&^sr/s&i7xws/>w's/s. h> & Mimm. ■ Class fc(7t Book. : — (bpyrigM ^^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. Students' History of the United States •I" o o i_; o - 5 - <* ■3 H wO fto 2 »£S2 * g & s ° " z 5 k€ E" 1 «S 8, a'S.SP Students' History of the United States By A. B. Alderman Graduate of State Teachers' College and Superintendent of Schools Linn County, Iowa Educator Publishing Co. Marion, Iowa COPYRIGHT 1912 BY A. B. ALDERMAN THE TORCH PRESS CEDAR PAPIDS IOWA @C!.A3JU03 4 PREFACE As an elementary text book on United States History, the author, in the preparation of this hook has endeavored to use language which is clear and concise, yet simple, to such an extenl that he hopes it will appeal to the reader. Teachers have for some time recognized the fact that the greatest evil of modern education is the waste of brain energy without an adequate result in intellectual development, and. experience has taught that in no study is this more true than in the study of history. It has therefore been the object, in the preparation of this book, to remove all such obstacles, yet at the same time to furnish material sufficient for the cultivation and development of the faculties of Observation, Imagination, Reasoning, Judgment, and Memory, as well as Presentation. In the grouping of historical events into series, the history of a country naturally divides itself into epochs, each epoch char- acterized by similar conditions, which cause it to appear to the student as a unit. In this book the following order will be observed : Prediscovery Conditions, Period of Exploration, Period of Colonization, Period of the Revolution and The Confederation, Neutrality and Commercial Independence, the Thirty Years Peace, Slavery and the Great Civil War, the Period of Recon- struction, and the Period of Expansion. In presenting the subject from this text, the teacher will stimulate interest and aid students much in their understanding of the subject, if this division is carefully pursued. The old method of teaching literature and history, as separate branches, is passing away, because it leaves the student without any sense of relation in the two studies. The remedy is sought in a happy compromise. The names of our persons of literary fame are placed as nearly as possible in the time they began to write, while citations are made frequently to their works in the footnotes. Reviews of these books should be given in the lessons in which they appear. It is hoped by this means to cultivate in the child a desire for good literature. 6 PREFACE Especial attention is called to the cross references given to all important subjects, the map references given at the beginning of each section, and the notes which will be found invaluable in research or source work. Expressions of gratitude are due to instructors, students, and friends for their great aid in many timely suggestions. The faults are doubtless many, but it is hoped that, in spite of them, the following pages may be of some real service in the study of the history and literature of our country. A. B. A. Marion, Iowa, 1912 TABLE OF CONTENTS Pre-Discovery Conditions Causes Leading to the Discovery of America . . 9 Period of Exploration Exploration by the Spanish ..... 16 Exploration by the Portuguese ..... 24 Exploration by the French ..... 25 Exploration by the Dutch ..... 32 Exploration by the English ..... 34 Natives of North America ..... 40 Period of Colonization Colonization of Virginia . . . . . . 5i Colonization of Massachusetts ..... 64 Colonization of New Hampshire and Maine . . . 75 Colonization of Connecticut ..... 77 Colonization of Rhode Island . .... 80 Colonization of New York ..... 82 Colonization of Pennsylvania ..... 88 Colonization of Delaware . . . . . 91 Colonization of Maryland ..... 92 Colonization of the Carolinas ..... 95 Colonization of Georgia ...... 98 Inter-Colonial Wars ...... 100 Home Life, School Advantages and Literature of the Period of Colonization . . . . . . . 112 Period of the Revolution England's Colonial Policy ..... 126 Growth of Democracy . . . . . . 126 The Struggle . * . . . . . . 142 Independence Declared . . . . . . 151 The War in 1777 ...... 158 The War in 1778 ...... 164 The War in 1779 ...... 168 The War in 1780 ...... 173 The War in 1781 ...... 178 The United States Under the Confederation Difficulties which Beset the New Government . . . 184 Financial Troubles ...... 184 Foreign Affairs ....... 185 Land Cessions ....... 185 Ordinance of 1787 ...... 186 Annapolis Convention ...... 186 Constitutional Convention ..... 187 Constitution Adopted ...... 188 Bloodless Rebellion ...... 188 CONTENTS Neutrality and Commercial Independence Administration of George Washington . . . . ]89 Administration of John Adams ..... 201 Administration of Thomas Jefferson .... 211 Administration of James Madison .... 222 Thirty Years Peace Administration of James Monroe .... 236 Administration of John Quincy Adams .... 242 Administration of Andrew Jackson .... 246 Administration of Martin Van Buren .... 255 Administration of Harrison and Tyler .... 257 Slavery and the Great Civil War Causes of the War Including the Mexican War . . . 263 Administration of James K. Polk .... 263 Administration of Taylor and Fillmore .... 270 Administration of Franklin Pierce .... 274 Administration of James Buchanan .... 280 Home Life, School Advantages, Literature and General Condi- tions of this Period ...... 288 Administration of Abraham Lincoln .... 291 Period of Reconstruction Administration of Andrew Johnson . . . . 32S Administration of IT. S. Grant ..... 335 Period op Expansion Administration of B. B. Hayes ..... 343 Administration of Garfield and Arthur .... 346 Administration of Grover Cleveland .... 349 Administration of Benjamin Harrison .... 354 Administration of Grover Cleveland .... 360 Administration of William McKinley Including the Spanish- American War ...... 363 Administration of Theodore Roosevelt .... .177 Administration of W. H. Taft, Home Life. School Advantages, Social Advantages, Literature, etc., of the Present Time . 379 Appendix Declaration of Independence ..... 393 Constitution of the United States of America . . . 397 Articles in Addition to Amendment of the Constitution of United States of America ..... 406 Presidential Electors from 1789 to 1908 ... 410 PREDISCOVERY CONDITIONS Principal Causes Leading- to the Discovery of America. 1. The circumstances which led to the discovery of the new world were due to the economical, social, political, and geographical conditions in the Old World. Asia, as yet, was a vast, vague, unexplored country. To the east of Asia were Japan, China, and the East Indies. These countries produced gold, silver, precious stones, spices, pearls, silks, and many manufactured articles, which were marketed in Europe. For many years the people of Asia and Europe had carried on trade with each other through middlemen. The products of the East were sent by water and caravan to the markets of Europe, especially to the cities of Venice and Genoa. In these cities the goods brought from the eastern countries were traded for trinkets, tools, and the beautiful Venetian glass- ware. 2. Fall of Constantinople. — The middlemen had at Leasl three different routes over which they might bring their product from the Orient to Europe. One of these routes was by way of the Red Sea, another by the way of the Caspian and Black Seas, and a third by way of the Persian Gulf and Syria. However, in 1453, Sultan Mohammed II captured Con- stantinople, and all commerce through that city was at an end. The Turks also had complete control of the entire Le- vant, and the Turkish corsairs frequented all the waters of the eastern Mediterranean. The people of Europe were thus suddenly cut off from their trade with the Orient, so they be- gan at once to look for a water route to the East. 3. The Renaissance. — In Italy, about the year 1300. an in- tellectual and artistic revival took place. This continued throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Many of the speculations regarding the shape and movements of the earth ceased to be mere possibilities, but were accepted by the learned as probabilities. 10 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 4. Travels of Polo. — Marco Polo was a man who had actu- ally crossed Asia and had spent several years in the Orient. Returning to his home in Venice he joined with the Venetians in a battle against Genoa. Polo was captured by the Genoese and taken, with others, to Genoa, where he was imprisoned. While in prison he related his travels to his fellow prisoner, who made notes and from these notes x wrote a book. This book attracted a great deal of attention among scholars, and gave more information regarding the surface and geography of the world as it was at that time than any book that had as yet been written. 5. Sir John Mandeville. — Sir John Mandeville, who was a great traveler, had made many observations - which was evidence to him that the world was round. One hundred and fifty years before the New World was discovered, he had noticed that in the southern seas the sailors were guided by the south star, as the north star was not in sight ; also when in the northern seas they were guided by the north star, as the south star was not in sight. Thus he reasoned that if the earth were flat both stars would be visible at the same time, and since they were not visible at the same time, the earth must be round. He also reasoned that since these stars remained stationary while the rest of the stars seemed to move around the earth, therefore the earth was not only round, but revolved on its axis while the sun and stars remained stationary. 6. The Astronomers Calculate. — In 1470 the astronomer Toscanelli had calculated, quite exactly, the circumference of the earth. Copernicus and other students of astronomy, by their labors, also did much to enlighten the public, at this time, in regard to the movements, shape, and geography of the earth. 7. Invention. — The inventor also did his share in making i The following are extracts from the account in this book of Japan and Java: "I will tell you a wonderful story about the palace of the lord of that island (Cipangu). You must know that he hath a great palace which is entirely roofed with fine gold, just as our churches are roofed with lead . . . Moreover, all the pavement of the palace and the floors of its chambers are entirely of gold ... a good two fingers thick and the windows are also gold, so that altogether the richness of this palace is past all bound and all belief. "They have also pearls in abundance, which are of a rose color but fine, big and round and quite as valuable as the white ones. They also have quan- tities of other precious stones. ' ' 2 Skinner, Studies in Literature and Composition, p. 32. PREDISCOVERY CONDITIONS 11 it possible for sailors to leave the land and steer boldly out into the unknown sea. The compass, astrolabe, and gun-pow- der had just come into common use. The printing press also was now used to such an extent that people began to be taught by the printed page as well as by mere folklore. THE ASTROLABE The astrolabe is the earliest form of the modern quad- rant, used for determining the latitude and longitude of a given point by the angular distance of the planets from the horizon. 8. The Portuguese. — Prince Henry the Navigator, fourth son of King John I, took the lead in maritime discovery. He established schools of navigation and an observatory at Iagres, near Cape St. Vincent. During this reign the Portuguese dis- covered and explored the western coast of Africa as far south as Cape de Verde. Other expeditions, which were arranged by his pupils, resulted in the discovery and exploration of Maderia, Azores, and the Cape de Verde Islands. J 2 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 9. Diaz. — In 1406, during the reign of King John the Per- fect, Bartholomew Diaz discovered the southern point of Af- rica and named it the Cape of Storms. This name the king changed to Cape of Good Hope, because there was now good hope of finding a sea-passage to India. 10. Gama. — In 1498 Vasco da Gama, another bold Portu- guese navigator, doubled the Cape of Good Hope and sailed into the harbor of Calicut, — not Calcutta.— where he planted the first European colony in the East Indies. He had by this voyage discovered the water-way to the East Indies. This served to revolutionize the world s commerce by diverting the trade of the East from the Venetians to the Portuguese. 11. Christopher Columbus. — All information concerning the life of Columbus before 1492, is enveloped in obscurity. Ac- cording to books written by his son, Ferdinand Columbus, 3 he was born about 1446, at or near Genoa. The father of Columbus was by trade a wool-comber, and it is quite prob- able that Columbus learned the trade, but did not work long at it, as he went to sea when he was a youth of about fourteen years. From a letter written by Columbus in 1501 to Ferdinand and Isabella, he states that he had sailed the seas for forty years and had gone to every place where navigators had ever sailed. From this we may infer that he had been to the Can- aries, Guinea, and probably Iceland, where he may have heard the folklore stories of a country to the west. 12. Columbus Meets Perestrello.— About 1470 Columbus and his brother Bartholomew went to Lisbon [Plate No. 1]. and here Columbus met Perestrello, whose daughter he soon afterward married. Perestrello was one of the ablest of King Henry's navigators, and at his death ho left to Columbus and his wife numerous maps and charts which were studied with great interest. 13. Columbus Gets Encouragement.— Later, about 14^4. Columbus wrote to Toscanelli. asking his opinion about finding the Indie;; by sailing west. He received a very encouraging reply, accompanied with more charts and maps, showing with what ease the vovage could be made. 14. Columbus' Seeks Aid.— Columbus now began to urge his views upon influential friends. An appeal was made to sc K Adams in the Makers of America series. Fiske 's Discover)/ of America, vol. i, and Andrew's History of the United States, vol. i, pp. 37-77. PREDISCOVERV CONDITIONS 13 King John II, of Portugal [Plate No. 1] ; but the learned geog- raphers of Portugal ridiculed the plan. However, the king secretly dispatched an expedition westward, which soon be- came discouraged and returned to Lisbon. Columbus becom- ing acquainted with the deceit of King John, left Portugal for Spain, to lay his plans before Ferdinand and Isabella. His brother, Bartholomew, went to England and France to im- plore the aid of these nations in behalf of Columbus. 15. Columbus Courageous and Patient. — Nowhere was Col- umbus successful until seven long years had passed, during which time he had been held up to ridicule and had been treated in a very unkind and unjust manner. 16. Columbus Successful. — After the fall of Granada, Queen Isabella agreed to aid him in carrying out his plans. On April 17, 1492, the agreement was signed [see Frontispiece], and Columbus immediately started for Palos. [Plate No. 1.] Columbus, after reaching Palos, found it very hard to find men who were willing to enlist on such a voyage of discovery. To induce them to enlist, debts were forgiven, civil actions suspended, and criminals were released from jail in order to make up the necessary crews. Three caravels, the Santa Maria, Pinta, and the Nina were pressed into service. After numerous delays and many disappointments, on Friday, August 3, 1492, [old style] one-half hour before sunrise, the three caravels, with ninety souls on board, sailed out of the harbor of Palos [Plate No. 1] into the unknown ''Sea of Darkness." 4 Early in the morning of October 12, 1492 [old style], after a voy- age turbulent with storm and mutiny, land was sighted, and at daylight Columbus and his men landed and took formal possession of it for Castile. This island was one of the Bahama group, and Columbus named it San Salvador. The Indians, however, called it Guanahani [Plate No. 1], and recent in- vestigation seems to identify it with either Watling's Island or Cat Island. After finding this to be a small island, Columbus again set sail and coasted along the shores of Cuba and Hayti [Plate No. 1] , touched the coast here and there, and sent reconnoiter- 4 Tourgee, Out of the Sunset Sea ; C. B. Adams 's Biography of Cohimous ; Fiske's Discovery of America; also Tlrwaites's Colonies (Epoch Series), pp. 23-27, and Higginson's Larger History of the United States, early chapters; Old South Leaflets, nos. 29, 30, 33, 34, 37, 71, 90, 102 and 115; Hart's Source Boole of American History, ch. i, nos. 1 and 2. Cooper's novel, Mercedes of Castile, is a tale of the first voyage of Columbus. 14 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ing parties inland to examine the land and get information re- garding the government, and the rich products of the east. He was deeply disappointed in not finding towns and cities, as he supposed he was on the coast of Asia. At last, becoming weary, he gave up the search and sailed for Palos, Avhere he arrived March 15, 1493. Here he was received by the people with great ceremony, and soon he was summoned to appear before Ferdinand and Isabella at Barcelona, where he was received with great honor. 17. Other Voyages of Columbus. — [Plate No. 1.] Columbus made three other voyages. On the second voyage he estab- lished a colony in Hayti. On his third voyage he found the little colony in disorder and for three years he labored to restore order. He was finally superseded by Bobadilla, who sent Columbus in chains to Spain. By royal decree he was released and again received with great honor by Isabella. Again he was furnished with funds and ships, and in 1502 he made his fourth and last voyage. While on this voyage he was shipwrecked on the shores of Jamaica [Plate No. 1]. Finally help arrived and he sailed for Spain, where he arrived in 1504. Queen Isabella was on her death-bed and Columbus, poor, neglected, dejected, and broken- hearted, died at Valladolid in May, 1506. PERIOD OF EXPLORATION. 18. The Line of Demarcation.— [Plate No. 1.] After the discovery of America it became necessary in some way to divide the heathen nation, America, between the two great Catholic nations, Spain and Portugal ; so Pope Alexander VI issued two proclamations which gave to Spain all she might discover west of a line running north and south, one hundred leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands, and to Portugal all the laud to the east of this line. This line was very indefinite, as there is near to ten degrees difference between the western part of the Azores and the eastern part of the Cape Verde Islands; so by a subsequent treaty Spain and Portugal made the meridian which is three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands the Line of De- marcation. The line had a great deal to do with the settlement and colonization by Spain and Portugal, but it seems to have in no way affected England, France, or any of the other nations, in their schemes of colonization. sHigginson's A Book of American Explorers; Explorers and Founders of America, by Anna E. Foote and A. W. Skinner; The Bomance of Colonisa- tion, by G. Barnett Smith. SPANISH, 1492-1852. 19. Impelling Motives. — Spain for the past three centuries has been reaping a harvest, soAvn by a greedy and short- sighted people. The first great power that moved her to take an interest in the New World was gold ; then also the Spanish were eager for dominion, and last, the winning of souls to the church. However, in his greed for riches and power, the Spaniard was content to sacrifice his duty to the "Cross." The bold Spanish leaders pillaged and destroyed the cities and fields, stole the gold and jewels, murdered or enslaved the inhabitants and as a reward, they were praised and flat- tered by the pow r er behind the throne. 20. Juan Ponce de Leon Discovers Florida. — [Plate No. 2.] In 1493 Ponce de Leon had accompanied Columbus on his sec- ond voyage of discovery. Later he became governor of Porto Rico, but was relieved of this position by the king on account of the claims of the family of Columbus. He still continued to reside here, and was informed by the Indians of a country to the northwest where gold was abundant and where a won- derful fountain existed, in which if one would bathe it would impart to him perpetual youth. He at once fitted out an ex- pedition and started in search of the fabled fountain. After discovering several islands, he at last, on Easter day, 1513, came to a land of beautiful foliage. In honor of the day he named the land Florida. Later he attempted to found a colony here, but was attacked by the natives and driven back to the ships. During this at- tack Ponce de Leon was struck by a poisoned arrow and died, soon after his return to Cuba, from the effects of the wound. The character of the man is quite well expressed by the epitaph on his tombstone, which reads, "Here rest the bones of a man who was a lion by name and still more by nature." 21 Balboa and the Pacific Ocean.— [Plate No.'l.] Balboa, who had accompanied Darien on an expedition, became gov- ernor of a colony established on the north shore of the Isthmus PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 17 of Darien. Hearing from some natives, of another ocean be- yond the mountains, he formed a company and set out to find it. The same year, — 1813, — in which Ponce de Leon discov- ered Florida, Balboa waded into the Pacific Ocean and plant- ing the Spanish banner, declared that the ocean and all the shores it might touch belonged to the crown of Spain forever. He afterwards was appointed viceroy of the "South Sea," (Pacific Ocean), and married the daughter of Davila, governor of Darien. Later Davila became jealous of Balboa, on account of his successes, and caused him to be executed. 22. Cortes Conquers the Aztecs. — 1519. [Plate No. 2.] Cor- tes, who had shown great abil- ity as a warrior in the subjuga- tion of Cuba, was sent out by the governor of that island to establish the Spanish authority in Mexico. From Vera Cruz, which he founded and named, he march- ed into the country of the Mon- tezumas,' 1 with an army of less than five hundred men, and by 1519 had captured the entire country of Mexico, caused the and robbed the natives of all their vast riches. He returned to Spain in 1528 and was made "Captain General." 23. Magellan Discovers Straits of Magellan and His Ship, Victoria, Completes the Circuit of the Globe. — [Plate No. 1.] Without doubt the most remarkable feat of this period Avas the circumnavigation of the globe by the Portuguese seaman. Magellan. Sailing under the flag of Spain, he in September, 1519, started on his voyage around the world. In October, 1520, his ship entered the straits which now bear his name, and in a few weeks it had sailed into the South Sea. which Magellan had renamed the Pacific Ocean. By March. 1521. Magellan had reached the Philippines. Here, in an expedition sPrescott's Conquest of Mexico; Wallace's The Fair God; Eider Hag- gard's Montezuma's Daughter; Old South Leaflets, nos. 20, 34, 35, 36, 39 and S9. An account of Coronado 's expedition is also given in Hart's Source Book of American History, no. 3. HERXANDO CORTES death of King: Montezuni; 18 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES against the natives, he was killed, but one of his captains. El Cano, was able to complete the journey around the Cape of Good Hope to Spain, arriving there with the ship Victoria in September, 1522, just thirty years from the time Columbus started on his first voyage. Photograph by Voris This is the tree under which Cortes sat down and wept, after his memorable defeat on the night of July 1, 1520, the night in which he and his troops were driven out of the City of Mexico by the nephew of Montezuma, the last of the Aztec princes. This tree stands on the old causeway extending from the City of Mexico to Tacuba, and was the old causeway over which the memorable retreat was made by Cortes and his army on the night in question, which is known in history as the "Noche-Trista", which in Spanish, means "The Dismal Night." The tree is guarded very carefully by the Mexican government. 24 De Ayllon and San Miguel.— [Plate No. 2.] About 1520 there was organized a company of seven men, to procure PERIOD OP EXPLORATION 1!) laborers for the mines and plantations of St. Domingo. The chief person in this organization was Lucas Vasquez cle Ayllon. Sailing into St. Helena Sound, South Carolina, they visited the natives and distributed presents among them. The Indians were then invited to visit the ships. This they did and when a great crowd had gotten on board, the Spaniards immediately set sail. However, this treacherous crime did not prove profit- able, as one ship went down with all on board, while in the other, the greater number of the captives sickened and died. The Spanish monarch commended de Ayllon for this act of deceit and treachery, and as a reward, gave him a commission to conquer the country. In 1526 de Ayllon. with 600 people, began to build a town on the James River, near where the English afterward built Jamestown. lie called this toAvn San Miguel, and employed negro slaves to build it. This is sup- posed to be the first instance of negro slavery within the present boundaries of the United States. 25 Pizarro Conquers Peru, 1531-1533.— [Plate 1.] After Balboa had been executed (see Section 21), his friend, Francisco Pizarro, look up and carried to completion the work which he had begun. 7 Pizarro left the Isthmus of Panama with only one hundred foot soldiers and sixty-seven horsemen, and invaded Peru. He reduced the Peruvian empire to a Spanish province, and by so doing accumulated unbounded wealth. Cruelty seems to have been his highest ideal, for he oppressed the natives with great severity, murdered their king, and made slaves of many of the inhabitants. After nine years of an unhonorable reign he fell a victim to a conspiracy. 26. De Narvaez Meets Disaster.— 1538.— [ Plate No, 2.] It was thought that since some of the Indians in the vicinity of Mobile Bay w r ere wearing ornaments of gold, there must be a gold bearing district somewhere near. In 1528 Narvaez, with 300 men, landed at Tampa Bay. He encountered all the hardships with -which de Ayllon had contended, but finally reached the Gulf of Mexico. Disappointment reigned supreme, and it was decided to reach Mexico if possible. Five rude boats were built and Nar- vaez and his men started on their perilous journey. One night they anchored in an outlet of the Mississippi River. During the night a storm arose. Nearly all perished. The Indians 7 Prescott 's Conquest of Peru. 20 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES captured four of the survivors — three Spaniards and one ne- gro. These men, after living with the Indians as prisoners, finally, in 1536, reached a Spanish settlement in Mexico. 27. Coronado and the Cities of Cibola, and the Plains of Quivira. — [Plate No. 2.] The three Spaniards and one negro, above mentioned, had heard wonderful stories from their captors (the Indians), of vast gold mines to the northwest, and the wonderful cities of Cibola. 8 In 1540 Coronado started from Mexico with 300 Spaniards and many Indians to find these gold fields. The expedition was a failure, as they found no gold. However, this expedition is of great interest to cit- izens of the United States, as it was Coronado and his men who first visited New Mexico and Arizona, where they found the Pueblo Indians. These Indians lived then, as now, in houses built of stone and sun-dried brick. There are no doors in the buildings, and access can only be gained by ascending ladders to the top of the building. It is also supposed that Coronado was the first to visit the Grand Canon of the Colorado River, and the buffalo covered plains of Nebraska and Kansas (Qui- vira). It may be said that this expedition led to the founding of Santa Fe in 1572. 28. De Soto and the Mississippi.— 1539.— [Plate No. 2. } When Pizarro captured Peru he had with him a very brave captain, whose name was Ferdinand de Soto. De Soto, on re- ceiving his share of the gold taken from the Peruvian Indians, became a very rich man. Returning to Spain, the emperor borrowed a great sum from him. Probably in part payment for this debt and also for the great bravery de Soto had shown, the emperor made him governor of Cuba and president of such parts of Florida as he should conquer. In 1531) de Soto landed near Tampa Bay with an army of about 600 men. He immediately started into the interior and marched northward into what is now South Carolina. He then went southwestward, probably to what is now knowm as Mo- bile Bay. After enduring many hardships, during which many of iiis men were slain by Indians, he again marched toward the southwest and finally reached the Mississippi River, where he sickened with a fever, and died, in 1542. De Soto had made the Indians believe that he was immortal, sLoomis's The Spanish Pioneers; Old South Leaflet, no. 1'0. Prof. Bol- ton, of the Texas University, now engaged in research study, has issued a statement to the effect that Coronado came as far northeast as Iowa. PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 21 so his men were forced to bury him during - the night in the Mississippi River, that the Indians might not know that he was dead. His men then hastily constructed boats and sailed down the river into the gulf. A storm arose and nearly all were lost. The survivors finally reached the Spanish settlement in Mexico. No gold was found and the Indians were not subdued, hence the campaign was a failure. 29. Cabrillo and California. — Cabrillo (Kab-reel-yo^ was the first to view what is now the California coast. In 1542 he reached San Diego (sahn-de-a-go) harbor, where he died. His pilot continued the exploration north as far as the forty-third degree of latitude. BO. Menendez Founds St. Augustine, 1565.— [Plate No. 2.] It will be remembered thai ac- cording to the order issued by Pope Alexander VI. Spain was entitled to all the New World lying west of the line of demarcation. During the religious wars the Huguenots OLD SPANISH SIEGE GUNS* had decided to found a Colony in America, and in 1564-65. under the leadership of -Jean Kibaut, a setllement was begun on the St. John's River (River of May . [See Section 38.] This, coming to the ears of the Spanish, an ex- pedition was at once fitted out and. under the leadership of Menendez, sailed for Florida to capture and destroy the Hu- * These two tiegs guns are from Fort Marion, formerly Fort San Marco, Florida — the oldest fortification on the American continent. They were originally Spanish and came into possession of tin- United States with the purchase of Florida from Spain in 1821. Fort Marion was first established in 1565 by the Spaniards under the command of Pedro Menendez. For their protection he constructed a fort, and equipped it with eighty siege guns of this kind. These guns were used in defense of the colony in 17(12 and again in 1741. when the English attempted To capture the fort and expel the Spaniards from Florida. The excellent service these yans rendered, caused the English to abandon their plan and St. Augustine remained a Spanish colony until 1763, when Florida was ceded to England through the exchange of Cuba for Florida. Then came the American Revolution, and at its close in 1783, Florida was ceded back to Spain by England. In 1S19 Sji.-tui sold Florida to the United States and on July It), 1821, the Spanish Hay was hauled down and the United States flag was hoisted at all military st;i tions. These guns are, therefore, the oldest original armament belonging to the United States, and may now be seen at the Iowa State Teachers' College, Cedar Falls, Iowa, where they have been placed on the campus as a perma- nent decoration by the G. A. R. 22 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES guenot colony. On landing Menenclez built a fort, and laid the foundations of Fort San Marco (now Fort Marion), and founded St. Augustine in 1565. This is the oldest city in the United States. 31. Espejo (es-pe-ho) Founds Santa Fe (sahn-tah-fa), in 1582. — [Plate No. 2.] As mentioned in the paragraph about Coronado, an interest was created which, in 1582, led to the founding of Santa Fe. This is the second oldest city in the United States, and was founded by Espejo, who also explored and named New Mexico. Photograph by Torts SAN MIGUEL CHURCH, SANTA FE, NEW MEN ICO This old church was built not Inter than 1582. According to some, it is said to have been built in 154.",. The adobe walls are from three to five feet in thickness. The paintings of the Annunciation on either side of the altar are by Giovanii Cimabue, A. D. 1287, and the old bell — St. Joseph — weighing 780 pounds was cast in August, 1356. The two story adobe building north of the church is a remnant of the Indian pueblo, "and is therefore much older than the church. 32. Reasons for Spanish Failure.— "As the seed, so the harvest" was never more vividly portrayed than in the history of the Spanish scheme of exploration and colonization. As al- ready stated, the motives which interested the Spaniard in the New World were gold, power, and the church. The capture of Granada by Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1492, was the beginning PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 2:! of the Spanish golden ago. and the defeat of the Armada in 1588 was the beginning of the fall. The Spanish ambition was to conquer and plunder. Had her energies been devoted to conquest and colonization, Spain would doubtless be today a leader among the nations of the earth. Let us, however, credit the unfortunate nation with the work which she did, in estab- lishing the many missions throughout the southwestern part of the United States. THE PORTUGUESE, 1500-1582. 13. Araericus Vespucius and America, 1501. — [Plate No. 1.] If we may believe his own account, Americas Vespucius was a great ex- plorer and adventurer. 9 He claims to have visited the mainland of South America in 1497. If this be true he is then the first person to behold the mainland, as the date of his arrival is prior to that of the Cabots. [Sec- tion 45.] However, there is no doubt that in 1501 he sailed along the east- ern coast of South America, prob- ably as far south as the Island of South Georgia. He returned to Lis- bon in 1502, and in a private letter, he called attention to the fact that the lands lie had visited might be called a new world. This letter finally was published, and aroused a great deal of interest. In 1507 a young German geographer (Waldsee Midler) suggested that inasmuch as Americus Vespucius had discovered a new fourth part of the earth, it should be named after him and be called America. The name finally came into general use. A ME RICUS VKSPUCIUS 9 Old South Leaflet, no. 34. THE FRENCH, 1524-1687 34. The French Fishermen.- -| Plates 1 and 3.] Tn 1497, when the C'abots were sailing near Newfoundland [see Section 45], they noticed that the waters were inhabited by great numbers of codfish. This soon became known to the French fishermen, who immediately began to leave the old fishing grounds on the western coast of France, for the coast of Newfoundland. About 1504 Cape Breton was named by fishermen from Brittany. The church, at this time, observed very many fast-days, when meat was forbidden, so there became a greal demand for fish. Therefore many of the French people became fisher- men. Finally, when France decided to explore and colonize l0 the New World, these fishermen not only furnished bold and able bodied seamen, but they, also, were men who already knew a great deal about the New World. 35. The French and Indians. — Among the first French pion- eers to enter the New World were the Jesuit missionaries. These men were willing to endure greater hardships even, than the Indian, and therefore soon gained his admiration and re- spect. Furthermore, the French were a commercial people. Their colonial revenue was derived from the traffic in furs. This pursuit was common to both Frenchman and Indian, and naturally led to friendly relations between them. Then the French freely intermarried with the Indians and adopted many of their ways. The French pioneer possessed that adaptability which, fortunately, made of the Indian a friend and helper, instead of an enemy, as was the case with the Spanish pioneers. 36. Verrazano and New France. — [Plate No. 2.] In 1524, loParkman's Pioneers of France in the Xeie World, pp. 1-215; Higgin- son's American Explorers, pp. 99-117 and 143-166; Thwaites's The Colonies. pp. 32-35. See also Fiske's Discovery of America, vol. ii, pp. 493-500 and 511-528: Pioneers of France in the New World, The Jesuits in North Amer- ica, La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West, Bomanoe of Dollard, and The Lady of Fort Saint John, Dickson's The Black Wolf's Breed, Conan Doyle 's The Refugees. Sheppard Stevens's romance, The Sword of Justice, is a story of the con- test of Spain and France for the possession of Florida. 26 STUDENTS' HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES Verrazano (var-ra-tsa-no), an Italian, sailing under the flag of Francis 1. reached the coast near what is now known as Cape Fear." He was searching for a passage to India, and may have sailed as far north as New York, or even New Hamp- shire or Newfoundland. He named the country New France. In his letters to the French king he gives a very vivid descrip- tion of both the country and the Indians which he visited. By reason of this voyage, France laid claim to all the land between Cape Fear and Newfoundland. 37. Cartier Discovers the St. Lawrence. — [Plate No. 2.] Ten years after Verrazano 1 - had sailed along the Atlantic coast of the New World, Cartier [Kar-te-a] sailed into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and, raising a large wooden cross, took posses- sion of the country in the name of the king of France. In 1535 he sailed up the St. Lawrence River past what is now Quebec, to the Indian town of Hochelaga [ho-she-lah-gah] , which he named Mont Real — Montreal — [Mount Royal]. His ship being frozen in the ice, he spent the winter in this region. Many of his men died, and when spring came, those that were still alive returned to France. Cartier, not disappointed, in 1540-43, tried to establish a colony in Canada. In this venture he was associated with Lord Roberval. Cartier and Roberval soon became dissatisfied. France was engaged in a civil war, and could give no aid, so the venture was a failure. 38. John Ribaut [re-bo] and the Huguenots Attempt to Found a Colony in Florida. — [Plate No. 2.) In 1562 a settle- ment was begun on the St. John's River [River of May], under the auspices of Coligny (Ko-leen-yee). who sent Ribaut to es- tabish a colony in America for the persecuted Huguenots. Port Royal, South Carolina, was built, and a settlement es- tablished. Ribaut returned to France to bring more colonists, but on account of trouble at home, was unable to return at once. The few who had been left at Port Royal were soon with- out food, and in hopes that they might reach France, they built a rude ship and put to sea. While on the sea they were captured by the English and carried to London. In 1564 Landonniere and Ribaut returned. They also landed at the St. John's River, and built a fort near the mouth of the river. This fort was named Fort Carolina. ii Old South Leaflet, no. 17. 12 The Discovery of the Old North West, by James Baldwin. PERIOD OF EXPLORATION 27 When Menendez [see Section 30] landed at St. Augustine, Ri- baut at once sailed with his fleet to attack him, and while on the voyage, Menendez marched overland, surprised and mur- dered nearly the entire population of Fort Carolina. 13 Ribaut was ship-wrecked and most of his men who survived the wreck, surrendered to Menendez. and were immediately put to death. Thus the French lost their foothold in this part of the New World. Neither was she able to call Spain to ac- count for the brutal murder of her colonists at Fort Carolina. but a gentleman (de Gorges) equipped an expedition and sailed to Florida, and in a manner scarcely less cruel than that pursued by Menendez destroyed several Spanish forts, killing men, women, and children. However, the Spanish, were able to hold the country, and the religious liberty for which the Huguenots had striven, was lost. Had the French been successful, the future English colonial map might have been far different. 39. Champlain, the Father of New France. — (Plate No. 2.] So far the French had been very un- fortunate in their schemes of coloniza- tion. The fur trade had now reached such a magnitude that it became necessary to establish a permanent colony. 14 In 160:} Champlain (sham-plane! sailed up the St. Lawrence River to where, in 1541, Cartier had viewed the Indian town, Hochelaga [Section 37]. Neither the Indian town nor the fort, which Cartier had built, were to be found. However, on the present site of Quebec, Champlain erected a fort, and then returned to France. In 1604 Champlain came again, with De Molds, who had received from the French king a tract of land lying between the fortieth and the forty-sixth degree of latitude, which he SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN is The Flamingo Feather, by Monroe 14 Champlain, Samuel de. Voyages, 1604-1618; ed. by W. L. Grant. N. Y., 1907, Seribner. Champlain, Voyages N 57 the London Company followed John Smith's recommendation in regard to sending people who were used to work it would probably have saved the colony a great deal of trouble and suffering, but his suggestion was not followed. More colonists arrived, and they were of the same character as those who had preceded them. John Smith was able to control them for a period, but he accidentally received a very serious wound by an explosion of gunpowder, and was forced to return to England tor treat- ment. Idleness and lawlessness soon reigned supreme. The In- dians not only refused to furnish supplies, but they killed the settlers at every opportunity. On account of lack of food, im- proper shelter, and clothing, the colonists by spring were at the point of starvation, and only sixty of the five hundred were left alive. They then decided to abandon Jamestown, lint as they sailed dowm the river into the bay, they, luckily, met Lord Del- aware, the newly appointed governor, with more colonists and three vessels well stocked with supplies. They again returned to the little village that they had so recently forsaken, and Jamestown was re-established and the colony saved. 72. The Charter of 1609. — Lord Delaware had brought with him a new charter from the king. By this charter much of the power formerly held by the king was vested in the council in England, and this in turn had been delegated to the governor. Also a change had been made in the boundaries of tin 1 com- pany's property. By the new charter, the bounds were made to extend two hundred miles along the coast each way from Old Point Comfort, and "up into the lands throughout from sea to sea, west and northwest." 73. Sir Thomas Dale and Communism. — Although Governor Delaware was aristocratic in many of his views, yet he was a man with a great deal of good common sense, and his arrival marks the beginning of the real history in Virginia. He, how- ever, was soon taken ill and was succeeded by Sir Thomas Dale. Dale was also a man well suited for the place. Under his direc- tion the rule inaugurated by John Smith. "He who will not work, shall not eat," was rigidly enforced. Up to this time everything had been held in common in the Virginian colonies. All the grain was placed in a common granary; meat was placed in a common larder; in short, everything belonged to the company, and the colonists had no individual property whatever. Although this was an ideal system, yet it was illy 58 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES adapted for the conditions which existed in the colony. As before stated, the people of the colony were unaccustomed to work; many of them were criminals and paupers, and the refuse of the large cities of England. To this class of indi- viduals, communism meant, "Put in as little as possible, and get out as much as you can." Dale immediately proceeded to place the colony on a more stable basis. Each person was given an allotment of land. From the crops taken from this land he was required to place in the company's storehouse two and one-half bushels of corn, annually. The rest of the crops harvested from the allotment was considered private property. Many of the idlers were driven out of the colony. Whipping posts, stocks, and prisons were established for of- fenders and criminals. Dale was also very careful to cultivate the friendship of the Indians. Pocahontas, the little Indian girl, who had al- ways been the firm friend of the English, had now grown to womanhood, professed the Christian faith, and had been bap- tized in the little church in Jamestown. John Rolfe, a young soldier of the colony, wished to make her his wife, and Pow- hatan, the great war chief, very gladly gave his consent to the marriage. By this marriage the friendship between the Algonquian Indians and the English of the Virginia colony was more firmly established. 74. The Third Charter in 1612.— The third charter which was issued to the company, gave great powers to the stock- holders. Heretofore the affairs of the company 'had been ad- ministered by the king and the council in England. Under the third charter, the council in England was abolished and the power was transferred to the stockhoders of the company. These stockholders were to meet at least four times a year and take into consideration affairs relative to the colony. Al- though the individual colonists were affected but little, how- ever, this was a long step toward a democratic form of gov- ernment in Virginia. From this time, the colony made rapid progress. 75. Tobacco Culture. — During the administration of Sir Thomas Dale the culture of tobacco was suppressed, in order that the settlers might plant the necessary food crops. How- ever, Sir "Walter Raleigh had taken some of the weed with him to England, and its use soon became a very fashionable fad. Tobacco often sold as high as ten to twelve dollars a PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 59 pound, and it soon became apparent that the colonists of Virginia could well afford to plant their small farms in to- bacco, and with the sale of the product they could buy more necessities than they possibly could raise on their farms. By 1617 a great deal of the farm land was given over to the culture of tobacco. Soon, even the public market places and the roadways were planted with the weed. The merchants received it in exchange for their merchandise; ministers of the gospel received it as their salary; rents were paid in to- bacco, and, in fact, tobacco became the medium of exchange in Virginia. From this time on, Virginia was a very pros- perous colony. 76. The Disagreement of Stockholders. — About this time the stockholders brought forward two different plans for the government of the colony. One party still believed in the autocratic power of Lord Dale, while the other party desired to place some of the power with the colonists themselves. The contest became very bitter, and for some time it seemed as if no agreement could be reached. Finally the views of the latter party prevailed, and Samuel Argall was appointed dep- uty governor. His administration was very unpopular and in 1619 he was removed. 77. The Magna Charta of Virginia. — Although Argall 's reign was very unpopular, yet the liberal party still held the balance of power, and was able to put into operation what is known as the "Magna Charta of Virginia." Sir George Yeardley was the leader in this movement. Under the pro- visions of the Magna Charta. communism was totally abolished. and each colonist was given a larger allotment of land. 78. The First Representative Assembly (July 30. 1619). Of far greater importance was a provision in the Magna Charta which provided for the establishment of the legislative as- sembly of Virginia. Governor Yeardley. who had succeeded Argall, met with his six councilors, and twenty-two burgesses, who had been elected by the people of Virginia to represnt the colony, on July 30. 1619, and organized the general as- sembly of Virginia. Laws were passed which provided for the punishment of drunkenness, idleness, and gambling. The gen- eral assembly also passed resolutions condemning vanity of dress, and for selling firearms to the Indians a penalty of death was attached. This was the beginning of the system of government under 60 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES which we are now living. A speaker and sergeant were elected from their own number. The governor and councilors sat with their hats on, which was the signification of equality. The members of the burgesses sat in the rear of the house, while the governor and his councilors sat in front pews. 79. Introduction of Slavery [1619]. — In the same year that the first representative assembly met in Virginia, another trans- action took pace which caused the nation in future time the sacrifice of the lives of several millions of its best citizens. This was the transaction which took place between the captain of a Dutch trading vessel and the planters of Jamestown. This captain brought to Jamestown a cargo of twenty negroes who were sold to the planters. This was the beginning of slavery in the territory which afterwards became the United States. Very few slaves were sold into the English colony at first, but as the tobacco industry grew, the planters of the south found it was profitable to get negro slaves to work in the tobacco field, and by 1700 one-fourth of the southern population were negroes. SO. Indentured Servants." 2 — At this period in the history of England, there were a great many poor people. There was at this time a law which allowed creditors of these poor people to throw them into prison, or to sell their time until their debts were paid. Also these poor people might sell their own time in order to get means to pay their passage across the ocean to the colony in Virginia. In this way, many vagabonds and criminals, as well as many poor people of good reputation were able to go to Virginia. When the ship arrived at the port, the captain would advertise these people for sale in order to get his pay for carrying them across the ocean. These people were known as the indentured servants, and many of them had to serve their master for years in order to pay this debt. From this class of individuals grew up what in later years was known as the "poor whites." or the "mountain whites" of the south. When their term of service had expired, these people were thrown upon the world with nothing but their indenture to sell again; so many of them became absolute slaves, and were the progenitors of the despised class of people known as the "poor white trash" of the south. However, some of the indentured servants, who were progressive, became land owners, and later were quite influential in the affairs of the south. 