital was to be on a site on the Potomac River. A tract of land ten miles square was selected, and within this district the city of Washington was founded. Washington has remained the capital of our country ever since the year 1800, DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 75 But by far the most difficult home problems were those relating to money matters. Washington had appointed Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton did his work ^j ^.^" with remarkable wisdom. He found fi- nances in a woeful condition. The Continental Con- gress had borrowed much money with which to carry on the war. Some of it had been loaned by France, some by Spain, some by Holland. When Hamilton took charge he found that the debt had reached a total of millions of dollars. There were some people who thought that the new government need not concern itself about old debts. But Hamilton knew better. Through his efforts with Congress, arrangements were made to repay the money. Hamilton shrewdly proposed that most of the money needed by the new government be raised by indirect taxation; that is, by some method whereby the people do not directly pay money to a tax collector. So Congress passed a tariff law, taxing goods made in foreign countries and brought here for sale. As a result people had to pay a little more for imported articles. With the help of this tax the government was able to meet its running expenses, and also slowly to pay off its debts. Thus, under the wise guidance of Alex- ander Hamilton, our government began its policy of strict honesty in money matters. At about this time, too, a mint was built. Here the 76 THE UNITING OF THE STATES United States began making its own coins, of gold and silver and copper, based on a new system of Building in Philadelphia occupied by the first mint dollars and cents. This replaced the English pounds, shillings, and pence used in colonial days. But it was not alone home problems that the officers of our government had to meet. Our rela- tions with foreign countries were anything but satisfactory. England naturally was looking for any pretext by which she might embarrass the people who had dared to throw off her authority. Spain, our neighbor on the south Foreign troubles FOREUIN AFFAIRS 77 and west, liad hopes of eucroachiiig upon the territory of the weak new nation and increasing her own posses- sions in America. France, our friend of Revohi- tionar)' times, expected us to side with her in her troubles with the other European nations. There were many Americans who thought that we should go to any length to resent the actions of Eng- land and Spain and to befriend France. Washington, however, with his rare wisdom, kept our weak and struggling country out of war. Said he, "My policy has been and will continue to be, while I have the honor to remain in the administration, to maintain friendly terms with, but to be independent of, all the nations of the earth; to share in the broils of none; to fulfill our own engagements; to supply the wants and be the carriers for them all; being thor- oughly convinced that it is our policy and interest to do so. " With all these questions coming before the people, it is easy to realize that there must have been many honest differences of opinion among them. Beginning of Some sided with Hamilton and the other political statesmen who were intent on building up P"*^®^ a strong central power. These called themselves Federalists. Those who opposed them followed the leadership of Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Dec- laration of Independence and now Secretary of State. Thus there began to be political parties in the United States, a condition that is very familiar to us of to-day, 78 THE UNITING OF THE STATES and which in many ways has been very fortunate. A government is sure to be better managed if there are strong political parties each closely watching the actions of the others. After much discussion, the term of the President of the United States had been fixed in the Constitution at four years. At the end of Washington's term, he was unanimously reelected. Four years later he re- fused to be considered for reelection. He retired once more to private life at his quiet home on the Potomac. Three years later he died, deeply mourned by the millions of his compatriots, who lovingly termed him the Father of his Country. Washington's tomb, at Mount Vernon Washington's retirement gave the two parties a chance to put forward candidates for the presidency. The Federalists nominated Vice-President Adams. The other nom- inee was JefTerson, the leader of the Democratic- Adams elected DIFFICULTY WITH FRANCE 79 Republicans, as they soon came to be called. The Federalists were a little the stronger, and Adams became the second President. It was during Adams's presidency that the diffi- culty with France became acute. The government of France had been changed. It now consisted of a group of five men called the ^ ^-^ 7 Directory, who managed things with a high hand. They claimed that they had been mis- treated by the United States government because it had refused to aid them in their war with England. They even demanded that the American commis- sioners in France should pay them a bribe of several thousand dollars. To frighten the United States into a settlement, French cruisers began to interfere with American commerce. Feeling in this country ran high. The popular cry echoed the defiant words of Pinckney, one of our commissioners to France: " Millions for defense; not one cent for tribute." At this time were written the stirring words of "Hail Columbia," addressed to the Revolutionary heroes, "Heav'n born band! Who fought and bled ill Freedom's cause," thus calling upon them: "Immortal patriots, rise once more! Defend your rights, defend your shore; Let no rude foe with impious hand Invade the shrine where sacred lies Of toil and blood tlie well-earned prize." * * Josepli H(jpkinson. 8o TIIK INlllXl', OV TlIK STAPHS Throui^hout the rouiUr\ raiii; the thrilling words of this national song, set to the tune of the " President's March," music which had welcomed Washington on his triumphal inaugural it)urne\-. The nation set about buiUling warships, the beginning of the Amer- ican na\ \ . The b'rench, after a few skirmishes at sea. realizetl that the United States was in earnest, and gladly made peace. FOR CAREFUL STUDY In 1783 the United States started upon its career, acknowledged b>' all the world as an independent nation. There were man\' reasons why it should grow rapidh in suvngih. For one thing, it has an immense area and wonderful natural resources. Part of the land was set off and called the Northwest Territory. Its go\-ernment was pro\-ided for by the Ordinance of 1787. Out of this territory there were formed, from time to time, the states: Ohio. Indiana. Illinois. Michigan, and Wisconsin. On the other hand, there were man\' dangers ahead and man\' problems to be solved if disaster was to be a\oided. The Articles of Confederation, tmder which the nation was go\erned, were \ery unsatisfactor\-. The people proceeded to adopt a Constitution to take their place. The Constitution went into effect in 1788. and the following >-ear George Washington be- came the lirst President of the United States. During \\'ashington's administration the chief events were: taking the tirst census; locating the THE NEW GOXERN.MENT capital at Pliiladelphia for tcMi years and then at Washington; arranging to pay the national debt; passing the hrst tariff law; and keeping the country out of war with European nations. With the close of Washington's second term, political parties arose, and since that time Presidents have been elected only after party contests. The second President was John Adams, a Feder- alist. During his term the French were thwarted in their attempt to levy tribute on the United States. The Northwest Territory FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED The many weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, under which the Union had been governed, led to the adoption of the Constitution in 1788. 82 THE UNITING OF THE STATES George Washington was inaugurated first President of the United States in 1789. Our national capitals have been New York, Philadelphia, Washington. Bibliography Adams. — Brooks: Historic Americans. Morris: Heroes of Progress in America. Roosevelt and Lodge: Hero Tales from American History. Sparks: Men who made the Nation. Hamilton. — Sparks: Men who made the Nation. Bolton: Famous American Statesmen. Brooks: Historic Americans. Burton: Four American Patriots. Hemstreet: Story of Manhattan. Morris: Heroes of Progress in America. General. — Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America With the flag of the Macedoaiaa thrown about him " CHAPTER V DEMOCRACY For twelve years the Federalist party, under Washington and Adams, had been in control of the government. During that time there had been a steady increase in the number of people who felt that the Federalists were wrong in their way of doing things. Many thought that our government was too extravagant and too aristocratic. They said that there was too much pomp and ceremony, as if the President thought of himself as a royal ruler. The people wanted their President to act as if he were one of the plain people, like themselves. When Adams's term drew to its close it was easy for Jefferson's party to overthrow the Federalists and elect their leader President. Thus, in 1801, Thomas Jefferson became Presi- „ ^^5°°^' ■^ President dent, the first to be chosen by the Demo- cratic-Republican party. This party remained in power for forty years. When Jefferson was inaugurated he introduced several new ideas and customs. Instead of riding to the Capitol in a handsome coach, he walked there from his boarding house like any ordinary citizen. 83 84 DEIVIOCRACY Jefferson, like many other men of the time, was influ- enced by the manners and customs of the French. ,.^iV,. \ -^^^ U k Monticello, Jefferson's home, in Virginia In the matter of dress, for example, the courtly knee- breeches and stockings were now replaced with long trousers. It is said that Jefferson even went so far as to receive the English minister, on an official visit, dressed in slippers and other negligee. This much disgusted the worthy Englishman, who regarded it as an insult to himself and his country. Whatever the new President's eccentricities, all the people knew that he was capable, and most of them were his enthusiastic admirers. During the eight years of his two terms he directed the govern- ment wisely and well. One event in particular stands out as the crowning result of his efforts and as one of the most important acts ever performed by any President. This was the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 85 The close of the Revohition, we remember, found Spain in possession of the land west of the Mississippi River. This meant that as the American frontiersmen pushed their eaeer way west- ^ to ^ purchase ward and located along the east bank of the river, they became near neighbors of Spanish sub- jects. There would have been little trouble, perhaps, if Spain had owned only one side of the river all the way to the Gulf of Mexico, and the United States had owned the other. But for the last hundred miles of the river's course, Spain owned the land on both sides. Her territory included the growing city of New Orleans, which js on the east bank. The result was that the Americans, when taking their produce to the sea on river rafts, soon found themselves in foreign territory. It was only by the favor of Spain that they could land and do business at New Orleans or go through to the Gulf of Mexico. When, in 1800, Spain ceded this whole Louisiana Territory to France, matters were made much worse, to the American way of thinking. France was a stronger power than Spain, and so might become far more dangerous as a neighbor. Soon the news came that Americans could no longer trade at New Orleans. Our western settlers were much worried. Jefferson, sympathizing with them, determined to help them, if possible. He sent agents to see if some bargain could not be struck with France whereby the United States might gain ihal hundred miles on the east of the river. 86 DEMOCRACY Jefferson went to market at a ^'ery fortunate time. Napoleon Bonaparte, then the ruler of France, was engaged in a struggle with most of the nations of Europe. Compared with what he hoped to gain near home, far-off Louisiana was not worth much to him. Moreover, he was afraid that England, with her near-by Canadian colony, might easily wrest Louisiana from him if it remained in his hands. Most convincing of all, he needed all the money he could raise toward the expense of his wars. So, when this opportunity came, he offered the whole of the Louisi- ana Territory, vastly more than we had asked for, at a price that to-day seems ridiculously low. Jeffer- son promptly accepted the offer, and Congress voted him the money. Napoleon got his price, $15,000,000; and we got, at less than three cents an acre, a tract of land larger than all of the territory of the United States as it then existed. There were, however, some people who grumbled and objected. What did we want of so much land, hundreds of miles away, and probably good for noth- ing, anyway? But the majority of the people sided with Jefferson, Every one realizes now that in making the purchase he showed shrewd foresight and earned the gratitude of all future generations of Americans. In the year following, in order to learn more about the land we had acquired, an exploring party of some thirty men was sent out. One of the remarkable things about this expedition was the fact that its LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 87 two leaders, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, were in joint command, yet there is no record that they ever had a single disagreement through- Lg^jg ^nd out the two and a half years that they were Clark Expedi- gone. Starting from St. Louis in May, **°° 1804, the party ascended the Missouri River, passing through a region never before traversed by white men. One tribe of Indians after another was met and conquered through friendship. The Indian chiefs were presented with gifts that delighted their fancy, and were told that they were now under the rule of Jefferson, the Great Father at Washington. When the headwaters of the Missouri were reached, the party procured horses from the Indians. With these they crossed the divide of the Rocky Mountains, and passed beyond the limits of the Louisiana Territory. Branding iron used by Lewis At length they came to a tributary of the great (\)lum- bia River. Traveling down the valley of this river, they reached the Pacific. 88 DEMOCRACY The expedition strengthened a claim that the United States had already laid to this far-off region, which was known as the Oregon Country. The claim was based upon the discoveries of Captain Robert Gray, who was the first to carry the American flag around the world. Some years before. Captain Gray had sailed up the great river of the region and had given it the name of his ship, the Columbia. The homeward journey of Lewis and Clark was begun in March, 1806. That they were not extrav- agantly equipped is shown by Captain Lewis's account. "All the small merchandise we possess might be tied up in a couple of handkerchiefs. The rest of our stock in trade consists of six blue robes, one scarlet ditto, five robes which we made out of our large United States flag, a few old clothes trimmed with ribbons, and one artillerist's uniform coat and hat, which probably Captain Clark will never wear again. We have to depend entirely upon this meager outfit for the purchase of such horses and provisions as it will be in our power to obtain — a scant depend- ence, for such a journey as is before us." But these were brave and hardy men, and in due time the expedi- tion reached civilization once more. Their accounts of their experiences are of absorbing interest to all Americans. While we were thus learning about the geography of our new possessions, we were also teaching some foreign people a much needed lesson. The northwest- WAR \\IT{I TRIPOLI ern part of xAfrica, known as the Barbary States, was inhabited by tribes of desperate pirates. They were of the Mohammedan religion, and felt little respect for the rights of the Christian War with Tripoli nations whose traders sailed the Medi- terranean. They would capture European trading \essels, and hold the sailors prisoners until ransomed. Powerful governments of Europe had meekly sub- mitted to this treatment and paid heavy tribute to these highwaymen. It was not sur- prising that the weak and dis- tant United States should have been considered easy prey. More than a million dollars had been contributed by the go\- ernment and by the churches of our country and paid out in ran- soms for our enslaved sailors. We \vere already laying the foundations of a conquering navy, and such a display of force was made that the governor of Tripoli was glad to agree to let us and our ships alone. The treaty was signed in 1805, and within a few years safety to American citizens was assured throughout the Barbary States. But before this date we had been carrying on a war with Tripoli for several years. A Tripolitan pirate QO DEMOCRACY Many thrilling adventures are recorded in the his- tory of those days. One of them had to do with the Decatur cutting out of the cruiser Philadelphia. and the This was done under the leadership of Philadelphia Stephen Decatur. It was called by a great English naval commander "the most bold and daring act of the age." The Philadelphia was a 38-gun frigate which had served the Americans well Naval cannon until, chasing a Tripolitan cruiser along the shore, she ran upon an uncharted reef. Despite all that her valiant crew could do, she lay helpless, was captured by the enemy's gunboats, and was drawn into the harbor of Tripoli. Here she was refitted and lay in the inner part of the harbor, protected by the menacing guns of the surrounding forts and the fleet. Desperate measures were planned for the destruction of the captured vessel. Decatur was detailed to carry them out. He took a party of some eighty men on board the Intrepid, a small boat fitted with sails and long sweeps, called in Mediterranean waters a ketch. On a bright, balmy moonlight night, before a fresh WAR WITH TRIPOLI 91 breeze, he sailed the Intrepid directly into the jaws of the harbor and up to the Philadelphia, which lay at anchor, fully manned, with her guns shotted and ready for action. The very boldness of the venture deceived the enemy. Decatur kept his men under cover. Pretending that he was a peaceful trader, he succeeded in approaching close to the ship before the Tripolitans took alarm. But suddenly the cry arose, "Americanos! Americanos!" There was not a moment to be lost if the daring Americans would escape being blown to pieces by the heavy guns of the Philadelphia. They scrambled cjuickly aboard the frigate and rushed the startled crew. Not a gun was fired, but the deadly cutlass and sword did terrific service. In less than ten minutes the Tripolitans had been driven overboard by the Americans, who then proceeded to act under a well-ordered plan which had been made in advance. Each man reached his appointed place, carrying com- bustibles, and touched the torch to them. All over the ship the fiery spears darted upward, and soon the Philadelphia was a mass of lurid flame. For a few moments the Tripolitans ashore and in the harbor were stunned by the wonderful suddenness of the attack. Recovering, as Decatur and his men leaped into the Intrepid, they flooded the harbor with shot and shell. Through this cone of fire the hitrepid, with its men at the sweeps, worked its way toward the open sea. Behind it, in the lengthening 92 DEMOCRACY distaiuw i^larod tho woird Ih\uii\- of the blazinii- frig- ate. As b\- a miracle, iho cow escaped without a sin- gle loss. Presently the Philadelphia's overheated guns belched their charge upon the \"er\" tmvn she had been captured to defend. I'inallx. with a wild roar and a flare of tlanie. she blew u\\ The frigate Philadel- phia was no more. Tripoli was not the i>nl\- foreign natiiM> that inter- fered with American commerce. l-\ir greater injuries came about in another wa\". Englantl American , ,- t^ i "^ and I- ranee were at war. hach was commerce attacking the commerce of the other. England captured man>- French trading ships. France ordered all the nations that were friendly to her. to close their ports to English trading ships. The I'liited States was gaining much of the trade that these two nations were losing. Our cotmtr\- was fc^Uowing the ad\ice Washington had gi\en >'ears before, and was taking no sides in the Em\>pean cc>n- trovers\-. It had declared itself neutral. Rut pres- entl>- England forbade American ships to trade with France. Xext, France said the>- should not trade with l\ngland. Each began to seize American ships that continued the forbitlden trade. This was bad enough, but England went still Impressment t'unher. Her expenses were SO lu\n>- that of American she was mu pa\ing her sailors as nuich seamen ^^^ j^j^^^, American sailors were getting. Life, too, was easier and happier on the AmericiUi IMPRKSSMKNT 93 ships. C'onscHiuiMiiU main I'.nj^lisli sailors soii^lit scrxicH' on ilu> \ cssels of (lu- Inid'cl Stales. l'\)r this reason I-aiglaiul l)ei;au to seareh (he Aineriean \-essels lor tleserters. She ehiimeil that hai^Hsh-honi sailors still belonged to her e\ en it' the\' had nio\ed to our eountr\- and had 1)c\mi naturalized. She would i\iptur(.> these and "im- press" lluMU into her ser\iee; that is, foree them to ser\ (.> in her na\ > . as she often inipressetl her own Vav^- lish sailors. We diMiied her right to seareh .\nieriean \essels. One da\ in 1807 a British warship, the Leopard, met the Ameriean CJics- apciikc, as the latter was preparing to enter New N'ork harbor. The I^ng- lish eonnnander ordered the .\mer- icdw t-ajitain to surrender all deserters, but he deelared there were none on board. W'here- ui)on the Lropard opened lire. The Clicsapcakc was unprepared for an\- sueh attack antl was forced to surrender, .\meriean indignation was l)oundless. It was with tlifheult)- that war was prexented at this time. Hut it was important that our country should axoid war if possible. It had littK^ money in (lu> treasury-, it had hardb- an\- na\ >•, and its strength as an indi^- pendent nation was still to be proxetl. Man>- thought that Cireat Britain was lot)king for a chance to whip American seaman in Jefferson's time 94 DEMOCR.\CY the states back into submission. At any rate she and France were treating our country as if it were of no account. Both nations were swooping down upon American merchant ships and seizing them under pretext that they were bound for the enemy's ports. Thus carrying goods by sea was no longer safe. Some time before this, Jefferson had seen the danger of war. He had been very anxious to avoid it. He reahzed that the country was in no condi- e m argo ^.^^ ^^ fight. For this reason he had sug- gested what was known as the Embargo Act. This law forbade all American vessels to leave port. The idea was that if England and France would not let us trade peaceably with whom we wished, then we would stop trading entirely. But this plan hurt our country as much as it did England and France, the nations toward whom it was directed. The New Englanders particularly felt it. They went back to the old revolutionary practice of smuggling. Stricter laws were then passed to force the people to respect the federal government. Soon empty vessels with furled sails choked the New England harbors. The wharves were deserted, and on the streets loitered idle, rebellious sailors and merchants. Discontent grew, imtil there were rumors that some states would withdraw from the l^nion. In 1809 the Embargo Act was repealed, and the Non- Intercourse Act took its place. This act permitted trade with all countries except France and England. WAR DECLARED 95 Botli those countries continued to seize our vessels in the most insulting fashion. Old friendship for France softened the feeling toward her. Equally, the old enmity toward England increased the Ameri- can sense of injustice. James Madison, who succeeded Jefferson as Presi- dent in 1809, was strongly opposed to war. His messages to Congress recommended peace . ° War declared and patience. There were, however, few Congressmen left who had personal memories of the Re\olution, and even the President's party, the Dem- ocratic-Republicans, favored war. They were led by two fiery Southerners, Clay and Calhoun, whose im- petuous fervor swept all before it. Not only would they make war upon England, l)ut they would in- vade Canada and annex it to the United States. Older men shook their heads in disapproval, but the younger men had their way. On June 18, 1812, war was declared. The beginning of the war was marked by both successes and failures. It was easy to talk of the glory of conquering Canada, but Canada was not to be conquered by talk. In q^^^^^ July General William Hull left Detroit and invaded Canada. Along the line of advance he heard all sorts of stories about a large army of Cana- dians and Indians that was bearing down upon him. This false alarm scared Hull back to Detroit, where the enemy overtook him and forced him to surrciider. 96 DEMOCFL\CY The possession of Detroit carried with it the control of the upper Great Lakes, and of a large part of the Northwest Territory. On sea, however, there was reason for encourage- ment. The American navy was small, but a few of The career i'^=^ ships were strong, seaworthy- craft, of the Among these was the Constitution. Its Constitution conmiander, Isaac Hull, was a seaman of ability. ]More than this, his men were remarkably well trained. It was said that if all the officers were The Coastitutioa to leave the ship, the crew could manage it and fight just as well. Their faith in the good ship Constitution amounted almost to superstition — they believed she could not be beaten. Howe^-er, in her first encounter with the English she ran away, but that was in order that she might "live to fight another day." This was how it happened. A fleet of English vessels overtook the Constitution on her wa\- to Xew York. One ship, no matter how sturdy, or how brave her crew, has little chance against se\'en. Captain rnK coxsrirrnoN 97 Hull saw ihis aiul clctenr.inocl to s;i\r his ship. Tho tlii^lit bcL;an with a great sweep oi .an\as, the EiigHsh ia full pursuit; but preseiuK' the wind died down. Ill those days tlu^ sievun eiii;iiu> was unknown in ocean na\igation, and ships were depcMuleiit upon their sails. But the American conniiander de\ ised a e!e\er \\ci\- of escape. landing the water (juite shallow, Hull lowered a small boat and in it placed a hea\y anchor, to which was attached a long cable. With the anchor the men rowetl forward, paying out the line. After the\ had gone half a mile they dropped the anchor. Then those on board the Constitiitiou wound up the cable, thus pulling their ship forward. Before she had ceased mo\'ing, a second anchor was ready, dropped, and woiuid uj) in its turn. After a while the wintl sprang up again. The race continued all da\- and all night, but by the following morning the British saw that the chase was useless and ga\"c it up. Hull made for Boston harbor. There he could con- tradict the story that had gone forth that he had surrendered. Within a nuMith Hull was near Newfoundland. Here he met one of the vessels of the fleet that hatl gi\en him chase. It was a well-built British frigate, onl\- a little less j^owerful than the Constitution. Its mainsail bore in large red letters " All who meet me have a care I am Englantl's Guerrihre.'' 98 DKMOCRACY When I he order was i;i\ I'll to prepare for action, Hull says of his erevv, " I'^roni the smallest boy to the oldest seaman, not a look of fear was seen." It was not until the vessels were within fifty yards of eeich other that the order to lire was L>iven. Blast after blast rent the air and made the bij; ships (iiiixer. On each the colors were shot down. On i>acli gallant hands sprang forward and nailed the flag to the mast. l"'ast and furious was the light in;<. The Giierriere, ho\\('\-er, was getting the worst of it. Se\'eral shots which siie had directed toward llu' body of the Con- stiliitioH bounded back into the water. "Her sides are like iron," her sailors cried. "Hurrah for Old Ironsides!" they shouted, and by this name the Con- stitittion came to be known. Presently the Guerriere was rendered hel|)less. Powerless to respond to the volleys from her foe, she surrendered. The glory of Medal comintMnoraling the Constitution's victory the N'ictory lay in the fairness of the light, and in the gallantry of the captains and crews of both shii)s. ()'I'11I:K navai. victoriks 99 The whole country was (illcd with joy over tin's, th(,' lirst great naval victory of the young nation. A medal was struck off in luMior of it, swords were given to the Constitution's oOiccrs, and prize money was awarded the crew. 'i'hen followed a series of successes. One of them Ijronght US a famous prize. The United .Sidles, under the command of Decatur, the hero of ,,. . ,, , ,, f , .f , ■ other naval I ripoli, met the r.nglish Macedonian near y■^^.^,^J■^^.. the .Madeira Islands. An hour of hani lighting followed. At the eiul the Mat.edoiiian haulerl down her flag. This was a \aluahle caj;ture, for the shij) was n(,'W. After some repairing, she fl(;ated the American flag fnjm her mast . The messenger I )ecalur s(,'nl to Washington with the news of viclr>ry was a young officer wluj had shown unusual l;rav(;ry during the struggle. Upon his arrival th(? youth found that nearly all the imjjorlant j)(;rsons had gone to a hall. Thitli( r he loo went, and entered the hallroom with the flag of the Macedonian thnnvn al>out him. Almost instantly the j)eople recognized its nK.-aning. Th(; men vvc-nt wild with joy. They lifted the messenger upon their hlimilflers and hore him about the rrjom, ( heering as they went. At the close- <>{ the war th(; Macedonian was sent to Anna|)oIis, where she h(,'Ip(,'d to fire the enthusiasm of America's young sailors. The British felt this and their other defeats very k(HrnIy. The London Times voicerl their alarm in th(; following language: "('pwarrl of fiv(; hundred TOO DEMOCRACY British vessels captured in seven months by the Americans. Five hundred merchantmen and three frigates! Can these statements be true? And can the EngHsh people hear them unmoved? Any one who would have predicted such a result of an American war this time last year would have been treated as a madman or a traitor. He would have been told, if his opponents had condescended to argue with him, that long ere seven months had elapsed the American flag would have been swept from the seas, the con- temptible navy of the United States annihilated, and their marine arsenals reduced to a heap of ruins. Yet down to this moment not a single American frigate has struck her flag." The English navy far exceeded ours in strength and number of vessels, but most of it was busy in the war with France, which was going on at Naval defeats • r^ , , . the same tmie. Our successes had m- spired hope in the hearts of the people. But defeat followed fast in the wake of victory. The turn in the tide began with the disaster to the Chesapeake. Under command of Captain Lawrence she encountered the English Shannon outside of Boston harbor. The enemy worked terrible destruction in a short time. Three men were shot down from the wheel. The first lieutenant was mortally wounded. Lawrence, in his brilliant uniform, made a sure target. Twice was he shot. As he was dying, he cried out, "Tell the men to fight faster. Don't give up the ship." NAVAL DEFEATS lOl The remaining officers fougiit gallantly, but without avail. The Chesapeake was forced to surrender. Lawrence was given a naval funeral. He was wrapped in the flag of the Chesapeake, and his sword was placed on the coffin. In attendance were Ameri- can and British officers alike, together with many wounded from the crews of both ships. His body 'rests in Trinity Churchyard, New York. The hope of the Americans was badly shattered. Before the close of the year 1813, the British had sent over \'essels enough to drive our navy from the sea and to blockade practically our entire seacoast. The United States was a long way from victory. The most pressing need was to regain control of the Great Lakes, so that the Northwest Territory might be saved. A brilliant young officer by the name of Perry had been given this task. He and his men had been hard at work in the forests on the shores of Lake Erie, for they had to build their own ships. In September, 18 13, Perry's fleet met a British squadron on Lake Erie. There followed one of the hardest, sharpest naval fights in our history. Perry's flagship was the Law- rence, named in memory of the commander of the Chesapeake. On its blue flag gleamed in white letters the words which have since become the motto of our navy — "Don't give up the ship!" The Laivrence pushed ahead of the other six vessels of the fleet and i)rescntly was in the full fury of battle. DEMOCRACY Her men were shot down, two, three at a time. Only when there were not enough left to fire the guns, and his flagship was nearly shattered, did Perry seem to realize that there was no hope of saving the Lawrence. The blue flag with its gallant motto still fluttered aloft. Perry seized it, left his lieutenant in' command of the Lawrence, and descended into a waiting boat. Standing erect in the stern, with the emblem fluttering about him, he was exposed to the direct fire of the enemy. With anxious hearts the Americans watched him as he covered the quarter of a mile to the Niagara, the next largest ship of his fleet. As soon as the English realized what Perry was trying to do, they turned Perry^rrthe their guus upou him. Volley after E?k^ °* ^^^^ volley came shrieking across the waters. A shot pierced the side of the boat. Perry ripped off his coat and plugged the hole with it. Finally the Niagara was reached. With the blue flag flying from her mast top, she plunged forward into the heat of the battle. The other American ships rallied gallantly about her. In ten minutes a British sailor appeared, waving a white handker- chief tied to a splinter. THE BURNING OF WASHINGTON 103 For the first lime in England's long, proud history an entire British squadron had surrendered. "We have met the enemy and they are ours, " ^t • 1 c ' ^ ^ \ Battle of was the srniple message of ^•lctory sent by Perry to General Harrison. Harrison was in charge of the land forces near by. He was now able to regain Detroit, and defeat the British at the Thames Ri\er. The Northwest Territory was saved. In 1 814 England's war with France ceased. Thus freed, she put new energy into the war with America. She planned a threefold attack : from the north ; from the middle coast; and from the south by way of the Mississippi. The first campaign started from Canada to invade Xew York by the Lake Champlain route. Captain Macdonough met the fleet on Lake Champ- lain and defeated it. Whereupon the British army deemed it unwise to proceed further. Thus the first plan failed. The operations on the eastern seaboard were attended with greater success. English ships sailed up Chesapeake Bay and unloaded an arm>% which marched directly toward the The burning of Washington capital. As it bore down upon Wash- ington, householders gathered their treasures together and fled from the city. In the White House the President's wife, the popu- lar "Dolly Madison," was reluctant to leave. Not until the last moment of safety did she depart, after filling her carriage with as many valuables as it would I04 DEMOCRACY hold. Among these was a portrait of George Wash- ington — the destroying hand of the enemy should not touch that! The conquering troops laid low our capital city. They plundered and set fire to public buildings, — the treasury, the Capitol, the White House. Then they marched tov.