Class Book ©QEBRIGHT DEPOSm HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS & WOODSMEN BY JAY L. B. TAYLOR FOREST RANGER UNITED STATES FOIiEST SERVICE FIRST EDITION FIRST THOUSAND NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 1917 Copyright, 1 91 6, by JAY L. B. TAYLOR DEC 28 1916 ©CI.A453319 PUBLISHERS PRINTING COMPANY, NEW YORK PREFACE (1) Object. — The object of this volume is to serve as a guide for inexperienced men in woods work. While in its preparation, the author had primarily in mind the problems which confront a forest ranger, in Government, State, or private employ, and especially rangers on National Forests, yet the suggestions of- fered may be of use to others whose work or recreation takes them into rough and unsettled regions. The book is not in- tended and should not be considered in any way as an official or even a semi-official pubHcation the use of which is obHga- tory upon National Forest Rangers. It has been prepared, however, by permission of the Secretary of Agriculture, whose criticisms have been carefully considered and at whose request certain revisions have been made, and is strictly in the nature of a private pubHcation prepared after eight years of experience in field work of the United States Forest Service. It is not placed before the pubHc with any intention or desire on the part of the author to insist that opinions of inexperi- enced persons must coincide with the ones expressed here before satisfactory results may be obtained. On the contrary, the absolute necessity for exercising ingenuity and originahty of thought, in so far as this is practicable, is thoroughly appreciated and is suggested as the most effective means of extrication from all difficulties encountered, especially those the solution of which cannot be touched upon here. (2) Brevity. — Recognition of the fact that volume after vol- ume might stiU fail to cover in detail any one of the subjects discussed here makes it at once apparent that only the most essential points can be covered in a book of this size. Conse- quently only such problems as have been found to be especially difficult for the inexperienced woodsman are considered. (3) Technical Terms. — These have been avoided so far as such a course seemed practical, and aU unusual trade or pro- fessional terms with which the beginner can not be expected to be famihar have been defined in the Glossary. (4) Cost Data. — It is assumed as general knowledge that costs increase as western sections are reached and that tabu- iv PREFACE lated lists of costs covering each article and applicable to each section would require work and research of a nature not justi- fied by or compatible with the nature of this book. Therefore the costs given range from the minimum for the cheaper grades to the maximum for "the better grades of articles mentioned. Finally, it is sincerely hoped that beginners will not be con- tent to accept the following suggestions as the only possible or the most effective solutions of the problems involved, but that they will be continually on the alert to discover other and more effective solutions which they may transmit to their successors. Sincerest thanks ara extended to the Secretary of Agriculture, Chief Forester Graves, District Forester Ringland, and Forest Supervisors Kiefer and Hinderer for assistance rendered; to Forest Ranger Russell, who spent some fourteen years as a sol- dier and Forest Officer in the Philippine Islands and who con- tributed the article on " Field Work in the Philippine Islands "; to Forest Ranger Perry, Special Detail on Telephone Construc- tion, Carson National Forest, for valuable suggestions offered on the subject of " Telephone Construction " ; to Assistant Forest Ranger Warner, Prescott National Forest, for the timely sug- gestions he has offered on the subject of " Identification of Livestock": to ex-Forest Guard HighfiU, Arkansas National Forest, for practical assistance extended in compiling the article on " Care of Horses "; toR. C. Bryant, Professor of Lumbering, and S. J. Record, both of the Yale Forest Schpol, for their continued assistance and interest in this work; to the Moline Plow Company for illustrations and assistance furnished on the subject of " Wagons "; to the Lufkin Rule Company for illus- trations and for the Doyle log rule and the table showing com- parisons of various log rules; to the Pratt Food Company for advice concerning "Diseases of Live Stock"; to the Western Electric Company for their assistance and continued interest in the subject of " Telephone Construction "; to the Du Pont Powder Company for illustrations and data on "Blasting"; to the Simmons Hardware Company for illustrations and infor- mation supplied; to the International Harvester Company for information contributed; to Swift & Company and Armour & Company for courtesies extended; to the late N. H. C. Taylor, formerly of the Signal Corps, United States Army, for data supphed; to O. St. John, M. D., for assistance rendered in the compilation of the subject " Ailments "; to H. T. Southworth,' PREFACE V M. D., City Health Officer of Prescott, Arizona, for valuable suggestions concerning the subject of "Poisoning"; to the Southwestern Portland Cement Company for advice on the subject of " Concrete Work "; to C. C. Queen, practical black- smith and shoer, for assistance rendered in the compilation of the subject relating to horseshoeing; to E. G. Bosserman, practical painter and paper-hanger for advice on the subject of '' Painting "; to J. A. Richards, sawmill operator, for advice on the subject of "Woods Work"; to N. H. Getchell, mine operator, for suggestions concerning "Blasting"; to J. E. Bacon, packer, for assistance in the work of compiUng the article on "Packing"; and to Chas. B. Weil, whose practical suggestions, offered from the view-point of an experienced camper, have proven of inestimable value in the work of assembHng and preparing the subjects covered here. J. L. B. T. Groom Creek, Arijsona, December 1, 1916. CONTENTS PAGE Preface iii Equipment 1 Personal 1 Riding 10 Packing 20 Animal 24 Cooking 28 Provisions 30 Construction Work 31 Telephone Lines 31 Telephones 49 Telephone Troubles 51 Trails . . .' 52 RockDriUing 72 Blasting 74 Buildings 85 Concrete Work 99 Painting 105 Fences 107 Carpenter's Kit 119 Carpenter's Square 127 Shears 137 General Field Work 139 Riding 139 Packing 147 Wagons 153 Driving 167 Woods Work 170 Estimating Timber 180 FeUing Timber 183 Bucking Logs 186 Log Scaling . , 188 Land Surveys 192 vii VIU CONTENTS General Field Work {Continued) page Surveying Crews and Their Work 198 Standard Forest Service Compass 200 Variation . . . . , 203 Traverse Tables 204 Fire Fighting . . .205 Field Cooking . . . . .210 Care of Field Cooking Utensils 224 Butchering . 225 Live Stock . . ' . . . . 227 Care of Horses 227 Shoeing 231 Hobbling 238 Diseases of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Hogs . . . 240 Administering Medicines 266 Subjugating Horses 267 Purchasing a Saddle Horse 272 Identification of Stock 279 Brands 280 Ear-Marks 291 Ear Buttons 294 Ear Loops 294 Ear Tags 294 Dewlaps 294 Ages of Cattle . 295 Miscellaneous 296 Ailments and Injuries 296 Treatments 296 Poisons 310 Reptiles 315 Location of Camp Sites . . . 319 Confusion of Directions 322 Fastenings 325 Field Work in the PhiHppine Islands 338 Appendix 341 Administrative Districts 341 Forest Supervisors' Headquarters ■ , 341 Lands Acquired Under the Weeks Law 346 Weights 346 CONTENTS ix Appendix {Continued) page Measures 347 Weights and Measurements of Hay, Grain, Seed, and Vegetables 349 Per Cent. Measurement of Grades 351 Miscellaneous Weights 352 Relation of Degrees and Per Cent 354 To Ascertain Grades without a Gradometer . . , 354 Sag Tables 355 To Ascertain Distant Elevations 356 Traverse Table 357 Preservative Treatment of Telephone Poles .... 358 Size and Number of Nails per Pound 359 Materials Required in Concrete 362 Blasting Charges 369 Government Formula for Whitewash . . . . . 369 Log Rules 369 Comparison of Log Rules 377 Glossary 379 Index , 407 Handbook for Rangers and Woodsmen EQUIPMENT PERSONAL CLOTHING Altitude, latitude, and -season must of course be carefully considered before field clothing is purchased, and if personal experience has taught the purchaser that garments of different weight or texture than those hereafter described will prove more comfortable in his individual case he should by all means secure them. In case of doubt he will find the following sug- gestions of more or less assistance until such time as actual field experience will have shown him just what articles are best suited to his personal tastes. Official efforts have been and are still being made to popular- ize the use of Forest Service uniforms, the wearing of which may possibly become general, if not compulsory, within the near future. The two principal varieties of proposed uniform goods are a whipcord of serge and a cloth closely approximating this in nature and being especially strong and durable. Officers who favor the use of uniforms base their opinion on the necessity for two things, viz., the neatness of appearance of the officer as compared with his appearance in ordinary civiHan clothing, and the beneficial educational effect on the general public, and upon transients in particular. The following suggestions, therefore, are applicable chiefly to campers in general, and if followed by Forest officers should be so modified, so far as purchases are concerned, as to meet with official approval upon the particular Forests to which such officers are to be assigned. Hat. — A hat for general field wear should be of the best grade obtainable, since the cheaper grades soon lose their shape, become limp and uncomfortable, and are eventually more costly than 1 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN n the better grades. A $5.00, thirty-ounce hat will give the best all-round service. The crown should be 43^ or 5 inches high (a low crown is uncomfortably warm in summer) and the brim should be flexible and 3 or 3M inches wide. A stiff brim is to be avoided, especially where the hat is to be worn in thick underbrush or during very windy weather. In color a nutria tan is preferable. A black hat is uncomfortably warm in summer, and when wet invariably stains the wearer's forehead and face. Much less difficulty will be experienced in keeping the hat on in brush or during windy weather if the leather sweat-band is removed. To Use a Hat as a Drinking-Cup. — The brim is folded upward against the sides of the crown and_ held there with one hand across the crown. The end of the brun nearest the thumb and forefinger is then dipped into the water and the other end submerged later, allowing the brim to fill. The water is taken from the end most con- venient, usually the one first dipped into the water. If it becomes necessary to water a horse from a pool or stream to which the animal is unable to gain access a hat may be used in lieu of a bucket. In such a case the animal takes the water, from the inverted crown. Cap. — The most serviceable cap is leather-covered, wool- lined, fitted with ear tabs and forehead and neck protector, and costs from $1.25 to $10.00, according to style and finish. Its use is not recommended, however, unless the weather is so extremely cold that comfort can not be secured by wearing a hat. Coat. — A coat will be found of Httle or no practical value except for use in lounging about camp. The heavy ready-made work- coats are not constructed in a way that aUows a field man as much freedom of motion as his work requires, and if one is to be used it should be at least two sizes larger than that usually worn. A common "denim" jumper will give much better satisfaction and Wear better than a coat. It is made with from two to five pockets, is short-bodied, buttons close up under the chin, and is ahnost indestructible. The cost varies from 80 cents to $1.50. Coat Sweater. — This is not recommended for use in brushy country. However, if one is to be worn it should be of the best grade, made with two pockets, a roll collar, and to button to the top. The cost is about $5.00. EQUIPMENT 3 Slicker. — ^A cheap slicker is to be avoided. The best grade weighs but Httle more and will give much greater satisfaction. For general field use the yellow pommel sUcker, made with adjustable wristlets, re-enforced shoulders, throat latch, and one outside pocket, and weighing about six and one-half pounds, is recommended. The cost varies from $2.50 to $3.50. Shirt. — A shirt for both summer and winter wear should be of the regular medium weight, army woolen variety, with double back, two pockets, and wide collar. It will cost from $2.50 to $5.00. Trousers. — Common "denim" overalls are recommended for general rough field work. They should be well riveted, bibless, with top front pockets, watch pocket, and two hip pickets. They cost from sixty cents to $1.50 per pair. Corduroy is extremely heavy and stiff when wet, and except in the very best grades the nap soon wears off and breaks appear at wrinkles. The cloth is easily torn and is otherwise unsatis- factory as trousers material. A good grade of whipcord will give much better satisfaction than corduroy. Underwear. — Medium weight, full length, woolen underwear for both summer and- winter wear will be found generally more comfortable than other varieties. Cotton wear is cold and clammy when wet, and if the wearer stops exercising when warm he is quite Hable to take cold. Woolen wear does not possess this disadvantage. The wearer may even plunge into water, and if he wrings his underwear thoroughly upon emerging may replace it and feel no ill effects later. Fleece-hned wear is not recommended. Suits vary in price from $1.50 to $5.00. FOOTWEAR Here again personal experience must dictate what purchases should be made, and the following remarks on the subject of footwear are offered only as a general guide for the field man who has never before encountered the question of comfortable footwear in outdoor work. Work Shoes.- — If considerable walking is to be done, such as in surveying or timber cruising, shoes should have wide, roomy toes and low, flat heels. They should be made to lace rather than to buckle or button. Low-cut styles allow snags and brush to injure the ankles and insteps; moreover, the entrance of leaves. 4 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN | twigs, gravel, etc., soon requires their removal. A pair of forty- or fifty-ounce elkskin, fuU-vamped, heavy-soled, screw-fastened, seamless shoes, costing from $2.50 to $5.00 will give general satisfaction. They may be ordered with or without hob-nails. Shoe Strings. — Cloth shoe strings should not be included in the camp equipment; they are too easily frayed, worn through, or broken to prove satisfactory. The best material from which shoe strings can be made is buckskin, whang leather, or lace leather, such strings costing from five to fifteen cents per pair. Eelskin also makes very strong, durable strings. . ; Hob-Nails. — These are short heavy nails fitted with large heads and designed for the protection of shoe soles and heels. Common hob-nails have large round, smooth heads, Bulgarian nails have extra large serrated heads, and Swiss and EngHsh edging nails have large pyramidal heads fitted with lips which extend upward outside of and act as protection to the sole edges. Lengths vary from }4 inch to 1}-^ inches. The points are not symmetrically fashioned like those of common wire nails, but are cut long at one side in order to lead the shank of the nail in any desired direction. Therefore, in driving hob-nails near the edge of the sole, this long side of the point is set toward the center of the sole, and thus prevents the point from emerging outside of the upper leather. Nails long enough to reach com- pletely through the sole should not be used. They are excellent conductors and will prove very uncomfortable in extreme weather. Soles should be nailed only along the edges with possibly one or two rows of nails through the center. Too many nails are detrimental rather than beneficial, this being due to the fact that a sole driven full of nails burns, breaks, or weakens sooner than one carrying only a few nails. Moreover, the wearer's progress is retarded rather than assisted if large numbers of nails are used, the reason for this being that so many nail-heads set close together present an almost even iron surface to the ground, and thus cause sHpping. Shoe Calks. — These are screws fitted with sharp heads and are used to prevent slipping when the shoe shank is set against a log. They are inserted in the shank by means of a short wrench which works against the squared shoulders. The points soon become dull and blunt when used in rocky country, and for this reason calks are not recommended for field use. Heel Plates. — These are flat iron plates shaped hke horse- EQUIPMENT 5 shoes and punched for attachment to the shoe heels. Their use is much more Ukely to cause sHpping on flat stones or logs than if they are not used. A row of hob-nails driven along the outer edge of the heel is much more effective than a heel plate. Bootees. — Many field men prefer these to shoes for general outdoor use and contend that the extra weight involved is more than offset by the increased protection afforded the ankles and shins. However, bootees should not exceed 15 inches in height nor sixty ounces in weight. The 15-inch, bellows-tongue, full- vamp, screw-fastened, double-sole, toe-capped variety, costing from $5.00 to $7.00, will give general satisfaction. Side gussets at the top or ankle hang in brush and weeds, and impede progress in traveling. Moccasin bootees, not having toe caps, allow stumps, logs, and stones to bruise the wearer's toes. Eye- lets are preferable to hooks. The latter hang in brush, the laces are torn out, and the wearer must be continually relacing them. Eyelets require a httle more time in lacing and unlacing, but during a day's tramp the extra time involved is more than com- pensated by the avoidance of constantly relacing hooks. Side buckles at the top are not only unnecessary, but they also present an added means of annoyance in thick brush. Outside counters soon rip loose. Riding Boots. — ^The boots known as "stockmen's riding boots" should not be worn if much walking is to be done. The heels are too high and the toes are too narrow to prove com- fortable in such work, and their use in general field work is not recommended. Another style of boot, however, having low flat heels and wider toes, is a general favorite among officers whose work involves both riding and walking. If these are worn it is suggested that they be made to order and a good fit secured. The cost should not exceed $10.00. The regulation stockman's boot, used so extensively in the West, usually has a fancy stitched 17-inch top, stitched sole, 13^- or 2-inch heel, and a pair weighs from sixty to eighty ounces. The cost per pair varies from $4.00 to as high as $30.00 or $40.00, according to style and finish. Other officers prefer ordinary shoes and spiral cloth leggings. Contrary to a general behef , these leggings are not uncomfortably warm. They originated among the natives of East India and were subsequently adopted by the British Army. Incidentally, where walking must be done, they prove excellent protection 6 HANDBOOK FOE RANGERS AND WOODSMEN against snake bites, experiments having shown that the poison of a rattlesnake will not penetrate two thicknesses of ordinary blotting paper. The cost per pair should not exceed $1.50. Moccasins. — Except in the north woods of Maine, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, or in other localities where conditions render them a suitable form of footwear, these should be supphed only for camp use. They are too soft and offer too little protection to the feet to prove comfortable in general field use, and they are especially uncomfortable when used in riding. They may be low