32 Prisoner* of Hope, and To TTarc and to Hold, by Mary Johnston. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 61 81. A Shipload of Maidens Arrive [1619]. — One other event makes the year 1619 memorable in the history of the Virginia colony. Up to this time, there were but very few women in the colony, and Sir Edwin Sandys well understood that without homes and family, the people who made up the colony would soon retrograde into semi-barbaric life. There- fore the London Company made arrangements to transport fifty young women to the colony to become wives of the planters. On arriving in the colony these maidens found plenty of suitors, and were left entirely free to exercise their own judgment and will, as to their choice. However, any man who was lucky enough to have the privilege of being ac- cepted with favor by one of these maidens, must, before he could claim her. pay to the company one hundred and twenty pounds of the best leaf tobacco. Other women came from time to time; permanent homes were built ; flocks and herds were soon to be found on all the farms, and with the merry prattle of children, the Virginia colony was on the sure road to success. 82. Indian Uprisings in Virginia [1622-1644]. — On account of the good judgment which John Smith used in making friends with the Indians, and on account Of the continued friendship of Powhatan, and his daughter, Pocahontas, toward the little colony, Virginia had been very fortunate, in the early part of her history, in not having any serious trouble with the Indians. However, in 1622. the Indian tribes became restless. John Smith, Powhatan, and Pocahontas had long since died, and the Indians, who had been quite peaceful for so many years, now planned a general massacre of the entire colony. Under their chief, Opechancanough, a brother of Pow- hatan, they suddenly fell upon the unsuspecting settlers and massacred about three hundred men. women, and children. An Indian had notified a friend in Jamestown of the approaching calamity, and so the town was prepared for the attack and was saved. The colonists at once attacked the Indians, wasted their crops, and destroyed their homes. Peace was again re- stored, and for over twenty years the colonists were not bothered. Then came another massacre. This time, however, the Indians were punished so thoroughly that there was never another general uprising of Indians in the colony. 83. The Charter Revoked. — The London Company soon found that the liberties it had given the colony in Virginia 62 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES proved a blessing to both the colony and the company. There- fore, in 1622 it again enlarged the rights and privileges which had been established by Yeardley in 1619. This aroused the animosity of the king against the company, for the company not only granted free government to their colony in Virginia, but very strongly opposed his tyrannical rule at home. The king, therefore, decided to revoke the charter, and taking ad- vantage of the Indian massacre as a plea of mismanagement by the company, proceeded at once to put his plans into opera- tion. The controversy went to the courts of England, where the judges, being under the control of their king, decided against the stockholders. So on June 16, 1624, the charter was revoked. From this time on the king appointed the gov- ernors, who, in conjunction with the house of burgesses, ruled the colony. During the time the London Company had control of the colony, they had sent to the colony over fifteen thou- sand emigrants; had spent nearly sixteen thousand dollars of their private funds; had built for England a firm barrier against the Spanish nation, and had laid the foundation of one of England's greatest colonial empires. 84. Sir William Berkeley. — King James died in 1625, and his son, Charles I, who ascended the throne, being of the same temperament as his father, was soon in a quarrel, not only with the colony in Virginia but with his own subjects at home. In 1644 he appointed Sir William Berkeley as governor of the colony. The Puritan element, which had become very strong in England, was also gaining strength in the southern counties of Virginia. Berkeley proceeded at once to suppress all Pur- itanic sentiment in the colony. He was very zealous in the cause of his king, but nevertheless, the people of A^irginia were slow to give up the privileges which previously had been granted them. In 1649. Charles I was executed, and Oliver Cromwell ruled in his place. Cromwell removed Berkeley in 1651, but in 1660, when Charles II ascended the throne, Berkeley was again reinstated by the Virginian assembly. Berkeley began his work in the same tyrannical style which had caused him so much trouble when he had first been appointed governor by James I. He levied exorbitant taxes. The Church of Eng- land was the established faith, and dissenters were severely punished ; the right of suffrage was restricted to land owners and housekeepers ; the navigation laws were enforced so that the colonists were forced to ship all their tobacco to England. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 63 Finally discontent became general, and when the king, in 1673. made a present of the entire colony of Virginia to two of, his court favorites, Lord Arlington and Culpeper, this discontent increased to the point of insurrection. 85. Bacon's Rebellion. 33 — Only two things were now needed to start a civil war in Virginia. The first was an immediate cause or excuse, and the second was a popular leader. The first element presented itself in the Indian disturbance of 1675 and the second element presented itself in the form of a gentle- man by the name of Nathaniel Bacon, who possessed those qualities of leadership and resolution which led him to demand and fight for the principles of protection and recognition which he knew belonged to the citizenship of the English colony. The Indians for several years had been committing depreda- tions along the border. Bacon asked Berkeley to give him a commission so that he might raise a company of troops and go and fight the Indians. Being engaged in the fur business, Berkeley did not wish to antagonize the Indians, so he refused to issue the commission. Bacon immediately raised a com- pany and proceeded to punish the Indians. He now became very popular and was elected to the house of burgesses. Still the Indians were troublesome, and on this account Berkeley was forced to issue a commission to Bacon, who proceeded to raise another company and started to put down the Indian uprising. He had not been gone long before Berkeley publicly proclaimed him a rebel, and raised a company to go in pursuit and capture him. Bacon, hearing of this, turned about to meet the governor, and drove him back into Jamestown. Soon the men who formed Berkeley's company became frightened and discouraged and began to disband, so that he had but a rem- nant of a company left. Bacon then proceeded to capture and burn the entire city. He was now taken ill of a fever and died. No one could be found to take his place as leader, and Berkeley took a terrible revenge. He put to death over twenty of the followers of Bacon in the course of a few weeks. Others were thrown into prison and their property confiscated. So unreasonable was he that even Charles II recalled him and would not even admit of his presence at court, and it is re- corded that he remarked, '"That old fool (Berkeley) has put to death in that naked country more people than I did here for the death of my father." 3 3 White Aprons, by Mrs. Goodwin. MASSACHUSETTS, 1620 86. Religious Controversies. 34 — As mentioned under section iifty-one, it will be remembered that England was fast turning from the Catholic to the Protestant faith. At this time there were four religious factions which were not only strong in their different church beliefs, but had gathered such strength that they had begun to exert a great deal of influence in mat- ters of state. These different factions were known as the Ro- man Catholics, the Church of England, the Puritans, and the Separatists. The Catholics, of course, believed the pope to be the head of the church. The members of the Church of Eng- land recognized the king as the head of the church. The Pur- itans, who were also Protestant, believed that the ritualistic part of the church should be simplified and that the church as a whole should be made purer; the Separatists, who were very bitterly opposed to the king, went so far that they did away with all forms of the English church service, entirely. Often- times they simply met at their different churches, where they sat cpiietly to think and pray. Both Puritans and Separatists believed that religious liberty and civil liberty were insep- arable. They, therefore, believed and worked for the suprem- acy of parliament against the absolutism of the king. 87. The Separatists Emigrate to Holland. — On account of the severe persecution which was continually heaped on the Separatists, they finally came to the conclusion that it would be best, if possible, for them to leave England. In the same year that Jamestown was settled, the leaders of these people began to look for a place where they might settle and worship as they believed, without being subject to so much persecution. It will be remembered that Holland had thrown off the Spanish yoke [Section 42], and had proclaimed religious liberty. Con- sequently these Separatists concluded that here they might live, and so in the spring of 1609. they moved to Leyden. Great 34 John Lothrop Motley's Merrymount ; Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter; Coop or 's The Wept of Wish-ion-wish; J. G. Holland's The Bay Path; and Mrs. Jane G. Austen's Standish of Stand'.sh. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 65 numbers settled in the colony at this place and many of their prominent men attained influence in the intellectual, as well as" the religious life of the community. Here they lived a pleas- ant and peaceful life, not oppressed by any government and fearing no man. Holland was also proud of having the repu- tation of furnishing a haven for these oppressed people. How- ever, after the Separatists had been here for about ten years, they became aware of the fact that their children were form- THE DEPARTURE OF THE PILGRIM FATHERS FROM DELFT HAVEN IX 1620 A fresco by Charles W. Cope, in the House of Parliament. London ing the habits and manners of the Dutch people. Although these people were not in harmony with the English king, yet they did not wish their children to forget the English language and manners. Furthermore, the truce between Spain and her provinces [Section 42] was near at an end, and these people 5 66 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES did not wish to be entangled in the fortunes of war in which Holland might be plunged. 88. They Decide to Found a Colony. — After a great deal of discussion, a considerable majority of the colony decided to cast their fortunes in the New World, providing they could get a suitable charter from the king. They secured from the Lon- don Company a tract of land near the Delaware Bay, and they asked the king to grant them religious liberty in America, confirmed by a charter. This the king would not do. How- ever, he promised not to molest them in their new home. Be- ing too poor to hire vessels to carry them and their goods across the ocean, they were forced to borrow money from Eng- lish speculators, promising to give in payment, half of their earnings of the first seven years. Leaving the majority of their friends at Leyden, they at once embarked on the Speed- well from Delft Haven and sailed for Southampton, where they were joined by the Mayflower. From Southampton the two vessels went to Plymouth, from which place they started for the New World. Soon after it was found that the Speedwell was unseaworthy, and so they were forced to return to Ply- mouth for repairs. Finally the Pilgrims decided to abandon the Speedwell, and the Mayflower, with one hundred and two of the Separatists on board, sailed for their new home. After a voyage of sixty-three days, the Mayflower, driven out of its course by a storm, sailed into Cape Cod Bay. [Plate No. 3.] On account of their wanderings the Separatists now became known as the Pilgrims. 89. The Mayflower Compact.— The little party of Pil- grims. 35 while still on board the Mayflower, thought best to enter into some agreement or compact by which they should be ruled. Governor Winthrop, in his History of Massachu- setts, makes mention of this affair in the following manner: "This day, before we came to harbor, observing some not well affected to unity and concord ... it was thought good there should be an association and agreement ... to submit to such government and governors as we should by common consent agree to make and choose. . ." Tbe compact, in sub- stance, is as follows: "In ye name of God, Amen. We, . . . the loyall subjects of our dread Soveraigne Lord King James . . . in ye presence of God, and one another, covenant & combine ourselves together into a civill body politick; for our 35 Tin Mayflow( r, by Mrs. Stowe; -I Nameless "Nobleman, by Mrs. Austen. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 67 better ordering 1 , and preservation & furtherance of ye ends aforesaid ; and by virtue hearof to enact, constitute and frame such just & equall lawes .... as shall be thought most meete & convenient for ye general good of ye colonie; unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In wit- ness whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape Codd ye 11 of November .... Anno Dom., 1620." They all signed this compact and then proceeded to elect John Carver as governor for one year. 90. Plymouth Rock. — Being quite late in the season — No- vember 9th — a party was at once sent out to explore the coast and the vicinity, for a suitable place to land and build their homes. They continued their exploration until December 21st. when they chose a place since known as Plymouth. [Plate No. 3.] When landing they stepped from the boats on a rock (Plymouth Rock), since known as the "Stepping Stone of New England," as it was the landing place of the Pil- grims. Tradition relates that John Alden and a Pilgrim maiden by the name of Mary Clinton, were the first to step from the boats upon this rock. 91. Hard Times. — As soon as the Pilgrims landed at Ply- mouth, they began building log cabins into which they miyiit move their families and store their goods and provisions. How- ever, the weather was very cold and darn]), and it was not long until many were sick. It is probable that all would have died, had it not been that a short time before this, a terrible pestilence had caused the death of the Indians who had in- habited this vicinity. The Pilgrims accidentally came across great quantities of corn which had been buried by these In- dians, and so providentially they were saved from starvation, as well as from the Indian attacks. The winter was long and severe, and before the coming of spring about forty of the little band were laid in their graves. Governor John Carver being one of the number. However, in the spring, when the Mayflower sailed for England, not one of the survivors re- turned with her. 92. William Bradford becomes Governor. — Governor Car- ver was succeeded by Governor William Bradford, who was elected annually for thirteen years, and with the exception of five years, he served in this same capacity until his death in 1687. During his reign he wrote his History of Plymouth Plantations, and to this book we are indebted for a great deal of 68 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES our knowledge concerning many of the important events and facts concerning the colonization of the New England colonies. 93. Miles Standish and the Indians. 3 " — As stated above, a pestilence had visited the section of the country where the Pilgrims landed, and during the early spring the people were surprised to see an Indian approaching them, crying in the English language, "Welcome, Englishmen." This Indian's name w T as Samoset. In a few days he returned again with Squanto, an Indian who was well acquainted with the English Language. Squanto afterwards became the firm friend of the colonists, and with his aid, the Pilgrims were able to make a treaty with his chief. Massasoit, who was chief of the Wam- panoag tribe. This treaty was faithfully kept by both the Pilgrims and the Indians for over fifty years. Squanto also taught the Pilgrim Fathers how to plant and cultivate the Indian corn, how to catch fish, and many other useful things. The Narragansett Indians Avere a very powerful tribe, and were the enemies of the Wampanoag Indians. Their chief, Canonicus, at one time sent to Governor Bradford a snake skin filled with arrows. Squanto informed Governor Brad- ford that this was a declaration of war. The governor im- mediately refilled the snake's skin with shot and powder and returned it to the great war chief. Finding out that the Pil- grims were not afraid, Canonicus came to the conclusion that it would be better to make peace, as he very much feared Captain Standish and his little army. ( >4. The Puritans Establish a Colony at Salem. — [Plate 3.] Up to this time the Plymouth Company had established no colonies in the New World. However, in 1620, the com- pany, which had been re-organized, and was now known as the council for New England, received a charter for the vast ter- ritory between the fortieth and forty-eighth degrees of lat- itude. The company now made several grants, one of which was to John Endicott. who, with about sixty of his associates, settled at Salem in 1628. Endicott was soon joined by several other Puritans, but the real emigration did not begin until about two years later. The king of England was becoming more unjust in Ids treatment of all persons who w T ere not in accordance with the established Church of England. He even levied burdensome taxes and discriminated in every way pos- 3e Courtship of Miles Standish, by Longfellow; Scarlet Letter and Twice Told Talcs, by Hawthorne; Standish of Standish, by Jane Austen. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 69 sible against these people, and this caused many to seek a home in the New World. 95. Massachusetts Charter [1629].— [Plate No. 3.] The Puritans, although anxious to leave England, were not entirely satisfied with the grant from the council of New England, so sought a charter from the king, and were greatly pleased when they found that he was willing to grant them a very liberal charter. The charter included all the territory between a point three miles north of the Merrimac River and a point three miles south of the Charles River, and westward to the Pacific Ocean. It further granted that the government should be vested in a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen asso- ciates who were to be chosen each year from ihe stockhold- ers. None but the church members could vote, and this caused genera] dissatisfaction among the people. They finally de- manded an assembly similar to the house of burgesses in Vir- ginia [Section 78]. This was granted and the assembly was known as the general court, and met with the governor and his eighteen associates as one body. This arrangement did not prove satisfactory, and soon the assembly, and the governor and his eighteen associates, met as two distinct and separate bodies. 96. The Puritan Exodus.— | Phi fe No. 3.1 The Puritans now came in large numbers to the new colony, and instead of being people who were poor and uneducated, they were ex- actly the opposite. Many of them were rich and respected merchants and accus- tomed to success. The leader of these people was John Winthrop, and instead of hiring one or two vessels, as did the Pilgrims, Winthrop and his company chartered thirteen of the best merchant- men then afloat. Every preparation was governor winthrop made which should make this ven ture a (From a painting in the x , „ , ,. ,, , state House at Boston, success. Instead of landing on the Short- attributed to Vandyke). ^ (1 . )y jn fh( . yQa ^ ^ dk} th(? Pil o T ims. Winthrop and his followers arrived in Salem harbor on the longest day in the year, when flowers and fruit were plentiful. They were most cordially received by Endieott. and after a short time selected a place to settle known as Dorchester. — now a part of the corporation of Boston. Part of the colonists 70 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES settled at Salem, and strengthened the settlement here; others settled near by, at Watertown and Charleston; still others made a settlement at Shawmut, another part of Boston, where they found a clear and cool stream of water. It is estimated that by 1640 over twenty thousand Puritans had emigrated Prom England to the new colony. 97. Roger Williams. — The Pilgrims and the Puritans left England with the idea of establishing in the New World a great Puritan com- monwealth, where they might worship according to the dictates of their own conscience. The idea of religious tol- eration probably never entered their minds; at least their laws were very strict, and they persecuted all people who had different religious views, in as serious a manner as King Charles did the dissenters in England. In the colony, however, there were people of very liberal views. Roger Williams was one of these people. He came to Plymouth in 1631, and about two years later, on account of a disagreement with his neighbors, he moved to Salem. He was a very able preacher, and soon a spirit of restlessness began to show itself on account of his liberal views. He proclaimed that the church and state should be entirely separate, and the king having never been in pos- session of the land in the New World, therefore could not dis- pose of it. He contended that the people should buy the land of the Indians instead of the king. Soon the people began to take sides, and Roger Williams was called before the general court. This court decided to send him back to England, but Williams made his escape into the wilderness, and during the winter lived with the Indians [Section 117. | We will later see how he became the founder of Rhode Island, which was one of the most tolerant and democratic of the new colonies. 98. Anne Hutchinson. — In 1634 another disturber, known as .Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, arrived and soon opened what we would call religious conferences. In these conferences were discussed such questions as the following: First, whether sanctification preceded justification. Second, whether the person of the Holy Ghost dwells with a justified person; and, ROGER WILLIAMS PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 71 Third, how far a devout Christian receives from God immedi- ate revelations of his will. It may be said that these questions were not proposed by herself, but by the people who finally became her accusers, and it is fair to say that none of these people probably understood either of these questions fully. Mrs. Hutchinson was the daughter of a Puritan minister,— Marbury, — and it is probable she would never have settled in this country, had it not been that she wished to be with her pastor. Rev. John Cotton, who decided to make his home in the colony. Mrs. Hutchinson, furthermore, objected to the Puritan habit of holding meetings to which the women were not admitted. Soon complaints were made to the general court, and it was decided to hold her trial at Cambridge in- stead of Boston, as in Boston she would be surrounded by her friends. They charged her with disturbing the peace. She was finally declared to be a dangerous person and was ban- ished from the colony. She moved to what is now known as the City of New Port [Section 117 and Plate No. 3], and Later moved again to Connecticut, where she and her children were massacred by the Indians. 99. Persecution of the Quakers. 37 — About this same time a religious sect of people called Quakers began to settle in Mas- sachusetts. They at once began to preach and spread their doctrine throughout the colony, and when they were admon- ished by the general court to stop, they refused to do so. They were therefore whipped, tortured, sent to prison, and a few were hanged, but they were true to their religion and gloried in being martyrs in a good cause. Instead of these punish- ments keeping them away from the colony, they seemed to prove an attraction. More stringent laws were passed. Any Quaker entering the colony was liable to have his ears cut off. If he entered a second time, holes were burned through his tongue with hot irons. The government finally inflicted the death penalty on all who should return the second time. Sev- eral returned and w r ere hanged. However, the Quakers re- mained firm, and after 1660 the law r s were not so severe, and religious persecution ceased to a great extent. 100. King Philip's War. — During the life of Massasoit, the Puritans had no serious trouble with the Indians. At his death, his son, Alexander, became chief. Alexander was of the opinion that although his father, Massasoit, had sold the land to the 37 New England Tragedies, by Longfellow. 72 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES , . KING PHILIP whites, still the Indians could hunt and fish on the land as they previously had done. The colonists objected to this, and soon there was a misunderstanding be- tween them. On account of the difference of opinions, Alexander became the enemy of the whites, and soon had formed a secret alli- ance with the Narragansett Indians to kill all the colonists. The gov- ernor at Plymouth, hearing of this, promptly brought Alexander by force to Plymouth. Here he was taken ill of a fever and died. His brother, Philip, was now proclaimed chief. He believed that the English had poisoned Alexander, and began to plot revenge. He organized a confederacy of all the New England Indians to exterminate the whites. Hostilities began in June, 1675, in the town of Swansea. The people were coming home from church when they were attacked. Nearly all were killed. Soon the attack became general. Many of the isolated communities were entirely destroyed: men, women and child- ren were carried into captivity ; some were killed ; some were sold into other tribes ; some were tortured, and many were never heard from. Finally the wife and son of King Philip were captured and sold into the West Indies as slaves. Philip now gave up all hope, and roamed from one place to another. He was finally shot by a faithless Indian. During the war, the colonists lost a great many cattle; many houses were burned, and many people killed. However, the Indians were so severely punished that they remained quiet for a long time. 101. John Eliot, "The Apostle to the Indians." — Previous to King Philip's war, John Eliot had established among the different tribes of Indians many schools and churches. He also had translated the entire Bible into their language, and several thousand were converted to the Christian faith by his preaching. It is estimated that in 1674, there were over four thousand praying Indians in New England. Many of these Indians could read and write. However, when the war broke PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 73 out, the Indians seemed to lose their religious zeal, and all joined King Philip in the war against the colonists. 102. Salem Witchcraft [1629] . 3S — About the same time King Philip and his Indians were committing their outrages in the New England settlements, a delusion known as the Salem witchcraft became prevalent. It was not confined to the New England colonies alone, as is supposed by many people, but in- stead it existed throughout the world. It was thought that human beings might become witches, and by forming a com- pact with Satan, these people could become transparent, and change themselves into weird forms and shapes, and riy wher- ever they wished on the wings of the wind. It was believed that they could torture their enemies by biting, pinching, and other numerous ways while in this transparent state. Eliza- beth Parris. with several other girls and young women between the ages of ten and twenty, claimed that they had been be- witched. They accused Tituba, a Negro-Indian slave belong- ing to Mr. Parris. The excitement became intense: llie whole country was in a ferment. Phipps, the new governor, at once called a commission of seven magistrates to investigate the case. Under the new charter he had no right to do this, hut the community was so excited that no one would issue a pro- test. Things went from bad to worse, until about twenty men, women and children had been executed. Giles Corey, an old man of eighty years of age, was pressed to death because he refused to answer the question put to him of "guilty or not guilty." Finally Mrs. Hale, the minister's wife, and Mrs. Phipps, the governor's wife, were accused of being witches. The tide now turned, and the people saw their error, and at once the persecution ceased. Mr. Whittier, in 3iis poem, de- scribes how Judge Sewall arose in his pew at church every year and asked the forgiveness of the people, for the part he had taken in committing to death so many innocent people. 103. Sir Edmund Andros and the Massachusetts Charter. — During the first thirty years of the Pilgrims' life in the colony, they were not troubled in any way by the king nor the courts of England. Consequently they had built up a community which was nearly independent of the laws of England. Eng- land was interested in other things to such an extent that it did not have time to devote any attention to its colony. About ss New England Tragedies, by Longfellow; A Maid of Salem Toivne, by Lnev F. Madison. 74 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 1676, Sir Edmund Randolph was dispatched by the king to in- quire into the affairs in Massachusetts Colony. His reports were very unfavorable to the colony, and after ten years the charter was taken away, and Andros was appointed governor in chief over Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecti- cut, Rhode Island and Plymouth. Andros at once established the Episcopal form of worship in the colony. He also became involved in difficulties with the Indians of the northwest, and it was thought that he was in league with the French colonists, and that he was aiming to turn New England over to them. In 1688 a great revolution broke out in England, and James II was forced to abdicate. As soon as the news reached Boston, the colonists arose and placed Andros under arrest, and the colonial govern- ment was re-established under the old charter. Through the efforts of Increase Mather, who was at this time in England, a new charter was obtained in 1691, uniting Massa- chusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth Colony, and Maine, under the name of Massachusetts. NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MAINE 104. Gorges and Mason. — [Plate No. 3.] Soon after the founding of Plymouth, Sir Ferdinand Gorges obtained a grant of land extending from the Merrimac to the Kennebec River. Settlements were begun at Portsmouth and Dover. In 1623 he was joined by Captain John Mason, and soon after, the tract of land was enlarged so as to comprise roughly what is now known as Maine and New Hampshire. 105. Division of Territory. — On account of a dispute re- garding the boundary line, Mason and Gorges decided to di- vide their grants. Gorges took the country to the east of the Piscataqua and Mason the country between the Piscataqua and the Merrimac. 106. Colonists and Government of New Hampshire. — The settlements in New Hampshire were made, to a great extent. by the people from other colonies (especially Massachusetts), and in 1641, the settlements being few and small were, for pro- tection, joined to Massachusetts. This scheme did not please the king and in 1679 he made New Hampshire a royal pro- vince. In 1688. however, she was again joined to Massachu- setts, but in 1691 she again became a royal province and so continued until the Revolution. 107. Settlements in Maine. — By referring to section sixty- six we will see that Sir George Popham attempted to establish a colony at the mouth of the Kennebec in 1607. Later, in 1625. a settlement was made at Pamaquid Point. Other settlements were later established by Gorges, at Saco and Biddeford. 108. Maine United with Massachusetts. — Gorges, who lived in England, paid very little attention to his colony and it grew in population and importance slowly. A dispute finally arose over the boundary line between Maine and Massachusetts, and in order to settle the trouble. Massachusetts paid to the heirs of Gorges twelve hundred and fifty pounds sterling. There- after Maine remained a part of Massachusetts until after the Revolution. 109. Character of People Who Settled Maine. — Josselyn, 76 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES in Hart, I, 430, gives us a description of the settlers of Maine in the following language : The people . . . may be divided into magistrates, hus- bandmen or planters, and fishermen. . . The planters have a custom of taking tobacco, sleeping at noon, sitting long at meals, sometimes four times a day, and now and then drinking a dram of the bottle extraordinarily. . . If a man . . . came where they were roystering and gulling in wine with a dear felicity, he must be sociable and roly-poly with, taking off their liberal cups as freely, or else begone which is best for him. CONNECTICUT 110. Fishermen on the Connecticut River. — In 1630. the same year that Boston was founded, some fishermen entered the Connecticut River and were very favorably impressed with the country through which the river flowed. This report prob- ably caused Lords Say and Brooke to ask the king for a grant of land at this place. This he gladly gave to them, although the Dutch had already established a trading post near the pres- ent site of Hartford. Soon (1663) a party of fur traders, from Plymouth, had established another trading post at a place which they called Windsor. [Plate Xo. 3.] 111. Exodus from Massachusetts. — .Many people of Massa- chusetts were dissatisfied with the home government, and this, combined with the intolerance in religious affairs, had much to do with the removal of many people from Massachusetts to Connecticut. In 1635, John Winthrop, Jr.. son of the Governor of Massachusetts, with a company of followers, reduced the Dutch fortifications and built a fort at the mouth of the river. TTc also established a settlement [Section 120] which he named in honor of his patrons, Saybrook. In the spring of 1636 a party of about one hundred men. women, and children, made their way through the forest, accompanied by their pastor, the Rev. Thomas Hooker. They founded Hartford, and among other things, it was tacitly understood that a man need not be a church member in order to vote. 112. Pequot War, :;! ' 1636. — The people who settled in the Connecticut Valley soon incurred the displeasure of the Pequot Indians, whose hunting grounds they were turning into farms and towns. A conspiracy was planned by the Indians against all the settlements in the Connecticut Valley. They kept up a desultory war. killing many defenseless men. women, and child- ren, especially in the settlement of Wetherfield. 3» T//r Story of Massachusetts, by E. E. Hale: The Regicides, by Cogs well; Beginnings of New England, by Fiske. For contemporary accounts of the events and conditions of this period, see Old South Leaflets, nos. 6, 7. 8, 23, 24, 25, 49-55, 60-64, 77, 87, 1]0 and 121; Also Hart 'a Source Bool; nos. 14. 15, 17, 19. 20 and 21. 78 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The Narragansetts, through the influence of Roger Williams, not onl}' refused to join the Pequots, but aided Captain John Mason who, in 1637, completely surprised the Pequots, and so nearly destroyed the tribe that it was never again re-organized. The Pequot war taught the colonists the fact that in union there is strength. Soon the different colonies began to plan with this end in view. 113. First Written Constitution. — In 1639, about the same time that Anne Hutchinson was banished from Massachusetts, representatives from the three towns, Windsor, Hartford, and Wetherfielcl, met at Hartford and drew up a written constitu- tion by which they agreed to be governed. This constitution is known as the "Fundamental Orders of Connecticut." In this constitution, the ideas of Thos. Hooker regarding suffrage and religious toleration were made prominent. The assembly was made up from representatives from each township and, provision whs made for the establishment of a free school system. This was the first time in the history of the world that a state was created, with a written constitution as its foundation. 114. Connecticut Receives a Charter in 1662. — On the re- storation of Charles II. Connecticut was the first of the colonies to acknowledge their sovereign. This may. or may not, have been accidental. The fact, however, remains that in April, 1662, the king granted to Connecticut a very liberal charter. According to this charter New Haven was deprived of her separate existence and attached to Connecticut. 115. The Royal Governor and the Charter Oak, 40 1687.— In 1685 King Charles died and his brother, James II, ascended the throne. This king at once decided to abolish all forms of local government in America, and unite the colonies under a single administration. He therefore dispatched Sir Edmund Andros to New England as governor, and authorized him to seize the Connecticut charter. Tradition relates that Andros and the colonists argued until it became necessary to light the candles. It soon became apparent that Andros would seize the charter. Suddenly the candles were blown out. There were no matches in those days and it was some time before the can- dles could lie relighted. Taking advantage of the darkness. Captain Wadsworth seized the charter, and is said to have hid *o Romance "/' tht Charter Oak, by Denton; Thwaites's The Colonies, pp. 113-153; Eggleston's The Beginners' of a Nation, pp. 98-220; McLaughlin's History of the American Nation, pp. 67-90. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 79 it in a hollow tree, since known as the ' ' Charter Oak. ' ' When Andros found he could not obtain the charter, he took the rec- ord hooks of the colony, wrote '"Finis*' (The End) at the bottom of the page and Connecticut was obliged to submit to his rule. Andros was a despotic ruler in every sense of the word. During his rule heavy taxes were imposed; a censor was ap- pointed for the press, and nothing was allowed to be printed without his permission. The general court was abolished. Not only the colonists, but England also now realized the fact that she could no longer endure the tyranny of James II, and soon he was forced to flee across the English Channel. AVilliam and Mary ascended the throne, and when the colonists were informed of this fact they at once arrested the tyrannical Andros, brought out their charter from its hiding place, and quietly went back under the old form of government. The decrees which annulled the charters of both Rhode Isl- and and Connecticut had never been formally enrolled, so the king and queen allowed the old charters to remain in force and these colonies were both governed by these charters until long after the Revolutionary War. [Sec. 233.] 116 The ''Blue Laws." "—The laws of Connecticut, like those of the other New England colonies, were very severe, though often-times not as severe as similar laws in England. The so-called " Blue Laws " which are attributed to Con- necticut, probably never existed. They were very likely the exaggerations of Rev. Samuel Peters, who became very un- popular in New England, being forced, in fact, to return to his home in London. This gentleman, after his return to England, issued several written contributions, which for many years led the people to believe that there ready existed such a code of laws as the " Blue Laws " of Connecticut. 4i In his History of Connecticutt "Rev. Samuel Peters cites as an example of the "Blue Laws" the following: "No one shall run on the Sabbath day, or walk in his garden or elsewhere ex"ept reverently to and from meet- ing. " "No woman shall kiss her child on the Sabbath or fasting day.'" "No one shall read common prayer, keep Christmas or saints' days, make mince pies, dance, play cards or play on any instrument of music except the drum, trumpet and jewsharp. RHODE ISLAND 117. Providence Founded by Roger Williams, 1636. — We have seen [Section 97], in the study of Massachusetts, how Roger Williams, after being sentenced by the general court to be deported to England escaped into the wilderness. For fourteen weeks he wandered about from place to place, often- times sleeping in hollow trees, and as he said, " not knowing what bread or bed did mean." He finally reached the wig- wam of Chief Massasoit where he was entertained during the winter. In the spring, Canonieus. chief of the Xarragansetts, gave him a tract of land on the Narragansett. Later with five other friends he established a settlement which they called Providence. [Plate No. 3.] In 1639 Anne Hutchinson, who, it will be remembered [Section 98], w r as also banished from Massachusetts, made a settlement at Portsmouth, and still later, William Coddington and Mrs. Hutchinson, with about sixty of their followers, who had become dissatisfied with Portsmouth, moved again to the southern end of the island, where they founded Newport. Lack of Harmony in Rhode Island. — The fact that com- plete religious toleration was guaranteed, caused this colony to become a refuge for people of all the different beliefs. Furthermore, fanatics and people of every turbulent disposi- tion flocked here on account of the protection offered. Fiske, in his " Beginnings of New England," regarding the conditions in Rhode Island, writes as follows: " All extremes met on Narragansett Bay. There were not only sensible ad- vocates of religious liberty but theocrats as well, who saw flaws in the theocracy of other Puritans. The English world was then in a state of theological fermentation. People who fancied themselves favored with direct revelations from Heav- en; people who thought it right to keen the seventh day of the week as a Sabbath instead of the first dav . . . p^onV who advocated either too little or too much marriage; all such ec- centric characters . . . found in Fhode Isi'ard a favored spot where they could prophesy without let or hindrance. But the immediate practical result of so much discordance in opinion PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 81 was the impossibility of founding a strong and well-ordered government. The early history of Rhode Island is marked by enough of turbulence to suggest the question whether, after all, at the bottom of the Puritans ' refusal to recognize the doctrine of private inspiration, or to tolerate indiscriminately all sorts of opinions, there may not have been a grain of shrewd political sense not ill adapted to the social conditions of the seventeenth century. ' ' The above quotation gives a vivid idea of the difficulties \v 11, which Williams and his followers had to contend, and it is grat- ifying to know that the colony finally proved a success, and that the constitutions, not only of all the states, but of the United States, as well as other great powers today contain the very principles and guarantee the same privileges as laid out in the constitution of Rhode Island. 118. The Charters. — In 1640 the two settlements on Rhode Island became united under the name of Rhode Island, and in 1644 Williams went to England and secured a charter which united Providence Plantation and Rhode Island into a single province. It is a noteworthy fact that under this charter complete religious toleration was granted. The church and state were entirely separate ; no religious tests were required ; the government may be said to have been a pure democracy. Bachelors, however, w T ere not allowed to vote. In 1663 the king granted a second charter to Rhode Island. This was very similar to the charter granted to Connecticut [Section 114], to which we have previously referred in the study of Connecticut. This was the charter which became the state constitution of Rhode Island, and remained in force for many years after the Revolutionary War. NEW YORK "~ ,! *~~,*2 EARLY VIEWS OF NEW YORK CITY 119. Dutch Traders and the Dutch West India Company. — In section forty-four we learned that in 1609 Henry Hudson explored all the country near and around the Hudson River and Hudson Bay. The next year the Dutch established a col- ony near the mouth of the Hudson River, where they carried on a profitable trade in furs. Soon several trading posts and forts were established, and in fact, the trade with the Indians became so profitable that in 1615 the States General of Hol- land granted a trading charter to the New Netherlands Com- pany. The charter given to this company expired in 1621, at which time the New Netherland Company was succeeded by the West India Company. This company was given the right to employ soldiers, to make treaties, to maintain courts, to « Rip Van Winkle, and Knickerbocker's New York, by Irving; Fiske, Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America; Fisher, Colonial Era; Thwaites, The Colonies; McLaughlin, History of the American Nation; Old South Leaflets, nos. 69, 75. 94. 95, 96, and Hart, Source Book, nos. 16, 22. 23, 25, 26, 32. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 83 make settlements, and provide for the colonization of the country. 120. Settlements. — The same year (1624) that James I made Virginia a royal province the West India Company es- tabished their first colony. This colony consisted of about thirty families who made settlements at Albany (Fort Orange). Fort Nassau on the Delaware [Plate No. 3], Manhattan Island, and as we already know, at Hartford. Connecticut [Section 111.] Two years later Peter Minuit bought of the Indians, Manhattan Island, giving in exchange about twenty-four dol- lars' worth of commodities. The Dutch now claimed all the country from the Delaware River to Connecticut, and called it " New Netherlands." The settlement on Manhattan Island was named New Amsterdam, after the city of Amsterdam in Holland. 121. The Patroons. — In 1629, in order to encourage perma- nent settlement, the States General of Holland granted to the West India Company a new charter. This charter gave the members of the company the right to purchase from the In- dians large tracts of land on which permanent settlements were to be established. For every colony of fifty persons over fifteen years of age, the member was given a title and control of a tract of land which might extend sixteen miles in width on one side of any of the numerous rivers, or it might extend eight miles on both sides of the river. The founder of one of these colonies was known as a Patroon. Although the immediate effect was to cause the members of the company to make many settlements in ''New Netherlands," yet the plan was illy adapted to the democratic notions which soon were to become part of the natures of the early colonists, and in later years, as we shall see, caused a great deal of trouble. 122. New Amsterdam becomes New York. 43 — By looking at the map [Plate No. 31, we will see that the New Netherlands was situated in the neutral part of the territory which was granted by England [Section 65] to the London Company and Plymouth Company. Holland and England were strong commercial rivals and nat- urally their colonies took up the conflict. It will be remembered how both the English and Dutch entered into a conflict for the ■is The Dutchman 's Fireside, by Paulding. S4 STUDENTS' BISTORT OF THE UNITED STA IT.s control of the Connecticut Valley Section ill. Charles 11, in HUH, who was about to engage in a war with Holland, sent a strong force to cap- ture Now Netherlands, OKI Peter Stuyve- sant, the director general, pleaded with his people to fight, hut the people in New Netherlands never having- had any hand in making- the laws, had very little inter- est in the government. Furthermore, there was very little powder, only twenty oan- '• "^^M^ ' nous, and not over two hundred soldiers in ! - [JYVESANT the entire eolony, while the English were IFrom r [Minting in the we \\ supplied with soldiers, eatmons, and uoss 'ssioa " ' he \ \ . . Historical Society) other munitions of war. Atter nuieh par- leying Governor Stuyvesant finally surrendered. Charles 11 had already given to his brother, James. Puke of York, a grant of New Netherland, and SO in his honor, the name New Netherland was now re-ehristened New York. 123. English Colonies form a Continuous Line. England's colonies now formed a continuous line, with QO enemy nearer than the French in Canada. Although in 1673, during a war between England and Holland, New York was again captured by tin- Dutch, yet in a few months it was given back to Eng- land in exchange for Dutch Guiana. So ended the Dutch rule in North America. 124 Andros, Leisler, and Sloughter." Governor Andros, who was so thoroughly disliked in Massachusetts, fared do hotter in New York. When James 11 was deposed. Jacob Leis- ler. a successful merchant and soldier of New York, took com- mand of the army, arrested the deputy governor whom Andros had appointed over New York, and seized the government in tin 1 name of William and Mary, the new rulers of England. For some unknown reason, when the newly appointed gG\ ernor, Sloughter, arrived, Leisler refused to turn over the gov- ernment. He was finally arrested and executed for treason by Sloughter. However, some claim Sloughter unwillingly signed the death warrant while under the influence o( strong drink. 125. Government. As before explained, the government, as meted out by the Dutch governors, was very unsatisfactory. These colonists, lik-i 'heir neighbors, were liberty loving poo ntghtvr, by Byrnes. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 85 pie, and wished to !><■ identified, in some way, in the making of the Laws by which they were governed. The governor choi e his council from a lis) <»r nominees from the Beveral Bettle ments. This council soon became self-elective and tin govern nicni came near being an oligarchy So we may readily per ceive why the people of New Netherlands were willing to ur render to the English especially when they were promised ;i hct i i-y form of governmenl . L26. Duke's Laws. After New Netherlands became New York, ;i system of laws, known as the " Duke's Laws," were introduced by Governor Nicholas. The laws provided for the election of town officers, 1 1 - i .- 1 1 by jury, and freedom of worship. In L683 an assembly, to be elected by the people, was granted. 