€^1^'-|7 ■■/•, ,-\' .'\^ .N^V . '> " '-'-, '' l'^,. s^ ' -',0^ '"^■/- v^ ■?/. '"^r.. ^.^' ^JliiP ^.\ ^7/^cv#;\^- m gMjA. 7/A 7_ O " ^' f^r.fT^^ ^ w'?^"^^>i=#sa .0- ^^ - .-y .n ,,^''^, ^0^ --* " ■/ n , V ■>■ >'\ -^. \' // xV' -./'. >^.s^^. ct -^'^-^ii-^ -^' 4 -7-, * 4^ .O' ,'V ^ r "^v-' n "- 't<.. -0'- . -^ '^, -.v ,% v-^- \' \^ .5^,'^^^\-'' ,^^ Native Shoe Still in Existence Volume VI Goodrich Employees Reading Course FOR Earth, Sea and Sky A STORY of the DEVELOPMENT MANUFACTURE and USES of Rubber Footwear and Rubberized Fabrics Written In The Sales Personnel Dept., Training Division OF The B. F. Goodrich Rubber Co. Akron, Ohio 1920 <^& V/6 Copyrighted by The B. F. Goodrich Rubber Co, 19 2 m "8 1920 ©CI.A566409 Preface i:^ SINGE its inception, over three hundred years ago, the idea that caoutchouc (rubber) could be manu- factured into numerous articles useful to the health, safety and comfort of mankind has had many cham- pions, who have been moved, through enthusiasm for their work, to record the results of research and study into its mysteries. In consequence many books have been pubhshed concerning those things which the lay public today classify under the general term "Rubber Goods." Very few writers on rubber have, however, treated the various products by classes, and fewer still have made the attempt to develop the story of each class as we have done in our endeavor to provide elementary instruction for those desiring to inform themselves in a general way. Rubber shoes and rubberized fabrics are the two first items which the white race adopted from the South American native and attempted to introduce into Europe. In this volume, which is the sixth in our series of seven, we have told the story of these two oldest classes of rubber products, from their inception until now. This involves briefly history, descriptions of the major steps in development, modern methods of manufacture, types and styles of product, and marketing methods. Naturally, there is a vast amount of historical anec- dote concerning the development of this line of merchan- dise, which we cannot afford to cover and which, in fact. would not add to the value of the book even were the information available without too much work. We have accordingly related merely enough of the historical to give the reader an appreciati on of the trials and difficulties which have been met and over- come by the successful manufacturer. It is the hope of this company that this book will inspire the whole organization with a well merited enthusiasm for these products. Table of Contents CHAPTER ONE A History of Footwear Origin 1 Commercial Development of Footwear 4 The Rubber Shoe 6 Our First Practical Rubber Shoes 7 Goodyear's Discovery 9 First Practical Rubber Footwear 9 Goodrich Enters the Rubber Footwear Field 11 First Process Improvement 12 Introduction of Hi-Press 14 Goodrich Straight-Line Rubbers 15 Summary 15 CHAPTER TWO Manufacture of Rubber Footwear Production 17 Lasts 18 Footwear Fabrics 20 Fabric Preparation 22 Compounding 22 Coloring 23 Calendering 24 Cutting 24 AssembUng 26 Building 26 Curing 29 Trimming and Inspecting 32 Summary 32 CHAPTER THREE A Shoe for Every Purpose — A Size for Every Foot A Well-Balanced Line 34 The Hi-Press Brand 36 The Straight-Line Brand 36 Socks and Felt Boots 36 Styles, Widths and Sizes 37 CHAPTER FOUR Footwear Abuses and Care Service 39 Heat and Light 39 Storage 40 Oil and Grease 42 Improper Fitting 42 Care Propaganda 43 CHAPTER FIVE Footwear Marketing Sales Organization 44 Methods of Distribution 44 Sales Policy 45 Guarantee and Adjustments 46 Conclusion 49 CHAPTER SIX History of Rubberizing Definition Of Waterproof 51 Origin 53 Commercial Development 54 American Development 56 War as a Stimulating Influence 57 Goodrich 59 CHAPTER SEVEN Rubberizing Materials and Processes Fabrics 61 Compounds 65 Rubberizing 66 Doubling 72 Vulcanization 74 CHAPTER EIGHT Brass Tacks of Rubberizing The Product— Its Uses 77 Motor Top and Curtain Fabrics 78 Balloon Fabrics 80 Rubberized Fabrics for Cloth and Leather Shoes 82 Calendered Fabrics 84 Mill Aprons 86 Garment Fabrics 87 Seat Covering Fabrics 88 Quality Counts 89 CHAPTER NINE Marketing Rubberized Fabrics Distribution 91 The Trade 93 Guarantee 93 Care of Rubberized Fabrics 94 CHAPTER ONE History of Footwear Origin, The story of the shoe goes back to the very beginning of written history. How much farther no one has been able to find out or even guess accurately. But, all through the ages since man began to record his thoughts, the shoe has been woven through song and story. Research among the ruins of ancient cities in Assyria, India, China, and Egypt has disclosed the fact that more than three thousand years ago, a process of tan- ning leather to make it less destructible and more phable was known to mankind and that shoes were manufactured of leather at least that many years ago. Archaeologic investigation has shown the probabihty of a highly developed civilization upon this continent, existent many thousand years ago, consisting of peoples among whom the arts and crafts were well advanced. Discoveries of pre-historic tombs, in which have been found remnants of statuary, fabrics and other materials, proves beyond doubt, that wood and cloth were used to protect and decorate the feet even long before men acquired written language or symbols. Naturally enough, primitive man utilized whatever suitable materials happened to be at hand for his pur- pose, constructing shoes along lines characteristic with his degree of intelligence and the demands made by soil or cHmatic conditions. Skins of animals, wood, grasses, For Earth, Sea and Sky fibrous plant stems and the coagulated juice of certain trees were all made use of for this purpose by the various native peoples. Esparto grass, a fibrous plant which grows abundantly in Spain, has for centuries been a favorite shoe material in that section of the earth. Even yet in Iberia, por- tions of Spain and Portugal, shoes fabricated from this peculiar grass are extremely popular and it is said that when made from the toughest and longest fibre, will outwear many pairs of the best leather product. Columbus and those who followed him to the New Continent noted and made mention of the circumstance that "Indians" were fashioning rude boots by a process of coagulating the juice of certain trees over clay molds modeled from the human foot. Hypothesis, therefore, will at least permit us to assume that rubber boots were not unknown among the ancients of this Western Con- tinent. Rocks, thorns, cold and wet man has always contended with, and although it is true that many of the "ancients" dressed their feet as an indication of caste or purely for personal adornment reasons, the real incentive for a universal demand for footwear has always been the necessity for protection. Old customs linger. The long legged boot such as worn by our early pioneers remain with us long after the reasons for their use disappeared. Even today in certain sections of the United States, populated by people whose antecedents date from The Netherlands, the wooden sabot is worn "just because." Thus for reasons — practical and otherwise — old styles have re- mained in vogue, and taken the world over, shoes today 2 For Earth, Sea and Sky are fashioned from many kinds of materials and are of many types. But, shoes as you and I know them made from leather, fabric or rubber, or any combination of these materials are of comparatively recent origin. Shoes which fit, which are made along scientific lines, which adorn the feet and at the same time meet all requirements of modern civilization, ranging from the light canvas sport shoe to the miner's heavy rubber boot, are the result of a process of elimination, adaptation, and growth which has practically all taken place within the last three quarters of a century. Since, in introducing this story we have signified that it is intended as an elementary text covering the subject of rubber footwear, our reason for digression at the very outset may not be apparent. We therefore turn aside momentarily to explain that it seems neces- sary to give a proper ground work to the study of rubber footwear that the reader should know something of the evolution of the shoe. This necessity naturally involves the study of leather foot coverings since the skins of animals have, from the beginning, been considered the most practical material from which to build boots and shoes. It should not, require such a tremendous stretch of imagination for us to come to the definite conclusion as to why, so early in history, leather re- commended itself as the ideal material for this purpose, and why the traffic in the skins of animals formed one of the principal mediums of exchange in the early com- merce of the world. When dried or otherwise prepared by a process of tan- ning, the skins of almost aU animals, and of some fish, For Earth, Sea and Sky offer a tough wear-resisting, yet pliable material that easily conforms to the outline of the foot. From this material, shoes are constructed which afford an effective covering; warm, durable and at the same time comfortable. Man's natural tendency to accumulate and barter the things constituting tangible wealth prompted him to make use of this by-product of the hunt as his medium of exchange in the purchase of those things which were otherwise difficult to obtain. Thus the traffic in hides developed. That this practice was probably almost universally followed, even by those who in- habited what were considered the remote places of the earth, is shown by the fact that Europeans found the North American Indian trading with pelts as his stand- ard of values. Commercial Development of Footwear. The shoe itself, did not become an item of commerce until comparatively recent times. In fact, for many years shoes were made either by the consumer himself or by the itinerant "cobbler" who carried his tools from place to place, making up each customer's yearly requirements from the supply of leather always kept on hand in every household. History relates that the personnel of every king's or baronet's retinue required the undivided serv- ice of a shoemaker. The wandering cobbler stayed with us until about the beginning of the seventeenth century, but at this time a few skilled workmen in some of the larger cities, began to band themselves together working in teams, at benches, doing the "lasting" and the more difficult operations, "farming out" the rough work among the women of the neighborhood. This arrangement, we For Earth, Sea and Sky are told, formed the nucleus of our present day shoe factory system. At least throughout the colonies of North America, particularly in and around Boston and Lynn, Massa- chusetts, from about 1635 up to the close of the Re- volutionary War a considerable commerce in these semi- factory made ready-to-wear boots and shoes developed. It is said that early in their history, Massachusetts shoes gained a reputation for quality and style rivaled by none, even the finest grades made abroad be- ing surpassed. All during this period the centralized factory idea was slowly developing and gaining in popularity. In the year 1700, a scale of standard sizes was universally adopted and it soon became not un- common to find the whole process, from the tanning of the hide to the building of the shoe, evolved under one roof. Although these changes were steps in development and the business improved and prospered, it was still carried on without further marked change in method until the introduction of machinery. Shoe manufacture both in America and abroad was, in the strictest sense, a hand trade. At the close of the struggle by which the American colonies gained their independence footwear manufac- turers of this country were found in a rather disorganized condition. In other words, through lack of suitable labor to compete with European countries, through lack of proper tariff laws and co-operation between the Colonies, American shoemaking suffered a relapse until about 1845 when Yankee mechanical genius began to interest itself in this trade and bring it to the forefront. For Earth, Sea and Sky The pioneer invention was the roUing machine, a device for sohdifying and hardening sole leather. This was followed by the invention of the wax thread sewing machine for joining the various "upper" component parts. Both of these were "Made in America" machines and accordingly gave new impetus to the footwear business of this country. While other labor-saving devices soon followed which further improved the processes and fostered the industry, the true beginning of shoe manufacturing, where pro- duction was done on a large scale by many workmen under one roof, had its inception about the year 1860 with the invention of the McKay Sewing Machine. Welting, Lasting, Heeling machines and many other apphances were soon after invented and first put into use by the manufacturers of the United States. These American innovations have made possible the produc- tion of leather footwear in large quantities, one company alone having reached long ago an output of seventy-five thousand pairs per day. Consequently it can be said that the great improvements leading up to the present high state of development have been created by the American manufacturer. The Rubber Shoe. Insofar as we can find out, the first mention of the substance now known as rubber, in connection with the manufacture of shoes was made by the Spanish explorer, Juan de Forquemada, in his book published in Madrid about 1615. Among other peculiar customs of the American native, he relates about their practice of constructing rude water-tight shoes by congealing the juices of certain trees over clay molds patterned after the wearer's own feet. 6 For Earth, Sea and Sky Some years later, French scientists and explorers, mak- ing Geographic Surveys of South America under the aus- pices of the Paris Academy of Sciences, discovered in the course of their work more about this substance we know as rubber. They learned its name, characteristics, etc. — and along with their reports sent to France samples of the crude native shoes. These items were treated as "curios" and placed on exhibit in the museums of Paris. Whether or not the native adopted Caoutchouc as a footwear material because of its waterproof qualities is not known, but it is unlikely that he did. At least the most logical conclusion would be that his shoes were made from rubber because of its abundance and availability or because this latex was more easily gathered and prepared than the skins of animals. We have every reason to believe however, that this peculiar material had probably been employed in the man- ufacture of shoes for many centuries prior to the dis- coveries of Columbus. It has been remarked many times that rubber shoes when first discovered by the Europeans were crudely decorated with caricatures of birds and reptiles, and that these drawings correspond to those since found on stones among the ancient ruins of South America. Even now these primitive decorations are in vogue, and al- though this circumstance may not positively prove the origin of the rubber shoe, it is reasonable to presume that its use dates back almost to the beginning of the first occupation of the South American continent. Our First Practical Rubber Shoes. Native rub- ber shoes continued to be regarded as curiosities for almost four centuries after their discovery, and it was not until about 1813 that the value of rubber as a For Earth, Sea and Sky waterproof shoe material was given public recognition. As the story goes, a Boston sea captain brought with him on a return voyage from the Amazon district five hundred pairs of native "gum boots" which, although clumsy and unshapely, readily sold at $5.00 per pair. As a protection against wet feet, it was promptly con- ceded that rubber was much superior to greased leather and it has been estimated that during a period of fifteen years, beginning with 1825, one million pairs of these rudely constructed shoes were imported from South America and found a ready market. It was, however, the high price together with the fact that "gum boots" from South America were con- sidered a luxury that maintained their popularity for so long. From a service standpoint they were not, as may be imagined, satisfactory; a contention substanti- ated by the fact that after a process had been perfected permitting their production on a leirge scale and sale at a reasonable figure, the public did not want "rubbers" at any price. The cause of this condition was a dis- covery made about 1831, involving the preparation of a varnish from lampblack, rubber and spirits of turpentine, in which latter ingredient it was found that rubber would dissolve. The application of this mixture to fabric produced a material with a glossy water-impervious surface which was supposed would, among other things, prove suitable for the manufacture of waterproof footwear and great expectations were entertained for its industrial develop- ment. But the exponents of this process had failed to take into consideration the peculiar characteristics of their basic ingredient, i. e. its tendency to soften and stick in warm temperature and to become hard For Earth, Sea and Sky and brittle in the cold. It has been suggested that the owner of a pair of these first factory produced rubber shoes was very likely to find them rooted firmly to the floor, should he perchance place them near a hot stove to dry. No means up to this time had been discovered to overcome this annoying characteristic of rubber, i, e., its inherent stickiness. For this reason, The Roxbury India Rubber Co. which had been chartered in 1831 to manufacture footwear and clothing under this patent, failed. The rubber shoe was for the time accordingly relegated to the industrial discard as a bad venture and forgotten by the public. Goodyear's Discovery. Despite the repeated fail- ures of rubber articles to give satisfaction, there were still some who believed in the possibilities of a bright future for this substance, providing some means could be found to overcome the bothersome viscosity. Ex- periments were made with this end in view, and a few remarkable results were reached which at least ap- proached the desired end. One of those who had an unflagging interest in rubber was a man about whom so much has been written that it seems useless for us to more than merely mention his name. Charles Goodyear, — for it was he — probably had a more firmly rooted belief in his chosen fife work than did his contemporaries, or perhaps more of that quahty of tenacity of purpose; for, where others failed, he succeeded, eventuaUy discovering that fundamental in rubber manufacture which has made his name famous the world over— VULCANIZATION. First Practical Rubber Footwear. Leverett Candee, founder of the firm of L. Candee & Company, procured 9 For Earth, Sea and Sky the jBrst license for the manufacture of vulcanized foot- wear under the Goodyear patent and immediately opened a factory in New Haven, Connecticut, (1844). The establishment of this company, which has to this day remained an important factor in the rubber shoe in- dustry, marked the beginning of what has proven to be one of the greatest industrial enterprises of the nation. In fact, footwear is one branch of the rubber industry which has ever since enjoyed a place in the front ranks of rubber goods production. Mr. Candee's first attempt to market these "Vulcan- ized Rubbers" was very interesting, but albeit rather expensive to him; for — owing to the unfortunate ex- perience of the public with earlier rubber products — those made before the Goodyear discovery — the whole business had come into such ill repute that it proved extremely difficult to interest the hard-headed Yankee. As a result, the Gandee salesman who started out through New England with his rubber shoes found a great many who were even disinclined to give them inspection. And so, in order to secure a market, he found it necessary to give away a great many intro- ductory pairs. It was not, however, necessary to do this a second season, for it was soon discovered that the new product was entirely different from the footwear of a few years before. Within the next few months after his discovery be- came known, Goodyear issued similar licenses to Ford & Co. of New Brunswick, New Jersey (which later became the Meyer Rubber Co.) ; to the New Brunswick Rubber Co. of the same place, and to Goodyear's Metallic Rubber Shoe Go. of Naugatuck, Connecticut. These licenses also included rubber boots, though this 10 For Earth, Sea and Sky type of footwear did not appear on the market until several years later. The success of the rubber shoe being thus assured, and the demand increasing rapidly, others were attracted to this field and soon there were a dozen or more fac- tories turning out a fairly good line of merchandise. For a number of years thereafter the rubber shoe in- dustry utihzed the bulk of the crude imported to this country and the rapid rise of this product to popularity was truly wonderful. Statistics show that the increase in sales from 1860 to 1900 was more than four thousand per cent. Although the development of mechanical rubber goods and later automobile tires invaded the field to such an extent that the shoe industry no longer consumes the same proportion of the basic raw material as for- merly, the shoe business is, nevertheless, still one of the most important branches of rubber goods manufacture. Goodrich Enters the Rubber Footwear Field. The attractive possibihties of the rubber footwear busi- ness had long been recognized by the officers of The B. F. Goodrich Company; and as early as 1898 they were giving serious consideration to the addition of this product to our rapidly increasing list of Quality Goods. The final arrangements for the manufacture of boots and shoes were not, however, made until about 1905. During this year a practical and experienced rubber shoe man was engaged to assume the responsibility of this new department, and we decided to enter the market with a complete line of heavy and light weight wear which would be recognized as second in quality to none and truly representative of Goodrich principles. 