cut, ankle high or even higher, but for camp use the low- cut variety is recommended. The tan-colored, twenty-ounce, single-tie style costs from seventy-five cents to $3.00 per pair. Rubber Boots. — In order to be water-proof these must neces- sarily be air-proof, and for that reason cannot be recommended for field use. If he must work in water the field man will find common leather shoes preferable to rubber boots, this being especially true of such work in warm weather. The best style for occasional wear about camp has rubberized duck vamps, rolled sole, weighs about sixty-four ounces per pair, and costs from $3.00 to $6.00. Hip- or thigh-boots weigh but little more and cost from $4,75 to $7.50 per pair. Storm Rubbers. — Ordinarily the field man has neither room in his pack nor use in his work for storm rubbers. They are only useless burdens and should not be included in the fist of footwear. Socks. — Medium-weight woolen socks are recommended for both summer and winter wear, and for the same reasons that woolen underwear is recommended. It not infrequently hap- pens, however, that such footwear proves especially unsatis- factory in individual cases, and in such event the field man should of course procure whatever style of socks he has found most satisfactory. Woolen socks vary in price from twenty- five cents to $1.00. Hose Supporters. — Supporters which encircle the leg at or near the calf should be avoided if continued walking is to be done. Their chief disadvantage hes in the fact that they must be drawn so close about the leg that circulation is impeded when it should be especially free and regular. The small two-ended clip, costing ten cents, is recommended for general use. If these cannot be secured the socks may be pinned to the drawer EQUIPMENT 7 HANDKERCHIEFS Nothing in this Hne is better for field use than a common five- or ten-cent bandana. Red will be found preferable to blue, as the latter fades when wet, the stain being removed from the user's skin only with difficulty. BEDDING Quilts, comforters, sheets, and pillows are unnecessary articles of bedding for field use. The first two are bulky and heavy, are no warmer than blankets and dry very slowly when wet; furthermore they seem to attract moisture and always feel clammy and damp. Sheets soon become grimy, are easily torn, and do not add ma- terially to the comfort of a camp bed. - A coat, sweater, or other clothing may be roUed up and used for a pillow. A very comfortable, durable, and easily packed bed may be had by the use of one four-pound and two six-pound double woolen blankets 72 by 84 inches in size. These cost from $4.00 to $6.00 and $6.50 to $9.00, respectively. If it is felt that such bedding is too expensive for camp use horse blankets may be used as a substitute ^nd will prove very comfortable. A five- pound blanket 76 by 80 inches in size costs about $2.00; one 84 by 90 inches, weighing eight pounds, costs about $3.00; and a ten-pound blanket 90 by 96 inches costs about $3.50. One of each should be secured, dark colors being preferred. TARPAULINS A tarpaulin is used as protection to bedding when the latter is rolled into a pack or made down on the ground. The best size is 11 by 15 feet, or the same size as a regulation wagon "sheet" or ''cover." It should be of not less than eight-ounce duck, would weigh approximately ten pounds and would cost about $4.00. Ten-ounce material, same size, costs about $5.25, • and twelve-ounce about $6.50. No water-proof blanket need be included in the bedding if a good grade of tarpaulin is used. A 30-foot 3^-inch manila rope is long enough to tie the bed for packing and costs from thirty to fifty cents. DUFFLE BAGS Trunks, suit cases, grips, or satchels should never be taken on extended camping trips; the rough usage incident to packing or to other forms of transportation will soon destroy them and call 8 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN for the purchase of new articles. Aside from this fact they are very inconvenient to handle, especially if packing is to be the means of transportation. Extra clothing and other personal equipment can best be carried in a heavy canvas bag known as a "duffle" bag, which can be purchased from any firm handhng sporting goods. Such a bag is fitted with a canvas loop or handle at one end and with another at the side; the top has an inside hood supposed to be water-proof, and the bag is fastened shut with a drawstring or bar lock passed through the eyelets at the open end. As a matter of fact, however, these bags are usually constructed in such a manner that they are too long and narrow to prove satisfactory either in packing or unpacking them. One which has been used in the field for more than six years, and which has withstood the roughest usage and given complete satisfaction in every respect, was made to order for $3.50. It is of extra heavy canvas, 34 inches deep, 22 inches wide, and has an extra heavy leather bottom riveted through the canvas into a heavy leather inside collar. The top is fitted with a pliant 2-inch leather band bearing sixteen %-inch eyelets. A /^le- inch forged D-ring is attached to a leather re-enforcement on one side of the bag 6 inches below the top, and a second similar ring is likewise attached to the leather bottom. A 2-inch leather strap, fitted with a heavy harness snap at either end, is attached to the two rings and has proven very convenient in carrying the bag or attaching it to a pack-saddle. Except at the open end, which has no inside hood, the bag is absolutely water-proof, although it has been run over by wagons, kicked about by fractious pack-animals, and otherwise been given the most severe treatment. It is fastened shut by means of a buckskin thong passing through the eyelets. In filhng, or packing, duffle bags, care must be taken not to place hard or sharp articles immediately against the canvas sides, or the canvas wiU be cut or worn through. Small articles may be confined in smaller canvas bags and the latter finally packed in the big bag. One of the small bags may hold pins, needles, thread, thimble, and similar articles; another may be used for packing tobacco, pipes, matches, or match cases; and a small medicine kit may be carried in still another. These small bags should be fitted with leather drawstrings and kept closed when packed in the duffle bag. EQUIPMENT CANTINAS These are leather bags supplied to field men who are to do considerable riding. They are made in pairs and are designed to be carried at the saddle horn or fork. Each large bag is fitted with a smaller outer bag 5 inches wide, 8 inches long, and 1 inch deep. The large bags are 83^ inches wide, 11 inches long, and 3M inches deep, made bellows fashion and equipped with 10-inch flaps which cover both the large and small bag and which are made to buckle down. At the upper edge of the flap a ^-inch strap 14 inches long buckles across into the flap of the other bag of a pair and serves as a handle by which the bags may be carried when they are to be used otherwise than on horseback. Two 6-inch straps, set 13^ inches apart, also connect the two bags and hold them to the saddle horn. EQUIPMENT FOR A FIELD TRIP Clothmg. — The greatest problem involved in providing cloth- ing for a field trip is not so much what to include but what to exclude from the baggage. The inexperienced person invariably burdens himself with a large amount of excess baggage which he finds later is of no use to him. Meanwhile, he suffers more or less inconvenience in transporting it about from place to place. It is of course utterly impractical to compile a Hst of clothing and then declare that such articles are sufficient and that no others are necessary for any field trip and regardless of all conditions. It is possible, however, to compile a hst suitable for given conditions and to use such a hst as a basis for determining approximately what equipment may be needed to meet other conditions and it is with this idea in view that the following lists are suppHed. It is assumed that the work to be done is timber cruising, that the country to be covered varies in altitude from one thousand to six or seven thousand feet and hes approxi- mately in latitude 40° north and that the work is to be done during the period from May to August. Normal chmatic con- ditions incident to such work would justify the field man in providing himseK with about the foUowong clothing: Underwear. — Four suits, medium weight, woolen, full length, to be changed often. Shirts. — Four, medium weight, woolen, good grade. Trousers. — Three pairs of denim overalls. 10 HANDBOOK FOR EANGERS AND WOODSMEN Socks. — Twelve pairs, medium weight, woolen, to be changed often and kept in good repair. Shoes. — Two pairs, low, flat heels, roomy toes, high tops, capped, hob-nailed sole and heel edges, to lace. Hat. — Soft felt, 3- or 3M-inch flexible brim, 4- or 5-inch crown. Coat. — Denim jumper. Other equipment that may be included with the above is: Handkerchiefs. — Three bandanas, preferably red. Shoe Laces. — Two extra pairs, buckskin or lace leather. Shoes. — One pair, low cut, soft, for camp wear. Housewife. — Carrying pins, needles, thread, small scissors, bachelor buttons, yarn for darning. Stationery. — Stamped envelopes and paper for all personal correspondence. Official correspondence is on official stationery and is covered under frank. Paper and envelopes are supplied. The toilet set should include: Shaving Outfit. Pocket Comh. Pocket Mirror. Six Bars Toilet Soap. Two Towels. Tooth Brush and Dentifrice. One Extra Pocket Knife. It may seem that the foregoing hsts are rather limited, but under present-day conditions the field man is seldom stationed so far from country stores or post-offices that he is unable to purchase or order any extra supplies he may need. For a list of camp bedding, see page 7. Cots are not recom- mended for winter use. They permit such free circulation of air beneath the bed that practically twice as much bedding is required to assure comfort. Camp suppHes are hsted on page 30, and cooking utensils on page 28. RIDING The following remarks on the subject of riding equipment are not offered as suggestions to experienced horsemen; their sole aim is to furnish inexperienced field men with a general idea of what equipment they may depend upon for practical results until their own experience will enable them to select equipment more in accord with their individual tastes. Bridle. — This should be fight but strong, and fancy conchas. EQUIPMENT 11 heavy rosettes and heavy nose pieces and superfluous straps and buckles should be avoided. Such impedimenta are uncom- fortable in extreme weather, and, contrary to a general idea among a certain class of horsemen, do not add to the real value of nor contribute favorably to the appearance of a bridle. The bridle may or may not be fitted with a brow band and throat latch, although these pieces are recommended for use on animals that have developed the habit of "rubbing the bridle," i.e., removing it by rubbing against a tree, post, or similar object. One form Fig. 1.— Bridles. of bridle is fitted with ear holes instead of a brow band, but in most cases does not prove as comfortable or effective as one with a brow band. The bridle shown at the left of Fig. 1 has J^-inch double cheeks, ^-inch throat latch, brow band and curb strap, wide layer crown piece, bar buckles, sewn-in rings, and J^-inch reins 6 feet long. It weighs approximately thirty-six ounces and can be bought for $2.00 or $2.50. The one shown at the center of the same figure is made of clarified rawhide, plaited in four strands, and has no buckles or rings, the cheek pieces being regulated by adjustment of the side loops. It weighs ten ounces and costs from $1.50 to $2.00, without the reins or bit. It is so subject to stretching when wet and shrinking as it dries that it will not give satisfaction. A side view of an ear bridle is shown at the right in the same 12 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN figure. It has K-inch cheeks and 1-inch spUt crown, weighs about ten ounces, and costs $1.00 without the reins or bit. Horsehair reins and headstalls are not recommended because the loose hair ends of the former are uncomfortably rough to the rider's bare hands and of the latter irritate an animal's skin. Bit. — The best all-round riding bit, and one that can safely be recommended for general field work, is the regulation miUtary Fig. 2. — Bits. curb bit shown at a in Fig. 2. It weighs sixteen ounces and costs from $1.75 to $2.00. Other styles of bit are the blued Mexican curb, shown at h in the same figure, weighing eleven ounces and costing from fifteen to twenty-five cents; the swivel ring-bar bit, shown at c, weighing seventeen ounces and costing $1.00; the low port bit, shown at d, bearing a roller, weighing fourteen ounces and costing seventy-five cents; and the Kentucky bar braced racking bit, shown at e, weighing thirteen ounces and costing fifty cents. It is especially constructed for very light work. The wrought port mule bit, shown at /, is designed for extra hard usage, weighs fifteen ounces and costs from fifteen to twenty-five cents. Silver-mounted or engraved bits are not recommended. They EQUIPMENT 13 are usually too heavy and expose an animal's mouth to too much heat or frost to give general satisfaction. Hackamore. — This is merely a variety of hght, strong halter used chiefly in breaking, training, or controlling saddle animals. It may also be used to advantage when injuries to an animal's mouth prohibit the use of a bit. In using it it is simply hung on an animal's head, and a rope which has been tied about the animal's neck is then passed through the bozal, indicated at a in Fig. 3, and upward to the rider's hand. If the animal is to be trained to turn to the left the rope may be puUed stead- ily, or, if a double rein is being used, the right rein is held against the neck and the left rein is pulled. In turning to the right the left rein is dra\sTi tightly against the left side of the neck, while the right rein is puUed. In this way an animal is soon taught to "neck rein," and after the bit is used no pressure against it is required in turning the animal. The hackamore shown in Fig. 3 is of rawhide with a double-looped bozal, over plaited nose piece, flat double-plaited cheeks and brow band and adjustable crown piece. No brow band is necessary in most instances. Such a hackamore weighs approximately twelve ounces and costs from $3.50 to S5.00. Saddle Blanket. — The most satisfactory blanket that can be obtained for steady riding is one made of three or four thick- nesses of tow or "gunny" sacks carefuDy cleaned of aU knots, bunches, and other uneven surfaces and sewn together around the edges. Such a blanket should be about 1 inch longer and wider than the under surface of the saddle skirts. When wet with perspiration or water it should be dried in the shade and care must be taken to see that burrs, twigs, etc., are not allowed to stick to either side. Thickly padded, air-tight, bunchy, or ribbed blankets should not be used. A very thin blanket is sufficient under a properly fitting saddle, and if the saddle fits so poorly that numerous Fig. 3. — Hackamore. 14 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN extra thicknesses of blanket are necessary it should either be discarded or rebuilt. Saddle. — This is a question upon which few horsemen agree, and the inexperienced person who seeks advice from them may- expect to receive as many different suggestions as the number of men he interviews. However, a saddle having about the following specifications will give general satisfaction for all- round field work until the new man Stock saddle. Fig. 4. Military saddle. learns enough about the subject to select something more to his own taste: Tree. — 15-inch, 14-inch swelled steel fork, leather - covered steel horn. Side '-*™™^ '^ Front Fig. 5. — Saddle-tree. Seat. — In one piece with the jockeys and not too erect in the cantle. Skirts. — Wool-Hned, from 26 to 28 inches by 12 to 14 inches, round corners, laced to tree. EQUIPMENT 15 Rig. — Double. (This particular point furnishes more ground for contention among riders than any other single one, some declaring in favor of a double rig, some preferring a single rig, Front Rear Fig. 6. — Cinches. others advocating a three-quarters rig, and still others asserting that a five-eighths rig is best.) Cinches. — Twenty strand Angora, front; 33^-inch belt web, rear; both fitted with leather chafes. Latigoes. — Off side: 1% inches wide, 20 inches long, double Fig. 7. — Iron stirrups. to loop through ring of rig; near side: 1% inches wide, 7 long, punched to buckle into cinch ring or cinch buckle. Stirrup Straps. — 2% inches wide, to buckle. Stirrups. — Steel, leather-covered and lined. Fenders. — 9 by 16 inches. Tapaderas. — Short, "monkey nose," one piece. Finish. — Plain. Weight. — Thirty pounds. Cost.— From $30.00 to $40.00. feet 16 HANDBOOK FOE RANGEKS AND WOODSMEN Swelled forks are preferable to straight forks on account of the extra thigh grip they afford. A wide flat seat will prove Fig. 8. — Single rig seat plate. Monkey Nose Mule Ear Fig. 9. — Tapaderas. UVJ vv Fig. 10. — Saddle horns. much more comfortable than a high narrow one. Steel stirrups are practically indestructible, will outlast any ordinary saddle, EQUIPMENT 17 and when lined with leather are not appreciably hotter or colder than wooden stirrups. Long "mule-ear" tapaderas are not only a source of useless and extra weight, but are even troublesome in thick underbrush, and, contrary to a prevalent idea, cannot be thrust forward at such times to protect a horse's forelegs. Cinch buckles facihtate .^^^^ fastening and unfastening the cinch and, ^^^^^^^ opinions of some horsemen to the contrary ^^^^^^^^m notwithstanding, do not break any oftener ^^^^^^^S than latigoes and cinch rings. In attach- ^^H^BlP^ ing them to the latigo the latter is run ^^p^^^^ through the upper sht from the rear, back ^^^3^ through the ring in the rig from the front, then down through the lower slit of the '^ucMe ^th^hSe buckle from the rear. The loose end of the attached, latigo is then hung up in the loop provided for it under the fork or just back of the cantle edge at the rear. Single and three-quarter rigs will not prove satisfactory for all-round work; they are designed for certain forms of horse- back work and can seldom be used successfully otherwise. The rear cinch of a double rig seldom need be used, the chief advan- tage of such a rig being the location of the front ring. Deeply engraved or hand-carved trimmings are to be avoided. They increase the cost of a saddle without adding to its prac- tical value and render cleaning and oiUng more difficult. Spurs. — These are almost indispensable when western-trained horses are to be ridden, but are otherwise an unnecessary part of the riding equipment. Three general styles are sho*wn in Fig. 12. The one indicated at a is best suited to general field work. The fork or counterpiece should be at least ^-inch wide, the shank should be not less than 2 inches long, and the rowel should have a diameter of at least 1)4 inches. Heavy silver ornaments, such as large buttons, bells, knobs, and chains, not only fail to increase the practical value of a spur but also render it uncomfortably heavy and unnecessarily expensive. A pair of spurs similar to those described above can be purchased for $1.50 or $2.00. Spur straps should be wide enough at the center to cover the entire instep. If laced shoes are worn narrow straps wiU allow the chaparejo cuffs to cut the laces, and if boots are worn the cuffs will eventually cut through the insteps. 