1L'7. Religion.- The charter of the Wes1 India Company was in many ways an exceedinglj liberal charter, Tins is th< charter in the history of the world winch placed both rel and education entirely in the hands of the people Eleligiou toleration existed from i h<- beginning of the colony. In the "Documentary History of New York" a quotation from ' ernor Dougan, written in 1687, read i follows: . . . tew Roman Catholics, abundance of Quaker preachers, men and women especially; singing Quakers, ranting Quakers, Sabbat arians; Anti-Sabbatarians; some Anabaptists; some Independ- ents; some Jews; in short all sorts of opinions. . . 128 Education. While the hutch had control of the co ;i good system of common schools w;is maintained by public aid, bul by the close of the seventeenth century the Engli h allowed these schools to become entirely neglected. The Eng lish established many church schools. bu1 the Dutch did no1 take kindly to the e and it wai many years I. '-fore New Fork, under the Engli h had a good schools as were maintained un- der t he I )iii<-h rule. NEW JERSEY 129. Early History. — It is quite probable that Henry Hud- son was the first European to set foot on the shores of New Jersey. By virtue of this discovery [Section 44], as before stated. Holland laid claim to this part of the New World. The first settlements were made by the Dutch fur traders from New Netherlands, who established a post at Bergen (Jersey City). The king of Sweden, also desiring to found a colony in the Xew World, established a settlement in what was later known as West Jersey. This led to a dispute between the two nations. Finally Governor Stuyvesant, in 1655, with a small army, com- pletely subdued the Swedes. In 1664 New Jersey, with other colonies, passed into the hands of the Duke of York, and he in turn granted it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. The government established by these parties was very lib- eral and consisted of a governor, council, and elective assem- bly. Complete religious toleration was also guaranteed. Un- der the concessions in 1665, an English settlement was begun at Elizabethtown. and in the following year Newark and Mid- dletown were founded by emigrants from New England. 130. East and West Jersey. — The colonists who settled in New Jersey followed the precedent, which had been estab- lished by settlers in some of the other colonies, of purchasing their lands from the Indians. This not only made friends of the Indians, but gave the colonists an excuse for refusing to pay rent to the proprietors. However, the proprietors still claimed the right to the rent, and by 1672 this claim had caused so much disturbance that Berkeley, who had become thoroughly disgusted, sold his undivided share of New Jersey to William Penn and other Quakers. In 1676 Carteret and these Quakers agreed upon a boundary line running from Lit- tle Egg Harbor to the Delaware, to a point at forty-one de- grees and forty minutes. The Quakers now took that part known as West Jersey, and Carteret remained in control of what was known as East Jersey. The Quakers established a PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 87 very liberal form of government in West Jersey. A repre- sentative assembly was chosen by the people, and from this assembly an executive council of ten members was chosen. Thus the people controlled the governing 1 power. Complete religious toleration was granted. In 1680 Sir George Carteret died, and two years later twenty- five Quakers, one of whom was William Penn, purchased from the heirs of Carteret, East Jersey. A form of government very similar to that of West Jersey was established, the chief dif- ference being that here the proprietors and their deputies formed the executive council. 131 Trouble with the Duke of York. — Both of these col- onies made wonderful progress and on this account the Duke of York wished again to bring them under his control. In or- der to protect his interests in these colonies, William Penn was forced to return to England, and after a long and hard fight with the Duke of York, was forced to give up his claims. Later, however, when the Duke of York became King James II, of England, he united New Jersey, New England, and New York, and Governor Andros was appointed royal governor. At the downfall of Andros [Section 103], the colony for ten years was left without any form of government. At the close of this period and by the request of the colonists. Queen Ann made New Jersey a royal colony. In 1738 New Jersey secured a separate administration, her last royal governor being Wil- liam Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin. PENNSYLVANIA 45 132. The Friends, or Quakers. — During our study of the colonies, we have several times met with a religious sect of people known as " Friends or Quakers." The Friends were a branch of one of the many different sects of dissenters, who were in trouble with the Stuarts. George Fox, who was the founder of this sect, on one occasion is said to have stated to the judge of the court, ' ' I bid thee tremble before the word of the Lord. ' ' The English in derision called this judge a Quaker, and so the name was finally applied to the society of Friends. Many of the first people who became Quakers probably were of the lower class of the English people. However, these peo- ple were not only enthusiastic, but were of good morals, and their religious ideas were so free from defect that they soon had a very large following. Their belief was a pure and spiritual doctrine. They fol- lowed what they designated as the " inner light," and accord- ingly they refused to recognize any form of church doctrine. They did not believe in war, and therefore would not pay taxes for the support of war. They also refused to be taxed for the support of churches, as they believed "that every person is his own priest, and paid ministers are unnecessary." They did not believe in forms or rules of etiquette; they refused to uncover their heads or bow to royalty, or to be sworn in court. They disliked prefixes and titles, and believed in very plain dress and language. 133. William Penn and His Holy Experiment. — William Penn was the son of Sir William Penn, a noted admiral in the English navy. The Penns were noted as a family, with a great war record in the English army and nan, and it is no wonder that William Penn's father was astonished when it became known to him that his son had become a convert of the great Quaker preacher, George Fox. At this time Penn was ;i student at Oxford University, and on account of his Quaker affiliations, he was expelled from the university. On account of his obnox- 45 History of William Penn, by Dixon ; Pennsylvania, by Gordon. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 89 ious conduct and his religious ideas, he was oftentimes thrown into prison, and several times was cast off by his father, but as many times again received back into his favor. Admiral Penn not only was a very wealthy man, but was a great friend and close adviser of the king. How- ever, this in no way seemed to lessen the persecution which was heaped up- on his son, on account of his religious beliefs. It will be remembered that William Penn. with others, was interested in the colony of West Jersey [Section 130], and falling heir to his father's vast fortune, he soon began to plan a colony for the persecuted members of his sect. Charles II had become indebted to Penn's father to the amount of eighty thousand dollars, and Penn, in lieu of this debt, was given a proprietary charter to all unoccu- WILLIAM PENN (After the painting in the rooms of the Pennsylvania Historical Society, Philadelphia) WM. PENN'S TREATY ELM pied regions which remained in the neutral zone between the grants of the London and Plymouth Companies, consisting of about, four thousand square miles. [Section 65 and Plate No. 3.] In honor of William Penn's father, the king named this ter- ritory " Pennsylvania." meaning Penn's Woods. 134. The Constitution and Laws. — The constitution which 90 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES was drawn up by Penn, for the government of his colony, pro- vided that all races and classes of people should be given the same equal advantages in regard to personal, civil, and relig- ious liberty. The constitution was copied after the New Jer- sey constitution, and provided that proprietors were to choose the governor, but that the people were to elect the members of the assembly and council. 135. Relations with the Indians. — As soon as Penn arrived, he proceeded at once to re-buy from the Indians all the lands which he had received from the king. In this way he gained the friendship and the confidence of the different tribes, and soon entered into a treaty with the Indians. This treaty is known as the only treaty never signed and never broken by either the Indians or white men. Of course, it may be that some of the other colonists may have treated the Indians as well as did Penn, and it must be remembered that he was for- tunate in having to deal with the Delawares, who had recently been reduced to submission by the Five Nations, who were firm friends of the English. 136. Mason and Dixon's Line. — [Plate No. 3.] On account of the over-lapping of the claims of Lord Baltimore and Wil- liam Penn, there was a dispute about the boundary line be- tween Pennsylvania and Maryland. This dispute was not finally disposed of until 1766, when by agreement of the Penn and Baltimore families, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two eminent London mathematicians, were instructed to run a line which has since been known as the " Mason and Dixon's Line." This line later became noted in the history of slavery, as it marked the separation of the slave from the free states. 137. Growth of Pennsylvania. 40 — Many things seem to have been favorable for the growth of Pennsylvania. The territory was well supplied with natural advantages. Iron and coal were abundant; the country was well covered with forests; navigable rivers flowed through its borders, and complete re- ligious toleration was guaranteed. Therefore it is not to be wondered at that at the end of three years, Philadelphia had gained more in population than New York had in a half century. 46 Fiske, Dutch and Quaker Colonies, vol. i. DELAWARE 138. Settlements at Wilmington, 1638.— [Plate No. 3.] The first settlement in Delaware was established in 1631 by a Pat- roon, named De Vries, and thirty-two Hollanders, at Swaanen- dael (Lewis). This entire colony was massacred by the In- dians. In 1638 Peter Minuet, under the direction of Queen Christina, with a company of Swedes and Finns, settled on the lower Delaware, near Fort Christina (Wilmington). 139. The Dutch at New Amsterdam considered this as an intrusion by the Swedes, but because Sweden was a strong ally of Holland in the Thirty Years' War, they were unable to do anything. However, at the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, this difficulty was removed, and in 1655 Governor Stuyvesant, with a large force, sailed against the Swedes and compelled them to sur- render. Delaware was finally granted to the Duke of York, who al<*o seized the Dutch colony on the west side of Delaware Bay. These settlements he held and governed as part of New York until 1681, when he sold them to William Penn. 140. The Three Lower Counties. — After purchasing Dela- ware from the Duke of York, Penn had an outlet to the sea. The people of both Pennsylvania and Delaware were under one government until 1703. At the request of the people of the three lower counties, they were granted a distinct assembly, the laws being administered by Penn's deputy. MARYLAND AT ST. MARY'S, 1634 [Plate No. 3.] 141. Lord Baltimore. 47 — His Liberal Grants. — Among the fathers of colonization, none stand higher in the estimation of the present student of history than George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, and father of Maryland. George Calvert was a man of great influence in England. In 1658 he be- came converted to the Catholic faith and at once began to make arrange- ments with the king for a grant of land where the then persecuted Cath- olics might make themselves a home. Two years later Calvert tried to found a colony at Newfoundland, which proved a failure ; later, with a company of his fellow-Catholics, he tried to establish a settlement in Virginia, but on account of the inhospitality of the Protestant Virginians, this was also given up. Returning to England, he was granted by the king, a tract of land lying within the original grant of the London 47 Browne, George Calvert and Cecilius Calvert, Barons Baltimore of Balti- more, in Makers of America series. Of the first authoritative map of the province of Maryland, now among the treasures of the British Museum, O 'Neil, author of Terra Mariae, says on p. 164: "In the Grenville Library is the only map ever made by Faithorne, an artist distinguished for crayon portraits and delicate copper-plate engraving. On it is this statement: 'Virginia and Maryland; as it is planted and in- habited this present year, 1670: surveyed and exactly drawne by the only labours and endeavours of Augustine Herrman, Bohemiensis ; ' also a beautiful portrait of the original settler of Bohemia Manor. ' ' As far as known, Herrman is the first native of Bohemia to settle in the TJ. S. He was exiled from Bohemia at the same time that John Amos Comenius, educator, and 36.000 other Bohemian protestants were forced to flee to other lands. SIR GEO. CALVERT OR LORD BALTIMORE PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 93 Company, of which Calvert was a stockholder. This tract of land was bounded on the north by the fortieth degree of lat- itude, on the south by the Potomac River and a line running- east from the mouth of this river to the Atlantic Ocean, and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and the Delaware Bay, and on the west by a line running- due north from the source of the Potomac River. Before Sir George Calvert was able to finish his schemes of colonization, he died, but was succeeded by his son, the second Lord Baltimore, Cecil Calvert, who was a man of broad and liberal ideas, and in every way fitted to succeed his father. 142. How the Colony was Ruled. — Lord Baltimore ruled over this colony in much the same way as the king ruled over the nation ; he appointed the officers, declared war, signed treaties, conferred titles, made the laws, administered justice, sentenced and pardoned criminals, but he could not tax the peo- ple without their consent. For these privileges he paid to his king, annually, two arrow heads and one-fifth of all the gold and silver found. 143. The First Colonists.— The first colonists left England in the autumn of 1633, and reached America the following February. The company was under the direction of a brother of Lord Baltimore, with the instructions that he should do everything in his power to preserve unity and peace. A settle- ment was made at the mouth of the Potomac River, at a place called St. Mary's. 144. Claiborne's Opposition. — The early history of Mary- land would have been much the same as that of Pennsylvania, had it not been for the controversies with Claiborne, over the ownership of Kent Island. William Claiborne was a Puritan of considerable wealth, and claimed that the grant given to Lord Baltimore belonged to himself. He had previously estab- lished a trading post and settlements on Kent Island, but was driven off by the Calverts. In 1645. with a company of rifle- men, Claiborne was able to drive the Calverts over into Vir- ginia. After much bloodshed, the trouble was finally settled by the king in favor of Maryland and the Calverts. 145. Growth of Maryland and Toleration Acts. — Owing to the broad-minded policy of Lord Baltimore, Maryland was prosperous from the beginning. Although the colony was founded as a home for persecuted Catholics, yet the Catholics did not persecute people of different faiths, who wished to 94 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES come and live among- them. The people of Maryland were granted complete toleration in religious matters. Alsop in Hart I, describes the condition in the following language : "He that desires to see the real Platform of a quiet and sober government extant, superiority with a meek and yet commanding power sitting at the helme, steering the actions of a state quietly, ... let him look on Maryland . . . the meracle of this age . . . here the Roman Catholic and the Protestant Episcopal . . . concur in an unanimous parallel of friendship and inseparable love, . . . The sev- eral opinions and sects . . . with a reverent quietness obeys the legal commands of authority." However, later, trouble did arise over religious matters, and in 1649 a toleration act was passed, which guaranteed to each individual the free exercise of his religious beliefs, providing he believed in Jesus Christ. This quieted all matters referring to religion up to 1691, when the colony became a royal pro- vince, and the Catholics were again persecuted. Subsequently Maryland was again given back to the Baltimores, and again religious toleration was restored. This condition remained up to the Revolutionary War. THE CAROLINAS 146. Early History. — [Plate No. 3.] The early history of the Carolinas is a narrative of failure. Different nations at different times tried to found colonies within her domains, but on account of unforeseen events, they all proved failures. It will be remembered how the Spanish attempted to make set- tlements [see Section 28], also how the French Huguenots un- der Ribaut. built a fort at Port Royal [see Section 38], also how Raleigh made several attempts, which ended in the trag- edy of the "Lost Colony" [see Section 50]. Grants were made to several different parties, but it was not until 1663 that any permanent settlements were made, although in 1653 a class of trappers and hunters, known as " poor whites," and dissenters from the Church of England, moved from the north — mostly Virginia — ■ and established a place known as Albe- marle, on the Chowan River. This colony finally became known as the Clarendon Colony. However, in 1663, King Charles II granted to some of his favorites a vast tract lying south of Virginia, and later this grant was enlarged until it embraced the greater part of the southern half of the United States. In 1670 Charles Town (Charleston) was started on the peninsula between the Ashley and Cooper Rivers. 147. The Grand Model. 48 — Among the men who received this grant of land from Charles II was Lord Ashley Cooper, who later became Earl of Shaftesbury. The philosopher, John Locke, was at this time acting as private secretary to Cooper, and was requested by Cooper to draft a constitution for Car- olina. This constitution was known as the "Grand Model" and was drawn up on much the same plan as the laws of the old feudal times. The people were divided into castes, and the land into fiefs, much the same as in the days of William the Conqueror. Legislation was in the hands of an unwieldy as- sembly, and the entire scheme was as visionary as it was im- practicable. It is enough to say that it was very unsatisfac- tory, and was never enforced to any great extent. 48 McCrady, History of South Carolina under the Proprietary Government. 96 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 148. Smugglers and Pirates. 49 — The navigation laws [Sec- tion 195] were in force at this time, and were aimed to keep other nations from trading with the English colonies. The colonists did not look kindly toward these laws, as they were glad to trade with all nations. In order, therefore, to evade these laws, there was established a system of smuggling. Car- goes were landed in small bays or rivers, in out-of-the-way places, and then smuggled into the colonies. This system, how- ever, led to much suffering and distress, as there were also extant a class of pirates, who not only smuggled their goods into ports, but were even so bold as to capture ships and mur- der the seamen and passengers, making the ships and goods their own. The Carolinas were settled at the time when this system of smuggling and piracy was at its height, and at first favored these pirates and assisted them in every way possible. Other colonies were also inclined to favor them. It is even said that Governor Fletcher, of New York, sold licenses to the pirates. Soon, however, this system began to hinder the commerce, and then the Carolinas as well as other colonies, aided in eradicat- ing this evil, and by 1730 had succeeded in reducing it to a minimum. The narratives of the bold adventures of Captain Kidd, Blackbeard, and other pirates, read like romances of the mid- dle ages, yet, from what we can learn, the narratives are not in the least over drawn. 149. Separation. — Although the two settlements in Caro- lina were for a time under the same governor, yet the political and social, as well as topographical differences, made it ap- parent that the separation of Carolina into two distinct col- onies was a necessity. The two different settlements were re- mote from each other, and therefore had little communication, and while the north colony was settled by people from Vir- ginia and other northern colonies, who were mechanics, mer- chants, trappers, and hunters, the south w r as settled by planters who became large slave owners and lived in lordly elegance on great plantations. Consequently in 1712 the colony was formally divided into North Carolina and South Carolina, and in 1729 the proprietors sold their interest to the king, and each colony became a royal province and so remained until the Revolution. 49 Old Virginia, by Fiske ; Gold Bug, by Poe. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 97 150. Indian Troubles. — The Tusearoras, who lived on the western slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains, became restless under the advance of civilization. The Spanish in Florida doubtless urged them to attack the English, in the hope that the colony would be destroyed. In 1711, during Queen Anne's War [see Section 158], they perpetrated fearful crimes on the remote settlements. However, in 1712 the colonists were able to defeat them, and in 1715 the remnant of the tribe moved north and became what is known as the " Sixth Nation " of the Iroquois Confederacy [Section 162.] GEORGIA AT SAVANNAH IN 1733^" 151. Early History. — [Plate No. 3.] The last of the orig- inal thirteen colonies to be estab- lished in the western hemisphere was Georgia, which was founded at the extreme south of the Atlantic seaboard, just one hundred and twenty-six years after the settle- ment of Jamestown. The other twelve colonies had been settled witb the idea of commercial and relig- ious advantages, while Georgia was settled from purely philanthropic principles. James Oglethorpe, 51 who james edward Oglethorpe wag a mem ber of parliament, was (From portrait by Ravenet) one of a commission appointed to investigate the system of imprisonment for debt, and became so impressed by the distressing condition found within the prison walls, that in 1732, he, in company with other prom- inent persons, applied to the king for a charter of the country lying between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers, and ex- tending west to the South Sea (Pacific Ocean). It was thought also that by founding a colony here, it would act as a barrier between the Carolinas and the troublesome Spaniards of Flor- ida, as well as furnish a home for these poor people of Eng- land. The colony was named Georgia, in honor of King George II, and Oglethorpe, with thirty-five families, in 1733, made the first settlement at Savannah, near the mouth of the Savannah River. 152. Character of the Colonists. — The first colonists who arrived were very poor material out of which to build a col- ony. They consisted chiefly of beggars, vagabonds, and debt- 50 McLaughlin 's History of the American Nation; Thwaites 's The Col- onics; Channing's Student's History of the United States; Hart's Source Boole of American History. si Henry Bruce in the Makers of America series. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 99 ors, very few of whom were willing to work. Also the laws, which were in the hands of the trustees, were unfitted for the existing- conditions in the colony, and it seemed as though the scheme would turn out a complete failure. However, there soon arrived from Austria a ship-load of Lutheran refugees, who founded the town of Ebenezer. Later, John Wesley and Charles Wesley, the founders of the Methodist church, along with a company of Moravians 51a and Scotch Highlanders, ar- rived, and with the infusion of these sturdy immigrants, Geor- gia was placed on a more nearly firm basis. 153. Spaniards and Indians. — Hardly had the colony be- come a permanent institution, w r hen war broke out between England and Spain. [Queen Anne's War, see Section 158.] Oglethorpe at once took the part of the aggressor and marched against St. Augustine. Here he was repulsed, and the Span- iards in return tried to drive the English out of Georgia. They landed with three thousand men and Oglethorpe waited pa- tiently until the Spaniards were drawn into a suitable posi- tion, when he attacked them. The fight was a short one and the Spaniards were thoroughly beaten. Oglethorpe then marched, again, against St. Augustine, but was unable to cap- ture the city. This ended the Spaniards' idea of capturing any of the Eng- lish colonies. However, they proved a great annoyance to the people of Georgia, inasmuch as they were constantly stirring up the Indians. Not until Andrew Jackson had boldly marched into the Spanish territory [Section 365]. and completely sub- dued the Indians, was Georgia free from these atrocities. After twenty years of labor among these people, Oglethorpe became thoroughly disappointed, and returned to England. Georgia, in 1752, became a royal province. 3ia These Moravians were religious refugees belonging to a Protestant sect failed "Bohemian and Moravian Brethren." They came to Georgia in 1735. To their efforts is due the conversion of many hundreds of Indians. They also founded colonies at Bethlehem, Pa. (1741). "North Carolina (1753). Lititz, Pa, (1756), etc. INTER-COLONIAL WARS 154. England and France.'- — During the latter part of the seventeenth and the earlier part of the eighteenth centuries, England and France were almost constantly at war with each other. Among the general and remote causes of these wars, the following may be mentioned : 1. A desire of each nation to become the dictating nation of Europe. 2. The rivalry of the two established Christian faiths, Eng- land being Protestant and France Catholic. 3. The conflicting claims of the two nations in the western hemisphere. These conflicts were always of such a nature that their re- spective colonies in America were drawn into the struggle, and in the history of the United States these wars are spoken of as the "Inter Colonial Wars." 155. King William's War (1689-97).— In 1688 James II, who was a zealous Catholic, became so obnoxious to the peo- ple of England that he was obliged to flee to France. His son- in-law. William of Orange, who was the champion of Protest- antism, ascended the throne. Louis XIV of France now took up the quarrel in behalf of James II, and in 1689 war was de- clared between England and France. 156. Count Frontenac and Indian Atrocities. — [Plate No. 3.] Count Frontenac, who was now governor of Canada, planned to send a strong force of French and Indians down the Hudson Valley and capture New York. However, the Mohawk In- dians, who had not as yet forgotten the Champlain incident, suddenly attacked and captured Montreal. Frontenac now 52 Hough, The Mississippi Bubble; Baldwin. Conquest of the Old North- west ; Parkman, A Half Century of Conflict. Montcalm and Wolfe and The Conspiracy of Pontiac; "Fiske, Neic France and New England; Roosevelt, Winning of the West, vol. i ; Hosmer, Short History of the Mississippi red- ley; McLaughlin, History of the American Nation; Thwaites, The Colonies; Hart, Formation of the Union; Channinsr, Student's History of the United Stales; Old South Leaflets, no. 73, and Hart's Source Book, nos. 37, 39 and 40. Gilbert Parker's two novels, The Trail of the Sword and The Seats of flu Mighty, will afford interesting and helpful collateral reading. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 101 decided to organize small bands of French and Indians, who were sent to attack the unprotected settlements of the north- ern colonies. At Schenectady, New York, and Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, men, women, and children were dragged from their beds and tomahawked. Many were made prisoners, while a few made their escape. Later (1697) Haverhill, [Massachu- setts, was attacked and nearly the entire population were either left homeless, captured, or massacred. The common danger aroused the people and a convention was called (1690) at Ww York to discuss matters incident to the Avar. Although only New York, Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut sent dele- gates and nothing was done, yet it is well to remember that this was the first attempt to call delegates to a congress from all the colonies. 157. Port Royal Captured. — [See Annapolis, Plate No. :!. During this same year Sir William Phipps captured Port Roy- al, Nova Scotia. Other expeditions were undertaken against Quebec and Montreal, but all were failures. At the close of the war in 1697 (see treaty of Ryswick), Port Royal was given back to the French and so nothing was gained by either side. It will be well, however, to remember that several important historical facts which we have already studied transpired dur- ing this war. In 1691 Massachusetts received her new charter rsee Section 1031 and it was also about this time that many innocent persons were condemned to death on account of the Salem witchcraft. [See Seel ion 102.] 158. Queen Anne's War (1702-13).— The interval of peace between King William's War and Queen Anne's War was only five short years. In 1702 England declared war against both France and Spain. The colonies in America at once took up the tight, both French and Spanish colonies uniting against tin 1 Eng- lish colonies. 159. The War in the South. — The southern colonists in 1702 attacked the Spanish at St. Augustine [Plate No. 2. Section 1531, but were repulsed. In 1706 a combined force of French and Spanish attempted to capture Charleston, South Carolina, but w ere also unsuccessful, so that at the close of the Avar conditions in the south were unchanged. 160. The War in the North.— [Plate Xo. 3.] In the north the war was pursued on the same plan as in the previous war. The Iroquois, having made a treaty with the French remained neutral 102 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and thus protected New York, but the New England frontier 53 from Maine to Massachusetts was laid waste by the French and Indians. Saco, Maine, and Deerfield, Massachusetts, were scenes of the most brutal Indian massacres known in history and Haver- hill was again laid waste. 161. Port Royal Captured. — [Plate No. 3.] After two unsuc- cessful attempts, Port Royal was again captured in 1710 by a combined force of English and colonial troops. Finally in 1713 the war was closed by the treaty of Utrecht. By the terms of this treaty Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and all the country drain- ed by the Hudson Bay was ceded to England. Port Royal was renamed Annapolis in honor of Queen Anne. 162. Tuscaroras. — As before stated [see Sections 150-153] it was during the progress of Queen Anne's War, the Tuscaroras, a branch of the Iroquois, attacked the English colonies of North Carolina. The Indians themselves were defeated and migrate 1 to New York where they united with the Five Nations which thereafter was known as the Six Nations. 1 63. King George 's War 34 (1744-48) . — During the interval of thirty-one years between Queen Anne's War and King George's War, the French had built a chain of sixty forts from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. The French were anxious to reconquer t he territory which was given to the English by the treaty of Utrecht. Having this idea in view, they built and fortified a fort on Cape Breton Island at a cost of nearly six million dollars. This fort they named Louisburg. 164. Capture of Louisburg. — [Plate No. 3.] In 1774 war was again declared. The French made arrangements to capture An- napolis and it seemed for a while that the whole of Nova Scotia would fall in their hands. However, the attention of the French was soon directed to the protection of Louisburg. The English colonists raised an army of four thousand raw recruits which they placed under General Pepperel of Maine. This army, aided by four British war vessels, after a long siege, captured Louisburg, and thus saved Nova Scotia. 165. Treaty of Peace. — Tn 1784, by the treaty of Aix-la-Cha- peile. peace was again declared between France and England, and much to the disgust of the colonists Louisburg was given back to France. S3 The Boy Captive in Canada, by Mary P. Wells Smith. ■'■•I A fines Burriage, by Bynner; Taking of Louisberg, by Drake; A Half Century of Conflict, vol. ii, by Parkman. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 103 The war, however, taught the English colonists that they were able to protect their own rights, and settle their own affairs with- out depending entirely upon the mother country three thousand miles away. 166. The French and Indian War 55 (1754-63)— Cause.— At the close of King George's War, the dispute regarding the bound- ary of the French and English nations in the New World was left to a commission which was unable to come to any definite agree- ment. As yet very few of the English colonists had settled in the Valley of the Ohio, but on account of the richness of this country, as well as the lack of territory east of the mountains, the English began to establish settlements, and these settlers soon came in contact with the French fur traders. 167. The Buried Plates and the Ohio Company. — It soon be- came apparent, to both the French and the English, that steps must be taken to gain and hold possession of this important valley. The French laid their claims to the discovery of the rivers which drained these valleys. In 1749 Celoron (Saloran) was dispatched to take formal possession of the Ohio Valley. At different places he buried a number of lead plates on which were inscribed the French claims to this territory. Besides this, the French rebuilt and strengthened the line of forts extending from No via Scotia to the mouth of the Mississippi. On the other hand, the British based their claims on the discov- eries of the Cabots and treaties with the Indians. The king grant- ed to the Ohio Company a half million acres of land in the Ohio Valley on which they were to establish colonies and build a fort. This company was made up mostly of rich Virginian planters, and arrangements were at once made to send out a colony of three hundred families. 168. Governor Dinwiddie Alarmed. — [Plate No. 3.] Soon Governor Dinw T iddie of Virginia heard that the French were building forts in the Ohio Valley. He became greatly alarmed and dispatched an envoy to demand their withdrawal. This messenger soon became frightened and returned. George Wash- ington, who was a young adjutant-general of the Virginia militia, was then chosen to carry the message. Washington was a young man of tw r enty-one years of age, and had been employed by the Ohio Company as surveyor. He was a very strong, trustworthy, and conscientious young man. Accompanied by the noted hunter 55 Boys of the Border, by Mary P. Wells. 104 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and woodsman, Christopher Gist, Washington started on his peril- ous journey of five hundred miles over hills and mountains, through swamps and marshes, and across frozen and treacherous rivers. He finally reached Fort Le Boeuf and delivered the message. He was cordially received, but was given to under- stand that the French expected to hold the territory. The next day Washington started on his return trip to Virginia. During the return trip, he was forced to discard the horses and make the trip through the dense forests w T ith one companion. Washington during this return trip several times barely escaped with his life, but after seventy-eight days of absence, he delivered the message to Governor Dinwiddie. 169. Washington Advises Immediate Action. — Washington while making the trip to the French forts, had become convinced of the necessity of the English building forts at certain places. lie, therefore, notified the English that in order to hold the terri- tory, they should build a fort at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers (now Pittsburgh). Governor Dinwiddie at once sent a company of backwoodsmen to carry out this plan. Washington later was dispatched to occupy this fort, but before he could arrive, the French attacked the company which were building it and drove them away. On the same site the French then threw up a rude fortification which they called Fort Du- quesne (doo kane). Washington, who was now at Willis Creek in western Maryland, heard of the capture of the fort, and started westward to regain the territory. While he was camped at Great Meadows in the southwest part of Pennsylvania, he received word thai ;i French force was near at hand. With forty men and the aid of a friendly tribe of Indians, he was able to meet and defeat the French. 170 Fort Necessity.— [Plate No. 3.] At Great Meadows, Washington built a rude stockade which he named Fort Neces- sity. Here he was defeated by the French. He was, however, allowed to return to Virginia with his men. 171. The Albany Congress and Franklin's Plan of Union.— As opposed to the previous inter-colonial wars, it will be noticed that the French and Indian War was begun by the colonists. The colonists all felt that Virginia's trouble with France was a common grief, and they immediately voted to aid her in this con- flict. While Washington was yet trying to uphold the English authority in the Ohio Valley, the lords of trade in London called delegates from all the colonies in a convention, known as the Al- PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 105 bany convention. This convention was called for the purpose of renewing the friendship of the Six Nations. After treating with the Indians, the convention proceeded to consider the question of uniting for the defense and protection of their common interests. Benjamin Frank- lin, one of the delegates to this con- vention, proposed a plan of colonial union. The plan was adopted by the convention, but was rejected by the colonists on the ground that it gave too much power to the king; the English also rejected it on the ground that it gave too much power to the colonies. Franklin, in his newspaper, the Philadelphia Gazette, printed a device of a serpent separated in distinct parts, each part to rep- resent a colony. Underneath this he printed the phrase "Join or Die. The hint was very significant. FORT NIAGARA 172. The Objective Points of the War.— [Plate No. 3.] At the opening of the French and Indian War. the French were in pos- session of the four most important points, namely : 1. Fort Duquesne, where Pittsburgh now stands, the key of the Ohio Valley. J 06 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 2. Fort Niagara, which controlled the fur trade of the lake region. 3. Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which controlled the route from New York to Canada. 4. Louisburg, the gateway to the St. Lawrence Valley and the city of Quebec. These four points the English felt must be captured in order that they might be successful in the war, and consequently the fol]owing campaigns were planned: 1. A campaign was to proceed by the way of Cumberland, Maryland, across the divide, attack and capture Fort Duquesne, and stop the advance of the French at the head of the Ohio. 2. A. campaign was to proceed through the Hudson and Mo- bawk Valleys to Oswego and Niagara. 3. It was also decided that an army should proceed up Lake Champlain, capture Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and lay siege to Quebec. 4. A naval expedition was to be directed against the French towns in the northeast, the English hoping thereby, to hold back troops that otherwise might go to the defense of Quebec. 173. Braddock's Defeat (1775) . 56 — [Plate No. 3.] General Braddock, who was commander in chief of the English and colonial forces, undertook the first and most important of these expeditions. His soldiers, after a great deal of suffering, were able to cut a road through the heavy timber, until they were with- in a few miles of Fort Duquesne. At this point they were at- tacked by a large force of French and Indians who were hid in ambush. Washington had cautioned Braddock to be on guard against Indian surprises, and had suggested that the colonial forces be allowed to fight the French and Indians in Indian style ; but, contrary to this advice, Braddock after the English fashion held his forces in solid column where they were mowed down mercilessly by the French and Indian bullets. Braddock 57 was 56 The Virginians, by Thackeray. 57 On July 9, 1755, General Braddock with his army, composed mainly of veteran English troops, passed into an ambuscade formed by a far inferior body of French and Indians. The Virginia provincials, under Washington, alone saved the army from complete ruin. Braddock was mortally wounded by :■ provincial named Fawcett. A brother of the latter had disobeyed the up cis of Braddock, who had commanded that the troops should not take portion behind trees and was struck down by the general. Fawcett. see- ing h ; s brother thus killed by Braddock, immediately drew up his rifle and shot Braddock through the lungs, partly from revenge, and partly as a measure of salvation to the army which was under Braddock's command. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 107 mortally wounded — perhaps by one of his own men — and carried from the field. [See note 57.] Washington, who was next in command, was able to re-organize the army and conduct an order- ly retreat. This defeat left the frontier wholly unprotected. 174. The Removal of the Acadians.' 8 — [Plate No. 3.] It will be remembered that at the close of Queen Anne's War, England came in possession of Nova Scotia, which, to the French, was known as Acadia. The inhabitants of Acadia were a class of ignorant, simple-minded, and industrious French peasants, who could not understand that they should no longer aid the French but were subjects of the king of Enlgand. After bearing with these people for many years, the English decided to remove them from their homes and scatter them throughout the English col- RUINS AT CROWN POINT onies. About five weeks before the capture of Fort Duquesne, an English officer arrived at Grand Pre, and requested all the men and boys to assemble in the churches to hear the reading of a notice from the English king. As soon as the simple natives were congregated in the churches, they were surrounded by English soldiers, and were notified that they were to be removed from their homes. These people were crowded into the British ships, and although the English did their best not to separate families, yet this was impossible. The Aeadians were scattered from Massachusetts to Georgia, many being separated from their friends and kindred forever. ss Evangeline, by Longfellow. 108 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 175. Crown Point and Fort Ticonderoga. — At the close of the first two years of the war, the French were masters, not only of the Great Lakes but also Lake Champlain. Situated at the head of Lake Champlain, were the strong forts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. The two armies met south of Lake Champlain, where the English were able to repulse the French but they did not follow up their victory. Instead they built Fort William Henry at the head of the lake, and two years later the brilliant French General Montcalm captured this fort and nearly all of the English were massacred by the Indians. 176. Louisburg. — [Plate No. 3.] In 1757 General Loudon at- tempted the capture of Louisburg, but was unsuccessful. How- ever, the next year, the English with a naval force of forty-one vessels and a land force of ten thousand, were able to capture this very important point. The fort was dismantled, and the city of Halifax became, to the English, a point of rendezvous. 177. William Pitt.— [Plate No. 3.1 In the meantime, the Seven Years' War had broken out in Europe, and as usual. France and England were opposed to each other. The govern- ment of England at this time was very corrupt, and the English nation was in such despair that the people turned out their worthless and corrupt ministers, and William Pitt became the head of the government. Under his inspiring leadership, not only England, but the colonies were soon placed on a strong footing. The weak and unworthy generals, who up to this time had had control of the colonial forces, were superseded by more able and worthy men. Amherst and Wolfe were, as mentioned above, able to reduce and capture Louisburg in July. 1758. During the same year. Colonel Bradstreet, who had taken charge of the colonial troops, captured Fort Frontenac, with nearly all the food stuffs and supplies for the French army. The student will remember that the French were not an agricultural people. but had to depend upon the mother country for all their sup- plies. Thus the capture of Fort Frontenac left the rest of the French forts with no supplies whatever. Later in the year, on account of the loss of these food stuffs and supplies, Washington was able to capture Fort Duquesne, which was re-named Fort Pitt after the. illustrious Wm. Pitt. Thus by the close of the year, the St. Lawrence River, the gateway of New France, was in possession of the English. 1 78. Other English Victories.— | Plate No. 3. ] The results of the vear 175!) were even more favorable to the English than PERIOD OP COLONIZATION 109 those of the preceding year. In July the French abandoned both Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Niagara, also, after with- standing the horrors of a long and well directed siege, was forced to surrender to the English ; but the crowning victory of the entire war, and, as Green in his History of England says, "The battle which marks the beginning of the history of the United States," was the battle fought on the Plains of Abraham before the city of Quebec, by two of the most intelligent and able generals ever sent to the Western Continent by foreign nations. 17!). The Storming of Quebec 50 (1759). — [Plate No. 3.] Wolfe-Mont- calm. — After the fall of Louisburg. the only French fortification left in the New World was that of Quebec. The capture of this important point was given into the hands of General Wolfe, who sailed up the St. Law- rence Kiver and then proceeded to lay siege to the city. The lower city was soon destroyed, but the more protect- ed part of the city, as well as the forts, were situated upon a high cliff between the St. Lawrence and St. Charles Rivers. It will there- fore be noticed, by looking at the map, that Quebec is protected on three sides by water, while on the fourth side rises to a great height a nearly perpendicular rocky cliff. This cliff was thoughl by the French to be insurmountable. On July the 31st, Wolfe attacked the French, but was driven back with a loss of five hundred men. It now seemed as though he must give up the siege, when ac- cidentally there was discovered a path leading up this cliff. On September the 12th, the English proceeded to embark and ascend the river. Protected by the darkness of the night, the forces man- aged to ascend this path, and in the morning Montcalm was surprised to see j the English army arranged, in line of battle, on the Plains of Abraham. The French rushed to the attack. The Eng- lish held their fire until the French were gen. montcalm GENERAL WOLFE 59 Wolfe and Montcalm, by Parkman. 110 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES within forty yards of them, when volley after volley was poured into the French ranks, followed immediately by a ter- rible charge of bayonets and broadswords. The French could not withstand the terrible slaughter, and fled from the field. The English had won the battle, and the French had lost their bold in the western continent. DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE, BY BENJAMIN WEST In Grosvenor Gallery, London At the beginning of the battle, both Montcalm and Wolfe were mortally wounded. While Wolfe was being carried to the rear, he heard cheers of victory, and upon asking what it meant, was told "The French run." He replied, "Now God be praised, I die happy." Montcalm on being told that he must soon die, replied, "So much the better. I shall not be able to see the sur- render of Quebec." 180. Treaty of Paris. — In 1760 Montreal, the only other point of note which the French held, was surrendered to the English. In 1763 a treaty of peace was signed in Paris, and by it France gave to England all Canada except the two small islands of St. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 1 1 1 Pierre and Miquelon. Besides this, she gave to England all her territory east of the Mississippi, except a very small area near the mouth of the river. She also ceded to Spain all her territory west of the Mississippi. During this war, England had also captured Havana on the island of Cuba, and gave this city to Spain in exchange for her possession in Florida. 