^ard Baltimore. Fort McHenry defended that city against the attacks of a British fleet. The battle began in daylight and raged through the night. It is a battle that lives in the hearts of Americans because one of their best-loved hymns was written at this time. In a small boat moored to the British flagship, two Americans were held prisoners. As long as the day- The " Star light lasted they could see the Stars and Spangled Stripes waving above the fort. But with Banner " ^j^^ darkness came an agony of suspense. Which side was winning? Through the long hours they waited for the first gray streak of dawn. As the light gradually brightened they strained their eyes and then — there was Old Glory waving in the breeze! Baltimore was still safe. One of these prisoners was Francis Scott Key. On the back of an old letter he wrote the verses beginning, "Oh, say, can you see by the dawn's early light." When released, so the story goes, he gave the poem to his uncle, who ordered a printer to strike ofl^ copies. The printer evidently liked it, for before the ink was yet dry he rushed to a near-by restaurant frequented by patriotic THE "STAR SP.\NGLED BANNER" lOg Americans, l)urst ia upon them, and read aloud the thrilling first stanza. "Sing it," some one cried. The words were immediately fitted to a popular air, Part of the " Star Spangled Banner " in Key's writing and the "Star Spangled Banner" went ringing throughout the country. Vox the third part of their plan, the English gathered forces amounting to full twelve thousand. New Orleans was to be the scene of action. To its defense the President sent Andrew ^^ ^ . New Orleans Jackson, a man of great vigor. Under him were untrained militiamen, in numbers only half as many as the English soldiers, but each of the mettle that fights to the finish. It was in December, 1814, that the British landed. Jackson threw up intrench- ments south of the city. On January 8, 1815, the English made an attack, and Jackson forced them back, not once but twice. The Americans, behind their rude breastworks, and with a small amount of ammunition at their command, mowed down twenty- five hundred brave British who fouglit for their lion as the Americans fought for their eagle. It was a great victory, but it was needless. A treaty of peace had been signed on December 24, 18 14. There were io6 DEMOCRACY In those days, however, no five-day steamers to carry the news, or ocean cables to flash the message. Curiously, the treaty made no mention of the chief causes of the war, — the searching of American v^essels and the interference with American com- merce. It was not needed, however, for the war had won for the United States so hearty a re- spect from other nations that no such indignities would be practiced again. Other advantages were gained. For one thing, we had learned how able our seamen were and how nmch we could depend on our navy in case of trouble. Cut off by the war from ib.e manu- factured goods of England, the Americans had them- selves begun new kinds of manufacture. In this way many of our gigantic Industries had their beginning. The less we needed to purchase goods abroad, the more real was our independence of Europe. FOR CAREFUL STUDY The third President was Thomas Jefferson, the leader of the Democratic-Republican party, who served two terms. Under his leadership the Loui- siana Territory was purchased, and Lewis and Clark were sent to explore the new country. The United States waged a war with Tripoli, which resulted in making that country agree to let American ships alone. Jefferson was succeeded by James Madison, who also served two terms. During this time our Second War with England was waged. It arose from Eng- SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND [07 land's interference with our commerce, and from her impressment of American seamen into her navy. War was declared in 1812, and opened by an unsuccessful attempt to invade and conquer Canada. This was followed by the defeat of the American army in the Northwest. But on the seas the Americans gained many stirring victories. The Constitution defeated the Guerriere, and earned for herself the title of Old Ironsides. The United States captured the Macedonian. There were many other successes, and also many defeats, begin- ning with the capture of the Chesapeake by the Shannon. The Louisiana Purchase In the Northwest the situation was saved in 1813 by Commodore Perry, whose fleet met the British squad- ron on Lake PZrie and completely defeated it, and by io8 DEMOCRACY General Harrison, who won the battle of the Thames. The British, during their campaign in the middle states, sacked Washington, but were repulsed at Baltimore. At the south, early in 1815, a British army was overwhelmingly defeated at New Orleans, by the Americans under General Jackson. The treaty of peace did not mention the chief cause of the war, but this was not necessary. England never again attempted to search our vessels or inter- fere with our commerce. FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED The Louisiana Territory was purchased from France in 1803, and afterwards explored by Lewis and Clark. The Second War with England, 1812-1815, secured inde- pendence for American commerce and gained the respect of European nations for the United States. Bibliography Decatur. — Sea well: Decatur and Somers. Jefferson. — Burton: Four American Patriots. Ellis: Thomas Jefferson. Sparks: Men who made the Nation. Perry. ■ — Barnes: Hero of Erie. General. — Barnes: Yankee Ships and Yankee Sailors. Eggleston: Captain Sam. Hitchcock: Louisiana Purchase. Sea well: Twelve Naval Captains. Tomlinson: Boy Officers of 1812. Tomlinson: Boy Soldiers of 1812. The strange craft created much astonishment ' CHAPTER VI PROGRESS AND INVENTION By the close of the War of 1812 the FederaHst party was fast disappearing. In 181 7 Madison was suc- ceeded by another Democratic-Repubh- can, Tames Monroe. When his first term ' -' ^ ^ prosperity expired, the FederaHsts nominated no one, so that Monroe's reelection was almost unanimous. Because at this time there were no political parties opposing each other, the period is often spoken of as the Era of Good Feeling. It was a time of general prosperity. Relieved of the strain of warfare, the people were free to give their attention to other things. Great advances were made in industry. Marvelous inventions followed one an- other with rapidity. Even before the outbreak of the war startling changes had taken place. The chief of these was due to an American inventor. Robert Fulton had built a large boat that would go without sails! Fulton, when a young man. studied in Europe. There he learned of the steam engine, the invention of a Scotchman, James Watt. Fulton tried to make use of the steam engine in the construction loy no PROGRESS AND INVENTION of a torpedo boat. Abandoning this work for a time, he planned to build a steamboat. People called the idea a dream and laughed at the Fulton and , y, , t i the Clermont dreamer. It seemed as if they were right, for the first attempt to make the steamboat go was a failure. Napoleon, the Em-' peror of France, realizing how useful a successful steamboat would be, ordered another test. The night before the new trial was to take place the little boat sank, borne down by the weight of its machinery. Fulton was bitterly disappointed. The inventor determined to make the next attempt in his own country. Accordingly, he built the Cler- mont, which was promptly nicknamed Fulton's Folly. Her trial trip, up the Hudson, was made in August, 1807. Crowds stood on the river bank ready to jeer at the inventor, but the Clermont, despite a strong head wind, made the trip from New York to Albany in thirty-two hours. Then the crowds cheered in wonder and admiration, for sailing vessels took four days to cover the same distance. The strange craft created much astonishment and some alarm. Because of its huge side wheels, many thought it was a mill. One old countryman fled from the sight of it and confided to his wife that he had seen "the devil on his way to Albany in a sawmill." How- ever, steamboats on the Hudson were soon making regular trips, and were used by many people because of the time saved. The fare was high — fourteen THE ERIE CANAL lit dollars — and the accomnuxlations poor. There were no staterooms or beds. Each passenger brought his own bedding and slept on the floor in a space marked off for his use. Not alone the Hudson, but presently all the large rivers were floating the new wonder on their waters. The Mississippi was one of the rivers that made great gains in commerce through the use of the steamboat. Soon the people of the East began to fear that all the trade between Europe and the West would go by way of this river. Governor Clinton, of New York, urged the building of a canal across his state. It was to follow the route that had been used by the Inc^ians and early settlers when they journeyed westward through the Mohawk valley. From near Albany, on the Hudson, it was to extend to Bufi"alo, on Lake Erie. It would thus, by the shortest route possible, connect the Atlantic Ocean with the Great Lakes and the productive region around them. The canal plan, like that of the steamboat, met with derision. One of the arguments against it was that Lake Erie is nearly six hundred feet above the level of the Hudson. How, the people asked, can water be made to run uphill? This criticism was easily met: locks would be used to make the water lift the canal boats over the hills. New York state appealed to Congress for money with which to build the canal. Although refused, the New York- 112 PROGRESS AND IN\'ENTION ers kept up their efforts so vigorously that they earned for themselves the title of the "most per- sistent beggars in Congress." People called the proposed canal Clinton's Big Ditch. They hesitated to put the state's money into the digging of a ditch nearly four hundred miles long, forty feet wide, and four feet deep. Finally, business men, under the leadership of Governor Clinton, undertook the task of putting through the work. They managed to convince the New York legislature that it would be to the benefit of the state to vote funds for this purpose. The money was secured and in 1817 the work was begun. In 1825 *?**^**i% Towing a canal Governor Clinton had the pleasure of making the first trip through the completed canal. The fare from Buffalo to Albany was soon reduced to less than a THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT 113 quarter of what it had been. Towns sprang up along the banks of the canal, like mushrooms in the night. The western states, too, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, profited by the Erie Canal. Now they could buy their axes, plows, and other utensils much more cheaply than heretofore. Probably the city that profited most of all from the canal was New York, for it was to this port that much of the produce from the West found its way. So, to the slowly moving canal boat, pulled by a sleepy-stepping donkey, the city of New York owes in part its giantlike growth. The Erie Canal opened up for settlement the west- ern part of New York state and the region of the Great Lakes. As far back as 1790 the people of the states along the seaboard had begun to move westward. Those from New England followed the Mohawk valley. Those from Pennsylvania and Virginia migrated into what is now West Virginia and Kentucky. Those from southern Virginia and northern North Carolina journeyed in a steady stream over the Blue Ridge Mountains into the Tennessee valley. These pioneers found their way beset by difficulty and danger. Of those whose paths led through the wilderness, many traveled afoot. Others went on horseback or by wagon. Flatboats dotted the rivers, carrying \yhole families with all their worldly goods. The woods rang with the crash of falling timber as the settler made a clearing for his rude log cabin. As of 114 PROGRESS AND INVENTION old, the Indian, to keep his hunting ground, fought the white man, step by step; and as of old, the white man won. The farther west the people pushed, the greater their need of connection with the East. They wanted the clothing and farming tools which were made in the East. These they paid for with the rich products of the soil or with the furs from the animals of the mountain regions. To meet the demand for better means of transportation, the government built a road called the National Pike or the Cumberland Road. It went from Cumberland, Maryland, on the Potomac, to Wheeling, West Virginia, on the Ohio. Yet more than this was needed. The relief which came at last was due to the inven- tion of an Englishman, George Stephenson. It was he who gave to the world the first locomo- Early railroads . . tive. Small engmes, run on short roads of wooden tracks, had been in use in mines; but Stephenson's engine was far larger than these and very imposing to the people of his time. The com- mon means of travel was the stagecoach, and the prospect of going more rapidly was startling. An English magazine writer said most earnestly, "We trust that Parliament will, in all railways it may sanction, limit the speed to eight or nine miles an hour, which is as great as can be ventured on with safety." Stephenson's own prophecy that "the time is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man EARLY RAILROADS 115 to tra\el on a railway than to walk on foot," seemed very foolish. The earliest American railroad was the Baltimore and Ohio. The first stretch of road ran from Balti- more fourteen miles westward to Ellicott Mills. When ground was broken for its construction, the first shovelful was turned by a very old man, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Maryland, the only signer of the Declaration of Independence then fixing. With silver spade in hand he said, "I consider this one of the most important acts of my life, second only to that of signing the Declaration of Independence, if second even to that." For a short time the cars on this road were pulled by horses, but these were soon replaced by locomotives. The first locomotixe was built by Peter Cooper. On its trial trip a thoroughbred horse raced with it. The locomotive came very near winning and would ha\'e won but for a slight accident. Its success greatly astonished the good people of the day. Several other lines were started about the same time as the Baltimore road. At first wooden tracks were used and there were no regular railroad com- panies. Any one might use the rails on which to run his own car or engine. The first railroad trains had no cab for the engineer or fireman and no brake with which to stop the train quickly. The cars were little more than stagecoaches on rails. The passengers were fully exposed to the wind and the weather, smoke, cinders, and flying dirt. On the hills the train was ii6 PROr.RHSS AND 1N\KNTI0N piillod III) '^>' iii<^'i^ns of strong ropos aiul a stationary engine. Before crossing a bridge the smokestack had to be lowered, because the bridges of those days were co\ered with low roofs. In conseiiuence, hea\'\' clouds of smoke lighted by burning cintlers sj^read over the clucking passengers so that the\- hid their faces and gasped for air. But all these discomforts seemed trifling compared with the results gained. The locomotive opened u}) this great country with its wonderful resources. The cities were brought closer together. The time soon came when it was pi)ssible to go frt>m New York to Philadeli)hia in a I CHT^J 'J.2I~"Ii"I2I33r A railroad train in 1831 half day instead of a week. Within ti\e \ears. more than twenty railroads had been started in the I'nited States. A steady increase followetl. and from 1850 to 1 800 each >var saw as much road built as would reach from New York to Den\'er. The early locomotives burned wood, but had they continued to be dependent upon wood for fuel, it is doubtful if we shoiikl now ha\e our great Coal found in Pennsylvania system o( railroads. The problem o( fur- nishing fuel for the steam monsters was sohed b}' the discovery of immense deposits of coal. COAL FOUND IN PENNSYLVANIA 117 An odd story is lold in this connection. Two Penn- sylvania Indians in much alarm related to a (Jiiaker friend their experience of the prexious evening. They told him that they had built a hre under a ri\er hank. To proj) uj) tiieir kettle they had used some black rocks. Presentl}' they were startletl to see the rocks catch hre and burn l)ri<;htly, sending up clouds of filthy black smoke. They were dreadfully frightened, for the\' fearcxl an e\ II spirit was at work. So they vseized the kettle, poured the water over the hre, and fled. The Quaker quieted the fears of the Indians, telling them that their black rocks were coal. He investigated the region, and found it rich in this valuable mineral. Later, anthracite, which is hard coal, was discovered. Since that time large quantitii's of coal have been taken from Pennsylvania as well as from many other regions of the I'nited States. The railroad was not the only influence that was bringing the people closer together. The printing press w^as doing its share. Daily new^spapers were being issued in Boston, Baltimore, and New \'ork. By 1840, also, the great American e.xprcss business had been started. It was begun in a simi)le way. A young man carried parcels in a small handbag between Boston and NE -— r: Part of first page of " The Liberator " had fought so valiantly against oppression ought not themselves to oppress others. How could a nation, he asked, which had written the Declaration of Inde- pendence still keep hundreds of thousands of human creatures in slavery? "Our fellow-countrymen in chains! Slaves, in a land of light and law ! Slaves, crouching on the very plains Where rolled the storm of Freedom's war."* Many notable men early joined the ranks of the Abolitionists. Among these was Theodore Parker, one of Boston's leading ministers. Another was * Whittier: Expostulation. THE ABOLITIONISTS 153 Wendell Phillips, the "silver-tongued orator," who devoted thirty years of his life to the cause. It was he who said, " If I am to love my country, it must be lovable; if I am to honor it, it must be worthy of respect." It required a great deal of courage in those days to come out in favor of abolition. In the first place there were many people in the North who profited in one way or another by slavery. Then there were a great many who thought that so long as they themselves did not keep slaves, they need not be concerned with what other people were doing. Just to say that one did not believe in slavery was easy enough, but to become an out-and-out Abolitionist was going much further. The Abolitionists cried out for emancipation. By this they meant that the slaves should be given their freedom whether they wanted it or not, and whether or not their owners wished to free them. Here was a startling proposition. People resented it without stopping to consider whether it was right or wrong. Theodore Parker found that even his fellow-ministers were refusing to recognize him. He wrote: "Here I am as much an outcast from society as though I were a convicted pirate." Abolitionist speakers were hissed and interrupted, and more than one of these reformers received bodily injury. Even in Boston, at a meeting at which Garrison was to speak, he was mobbed and dragged through the streets. He was saved from serious in- 154 SECESSION jury only by the action of the mayor, who lodged him in jail. An eye-witness says of him: "The man walked with head erect, flashing eyes, like a martyr going to the stake, full of faith and manly hope." And this happened in that city of noble memories of Bunker Hill and tiie light for freedom! It is not strange that in the South the Abolitionists were thoroughly hated. The statesmen of the North, too, had a good reason for not following State rights , ,, ,. .^ . , , , • the Abolitionists. It was the desire to preserve the union of the states at any cost. Ever since the Constitution had been adopted there had arisen many s(M-ious (iiieslions hinging upon the rela- tion of the United States to the individual states, llow muth of their rights had the states given up when they joined the Union? And could they, at any time, take back any of these rights? I'\)r instance. wIumi a state claimed that a law of Congress was unfair, could it say: "We refuse to obey this law"? To do this would be nullifi- NuUification . , . , , ,,.r i i cation, lu'cause it would nullily the law; that is, it wH)uId make the law null or of no effect. Or, could the state go still further and say: "We cannot agree with our fellow states; so we will draw out of the Union and once more be an independent nation just as we w'ere at the close of the Revolution"? To do this would be secession. There were many peoj^le in both the North and the South who belie\-ed in the right of nuUilication and of NULLIFICATION ^55 secession. In several instances states had declared that they had the right to nullify a law, and even to secede from the Union. One of the most important of these cases was over a (ariff law which did not I)leasc some of the states. There was a heated debate in the Senate, in which Rob- ert y. Ilayne, of South Caro- lina, made a speech in suj^port of nullification. He declared that the South was acting on a principle she had always held sacred, — "resistance to unau- thorized taxation." Hayne was answered by Daniel Webster, who concluded v/ith the memo- rable words: "Liberty (uid Union, now and forever, one and inseparabl( In 1832 the Statue of Daniel Webster, in New York state of South Carolina declared that it would nullify the tariff law and that if necessary it would secede fnjm the Union. But President Jackson was not moved by this threat. He warned the pecjple of that state tiiat if they dis- obeyed the Federal laws, he would use the army and navy to make them obey. Under the influence of Henry Clay the law was soon after slightly changed to please South Carolina. This, and the determined 156 SECESSION stand of the President, prevented the secession of that state. When, some years later, the cry of abohtion was raised, the great southern leaders declared very posi- tively that the slaveholding states would secede rather than give up slavery. Among these leaders was John C. Calhoun, a South Carolinian, who had served two terms as vice-president and who for many years was a member of the United States Senate. Said he: "We love and cherish the Union; we remember with the kindest feelings our common origin, with pride our common achievements, and fondly anticipate the common greatness and glory that seem to await us; but origin, achievements, and anticipation of common greatness are to us as nothing, compared with this question. It is to us a vital question." Even some of the people of the North began to say that the free states ought to secede rather than to remain in a union with states that supported slavery. There was one feature of the Compromise of 1850 that was particularly annoying to the antislavery people. This was a new Fugitive Slave Fugitive Slave j ^, j- 111 Law. 1 he owner 01 a runaway slave had the right to recover him, even if he escaped into a free state. Formerly, the owner had only to declare his ownership and the slave would be delivered over to him. But many states had passed laws making it harder for the owners to recover their FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW 157 runaway slaves. So the slave owners demanded help from the national government, and the law of 1850 took the matter out of the hands of the states. Now a slave owner could claim any negro in any free state as his own. He could call upon United States officers to seize the negro and return him. As a result the North was soon overrun by man hunters. Many of these were not the owners of slav^cs, but only agents of owners. Some were even making a business of hunting down helpless negroes. Such a man had only to claim that any negro he met was a fugitive, taking his oath that this was so. The negro in question could say nothing in protest, even though as a free man he might have been for many years living a life of industry and honesty. All this incensed thousands of the people of the North. It w^as their turn to claim the right of nullification. They began to talk of a "higher Picture of runaway used in news- 1 , , • J 1 ^ ^ 1 paper advertisements law, meaning that they should follow their consciences rather than a "wicked law" of Congress. The Fugitive Slave Law was not violated openly, but many Northerners managed to nullify it by helping the negroes to freedom. Thrill- ing stories are told of slaves who in one way or ^'**^->^w/^'X'""^-C^_ ^Ij^ 158 SECESSION BOSTON SLAVE RIOT, 2:. IT or TME FAHCUIL HALL MEETING THE MURDER another made their escape, only to be recaptured under the Fugitive Slave Law. Anthony Burns was a negro whose case attracted much attention. Burns had fled from Virginia and was working as a waiter in a hotel in Boston. Here he was captured and imprisoned in the court house. This angered the people of Boston. They held excited meetings, and made an unsuccessful attempt to rescue the negro. Fi- nally, under guard of several hundred sol- diers, he was taken to the wharf and put on board ship. In spite of the threats of the people, he was carried back to slavery. It is interest- ing to know that in this instance enough money was subscribed by people in Massa- chusetts to buy Burns from his owner and to bring him back north. But not many of the recaptured fugitives fared so well. Great was the feeling against the law, and many were the people who sympathized with the fugitives. Cover of pamphlet on the Bums case "UNCLE TOM'S CABIN" 159 Thus it became more and more easy for slaves to make their escape and more and more difficult for their owners to retake them. It soon became a regular thing for certain people to work together to help the runaways. This they did in spite of the fact that they might be fined or imprisoned. If the escaped slave could but reach one of these sympathetic friends his chance of freedom was good. He would be passed on from one to another until finally he reached Canada. There the British laws against slavery protected him. It was all done so systematically and so secretly that the pursuers were usually baffled in their efforts. Hence these chains of sympathizers came to be known as the Underground Railway. There were thousands of people in the North who knew little about slavery and to whom it did not seem such a terrible thing. But even they , , ,. UTT 1 "Uncle Tom's were soon stirred by readmg Uncle „ , . „ Tom's Cabin," a book by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, published in 1852. She wrote that she hoped the book had "done justice to that nobility, generosity, and humanity, which in many cases characterizes individuals at the South." But the southern people protested that the book was exagger- ated and did not give a true picture of conditions in the South. Nevertheless, the story of Little Eva and Topsy, of Uncle Tom* and his trials and his pathetic death, of the thrilling escape of Eliza and her babe and of her husband George, of Emiline and Cassy, and i6o SECESSION all the others, went to the hearts of multitudes. It was widely read, and did very much among the people of the North to increase the feeling of hatred toward slavery. Mrs. Stowe, at the end of her book, said : "And now, men and women of America, is this a thing to be trifled with, apologized for, and passed over in silence?" Thousands who had been indiffer- ent before, now became earnest Abolitionists. There followed quickly still other important events that drew the North and South farther apart. The Missouri Compromise had decreed that N b k L slavery should be prohibited in the terri- tory north of 36° 30'. Yet when Kansas and Nebraska, both north of this line, were made into separate territories, the Missouri Compromise was re- pealed, and the people of each territory were allowed to decide for themselves whether or not they should prohibit slavery. Naturally this greatly displeased the antislavery people. In the struggle for the control of Kansas there was savage warfare that equaled in its horrors the raids of the Indians on the frontier settlements. Armed hordes of people, some for slavery and some against it, flocked into the territory, scattering destruction as they advanced. They burned homes, robbed the defenseless, and shot down those who attempted to oppose them. Scores of men and women were mur- dered in this time of strife before Kansas finally settled the burning question by voting against slavery. JOHN BROWN i6i Another dislurbiiig event was the Dred Scott decision. Dred Scott was a slave living in Missouri, a sla\'c state. His owner took him to live in tlie free state of Illinois and later in the , . . decision free territory of Minnesota. Finally his master brought him back to Missouri. Scott claimed that he was no longer a slave, because he had lived in Illinois and Minnesota, where, under the law, slavery was prohibited. He took his case to the courts and linally to the Supreme Court of the United States. This court decided that he had no right even to bring a suit because he was not a citizen. It further declared that Congress had no right to decide the slavery question in the territories. This of course added to the indignation of the people of the free states. At about the same time the people of the South were angered b> the expedition of John Brown. Brown was a New Englandcr. With his sons ^ , „ , ., , John Brown he went to Kansas while the attempt was l)eing made to save that territory for freedom. He took a prominent part in the warfare of that time. Some people think that the excitement of those days drove him insane. However true this may be, he l)elieved that if he could once arm some of the negroes, the slaves in large numbers would rally to his standard and strike for freedom. With this object in inind, Brown left Kansas and settled near Harpers Ferry, Virginia. In October, i62 SECESSION 1859, with a score of followers, he captured the arsenal at that place. It was a foolhardy proceeding. His little band was soon defeated, and he himself taken prisoner, tried, and hanged. While this expedition cost only a few lives, it roused the people of the South. They were sure that Brown had been prompted to his Building in which John Brown was captured deed by northern people, and they feared other attempts to incite the slaves to rebellion. These events brought the situation to the breaking point. But in the meantime the question of slavery had been making and unmaking political Z. parties. It was in 1840 that the first politics ^ ^ ^ antislavery party, later known as the Liberty party, was formed, but it never received more than a few votes. Both the Democrats and the Whigs tried to keep slavery out of politics. In 1848 the Whigs elected the popular old soldier, General SLAVERY IN POLITICS 163 Zachary Taylor, to succeed IVesidcnt Polk. In 1852 the Democrats elected Franklin Pierce. The events of the next four years so stirred the people that the various antislavery groups united under the name of the Republican party. Their candidate, John C. Fre- mont, although not elected, received a very large vote, and the Whig party went out of existence. Again the Democrats elected their candidate, James Buchanan. In 1858 the most distinguished man in the state of Illinois, if not in the entire nation, was Stephen A. Douglas. He had been in Congress for many years, and his brilliant oratory had j^^^ j^^ won for him the title of the Little Giant. The next year his term as senator would expire. No one doubted that, as the candidate of the Democrats, he would be overwhelmingly reelected. But from the ranks of the new Republican party The birthplace of Lincoln, in Kentucky there arose a man (jf the people, Abraham Lincoln. He had grown up in the rough pioneer life of the i64 SECESSION "backwoods." Circumstances were so hard that he could get Httle schooling. Books were scarce in the homes of the frontier, and the first vol- ume that Lincoln owned was a " Life of Lmcoln Washington." It cost him three days' labor to acquire it. Lincoln early showed an ambition for learning and an ability to think clearly. In time he made a name for himself throughout his state as a clever lawyer. Now he was put forth by his party to contest the election of Douglas as senator from Illinois. When Lincoln was nominated he made one of the most important speeches ever delivered on the subject of slavery. It was then that he said: "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dis- solved. I do not expect the house to fall, but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other." Most of Lincoln's friends tried to persuade him that his chances would be better if he did not speak so harshly against slavery. But he insisted on saying what he believed was right and true. Lincoln challenged his opponent to a series of public debates. His challenge was accepted. The two Lincoln- candidates spoke in seven different places Douglas in the state. This Lincoln-Douglas debate debate j-^g^g gone into our history as the great- est event of its kind. People by tens of thousands ELECTION OF LINCOLN 165 came from all directions to see for themselves this con- test between the Little Giant and the tall, rawboned country lawyer who had dared to dispute with him. Douglas defended his own views with wonderful skill. Lincoln kept pushing him more and more on the slavery issue. One of his thrusts w^as: "I agree with Judge Douglas that the negro is not my equal in many respects. But in the right to eat bread, with- out the leave of anybody else, which his own hand earns, he is my equal, and the equal of Judge Doug- las, and the equal of every living man." When it finally came to a vote, it was found that Douglas was elected senator, but by a close count. Although Lincoln had been defeated, his speeches in this campaign made him one of the foremost Repub- licans in the country. When, in i860, the Republican convention met to nominate ,. \ ^ Lincoln a candidate for President, it soon settled upon Lincoln. In the Democratic party there was a split, and two different candidates were nominated. Still a fourth candidate was put in the field by men dissatisfied with the other three. Lincoln was elected. This was the signal for the slavery forces to take action. In December, i860, the state of South Caro- lina seceded, declaring that "the union now subsisting between South Carolina and the other states, under the name of the United States of America, is hereby dissolved." At last the people of the United States were brought face to face with the question which 1 66 SECESSION had been argued throughout seventy-one years — the question of "state sovereignty." States, before this, to secede and to set I'll AKLliS 1 Oil up separate and inde- pendent governments, but never before had a state declared that it actually had MERCURT EXTRA: Pataed unaniaunuty at 1.15 o'clock. P. . aotk, I860. AJt ORDIITAJVCE To dUtolne Ihe LMm trltrren Iht Stale (tf South Carolina tmd tlher Stain imUrd aUh htr iou/ct- Ihe compact mtUltd « TIh CamlUullon nfthe VnUtd Slalet of America." The claim of the South se- ceded. Here was the most vital issue that has ever con- fronted the Amer- ican government. Here was a state claim- ing that it had already left the Union. Did mere claiming make it so? If the national government could force the state back, by warfare if need be, it would prove that Newspaper bulletin issued after the secession of South Carolina the State had made a false claim. On the other hand, if the state suc- ceeded against the forces of the federal government, its claim would have to be recognized. The atti- iroited StatM of Amcric* wu ntified. and thtt, »H Acti bnd puts of KtXa of tba 0«eMiJ Aaamblj of tbli 6ui«, wifjiDg tmeDdmoDU of the uid OoDsytntioa, m berabf tepMled : UNION DISSOLVED! CLAIM OF THE SOUTH 167 tude of the state was: We are a separate nation; if you attack us you are waging war on a neighbor. The attitude of the federal government was: You are a group of people in rebellion; cease to rebel or we must wage war upon you as rebels. The next three months were perhaps the most criti- cal in our history. Twenty-eight years before, when South Carolina threatened secession, President Jack- son took determined action. It might have been ex- pected now that President Buchanan would do the same thing and bring South Carolina promptly to terms. But he did not. He was a Democrat, and in March was to be succeeded by a Republican Presi- dent. It was hard to tell just what the people of the North would want their President to do. How far would they support him if he took action to reduce South Carolina to submission? Even many people who had been bitter Abolitionists were now frightened by the turn in events. Among these was Horace Greeley, the editor of the New York "Tribune." He said: "If the Cotton States shall decide that they can do better out of the Union than in it, we insist on letting them go in peace." When many of the Republican leaders were talking in this way, it is not to be wondered that Buchanan, a Democrat, should be perplexed as to what should be done. Indeed it seemed ^ „° ate States to be no longer a question of Democrat or Republican. Many men of both parties were taking i68 SECESSION a firm stand for the Union. Many others were looking at the problem much as Greeley did. In the mean- time the South took advantage of this condition of affairs. By February, 1861, six other states had fol- lowed the example of South Carolina. The seven pro- ceeded to unite under the name of the Confederate States of America. In those states there were several forts and arsenals belonging to the United States government. By seizing some of these, the Confed- erates got possession of large quantities of supplies and ammunition, so that if war came they would be prepared. As the days went on, the country saw that much depended upon the incoming President. People looked forward anxiously to see what he would do. Slavery was at the root of the trouble, yet Lincoln saw very clearly that the question now was not "Shall we abolish slavery?" but "Have any states the right to secede?" Lincoln kept assuring the people that he wished no war and no bloodshed. Nevertheless he showed that he would not compromise on the question of secession. Not until he was inaugurated could Lincoln speak with authority. On March 4, 1861, he became President. His inaugural address set the . _ . . issue squarely before the people. "The Union of these states is perpetual," said he. "No state upon its own mere motion can law- fully get out of the Union I shall take care. I INAUGURATION OF LINCOLN 169 as the Constitution itself expressly enjoins upon me, that the laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all the states." He concluded with: "We are not ene- mies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained, it must not break our bonds of affection." Part of Lincoln's inaugural address During the next few weeks Lincoln waited patiently for events to shape themselves. He saw that the national government would have a great advantage if the South made the first move in the game of war- fare. His thought evidently was, "Let the South fire the first gun and thus put herself before the world as rebelling against the federal government." And so he waited. FOR CAREFUL STUDY There were many different opinions about the right and wrong of slavery, and in time this question became the most important matter upon which political parties differed. In the beginning, when the Constitution was adopted, certain compromises were made, and it was supposed that the slavery question was settled. The states were about evenly divided between slave states (i7o) DISPUTE OVER SLAVERY 171 and free states, and for many years, as new states came in, this balance was carefully kept. From time to time several laws concerning the slavery question were passed. Among these were the Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, and the Kansas-Nebraska Law. In spite of the attempts to satisfy both sides, the feel- ing of antagonism between the northern free states and the southern slave states kept steadily growing. This brought forward another question: Could a state go out of the Union by its own will, just as it had entered by its own will? The right to do so was called the right of secession. As the strife between the slavery and antislavery people became more and more bitter, many on both sides claimed this right for their states. Finally, when Abraham Lincoln was elected Presi- dent, in i860, the South took it as a signal for action. Seven of the states seceded and formed the Con- federate States of America. FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED By the Missouri Compromise, 1820, Missouri was admitted as a slave state, while slavery was prohibited in all the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of 36° 30'. By the Compromise of 1850, Cahfornia was admitted into the Union as a free state, and Utah and New Mexico were allowed to decide for themselves whether they would be free or slave. The Kansas-Nebraska Law, 1854, repealed the Missouri Compromise and allowed the territories to decide the slave question for themselves. The Dred Scott Decision, 1857, permitted slavery in all the territories. 