18 HANDBOOK FOR RANGEES AND WOODSMEN Other spurs, very seldom used in field work, are shown in the same figure. A '^ heel " spur is shown at b and is designed Fig. 12. — Spurs. to be screwed into the boot heel, where it is made fast by means of a small set screw beneath the rowel. The "whip" spur, shown at c, is fitted with a flat band through which the whip butt is thrust. A spur strap is shown at d. Quirt. — Ordinarily the field man need not burden himself with a quirt, but if an unusually vicious animal is to be ridden and can not be well controlled with the reins and spurs a quirt may ' ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^mtmwm^^ Fig. 13. — Quirts. prove of considerable advantage. Two styles of quirt are shown in Fig. 13. The upper one is of plaited rawhide with loaded butt, weighs from twelve to sixteen ounces, and costs from sixty to seventy-five cents. The lower one is of sewn leather, shot- loaded, and costs about fifty cents. Chaparejos. — These are commonly known as "shaps" and are indispensable in brushy country, where a rider's legs and trousers EQUIPMENT 19 require continual protection. Three general styles are shown in Fig. 14. For all-round work the ones shown at a, known as " Texas," or " bat-" or " buzzard-wings," are recommended. They are fitted with a series of rings and snaps which hold the legs shut. By reason of the fact that these shaps need not be Fig. 14. — Chaparejos. drawn on and off over the feet but may be unsnapped at the sides, they are much more convenient than the closed leg varie- ties. Furthermore, if spurs are. worn, these need not be re- moved if the shaps are to be laid aside temporarily. Such shaps should be of oiled leather with side extensions not wider than 5 inches. Five rings and snaps are preferable to a larger number. The weight should not exceed five or six pounds and the cost varies from $13.00 to $15.00, plain finish. A heavier variety of these shaps is made for use in extra brushy country and for corral work, where the rider's thighs and hips are subjected to constant pressure of the rope. The belt is extra wide and thick and the legs fasten shut from the inside with loops and leather buttons. The leather is extra heavy and stiff and the price runs from $18.00 to $25.00, plain finish. The closed leg variety, shown at h, costs from $15.00 to as much as the purchaser wishes to pay for extra fancy style and finish. 20 HANDBOOK FOE RANGERS AND WOODSMEN The hair front variety, shown at c, can not be recommended for any kind of field work. They are not only heavier than the plain leather varieties, but are also very unsatisfactory in brushy country, where the hair is continually hanging and being torn out. Moreover, in stormy weather, the hair catches and holds , rain, snow, or sleet and the shaps soon become too heavy for comfort. The cost runs from $15.00 to as high as the purchaser wishes to pay for finish. PACKING In most parts of the West, where travel facihties are usually more or less limited, suppUes and equipment must often be transported from place to place by means of pack-animals, but throughout the greater part of the South and Southeast trans- portation is by means of wagons. It is therefore advisable for the camper or woodsman to ascertain previously whether or not he will have use for a pack outfit in the section he expects to enter. PACK-SADDLE Muley. — This style of pack-saddle derives its name from the construction of its forks, illustrated in Fig. 15. They are rounded off at the top, and ropes or other fastenings are passed through under the bow. Mexican packers of the Southwest, who often construct their own pack-saddles, hew these forks from the crotches of Umbs of some tough wood such as Gambel oak Fig. 15. Fork of (Quercus Gamhelli) or Arizona white-oak ^dl^^ ^^^ ' (^* Arizonica). These are then nailed or bolted securely to the saddle-bars and the whole is usually, though not always, covered with rawhide. Cross-Tree. — This saddle has forks made as shown in Fig. 16, although the rounded opening beneath the cross may not appear in some varieties. Ropes may be passed around or through such forks, and in either case will not work off unless loosened. The cross-tree saddle is recommended for field work. Combination. — Another form of tree seldom used in packing is a combination pack and riding tree, but this is not recommended for any field use whatever. The cross-tree affords much better facihties for fastening the pack to the saddle, weighs only about EQUIPMENT 21 six pounds, and can be bought for $1.50; the combination tree weighs twelve pounds and costs $3.50. For illustration of pack- saddle parts (cross-tree) see Fig. 18. Parts. — In order to present a more definite idea of what the Cross tree pack saddle. Fork of cross tree pack saddle. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. — Combination pack and riding saddle-tree. best form of pack-saddle should be, specifications of each part are given as follows : Breeching. — This should be of ordinary 3-inch back-band web with 13^-inch side and hip straps. To be most effective both the latter should be lengthened till the breeching works beiow the points of the hips rather than close up under the root of the tail. Such breeching costs about $1.00. Breast Collar. — The body of the breast coUar should also be of 3-inch back-band web and fitted wdth 134-inch leather side straps. If the latter are left long enough to aUow the collar to fall too far below the points of the shoulders the animal will experience more or less difficulty in travehng. If allowed to work above the shoulder points it may cause the anim.al to choke down when steep grades are ascended. Proper regulation will allow it to work just below the points of the shoulders. If necessary a strap may be fastened from one side strap over the 22 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN animal's neck to the other. The cost of such a collar is about $1.00. ' Cinches. — The best cinches for all-round work are of 4-inch Breeching. Breast collar. Cinch. Fig. 18. — Pack-saddle parts. folded canvas fitted with a forged ring in each end. If rear cinches are to be used they should be made of the same material. The cost is about sixty-five cents. Latigoes. — These may be known as " tie straps " and are used in connecting the cinches to the rigging. They should be not less than 3}4 feet long and 134 inches wide, and should be made to tie rather than buckle. They cost about twenty-five cents each. Rig. — The rigging of any saddle is that part into which the cinches are fastened by means of the latigoes. They may be either single or double in pack-saddles, the one providing for only one cinch, the other for two. They shoidd be well looped about EQUIPMENT 23 the forks and securely nailed to the saddle bars. The single rig costs seventy-five cents, the double $1.25. Full-Rigged Saddle. — A single rig, cross-tree pack-saddle, biu-ro size, with. 13^-inch rig, wrapped about the forks and nailed to the bars, 134-inch latigoes, 3-inch back-band web, breeching of the same material with 1%- or iM-inch leather Fig. 19. — Full-rigged pack-saddle. (Single rig.) side straps, and 4-inch folded canvas cinches, weighs approxi- mately nine pounds and can be purchased for from $4.50 to $6.00; double-rigged it w^eighs ten pounds and costs about $6.00 to 17.00; horse size, double rig, costs about $8.00. Lash Rope and Cinch. — These are used in fastening the top pack to the saddle. The cinch should be of 4-inch folded canvas fitted at one end with a forged ring and at the other with an iron lash hook. Together with 30 feet of 3^-inch manila rope it can be pm-chased for about $1.75. Panniers. — These are heavy canvas bags equipped with leather loops to hang over the saddle forks. They are con- venient receptacles in which to pack small loose articles, but are by no means absolutely essential to a pack outfit and are not recommended for general field use. The loops soon wear out or break, the canvas tears or wears through, and continual re- pairing soon becomes necessary. Ordinary "gunny" sacks or Fig. 20. — Lash hook. 24 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN heavy flour or feed sacks will serve the purpose as well, and when badly worn or damaged may be discarded without loss. Instead of being attached to the saddle by means of loops these are fastened with a grain hitch. (See Packing, p. 147.) ANIMAL Halters.— These should be suppHed for work- and saddle- animals if the nature of the field work requires them to stand tied for extended intervals. They may be of leather or rope or may consist simply of a tie rope. Leather. — The best halter for field use is made of li^-inch flat leather, fitted with squares where the cheeks support the LEATHER Fig. 21. — Halters. nose piece and bozal and with rings where the crown and cheeks meet. One end of the throat latch is sewed into the off ring and the other end is fitted with a snap to hook into the near ring. The crown and bozal have buckles to permit lengthening or shortening or opening or closing the head-stall, while the cheeks and the off end of the crown piece are sewed into the rings which carry the throat latch. One end of the tie rope should be fitted with a substantial snap to hook into the chin ring, and the other end should be tightly wrapped with fine wire, or heavy cord. Such a halter, together with the tie rope, costs about $1.25. See a in Fig. 21. EQUIPMENT 25 Ro'pe. — ^A ready-made halter of jute, cotton, or hemp can be bought for fifty cents. The crown aijd cheeks are in one piece, while the nose piece, bozal, and tie rope are in another. Such a halter is light, strong, and serviceable, provided the animal to be tied is fairly gentle and well trained. Its chief disadvantage lies in the fact that it can be easily slipped if accidentally hung over a post, snag, or similar object. If a rope halter must be made in the field, a 3^-inch cotton rope 12 feet long should be used. An eye splice is made in one end of this and the other end is passed through it to form the nose piece and bozal. The cheek and crown piece should be cut long enough to reach from back of the animal's ears down either side of the head to a point about 2 inches above the mouth. Ordinarily, it will be from 28 to 36 inches long after it is spliced into the other rope, one end being spHced in about 6 inches from the eye sphce and the other some 6 or 8 inches farther along. The material required for such a halter costs about twenty-five cents. See h in Fig. 21. For splices, see p. 335. Tie Rope. — This should be of 3^-inch cotton rope, 10. feet long, and fitted with a harness snap spliced into one end, the other end being ^Tapped with fine wire or heavy cord or else knotted in a Turk's head. See Knots, p. 325. An iron band, bearing an eye-screw, and especially designed for the pur- pose, is then fitted to the rope at a point far enough from the snap to aUow the snap to be hooked into the eye after the rope has been placed about the animal's neck. The rope wiU cost ten cents and the iron band as much more. See c, Fig. 21. Hobbles. — A single hobble, sometimes known as a " picket " hobble, and a pair of double hobbles are illustrated in Fig. 22. They are for use in tying an animal's legs together, and thus prevent it from straying too far from camp. AU should be of 13^-inch leather with 2- inch single strap Uning and equipped with chains and swiv- els. A picket hobble weighs about one pound and costs $1.00 or $1.25; double hobbles weigh approximately thirty ounces and cost the same as picket hobbles. Doulfle Holjble Fig. 22. Picket Hobble 26 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN Picket Pin and Rope. — When neither halter nor hobbles arc available an animal may be " picketed " out to graze. The picket pin and rope shown in Fig. 23 cost about $1.00. For general purposes the rope should be not less than 30 feet long and fitted with a strong snap at either end to facili- tate fastening it into and removing it from the pin or hobble. The pin should be 15 inches long, and equipped with a swivel Jink at the upper end. Feed Bags. — ^These are known as " morrals " in the West and Southwest, where the camp equip- ment is not complete without them. They are fitted with a crown piece, and after the grain is placed in them are suspended from the animal's head. It soon learns to lower its head and allow the bag to rest on the ground so that the grain may be reached. Only the best grades should be used. These are of heavy cotton duck or canvas, are double sewed and riveted, have , Fig. 23. — Picket pin anci rope. Fig. 24.— Morrals. heavy leather bottoms, lower walls and ventilators, and the crown piece is of leather. They weigh approximately thirty ounces and cost about $1.50 each. See a in Fig. 24. An im- provised morral made from a gunny sack is shown at b. This can best be made by seizing one upper corner of the sack, stand- EQUIPMENT 27 ing on the corresponding lower corner, thrusting a knife-blade through both sides of the sack and ripping them out to the end. The blade should be thrust through the sack at a point about 2 inches in from the edge, as the sack is flattened, and 14 inches from the bottom. The bag is shown at 5, the pieces 1 and 2 are tied together and serve as a crown piece, and the pieces 3 and 4 are tied together snugly about the animal's jaws or thrust under the cheek pieces to prevent loss of grain by spill- ing if the animal tosses its head in an attempt to secure the grain. Bells. — Animals should be belled when turned out to graze at night or during times when they are not to be used. Some of them stray to a considerable distance from camp even when hob- bled, and unless bells are pro\dded more or less trouble will be had in finding them. The best camp bells are the small ordinary cow bells gener- ally known as " horse " bells. Size No. 5 is S% inches high and has a mouth 2^ by 3 inches. It costs twenty cents. Black leather bell collars 2 inches mde cost about forty cents. Usually one bell to every three or four animals will prove sufficient. Combs and Brushes. — These should always be included in the field equipment if horses are to be worked or ridden. Two styles Fig. 25. — Ciirry-combs and brush. of combs are shown in Fig. 25. The one shown at a is recom- mended for general field use. It is circular, of sprmg steel, and bears three complete circles which work independently on each other and which are attached to an iron back by a hinge joint. The handle may be of wood or leather. It is strong and com- 28 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN pact, will stand the hardest kind of treatment, and costs about twenty-five cents. The comb shown at b is especially unsatisfactory for field use. The bars and teeth soon become bent, the handle takes up as much room as the comb and may soon work loose or break, and the shank may be bent, broken, or otherwise damaged in packing. The cost is ten cents. The brush shown at c has a heavy wooden back 3 inches wide and 8 inches long with India fiber brush 1 3^ inches long. It costs twenty-five cents and should be included in the field equipment even if there is no room for the comb. COOKING For Stations. — For permanent stations or camps, the follow- ing cooking equipmen^t will be found very convenient. The fist is rather elaborate for field work, but where the field man need not pack his kit about from place to place he will find too many utensils preferable to too few; furthermore, he may have occa- sion to prepare meals for visitors or for local residents who may call on business: Approximate Article Capacity Cost 1 Dishpan 18 quarts $0 . 50 1 Coffee-pot 4 quarts . 50 1 Tea-kettle 6 quarts . 40 1 Double boiler 1}4 quarts . 40 1 Water pail 12 quarts . 40 3 Straight kettles 7 quarts 2 . 80 2 Pudding pans 3 J^ quarts . 50 2 Bake pans 4 quarts . 35 1 Cup 1 quart . 15 1 Ladle H quart . 05 1 Dipper J^ quart . 05 1 Bread-raiser 8 quarts .80 1 Colander 4 quarts . 25 1 Frying pan .35 Total $7.50 His dinner set should include: 4 Cups and saucers , $0 . 50 6 Plates . .75 3 Bowls, 8-inch .45 6 Knives and forks, iron handles .75 6 Teaspoons .15 EQUIPMENT 29 Article Approximate Cost 3 Tablespoons $0 . 15 1 Soiip spoon ,15 1 Sugar bowl .40 1 Salt and pepper shaker .35 1 Meat platter .50 1 Vegetable dish .60 Total ^4 . 75 Other utensils to be used about the kitchen should be : 1 Garbage bucket •. . . 18 quarts $1 . 25 1 Wash basin .25 1 Soap dish and grate .10 3 Glass jars 2 quarts . 30 1 Bread box, 8 by 10 by 20 inches .25 1 Butcher knife .25 1 Can opener .15 Total $2.55 Total cost of cooking outfit. . $14.80 Ail dishes should be of granite or enamel ware; the cook stove should be No. 8, four -holes, iron top, and wood or coal grate, and is generally furnished upon requisition. Costs given are for enamelware. For Temporary Camp.— Two men on a camping trip should provide themselves with the following cooking utensils: 1 Dutch oven with Ud. 2 Tablespoons. 1 Bucket, galvanized, 18 quarts 1 Kettle, straight, 10 quarts. 1 Bucket, galvanized, 14 quarts. 1 Kettle, straight, 6 quarts. 1 Cup, 1 quart. 1 Canteen, gallon. 2 Cups, 1 pint. 1 Combination can and bottle 4 Plates. opener. 1 Butcher knife. 1 Frjdng pan. 2 Table knives and forks. The Dutch oven is a low, flat, heavy iron kettle for use over camp fires or live coals. The average size is about 10 inches in diameter and from 2 to 3 inches deep. It is fitted with three substantial legs and a short, heavy handle. The lid is fitted with a raised edge or rim designed to hold five coals and supply heat from the top. Other vessels of the kit should be granite or enamelware; knives and forks should have iron handles and spoons should be of tin. Such a kit weighs about twenty-five pounds and costs about $5.00. It can be most conveniently packed by dividing it into 30 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN three parts: The plates, knives, forks, and spoons are carried in the Dutch oven, the smaller bucket and the kettles and cups are carried in the large bucket, and the frying pan is carried separately. PROVISIONS While the following lists of provisions, compiled for one man for thirty days, must be accepted as including only approximate amounts, they will be of assistance to the new man when he must lay in a supply of such articles.. It should be borne in mind also that a variety of food which appeals to one person may not suit another and that personal tastes must therefore be con- sidered in making out a bill of supplies based on these lists: For Stations Baking powder 1 pound Beans 5 pounds Butter 3 pounds Canned fruit 10 quarts Catsup 1 quart Cereals 4 pounds Coffee 3 pounds Dried fruit 5 pounds Eggs 3 dozen Flour 30 pounds Lard 5 pounds Meal 2 pounds Meat, salt 8 pounds Milk, canned 10 quarts Pepper 2 ounces Pickles 2 quarts Potatoes 25 pounds Rice 2 pounds Salt 2 pounds Soda 8 OTinces Spices 1 pound Sugar 10 pounds Tea 8 oiinces Miscellaneous Matches, 1 box, 1,000 Soap, laundry 2 bars Soap, toilet 2 bars Tobacco For Temporary Camps. — Two men expecting to be in camp for fifteen days should provide themselves with the following: Baking powder 1 pound Beans 10 pounds Butter 2 pounds Canned fruit 8 quarts Coffee 4 pounds Dried fruit 3 poxmds Flour. 35 pounds Lard 10 pounds Meat, salt 10 pounds Milk, canned 8 quarts Pepper 4 ounces Potatoes 20 pounds Rice , 2 pounds Salt 2 pounds Sugar 8 poimds It is also well to include ten or a dozen candles in this list. This supply of provisions, together with the cooking outfit, hobbles, picket ropes, or extra pack ropes, and bedding for two men, can be carried on one pack-animal. CONSTRUCTION WORK TELEPHONE LINES GeneraL — Telephone lines are built and maintained by the Forest Service chiefly as a means of quicker communication between different officers' headquarters or between such head- quarters and lookout points. The actual work of construction and maintenance, invariably affected by local conditions, is car- ried on under specific instructions from the proper office and for that reason cannot be discussed in detail here. A few gen- eral rules of construction are given, however, merely as guides for inexperienced men engaged in this work. Costs. — Local conditions affect this problem to such a degree that it is impossible to offer any definite suggestions concerning cost estimates. Such items as the nature of the ground to be worked over, local sources of supply, transportation facihties^ the number of " poles in place," the ease or difficulty with which other poles may be secured and set, the amount of swamping to be done, and the best camp sites available, all affect the ques- tion of costs. Lines have been built, where no swinging insu- lators were used, for as low as $20.00 per mile. A general state- ment of costs in such cases is about as follows: ^ No. 9 wire Sll.OO Insulators, pony, glass 1 . 