181. Pontiac's Conspiracy. " — In 1760, the same year that Montreal surrendered to the English, Major Rogers was sent into the lake country to help drive out the French. Here he met Pontiac, an able Ottawa chief, who had been a firm friend of the French. Pontiac was a very shrewd man and evidently saw that the French were to lose in this great war. He therefore received Major Rogers on very friendly terms. However, he im- mediately formed a conspiracy against the English, and all the English posts were attacked upon the same day. Nearly all the forts fell into the hands of the Indians, and the soldiers, includ- ing the women and children, were brutally murdered. This war continued at intervals for three years. Then Pontiac seeing that the British had too many soldiers and guns for him, made a treaty of peace. Later he was killed by one of his own people while making a speech to the Illinois Indians. Although Pontiac was cruel and used the shrewdness and sagacity of the Indians while fighting the English, yet we must admit he was brave. wise, and a patriotic Indian chief, and doubtless in his wisdom foresaw the ultimate extinction of his race. His body lies buried somewhere beneath the streets or buildings of St. Louis, where the countless millions continually trample his ashes underneath their feet, as if yet fearful that his undying spirit might arrest their onward progress. so Last of fhe Mohicans, by Cooper. HOME LIFE, SCHOOL ADVANTAGES, AND LITERATURE 182. Physiography. — Before taking up the study of the Rev- olutionary War it is well that the student should become ac- quainted to some extent with the social and political conditions of the colonies, it being near the period of the beginning of our national existence. The physiography of the county naturally divides the colonies into three different sections, the middle section being bounded on the south side by the Chesapeake Bay, and on the northern by the Hudson River. The northernmost of these sections was noted for its heavy forests and many fine harbors, while in the southern section the rivers were short and sluggish, but the land very level and fertile and suited in every way for cultiva- tion. 183. Character, Occupation and Distribution of Popula- tion.' 11 — These natural conditions, to a great extent, determined the distribution, character and mode of life of the colonists in the different sections. In the north, cities began to spring up around the natural harbors. Ship-building, fishing, spinning, weaving, and other commercial pursuits soon became the chief occupation of the people. This section was settled by a sturdy and self-reliant class of people, who had come to the New World prepared to undergo many hardships. Besides these character- istics, they were a people skilled in all the different pursuits of life and were otherwise held together by their religious creeds. They soon built up a profitable commercial trade w 7 ith the West Indies. In New England, owing to the natural conditions, as well as the commercial pursuits followed by the people, omitting Hi*- few house servants we find practically no slaves or ser- vants. In the southern section, land being very fertile and produc- tive, the colonists soon turned their attention chiefly to agri- culture. The rivers formed a convenient highway by which they might ship their grain and products. Soon large planta- tions were established, each plantation becoming the home of a 11 Bancroft, History of the United States (last revision), vol. iii. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 113 rich planter, who was surrounded by his slaves and indentured servants. While each of the southern colonies had its capital, yet the cities did not become commercial centers like the cities of New England. The middle section to a certain extent possessed not only ex- cellent harbors, but great river systems. The colonists in this section were a far more aristocratic class and resembled very closely the nobility of Europe. The rich land owners of New York lived in their large manor houses, and the aristocrats of New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware lived in much the same style. However, although the estates were large in this section, yet owing to the religious and moral opinions of the people, as well as the other social and natural conditions, we find but few slaves. The population at this time was nearly two and one-half mil- lion, and nearly one-half of the entire population was found in the southern section. However, it must be remembered that there were probably five hundred thousand African slaves, be- sides the indentured servants, in the southern section at this time. 184. Class Distinctions. — The class or social distinction was probably less evident in New England than in the other two sec- tions. However, even here, as in other colonies, we may readily find four distinct classes. In the southern colonies the aristo- cratic class was composed of owners of large estates. In the middle section this class was composed of rich English traders, including some of the old Dutch families, as well as the rich Quaker families. In the northern section, the same class of peo- ple was composed of men of wealth, education and official posi- tion. The next lower class included all the common people, and in the south this class included the small farm owners and store- keepers. These people were very often rude, uneducated and immoral, although we find among them people of real worth. In the middle and northern sections this same class of people were composed of owners of small farms, merchants, and trades- men. They were practically the same class of people as in the south, except that they were generally a good, clean, moral, and educated class. In the southern and middle sections the two lower classes of people were composed respectively of the indentured servants and the slaves, while in New England, these classes were repre- 114 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES sented respectively by the poorer class of mechanics and ser- vants. 185. Religion. — Since many of our colonies were settled by religious exiles from foreign nations we may, generally speak- ing, say that the colonists were a profoundly religious people. In the Old World each nation had its own established religion. All other sects were punished and oftentimes banished. These people naturally turned to the New World and settled where they could worsbip according to the dictates of their own conscience. It is probable that the people who settled New England were more attentive to.their religious creeds than those farther to the south. They even became so intolerable in their religious beliefs, that they did exactly those things which had caused them to leave their native country. They punished, im- prisoned, banished, and even executed those who were not of their own religious belief. Yet we must remember that Rhode Island maintained religious toleration, and therefore became the home of many sects. The Congregationalists and Episcopal- ians were the strongest in New England. The middle colonies were not so strict in their religious creeds as the New England. Religious toleration was the general rule. although the Catholics were not allowed to hold office except in Pennsylvania. In these colonies, we find the Church of England. a few Roman Catholics, Congregationalists, Quakers, the Dutch Reformed, Lutherans, Methodists, and Scotch Presnyterians. be- sides many other smaller sects. In the south on account of the mode of life — the planters liv- ing at a distance from each other — religion and education were sadly neglected. One writer has given us his opinion of the re- ligious conditions of Maryland and Virginia, as follows: 'The lives of the planters in Maryland and Virginia are very godless and profane. They listen neither to God nor his com- mandments and have neither church nor cloister. Sometimes there is some one who is called a minister. You hear often that these ministers are worse than anybody else. yea. are an abom- ination." Oftentimes the clergy of these colonies were not only ungodly men, but they were illiterate, reckless, careless, and in no way tit to lead or instruct the people in moral and religious creeds. 186. Education, 1 ' l — About the same attention was given to ed- aialt will be of interest to the modern generation of American children to know what hooks the children of the Revolutionary period and 20 years PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 115 ucation as religion. In New England, as soon as the colonists had built their houses and churches, they built their school houses and immediately made arrangements for the education of their children. Here the general system of schools was sup- ported by the government, and before the first half of the sev- enteenth century had passed the laws of Massachusetts made it imperative that every town consisting of fifty families should have a common school, and that every town of one hundred fam- ilies or more should support a grammar school of a standard which would admit its graduates to Harvard College. Education was not generally encouraged in the middle colon- ies. While academies and private schools were established, yet many of the people lived without educational facilities. While New York was under the Dutch rule, a school was established and maintained in almost every town, but when the English cap- tured New York, the schools were neglected. The first school which was opened to both girls and boys, was established in Philadelphia, and was called the Penn Charter School. To this school the poor were admitted free, while the wealthy class had to pay tuition. In the south the education of the young was sadly neglected. Private tutors were engaged by the wealthier families, while others sent their children to the northern institutions or lit Eng- land. Governor Berkeley fairly describes the condition, during his control of the colonies, in the following quotation : "I thank God there are no free schools, no printing presses, and I hope we shall not have these hundred years: for learning has brought disobedience into the world, and printing has di- vulged them and libels against the best government." At the time of the Revolutionary War. there were in the col- onies at least several colleges which compared wry favorably with those of the mother country. These colleges were generally under the control of some religious denomination. Harvard College was founded at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1636, and is the oldest college in the United States. Many of our greatest men, who have won prominence in both this country and in the Old World, received their education in this college. earlier studied in school. The Salem Gazette (1790), gives the list: "The School Committee in Boston have ordered that the following' books be used in the Beading Schools of that town, viz: The Holy Bible; Webster's Spelling-Book ; The Young Ladies ' Accidence; Webster's American Selection of Lessons in Beading and Speaking; The Children's Friend; Morse's Geography abridged; and The Newspapers, occasionally." 116 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES William and Mary 's College was established at Williamsburg, Virginia, in 1691. Most of the southern people who were not educated abroad received their education in this college. Yale at New Haven, Connecticut, was established in 1701. It is stated that ten Congregational ministers established the college library, and one of these, Elihu Yale, who became a very firm friend of the college, has the honor of having the institution named after him. Princeton University was founded in 1746, and the University of Pennsylvania, and Columbia College, the first college in New lork City, were both founded in the year 1755. Brown University was established at Warren, Rhode Island, by the Baptists in 1764. Later, in 1770, this college was re- moved to Providence. Besides these important educational institutions, there were several other smaller ones founded before the Revolutionary War, among which were Queen's College, founded by the Dutch Re- formed Church in Brunswick, N. J., and Dartmouth in 1769 at Hanover, New Hampshire. 187. Libraries, Literature, Postoffices, and Mail. — At the time of the Revolutionary War, there were very few public libraries in the colonies, and these were mostly the libraries that were in the different colleges. Several fine libraries were owned by individual persons, but these were not open to the public. 61b Very few books were printed in the colonies, and as most of the books had to be imported, they were very expensive. The books that were to be found in the libraries were treatises on law, or books given to the discussion of religious and moral topics. There were few books which were designed for the cultivation of the imagination. The school books of this period seem crude and ridiculous to the student of today. However, there were many pamphlets printed, in which were discussed not only religious subjects, but political subjects as well. These pamphlets proved to be of great value to the colonists, as they furnished a means by which the people were educated about the political situation of those times. Washington Irving had ah'eady achieved some success in literature by his chaste and picturesque tales and sketches. The first newspaper was published in Boston about the year 1704. and at the beginning of the Revolutionary War it is esti- eib Benjamin Franklin established the first free public library in the United States. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 117 mated that there were not over thirty-seven newspapers printed in the colonies. The first daily newspaper did not appear until after the Revolution. The printing presses used for printing these pamphlets and newspapers were hand presses, which made FRANKLIN'S PRINTING PRESS the art of printing a very slow and laborious business and as paper was very expensive, the newspapers as well as the type were necessarily very small. The postoffiee was established during William and .Mary's reign about the year 1738. In the country towns it consisted chiefly of a large drawer and a few rough boxes in which the mail was allowed to accumulate. In fact, there was no real sys- L18 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tern in the management of the post offices until Benjamin Frank- lin was appointed deputy postmaster general in 1753. Frank- lin at once reorganized the entire postal system. He laid out regular mail routes and established a schedule for the delivery and departure of the mails. Some of the rules which were in- stituted by Franklin, such as the advertising of uncalled for letters, are still in practice. Our present postal system may be said to have originated with the appointment of Benjamin Franklin as postmaster general. The mail was not sent out every few hours or every day, as it is today, but instead it was allowed to accumulate until a suffi- cient amount had collected to pay the postman for his services. The mail was generally carried on horseback by post-riders who followed the main roads as far as possible, then took the buffalo or Indian trails, or made their way as best they could through the forests. The remote settlements and the southern colonies were not as fortunate as the more northern colonies, as they seldom received their mail more frequently than once a month. The newspapers were not carried by the regular post-riders but were delivered by special arrangement. GEO. WASHINGTON FIRE ENGINE Presented to the city of Alexandria, Virginia, by Geo. Washington 188. Home Life and Domestx Customs.'- — The home life of the colonists of this period was suited to their restricted condi- tions, as well as to their strenuous life. However, the aristo- cratic and wealthier classes in all the colonies lived in very grand style. In New England there were evidences of consider- able wealth and luxury to be found in the houses of the prosper- 02 The Colonies UB2-1150, by Thwaites. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 119 ous rich. The architecture and furniture was of the style which today is known as the colonial, and the homes were noted for their hospitality, as well as their display of the artistic. In the southern colonies we have some real pictures of the ideal and luxurious colonial life. The great "baronial halls" with their rich tapestries and furnishings, made more beautiful by the bright glow from the large open tire-places, with the house slaves and indentured servants hurrying hither and thith- er, solicitous to the least whim or caprice of their master, must have appealed to travelers and friends, as an ideal home, where the rich planters lived a life of splendor and ease. In the middle colonies we find the wealthy proprietors living on their tine estates along the Hudson in the summer time, while in the winter, they moved into their commodious and richly furnished dwellings in the cities. The splendor and hospitality of the southern homes hardly equalled the cultured display of wealth and refinement which was here so apparent. The aristocratic class in all the colonies generally wore clothes which had been imported from the mother country. The men had both morning and evening costumes of the richest fabrics, which were trimmed with glittering and golden laces. They must have made a fine appearance with their powdered wigs, silken stockings, golden knee buckles, and dress suits. The ladies appeared in their high heel shoes and their gowns of satins and laces, while diamond hair ornaments and necklaces of pearls and diamond shoe buckles placed them in the same catalogue with their finely garbed husbands. The more common class of people lived in small wooden or log houses. In the day time the sun-light came in through the open door or through the one or two small windows while at night the rooms were lighted from the fire in the fire- place or by a candle or candle-lantern. These homes were usually built in groups for mu- tual protection. The principal rooms were the kitchen and best room. In the kitchen was a huge fire-place and oftentimes the huge logs which were used for fuel were drawn in- to the house by horses or oxen. The cook- ing was done over this fire. The huge crane was swung into the fire-place, and the pots suspended by pot-hooks, containing vegeta- bles, game, or salt pork, disclosed the simple colonial laxterx 120 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES manner in which our colonial forefathers prepared their food. Apples and potatoes were roasted in the ashes and coals. The bannocks and Johnnie cake were prepared in the dutch ovens, or baked on a hot flat stone or on a flat slab which was placed near the fire. Yet although this food was simple and crude, it was very wholesome, and today we envy our forefathers these wholesome dishes. The clothes of the more common people were composed of the coarsest material. The men were generally clothed in leather breeches, heavy cow-hide boots, and coats and caps were made from the coarse homespun or the fur of wild animals. On Sun- day the boots and leather breeches received an extra coat of grease or oil, and the shoes were decorated with large and well burnished brass buckles, while large brass buttons furnished the decorations for the bomespun or fur waistcoats. CONESTOGA WAGON 189. Modes of Travel. 63 — Our forefathers were not as for- tunate as we are today, with our luxurious and commodious conveniences of travel. They traveled much the same as the Romans, who were nearly two centuries their predecessors. Most of their journeys were made on foot or by horseback. The rude but substantial conestoga wagon and two wheeled chaises were used on the stage lines between the large cities, while the es Madam Sarah Knight, in Dames and Daughters of Colonial Days, by Geraldine Brooks. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 121 longer and more arduous journeys were made by water in boats which were crude and uninviting. While taverns were to be found at the principal stopping places, and in most of the country towns and cities, yet they were not to be compared with our hostelries of today. A rough and uncouth class of people generally had charge of these public places, and the food was oftentimes coarse and unpalatable. The travel by land was always a great hardship, and no one knew when leaving on a journey when or in what condition he would arrive at his destination. Ladies seldom left their own immediate neighborhood. It has even been stated that no man dared to venture twenty miles beyond his own neighborhood until the church had offered up prayers for his safety. A few years before the Revolutionary War, it became necessary for a certain colonial ladj r to go from Boston to New York on business and it is interesting to read the diary kept by this lady. Many of the tavern keepers would not allow her the hospitality of the house because she was not accompanied by a male relative. It was with great difficulty that she was able to make the trip to New York and return in five months, and we can imagine with what interest and sympathy her friends gathered around her and listened to the rehearsal of her experiences. 190. Colonial Money. — Most of the business during the col- onial period was carried on by barter. However, at some time in the history of the colonies, almost every conceivable thing of a useful nature, from a dried slab of cod-fisb to cattle and horses, was used as a medium of exchange. In some places the taxes were paid in cattle and it is stated that the cattle which were brought in payment of taxes were "something wonderful to behold." Of course the currency of the mother country was used to a great extent; also the Spanish coins were in general circulation. In 1652 a mint was established in MassachuxH ts but was discontinued in 1658. The money issued by this mint was known as the "Pine Tree Currency." All the colonies, at different times, issued a paper currency which was used quite extensively up until the Revolutionary War. 191. Julian Calendar Dropped. — In the year 46 B. C, Julius Caesar decided to make the civil year coincide with the solar year as nearly as possible. His mathematicians decided that by making the civil year consist of 365 days and six hours, the solar and civil year would be so nearly equal that there would lie in the new style reckoning no perceptible difference. They there- 122 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES fore added one day to the month of February every four years. Later it was discovered that there was so much dif- ference between the civil and solar year that the seasons did not even coincide. Therefore, in 1582, Pope Gregory XIII, in order to remove and avoid the ambiguities in chronological dates, changed the year to 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds, and in order to correct the error which already existed, lie dropped out ten days so that the day October 4, 1582, was reckoned and called October 14, 1582. This is what is meant in history as "old style and new style reckoning."' Thus such years which are divisible by four, except those divisible by ten and not divisible by 400, contain 366 days. All other years con- tain 365 days. This is what is known as the Gregorian calendar, and it is so nearly accurate that there will be no error amounting to even a day until about the year 5200. This new style calendar was adopted by the Catholic nations, but on account of religious prejudice, the Protestant nations were very slow in accepting it. However, Parliament in 1752 adopted the Gregorian calen- dar. Russia still reckons her time under the Old Julian Calen- dar, and the error is now something like thirteen days between the Julian and the solar year. 192. Colonial or Civil Government in the Colonies. — The gov- ernment in the colonies may be divided into three different sec- lions — local, central, and that concerned with the relations of the colonies and the mother country. 1& ft *® CRIMINALS IN STOCKS The local government was also divided into three different divisions. That of New England was known as the town or township system, as it was almost a purely democratic form. PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 123 In Virginia arid the southern colonies, the county was taken as the unit of local government, and the people were more indi- rectly represented than New England. This system, however, created many strong political leaders, many of whom Ave shall soon read about in our study of the Revolutionary War. In the middle colonies between New England and Virginia the third system grew up which was probably the most influen- tial of all. This system was a mixture between the township and county system. Here the county was governed by a board of supervisors consisting of a representative from each town or township. These supervisors were chosen by the free men. Tins is much the same system as is in vogue now in the north, central and extreme western parts of our country. 193. Severe Punishments. 04 — The laws which were enforced by the local governments in the different colonies were very se- vere. There were more than a dozen crimes for which capital punishment was inflicted, and generally punishments were in- flicted in public places, so that criminals were subject to all sorts of humiliation from spectators. The branding-iron. ducking- stools, whipping posts, pillory, cropping knife, masks and stocks were in common use in the differ- ent colonies, and punishments were oftentimes extremely hard and cruel for very insignificant offences. The central government was also divided into three divisions, known as the royal, proprietary, charter or republican. The first pillory of new England class belonged to Georgia, South Carolina. North Carolina, Virginia, New York, Massachusetts, Xew Hampshire, and New Jersey; the second class belonged to Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland; and the third class belonged to Connecticut and Rhode Island. Throughout the 04 See "Old Standards of Public .Morals.'' by .John Bach McMaster, in Annual Be port of American Historical Society, 1905, vol. i. 124 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES colonies, however, there was a general similarity of government and each colony excepting Pennsylvania was represented by the two houses of legislature. *J3 ■ j ~ m """w'"A*„ >v ,:.(.'''- - * THE DUCKING STOOL The last division, which had to do with the relations between the colonies and the mother country, was the most important of all the colonial forms of government. Here the relations were very indefinite. These relations will be taken up and discussed in the causes of the Revolutionary War, when the student may become more familiar with this division of our colonial government. ••on) 3 r. p_ ~ h-3 5 ft- 3 c ■-? li - « 3- ^ O lfSS» w Lo k ? w 1 =: 3* a; g ' ^-c 3 H o = P s (t £&§." n 3*. 09 M " cl = r:3- 5 !»«* o ?Bo« K Uffi 2 o 3" 3 3 JT w 8-n 2 3 o •> 2. — OT (> << p • < a > n >&"■ s- — 3 3* ^ o f the Republic, chs. i-iv; Leeky, American Revolution, pp. 1-49; Pitt, The Repeal of the Stamp Act; John Adams, 1 History of the Dispute with America; Franklin, The Caust of American Discontent, and Examination before the House of Commons. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 127 tionary War, to watch the growth and development of this spirit of Independence. 195. Navigation Acts and Acts of Trade.' — For over one hundred years prior to the opening of the Revolutionary War. England had by means of unjust laws deprived the colonists of the fruits of their labor. The English people had not yet ac- cepted that economic theory of Adam Smith, "that in a com- mercial transaction both parties may be benefited." On the contrary they formulated their commercial laws on the theory that in any commercial transaction whatever, one party gains. the other loses. While the operation of many of these navigation acts, it must be admitted, was in favor of the colonists, yet many of them were very distasteful and their operation pointed to ultimate disaster in colonial commercial lines. The first of the Navigation Acts was passed in 1651 during the reign of Cromwell, but was not enforced until 1660, when it was again re-enacted and enlarged. This ad required that mer- chandise to and from the colonies should be carried in English vessels, and furthermore ordered that all colonial products should be sold in ports belonging to England. In order thai English merchants might grow rich at the expense of the colon- ists, another act provided that all goods in transit from Europe or Asia, to the American colonies, must first be landed in Eng- lish ports and then reshipped to America in English vessels. Other acts were passed from time to time, among which was one providing that all goods imported to the colonies must be bought in English markets, providing the English merchants could furnish them, and finally in 1673, parliament forbade the carrying of imports in vessels belonging to New England. 196. First Taxation Law and "Lords of Trade." — At this same time, 1673, a small duty was placed on articles which were shipped from one colony to another. This is the first of the many acts of parliament which were passed for the taxation of the colonies. In 1696 a new colonial council was created, com- monly known as the "Lords of Trade," whose duty it was among other things, to execute the navigation acts. These laws, nat- urally, were evaded in every way possible by the colonists ; smuggling was a common practice with the merchantmen : ships ee American History, Told by Contemporaries, vol. ii, by Hart; Th, 1'-, ginning of Neio England, by Fiske; Concise History of the American People, vol. i. by Patton and Lord. 128 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES from France, Spain, and the Canaries traded directly with Bos- ton, their goods having never been landed in the ports of Eng- land; inter-colonial trade, by many, was carried on the same as if no laws existed. 197. "Writs of Assistance."- -England on account of recent wars, was nearly bankrupt, and in order to raise money, decided to enforce the navigation acts if possible. To facilitate mat- ters, the king's revenue collectors and officers were armed with legal papers called "Writs of Assistance." These papers were very obnoxious to the colonists, as an officer when armed with this "Writ of Assistance" was empowered to enter any ware- house or dwelling and search for smuggled goods. The papers were very general in their nature and operation. The name or kind of goods need not be mentioned; the time of searching was not given; the papers could be used time and time again, and the officer could force any citizen to aid him in searching for these smuggled goods. In 1761 when the deputy in Salem applied to the court for these papers — "Writs of Assistance" — an objection was raised as to the legality of the same. 198. James Otis and Writs of Assistance. — James Otis was advocate general at this time, and it became his duty to defend the legality of these papers. However, he was a true patriot, and rather than take the side he thought to be wrong, he re- sighed his office, and in the trial, he appeared in behalf of the colonists. In his wonderful argument before the court, it may be said, that he breathed the breath of life into the American Revolution in the following words: "May It Please Your Honors. I was desired by one of the court to look into the books, and consider the question now be- fore them concerning writs of assistance. I have accordingly considered it, and now appear, not only in obedience to your order, but likewise in behalf of the inhabitants of this town, who have presented another petition. . . And I take this oppor- tunity to declare, that whether under a fee or not (for in such a cause as this I despise a fee), T will to my dying day oppose with all the powers and faculties God has given me, all such instru- ments of slavery on the one hand, and villainy on the other, as this writ of assistance is. "Tt anpears to me the worst instrument of arbitrary power, the most destructive of English liberty . . . ever found in an English law-book. . . . T was solicited to argue this cause as PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 129 Advocate General ; and because I would not, I have been charged with desertion from my office. ... I renounced that office, and I argue this cause, from the same principle ; and I argue it with the greater pleasure, as it is in favor of British liberty, . . . and as it is in opposition to a kind of power, the exercise of which in former periods of English history cost one King of England his head, and another his throne . . . my engaging in this and another popular cause has raised much resentment. But I think I can sincerely declare, that I cheerfully submit myself to every odious name for conscience' sake; . . . Let the consequences be what they will, I am determined to pro- ceed. The only principles of public conduct, that are worthy of a gentleman or a man, are to sacrifice estate, ease, health, and applause, and even life, to the sacred calls of his country. These manly sentiments, in private life, make the good citizen ; in public life, the patriot and the hero. I do not say, that when brought to the test, I shall be invincible. "I pray God I may never be brought to the melancholy trial ; but if ever I should, it will be then known how far I can reduce to practice principles which I know to be founded in truth. In the meantime I will proceed to the subject of this writ. " . . .1 deny that the writ now prayed for can be granted, ... In the first place, the writ is universal, ... In the next place it is perpetual; there is no return. ... In the third place, a person with this writ, in the daytime, may enter all houses, shops, etc., at will and command all to assist him. Fourth- ly, by this writ not only deputies, etc, but even their menial servants, are allowed to lord it over us." John Adams, Works (edited by Charles Francis Adams, Bos- ton, 1850), II Appendix. 523-525. 199. Patrick Henry 07 and the Parsons' Cause. — In 1748 a law had been passed fixing the salaries of the clergymen of the Episcopal church at sixteen thousand pounds of tobacco annual- ly. During the French and Indian War, the price of tobacco was very high, and the colonial treasury was almost empty; therefore, in 1755 and 1758, the prevailing distress caused the assembly to pass what is known as the "Optional" or "Two Pence" law. By this law the colonists might pay their public dues in money at the rate of two pence for every pound of to- bacco. This law was undoubtedly unsound, as it involved a partial repudiation of debts, but on account of the extreme dis- 67 Wirt, Life of Patrick Henry. 130 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tress, the clergy at first, as well as the laymen, acquiesced. How- ever, the price of tobacco began to rise and in order to test the legality of the law, the Rev. James Maury sued the colonists for the difference between the salary which he had received, and the money which he would have re- ceived by selling the sixteen thousand pounds of tobacco at the high market price. Sherlock, the bishop of Lon- don, had persuaded the king and coun- cil to veto the statute as unconstitu- tional, so the case virtually came to Patrick henry tr i al w i t h t \ ie pars0 ns and English government as plaintiffs, and the colonists as defendants. Patrick Henry, then a young man of twenty-seven years, was employed to defend the colonists. He was an uncultured, ob- scure, and unknown lawyer who had just been admitted to the bar. He at once admitted the unconstitutionality of the law, so in the case the jury were simply to decide the amount to be received by the Rev. Maury. Henry, in the course of his argu- ment, declared that Virginia could legislate for herself, and that as soon as a king disallowed acts of this nature, he began to degenerate into a tyrant. Cries of "Treason" came from all parts of the court room, but so wonderful was this young man's gift of eloquence and persuasion, that the jury brought in a verdict of only one penny damages. This was virtually a vic- tory for Henry and the colonists. The history of this case flew like wild-fire. Henry, who had thus placed his life in jeopardy, became the leader of his people, who chose him to represent thorn at the Virginia assembly. 200. The Stamp Act and Taxation without Representation. 63 — William Pitt, the one man who had been able to bring order out of chaos, during the French and Indian War, was succeeded by Lord George Grenville, and Charles Townshend, a tory, was made president of the lords of trade. Grenville at once con- cluded that there should be a strong army in America, and that the colonies should be taxed to support these soldiers and gar- risons. He desired to raise this revenue by indirect taxation, and planned to place revenue stamps on all legal documents. ss American History Leaflets, no. 21. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 131 This act was passed by parliament on March the 8th, 1765. The colonists felt that a strong army was unnecessary and they in- sisted that taxation by parliament was illegal and unjust. The colonies did not object to the payment of the taxes so much as the method by which they were taxed. It was a fundamental principle of the English people that they should not be taxed but by their own consent or the consent of their representatives, and of course the colonies had no representative in the British Parliament. Franklin, while being examined before the English house of commons in February, 1766, gave the following answers to the questions put to him regarding taxation, which makes quite plain to us the position taken by the colonists on this import- ant subject. "I never heard any objection to the right of laying duties to regulate com- merce, but a right to lay internal tax- es was never supposed to be in parlia- ment, as we are not represented there. benj. franklin "Their opinion (the colonies) is, Portrait by bupiessis, from Mu- that when aids to the crown are want- seum of Fine Arts, Boston t ,i i i j a ,1 ed, they are to be asked ot the various assemblies, according to the old established usages, who will, as they always have done, grant them freely. . . And they think it extremely hard and unjust, that a body of men. in which they have no representatives, should make a merit to itself of giving and granting what is not its own, but theirs." While these things were going on, 1765, Patrick Henry, who was now a member of the Virginia assembly, immediately in- troduced a seres of resolutions which denied explicitly and emphatically the right of parliament to tax the colonies. It was while supporting these resolutions that Henry gave utter- ance to the speech which once more brought the cries of treason upon his head. These resolutions did much to strengthen the cause of liberty throughout the colonies. 201 The Stamp Act Congress. — Massachusetts now proposed the calling of a continental congress. This congress met in New York, October 7, 1765, with representatives from nine colonies, and they reported the protest and petition of Virginia and drew up a declaration of rights and grievances of the colon- .132 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ies in America. They declared that since the colonies were not represented in the house of commons of Great Britain, there- fore internal taxation cannot be levied except by their colonial assembly. Furthermore they asked parliament to repeal the stamp act. The proceedings of this congress were received with favor by the people, and "Taxation without Representa- tion is Tryanny," soon became the common slogan throughout the colonics. 202. Repeal of the Stamp Act. — The people now began to act in unison, and every energy was put forth to evade, and if possible, to cause the repeal of the stamp act. The newspapers took up the cry ; ministers of the gospel exhorted their hearers on this subject ; idlers on the street discussed the question free- ly ; merchants signed agreements not to buy their goods of Eng- land while the act was in force; even women anxious to encour- age and foster the popular sentiments did all in their power to prevent the importation of English goods ; mobs assaulted the stamp officers, destroyed their property, and forced them to re- sign; in sonic places the stamps were even seized and burned, and organizations, such as the Sons of Liberty, were formed to arouse the public indignation; lawyers did without necessary Legal blanks; in some of the larger cities, even the homes and libraries of the officers of the king were burned and destroyed. Finally on November 1, 1765, the day when the act was to go into force, flags were placed at half mast ; bells were tolled ; business was suspended; and the day was observed as a day of mourning. Soon the merchants and manufacturers of England, whose trade with the colonies had been nearly ruined by this act, peti- tioned parliament to repeal the stamp act. Grenville was succeeded by the Marquis of Rockingham. Edmund Burke be- gan to espouse the cause of the colonies ; William Pitt, ever the friend of the colonies, again came forward in all his wonderful power, and finally on March the 18th, 1776, the stamp act was repealed, and the declaratory acts were passed in its stead. 203. The Declaratory Acts. — Among other things the declar- atory acts stated : That the kintj and parliament had full power to make laws binding the American colonies in all cases whatsoever, and that the acts passed by the colonial assemblies denying to parlia- ment the power to tax the colonies were unlawful and revolu- tionary. From ii Painting by Rothermel PATRICK HENRY SPEAKING IN BEHALF OF HIS RESOLUTIONS A.GAINST THE STAMP ACT BEFORE THE HOUSE OF BURGESSES IN 1765 It was during the exciting debate on his resolutions, as illustrated above, that Henry in one of his bursts of eloquence exclaimed, "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I bis Cromwell, and George III" — "Treason! Treason!" shouted some among whom was the speaker of the house. Henry fixing his eyes on the speaker continued, "may profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it." 134 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Therefore, these acts in no way helped the political situation between the colonies and the mother country, and the small relief, which was secured in a commercial way by the repeal of the stamp act, in no way pacified the colonists. The trouble between the mother country and the colonics now had reached the stage where principle could not be compared, by the colon- ists, with commercial values. 204. The Townshend Acts. — The half crazed king, George III, was terribly wrought up over the repeal of the stamp act, and decided to tax the colonies regardless of their protestations. Charles Townshend, who was now chancellor of the exchequer, after advising with the king, persuaded parliament to pass sev- eral acts reviving the policy of Grenville. The first act sus- pended the assembly of New York because they would not furnish food and clothing to the British garrisons; the second act provided for the reinforcements of the acts of trade; bv the third, duties were placed upon glass, wine, painter's mate- rials, paper and tea, the revenue, derived from these duties, to be used to support the standing army and crown officers, who were to control affairs in the colonies. By a later act smuggling cases were tried before courts of admiralty without a jury. These laws were received with great disgust by the colonists, and everything possible was done to prohibit their being put in force. 205. Letters of the Pennsylvania Farmer. — In 1768 there appeared a series of letters written by a very able and patriotic young lawyer by the name of John Dickinson, who assumed the guise of a farmer. In these letters Mr. Dickinson gave the people a very thorough discussion of the Townshend acts, and this did much to prepare them for the coming conflicts. The general trend of his letters will be inferred from a few extracts which are given below : "I hope, my dear countrymen, that you will in every colony be upon your guard against those who may at any time endeav- or to stir you up, under pretenses of patriotism, to any measures disrespectful to our sovereign and our mother country. Hot, rash, disorderly proceedings injure the reputation of the peo- ple as to wisdom, valour and virtue, without procuring them the least benefit. . . "Every government, at some time or other, falls into wrong measures; these may proceed from mistake or passion. But every such measure does not dissolve the obligation between PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 135 the governors and the governed; the mistake may be corrected; the passion may pass over. "It is the duty of the governed to endeavor to rectify the mis- take, and appease the passion. . . For experience may teach them what reason did not ; and harsh methods, cannot be proper, till milder ones have failed. "If at length it becomes undoubted, that an inveterate resolu- tion is formed to annihilate the liberties of the governed, the English history affords frequent examples of resistance by force. . . Perhaps it may be allowable to say, generally, that it never can be justifiable until the people are fully con- vinced that any further submission will be destructive to their happiness. . . These considerations of justice and prudence will always have great influence with good and wise men. ' ' To these reflections on this subject, it remains to be added, and ought forever to be remembered: that resistance in the case of the colonies against their mother country, is extremely different from the resistance of a people against their prince. . . ' ' We cannot act with too much caution in our disputes. Anger produces anger; and differences that might be accommodated by kind and respectful behavior, may by imprudence be changed to an incurable rage. . . "If, however, it shall happen by an unfortunate course of af- fairs, that our applications to his majesty and the parliament for the redress, prove ineffectual, let us then take another step, by withholding from Great Britain all the advantages she has been used to receive from us. Then let us try, if our ingenuity, in- dustry, and frugality, will not give weight to our remonstrances. Let us all be united with one spirit in one cause. Let us invent ; let us work; let us save; let us at the same time, keep up our claims, and unceasingly repeat our complaints ; but above all, let us implore the protection of that infinite good and gracious Be- ing, 'by whom kings reign and princes decree justice.' "Nil desperandum. ' ' Nothing is to be despaired of. "A FARMER," John Dickinson, Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies (Boston, 1768), 30-35. 206. The Bostonians have Trouble with the King's Soldiers. — Soon after the passage of the Townshend acts, 1768, the rev- enue commissioners which were provided for by these acts, ar- rived at Boston and without a legal warrant proceeded at once 136 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to seize the sloop "Liberty," which belonged to John Han- cock, on an alleged violation of the revenue laws. On account of this act and other grievances serious trouble soon arose be- tween these officers and the colonists. King George III becom- ing alarmed, dispatched General Gage with several regiments of soldiers, who were to be garrisoned in the larger cities, where they would be subject to the immediate commands of the king. Two of these regiments were stationed in Boston, and it was not long until there was a general feeling of antipathy between the citizens of Boston and these soldiers. According to the acts passed by parliament, these soldiers should have been lodged in Castle William, situated on one of the little islands in the harbor, but instead General Gage saw fit to quarter them in Boston. In September, 1769, James Otis, who had so ably defended the colonists against the tyrannical writs of assistance, was as- saulted and struck over the head with a sword, by some army officials and a revenue commissioner. This cowardly act was committed at the Old Coffee House, and Mr. Otis who was al- ready in ill health was rendered ever afterwards insane. In February of the next year, a small boy of eleven years of age — Christopher Snyder, the first martyr of the Revolution — was wantonly shot and killed by one Richardson, a British tax col- lector. This act in itself, aroused the entire colony against General Gage, Lieutenant-Governor Hutchinson, and their sol- diers. 207. The Boston Massacre. — [Plate No. L] Things went from bad to worse, until the climax "was reached on the evening of March 5, 1770, when a company of soldiers under Captain Pres- ton, w T ho had been called to the aid of a sentry, fired into a erow r d of citizens, who had congregated in King's street, killing five men and wounding several others. The citizens of Boston, pre- vious to this time, petitioned the governor, on several occasions, to remove the soldiers from the city, and on the next day, March 6th, under the direction of an immense meeting which met at the Old South Church, a committee, one of which was Samuel Ad- ams, called on Hutchinson and in the name and behalf of three thousand citizens of Boston, demanded the immediate removal of the soldiers from the town. Before sunset not a single Brit- ish soldier could be found on the streets of Boston. 208. Lack of Union in the Colonies. — Up to this time there had been no concerted plan of action or united opposition, on the part of the colonists, against the mother country. On the PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 137 contrary there was even open hostility between some of the colonies. At this very time the colony of New Hampshire. with Ethan Allen and the "Green Mountain Boys," was carry- ing on a sort of guerilla warfare against New York, in order to get possession of the Green Mountains. The same contention was going on between the colonies of Connecticut and Pennsyl- vania over the ownership of the Wyoming Valley. There is no doubt that if, at this time, the home government had used good judgment, the colonies might have been reconciled. Nowhere as yet had the colonists agreed to unite on any one plan for their common protection. However, King George III seem- ed to be in no way concerned. He believed he might yet coerce the colonists into submission. 209. The Virginian Resolutions, and the Non-Importation Agreement. 69 — In 1769 the Virginian resolutions were passed which not only condemned the policy of Great Britain, but rec- ommended the united action of the colonists against their com- mon foe. The governor immediately dissolved the assembly, but under the leadership of Washington, a set of resolutions were passed which forbade all importations from England until the Townshend acts were repealed. 210. Tax Removed on all Articles Except Tea. — These res- olutions were adopted by nearly all the colonies, and the British merchants again finding their trade seriously interfered with. petitioned parliament to repeal the Townshend acts. Lord North, who had now become prime minister, in April, 1770, re- moved all duties except the duty on tea, which was retained in order to maintain the principle, that the mother country had the right to tax the colonists without their being represented in parliament. 211. The Burning of the Gaspee. — [Plate No. 1.] Acting on the belief that the colonies would yet submit, the Gaspee, an English revenue vessel, was in 1772, stationed in Narragansett Bay, where she was to aid in enforcing the navigation acts. The captain of this vessel was not only foolish, but he was need- lessly cruel and harsh in many respects. The citizens near the coast w r ere robbed of their stock, provisions, and other necessa- ries of life, which were taken by the captain and his crew, and appropriated to their own use. The Gaspee running aground, was attacked by the settlers. The crew- was soon overpowered, and the vessel with all its contents was burned. G $ Hearts Courageous, by H. E. Rivers. 