172 SECESSION Bibliography Lincoln. — Baldwin: Abraham Lincoln. Brooks: True Story of Abraham Lincoln. Coffin: Abraham Lincoln. Moores: Life of Abraham Lincoln. Nicolay: Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln. Sparks: Men who made the Nation. Tarbell: He knew Lincoln. Tarbell: Counsel for the Defense. Webster. — Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. Seized the bridle of Lee's horse " CHAPTER IX THE CIVIL WAR We do not have to go far into the history of England to learn that Englishmen have always been very jealous of their rights. The English have . ^ , , • 1 • The spirit of a saying that every man s house is his , „ . castle. For centuries the men of England have stood firm in defense of these "castles," however magnificent or however humble they may be. So when Englishmen came across the Atlantic and settled in America they brought with them this spirit of insisting upon their rights. We have seen how, as colonists, they defended their rights even against their own English government. We have learned how they resisted the authority of the mother country, and finally gained their independence. It was this spirit that prevailed once again In the days of 1861. Both North and South believed that they were right. The North insisted that the nation should remain united. The South insisted that it had the right to withdraw in peace from the Union. The people of the South were prompted by the same spirit that had led their forefathers to throw off the authority of England. They felt that they must 173 T74 THE CIVIL WAR throw off the authority of the United States. That authority was, they beheved, being used against them. So the Confederate States declared that if the United States should invade their territory, it would be an act of war by one nation upon another. Thus they hoped to be left to go their separate way in peace. This hope was not without foundation. In the first place they had reason to believe that the Con- federacy would grow In area. Other The plans of ^ ^ , , ^ ^u • • i ,, „ ,. states would come over to their side. the South Again, they expected that the countries of Europe would speedily recognize the Confederate States as an independent nation. England and her neighbors, it was supposed, would be glad to see the growing American union shattered and replaced by a number of smaller countries. Thus it might be easy for European nations to gain more territory in America. Moreover, the Europeans profited by trade with the South. Especially, they needed the cotton that was produced there. So they would not want their supply of it cut off or their trade interfered with in other ways by a war. In the third place, the Southerners counted on the fact that they had many friends in the North. They took it for granted that the northern people in general did not care whether or not the South set up for itself. At any rate, they could not believe that these people cared enough for the Union to go to war to preserve it. But the hopes of the South were not all to be PLANS OF THE SOUTH 175 realized. Some states that they had expected would secede disappointed them. Foreign nations proved to be in no hurry to take sides. And finally, the Confederates were much mistaken in the attitude of the North. They had forgotten that their northern brothers had the same independent spirit that they had. When once aroused, the northern folk could be just as determined as they themselves were. At first, success seemed sure and easy. The seceded states acted on the theory that all forts, arsenals, stores, ammunition, and other equipment for war, on land or on sea, that were to be found within their states belonged by right to them. So they proceeded to take possession. In nearly every case this was easy enough, because most of the men in command were Southerners and in sympathy with the Confederate movement. But there was one officer who did not take this view. Major Anderson had command of the United States forces in the harbor of Charleston, South ^ Fort Sumter (^arolina. He was a Kentuckian by birth, and his wife was a Georgian; yet he felt that so long as he was in the army of the United States he must defend his command against any attack by the South. Anderson's force of less than one hundred men occupied Fort Sumter, located on an island in the harbor. The governor of South Carolina insisted that no United States troops should be intrenched in this way within his state. However, he hesitated to 176 THE CIVIL WAR act. He called upon the Confederate government to advise him. The president of the Confederacy and his cabinet were at Montgomery, Alabama, their cap- ital. They discussed the governor's request very seri- ously. One of them said: "The firing upon that fort will inaugurate a civil war greater than any the world has yet seen; and I do not feel competent to advise you." Thus they hesitated. But the impatient southern people would not let them delay for long. The Confederates made many attempts to induce Anderson to withdraw his troops peaceably. Then they served notice upon him that they would shell the fort. This they could do from the neighboring harbor forts which they already held. In the meantime President Lincoln was trying to send reenforcements and supplies to the beleaguered garrison, but without success. Anderson and his men were soon subjected Part of Fort Sumter after the bombardment to a hot fire from powerful guns in forts so distant that the guns of Fort Sumter could not reach them in BEGINNING OF THE WAR 77 return. For two days the bombardment continued. Time after time the shells set fire to the barracks. The magazines were threatened. The gallant de- fenders were nearly suffocated in flame and smoke. Finally, when ammunition ran low and food gave out, Major Anderson surrendered. At last had occurred the event for which President Lincoln, even against the advice of his counselors, had so patiently been waiting. The American flag had been fired upon. War had , , . for troops begun; but it was the Confederacy that had fired the first shot. How vain had been the hope of the South that the people of the North would not care if it seceded! The news of Sumter sent a thrill through the nation. Immediately Lincoln issued a proclamation calling for 75,ooo troops. The response was prompt and eager. Now that war was fairly on, the hope and enthu- siasm of the southern people ran high. They were confident of early victory. F'irst of all, , , , , , 1 1 r Confidence of they had ex^en more reason than before ,. „ ,^ ■^ the South to expect that several other states would join the seven already in the Confederacy. Secondly, they were now more hopeful that European nations would interfere and recognize their independence. They expected to secure just such aid as France had given the struggling colonists in the days of the Revo- lution, Finally, the Confederates had some advan- tages from the military standpoint. 178 THE CIVIL WAR For many years they had been looking forward to war and so were better prepared than was the North. The leading men of the South led outdoor lives and were fond of sport and the handling of arms. Many of them were army officers. They were high-spirited and ready to match their strength with their north- ern rivals. Again, the slaves could be left at home to carry on the work there, while their masters went to battle. The Confederates had a further advantage in being on the defensive. They were not seeking conquest, but only asking to be let alone. Hence, all they had to do was to resist invasion. This meant that they would not have to travel far to battle. They would not have to transport armies and supplies great distances into the enemy's country. Best of all, they would be stirred by the spirit that fires men when they are defending their homes and families. We shall now see how the South fared along each of these three lines. The first hope of the Confederacy was that it might increase its territory. It comprised seven coast states : The first hope Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, — increased and Florida, on the Gulf; and Georgia territory ^^^ South Carolina on the Atlantic. Several other southern states, however, were in sym- pathy with the Confederacy. Following the lead of Virginia, the three states immediately north of the Confederacy — Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Caro- FOUR MORE STATES SECEDE I7Q Una — promptly joined it. Richmond, Virginia, was later made the capital of the Confederacy. The gain- ing of Virginia was a triumph for the South, for with- out it the war would undoubtedly have ended much The home of the Confederate president, in Richmond earlier than it did. But not all of that state was will- ing to secede from the Union. The people in the western part did some seceding on their own account. In order to remain true to the Federal government, they brought about the division of Virginia into two states. In 1863 West Virginia was admitted to the Union as a separate state. i8o THE CIVIL WAR Missouri, Kentucky, and Maryland, to the north of these four, were known as the Border States. For several trying weeks it was a question whether the Confederacy would gain them. But the South was doomed to disappointment. Eventually all three were saved to the Union, not without considerable strategy, however, and only after armed force had taken a part in settling the question. Moreover, as the war progressed, although the cry of the Con- federacy was "On to Washington," its armies were never able to get into that city. So the Confederacy was limited to eleven states, and it is their fortunes that we are now to follow. The second hope of the Confederacy was that it might secure the aid of foreign nations, especially England. It was to England's interest ^ ° . . , to trade with the South, where she bought — foreign aid '_ * cottoni for use in her mills. So the Con- federates sent their agents to England to induce that government to aid them. But they met with no success. The United States also had its friends at work there, explaining the position of the North and enlisting the sympathy of the British people. They were able to convince the English that, although there was much talk about "state rights," the chief issue of the war was slavery. Years before this, England had abolished slavery at home and in all her colo- nies. She could not now bring herself to take sides with the slaveholding South. THE TRENT AFFAIR i8i There was one incident, however, that very nearly turned the EngHsh against the United States. Two Confederate agents — Mason and SHdell — started for England on board a British ^. steamer, the Trent. Hearing of this, Captain Wilkes, of the Union navy, boarded the Trent, captured the two commissioners, and held them as prisoners. The people of the North were elated. But the clear-headed President saw that a serious mistake had been made. He did not forget that in 1812, we had gone to war with England for doing much the same thing that Wilkes had just done. So he gave up the prisoners and let them go on their errand. It was one thing for the South to talk al)out sujj- plying England with cotton, and quite another to carry on commerce with that or any other , . . The blockade country. 1 he United States did not propose to let the Confederacy have her own way in this matter. Fort Sumter had surrendered on April 14. Before that month was over the United States had declared the entire Confederate coast to be blockaded. This meant that the government under- took to prevent all vessels from entering or leaving any southern port. As the coast line was some two thousand miles in length, it was a huge undertaking. The blockade having been declared, it was of prime importance to the Union that it should be maintained. Much to the surprise of the Confederates, they soon found themselves thoroughly hemmed in from the sea 1 82 THE CIVIL WAR front. Despite the advantage of so long a coast line, the South was seriously handicapped. It was an agricultural region. To secure manufactured articles it had depended chiefly upon trading its crops for them. It had comparatively few machine-shops, factories, and foundries. Thus it was almost helpless as compared with the North, whose mechanics were many and just now were very busy in providing the tools of warfare. The North soon had hundreds of vessels impressed into service. They watched the southern ports with cat-like shrewdness, ready to A blockade runner pounce on any Confederate or foreign ship that should try to leave or to enter. The Confederates, however, were by no means idle. On many occasions vessels called " blockade runners " The Monitor managed to elude the blockading ships, and the Before the war had been in operation a Mernmac y^^^ ^|^gy struck the enemy a blow that nearly broke up the whole blockade. This happened at Norfolk, Virginia. Five northern frigates were in THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC 183 command of the harbor. On the morning of March 8, 1862, the crews of these ships were startled by seeing before them a new and strange sort of craft. It lay low in the water. It had neither sails nor masts. It was propelled only by steam. In fact, it was the first ship In any navy to depend upon steam as its only motive power. The alarm of the northern crews was increased when they opened fire. Broadside after broadside hit the curious battleship without the slightest effect. The cannon balls glanced harmlessly off its sides. The Confederates had cunningly covered their doughty defender with plates of iron. But worse was yet to follow. The Merrimac, for that was the name of the ship, turned, showing a sharp ram projecting from her bow, plunged into the nearest frigate, the Cumberland, and soon sent it to the bottom. Directing her atten- tion to the others, she set fire to one and drove the remaining three aground. When the North heard the news from Norfolk it was dismayed and panic-stricken. Nothing, it seemed, could prevent the Merrimac from coming on up the Potomac and bombarding the capi- tal, or from ending the blockade of southern ports. But the surprises were not to be all on one side. On the morning after her startling victory the Merri- mac sallied forth to complete her work of destruction. But this time it was her turn to wonder. In front of her was a craft even more curious than herself. A fourth her own size, with a large round turret on a low 1 84 THE CRIL WAR flat body, it looked, as was said, like "a cheese-box on a raft." It too was ironclad. But it was speedier The Monitor and the Merrimac than the Merrimac, and drew much less water. Soon it was ca\'orting around her, running through shallow water that the Merrimac could not venture into, and firing as it pleased upon her iron sides. The ingenious little boat was named the Mojiitor. It had been designed by John Ericsson, and hurriedly built in Brooklyn. It had arrived at Norfolk just in the nick of time. Neither of these ironclads could do much harm to the other, but the Monitor could hold the Merrimac in check. The fears of the North were quieted. From this time on the blockading squadrons hemmed in the Confederacy more and more. Soon her commerce was very nearly at a stand--till. The third hope of the Confederacy was that she might resist invasion. Victory might e\en lead her "ON TO RICHMOND" 185 to march into the North, there to dictate terms of peace. While operations had been going on at sea, the armies of both sides had been gathering Third hope — in large numbers. They were recruited to resist from e\'ery walk in life. There were i^^^sion farmers, clerks, college students, mechanics, trades- men, — ■ all very eager and enthusiastic, but entirely ignorant of warfare. President Lincoln said that one army was "as green as the other." The Confeder- ates, however, had begun a few months earlier to put their army into shape. In both camps many weeks had to be spent in training and drilling the men, which made the people the more impatient to see actual war begin. Both North and South wanted news of some big battle which should prove that its side was going to make short work of the other. The Confederacy, now that it included Virginia, proceeded to defend this, its most northern state, from attack. In July, 1861, the Confederates, with some 30,000 men, were attacked by „. . , „ ^ ' ■' Richmond " the Union army under General McDowell, at a little stream called Bull Run, less than fifty miles from Washington. General Beauregard was in command, and was about to suffer defeat when he was joined by forces under General J. E. Johnston. Together they retook the positions that had been lost, routed the Federal troops, and started them in a ragged retreat back toward Washington. The Con- federates, though better trained than the new recruits i86 THE CIVIL WAR of the Union army, were yet not enough better off to be able to follow them far. So both armies rested for a while. General McClellan, succeeding McDowell, put his troops through a season of strenuous drilling, getting them ready to renew the attack. There was plenty of fighting in West Virginia and in Tennessee, but no great battle occurred in the East until the spring of 1862. Then McClellan again started the Union armies for Richmond. This time he went part way by boat and began by laying siege to York- town. He intended to work his way from there up to the Con- federate capital. The map will show why the operations in this region are called the Peninsular campaign. Johnston was in command at Yorktown. In order to gain time he kept McClellan outside the city for a month. During the siege the Confederates played a successful trick upon the Yankees. They cut logs into the shape of cannon, painted them black, and mounted them in their intrenchments. These "quaker guns," as they were called, completely deceived the enemy. When Johnston could hold out no longer, he re- treated toward Richmond. McClellan followed. At Fair Oaks the two armies met in battle, and the GENERAL LEE 187 General Lee Confederate commander, General Johnston, was wounded. Johnston was succeeded by General Robert E. Lee, wlio soon became the leading military spirit of the South. Indeed, his name has gone into history as one of the greatest commanders that the world has known. Lee was a great general, planning his campaigns with wonderful skill. He had, too, a soldier's love for getting into the thick of the fight. Lee's disregard of dan- ger was a constant source of anxiety to his men. The story is told that in one of his battles, late in the war, he galloped to the head of a column of Texas soldiers and gave the order to charge! But not a soldier would budge while their general was thus endangered. A gray-haired sergeant seized the bridle of Lee's horse and led its rider out of danger. Then with a rush and a will the charge was made. Lee's soldiers bore him a love that amounted to worship. "Mars Robert," they affectionately called I ft»i ^:m?iiv xa fife Statue of General Robert E. Lee i88 THE CIVIL WAR him. Even his horse was sacred to them. His sword they reverenced: "Forth from its scabbard, high in air Beneath Virginia's sky — And they who saw it gleaming there, And knew who bore it, knelt to swear That where that sword led they would dare To follow ^ — and to die."* Another Southern general who was making his name a word to strike terror in the hearts of the Fed- eral soldiers, was Thomas J. Jackson. It Jackson ^^® ^^ ^^^ battle of Bull Run that his brigade held its ground against the ter- rible onslaught of the enemy, and an officer in admira- tion exclaimed: "See where Jackson stands like a stone wall." So Stonewall Jackson he was often called. Just now Jackson was operating in the Shenandoah valley, in Western Virginia. He pushed the Union forces, under General Banks, back to the Potomac, and persistently worried Washington. The Federal government, in its alarm, kept a large army about the capital to defend it from the unknown dangers that threatened. Thus McClellan was deprived of the reenforcements which he thought were necessary to the work of his campaign. While McClellan waited, Jackson suddenly joined Lee. Together they attacked McClellan's army in the * Father Ryan: The Sword of Robert Lee. FROM BULL RUN TO FREDERICKSBURG 189 neighborhood of Richmond. Here occurred several bloody clashes, known as the Seven Days' Battles, in which thousands of men ^\^^ *^^ •^ Battles were lost to each side. Lee captured many prisoners and inflicted as much injury upon the enemy as he himself suffered. Lee next tried to turn the tide of war northward. He thought that the people of Maryland were in sympathy with the South, and that they , , I I I . 11' r^ 1 Antietam and would help him and his army. So he „ , ... decided to cross the Potomac well above Washington, and carry the war into the North, hoping to circle back and surround the P'ederal capital. At the beginning all was favorable to him. On the way to the Potomac he met and defeated General Pope at the second battle of Bull Run. Then he crossed into Maryland and was followed by McClellan, who defeated him in the battle of Antietam, one of the most terrible clashes of the war. Lee retreated into Virginia, and later was attacked at Fredericksburg. He held his own, and compelled the Federal army to fall back toward their capital. This was in December. Thus, at the close of the year 1862, the Confederates were as well intrenched in Virginia as they had been at the outbreak of the war more than a year and a half before. While this was going on in the East, the Confeder- acy was struggling to maintain its western and northern limits. It wished very much to hold the IQO THE CIV WAR Mississippi Riwr. If that should fall into Union hands, the South, thus cut in two, would be badl\' crippled. But the Confederates had to Capture of i i • . . ^ , meet nianv assaults on this 8:reat water- New Orleans - * ^ wa\'. Near the mouth of the river was the large and important city of New Orleans, strongh" protected against capture. Two heavy chains lay stretched across the river below the city. Just above The Farragut Monument, in New York them were two forts whose cross-fire could be trained upon any boats passing up the river. Above the forts CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS IQI was a strong fleet, which inchided two ironclads. It seemed as il the city were impregnable and that the Federals would be foolhardy indeed t(» attempt to run up the river. But there were daring men at hand to undertake this \-ery task. Captain Farragut, with a fleet of hfty vessels, determined to accomplish it. He man- aged to get many of his ships up the river to a point near the chains. Then he dispatched two gunboats, which, stealing up at dark, succeeded in breaking the chains. There followed, during the calm, starlit night, a sudden rush past the two forts. The forts thundered their bolts upon the daring fleet. Boats loaded with pitch-pine were set afire and floated toward them. The Confederate vessels from up the river bore down upon them and engaged them in close combat. The battle raged until morning. Then, in spite of the damage done to the Union fleet, it was seen sailing up the river, ha\-ing victoriously passed the forts. The fall of the city was inevitable. General Butler, with a large army, followed Farragut into New Orleans, taking possession on May i, 1862. The Confederates were able to hold out a little longer in the northwestern part of their territory. They had tried to keep their forces in the field in Kentuckv and Tennessee, but were °\ !^ ^^^^ and Donelson driven back. Halleck, the Union general, early in 1862, centered his attack upon two of their im- portant strongholds, Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. 192 THE CIVIL WAR Although one of these was on the Tennessee River and the other on the Cumberland, they were but twelve miles apart. Thus the line of defense between them was a very important gateway to the South. General Grant, aided by Commodore Foote's gun- boats, was sent to capture the forts. Fort Henry was easily taken, but the battle around Donelson raged fiercely for three days. Finally the Confederates ' asked for terms of surrender, to which Grant made his famous reply: "No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted." On February 1 6 the fort yielded, and thousands of prisoners were surrendered. The South had suffered its first great defeat. At Shiloh, farther up the Tennessee River, Grant held his own in a fierce two days' battle, where 25,000 men were lost to the two armies. Among these was General A. S. Johnston, who had commanded the Confederate forces in the West. The next day Com- modore Foote captured Island No. 10, in the Mis- sissippi River. This opened the river down to the Confederate stronghold at X'icksburg. Thus, in the West the close of 1862 found the South still undi- vided at the Mississippi. That is, it held possession of the river at Vicksburg and for some distance south. On the first day of 1863 President Lincoln took action in a matter that he had long been considering. From the beginning of the war he had repeatedly asserted that it was waged to sa\-e the Union. EM.VNCIPATION PROCLAMATION 193 Slavery was not the issue. But he came to see that slavery was a great aid to the South in carrying on the war. Hence, to free the slaves would , , 11111 Emancipation be a war measure that would help to dc- p.^damation feat the South. So he issued an Emanci- pation Proclamation. In it he declared that all the slaves — more than three millions in number — in all the states of the Confederacy should be forever free. The Southerners were not at all alarmed by this proclamation. Instead, they ridiculed it. In scorn they declared that the mere word of the _ . , ^ , T T • 1 r- 1 Lee's start for President of the United States, whose ^^^ ^orth authority they did not recognize, could not set free their slaves. They became all the more intense in their determination to drive the Union armies out of their territory and even to carry the war into the enemy's country. In May Lee was attacked by the Federals, now under General Hooker, at Chancellorsville, but he drove them back terribly defeated. Then he started for the North, determined not to stop until he had dictated terms of peace in Philadelphia or New York. It is no wonder that at this springtime of 1863, the Confederates believed that their hopes were about to be realized. FOR CAREFUL STUDY There was only one way to dispro\e the right of secession. When a state claimed that it had seceded, 194 THE CIVIL WAR the Federal government could successfully dispute the claim only by force, — only by conquering the people that resisted its authority. The secession of the seven Confederate states led to war. The South began the fighting by taking Fort Sumter, on April 14, 1861, claiming that it was part of her ter- ritory and that the United States troops had no right there. This was followed by four years of bitter, bloody, civil strife. The hopes of the Confederate States ran high. Four other states joined them; they expected European nations to help them ; and they were sure they could keep the Union armies out of their territory. But they were to be disappointed. The nations of the world refused to recognize them, and remained neutral throughout the war. Actual warfare took place almost entirely on southern soil, and for the Southerners it became a fight for the defense of their homes. The Union soon had the southern ports closely blockaded; and the Monitor was able to withstand the attacks of the Merrimac, in the first battle be- tween ironclad vessels. t The vicinity of Washington FROM 1861 TO 1863 195 On land the fortunes of the war varied. In the East the Confederate cry was, "On to Washington," and the Confederate armies seriously threatened that city more than once. The Union cry was, "On to Richmond," and the Federals fought steadily through northern X'irginia, but were stubbornly repulsed. The year 1863 found the two sides practically at a deadlock between the two capitals. In the meantime, however, the Confederacy had suffered in the \\'cst. It had lost New Orleans and much of the Mississippi River. But it still held \'icksburg, the key that the Federals must gain if they were to unlock the river to Northern control. a U L F ^ ^ ' ' '\S^ '!