05 Brackets 60 Spikes , 25 Labor 7 . 10 Total $20.00 Preliminary Survey. — This is made before actual construction begins. The proposed route to be followed should be marked with stakes set at points where poles are to be set, and these stakes should bear any information required by the workmen for proper setting of the poles. It may not be advisable to follov%' this sur- vey in aU instances, and deviations are permissible if circum- stances demand them. 1 Supplied by Forest Ranger Perry, Special Detail on Telephone Construction, Carson National. Forest. 31 32 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN Location. — Location of telephone lines should be determined by the following factors: (1) The shortest and most direct route practicable. (2) Possibihties of following roads or trails in order that first cost of construction and subsequent cost of maintenance may be kept at a minimum. ' (3) Best points for connection with desired points not on the main line or with points of possible future importance. (4) Avoidance of canyons and streams exceeding 500 feet in width; also of power transmission or electric light lines. Tele-s phone lines should not parallel high-power transmission lines nearer than 3^ mile. « (5) The accessibility of detours necessary to avoid badi country or scarcity of pole material. (6) The advantage, if any, of increased expense for material ; over one route as compared with increased cost of labor over another. (7) Possibihties of future patrol of the Une as affected by; present or proposed bridle trails the entire length of the Une. (8) Possibility of securing rights-of-way across private- lands. 1 Equipment. — ^Equipment for the lineman consists of a pair of 8-inch side-cutting pU^s, a pair of reversible connectors, a light ax with a 16-inch handle, a safety belt and strap, a pair of hooks or chmbers, and two Buffalo grips with 24 feet of 3^-inch rope. Swampers should carry 4-pound double-bitted axes, whetstones, and 8-inch files. If required to do any climbing, they should be supplied with hooks and safety belt and strap. Transportation. — This is not a serious problem if wagons can be used, but is more difficult if pack-animals are required. No. 9 galvanized iron wire, which is the standard wire used by the Forest Service, is put up in 3^-mile coils weighing one hundred and sixty pounds each. If it is to be packed all the ties except one are cut, and this one is re-enforced, the coil is opened in half, and two men can then drop it down over a pack-saddle, one- half on either side. It should be tied securely to the saddle and not allowed to work loose. Insulators and spikes may be packed in feed sacks or panniers. Brackets may be strung on 1 Verbal permission will not suffice. The concession must be drawn up in regular form on blanks supplied for the purpose. CONSTRUCTION WORK 33 wires, about twenty-five to a wire, each bundle weighing ap- proximately sixteen pounds. These may be tied to the saddle without difficulty. Two pack-animals are required in packing poles. The regular size poles may be packed in pairs and should be fastened high up on the saddle, the animals working tandem fashion one at either end of and between the poles. Short sharp curves must be avoided, as the animals will not be able to pass around them. Extra long heavy poles must be packed separately and should be securely fastened to the tops of the saddles. Burros will be found preferable to horses for packing, since the latter usually carry their heads too high and are much more likely to become excited in case of accidents. Right-of-Way Clearance. — Rights-of-way thi*ough timber or brush should be wide enough to provide free access of mounted patrolmen over the entire length of the fine. Dead or leaning timber that may fall across the line and all branches which may touch or hang close to the wire should be removed. Rubbish and slash resulting from such removal should be carefully dis- posed of in order to lessen the fire danger. POLES Material. — The best poles obtainable are of cedar, such as red cedar (Juniperus Virginiana), Western red cedar (/. occidentalis) , one-seed juniper (/. monosperma) , rock cedar or mountain juni- per (/. sabinoides), California juniper (/. Calif ornica), and Utah juniper (/. Utahensis), although the last named seldom reaches a height sufficient for standard poles. AUigator or checkered bark juniper (/. pachyphlcea) is widely used in the Southwest for fence posts, and is also frequently used for telephone poles when it is found tall and straight enough for this purpose. However, it is too light and brittle to make durable poles. Red Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), also known as Douglas spruce, is also quite durable and as a rule can be easily obtained throughout most parts of the Rocky Mountain regions. Fire- killed poles of sugar pine (Pinus Lambertiana) , obtainable in nearly all parts of the Northwest, and of Rocky Mountain white pine or Umber pine (P. flexilis), found on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, are almost as durable as cedar, and gen- erally possess the advantage of being aheady peeled and sea- 34 HANDBOOK FOR HANGERS AND WOODSMEN soned at the time they are cut. Bald cypress {Taxodium dis tichum), also known as deciduous cypress, sassafras {Sassafrc sassafras), locust (Rohinia pseudacacia), white oak (Quercus alba)' post oak (Q. minor), chinquapin {Q. acuminata), and black walnut (Juglans nigra), all common to the South and Southeast, are likewise durable and make good poles. Redwood (Sequoia sem- pervirens), occurring near the Pacific Coast in southwestern Oregon and northwestern California, also makes durable poles. ^ Dimensions. — The following table shows the dimensions that have proven the most satisfactory: Length, in Feet 18 22^ 25 30 35 40 45 Top Diameter, Inches 5 5 5.5 6 6 6.5 7 2 Length of standard Forest Service pole. It is not always possible to obtain poles having exactly these dimensions, but the table will serve as a general guide and should be followed as closely as possible. Preparation. — Only the straightest timber should be selected, and if dead must be perfectly sound. Poles that are to be used in supporting extra long heavy spans of wire or which may oth- erwise be subjected to severe strain should be of the very best quality of material obtain- able. The best time for cutting is when the sap is " down " or during the winter months, the poles being peeled as soon as cut and all large knots, splinters, and chips being hewn. away. The upper ends or tops are " roofed " or beveled as shown in Fig. 26. The lower ends or butts are cut square across. After the poles have- been peeled and roofed and other- wise properly shaped they are placed where they will season, and may be piled in tiers not nearer to each other than 6 inches in the same or in different tiers, the lowest tier being propped up at least 6 inches above the ground. If "Roof Fig. 26.- 1 See following Forest Service publications: Bui. 88, Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir, pp. 60 and 62; Bui. 95, i Uses of Commercial Woods of the United States (Cedars, Cypresses, and Sequoias), pp. 15, 18, 27, 39, 46, and 49; Bui. 99, Uses of Com- mercial Woods of the United States (Pines), pp. 56, 72, 75, 82, 87, and 92. CONSTRUCTION WORK 35 thej' have been cut here and there, one or two in a place, they should be propped well up off the groimd and left in such a position that as thej' season they will not twist, warp, or rot. Seasoning should cover a period of two or tlii-ee months. Preservative treatment may be apphed after they are thor- oughly seasoned, while they are perfectly diy, and at times when they are free of frost. See page 358, Appendix. Poles in Place. — These are simply trees growing at convenient points for the location of poles along the line and are trimmed and topped at the proper height and left standing. T\Tien treated in this manner some varieties of timber last better than when not. Chief among the more durable ones are Douglass fir, white pine (Pinus alhicaulis), and white oak. TMiite fir {Abies concolor) and pifion (Pinus edulis) soon rot and do not make satisfactory poles in place. Yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) usually rots within a year or eighteen months, unless the pole is very large. Aspen (Popidus trenndoides) may sprout and stay green if topped in the spring, as will also most of the oaks. The sprouts appear at the point of topping and must be removed before they reach a size or length that will allow them to rub against the wire and impair communication. Poles in place should have a minimum top diameter of 4 inches and should have all branches removed. Use of Different Lengths. — Standard Forest Service poles are used in all cases except: (1) When a line crosses a railroad; the wire must be not less than 26 feet above the track.^ (2) When a fine crosses a wagon road; the wire must be not less than 14 feet above the road.i (3) ^Tien a line crosses other lines; the \vdre should be not less than 18 inches above the other line. (4) When fines are run across country where brush exceeds 10 feet in height; the wu^e should be held at least 4 feet above the tops of the brush. (5) '\\Tien fines cross country where snow may drift higher than 10 feet; the \Nare should be held at least 2 feet above the tops of probable drifts. (6) \ATien spans exceed 500 feet in length; poles must be sufficiently high and heavy to support the extra weight. ^ Higher if the State laws require it. 36 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN (7) Where poles must be set at such points that extra long spans demand unusual sag; the lowest part of the wire should be held high enough to allow uninterrupted passage of travelers and stock beneath it. Utilization. — In order to secure the greatest stability and efficiency of a line, care must be taken to distribute the poles where different lengths will do the most good. The largest and strongest ones should be used at points where the strain of the wire is greatest, such as at cor- ners, along curves, under long spans and at terminals and switching points. Lighter and weaker poles should be set at points where they will be subjected to only mod- erate strain. Spaces. — ^Under ordinary circumstances straight Unes should have thirty poles to the mile, thus making the average pole space or length of span 176 feet. If the line makes a turn at right angles the spaces at either side of the turn should not exceed 100 feet in length. This same length of span is also used in spans adjoining one from 300 to 500 feet in length. It is likewise used in short, sharp curves. Attaching Brackets and Insulators. — Brackets are attached to the poles at right angles to the ridge of the roof and before the poles are raised. A 60-D spike is used in the upper hole and a 40-D in the lower, knots, thick rough bark, and other irregu- larities being hewn away if the brackets are to be attached to trees. Brackets are always so attached that after the poles are set they will be on the outer side of curves, but when the poles carry two Unes then the brackets are placed on exactly opposite sides of the poles. They are fitted with the insulators before the poles are raised. See Fig. 27. Holes. — ^Except where conditions render it impossible or in- advisable these should have about the following depths: Fig. 27. Length of pole, in feet . . Depth of hole, f Earth. , in feet 1 Rock. . 18 22 25 30 35 40 45 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 3.0 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.0 i CONSTEUCTION WORK 37 Holes along curves or in loose soil should be at least 6 inches deeper than showTi above, and should have a diameter about 6 inches greater than that of the pole to be set. If poles must be set in sohd rock, it usually proves more economical to drill 2- or 3-inch holes and use pipe for poles. Setting. — In setting poles they are turned so the ridge of the roof will be parallel ^dth the line wire, care having been taken to roof the crooked poles so the crooks will face the next pole in the line when the ridge of the roof is parallel with the line. AH poles in straight hues are set as nearly perpendicularly as possible, but in curves are given a certain amount of rake which is about as follows : 10 15 20 25 30 (See Fig. 28) 16 24 33 42 (See Fig. 29) Pvdl, in feet . , 5 Rake, in inches 10 The pole must be braced or guyed if the rake exceeds 42 inches. No attempt should be made to adhere strictly to these figures re- gardless of all conditions; neither should they be totally disregarded. Tamping. — Some heavy iron in- strument, such as a crowbar, hav- ing a beveled point will be found preferable for this use to one having a broad, flat -tamping sur- face. Fine dirt should be vrell Fig. 28. Fig. 29. tamped about the base of the pole first, and care must be taken to see that it is firmly packed on aU sides of the poles. Alternate fiUing and tamping of coarser material then follow tiU the hole is filled. After this has been done, dirt is tamped about the pole above the. ground level, and serves as a water- shed which will drain surface water away from rather than 38 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN allow it to seep down about the base of the pole. Such a water- shed should be not less than 6 inches high at the pole, and should extend outward from the pole to a distance somewhat past the edges of the hole. Methods of Strengthening. — It not infrequently happens that poles may be of such material or may be so placed that in them- selves they are not of sufficient strength to withstand the strain imposed upon them by the line wire, and in such instances it of course becomes necessary to re-enforce them in such a manner that efficiency of the fine will not be impaired. Guys. — These are of twisted wire and are usually cheaper than braces. They consist of at least two wires (of the. same gauge as the line wire) twisted together and are of a length sufficient to reach from the bracket to a point on the ground at a distance from the pole equal to the pole's height above ground. See Fig. 30. An anchor block, or " dead man," is buried at a depth of 3 feet, which allows the eye of an ordinary anchor rod to extend above the surface of the ground. After the upper end of the guy wire has been made fast to the pole by two turns about it just below the bracket and twisted not less than six times about itself, the lower end is brought to the anchor rod by means of the Buffalo grips, which regulate the tension, and is then passed through the eye and back on and twisted about itseK in not fewer than six turns. Braces. — Brace poles should have a minimum butt diameter of 8 inches. They should be set at least 2>}4 feet below the surface of the ground, against a solid bottom, and at a point from the pole equal in distance to one-half the pole's length. See Fig. 31. When so set the upper end should strike the polo three-fourths of the way up. Hewing, for the purpose of mak- ing a tight joint where the brace strikes the pole, should always be done on the brace and never on the pole. A ^-inch gal- vanized bolt is passed through both timbers just above the lower edge of the braces and serves to hold the two together. Use of Guys and Braces. — These are used on the first and last poles of a line, at approaches to crossings, at the ends of spans from 300 to 500 feet long, and on poles set in very steep hillsides or along curves where the pull exceeds 30 feet. They may be used at other points as circumstances demand. Re-enforcements. — Poles may be re-enforced as shown in Fig. 32. This method of bracing is used when conditions prohibit CONSTRUCTION WORK 39 the use of guys or braces or when poles have become weakened through decay. Stubs should be of cedar, although other dur- Wrappii^S Fig. 30. — Guy for telephone pole. Fig. .31. — Brace for telephone pole. Fig. .32. — -Re-enforcement with stub. able woods may be used when this is not available, and should have the following approximate dimensions: Length of pole, in feet 18 22 2.5 30 Length of stub, in feet 9 9 9.5 10 Top diameter of stub, in inches 7 7 S 8.5 They should be set as deep as the pole and on the side where line strain will tend to pull the pole toward rather than away from them. 40 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN Methods of construction are explained in the figure. Stubs — These are used where a guy crosses a road or trail and are shown in Fig. 33. They are guyed the same as a pole. LAYING WIRE Fig. 33. -Stub for telephone pole. No more wire than can be hung in one day should be laid out at one time. It should be cut at points where the hne is to cross a road, trail, or other path of travel and the loose ends should be fastened back out of the way. Unless this is done the wire should be sus- pended in such a manner that vehicles or travelers may pass beneath it without difficulty. Care must be taken to see that all short kinks are either straightened or cut out and the wire spliced before it is stretched, this being especially true of hard drawn copper wire. Deep nicks, stretches of rust, and all other espe- cially weak spots should be cut out, but at the same time care must be taken to keep the number of sphces at a minimum if efficient service of the hne is to be secured. The coil of wire to be laid out should be placed on the reel in such a way that the loose end will run from the outside and a few rounds should be run off in order to ascertain definitely whether this end of the wire has been loosened. If the topog- raphy and travel faciHties of the country permit, the reel may then be placed in the rear of a wagon and hauled over the right- of-way after the loose end has been tied to some stationary object. Otherwise two men may carry the reel and lay out the wire after the same manner. If neither of these methods is practicable then the reel may be firmly set and the wire laid out with a horse. This can be done by tying a 12- or 14-foot rope to the end of the wire and " dallying " the other end at the saddle horn. The practice of looping the wire itself about the horn is one to be avoided; in case of accident the wire can not be released in time to avert injury either to the horse or the rider. Animals not trained to pull under the saddle may be worked CONSTRUCTION WORK 41 in harness, the wire being looped into the center cHp of a single tree and laid out quickly and easily. It is always advisable, however, for one man to remain at the reel to see that no tan- gles occur as the wire is run off. It invariably happens that without some means of regulating the speed at which the reel revolves several turns of wire are thrown off at once and the consequent tangle necessitates numerous spHces or else total loss of all the turns so tangled. It is also advisable, and even necessary, that a prearranged system of signals be agreed upon by the man at the reel and the one paying out the wire. Care must be taken, also, to see that the w^ire is laid on the proper side of poles if extra work in the way of replacing or cutting and splicing is to be avoided. After the wire has been laid it may be hung over the brackets, ready for stretching and tying, by means of either a slender pole, to the ends of which a horseshoe has been attached so that when the pole is erect the heels wiU point upward, or by using a long slender forked pole. CLIMBING The cHmbers or hooks are strapped securely to the legs just below the knees and again at the ankles with the loose ends of the straps projecting to the rear as shown in Fig. 34. The safety belt is buckled about the waist comfortably tight and all the tools to be used in tying or otherwise working on the wire at the insulator are placed in their respective loops. One end of the safety strap is snapped into the ring at the left side of the belt and the other is allowed to hang loose until the climber reaches the desired height on the pole. This is usually when the chin is about on a level with the insu- lator if tying is to be done. In using the hooks no attempt should be made to grip the pole with the knees, as this wiU force the hooks out of the wood and cause the chmber to shde suddenly down ward. ^ The knees must be bent outward away from the pole and care Fig. 34. — Method of attaching climbers or "hooks" to the legs and feet. ^ Known in the lineman's vernacular as "burning the pole." 42 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN must be taken to fix each hook firmly into the pole before an- other step is attempted. This is done by a sharp, vigorous thrust with the foot directed diagonally downward at the pole. The body is kept well away from the pole and parallel with it from the waist up. Crooked or leaning poles are chmbed on the upper side of the crook. When the desired height has been reached both hooks are struck into the pole at about the same level and the pole is securely grasped with the right hand and arm. The safety strap is passed around the pole with the left hand and caught with the fingers of the right. The left hand and arm then grasp the pole, and the safety strap is hooked into the right side of the belt with the right hand. The lineman then settles his weight backward against the belt and down ward on the hooks, keeping his body rigid and well away from the pole. In this position he is able to make a tie without difficulty. POLE STEPS These are used in poles over 35 feet in length. Beginning at a point 6 feet above the ground they are set alternately along Fig. 35.