11 For Earth, Sea and Sky The Mishawaka Woolen Manufacturing Go. of Misha- waka, Indiana, makers of the "Ball-Band" line of rubber footwear, then one of the most prominent concerns among rubber shoe manufacturers, hearing of our de- cision offered to contract with us for all the light weight rubbers we could produce. Inasmuch as we had up to this time no sales experience in this line, it was deemed advisable to accept their proposal. Accordingly, the Akron Rubber Shoe Go. was organized with the stock equally divided between ourselves and the Misha- waka Gompany. We immediately began under this Arrangement the manufacture of "Straight-Line" rubber footwear, the first sales being made in January, 1906. Under our agreement we were not privileged to produce and offer for sale, light weight rubber footwear under the Good- rich or any other name, an arrangement which worked to our mutual advantage for a number of years. So much so in fact that we confined our output to the "Straight-Line" brand, making no effort to put out a line of heavy wear. But about 1910, however, the Diamond Rubber Go. then a competing corporation, came out with a complete line of heavy and light rubber footwear, tennis shoes, etc., and we, of course, inherited this business at the time of the consolidation in 1912. This date really marks the beginning of our footwear selling efforts. First Process Improvement. The rubber foot- wear business of this country grew rapidly and to enor- mous proportions from its inception in 1844 and various small factories were combined to facilitate the buying of raw materials. As a result, this rubber product de- clined considerably in price during this period and the 12 For Earth, Sea and Sky buying public was receiving, in most cases at least, value for their money, insofar as the honest manufacturer was able to deliver quality. It is also true that the art of compounding had developed to a point where stocks entering the make-up of rubber shoes were unquestionably superior to those turned out in the beginning. Nevertheless, no im- portant improvement in methods of manufacture or quaUty had been made for fifty years up to 1913, and the same methods of building and curing were in vogue in 1912 as had been employed for many years previous. The process, explained in a later chapter of this book , known as the "dry heat" method of cure, did not correct errors made by builders nor serve to eliminate the occa- sional air pockets from between the plies. Neither was the natural porosity of the stock materially lessened during the dry heat cure. Consequently the "life" of heavy rubbers or boots was sometimes an uncertainty and the service they might be expected to deliver could not always be gauged. For several years we had realized this weakness in methods and had constantly experimented with the idea in mind that eventually we could evolve a new process whereby all the objectionable faults in manufac- ture could be eliminated. Almost immediately after the consohdation of the Goodrich-Diamond factories, we began the development of the Diamond brand line with this aim in view. Such numbers of their line as were thought inadvisa- ble to be continued were eliminated at that time, thus allowing us to center manufacturing efforts on what we considered to be the more important items necessary for a 13 For Earth, Sea and Sky well balanced line of strictly waterproof long wearing boots and shoes. In October, 1913, we announced to the trade through advertising, catalogues, and representatives, an entirely new departure from the old methods as used in the man- ufacture of the ordinary black rubber boot and shoe. The introduction a few weeks later, of the Diamond White Brand and Tobacco lines both of which were made by this improved process brought forth an ava- lanche of criticism from our competitors in which it was claimed that our new colored preduct was nothing but a fad and would not endure against the competition of the old-fashioned black rubber. Happily, however, it has since been proved that our critics were mistaken and that this new product was the harbinger of a line which has since revolutionized the rubber footwear industry — The Hi-press. Introduction of Hi-press. As stated, no impor- tant changes in the manufacturing processes of rubber footwear had been made for fifty years prior to this date. When the "big" improvement was made by a concern considered as an infant in the rubber footwear business — Goodrich — it came with such lightning-like suddenness and was so revolutionary in character that at first it was treated by the old time footwear manufacturer with indifference. When, however, our Hi-press product began to outwear from two to ten pairs of boots made the old way, this unconcern turned to recognition and our leadership in the field of rubber footwear was estabhshed. The Hi-press line, offered to the trade in January, 1914, which replaced both the Diamond White and Tabasco lines embraces those styles which come under 14 For Earth, Sea and Sky the classification of "heavy goods." White and brown as well as black numbers are furnished and colored boots have become 'more than popular; in fact, the standard by which all others are judged. As it turned out, brown and white boots are not merely a fad but, on the contrary, represent one of the great steps in advance that come periodically in all of the arts and crafts. So quickly has the public recognized this, that manu- facturers of rubber footwear everywhere are imitating the Goodrich product and are turning out brown and white wear which they represent to the trade as being identical in all ways. Goodrich Straight- Line Rubbers. Our contract with the Mishawaka Woolen Manufacturing Company which terminated January, 1916, was not renewed. We then took over the marketing of our Straight-Line footwear which had already established a reputation for quality in 99 out of every 100 towns north of the Mason-Dixon line and from coast to coast. More- over, since we owned the rights to the Straight-Line trade mark, we had but to announce to the trade our intention of marketing this line direct to secure from the very start as much light weight business as we could handle. Summary. These successive steps in the evolution of Goodrich rubber footwear have established in the minds of the pubhc the name "Hi-press" as typifying the acme of perfection in heavy wear, and the name "Straight- Line" as signifying the hght weight wear occupying the highest pinnacle of quahty possible for such goods. 15 For Earth, Sea and Sky The Diamond brands were gradually closed out, as was the Tabasco brand, so that today Goodrich rubber footwear consists of but the two divisions, Straight- Line and Hi-press. This is a quality line throughout, first, last and all the time, and comprises an assortment of numbers that is stronger, more nearly complete and more satisfactory to sell than any similar line produced. IG CHAPTER TWO Manufacture of Rubber Footwear Production. In the preparation of raw materials up to the point where the various component parts of the rubber shoe are actually put together, considerable machinery is employed; which is to say that nearly all so-called "preUminary" steps are accomplished by me- chanical means and can be classified as "machine proc- esses." The devices used are, however, ordinarily nothing more than modified standard rubber working machines adapted to the peculiarities of footwear construction. In truth, the preliminary steps in rubber shoe manufacture are fundamentally the same as those taken in the preparation of stocks for all classes of rubber goods. On account of the nature of rubber, sewing machines and many other mechanical devices which for years have been taken for granted in the leather shoe trade are not of practical value in actual rubber shoe con- struction. The manufacture of rubber boots and shoes as carried on today is, therefore, in the strictest sense, not a machine process and those who are employed for the "building" operations, that is, in assembling the various component parts, are for the most part hand artisans. This is a condition which at the very outset creates a serious problem in that rubber shoemakers cannot be trained in a few days. It is, however, being recognized more widely every day that the machine must supplement the human in all fields ; if production is to keep pace with the growing de- 17 For Earth, Sea and Sky mand for more and better articles of all kinds at a uniform- ly minimum price. Therefore, just as automatic machin- ery has been gradually adopted in the production of other articles, it is only logical to assume that even- tually machines will supplant the present hand labor in the building of rubber footwear. Lasts. "A wooden form approximately resembling the human foot, over which a shoe may be shaped," is the standard definition of the word "last." This, however, is not entirely correct, in the rubber footwear field, since here "lasts" made from metals are used to a great extent. Why wood "lasts" are used exclusively in the leather shoe industry will be obvious when one knows that during certain steps in the "lasting" of the shoe, the upper must be tacked securely in place. But why both wood and metal "lasts" are used in building rubber footwear may not be clear. For this reason we deem it wise to explain, rather carefully, this feature of the rubber shoe business. So-called light weight rubber footwear is that which is worn in conjunction with the leather shoe and there- fore, must necessarily conform in shapes to prevailing leather shoe styles. Because these styles are almost constantly changing, especially in the finer grades of men's and women's shoes, rubber shoe manufacturers are frequently forced to procure a new complement of "lasts" for the manufacture of light weight wear. Naturally, metal under this condition would be too costly to be practical, since only one or two seasons' use could be derived from the "last" before it would be out of style and therefore, fit only for the scrap heap. Thus in the construction of the so termed fight weight 18 For Earth, Sea and Sky wear it has been found more in keeping with good factory practice to use wooden "lasts." Accordingly except for certain styles known as staples, always found in any com- plete line of this kind, wooden "lasts" are invariably used. In the heavy rubber footwear field, which embraces such things as miners' boots, each manufacturer has, on the other hand, an opportunity to develop styles in accordance with his own ideas of what constitutes scien- tific shapes for boots and shoes of this character. Thus his own "last" becomes a permanent style insofar as he is concerned, and can be used indefinitely until worn out. Then too, the use of metal for this purpose, especially in the Goodrich factories, is not only economical but necessary because of its better adaptability to the curing process employed by us in the manufacture of our heavy weight line. Any one of several metals can be used. But, because of the advantages of great strength, light- ness, and extreme ductility, aluminum seems to be ideal for rubber footwear "lasts" and is, therefore, made use of to the greatest extent. The "last" proposition is, however, one of much greater importance than might be imagined by the casual observer. It is, in fact, a question upon which the success of any such line may depend entirely. As mentioned, "lasts" for light weight wear must be in harmony with existing styles in leather shoes or the line is a failure. Likewise, in designing "lasts" for heavy wear, it is important that they be made to con- form to comfortable and healthful lines only possible when a knowledge of the anatomy of the human foot is possessed. Nor is a knowledge of styles all that is necessary. Any up-to-date factory must have a full comple- 19 For Earth, Sea and Sky ment of "lasts" in the various sizes and styles and these must be so handled that shoes of a different character but like shapes may utilize the same "lasts." In one light weight women's style we may have seven shapes, three widths to each shape and fourteen sizes, 1 to 8 in. each. This would make in all 294 lasts, even if we had only one of each size and shape. And when we come to consider the number actually necessary for volume production and the scores of styles in vogue, do we begin to get an inkling of the extent of the necessary equipment. These are the things we have in mind in mentioning that this whole problem is one of the most difficult in the rubber footwear business. Footwear Fabrics. The subject of footwear fabrics is one about which a great deal of more or less valuable matter might be written. There are, however, so many phases to the fabric situation, and so many changes being made necessary from time to time, that an attempt to cover the subject would be but a waste of time. Such information would, in fact, soon be out of date. There are, however, certain fundamental facts concerning selection and preparation of fabrics as used in the manufacture of rubber footwear regarding which a general knowledge is necessary for a proper under- standing of the rubber shoe business and without which no one could intelligently handle a discussion of quality and values. After investigation we find that the primary use of fabric in rubber shoe construction was to give strength and more permanent shape to the finished article. Now, however, fabrics are employed in the construction of certain kinds of rubber footwear for other reasons. 20 For Earth, Sea and Sky For example, a woolly cotton known as "fleece lining" is used to make certain boots and rubbers more frost- proof, and a covering of heavy black cotton known as "cashmerette" is used on certain semi-dress rubbers for the same reason. Again, corduroy is used in the tops of lumbermen's heavy winter shoes because of its warmth and flexibility, and we are all famiUar with the "Jersey" used in the type of overshoe known as "Goloshes," "Arctics," or "Gaiters," much worn by everyone in the lands of deep snows. Another one, a felt-like fabric termed by the trade as "wool lining" has been much used as an inner facing or lining for fishermen's and lumbermen's shoes while "net lining" is a cotton fabric used extensively in the manu- facture of rubber footwear, especially in the lighter weight lines. The latter is a loosely woven material exceedingly strong, which, because of this strength, and because it takes and holds compounds well, it is much in demand. We find net lining desirable for use in sport boots. "Duck" is a strong cotton material used as a lining or reinforcing in the heavier classes of rubber footwear, though the term itself has been used as a "Catch" advertising word to denote extra strength in some particular. In other words, "duck vamp" means a boot with an extra ply of canvas around the vamp. Friction or Fusion lining also refers to a cotton fabric of this kind and for this same purpose. Naturally, we select boot and shoe fabrics primarily with their several and peculiar service requirements in mind. But, we must use care in this particular to purchase only such as will successfully undergo the rubberizing processes. By this we mean that in textile finishing certain minerals used in our compound when 21 For Earth, Sea and Sky mixed with these foreign substances would bring about a result detrimental to the serviceability of the shoe. Likewise, care must be exercised to select fabric in which dyes — where colored cloth is used — will not be subject to chemical reaction from the rubberizing process. From this brief description it will be evident that the selection of fabrics is in itself an exceedingly important phase of rubber footwear manufacture, and one in which there are many chances to blunder without the safeguard of a rigid system of specification and inspec- tion such as used by the Goodrich Company. Fabric Preparation. Some fabrics must be frictioned on two sides, some only on one, some receive a skim coating while others do not, the steps taken depending, of course, upon the use to which the fabric is put. To apply the rubber compounds calenders are utilized as are also spreading machines, the selection of the machin- ery depending upon the nature of the fabric to be run. This is to say that if the material be firm and fairly closely woven, a calender can be used, whereas if loosely fabricated and liable to run crookedly between the calender rolls, a spreader must be