■■ M E SCALE OF MILES Xhe Confederate states 'Finally they clashed at Gettysburg' CHAPTER X THE TURNING OF THE TIDE Let us pause for a brief review of the situation, especially as it looked to the people of the North. When the war opened, in the early part of 1861, they little doubted that it would . ^ ^\"* '°° ■' ^ in review soon be settled — in a few months at the most. They thought of the South, not at all as a powerful nation, but merely as a set of rebels. All that was needed, they believed, was to march an army or two into the Southland and bring the Con- federacy to terms. Thus they would quickly put an end to the rebellion. But, as we have seen, they were soon to learn that it was not to be any such easy matter. Indeed, it was presently evident that the struggle would be fierce and determined. It might last for years. Again and again a northern army was sent against the Confederate capital, only to be thrown back with great loss. The North was thor- oughly discouraged. Home after home was being made desolate. The fathers and older brothers were giving their lives at the front. Sturdy small boys, in their efforts to fill vacant places, grew into sudden manhood. Day by 197 iqS THE TURNING OF THE TIDE day the women waited at home, doing their part in the defense of the Union. With patient hands they made roll after roll of bandages. Their choicest linens and even the table damasks were sacrificed to bind up the wounds of the soldiers. Those who lived near the hospitals were con- stantly busy making jellies and broths for the sick. After each battle, with eyes that could scarcely read through blinding tears, these suiTering women searched the columns of the missing, dreading to find there- in the name of some dear one. And yet the war dragged on. It was not only the defeats in the field that caused the Union leaders anxiety. There were many people even in the North who did not believe in the war. They really sympathized with the South and rejoiced when the Federal arms met reverses. These people were given the name of Copperheads, because many of them wore as a badge the head of the Goddess of Liberty cut out of an old-fashioned copper cent. And it was not only sympathy with the enemy that the government feared. \'ery likely, plots to give them real help were being laid in the midst of the A Union soldier DRAFT RIOTS 199 Union states. Then there weis Canada at the north. It might be easy for Confederate alHes to make raids into the United States from across the northern boundary and cause much damage. As the war progressed, another difficulty faced the people of the North. The first call for troops had been answered heartily by enthusiastic ^ , . , •^ ^ Draft riots thousands. But as more and more men were needed, not enough volunteered, and it became necessary to get them by conscription, or draft. That is, instead of asking men to serve, the govern- ment ordered them into ser\'ice whether they wanted to go or not. This angered a great many, and in some cases they fought against the draft. The most serious of these draft riots occurred in New York in the summer of 1863, where much property was damaged and several hundred lives were lost. More than all this, the war was costing a million dollars a day. What was far worse, it was costing the lives of thousands of the best men of the nation. So, after every defeat, people would ask: "What is the use of wasting more men and more money in a losing fight? Why not let the South go its own way and let us have peace?" Despite all discouragements, the patient and masterful Lincoln, and some of the other statesmen about him, kept up hope. If the people would only remain loyal and support the war, there were many reasons why a united North ought surely to win in THE TURNING OF THE TIDE the end. Cruel and costly as the war was to both sides, the North was standing it much better than was the South. Its population was between two and three times that of the South, and thus the cost in men and money was shared by a much larger number of people. In their homes the southern people were feeling the effects of the war even more keenly than were the Effects of the people of the North. Nearly all their war on the fighting men were now under arms and South away from home. They, too, had to draft men into service. Day by day the blockade was tightening its grasp around the seacoast and cutting off their imports. So far, the war had been fought almost entirely on southern soil, and the ruins of beautiful southern homes marked its path. Yet under these burdens their spirits bore up wonderfully well. Especially were the southern women rising nobly to meet the situation. Life for them was sadly changed since the days of peace and plenty. Many were obliged to act as the head of the family and manage the home and plantation. This meant directing the work of the slaves in the field, A Confederate soldier EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON THE SOUTH 20 1 and, by all sorts of contrivances, keeping the negroes as well as their own families, fed and clothed. It was no easy task. Where were they to get material for clothing? They could no longer import it from foreign lands. The Southerners had never manufactured much for themselves, so they had to go back to primi- tive ways. Every household became a miniature fac- tory. Old spinning wheels and hand looms that had not been used f6r generations were hauled out of the garrets. Patiently and cheerfully the women set about learning the long-forgotten arts of carding and spinning and weaving. The ladies could now pay little attention to fashion. They were glad if they could supply themselves and their slaves and the thousands of soldiers in the field with simple homespun clothing and homemade shoes and hats. They learned to make wicker baskets of willow branches. They learned to tan leather, using the skins of swine and even of dogs. They learned to make various substitutes for oil lamps and candles. In hundreds of other ways they proved true the old adage that "necessity is the mother of invention." They learned, too, to make their agriculture meet their new needs. They raised less cotton and more rice, sugar, corn, wheat, and other food crops. There was one crop that they had heretofore scorned, but now were learning to appreciate. This was the peanut, or groundnut. Peanuts were soon raised in large (juantities, and used in many ways. They were 202 . THE TURNING OF THE TIDE eaten, they were fed to pigs to fatten them, and even the peanut oil was used for lamps. The war was costing the Confederates as well as the North much money. To help meet expenses 'the government taxed the people one tenth of their cotton crop. But the Confeder- money ^ ^ ^ acy could not pay its bills without ])orrowing. So it issued paper money. As the war progressed, people became more and more doubtful as to whether the Confederacy would live to pay back any of what it had borrowed. As a result, they were afraid to take the paper money in place of gold and silver, and when they did, it was only at a great discount. For instance, coffee cost in Con- federate money fifty dollars a pound and flour several hundred dollars a barrel. A newspaper, printed per- haps on a piece of wrapping paper or wall paper, cost a dollar, and everything else was in proportion. Conditions were trying for everybody, but worst of all for those families who lived in the invaded parts of the country. The Union soldiers, sweep- , . ing through the land, often took food and other supplies from them. Many saw their houses burned, and were obliged to flee to some stronghold or to some district not yet invaded. One of the places to which people came, for "shelter was Vicksburg. This city, situated on a Mil at a bend in the Mississippi and protected by strong fortifica- tions, was supposed to be impregnable. But before SIEGE OF VICKSBURG 203 */ long the people who gathered there would have been glad to be elsewhere. When the city was besieged by Grant's forces, life became anything but peaceful. 'ih^Sehrieking shells began to roar and tear into town. The people took to cave-dwelling, like those of long ago. Holes _^,,__^_^^ , __ were dug into the earth on the sides of the hills away from the firing. They were small and damp, and in constant danger of caving in and burying the in- hal)itants. One lady tells of her experiences in a cave the floor of which was shaped like the letter T. In one end of the cross space was a bed, and in the other, a hole some two feet deeper than the floor. This hole was the only place where there was room to stand, and she says: "When tired of sitting in other portions of my residence, I bowed myself into it, and stood impassively resting at full height." So many were the caves that they "reminded one very much of the numberless holes that swallows make in summer." The people lived chiefly on corn bread and bacon, Caves used during the siege of Vicksbtirg 204 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE and were lucky to get this three times a day. They were even glad to vary their diet with mule meat. In fact, the soldiers defending the city preferred the fresh mule meat to the bacon and salt rations. So the commissaries killed a number of mules each day. The eating hours were very irregular, because all the cooking had to be done outside the caves when there was a lull in the falling of the shells. Great as were the sacrifices which the Southerners were making, they could not keep on forever. It was on this that the Federal government ans e (.Quoted. The North hoped to be able to North ^ wear the Southerners out, even if it could not immediately conquer them. The general plan of the war was to tighten the blockade all along the coasts of the Confederacy, to seize the rest of the Mississippi River, and then with the armies to push in from the north and west. It seemed that the North, having more men, more money, more resources of every kind, must surely win sooner or later. And yet, in spite of all this, in the early summer of 1863, here was Lee, rapidly marching a determined, well-disciplined army across Maryland and into Pennsylvania. The North was almost in a panic of fear. The Union army sent to oppose Lee was put under the command of General Meade. For a few days the two armies played for advantage of position. Finally they clashed at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, not far GETTYSBURG 205 Gettysburg from the Maryland line. Here, beginning July 1, was fought one of the fiercest and most famous of the world's great battles. It raged for three days. In the first maneuvering the Fed- erals were defeated, and suffered a severe loss in the death of one of their gallant officers, General Reynolds. They were badly mixed up in the streets of the town and many were taken prisoners. But order was soon restored in the Union forces, and their troops placed in important positions on a line of hills near the town. Though they were outplayed at some points they held the hills against the valiant charges of the Confederates. On the third day the indomitable Lee, in desperation, hurled his men upon the Union intrenchments on Cemetery Ridge. Despite the awful fire from the Union guns, the attack was steady and gallant. A few of the men actually reached the breastworks and boldly planted their flags upon them. But it could be for only a moment. The equal bravery, the better posi- '.l^' 1,, \ One ot tne monuments on tne Gettysburg battlefield 2o6 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE tion, and the • greater force of the Federals were bound to tell. Their artillery and infantry fire from all sides centered upon the heroic charging soldiers and cut them down by thousands. By the close of July 3 the great battle was over. But with what frightful loss! The killed and wounded and missing on both sides reached 50,000. Four months later President Lincoln dedicated a portion of the battle- field "as a final resting place for those who gave their lives that our nation might live." Following the battle of Gettysburg, the Confeder- ates withdrew southward, never again to carry the war into the northern states. The people of the North were greatly relieved at this turn in t*he tide. The news of Gettysburg had just reached them when, from the Mississippi valley, came other wonderful tidings. On July 4 Vicksburg, after forty-seven days of siege, had surrendered to Grant. Soon the Federal gunboats controlled the entire length of the river. At last the Confederacy was cut in two. I'Vom this time forward there was little warfare west of the river. The Union steadily pushed its conquering troops eastward. Tighter and tighter it drew the line that hemmed in the Confederacy on all sides. Still there were many fierce battles ahead, for the South was prepared to dispute bravely to the last every inch of her ground. In Tennessee General Rosecrans pushed the Con- federates southward until he gained possession of CIIICKAMAUGA AND CHATTANOOGA 207 (liattanooga. Near-by, at Chickamauga, however, he was defeated in one of the ijloodiest battles of the war. The redeeming feature of the l)atlle ^ 1 • 1 r /-- 1 T-1 Tennessee was the daruig stand of General Thom^is, who ranged his men on a rocky horseshoe-shaped hill. Against this position the Confederates hurled them- selves in repeated assaults, only to meet with a steady repulse. So solid did the Union general hold his ranks that he earned for himself the title of the Rock of Chickamauga. It was not long liefore Grant arrived at Chatta- nooga, and took command. Well reenforced, he was ready, toward the end of November, to sally forth against the Confederate army which occupied strong positions on the surrounding hills. At every point the Federals won. Especially picturesque was the Battle above the Clouds, waged by Hooker's men, who fought their way to a point high up on Lookout Mountain. The victory at Chattanooga was a very important gain to the Federals, for it gave them control of almost the entire state of Tennessee. It is worth remembering, too, that in this battle, the four Union generals, Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, and Thomas, fought together for the only time. From now on the history of the war is largely the history of the exploits of these great leaders. In March, 1864, the position of Lieutenant General was created, and Grant was appointed to the office. 'I'his made him supreme in command o\'er all the 2o8 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE Union forces, second only to the President, who is at all times commander in chief of the army, and of the navy as well. Grant took immediate , steps to have all the armies work together under one plan. The crowding in of the Confederate lines of defense was to go on. Sherman was to push in from the west and Grant was to move on Richmond from the north. The two armies were operating at the same time, but we will follow the fortunes first of Sherman and then of Grant. In May the advance began. Sherman's chief aim was to reach Atlanta, the most important city of Georgia, and occupy it. He was opposed , with great skill, but finally the Confed- advance ° •' erates were forced to leave the city. We must not forget that in managing an army there is a great deal more than just marching it around and setting it to fighting. An army, like any other gathering of men, must be clothed and fed. Indeed, some one has said that "an army travels on its stomach." It is no small task to get three meals a day for a family living at home. How much more difficult it must be to provide for thousands of men marching about from place to place. This is the business of the commis- sary department. The general in command has to manage his army so as to keep in touch with what is called a "base of supplies." This is some place where food and clothing are sent and stored, and TROVIDING FOR AN ARMY 209 from wliich the commissary can issue them to the moving army. For example, while Sherman was operating against Atlanta, far-off Louisville, on the Ohio, was his base of supplies. P>om that city there was but a single track of railroad, running through a wild and moun- tainous country. Everything needed by an army of 100,000 men had to be carried over this road. This meant that 130 loaded cars had to be hauled safely every day. Here was an excellent opportunity for the enemy, especially their cavalry, to dash in, tear up the rails, destroy the cars, and cut down the bridges. Every foot of the road had to be safeguarded against attack, and the cars and roadbed kept in condition for the important work required of them. It was a long thin line for the Union army to be hang- ing on, and when the Confederates moved north to break it, Sherman determined to make a daring ven- ture. He would cut loose from his base of supplies and start eastward, "living on the country." That is, in- stead of feeding his army with supplies brought from his base, he would have his men forage for themselves, eating what they could find as they went along. Some thought he would be foolhardy to attempt it. But there was no army to oppose him, and if he could reach the Atlantic coast he could secure supplies from the North by sea. His success would mean that the Con- federacy would be cut across once again, this time from east to west. THE TURNING OF THE TIDE From Atlanta to the Sea So, on November i6, Sherman, with 62,000 men, started on his famous march to the sea. The weather was favorable and food was plentiful. In five weeks the army covered three hun- dred miles, cutting a strip sixty miles wide through the heart of the Confederacy. The troops destroyed railroads, captured great stores of pro- visions, and made desolate all the land. It is said that no living thing was found in Sherman's track, — only the chimneys were left to mark the path of his army. Finally he reached Savannah, which offered little resistance, so that, on December 21, Sherman sent to Lincoln the message: "I beg to present you as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah." Before turning our attention to Grant, we will note two other events of importance in 1864. One occurred in August and the other in November, and both were Union victories. The first was a naval expedition against Mobile Bay in which Ad- miral Farragut and his crews distinguished themselves. The admiral, lashed to the rigging of his flagship, the Hartford, directed his fleet past the Confederate forts and engaged in a The Hartford MOBILE BAY 211 desperate but successful conflict with an ironclad fleet beyond. The harbor was henceforth held by the Federal forces as part of the blockade. The second event was a battle neither of armies nor of navies, but a battle of the ballots. Lincoln's term as President was nearly at its end. The people of the North opposed to the war .^^ were anxious to see him defeated for a second term. But he was reelected by a large ma- jority over the Democratic candidate, General Mc- Clcllan, and it was then certain that the war would be continued to a finish. And now, how had Grant been faring? Early in May, 1864, he threw his forces into the Wilderness about the Rapidan River, in Virginia. Here was fought one of the weirdesc of ^^.,/ ^° ° Wilderness battles. In the midst of tangled thickets the enemies struggled almost hand to hand. So awful was some of the fighting that large oak trees fell to the ground, their trunks severed by the bullets. Though the struggle lasted a long time neither side won a decisive victory. Lee kept placing his army in strong positions to bar Grant's progress. When Grant tried another road, Lee would move to a new position. Many bloody battles were fought. Lee li()p«(l to worry and tire out his opponents so as to shake them off from their purpose to take Richmond. But Grant kept hammering away. Lee 212 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE made one move that gave the government a sudden scare. While Grant was held busy in front of him, he sent General Early down the Shenandoah valley. Early's troops traveled swiftly, and, carrying all before them, seriously threatened the city of Washington. Sheridan was sent after them, and pushed the Con- federates back up the valley. The Union army so thoroughly raided the country that it was said: "If a crow wants to fly down the Shenandoah he must carry his provisions with him." One of the stirring incidents of this campaign was Sheridan's ride from Winchester to the scene of battle where the Union army had been suddenly surprised. The men were in retreat. Sheridan, dashing up to rejoin his army, met the stragglers and shouted to them to turn. Inspired to new courage by the sight of their leader, the soldiers re-formed and rushed back to battle. Even the black horse that bore the little general from Winchester, "twenty miles away," has had his praises sung by the poet: "With foam and with dust the black charger was gray; By the flash of his eye, and the red nostril's play, He seemed to the whole great army to say: ' I have brought you Sheridan all the way From Winchester town to save the day!'"* Thus Lee's attempt to distract Grant's attention failed. He had to content himself finally with trying to hold Richmond and its strong outpost, Petersburg. * T. B. Read: Sheridan's Ride. THE SHENANDOAH 213 But by spring Lee's position became daily more hope- less. Sherman had started north from Savannah and was making fast marches through the Carolinas. Grant was hammering g^jj-jg^^jg^. away at the south and east. Only the west was left open to the Confederate General. Forced to retreat, he started from Richmond on April 2, leaving that city at last to the Federals. Grant followed him in hot pursuit, and when Sheridan's troops got around to the west, Lee was cornered. He loved his men too well to sacrifice them in a final battle. To go to General Grant and ask for terms of surrender was to him worse than "a thousand deaths." But go he did. The interview took place at Appomattox Court House, April 9. Those who wit- nessed it spoke of the extreme courtesy each general showed the other. Grant, as he wrote many years later, "felt like anything rather than rejoicing at the downfall of a foe who had fought so long and valiantly." The terms were soon agreed upon, and Lee went out to bid his soldiers farewell. "Men," he said, "we have fought through the war together. I have done my best for you. My heart is too full to say more." The remaining Confederate armies, woefully cut down in numbers and utterly worn out, soon sur- rendered. It was on April 14, 1861, that Major Anderson had marched his little company out of Fort Sumter, leaving it in the hands of the South Carolina troops. On April 14, 1865, in the presence of a dis- 214 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE tinguished gathering, Anderson, now a general, raised over the fort the very flag that had been hauled down four years before, — the Stars and Stripes, the flag of the Union. " Fold up the banners! Smelt the guns! Love rules. Her gentler purpose runs. A mighty mother turns in tears, The pages of her battle years, Lamenting all her fallen sons!"* FOR CAREFUL STUDY In the middle of the year 1863 came the turn in the tide of fortune which had been favoring the Con- federate armies in the east. General Lee advanced northward as far as Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, but was there repulsed in one of the most severe battles of the war. His army then retreated southward, never again to invade northern soil. At the same time Vicksburg surrendered to Grant, and the Confederacy was soon cut in two along the Mississippi River. It remained for the Federal forces to invade the Confederacy from all directions. Tennessee was wrested from Confederate control in campaigns under Rosecrans, Thomas, and Grant. This was followed by the march of Sherman's army through Georgia to Savannah. Thus once again the Confederacy was cut across. Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy, was the most important point in the east. Grant spent nearly * Will Henry Thompson: The High Tide at Gettysburg. END OF THE WAR 215 a year in trying to take this city from Lee's army. After much skillful maneuvering on both sides and many fiercely contested battles, the power of the South was broken. Richmond fell, and in a week Lee surrendered. Thus it was settled that no state or group of states could secede from the Union. The effective Confederacy at the end of each year FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED The attempt of the Confederates to invade the North was ended by the battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. The Confederacy was divided along the Mississippi by the capture of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. Lee abandoned Richmond and surrendered to Grant in April, 1865. 2l6 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE Bibliography Farragul. — Barnes: Midshipman Farragut. Beebe: Four American Naval Heroes. Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. Mahan: Admiral Farragut. Gettysburg. — Altsheler: In Circling Camps. Beecham: Gettysburg. Burrage: Gettysburg and Lincoln. Drake: Battle of Gettysburg. Eggleston: Southern Soldier Stories. Gordon: Reminiscences of the Civil War. Goss: Jed. Hale: Stories of War. Hill: On the Trail of Grant and Lee. Kieffer: Recollections of a Drummer Boy. Roosevelt and Lodge: Hero Tales from American History. Pickett: Bugles of Gettysburg. Retold from St. Nicholas: Civil War Stories. Grant. — Brooks: True Story of U. S. Grant. Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. Goss: Life of Grant for Boys and Girls. Nicolay: Boys' Life of Ulysses S. Grant. Lee. — Barnes: Son of Light Horse Harry. Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America Johnston: Leading American Soldiers. Trent: Robert E. Lee. Whitehead: Two Great Southerners. Vifksburg. — Abbott: Battle-fields and Camp-fires. Coffin: Marching to Victory. Goss: Tom Clifton. Hill: On the Trail of Grant and Lee. General. — Coffin: Drum-beat of the Nation. Coffin: Freedom Triumphant. Matthews: Our Navy in Time of War. rhe day was first observed by the ladies of Richmond CHAPTER XI RECONSTRUCTION On one of the quiet streets in our nation's capital there stands a quaint building, three stories high and oddly shaped. It is even yet known as Ford's Theater, although many years have passed since it was last used as a playhouse. But at the time of the Civil War it was at the height of its popularity. On the very day on which our flag again flung its folds over Fort Sumter, this theater was the scene of a nation's drama. That evening a brilliant and expectant audience filled the theater. The afternoon papers had an- nounced that President Lincoln and General Grant, with their wives, were to be present. The box at the right of the stage, set apart for the distinguished party, was gayly decorated with national flags. When the occupants of the box arrived it was seen that neither the beloved President nor the honored commander was among them. General Grant, it seems, had been obliged to hasten North on some engagement and President Lincoln was detained by business. The play had not progressed far, however, when the audience arose and cheered wildly, the band 2lS RECOXSTRICTION played "Hail to the Chief," and the great President was seen bowing his acknowledgments. The play had reached the third act, when suddenly the audience was stunned with horror b}' the sound of a pistol shot. All e\es turned toward their beloved chief stricken by the hand of an assassin. From cuit the smoke there leaped a man. Striking with his dagger at an army officer who tried to seize him, he vaulted over Lincoln assassinated Ford's Theater, in Washington the railing of the box to the stage below. The spur on one of his riding boots caught in the folds of a flag, and he was thrown to the floor. In spite of a broken leg he rushed from the stage and was soon lost in the night. The wounded President was tenderly carried to a near-by house, and through the long night, skillful physicians did their best to save the precious life. But slowh' it ebbed away, and in the early morning LINCOLN ASSASSINATED 219 Abraham Lincoln, Xhv martyred President, sank to his rest. The 19th of April, 1865, was a day of mourning throughout the land. On that day funeral services were read ()\er the body of Lincoln as it lay in state in the east room of the White House. Following this, the casket, under escort of soldiers and civilians, was taken to the Capitol. Two days later it was placed on a funeral car. The entire train, including the engine, was draped in black. Then began the most impressive of funeral processions. Through eight states it retraced the route that the President had taken from his home in Illinois to his inauguration. In Baltimore, in Philadelphia, in New York, — every- where along the way, — the people gathered in loving sorrow. Finally the body was laid to rest in Lincoln's home city, Springfield. The death of Lincoln was a crushing blow to both North and South. Multitudes of the people, even of the South, recognized him as a friend. If the war must be, and if they nmst go down in defeat, the Southerners felt that their interests would be more wisely taken care of by Lincoln than by any of the other Federal statesmen. And just now the nation needed the very wisest guidance, for it was still bitterly divided. There could be no true reunion until the old wounds should heal. At the best, this would take a long time. As we look back now, we can see that Lincoln's death delayed by many 2 20 RECONSTRUCTION years the coming of real peace between the two sections. Bitter, indeed, was the feeling of each section against the other. The South felt that it had been defeated not because it was in the wrong , ,. but because it had been overpowered by reeling ^ •' greater numbers. The North was equally sure that the South had been wrong from the very beginning. It was angry, too, that the South had held out so long in a losing fight, thus increasing the cost in men and money. For another thing, the treatment of prisoners of war had angered both sides, especially the North. Captured Federal soldiers were put Prison life . . 101 11 mto such prisons as the South could afford. These were, of course, not very pleasant places. The prisoners complained bitterly of the conditions. The buildings were filthy, the food was poor, and there was not much of it. In some cases the keepers treated the prisoners with cruelty. The people of the South claimed that they did the best they could. They themselves were living on short rations, and could not be expected to treat their prisoners any better. Their best men were fighting at the front, and many of those left at home to keep the prisons, lacked the bravery and intelligence of the southern soldiers. The Confederates claimed, too, that they were really not responsible for keeping their captured TRISON LIFE 221 soldiers in prison, for they had been ready to exchange them. But the Federal government, toward the close of the war, had refused to exchange because the Confederates would gain thereby. For each Union l)risoner that the northern officers received they would be giving a better-cared-for Confederate. More than this, the North still had so many men that it was not in great need of its imprisoned soldiers. The South, on the other hand, would have been glad to have had its men released that they might be added to its armies in the field. Some of the prisoners, however, did not wait for their release, but by one means or another managed to escape. Many were the thrilling experiences of the imprisoned soldiers of the North who attempted to elude their guards. Sometimes they were successful, but more often they were not. One of the most ingenious escapes took place from Libby Prison, in Richmond. Here a score of men spent weeks patiently digging a tunnel to freedom. First they cut away a few bricks from a chimney, carefully concealing the place behind some barrels. Then down the narrow, stuffy chimney they crawled, to an unused storeroom below. At first they had only a piece of tin can with which to dig. Trying to cui into the earth with this was slow and discouraging business. But luck came their way. One day a mason, working within the prison, left his trowel when he went out at noon. When he 222 RECONSTRUCTIOX returned, the trowel had m\sterioush- disappeared, so he gave it up as lost. Soon that trowel was doing- hard ser\"ice scratching awa>- in the tunnel leading out from the old storeroom. Man}- times the men were Libby almost caught. Howe\-er, after patient weeks the tunnel had been run so far out that it could be opened up into the street outside the prison walls. It was agreed that, on the night set for the escape, the men who had done the work should have the first chance. But each of them had a friend or two whom he wanted to take with him. Soon hundreds of the prisoners knew of this hope of liberty. So there was a great rush for the tunnel, and a scrambling, pushing fight to gel in. Some nearly suffocated, crawling along the close, dark, narrow passage, through the damp earth, over and around rocks and roots. Yet nic)re EFFECTS OF THE WAR 223 than one hundred got a\va>-. Imagine the amazement of the guards when the>' came to count their prisoners the next morning! But it was one thing for the men to get through the tunnel and out into the open, and (juile another to reach the Hnes of the far-away Union arni\-. Some did escape, but many were recaptured and brought back to pass other long weary days and nights "waiting for the war to cease." The southern people felt that they had a grievance because the North had recruited negro soldiers from among the freed slaves, and had used tliem in battle against their former mas- ** grievances lers. Again, the Southerners were \ery l)itter over Sherman's raid from Atlanta to the sea. The>' accused him of ha^'Ing been much more de- structive than need be. These were but a few of the grie\'ances. When, upon the death of Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, the Vice President, came into power, he faced a very trying situation. The war was over, but the nation was really cut in two. Hundreds of millions of dollars had been put into the war. And worse than this, thousands of men had died on the field of battle. With all these strong men gone and thousands of sur- \i\ing soldiers suffering from wounds and disease, the country was in a sorry state. In 1787 the fathers of the nation had established the Union, as they supposed, once for all. But now it was strained apd weakened, and before the states- 224 RECONSTRUCTION men of 1865 was the great task of rebuilding it. Reconstructiofi we call the period of the next twenty years, during which this task was being accomplished. In April, 1865, General Halleck wrote to General Meade: "The Army of the Potomac have shown the people of Virginia how they would be treated as enemies. Let them now prove that they know equally well how to treat the same people as friends." This was the spirit of the conquering soldiers gener- ally, for they had learned to respect the warriors of the South. But there were many others, especially the politicians and stay-at-homes, who shouted for vengeance. Thus, real reconstruction was delayed by those who were not satisfied with having beaten the South, but wanted to treat it as a conquered land. They would call all Southerners traitors and punish them even though the war was over. Many of the best of the Southerners fled from the country to Mexico, to Brazil, to Egypt, and to Europe, too saddened and crushed to remain among the ruins of their old homes. Others went bravely back to work and stayed to help build up the New South. To-day we are proud that, there is no North, no South, in any bitter sense; but that all the states are equally loyal to the Red, White, and Blue of the American Union. One of the beautiful customs growing out of the war is that of observing Memorial Day. It is on this anniversary that, decorating the soldiers' graves with MEMORIAL DAY 225 Memorial Day flags and flowers, we give special thought to the heroes who have gone to their final reward. The day was first observed in 1866, by the ladies of Richmond, and the custom was eagerly followed by, both North and South. The sad conflict had been brought about by two great issues, slavery and secession. The war settled both these for all time. As to sla\ery, not only were the slaves freed, but they were given more than even the Abolitionists had asked for them. It was a serious matter Slavery ques- t« ^'^'^ tion settled several million slaves their freedom. The igno- rant negroes did not even understand what freedom meant. Most of them had wild dreams of a life without work. The great President who had set them free would, they believed, provide them with food and shelter and clothing, while they spent their days in care-free idleness. They were soon to discover that this was not at all what was L^«r:&:ijj statue of Lincoln, at Washington 226 RECONSTRUCTION to happen. A few of them had learned to be in- dustrious and , thrifty. These soon had work to do, and they kept faithfully at it. Most of the negroes stayed at their old homes, working for wages for their former masters or for other people in the neighborhood. But thousands of the restless wandered idly away seeking ad\enture. Idleness led to want, and want led to theft. Soon the South was overrun with poor deluded negroes who daih- became more insolent and more dangerous. Even before the close of the war the government at Washington realized that something should be done to help the negro and to protect other , „ people from his misdeeds. So there was men's Bureau '^ ^ formed in the War Department the "Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands." This Freedmen's Bureau encouraged the negroes to work, and helped them to get work to do. Then it helped them to make their contracts so that they would not be imposed upon, and to settle their labor disputes. It also arranged for the sale and pur- chase of land so that the negroes might become property owners. Thus, gradually, some of the former slaves became more self-reliant. It was very important, too. that the negroes should become intelligent and r('sp()nsil)U\ for the>- were soon given political rights. Lincoln's proclamation had freed most of them. But. at the close of the war. freedom was made doubl\- sure. The Con- THE AMENDMENTS 227 stitution was amended so that slavery should never again exist within the United States. This made the Thirteenth Amendment. . amendments and soon another was passed gi\'ing the negroes citizenship. It was followed by the Fifteenth Amendment, passed five years after the war closed, which gave the slaves the privilege of voting. The war also settled the question of the right to secede. But it was a long time before the seceded states regained their old place in the Union. The Federal government would ^^^^^^^ not recognize the old Confederate state governments, and while it was trying to work out some plan for establishing new state governments, there was much confusion. In the early part of 1867 the South was divided into fi\ e military districts, and over each a F'ederal general was placed in command. Under the protection of the army, loyal state governments were established. In the course of two or three years one after another of the seceded states was readmitted into the I'nion. This result was not secured without many difficul- ties. For one thing the ablest men of the South were not allowed to help in reconstruction. Officeholders had to swear that they had never given "aid or comfort" to a Confederate. Of course, very few peoplf in ihf South could take such an oath. Those who could were called "scalawags." The result was that the offices went to them and to negroes and 228 RECONSTRUCTION "carpet-baggers." The name carpet-bagger was given by the Southerners to the men from the North who flocked into their states at the close of the war. Most of these men were without much more property than they could bring with them in handbags. They counted on making their fortunes by taking advantage of the situation in the South. These men soon gained the confidence of the negroes, got themselves elected to profitable offices, and ran the governments to suit themselves. The states were soon loaded down with enormous debts, affairs were mismanaged, and law- breaking was common. The southern white men defended themselves against the lawlessness as best they could. Almost by accident they found one way to control JJ.J many of the negroes. In a little village of Tennessee a party of young men found time hanging heavy on their hands, so they formed a secret club called the Kiiklos, or Circle. One form of entertainment in which they indulged was to dis- guise themselves and ride about the country at night. Man and horse were sheeted; the man wore a mask and a cardboard hat, and the horse's feet were muffled. Flashing along the moonlit road, their ghostlike figures startled the ignorant and superstitious negroes huddling in their cabins. At first, the whole thing was just a boyish prank. But before long the white men of the South recognized that here was a way to keep the negroes in order and to punish people whom they THE KU-KLUX-KLAN 229 suspected of wrongdoing. The organization spread from state to state, and became known as the In- visible Empire of the South, or the Ku-Klux-Klan. Their purpose, they declared, was ''to protect the weak, innocent, and defenseless from the indignities, wrongs, and outrages of the lawless, the violent, and the brutal." In time, however, conditions greatly improved. The Union troops were withdrawn, the capable men of the South gained control, and order was restored. Fortunately, the sad picture of the South at the close of the war was not repeated in the North. Ex- cept for Gettysburg and the battles in the border states, no important fighting had been done on Union soil. The people of the North had not suffered the spoiling and plundering of their homes by invading armies. Yet they had heavy sorrows. They had been borne down with grief over the brave who had fallen at the front — and these numbered awful thousands. There were thousands more in the field, sick and wounded, who might never see their homes again. There were other thousands of able-bodied men who were now to lay down their arms. What a vast number they were! In May, 1865, the combined Union armies of the East and ^^^ ^^ ^°^ the army West marched through the avenues of Washington with glittering guns and battle-scarred flags. The columns extended thirty miles. It took nearly two whole days for them to pass in review. 