- -Horseshoe tie for iron wire. Fig. 36. — Figure : iron wire. tie for opposite sides of a pole and are spaced 3 feet apart, making steps 18 inches high. As a general rule they are screwed into the pole before the latter is raised. The most convenient method of inserting them is to start holes ^/le-inch less in diameter than the screws. They may then be screwed or driven in without difficulty. If they are to be used in large trees they should be placed at about right angles to each other rather than on exactly opposite sides of the tree. CONSTRUCTION ■ WORK 43 TIES Horseshoe. — This tie is illustrated in Fig. 35. It is the most common tie used, and is especially convenient in rural and sec- ondary lines. The tie whe is of the same gauge as the Hne wire and is cut 10 inches long. Each end is given not less than three Fig. 37. — Figure 8 tie for hard-drawn copper wire. close turns about the hne whe and the projecting ends are then chpped off short in order to avoid weakened transmission as the result of " leakage." Such ties are for use on iron wire and are not adapted to tying hard-drawn copper wire. Figure 8. — The wire for this tie is also of the same gauge as that of the line whe, but is cut from 24 to 30 inches long. When used on iron wire, it is constructed as sho^n in Fig. 36, but if hard-drawn copper wire is to be tied it is made as shown in Fig. 37. A variation of this tie is shown in Fig. 38, but is not used as extensively as either of the preceding ones. How- ever, it may be used to good advan- tage in tying hard -drawn copper wire, and in such a case the ends are disposed of as shown in Fig. 37. The tie wire is cut 18 inches long. Swinging.— These ties are con- structed as shown in Fig. 39 and are for use in hnes hung from swing- ing insulators. They are attached to the hne wire not nearer than 6 inches to the insulator and are cut about 20 inches long. Fig, r22Z^ 38. — Tie for iron wire. (Seldom used.) SAG This term has reference to the distance below the hori- zontal to which a hne wire should reach at or near the center of the span. The table of sag necessary to allow for galvanized 44 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN iron wire, hard-drawn copper wire, and for lines hung on trees, will be found on page 355, Appendix. The object of sag is to permit regulation of the tension of the wire during hot or cold I Fig. 39. — Swinging insulator weather. In no case should it be less than that given in the table. SPLICES In Galvanized Iron Wire. — If a sphce is to give the best ser- vice it must be as tight as possible and projecting ends must be cut away close up. Otherwise the transmitting efficiency of the line will be weakened through " leakage " and communication 1 -4^^^^ Hook. Western Electric joint. For iron wire. Hard-drawn copper wire spliced by use of sleeve. Fig. 40. — Splices. will be greatly impaired. The process followed in construct- ing a spUce for this variety of wire is illustrated in Fig. 40, and is known as the " Western Electric " joint. The wire ends are CONSTRUCTION WORK 45 run through the connectors from opposite sides and are then given five turns about each other. Another method is to use two pairs of connectors and turn them in opposite directions or else hold one stationary and turn the other. In Hard-Drawn Copper Wire. — SpHces in this wire are made as shown in Fig. 40. The wire ends are inserted in the sleeves from opposite sides and ends and are then given not less than For hard-drawTi copper wire. For iron wire. Fig. 41. — Dead ends. three nor more than four turns. The projecting ends, which should not exceed 1 inch in length, are turned back upon them- selves. The sleeves should not be used in making sphces in galvanized iron wire, as corrosion will result and weaken the wire. The Hook Splice. — This sphce, also shown in Fig. 40, is the very poorest sort of makeshift and should not be used under 46 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN any circumstances. . Two or three of them in a hne will so weaken the transmitting powers as to render communication almost impossible. DEAD-ENDS These are used at the terminals of lines, on poles next to railway or underground crossings, and at the junctions of switch lines with main hnes. They are constructed as shown in Fig. 41. If hard-drawn copper wire is to be dead-ended the method is the same as shown in Fig. 41, where a half-length sleeve is given one and one-half turns. APPROACHES AND CROSSINGS Forest Service hnes approaching other lines for the purpose oi crossing them are dead-ended at either side. This is especially important if the crossing span is to be very long, in which case it is also dead-ended a connected to the main line as shown in Fig. 42' Such crossings are to be over other lines, unless the latter will be kept in good repair, and noi allowed to fall across the Forest Service line Power-transmission hnes or electric-hght lines are crossed underground, the nearest poles being set not less than 150 feet from them These crossings should be taken up ir detail with the proper office and specific instruC' tions obtained as to the proper method oi construction. Spans crossing railroads must be suspended from poles set far enough back from the track so they will no: reach it in case they fall. Ordinarily they should be bracec or guyed from a direction that will prevent them from falling toward the track. The line wire is dead-ended at either side and two insulators are used, as shown in Fig. 42. Spans crossing wagon roads must be suspended at a height that will permit the passage of traffic beneath them. AU approaches to crossings are at right angles to the line or road to be crossed; unless the ends of the crossing spans are dead-ended they are tied with the figure 8 tie; and if the spans are to be 500 feet or more in length, specific instructions as to the proper method of crossing should be obtained. Fig. 42. — Dead- ends at crossing. CONSTRUCTION WORK 47 CONNECTIONS Branch lines connecting with Forest Service lines are dead- ended on a separate insulator. They are left long enough to supply the connection wire, as shown in Fig. 43, and this is given at least seven turns about the main line if gal- vanized iron wire is used. Hard - drawn copper - wire connections are made as shown in Fig. 44. Fig. 43.- -Branch-line connection. Iron wire. Fig. 41. — Branch-iiue conuection. Hard-drawn copper wire. LIGHTNING RODS These are of the same gauge wire as the hne wire and are attached to the poles before the latter are set. They are cut 33^ feet longer than the pole to which they are to be stapled and a 6-inch length is allowed to project beyond the upper end, or past the ridge of the pole roof. This is then bent back and twisted about itseK, leaving a 3-inch extension above the pole. The extra 3-foot length is coiled or wound about in the shape of a clock spring and is stapled to the squared-off butt of the pole. The wire is then stapled along the pole one-quarter of the way around from the insulator. It must not be allowed to come in contact with the hne \\dre or grounding -wiU be the result. Ordinaril}' one should be attached to every tenth pole, but if the line follows a route which is greatl}'' exposed to atmospheric disturbances one should be supphed at every fifth pole. 48 HANDBOOK FOK RANGEKS " AND WOODSMEN OTHER LINES Forest Service lines hung on the same poles with other lines should be fastened at least 2 feet above the latter. They should never under any circumstances be hung on poles carrying power lines or other wires heavily charged with electricity. TREE LINES Where trees are used in lieu of poles the Une is hung to them by means of swinging insulators, as shown in Fig. 39. These con- sist of two duplicate pieces of porcelain which when properly fitted together resemble an ordinary ''spool" or "knob" insulator, except that the groove passes around the center instead of at one end. Each piece is fitted with a shallow hole at one corner and with a short tenon at the corner diagonally opposite. These prevent lateral displacement of the halves. Each half is also fitted with a semicircular, well-glazed, lengthwise groove through which the line wire passes when the halves are fastened together. After they have been fastened about the line wire they are suspended from long tie wires in such a way that they may swing to a dis- tance of from 8 to 24 inches, farther if necessary. They were orig- inally designed as a means of allowing the wire to slide through its support and not be broken by the swaying of the tree. How- ^ ever, the Une wire seldom slides through them, but finally causes the tie wire to break at or near the tree as the result of con-^ tinuous bending backward and forward. This trouble may be ■ overcome by attaching a wire ring to the tree and fastening the tie wire into it. This ring may be made by twisting a piece of wire about a hammer- or hatchet-handle. Another objection to the use of such insulators is the fact that when the line wire does sUde through them it becomes worn at that point and finally breaks. It is assumed that when they are used, trees falUng across the line will not break it, but that the sag from several spans will accumulate at that place and allow the wire to be borne to the ground. This is exactly what occurs if the line is properly hung. Such lines are tied at about every seventh pole or tree by being fastened to an insulator on a bracket These ties are of No. 12 gauge wire instead of No. 9, the differ- ence in gauge allowing the tie wire to break before the line wi does. The same gauge is also used in tying every third swing ing irsulator. Other ties are of No. 18 gauge seizing strand, CONSTRUCTION WORK 49 TELEPHONES Ohms Resistance of Ringer Coils. — The standard telephone used by the Forest Service is of 2,500 ohms resistance, but when Forest Service lines are connected with other Hnes the ringer coils in both the telephones and extension bells should have the same resistance as those on the line connected with. In some instances it may therefore be necessary to use instruments having 1,600 ohm ringers. Protection. — The protector adopted as standard by the Forest Service is known as No. 60-E and is used where there is no exposure to liigh-tension circuits, such as power or electric-light lines. If exposure to Ughtning is especially great a No. 47-A Hne fuse is used in addition to the No. 60-E protector, but should be so placed that the wire nearest the line may fall away when the fuse is blo'WTi. The same combination protection is used where there may be exposure to Hnes of high-tension voltage except in cases where the voltage may exceed 1,800. In that event specific instruc- tions are to be obtained as to what method of protection should be used. INSTALLATION! Dead-Ending the Line Wire. — The dead-end bracket should be attached to the side of the building at a point as near the proposed location of the telephone as possible. In attaching the line wire to the dead-end insulator it is left long enough after dead-ending to be bent back on itseK for a distance of at least 2 feet and is then run down to and connected with the fuse as sho^Ti in Fig. 45. The fuse should be suspended at a point low enough to allow easy access to it when replacement becomes necessary. Connection of Fuse with Set. — This connection is shown at 1 in Fig. 45 and should be of No. 14 Brown & Sharp gauge wire weather-proofed. The insulator shown at 2 is the regular No. 4K porcelain knob attached to the wall with a No. 18, 3-inch, flat-headed iron screw. The tie wire should be insulated. 1 For installation of sets on metallic circuits, wiring, and installa- tion of outside sets, and other information, see Forest Service manual, "Instructions for the Building and Maintenance of Telephone Lines on the National Forests." 50 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN Drip Loops. — These are made as shown at 3 and are provided in order that water may not follow along the wire into the tube, shown at 4, Such loops should be at least 2 inches deep. Tubes. — These are also of porcelain and are of different lengths and diameters. They are used as conveyances for wires which are to be passed through walls and they also act as extra insulation for such wires. In outside walls they should be set with the inner end higher than the outer end. This prevents ^ water from following along the wire into the building. They may be set horizontally in interior walls. Connections at Protector. —Usually the protector is attached to the inside of the wall at a point directly over the telephone. The line wire connects at the upper side and the line terminal in the set connects at the lower side. Connections in the Set.— As a general rule aU tele- phone sets come ready wired and the terminals in the ones used by the Forest Service are lettered " Line 1 " and " Line 2," The Hne wire is con- nected with the former and the ground wire with the latter. Ground Rods. — The standard ground rod used by the Forest Service is a ^-inch iron rod 5 feet long fitted with a copper wire for connection with the ground wire of the set. When possible to do so this rod should be driven its fall length into the gTOund. At any rate, it must be driven to moist earth if good grounding is secured. It need not necessarily be driven immediately next to the building but may be set at a point several rods away. If the character of the ground is such that no suitable place can be found for the ground rod, a 50-foot length of wire may be closely coiled and buried at a depth which will insure its contact with permanently moist earth. One end of this wire is then connected with the ground wire of the set. The hole in which the wire ia buried should be filled with charcoal or very fine dirt. Joints and Splices. — All joints and splices, both inside and Fig. 45. CONSTRUCTION WOHK 51 outside of the telephone, should be wrapped with tape, except those at the terminals in the set. If this is done they need not be soldered. Connection of Batteries. — Ordinarily all telephones are fitted with dry batteries which are connected with each other, as shown in Fig. 46. They are connected before being placed in Fig. 46. — Connection of batteries. the box. If the latter is wide enough to accommodate three batteries this number should be used in preference to two. To Test Dry Batteries. — The easiest method of ascertaining whether or not a battery is exhausted or ''dead" is to press the heel of a knife-blade firmly against the binding post at the edge of the battery and the point of the blade against that portion of the battery in which the other binding post is fastened. If the portion touched with the point of the blade "fries," sparkles, or smokes the battery is stih "ahve." If ^,he apphcation of the knife-blade has no perceptible effect on it, then the battery is too weak to give good service and should be replaced with a new one. Another effective test is to place the binding posts of one battery against opposite posts of another. A spark will i-esult if the batteries are alive. TELEPHONE TROUBLES The following "troubles" occur most frequently and as a general rule may be immediately remedied by making the nec- essary repairs or adjustments: (1) Rings and communication received but not transmitted: Loose connections or broken wires in batteries or transmitter or both. (2) Rings not received: Broken wires or loose connections in ringer or improper adjustment of clapper between bells. ' (3) Rings transmitter! but not received: Loose connections 52 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN or broken wires at connection of line wire with set, ground rod or protector, contact of Una with trees, or other grounding agents. (4) Crank turns hard and rings are inaudible and not trans- mitted: Usually due to crossed wires. (5) Crank turns easily, rings audible but not transmitted: Broken or poor ground connections, loose connections of outside with inside wiring, broken line wire, poor connection at terminals or protector. (6) Indistinct transmission and receiving: Loose connections, improper joints or splices, worn-out batteries, or faulty grounding. (7) Difficult ringing, transmission, and receiving: Poor joints, faulty ground, fine wire of too light a gauge, too many telephones on the fine, too many receivers down, contact of Hne with trees, branches, or poles. (8) Good transmission, poor receiving: Loose connection or broken wires in induction coil or receiver hook, broken wires in receiver or receive cord, damaged or dusty diaphragm. (9) No transmission or receiving: Broken or disconnected line wire, crossed or broken wires in the set, no ground connec- tion, improper terminal connections. (10) Intermittent transmission and receiving: Loose line connections, intermittent contact of Une wire with grounding ■agents. DAMAGE TO OR DESTRUCTION OF TELEPHONE LINES Section 60 of the Act of March 4, 1909, as quoted on page 31, U. B., 1915, provides as follows: " Whoever shall willfully or maliciously injure or destroy any of the works, property, or material of any telegraph, telephone, or cable line or system, operated or controlled by the United States, whether constructed or in process of construction, or shall willfully or maliciously interfere in any way with the work- ing or use of any such line or system, or shall willfully or mali- ciously obstruct, hinder, or delay the transmission of any com- munication over any such hne or system, shall be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisoned not more than three years, or both." TRAILS Local conditions so completely govern the work of trail con- struction as to make a set of definite rules impracticable, but CONSTRUCTION WORK 53 nevertheless certain general rules can always be followed with nlore or less success, and it is felt that a few suggestions concern- ing the