138 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES SAMUEL ADAMS 212. Committees of Correspondents. — In 1772, at a town- meeting held in Faneuil Hall, Bos- ton, Samuel Adams moved that a "Committee of Correspondents" be appointed in all the different towns throughout Massachusetts for the purpose of stating, as Adams said, "The rights of colonies and of this province in particular, to communi- cate and publish the same to the sev- eral towns in this province and to the world." In 1773 at the suggestion of Dabney Carr, the Virginia assem- bly passed a resolution that the com- mittee of correspondents be appoint- ed in all the colonies to communicate with each other. This proposition was favorably received, and soon committees of correspondents were appointed by all the colonies. These com- mittees not only reported to each other their grievances, but they also corresponded about methods by which they might re- sist the odious laws enacted by parliament. 213. The Boston Tea Party. — As before stated, parliament had seen fit to remove the tax on all articles except tea, and it was supposed that since the tax on this article was very low, there would be no trouble regarding the sale of this article in the colonies. However, instead of doing what the British parlia- ment had expected them to do, the colonists smuggled the tea which they used from Holland. The East India Company had, at this time, a great deal of tea on hand, and the king and parlia- ment believed that they might be able to do by trickery, what they were unable to do by force. Therefore, the East India Company was allowed to ship tea directly to colonial ports with- out stopping and paying revenue at the English ports. Thus the duty on tea was reduced from five pence to three pence per pound. It was now thought that since the colonists could buy tea cheaper than even the people of England, there would be no more trouble. Consequently vessels containing tea were at once sent to Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. However, the king and his counselors were disappointed, for in all these cities, except Boston, the colonists forced the consignees (the tea company's agents) to resign so when the tea arrived at these places, there was no one to receive it : at Philadelphia when PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 139 the ship containing the tea arrived it was immediately sent back to England ; at Charleston the tea was landed, but as there was no one to receive it, it was stored in damp cellars and there spoiled. In Boston the first tea ship arrived on Sunday, and the com- mittee of correspondents (by threats and otherwise) made ar- rangements with the captain that the tea should not be landed until the next Tuesday. The consignees, among whom were the governor's sons, would not resign. Neither would the governor give his consent for the vessels to leave port and the revenue commissioners would not issue a certificate of clearance. At the end of twenty days the revenue commissioners were empowered to have the vessels unloaded by force. The citizens of Boston through the committee of correspondents received advice from all the nearby towns and colonies, and it was de- cided that the tea should not be landed. On the expiration of the twentieth day (which was the 16th day of December), seven- teen thousand people met at the "Old South Meeting House." The governor was again asked to issue a permit for the vessels to sail, but this was refused. As night stole over the city, a well organized and well behaved party of men, disguised as Indians (one of whom was Samuel Adams), went on board the ships and emptied into the sea the entire cargo of tea. Thus again King George and his parliament were not able, even by their political trickery, to force the colonists to pay the small revenue on tea. 214. The Five Intolerable Acts, 1774. — On hearing the news of how the consignment of tea had been refused by the colonists, the king and his counselors became very angry. Parliament immediately passed what is known as the "Five Intolerable Acts." The first of these is known as the "Boston Port Bill." By this act, the port of Boston was closed, no vessels being al- lowed to either enter or leave port. The port was to remain clcsed until the people of Boston were starved, or otherwise forced into paying for the tea which had been destroyed. The second of these acts is known as the "Transportation Bill" which provided that persons charged with murder while en- gaged in enforcing the laws might be transported either to Eng- land or some other colony for trial. The third was known as the "Massachussets Bill" or "Regulation Act." This act re- voked the charter of Massachusetts, and placed the government under a military governor. The fourth is known as the 140 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES "Quartering Act." It legalized the stationing or quartering of troops in the colonies. The fifth is known as the "Quebec Act ' ' or the ' ' Proclamation Line Act. ' ' By this act the govern- ment of the province of Quebec was reorganized so as to include all the English territory west of the Allegheny Mountains. It also provided for the free exercise of the Roman Catholic re- ligion in Canada, which, of course, was very distasteful to the colonists. The effect of these acts was disastrous to say the least. The "Boston Port Bill" was to go into effect on June 1st, and the day was observed as a day of fasting throughout the col- onies. Soon the people of Boston were on the verge of starva- tion. Everything possible was done, by the people of the other colonies, to relieve their suffering. 215. The First Continental Congress, 1774.— The condition into which the colonies were thus placed soon became unbear- able, and not only Massachusetts but other colonies saw the need of immediate and united action. The Virginia house of bur- gesses at once proposed a general congress of the colonies. New York and Pennsylvania proposed that this congress meet in Philadelphia on September 1, 1774. The congress did not meet, however, until September 5th. Fifty-five delegates were present, all the colonies being represented except Georgia. The meetings of this congress were held in Carpenter's Hall, and among the delegates were such men as George Washington, Patrick Henry, Samuel and John Adams, Peyton Randolph, John Dickinson, and Thomas Jefferson. The delegates were directed to secure redress for Massachu- setts, to draw up a declaration of rights to be presented to the king and parliament. An agreement was also entered into, not to export or import, or to make use of any British goods. After professing loyalty to the king, they adjourned (October 26th), having fixed the date of the next meeting for Mav 10, 1775. 216. John Hancock Recalls the Boston Massacre. — John Han- cock had by this time become one of the moving spirits in behalf of the. colonies. He was not only a man of great intelligence, but being a man of great wealth, he was also interested in the financial affairs of the colonies. In 1766, he became a member of the colonial legislature, and from that time his every effort was put forth in behalf of the colonists. On March 5, 1774, just four years after the Boston massacre, he delivered an oration. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 141 JOHN HANCOCK From portrait by Copley, in Boston Museum of Fine Arts his subject being the "Boston Massacre." On account of this oration he was ordered to be ar- rested by the British authorities. A few quotations given below will give some idea of the effect of this oration on the colonists at this time : "Men, Brethren, Fathers, and Fellow Countrymen : The attrac- tive gravity, the venerable appear- ance of this crowded audience ; the dignity which I behold in the coun- tenances of so many in this great assembly; the solemnity of the oc- casion upon which we have met to- gether joined to a consideration of the part I am to take in the import- ant business of this day, fill me with awe hitherto unknown. . . But, allured by the call of some of my respected fellow citizens, with whose request it is al- ways my greatest pleasure to comply, I almost forgot my want of ability to perform what they required. . . Security to the persons and properties of the governed is so obviously the de- sign and end of civil government that to attempt a logical proof of it would be like burning tapers at noonday to assist the sun in enlightening the world ; and it cannot be either virtuous or hon- orable to attempt to support a government of which this is not the great and principal basis; and it is to the last degree vicious and infamous to attempt to support a government which manifestly tends to render the persons and properties of the governed inse- cure. . . I glory in publicly avowing my eternal enmity to tyranny. . . Here suffer me to ask (and would to heaven there could be an answer), what tenderness, what regard, re- spect or consideration has Great Britain shown in their late transactions, for the security of the persons or properties of the inhabitants of the colonies, Or rather what have they omitted doing to destroy that security? . . . They have exercised this pretended right by imposing a tax upon us without our consent; and lest we should show some reluctance at parting with our property her fleets and armies are sent to enforce their made pretensions. The town of Boston, ever faithful to the British crown, has been invested by a British fleet, the troops of 142 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES George III have crossed the wide Atlantic, not to engage an enemy, but to assist a band of traitors in trampling on the rights and liberties of his most loyal subjects in America — those rights and liberties which, as a father, he ought ever to regard, and as a king he is bound in honor to defend from violations even at the risk of his own life. . . But I forbear, and come reluc- tantly to the transactions of that dismal night . . . when Satan with his chosen band opened the sluices of New England 's blood, and sacriligiously polluted our land with the dead bodies of her guiltless sons ! "Let this sad tale of death never be told without a tear; let not the heaving bosom cease to burn with a manly indignation at the barbarous story through the long tracks of future time; let every parent tell the shameful story to his listening children un- til tears glisten in their eyes and boiling passions shake their tender frames ; and whilst the anniversary of that ill-fated night is kept a jubliee in the grim court of pandemonium, let all Amer- ica join in one common prayer to heaven that the inhuman, un- provoked murders of the 5th of March, 1770, planned by Hills- borough and a knot of treacherous knaves in Boston, and ex- ecuted by the cruel hand of Preston and his sanguinary coad- jutors, may ever stand on history without a parallel. ' ' 217. Massachusetts Organizes a Provincial Government- General Gage, who was now governor of Massachusetts, refused to recognize the legislature chosen by the people, but instead established a military form of government for the colony. The people declared that this military form of government, which was designed to secure protection to the colonists and their property, on the contrary had rendered insecure these rights and liberties. Following the resolution of Dr. Joseph "Warren, in the Suffolk county convention, the first Continental congress urged that all towns raise, organize and maintain a militia, which should be ready at any time to protect the interests of the colony. Acting on this recommendation Massachusetts at once organ- ized a provincial government, with John Hancock as president, and removed the place of the new government from Boston to Concord. A committee of safety was organized, and Dr. Joseph Warren was made chairman. This committee at once began the collecting of ammunition and other military stores at Salem. Concord, and other inland towns. Later a provincial militia, known as "Minute-men," was organized, whose duty, as stated PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 143 above, was to be ready on a minute's notice to protect, by force, the rights of the colonists. 218. General Gage Attempts to Capture Samuel Adams and John Hancock, and Destroy the Military Stores at Concord. — [Plate No. 4.] John Hancock and Samuel Adams were now both accused of high treason, and General Gage was ordered to arrest them and send them to England for trial. These gen- tlemen at this time were at Lexington, and General Gage thought that he would dispatch an army and not only capture them, but also destroy the military stores which had been collected at Concord. He laid his plans with great caution and secrecy. However, Dr. Warren and his "Committee of Safety" 70 became aware of the scheme, and on the night of April the 19th, while General Gage's soldiers were sailing up the Charles River, on their way to Lexington, Paul Revere and some of his comrades were traveling fast toward Lexington arousing all the "Minute- men" on their way. 219. Battle of Lexington, April 19,1775.— [Plate No. 4.] AVhen the British soldiers reached Lex- ington, 71 the next morning, Han- cock and Adams, who had been warned of the approach of the British, were not to be found, and instead a company of "Minute- men" were drawn up in line of battle on the Lexington Common. Captain Parker demanded that the provincials disperse, and upon their refusal a sharp skirmish took place in which several of the col- onists were killed. The British then proceeded to Concord to de- stroy the military stores, but these had all been secreted, except a few hundred pounds of rifle balls, and a small amount of powder. These the British forces destroyed. By this time, the provincial militia were gathering from all directions. The British soon began to retreat toward Boston, but at every turn they were fired to Tales of a Wayside Inn, vol. i, by Longfellow; The True Story of Paul Revere, by Charles Ferris Gettemy. 7i History of Lexington, by Hudson. PAUL REVERE 144 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES They were completely routed, and prob- been upon by the colonists, ably all would have captured, had it not been that they were reenforced by twelve hundred soldiers under Lord Percy. As it was, they lost nearly two hundred and seventy-five soldiers. The effect of this battle was wonderful. It taught the British that they could not expect to subdue the American colonists with the small army then at hand. It also inspired new hope in the colonists who were now determined to fight for their rights. The provincial con- gress passed a resolution calling for an army of thirty thousand men. Delegates were sent to each of the oth- er colonies, asking their aid in raising this army. The Photograph by Voris UPOnlc rcsnondpd imrnpdiatp ^ This monument marks the spot where Paul ]>tuptp IPhpunueu lUimtUldie- ReV ere was captured, by the British, while on l.V and SOOn twentV thousand llis wa . y to Concord and Lexington to inform .-, • the inhabitants of the approach of the British. men were on their way to Boston, where they were engaged in throwing up entrenchments around the entire city. 220. Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, 1775.— [Plate No. 4.] Ticonderoga and Crown Point on Lake Champlain 72 were considered the "Key to Canada," and as these forts also contained a vast amount of cannon and other military stores, the Massachusetts committee of safety suggested that an ex- pedition be organized for the purpose of capturing these places. 72 Corporal Lige's Becruit, by Otis; With Ethan Allen at Ticonderoga, by W. Bert Foster; The Green Mountain Boys, by D. P. Thompson; Fight- ing around Ticonderoga, by C. T. Brady. (See his Colonial Fights and Fighters, 1907, pp. 263-86). American devolution, 2v. D., Boston, 1899, by Jonn Fiske. Capture of Ticonderoga, by Henry Ha]l; Surprise of Ticon- deroga, by M. P. A. Stansbury; Old Ticonderoga, House of the Seven Gahles and The Stone Image, by Nathaniel Hawthorne. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 145 Benedict Arnold, who was anxious to distinguish himself, was commissioned colonel, and was given authority to raise men and accomplish this feat. Hardly had he received his commis- sion, when he learned that Ethan Allen and his "Green Moun- tain Boys" were engaged in the same enterprise. He therefore set out immediately, and met Ethan Allen with about two hun- dred and seventy of his mountain soldiers near the head of Lake Champlain. He displayed his commission, and ordered Allen to surrender the command into his hands, but Allen and his "Green Mountain Boys" were used to doing much as they pleased, and Photograph by Yoris HOUSE, NEAR LEXINGTON, IN WHICH JOHN HANCOCK AND SAMUEL ADAMS CONCEALED THEMSELVES FROM THE BRITISH not only did Allen refuse to surrender his command, but the "Green Mountain Boys" refused to serve under the command of Arnold. Matters were finally compromised, and Arnold was allowed to accompany the army, retaining his colonel's commis- sion, but allowed in no way any command in the army. The following night, May the 10th, they reached the shore of the lake opposite Fort Ticonderoga, and securing all the boats at hand, Allen, accompanied by eighty-three of his men and Arnold, crossed over and landed near the fort. The boats were sent back to bring re-inforcements, but for fear of being detected, it 146 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES was decided to attack the fort at once. Cautiously ascending the hill on which the fort was situated, they surprised and cap- tured it, including the entire British force, all the guns, ammuni- tion, and other military stores, without the firing of a single gun. Two days later, Seth. Warner, one of Allen's able lieutenants, captured Crown Point, taking sixty prisoners, two hundred can- nons, and a large supply of gunpowder. The effect of these achievements can hardly be over-estimated, as not only did these forts fall into the hands of the colonists, but what was even more important, the much needed munitions of war also came into their possession. THE SURRENDER OF FORT TICONDEROGA 221. Washington Appointed Commander-in-Chief by the Sec- ond Continental Congress, June 15th. — On the same day Ticon- deroga was taken, the second Continental congress met. and after a completion of the preliminary business, they proceeded to elect John Hancock president. It now became apparent that decisive action must be taken at once, in order to protect Massa- chusetts as well as the rest of the American colonies. 73 The two Adamses and Benjamin Franklin (who was at this time a member of the Continental congress) were the only mem- t z Leather Stocking Tales, by Cooper; True to the Old Flag, by Henty; Janice Meredith, by Ford; A Tory Plot, by Otis; The Spy, by Cooper. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 147 bers of that body who as yet proclaimed the idea of complete independence. Many of the members believed that even yet, by force of arms, the British government might be brought to a sense of its duty toward the colonies. However, it became apparent that the Continental army must act as a unit, in order that this might be accomplished. In order that the Continental army might act as a unit it was of course necessary to appoint a commander over the entire Colonial army. John Hancock and the unprincipled character, Charles Lee, both aspired to this office, but after due deliberation, John Adams in one of his speeches took the liberty to give what he be- lieved to be the qualifications necessary in one who might assume the command of this most important position, in language as follows : "Such a gentleman I have in mind. I mention no names, but every gentleman here knows him at once as a brave soldier and a man of affairs. He is a gentleman from Virginia, one of this body, and is well known to all of us. He is a gentleman of skill and experience as an officer ; his independent fortune, great tal- ents, and excellent universal character would command the ap- probation of all the colonies better than any other person in the Union." Two days later the Continental congress by a unanimous vote elected Washington commander-in-chief. Thus not only was the man who possessed the greatest military ability placed at the head of the Continental forces, but congress by this act also placed at the head of the farmers of New England a wealthy and aristocratic planter of the south. It is probable that the ap- pointment of Washington as commander-in-chief did more to combine the forces of the different colonies to act as a unit against their common enemy, than any other one resolution or action which had ever been passed by any representative as- sembly of the colonies up and until this time. 222. Battle of Bunker Hill.— [Plate No. 4.] Washington at once set out for Cambridge to take command of the army, but before he was able to reach his destination, a very important battle had taken place at Bunker Hill. 74 The committee of safety hearing that the British expected to occupy Bunker Hill (a point of ground completely overlooking the city of Boston), decided, if possible, to intercept these arrangements. Conse- quently on the night of June 16th, the American forces, under i* With Warren at Bunker Hill, by Otis. 148 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES William Prescott, proceeded to occupy this position. On their arrival, however, they decided to occupy what is known as Breed's Hill, a position nearer the city. During the night the colonial army was busily engaged erect- ing fortifications. On the morning of the 17th the British were surprised to find the place fortified by the American army. They might have easily captured the entire American force by cap- turing Charlestown Neck, which was the only avenue by which the patriot army might escape. However, General Gage de- cided in favor of storming the position, and at three o'clock the British, three thousand strong, advanced to the attack. The colonists held their fire until the opposing forces were within fifty yards, when they opened with such deadly aim that the British ranks were broken, and the entire army forced to re- treat. Again they advanced, and again they were forced to retreat. A third time they advanced, and with fixed bayonets charged the works. The colonists were now at a disadvantage, for their ammunition had given out, and although fighting with stones and clubbed muskets, they were forced to retreat. The colonists in this battle lost about five hundred men, in- cluding their gallant and distinguished leader of the committee of safety, Dr. Joseph Warren. The British lost at least one-third of the men engaged, including nearly one hundred commissioned officers, among whom was the noted Major Pitcairn, who had charge of the British during the Lexington and Concord expedi- tion. 223. Washington Takes Command.— On July 3, 1775, under the old historic elm on Cambridge Common, Washington took command of the Continental army. 75 The greatest enthusiasm prevailed throughout the entire army, and while this must have been gratifying to Washington, it also increased his sense of the great responsibility which was thrown upon him. New recruits began to pour in from all the colonies. Among these were Morgan and his riflemen, who had enlisted in the mountainous regions near the head waters of the Potomac. Their motto, "Liberty or Death," was suggestive of their resolu- tion and purpose in behalf of liberty. Washington now realized that supplies of all kinds must be furnished the army. In dress, there was no uniformity. Con- sequently he wrote to Congress and asked that three thousand hunting shirts be supplied the army. These shirts were light " OU South Leaflets, no. 47. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 149 and comfortable, and would do away with the individual ap- parel of the soldiers from the different colonies. 224. Washington Keeps the British Shut Up in Boston. — [Plate No. 4.] Since the battle of Bunker Hill the British had remained posted at Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill. They were also encamped amid the ruins of Charlestown, which city had been burned by order of General Gage during the battle of Bunker Hill. Washington decided that he would keep the Brit- ish shut up in Boston, and, at the same time, give his troops such military drill and training as were essential to their success against the British forces. 225. The Colonists Attempted the Capture of Canada. — [Plate No. 3.] While Washington was engaged in this work at Boston, an expedition had been dispatched by Congress to cap- ture Canada. 76 General Montgomery, one of the men to whom this task was entrusted, with two thousand men, went by the way of Lake Champlain, and on November 12th captured Montreal. He then marched on to Quebec, and there met Benedict Arnold accompanied by Morgan and his riflemen, who had come by the way of the Kennebec Valley, and through the wilds of Maine. On December 31st the combined American forces attacked the city simultaneously from three different directions. Although the Continentals fought bravely, they were unsuccessful. Mont- gomery was killed, Arnold wounded, and Morgan and his men were captured. The Continentals were forced to retire, leaving Canada to the English. This campaign was very disastrous to the American cause, for not only did the Continentals lose their able general, Montgomery, with many prisoners, but the frontier was left open to invasion by the British and Indians. 226. First Anti-Slavery Society Formed. — While the colon- ists were thus busily engaged in protecting their rights and lib- erties, it began to dawn on many of them that they should also protect the liberties of those who were less fortunate than them- selves. Slavery was already beginning to be a disturbing ele- ment in many of the colonies. Especially was this true in Penn- sylvania, and in 1775 the people had become interested to such an extent that they organized the first anti-slavery society, known as the "Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery." Benjamin Franklin was one of the principal person- ages who brought about this movement. 227. The British Evacuate Boston.— [Plate No. 4.] The new 76 At ihe Siege of Quebec, by Otis. 150 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES year 1776 found the British still in Boston, 77 and Washington drilling his troops. Washington now having received the ar- tillery supplies which had been captured at Ticonderoga and Crown Point [Section 220], believed it was time to make a bold attack, and on the eve of March 4th, while the attention of the British was directed toward a fearful artillery fire, which was poured into their ranks from the American camp, Washington suddenly seized Dorchester Heights and began at once to erect fortifications. General Howe, who had now taken command of the British army, found that both his army and fleet were at the mercy of the Continental army. The British army had not yet forgotten the lesson learned at Bunker Hill, and rather than attack the Americans in their for- tified position, they reluctantly, on March 17th, evacuated the city and sailed for Halifax. Washington entered the city, and found that the British in their haste had left behind them a vast amount of cannon, small arms, ammunition, and other military stores. 228. The British Transfer the War to the South.— [Plate No. 4.] After this disastrous defeat at Boston, the king decided to transfer the conflict to the south. In North Carolina the col- onists were about evenly divided. Prom the Tory element the Tory governor had congregated an army of sixteen hundred Scotch Highlanders. 229. Battle of Moore's Creek.— [Plate No. 4.] At Moore's < Jreek these Scotch Highlanders were attacked by Colonel Rich- ard Casswell and his Continental militia. Nearly the entire British force, including many thousand pounds of gold and much military stores, were captured. 230. British Repulsed at Fort Moultrie.— [Plate No. 4.] Sir Henry Clinton now decided to capture Charleston, South Caro- lina. Colonel Moultrie with about twelve hundred militia, in anticipation of this event, had fortified a palmetto log fort on Sullivan 's Island, now known as Fort Moultrie. On June 28th, the British attacked this fort and were repulsed 7S with great "" Lionel Lincoln, by Cooper. ;v Soon after the beginning of the battle, the flagstaff at the fort was cut 1 1 IT by a cannon ball. Sergeant Jasper, a young and gallant soldier, leaped over the breastworks, and picking up the flag he deliberately fastened it to a sponge staff and hoisted it to its place. In recognition of his bravery, he was offered a lieutenant 's commission and presented with a beautiful and costly battle flag. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 151 loss. The British now abandoned all hopes of reclaiming the Carolinas, and set sail with their fleet and army for New York. 23 j. The South Declares for Independence. — [Plate No. 4.] Not only were the British unable to reclaim any of the southern colonies, but on the other hand their unauthorized actions did much to permanently place the southern colonies in the position where they were ready to declare for independence. The col- onies of North Carolina. South Carolina, and Georgia each or- ganized a provincial congress, and delegates were appointed to the Continental Congress, and were authorized to concur with delegates from other colonies in declaring independence from Great Britain. In November, 1775, Lord Dunmore, among other unwarranted acts, set fire tc the city of Norfolk. On account of these actions, the entire citizenship of Virginia were ready to de- clare for independence, and the Virginia assembly went still further than her southern sister colonies, for she instructed her delegates to propose to congress a resolution for the immediate and complete independence of the colonies from the mother country. Thomas Paine, the editor of the Pennsylvania Mag- azine, in his famous pamphlet, Common Sense, declared that immediate and complete independence was the only rational method of procedure. 232. The Resolutions of Independence by Richard Henry Lee. — Following the instructions of the Virginia assembly, Rich- ard Henry Lee on June 7th arose in his place in the second con- tinental congress and offered resolutions tending toward inde- pendence of the colonies, as follows : "That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states, that they are absolved from all alle- giance to the British crown, and that all political connection be- tween them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved. 70 "That it is expedient forthwith to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances. "That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the respective colonies for their consideration and approba- tion." 233. Independence Declared July 4, 1776. — A motion for the ij Tin American ~R evolution. A valuable English work is Lecky's Ameri- can Eevolntion. Other valuable accounts of the period are given in Hart's The Formation of the Union, Frothhigham 's Rise of the Republic, Foster's C( ntury of American Diplomacy, Old South Leaflets, nos. 4. 15, 65, 97, ami Hart's Source Boole, nos. 60 and 63. 152 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES adoption of these resolutions was seconded by John Adams. As several of the delegates had not heard from their constituencies, the vote on the adoption of the resolutions was deferred. In the meantime, however, a committee consisting of Thomas Jeffer- From an old engraving INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1776 son of Virginia, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, John Ad- ams of Massachusetts, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and Rob- ert I. Livingston of New York, was appointed to draft a Declara- tion of Independence. After a long and thorough discussion, the vote was taken on July 2d, and the resolutions were adopted. The draft of the Declaration of Independence, 80 which was prin- 80 The original engrossed copy was deposited with the state department of the national government upon its organization. It was later entrusted to the care of the patent office, and finally returned to the state department in 1877. In 1823, a copper plate was made from the original copy, from which facsimiles were produced for distribution to historical societies and to the families and heirs of the signers of the Declaration. This process so injured the parchment that the writing and printing are scarcely legible. It was exhibited on special occasions until 1894, when it was sealed in a steel case out of the reach of light and air. Upon the doctrines of the Declaration of Independence consult Merriam 's American Political Theories, ch. ii. Curtis 's Constitutional History of the United States, Schouler's History of the United States. Constitutional History of United States by Von Hoist; Woodrow Wilson's George Washington, New York, 1897; Ford's The True George Washington, Philadelphia, 1896; Peller's John Jay (A. S.) ; Summer's Robert Morris. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 153 cipally the work of Thomas Jefferson, was then presented, the same being adopted on July 4th. The vote was by states, every state voting in favor of adoption, except New York. In a few days, however, New York also voted in favor of the adop- tion. Although congress sat with closed doors, it had become noised about that they were discussing this subject, and a great crowd had assembled outside waiting anxiously for news of the deci- sion. Suddenly the "Liberty Bell" rang out the joyful news announcing to the world, that the thirteen colonies had been transformed into the United States of America. Great shouts broke forth from the enthused multitude. The news, every- where in the colonies, was received with the greatest satisfac- tion. 234. Washington at New York.— [Plate No. 4.] After the British had evacuated Boston, Washington believed that they would concentrate their forces at New York and if possible, capture that place. He therefore hastened his army to New York, which place he reached on the 13th of April. He found that the city was imperfectly guarded, and at once sent part of his army, under General Greene, to fortify Brooklyn Heights on Long Island. This had been but partially accomplished when Admiral Howe sailed into the harbor. Lord Howe had also arrived from Halifax. To these two brothers the British now committed the general control of affairs in the colonies. The British army was now enlarged by the forces of General Clinton, who had but recently left South Carolina, and by many thousands of Hessian soldiers who had been hired by King George. The British forces numbered near thirty-five thousand, while Washington could not raise more than eight thousand effective men. 235. Howe Offers Peace. — Admiral Howe had been led to believe that he might by peaceful means induce the Americans to lay down their arms. He therefore opened correspondence with Washington. The British government refused to recognize Washington as commander-in-chief of the Continental army, which title had been bestowed on him by congress. Therefore, Admiral Howe addressed his communications to Washington as "Mr. George Washington." Washington refused the commun- ication on the premises that he being recognized only as a citi- zen, or a Virginia planter, would have no right whatever to enter an agreement with the British government regarding 154 STUDENTS' HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES matters of a governmental nature. Howe then addressed the letter to "George Washington, Esquire," etc., etc.; but Wash- ington also refused to receive this communication. The mes- senger who carried this letter informed Washington that, inas- much as Admiral Howe was vested with great powers and as he desired peace, he would be free to grant pardon to all Ameri- ca ns who had taken up arms, providing they took an oath of allegiance to the British king. He therefore urged Wash- ington on this account to receive the letter. AVashington, un- daunted, informed the messenger that the Americans had done nothing but defend their rights, and since they had committed no crime, they needed no pardon. Admiral Howe now being convinced that he must resort to arms, prepared his army for the conflict. 236. Battle of Long Island.— [ Plate No. 4. ] Washington now perceived that the British were in control of the entire bay, and feared that New York City would be surrounded and the Amer- ican forces captured. He therefore fortified Fort Washington and Fort Lee, hoping thus to be able to prevent the British vessels from passing these forts. The British were now on Staten Island, and twenty thousand strong they attempted to take possession of Brooklyn Heights. On August 27th a terrible battle was fought in which the Amer- icans were beaten. The British might easily now have captured the entire army had they attacked the American forces at once, but instead they decided to surround the army. Their plan was discovered by Washington, who at once issued orders to remove the troops across the river to New York. So well were the orders executed that the British did not discover the plan until Washington with his entire army had been ferried across the river and were safe in New York City. This safe and skilful transfer of the American army is con- sidered as one of the master strokes of military genius, and has seldom been equaled by any of the great generals of history. 237. Howe Again Strives for Peace. — Admiral Howe was now of the opinion that since the colonies had been so badly beaten at Long Island, they might be willing to submit to the British government. He therefore sent General Sullivan (who was now his prisoner on parole) with a letter to congress asking for a conference with a committee chosen from the represen- tatives of that body. He, however, refused to receive these gentlemen as delegates from congress, but simply as citizens PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 155 and asked that an informal meeting be granted him. A com- mittee consisting of John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Edward Rutledge accordingly met the British admiral on Staten Island. Howe would accept nothing but unconditional sub- mission, while the colonies would sanction nothing but freedom and independence from the mother country. The meeting therefore was of no consequence and while the committee was making ready to leave the British lines, Howe expressed regret in being compelled to distress the Americans by further resort to arms. Franklin, ever readv with his wit Copyright, 190S, by Boston Sculpture Company, Mvlro.se. Massachusetts WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE Modeled by Raphael Gironi from the famous painting in the Metropolitan Museum. New York City and pertness, informed the admiral that the Americans would endeavor in every way possible to lessen this remorse by taking good care of themselves. Thus ended the interview, and while nothing of importance was gained, yet it was an inducement for the colonies to unite more firmly in their struggle for liberty. 238. The British Take Possession of New York.— [Plate No. 4.] Washington was now aware of the fact, that since the British had control of Long Island, he necessarily would be compelled to evacuate New York. 81 He therefore began his preparations, si Otis's The Capture of Laughing Mary. 156 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES but before he could transfer his army safely on the New Jersey side, there was heavy fighting at White Plains, Fort "Washington, and Harlem's Heights, where the Americans lost many men by death and capture. 239. Washington's Retreat Across New Jersey. — [Plate No. 4.] The cause of the Americans now seemed hopeless. Washing- ton was greatly discouraged, and congress was much alarmed. Many of the soldiers were leaving the American army and re- turning to their homes, while on the other hand, many of the Tories joined the ranks of the British cause. Washington with half of his army started to retreat across New Jersey. Lord Cornwallis started in pursuit. Washington now planned to capture Cornwallis, and ordered General Charles Lee (the traitor) who had command of six thousand men, to join him. This Lee refused to do, and thus Washington was forced to flee before the British army, and in order to save his men, crossed the Delaware. Cornwallis now gave up the pursuit, and went into camp on the New Jersey side of the Delaware River. 240. Charles Lee (the Traitor) Captured.— [Plate No. 4.] Early in December, Lee with his army crossed the Hudson and went into camp at Morristown. Fortunately for the colonies, one night while at a house some distance from his camp, he was captured by a party of British dragoons. This capture could not have happened at a more opportune time, for his troops now joined Washington's command, thus making it possible for him to act on the offensive. 241. Washington Captured the Hessians at Trenton. — [Plate No. 4.] Great was the rejoicing now in the British camp. General Howe was invited to New York where the Tories ten- dered him a banquet, during the Christmas time, in honor of his great victories. The Hessians, as was their custom, were also in the midst of their Christmas festivities. Washington. knowing the custom of these people, decided that it was now time to make a bold attempt to cripple the British army. There- fore, on Christmas night, he crossed the Delaware River above Trenton, and on the next morning attacked the Hessian camp at Trenton, capturing over one thousand of the Hessian soldiers, four cannon, and a thousand stands of arms. 242. Washington Out-Generals Cornwallis and Captures Princeton, January 3, 1777. — [Plate No. 4.] Cornwallis now hurried to Trenton and started in hot pursuit of Washington, coming face to face with his army on the Delaware River. It PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 157 now seemed that escape was impossible. Cornwallis was so sure of this that he exclaimed to his men, "We have run down the old fox, and will bag him in the morning." Again Wash- ington's extraordinary ability saved the patriot army. Pie was not to be out-generaled by Cornwallis. Leaving his camp- fires burning, so as not to excite suspicion on the part of the British, he silently marched his army around the enemy's flank and at sunrise attacked and routed the British forces which were at Princeton. 243. Washington goes into Winter Quarters at Morristown. — [Plate No. 4.] These two victories again placed confidence in the colonists. Many men flocked to Washington's standard. Congress gave him unlimited power with the army. He had so conducted this short campaign that the British were unable to attack him or in any way hinder his future plans. He con- sequently withdrew to Morristown where he would have control of New Jersey, and went into winter quarters, thus leaving the British in control of New York only. Frederick the Great considered this campaign the greatest military achievement of the century. 244 Robert Morris makes possible the Victory at Princeton. [Plate No. 4.] As before stated, after the evacuation of New York, many of Washington's troops were leaving the ranks of the patriot army and returning to their homes. Congress, through carelessness, had failed to pay the soldiers and on this account, it seemed as if the entire army would disband regard- less of Washington's importunities. Washington, in his ex- tremity, implored aid from his friend, the Philadelphia banker and financier, Robert Morris. Morris was a stanch patriot, and in his own words, "on New Year's day," he said, "I gladly went from house to house in Philadelphia, begging, borrowing and demanding money for the interests of our victorious army. ' ' On the forenoon of the same New Year's day, he placed in Washington's hands fifty thousand dollars, for which he had pledged his word of honor. Thus was Washington able to pay off the soldiers and proceed with his army to the glorious vic- tory at Princeton. It is not too much to say that probably next to Washington, Robert Morris did more to make possible the independence of the United States than any other one man. Later in the history of the war, it will be noticed how he saved his country by again furnishing money for the army. It will be inter- esting for the student to keep these several occasions in mind. THE YEAR 1777 245. British Plans for the Year 1777.— [Plate No. 4.] Lord George Germain, who was at the head of colonial affairs in the British cabinet, after a consultation with Lord North and sev- eral of his generals, decided if possible, to gain control of the Hudson and Mohawk valleys. This would give the British control of the most densely inhabited parts of New York, and would entirely separate the northern from the middle and southern colonies. It was also believed that since many of the inhabitants of New York were Tories, they would not only volun- teer to fill the ranks of the British army, but they would also furnish the much needed supplies. With this plan in view, General Burgoyne was to proceed from Quebec along the route of the St. Lawrence and Lake Champlain and capture the Hudson Valley to Albany. A second army under Colonel St. Leger was to proceed up the St. Lawrence, and Lake Ontario to Oswego. At this place the army was to be joined by Sir John Johnson with his Indian allies. These combined forces after capturing Fort Stanwix, would then proceed down the Mohawk Valley to Albany where they would unite with the army of Burgoyne. A third army under Sir William Howe was to ascend the Hud- son and then form a junction with the other armies at Albany, from which place the combined forces, it was believed, might easily overthrow the revolution in the north. 246. Distinguished Foreign Volunteers in the Continental Army. — At this time the nations of Europe were seemingly at peace with each other. Consequently many of the officers in these armies, who were in sympathy with the Americans, were at liberty to offer their services to the young Republic. Among these were Koscuisko (Kos-si-us'-ko), and Pulaski (Poo-las'-ki), two bright and enthusiastic Polish officers, who had fought for the freedom of Poland. Another, and probably the most noted of these gentlemen, was the Marquis de la Fayette, a young French nobleman, who on hearing the recital of the American affairs by the British king's brother, became interested. Later on coming in contact with Franklin, who was at this time min- PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 159 ister to France, he became so enthused that he fitted out a ship, at his own expense, and sailed to the United States and offered his services as a volunteer to Washington. Accompanying him was the German officer, Baron de Kalb. Later the noted officer Baron Steuben, who had seen much service under the great German general, Frederick the Great, cast his lot with the col- onists, and was of great benefit to Washington, and the Ameri- can army. These gentlemen, as it will be seen, were all given responsible positions in the army, and conducted themselves in a way worthy of the confidence and trust placed in them. 247. Burgoyne Starts. — Early in the year Burgoyne received instructions from Lord Germain which made it explicit that he should pursue the route above referred to. until he had effected a junction with the other armies at Albany. Acting in accord- ance with these instructions, early in June with an army of about eight thousand men, he started up the St. Lawrence Valley. As the army proceeded many Indians were persuaded to join the ranks, anil by the first of July. Burgoyne appeared before Fort Ticonderoga. 248. Forts Ticonderoga and Edward fall into the Hands of the British. — [Plate 4.] St. Clair, who was posted at Fort Ticonderoga, saw that it would be impossible for him to hold the fort against the British, and on the night of July the fifth, with the British cannons already pointed toward the fort, he with his little army, crossed the lake into the Green Mountains ; thus the fort which Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain boys had so valiantly captured, passed again into the hands of the British. Burgoyne next marched toward Fort Edward. General Schuy- ler, who had charge of the American army in this territory, now crossed the Hudson but was not able to give open battle to Burgoyne. Yet by the use of blasting powder, axes, and crow- bars, he was able to fell trees and obstruct the roads to such an extent that Burgoyne was unable to proceed faster than one mile a day. It was the last of July before he reached Fort Edward. General Schuyler seeing that his army was too small to hold this fort, retreated. 249. Burgoyne is Forced to Surrender. — [Plate No. 4.] Bur- goyne 's Indian allies now proved to be a source of great trouble. It was impossible for him to manage them, and many people (both patriots and Tories) fell victims to the tomahawk and scalping knife. This not only caused the patriots to take up 160 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES GEX. PHILIP SCHUYLER arms, but the Tories were so disagreeably affected that they abso- lutely refused in any way to help the British general. Bodies of New England militia be- gan to attack Burgoyne's army in the rear. His supplies were finally cut off. In his extremity he sent a detachment of Hessians to seize the American store of supplies at Ben- nington in Vermont. On August 17th, this force was met and completely an- nihilated by the patriot generals, John Stark and Seth Warner. Yet Bur- goyne, expecting aid from Lord Howe or St. Leger, continued to follow the instructions which he had received from Lord Germain. After several skirmishes he came face to face with the American army at Saratoga, 82 where on October 17th he surrendered his entire force to General Gates, who had in the meantime succeeded General Schuyler. 250. St. Leger and His Indians in the Mohawk Valley. — [Plate No. 4.] St. Leger, in the meantime, had ascended the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario to Oswego. Here he was joined by Johnson and his Indian allies and also many Tories. On the 3rd of August he appeared before Fort Stanwix. This fort was garrisoned by only about six hundred men under Colonel Gan- sevoort. General Nicholas Herkimer, who was at the head of eight hundred yeomanry, conceived a plan to surprise and cap- ture St. Leger. Arrangements were made with Colonel Ganse- voort that he should attack St. Leger 's army in the front while Herkimer with his yeomanry would attack in the rear. Through his Indians, St. Leger received information of this scheme and prepared an ambush along a ravine near Oriskany through which Herkimer and his army must pass. 251. Battle of Oriskany.