230 RECOXSTRUCTIOX These were the men who had been for months or even vears bus\- in the work of destruction. Now tliev were to return to the labors of peace. — to the office, to the forge, to the farm. — and once again take up the work that they had put aside for war. This they did with as good courage as the>- had shown on the field, and the "old soldier" was soon quietly at- tending to his new duties. There was yet another burden. The government The review of the Union soldiers in Washington THE DEBT 231 had gone deeply into debt to carry on the war. This meant heavv taxes. Long years passed , • , ,-r , • f The debt before the burden was htted — m fact, we are still pa>ing out money on account of the war of a half-centur\^ ago. But there was little complaint over the size of the debt. The Union had been preser\'ed, and the people were as ready to pay the price in money as they had been to pay it in men. An annoying thing connected with the money prob- lem was that gold and silver became scarce. Vari- ous substitutes were used for siher coins. Postage stamps came into use as "small change." They were better than nothing, but they were flimsy and sticky. The government came to the rescue by printing small- sized paper money for fractions of a dollar. Even these were inconvenient to handle, and every one was glad enough when, some ten years later, coins again took their place. The war brought upon us two difficulties with foreign nations. Our neighbors in Mexico had been haxing a civil war of their own, beginning j^g Monroe in 1857. Four years later England, Doctrine in France, and Spain interfered in order to Mexico protect their citizens who were in danger there. The three nations agreed that they would not take sides as to who should be the ruler of Mexico. France, how- ever, broke this agreement. Napoleon III thought that the United States was now too bus\- with its own troubles to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. So he sent 232 RECONSTRUCTION an army into Mexico and put his friend, Maximilian of Austria, on the throne. The United States pro- tested, but could do nothing more until after the close of our war. Then troops were massed on the frontier, and the French soldiers prudently withdrew. The second matter turned out to be a triumph for arbitration. That is, instead of settling it by war, the two nations agreed to submit their disputes to outsiders. The disagreement was with England over help she had given the Confederates. England had declared that she would remain neutral; that is, she would not take sides in the war. Despite this, she had allowed warships built in her yards to be sold to the Con- federacy. The chief of them was the cruiser Alabama. The United States claimed that England ought to pay The Alabam.i pursuing a northern ship for the damage these ships had done. Five commis- sioners were appointed, each by the ruler of a different nation, to consider the case. They met in Geneva, THE ALABAMA CLAIMS 233 Switzerland, and decided the dispute against England, who was required to pay the United States several million dollars. Wc have reason to be proud of this achievement, not because we won our point, but be- cause it was a victory for the peaceful settlement of differences. FOR CAREFUL STUDY The rejoicing of the people over the ending of the war was turned to sorrow by the assassination of Lincoln, in April, 1865. His assassin was shot while resisting capture. Lincoln was succeeded by Andrew Johnson. He and the statesmen about him had before them a very perplexing problem, that of reconstructing the Union. The war had settled the slavery question forever. The settlement was written into the Constitution by the Thirteenth Amendment. This was followed by two amendments giving the former slaves citizenship and the right to vote. The Federal government formed the Freedmen's Bureau to help the negroes take care of themselves in their new-found freedom. The Southern states were for a time managed by military governors appointed by the Federal govern- ment. In a few years all were given back their state- hood and readmitted to the Union. While this was going on, other problems at home and abroad were being settled satisfactorily. The armies were disbanded, and the men returned without confusion to their work at home. The debt, though heavy, has been cheerfully borne and constantly re- duced in amount. 234 RECONSTRUCTION As to foreign affairs, we had to restate the Monroe Doctrine to France, who had been interfering in Mexico. When we showed that we were in earnest, France withdrew from that country. We also had claims against England for certain aid which she had given the Confederacy. A commission of arbitration went over the matter and decided it in our favor. FACT TO BE MEMORIZED The Civil War resulted in the abolition of slavery and the reunion of the states. CHAPTER XII THE GREAT WEST • The Civil War was over, but the American people could not forget that they owed a heavy debt to their valiant defenders. Many who had risked their all in that terrible struggle were ^P" '*^^" ^^ . Presidents rewarded with public office. The highest honor in the gift of the people came to several of the leaders who had fought and sufTered in the war. Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Harrison, and McKinley — ■ all Republicans — were elected to the presidency. And these men came neither from the old North nor from the old South, but from the newer West. All were born in Ohio, one of the states carved out of the great Northwest Territory that was organized at the close of the Revolution. How that region was settled and how it furnished Presidents is all part of a won- derful story of progress. We recall that Columbus and the other early explorers were seeking a western passage. They found, instead, a new western continent. Thither people flocked by thousands. ^ ^" ^ '^ ■' movement Presently our country was settled along its eastern coast and as far west as the Allegheny 235 236 THE GREAT WEST Mountains. The next movement was across these mountains to the Mississippi. Then the vast Loui- siana Territory gave us a new western boundary, and the pioneer pushed his way into the fertile plains beyond the river. Farther on was a region of desola- tion known as the Great American Desert, and beyond it rose the lofty Rockies. For a while these obstacles seemed to say to the pioneer, "Stop! You can go no further!" But he conquered the desert and the mountains, and succeeded in reaching the Pacific. It was nearly four centuries before the western coast of our continent was thus settled. There are many reasons why it took so long. We who journey by swiftly moving electric car, fast speeding train, or palatial steamer, find it difificult to imagine travel without these means. But the pioneer who left the English colonies in the early eighteenth century and made his way across the Allegheny Mountains usually went afoot. He carried his possessions on his back, and relied on his rifle and ax for food and protection. Sometimes he had the aid of a pack horse or a saddle horse. Sometimes he went by water, for "the early emigrant learned that a raft would eat nothing, that a boat ran well down stream." So, many of our fore- fathers put their goods on rafts or on fiatboats and floated down the streams that flowed south and south- west. Traveling by these means, they reached and settled what they called the "West." THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT 237 With the in\ention of the steamboat the pioneer no longer needed to depend on the raft or flatboat. -:^^%^*d5l^^^A%fc^, ^'' More tlian this, he was now able to go not only with the current, but up stream as well. Thus was opened for settlement an ever increasing area. But to cross the dry plains and the Rocky Mountains, the faithful horse again had to be called into service. The early western life of our country bred many heroes. Indeed every man and every woman, every boy and every girl, who took part in the work of the pioneers was of necessity brave and dauntless. The way across the Alleghenies into Kentucky was led by Daniel Boone in 1769. From his home in North Carolina, with a few companions, , , , . 1111 Daniel Boone he crossed the mountams and blazed a trail through the dark forests to the fair land beyond. The country was the hunting ground of many red men. For this reason the njute was beset with danger. There was no knowing where the dark- skinned forms might be hiding. Many a night the pioneers slept in hollow trees. Many a cheery camp- 238 THE GREAT WEST fire they were forced to abandon, driven away by prowling savages. Boone returned East, but he made the trip again several times. On each expedition he took a larger number of people with him. The path that he made was given several names: " Boone's Trail," the " Ken- tucky Road," the "Wilderness Road." As the way into the new country became more and more safe, signs such as the following were frequently posted : Notice "A large company will meet at Crab Orchard the 19th of November in order to start the next day through the Wilderness. As it is very danger- ous on account of the Indians, it is hoped each person will go well armed." The progress of the people across the great American continent has been compared to a "series of rolling waves, one passing ever on beyond the other." Let us look into the childhood home of Abraham Lincoln. There we see a family that, like many others, was being borne along on this tide. In the fall of 18 16 Abraham's father packed his few household goods on two borrowed horses, stowed the children among the bundles, and with his wife by his side, started on foot from Kentucky for a new home in Indiana. Arriving at the Ohio, the horses were unloaded and sent back. On the other side of the river the load was piled into a hired wagon and pulled to the new home. PIONEER LIFE 239 Home! What an odd name to gi\e that cold bleak waste — for carpets, fallen leaves; and for walls, tall, straight trees whose bare intertwining branches formed the only roof. A rude structure of logs was hastily put together. The father cut down the trees, the mother helped to trim them, and little Abraham and his sister added their strength when it came to putting the logs in place. Heaps of dry leaves served as beds, and as there was no chimney, the fire had to be built outside the cabin. It was a hard struggle that first winter just to keep alive. Each had his share of the labor. The little ones gathered brushwood for the fire and walked a mile to get water, trudging the long way back with their heavy burdens. Not one of the family possessed a pair of shoes. Clumsy homemade mocas- sins were not much protection from the biting sleet and snow of winter. The following year a better shelter was put up. This one was about eighteen feet square, with a real chimney, so that a fire might be built indoors. A deerskin served as a door, but there were no windows. A rough table and some odd three-legged chairs were constructed. We may wonder how they managed to sleep in the crude beds. The boy's bed was in an upper part of the cabin which formed a sort of loft. Each night he climbed to his sleeping place by a stair- way of pegs driven into the side of the wall. No roads led to the house, only a blazed trail through the woods. 240 Tm: GREAT WEST The new home was a great improvement on the old, yet how wretched it seems to us. The early pioneers bought little of their food and clothing, for it was usually many miles to the nearest store. They shot turkeys and deer for meat, and fashioned their garments out of deerskin. They made their bread of corn meal, and gathered wild berries for a dessert. Only strong bodies and brave spirits lived through the hardships of this life. It is to these dauntless pioneers and their sons and daughters that our country owes its forward march to better things. In 1826 the tide of migration had crossed the Mississippi and moved up the Missouri as far as the Kansas River. Here it was stopped by what was then known as the Great American Desert. At that time, west of the Mississippi, there were just two states, Missouri and Louisiana, and one territory, Arkansas. It remained for Kit Carson, the last and perhaps the greatest of western pit)neers, Kit Carson , , , ., to blaze the trail on to the Pacific. Christopher Carson was born in the same year and in the same state as Abraham Lincoln. He, however, had little use for books, so his father set him to learn a trade. But A pioneer KIT CARSON 241 the boy had listened to the thrilHng tales of the hunt- ers and trappers who came in from the mysterious land of the setting sun. He could not sit quietly on a high stool and learn to make saddles. So he ran away. The Missouri Intelligencer, a weekly news- j)aper, published this notice on October 12, 1826: "Notice is hereby given to all persons that Christopher Carson, a boy about sixteen years old, small for his age, but thick-set, with light hair, ran away from the subscriber, living in Franklin, Howard County, Missouri, to whom he had been bound to learn the saddler's trade, on or about the 1st of September last. He is supposed to have made his way to the upper part of the state. All persons are notified not to harbor, support, or assist said boy, under penalty of the law. One cent reward will be given to any person who will bring back the said boy." Sometimes as hunter, sometimes as teamster. Kit Carson made his way from the Missouri River to the Sacramento, from the Gulf of California Fremont far north to the Columbia. In 1842 he met Lieutenant Fremont and his party on the Missis- sippi. Fremont had i)een sent b\' the United States government to cross the Rockies and explore the region beyond. Carson joined the party and became their official guide. On this and later. Fremont ex- peditions Carson rendered great service. That he did his work well is shown by the fact that when the great 242 THE GREAT WEST railroads connecting the East and West were laid, they often followed the old Fremont trails. Carson was a trail maker, but he was also a peace- maker. The farther west the white man pushed, the closer he crowded his red brother. And the red man fought. He now possessed gun and pony, and used them with his own peculiar cunning. He could slip from the saddle, cling to its side, and thus, with his own body well protected, fire many a death-dealing shot. Carson knew the red man well. Not only could he bring peace between Indian and white, but he was so well acquainted with Indian nature, that the braves often called upon him to settle disputes among themselves. It has been said that Carson was better than a regiment of cavalry. Withal, he was modest and unassuming, and shrank from praise. An army officer who once met him, exclaimed, "So this is the distinguished Kit Carson, who made so many Indians run." Carson replied, "Yes, I made some Indians run, but much of the time they were running after me." In January, 1848, a discovery was made in Cali- fornia which drew many people westward. In the valley of a branch of the Sacramento a ^°lt ^°- bit of yellow metal glistened in the bed California ■' of a mill stream. It called to the people of the East, and by tens of thousands they answered the call. A man named Marshall first spied the precious GOLD li\ CALIFORNIA 243 metal. "1 reached my hand down and pulled it up," he says, "it made my heart thump, for I was certain it was gold." The largest particles were about the size of a grain of wheat. Marshall gathered a spoon- ful and tested it. He hammered it and found that it yielded to pressure. Then he tried it in fire, and found that it did not soon melt or change color. He put it through several other tests, and at last was convinced that it was gold. More and more of the bright metal was found in the neighborhood. Every one dropped other work to hunt for it. The news of the discovery leaped from settlement to settlement, from state to state. The people went gold crazy. All over the country eager thousands vied with each other to reach the land of promise. For the Easterner there were two routes, — o\'erland, and by w^ater around Cape Horn. Those who could afford it went by water. All sorts of crazy craft were called into service, but so eager were the venturesome to be first on the field, that sailing masters got whatever prices they asked. Travel across the continent was much cheaper, so the poorer people went in this way. Sometimes whole families packed their household goods into a wagon and set off, taking their animals with them. Often just the men went, but always ihey traveled in great numbers. Many were so eager to be off that they were not properly prepared for so trying a journey. There were rough trails where the wagons overturned, 244 THE GREAT WEST on the plains great droves of buffalo muddied the waters of the springs and there were weary stretches of barren land, where the thirsty travelers would have given up all the gold in the world for one drink of water. It is said that in 1849 the overland route was marked by broken-down wagons, dead animals, and the graves of those who had fallen by the way. Yet very many reached the gold fields. There a new and curious life awaited them. San Francisco San Francisco, shortly after the discovery of gold in California was a city of tents. Men slept on the floors, on tables, — anywhere. The harbor was filled with ves- sels, whose crews had joined the ranks of the gold seekers. There were no sailors to take the ships back to the home ports; one of the ships became the first jail of the town; others rotted away and fell to pieces. GOLD IN CALIFORNIA 245 Men from many walks of life met and worked together. And there seemed to be gold for all. In forty 3'ears California yielded more than a billion dollars worth of gold! It was not uncommon in the early days for one man to take out $1000 in one day, — and sometimes the amount reached $5000. Prices soared skyward. For example, flour brought fifty dollars a barrel, a spade ten, a shirt forty, a candle three. So simple a meal as a cup of coffee, a slice of ham and two eggs cost three dollars, and yet the cafes were crowded from morning until night. Most of the fortune hunters were young, vigorous, and law-abiding men. In September, 1849, they met to form a constitution, and, as we have learned, by the Compromise of 1850 California was admitted as a state. One of the arguments against admitting Cali- fornia was its great distance from Washington. How, people questioned, will its Congressmen ever get to the capital? They must spend all their time travel- ing, and the journey is too dangerous. But in 1862 Congress granted several companies land for building railroads across the continent. The first of these great transcontinental railroads was built by two companies, one working westward from Omaha, and the other eastward from pj^st trans- Sacramento. The workmen lived in continental trains, running them forward as mile after railroad mile of the road was completed. Progress was slow. 246 THE GREAT WEST Sandy plains and rugged mountainsides had to be overcome. The A\'orkmen were well armed. Even so, it was occasionally necessary to detail troops to guard them. For the Indians "hovered about like vultures. ' ' The Sioux and others lay in wait to destroy the work as fast as it was completed. But despite all the difficulties the two lines finally met at Ogden, A train passing through a herd of buffaloes Utah, Here, with much ceremony, the last tie was laid. It was a piece of California laurel beautifully polished and bearing a silver plate on which were en- graved the names of the officers of the road. The rails were fastened to it with two spikes of gold and two of silver. These were driven into place by Gov- ernor Stanford of California and the general manager of the railroad. As Governor Stanford, with his silver hammer, dealt the blows, they were recorded by tele- graph all over the country. At the last stroke the ENGINEERING PROBLEMS 247 word " done " was flashed along the wires. Not many years later other roads were built across the continent to the north and to the south of this. One man who rendered a large service to the Great West was Captain James B. Eads, an engineer. Across the Mississippi, at St. Louis, he ^ ^ . „ ^ ^^ Captain Eads built a steel bridge that was the marvel of its day. A few years later he gained new fame by his work at the mouth of this important river. By building out false banks, called jetties, he forced the river to move more swiftly. This carried farther out to sea the huge deposits of mud that had for many years prevented the passage of large steamers. The money for this immense undertaking was sup- plied by Congress, and it was four years before the work was completed. Finally, in 1879, it became possible for the largest steamers of the day to make their way to New Orleans, and the commerce of the great river made rapid gains. The railroads and steamships had brought the West many days nearer to the crowded East. The old dan- gers of travel across the continent were no more. A great many people were attracted to the new West. Nebraska particularly rejoiced over having a railroad that connected her with the outside world. Now she had a larger market for the products of her fertile soil. New settlers came in great numbers, and in 1867 she was admitted as a state. Other western states grew rapidly. This was largely due to wise 248 THE GREAT WEST laws passed by Congress, one of which was the Homestead Act of 1862. By it the head of any family might claim a plot of land, from eighty Homestead Act ^ , , , • rr , i- 1 to one hundred sixty acres, it he lived on it and cultivated it for five years it became his property. Thus, in a remarkably short period, mil- lions of acres west of the Mississippi were taken over and made to yield luxuriantly. The government contributed in another way to western development. In 1862 it created a new division in its Department of the Interior, Department of ^^^^^^ ^^^ g^^^^^ ^^ Agriculture. Later Agriculture this bureau was made an independent department. It introduces into the country new and desirable seeds and plants. It issues bulletins that contain valuable information for the farmer. These reach the men who may be too poor to buy books, and too far away from libraries to borrow them. It is this department, too, that sends out weather reports and gives warning of coming storms. The discovery of gold in California suggested that the precious metal might also be hidden in the Rocky Mountains. It was not long before this was proved to be so. In 1859 gold was found in the country about Pikes Peak. Here was a region easier to reach than California, and a sudden rush to the new gold fields followed. It is said that one hundred thousand people came in one year. White-covered wagons were used in crossing the plains. On many of them AD^VriSSTON OF NEW STATES 249 was printed In huge black letters "Pike's Peak or Bust." Towns sprang up as if a magician had waved his wand over the land. Among them were Boulder, Pueblo, and Denver. Denver was con- nected by railroad with the Union Pacific. °°'^^ ^ ^^ •' _ other states In 1876 Colorado was admitted as a state. In tlic great Northwest the growth was even more marvelous. During the next twenty years seven commonwealths were taken into the growing sister- hood of states. These were North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington, in 1889; Idaho and Wyoming, in 1890; and Utah, in 1896. As the early fortune hunter pushed his way west- ward, he came constantly in contact with the Indians. In many cases the red men proved friendly. jBut if one brave were insulted j^°" ^.^ ^^ it meant re\^enge on the first whites to appear, whether they were guilty or innocent. The national government allotted to the Indians certain areas known as reservations. The Indians were ex- pected to keep within their limits, but they did not always do so. Having once roamed wherever they would, it is not strange that they sometimes grew weary of their restricted quarters and sallied forth on raiding expeditions. This, of course, angered the frontier settler. Yet he, in turn, did not always respect the Indian's territory. If the reservation attracted him he often slipped across its borders. 2SO THE CREAT WEST The red man and the white man were in constant friction. One of the most terrible encounters took place in 1876. The Sioux, led by Sitting Custer ^ ' , Bull, had been extremely troublesome on their Montana reservation. General Sheridan was sent to quell the uprising. The Indians were located at Little Big Horn River, and General Custer, a bold cav- alryman, was ordered forward to hold them in check until the entire forces should arrive. With the reck- less daring that made him a most pictur- esque figure, General Custer made a head- long attack. But he and his five companies rode into a death trap. The red men, who were almost three thousand in number, surged upon them with savage ferocity. The troopers fought with desperate bravery but against overwhelming odds. Of all that gallant band numbering two hundred sixty, not one escaped. Only Custer's horse and a half-breed rider survived. The horse was found several miles from the battlefield, his body bearing seven bullet wounds. The faithful Sitting Bull CUSTER AND SITTING BULL 251 charger was never again ridden and a soldier was detailed to care for him for the rest of his life. This encounter was followed by many in which the Indians were beaten and forced to return to their reservations. Several hundreds, under Sitting Bull, went to Canada, where they remained for four years. Ten years later Sitting Bull, claiming that his people had not been treated fairly by the government, again led them in an uprising. General Miles waged war upon them. Sitting Bull met his end, and within a year four thousand Indians surrendered. Since that time the Indians have given no serious trouble. In fact, large numbers of them are to-day taking part in the white man's civilization. They are like him in dress, in manners, in home life, in occupations. Like him they aspire to do their share of the world's work. The great West means to us usually the lands between the Mississippi and the Pacific. Yet the possessions of the United States reach northwest even beyond the Arctic Circle. .. , In 1867 the United States purchased Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000. Most people thought we had made a bad bargain, but we soon learned that the country is rich in furs, fisheries, and mines. In the summer of 1897 there came a wonder- ful story of Alaska's golden treasure. During the previous fall some forty experienced miners had gone into the region of the Yukon River. They had taken their working outfit and a little money. They came 252 THE GREAT WEST out with a half-million dollars worth of gold and they had staked claims that were to yield them even greater wealth. The most productive region was in Canada, along the Klondike River, a tributary of the Yukon. Vast numbers of people were attracted to the new gold fields. They led quite a different life from the "forty-niners" of California or the "fifty-niners" of Colorado. There is neither springtime nor autumn in northern Alaska, and the summer season is but four months long. By the first of October it is winter, after which outdoor work is impossible. And winter in Alaska means snow, ice, and often great suffering. Yet even women braved the dangers. Through per- severance and against hardships, many fortunes were found in the once despised territory. During this period of Western extension events were not, of course, at a standstill in other and older parts of the country. A year before the acqui- Atlantic cable . . r ^ i i a sition of Alaska, an American invention had secured a new command of the ocean. Tele- graphic wires under water had been for some time in successful use between Manhattan Island and Gov- ernor's Island in New York Bay. To stretch a sub- marine cable from America to Europe would be a far more difficult feat. Nevertheless, there was one American, Cyrus Field, who felt sure it could be done. Fortunately, many business men agreed with him and a company was formed. The governments of Great Britain and the United States gave liberal ATLANTIC CABLE 253 aid, furnishing the vessels for laying the big cables. In 1857 two ships left Ireland, each carrying twelve hundred fifty miles of cable. All went well for three days. Then suddenly the cable parted. .^^ Laying the Atlantic cable This failure seemed like a national calamity. The vessels returned with flags at half mast. Though a half-million dollars had been spent, more money was secured and another trial was made the next year. This time the vessels sailed to mid-ocean, and there the two parts of the cable were spliced. Then one sailed east and the other west, each laying its cable as it went. At Ireland and at Newfoundland the ends of the cable were connected with the instruments. Under the water the message went singing, "Europe and America are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the highest, on earth peace, good will toward men." But there was yet further disappointment in store. Eighteen days later the cable refused to work. Once more discouragement and ruin confronted Field, but he was not daunted. In July, 1866, another cable was laid. This time it proved permanently successful. 254 THE GREAT WEST Now many hundreds of cables lie hidden in the ocean deeps. Business messages and messages of good will fly back and forth, and we are kept informed as to what our foreign cousins are doing from day to day. While in these and countless other ways men were conquering nature, here and there her forces were showing their power to destroy. In 1871 Chicago fire , "" r , • r /, • a large part of the city of Chicago was swept by a dreadful fire that raged forty-eight hours. It broke out at night, caused, it is supposed, by a cow kicking over an oil lamp. Day and night it burned, eating its way unmercifully from one part of the city to another, destroying as many as seventeen thousand buildings. Many people were killed by falling tim- bers. Others lost their lives in the mad rush to get away from burning and toppling houses. Almost one hundred thousand were made homeless. Fully two hundred lives were lost. Yet within two years a new and finer Chicago had risen over the blackened ground of the tragedy. In the following year fire swept through Boston, causing a loss of millions of dollars. This fire, too, be- gan in the evening, starting just how no one knows. Until four in the afternoon of the next day it blazed almost unchecked. The fire department was crippled because of an epidemic that had seized the horses of the city. All through the night business men carried such goods as they could to places of safety. Fire departments from neighbor- GREAT DISASTERS 255 ing towns hastened to give their services. They needed no message to call them. The sky for sixty miles inland told the dreadful story. Chicago, remember- ing how Boston had helped her, sent this message, "We will share with you whatever we have left." But Boston had already begun to stand up under her adversity. Merchants were busy selling their goods in hotel parlors and dining rooms. Temporary build- ings were hastily erected, and soon Boston was herself again. Fire is not the only force that nature uses in laying low the work of man. At times the very earth itself rocks and shivers. Even the early records of the colonies speak of earthquakes. One of the severest took place in 1755, when the coast was shaken for a thousand mile Charleston earthquake and A street in Charleston after the earthquake in Boston hundreds of houses were damaged. In 1886 Charleston was devastated by an earthquake which 256 THE GREAT WEST destroyed three fourths of the city and cost the li\es of scores of people. In 1889 the city of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, was wrecked by flood. An unusually heavy rain caused the dam, eighteen miles above the city, Jo ns own ^^ break. Within seven minutes the rag- flood ^ _ ing waters reached the city. Mounting higher and higher, they swept houses and people away. A survivor tells of the horror of seeing stately build- ings fall, and of seeing neighbors borne along on the wave, sometimes to be crushed to death against a broken wall, sometimes to be engulfed in the rushing waters. Several thousand people perished, and the survivors were threatened with starvation. In a sur- prisingly short time help in generous measure came flowing in. The same courage that led the Pilgrims and Puritans to the bleak shores of New England fired the hearts of these ruined people. They turned from the past to build a new and better future. Before going on to the next period in our history we must glance over the political situation of these days. As the Civil War receded further and Political r ^1 • ^ ^1 further into the past, new issues came questions ^ ... into the politics of the nation. Questions about war and reconstruction gave way to questions of policy in time of peace. One of the subjects on which opinions differed, and differ still, is the tariff. Some would have a high tariff, believing that it makes wages higher and DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 257 leads to prosperity. Others would ha\'e no tariff at all, but free trade, allowing every one to buy from any country without paying duty. Still ^ .