actual work in the field will not be out of place.i Purpose. — Trails are constructed in National Forests for three general purposes, viz.: (1) Transportation facihties; (2) travel facihties; (3) protection facihties. The first is constructed between points where more or less traffic in the shape of supphes and other commodities passes in transportation by pack-animals. Such a trail would correspond to a class A trail as designated in the Forest Service and would usually follow some natural fine of travel, such as a main valley, where eventually it could be widened into a road with httle further expense. It would have a maximum grade of 15% with a standard grade of 6%. The second would be constructed chiefly as a means of access from one secondary point to others, would not exceed a 20% grade, maximum, with a standard grade of 12%, would not be built in anticipation of its future reconstruction as a road, and would correspond to what is known in the Forest Service as a class B trail. A trail leading to some isolated point not of sufficient impor- tance to justify heavy expenditures in trail construction or to demand frequent visits or quick access would be a class C trail, and might have a grade as much in excess of 20% as could be negotiated by pack- or saddle-animals, the standard grade, however, being 18%. All trails, in addition to facihtating transportation and travel, may also serve as means of fire protection by providing stretches of ground free from inflammable material. Preliminary Survey. — The three features of greatest impor- tance in the preHminary survey for a trail are: (1) Directness of route; (2) uniformity of grade; and (3) cost of construction as compared with the economic value of the completed trail. Obviously the adoption of an indirect route between termini when a more direct and just as good a route is possible cannot be justified, nor are numerous and unnecessary descents justifi- able when ascent is the objective. Cost estimates must be held to a limit compatible with the importance of the trail, i. e., ex- ^See Trail Manual, 1913, Preliminary Draft, by F. A. Silcox, District Forester, District No. 1. See also the manual. Trail Con- struction on the National Forests, 1915, 54 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN penditures sufficient for construction of a class A trail should not be contemplated in construction of a trail to be of minor importance when completed. On the other hand, however, proper construction of a trail intended to be used chiefly for transportation purposes should not be neglected to an extent that will leave the trail in no better concUtion when completed than a class B or C trail. Cost of construction is necessarily determined by the nature of the route to be covered, the amount of blasting and grading to be done, the number and sizes of bridges, culverts, drain ditches, retaming walls, and switchbacks reqmi'ed and the amount of swamping to be done. It also includes the cost of the preliminary sm-vey, which, under ordinary conditions, should not exceed 5% of the entire cost of actual construction. Locating the Route. — In most instances where a trail must cross hilly or mountainous country the work of locating the route should begin at the high points and proceed down-hill, this method of operation facilitating advance observations and obviating extra work often incident to up-hill surveys. The i:)reliminary route or routes should be marked only at points sufficient to indicate the line for possible future reference in the final survey, blazes being very light and not cut through the bark, and stakes being small and only temporary in . nature. Later, after aU trail lines have been run and the final survey has been made, this should be marked plainly with blazes cut through the bark or with strong durable stakes set firmly in the ground at freq\ient intervals. Such blazes or stakes may be scribed or otherwise marked with any information the construction crew may require for proper grading or other work, care being taken of course to see that the foreman will readily understand what is meant by certain locations of or data on stakes or blazes. Grade. — To determine the grade of a trail between objec- tive points the rise, or difference in elevation, between those points is divided by the corresponding length of trail minus the total length of the level stretches it may cover. Thus, letting R represent the rise, T the length of trail, L the tota.l length of levels, and G the per cent of grade, the formula for such a calculation would be R -r I CONSTRUCTION WOEK 55 j .. , Therefore, assuming that a trail 3^ mile, or 2,640 feet, in length ascends 375 feet and covers levels aggregating 140 feet in length, the per cent of the grade is found thus: 375 2,640-140"^^^^- Clearing. — Trees, brush, and saplings should be cut out to a distance far enough back on either side of the trail to allow un- interrupted progress of pack- and saddle-animals. Limbs over- hanging the trail should be removed till at least an 8-foot vertical clearance is secured. These should not be merely "bobbed" or "dehorned" so that long stubs are left projecting toward the trail, but should be cut away close up to the tree trunk. Stumps growing along the lower edge of a side-hill trail frequently may be utilized as braces in retaining walls of minor importance but should not be reHed upon to form parts of heavy walls that can be repaired only with difficulty. If they are to be left along other portions of the trail they should be cut low enough to allow plenty of room for stirrups to pass above them. Large trees growing directly in, the route chosen for the trail to follow should, in all ordinary circumstances, be passed around rather than felled. If they are feUed the stumps must be either passed around anyhow or else grubbed out, and in this case there always arises the question whether or not grubbing is more economical than deviation of the trail. Large roots or small stumps uncovered in grading and left projecting above ground or from the uppar bank should be cut out in such a way that remaining portions caimot possibly inter- fere with travel. Disposal of Debris. — A fixed rule in the Forest Service is either to burn aU refuse resulting from clearing and grading or else pile it and have it ready for burning at a later date if cir- cumstances prohibit burning at the time the trail is constructed. GRADING - Blasting. — ^A discussion of this subject will be found on pages 74 to 85, inclusive. Tools Required. — The number of tools required in building a trail depends upon the number of men to be employed and the nature of the ground to be worked over, and about the only 56 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN general rule that can be followed in outfitting a crew is to see that each man is provided with at least one tool. In addition to such a list it is also well to supply at least one extra tool, or accessories, of each variety to be used most and which will be most liable to damage. This is especially true of handles if suitable material for improvised handles cannot be secured along the trail. Plows. — Only in rare cases can trail grading be done by means of teams. Occasionally, however, one horse, hitched to a hght plow, can be used to advantage in breaking ground which can later be raked or shoveled out or placed as desired. The most suitable plow for such work is what is known in the South, and, in fact, in most other sections, as a "bull tongue" or .''Georgia stock," and which consists merely of a straight beam frame carrying a straight leg fitted with a 4-inch steel shovel from 8 to 16 inches long. A lighter variation of the bull tongue is known as the ''caK tongue," which is only about 2 inches wide and which is designed for use on a bent leg. Another suitable form of shovel for such a frame is known as a "twister." This is about 6 inches wide by 12 long and bears a 3- or 4-inch wing which serves the same purpose as the mo\ild board on a turning plow. The wing may be either right or left turning. The best 2-horse turning plow for trail work is what is com- monly known as a "side-hill " or " hillside " plow. The land- side and mould board are so constructed that either may be used as the other simply by reversing their positions. They are released by raising a lock that holds them in position for plowing and can easily be turned by allowing the team to tip the plow as the turn is made for cutting the next furrow. The lock is fastened before the furrow is started. Constructed in this manner, the plow may be used to throw dirt down-hill in plowing in either direction along the trail. If a side-hill plow is not available, then an Oliver chiUed No. 13 turning plow is recommended. This will cut a clean 8-inch strip without difficulty, is light, and can be easily handled on. steep hillsides, and will be found preferable to heavier plows cutting wider furrows. It is especially suitable for work in ground full of stones and roots. The share fastens to the frog with only one bolt, and this is threaded in such a way that the tap must be turned to the left to be tightened. Being threaded CONSTRUCTION WORK 57 in this manner the tap is tightened rather than loosened if it accidentally shdes along on rough ground. Another advantage of this plow is that when dull, the share, being chilled, may be sharpened by chipping it with a hammer, the blows being directed against the edge in line with the upper surface, thus breaking the chips from the upper side and beveUng the share so it will feed into rather than out of the ground. If the chips are knocked from the under side of the share the bevel will be reversed and the plow will jump or feed upward. The share cannot be heated and beaten out to a thin edge. Another form of 2-horse plow very suitable for rough work, and especially effective in breaking out roots and small boulders, is known as a ''coulter." It consists simply of a pointed steel leg, square, round, or shaped like a knife-blade, thrust through the beam and used in breaking gTOund. It is designed only for break- ing hard or rough gi'ound and cannot be used in moving dirt. . In using any form of plow in ground where roots or stones may be encountered frequently the plowman must exercise great care in avoiding broken root ends as they snap back from the plow. Carelessness in this respect may result in severe injuries to or even fractm-es of the legs. He should also walk behind rather than between the handles, since these are often forced suddenly sidewise or upward or do^vnward as the plow-point strikes stones or slips over or under roots, and at such times may inflict painful or even dangerous injuries on the body. He should also remember that a bull tongue, twister, or coulter is so constructed that it is lowered into the ground by downward pressure on the handles and is released by raising the handles, while a turning plow, being fitted with a long point, landside, and share, can be forced into the ground wdth much less difficulty if the handles are gradually forced shghtly upward or toward the side on which the landside works, which, in a regulation turning plow is to the plowman's left. The plow can be released quickly and easily by sudden downward pressure on the handles or by turning the plow sidewise and downward on the share side. The latter operation can be performed without difficulty by seizing the left handle with both hands and thrusting the plow to the right. The lateral direction and the depth to which a turning plow may be made to run in rough ground is regulated to a certain extent by means of the double clevis fitted to the end of the 58 HANDBOOK FOR .RANGERS AND WOODSMEN beam and supplied as a means of attachment for the double tree. This is known as an ''end clevis" or a "plow clevis." On steel-beam plows the part attached to the beam is in two pieces, one piece fitting to each side of the beam. For a wooden beam it is made in one piece and to fit over the end of the beam. At the forward and perpendicular end a number of holes, one below the other, provide means for attaching that part of the clevis wliich fastens to the double tree, and it is by means of these holes that depth is gauged. Hitching into the lowest hole serves to raise the point of the jjIow and thus permits shallow plowing, while hitching into the upper hole forces the point downward and allows deeper plowing. Intermediate depths are provided for by the other holes. Lateral direction may be gauged by attaching the double tree to the horizontal part of the end clevis. Hitching into the hole farthest to the left forces the plow to the right and causes it to "cut narrow." Using the hole farthest to the right makes the plow ''take to land " and cut wide, or "cut and cover," this term applying to work in which a narrow strip of uncut ground is left between furrows and covered over with fresh dirt. In making the turn at the end of a furrow preparatory to cut- ting the next furrow, a turning plow should not be slid along on the edge of the share. If it must be shd at all it should either be slid on the heel of the landside, which is made extra heavy for this use, or else thrown completely over on its left side and dragged. Dragged in this manner it is always in such a position that it may be easily set upright by seizing the upper or right handle with the right hand and raising the other handle to the left hand. A bull tongue, twister, or coulter, having no long horizontal point, share, or landside, may be turned about on the point as on a pivot. In turning any plow sufficient downward pressure should be apphed to the handles to raise the end of the beam to a point where it will hold the double and single trees high enough to prevent the animals from stepping over or entangling .hem- selves in the traces. Turning may also be facilitated by tipping the beam away from the team after it has been raised. Weights placed on a turning plow to assist in holding it in rough ground should be attached near the end of the beam rather than over the leg. When they are placed on bull tongues I CONSTRUCTION WORK 59 twisters, or coulters they should be fastened immediately over the leg. Plowing in very rough ground will be found much easier if one man drives while the other holds the plow\ The driver should keep his animals under complete control, should hold them to a slov/, steady walk, avoid exciting them, and before startmg them again should give them ample time in which to regain their footing and equihbrium after the plow has been brought to a standstill by contact with a root or boulder. The sudden violent jars transmitted to the animals when the plow suddenly strikes a stationary object is not only severely painful and nerve-WTacking, but may even so irritate a team that proper management is a difficult matter. It is therefore imperative that the collars fit properly, that all parts of the harness are substantial and properly adjusted, and that careful horseman- ship be observed in all respects. Excited or irritated animals should b* given a complete rest w^hile the driver and plowman turn their attention to other lines of work, such as removing roots, stones, or brush. Graders. — Trails are so seldom constructed in country where graders can be used that these implements w^ill not be discussed here. Picks. — Common "railroad " picks, weighing about five or six pounds, fitted wdth 34-inch handles, and costing from fifty cents to a dollar each, including cost of the handle, will be found very effective in loosening dirt, but cannot be used to advantage in removing it. Care should be taken to supply several extra handles for the crew, many members of w^hich are often found to exercise httle or no judgment in then- use of a tool or tools. Handles cost from fifteen to tw^enty-five cents. Mattocks. — These should have 16-inch blades with 6- or 8-inch axes and should never be used in extremely hard or stony ground. They are designed primarily for dirt-moving rather than loosening. They w^eigh and cost about the same as picks. They will be found especially suitable for grubbing out roots, cutting brush beneath the gi'ound sm^ace, and taking out roots and stumps along the bank. Combined Picks and Mattocks. — As their name indicates, these are so constructed as to provide a pick and mattock in one tool, and if Umited funds demand strict economy in the 60 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN purchase of tools their use is recommended in preference either to picks or mattocks. They can be used with equal success as either, are strong and durable, and weigh and cost about the same as picks. Railroad pick. Mattock. Combined pick and mattock. Pick or mattock handle. Grubbing hoe handle. Planter's hoe handle. Fig. 47. Grubbing Hoes. — A heavy grubbing hoe may also be used effectively in cutting roots and brush and moving loose material. They are heavier and more durable than mattocks and can be used to better advantage in hard or stony ground. They should weigh not less than three and one-half pounds, should be of forged steel, fitted with an adze eye and a 36-inch bent handle, and should cut 33^ inches. Their cost, including that of the handle, is about the same as that of a pick. A light variety, having a thinner but much wider blade, and known variously as "planter's," ''cotton," ''hazel," and "eye" CONSTRUCTION WORK 61 hoe, made for use on a 4-, 5-, or 6-foot handle, will be found very effective for cutting grass roots and fine brush or in leveling Grubbing. Fig. 48. — Hoes. Planter's. uneven ground. They cost somewhat less than the heavier grubbing hoes. Shovels.— Shoveh for general use should be fitted with long handles and should not exceed five pounds in weight. Blades Socket shank. D-handled shovel. (Socket shank.) Fig. 49. — Long-handled shovels Strap shank. should be about 9 by 12 inches in size and should bear socket shanks in preference to strap shanks, new handles being fitted in the former with much less difficulty than in the latter. The cost is shghtly more than for strap shanks, but such shovels prove much more economical in the long run. The cost varies from sixty-five cents to ^1.25. 62 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN At least one short D-handled shovel should be provided each crew for work in close quarters where a long handle cannot be used to advantage, such as in work about stumps or boulders or along ditches and banks. It weighs somewhat less than the long-handled variety, but the size and cost are about the same. A socket shank is recommended. Pinch Bars. — These implements, if fitted with wedge points, are known as "crow" bars, but if beveled only on one side of the point have "pinch" points and are known as "pinch" bars. The pinch point renders them more effective than a wedge point in forcing them under and prying up heavy boulders, and they Crowbar. Pinch bar. Fig. 50. will be found more generally satisfactory than crowbars. They should be 5 or 53^ feet long and should weigh about twenty pounds. The cost varies from seventy-five cents to $1.25. Rakes. — These will be found very useful in leveUng the tread and in removing gravel and fine brush from the trail. Asphalt rakes, which have extra long shanks fitted into heavy handles, will be found most suitable for rough trail work. They weigh approximately four pounds and cost from fifty cents to one dollar. Axes. — A description of the best axes for general trail work wiU be found on page 170. Bush Hooks. — These should be about 12 inches long over all, should have 2-inch blades and 6-inch cutting edges, and should be made to attach to regulation bush snathes. They will be found very effective for use in cutting out tangles of briars, dense thickets, and other growths not easily reached with the ax. Made of a good quality of tempered, steel, they weigh about one pound and cost from fifty cents to one dollar. Fig. 51. — ^Bush hook. CONSTRUCTION WORK 63 Brush Forks. — Ordinary hay forks, or " pitch " forks, will prove very satisfactory in removing or piling fine brush, such as brambles, sage brush, buck brush, and small seedlings. They should have 5-foot handles, three 12-inch tines, and sub- stantial ferrules fitted over the sockets. They weigh about three pounds and cost from fifty cents to one dollar. Fig. 52.