— [Plate No. 4.] On August 6th, as the American army was marching along this ravine, St. Leger suddenly opened fire from all sides. This is said to have been one of the most terrible battles ever fought on the American continent. Tories and patriots from the immediate neighborhood 82 Thompson's Green Mountain Boys. This battle is known by four different names, viz. Bemis Heights and Freeman's Farm. Saratoga, Stillwater, PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 161 had joined their respective armies. The battle became a hand to hand fight. Herkimer was fatally wounded and one-third of the men engaged on both sides were either killed or wounded. Help arrived from Fort Stanwix, and St. Leger was forced to leave the field in order to protect his own camp. 252. St. Leger Returns to Canada,— [Plate No. 4.] The fort was still in a precarious condition, but soon General Arnold ar- rived with help from General Schuyler's camp. By stratagem, he led St. Leger to believe that he was marching against him with a very large army. The Tories soon began to leave the ranks; Johnson's Indians became frightened and fled, and soon St. Leger was on his way to Oswego where he went aboard his ships and returned to Canada. 253. The New Flag. — Congress had on June 14th adopted a fiag, which was to consist of thir- teen horizontal red and white stripes with thirteen white stars in a circle on a blue field, in the upper corner near the staff head. During the battle of Oriskany the troops from Fort Stanwix captured several British flags. These were taken back to the fort and hoisted upside down and above them all the Stars and Stripes was for the first time flung- to the breeze. 254. Howe's Movement in New York. — The student will now be- gin to wonder why General Howe did not ascend the Hudson as planned by the British ministry. There are two very good reasons. In the first place, although Howe probably understood the general plans, yet he never received explicit instructions from Lord Germain as did the other gen- erals. Although the message was written directing him to pro- ceed up the Hudson, yet through carelessness it was pigeon- holed and the mistake was not discovered until it was too late. Howe was, therefore, free to use his own discretion in the mat- ter. Is it too much to say that this act of carelessness on the part of Lord Germain may have been the one thing left undone that made possible the independence of the United States? FIRST AMERICAN FLAG Adopted by Congress on June 14, 1777. The first regular flag of this design was carried at the Battle of Brandywine, Sept. 11, 1777. 162 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The second reason for Howe's failure to ascend the Hudson and join his forces with the other armies at Albany, was his in- ability to cope with Washington. Let us now return to the contest which was being waged by these two generals in the vicinity of New York and Philadelphia. 255. Washington and Howe in New Jersey. — [Plate No. 4.] Howe, left to his own discretion, decided that he would first capture Philadelphia, and then proceed up the Hudson Valley. Washington, who was not strong enough to meet Howe in open battle, pursued the "Fabian Policy" of delaying the contest much the same as did Schuyler in his contest against Burgoyne. Washington by his masterly retreats and skilful manoeuvers was not only able to protect Philadelphia, but caused Howe to waste his time, so that it would be impossible for him to reach Albany in time to help Schuyler and St. Leger. Finally, on August 25th, despairing of doing anything with his shrewd ad- versary under the existing circumstances, Howe with his army set sail for the Chesapeake Bay. No one knows why he pursued this course unless, it may be, he followed the advice of Charles Lee, who was still his prisoner, and who had led him to believe that by taking this route, many Tories would join his ranks, thus making the capture of Phila- delphia an easy matter. Washington, learning of his plan, marched to meet him. 256. The Battle of Brandywine.— [Plate No. 4.] On Sep- tember 25th, the two armies met on the Brandywine Creek, and after a stubborn conflict, the Americans were forced to retreat. Soon afterward the British army took possession of Philadel- phia and went into camp at Germantown. 257. Battle of Germantown. — [Plate No. 4.] On October 4th, Washington planned to attack Howe in his winter quarters at Germantown. The assault was made simultaneously from four different quarters, but owing to a dense fog, the different divisions became confused and the Americans were forced to retreat. Soon afterward he went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. 258. Weakness of Congress. — We can scarcely comprehend the condition of political affairs in the colonies at the time of the Revolutionary War. Executive power was not centralized in one body as it is to-day. Each state was an independent sov- ereignty. Congress could propose and recommend matters, but it had no power to enforce ; it might ask the several independent PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 163 states for men, supplies and money, but it could not command them. The ravages of war had destroyed the shipping and other commercial interests; consequently the young nation had no way to raise money with which to meet its obligations. In order to meet the immediate demands of the people and army, it became necessary to issue great quantities of paper money (Continental currency). This depreciated very rapid- ly in value and in reality became a menace to trade. 259. Sufferings at Valley Forge. — [Plate No. 4.] Taking these conditions into consideration, the student will wonder how Washington was able to feed, clothe and shelter his army, during the terrible winter of 1777 and '78, at Valley Forge. Congress was untrained in matters pertaining to the provision of equipments for the army. Instead of appointing one quarter- master general who should have the entire control of these af- fairs, it saw fit to appoint one person to attend to the buying of supplies, and another person to attend to the distribution of these supplies. This was a serious mistake. Oftentimes blood oozed from the soldiers' frozen and unshod feet, while others froze to death for want of proper shoes and clothing, while there were ample supplies piled here and there along the trail ; but as no way had been provided for the transportation, these supplies were allowed to remain exposed to inclement weather where they soon became unfit for use, while the soldiers at Valley Forge were suffering untold agony. Yet amid all this suffering the soldiers remained true to their convictions and loyal to the standard of Washington. 260. Baron Steuben's Military School. — Baron Steuben, who had been raised to the rank of major general, now began the organization of Washington's army. These frontier soldiers had been in the habit of fighting much the same as did the In- dians. Steuben practically carried on a school of military tac- tics during the entire winter, and by June of 1778, through his efforts, the ragged and starved troops of Valley Forge were as well versed in military ethics as any of the European armies. The knowledge which the troops received by this drill was put to £Ood use. as will be seen in the future study of the war. THE YEAR 1778 261. Plan of Campaign for 1778. — Lord Germain was now convinced that it would be impossible for him to subdue the Americans by following any scheme of modern warfare. He therefore decided upon a campaign of arson, murder, and plun- der. His generals were ordered to burn the cities, destroy the shipping and crops, and use every other conceivable means which would tend to cause distress and suffering. He hoped in this way to subdue the spirit of the people, believing that in the end they might submit to the British government. 262. The Conway Cabal. 83 — Washington 's "Fabian Policy" of conducting the campaign, previous to the capture of Phila- delphia by the British, and his inability to hold the forts on the Delaware, had not aroused the enthusiasm of the public as had the brilliant campaign in the north. Although Schuyler and Arnold were the men who really won the battles in the north, yet Gates, who had succeeded these men in command, very glad- ly took this glory unto himself. Had he obeyed the commands of Washington and sent to him the troops which Washington had ordered, doubtless Washington would have been able to hold the forts on the Delaware; but Gates wished to be com- mander-in-chief, and believed that in this way he might damage Washington and thus advance his owtn interests. Believing this an opportune time, he and his friends used both fair and unfair means to accomplish their scheme. Thomas Conway, an Irishman and foreign adventurer, had not received the appoint- ment which he desired in the army. He believed Washington had been the cause of his failure, and therefore entered with great interest into this scheme, and for a time it seemed as if Washington would be displaced by Gates. Finally the entire plot became exposed and the plotters and their confederates were spurned by every loyal patriot. 263. Treaty with France. S4 — The battle of Saratoga had 83 The title "Cabal" was derived from a famous unpopular English min- istry which was in power between 1667 and 1673 and was composed of men the initials of whose names spelled the word cabal. 84 The account of the negotiations of the French treaty of alliance is given in Foster's Century of American Diplomacy. PERIOD OP THE REVOLUTION 165 produced a noticeable change of feeling regarding the Revolu- tion, in both France and England. When the news of this vic- tory reached Paris, the French government decided that the time had arrived to form an alliance with the United States. The treaty was signed on February 6th, and France at once began to make preparations to assist the United States. 264. Great Britain Offers All but Peace. — On the other hand when the news of the victory of Saratoga reached England, con- sternation reigned supreme. William Pitt, who had ever been a friend of both England and America, urged that conciliatory measures be formulated and placed before the American people. The House of Commons proceeded to act upon this policy. Everything but complete independence was offered to the Am- erican nation. Had these overtures been made by England at the time of the second Continental congress, we are safe in saying that the war would have closed at once, but it was now too late. The pro- posals of the British commissioners were disregarded altogether. William Pitt, that promoter of justice, now passed away, and in his death not only the United States but liberty loving people the world, over lost a friend. 265. General Clinton Succeeds Howe. — Early in the summer of 1778, General Clinton succeeded General Howe, who returned To England. The French had already organized a fleet which was on its way to aid the American army. Clinton, knowing this, believed that it would be impossible for him to remain in Philadelphia without danger of being captured by the combined French and American forces. He therefore started to concen- trate his forces at New York. 266. Battle of Monmouth.— [Plate No. 4.] This movemenl had been anticipated by Washington, 85 who dispatched the young Lafayette (who had recently been placed in command of a regiment) to attack the British if any opportunity was offered. He discharged his duty so well that he rose rapidly in the estimation of Washington and the people of the United States. Lafayette becoming quite agressive, Clinton hastily withdrew from Philadelphia (June 18th), and Charles Lee, who had been exchanged and given a command in Washington's army, was ordered to pursue and capture him if possible. This the traitor refused to do. and Lafayette was given command. Lee now. for some unaccountable reason, changed his mind, and Lafayette ssOtis'a With Washinqton at Monmouth. 166 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES courteously turned the command, and orders of General Wash- ington, over to him, with the distinct understanding that they would be carried out to the letter. On the morning of the 21st, Lee was ordered to attack Clin- ton, but instead of obeying the command, he ordered a retreat. Lafayette hurriedly sent the news to Washington, who hastened with his army upon the scene. Lee was severely rebuked, and ordered to the rear, and the troops were again ordered to the attack. This charge was made with fixed bayonets, and follow- ing 1 the instructions and drill which they received under the direction of Steuben at Valley Forge, they forced the British to retreat in such haste that they left their wounded and dying on the battle field. 267. Lee is Court Martialed. — For his insubordination, Lee was court martialed and dismissed from the army for one year. He never re-entered the service, and soon afterwards died. 268. Wyoming and Cherry Valley Massacres. — [Plate No. 4. ] The able-bodied men of the Wyoming Valley, 86 as in other parts of Pennsylvania, were with Washington, watching Clinton and his army in New York. Taking advantage of this situation, a Tory (Major John Butler) marched with his combined force of Tories and Indians, fifteen hundred strong, from Niagara to lay waste this beautiful valley. The few boys and feeble men who were left at home hastily armed themselves and although they were only about two hun- dred strong, they attempted to oppose the approach of Butler's army. In the battle which took place only two or three escaped the scalping knife of Butler's Indians. These escaped to the fort of Wyoming. Butler demanded that the fort with all the occupants should be surrendered to him. Believing that he would conduct them safely to some other place they complied with his demand. As soon as the gates were thrown open there began one of the most horrible massacres which has ever oc- curred in the history of the country. Those who were not killed immediately were saved for torture; many were crowded in houses, and the houses set on fire. Every conceivable form of death that the fiendish minds of the savages could invent was adopted. In November, Joseph Brant, the celebrated Indian chief, with an army of Indians and Tories perpetrated similar massacres in Cherry Valley, New York. 86 Campbell's Gertrude of Wyoming, PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 167 Next year Washington sent General Sullivan, who with an army of five thousand men completely overthrew the forces of Butler and Brant at Elmira in New York. 269. Sullivan and the French Fail at Newport. — [Plate No. 4.] During the summer the French fleet had arrived off New- port. As the British were already here in considerable force, General Sullivan was dispatched with an army, and a combined attack by the Americans and French was planned. Everything ■was ready by the last of July when suddenly the English fleet, appeared. Count d'Estaing (des-tan), who was in command of the French fleet, put to sea expecting to attack the English fleet, but a severe storm came up and shattered both fleets so that they were forced to put into port for repairs. Being harvest time the volunteers in Sullivan's army dispersed and went home in order to take care of the harvest. Consequently this campaign proved a failure. THE YEAR 1779 270. England's Plan of Campaign and the Condition of Their Army. — England's plan of campaigning for the year 1779 was the same as that of the preceding year, except that the war proper was transferred to the south. 87 However, her forces were continually being weakened on account of her wars with other nations. In 1779 Spain had declared war against her, in the hope of regaining Gibraltar and Florida, which, it will be remembered [Section 180], was ceded to England in 1763 by the treaty of Paris. Clinton was also forced to send five thou- sand men from his army to the West Indies in order to help the British forces which were there engaged against the French. It is therefore evident that it was impossible for England at this time to spare any more troops to subdue her colonies in the New World. 271. Capture of Stony Point.— [Plate No. 4.] The British had not yet, however, given up the idea of capturing the Hudson River and the Mohawk Valley, and by 1779 they had gained possession of the Hudson River up to a small fort some miles below West Point. This fort was situated on a high point of land known as Stony Point, which ran out into the Hudson River. This fort was cut off from the main land by a long, low and narrow swamp, which was completely flooded when the tide was in. The place had been garrisoned by about six hundred British soldiers,, and on account of its peculiar situation it was one of the strongest British positions in that part of New York. From this place predatory bands were sent into Connecticut, where they destroyed the crops, burned the town, and murdered the men, women and children. In this way the British hoped to compel Washington to send part of his force to protect the in- habitants of Connecticut. This would very materially weaken his army, and thus the British hoped to be able to capture AVest Point. However, Washington, as usual, did exactly what they did not expect. He formulated plans for the capture of Stony Point, and on the night of July 15th, General Wayne (Mad 87 Kennedy 's Joscelyn Cheshire. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 169 Anthony), at the head of his men, marched Indian file across the swamp, and with fixed bayonets scaled the works, captured the fort, including the entire British force and an immense amount of munitions of war, with the loss of only fifteen killed and eighty-three wounded. As Washington needed Wayne's men, the fortifications were destroyed and the place evacuated. The entire American army was now concentrated at West Point. 272. The War Upon the Sea, — At the beginning of the Revo- lutionary War, there being no general government, there of course was no navy. However, the Continental congress soon saw the need of a navy, and "Letters of Marque and Reprisal" were granted to privateers, with instructions to prey upon the British merchantmen and commerce. In 1776, Franklin, who was ambassador to France, was given general supervision over the American navy. He at once began to fit out vessels in the French seaports, which were commissioned to fight in behalf of the American colonies. 273. John Paul Jones Captures the Serapis. — In 1778 John Paul Jones, 88 a brave and skilful Scotch sailor, who had received a commission as captain in the American navy, was given command of a small fleet, which had been fitted out in France. He named his flagship the "Bon Homme Richard." after Franklin, and on September 3, 1779, while sailing in the Firth of Forth, he met, off Flansborough Head, a fleet of British merchantmen under the pro- tection of the two British war vessels, the Serapis and the Countess Scarbor- ough. The Richard attacked the Ser- apis. while the rest of the fleet captured the Scarborough. The fight between the Richard and Serapis was one of the most notable and fierce battles which was ever recorded in naval history. The vessels, by order of Paul Jones, were lashed together and for hours the men were engaged in a hand to hand struggle. Finally the British captain was forced to surrender. After the surrender the Richard sank and Jones, who had transferred his men to the Serapis, sailed off with his prize to Holland. ss Otis 's Cniise with Paul Jones; The Pilot; Churchill's Richard Carvel. JOHN PAUL JONES Painting by Charles W. Peale, Indepenndence Hall, Phil. J 70 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES We may justly claim that Paul Jones is the father of the navy of the United States. After this battle he remained for some time in Holland, and later served with great distinction in the Russian navy. Sub- sequently he went to France, where he died. 274. The British are Successful in Georgia. — [Plate No. 4.] Using Florida as a basis for his supplies, General Prevost (Pre- vo) marched north, and after a brief and brilliant campaign captured Savannah, Augusta, and Sunbury, three of the strong- est positions in Georgia. General Benjamin Lincoln, who had been engaged in the Burgoyne campaign, was now placed in command of the Ameri- can forces in the south. He at once dispatched General Ashe with fifteen hundred men to threaten Savannah. When the American forces reached the place, they found it had been evacuated by the British. General Ashe at once started in pursuit and overtook the British at Brier's Creek where in a battle on March 3, 1779. he lost nearly his entire force, in- cluding the cannon and small arms. The British now returned to Augusta ; the British governor was reinstated, and England could once more boast of a royal province. 275. Lincoln and d'Estaing Lose at Savannah. — [Plate No. 4.] Late in the summer d'Estaing returned from the West Indies, and appeared off the coast of Georgia with a powerful fleet. Lincoln at once joined him and by the 23d of September the combined American and French forces had surrounded Savannah, which had been captured, late the preceding year, by British regulars from New fork. For three weeks the siege w T as kept up and it seemed they would be successful, when d'Estaing, fearing that the autumnal storms, which are so severe along the coast, might destroy his fleet, decided to capture the place by storm. An assault was made on the place on October 9th, but the assailants were total- ly defeated. Among the slain were the gallant Pulaski and Sergeant Jasper, who died clinging to the banner which had been presented to his regiment after their noble defense at Fort Moultrie [Section 230 and Note 781 on June 28, 1776. D'Estaing, who was also wounded, now put out to sea, and as he had anticipated, his fleet was struck by one of the fierce hurri- canes above referred to. The vessels of the fleet being unable i" remain together, part turned to the West Indies, while the rest crossed the ocean to France. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 171 276. Colonel Clark in the West.— [Plate No. 3.] The terri- tory lying between the Ohio and Ten- nessee Rivers had for some time at- tracted the attention of pioneers. Daniel Boone. James Harrod and oth- ers had been instrumental in found- ing the towns of Boonesboro and Ilarrodsburg. Other pioneers bad established the cities of Lexington and Louisville. The British general, Hamilton, who was at this time gov- ernor of the Northwest, had by pres- ents and rewards, which he paid for scalps, enlisted many Indians on the side of the British. Consequently the settlers along the frontier of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the settlements of Kentucky, were continually being attacked by these hired Indians. Colonel Clark, a young land surveyor, decided, from reports which he DANIEL BOONE Lias/ , -; I'tteM^ -».*£ ...i»..:m*M A PIONEER'S HOME IN THE GREAT MISSISSIPPI VALLEY received from scouts which he had sent throughout this country, that by a bold attack, the whole region could be secured from the British. He laid his scheme before Governor Patrick Hen- 172 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ry, Jefferson, Madison, and others. After a careful considera- tion Governor Henry, without even consulting the legislature, authorized Colonel Clark to raise a force and proceed from Fort Pitt down the Ohio and take possession of this country. In May, 1778, Clark with a fleet of small boats left Fort Pitt [see Fort Duquesne, Plate No. 3], and soon landed with his en- tire force at the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. He surprised and captured Kaskaskai and Cahokia, and messen- gers were sent to Vincennes, 89 where the people gladly took the oath of allegiance to Virginia. The French inhabitants and the Indians were informed that the American colonies had formed an alliance with the French king, and they were soon on friendly terms with Colonel Clark and his force. Colonel Hamilton, commander at Detroit, later recaptured Vincennes, but Clark, acting with that promptness which was so characteristic of the man, marched with his army across the country, through the thawing ice-cold water and soft marshes, and after a short siege recaptured the town, including Hamil- ton and his entire force. Thus did Colonel Clark with his small army, by his boldness and consummate skill, add to the United States all that territory lying between the Ohio and the Great Lakes. *>» Thompson 's Alice of Old Vincennes; The Crossing. THE YEAR 1780 277. England plans her Campaign for 1780. — England not only continued to carry on her plan of plunder and outrage, but in addition to this she now decided to transfer most of her force to the south, and capture the southern states one by one. She already had control of Florida and Georgia, and it was hoped that by using these states as a basis for her supplies, she might proceed to capture the states toward the north. England, as before stated [Section 270], was aware that the colonies must be subdued with the army already at hand, as she was now not only in trouble with France and Spain but in ad- dition she had to protect herself against the league formed by Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and Austria, known as the "Armed Neutrality of the North." Holland had also declared war against her, on account of questions of trade, and so it be- came absolutely necessary that England must reserve her forces in order to take care of her trouble in other parts of the world. 278. Charleston, with Lincoln and his Army, is Captured by the British. — [Plate No. 4.] In order to carry out these plans, Clinton and Cornwallis transferred eight thousand of their sol- diers from New York to Savannah. Washington, foreseeing the necessity of a strong force in the South, sent part of his army to aid General Lincoln. Lincoln now had a force which, if it had been handled with ability, would have been able to cope with the British army, but he carelessly allowed himself to be shut up in Charleston 90 and after a siege of two months was obliged to surrender, not only the city, but the entire army. The rest of the Continental troops which were in South Carolina were soon cut to pieces and dispersed by the British colonel, Tarleton. It now seemed as if the British would soon be able to establish their royal governors in most of the southern states. 279. The Battle of Camden.— [Plate No. 4.] After the cap- ture of Charleston, Clinton returned to New York to assume control of British affairs in the north. General Gates (who claimed the honor of the victory at Saratoga) was sent to take charge of the Continental army in the south. The army was !^\* * ^^ ■€ -'^1 ^^^ •//***'?** *-,., , 'yt ?+*~j y t ' r *- ' W REPRODUCTION OF PASS IN ARNOLD'S HANDWRITING Pound with other papers in Major Andre's boots when he was captured. The Andre papers were acquired by the State of New York with the George Clinton papers in 1853 and are now in the State Library. 280. Arnold, the Traitor. — Benedict Arnold, who had fought so valiantly in Canada, at Ticonderoga, Saratoga, and other places, after the battle of Saratoga was taken to Philadelphia that he might receive proper medical treatment. While here, on account of the laxity of his morals and character, he was court martialed, and ordered to be reprimanded by his com- PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 175 mander-in-chief. Washington, who had ever been his friend, gave this reprimand in as mild a way as possible; but Arnold, who was of a nervous and revengeful disposition, could not for- get the ignominy and disgrace which he had needlessly brought upon himself. In the meantime, he had also married a Tory lady, and was drawn much into the society of the Tories, which probably had much to do with his future conduct. He now conceived the idea of securing West Point for the British. With this idea in view, he at once entered into correspondence with General Clin- ton. He also requested, and was given, the command of West Point by General Washington. Soon arrangements were made to surrender the place to Clinton and in order that the details of the surrender might be arranged, Clinton detailed Major Andre to meet Arnold, on September 21st, at a secluded spot on the Hudson, some distance below West Point. The ship Vulture, on which Andre had ascended the Hudson to meet Arnold. Avas fired upon and forced to drop down the river, leaving Andre still within the American lines. Among other letters Andre was given the plans of the fortifications at West Point, and with these secreted in his boot, he set out across the country toward New York. He had passed through what he considered the dangerous part of the country, and was quite near the British lines, when suddenly he was confronted by three patriots, who insisted upon searching his person. Find- ing the letters and plans, they concluded he was a spy, and turned him over to Washington. Arnold was informed of Andre's capture and escaped by ni^ht to the British ship, Vulture, which had again ascended the river in search of Andre. Thus the man in whom Washington had placed his confidence and who had been entrusted with the command of one of the most important positions of New York, had designedly betrayed his trust to the enemies of his country. 281. Bad Money. — Added to all these troubles of the col- onies was still another. The Continental currency [Section 258] had depreciated in value to such an extent that it became absolutely worthless. Congress did all in its power to stop the fluctuating of values, but was unable. The money finally de- preciated to such an extent that people would not accept it upon any terms whatever. In their derision, the colonists, when referring to something which had no especial value, would -draw their comparison by 176 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES remarking that "It is not worth a Continental," referring, of course, to the depreciated value of the Continental currency. So common did this expression become that to this day the phrase is still used as a common by-word by people, when re- ferring to articles which have depreciated greatly in value. Yet among all these discouragements the colonists with their true and loyal spirit never lost hope. 282. Partisan Leaders. — "Washington never lost hope, and through his magnanimity, thorough knowledge and ability, he was able to quell the disturbances which had arisen in the army. He was also able to keep Clinton shut up in New York. The partisan leaders, among whom were Harry Lee (Light Horse Harry), James Williams, Andrew Pickens, Thomas Sum- ter, and Francis Marion, 91 did much to restore confidence in the people, after the dreadful campaigns in the south. The British themselves were probably responsible to some extent for this guerrilla warfare, which was carried on by these patriot leaders. After the capture of the Carolinas, Clinton gave the inhabitants their choice of serving in the English army or being punished as traitors. Many of these people would doubtless have remained neutral, but when forced into comply- ing with these requests they naturally took sides with their neighbors and joined these patriot bands against the British. Especial attention should be called to the campaigns of Thomas Sumter (the Game Cock) and Francis Marion (the Swamp Fox). Sumter with a band of a few hundred of these patriots became so bold that he did not hesitate to attack large numbers of the British, and on several occasions entire regi- ments of the British were attacked and cut to pieces. Marion was even more bold than Sumter. With a company of less than a hundred men, he moved from place to place so quickly, planned his attacks with such sagacity, and carried out his plans with such boldness, that he became the terror of the British outposts. These bold leaders did much in the way of reconquering the territory wmich the British had gained in the south. 283. King's Mountain, October 6th.— [Plate No. 4.] Corn- wallis, after defeating Gates, started with his army to invade North Carolina. Believing that in this state he would be able to enlist many Tories, Ferguson, with an army of twelve hun- dred, w T as ordered to march into the interior, and after enlisting fiOtis's Witli Hit Swamp Fox. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 177 as many as could be induced to join the British ranks, he was again to form a junction with Cornwallis at Charlotte. Fergu- son, while on this expedition, suddenly came in contact with the American militia, which was under the partisan leaders, William Campbell, John Sevier, and James Williams, and was forced to give battle at King's Mountain. Here he was at- tacked by the militia simultaneously from three sides (the fourth side of King's Mountain being of such precipitous nature that it was impossible for troops to ascend or descend). The Amer- icans being the better marksmen, and being protected by the trees, the British were soon defeated, the entire force being either killed or captured. Among the dead was the brave Major Ferguson and the partisan leader, James Williams. Cornwallis on account of the loss of this part of his army, was now forced to fall back until he received reinforcements, which had been sent by Clinton from New York. THE YEAR 1781 284. Arnold Commits Depredations in the South. — Early in the year Arnold (the traitor) who had been sent to Virginia by Clinton, proceeded to commit the most cowardly depreda- tions in both Virginia and Connecticut. In order to gratify his revenge, men, women and children were murdered, property of all kinds was destroyed, and on several occasions entire cities were burned to the ground. Washington, in order to counteract these actions, sent Steu- ben to Virginia, who did much to protect the people against the outrages of this unprincipled man. 285. Greene takes Charge of the Army in the South. — [Plate No. 4.] After his defeat, at Camden, Gates had tried to collect what was left of his routed army, at Hillsborough. Congress now,, becoming convinced of their inability to appoint com- manders to take charge of the Continental army, authorized Washington to appoint a commander for the southern army. Washington immediately appointed Greene, in whom he had great confidence. Greene, like Washington, had that rare gift of comprehension and action, which is. so essential to the suc- cess of a general. With Greene came Kosciusko. He was. also, soon joined by Morgan, Sumter, Marion, and other of these noble partisan leaders. After putting his army in as good a condition as possible, Greene saw fit to divide it into two parts. With one division he threatened Cornwallis's communication w T ith the coast, while the other division under Morgan he sent into the interior. Cornwallis was now between two fires. He dared not attack Greene for fear that Morgan would gain complete control of the interior; neither did he dare to attack Morgan as Greene would then cut off his communications with the coast. He fin- ally decided to follow- the plan adopted by Greene and with part of his army he marched into North Carolina, while the rest of his army he placed under Tarleton, with orders to capture Morgan. 286. Battle of Cowpens, January 17.— [Plate No. 4.] Tarle- ton at once started in pursuit of Morgan, who reluctantly re- PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 179 treated to a grazing ground known as "Cowpens, " where he arranged his army, and prepared to meet his adversary. On January 17th, the battle was fought and Tarleton was com- pletely routed. Morgan in the arrangement of his plan of battle proved himself to be one of the most brilliant command- ers of the century. Having completely destroyed Tarleton 's army, he now started to rejoin Greene's army which was near the Pedee River. 287. The Race for the Dan.— [Plate No. 4.] General Greene, learning of Morgan's movement, started his army north in order to combine the two forces. Placing his division of the army under the command of General Huger, General Greene, with a small body guard, left the main army and with the greatest possible speed, hastened to Morgan's division, and took personal command. A race now began, between Greene and Cornwallis, for the fords of the Dan. Each general put into execution all the military tactics then known and used in civilized warfare, but Greene completely out-generaled the British general, and was able to cross the Dan with his force before the arrival of Corn- wallis. Here Greene was met by the other division of his army, and on the 15th of March a battle was fought between the two forces near Guilford Court House. The battle was a victory for neither side, but the British were so badly crippled that they retired into Virginia, leaving Greene free to reclaim South Carolina and Georgia from British rule and oppression. 288. The Recovery of South Carolina and Georgia by Greene. — [Plate No. 4.] Camden, and other positions held by the Brit- ish soon fell into the hands of General Greene. The only con- test of any real importance was the battle which was fought at Eutaw Springs. At the close of this battle, on the night of the 8th of September, the British held possession of the field, but as at Guilford Court House, they were so terribly crippled, that on the following night they hastily retreated to Charles- town where they remained inactive until the close of the war. 289. The Adoption of the Articles of Confederation in 1781. — On July 12, 1776, just eight days after the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, a committee, which had been ap- pointed for that purpose, submitted to Congress a draft of the Articles of Confederation. On November 15th, of the next year, the articles after being amended, were accepted by con- gress, but not until three and one-half years later, or in March, 180 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 1781, were they adopted by all the states, and recognized as law. There were several reasons for this delay in the final adop- tion by the states. In the first place congress was very busy with war matters, and had not the leisure time to give to the careful and necessary consideration of this instrument. Jn the second place, congress was not at all times composed of men of strong character who were thoroughly in sympathy with these plans ; many of the stronger men, who had been mem- bers of congress and were present at the adoption of the Declar- ation of Independence, had left congress to take charge of political affairs in their own states, or were in foreign countries representing the colonies on special business. Most of these, however, had returned to congress by March, 1781, at the time that the Articles of Confederation were adopted and became the law. The third, and probably the greatest obstacle which delayed the adoption of the Articles of Confederation, was the claim which many of the larger states made the vast tract of land which was lying to the west of the colonies. It will be remem- bered that in some of the charters issued by the king the grants extended from sea to sea or far inland. [Sections 72, 95, 120, 151, and 299.] The smaller states whose charters lim- ited their territory to a certain small area contended that since they had engaged in the Revolution to wrest this vast unoc- cupied territory from England, that if they were successful the territory should become a national domain instead of being retained by a few individual states. In order to eliminate this trouble, New York in 1780, instructed her delegates to inform congress that all the land west of a certain boundary line should become public land for the use and benefit of the United States in general. The smaller states now began to think that they might trust their case to the honor of the other states, and as before stated Maryland, which was the last to sign the Arti- cles of Confederation, reluctantly came forward with her con- sent on March 1, 1781. from which time the Articles of Confederation became binding as the highest authority in all the states. 290. Cornwallis Retreats to Yorktown. — [Plate No. 4.] Af- ter General Greene left Cornwallis and started to the south [Section 287] to reclaim Georgia and South Carolina, Lafay- ette 92 was sent by Washington to take care of Cornwallis. 92 Otis 's With Lafayette at Yorktown. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 181 Wayne (Mad Anthony) soon joined Lafayette and although the American force was yet smaller than that of the enemy, yet by valor and skill, Lafayette was able to force the British army to retreat toward Yorktown, which place Cornwallis entered in August. Lafayette now took up his position at Malvern Hill, and soon had control of all avenues by which the British might escape. 291. Morris again Aids Washington. — Washington's army had recently been reenforced by recruits from France under Rochambeau. Count de Grasse also set sail from the West Indies with a magnificent fleet. Arrangements were now made with the French admiral to guard the coast while Washington and Rochambeau should march from West Point to Yorktown, and aid Lafayette in the capture of Cornwallis. Early in Au- gust, Washington started his army on the march, and soon arrived at Philadelphia, but now troubles came thick and fast. Congress had not paid the soldiers their wages for many months and it soon became apparent to AVashington that the men would desert at once, unless paid. The treasury was empty, and as the student already knows, the colonial currency was worth- less. Washington in his trouble again applied to his friend, Robert Morris. Through the efforts of this financier, the money was raised, the w T ages of the soldiers paid, and Washington was again soon on the march toward Yorktown. 292. The Greatness of Washington, Morris, and Franklin.— Washington is rightfully known as "The Father of His Coun- try, ' ' and with as much respect and reverence should Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris be known as grandfathers of this great nation ; for surely no father ever came to the rescue of a son in times of trouble and adversity in a more noble and unsel- fish spirit than did Franklin and Morris come to the rescue of Washington during the dark days of the Rebellion. 293 The Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown and the Treaty of Peace. — The route over which Washington took his army and his manner of conducting the campaign led Clinton to bebeve that New York was to be attacked by Wasbington. He conseOjiiently concentrated all the forces he could reach, at that place. Not until it was too late did he perceive his mistake. Washington had out-generaled him and soon was with Lafayette at Yorktown. De Grasse had control of the sea. Washington and Rochambeau had complete control of the land. Cornwallis was completely surrounded. He in vain looked for an avenue of 182 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES escape but there was none, so on October 19th, the soldiers of the British army, as prisoners of war, marched out of Yorktown to the tune of "The World Turned Upside Down." The news of the surrender was received in all parts of the United States and Prance with the greatest joy and exaltation. All believed that this practically ended the war. In England the news cast the deepest gloom over the king and his war ministry. The English treasury was bankrupt, and on account of her troubles in other parts of the world, England could send no more soldiers to the American shore. There had also arisen a very strong element which was in favor of giving independence to the American colonies. Finally the war ministry was forced to resign. Lord Rockingham took the place of Lord North, and peace cammissioners were soon ap- pointed to meet the peace commissioners of the United States. In September, 1783, a treaty of peace 93 was entered into, between the two nations giving to the United States complete and immediate independence. _!!>4. Washington resigns his Commission. — On November 3. 1783, by order of the congress, the American army was dis- banded. Washington with his officers and a few soldiers made their way to New York, which had been evacuated by the British in November. At this place Washington, with tears in his eyes, bade farewell to his officers. This was one of the saddest scenes during the entire war. As the officers formed in line and passed their great war chief, he silently extended his hand and be- stowed on each a kiss. Not a word was spoken. Afterward Washington, with the entire company of officers, walked to the boat landing, and with one farewell wave, Washington was off for Philadelphia. From here he went to Annapolis where con- gress was in session, and on December 23. with that quiet dignity which was so characteristic of the man, in a few well chosen words, he surrendered his commission to the president of congress. The next day Washington, the private citizen, might have been seen making his way quietly to his beloved home at Mount Vernon. 93 The treaty is given in full, in Preston's Documents Illustrative of American History. THE UNITED STATES UNDER THE CONFEDERATION 295. Difficulties Which Beset the New Government. — The power which had been bestowed on congress by the states, was simply a creation, which grew out of necessity, on account of the contest which was being waged with England. The Articles of Confederation, under which congress acted, were not con- sidered to be binding by either congress or the states. As long as the Revolutionary War lasted, the people by force of cir- cumstances acted and fought together, but the states in no way delegated any power to congress which would make that body the sovereign power. As soon as the war closed, and the solution of questions of every day life linked with those of national importance, came be lore congress, it became apparent to statesmen, that the Articles of Confederation could not long hold the states together. 296. Financial Conditions. — Congress under the Confeder- ation had inherited the Revolutionary War debt, of about thirty-five million dollars. Much of this money had been secured by loans from France, Holland, and wealthy individual citizens of our own country. In order to meet these obligations, congress had from time to time issued Continental currency, which as before stated [Sections 258 and 281] had depreciated in value until corporations, as well as citizens absolutely refused to receive it in exchange for the necessities of life. The time of course arrived when these loans must be paid, and the Con- tinental currency redeemed. In order to do this congress re- sorted to lotteries and the sale of public property. In addition it asked for appropriations from the different states. Often-times, the states refused to pay the amounts which had been levied upon them by congress, or generally when they did undertake to meet these obligations, the taxes which they levied in order to raise the money were so high that the people abso- lutely refused to pay them. 297. Shays 's Rebellion. — In Massachusetts this spirit man- ifested itself to such an extent, that a rebellious body of men under the leadership of Daniel Shays, 94 attempted to seize the 9*Fi«ke's Critical Period of American History. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 185 state arsenal. This force was dispersed with difficulty, and brought vividly before the public the fact, that there must be a stronger centralized power than that provided for by the Con- federation, to take care of matters of national importance. 298. Foreign Affairs. — The weakness of the government un- der the Confederation, was again shown by the relations of the government with foreign nations. According to the treaty with England, all land was to be restored to the rightful owners, regardless of Tory or patriot affiliations. Furthermore, all debts contracted by the colonies before the war were to be paid by the government, under the Confederation. Congress recom- mended that the states meet these obligations, but as she had no power to enforce these recommendations, the states did exactly those things which were contrary to the stipulations of the treaty. Foreign nations also refused to enter into treaties with the new government, for the simple reason that the acts of our foreign ministers Avere not binding unless sanctioned by each individual state. This fact is made apparent in the following letter written by the Duke of Dorset in 1785, to the American commissioners, who were at that time negotiating a treaty of commerce with England : ". . . I have been," says the Duke of Dorset. . . "in- structed to learn from you, gentlemen, what is the real nature of the powers with which you are invested, whether you are merely commissioned by Congress or whether you have received separate powers from the respective states. . . The apparent determination of the respective states to regulate their own separate interests renders it absolutely necessary, . . . that my court should be informed how far the Commissioners can be duly authorized to enter into any engagements with Great Britain, which it may not be in the power of any one of the states to render totally useless and inefficient." Diplomatic Correspondence, 1783-1789, II, p. 297. 299. Land Cessions. — Another question which caused the Confederation a great deal of trouble, 95 was the question regard- ing the session of lands to the general government by the differ- ent states. As had already been stated [Section 289] New York in 1780 surrendered her claims to the general government. In 1784, Virginia relinquished to the general government all her claims 95 Caldwell 's American History. 186 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES except a military reserve of about three and one-half million acres lying in the south central part of what is now the state of Ohio. In 1785, just ten years after the battle of Lexington, Massachusetts relinquished her claim, and in 1786, Connecticut completed her cession, reserving about three and one-half mil- lions along the southern shore of Lake Erie, known as the ' ' Connecticut Reserve. ' ' 300. The Ordinance of 1787.— By these cessions the United States had come into control of a vast amount of territory known as the Northwest Territory. Consequently, as the territory was being rapidly settled, it became necessary that laws be enacted providing for the government and regulation of all affairs which might, in the future, have anything to do with this territory. After much discussion, congress in June, 1787, passed what is known as the "Ordinance of 1787." The laws provided for by this ordinance were very important and far reaching. 