employed. In all instances, however, the frictioned or frictioned and coated stock is delivered to the cutting department in its green or uncured state. If particularly sticky or "tacky" a "liner" or muslin strip is wound into the roll during the rubberizing. Compounding. The mixing and milling of rubber, minerals and other materials into compounds for rubber shoe construction is carried on in hke manner and by the identical machinery used for the same steps during the manufacture of other rubber goods. Therefore, 22 For Earth, Sea and Sky because these processes have been explained in the first volume of this series, we will touch only upon such points as are pecuhar to rubber footwear. As previously mentioned, to The B. F. Goodrich Com- pany belongs the honor of having made the great im- provement in methods of rubber footwear manufacture. To this we may add that this new and improved prod- uct of ours involves not only methods but materials as well. It is our "Hi-press" method of vulcanization explained later in this chapter, which makes possible the employment of better materials than could formerly be used. In other words, by the old curing methods the limits of quality were soon reached, whereas by the new process, quality limit depends only upon the grades of rubber obtainable and the compounder's ability to improve upon the raw product by mixing with it such ingredients as will impart a more lasting and stronger fibre. Coloring. Color in rubber is no criterion of quality. Any good rubber chemist can formulate a compound in almost any color he may desire, but color that is the result of ingredients mixed with the raw rubber to improve its quaUty is another feature and one much harder to imitate successfully. While we do not wish to go on record as claiming that no one else will ever do it, the fact remains that we are the first on the ground with a colored boot of long wearing quality, and it will probably be some time before others attain the same degree of perfection as exemplified by our "Quality line." |I Coloring ingredients may, however, be justifiably placed in rubber shoe compounds for purely psychologi- cal reasons, or they may be used for the purpose of making light rubbers match the leather shoe as is done for 23 For Earth, Sea and Sky ladies' white kid and other light colored footwear. We surely will be the last to deny the truth of this state- ment; but in any event, our readers may feel safe in assuming that all rubber footwear whether black, brown or white, need not necessarily be of Goodrich quality and that the test of service alone will tell. Calendering. Some footwear stocks are calendered on standard machines in the usual way and come from between the rolls in a long sheet. This sheeted stock may be wound onto a shell into a muslin liner or cut to convenient lengths and interleaved with "books" or placed on trays. A considerable portion of the footwear stock is, how- ever, sheeted on a special calender which in addition to reducing the compound to specified thickness and width, imprints the sheet with some design by means of a revolving dye somewhat resembling the paper mill "dandy roll." The pattern may be the knurled non- skid effect noted on the bottom of the sole or it may be an outUne of some component part stamped there merely as a guide for the cutters. These calenders sometimes even cut the stock to the desired shapes. Cutting. We may logically consider everything before this step as preliminary to actual construction and that the steps differed but little from the prep- aration of raw materials in the manufacture of other rubber goods whether belting, hot water bottles, tires or what not. After leaving the calender, however, stocks for footwear commence to take the form of the various component parts and thus we may say that cutting is the first actual step in construction. This operation is accomplished in various ways depend- ing upon the nature of the material, but, because of the 24 For Earth, Sea and Sky extreme viscosity of some stocks, particularly those which form the outside surface of some types, machinery cannot be used to the greatest extent. This work, therefore, must be done by hand and for this purpose skilled cutters are employed. These artisans work at tables using sharp knives which they wield with a pecuharly dexterous wrist motion, enabling them to turn out an enormous amount of work without undue fatigue. Stocks upon which no outUne has been imprinted dur- ing the calendering process, such as those used in soles, are shaped into the various component parts for which they are intended by the use of metal templets around the edge of which the workman follows with his knife. In cutting out soles "rights" and "lefts" of the same size are made from the same pattern by the simple expedient of reversing it alternately. The opposites thus cut follow each other through the various steps usually finally appearing upon the same pair of com- pleted shoes. It will be recognized that where the raw stocks whether fabric or compound, are of such a character or consistency that machinery can be employed effective- ly, a great opportunity for saving in manufacturing costs presents itself, since naturally machine cutting is much more rapid and usually more accurate. Therefore, we wiU mention that in such instances as we have found mechanical cutting to be the practical plan, dies have been made and are used, these being attached to auto- matic machines. Further improvement in cutting methods will doubt- less suggest itself or be thought out by our expert proc- ess-experimental men from time to time. This fea- 25 For Earth, Sea and Sky ture need not, however, concern greatly those seeking fundamental knowledge; for such changes as will be made while not necessarily minor ones will not individ- ually aflfect our consideration of the finished product. Assembling. All component parts necessary to complete a run of sizes of a given style are assembled as soon as cut. Assembling here merely means brought together from the various divisions of the department into the bins of a central stock distributing station, where each lot is carefully checked and sorted by size. Great care is taken in this work to keep all parts of a size in systematic arrangement according to stages of the building process and to see that each is properly marked with the lot number, width and size. We have found that this plan greatly facilitates the manufacture, for it enables the shop foremen to keep accurate tab on orders in process and prevents the floor of the making room from becoming cluttered with stock trucks. Building. As emphasized previously, the actual making of rubber footwear is as yet essentially a hand process accomplished by expert workers who acquire their skill through serving an apprenticeship the same as artisans in other crafts are obliged to do. Although to become an expert in rubber footwear making does not require as long an apprenticeship as it does to become proficient in some of the trades, the principle of pro- bation is the same, and all new members of the organi- zation are required to work in the beginners' class under careful instructions until they are thoroughly com- petent. 26 For Earth, Sea and Sky All work in the manufacturing department is' 'portioned' ' out and the necessary stocks issued to the workers at intervals as required by them. Each lot must be completed before others are started and thus the work is cleaned up so we proceed, no delays occurring to interrupt the continuity of the process during any particular run. It is neither our purpose to describe here factory prac- tice in detail nor to attempt a discussion of manufactur- ing theories. But the merits of the team work have been so long and loudly extolled by production engineers as the scheme par excellence in modern manufacture and so much has been written and said concerning this plan that when reading about production of rubber shoes or while paying a visit to the factory, one would quite naturally inquire into this phase of rubber shoe making. By way of anticipation, therefore, let us mention that we, are followers of this system. In many depart- ments where machine labor is the rule, we believe it to be the ideal scheme and even in places where hand work prevails, the team work system is very often found to be the economical practice. Further than this brief statement, we need not discuss this question, but our readers may feel assured that wherever feasible and practicable, this plan is the accepted regime in rubber footwear manufacturing. Before the various component parts of the rubber boot or shoe are joined together over the last, certain preparation must be made by the workmen to insure a quick and positive adhesion at the seams and between the pUes. This involves the "roughing" and cementing 27 For Earth, Sea and Sky of the edges of the hnings and fabric reinforcing pieces and the softening of the edges of the gum pieces by the use '■ of some solvent. This treatment is commonly known as "stock preparation." Leg Lining, Toe Lining, Insole, Toe Piping, Half Vamp, Front Stay, Counter and Rag Sole are the technical names given the various pieces just referred to while the gum reinforcement strips used on all of these are known as the Skipper, Spike and Ankle pieces. After the solvent has evaporated from the cements, the actual construction of the shoe commences by the application of the Leg Lining to the last. This lining, which is applied friction side out, may be considered as the basis of the shoe. Other parts are placed in position over one of these now covered "lasts," one or more pieces at a time in the order enumerated in the pre- ceding paragraph, until the workman has his racks entirely filled with what he terms "half lasted" shoes, which means shoes that are considered as one half made. As rapidly as the "half lasting" is finished, the outer surface of each shoe is thoroughly coated with cement and returned to the rack. Here it remains for about twenty minutes, or until the solvent has evaporated and the cement reaches that consistency where it comes away in strings if touched with the finger. The calendered stocks which go to make up the outer surface of the shoe or boot are then appUed and "stitched" down carefully, great care being taken to see that no air bubbles remain between the outer and inner plies of stock. This operation, termed "Stitching" is, of course, accomplished without the use of thread, the natural viscosity of the stock sufficing to hold the various pieces into place until they become one by cure. 28 For Earth, Sea and Sky The outside layer of the rubber shoe just mentioned may be sheeted rubber stock or a fabric coated with a compound, but in either case it is composed of vari- ously shaped pieces the same as are the lining stocks. Each part is designated by some name, the most important ones of which will be recognized as words adopted from the leather shoe trade. These are the "Snag Vamp" which fits over the toe; "Filler" stock used in the sole; "Leg Cover" which forms the top of a boot and "Vamp Stock" employed in the lower part of the upper. The now (nearly) completed shoes are transferred, "lasts" and all, to a portable rack and are promptly transported by trucks directly to the curing apparatus. But before the cure commences, all light weight wear and some of the heavy is immersed by automatic machinery into a tank of varnish which imparts to the completed article the glossy finish always seen on all black overshoes when new from the store. Curing. The first real practical application of Goodyear's vulcanizing process to the manufacture of rubber footwear came about with the invention of the thermostatic recorder, which made it possible for the management of the rubber shoe factory to at least make the best use of the equipment at hand and to know that at all times his oven temperature was kept at the proper degree. Prior to the adoption of this automatic device ordinary thermometers attached in either end of the oven and read through a thick glass window in the wall con- stituted the only means available for taking the tem- perature. Perhaps the man operating the vulcanizer read and recorded accurately, perhaps not; perhaps 29 For Earth, Sea and Sky he opened or closed the valves at the proper times, perhaps not. In other words, there was no way of checking him up, and . consequently a great deal of uncertainty existed as to uniformity of cure. Quality then could not be assured to any purchaser of rubber footwear and this condition considerably re- tarded the growth of the industry. When, however, the curing process became a known factor through the use of the thermostatic recorder, and all uncertainty passed away, the manufacturer was able to guarantee his product to be uniformly cured. This immediately established the rubber footwear business on a still more substantial basis. No further improvements were however inaugurated in this method of vulcanization^ — known as the Dry Heat Process — and while effective insofar as the actual cure is concerned and suitable for the manufacture of hght weight rubbers not required to resist any great abrasion, it was impossible to turn out a truly serviceable rubber boot for rough use. The reason for this is, as mentioned once before, that possibilities for increasing the quahty of stock under the "Dry Heat" method were definitely limited. Should the manufacturer attempt to exceed these limits, the boot would not cure but would come out soft and worthless. By the high pressure mechanical method as worked out and put into practice about 1913 by the Good- rich Company, we can, however, make use of the rubber chemists' highest accomplishment in the art of improving rubber compounds. An exemplification of this fact is seen in our Hi-press line in which we have gone the limit of known quality and are using in the 30 For Earth, Sea and Sky soles of these boots and heavy shoes a stock similar to that in the treads of our automobile tires, another place where quahty must prevail, as is well known. There are other advantages gained through the use of the Goodrich Mechanical Curing Process no less impor- tant than our ability to utilize the highest quality stock. For example, the time required to complete the opera- tion by the Dry Heat Process is several hours, whereas, by the Hi-press method the maximum time required is one hour, including the time consumed in loading and unloading the vulcanizer. Further than this, the pressure exerted by the special appliances serves to knit the molecules of rubber more closely together, thereby materially increasing the serviceability of the completed article. When the product has assumed its permanent shape and the compounds have reached a proper consistency, the cure is said to be complete. Light weight goods must, however, be permitted to cool before removed from the "lasts," a precaution taken to prevent the shoe from shrinking below its intended size as it might if removed too soon. While this may retard somewhat the speed of pro- duction, it is worth the cost and prevents the possibility of the product being undersize. Heavy weight goods may be removed from the lasts as soon as the cure is complete. In either case, however, lasts are pulled from the shoe or boot much the same as one would remove his foot from such an article. Naturally, however, the workmen who perform this operation are assisted by mechanical appliances, thus making it possible to part the one from the other with a minimum of effort and time. 31 For Earth, Sea and Sky Trimming and Inspecting. Certain rough edges which correspond in a way to the rind always seen on castings just out of the mold are always in evidence on the rubber shoe as it comes from the cure. These, of course, must be trimmed off before the product is ready to market. More important than this, however, is the next and final step before boxing which consists of a thorough inspection of each pair. Depending upon the reader's assumption that this obviously necessary precaution has been taken for each step throughout the process, we have in our description not mentioned the thorough inspection to which each operation has been subjected. But to eliminate the possibility of even one missing this important fact, we take this opportunity to men- tion that each step in the manufacture of Goodrich rubber footwear is given a most rigid inspection and this embraces every step from the milling of the com- pounds to the final act in the process, when each com- pleted shoe is carefully gone over in our hunt for defects. In conclusion we might also mention that in spite of the human element with which we have to deal, our special manufacturing appliances are such that the inevitable human mistake, whether in evidence or not, is positively eliminated before the product is ever considered for final inspection. Thus a very small percentage are discarded as not first class. Summary. The reader's conception of the manu- facture of rubber footwear as gained from a perusal of the foregoing chapter will probably result in the con- clusion that it is after all a simple process. Such a conclusion would be the result of sound reasoning, for 32 For Earth, Sea and Sky there is nothing mysterious about it for the whole proc- ess is based on simple common sense shop practices. Scarcely a half of the story has been told, however, and too much knowledge must not be assumed from what has been gained through the pages of this book. Some facts have been omitted because they would serve no good purpose, and some because the factory considers them of too vital a nature to be generally pubhshed. These are the features characteristically Goodrich which make Hi-press and Straight-Line a superior product. 