^ Others would collect only such duties as would yield taxes enough to support the government ; that is, a tariff for revenue only. Another issue is civil service reform. The old practice started by Jackson of giving the victorious party all the offices was seen to have bad , . Civil service effects. There are thousands of positions under the government, such as those of clerks' and letter carriers, that demand training. When men have gained this training, it is not fair to them or good for the service to put them out of office because they happened to vote the losing ticket in an election. With these and many other new issues coming to the front, the people came to depend less upon the heroes of the war to lead them in politics. General Grant served two terms, and was followed by two other generals, Hayes and Garfield. Garfield served but a short while. F'or a second time the pages of our history were stained b}^ an assassin. Within four months after his inauguration Garfield was shot by a disappointed office-seeker. The wounded President lingered on through the summer, but it was impossible to save his life. Garfield was succeeded by Vice President Arthur, who was not a warrior, but a lawyer. He was a hearty believer in civil service reform. During his presi- 258 THE GREAT WEST dcncy the Civil Service Act was passed. It closed certain government positions to all but those who passed an examination, and forbade the removal of employees on account of their politics. The next President was another lawyer, Grover Cleveland, the first Democrat to be elected in over a quarter of a century. Cleveland has the distinction of being the only President to serve two separate terms. He was three times a candidate, but the second time was defeated by Benjamin Harrison. Cleveland's defeat was due largely to the fact that he boldly stated his views on the tariff. He believed that the tariff should be lowered. In course of time more people agreed with him, and he was returned to his high office. Not all the political questions of these years were concerning home affairs. Several important events affected our foreign relations. We shall g'^^*^" speak of two. In 1893 a matter that had been for a long time under dispute be- tween the United States and England, was finally settled. It involved our rights over seal hunters in the waters about Alaska. It was decided partly against us and partly in our favor. The other matter concerned us because it threatened a violation of our Monroe Doctrine. For years the boundary line between V^enezuela and British Guiana had been under dispute. Upon the appeal of President Cleveland England agreed to submit the subject to arbitration. FOREIGN AFFAIRS 259 Both these instances helped to show the nations of the world how much better it is to arbitrate disputes than to settle them by wasteful warfare. And yet the very next chapter in our history finds us engaged in deadly conflict with a foreign nation. FOR CAREFUL STUDY The period following the Civil War was chiefly remarkable for the amazing development of the coun- try west of the Mississippi. Although settlement had been going on for years, there had been certain marked movements of people westward. The first of these followed the close of the War of 18 12. The second was the result of the discovery of gold in California in 1848 and in the Rocky Mountains in 1859. Now a third movement came at the close of the Civil War, when the old soldiers, and others, were encouraged to go west by the Homestead Act, which gave land to home-builders. The pioneering stage was about over. The early trails had developed into substantial roadways. The Atlantic and the Pacific coasts were now connected by a through line of railroad. Throughout all the years of settlement, the ground was disputed by the Indians, but there were few of them compared with the host of white men who claimed the land. The Indians broke forth in occa- sional uprisings, but were each time defeated and compelled to live within the reservations allotted to them. 26o THE GREAT WEST Thus were developed great states throughout the West, and one after another the>- were admitted into the Union. The United States extended its territory even be\-ond these states by purchasing from Russia for the sum of $7,200,000. the extensive region of Alaska in the far north. T ^ t«. SCALE C «11.ES States w«st ot the Mississippi The Struggle with nature took man>- forms besides the conflicts in pioneering. Lofty bridges were built N.\rUA AL r. ROW 111 201 i\cro>> turbulont ri\ ors. Loxtvs wore Iniill at the mouth ot the Mi^^sissippi so that laii;o ships could carr\- tlio growing coininorco. rinio was iioarl\- auui- liilated when Cyrus Field gained tor America the honor of hi^nng the tirst ocean cable across the Atlantic. C^n the other hand, disaster came in \arious forms. Chicago and Boston sutTeretl hea\ >• losses from fire. Charleston was wrecked b\- an earthquake. Johns- town was torn to pieces b\- a liood. In politics, diu'ing the period fi^lKnxing the Ci\il \\'ar. the taritT. civil service reform, and other issues replaced those growing out of the war. The Presi- dents from i86g to igoi were, in succession: Grant. Hayes, (lartield. Arthur, Cleveland. Harrison. Cleve- land. McKinley. Cleveland was a Democrat; all the others were Republicans. Cle\"eland. in \igorous language, stated the Monroe Doctrine to England in the matter of her relations with Wnezuela. This and other differences were settled by arbitration. FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED Gold was discovered in California in 1848. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. BlBLIOOR.\PHY Boonf. — Bouve: American Heroes and Heroines. Holland: Historic Boyhoods. Morris: Historioil Tales. Roosevelt and Lodge: Hero Tales. Tappan: American Hero Stories. Carson. — Bouve: American Heroes and Heroines. Tap{un: American Hero Stories. 262 THE GREAT WEST Custer. — Custer: The Boy General. Charleston. — Southern Stories Retold from St. Nicholas. Field. — ■ Lane: Triumphs of Science. Mowry: American Inventions and Inventors. Gold. — Wright: Children's Stories of American Progress. General. — Bass: Stories of Pioneer Life. Drake: Making of the Great West. Garland: Boy Life on the Prairie. Kingsley: Westward Ho! Stood shoulder to shoulder in salute ' CHAPTER XIII EXPANSION "Battleship Maine blown up in Havana harbor! 260 lives lost!" These were the flaming headlines borne by the morning papers of February ^ o o A ^ r 1 ^ Destruction of 16, 1898. A tremor or horror swept over th yW / the country as the people realized the sudden and awful death into which their loyal sailors had been hurled. In addition, there was the sus- picion that Spain was in some way responsible for the disaster. Even before this happened, the Americans had been indignant toward Spain. The people of Cuba were in revolt against the Spanish government, . ^ ^ Cuban revolt and their misfortunes aroused keen sym- pathy. For the previous fifteen years the island of Cuba had suffered greatly from Spanish misrule. From time to time the Cubans had rebelled, only to be subdued again with increased cruelty. In 1895, driven to desperation, they set up a government of their own and declared their independence. Spain made General Weyler military governor of Cuba. Under him the Cubans suffered far more than the ordinary hardships of warfare. Peaceful work- 263 264 EXPANSION men were slain on their way to labor. Many a man, returning at nightfall, found his wife and children gone and his home in ashes. Most horrible of all, crowds of peasants were driven from their homes and herded in towns, where many died of fever or starvation. The American newspapers were filled with stories of Cuban sufferings, and the magazines printed pictures of starving children. Such conditions at our very door- step pulled mightily on our heartstrings. The battleship Maine had been sent to Havana harbor as a refuge for any of our citizens who might The United t)e endangered by the Cuban revolution. States takes Examination showed that its destruction action \-y^f^ been caused by the explosion of a mine under water. That this could happen was one more proof that Spain was unable to maintain order in Cuba. Congress took prompt action. On April 20, 1898, Spain was ordered to give up Cuba and to remove all her forces from the Island. President McKinley sent DECLARATION OF WAR 265 a special message to Congress, saying: " In the name of humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of endangered American interests, which give us the right and the duty to speak and act, the war in Cuba must stop." America then began war in defense of her suffering neighbor. This youthful nation gave of its robust strength to protect the weak and oppressed. Spain was in a trying position. Though France, Germany, and Austria were not especially friendly to us and, it was feared, might support Spain, Great Britain immediately placed herself on our side. This showed the three countries that it would be wise to let Spain and the United States settle their difficulty alone. To add to Spain's troubles, the Philippine Islands, her most treasured possession in the East, were also in revolt. It was there that the first important engagement of the Spanish-American War took place. When war was yet but a rumor. Commodore Dewey was at Hongkong. Here he was advised by secret message to make ready for war. That meant to take on as much coal as possible and to drill his men rigidly. Later, he must get out the paint pots, and change to a dull slate color the white ships, beautiful in time of peace, but too good a target in time of war. On April 24 he received the following cablegram from the Secretary of the Navy: "War has com- menced between Spain and the United States. Pro- 266 EXPANSION ceed at once to Philippine Islands. Commence opera- tions at once, particularly against Spanish fleet. You „, , must capture vessels or destroy. Use ut- War begun most endeavors." With the promptness of long training Dewey made for Manila harbor. By midnight of April 30 the American squadron, but dimly lighted, was stealing single file into the south channel of the bay. It seemed to the sailors that the Spaniards must surely hear them. To their anxious ears every sound was magnified as the mo- ments crept by. Their hearts beat wildly with excite- ment. Farther and farther in they crept, in the terrifying darkness, knowing not at what minute the enemy might appear. Worse, at any moment the\' might strike a submarine mine and be hurled into eternity. An officer whispered that surely the entire garrison must be asleep. Strange indeed, that their progress was unhindered. Swiftly, as is the way in the tropics, the dawn broke, and radiant daylight shone about them, revealing, close by, the city of Manila and its ,, ., „ wharv^es. At five o'clock the shore bat- Mamla Bay teries and the Spanish squadron stationed along the coast opened a heavy fire. The only reply at first was the sudden display of the flag, "Remember the Maine. '' Not until the Americans w^ere within close range did they begin to return fire. Then blast after blast of destruction rent the air. At half past seven Dewey, out of consideration for his men, who BATTLE OF MANILA BAY 267 had been on duty since four o'clock, ceased firing and drew back from the shore. His orders were, "Let the men go to breakfast." At eleven they returned to complete their work. Like monsters hurling bolts of fire at one another the two fleets and the shore bat- teries were once more in the throes of battle. Soon the Spanish flagship and many other ships were in flames, but not one of our warships was seriously damaged. The victory was complete. The news of this battle was received with enthusiasm. To the commodore were tendered the thanks of Congress, and later he was made admiral. But to destroy the Spanish fleet was not sufficient; men and reenforcements were needed to take Manila and hold it. When they finally arrived, our hold upon the Philippines was assured, and people began at once to discuss the commercial value of this group of islands. Meanwhile, throughout the Atlantic, the American spyglass searched in vain for the Spanish squadron under Cervera, last seen on April 29 at the Cape Verde Islands. It was generally g***^^*^*^ believed that the Spanish commander was making for Cuba. Yet for two weeks the most vigilant eye failed to see the smoke of his ships along the horizon. Commodore Schley had been sent to play "I spy." It took him until May 28 to find Cer\era, who had succeeded in making the harbor of Santiago, in Cuba. Acting Rear- Admiral Sampson, 268 EXPANSION who had been blockading Havana, brought his ships to join Schley's, and took command of the entire fleet. The entrance to the harbor of Santiago is so narrow, and was so well defended, that a direct attack was out of the question. The situation called for clever strategy. Naval Constructor Hobson undertook to complete the blockade of the harbor by sinking an American vessel, the Merrimac, across its narrowest part. If he were successful, it would make Cervera a prisoner in his own place of refuge. But the scheme miscarried, and Lieutenant Hobson and his faithful men barely escaped with their lives. While this had been going on the government had been raising an army to send to Santiago. More than 200,000 responded to President p . McKinley's call for volunteers. From all quarters they poured in. Among them were the cowboy of the West, the young man of fashion, the college youth — all sorts and conditions. Yet war found them sharing one another's tents and carrying one another's burdens. The city of Santiago was protected by the fortifi- cations on two hills. El Caney and San Juan. These the Americans captured in the first two days of July. On the next day General Cervera, who had been held in the harbor by Sampson's fleet, attempted to escape. Then occurred the second of the two great naval engagements of this war. In four hours Cer- vera's fleet was utterly destroyed. He lost 600 men, ATTACK ON SANTIAGO :(^g killetl and wounded, while the American loss was one man killed and one wounded. Following this \ictory. our army demanded the surrender of Santiago. This was refused. Then it Spanish blockhouse on San Juan Hill was threatened that by noon of the fifth our army would bombard the town. The women and children were thus given two days in w^hich to leave the city. There began a pitiable procession of nearly 20,000 half- starved women, wasted children, and tottering old men. Many of them were sheltered and protected by the American army. This meant sacrifice on the 270 EXPANSION part of the American soldiers, for their own suppHes were meager. The luster of this war is surely dimmed when one considers the useless suffering caused by the careless- ness of the commissary department. Supplies were inadequate and their transportation poorly managed. Much of the suffering of the war might have been avoided. At best war is horrible. The glory and ex- citement do not come to all. Those who lie for long hours, motionless in a steaming trench, suffer as much as the wounded on the battlefield. Inaction is some- times harder to bear than pain. To the man shot down in battle it seems a long time before his eyes catch the gleam of the red cross which means help and care. The Red Cross Society works on the battlefield or wherever terrible destruction reigns. It was founded in 1863, and now nearly all nations are g . represented in it. Its doctors and nurses know no enemy. They are permitted the freedom of the battle lines, and their emblem, a red cross upon a white field, protects them and their property. Thus it happens that the dying soldier may look up into the face of a soft-voiced woman. On her arm the red cross shows, and over her counte- nance shines the light of an unselfish spirit. The young lad, and many such there are in camp hospitals, finds a sympathetic hand clasping his as he bids a cheerful good-by to the limb which the surgeon says must come off. Messages are sent home for those RED CROSS SOCIETY 271 who are too weak to write, and the hand that pens them Is that of the Red Cross nurse. Many and A Red Cross tent varied are her duties, and in like proportion are the thanks and affection she receives. " For we know that wherever the battle was waged, With its wounded and dead and dying — Where the wrath of pagan or Christian raged — Like the mercy of God, where the battle was waged, The Red Cross flag was flying." * * J. T. Napier: The Red Cross Flag. 272 EXPANSION The hopelessness of the situation became appar- ent to the Spaniards, and on July 17, they surrendered Santiago. At the first stroke of noon, from the flagpole above the red- tiled roof of the Spanish palace, the red and yellow flag of Spain fluttered down from its proud place. Before the final stroke had sounded the Red, White, and Blue waved in the breeze. The troops came to order. The band played the Star Spangled Banner! In December, the treaty of peace was signed. By it Cuba became a free country, though she was placed under the protection of the United Peace or States, in 1902 our care was no longer necessary, and Cuba, the republic, took her own place among the nations. By the same treaty Spain ceded to the United States, Porto Rico, of the West Indies, which our troops had invaded; Guam, one of the Ladrone Islands, which our navy had seized; and the Philippines, the scene of Dewey's victory. So have we grown from the Atlantic to the Pacific and then beyond to a point of vantage whence we may look out upon the eastern world. As we have increased our territorial possessions so have we added to that vast number of true-hearted patriots who are loyal to "Old Glory." " I pledge allegiance to my flag and to the Republic for which it stands; one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." Throughout the length and breadth of our land, from Maine to California, THE PHILIPPINES 273 from Minnesota to Texas, thousands of school children daily pledge themselves to uphold the "Stars and Stripes." It was an odd group of pupils that stood in a school- house in Manila on Washington's Birthday, 1900, and saluted the American flag, a gift The from the Lafayette Post of the Grand „. ... . ■^ _ Philippines Army of the Republic. American chil- dren and Spanish, slant-eyed Chinese and dusky- skinned Filipinos, stood shoulder to shoulder in salute. Lustily their voices joined in the words of "America," — "My Country, 'tis of Thee." And this scene was repeated in all the other thirty-five schools of the Philippine capital. '"Tis the schoolhouse stands by the flag. Let the Nation stand by the school ; 'Tis the school bell that rings for our Liberty old, 'Tis the schoolboy whose ballot shall rule."* When the United States established its govern- ment in Manila, one of the first things it did was to organize public schools. In time the chief islands of the Philippines were dotted with them. And now hundreds of American teachers are at work, not only educating the children, but also training the native men and women to become teachers of their own people. Thus in time will the people of these islands be able to govern themselves. It must be remem- * H. Butterworth: The School House and the F"lag. 274 EXPANSION bercd that America did not wage war with Spain in order to gain territory for itself. But after the war was over it found itself with Pacific possessions on its hands. It saw that before these people could successfully manage their own affairs they must be !^.^fe^ Scene in the Philippines trained to respect law and order. Millions of dollars have already been spent by the United States in this work. Even under Spanish rule some of the Filipinos, led by Aguinaldo, had fought for their independence. Spain made a treaty with them and paid the leaders several thousand dollars on condition that they leave the Philippines. When, not long afterward, Admiral Dewey gained possession of Manila Bay, these leaders returned from their retreat in Hongkong. Soon Aguinaldo and his friends had some thousands of men in arms against the United States. They THE PHILIPPINES 275 declared that they had been fighting for independence and not for a change of masters. Our soldiers routed them from place to place. Finally the Filipino armies disbanded, but only to begin a guerrilla form of war- fare. Fighting, not in the open, but in small groups scattered throughout the land, they would harry the American troops from ambush. It took several months to hunt them down and restore peace. Agui- naldo was captured. Soon afterwards he took the oath of allegiance. Other insurgent leaders were won over; in fact, some of them are now governors of Phil- ippine provinces. Thus the Filipinos are well started on the road to self-government and independence. The Philippines and the island of Guam, which also came to us as a result of the Spanish War, are not our only Pacific possessions. In 1893 the people of the Hawaiian Islands overthrew their royal government and established a republic. The following year this republic was recognized by our country. Five years later Hawaii was annexed, and in 1900 was made a territory of the United States. To-day one must journey very nearly halfway around the globe to go from America's most eastern territory, Porto Rico, to her most western, the Philippines. One result of this ex- pansion is that the United States has become a "world power." Now, as never before, the other nations of the earth must reckon with her. And we may be proud of the way in which America has exercised her 276 EXPANSION new-found power. For one thing, she has taken her full part with the other nations in their dealings with China. She insisted upon the plan of the "open door." Through it America has the same privileges to trade with China that are given to any other country. In 1900 the United States joined with Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, and Japan in putting down an uprising of the Boxers. The Boxers were a Chinese society that planned to wage war upon the foreigners living in China. They committed many murders and threatened to kill all the foreigners in Peking. But the six nations acted promptly. They moved their allied forces upon the Chinese capital. The city was taken, the foreigners rescued, and peace restored. More than 15,000 American troops took part in this movement. Another movement in which America has been active is that for the establishment of peace. Wars have been waged ever since men have Hague Court . , , . , , 1 t-. 1 1 1 mhabited the earth, rrobably, too, war will long continue to be the only way of settling certain kinds of disputes. But surely much of our warfare has been senseless. Long ago individuals among civilized people learned to settle their differ- ences by taking them before a judge. There they argue the matter, and then abide by the decision of the court. If individuals can in this way avoid fighting, why cannot nations? The Czar of Russia invited the nations to discuss the question. In 1899 THE HAGUE COURT 277 delegates from twenty-six countries met for confer- ence at 'llie Hague. The United States took an active The Peace Palace, at The Hague part in this meeting as well as in others that followed. A court was organized to which nations might take their disputes for arbitration. The United States and Mexico were the first to take a case before the Hague Court. In yet another direction the United States has carried on a work of great importance to all nations. For years people studied their maps of the western continent and sighed to think of the time and effort that had been spent in going from Panama Canal 278 EXPANSION ocean to ocean by way of Cape Horn. Across the narrow isthmus that joins the two Americas it is but a few miles. If only a waterway could be cut through here, what a saving it would be. The United States attacked the problem in earnest. A strip of land ten miles wide was bought from the Republic of Panama, and is known as the' Canal Zone. Here was under- taken the enormous task of cutting out of earth and Tx-AaaS^C"" Towing a steamship through the locks on the Panama Canal solid rock a lock canal large enough to accommodate the giant ships of commerce and the dreadnoughts of war. Thus, in many directions our republic has been expanding. Its interests now reach out far beyond the boundaries of the nation of a few vears Polihcs . . . ' ago. Along with this expansion events of no less importance have been occurring at home. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 279 One of them concerns the place of women in poHtics. Wyoming is the state that first gave its 1 -1 .1 . -^ Woman women the same right to vote that it ^^ gi\-es its men. Several other states have since been added to the Hst of those granting the suf- frage to women. The Spanish War brought forward a question for debate: How shall we dispose of our new possessions? Then, too, there has been much argument over the tariff, over the coinage of gold and silver, over "trusts," and over many other matters. The people seemed to approve President McKinley's handling of the Spanish War, for they elected him for a second term. They were not long to have him as their President, however. Once again the hand of an assassin did its ugly work. President McKinley was shot while holding a reception at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo. He died eight days later. For the third time the people of the United States mourned a martyred President. Theodore Roosevelt succeeded to the presidency, and at the end of the term was reelected. He was followed by another Republican, William H. Taft, who had served as a judge, as governor of the Philip- pines, and in other offices. The campaign of 191 2 brought forward a new party, the Progressive, which nominated Roosevelt in opposition to the Republican renomination of Taft. For the first time in twenty years the election went to the Democrats. Woodrow 28o EXPANSION Wilson, governor of New Jersey, became the twenty- seventh President of the United States. Of the many events during these latest years only a few of the more important are noted here. In 1902 the workmen in the anthracite coal mines in Pennsylvania — nearly 150,000 in number — struck, demanding better wages and hours. A coal famine was threatened, for the strike lasted five months. It was finally settled through the efforts of President Roosevelt, who induced the miners and their employers to submit their differences to arbitration. There have been from time to time many other labor difficulties in various parts of the country. How to settle them with justice to every one tr^ bl concerned — the laborer, the employer, and the people who buy the products — ■ is a difficult problem. It has yet to be solved, but steps have already been taken toward its solution. There are many labor organizations that seek to se- cure better conditions for their members. The larg- est of all is the American Federation of Labor, formed in 1 88 1. In 1903 Congress created the Department of Commerce and Labor, and ten years later divided this work into two departments, that of Commerce and that of Labor. Several wise laws have been passed during these years. One provides that when a person sells certain kinds of goods and drugs he must tell honestly what they are. He is forbidden to sell adulterated goods DISASTERS 281 Aviation under false names. Another law provides for the inspection of meats and other foods by officials of the government so that people may be sure that what they buy Is fit to eat. In invention America has contributed her full share, particularly in the field of electricity. Among her many ingenious inventors, Thomas A. Edison has a foremost place. His numerous productions, such as the phonograph and the arc light, have gained for him the title of the Wizard. But it is in the conquest of the air that the United States has perhaps the clearest claim to first place. As early as 1900, tw^o brothers, Wilbur and Orville ""~ ^^ r^ WVight, living in ".,-,. -' Ohio, experimented with aeroplanes. They designed their first machine i n 1903. Five years later they made successful flights at Fort Myer, a gov- ernment proving- ground near Wash- ington. Since 1900 three of our great cities have been visited with severe disasters. The first was a hurri- An aeroplane 282 EXPANSION cane at Galveston; the second, a fire at Baltimore; and the third, an earthquake at San Francisco and in neighboring places. In 19 12 floods broke down the levees on the lower Mississippi. In all these disasters, people were made homeless, some were killed, and property worth millions of dollars was lost. But in each case the hearts of the people throughout the land were stirred to sympathy, and they gladly aided their unfortunate countrymen. Since 1900, too, the family of states has been enlarged by the admission of three. Oklahoma, ad- mitted in 1907, and New Mexico and New stS-tcs Arizona, in 1912, bring the total to forty- eight, a number not likely to be changed for many years. We call this latest period our period of Expansion. We have steadily pushed our influence eastward, westward, southward. Perhaps the Peary and the . , . 4. u u j N th p 1 crowning achievement has been a record of brave conquest over stupendous natural difliculties, the conquest of the far North. 90° N. Lat., North Pole, April 6, 1909. "I have to-day hoisted the national ensign of the United States of America at this place, which my observations indicate to be the North Polar axis of the earth, and have formally taken posses- sion of the entire region, and adjacent, for and in the name of the President of the United States of America. DISCOVERY OF THE NORTH POLE 283 "I leave this record and United States flag in P°^^'^^'°"- Robert E. Peary, United States Navy." Forty-eight stars now grace the blue field of our national emblem. We can only dream of the glories that await this flag. Surely they will stand in history alongside the triumphs of the past. "When Freedom, from her mountain height, Unfurled her standard to the air, She tore the azure robe of night. And set the stars of glory there!" * FOR CAREFUL STUDY The people of Cuba revolted against Spanish rule, and in 1895 declared their independence. The United States hesitated to interfere, although her sym- pathies were with the Cubans, who had been shame- fully ill-treated by Spain. But early in 1898 our battleship Maine, lying peacefully in the harbor of Havana, was blown up. The United States declared war against Spain in April and proceeded to search out the Spanish fleets in the Atlantic and in the Pacific. Admiral Dewey, in the Pacific, made a speedy attack upon the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, defeated it, and captured the city of Manila. Admiral Sampson, with Schley second in command, blockaded the Spanish squadron in Santiago and utterly destroyed it when it at- tempted to escape. * Drake: The American Flag. 284 EXPANSION At the same time land operations were going on in Cuba. Santiago was besieged and forced to surrefnder. By the treaty, signed in December, Cuba was made free, and the United States gained Porto Rico, Guam, and the PhiHppines. The period following the Spanish War has been one of expansion — -our nation has extended its posses- sions east, south, and west. In the east Porto Rico came to us at the close of the war. In the south we bought control of the Canal Zone, where we have succeeded in the stu- pendous task of cutting a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama. In the Pacific we have Hawaii, the Philippines, and a few other islands. In the north the many expeditions in search of the pole reached a successful conclusion in 1909, when Peary raised the American flag at the North Pole. Along with this expansion the United States has gained a growing respect among the nations of the world. It has taken its part in world affairs. It has had its influence in gaining fair play for China. It has borne its share in establishing the Hague Court. Among the chief events at home have been labor troubles and strikes; the passage of laws which help to insure safety in buying food and drugs; disasters from hurricane, fire, flood, and earthquake. The number of states in the Union has now reached forty-eight. In politics, the two Presidents following McKinley were Roosevelt and Taft, both Republicans. Then, with the election of Wilson, the Democrats returned to power for the first time in twenty years. (285) 286 EXPANSION FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED The War with Spain, 1898, was caused by cruel treatment of the Cubans by the Spaniards. During the Spanish War, Manila and Santiago were taken, and at the close Cuba was freed, Porto Rico was ceded to the United States, and the Philippines were bought from Spain. Bibliography Aviation. — Burns: Story of Great Inventions. Holland: Historic Inventions. Barton. — Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. Dewey. — Beebe: Four American Naval Heroes. Johnson: Hero of Manila. McKinley. — Stratemeyer: American Boys' Life of William McKinley. North Pole. — Peary: Children of the Arctic. Peary: Nearest the Pole. Peary: Snow Baby. Peary: The North Pole. Panama. — Hall: Panama and the Canal. Philippines. — Austin: Uncle Sam's Children. Spanish War. — Abbot: Blue Jackets of '98. Allen: Cleared for Action. Austin: Uncle Sam's Soldiers. L. G. T. (Tisdale) : Three Years Behind the Guns. Matthews: Our Navy in Time of War. The White City' CHAPTER XIV RECALLING THE PAST The spring days of 1876 awoke each morning to fresh surprises in beautiful Fairmount Park, in Phila- delphia. All through the previous year centennial Ex- builders had plied their trade unceasingly, position, Phiia- crecting quaint and beautiful buildings d^^Pl^'^' ^^76 over a level surface of two hundred acres. Foreign- looking men from many climes were unpacking odd- shaped cases marked with strange characters which carried no meaning to the American mind. There were Germans, Frenchmen, Italians, JapanCvSe, Span- iards, and many others. These strangers had come to help us celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence. Thirty-iiine countries brought their choicest wares to show to the hundred- year-old nation. Many put up buildings of their own, like those of their homeland. Twenty-six of our states had each its own building. In all there were about two hundred structures. Some were hastily built, intended only as temporary shelters; but others, such as Memorial Hall, which stands to-day, were well constructed and of unusual beauty. 