96 Daniel Webster when speaking in refer- ence to this bill said, "I doubt whether one single law of any law giver, ancient or modern, has produced effects of a more distinct, marked and lasting character than the Ordinance of 1787." Among other things the ordinance provided for complete religious toleration, trial by jury, humane treatment of Indians, and territorial representation in congress. It furthermore provided that states, which should be formed from the North- west Territory, should forever remain a part of the Confeder- ation ; but by far the most important article is as follows : ' ' There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in the said territory otherwise than in the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly convicted: Provided always, that any person escaping into the same, from whom labor or service is lawfully claimed in any one of the original states, such fugitive may be lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claiming his or her labor or service, &z aforesaid. ' ' 301. The Annapolis Convention. — As each state was a sov- ereign power, they naturally became very jealous of each other. 9 6 The origin and importance of the Ordinance of 17S7 is fully discussed in Hinsdale's Old Northwest. The Ordinance is given in full in Old South Leaflets, No. 13. Much interesting material is afforded by the biographies of the leading men of the period, especially those of Robert and Gouverneur Morris, Hamilton, Madison, Washington, Franklin, Adams and Jefferson, in the American Statesmen series. Illustrative material is given in Old South Leaflets, nos. 40 and 42, Hart's Source Boole, nos. 64. 65 and 67. PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 187 Especially was this true where a navigable river was the bound- ary line between two of the states. Thus Maryland and Vir- ginia found it almost impossible to come to any agreement re- garding the navigation of the Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac River. In order that this question might be settled, both states sent delegates to meet in a convention at Alexandria, in March, 1785. Washington, who was a member of this commission, in- vited the delegates to Mount Vernon, where after thoroughly discussing the subject, it was proposed to communicate with the legislatures of the other states, and if possible, have them ap- point representatives which should meet in a convention, and consider the subject of commerce. This meeting met at Annap- olis in September, 1776, but as only five states were represented, nothing of importance was transacted. Before they adjourned, they proposed another convention, and recommended that all the states send representatives. 302. The Constitutional Convention. — This second conven- tion 97 met at Philadelphia in May, 1787, and for four months the ablest men of the country sat behind closed doors, and with that patriotism and ability, which has never been equaled in the history of any nation, they labored until they had engrossed one of the greatest documents of profane history. The delegates naturally worked for those principles which appealed to them as consistent to the welfare of their constitu- ency. Soon, however, it became apparent that they must make many concessions in order to come to any general agreement. They began to realize that they were not only citizens of their own individual states, but in a larger sense they were citizens of the United States. With this fact in view, they gave up the 97 Caldwell 's American History; Constitutional History of the United states, by Geo. T. Curtis; Hoist's United States; Fiske's Critical Period of American History; Hart's Formation of the Union; Hinsdale's American Government; Wilson's The State; James and Banf ord 's Government in State and Nation; Channing's Student's History of the United States; Frothing- ham 's Rise of the Bepuhlic. If possible, the student should consult the Journal of the Constitutional Convention, -written by Madison, its secretary. For the arguments of the Federalists in favor of the Constitution refer to the Federalist (see Bibliog- raphy). The two views are well summarized in Old South Leaflets, no. 106, Calhoun's discussion of the government and no. 12, nos. i and ii of the Fed- eralist. Also see Webster's "Reply to Hayne. " The full text of the Con- stitution is given in Old South Leaflets, no. 1. Other valuable material will be found in the lives of Hamilton, Madison. Washington. Morris, Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams in the American Statesmen series. 188 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES hope of remodeling the Articles of Confederation, and at once began the work of drafting a new constitution. 303. The Three Compromises. — On account of the many mutual concessions made by the delegates in this convention, the Constitution is often spoken of as the "Document of Com- promises." Three of these compromises were of such import- ance that they stand out more prominent than the rest. The first was a compromise between the larger and smaller states, regarding representation in congress; whereby all states, regardless of population, were allowed equal representa- tion in the senate, while in the house of representatives, the representation depended on the number of the state's inhabi- tants. The second was a compromise between the northern and southern states, or to be more explicit, between the states which had a large slave population, and those in which slavery was not tolerated. This compromise provided that in the enumeration of the inhabitants, for the ratio of representation in the house of representatives, three-fifths of all the slaves were to be in- cluded. The third compromise was a concession to the states of Geor- gia and South Carolina. By it, permission was given for the importation of slaves from Africa until the year 1808. 304. The Constitution Adopted.— On September 17, 1787, the same day that congress had passed the ordinance prohibit- ing slavery in the Northwest Territory, the Constitution was completed and adopted by the convention. It was then present- ed to congress and that body immediately submitted it to the people of the states for their approval or rejection. In less than three years after the constitution was submitted to the people, it was adopted by all of the states. 305. The Bloodless Rebellion. — That the engrossing and adopting of the Constitution of the United States was a rebel- lion, must be admitted, by all students of history. No such action or proceeding, was provided for by the Articles of Con- federation or by the constitutions of any of the states. "That the pen is mightier than the sword" was here exemplified in its truest sense, for the change of government from the Confedera- tion to the government under the Constitution was made without the spilling of a single drop of blood. This bloodless act of transition cannot be duplicated in the history of nations. 306. The Federalists. — The realization of this fact may be PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 189 attributed to a great extent to the fact that the subject was discussed, not only in the conventions and in the legislatures, but in the newspapers, and in pamphlets. Many elaborate and conclusive essays, which are now, in a collected form, known as the Federalist, were written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison. These combined forces had much to do in educating and influencing the public toward the wis- dom of this movement. 307. The New Government and Washington's Inauguration. — As soon as two-thirds of the states had adopted the Constitu- tion it was to become the supreme law of the land. The second congress had provided that the national congress under the Constitution should meet on the 4th of March in New York City. It also provided that the president should be elected by an electoral college, of delegates from the different states, and that the one receiving the highest number of votes should be president and the one receiving the next highest vote should be vice president. 9 * The American people naturally turned toward Washington who was unanimously chosen the first president of the United States. John Adams who received the next highest vote was elected vice president. Washington's trip from his home, at Mount Vernon, to New York City, was a continual ovation. Instead of marching through Philadelphia, Trenton, Princeton, and crossing the Del- aware at the head of a retreating and pursued army, he now paused at these places to receive the ovations and congratula- tions of a patriotic and free people. As the student already knows, the means of communication and the modes of travel at this time w r ere very slow, and on this account but very few congressmen had arrived at New York on March 4th. It was not until April 6th that the two houses were organized. After counting the votes, messengers were at once dispatched to notify Washington and Adams of their election. Washington left Mount Vernon April the 16th, but was not inaugurated until April the 30th. On this date in the old Federal Hall, Robert R. Livingston administered the oath of office to Washington, and he immediately entered upon his duties as president of the United States. o^ Twelfth amendment. NEUTRALITY AND COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE, 1789-1815 FEDERALIST ADMINISTRATION, 1789-1797 Portrait by Stuart GEORGE WASHINGTON 308. President Washington; His Country and People- It was with the deepest regret that Washington again left his home at Mount Vernon, to assume the great responsibilities which naturally would fall upon the first president of the United States. The nation, at this time, included practically all the territory east of the Mississippi River, except the Spanish territory, Florida. However, nearly the entire population was to be found COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 191 in the thirteen original states. All the country between the Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River was a vast unbroken wilderness, save here and there, where a few brave pioneers had established trading posts and settlements. The population of the nation, at this time, was not more than four million, and of this number nearly one-fifth were negro slaves. Most of the .slave population was in that part of the country south of the Mason and Dixon line. Of the free white people there was a majority by nearly twenty-five thousand, north of the Mason and Dixon line. It is well to note here also that the national debt had accum- ulated until it was over seventy-five millions of dollars. Such were the conditions when Washington entered upon his duties as president in 1789. 309. Political Parties. — Although Washington was unanim- ously chosen president by the people of the United States, yet there were at this time two distinct political parties. The origin of these parties may readily be traced to the constitu- tional convention. As is the case, when any great question is up for discussion, one element naturally favors the proposition, while the other party arrays its forces against it. The people who favored the Constitution with a strong centralized government, were called "Federalists" or "Loose Constructionists." Alexander Ham- ilton on account of the energy he exerted in behalf of the Con- stitution, naturally became the leader of this party. Those who were against the adoption of the Constitution were called "Anti-Federalists" or "Strict Constructionists," and be- lieved in giving the states more power, and the national gov- ernment less. Thomas Jefferson naturally became the leader of this party. 310. The President's Cabinet. — During Washington's ad- ministration, the president's cabinet consisted of but four departments which were as follows : The department of state, the department of treasury, the department of war, and the de- partment of justice. The head of each of these different departments taken col- lectively made up the president's official family, which is known as the cabinet. Washington, in choosing the members of his cabinet, used the shrewdness and sagacity which was so char- acteristic of him in all his public, as well as private affairs. The department of state is the most important, and the secre- 192 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tary of this department is therefore necessarily the head of the president's cabinet. Washington, with the consent of the senate, which is necessary in all such appointments, chose as the head of this important department Thomas Jefferson, the leader of the anti-federalists. As the secretary of the trea- sury department, Alexander Hamilton, the leader of the fed- eralist party, was chosen. Thus the heads of the two most important departments of the president's cabinet were filled by leaders of the two political parties. Two inimical forces when brought in contact with each other, always tend toward neutralization. Washington must have had this fact in view when selecting Hamilton and Jefferson to represent these two important departments, and he doubtless avoided the disastrous effects of laws which would have been introduced by either party, if in no way hindered by the op- posing party. This will be made more evident as we study the different bills which were passed and became laws during this administration. Henry Knox was chosen secretary of war, and Edmund Ran- dolph, attorney general. Certainly in no cabinet since, has every department been represented by as strong and conscientious men. 311. The Tariff of 1789.— Soon after the first congress, un- der the Constitution, met, Madison came forward and pre- sented a tariff bill which placed duties on foreign imports, and on the tonnage of foreign vessels. This bill, on account of the immediate need of money with which to pay the running ex- penses of the government, was considered indespensable, and was acted on at once. Fortunately for the new government the bill was passed, and the revenue thus derived furnished two- thirds of the means, sufficient to run the new government. 312. Tariff Denned. — As the subject of the tariff is contin- ually before the student of United States history, it is import- ant that a few of the fundamental principles be given at this time. The subject, for convenience sake, may be divided into four sub-heads. First, free trade, which, although in no way a part of the tariff question, yet is so closely associated with the subject, that we shall treat it as one of the divisions of the tariff question proper. Free trade can only exist where the commercial transactions, which are carried on between nations, are in no way hampered by taxation. For a good example, let us refer COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 193 to the commercial transactions of our country when under the Confederation from 1783- '89. as at this time the country was on a strictly free trade basis. The second division of the tariff is known as "Tariff for Revenue Only," and is aimed to provide a revenue for the government. Such was the tariff of 1789. This form of tariff is simply a form of an indirect taxation. The importers pay the tax which is due at the port of entry or frontier and then add the amount paid to the price of the goods, thereby shifting the burden onto the consumer. This form of taxation is justi- fied on the ground that it is more convenient for a person to pay taxes in smaller sums, in the price of goods or commodities, than it is in large sums by direct taxation. Therefore a revenue tariff is levied on goods that cannot be advantageously pro- duced within a country, and consequently must be imported. The third division of the tariff is known as "The Protective Tariff," and has for its principal object the modification of the natural products of a country. It is levied on such foreign products as compete with similar products made in the home country, and it aims to artificially raise the price of foreign products in order that the domestic manufacturers may not be undersold. The fourth division of the tariff is known as ' ' The Prohibitive Tariff. ' ' By this tariff the rates are made so high that importa- tion is practically monopolized by home manufacturers. This not only enables the home manufacturer to compete with foreign manufacturers, but practically shuts off all competition on ac- count of the exceedingly high rates. With these definitions of the tariff, we are ready to consider the tariff history of the United States. 313. Financial Policy and the Permanent National Capital. — As soon as Hamilton entered upon his duties as secretary of the treasury, he began to outline a plan by which the {government might be placed upon a firmer financial basis." In the plan which he submitted to congress, he advised that the national government should assume not only the foreign war debt, but the debts as well, which were due from the government to its private citizens, including all debts contracted by the separate states during the Revolutionary War. There were arguments &9 Morse 's Jefferson, p. 97 ; Lodge 's Hamilton, p. 121 ; Mason 's Short Tariff History of the United States; McCook's The Latimer* ; Caldwell's Great American Legislators, topic, "Albert Gallatin." 13 194 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ALEXANDER HAMILTON both in favor and against these propositions. There was none who seriously opposed the payment of the foreign debt, but when it came to the question of paying the debts due by the government to its private citizens, there was serious opposition, for the simple reason that practically all this debt was in the outstanding Con- tinental currency, and this instead of being held by the citizens in general, had been collected by speculators. Hamilton contended that although the money was held by speculators, yet it should be re- deemed at face value as it had been is- sued in good faith, and the redemption should be considered by the government as one of its most sacred obligations. When the question came up for discus- sion, regarding the assumption of the Revolution War debt of the different states, by the general government, there was also serious op- position. This opposition came from the states which either had contracted no obligations, or who had met their obligations. Therefore, they contended it was unfair that they should be taxed to pay debts of other states. When the time arrived for the vote, Hamilton realized that the majority of the members were against the proposition, yet he was determined that this should be the policy of the administration, and in order to win, he was forced to come to a compromise with Jefferson, the leader of the Anti-Federalists, or southern party, on another question which was before congress. This was the question of the erection of the permanent capital of the United States. It was finally agreed between these two leaders, that enough of the vote of the south should be cast in favor of Hamilton '& measure providing Hamilton in turn deliver enough votes which would permanently place the capital of the United States on the Potomac instead of on the Susquehannah as had been planned by the Federalists or the northern party. The "deal" was made. White and Lee of Virginia changed their votes in favor of Hamilton's resolutions, and Hamilton induced certain of his friends to vote to establish the national capital on the Potomac. Thus, at this early date, the north and the south were, on account of geographical and sectional characteristics, arrayed COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 195 against each other, a condition which has continued to exist in some respects until the present time. 314. The Death of Franklin. — Near midnight of April 17. 1790, the life of the financier, patriot, philosopher, scientist, philanthropist, and statesman, Dr. Franklin, passed out. Over twenty thousand people gathered to do honor to the departed- life. The young nation had lost one of its foremost citizens; DOME OF CAPITOL BUILDING Photograph by Yoris the world had lost a benefactor. At his own request he was buried beside his wife and child Frankie. The burial place in the cemetery of Christ's Church at Philadelphia is, in accord- ance with Franklin's wishes, marked only by a plain marble slab with these words : Franklin 1790 Benjamin and Deborah 315. The Excise Tax, 1790, and the Whiskey Insurrection, 1794. — As the proceeds from the tariff of 1789 were insufficient for the necessary government expenses, Hamilton proposed that an excise tax be laid on all spiritous liquors manufactured in the United' States, and on all liquor imported into the United 196 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES States. This was the boldest of Hamilton's strokes of legisla- tion, and met with great opposition in nearly all of the states. The bill finally became a law, but the greatest excitement pre- vailed throughout the country. The people had not yet for- gotten the stamp act which had caused the Revolution, and as this bill was practically the same, they could not become recon- ciled, although this measure had been passed by their own home government. In 1794 the settlers of the western counties of Pennsylvania actually rebelled against the government, ind positively refused to pay this tax. Federal troops had to be sent to quell this disturbance. There were other reasons besides the ones already given, why the inhabitants of this part of Pennsylvania, especially, should oppose this tax. The student will remember at this time, the Spanish not only had control of Florida, but also the navigation of the lower Mississippi. Furthermore, as yet there was no di- rect communication by railroad, canal, or even good wagon roads from this section across the Allegheny Mountains to New York or other coast markets. Therefore it was absolutely im- possible for the inhabitants of this section of Pennsylvania to raise grain and market it. This is made quite plain in the "Reason for the Opposition to the Excise Tax" by Albert Gal- latin, in which he says : "Our peculiar situation renders this duty still more unequal and oppressive to us . . . separated from the eastern coast by mountains . . . we have no means of bringing the pro- duce of our lands to sale, whether in grain or in meal. We are therefore distillers through necessity. . . The inhabitants of the eastern side of the mountains can dispose of their grain with- out the additional labor of distillation at a higher price than we can after we have bestowed that labor upon it. Yet, with this additional labor, we must also pay a high duty, from which they are exempted, because we have no means of selling our surplus produce but in a distilled state." 316. The Spanish Treaty, 1795.— [Plate No. 9.] The next year after the whiskey insurrection, a treaty Avas made with Spain by which the United States secured the free navigation of the Mississippi, and the right to deposit merchandise at New Orleans. The boundary line also was definitely settled between the United States and Spain, in regard to the states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. 317. The United States Bank, 1791, and the United States COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 197 Mint, 1792. — As soon as the excise tax bill became a law, Ham- ilton brought forward a measure creating a national bank. This bill was considered by Hamilton to be the most important of all the commercial acts recommended by him to congress. The bank 1,M ' was to be capitalized for ten millions of dollars, the United States Fugio, or Franklin Cent, 1787 (full size). This was the first coin minted by the United States and is very rare. Washington Cent, 1783 (full size) United States Dollar, 1801 (very rare). This is one-half size Note — The author is indebted to Mr. Leo Brown, of Marengo, Iowa, for the privi- lege of securing half-tones of the above coins. United States government being a stockholder for a fifth of this amount. The vocation of this institution was to receive de- posits, make loans to business men, issue paper certificates or bank bills, reserving enough gold and silver at all times suffi- ioo Hamilton, iii, pp. 106-146; Hart's Contemp's Abr'g'd, 111, 276; Madison's Letters, i, 528; Lodge's Hamilton, 96-131; Hoist's United States, i, 104: Hart's Formation, 150. 198 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES cient to redeem these certificates when presented. Besides this, the bank was the depository of the government surplus. The bill was attacked by Madison, Jefferson, and others on the ground that it was unconstitutional. In his written opinion to the president, Jefferson argued that since the constitution gave Congress no express power to charter such a corporation, it was unconstitutional. Hamilton argued that this was an implied power given to congress by Article 10 of the amendments of the Constitution which had recently been adopted and which stated that ' ' Congress had the power to pass all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution . . . the powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States." When the vote was taken, is was found that all the northern votes except one had been cast in favor of the bill. The bill was signed by the president and became a law, the bank being chartered for twenty years and the head office being placed at Philadelphia with eight branches situated in other large and important cities. Hamilton followed this bill by one which established the United States mint at Philadelphia. The decimal system, which scheme had been presented by Jefferson, was adopted as was also the bi-metallic standard which requires the coinage of both gold and silver, the ratio of value between gold and silver at this time being 15 :1. The results of these measures were far greater than could have been expected by Hamilton and his friends. The national credit was, as if by magic, built up and strengthened. From a bankrupt republic had been created the greatest commercial nation of the world. Daniel "Webster, in 1831, when referring to Hamilton and his financial legislation, said: "He smote the rock of National Resources and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He touched the dead corpse of Public Credit, and it sprang upon its feet." Senator Lodge, referring to the same, says : "There was no public credit. Hamilton created it. There was no circulating medium, no financial machinery. He sup- plied them. There was no government, no system with a life in it, only a paper constitution. Hamilton gave vitality to the lifeless instrument. He drew out the resources of the country, he exercised the powers of the constitution, he gave courage to the people, he laid the foundation of national government, and this was the meaning and result of his financial policy." COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 199 318. The Judiciary Established. — According to the constitu- tion, the government of the United States was to consist of three great departments, as follows : The executive depart- ment, consisting of the president and his cabinet ; the legislative, consisting of the senate and house of representatives, and the judiciary, consisting of a supreme court, the head of which was to be the chief justice. The judiciary was to be entirely inde- pendent of the state and district courts, and its decisions were to have the force of law. It was the duty of the executive de- partment to execute the laws, and the legislative department to make the laws ; it therefore became the duty of the judicial department to define and explain the laws. The judicial depart- ment therefore became the interpreter of the Constitution. The organization of this department being left to congress, Senator Ellsworth of Connecticut presented a bill which pro- vided for the supreme court with a chief justice and five as- sociates. The bill became a law, and John Jay was appointed by Washington as the first chief justice of the United States. Washington in a communication to Jay said : "In nominating you for the important station which you now fill I not only acted in conformity with my best judgment, but I trust I did a grateful thing to the good citizens of these United States." The truth of this statement is verified in the words of Daniel AVebster at a later period. Referring to the above appointment he said: "When the spotless ermine of the judicial robe fell on John Jay it touched nothing less spotless than itself. ' ' The chief justice and his associates are appointed for life. Therefore this department has always been independent of pol- itics, and on this account the influence of our supreme court in establishing the relations of state and national governments, and in its interpretation of the Constitution and the laws passed by congress, is now regarded as foremost of the judicial tribunals of the world. 319. The Bill of Rights.— While the Constitution was before the state conventions for acceptance, there was serious objec- tion presented against it, for the reason that there was no pro- vision which protected the people in their individual liberties of worship and speech. In fact some of the states positively refused to accept the Constitution, unless assured that as soon as possible such provision should be made. Consequently con- 200 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES gress proposed twelve amendments. Ten of these amendments were accepted by the states and these became a part of the Con- stitution. These ten amendments are known as the "Bill of Rights," and they prohibit congress in any way from interfering with the freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and freedom of religious worship. One prominent historian has aptly given a digest of these amendments in the following language: "They (the ten amendments) simply place the Federal Union under bonds, as it were, for good behavior." A PIONEER VILLAGE IN THE OHIO VALLEY 320. Western Immigration and Trouble with the Indians — <>n account of the advantages presented to the pioneers in the Ohio Valley and the country to the south of the Great Lakes, it was not long until the trading-posts and settlements which had been established began to be transformed into large settle- ments, towns, and even cities. 101 On account of this immigra- tion, it became necessary for the government to make arrange- ments to quiet the title which the Indians still claimed in this land. Consequently the government began to negotiate treaties with the Indians by which they w r ere to relinquish all their 111 Roosevelt's The Winning of the West, iii, chap. 3. F. A. Walker's TJu Making of the Nation. COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 201 claim to the territory now constituting the states of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Several of the Indian tribes, however, re- fused to abide by the treaty, and when the settlers began to oc- cupy the land, opened a sort of frontier warfare. Doubtless the British, who still retained several ports in this country, did much toward causing this trouble. However, General St. Clair who was at this time military governor of this territory, was given command of an army of about fifteen hundred men, and dispatched to quell this disturbance and establish a line of forts from the Ohio to Lake Erie. He was cautioned by Washington to guard against an Indian surprise. Notwithstanding this ad- vice, the Indians surprised him, at a place near the head waters of the Wabash, and killed and captured nearly two-thirds of his entire force. The frontier now became exposed to all sorts of depredations, and it became necessary to send a second expedition to quell this disturbance. General Anthony Wayne was placed in com- mand of this second expedition, and in 1794 he engaged the In- dians near the present site of Fort Wayne, and completely rout- ed them. The Indians were compelled to relinquish all their claim to this territory and an agreement was reached by which they were moved further westward. 321. Fugitive-Slave Law of 1793. — In 1793 Congress passed the first fugitive-slave law, which provided that the owners of slaves which had escaped might seize them in any part of the United States, and that the slaves should be returned to the place from which they had escaped. By this law, any person who in any way shielded a slave, or in any way hindered his return to his master, was subject to a fine of five hundred dol- lars, upon proof of the same. 322 Proclamation of Neutrality. — At the beginning of Wash- ington's administration, the French people had proclaimed their independence, executed their king (Louis XVI), and established the republic of France. In 1793 the new republic became involved in a war with Eng- land, and at once invited the citizens of the United States to join with her in the contest. By the treaty of 1778, the United States agreed to aid France in case she was attacked by Eng- land, and upon the strength of this treaty France claimed that the United States was under obligations to render her assist- ance. Many of the foremost statesmen of the United States. among whom were Jefferson, Madison, and others, were heartily 202 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES in favor of joining in the contest against England, but "Wash- ington, after consulting with his cabinet, decided that, since the treaty of 1778 was not made with the new government, but with the deposed King Louis XVI, it was therefore null and void. Consequentlv he issued a proclamation of neutrality April 22, 1793. 323. Trouble with Citizen Genet. — At this time Edmund Genet was the French minister to the United States, and in South Carolina this gentleman was received with great en- thusiasm. Although he knew that Washington had issued a proclamation of neutrality, yet he disregarded the same and proceeded to raise volunteers, and to fit out privateers which were to assist France in her trouble with England. He ignored entirely the prevailing custom of presenting his credentials to the president as minister of France, and in many ways made himself obnoxious to the administration. Finally his attitude and actions became unbearable, and Washington demanded of France his immediate removal. Acting in conformity with this demand, France recalled Genet. 324. Trouble with England. — On account of the war be- tween France and England, the commercial interests of the United States were seriously affected. Both countries claimed that food or provisions were "contraband of war," and ordered that merchant vessels of neutral nations, when bound for ports in the enemy's country, should be seized. Furthermore both countries claimed that, after ports had been declared to be in a state of blockade, vessels bound to that port should be captured. In opposition to this, the United States claimed that only mili- tary supplies were contraband, and that simply a notice of blockade was not effective unless there was a blockading force guarding the port. England was further unfavorably inclined toward the United States on account of the actions of Citizen Genet, and the United States was likewise inclined toward Eng- land on account of the seizure of f American seamen by the Brit- ish. England adhered to the principle that "Once a citizen of England, always a citizen of England," and on this principle claimed the right to take such men wherever found and impress them into her navy. True, the laws in regard to naturalization in the United States were very liberal at this time, but this was no reason why the United States should not resent such actions. Furthermore, the British had not, as yet, evacuated all the outposts of the frontier as had been provided by the treaty of COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 203 1783. Detroit, Miehilimackinae, and several other important ports were still held, and as before stated, the British officers and soldiers stationed at these places kept the Indians in a state of unrest, and at times incited them to open hostilities. 325. Jay's Treaty, June 24, 1795. — The war fever ran high, but Washington, realizing that the United States was in no condition to engage in war, decided if possible to enter into a treaty with England. In order that this might be carried out to the best advantage, Washington selected Chief Justice Jay as the one most eminently fitted to transact this business. Jay doubtless realized that whatever advantage he might gain to the United States by a treaty, yet he could not expect to satisfy the extreme views of the people on this subject. He knew that he was undertaking an unpopular piece of work, but was will- ing to sacrifice his own individual interests for the good of the country. Through his efforts an agreement was reached with England by which the western military posts were surrendered to the United States, payment made for the seizure of American vessels and commercial privileges, under certain conditions and restrictions, granted to the United States with the British West Indies. A treaty of commerce was also entered into between the United States and England. On the other hand, the United States was to make an appropriation of three million dollars with which the claims of British merchants were to be paid. On the question of impressment of the American seamen, no agreement was reached. Today we look back upon this treaty as one of the greatest diplomatic victories in the history of the United States, and the student of today is surprised when he learns that the senate sat behind closed doors for three weeks before the measure re- ceived the two-thirds vote which was necessary to ratify the treaty. 326. Slavery and Whitney's Cotton Gin. — From the preced- ing events which have related to slavery, the student will perceive that the northern states were becoming more and more opposed to slavery, while in the south, the institution of slavery, was mak- ing slow but sure progress. An event now occurred which tend- ed toward immediate and more pronounced efforts in favor of this institution. The cotton plant, on account of the great expense in separating the seed from the cotton had not been raised to any great extent in the south. Eli Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, at this 204 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES time was engaged in teaching in Georgia. While here his atten- tion had been called to the expense of separating the seed from the cotton. He became interested in this fact, and in 1793 invented the cotton gin, a lit- tle machine by which one man could easily separate as much seed from the cotton as could be accomplished by twenty or thirty men without the ma- chine. This invention made the rais-, ing of cotton a profitable business. The price of negro slaves rose rapidly. On account of the great demand, many ELI WHITNEY , ■ j i i-.lt. ships were engaged exclusively in the importation of slaves from Africa. Great plantations were de- voted to the cotton plant. Thus the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney did much in causing cotton to be one of the most important crops of the south, and on this account made slavery profitable if not necessary. 327. Steam Engine.— Under the section of "Modes of Trav- el," we stated that our forefathers traveled much the same as the Romans, who were nearly twenty centuries their predeces- sors. It was during Washington's administration that the at- tempt was made in America to put into actual operation the steam engine for the purpose of locomotion. It is therefore well, at this time, that the student should take into consideration the development of the steam engine. The steam engine is by no means a new invention, for in the writings of Hero, a Greek of Alexandria, we find a description of the aeolipile, a steam toy. (See Engineer's Encyclopaedia of Steam, Practice, Volume I.) Therefore, we find that even before the Roman empire had reached its zenith, the expansive power of steam was understood. However, no improvements seem to have been made in the steam engine from this time until the sixteenth century. Even then what few improvements were made were very crude. We are safe, therefore, in saying that to James Watt and George Stephenson belong the honor of per- fecting the steam engine, so that it might be applied to prac- tical purposes. blames Watt was born in 1736 in Scotland. He came of a strong, studious, and intellectual family. His forefathers for several generations had been men of scientific and mathematical COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 205 research. To this gentleman we are indebted for many im- portant inventions, among which might be mentioned the con- denser, the condensing pump, the mechanical invention by which steam is admitted into both ends of the cylinder — thereby doing away with the old atmospheric engine — the steam gov- ernor, and many other important inventions which are yet in actual use. George Stephenson was born in the northern part of England in 1781, and unlike James Watt, he received no education. However, he was of that stern, robust, attentive, and diligent disposition which in after years led him to say, "Well do I re- member the beginning of my career as an engineer, and the great perseverance that was required of me to get on. . . However, I was trusted in some small matters, and succeeded in giving satisfaction. Greater trusts were reposed in me, in which I also succeeded. . . And referring to his loco- motive engine, he said "and the results of my perseverance yon have this day witnessed." At the age of nineteen, he started to school in order that he might learn to read. His progress was rapid, and when not en- gaged in his daily work or on his studies, he made models of en- gines out of clay, experimenting, and making many practical improvements and suggestions. His fame spread rapidly, and soon his inventions and suggestions were put into actual use. Therefore along with the name of James Watt there must be coupled the name of George Stephenson, and to these two men must be given the credit not only of inventing, but also of pro- moting and introducing to the public, the utility of the steam engine for practical purposes. 328. The First Successful Steamboat. — The steam engine was the invention of men who were not citizens of the United States, but to John Fitch, a native of Connecticut, belongs the honor of having completed the first successful steamboat. This boat was launched in 1787 on the Delaware, and attained a speed of thirteen miles an hour. Fitch obtained exclusive right of steam navigation in New York, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. The boat was made to carry passengers between Philadelphia, Burlington, Trenton, and other places, but the venture proved a commercial failure. However, it established the fact that it was possible to utilize the steam engine for purposes of navi- gation. 329. Other Important Events. — In 1790, as provided by the 206 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES constitution, the first census was taken, and the population of the United States was found to be 3,929,827. Of this number 697,000 were negro slaves. In 1791 Vermont was admitted to the Union as a free state. In 1792 Kentucky 102 was admitted. In 1796 Tennessee was admitted. Both of the latter states were admitted with con- stitutions which permitted slavery. 330. Washington's Farewell. 103 — Washington was now fin- ishing his second term as president of the United States, and as the time neared for the presidential election, he issued what is known as Ms ' ' Farewell Address, ' ' in which he announced to the people his determination to retire from public life. In this ad- dress he implored the people to be patriotic to the new govern- ment, and true to the principles upon which the constitution had been founded. 331. The Presidential Election. — When it became generally known that Washington was determined to retire from public- life, there were many aspirants for the office of president. The contest finally was confined to Adams of the Federalist party, and Jefferson of the Anti- Federalist party. Adams received seventy-one of the one hundred and thirty-eight electoral votes, and was therefore elected president. Jefferson, his opponent, according to the custom of electing presidents, became vice president. 102 Otis's On the Kentucky Frontier; Allen's The Beign of Law. ^3 Old South Leaflets, no. 4. FEDERALIST ADMINISTRATION, 1797-1801. Portrait by Stuart JOHN ADAMS 332. John Adams as President. — John Adams was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, October 30, 1735, and at the time lie en- tered upon his duties as president of the United States, was past sixty-one years of age. He was forty years old when the American Revolution broke out, and on account of the many ser- vices which he rendered in behalf of the young nation, he is known in his- tory as the "Colossus of Independ- ence." He was energetic, out-spoken, honest and fearless, and on account of these attributes, oftentimes ex- pressed bis ideas and views in lan- guage which made him many strong enemies as well as many stanch friends. Not only was he identified with local and national affairs, but he served his coun- try as minister to France, Holland, and England. In regard to the constitution and the government of the United States, he agreed with Washington, consequently his ad- ministration was continued along the same plan as that adopted by Washington. 333. Trouble with France. — Adams had just entered upon his duties as president of the United States, when he learned that Charles C. Pinckney, our minister to France, had been grossly in- sulted by that nation, and had demanded his passports and sailed for Holland. The executive functions of France were at this time exercised by a committee of five men known as the French Directory. This directory was much displeased on account of the treaty which had recently been ratified between the United States and England, and they commissioned privateers, who captured United States merchantmen, and treated the crews of these ves- sels as prisoners of war. Consequently, the president called an 208 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES extra session of congress and laid before that body, for their immediate consideration, the above facts and conditions. 334. The X. Y. Z. Papers, 1798.— For a time it seemed that war would be immediately declared against France, but the con- servative element in congress prevailed on that body to ap- point three special envoys to France, who should, if possible, establish friendly relations with that country. John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry, and Charles C. Pinckney, who was still abroad, were selected for this mission. Our envoys were treated with the greatest duplicity by both the French directory and the French people. In an unofficial manner they were informed by agents of Talleyrand, who was at this time minister of foreign affairs, that negotiations tending towards a treaty would not begin until they had met the follow- ing conditions : 1. They must in behalf of the United States apologize for Adams's denunciation of the conduct of France. 2 They must pay each director $50,000. 3. Pay tribute to France. 4. That if a treaty were concluded with France, the first condition should provide for a loan to France of not less than $6,000,000. Our envoys were disgusted and horrified. Pinckney informed the French agents that we had "Millions for defense but not one cent for tribute." In the president's report of this affair to congress, the names of the three French agents were suppressed and indicated by Mr. X., Mr. Y., and Mr. Z. Hence the title X. Y. Z. Mission. 335. "Millions for Defense," 1798.— As soon as the X. Y. Z. communications had been published and become known, indig- nation reigned supreme. Party lines vanished. Congress acted as a unit. The department of navy was created, a secretary of navy appointed, and the Constitution, United States, and Con- stellation, three newly finished frigates, were fitted for imme- diate action. Arrangements were made for the organization of an army and Washington was nominated lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief of the army. 336. Napoleon Bonaparte becomes First Consul of France. — "War had actually begun on the sea, and the new navy had cap- tured and destroyed many French ships, when fortunately Na- poleon Bonaparte became first consul of France and satisfactory COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 209 arrangements having been made by the two governments, the war was averted. 337. The Alien and Sedition Laws. — At this time there were many French exiles in this country, and it was believed that many of these people were acting as spies and had been instru- mental in causing the people of Kentucky to join in an expedi- tion against the Spanish of Louisiana and Florida. On this ac- count congress passed two laws known as the alien and sedition laws. 104 The alien law gave tbe president tbe power to send out of the country any foreigner whom he might think dangerous to the government. The sedition -law provided for punishments in fines and im- prisonment for conspirators who were conspiring against the government and laws of the United States, or anyone who should print or publish false or malicious writings against the govern- ment, congress or the president. 338. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, 1798. — At this time most of the foreigners in this country, and especially in Kentucky and Virginia, including the French exiles, were in sympathy with the French Revolution, and therefore allied themselves with the Anti-Federalist party, or as it is now called, the Democratic-Republican party. The sedition law was contrary to the first amendment to the Constitution, which provided for the freedom of the press, and the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions were passed declaring these laws not only tyrannical, but unconstitutional. Kentucky even went so far as to state that under these conditions a state might nullify any such acts as the above which might be passed by congress. Nullification is a dangerous doctrine, and later, as will be seen, was the source of much trouble. Fortunately, the trouble having been adjusted between the two countries, neither the alien nor sedition law was enforced, and consequently this trouble for the time ceased. 339. Death of Washington, December 14th, 1799.— On the nineteenth day of December, John Marshall, congressman from Virginia, rose in his place in Congress and said : "The melancholy event, which Avas yesterday announced with doubt, has been rendered but too certain. Our Washington is no more! The hero, the patriot, the sage of America, the man 10 * Charming and Hart's American History Leaflets, no. 15. 14 210 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES on whom in times of danger every eye was turned and all hopes were placed, lives now only in his great actions, and in the hearts of an affectionate and afflicted people. ' ' Not only the United States, but the entire civilized world mourned at his bier. The commander of the great British fleet on hearing the sad news, ordered the flags lowered to half mast. In France, Napoleon Bonaparte caused a funeral oration to be delivered, and for ten days the military standards were draped in mourning. Such were the tokens of grief and respect offered in memory of the man who was "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his fellow citizens." 