33 CHAPTER THREE A S/ioe for Every Purpose — A Size for Every Foot A Well -Balanced Line. After learning the im- portant facts of the history and manufacture of modern rubber footwear, one automatically turns to a considera- tion of the finished product. At this point, therefore, the reader will doubtless begin to inquire as to what our hne in its final form includes. He will, if experi- enced in the realm of footwear, immediately visualize a certain array of types and kinds which he will mentally catalogue into their proper classifications according to their various uses, and under each of these heads will picture the possible kinds and styles necessary to fill out a well-balanced complete line. Be he without previous knowledge of these things, the reader will, however, unless assisted, have consid- erable diiOficulty in arriving at a proper classification of the Goodrich line and at a full appreciation of its inclusiveness. For this reason this chapter dwells upon points which to the experienced will probably seem obvious, but which will nevertheless be of unquestionable value to the beginner. Any line of rubber footwear offered as complete from every standpoint must consist of numbers to meet all actual conditions of service and be designed to fill every reasonable popular demand. There must be heavy serviceable numbers for those engaged in rough work, 34 For Earth, Sea and Sky such as mining, stone quarrying, farming, fishing, lumber- ing, etc. There must be light weight boots for sports- men, medium weight for mail carriers, and light weight overshoes to satisfy Dame Fashion, when she goes abroad during inclement weather. There must also be medium light serviceable arctics to accommodate school teachers and others living in the lands of deep winter snows, who are obliged to travel afoot to and from work. Heavy boots and shoes must be drafted along comfort- able as well as graceful lines, for no wise workman will consent to pinch his feet or have them rubbed by large and ill fitting shoes. The hght weight numbers must be kept in harmony with the existing styles of leather shoes, and espe- cially must women's styles be designed along graceful and well fitting lines, for no well dressed woman wishes to wear a clumsy and poorly fitting overshoe. Thus we can see that considerable experience, apart from mere rubber science, must enter into the manu- facture of rubber footwear, if the line is to be a success. No one who has to do with the fitting of shoes, much less the designing of them, can afford to be without an elementary knowledge of the anatomy of the foot. Consequently, the designer must be a student, following closely the changes in styles so as to keep the light overshoes up-to-date and must know how to produce a boot or heavy shoe that will give comfort. Goodrich Quality Footwear, which is made under two brands, Hi-press and "Straight-Line" is, in these respects all inclusive, consisting of a style for every real service requirement from the heavy miner's boot down to the smallest and lightest infant's number. Consequently, the merchant who establishes himself as 35 For Earth, Sea and Sky the Hi-press and Straight-Line dealer will have a rubber footwear stock more satisfactory to sell from than any similar line ever before produced by a single company. It will give his place a reputation for quality ^oods not possible under the old regime, where a dozen different brands and as many makes were necessary to complete his selection. The Hi-press Brand. Hi-press has set a new and exceedingly high mark for Boots, Sock Rubbers, Arctics, etc. In less than three years from its inception the demand for this line brought us to the position of being one of the largest manufacturers of rubber foot- wear in the country. Our sales have been constantly increasing and at an unprecedented rate ever since. And there is every reason to believe that this growth will continue. The Straight-Line Brand. Manufactured by us ever since 1905, and marketed direct since January, 1916, the Straight-Line brand has met with a success unparalleled and decidedly unique in the history of the light weight rubber shoe business. Without the aid of extensive advertising, but through the force of merit, the sales in this line advanced by leaps and bounds from the time it was first put upon the market and in an incredibly short period of time, attained a country wide popularity and reputation for quality. The words Straight-Line are synonymous with the pinnacle in values. Socks and Felt Boots. Accessory to every complete line of heavy rubber shoes there should be an assortment of socks and felt boots to go with them since one of the 36 For Earth, Sea and Sky two are nearly always worn in conjunction and every dealer that handles this class of footwear also carries the socks and felts. We feel that without such an item our line would be incomplete. While we do not manu- facture this merchandise we have it made to our own specifications. Styles, Widths and Sizes. When applied to footwear, the term style as distinguished from fashion relates to the pattern or design of a particular shoe, and means collectively the distinctive features such as height, material, kind of toe, heel, etc., wherein it differs from other shoes. Needless to mention that frequent changes in styles are prompted primarily by a natural human desire for change and novelty, which, because of its element of uncertainty, is difficult to predict or fathom. Indeed, there is probably no phase of modern merchandising which requires more careful or constant study than the continuaUy changing humors of the pubhc with reference to fashion. There are three parties to be considered, viz., the manufacturer, the dealer and the pubHc. Each has an influence upon the success of a style, but no one of them can whoUy control its prosperity. It is rather for the manufacturer assisted by the dealer to originate, for the dealer to present and promote new styles and for the pubhc to receive or reject. Although in the hands of the pubhc rests the final decision, the dealer, who stands next to the consumer in the scheme of distribution, plays an important role in the field of fashion. He not only stands sponsor for what the manufacturer originates but must inform the manufacturer of the demands and desires of the buying pubhc. 37 For Earth, Sea and Sky Goodrich Styles are conspicuous for their beauty and close fitting qualities; in truth among manufacturers of light and heavy footwear we have no superior in this respect. Especially so is this true of our light weight hne assortment of Women's, Men's, Misses and Boys' rubbers. This division of our product is com- plete, attractive, and up to the minute at all times. 38 Sold Everywhere — Even in Far Ojf Alaska Making Straight'Line Rubbers Stitching a Leather Top on Men's Hi-Press Ribbed Driver Factory Scenes Qoodrich Boot and Shoe Department Light and Air are of First Inportance Here The Finished Product CHAPTER FOUR Footwear Abuses and Care Service. A discussion of the factors which have a deciding influence upon the service the rubber boot or shoe will deliver is one to which we cannot hope to do justice in the few brief paragraphs allotted to this topic. Indeed, we are told that a whole volume could be written concerning the subject of abuses to which rubber boots and shoes fall heir and the remedial meas- ures which might be taken to prevent their unnecessary, premature destruction. This is, however, a subject so timely and important to the consumer, the dealer, and ourselves ahke, that we should consider our task but poorly done without at least a hint as to some of the more pronounced abuses to which rubber footwear of all descriptions is commonly subjected and what can be done as preventative meas- ures. Heat and Light. It is a fact well known to the student of rubber goods manufacture that the basic crude material, raw rubber, is subject to a more or less rapid deterioration when heated or exposed to strong sunlight. This action is retarded by compound- ing with other ingredients, but not arrested, and a temperature far below that necessary to "burn," i. e., decompose rubber, will cause a marked lessening of its tensile strength and sure decline in elasticity. The chemical action of direct sunlight is furthermore an exceedingly active agent in bringing about that condi- tion in manufactured rubber articles known as surface 39 For Earth, Sea and Sky checking, which action is hastened if the surface of the article be put under strain from bending or stretching. Especially is this true where flexing is halted and resumed repeatedly, or in other words, where the stock is alter- nately compressed and released. It should, therefore, be quite evident, even to the novice, that rubber footwear which, by the way, cannot be worn without stretching or wrinkling excessively, is subjected to one of the very worst abuses with which rubber has to contend, and the fact that it cannot be worn with comfort in strong sunlight is all that prevents this factor from being a serious consideration. To sit close in front of the fire with the feet turned toward the blaze, or to stand over the hot air register is the most natural thing to expect of the man with cold feet. Yet if he realized the cost to him in the reduced service of his rubber boots or shoes from such a practice, he would probably take the pains to first remove his rubbers before toasting his toes. Then too, many a boy gets into the snow or water beyond the depth of his boots in refusing to take a dare, thus wetting the lining. The favorite, but fatal method used in afterward drying them out is by a baking in the oven or by hanging them upside down over the kitchen stove. This practice should be avoided. A pan of warm oats or pebbles poured within will do the trick much more effectively and without injury. Storage. One of the greatest needs of today in connection with the manufacture and marketing of rubber footwear is the necessity for educational work among dealers toward pointing out the evil effects attending the improper storage of their rubber commodi- ties. 40 For Earth, Sea and Sky It is a common thing to find rubber footwear kept loose in warm rooms or in open boxes on shelves in well lighted places. One dealer was recently found who kept his stock in a many-windowed loft directly under a shingle roof where heat and light reigned supreme. Rubber footwear stocks are often used in window dis- plays and in the rural districts more frequently dis- played in open boxes either on the inside or outside of the store, both practices which have no good effect upon the service of the article. It is not our purpose to unduly alarm those who are not famihar with this phase of the rubber business or to mystify with a mass of technical information. We want merely to point out that there are ideal conditions for the storage of rubber boots and shoes under which they will retain their Hfe almost indefinitely. Our com- pounders and chemists have taken every precaution possible to counteract the effect of ordinary deteriorat- ing agencies and have succeeded admirably. There are, however, limits to the rubber chemist's abihty, just as there are hmitations in any science, and thus it is not unreasonable to ask that the dealer and user take ordinary precaution in the storage and use of rubber boots and shoes. It wiU be appreciated that no absolutely inflexible law can be advanced as to degree of temperature and humidity of rooms for the storage of rubber. But it is only common sense to say that if the store room is fairly dry and dark and reasonably cool that the stock will keep longer. Where used for display purposes, precaution should be taken that the sunlight is not allowed to beat directly upon rubber articles and that they are not left too long 41 For Earth, Sea and Sky in the window. Unless these simple rules be followed, one cannot expect that the service given will be up to standard. Oil and Grease. The average person does not stop to consider that because rubbers are waterproof this is not a sign that they are also proof against kerosene, oil, gasoline, etc. Many a person has wondered why it was that the pair he never wore outside of the garage became spongy and porous around the soles. The fact that rubber boots and shoes which have been used around the garage where oil and grease are present, wear out prematurely, is not so strange to those who are familiar with the fact that oils, acids, and alkalies are natural enemies of rubber. When in contact with the vulcanized product to any marked degree, these things have a decidedly injurious effect which is certain and sure. Improper Fitting. If there is any one abuse which causes the failure of more rubbers than another, it is that occasioned by improper fitting. Such a condition is sometimes, we regret to admit, the fault of the dealer who, rather than chance the customers not waiting until a pair can be ordered, may sell him, say a size too large. More often, however, the injurious results of ill fittings are due to carelessness or ignorance on the part of the consuming public. A boot to many is merely a boot; so long as it will go on and not pinch. Size 9, they reason, should be just as good as size 8. The fact that the larger size means more and worse wrinkles, the slipping or moving about of the foot inside, and excessive bending of the sole, are factors they do not trouble themselves about. Very often, however, when the boot wears out before it should, 42 For Earth, Sea and Sky these same individuals are quite likely to lay the blame on the manufacturer and many times, unfortunately, nothing the latter may say or do will serve to convince the user that he may possibly be at fault. Then too, the wide variation in lasts and styles of w:omen's shoes, ranging from the comfortable, low- heeled walking boot to the extremely high-heeled French shoe and the fact that rubbers made over one last are often worn over shoes of an entirely different character, is also the cause of the failure of such to give the service expected of them. It frequently happens that women will wear a pair of rubbers over their walking shoes that have been fitted to a semi- dress last with a higher heel of military design. The walking shoes may be one-quarter inch wider than the last over which the others were made and have a round in place of a pointed toe, and yet the wearer does not stop to think of this when the rubbers break out around the back. Care Propaganda. Unfortunately, these simple facts, if understood, are not always borne in mind by the shoe dealer and consequently are very seldom passed along in the form of advice to the ultimate purchaser. This is an unfortunate circumstance since there is great need for educational work among the users of rubber footwear concerning the evil effects of the lack of care and improper fitting. No opportunity should be lost to point out that oils, paint, barbed wire, nails, broken glass, hot ashes, etc. are all things which should be kept as far from the rub- ber boot or shoe as possible, and that those who do not heed this advice must expect to suffer the loss of a great deal of service that otherwise would accrue to them. 43 CHAPTER FIVE Footwear Marketing Sales Organization. Hi-press and "Straight- Line" boots and shoes are marketed through a corps of salesmen working exclusively in the interest of the footwear department during the season which begins around the first of the year and runs through to about the first of June. To this rule, however, there are occa- sional exceptions, i. e., in some cases footwear salesmen do not confine themselves exclusively to the sale of boots and shoes, but also engage in special sales activities. This arrangement is, however, the exception to the rule and is practiced only in thinly populated territories. Methods of Distribution. We have one decided advantage in marketing footwear by the direct to the dealer method, as we do, since we have our warehouse stocks in most large distributing centers throughout the United States. The benefits to be derived by the dealer from having these sources of supply close at hand will be readily apparent and a big point in our favor. These stocks ehminate delay and heavy express charges incidental to hurry up "sizing up" orders from a long distance. Since warehouse stocks exist to care for dealers' orders with the least possible delay, it is the intention to have them complete enough at all times to fill every reasonable immediate shipment order. Advance orders are, however, except in certain cases, shipped from the 44 For Earth, Sea and Sky factory. We are, however, rapidly approaching the day when branch stocks will be complete enough at all times to fill all orders. Sales Policy. We follow the direct to the dealer policy in marketing, our salesmen actively soliciting business on both Hi-press and "Straight-Line" from all legitimate footwear dealers. This classification includes such concerns as Shoe Stores, Dry Goods Stores, Department Stores, Sporting Goods Stores, Clothing Stores, General Stores, or in fact, any merchant who engages in the retail sale of footwear for a profit. In addition to these general classes of trade, we will sell at dealers' prices direct to such concerns as chemical plants, coal and other mines, railroads, steel mills, construction companies and the ke. It is generally recognized by the trade that large cor- porations which maintain a purchasing department and buy large quantities of supplies are entitled to a price better than consumers. Since it is sure that these large industries do not, and will not buy their supplies from the retail merchant, we are not competing with the dealer by soliciting this business, and it cannot in any way be considered as interference with his legiti- mate trade. On the contrary, the dealer is helped rather than injured by such sales since the use of our goods by large industries is a stamp of approval worth capitahzing. At the same time the more widespread the distribution of the goods, the better known they become and hence the greater the demand from the dealer. We will, however, sell such concerns only when the total yearly business to be obtained will warrant the 45 For Earth, Sea and Sky extension of the dealers' price. And if their volume be not large enough to justify their placing an initial order for at least our minimum quantity, they will be rightfully considered as consumers and quoted as such. In extending the dealers' price to corporations we have it understood that where they resell to their employees they do so at full consumers' prices, but this stipulation will not be construed as a prohibition against their furnishing boots to their employees free of charge. Guarantee and Adjustments. We guarantee all footwear bearing the Goodrich name and brand to be free from defects in material and workmanship. Should imperfections occur in any sold as first class, we will replace, charging the customer on the basis of service rendered by the defective pair. Any footwear returned for consideration under this guarantee will be accepted only when all transportation charges are prepaid, but our consent must first be had before such goods are returned. In this connection it might be well for us to explain that the "hackney answer" to all inquiries as to the service rendered by rubber boots showing defects is "three weeks," and " unfortunately for others, many dealers in the past have replaced for the customer on a one half basis in turn asking us to replace at httle or no cost. We are not, however, dependent upon guesswork when it comes to judging the probable wear a given pair of our shoes have been subject to, and therefore reserve the right to base our own conclusions, drawn from an examination by factory experts. Wherever and whenever we make a change in con- struction or bring out a new number, we know to a 46 For Earth, Sea and Sky certainty before we put the change into effect or attempt to market the new product what can be expected in the way of service. Our laboratories have methods of testing the new product to insure positively its quality. This, however, should not be construed to mean that we are not liable to occasionally make mistakes in our factory operations, for after aU, we are dealing with a human element in all products. 