287 288 RECALLING THE PAST Though not entirely completed, the exposition was formally opened in May. Wagner, the great German composer, wrote a march for the occasion. Whittier wrote a " Centennial Hymn," which was majestically sung by a thousand trained voices: "Our fathers' God! from out whose hand The centuries fall like grains of sand, We meet to-day, united, free, And loyal to our land and Thee, To thank Thee for the era done, And trust Thee for the opening one. " Be with us while the New World greets The Old World thronging all its streets, Unveiling all the triumphs won By art or toil beneath the sun; And unto common good ordain This rivalship of hand and brain." On July 4, 1876, in the rear of Independence Hall, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, grandson of one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, read that memorable paper to a great multitude. As he came forward holding tenderly the original document, now yellow and crumbling with age, the vast crowds rose and rent the air with their shouts. In the coldest of hearts the fire of patriotism was kindled. Nor were our people proud without cause. Despite its youth, the United States, in many of the exhibits, was in advance of the older nations. CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION It was generally admitted that we led in making labor-saving machinery. There was a plow so elabo- rate that it cost a thousand dollars. There was a line of sewing machines of many different makes stretching O. -;- 1 ^^^ &^- 1^^ .^Ml \ l^\ : .- ' m^ Independence Hall, in Philadelphia for a half mile. There was a machine for hatching chickens that to the visiting farmer seemed hardly short of magic. There was, marvel of marvels, a great steam engine supplying the power that moved all the machinery of the exposition. Its mighty strength set thousands of wheels whirling. They, in turn, put in motion machines that produced before the very eyes of the gaping stranger all sorts of useful articles, such as pins, boots and shoes, bricks, envelopes, can- dies, tacks, nails, corks, carpets, dress-goods, and shingles. There top was the typewriter, an interesting machine, but at that time not considered of practical use. Much amusement was caused by the "lovers' 290 RECALLING THE PAST telegraph." It was like a modern boy's telephone, consisting of two boxes connected by a waxed string. The string carried the vibrations of the voice from one box to the other. Hardly more than a toy it was, but it hinted at the won- VVTIT^ 1/ {' ''/^^-^ ^^*" ^^ come. It was only a year \\l %/N; later that Professor Alexander Graham Bell perfected the in- vention of the telephone. To- Eariy form of the telephone ^j^y j^-g slender wires Carry the voice between distant cities, and are stretched for thousands of miles in all directions throughout our land. Not in every respect, however, did we find ourselves first. In the picture galleries we had no such master- pieces as European countries exhibited. The school exhibits of other nations taught us that we had progressed but slowly. Most of our school buildings were unhealthful and the school grounds unattractive. Through the succeeding years the nation has taken these lessons to heart, and numerous changes for the better have been made. There were many things to be learned at the fair, and many people to learn them. It is believed that fully ten million people visited it. The railroads had lengthened their lines to accommodate the travelers; there were now 80,000 miles of railroad in the United States. To many of the visitors the trip seemed as hazardous as the far-famed voyage of Columbus. CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION 291 They planned and they saved for the event. It made them half afraid, but with the kind of fear that sends one shivering on delightedly, step by step. To the children, and there were many whose small feet tramped the enchanted grounds, the promised visit meant seeing for the first time real Chinamen at work; dark-skinned people from Hawaii, who displayed beautiful pink coral and wondrous shells; oddly dressed folk from Egypt, showing embroideries of many colors; and, when nightfall came, above and about and everywhere, the gleam and twinkle of the countless lights. To older heads, too, many things were new and strange. Previous to the exposition Americans had traveled little, even in their own country. They knew comparatively nothing of the possibilities of the great land that was theirs. Such fruit as California exhibited, such grains as came from the Middle West, were a surprise to the people of the East. The visitors from abroad, looking upon the products of the United States, were eager to buy them. Since our first exposition we have, year by year, sent out from our big land an ever increasing amount of exports, more, in fact, than we received from abroad. Uncle Sam also took part in the Centennial Exposi- tion. Among his exhibits perhaps the most interesting was a postal car in which clerks were at their work. They showed how mail is received, sorted, and de- livered as the trains speed from station to station. 2Q2 RECALLING THE PAST The printing business had an exhibit of special interest. The hand press at which Benjamin Frank- Hn worked as a journeyman was there. Near it were Benjamin Franklin's printing press two large modern printing presses that were capable of making twenty thousand impressions a day. At the entrance to the fair grounds was seen an immense arm cast in bronze, clasping a huge torch. It was part of a colossal statue, "Liberty enlightening the World," sent to us as a birthday gift by France. In 1886 the entire statue was set up on an island in New York harbor. Its light invites the nations of the world, saying: "Come to us. This is the land of the free and the home of the brave!" So successful was the Philadelphia exposition that many other important dates in our history have been COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 293 celebrated in like lashi(jn. In 1892 Chicago opened wide her hospitable doors and invited Columbian every one to the shores of Lake Michi- Exposition, gan. "Come help us celebrate," we said Chicago, 1893 to the nations, "the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of a New World. " Right cordially they responded. Spain sent models of Columbus's three famous vessels, the Santa Maria, J^ ,^^^-^^ ■i^^^saasW The Liberty Statue, in New York harbor the Nina, and the Pinta. She also sent a gracious princess to honor the occasion. From Norway there came a strange-appearing craft, a Viking ship, to 294 RECALLING THE PAST remind us, it was declared, that the Xorthmen were the true discoverers of North America. This boat was a model of one that had been unearthed with much difficulty. Its age could only be guessed at. It was seventy-six feet long, and the rudder was on the right side. Upon its prow it bore a dragon's head, and upon its stern a dragon's tail. On a seat in the stern was the figure of a chief. The original of this boat is kept b}- the Xon^vegians in their national museum at Christiania. The Chicago exposition far exceeded that of 1876 in size, covering more than one square mile. It was also attended by greater numbers. More than twehe million people visited the Great White City, as it was called. Plans had been made to open the grounds in October, 1892, but there was delay in getting things ready. The exposition was dedicated on the 22nd of that month, but the public was not admitted until the following year. The formal opening took place May i, 1893. President Cleveland, in his ad- dress, said, "We stand to-day in the presence of the oldest nations of the world and point to the great achievements we here exhibit, asking no allowance on the score of youth." He extended a warm greet- ing "to those who have come from foreign lands to illustrate with us the growth and progress of human endeavor in the direction of a higher civilization." At the close of his address the President touched a key in the platform before him. It was connected COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 295 ^vIth a 2000-horse-power engine which started the machinery of the exposition. Almost instantly hun- dreds of flags were unfurled and many fountains began to pla>'. The masses of the people surged back and forth and cheered \'igorously. The year's wait had not been in vain. One might wander over the spacious ground for days and always meet new wonders, What are the things to be seen? There are red men and women from the Indian resers'ations. Among the Alaskans are Split Oak and Dull Hatchet and Clumsy Moccasin, dressed in all the glory of Indian finery. They wear neck- laces of bear's teeth, and belts from which dangle ghastly scalps. Over their shoulders and from their waists hang costly fur skins, which they drag through the dust of the exhibition grounds. The Eskimos, with their quaint squatty figures, also wear valuable furs. The furs remind us of Alaska's wealth. Evi- dently, we did not o\'er-pay Russia when, in 1867, we purchased that territory for $7,200,000. That curious rocky structure sixty feet high about which so many people stand is a model of the old clifT dwellers' homes. It has been copied from the remains on Battle Rock Mountain, Colorado. In its cre\-ices and half -hidden passages whole families dwell. There is also a museum of articles used by the inhabitants of centuries ago, — these articles have been unearthed by the hard work of patient scientists. 296 RECALLING THE PAST The past and present are portrayed together in many exhibits. There is the queer De Witt Chnton locomotive, the first on the New York Central Rail- road, and, near it, the road's newest passenger engine that makes a hundred miles an hour. There, too, is a beautiful model of the pilot house of a great ocean liner and some of its staterooms de luxe. How differ- ent from the accommodations of Fulton's Clermont! Out there on the blue waters of Lake Michigan is a model of a modern war vessel, the Illinois, whose obliging officers show how the guns are worked and describe the other details of the machinery of a modern sea-fighter. So rapid has progress been that the telephone which was regarded with amusement at the Philadel- phia Centennial, now has a building of its own. Here one may talk with r ^^ k.^ friends at a distance, * — ^ n even as far off as New York or Boston, The telephone girls who operate the sta- tion sit in full view of the sightseer. Most of the states erected characteristic buildings. For in- stance, California's was fashioned after an ancient adobe mission house. In the belfry hung old Spanish The CaUfornia Building at the Chicago exposition COLUIMBIAN EXPOSITION 297 bells, recalling the days when California belonged to Spain. That state also had a wonderful display of fruit in the form of a globe of golden oranges. As fast as they decayed they were replaced by fresh ones sent directly from the groves. In Pennsylvania's building hung the old Liberty Bell, with its famous inscription. There were other treasures such as Jefferson's sword, and the chair in which he sat when he wrote the Declaration of Inde- pendence, the table on which it was signed, and a sofa that had once belonged to Washington. At the close of the exposition, Philadelphia took home her treas- ures, but she presented the building to Chicago. Rhode Island, in her building, exhibited a picture whose w^ooden frame had been part of the house of Joseph \Mlliams, Roger Williams's youngest son. Vir- ginia reproduced Mount Vernon, the home of Washing- ton. In it were show^n many mementos of the Father of his Country. Michigan built a logging camp of pine, where a company of lumbermen lived, just as they do in the forest. Thus each state placed before the people of all the nations some picture that showed the part it had played in the country's story. The World's Columbian Exposition was marked by the beauty of the statues that were placed about the grounds. In front of the Administration Building was a striking figure of Columbus. Near the Elec- tricity Building was a statue of Franklin, a kite in his right hand, his left hand extended as if he had 298 RECALLING THE PAST snatched from the clouds the great mysterious force that was running the machinery of the fair grounds. But of all the pictures that the Great White City stamped on the minds of its visitors none told more vividly of the progress of civilization than the series of floats presented on each of the first three nights of the opening week. The first float represented the Stone Age, showing the Cliff Dwellers ; then the Bronze Age, with the Aztecs and Mound Builders; following them came a group portraying other American Indians; then the Departure of Columbus from Palos, the Discovery of America, Columbus presenting Indians to Ferdinand and Isabella. Next came an English Cavalier, then the Settlement at Jamestown. This was followed by Hudson, the Landing of the Pilgrims, De Soto and the Discovery of the Mississippi, and the Signing of the Declaration of Independence. There were floats to represent such great forces as Electricity, and others that pictured War, Peace, and Agriculture. Thus did history pass in review before the visitors. In 1 90 1 Buffalo held an exposition that was dis- tinctly American; that is, no European or Asiatic Pan-American nation was invited. Only the people of Exposition, North America and South America were Bufifalo, 1901 represented. When the suggestion was first made, at a banquet, it was immediately accepted, and nearly a million dollars was subscribed by private citizens. PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION 299 The exposition grounds were a mile long and a lialf mile- wide. The buildings were unusually beautiful in line and coloring. Here was no "White City," but a "warmth and wealth of colors," making it the "Landscape City." Richard Watson Gilder wrote: "Here by the great waters of the north, are brought together the peoples of two Americas, in exposition of their resources, industries, products, inventions, arts, and ideas." The Court of Fountains, at the Buffalo exposition This Buffalo fair, known as the Pan-American, showed the great strides that had been made in the use of electricity in the eight years following the 300 REC.\LLIXG THE PAST Columbian Exposition. Several electrical companies had each a building of its own, in which it exhibited wonderful machinery for the use of this power. It was at night that one appreciated best the exquisite beauty of the fair grounds. When twilight came the buildings were almost deserted. Everybody went to the Court of Fountains to watch the illumina- tion. First the lamp-posts took on a delicate glow, until they resembled tiny pink buds. Then the eaves and the archways and the domes of the buildings were faintly outlined against the evening sky. Soon the lines began to sparkle, and then — a wondrous, dazzling burst of light ! Most of the power that made this fairyland was furnished by the mighty waters of Niagara. They set in motion immense turbines, connected with dynamos. These produced the electric current that was carried through wires to Buffalo, miles away. By telephone one might listen to the roar of the waters, as it sounded in the Cave of the Winds, under the falls. As in former exhibitions, the natives of America were an interesting feature. There were structures to represent the old homes of the mound builders and some remains of the Aztecs and Peruvians. There was a Six Nation village, where the descendants of the great Iroquois showed their white brothers how the Indian lives to-day. Twenty- five tribes from west of the Mississippi were represented, headed by such famous chiefs as American Horse. There, too, TAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION 301 was a Filipino \illage, such a village as Dewey's men saw in 1898. The Pan-American has been called an out-of-doors exposition, partly because of the exterior beauty of the buildings and partly because of the many open- air attractions. The small boy visitor watched with great enthusiasm college games, baseball, football, basketball. There were tournaments and all sorts of American sports. Crowds flocked to Buffalo. The exhibition grounds were well policed, but despite all vigilance a madman made this his opportunity to plunge the nation into mourning. It was here that President McKinley, while holding a reception in the Temple of Music, was shot. It was thought, at first, that the President would recover, but when on September 14, 1901, he died, a deep shadow swept over the exposition, as over the whole country. Three years after the Buffalo fair, the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory was celebrated at St. Louis. With pride its citizens pointed out that Louisiana Pur- one of their city blocks represented more chase Exposi- ■ money than we had paid France for the ^^°^' ^^- ^o"^^' entire Louisiana Territory. The popula- tion of that area now numbered over fifteen million. Here was the most important wheat and corn pro- ducing region in the world. The exhibition was opened by a gorgeous procession headed by Cardinal Gibbons. Clad in the red robes 302 RECALLING THE PAST of his church, he held out his hands in invocation and prayed: "May this vast territory which was peacefully acquired a hundred years ago, be for all time to come the tranquil abode of millions of en- lightened. God-fearing, and industrious people, en- gaged in the various pursuits and avocations of life." The honor of opening the exposition was given to President Roosevelt, who said, "The old pioneer days are gone with their roughness and their hard- ships, their incredible toil and their wild, half-savage romance. But the need of the pioneer virtues re- mains the same as ever." The directors of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition had decided early in the making of their plans, that the exhibit should be educational. It was to show the people how the great industries of their country were carried on ; how finished products which they bought at the counter were made. There one might see the preserving of tomatoes, from the time they were picked from the vines until they were sealed away in air-tight cans. Through a glass window one might watch a series of wonderful machines. A log would be shoved in at one end and out of the other would come — newspapers ! Children could see the stitching and the binding of such books as they used in school — geographies, histories, arithmetics. The Educational Building showed the efforts made to help the negro and the Indian. The deaf and dumb, the blind, the feeble-minded are all, it was LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION 303 shown, proxidc'd for by the more fortunate. There, too, was an X-ray apparatus, that wonderful inven- tion given to humanity by a German scientist. It Photograph taken with X-rays seems to give to the eyes of the surgeon the power of a magician, showing him just where to operate for the rehef of his patients. Curious crowds were interested in the w^orkings of the theatrical stage from behind the scenes. They could learn how flashes of lightning and peals of thunder are made, as well as many other secrets of the stage manager. Man's conquest of nature was portrayed. There was a model showing the working of the Pike's Peak railway and another of the Suez Canal. There was a miniature of the steel arch bridge at Niagara. On a 304 RECALLING THE PAST small scale, the irrigating systems as used in the American desert were shown. One might see, too, the underground workings of a gold mine, the tunnels and the slopes and the shafts. Even nature had been forced to reproduce some of her marvels. Under the United States Bureau of Plant Industry six acres near the Agricultural Building had been laid out to represent the United States. The scale was one-half inch to the mile, and the border lines of the different states were marked off by cinder paths. The products of the central region had been planted in the regular season. Those of the warmer climates had been forced under glass. Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, and Georgia, for example, showed how their cotton, sugar cane, and fruits grow. Minnesota had one fifth of an acre, where wheat, rye, barley, and corn flourished. An- other part of the exhibit showed how to cure the diseases that attack garden plants. Still another showed that the sand dunes can be made to grow vines and other green things. Nor were all the wonders confined to the ground. The kingdom of the air had many things to exhibit, — gliding machines, aeroplanes, and wireless telegraphy. This, indeed, was a marvelous exhibition. So thought the little girl, following a wizard who showed her how a doll is made to open and shut its eyes and to talk. So thought everybody, particularly when there descended suddenly upon them a sharp, OTHER EXPOSITIONS 305 short snowstorm ! This, produced in midsummer, was another illustration of the wonders of science. These have not been the only expositions by which the Americans have reviewed the past and gained some hint of the future. The southern states have, twice at Atlanta and again ' ° expositions at New Orleans and at Charleston, cele- brated their prosperity by Cotton Expositions. In 1897 Tennessee had a "Centennial and National Ex- position;" in 1898 Omaha, the "Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition;" and in 1895 Portland, Oregon, the "Northwestern Industrial Exposition." In 1907 the three-hundredth anniversary of the founding of Jamestown, was celebrated by an exposi- tion held at Norfolk, Virginia. The Alaska- Yukon Exposition, held on the grounds of the University of Washington in 1909, declared its object to be "to exploit the resources of Alaska and the Yukon terri- tory, to make known the vast importance of the trade with the Pacific Ocean and to demonstrate the mar- velous progress of Western America." In 191 5 an exposition will be held at San Francisco to celebrate the opening of the Panama Canal. These celebrations varied in purpose, and in dis- plays, and yet what did they all show? Not the glories of war, but the triumphs of peace. It is true that guns and swords were displayed, but a com- paratively small place was given to military exhibits. Does not this show that, after all, the American 3o6 RECALLING THE PAST people are devoted to the arts of peace? In times of great need we have felt obliged to resort to arms to settle our differences. Let us hope that, throughout the future — as in many cases in the past — we may adjust all our disagreements by the dignified method of arbitration. Let us hope, too, that our beloved nation may con- tinue to stand before the world's powers as a united people ready to help the weak of all lands. The gun and the sword may have their place, but the nobler duty to one's country is in faithful labor in the field, the shop, the ofhce, — and in public service. "Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State! Sail on, O Union, strong and great! Humanity with all its fears, With all the hopes of future years, Is hanging breathless on thy fate!"* * Longfellow: The Building of the Ship. APPENDIX A FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED Discovery and Exploration Columbus discovered America in 1492 and established Spanish claim to territory. Cabot discovered the mainland of North America in 1497 and estabUshed EngUsh claim to territory. America was named for Americus Vespucius. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513. Magellan's men were the first to sail around the earth, 1519- 1522. De Soto discovered the Mississippi River in 1541. Cartier's discovery of the St. Lawrence and La Salle's exploration of the Mississippi established French claim to territory. Hudson explored the Hudson River in 1609 and established Dutch claim to territory. Settlement Raleigh made two attempts to found a colony in Virginia, which, though unsuccessful, turned the thought of the EngUsh toward the New World. The first permanent English colony was founded at James- town, Virginia, in 1607. Negro slavery was introduced into Virginia in 1619. Massachusetts was settled by the Pilgrims at Plymouth, 1620, and by other Puritans at Boston, 1630. Maryland was settled by Lord Baltimore and other Catholics. New Netherland was settled by the Dutch in 1623, at New Amsterdam and elsewhere; but it was taken by the English in 1664. 307 3o8 APPENDIX Pennsylvania was settled by Quakers undet William Penn, who founded Philadelphia, 1682. Colonial Wars Three colonial wars were waged between the French and the English because of wars in Europe. A fourth colonial war, the French and Indian, 1 754-1 763, began in a contest for the Ohio valley, and resulted in English supremacy in North America. The Revolutionary War The Revolutionary War, 1775-1783, was caused by England's treatment of her colonies as to taxation and trade laws. The Declaration of Independence was adopted at Phila- delphia, July 4, 1776. The capture of Burgoyne's army, 1777, prevented the English from dividing the colonies in two along the Hudson, and secured French aid for the Americans. The surrender of Cornwallis to Washington, at Yorktown, 1 781, practically ended the Revolutionary War. By the Treaty of Paris, 1783, at the close of the Revolutionary War, England recognized American independence, and the boundary lines of the United States were agreed upon. Growth of the Union The many weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, under which the Union had been governed, led to the adoption of the Constitution in 1788. George Washington was inaugurated first President of the United States in 1789. Our national capitals have been New York, Philadelphia, Washington. The Louisiana Territory was purchased from France in 1803, and afterwards explored by Lewis and Clark. The Second War with England, 1812-1815, secured inde- pendence for American commerce and gained the respect of European nations for the United States. Florida was purchased from Spain in 1819. By the Missouri Compromise, 1820, Missouri was admitted FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 3og as a slave state, while slavery was prohibited in all the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of 36° 30'. The Erie Canal was completed in 1825, The first American railroad was begun in 1828. The Mexican War, 1 846-1 848, was caused by the annexation of Texas and a dispute over its southern boundary. The Mexican War, in which the Americans won every battle, resulted in fixing the boundary at the Rio Grande, and in the purchase from Mexico of California and other territory. Gold was discovered in California in 1848. By the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted into the Union as a free state, and Utah and New Mexico were allowed to decide for themselves whether they would be free or slave. The Kansas-Nebraska Law, 1854, repealed the Missouri Compromise and allowed the territories to decide the slave question for themselves. The Dred Scott Decision, 1857, permitted slavery in all the territories. The Civil War The Civil War, 1861-1865, was caused by slavery, and more directly by the secession of the southern states. In the Civil War the plan of the North was to blockade southern ports and thus cut off supplies from the Confederacy; to open up the Mississippi and thus divide the Confederacy; and to capture Richmond, the seat of the Confederate govern- ment. The Monltor'Merrimac engagement, 1862, prevented the Confederates from breaking up the blockade of the southern ports. By Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, January i, 1863, the slaves in the seceding states were declared free. The attempt of the Confederates to invade the North was ended by the battle of Gettysburg, July 13, 1863. The Confederacy was divided along the Mississippi by the capture of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. Lee abandoned Richmond and surrendered to Grant in April, 1865. The Civil War resulted in the abolition of slavery and the reunion of the states. 3IO APPENDIX Renewed Expansion Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. The War with Spain, 1898, was caused by cruel treatment of the Cubans by the Spaniards. During the Spanish War, Manila and Santiago were taken, and at the close Cuba was freed, Porto Rico was ceded to the United States, and the PhiUppines were bought from Spain. APPENDIX B REFERENCE TABLE OF THE STATES Derivation of name Delaware Pennsylvania... . New Jersey Georgia j Connecticut Massachusetts... Maryland South Carolina.. I New Hampshire. Virginia I New York North Carolina . I Rhode Island. . . Vermont I Kentucky Tennessee Ohio Louisiana Indiana Mississippi Illinois Alabama Maine Missouri | Arkansas ' Michigan Florida Texas Iowa Wisconsin California Minnesota Oregon Kansas West Virginia , Nevada Nebraska Colorado North Dakota South Dakota Montana Wa-shington . . . Idaho Wyoming Utah Oklahoma New Mexico. . . Arizona Lord Delaware Penn's Woodland Island of Jersey, in English Channel King George II Connecticut River (long tidal river) " At the great hill " — Indian Maria, queen of Charles I King Charles II Hampshire, in England Virgin Queen (Elizabeth) Duke of York King Charles II Isle of Rhodes, in ^gean Sea " Green mountain " — French " Meadow land " — Indian " River with the great bend " — Indian " Beautiful river " — Indian Louis XIV, of France Purchased from Indians " Great Water " or " Father of Waters " — Indian " Superior men " — Indian " Here we rest ' ' — Indian The main land, or, from a province of France " Muddy water " — Indian Indian tribe " Great water " — Indian " The flowery land " — Spanish Indian tribe " Sleepy ones " — Indian tribe " Wild rushing river " — Indian Name in an old Spanish romance " Cloudy water " — Indian " Wild sage " — Spanish " Smoky water " — Indian Virginia " Snow-clad " — Spanish " Shallow or broad water " — Indian " Blood red " — Spanish I Dakota confederation of Indian tribes — " Allies " Mountainous region " — Spanish George Washington " Gem of the mountains " — Indian " Large plains " — Indian " Mountain dweller " — Indian " Red people " — Indian Mexico (Mexitl ) — Aztec " Silver Bearing " — Aztec 3" 1787I 1787 1787 1788 1788 1788 17S8 1789 £• 1790 1791I 1792 1796 1803 1812 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1836 1837 1845 184s 1846 1848 1850!-^ 1864 1867 1876 1889 1890 1896 1907 1912 1912, 312 APPENDIX I i >>:>: i>:dd>: S>2Z2;S2mw2M> euZ a sg e _ „ 00 g I 00 00 ii2o u I i5 V iS C> K V r^ "^'^ lo I 00 O i; w ■ " loOO Ov " g >■ o> <^ fc ll-^fe-g g gg N'O O nO moo lO (NM(NO\C 00 00 CO On 0> 0\ 0\ )l> t^ NrOOlO'^tO'^M OvOO N NMOr'-PCI>- rOOO t*'^ ■jsO \0 OOr^OOvoOOOO O O N (NrOrOrOfOr<5 'tt iOiO» - t^ t^ r^ t^ t^ r^ i> 00 00 t*- oo oo oo oooooooooooo oo ooooo S g >'.2 o o><>H .-^H o !>i o^ >S > > >S H 20>H^j22o3 S H 3 OOZZ£2 O ZOZ ^ C o -g ^ ^ oil B bS| sliBlHsll^^lBirlsllll ,^ < S&^ 2. < < tD Pi4uOcqO ^ H&^S^ ) rt in O I^ 00 O O I APPENDIX D REFERENCE LIST OF IMPORTANT EVENTS, IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER 1765 Stamp Act 1765 Colonial Congress met in New York. 1770 Golden Hill skirmish. 1770 Boston skirmish. 1773 Boston Tea Party. 1774 First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia. 1774 English passed law closing the port of Boston. 1 775-1 783. .Revolutionary War. 1775 April 19, Battles of Lexington and Concord. 1775 May 10, Second Continental Congress met. 1775 May 10, Americans captured Ticonderoga. 1775 June 17, Battle of Bunker Hill. 1775 December, Daniel Boone settled in Kentucky. 1776 July 4, Independence declared. 1776 August 27, Battle of Long Island. 1776 December 26, Battle of Trenton. 1777 September 11, Battle of Brandy wine. 1777 October 17, Burgoyne surrendered to the Americans at Saratoga. 1778 June 28, Battle of Monmouth. 1778 December 29, British captured Savannah. 1779 September 23, American naval victory under John Paul Jones. 1780 May 12, British took Charleston. 1780 August 16, Battle of Camden. 1780 October 7, Battle of Kings Mountain. 1 78 1 October 19, Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. 1783 September 3, Treaty of Peace signed at Paris. 1783 November 25, British evacuated New York. 313 314 APPENDIX 1786 Shays's unsuccessful rebellion in Massachusetts. 1787 Northwest Ordinance. 1788 First settlement in Northwest Territory at Marietta, Ohio. 1788 Constitution adopted, nine states having ratified. 1789 Washington inaugurated. 1790 Philadelphia made the capital. 1798 Alien and Sedition Laws passed. 1799'. Washington died, at Mt. Vernon. 1800 Washington became the capital. 1801-1805. .War with the Barbary States. 1803 Louisiana Territory purchased. 1 804-1805. .Lewis and Clark expedition. 1807 Fulton's Clermont made its first trip. 1807 English Leopard fired on American Chesapeake. 1808 Importation of slaves stopped. ^ 1809 Abraham Lincoln born. \ 181 1 General Harrison defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe, Ind. 1812-1815. .Second War with England. 1812 June 18, war declared. 1812 August 16, Hull surrendered Detroit to the English. 1812 August 19, Constitution defeated the Guerriere. 1 812 October 13, Americans defeated at Queenstown, Canada. 1 81 3 September 10, Americans under Perry defeated British fleet on Lake Erie. 1813 October 5, British defeated at Battle of the Thames. 1814 July 25, British repulsed at Lundy's Lane. 1814 August 24, British captured Washington. 1814 September 11, Americans under McDonough defeated British fleet on Lake Champlain. 1814 December 24, Treaty of Peape signed at Ghent. 1815 January 8, British defeated at Battle of New Orleans. 1 818 Seminoles defeated. 1 819 Florida purchased. 1820 Missouri Compromise. 1823 Monroe Doctrine declared. 1825 Erie Canal opened. 1828 First railroad begun. 1832 South Carolina declared nullification. 1837 Morse patented telegraph. 1846 Howe patented sewing machine. REFERENCE LIST OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 315 1 846- 1 848 . . Mexican War. 1847 February 23, Mexicans defeated at Buena Vista. 1847 March 29, Americans captured Vera Cruz. 1847 September 14, Americans capCured Mexico city. 1848 Gold discovered in California. 1854 Kansas-Nebraska law. 1854 Japan made her first foreign treaty with the United States. 1857 Dred Scott decision. 1858 First Atlantic cable laid. 1858 Lincoln-Douglas debates. . 1859 John Brown raided Harpers Ferry. i860 December 20, South Carolina seceded. 1861 February 4, Confederate Government organized. 1861 March 4, Lincoln inaugurated. 1 861-1865. -Civil War. 1861 April 14, Fort Sumter taken by Confederates. 1861 July 21, Battle of Bull Run. 1861 November 8, Mason and Slidell captured. 1862 February 16, Fort Donelson surrendered to Federals. 1862 March 9, Monitor-Merrimac engagement". 1862 April 6-7, Battle of Shiloh. 1862 April 16, Slavery abolished in District of Columbia. 1862 April 25, New Orleans captured by Farragut. 1862 June 25-Juiy I, Seven Days' Battles. 1862 August 29-30, Second Battle of Bull Run. 1862 September 17, Battle of Antietam. 1862 December 13, Battle of Fredericksburg. 1863 January i, Emancipation Proclamation. 1863 May 2, Battle of Chancellorsville. 1863 July 1-3, Battle of Gettysburg. 1863 July 4, Vicksburg surrendered. 1863 September 19-20, Battle of Chickamauga. 1863 November 19, Gettysburg battlefield dedicated. 1863 November 24-25, Battle of Chattanooga. 1864 May 5, 6, Battle of the Wilderness. 1864 June 19, Alabama sunk by Kearsarge. 1864 August 5, Battle of Mobile Bay. 1864 September 2, Atlanta captured. 1864 October 19, Battle of Cedar Creek. 1864 November 15, Sherman began his march to the sea. 3i6 APPENDIX 1864 December 15, 16, Battle of Nashville. 1865 April I, Battle of Five Forks. 1865 April 3, Richmond evacuated. 1865 April 9, Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House. 1865 April 14, Lincoln assassinated. 865 Thirteenth Amendment ratified. 868. President Johnson impeached by the House; but was not convicted. 868 Fourteenth Amendment ratified. 869 First transcontinental railroad. 870 Fifteenth Amendment ratified. 871 Chicago fire. 876 Centennial Exhibition, at Philadelphia. 876 Telephone invented. 876 Custer's army destroyed by Indians. 878 Electric light perfected. 881 Garfield assa.ssinated. 883 Letter postage reduced from 3 cents to 2 cents. 886 Statue of Liberty unveiled, New York. 898 Febfuary 15, Maine destroyed in Havana Harbor. 898 War with Spain. 898 April 25, Congress declared war. 898 May I, Battle of Manila. 898 July 1-3, Battle of San Juan. 898 July 3, Battle of Santiago. 898 December 10, Treaty with Spain signed at Paris. 1898 Hawaii anne.xed. 1899 First Peace Conference met at Hague. 1900 Galveston disaster. 