— Brush fork. Use of Picks, Mattocks, and Other Tools. — About the first request made of a new man in any large construction gang employed in grading work where men must work close abreast of each other is to refrain from swinging the tool he is using, and thereby avoid the possibHity of inflicting injuries on his fellow workmen. Picks, mattocks, grubbing hoes, axes, sledges, and all other tools ordinarily swung to one side in using, must, in crow^ded work, be raised straight up and dropped without any swing whatever. The practice of dehvering a long, violent, swinging blow at hard or stony earth is to be avoided at any time. It is not only wearing on the workman, but in the majority of cases does not prove more effective than shorter and lighter blows. Such tools are not made for work that requires them to be used with such force, and if the foreman allow^s his men to use them in a manner not provided for in their construction he will soon find his repair biU out of aU proportion to other expenses. In average hard ground the workman will find that from twelve to fifteen blows per minute with a pick, mattock, or hoe wiU constitute a reasonable rate of speed in labor for him to maintain throughout an eight-hour day. Shovels should not be thrust violently against boulders or into extremely hard ground, nor should they be used as a pinch bar or pick. They are not intended for such use, are not built to withstand such treatment, and may be quite easily battered, bent, or broken. 64 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN The easiest method of using them is to rest the lower hand against the upper side of the corresponding thigh as the knee is shghtly bent, bring the other hand close in against the right hip, and thrust them into loose dirt by inchning the body side- wise and slightly forward. This reUeves the back and arms of unnecessary strain by providing a fulcrum, through the medium of the thigh first mentioned, against which the loaded shovel may be operated. A workman of average strength and endurance shoveling in this manner can remove on an average of ten shovelfuls per minute and throw or scatter the dirt to a distance of from 6 to 12 feet. If the dirt must be thrown upward to about the same distance the rate must be lowered to about eight or nine shovel- fuls per minute. Care of Tools. — Each man should be required to take his tool or tools into camp with him at the end of the day's work and to see that they are in proper repair for use the next day, this rule not applying, of course, to plows and scrapers if these are used. One man should also be detailed to carry in the extra tools, his own tools being taken care of by one of the other men if the extras are so numerous or heavy as to make this arrangement desirable. By following such a plan of caring for his tools the foreman or Forest officer in charge will suffer fewer losses through theft, carelessness, and forgetfulness than if the tools are not so taken care of. A grindstone, whetstone, files, and a portable forge should be supphed for sharpening purposes. The first two may be used in sharpening axes, bush hooks, and other keen-edged tools; blunt-edged tools may be filed; and the forge may be used in heating picks, drills, and other tempered tools for sharpening. A plow to be left unused for considerable periods should never be left sticking in the ground, nor should it be removed and carelessly thrown on its side in such a position that men or animals may accidentally injure themselves on the point, the heel of the share, or the ends of the handles. It should be set up squarely and securely and all exposed cutting or turning portions should be weU smeared with wagon-grease to prevent rusting. This precaution often obviates the necessity for preliminary plowing through sand or gravel before the plow will "scour." All taps used on it, especially the one that secures the CONSTRUCTION WORK 65 share to the frog of an Ohver chilled plow, should be kept tight and not allowed to work loose. Single and double trees when not in use should be laid near the plow or kept attached to it. The brush fork, v/hen not in use, should be set securely on the tine points, and in such a place that in then' work men or animals will not accidentally displace it, and thus provide pos- sible means of injury to themselves. Rakes should either be set away in a safe place or laid teeth downward where men and animals need not pass over them in going about their regular work. Bed. — The. larger, coarser Stones removed in grading and not needed in retaining walls are thrown into the bed fu'st and are firmly settled and packed with loose dirt before fiUing progresses further. Smaller stones, coming from farther up on the bank, are then throT^-n in and likewise settled. By using this material at such a time it is not only removed from a point from which it might otherwise shde into the trail, but it is also utilized m mak- ing a substantial bed. Finally, all loose material is removed from the upper side and used to complete the bed and provide capping. Care must be taken to see that brush, stumps, and old logs are not made a part of the bed. If burif '^ in the bed they will soon rot and leave the bed full of "sink" holes or otherwise in bad condition. Retaining Walls. — Instances may occur where the nature of the ground to be worked over is such that stone for retaining walls cannot be secured from cuts or grades, but m.ust be ob- FiG. 53. — Cross sec- tion of trail showing construction of retaining walls. tained elsewhere. In that event the man in charge must deter- mine whether or not such material can be procured and put in place with less expense than would be required in grading out an extra wide bed which would require no retaining walls. In any case, however, retaining walls should be of stone and should be constructed in a manner similar to that sho-^Ti in Fig. 53. 66 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN The larger, heavier stones are placed on a firm foundation along the lower side of the trail, the Ughter stones being used to complete the upper portions of the walls. Walls should be drawn in shghtly toward the trail as they are completed, and larger stones from the grade are then drawn down against them. They are thus built up with the bed in such a way that long stones may be used in tying them securely together, thereby allowing each to brace the other. Loose dirt is thrown in as the walls are built up, and is not, as may be supposed, kept till the last and then used as a cap. Retaining walls may also be required along the upper side of a trail constructed through loose slides of broken rock. Logs and brush should not be used for wall material unless it is absolutelj^ impossible to secure stone. They are subject to decay and to destruction by fire, and their use invariably resnlts in increased cost of maintenance. Switchbacks. — These are short zigzag lengths of trail provided as a means of maintaining as nearly as possible a uniform grade up steep slopes and long sloping ridges known as " hog-backs," serving much the same purpose as landings in a flight of stairs where horizontal distance is so Hmited that uniform continua- tion of the flight in the same direction is impossible. They should be made as flat as possible in the turn, which should have a minimum width of 4 feet, and which should be protected by a log or a guard-rail so placed as to prevent short cuts across the turn by pack- or saddle-animals. The practice of building them around trees or high stumps is to be avoided. Under ordinary conditions their frequent use is unnecessary if proper care has been taken in determining the grade at which the trail is to ascend. Their construction materially increases the total cost of a trail and their presence renders travel more difficult than when a uniform grade is maintained. Bridges and Culverts. — Since their construction adds materi- ally to the first cost of trail construction and subsequent cost of its maintenance, these are to be avoided when possible. Deep canons may be crossed by dropping the trail to the stream at a point suitable for a ford and ascending the opposite bank, thus doing away with the need of a bridge. However, if a bridge must be built, care must be taken to see that it is erected on a substantial foundation that water will not weaken or remove. If the field man understands masonry, CONSTRUCTION WORK 67 and proper material and sufficient funds are available, he should b}^ all means construct the piers and abutments either of stone or concrete. (For Concrete Construction, see pages 99 to 105, inclusive.) Less permanent, though very reUable, piers and abutments may be made by laying up triangular log pens, pinning or other- wise locking the corners securely together, and filling the pens with loose rock or heavy boulders. Corner pins may be of iron or wood, but if the latter is used it should be of some tough variety, such as seasoned hickory or oak, that will not decay quickly. Pier pens should be placed in such a position with reference to the stream flow that the current may act directly against a corner rather than fuU against one side. Bridges not to exceed 20 or 24 feet may be constructed as shown in Fig. 54. Over this length and of complicated design Fig. 54. — Short bridge. Fig. 55. — ^Method of guying bridge "rafters." (End elevation.) Fig. 56. — Log Bridge. their construction should be left to an experienced bridge builder and will not be discussed here. Side braces or ''rafters" may be tied together, as shown in Fig. 55, the tie being far enough above the floor, of course, to aUow the free passage of vehi'^les beneath it. Bridges to be built across permanent streams having long sloping banks may be constructed as shown in Fig. 56. None of the logs should be less than 10 inches in diameter at the small 68 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN end and all should be perfectly sound. Abutments should have substantial rock foundations that water will not undermine or wash out and the logs should be notched into each other pref- erably in the same manner in which house logs are notched. See Fig. 85. The sides flare outward toward the rear, and when filled with rock and earth serve as approaches. If the sides next the stream are gradually drawn in as the top is reached there will be much less danger of their collapsing if the founda- tions are disturbed. Culverts should always be of stone when such material is available and may be constructed as shown in Fig. 57. Other ^ ^^aoad^Bed^;^ ^ Box. stone. Solid Earth Corduroy over bog. Fig. 57. — Culverts. forms of culverts, only temporary in nature, are of poles, boxes, or hollow logs, and are also illustrated in the same figure. Poles of seasoned aspen or quaking asp {Populus tremuloides) , or any of the cedars or junipers having a top diameter of not less than 8 inches, will be found quite durable, but most of the pines may be used in cases of emergency. Such structures are usually only for temporary use and do not justify heavy expenditures for material. CONSTRUCTION WORK 69 If circumstances prohibit the use of poles a very good sub- stitute may be had by the use of puncheons. These are merely portions of spht logs laid fiat side upward and used in lieu of planks or heavy timbers. They should be notched till they fit securely against the stringers. Box culverts should be of seasoned white oak (Quercus alba) or creosoted pine, and should be not less than 8 by 12 inches in- side, thus requiring the use of four 2 by 12s. A stronger box will be the result if the top, or floor, plank is nailed to the upper edges of the side planks. It is also advisable, especially when a poor grade of lumber must be used, to cut in at least two 2x4s crosswise of the box and under those portions of the floor plank which wiU be subjected to the greatest pressure. Set edgewise under the floor, these will reduce the net inside dimensions to 8 by 8 inches, but this size wiU be found sufficiently large to carry any ordinary amount of drainage. If an unusually large amount of drainage is to be carried, then six 2 by 12s should be used and a box 12 by 20 inches made. Such a culvert, of course, requires crosspieces under the floor planks, but in a box, say 6 feet long, three 2 by 4s laid flatwise wiU be of sufficient strength to support aU ordinary traffic. Laid in this manner, the crosspieces reduce the net inside dimensions to 10 by 20 instead of only 8 by 20 inches. Hollow log culverts of sycamore or buttonwood {Platanus occidentalis) and black gum or tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) are widely used in the South and Southeast, being placed not only in trails but in many of the country roads as weU. The material is quite durable, and such culverts often remain in good repair for ten or fifteen years or more. However, this timber is not available in most parts of the West. Corrugated iron piping, or terra cotta tihng used for culverts, should be at least 8 inches in diameter inside. The most widely used size is only 6 inches, but such pipes clog too easily to prove satisfactory for culverts. Corduroy. — This is a form of artificial bed provided as a means of crossing bog-holes in a trail, and is also one form of construction used in culverts or small bridges of minor impor- tance. Used across bogs, it consists merely of numerous small logs or large poles laid crosswise of the trail and capped usually with dirt or gravel. For deep bogs it may be made more sub- stantial by first placing heavy logs, even 12 or 16 inches in 70 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN diameter, at the bottom, lighter logs being laid at right angles across these. If necessary a third tier is placed at right angles across the second. Frequently only two or three stringer logs will be found nec- essary for the foundation, corduroy being placed on these to serve as a bed. Ordinarily, if capping is to be from 4 to 8 inches thick, no other fastenings will be required to hold the corduroy in place. If necessary, however, it may be pinned to the stringers with wooden pins or toe-nailed with 60-D spikes. Drain Ditches. — Ditches of adequate size to prevent the tread being flooded should be provided at aU points along import.ant trails where flooding is likely to occur. They may be cut into the bank above or into the ground alongside the trail, or, in case only a limited amount of drainage is to be carried, may be cut directly against the upper side of the trail. If drainage is to be conveyed across the trail, side ditches should be continued to points suitable as locations for culverts or water bars, the latter being merely logs of sufficient length and size to direct the flow across the trail after they have been set into the ground diagonally to the Hne of travel. Proper drainage is absolutely essential to economical main- tenance of a trail, and carelessness in construction in this re- spect may later prove responsible for complete abandonment of the trail. Continued travel tends to settle and otherwise displace the capping material until, if proper drainage facihties have not been provided, water flows directly down the middle of the tread and soon cuts an impassable ditch. ^ Tread. — The tread of a trail is that portion of it which is exposed to travel, and upon its width depends the greater por- tion of the cost of construction and maintenance. Its proper consideration in the preliminary survey is, therefore, of the greatest importance and must be given close attention. In any trail, regardless of its classification, per cent of grade, or any other particularly important characteristic, costs in con- struction and maintenance wiU be materially reduced if the ^ In all parts of the country, and especially in the rural districts or in sparsely settled regions, mil be found roads' and trails which have been " set over " time after time as each new route has been allowed to wash out and become impassable, the final result being a series of parallel ditches none of which can be used as a path of travel. CONSTRUCTION WORK 71 width of the tread is kept at a minimum, this point in construc- tion applying with equal force to trails in classes A, B, and C. Quite naturally it would seem to the inexperienced trail- builder that a class A trail, which might have a uniform grade as low as 6 per cent, and which eventually might be recon- structed into an unusually good wagon road, should have an extra wide tread. The micre fact, however, that it has the low grade is sufficient justification for a narrow tread, because the disadvantages of a narrow tread are offset by the low grade; and as for being rebuilt as a road, he should remember that the way is a trail first and may possibly be a road later. The maximum tread seldom need exceed 3 feet, and except in short switchbacks can usually be much less. The minimum for trails of little importance should be about 15 inches. Capping. — This term refers to the material used on the sur- face of a trail or road and is kno-WTi in many locafities as the " crown," " top," or " top dressing." It should be hard and compact, free from large stones, and of a nature that prevents its ready removal by traffic. For instance: Very dry adobe forms a fine dust which may be kicked or blowTi from the trail in large quantities. When thoroughly wet it forms a stiff mud, through which progress can be made only with the greatest difficulty, and holes or ruts made by pack- or saddle-animals do not fill in but remain as such, and after the adobe begins to dry out present a surface even more difficult to travel than one full of large stones. Ob- viously, such material is unfit for capping. Loam is but little better — as, in fact, are most other loose soils, the yellow clay common to the South and Southeast being especially unsatis- factory in wet weather. The best capping is of coarse sand or fine gravel, disintegrated granite being exceptionally suitable. Crushed rock, slag, and cinders are also good, and sawdust or rotten wood can be used to good advantage over permanently wet stretches of trail. Whatever material is used for capping should be thick enough to present a substantial surface for travel and should be graded enough higher in the center than at the sides to allow ample slope for drainage of all rain or snow that may fall upon it. Blazes. — The standard blaze used by the Forest Service in marking trails is not lessr than 8 inches long, is cut through the bark into the sapwood, and is accompanied by a horizontal 72 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN notch cut directly above it. These blazes are made in trees growing at such points along a trail that at least one blaze is always visible to the traveler as he proceeds in either direction. Ordinarily trees along both sides of a completed trail are blazed both fore and aft; but if limited time for construction renders such blazing impractical, they are often blazed on one side only and in such a manner that in proceeding along the trail in either direction the traveler always observes the blazes to his right. Later, other blazes are made as required. The foreman or officer in charge of construction should see that large, ragged, unsightly blazes are avoided. Where a trail crosses open country with httle or no grading, he should also see that its course is plainly marked either by means of rock monu- ments or by guide-posts and boards. Intersecting or branch trails should be indicated by guide-boards showing directions and distances to important points. Specifications for such boards will be furnished field men upon application to the proper office. ROCK DRILLING Effective rock