47 48 For Earth, Sea and Sky Conclusion. The gigantic explosive industry of the United States which, at the beginning of the World War in 1914, developed almost over night, was immedi- ately confronted with the necessity of finding a market for a considerable quantity of by-products. One con- cern which during a few months of this period used daily at a single plant a miUion pounds of cotton for smokeless powder, turned its residue into druggists' sundries, such as toilet cases, combs, hair brushes and — into a substitute for leather. This last product, in view of the tremendous demand upon the world's limited and surely not increasing supply of real leather, bids fair to be of the greatest importance. At first this material was thought most suitable for upholstery, particularly that of automobiles. But the manufacturers of imitation leather have not been content to stop the development of this product and content themselves with the manufacture of upholstery material. Now that the demand for such enormous quantities of explosives has stopped, plants and ma- chinery must be turned to other uses and they are experi- menting with material to be used in the manufacture of shoes, and already can make an article which, with the exception of a few minor details, will meet all re- quirements. Eventually these drawbacks will be over- come and the leatherless shoe will be evolved. The public will naturally inquire if this step is not a portention of the end of the rubber overshoe. Not at all. While it surely marks the beginning of a new era in footwear development, the shoe — whether fibre or leather — must continue to be porous to be wearable, and being such the rubber must need still be its necessary auxiliary. 49 Rubberized Fabrics 50 CHAPTER SIX History of Ruhherizing Definition of Waterproof. As may be inferred, the waterproofing of fabric implies its treatment with some insoluble material in order to render its fibre non- absorbent, or that some substance has been combined with the yarn or otherwise applied so that the fabric wiU turn water sufficiently to keep it from becoming entirely saturated. This result may be arrived at by any one of three methods, viz., treatment by chemical means so as to permeate the fibre of the yarn with an insoluble oxide such as aluminum salts; impregnation of the fibre by mechanical action with some inorganic material such as wax or paraffin; or by making the fabric impermeable to water by the application of a thin coating of vulcanized rubber. To accomplish the first method a variety of chemicals may be used which affect the fibre of the yarn so minutely that a change is not noticeable except by microscopic inspection. Due to the fact that they destroy the life of the fabric, causing its comparatively early deteriora- tion, most of these chemical processes are, however, unsuitable. Moreover, positive impermeability can never be attained by a chemical treatment of yarns. Even though the cloth may appear to be waterproof and may shed rain fairly well, it will wet through. 51 For Earth, Sea and Sky PEiraffin, wax, animal fats, mineral oils, varnishes, gelatin, etc., constitute the inorganic class of materials used in the treatment of fabric to make it shed water. These mainly affect but the surface of the yarn and, like the chemical treatment, merely render the fabric water-repellant. This is to say that, in either case, the spaces between warp and filler threads are still left open and hence water is bound to get through if given time. By the application of a thin coating of rubber, fabric is, how- ever, rendered positively and permanently water- proof, providing, of course, the work has been scienti- fically and carefully done. This statement brings us to an interesting distinction between the meaning of the words "water-repellant" and "waterproof" as brought out by the following quotation from an authority on the subject. "The opinion of prominent men in the textile trade is that while shower-proof, weather-proof or water-repellant, whichever way one cares to express it, indicates a fabric which has been chemically or otherwise treated so as to render the yarn non-absorbent, a truly waterproof fabric is one coated with rubber. To discuss all the materials and methods which have been and are used for the treatment of fabrics in an attempt to make them turn water either partially or wholly, would be impractical in a text of this character. Suffice it to relate that it is only with the last mentioned, viz., rubberizing, with which we have to deal and to which consideration will be given. Our main object is to describe in a non-technical way the preparation of fabrics for manufacture into the many useful, yes indispensible rubberized waterproof 52 For Earth, Sea and Sky articles which today add to the comfort and convenience of mankind. Insofar as we have attempted to treat the subject, this section of the book will be found authoritative and we believe can be considered suffici- ently complete for all practical elementary study. Origin. Not unlike the origin of many of our present day conveniences, that of rubberized waterproof fabric is not definitely known. We do know, however, that the native of South America was rubberizing a crude form of fabric and using it for various and sundry pur- poses at the time of Columbus' discovery. In all probabihty, native rubberized waterproof fabric was made use of many centuries before Columbus, but whether or not this be true, it is a fact that the "true American" at least fathered the idea. In the records of the first use of rubber by the white explorer we find that the Spanish who entered Mexico in the sixteenth century, following the native custom, took up the practice of spreading linen with the latex from the rubber tree. Out of this they manufactured many waterproof articles such as tents, cloaks, etc. Soon afterward some of this novel material was sent to Europe, and as a "new product of a new world" created widespread popular curiosity. Because, how- ever, of the difficulties encountered in thus rubberizing fabric with the hquid cahuchu, (rubber) as it came from the tree, articles manufactured from it naturally were destined to remain in the curio class, and as a conse- quence, sell for fabulous prices. Some idea of these false values can be gained from the story of the King of Portugal and his rubber suit. It is related that he sent some very fine fabrics to the colony of Para where they were rubberized for his personal use. §3 For Earth, Sea and Sky There was, however, another angle to the situation which had an influence in holding back commercial development. In other words, being "Made in America" without knowledge of the nature of the material with which they were working and in transit on the return trip to Europe for so long, these original rubberized fab- rics were practically lifeless before being put into actual service, and although sales became comparatively brisk during the early half of the eighteenth century, the busi- ness was destined to fail before it fairly began because the articles made were so far from serviceable. Recognizing these unfortunate facts and also visualiz- ing the great field which might be developed with a genuinely practical rubberized fabric, importers en- deavored to keep the public interest stimulated in the hope that some successful process of rubberizing might soon be developed. A number of men began to study possibilities from this angle and to experiment with rubber in its coagulated form. Out of this study and research our present highly commercialized rubberized fabric industry has been evolved. Commercial Development. Commercial develop- ment of the rubberizing business probably owes its beginning to Samuel Peal, an Englishman who began to experiment with rubber in 1791. Up to this time it was believed that the only way to rubberize was by smearing or painting the cloth with the latex just as it came from the tree. Europeans even went so far as to import "rubber milk" by the cask; a scheme which, by the way, turned out rather "SMELLY." Peal, however, conceived the idea of melting the coagulum or rubber biscuit to a thin liquid state which he determined could be applied as easily as the latex 54 For Earth, Sea and Sky and do away with the necessity of shipping the cloth across the sea and back. Immediately afterward he opened a factory in London for the manufacture of rubber coats which, by placing this particular rubberized fabric item easily within the reach of all purses, robbed the industry of its chief commercial asset — novelty. Although it is true that Peal's invention enabled him to manufacture more rapidly and consequently more cheaply than ever before possible, it did not overcome the major objections attending the use of rubberized fabric, viz., its natural tendency toward stickiness under the influence of heat and its certainty to harden and crack in the cold. As long as rubberized cloth had remained a curi- osity these shortcomings were overlooked but immedi- ately the new process made it a staple product the public naturally expected to receive value. Failing to do so, confidence was lost, and interest in all articles made from rubberized fabric died out. Twenty-nine years after Peal — i. e. 1820, Nadier, also an EngUshman, worked out a method for cutting sheeted rubber into threads which he proposed to weave into cloth, and in the same year Thomas Hancock opened a rubber factory in London. While the assertion cannot be verified, we are inclined to believe that Hancock's factory was built partially for the purpose of manufacturing Nadier's woven rubber cloth. The experiment, however, was short-lived for it was soon found that standeu-d weaving machinery was not adaptable to elastic thread. Three years after the opening of Hancock's factory, Charles Mcintosh discovered the solubility of rubber in coal-tar naphtha, conceiving the idea of lining cloth 55 For Earth, Sea and Sky with a thin "skin" of rubber which he manufactured by spreading his solution over a marble slab and there allowing the solvent to evaporate. Later on Hancock devised machinery for spreading this solution directly to the surface of the fabric, the forerunner of the modern spreading process so widely used today. On account of his discovery, Mcintosh is popularly considered as the father of rubberized fabric. If we, however, were to date its beginning from this point, we would give Hancock a generous share of the credit because it was he who invented the mechanical means for the direct application of Mcintosh's "rubber batter." American Development. Although beginning at a somewhat later date, the early history of rubberized fabric in the United States about parallels that of the European story. The first rubber articles seen were the curious native pouches and shoes which latter they termed "gumboots," imported from South America into Boston about 1820. A patent was granted to one Jacob Hummel of Philadelphia in 1823 for coating fabrics through the application of a gum-elastic varnish, but beyond the record there seems to be no mention of his product. Evidently it was never put into use. Seventeen years after this The Roxbury India Rubber Company of Connecticut was chartered to manufacture footwear and other articles from a fabric coated with rubber and lampblack dissolved in spirits of turpentine, after a plan worked out jointly by Hancock and Mc- intosh, and following this, several small factories sprung up in New England for the purpose of manufacturing rubberized waterproof articles. Several schemes were inaugurated for improving the 56 For Earth, Sea and Sky quality of the compound, such as mixing in magnesia, lime and sulphur, but beyond stimulating hope these formulas did little real good. Although each step taken by early American inven- tors to perfect mechanical methods for rubberizing seemed to be taken in the right direction toward the improvement of standard items of merchandise, the truth is that articles of rubberized fabrics were not making progress but actually became less and less popular with the public. As was true of the European-made product, American goods owed what little popularity they did at first enjoy to the fact that they were novelties and obtainable only by people of means. And in spite of the efforts of those who were interested and bending every energy to foster its popularity, the rubber industry would have died out completely had it not been for one notable event. We refer to the timely discovery of vulcanization by Charles Goodyear in 1839-44, which hterally gave "new life" to the rubberizing business. This discovery has, in fact, proved to be the foundation upon which all rubber manufacture has since been built. War as a Stimulating Influence. Rubberized fabrics as well as other articles after Goodyear's dis- covery soon reached a point in development where they could be called practical. Nevertheless, past experiences of the public had been such that this was not generally recognized until the needs of the army during our Civil War demonstrated the true worth of rubber as a surfacing material for fabrics. Waterproof blankets, tarpauhns, gun covers, capes and coats were required. Large contracts for the neces- 57 For Earth, Sea and Sky sary articles were placed with the rubberizers and this circumstance gave the business the needed incentive for further development after the war. From this point on, however, the story of rubberized fabrics is merely one of the successive steps in commer- cial development. Suffice it to relate that this has been a slow but steady expansion. The tremendously large Ust of products made today was not developed over night but gradually, item by item of practical worth has been added until there is today hardly a field left untouched where rubberized fabrics have not demon- strated their usefulness and superiority. From this class of material, automobile tops and curtains, seat covers and hood blankets are manufac- tured. Balloons, domestic aprons, camp stools, inner- tube manufacturers' mill-aprons, organ and player- piano bellows fabrics, reinforcement for leather shoe uppers, hospital sheeting, refrigerator door lining, capes and coats are also all made from a rubberized vulcan- ized fabric. By making a close study of the pulse of industry one will realize that the future possibihties of the waterproof fabric business are truly enormous. Es- pecially is this true where the material has been ren- dered positively and permanently waterproof by the use of an impenetrable coating of rubber. And, even though other methods for treating fabrics are still employed with more or less success, the use of a rubberized cloth for utility purposes has gained a de- servedly popular leadership and for reasons so per- tinent that we enumerate them. Ist — It is absolutely waterproof when honestly made. 58 For Earth, Sea and Sky 2nd — Through the fact that it withstands changes in temperature. 3rd — Rubberizing does not shorten the life of the cloth to an appreciable extent. 4th — The rubberizing process can be applied to colored cloth as easily as to plain. 5th — The cloth can be made water-repellant as well as waterproof. 6th — Manufacturers have been able to turn out rub- berized cloth at an attractive cost. Goodrich. As manufacturers of a general rubber goods hne, The B. F. Goodrich Company has been con- cerned in the production of rubberized fabrics of one kind or another for a good many years past. Only recently, however, has the demand reached such pro- portions as to justify the establishment of a big manu- facturing department, the sole efforts of which are devoted to the production of this class of rubber goods. In other words, while we have operated spreading machinery for a good many years on which materials were coated for our various departments, we did not feel until recently that the business to be had from other users was sufficient to warrant the enlarging of this department to its present proportions. At the beginning of the World War, however, the B. F. Goodrich Company was requested by the Govern- ment to accept a contract for the construction of balloons. To fulfill our obligation to humanity by doing this work successfully, and on time, it was necessary to insteJl many new spreading machines on which to prepare the necessary fabrics. This equipment which, by the way, now gives us one of the largest spreader capacities in the world, has been converted to the pro- 59 For Earth, Sea and Sky duction of rubberized fabrics for the many various peace time commercial products. We can say, therefore, that once again it was through the necessities of war that the rubberized fabric business received an incentive for expansion which continued after the world swung around to a peace basis. In other words, the necessities of the armies for great quantities of rubberized fabric articles, such as blankets, gun covers, tarpaulins, coats, balloons, etc., stimulated a development which otherwise would probably not have taken place at such a rapid pace and we might have been several years in bringing our rubberizing department to its present importance. It was an easy matter, when our Government con- tracts were completed early in 1919, to swing the huge department which we had built up during the war period over to other products. 