1901 President McKinley assassinated. 1902 Anthracite strike in Pennsylvania. 1903 Pacific cable completed. 1903 Alaska boundary settled. 1903 Republic of Panama recognized by the United States. 1904 Baltimore fire. 1906 San Francisco earthquake. 1908 Aeroplane flight at Fort Myer. 1914 Panama Canal completed. APPENDIX E THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In Congress, July 4, 1776. the unanimous declaration of the thirteen united states of america When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established, should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown, tliat mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are suff'crablc, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance 317 3i8 APPENDIX of these colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the estabhshment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and press- ing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature, a right inestimable to them and formid- able to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state remain- ing, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the condi- tion of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislature. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 319 He has aflFected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined, with others, to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts .of pretended legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any mur- ders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states: For cutting of? our trade with all parts of the world: For imposing taxes on us without our consent: For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: For transporting us beyond the seas to be tried for pretended offenses: For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies: For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments: For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protec- tion, and waging v/ar against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeav- ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injur)'. A prince, whose character is thus marked by 320 APPENDIX every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our Common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections, and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our sep- aration, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by author- ity of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and inde- pendent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the sup- port of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. APPENDIX F CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more per- fect union, establish justice, insure dornestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the bless- ings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I SECTION I All legislative povi'ers herein granted shall be vested in a congress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house of rep- resentatives. SECTION II 1. The house of representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to serv'icc for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 321 322 APPENDIX thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five. New York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylv.!nia eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five. South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 5. The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. SECTION ni 1. The senate of the United States shall be composed of two sena- tors from each state, [chosen by the legislature thereof,] 1 for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class, at the ex- piration of the fourth year, and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year ; [and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make tem- porary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.] ^ 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 4. The vice president of the United States shall be president of the senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore in the absence of the vice president, or when he shall exer- cise .the office of president of the United States. 6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 1 Superseded by seventeenth amendment. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 323 When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the president of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall^not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party con- victed shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 2. The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION V 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall consti- tute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties, as each house may provide. 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 324 APPENDIX 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attend- ance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and return- ing from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. SECTION VII 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the house of rep- resentatives; but the senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives and the senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the presi- dent of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- tions, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the senate and house of representatives may be necessar}- (except on a ques- tion of adjournment) shall be presented to the president of the United CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 325 States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the sen- ate and house of representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SECTION \1ll The congress shall have power 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes; 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; 7. To establish post offices and post roads; 8. To promote the progress 01 science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court; ID. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 13. To provide and maintain a navy; 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service 326 APPENDIX of the United States, reserving to the states respectively the c.ppointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by congress; 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur- chased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; and 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- ing into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or oflBicer thereof. SECTION IX 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may re- quire it. 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in propor- tion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 327 the consent of the congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obliga- tion of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 2. No state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the congress. 3. No state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II 1. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United States of .America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the vice president, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: 2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the congress; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [3. The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign 328 APPENDIX and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the president of the senate. The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates; and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the house of representatives shall immedi- ately choose by ballot one of them for president; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said house shall in like manner choose the president. But in choosing the president the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or mem- bers from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the president, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the vice president. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the senate shall choose from them by ballot the vice president.] ^ 4. The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 5. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of president; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice president, and the congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inabil- ity, both of the president and vice president, declaring what officer shall then act as president, and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed or the president shall be elected. 7. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during 1 Superseded by Twelfth Amendment. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 329 the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 8. Before he enter on the execution of his oflQce, he shall take the following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of the United States." 1. The president shall be commander in chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive depart- ments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and con- sent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law; but the congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the president alone, in the courts of law or in the heads of departments. 3. The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION III He shall from time to time give to the congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraor- dinar>' occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 33° APPENDIX receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. SECTION IV The president, vice president, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III SECTION I The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affect- ing ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more states; between a state and citizens of another state; between citizens of different states; between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 33^ by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the congress may by law have directed. SECTION III 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testi- mony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 2. The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV SECTION I Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SECTION II 1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. 2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 3. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regu- lation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. SECTION III I. New states may be admitted by the congress into this Union; 332 APPENDIX but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the congress. 2. The congress shall have power to dispose of and make all need- ful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular state. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V The congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several state.s, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the congress; provided that no amend- ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the senate. ARTICLE VI 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this constitution as under the confederation. 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 333 made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwith- standing. 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the mem- bers of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this constitution ; but no reli- gious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be suf- ficient for the establishment of this constitution between the states so ratifying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independ- ence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 334 APPENDIX AMENDMENTS ARTICLE I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of re- ligion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to as- semble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II A well-regulated militia being necessarj' to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house with- out the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise in- famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual ser\'ice in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of CONSTITUTION OF THE UNTTED STATES 335 life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use with- out just compensation. ARTICLE VI In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. ARTICLE VII In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall ex- ceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jur}- shall be prescr\'ed, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. ARTICLE VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X The powers not delegated to the United States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reser\'ed to the states respec- tively or to the people. ARTICLE XI The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 336 APPENDIX one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or sub- jects of any foreign state. ARTICLE XII The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by bal- lot for president and vice president, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as president, and in distinct ballots the per- son voted for as vice president and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, and of all persons voted for as vice president, and of the number of votes for each; which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the senate. The presi- dent of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for presi- dent, shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such ma- jority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceed- ing three on the list of those voted for as president, the house of rep- resentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president. But in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the represen- tation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the house of representatives shall not choose a president whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the vice president shall act as president, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the president. The person having the greatest number of votes as vice president, shall be the vice president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the senate shall choose the vice president; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the ofl&ce of president shall be eligible to that of vice president of the United States. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 337 ARTICLE XIII Section i. Neitherslaverynor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist withm the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. ARTICLE XIV Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole nufn- ber of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the dioice of electors for president and vice president of the United States, representatives in congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legisla- ture thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty -one years of age in such state. Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in congress, or elector of president and vice president, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an exec- utive or judicial ol^icer of any state, to support the constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 338 APPENDIX authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emanci- pation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Sec. 2. The congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE X\T The congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census or enumeration. ARTICLE X\ II The senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, elected by the people thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislatures. When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the senate, the executive authority of such state shall issue writs of elec- tion to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appoint- ments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the constitution. INDEX Abolitionists, i6o. in the North, 151. in the South, 154. Adams, John (1735-1826), 58. elected President, 78. Adams, John Quincy (1767-1848), 125. Adams, Samuel (1722-1803), 12, 13. A'er-o-plane, picture, 281. Agriculture, Department of, 248. 'Aguinaldo (ah-gee-nahl'do), 274. Alabama, admitted, 149. Alabama claims, 232. Alaska, 251. Allegheny Mountains, crossing the, 236. Allen, Ethan (1737-1789), 21. Amendments, 13th, 14th, 15th, 227. American Federation of Labor, 280. Anderson, Robert (1805-1871), 175, 214. An-tie'tam (tee'), battle of, 189. Ap-po-mat'tox Court House, 213. Arbitration, with England, 232. between England and V'enezuela, 258. Arizona, admitted, 282. Ar'kan-sas (-saw), admitted, 150. Army, disbanding northern, 229. feeding an, 208. Arnold, Benedict (1741-1801), 22, 38, 53- Arthur, Chester A. (1830-1886), 257. Articles of Confederation, 63. Atlantic Cable, 252. Aviation, 281. Bacon's Rebellion, 2. Balance of States, 147, 149, 151. Baltimore, and first railroad, 115. attacked, 104. fire, 282. newspaper in, 117. Bar'ba-ry States, 89. Beau're-gard (bo'). General (1818- 1893), 185. Bell, Alexander d. (1847- ), 290. Bennington, battle of, 36. Berkeley (burk'ly). Governor, 2. Blockade of southern ports, 181. Blockade runner, picture, 182. Blockhouse, Spanish, picture, 269. Bonhommc Richard (bo-nom-re-shahr'), SI- Boone, Daniel (1735-1820), 237. Border States, 180. Boston, evacuated, 22. fire in, 254. newspaper in, 117. siege of, 14. skirmish, 8. Tea Party, 10. Boul'der (bol'), founded, 249. Boxers' uprising, 276. Branding iron, picture, 87. Brandywine, battle of, 39. Brooklyn Heights, fortified, 27. Brooms, introduced, 119. Brown, John (1800-1859), 161. Bu-chan'an (-kan'), James (i 791-1868), 163, 167. Bue'na Vis'ta (bu'), battle of, 129. Buffalo, and Erie Canal, 112. exposition, 298. Buffalo, herd of, picture, 246. Bull Run, first battle, 185. second battle, 189. Bunker Hill, battle of, 15. monument, picture of, 16. Bur'gess-es (-jfis-). House of, 3. Bur-goyne' (-goin'). General, 35, 36, 40. Burns, Anthony, 158. Butler, General (1818-1893), 192. Buttcrworth, H., quoted, 273. 339 340 INDEX Cal-houn' (-hoon'), John C. (17S2- 1850), 95, 156. California, admitted, 150, 245. gold in, 244. Camden, battle of, 53. Canada, in Civil War, igg. in Revolution, 21, 27. in War of 1812, 95. Canal, Erie, iii. Panama, 277. Capital, national, 74. Carpetbaggers, 228. Carpets, in America, 119. Carroll, Charles (1737-1832), 115. Carson, Christopher (1809-1868), 240. Cemetery Ridge, battle of, 205. Census, first, 74. Cervera (ther-va'rah), Admiral, 267. Chan'cel-lors-ville, battle of, 193. Charleston, earthquake, 255. in the Revolution, 53, 55. Chat-ta-noo'ga, battle of, 207. Chesapeake, gi, loi. Chicago, exposition, 293. fire, 254. founded, 122. Chick-a-mau'ga, battle of, 207. China, open door in, 275. Civil Service reform, 257. Civil War, 173-216. Clark, George Rogers (1752-1818), 51. Clark, William (1770-1838), 87. Clay, Henry (1777-1852), 95, 150, 155. Cler'mont, no. Cleveland, Grover (183 7- 1908), 258, 294. Clinton, De Witt (1769-1828), in. Clinton, Sir Henry, 23, 49, 50, 52, 56. Coal, found in Pennsylvania, 116. Coal strike, 280. Colonies, in 1763, i. Colorado, admitted, 249. Columbia River, discovered, 88. Commerce, Department of, 280. Compromise, of 1S50, 150. Missouri, 150. Concord, battle at, 13, 14. Confederate money, 202. Confederate soldier, picture, 200. Confederate States, and England, iSo. Confederate States, enumerated, 178. formed, 167. "white house," picture, 179. Confederation, Articles of, O3. Congress, colonial, 7. First Continental, 1 1 . Second Continental, 16, 17, 24, 47. Connecticut, raids in, 50. Constitution, framed, 69, 70. ratified, 71. slavery in, J43, 147. Constitulion, 96, 97. Convention, Federal, 1787, 66. Cooper, Peter (1791-1883), 115. Copperheads, 198. Corn-wal'lis, General, at Camden, 53. Fort Moultrie, 23. Princeton, 32. Yorktown, 56. Cotton, gin, 143. in Civil War, 174, 201. mill, picture, 120. slaves picking, picture, 139. Cowpens, battle of, 55. Cris'pin, 120. Critical period, 63. Crown Point, capture of, 21. Cuba, and Spain, 263. Cumberland, destroyed,' 183. Cumberland Road, 114. Custer, George A. (1839-1876), 250. Daughters of Liberty, 75. Debt, national, 75, 231. Decatur, Stephen (1779-1820), 90, 99. Declaration of Independence, adopted, 24. read, 288. Democratic party, 126. Democratic-Repubhcan party, 83. Department of Agriculture, 250. Commerce, 280. Labor, 280. Desert, Great American, 240. Detroit, in War of 1812, 95, 103. Dew'ey, George (1837- ), 265. District of Columbia, founded, 74. Dor'ches-ter Heights, seized, 22. Doug'las (dug'), Stephen A. (1813- 1861), 163. INDEX 34^ Draft riots, iqx). Drake, quoted, iiS.j. Dred Scott decision, i6i. Eads (eedz), James B. (1820-1887), 247. Early, Jubal A. (1816-1894), 212. Earthquake, Charleston, 255. San Francisco, 282. Ed'ison, Thomas A. (1847- ), 281. El Ca'ney (kah'na), taken, 268. El'li-cott ]Mills, railroad, 105. Emancipation, 153. Proclamation, 193. Em-bar'go Act, 94. Emerson, quoted, 13. England, and Confederacy, 180. and slavery, 136. and Spanish- American War, 2O7. and trade laws, 4. seizes American ships, 92. Era of (lood P'eeling, 109. Ericsson (er'ik-son), John (1803-1889), 184. Erie Canal, iii. Exposition, Centennial, 287. Columbian, 293. Louisiana Purchase, 301. Pan-American, 298. San Francisco, and others, 305. Fair Oaks, battle of, 186. Far'ra-gut (far'), David G. (1S01-1870), 191, 210. Federal conventions, 1787, 66. Federal Hall, N. Y., 73. Federalists, 77, 83. Field, Cyrus W. (1819-1892), 252. Fire, Baltimore, 282. Boston, 254. Chicago, 254. Flag, first American, 37. Perry's, 102. salute to, 272. Flatboat, picture, 237. Flood, Johnstown, 256. Florida, admitted, 150. purchased, 122. Foote, Andrew H. (1806-1863), 192. Ford's Theater, picture, 218. Fort Dearborn, 122. I'ort Doiielson, 192. l'"ort Henry, 192. Fort McHenry, 104. I'"ort Moultrie, 2s. Fort Myer, 281. Fort Stanwix, 36, 38. Fort Sumter, 175. France, acquires Louisiana Territory, 85. and Mexico, 231. and Statue of Liberty, 294. in Revolution, 23, 40, 45, 49, 52. seizes American ships, 92. trouble with, 78. Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790), 58. and Declaration, 24. at French court, 45. in Federal convention, 67. printing press, picture, 292. Fred'ericksburg, battle of, 189. Freedmen's Bureau, 226. I;re-mont', John C. (1813-1890), 163, 241. French and Indian War,' 1,5. Fugitive slave law, 148, 156. Fulton, Robert (1765-1815), 109. Gads'den Purchase, 130. Gage, Governor, 12. Galveston hurricane, 282. Garfield, James A. (1831-1881), 257. Gar'ri-son (gar'), William L. (1804- 1879), 151. Gates, Horatio (1778-1806), 40, 53. Geneva Court (je-nee'va), 233. George IH, 7. Georgia, and Indians, 123. in Revolution, 53. slavery in, 141, 143. Germantown, battle of, 39. Gettysburg, battle of, 205. Gibbons, Cardinal, quoted, 302. Gilder, Richard W., quoted, 299. Gin (jin), cotton, 143. Gold, in Alaska, 251. CaUfornia, 244. Pikes Peak, 250. Golden Hill skirmish, 8. Grant, Ulysses S. (1822-1885), at Fort Donelson, 192. 342 INDEX Grant, Ulysses S., at Vicksburg, 206. lieutenant general, 208. on Lee's surrender, 214. President, 257. Gray, Robert (1755-1806), 88. Great American Desert, 240. Greeley, Horace (1811-1872), 167. Green Mountain Boys, 21. Greene, Nathanael (1742-1786), 56. Guam (gwahm), acquired, 272. Guerriire (gar-ryar'), 97. Guil'ford Court House (gil'), battle of, 55- Hague Court (hag), 276. "Hail Columbia," written, 79. Hale, Nathan (1755-1776), 46. Halleck, Henry W. (1815-1872), 192, 224. Hamilton, Alexander (1757-1804), 67, 75. Hancock, John (1737-1793), 12, i3- Harlem Heights, battle of, 29. Harpers Ferry, 161. Harris, J. C, quoted, 140. Harrison, Benjamin (183.5-1901), 258. Harrison, William H. (1773-1841), 10;, 126. Hartford, at Mobile Bay, 210. Hawaii (hah-wl'ee), annexed, 275. Hayes, Rutherford B. (1822-1893), iSS- Hayne, Robert T. (1791-1839), 155. Helmer, Charles D., quoted, 37. Henry, Patrick (1736-1799), 9, 16, 151. Herkimer, Nicholas (1715-1777), 36. Hessians, 24, 30. Hobson, Richard P. (1870- ), 268. Homestead act, 248. Hooker, Joseph (1814-1879), 193, 207. Hospitals, in Civil War, ig8. House of Representatives, 70. Howe, General, 27, 35, 39, 47. Hull, Isaac (1773-1843), 96. Hull, William (1753-1825), 95. Idaho, admitted, 249. Illinois, admitted, 149. Impressment of seamen, 92. Independence, Declaration of, 24. Independence Hall, 288. Indiana, admitted, 149. Indians, Carson and the, 242. in Louisiana Territory, 87. in Revolution, 27, 36, 50. in West, 249. In-trep'id, 90. Inventions of early days, 118. Iowa, admitted, 150. Ir-o-quois' (ir-o-kwoi'), punished, 50. Island No. 10, captured, 192. Jackson, Andrew (1767-1845), 105, 123, 125, ISS- Jackson, Thomas J. (1824-1863), 188. Jamestown, and slavery, 136. centennial, 307. destroyed, 3. Jay, John (1745-1829), 58. Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826), 24, 77, 83, iSi- Johnson, Andrew (1808-1875), 223. Johnson, Sir William, 27. Johnston, Albert S. (1803-1862), 192. Johnston, Joseph E. (1807-1891), 185, 186. Johnstown flood, 256. Jones, John Paul (1747-1792), 51. Kansas-Nebraska law, 160. Kentucky, admitted, 149. in Civil War, 180. settled, 1 13, 237. Kentucky Road, 238. Key, Francis Scott (i 780-1 843), 104. Kings Mountain, battle of, 55. Klondike gold fields, 252. Ku-Klux-Klan, 228. Labor, Department of, 280. ■La-drone' Islands, 272. Lafayette, Marquis de (mahr'kwis de lah-fa-yet'), 48. sword of, picture, 49. Lawrence, James (1781-1813), 100. Lawrence, Perry's flagship, loi. Lee, Charles (1731-1782), 29, 39. Lee, Henry (1756-1818), 54. Lee, Richard H. (173 2-1 794), 24, 288. Lee, Robert E. (1807-1870), 187. at Gettysburg, 205. INDEX 343 Lee, Robert E., carries war into North, i8g, 193. farewell to soldiers, 214. Leopard, 93. Lev'ees, Mississippi, broken, 282. Lewis, Meriwether (1774-iSog), 87. Lewis and Clark Expedition, 87. Lexington, skirmish at, 13. Libby prison, 221. '•Liberator," The, 152. Liberty, Statue of, 292. Liberty Bell, 25. Lincoln (link'un), Abraham (1809- 1865), 163. and Emancipation Proclamation, 193. and secession, 168. and Trent Affair, 181. assassinated, 217. birth of, 163. call for troops, 177. childhood of, 238. debate with Douglas, i()4. dedicates Gettysburg battlefield, 206. early home of, 241. elected President, 165, rjii. funeral of, 219. I inaugurated, 169. j statue of, picture, 225. Longfellow, quoted, 12, 306. ' Long Island, battle of, 27-29. I Lookout Mountain, battle of, 207. I Louisiana, admitted, 149. i Louisiana Territory, and slavery, 150. I purchased, 85. I Louisville, 209. I Lowell, quoted, 18. McClellan, George B. (1826-1885). 186, 211. Macdonough, Thomas (1783-1825), 103. I McDowell, Irvin (1818-1885), 185. 1 Macedonian, 99. McKinley, William (1843-1901), 279, 303. Machinery and manufacturing, 121. Madison, Dolly, 103. Madison, James (1751-1836), 68, 95. Maine, admitted, 150. Maine, destroyed, 263. Manila, schoolhouse, 273. Manila Bay, battle of, 266. Marion, Francis (1732-1795). 54- Maryland, Lee in, 204. loyal in Civil War, 180. Mason and Sli'dell, 181. Match, sulphur, invented, 119. Max-i-mii'i-an, in Mexico, 232. Meade, George G. (1815-1872), 205. Memorial Day, 224. Merrimac, Hobson and the, 26S. Merrimac and Monitor, 182. Mexico, civil war in, 231. war with United States, 1 29. Mexico, city of, taken, 130. Michigan, admitted, 150. MUes, Nelson A. (1839- ), 251. Mint, first, 75. Minute Men, 11. Mississippi, admitted, 149. Mississippi River, and steamboat, 11 1. bridge over, 247. floods on, 282. in Civil War, 190, 206. in Treaty of Paris, 59. Missouri, admitted, 150. in Civil War, 180. Missouri Compromise, 150, 160. Mo-bile' Bay (mo-beel'), battle of, 210. Mohawk valley, 113. Money, paper, in Civil War, 202, 231. in Revolution, ^^. Monitor, 182. Monroe, James (1758-1831), 109. Monroe Doctrine, 124. and England, 258. and Mexico, 231. Montana, admitted, 249. Montgomery, Confederate capital, 176. Montgomery, John B. (1794-1873), 22. Mon-ti-cel'lo, picture, 84. Morris, Robert (1734-1806), 34. Morristown, 32, 39, 50. Morse, Samuel F. B. (1701-1872), 118. Mount Vernon, 72. Napier, J. T., quoted, 271. Napoleon, and Louisiana Territory, 86. and steamboat, no. Napoleon \\\, and Mexico, 231. National Pike, 1 14. 344 INDEX Naval cannon, picture, 90. Navigation Acts, 2. Navy, in Civil War, 181. in Revolution, 26, 51. in Spanish War, 267. in War of 1812, 93. in War with Tripoli, 89. Nebraska, admitted, 247. New Hampsloire, ratifies Constitution, 71- New Jersey, retreat across, 29. New Mexico, admitted, 282. New Orleans, battle of, 105. captured, 190. in Louisiana Territory, 85. opened to largest steamers, 247. New York city, and Erie Canal, 113. draft riots in, 199. made capital, 72. maneuvers about, 27, 50. newspaper in, 117. skirmish in, 8. Newspapers, early, 117. Niagara, Perry's flagship, 102. Non-intercourse act, 94. Norfolk, and blockade, 182. North, abolition in, 151. and Fugitive Slave Law, 157. and right of nullification, 157. at close of Civil War, 229. attitude of, towards secession, 175. effects of war on, 197. soldiers of, 222. North, Lord, 58. North Carolina, and slavery, 143. battles in, 54. migration from, 113, 237. North Dakota, admitted, 249. North Pole, discovered, 282. Northmen, boat of, picture, 294. Northwest Territory, 63, 95, loi, 148. Nul-li-fi-ca'tion, 154. Ogden, and the railroad, 246. Ohio, admitted, 149. and Erie Canal, 113. Clark in, 51. Oklahoma, admitted, 282. Omaha, and the railroad, 245. Ordinance of 1787, 63, 148. Oregon Country, 127. 0-ris'ka-ny, battle of, 36. Os-we'go, in Revolution, 38. Otis, James (1725-1783), s, 7. Panama Canal, 277. Paper money. Confederate, 202. Continental, :^:^. United States, 231. Paris, Treaty of, 58, 63. Parker, Theodore (1810-1860), 152. Parliament, i, 6, 7, 11. Parties, political, begin, 77. Pear'y (peer'), Robert E. (1856- ), 282. Pen-in'su-lar campaign, 186. Pennsylvania, coal found in, 116. migration from, 113. strike in, 280. Perry, Oliver H. (1785-1819), loi. Petersburg, 213. Philadelphia, exposition, 287. Federal convention, 66. Liberty Bell, 25. made national capital, 74. ovation to Washington, 72. Philadelphia, cruiser, 90. Philippines, acquired, 272. in Spanish war, 267. scene in, picture, 274. Phillips, Wendell (1811-1884), 152. Pierce, FrankUn (1804-1869), 163. Pikes Peak, gold at, 248. Pinckney, Charles C. (1746-1825), 78. Pioneers, 113, 163, 238. Pirate, Tripolitan, picture, 89. Pitt, William, 52. Plantation life, 138. Political parties begin, 77. Polk (pok), James K. (1795-1849), 126, 163. Pope, John (1822-1892), 189. Porto Rico, acquired, 272. Prescott, William (1726-1795), 15. Princeton, battle of, 32. Prison life, 220. Privateers, in Revolution, 27. Proclamation of Emancipation, 193. Pueb'lo (pweb'), founded, 249. Putnam, Israel (1718-1790), 14, 15. INDEX 345 Quaker and Washington incident, .}S. ■Quaker guns," i86. Quebec, Americans repulsed at, 22. Railroads, early, 114. first continental, 245. Railroad train, in 1831, picture, 116. Rap-i-dan' River, 211. Read, T. B., quoted, 212. Reaper, invented, 119. Re-con-struc'tion, 224. Red Cross Society, 270. Republican party, 235. Revere (re-veer'), Paul (1735-1818), 12. Reynolds, John F. (1820-1863), 205. Rhode Island, ratified Constitution, 71. Richmond, abandoned, 214. capital of Confederacy, 214. "on to Richmond," 185. Rio tirande (ree'o grahn'da), boundary, 130. Riots, draft, iqq. Roosevelt (ro'ze-velt), Theodore (1858- ), 27Q, 302. Rosecrans (ro'ze-cranz), William S. (1819-1898), 207. Ross, Mrs. Betsy, 381. Russia, and Alaska, 251. and Monroe Doctrine, 125, Ryan, Father, quoted, 1S8. Sacramen'to, and the railroad, 245. St. Leg'er (lej'er). General, 35, 38. St. Louis, bridge at, 247. exposition at, 301. Salute to flag, 272. Sampson, William T. (1840-1902), 267. San Francisco, earthquake, 282. exposition at, 305. picture, 244. San Juan (hwahn), taken, 268. Santiago (sahn-tee-ah'go), 267, 272. Savannah, taken by English, 53. taken by Federals, 210. Schley (shli), Winfield S. (1839-1911), 267. Scott, Dred, 161. Scott, Winfield (1786-1866), 130. Seaman, American, picture, 93. Secession, question of, settled, 227. Sem'i-nole Indians; 123. Senate, 70, 147. Se-ra'pis, 51. Seven Days' battles, 189. Shannon, 100. Shen-an-do'ah valley, 188, 211. Sher'i-dan, Philip H. (1831-1888), 207, 212, 250. Sherman, WiUiam T. (1820-1891), 207. Shi'loh, battle of, 192. Sitting Bull, 250. Six Nations, in Revolution, 27. Slavery, aboHshed, 225. and cotton, 143. forbidden in Northwest Territory, 63. importation, 148. in America, 136. in Constitution, 143, 147. origin of, 135. Slaves, gangs, 141. life of, 138. song, 140. Smuggling, 4. Soldier, American, of south, picture, 53. Confederate, picture, 200. Hessian, picture, 30. Union, picture, 198. South, after the Civil War, 229. and Memorial Day, 226. and prisoners of war, 222. plans of, 174. South Carolina, and nullification, 155. and slavery, 141, 143. gained by English, 53. secedes, 165. South Dakota, admitted, 249. Spain, and Cuba, 263. and Florida, 123. and Monroe Doctrine, 124. and slavery, 136. war with, 265. Spanish blockhouse, picture, 269. Spinning wheel, picture, 120. Spoils system, 126. Springfield, 111., home of Lincoln, 219. Stamp act, 5, 6, 7. Stanford, Le'land (1824-1893), 246. "Star Spangled Banner," 104. State rights, 154. Statue of Liberty, 292. 346 INDEX Steamboat, first, no. Steam engine, 109. Stephenson, George, 114. Steu'ben (stu'), Baron von, 40. Stony Point, capture of, 50. Stowe (sto), Harriet B. (181 2-1896), ISP- Strike, coal, 280. Supreme Court, 70. Taft, William H. (1857- ), 270- Tariff, 7S, 257- Tarle'ton (tarl'). General, 54. Taylor, Zachary (1784-1850), 129, 163 Tea tax, 9. Telegraph, Morse and the, 118. Telephone, 290, 296. Tennessee, admitted, 149. in Civil War, 207. settled, 113. Texas, admitted, 129, 150. annexed, 128. independent, 127. Thames (temz), battle of the, 103. Thomas, George H. (1816-1870), 207. Thompson, W. H., quoted, 214. Thresliing machine, 119. Ti-con-der-o'ga, capture of, 21. "Times," London, quoted, 99. Tories, 27, 35, 36. Town'shend Acts, 7. Treaty, 17, 58, 63, 105, 130, 274. 1814, 105. 1848, 130. 1898, 272. Trent affair, iSi. Trenton, battle at, 30. ovation to Washington at, 73. TripoU, War with, 89. Tyler, John (1790-1862), 126. "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 159. Underground Railway, 159. Union soldier, picture, 198. United States, 99. Utah, admitted, 249. Valley Forge, winter at, 47. Van Buren, Martin (1782-1862), 126. Ven-e-zue'la (-zwee') dispute, 258. Ve'ra Cruz (va'rah kroos'), taken, 130. Vermont, admitted, 149. Vicksburg, 203, 206. Wagner, composes march, 2 88. War, Civil, 173. of 1812, 95. Revolutionary, 21. with Mexico, 129. with Spain, 267. Washington, city, burning of, 103. made capital, 74. Washington, state, admitted, 249. Washington, George (i732-i799)> i7- and slavery, 151. autograph, 73. commander in chief, 17. death of, 78. elected President, 72. foreign policy, 76. inaugurated, 73. in Federal Convention, 67. Washington, William (1752-1810), 54. Watt, James, 109. Wayne, Anthony (1745-1796), 50. Webster, Daniel (1782-1852), 155. West Point, 50. Westward movement, 113, 235. Wey'ler (wa'ler). General, 263. Whig party, 126, 163. Whitney, Eli (1765-1825), 143. Whittier, quoted, 152, 288. Wilderness, battle in the, 211. Wilderness Road, 238. Wilkes (wilks), Charles (1798-1877), 181. Williamsburg, founded, 3. Wilson, Woodrow (1856- ), 280. Woman suffrage, 279. Wright, Orville (1871- ), 281. Wright, Wilbur (1867-1912), 281. Writs of assistance, 4. Wyoming, admitted, 249. and woman suffrage, 279. X-ray photograph, picture, 303. Yorktown, siege of, 56. Yukon gold fields, 251. •i'Silliiiiiil LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 01 1 448 327 8 O