drilling is possible only when properly sharp- ened and tempered drills are used. However, volumes might be written on the subjects of sharpening and tempering steel, and still the inexperienced person would not secure sufficiently definite information to justify him in attempting the operations. Therefore, they will not be discussed here. It is suggested, how- ever, that where considerable drilHng must be done the field officer in charge of the work should secure the services of a man famihar with the work of sharpening and tempering. Even, if such a person demands a higher rate of pay than other members of the crew, his services will prove proportionately more valuable. Single Jacking. — This method of drilhng is employed when shallow holes are to be bored. One man performs both opera- tions of holding and striking the drill and otherwise sees that the hole is properly sunk. A single jack should not weigh more than three and one-half or four pounds. Double Jacking. — Two men are employed in this work, one holding the drill in position while the other strikes it with a sledge known as a '' double jack," and which usually weighs from six to twelve pounds or, in some instances, more. In order to get the best results, either man should be experienced both CONSTRUCTION WORK 73 in holding and in striking the di^ill. Such men, however, are not always available, and it may be found necessary on such occasions to teach certain members of the crew how these operations are performed. The one who is to hold the drill should seat himself in such a manner as to bring the di'ill between his knees, where, by the use of both hands, he can hold it in the required position. It need not be gripped more tightly than is necessary to hold it in position unless it is of such Ught material that blows from the double jack produce violent lateral vibrations in it. In such a case a tighter grip is necessary in order to avoid the severe jars which otherwise result to the hands. Immediately after a blow has been dehvered, and while the double jack is being raised for another, the drill should be raised sHghtly, turned part way around, and then settled back against the bottom of the bore-hole. If it has been unevenly dressed or, instead of being turned on the center, is merely moved at one corner of the bit, a triangular rather than a round hole will be the result, and cutting will be retarded as the result of extra labor imposed upon the striker in cutting the three corners. Ordinarily, such holes are the result of an attempt by the man holding the drill to avoid the labor incident to raising, turning, and setthng the driU, but the advantages gained in this respect are more than offset by the striker's extra labor. By turning the drill after each blow of the double jack the edge of the bit is brought diagonally across the last groove cut and the shoulders of this are chipped away, thus facilitating sinking. The man holding the di-ill should keep his hat-brim pulled well down over his eyes, should keep his face turned downward, and should never watch the drill-head. Blows from the double jack may cause this to sliver or sphnter, and fragments of steel are often thrown off as if shot from a gun. The striker, how- ever, whose face and hands are above the drill-head, is not sub- jected to this danger and should watch the driH-head continu- ously. This permits him to observe any sudden change of the drill's location and to manage the double jack accordingly. If for any reason the drill sticks or hangs and can not be turned between blows of the double jack, the man holding it should make this fact known to the striker immediately. Mean- while he should not attempt to loosen the drill by moving or 74 HANDBOOK FOE KANGERS AND WOODSMEN shaking it about in the. bore-hole until he has assured himself that the striker knows he must stop striking. This is usually done with the interjection " Mud! " which all experienced drillers understand to mean that operations are to be temporarily suspended. Water poured into the bore-hole will not only serve to prevent the drill bit from heating, but will also facihtate cutting. The man holding the drill may protect himself from spattering by placing an old grain sack loosely about the drill at the top of the bore-hole. Chum Drilling. — ^This operation is performed by means of a long drill, used, in most cases, by two men and heavy enough to obviate the necessity for using a sledge. It is simply raised and then forced violently against the bottom of the bore-hole, cutting the same as if driven with a sledge. It is especially convenient in drilling into upright faces of rock. Removing the Cuttings. — Cuttings are removed from the bore- hole with a long, slender tool known as a " spoon." However, if no spoon is available the cuttings may be '' swabbed out " by means of a stick, preferably of some hard, tough wood, beaten into splinters at one end. This end is thrust into the cuttings and twisted about till the brush is filled. After removing it from the bore-hole the stick is rapped sharply against the diill or a stone, and is thus reUeved of the cuttings. BLASTING The construction of permanent improvements, such as roads, trails, and telephone lines, often requires the use of explosives, and unless the new field man has had previous experience in their use he should place a competent man in charge of blast- ing operations until such time as he himself may have become sufficiently famihar with the work to carry it on with a mini- mum possibihty of accidents. The two chief forms of explosives used in general field work are dynamite and blasting powder, but since the latter is used less frequently than the former it will not be discussed here. Electric firing of blasts is seldom practised except in ditching through loose dry dirt or gravel and occasionally in controlling severe forest fires. The inexperienced man is seldom required to handle such work, however, and for that reason only cap- CONSTRUCTION WORK 75 and fuse-firing will be considered. If electric firing must be done, the field man should consult some reliable authority on the subject.! Dynamite. — Com-positioii. — This is composed ol nitro-glycerin mixed with sawdust, nitrate of soda, and other explosive or absorbent ingredients, and is packed into cyhndrical paper shells forming what are known as " sticks " or " cartridges." These are 8 inches long and of different diameters, the standard diam- eter, however, being 13^ inches. They are shipped in cases of twenty-five and fifty pounds. Strength. — The strength of d>Tiamite is expressed in per cent, according to the strength of the explosive regardless of the per cent of nitro-glycerin present, and is kno^Ti as " 20%," '^ 30%," or whatever the strength may be. Straight dynamite is made in strengths from 20% to 60%, gelatin from 35% to 75%, and blasting gelatin 100% only. Use of Different Strengths. — The required strength of d>Tia- mite for different uses may be determined about as follows: For sheU rock, hard clay, frozen earth, log sphtting, ditching, grading, or other fight work, 20%, 25%, 30%, or possibly 40%; for quarry use where stone is to be spfit but not shattered, 30%, 33%, and 40%; for stumps, tree-felHng, ice, and medium hard stone, 40% and 50%; and for extremely hard stone, or iron or steel, 60% straight or 75% gelatin. Blasting powder, aside from the greater inconvenience en- countered in using it, is hardly strong enough in satisfactorily small quantities to produce the desired results when used in the work just mentioned. It may be used to convenience, however, when logs are to be spht into comparatively regular sections, such as for cordwood, corral timbers, rails, and posts. Blasting powder for such work should be of FF, FFF, or FFFF granu- lation. Caps. — These are small metal tubes closed at one end and de- signed for the purpose of detonating dynamite. The closed end carries a small quantity of fulminate of mercury, which explodes by ignition, the concussion thus produced detonating the dyna- ^ See "The Farmer's Handbook," published by the E. I. du Pont de Nemours Powder Company, Wihnington, Delaware. See also "Handbook of Mining Details," pubhshed by IMcGraw- Hill Book Company, 239 West 39th St., New York, N. Y. 76 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN niite. They are classed as No. 6, No. 7, or No. 8, according to the amount of fulminate of mercury they carry. Fuse. — This is flexible tape-, cotton-, hemp-, or jute-covered tubing carrying powder used to convey a flame to the fulminate charge in the cap. The different grades are: Plain hemp for very dry work; single tape for damp work; double tape for wet work; and triple-tape or gutta-percha covered for use in water. It comes in double rolls each 50 feet long, one fitting closely inside the other. Ordinarily it burns at the rate of about 2 feet per minute, but if much abraded or if under pressure, as in a tightly tamped bore-hole, the rate of burning will be increased and may even reach 4 feet per minute. It should be stored in a cool, diy place where it will neither become dry and brittle nor have the varnish melted off. Preparing the Charge. — Attaching the Cap to the Fuse. — ^The required length of fuse, long enough to allow the shot-firer to retire to a safe distance after the fuse has been Ughted and be- fore the charge explodes, is cut squarely off from the roll. An inch or two should be cut from the end of the roll first and dis- carded, as the fuse is constructed of such material that the exposed end always attracts moisture. If in cutting the fuse from the roll the fuse end is flattened it should be rolled round between the thumb and finger, care be- ing taken, however, to see that none of the powder is allowed to escape. This end is then held in a vertical position and the cap is fitted down over it as shown in Fig. 58 until the fulminate charge rests firmly against the end of the fuse. In doing this the cap must not be twisted or rotated about the fuse, as the charge is very sensitive and friction against it may result in an explosion. The final operation is Imown as " crimping " the cap, and consists in crimping or creasing it about the fuse in such a way that the two are held securely together. Fig. 58. The crimp is made near the open end of the cap as shown in the same figure. A specially designed combination crimper, fuse cutter, and punch is manufactured for this purpose and is used as shown in Fig. 59." Many blasters crimp with a piece of hard CONSTRUCTION WORK 77 sharp-edged wood, with a knife-blade, or with their teeth, but none of these methods should be followed unless a crimper is not Crimper. Fig. 59. Using the crimper. is a practice available. In any event crimping with the teeth to be avoided. Attaching the Cap to the Cartridge. — Opinions differ as to whether the cap should be inserted at the end or in the side of the cartridge. The latter method, however, is a much safer one by reason of the fact that it not only leaves the entire end of the cartridge exposed for tamping, but also provides a cushion of dynamite between the cap and the end of the tamp- ing stick. An opening is made in the cartridge by means of the round handle of the crimper, or, if no crimper is available, a smooth round stick of the required diameter may be used. Nails, wire, and small bolts should never be used for this purpose. When the hole has been completed the cap is inserted therein as shown in Fig. 60. Fig. 60. — Inserting cap in cartridge. Fig. 61. — -Cord about fuse. Fig. 62. — Tying the fuse into the cartridge. A strong heavy thread or Ught cord is then tied about the fuse as in Fig. 61, and finally the fuse is tied securely to the cartridge as sho's^^l in Fig. 62. 78 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN If the cap is to be inserted in the end of the cartridge the paper wrapping is unfolded and opened at that end, the hole is punched and the cap inserted, and the wrapping is then closed and securely tied about the fuse. If the charge is to be placed in water or very wet earth the connection of the fuse and cap with the cartridge should be well covered with grease. This should not be of an oily nature or it may pass through the tape and into the filling of the fuse. Loading. — This operation, which is also known as " charg- ing," consists in placing the cartridge in the bore-hole or drill- hole. If several cartridges are to be used in the same hole the one bearing the cap, which is known as the " primer," should be placed next to the top or last one and pressed down firmly. The others must also be firmly settled into the hole, and this can be done much more satisfactorily if their wrappers are sht through lengthwise once or twice. This allows them to spread out and fill the hole more closely. Care must be taken to see that each cartridge is pressed firmly against the one before it and that no vacant spaces are left between them. Another method of loading where only one cartridge is to be used in a hole is to cut the cartridge in half, lower the primed half to the bottom of the hole, press it down firmly, and then tamp the broken-up remaining half in above it. Still another method is to lower the capped fuse into the hole till the ca]) is at or near the bottom and then tamp the broken-up cartridge about it. The last method is especially satisfactory where bore-holes are so small that cartridges can not enter readily. They should •never be forced into a bore-hole. The chief disadvantage of loading in this manner is the possibility of igniting the dyiiamite. Tamping. — Iron tamping rods should never be used when dynamite is to be tamped. The safest method of tamping is by means of a wooden stick cut square at the large end and of a diameter small enough to allow it to enter the bore-hole easily beside the fuse. Fine dry dirt should be used for tamping and should be firmly tamped as filling progresses. The first 5 to 6 inches of dirt should be pressed down firmly but gently. After that greater pressure may be used with little danger, but it should not be greater than that made possible by hand. The hole should be tamped full to the surface. If plenty of grease has been smeared about the connection of the cap and fuse CONSTRUCTION WORK 79 with the cartridge, water will also make fair tamping, but the charge must be fired before the water can soak into it. Firing. — In order to save time and facilitate operations the foreman should have other members of his crew remove tools and other equipment to a safe distance w^hile the shot-firer is loading and preparing the charge for firing. The fuse end should be spht back through the center for a distance of Y2 inch in order to expose the powder and allow the flame of the match to reach it without delay. Ignition of the powder will be indicated by a sudden hissing spurt of sparks and flame, and the shot-firer should not leave it tiU this has occurred. " He then warns other members of the crew of this fact usually by calhng, " Fire in the hole! " and immediately retires to a safe distance. Protection from flying debris should be sought behind large trees or boulders where the bore-hole may be watched and where an unobstructed view of falling earth and stone may be had. Such positions should if possible be selected so the sun and wind wiU be to the watchers' backs. Misfires. — These may occur as the result of broken, defective, or improperly prepared fuse, defective caps, or separation of the fuse and cap. They should not be investigated nor worked near for at least an hour after they should have exploded, and if con- ditions are such that they may be avoided till the next day the safety is so much the greater. The practice of " picking out " or removing an unexploded cartridge from a bore-hole with intent to reload and fu-e it is not safe, although in many instances it is more convenient to remove the tamping and reprime than to driU and charge a new hole. If the " missed " hole is shallow enough to permit the charge being seen when it is reached there is httle danger of an accident. In such a case a haK-cartridge may be primed and loaded in above the first charge, and both may then be exploded. A wise precaution to observe in loading shallow holes is to tamp a crumpled wad of paper down directly against the charge. If this is done and a misfire occurs the tamping may be picked out of the hole with little danger of picking into the charge. Holes so deep, however, that such a wad of paper could not be seen should not be picked, but another hole should be drilled at a safe distance and another charge fired. In removing the broken-out material a close watch should be. kept for any unex- ploded dynamite that was placed in the first hole. In most cases 80 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN the detonation of the second charge will also result in the explosion of the first. Blasting Out Boulders. — One of the largest items in the cost of construction of roads and trails is the removal of large boulders from the bed. These are often of such a shape and nature as to prevent their removal by means of teams, bars, or sledges, and they must therefore be broken up with explosives. This involves operations that are not at first sight apparent to the novice, and unless he is careful to adopt the most effective measures he may have little better success than if he had used a sledge. The first important thing to do in breaking out a boulder is to obtain a general knowledge of its size and shape and the depth to which it may be imbedded. This can be done by shovehng away the dirt at the edges of the boulder or by probing around or under it with a bar. The nature of the ground in which it is imbedded also plays an important part in the work of its removal and must be carefully considered before any charges are placed. The three chief methods used in breaking out boulders follow: Mudcapping. — This is also known as '' blistering." A dyna- mite cartridge is stripped of its wrapping and is then pulverized Blasting Ca-p Dynamite - Fig. 63. — Mudcapping. and laid on top of the boulder in a compact pile. The cap is placed at or near the center of the charge and the whole is then covered with 6 or 8 inches of very damp sand or stiff, wet clay. This is pressed tightly down over the charge and serves as tamping. The method is illustrated in Fig. 63. Blockholing. — This method of breaking out a boulder is shown in Fig. 64, and is also known as " splitting." Its chief dis- advantage lies in the necessity for drilling one or more holes CONSTRUCTION WORK 81 in the boulder, but this is more than offset by the much more effective results obtained. In order to concentrate the charge as much as possible the cartridge should be broken up and Tamping Dynamite Primer Fig. 64. — Blocklioling. tamped in about the cap. Later, if fragments too large to handle remain, they may be mudcapped. Snakeholing. — For small boulders that can be easil}^ removed after having been broken from their bed, this method, also known as " gophering," is very effective. The charge should be placed Fig. 65. — Snakeholing. directly against and at or near the exact center of the under side. It must be well tamped and care must be taken to see that it is not placed at a point where wet or soft dirt may allow the force to be expended downward rather than upward and against the boulder. See Fig. 65. (For Table of Blasting Charges, see page 361, Appendix.) Blasting Out Trees and Stumps. — The chief trouble in this operation usually lies either in the fact that the charge is placed at the bottom of a hole drilled too straight dowTi and not under 82 HANDBOOK FOR RANGERS AND WOODSMEN the center of the tree or else it is placed in a hole in such a way that it is carried beyond or to one side of the tap root. For the correct location of a charge expected to affect the tap root directly see Fig. 66. Fig. 67 shows a charge improperly placed at one side of the center of a tree having no large tap root. The charge should