60 CHAPTER SEVEN Ruhherizing Materials and Processes Fabrics. The art of weaving is one of the oldest known to man. For centuries back, no one knows how far, cloth of one sort or another has been made by all but the most savage and lowest types of peoples, and even these, to a limited extent, have always practiced the art of weaving grasses and fibrous plants into the form of cloth. And yet today the subject of fabrics is one little understood by the general public. Even among those who come in daily contact with articles of merchandise made from fabrics, there is considerable confusion as to the various classifications and how one fabric is distinguished from another. It is, in fact, a subject which would take a lifetime to master and there is little wonder that there are but com- paratively few men who are authority on all kinds of fabric. This condition is probably partly due to the infinite variety of patterns and weaves produced and the mul- titudinous uses to which fabrics are put. But there is, however, another cause to whose door can doubtless be laid the greater share of the blame for this condition of confusion. By this we mean that certain patterns and weaves are originated which have pronounced and distinctive characteristics. These soon become known by trade names peculiar to the types of weave used or to the places where they are produced. Usually a new pattern and weave is first made in 61 For Earth, Sea and Sky one locality for a single purpose and from one raw material. Later on other fabrics appear which are imi- tations of the original in name and frequently in appear- ance, but which are woven from another raw material and intended for a different purpose. Then again sim- ilar or identical fabrics made in different localities may be known by entirely dissimilar names. Thus^at the start Jare we confronted with considerable difficulty in properly classifying the many weaves and patterns which we are called upon to rubberize, for so it is with the fabrics used by the rubberizing trade. Belonging to an entirely separate classification, differing from all others as to the way in which they are manu- factured, these fabrics are, nevertheless, known by names which may denote in another class of goods a cloth of an entirely dissimilar nature. For this reason the description of fabrics as used by the rubberizing trade may not fit the reader's concep- tion of what their names indicate. Rubberizers and manufacturers of waterproof articles are not, however, responsible for the names of the fabrics they may use. In fact, they have nothing what- ever to do with their manufacture and must order their fabrics by whatever trade names the textile industry sees fit to designate them. There is one point, however, on which the reader of this text can be assured, and that is that all such fabrics are specially woven for the rubberizing trade and carefully selected with their ultimate purpose in mind. Reputable rubberizers and makers of rubberized articles choose only fabrics which can be calculated to give the ultimate purchaser the best possible service and value considering the price he pays. 62 For Earth, Sea and Sky The student of rubberizing, therefore, need not at this time concern himself greatly with the question of fabrics. Suffice it for the present to say that with us all fabric falls into either one of two general divisions, viz., those which are purchased by our customers and sent to us for rubberizing and those purchased by ourselves which we rubberize and sell as a completed material to makers of special items. Those sent to Jus by the waterproof clothing trade for rubberizing consist of popular patterns and weaves, coming mostly under the class of seasonable numbers. In other words, although there are a few staples, the bulk of all garment fabrics change year by year. Any text, therefore, which attempts to describe these fabrics would necessarily be subject to annual revision. For this reason, and further because we are in no way in- terested in the product of the garment maker beyond furnishing a dependable rubber coating for his fabrics, we do not deem it advisable or wise to attempt further classification. The fabrics we purchase to rubberize and sell under the Goodrich name to the automobile industry and to the specialty manufacturer are, however, of a more staple and substantial nature. These generally come under the classification of drills, jeans, ducks, whip- cords, sheetings, mohairs, etc., and are selected by us because of certain qualities which they possess to recommend them as capable of taking and holding a rubber compound, and further because they are best quality and weave for the ultimate use each is intended. During the processes of weaving and finishing cloth certain minerals are made use of for scouring, bleaching, etc., which, if not removed from the fibre, will render 63 For Earth, Sea and Sky the fabric unsuitable for rubberizing. In our selection, therefore, we must make sure that nothing is present in either warp or weave which, when combined with the compounds of our formula, will produce a result different from the one intended. This, therefore, makes it necessary for us to inspect and test all fabric, to assure ourselves that each lot we purchase possesses proper tensile strength, correct number of warp and filler threads to the inch, proper length of staple and hardness of yarn and also that it meets the chemical requirements of fabric to be rubberized. Where colored fabrics are to be rubberized strict attention must be paid to the quality of the dye for some dyes will not stand up under rubberizing although first quality in every other respect. And again, some dyes will during vulcanization react with the ingredi- ents of our formula and thus bring about a different color from the one we started out with. In other words, change color entirely. As an example of this, in fabrics that are woven for the waterproof clothing trade copper and manganese salts cannot be used in dye work since the rubberizing process will cause these dyes to run and spot. The same is true of chrome and iron salts, and for the same reason the presence of bichloride of tin in silks for rubberizing is objectionable. During the war there was a shortage of aniline dyes, and as a substitute it was found that the most suit- able for use in coloring waterproof clothing fabrics were those known as sulphur dyes. Also during this period vegetable oils for scouring fabrics were scEU'ce and min- eral oils were substituted successfully. These are only a few of the problems to be met and overcome in color- ing a fabric for the rubberizer. 64 For Earth, Sea and Sky Compounds. Rubber compounds as used in the waterproofing of fabrics, are naturally of many grades, colors and mixtures. The many uses to which rub- berized fabrics are put demand this. This is to say that a compound suitable for auto top fabric would not work out in a balloon fabric, or a compound suited to a garment fabric would not give service if used in a rubber manufacturer's "mill apron." To carry the example further, hospital sheeting, to carry out the sanitary vogue, must be white, or to be more adaptable to operating room work is made maroon ; the mixtures used to rubberize fabrics for the garment trade must match the colors in the cloth, and the com- pound in a shoe-backing cloth must be of a composition which will not harden and crack or be subject to the action of perspiration. And so on and on indefinitely. From this it will be clear that each division of the product has its own compounding problems and that in order to meet the service demands, our laboratories must have a thorough understanding of the conditions under which each type of fabric will eventually be used. It is not our intention to cite how we meet the varied conditions or tell what ingredients are used. Indeed, this information is held as the secret of our success as the leading manufacturers of this class of rubber goods and the formulas, naturally, are kept a secret. We cite the theorem merely to show that rubber com- pounds are not a haphazard collection of materials, but a collection of scientifically worked out chemical formulas. There are literally hundreds of minerals and other ingredients which may be used in compounding rubber for the manufacture of rubberized waterproof fabrics; 65 For Earth, Sea and Sky indeed, there are always several materials which will perform approximately the same work. Our selection, however, is based on careful analysis and is the result of years of study and research into the chemical mysteries of rubber manufacture. The same rigid system of tests and inspections is used in controlling the quality of our compounding ingredients as is used in the selection of our fabrics. Certain minerals are procured for a given purpose and we test to make sure they meet requirements. The various mineral ingredients used in the manu- facture of compounds for waterproofing fabric are mixed with the rubber by a milling process identically the same as the same preliminary step in the manufacture of all other rubber goods. Inasmuch, therefore, as the progress of compounding and milhng has been described in the first volume of this series we will continue this description from the point where the "batch stock" is delivered to the rubberizing department from the mill rooms. Rubberizing. Waterproof fabrics are not all rub- berized in the same way, nor is the same machinery used in every case. In other words, some fabrics are "spread" with a thin rubber batter, while others are coated by passing them between the rolls of a calender. Fabrics may be frictioned or coated or frictioned and coated; a rubber surface may be applied to one side of the cloth or the fabric may be double-surfaced, as conditions surrounding each case dictate. If to be a "doubled" proposition, such as fabrics for double texture garments or for tube makers' mill aprons, two plies are each coated on one side and stuck together. If a fabric be of loose, soft weave, the coating must be 66 For Earth, Sea and Sky done by the spreading process, but, on the contrary, if the fabric is a tightly woven material, such as sheeting, drill or jeans, a calender is used. Where the spreading process is to be employed the compound, of course, must to reduced from the "batch" stock to a pasty semi-hquid state of much the same consistency as molasses in cold weather. The accomp- lishment of this reduction is done by churning the stock in a solvent such as benzine, the slabs being first run through a warming mill to make them pliable and more quickly susceptible to the action of the solvent. As may be imagined, transformation of the batch stock to a semi-liquid is further accelerated by the action of a series of rotating knives and plates similar to those found in the ordinary ice-cream freezer. These agitators operate in sets, revolving about an axis, each alternate set moving in the opposite direction, thus stirring the contents with a double cutting action. The spreader or machine by which the semi-liquid rubbers are applied to the fabric resembles roughly a huge oblong iron table. The standard type of spreader is approximately five feet wide, twenty feet long, and stands about forty-five inches ofi" the floor. This machine is really a combination rubberizer and evap- orator consisting of in addition to the rubberizing feature a series of hollow steam plates mounted on a suitable frame work and above which are a num- ber of pulleys spaced at intervals to carry the fabric away from the heated top of the table. At the front end is located the driving mechanism, feed pulleys, etc., also the paraphernaUa necessary for application of the rubber coating. 67 For Earth, Sea and Sky This last is merely a knife or series of knives held in clamps and adjustable through the action of two hand screws, one on either end of the clamp. At the tail end of the machine is a pulley of larger diameter over which the material is returned, and other apparatus for suitably directing it onto rewinding shells. All fabrics to be rubberized must be delivered to the machinery wound on shells, i.e., hollow metal or wooden cylinders, so equipped that they can be fastened to a feed shaft. Let us assume that the roll which we are about to run has been inspected, dried and wound onto the proper shell. It is then placed in position at the feed end of the spreading machine and a "leader" strip fastened to the free end. A "leader strip" is a length of muslin sheeting the purpose of which is merely to draw the fabric through the machine so that rubberiz- ing may begin under proper tension at the very end of the fabric. This leader strip is passed under the knife and over the pulleys to the opposite end of the table. At this point it is carried underneath the bed plates and re- turned to the feed-end where it is attached to the re- winding shell. A quantity of rubber batter is then placed on the fabric in front of the knife and the machine started. As the fabric passes underneath this knife it scrapes off, or to be more exact, holds back all but a very thin coating. The thickness of this, as may be imagined, is determined by the adjustment of the knife through the hand screws previously mentioned. These may be raised so that a very thick coating is left or may be lowered so close to the material that we leave but a quarter ounce of rubber to the square yard of cloth. 68 For Earth, Sea and Sky Frequently five plies of gum are spread to a single piece of fabric; occasionally it is run through the machine but once; generally, however, at least three spreads are desirable. This means that the fabric must be passed through the machine once for each ply of compound desired. The questions of coating, thickness and the number of times through the machine is, however, largely deter- mined by the use to which the fabric will eventually be put. This is a technical detail which need not con- cern the seeker for elementeu-y knowledge, and suffice it for him to know that such and such is the case, leav- ing the "where and how" to the chemist and factory operators. There is, however, a fundamental of rub- berizing which may profitably be interjected at this time. This is the thought that a coating may be light or it may be heavy, but ordinarily in coatings of equal thickness it is the one lighter in weight per square yard which is the better quaHty. After the entire piece has passed under the knife, the machine is stopped and the operator removes the excess compound, after which he lifts the knife and again starts the machine. Here another salvage strip, similar to the one which was used as a "leader" appears, it having been cemented on before the fabric was first wound onto the shell. This tail strip is just long enough so that there will be an even tension on the stock being coated until it is entirely rewound under- neath the head end of the machine. If there are to be successive coatings, the order is reversed each time and the tail strip becomes a leader strip. If a particularly "tacky" compound is to be used we interwind with the rubberized fabric a treated muslin 69 For Earth, Sea and Sky sheet or liner. This is done in order to prevent the coated side from sticking and thus spotting the un- coated side or ruining the rubber surfacing itself. Many difficulties attend the rubberizing of fabrics which the user of the completed article never thinks of, and which even the salesman who sells the article sel- dom appreciates. We have already mentioned the chemical problems which confront the rubberizer of fabrics; how the question of colors must be carefully checked up, and also how skill must be exercised in compounding so as to insure a permanent surfacing. There are, however, as many mechanical problems to contend with, which affect the actual handling of materials through the plant as there are chemical prob- lems to contend with in laying out the work. As an example of this, static electricity is generated by drag- ging fabric over the top of the machine, and even though this machinery be carefully grounded to prevent it, an occasional hot spark will explode the gases arising from the evaporation of the solvent. Were not hoods placed above the tables to gather up this vapor, and by a system of fans scatter it to the out- side air, some extremely disastrous fires might occur and thus a great deal of material might be ruined. This is a thing which we have to guard against carefully, not only because materials might be ruined and production interrupted, but above all because the safety and lives of workmen might otherwise be jeopardized. The rubberizing of fabrics such as jeans, drills, sheet- ings, etc., is not done by the spreading process, but on the contrary accomplished through the use of the standard rubber working calender. This variation in processing is partly possible because the texture of 70 For Earth, Sea and Sky these fabrics is such that the slower more tedious spread- ing operation is not required to accomplish the same result. In other words, they are firm, strong fabrics — mostly cottons — which can be handled by the calender without danger of injury. The nature of the articles into which these fabrics are eventually made is, however, sometimes of such as to demand a more intimate union of rubber and fabric than possible to attain through the use of a spreading machine although this does not always necessarily follow. Compounds for calendered fabrics are deHvered to th e machine in "batch" form but before used these are also run through the warming mill in order to make them pliable and more quickly responsive to the action of the calender roUs. Calenders are of many types and kinds, and it would be impractical for us to attempt a description of them all. Suffice it to say that the fabric rubberizing calender is known either as a friction calender or a "skim coat" calender and, as a general rule, consists of a stack of three to five parallel rollers set in an upright frame so that one or more are made to carry the fabric while the others carry the compound. All rollers are equipped with hot and cold water con- nections to control temperatures, and are adjustable so that the distance between them can be varied to accom- modate the many types of fabric and different thick- nesses of rubber coatings demanded. The fabric is fed through from one side, usually be- tween the two lower rollers, while the compound is fed into the opposite side, between top and middle rolls. As the fabric passes over the lower roller and returns to the side of the machine from which it was 71 For Earth, Sea and Sky fed, the next roll above, which carries the compound, deposits its load on the fabric at the point where the two rolls meet. Some fabrics are frictioned only. In other words, the mesh of the weave is filled with rubber, leaving bare spots on the "crowns" where warp and weave threads cross. Other fabrics are frictioned and afterward coated ; that is, in addition to the friction coat have a thin film of rubber laid evenly over the surface, this feature depending, of course, upon the purpose for which the material is intended. Frictioning, however, is one thing and coating another, which is to say that where the compound is wiped into the mesh of fabric, the calender roll which carries the gum and the one which carries the fabric run at a de- cidedly differential speed, the former revolving at the faster rate. This motion tends to retard the fabric or produce friction between fabric and rubber, from whence the process derives its name. On the other hand, the same two rolls of a coating calender are geared so as to run at a more nearly uniform speed, and because of this the compound leaves its roll and is spread evenly over the fabric in a film. Hence a coating calender. We may produce a single friction and coated material or a double friction and coated ma- terial. In other words, the fabric may be treated on one side or on both, depending upon the requirements of the case. Doubling. To the rubberizing trade "doubled" fabric implies a material of dual texture with a coating of rubber between. This may be two plies of the same fabric, in which case it is known as "back-to-back" or it may consist of dissimilar kinds of cloth. Doub- 72 For Earth, Sea and Sky ling is the operation involved in bringing the two fabrics together. This operation is done on a special machine resembling roughly an ordinary laundry mangle. This machine consists of suitable feed attachments and two semi- hard rubber rolls mounted in an upright frame. The rolls are so geared that they turn toward each other and at a uniform speed. The heavier fabrics generally follow the upper roll, while the lighter ones are fed over the lower. As the two plies meet, the rubberized sur- faces (uncured) are brought into contact and pressed firmly together, sufficient pressure being brought to bear to smooth out all wrinkles and cause one ply to adhere to the other without air spaces between. It sometimes so happens, however, that a compara- tively delicate fabric is doubled with one of heavier body made from more tightly twisted yarns. This is where the rubber covered rolls get in their fine work, and is only another example of how production problems are met and overcome. In other words, these rubber covered rolls, although exerting considerable pressure against the material, have a certain amount of "give." This feature prevents the yarn of a hard finished goods from cutting into and ruining one of more dehcate weave, a feat which would be impossible to accomphsh were the rollers of the doubhng machine made of steel. Some manufacturers are unable to bring about a combination of wool and silk without ruining the sheen of the latter; some cannot prevent the compound from "striking through," i. e., appearing in small drops upon the uncoated side of the fabric ; that is, squeezing through the mesh, while others find great difficulty in keeping the silk from wrinkling and bunching when doubling it with a heavier fabric. 73 For Earth, Sea and Sky These are only a few of the difficulties with which the rubberized fabric manufacturer has to contend and which we have mastered. As mentioned before, both plies coated with a particularly "tacky" or sticky com- pound are later cured together so that they become virtually inseparable. Vulcanization. In the production of rubberized waterproof fabrics two methods of cure are in vogue. One is brought about by the action of acid vapors and known as the "acid-cure" method, the other is brought about by the application of heat, and is known as the "steam-cure" method. Acid-curing, although an inferior method, and un- satisfactory in every way, is, nevertheless, rather widely used among rubberizers of certain types of fabrics. Not because any one believes this method to have any special merit is it popular, but because it is cheap and produces a cheap material, which is exactly what is aimed at. Acid vulcanization is accomplished by hanging the fabrics in a tight chamber where the rub- berizing is exposed to vapors. Acids, such as carbon di-sulphide, which possess the power to act upon rubber compounds as a vulcanizing agent are, of course, used. Incidentally, however, only the surface of the rubber becomes cured, leaving the under side soft and unchanged, and because of this, the shghtest scratch will cut through resulting in a ruined article. Moreover, acid cured rubber soon dries out and crumbles away from the goods. In many instances the acid affects the color of the cloth, not infrequently ruining its appearance and sometimes also its texture. 74 For Earth, Sea and Sky Acid cured rubber surfaced fabrics are easy to detect by their bright metallic appearance. Experts can identify other acid cured fabric by the pecuhar odor which it gives off. Steam vulcanizing of rubberized fabric is accomplished by looping the material in long folds over poles sus- pended in movable frames, run into air-tight chambers, and left for a stated period of time under a temperature which slowly and thoroughly changes the rubber com- pound from a sticky, useless mess to a tough, elastic and dependable product. Steam vulcanization takes more time and requires a considerably more expensive equipment. On the other hand, this method insures a thoroughly satisfactory result, and is the only one which conforms to the prin- ciples of high grade rubberized fabric production as practiced in the Goodrich factory. The fabrics thus cured are, in fact, made impervious to the action of the elements or to changes in tempera- ture, without in any way detracting from durability or appearance, a condition which cannot be true of an acid cured material. In the modern, up-to-date factory steam vulcanizers are equipped with thermostatic recorders by means of which it is possible to regulate accurately the heat of the cure during the entire period required to accomplish the "change." 75 76 CHAPTER EIGHT Brass Tacks of Rubberizing The Product — Its Uses. There is almost no limit to the possibility for extending and expanding the field of rubberized fabric sales. An appreciation of the real worth of a covering material which is waterproof, sun-proof, and, in fact, almost wholly impervious to the influence of weather conditions and which is durable yet pliable and easily worked into a thousand and one shapes without losses occasioned by variation of thick- ness or quality, is just commencing among the arts and creifts. Hundreds of waterproof coverings which here- tofore have been made from leather, oil-cloth or the class of material known as oil-skin, are today being made from a more suitable, more durable rubberized material. Other items will doubtless be added and the list of products revised from time to time. Any book, therefore, which attempts to exhaust this subject of rubberized fabric uses would only impose a hardship upon the reader, besides being impractical for our purpose. We can, therefore, do better by merely giving a somewhat general outUne of the various classes of materials falhng under the category of rub- berized fabrics, explaining briefly the field of each class. The product of the Rubberized Fabric Sales Depart- ment consists of seven major classes of merchandise. These, for the sake of convenience in description, we 77 For Earth, Sea and Sky will list as Motor Top and Curtain Fabrics, Seat Covering Fabrics, Balloon Fabric, Shoe Covering and Backing Fabrics, Fabrics for Specialty Manufacturers, Mill Aprons and Garment Fabrics. Motor Top and Curtain Fabrics. The idea of a coated fabric for vehicle storm tops is not new. Indeed, carriage makers years ago ceased to look upon patent leather as their only top material. While it is true that automobile makers, especially those of the more expen- sive machines, have used considerable leather for tops and curtains, it must be apparent that outside its pro- hibitive cost, leather must cease to be an economic fac- tor in this field. The supply would not fill the demand even if the cost were no object. Some substitute for leather must, therefore, be furnished and a coated fab- ric is the result of this demand. By virtue of its 100% water-resistant quality, its adaptability to the process of coating, and its all-around serviceability, a compound which has rubber as the base takes its place in the forefront of auto top fabric coating materials. As will be readily understood if one stops to consider, there is, in addition to the not in considerable yardage demand by the automobile manufacturer, also an immense yardage required by the local top maker for renewal and repair work to automobiles and carriages. The sales volume of this material indeed runs into attractive totals. Goodrich auto-top fabric is a "spread" material, which is to say, the coatings are appUed by the spreading process. Drills, sheetings, tweeds and whip-cords are the fabrics used, and as may be supposed, are selected by us to meet the demand of this specid service. 78 For Earth, Sea and Sky But in addition to the usual steps of manufacture through which coated fabrics must pass, as described in the preceding chapter, auto top and curtain material must undergo further treatment. This is to say that the use of leather has created a demand for a "boarded" or grained surface. The coating must also be varnished to enhance its appearance and keep the free sulphur from "blooming" out. Although these two steps do not increase the quahty or durability of the material and are easily explained, it must be remembered that upon their perfection depends almost entirely the marketability of the product. These two steps are accomplished by machinery entirely peculiar to this type of rubberized fabric. The "boarding" or graining machine is a special calender consisting of engraved roUs set in an upright framework equipped with suitable driving and feed mechanism, the master roll being steel, the others being paper. The uncured stock is passed between these rolls, the pressure being such as to force the gum into the engraving, producing that ridged or bas-rehef effect so often seen in bookbinders' or upholsterers' leather. From the boarding machine the material passes through the varnishing step. This is also accomphshed automatically by machinery, the fabric being brought into contact with brushes which apply the coating evenly over the whole surface. This step is taken directly after vulcanization takes place. The individuahty and attractiveness of Goodrich Auto Top and Curtain Material, by reason of our care- ful graining and varnishing processes, have placed us in the position of being one of the leading manufacturers of such material, in less than a year's time. Evidence 79 For Earth, Sea and Sky that we believe all we claim for this product of our Rubberizing Department will be found in the Goodrich mark of quality which is branded on the back or under side in such a way as to be apparent to the purchasing public. Balloon Fabrics. Those of us whose first and last knowledge of balloons has been gained by watching the more or less perilous ascension of Razzle-Dazzle, the Aeronaut, at the local county fair, with its attendant "hair raising" parachute drop, will recall the gas bag as a huge spherical or oblate silk envelope filled with kerosene oil smoke which, as the bag reverted after the "drop," drifted slowly away in a black smudge. These flights were scarcely more than spectacles. To- day, however, flying with lighter than air craft is fast becoming an exact and exacting science. No longer will the porous untreated silk suffice. In place of the kerosene oil smoke, the bag is filled with a lighter gas such as hydrogen, and a material must be used which will retain this "balloon juice" through sustained periods of flight covering hours and even days. To charge the envelope is a big task, but greater still is the task of preventing the escape of this expensive gas. A single charge wiU often cost thousands of dollars, and is too precious to waste, to say nothing of the necessity for the balloon to stay up long periods of time. There is scarcely a man, woman or child who is not familiar with the record of the "gas-bag" in military and naval work. We have all read and re-read of the air raids of Zepps, the coast patrol work of Dirigibles and the control of gun fire through the use of Captive baUoons. But there are comparatively few who think of the 80 For Earth, Sea and Sky material from which these gas retaining envelopes are made and who realize the utter dependence of the modern balloon upon rubber as the air retaining agency. Rubberized cloth is a great improvement in balloon building. Its impermeability to air and moisture and the fact that rubberizing makes possible the use of a strong fabric, has made many records possible. As mentioned in the historical chapter covering rub- berized fabrics, The B. F. Goodrich Company, at the beginning of this country's participation in the war, had had no experience in balloon building. We knew rubber, however, its possibilities and how to work with it. Naturally, therefore, the Government turned this way for assistance. Within ninety days we had installed the necessary machinery, organized our forces and started to work. Two months after this we dehvered our first perfect balloon and this was followed within sixty days, by the delivery of twenty-five. In all Goodrich built no less than three hundred eighty nine (389) balloons, including fourteen dirigibles — Blimp type — three hundred sixty- two kite or observation balloons, and thirteen supply balloons. As might be supposed, the balloon business did not die with the signing of the Armistice. The Army and Navy continued to use a good many balloons and transportation companies began experimenting Avith trans-Atlantic and trans-continental air liners. AU of this calls for the rubberizing of a great deal of balloon fabric and while we are now interested in the balloon construction, we do furnish the makers with a consider- able quantity of the necessary rubberized material. It would, however, be impossible for us to describe, with any degree of accuracy, the several types of fabric 81 For Earth, Sea and Sky necessary for the various purposes. Balloon con- struction is still in a state of flux, and ideas as to what constitutes the right kind of materials are con- stantly changing. Suffice it to say that some balloon fabrics are of "double texture" and some are of "single texture," depending upon service requirements, and that all are made to specifications furnished us by the builders of balloons. In general, however, the rubberizing must be of a compound unaff'ected by the gas and of such a nature that the coating will withstand extreme fluctuations in temperature. The most important of the various fabrics used are known as Two-Ply Body Fabric, Two- Ply Ballonet Fabric, and One-Ply Stabilizer Fabric. Body fabric is the outside covering of the main envelope. Dirigibles are not a single envelope but a series of small balloons enclosed in the larger envelope. These are known as ballonets. Hence the baUonet fabric. Sta- bilizers are the planes by which the direction and alti- tude of the flight aie controlled. Hence a stabilizer fabric. AU of these come under the category of spread fabrics, and their manufacture may be visualized by reference to the description of "spreading" in the preceding chap- ter. Rubberized Fabrics for Cloth and Leather Shoes. Strange as it may seem, rubberized fabrics comprise an important item in leather and cloth shoe manu- facture, possessing for certain purposes advantages which have been demonstrated to a point where they are in demand by almost every shoe manufacturer in the United States. These fabrics are of three classes, two of which we turn out and sell in large quantities, known under the trade 82 For Earth, Sea and Sky terms "Shoe Covering Cloth and Shoe Backing Cloth." Both are made on a base of light cotton, 37 to 38" in width (which, incidentally, is not always the same weave or weight) and fall within the category of Single Texture Spread Fabrics. They are turned out and sold in rolls of approximately one hundred yards each, (a) One does not need to possess a knowledge of shoe construction to understand why it is that in the manu- facture of ladies' fine kid shoes in white, taupe, tan and other delicate shades, a protecting cover of some sort must be used as the shoe passes through the various operations, or why otherwise it must undergo a cleaning process afterward. Operators' hands are bound to become soiled and there is always more or less dirt and grease around machinery, which would soil these deli- cate topping leathers sometimes beyond repair. Some shoe manufacturers use a paper covering. Some manufacturers of white canvas shoes protect them by a spraying process. Both these methods, however, while low in first cost, are far from economical and seldom satisfactory. Paper is easily torn, not impervious to machinery grease, and often does not protect the shoe as it should. In fact, neither of these measures is, in the long run, as economical as the use of a rubberized, vulcanized, shoe covering cloth. This last material may be used over and over again, is not subject to penetration by inks or machinery greases, and if made by Goodrich, retains its "life" until worn out. These facts are pretty generally recognized by the shoe manufacturing trade and there is, therefore, a big demand for this item of our rubberizing department. Shoe covering cloth is made up by the shoe manufac- turer into the form of boots which slide over the upper during the process of construction. 83 For Earth, Sea and Sky (b) Shoes with graded uppers are those for which topping stock is cut from the choice section of the skin, viz., along the center of the back. Ungraded uppers are those in which the whole skin is worked up without regard to uniformity or grade of leather. Flank pieces are not as tough and firm as the backs and the leather in this section of a skin is inclined to be more or less porous and "stretchy." For strengthening soft and stretchy topping leather, increasing its weight and thus holding the shoe in shape, reinforcement in shoes with cloth tops or for reinforc- ing "counters," a rubberized shoe backing cloth has become a necessity. As backing for toppings, although sometimes used in strips, the general plan is to lay the patterns on this material and cut a piece which will fit the whole side of the top. This is then assembled with the topping leather — rubber coating in — and stuck to it by passing the two pieces between heated rollers or under a warm iron. As a reinforcement for "coun- ters" the rubberizing fabric is "died out" about twenty thicknesses at a clip, the pieces to match being sub- sequently assembled with and stuck to the counter by passing both over heated plates. Formerly it was the practice to cut adults shoes from the center of the skin, leaving the flank pieces for chil- dren's and infants' shoes. Choice skins for shoe manu- facturers are, however, no longer available in large quantities, and a great deal of flank leathers are there- fore necessarily used in adults' shoes. This condition creates the demand for an enormous yardage of this rubberized Shoe Backing Cloth. Calendered Fabrics. Calendered rubberized fabrics are always of the rubber surfaced variety and on the 84 For Earth, Sea and Sky whole are made up uncured, the completed article being afterward vulcanized. This is illustrated by the rubber surfaced coat such as worn by firemen or poncho blankets and like articles. Because of insurmountable mechanical difficulties it is, in most cases, therefore, impractical for us to take on business for uncured calendered rubber surfaced fabrics. There are, however, a great many items classed as "Specialties" which are made from a cured calendered rubber surfaced fabric, and to the manufacturers of these specialties we sell a considerable yardage of this material. The base fabrics are usually drills, jeans, sheetings and bombazines, although almost any tight- ly woven cotton cloth may be rubberized by this process. Naturally, calendered fabrics for specialty manu- facturers, such as portable bathtub makers, household apron manufacturers and the like are made according to specifications in order to meet the demands of the particular article involved. As for example, bellows fabrics for the player piano and pipe organ, which is sometimes calendered fabric, must be of a certain weight and carry a certain type of rubber coating. Sometimes the raw fabrics are supplied by the custom- ers, sometimes by ourselves, but always the rubber- izing specifications are laid down by the purchaser with the order for the work. It would be impossible for us to enumerate all special- ties which are or may be manufactured from a calendered rubberized fabric. It must suffice that we let it go with these two or three illustrations, leaving the reader to draw upon his imagination for the rest. The field, however, is unhmited. There are hundreds of articles today being made of oil-cloth on account of its lower 85 For Earth, Sea and Sky price, which might be better made from the more de- pendable rubberized material. New things are being devised every day, and hardly a week passes by but what we are asked to supply the rubberized material from which to make them. If the reader be a person of imagination he will close his eyes and see the possibilities for increasing our business in this item of the Rubberized Fabric line and at the same time benefit the ultimate purchaser. Mill Aprons. Automobile inner tube makers and, in fact, all rubber factories where gums are "plied-up" or run in other sheeted formation, operate what we term as "sheeting calenders." The success of thus sheeting rubber compounds depends entirely on keep- ing the stock away from itself while warm and fresh from the machinery. In other words, to handle calen- dered stock most expeditiously it must be rolled up, and to keep one lap from sticking against the other some- thing must be interwound as the stock comes from the calender. For this purpose we manufacture and sell a "mill apron" which takes the place of the old soapstoned muslin "build-up" hner. While the initial outlay is greater, mill aprons are used advantageously in place of liners because there is no waste caused by the gum sticking while going through the machinery or in "stripping" the stock just prior to using. Again, rolls of sheeted stock when stood on end, as they are, if wound into liners, frequently wrinkle. The use of a mill-apron eliminates losses caused by creases because they are stiffer than liners and hold the stock flat. Where the old type liner is used there is always bound to be more or less sticking and wrinkling, making it necessary to scrap much stock for rerunning. 86 Calendering Fabrics One of the Many Uses of Rubberized Fabrics spreading Rubberized Fabrics. One of the Largest Spreading Departments in Existence One Shipment of a Finished Product — If Placed End to End This Shipment of Mill Aprons Would Reach From Philadelphia to Boston. For Earth, Sea and Sky In savings from the elimination of these objectionable features a full complement of mill-aprons has been known to pay for itself within four months' time, at the end of which they were found to be practically as good as new. Mill aprons are made from a double texture "spread" cotton cloth, known as "back-to-back" material, and are supplied in 39 and 40" widths and 50 and 55-yard lengths. Garment Fabrics. In the manufacture of water- proof coats which present a fabric surface outward is used a class of coated material which, for the want of a better name, is termed "Texture Fabric." This is rub- berized by the spreading process and may be of either single or double thickness. Garments made of this material are, therefore known as either "Single-Textm-e" or "Double-Texture" coats. Single texture coats are those made from one thick- ness of cloth so rubberized that in the completed gar- ment the rubber surface is exposed on the inside. No other hning is provided except in cases where they are made with a loose lining the same as the ordinary tailored overcoat. Double texture coats are those made from two fabrics, rubberized and "doubled" together so that the ply of rubber is between the two and invisible. These fabrics may be of hke character or entirely different. If similar, they are known as "back-to-back" but, on the other hand, if a silk hning be imposed to a heavy facing they are simply known as "double texture." Regardless of this, however, when vulcanized these two fabrics become a unit, practically inseparable. This year such fabrics as cashmere,^tweeds,vwool novlty 87 For Earth, Sea and Sky cloth, bombazines, Palmer Covert Cloth, moleskin and silks are being used. As mentioned previously, the waterproof coat is a class of merchandise not properly a part of the rubber manufacturer's product. It is a line which, because of changing styles, does not lend itself well to the organiza- tion methods of the big rubber factory where a large number of employees must be kept busy the year around, turning out volume production. Because of this and further because of trade condi- tions peculiar to this business, it is therefore best left to those who, by virtue of location, organization and training, are well equipped to manufacture and market such a product. While we do not, therefore, concern ourselves with the manufacture of the coats, as rubberizers we do, however, apply the coating "double" and vulcanize a big yardage of this material for the trade. We receive the fabrics from the mill on the account of the raincoat maker who supplies us with his specifications and instructions for coating. These instructions cover such detail as which linings to use on the various outer fabrics and color of compounds to run on the single texture fabrics, etc. Seat Covering Fabric. One's character is often judged by his personal appearance. It matters not whether the man be rich, moderately well off or com- paratively poor, he is either well-groomed or carelessly dressed. So it is with the interior of the automobile, and it matters not whether it be a "flivver" or a "bear-cat." A study of the machines on the streets of any city reveals a striking contrast. There is the shabby car and 88 For Earth, Sea and Sky the one which presents a truly handsome aspect through the use of a well-tailored seat covering material. One of the most annoying features of the automobile is the tendency of dust and dirt to accumulate on the cushions. It gathers in the tufts and folds and every jolt drives just a little more dirt into the clothing of the occupant. Dust and grime apparently ooze from leather and cannot be washed out, and from the seats of cars upholstered with imitation leather the coloring matter sometimes wears off and stains a light colored garment. These things, together with the fact that the glossy leather cushion is hot and uncomfortable in summer, and cold and disagreeable in winter, are objections to the use of leather and imitation leather. They are, however, objections easily overcome by the use of a seat cover constructed from a good rubberized covering material. Covers made from these fabrics, when properly tailored, make the flat wornout cushion look even more attractive than when new. They give the new car that complete well-appointed appearance and give the used car an up-to-date snappy newness. The Goodrich line of seat covering materials consists of two numbers and belongs to that class of rubberized fabrics manu- factured by the spreading process. They may be either single or double texture as required. The base fabrics generally used are known as serges, cashmeres, mohairs, whipcords, hnens, drills and sheetings. Quality Counts. So popular has become the quality standard of Goodrich rubberized fabrics that many of our customers in marketing their finished product find the sale more easily made when they reveal to the prospective purchaser the fact that the rubberizing was done in the Goodrich factory. 89 For Earth, Sea and Sky This is only another instance which proves the ad- vantage of quality, strengthening our position as advo- cates of "quality first always." No formulas except those which will provide a positive and permanent adhesion, giving a proofing to the material which will perform its mission satisfactorily under every reason- able service demand, are made use of. 90 CHAPTER NINE Marketing Rubberized Fabrics Distribution. It scarcely seems necessary that we recall the cause which prompted the officers of this company to inaugurate a world-wide method of dis- tribution of products by the establishment of the first branches at New York, Boston and Chicago during the year 1898. It is clearly obvious that any manu- facturing company which becomes a national factor must adopt methods of merchandising which will bring its factory close to its trade. The district warehouse and local branch system, as operated by ourselves and others whereby stock ware- houses are situated in the various merchandising cen- ters of the country, serving through loccd branches located at important cities surrounding, is the natural result of a nationalized and inter-nationalized business. Need we mention that the system of branch distribution operates to the mutual advantage of producer, dealer and consumer. In fact, the dealer and the jobber hnks in distribution of standard items of rubber goods, such as tires, footwear and certain mechanical items, could scarcely be served efficiently in any other way. Reahzing this, the question therefore will quite naturally occur to many as to why this method is not also utilized in the marketing of our Rubberized Fabric product. It is, however, a foregone conclusion that the warehouse and branch distribution scheme is not always 91 For Earth, Sea and Sky the most effective, and the answer to this quite natural question is, briefly, that trade conditions and channels of distribution are such that the interests of our custo- mers are best served in another way. In other words, the nature of the line is such that the product of the Rubberized Fabric Department is best marketed from Akron direct; as for example, the problems confront- ing us in rubberizing fabrics for the garment maker are simplified by eliminating the branch from the transaction. This does not mean that our branch organization is relieved of all responsibility in the sale of these items. As a matter of fact, the support and co-operation of our field forces is essential to the success of our sales to give this line the widest popularity. To this end every branch employee should possess a fundamental knowledge of this product and of our selling plans. Without this knowledge one cannot intelligently answer questions put by potential interested prospects. It is the desire of the Akron Sales Department to keep the branch organization supplied with literature descrip- tive of its line, and it is to be hoped that every employee will so familiarize himself with this important division of our product that he can give the needed co-operation. In some instances where tangible direct assistance may be given, swatch-books and prices covering some divisions of the line will be supplied. As for example, this is true of the Boston Branch in connection with shoe fabrics. Boston and its contiguous territory is known as the "Center of the shoe trade." It is here that the biggest market for our shoe fabrics should naturally be found. Knowing that The B. F. Goodrich Company maintains a local branch, the shoe trade is bound to make inquiries of our Boston organization concerning 92 For Earth, Sea and Sky shoe fabrics. This same condition might be true of other rubberized fabrics in other territories. The Trade. In the preceding chapter it has been necessary in describing the product to define rather carefully the trade which we serve. We can, therefore, do little more than repeat, in condensed form, what has previously been told. It is, however, impossible for us to give a classified list of our customers since many of the items have several avenues of escape. For example, calendered fabrics are sold to specialty manufacturers. Specialty manufacturers might be anyone from a manufacturer of ordnance to a manufacturer of advertising novelties. Our list of customers is continually increasing and we cannot tell today what demands will be made tomorrow for this class of rubberized fabric. Likewise auto top and curtain fabrics are sold to different classes of cus- tomers. Generally speaking, however, the Rubberized Fabric product finds its outlet through the Automobile and kindred trades, through Balloon Manufacturers, Shoe Manufacturers, Rubber Goods Manufacturers, Gar- ment Manufacturers and Manufacturers of Special Items. Guarantee. All rubberized fabrics which leave the Goodrich factory, whether under the Goodrich name and trade mark or otherwise, are guaranteed free from de- fects in material and workmanship insofar as we are re- sponsible. In other words, if a fabric is purchased, rub- berized and sold by the Goodrich Company as a complete product, we are responsible for any defect in the weaving or finishing of the base fabric itself and in the rubber coating. On the other hand, we have nothing what 93 For Earth, Sea and Sky ever to do with the selection of fabrics sent to us by others for rubberizing, and can only guarantee, that the coating has been done with our high standards of work- manship and materials. When it becomes necessary for us to make adjust- ment we do so only on the basis of defects in material and workmanship and do not take into account any portion of service rendered by the article. Care of Rubberized Fabrics. All fabrics treated with rubber compounds must be kept away from oil and grease since such are active agents destructive to rubber. When not in use, items made of rubberized fabrics should be stored in a cool, dry and dark place. If carelessly piled up when wet or placed near steam pipes, radiators or stoves, the mildew or excessive heat, as the case may be, will cause the rubber to dry out, rot, and eventually crumble away from the fabric. The process of vulcanization once set up continues under the influence of frictional heat, heat of the sun, or heat artificially applied. Although the employment of scientific knowledge in rubber compounding tends to retard this action, careless treatment will accelerate over vulcanization even if evidence of disintegration does not appear at once. 94 Review 2uestions CHAPTER ONE 1. What can be said of rubber footwear in its relation to other rubber products? 2. Of what did the first American trade in rubber footwear consist? 3. Were the first rubber shoes practical from a service standpoint? If not, why not? 4. What effect did Charles Goodyear's discovery have upon the rubber footwear business? 5. To whom were the first licenses for the manu- facture of such issued? 6. When and under what circumstances did The B. F. Goodrich Company enter the rubber footwear field as manufacturers? 7. When and under what circumstances did we enter this field as manufacturers and sellers of a complete line? 8. What can be said of the manufacturing processes up to the time of the introduction of "Hi-press?" 9. What effect upon the trade at large did this proc- ess improvement have? CHAPTER TWO 1. What is a "last"? 2. How do rubber footwear "lasts" differ from "lasts" used in the manufacture of leather footwear? 95 For Earth, Sea and Sky 3. Of what practical purpose are fabrics in the manu- facture of rubber footwear? 4. Do fabrics have other uses in the manufacture of footwear? 5. How do we select such materials? 6. How do we prepare footwear fabrics? 7. What can be said of the effect of the "Hi-press" process on the quality of the compounds used? 8. What does color mean in a rubber footwear com- pound? 9. Of what may color be the result? 10. What method is usually followed in the cutting of footwear stocks? 11. What building method is in vogue at the present? 12. What is meant by "half-lasting"? 13. What is the vamp in a rubber shoe? 14. What two practical methods of vulcanization are now in vogue? 15. What can be said of the Dry Heat Curing process, as to its merits? 16. What is the mechanical method of cure? 17. What effect does the latter have upon the rubber stocks? 18. What important step is taken before Goodrich rubber footwear is boxed for shipment? CHAPTER THREE 1. Of what must a well-balanced line of light weight wear consist? 2. Of what must a well-balanced line of heavy weight wear consist? 96 For Earth, Sea and Sky 3. What comes under the "Hi-press" brand? 4. What comes under the Straight-Line brand? 5. What do we mean by styles, widths, and sizes? 6. How must the hght weight hue be designed? CHAPTER FOUR 1. What can be said of the effect of too much heat or too much hght on the hfe of rubber footwear? 2. Explain as you would to a customer the effect upon a rubber boot brought about by drying in an oven. 3. How would you provide for the storage of your rubber footwear stock if engaged in the retail shoe business? 4. Where should rubber shoe storage space be located in relation to heating appliances? 5. What can be said of the effect of oil, etc., upon the life of rubber boots and shoes? 6. Of what importance to service is the proper fitting of rubber footwear? 7. Of what importance is a careful consideration of the subject of the care of rubber shoes and boots? CHAPTER FIVE 1. How do we market footwear? 2. What class of trade do we solicit? 3. How are Goodrich rubber boots and shoes guaran- teed? CHAPTER SIX 1. Name some of the methods that have been used in the attempt to waterproof fabrics. 97 For Earth, Sea and Sky 2. What effect did most of these methods have? 3. What constitutes a waterproof fabric? 4. What is the probable origin of rubberized fabrics? 5. What circumstance is connected with its discovery by the White Race? 6. What can be said of the first rubberized fabrics used by the white people? 7. Were they popular, and if so why? 8. Why did rubberized fabrics fall into disfavor? 9. What discovery started the commercial develop- ment of rubberized fabrics? 10. What discovery saved the rubberized fabric in- dustry from extinction? 11. Who was responsible for this discovery? 12. What political events stimulated the waterproof fabric industry to greater activity? 13. What circumstance prompted The B. F. Goodrich Company to begin the production of rubberized fabrics in large quantities? CHAPTER SEVEN 1. Why are so few people really informed on the question of fabrics? 2. What governs the naming of fabrics for rubberizing purposes? 3. What should govern the selection of such materials? 4. Under what two general classifications do all fabrics rubberized by Goodrich come? 5. What precautions must be taken in the selection of fabrics intended for rubberizing? 98 For Earth, Sea and Sky 6. Why is the question of dyes so important to the rubberizer and purchaser of rubberized fabrics? 7. How are compounds for use in coating fabrics treated? 8. What are the two principal methods of rubberizing? 9. What class of fabrics do we rubberize by the spreader? 10. What class of fabrics do we rubberize by the calender? 11. Does thickness of coating determine the quality of the rubberizing? 12. What is meant by "doubling"? 13. What constitutes a correct cure for this class of materials? CHAPTER EIGHT 1. Why are rubberized fabrics growing in popularity? 2. Name three other materials which they may re- place with economy. 3. What can you say of the future possibilities for Auto Top and Curtain Fabric? 4. Why is rubberized fabric a superior material for this purpose? 5. Is Auto Top Fabric a calendered or a spread material? 6. What two additional steps must Auto Top Fabric pass through not usual in the production of other rubberized fabrics? 7. Why are Auto Top fabrics "boarded"? 8. Why is a rubberized fabric a superior material for balloon construction? 99 For Earth, Sea and Sky 9. What circumstances prompted us to add balloon fabrics to our list of products? 10. Are balloon fabrics a spread or calendered prop- osition? 11. Name three types of balloon fabrics and explain their uses? 12. Why has a rubberized fabric become a necessity to the cloth and leather shoe trade? 13. Where are rubberized fabrics used in the con- struction of cloth and leather shoes? 14. What is a shoe covering cloth? 15. What is a shoe backing cloth? 16. By what classes of trade are calendered fabrics generally used? 17. To what class of trade do we furnish cured calen- dered fabrics? 18. What is a mill apron? Explain its use and ad- vantages. 19. What is a single texture fabric? 20. What is a double texture fabric? 21. Where are texture fabrics used? 22. Why do not we manufacture rubberized water- proof coats? 23. How are we concerned in this business? 24. What is a seat-covering fabric? 25. Explain the advantages derived from the use of rubberized seat covering material. 26. Are seat covering fabrics manufactured by the calendered or spreading process? 27. What can be said of Goodrich Rubberized Fabrics in general? 100 For Earth, Sea and Sky CHAPTER NINE 1. How are Goodrich rubberized fabrics marketed? 2. How can the branches assist in marketing this division of the Goodrich product. 3. Classify roughly the purchasers of Goodrich rub- berized fabrics? 4. What guarantee do we place on the product of our Rubberized Fabric Department? 5. What constitutes abuse of articles made from rubberized fabrics? 101 vO °. i/>,<^^ "^^ V^ .0 o. 0> -^ ^ life' ^ '%.,/' ^kil^'^ ^--'^'^^ \" ^x. .= ,\^^ '^^^ X" ^^ o o^ -71 ^ -X r . '-iu ■^:s' ,x\^ .'^-' .#'% ^\^^> ^,# Oo^ ^\' ■^- ^.^^ ry ft '-a c> -J. 0;.v Oo^ I. 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