340. Other Important Events. — The second United States census was taken in 1800 and the population found to he 5,305,952, a gain in population during the preceding decade of over one and one-third millions of people. The amount of imports, exports, and of all other lines of business showed that the country was in a prosperous condi- tion. One other very important event was the appointment of John Marshall, by the president, as chief justice of the su- preme court. On account of Justice Marshall's ability in expounding, inter- preting and deciding questions relating to the constitution of the United States, this is considered as one of the most im- portant appointments ever made in the history of the United States. It is also well to note that during the summer of 1800, the Federal govern- ment was removed to Washington, D. C. 341. The Presidential Election of 1800.— On account of the alien and sedition laws, the Federalist party had become very unpopular, and when the electoral votes were counted it was found that the Federalist candidates, John Adams and Pinckney, were defeated. The Democratic-Republican candidates, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, received seventy- three votes each. This being a tie vote, the contest was, as provided by the con- stitution, taken to the house of representatives, where on the thirty-sixth ballot Jefferson was chosen president and Burr vice president. Painting hy Inman CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN MARSHALL DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1801-1809. THOMAS JEFFERSON 342. Thomas Jefferson President. — On the 4th of March. 1801, Thomas Jefferson, in a dignified yet simple and unpretentious manner, delivered his inaugural address before Congress. In this address he announced the policy to be pursued by him during his administration. He declared that the greatest duty of a nation to its citi- zens was the exacting of equal justice to all, and that in the execution of this duty, the nation would be kept clear of entangling alliances with foreign nations. He also believed in simpli- city and economy in governmental af- fairs. 343. The Financial Reform. — In order to diminish the run- ning expenses of the government a reduction was made in both the army and navy. Fortifications were abandoned, clerks and officers of all governmental departments were reduced to the lowest possible number, and many conveniences which were deemed unnecessary were eliminated. Jefferson was aided in his plans by Albert Gallitin, who was at this time secretary of the treasury. "With the aid of this gentleman, the national debt during Jefferson's two terms was reduced from $80,000,000 to $45,000,000, which in itself is evidence of the economic policy pursued by the administration. 344. Purchase of Louisiana. — [Plate No. 9.] It will be re- membered that at the close of the French and Indian War in 1763, France ceded to Spain all her territory west of the Missis- sippi River, including the territory to the east of this river at its mouth. When Napoleon became the first consul of France, he was anxious to regain this territory, and through the influ- ence of Marie Louise, whom he had befriended, the Spanish king, Charles IV, by a secret treaty in October, 1800, re-ceded 212 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to France the country now known as Louisiana. Previous to this, the Spanish government, which was still in command at New Orleans, had, in violation of the treaty of 1795, refused per- mission to the merchantmen of the Mississippi to deposit their merchandise at New Orleans. This was very injurious to the commerce of the United States, and Jefferson, on learning that Louisiana had been ceded to France, immediately began nego- tiations for the purchase of the territory around the mouth of the Mississippi River, which would give to the United States control of the navigation of this river. Fortunately for the United States it seemed certain that France and England would again engage in war with each other. Napoleon had not as yet forgotten the inter-colonial wars, and believed he would have trouble in holding Louisiana against the English. He also needed money badly, and conse- quently offered to sell, not only New Orleans and the immediate surrounding territorv, but the entire Louisiana province for $15,000,000. 105 Although the American envoys, Livingston and Monroe, were instructed to buy only the country in the vicinity of the mouth of the Mississippi, yet the offer was accepted, and on April 30, 1803, the deed of transfer was signed and sealed in the presence of Napoleon. By this purchase the area of the United States was more than doubled, and at later dates, the states of Louisiana, Minnesota, Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, Iowa, Arkansas, Montana, Nebras- ka, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, and Oklahoma were wholly or partially created out of the territory included in this purchase. i°5 By the secret treaty of San Ildefonso, Spain had agreed to retroeede Louisiana to France on certain conditions, one of which was a solemn pledge never to alienate the province. In spite of this, however, Napoleon three years later sold Louisiana to us, an act which was flat violation of the treaty of San Ildefonso. Nay more, Louisiana at that time did not belong to France. The retrocession had not been consummated, and when in 1803 Napoleon af- fixed bis name and seal to the treaty of purchase, the flag of Spain still floated over every fort, and her authority was still recognized in every quar- ter of that broad domain. Nor could Napoleon, had Louisiana belonged to France, have sold it without consent of the French Chambers. That consent was not even asked, and the United States took, title to Louisiana and re- ceived it. from a man who had neither the legal nor the moral right to dis- poso of it. John Bach McMaster in Annual Beport of the American Histor- ical Association, 1905, vol. i; Caldwell's American Territorial Develop- ment; The Louisiana Purchase, by Winslip and Wallace; Hoist's United States; Constitutional History of United States, by Geo. T. Curtis. ( !OMM ERC I A L I X f ) E P EN] )ENCE 213 Floyd's monument, located on the Missouri River about three miles south of Sioux City. The following appears on one of the tablets: FLOYD This shaft marks the burial place of Sergeant Charles Floyd, a member of the Lewis & Clark expedition. He died in his country's service, and was buried near this spot August 20, 1904. Graves of such men are pilgrim shrines, Shrines to no class or creed confined. Erected A. D. 1900 by the Floyd Monument Association, aided by the United States find t'io State of Iowa Note — This monument is situated just south of the "great bend" in the Missouri River where Lewis and Clark started westward across the great plains toward the Rocky Mountains. 345. Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1804-1806.— [Plate No. 2.] Soon after the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson secured an appropriation from congress to defray the expense of a party to be engaged in exploring the Louisiana purchase, and the then unknown northwest or upper Pacific coast coun- try. Robert Gray of Boston had sailed along this coast, and had ascended the Columbia River, which he had named in honor of 214 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES his ship. According to the custom of the times, the United States might claim this country on account of this exploration. Therefore, Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, a hrother of the Revolutionary War soldier, George Rogers Clark, to explore this country. In May, 1804, they left St. Louis and ascended the Missouri River to a place near its source and from that point crossed the Rocky Mountains and descended the Columbia River to its mouth. In 1806 they made the return trip and submitted to the government a glowing description of the country they had explored. From a Recent Photoora/ih SCHUYLER MANSION Erected at Albany by Gen. Philip Schuyler in 1761. Here, on December 14, 1780, Alexander Hamilton and Elizabeth Schuyler . were married. 346. Astoria Founded. — [Plate No. 2.] John Jacob Astor, a fur trader, became interested in this country through the in- formation submitted by Lewis and Clark, and organized the Pacific Fur Company, and began the establishing of trading COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 215 posts. One of these posts was established at the mouth of the Columbia River, and named Astoria. The United States by virtue of Gray's discovery and the ex- ploration of Lewis and Clark, combined with the Pacific Fur Company post at Astoria, now claimed all this Northwest or Pacific coast territory, and named it tbe Oregon country. 347. Pike Explores the Mississippi River and the Southwest. — While Lewis and Clark were engaged in exploring the Pa- Courtesy of the B. <£■ O. R. R. Co. SCENE ON THE CUMBERLAND NATIONAL ROAD cific coast country, Zebulon Pike was seeking a source in the. Mississippi River. So successful was he in the performance of this work, that on his return, Jefferson commissioned him to visit the Indian tribes along the Arkansas and Red Rivers. While engaged in performing this task, Pike explored the Ar- kansas River, wandering to the west, until he reached the vicinity of Denver and Pike's Peak. He next attempted to find the headwaters of the Red River, and pushed far to the southward, and unfortunately passed the boundary line of the 216 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES United States and erected a block house on Spanish territory near the banks of the Rio Grande River. Here he was captured by the Spanish and carried to Santa Fe. Finding the occupation of Spanish territory by Pike was unintentional, the Spanish government soon released him and he returned home. The information which the government secured from Lewis, Clark, and Pike, regarding the country which they had ex- plored, was of great value, for it furnished a very comprehensive view of the then unknown country west of the Mississippi River. 348. Hamilton and Burr. — Aaron Burr, who was still smart- ing under the ignominy of his defeat 106 for president of the United States, now decided to be a candidate for the governor- ship of New York. Again, through the efforts of Hamilton, he was defeated. Believing Hamilton to be responsible for his loss of political power and prestige, Burr resolved to rid himself of his adversary, and with this idea in view challenged Hamilton to a duel. The challenge was accepted, and on the morning of July 11, 1804, at Weehawken, New Jersey, Hamilton, one of America 's greatest citizens, was deliberately murdered by Aaron Burr, vice president of the United States. 349. Burr Commits Treason. — Burr, on account of this duel, was spurned on every hand, and soon became a social and po- litical outcast. He was yet, however, ambitious to become the ruler of a nation, and with this idea in view, he organized a military expedition, which was immediately put in motion to- ward the southwest, where, doubtless, be intended establishing a new nation. The president stopped the expedition at Natchez, and Burr was arrested and tried for treason against the United States. Although acquitted by the courts, he ever afterwards remained in obscurity, thoroughly hated and despised by man- kind in general. 350. The Cumberland National Road, 1806.— [Plate No. 5.] In the meantime, Jefferson had been reelected to a second term. In his inaugural address he suggested an amendment to the Con- stitution, which would provide that the surplus revenue might be used for internal improvements. Congress believed this power to be implied in the Constitution, and appropriated money to be used in building a national road from Cumberland, Mary- land, to Wheeling, AVest Virginia. Later the road was extended through Janesville, Columbus, Springfield, Terre Haute and Vandalia, to within a few miles of St. Louis. This road, being iocs pjdgen's Blennerhassett ; Conqueror; Bynner's Zachary Phips. COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 217 the great highway of western immigration, had much to do with the development of the great central west. 351. Fulton and Steam Navigation. — It will be remembered that the venture which Fitch made in steam navigation proved a finan- cial failure. It remained for Robert Fulton, a native of Pennsylvania, to demonstrate the utility of the steam- boat for commercial purposes. In 1803 his launching, on the Seine Riv- er in France, of a small steamboat was successful in every respect. Re- turning to New York in 1807, he built and launched his steam vessel, Clermont, on the Hudson. The boat traveled between the cities of New York and Albany, at the rate of Thus the utility of the steamboat for ROBERT FULTON about five miles an hour. FULTON'S FIRST STEAMBOAT navigation was demonstrated beyond a doubt, and soon steam- boats superseded the old slow sailing vessels. 353. War with the Barbary States. — For over a century the Mohammedan pirates of Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis had captured the merchantmen of other nations and imprisoned and held for ransom their crews. The United States along with other nations, had been in the 218 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES STEPHEN DECATUR habit of purchasing immunity from these attacks, by paying a high yearly tribute. Although Jefferson was of a peace-loving disposition, yet he felt it to be his duty to protect the nation's interest and consequently notified the Barbary States that the United States would no longer pay tribute. The Mo- hammedans now became bolder and fierc- er than ever. Depredations upon the American commerce became unbearable, and the American navy was ordered to the Mediterranean to protect American interests. War was at once declared and Cap- tain Brainbridge, while chasing one of the enemy's cruisers, grounded his ship, the Philadelphia. The ship was soon captured and the captain and his crew were taken prisoners and held for ransom. The Philadelphia, however, did not long remain in the hands of the Mohammedans, for one dark night Lieutenant Decatur entered the harbor and captured and burned the Philadelphia without the loss of a man. The Americans now became very aggressive. Soon many of the enemy's ships were captured and sunk. An army, organizd to a great extent from the disaffected subjects of the Barbary States, captured the city of Tripoli. The Pasha was thoroughly frightened and in 1805 a treaty was ratified between the two nations by which the American merchantmen were guaranteed freedom on the Mediterranean waters. No further trouble was experienced with the Barbary States until 1815. 354. Trouble with Great Britain and France. 1 " 7 — In 1804 11,7 "In two years, almost the whole carrying trade of Europe was in their hands. The merchant flag of every belligerent, except England, dis- appeared from the sea. France and Holland absolutely ceased to trade under their flags. Spain for a while continued to transport her specie and bullion in her own ships, protected by men-of-war, but this too she soon gave up, and by 1806 the dollars of Mexico and the ingots of Peru were brought to her shores in American bottoms. It was under our flag that the gum trade was conducted in Senegal, that the sugar trade was carried on with Cuba, that coffee was exported from Caracas, and hides and indigo from South America. From Vera Cruz, from Antilles, from Dutch Guiana, from the islands of France and Reunion, from Batavia and Manila, great fleets of American merchantmen sailed to the United States, there to neutral- COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 219 Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor of France, and soon France and England were engaged in war. On account of this Avar, much of the European ocean trade passed over to the American merchantmen. This business became very profitable to the United States merchantmen, and on this account the British people began to look upon us with suspicion and dis- pleasure. England wished if possible to regain some of the trade she had lost, and in order to do so, in 1806 she declared the ports of France to be in a state of blockade. She hoped in this way to be able to regain part of the shipping, and at the same time cripple her enemy, France. Napoleon replied to this by issuing his famous "Berlin Decrees," which prohib- ited neutral ships from entering any of the ports of the British Isles. The next year, the English issued the ' ' Orders in Coun- cil," which forbade neutrals to enter any of the ports of Europe except those of Great Britain and Sweden. Napoleon replied again by his "Milan Decree," which ordered the cap- ture of any neutral ship which had in the past entered any English port. The student will readily perceive that this state of affairs would have soon destroyed the American shipping. Conse- quently the government began to make arrangements whereby it might protect its merchantmen. 355. Jefferson's "Gunboat Navy," 1807. — Jefferson believed by building small gunboats and fortifying the coast with heavy cannon, that the nation would be able to protect our merchant- men. This plan was adopted by congress. Heavy artillery was placed along the coast and two hundred and fifty gunboats were ordered built. However, as the following events will show, it soon became apparent that with this means of pro- tection the United States would not be able to cope with Great Britain and France. 356. Impressment of American Seamen and Fraudulent Nat- uralization. — The English now revised their old declaration, by which they claimed they had the right to stop any American vessel and search for English seamen. The English claimed that "Once an Englishman, always an Englishman," while the Americans claimed that when a person had become naturalized he was an American citizen, and as such had the right to claim the protection of the American nation. ize the voyage and then go on to Europe. ' ' McMaster 's History of the People of the United States, vol. iii. 220 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES True, many of the English seamen may have procured fraud- ulent naturalization papers and entered the American service for the simple reason that they received better wages and were accorded better treatment. Oftentimes an English captain when ready to sail from an American port, would find that he had scarcely enough sailors left to manage the vessel. On this account English cruisers were sent to the American coast for the express purpose of searching American vessels for de- serters. However, the British were very indiscreet and often- times committed the grossest outrages, inasmuch as many Am- erican seamen were forced into British service. 357. The Chesapeake and the Embargo Act, 1807- '08.— Af- fairs of this nature came to a crisis in 1807, when the United States frigate Chesapeake, while sailing off the Chesapeake Bay, was fired on by the British frigate, Leopard, and by force compelled to give up four men, declared by the British captain to be British citizens. Three of these men proved to be American citizens, and their seizure was resented in strong terms by cit- izens of the United States. President Jefferson immediately issued a proclamation for- bidding to all British war vessels the privilege of entering Am- erican ports. As the British paid no attention to this proclama- tion congress, in 1807, passed the embargo act, which prohib- ited the departure of any American vessels to foreign ports. Although this act certainly affected both Great Britain and France, it also was very disastrous to the United States, as it practically destroyed all our shipping interests. 358. The Non-intercourse Act, 1809. — On this account, the embargo act was repealed and in its place the non-intercourse act was passed, which allowed com- merce with all nations except England and France. 359. Washington Irving, the Classic Writer of America. — -Wash- ington Irving, the first Ameri- can author to receive favorable at- tention in both continents, was born and reared in the vicinity of New York. To know how successful he has been in the presentation of the scenes of his boyhood rambles, and the tra- washington irving ditional and imaginative beliefs of the COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 221 early Dutch life in New York, one need but read his History of New York, The Sketch Book, Rip Van Wi?ikle, and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. Among his many interesting works which have not already been mentioned are: Westminster Abbey, Sirat ford-on- Avon, Little Britain, Braccbridge Hall, Talcs of a Traveler, and The Alhambra. By many, Irving is considered as America's greatest classic writer. 360. William Cullen Bryant, the Author. — It was also about this time that America's great nature poet, William Cullen Bryant, began to publish his literary works. Quite aptly he has been called "The Father of American Poetry," and his poems, "Thanatopsis, " "To a Water- fowl," and "A Forest Hymn," have now become schoolhouse classics. He ranks among the foremost of the poets and translators of the world. 361. Ohio Admitted, 1803.— In 1803, Ohio, the first state to be carved out of the Northwest Territory, was admitted to the Union with a population of over forty-five thousand. Students will readily realize how rapidly the western country was being settled when they remember that fifteen years prior to this time the only settlement of any account in Ohio was at Marietta. 362. The Twelfth Amendment. — It will be remembered that the first time Jefferson was elected president he was chosen by the house of representatives, as he and Burr had received the same number of votes. In order that this might not happen again, and in order that the president and vice president might both be of the same political party, the twelfth amendment of the Constitution was passed, which provided that electors should vote separately for president and vice president. 363. The Presidential Election, 1808.— Jefferson refusing a third term, the Republicans nominated James Madison of Vir- ginia, for president, and George Clinton of New York, for vice president. The candidates were elected by a large majority over Charles Pinckney and Rufus King, the Federalist candi- dates. WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1809-1817 JAMES MADISON 364. James Madison, President 1809- '17. — Madison, although a statesman of recognized ability, was very unfortunate in the selection of his cabinet officers as the only man appointed to the cabinet who could be recognized as a man of distinction or ability, was Albert Gallatin, secretary of the treasury. Under these circumstances the prospect of a successful administration was grave in- deed, as the work of the entire execu- tive department naturally, had to be at- tended to by the president and Mr. Gallatin. 365. Madison's Negotiations. — Being under the non-inter- course act our shipping interests were in a serious condition and many of our people who had been engaged in commerce were forced to enter other pursuits. Manufacturing estab- lishments were springing up, and these people, as well as the merchants and planters on account of the prevailing condi- tions, had a vast amount of merchandise and produce ready to be shipped to foreign markets. Madison still believed it would be possible to relieve these conditions by further negotiations with England and France. Through the British minister, Erskine, the president was in- formed that if the non-intercourse act was repealed, the British nation would make a satisfactory settlement in regard to the Chesapeake affair, and that the orders in council, as far as they applied to the commerce of the United States, would be repealed. Acting on this assurance, the president issued a proclamation, giving permission for the renewal of trading relations between the United States and Great Britain. In less than a month more than a thousand ships laden with American produce had sailed for foreign markets, but the British gov- ernment disavowed the arrangements which had been made with their minister Erskine, on the ground that he had exceeded COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 223 his authority, and many of the ships and cargoes were cap- tured and confiscated by that nation. The entire American nation now clamored for war, and the president promptly issued another proclamation which re-es- tablished the non-intercourse act between the two nations. 366. Battle of Tippecanoe, 1811. — [Plate 5.] In addition to those troubles on the sea and coast, were those of the fron- tier. The Indians of the northwest tribes, under the leadership of Tecumseh, had formed a confederacy for mutual protection against the whites. The frontier, on hearing this, became alarmed and General William Henry Harrison was sent to disperse the Indians who had congregated at Tippecanoe, near the junction of the Wa- bash and Tippecanoe rivers. On November 7th, a terrible battle was fought in which the Indians were routed with great loss. Soon after this the Creek Indians attacked the southern frontier at Fort Mimms, near the Alabama River [Plate 5], and captured and massacred over five hundred men, women and children. General Andrew Jackson quickly organized a force and marched against these Indians, and on March 27, 1814, at Horse Shoe Bend, he killed and captured over six hun- dred. So complete was the victory that those who survived were glad to make peace on any terms. 367. The War Congress. 108 — From information which had reached the administration it was believed by many that the Indians had formed these confederations and committed the many atrocious acts of cruelty under the direction of secret agents of the British government. These troubles, added to those of our seamen and ships, aroused the people to such an extent that they elected a congress which was strongly in fa- vor of war with England. los A detailed critical history of the War of 1812 by Captain A. T. Mahan of the United States Navy was published in Scribner's Magazine for 1904 and January. 1905. Another full and interesting account is that of McMaster in the History of the People of the United States, vol. iv, pp. 1-279. Shorter accounts will be found in McLaughlin 's History of tlie American Nation, pp. 281-291; Hart's Formation of the Union, pp. 203-216 and 218-222; Channing's Student's History of the United States, pp. 357- 367. Interesting contemporary accounts of the -war or of its diplomatic events are given in Hart's Source Booh of American History, nos 83-87, inclusive. See also Seawell's Little Jarvis and Midshipman Paulding; G. C. Eggleston's Signal Boys, Captain Sam and Big Brother, which are all good stories of the War of 1812. 221 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES JOHN C. CALHOUN 368. Clay and Calhoun Advise War. 109 — Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, two of America's greatest statesmen, were members of this congress. Clay was made speak- er of the house of representatives, and under his direction immediate preparations were made for war. President Madison, now becoming convinced that further diplomatic re- lations with Great Britain were use- Less, recommended to congress the ad- visability of declaring war; so fin- ally on June 19. 1812, a proclama- tion was issued, declaring war against Great Britain. The reasons set forth for this declaration were as follows: 1 . Inciting the Indians to attack our citizens on the frontier. 2. Putting cruisers off our coasts with instructions to stop and search our vessels. 3. Impressment of over six thousand of our seamen in the British service. 4. Interfering with our commercial relations with other na- tions by the ' ' Orders of Council. ' ' It might be well to note here that just five days after the war proclamation was issued, the orders in council were re- called, but there being no ocean cables in those days, the news did not reach this country until long after the war had ac- tually begun. Otherwise the war might have been averted. 369. Napoleon 11 " and the United States. — The student will i09Lossing, B. T., Pictorial Field-look of the War of 1812, 1868-96. Roosevelt, Theodore, Naval War of 1812, 18S9. See also Spark's, Expansion; Gordy, A Political History; Sargent, Public Men and Events; Wise, Seven Decades ; Roosevelt, Winning of the West ; De Tocqueville, Democracy in America; Stanwood, History of the Presidency; Morse, John Quincy Adams; Curtis, Daniel Webster; Schurz, Henry Clay; Sumner, Andrew Jackson. no "Napoleon had in this, three ends to gain, and he gained them all: First, to secure France against a renewal of the non-importation act of the United States if the president accepted this conditional recall of the de- crees as satisfactory; second, to leave those decrees virtually unrepealed, by making their recall depend upon the action of England, who, he well knew, would not listen to the proposed conditions; and third, to involve the United States and England in new disputes which might lead to war." — Gay's James Madison. COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 225 doubtless wonder why Avar was not declared against France also, as she was preying on our commerce, probably to a greater extent than England. True, both nations should have been included in the declaration of war, but Napoleon, by his shrewdness and dishonesty, was able to handle affairs so as to insure war between the United States and his enemy, England, he, at the same time, being able to continue to seize the mer- chantmen of the United States as before. Napoleon, through his minister of foreign affairs, informed the president that the seizure of American ships should cease, and commercial relations with the United States be resumed, providing the non-intercourse acts were repealed and the United States should "cause her rights (the United States.) to be respected by England." Acting on this advice, the non- intercourse act was repealed, as far as it affected France. Soon hundreds of vessels were on their way to France and the United States, according to the agreement, was preparing for war with England in order to force her to respect the rights of the United States. Napoleon waited until the vessels had arrived in the ports of France, then, inasmuch as the United States as yet had been unable to force Great Britain to respect her rights, the ships with their cargoes were seized and confiscated. By this trick Napoleon was not only assured of war between the United States and England, but he also secured much needed supplies for his army and navy, and money for his treasury. 370. Relative Strength of the Nations. — England at this time had a population of nearly twenty millions of people, a large army of well disciplined soldiers, and the largest and best equipped navy in the world. On the other hand the United States had only about seven millions of people, includ- ing servants and slaves, a few thousand poorly equipped sol- diers, and a navy of no reputation whatever, consisting of less than a dozen frigates, which had never seen service. Further- more the people of the United States m were not united in reference to the war. AVhile the west and south were in favor of the war. the New England States regarded it with absolute disfavor. Many were in favor of joining with England in a 111 Seawell's Little Jarvis and Midshipman Paulding; 0. C. Egoleston 's Signal Boys, Captain Sam, ami Big Brother arc all good stories of the War of 1812. 15 226 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES war against France on account of Napoleon's dishonesty and double dealing. Our harbors were unprotected, and it was believed that the coast cities, coast country, and coast trade would be at the mercy of the enemy. 371. Plan of 1812.— [Plate 5,] The Americans believed that they might invade and capture Canada before England could land an army strong enough to protect it. With this plan in view, three armies were organized. The "Army of the West" under General William Hull was to in- vade Canada by way of Detroit. The "Army of the Center" under General Solomon Van Rensselaer was to enter Canada by way of Niagara; and the "Army of the North" under Gen- eral Henry Dearborn was to go by way of Lake Champlain. The forces were then to unite and conquer all Canada. 372. The Plan a Complete Failure.— [Plate 5.] According to the plans, General Hull at once started on his way to De- troit. 112 While on his way, a message was sent him, notifying him that war had been declared and ordering him to invade Canada at once. Unfortunately this communication fell into the hands of the British, who immediately seized Mackinaw and made preparations to meet Hull. Hull, who by this time had entered Canada, was driven back to Detroit where, being surrounded by a superior force, he not only surrendered his army and Detroit, but the whole territory of Michigan. Fort Dearborn (now Chicago) also passed into the hands of the British. General Van Rensselaer, who ascended the Niagara River, attacked the Canadian village of Queenstown, but not being supported by his militia, was forced to surrender. General Dearborn did nothing during the year except drill and equip his army. 373 The Navy and the Privateers. — However great was the us There has been a great deal of controversy over Hull's treatment by the government. That he was blameworthy in the conduct of his ex- pedition against Fort Maiden and in surrendering so soon, all must agree. On the other hand, had Madison and Enstis heeded his suggestions the year previous, and had Dearborn acted with the dispatch expected of him, the circumstances which led to the surrender of Detroit would never have occurred. The government was exasperated at its humiliating defeat and vented its wrath upon the unfortunate commander, when the real blame rested upon the secretary of war, the senior major-general and the military policy of Jefferson 's and Madison 's administrations. "Roach and Fowler 's United States History, vol. ii. COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 227 disappointment, due to the disasters on land, yet this was offset in a measure by our glorious victories on the sea. Early in August the Constitution (Old Ironsides), 113 while off the Banks of Newfoundland, was ataeked by the British vessel -— Guerriere (Gar-e-ar). Captain Isaac Hull of the Constitu- BATTLE OF THE "CONSTITUTION" AND THE "GUERRIERE" tion held his fire until he brought his ship into a position where he could pour broadside after broadside into his antagonist. Soon the Guerriere was a complete wreck and was forced to surrender. us The Constitution is one of the most remarkable ships ever connected with the navy of the United States, and in the War of 1812 she -won a position similar to that accorded the Oregon in the late war with Spain. She was launched in 1797, and was constructed after the plans and under the supervision of experienced naval officers. In 1830 the old ship was reported unseaworthy and ordered to be broken up. On the issuance of this order. Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote his famous poem, ' ' Old Ironsides, ' ' which was published in the Boston Advertiser. The poem aroused such a remonstrance that the order was recalled. The Constitution was rebuilt and again entered the service in 1833. In 1855 she was laid up at Portsmouth Navy Yard, where she was used as a training ship. She was again partially rebuilt in 1877, and the following year made her last trip across the At- lantic. In 1897 she was placed permanently in the Boston Navy Yard, and is now used for barracks. 228 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Later, in August, the American sloop Wasp captured the British brig Frolic. The Macedonian was next taken by Deca- tur's ship, the United States, and the Java was captured by the Constitution. Privateers more than justified the expecta- tion of Clay and his adherents; they almost destroyed the mer- chant marine of Great Britain. During the year nearly three hundred and fifty prizes were taken. 374. Plan of War for 1813. — The general plan of the war in 1813 was much the same as the preceding year. The "Army of the North" was now placed under General Wade Hampton. General Dearborn, who took command of the "Army of the Center," was to enter Canada by way of Niagara and Lake Ontario. General William Henry Harrison of Tippecanoefame was given command of the "Army of the West" and was expected to re- gain the territory lost the preceding year by General Hull. 375. The Shannon Captures the Chesapeake. — [Plate 5.] On June 1st, occurred the first great disaster to our navy. On this date the American vessel Chesapeake, while sailing off Boston, was attacked by the British vessel Shannon. The battle was short and decisive, nearly one hundred and fifty of the crew of the Chesapeake being killed or wounded. Among the mortally wounded was the brave Captain Lawrence. As he was being carried below he exclaimed, "Don't give up the ship." The last command of the gallant captain has since been, by common consent, the motto of the American navy. 376. General Harrison makes Preparation for the Recovery of the Northwest. — [Plate 3.] Previous to the beginning of the war, there had been built a chain of "family forts" from the mouth of the Missouri River across to the Wabash River at Vin- cennes. These "family forts" were blockhouses of one and one- half or two stories high, placed at the corners of huge stockades. One of the forts was generally built in each vicinity of the homes of those who thus "forted" together. Besides these, there were other stronger forts such as Fort Dearborn (which had fallen into the hands of the British during the preceding year), Fort Armstrong at the mouth of Rock River, Fort Madison (now Fort Madison, Iowa), and Fort Shelby (Prairie du Chien). The Indians were not only making attacks on the "family forts," but since the capture of Fort Dearborn they were even COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 229 making movements against the stronger forts. Consequently General Harrison as soon as possible moved against Detroit, '411. Indian Massacre at the River Rasin. [Plate 5.] While on the march to Detroit, a detachment of Harrison's army un- der General Winchester, was attacked by the British and Indians under General Proctor at the River Rasin. The American forces were obliged to surrender and although they were promised pro- tection by General Proctor, yet the Indians massacred almost the entire force. General Harrison now fell back to Fort Meigs where he was beseiged by Proctor during the winter. In the spring he received reinforcements and compelled the British to retreat. 378. Perry on Lake Erie. — [Plate 5.] While Harrison was protecting himself aga'inst Proctor at Fort Meigs, there was a far differenl scene being enacted on the waters of Lake Erie. Early in the winter Captain Oliver H. Perry was given charge of the navy on the Great Lakes, and he at once went to work to build, from trees of the forest, a fleet with which he expected to overcome the British navy on the "Lakes." As soon as he had finished his fleet, he started out in search of the enemy. On September 10th the forces commodore o. h. met p erry at once spread to the perry breeze his battle flag (a purple pennant bearing the words of the dying Law- rence, "Don't give up the ship"), and ordered an attack. The British, by concentrating their fire upon Perry's flagship (the Lawrence) completely disabled her. Perry, with his eight un- harmed sailors, thereupon entered a row boat and with their flag rowed straight to one of his other ships, the Niagara. 114 Fifteen minutes after he had stepped upon the deck of the Niagara, the victory was won. Perry at once sent his noted dispatch to Gen- eral Harrison. "We have met the enemy and they are ours." 379. The Battle of the Thames. — As soon as General Harrison received this dispatch, he attacked the British and Indians at the Thames River. After a fierce engagement, the British forces were completely routed. The celebrated Indian chief. Teeumseh, was killed and General Proctor barely escaped with his life. n4 Bacheller's Dri and I. COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 231 The complete northwest was now recovered and the settle- ments were safe from Indian attacks. The armies of the center and north did nothing worthy of note during this year. 380. The United States Acts on the Defensive, 1814.— On account of the rapid decline of the Napoleonic power in Europe, England, in 1814, was able to transfer many of the veteran troops of Wellington to the seat of war in the western continent. On this account the United States was forced to act on the de- fensive. 381. British Plans for 1814.— [Plate 5.] The British now planned to prosecute the war with great energy and conse- quently planned three distinct campaigns. 1. An invasion of the United States from Canada. 2. A complete blockade of the Atlantic coast and the capture of Washington, the capital of the United States. 3. The capture of the city of New Orleans, which they be- lieved would give them control of the Mississippi River. 382. Campaigns in the North. — [Plate 5.] On account of the new recruits which the British had received, they were able to take immediate possession of all the northern frontier. Gen- eral Jacob Brown and General Winfield Scott were at once dis- patched to regain this territory. On the 3d of July General Browm captured Fort Erie ; on July 5th General Scott in a severe battle defeated the British at Chippew r a, and forced them to retire to Queenstown. Here the Americans, finding the British to be strongly intrenched, returned to Chippewa. The British followed, and on July 25th, at Lundy's Lane, another severe battle was fought, the Americans being victorious. Al- XAVAL BATTLE OF LAKK CHAMPLAIN IN PLATTSBURG BAY 232 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES though victorious the Americans were completely exhausted, and being unable to follow up their victory, retired to Fort Erie. 383. The Lake Champlain Conflict and the Battle of Platts- burg. — [Plate 5.] The British were now determined to capture northern New York. Consequently preparations were made to invade this state by way of Lake Champlain. General George Prevost, with an army fourteen thousand strong, started from Canada up the Champlain Valley, following nearly the same route as that pursued by Burgoyne in 1777. He had planned to unite his forces with those of the British fleet on the lake and hoped to be able to divide the New England States from the rest of the Union. There being a strong feeling against the war in those states, it was believed that people would at once join the cause of the British. However, the venture proved very disastrous for at the battle of Plattsburg the land forces were so badly beaten that they were glad to be able to retreat to the valley of the St. Lawrence, while the naval contest in Plattsburg Bay resembled very much the brilliant exploit of Perry on Lake Erie, as nearly every British vessel was either captured or destroyed. These two battles caused the British government seriously to consider proposals for peace. 384. War on the Coast. — [Plate 5.] During the year, the British blockaded our coast to such an extent that our com- merce was completely destroyed. Many coast towns in Massa- chusetts and Connecticut were captured and burned. Crops were destroyed and the inhabitants murdered in cold blood. General Ross with a force of five thousand men entered the Chesapeake Bay, marched up the Potomac, to the city of Wash- ington, where, on August 24th he set fire to the capitol 115 and White House and destroyed nearly all the public records. He then moved upon Baltimore where, on September 13th, simultan- eously with the fleet, he attacked the city and Fort McHenry. 110 11 5 Eoosevelt's Naval War, ch. vii; Hildreth, vi. no The bombardment of Fort McHenry gave us the "Star Spangled Banner," next to "America," our most popular national hymn. Francis Scott Key had gone under a flag of truce in a small boat to the British frigate Surprise, to secure the release of a friend. He reached the frigate just as the bombardment was to commence, and was not allowed to return; therefore, as prisoner of war, he was obliged to witness the bombardment, which continued through the night. When, on the following morning, Key saw the flag still waving over the fort he wrote the poem. A few days later it was published in the Baltimore Patriot, under the title, "The Defense of COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 233 Being unsuccessful by both land and water, he retired to his ships and sailed to Jamaica. 385. The Hartford Convention, December 15, 1814.— The Federalists of New England had from the beginning opposed the war with England, and now on account of the complete destruction of their coast trade, they were more out-spoken than ever before. On December 15, 1814, delegates from Massa- chusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut met in secret conven- tion at Hartford. While it is not known exactly what trans- pired in this convention, yet at that time it was generally be- lieved that these states intended to secede from the Union. On account of this general belief, the Hartford convention led to the complete overthrow of the Federalist party. 38G. Treaty of Ghent, December 24, 1814. — England having signified a desire for peace, President Madison appointed as peace commissioners John Quincy Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, Jonathan Russell, and Albert Gallatin. These gentlemen met with the commissioners of England, at Ghent. in the Netherlands, July 6 1814. Finally, after five months of patient work, on December 24. 1814. peace was concluded between the two nations. 387. Battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1815. — [Plate 5.] There being no telegraph communication between the two continents, it was some time before the news of the treaty of peace reached this country. In the meantime there was fought one of the greatest battles of the war. England had decided if possible to capture New Orleans, and in order to do this, had ordered to that place over fifty ships carrying twenty thousand soldiers and seamen, all of whom had seen service under Welling- ton and Nelson. This army was under the command of Paken- ham, a brother-in-law of Wellington. On December 10th the army landed and in the early morning of January 8th they appeared before the city of New Orleans in line of battle. To oppose this army General Jackson had col- lected a motley array of about six thousand men consisting of frontiersmen, Creoles. Indians, negroes, sailors and a few regu- lar soldiers. Fort McHenry. At Key's suggestion, the song was set to the tune of " Anacreon in Heaven," which some fifteen years before had been used for the song, "Adams and Liberty. ' ' The music was composed by John Stafford Smith, an Englishman, some time between 1770 and 1775. The "Star Spangled Banner'' was first sung by Ferdinand Durang in a Baltimore tavern. Roach and Fowler, United States Tliflnry, vol. ii. 234 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES MONUMENT ERECTED NEAR NEW ORLEANS, TO THE MEMORY OF ANDREW JACKSON AND "THE BAT- TLE OP NEW ORLEANS." The British were so con- fident of victory that they had with them their civil officers who were to exe- cute the laws as soon as the city was captured. Evidently they did not realize the fact that the men who composed the American army were the best marksmen in the world, and w T ere fighting for a principle in which they were all interested. Early in the morning the British moved against the American lines. Gen- eral Jackson had arrang- ed his men behind breastworks made from logs, earth, and cotton bales, and as he walked along cheering his men, he instructed them to make every shot count. How carefully they followed this instruction may be realized wdien it is learned that by nine o'clock the battle was over, the English losing in killed, wounded and captured over twenty-six hundred, while the Americans lost but eight killed, thirteen wounded, and a very few captured. The news of this great victory astonished all Europe and al- though the treaty of peace was signed, this battle doubtless did much in causing foreign nations to recognize us as one of the foremost of nations. 388. War with Algiers, 1815. — Taking advantage of our trouble with England, the Barbary States again began preying upon our commerce. As soon as the war between the United State and Great Britain had closed, Commodore Decatur was dispatched to deal with these pirate states. After capturing several Algerian ships, the haughty ruler of Algiers was com- pelled to sign a treaty, whereby he not only agreed forever to disclaim any right to tribute from the United States, but he also agreed to pay indemnities for seizures made in violation of prev- ious treaties. A similar understanding was made with Tunis and Tripoli, and no serious trouble has since been experienced with these states COMMERCIAL INDEPENDENCE 235 389. The Second United States Bank, 1816.— On account of the recent wars, the finances of the country were in a deplorable condition. The national debt was over one hundred and twenty- seven millions of dollars. Commerce was almost ruined, and gold and silver money had almost ceased to be a circulating medium. In order to restore this condition, congress, in 1816, chartered the second United States Bank with a capital of $35,000,000. According to the charter, the bank was to have branches in different parts of the United States, in which public funds might be deposited. This did much to restore the normal finan- cial condition in the country. 390. The First Protective Tariff, 1816.— During the war, on account of the complete destruction of our shipping and com- merce, many manufacturing establishments were established, especially in tbe New England states. In the European coun- tries manufactured articles had been stored away on account of the destruction of merchant marine, due to the Napoleonic wars. In 1815, when the commercial relations were again re- stored between the United States and England, this material was thrown on the American markets in great quantities, and at such cheap prices that it was impossible for the manufacturing establishments of New England to compete with them, conse- quently in response to a plea of the citizens of the United States concerned in manufacturing, congress, in 1816, passed the first distinctive protective tariff, the highest rates not being over twenty per cent. 391. New States. — During the administration two new states had been admitted into the "Union." Louisiana as the eighteenth state was admitted in 1812, and Indiana 117 the nine- teenth state was admitted in 1816. The constitution of each of these states permitted slavery. 392. Presidential Election, 1816. — President Madison had now served two terms, and following the custom already established, was not a candidate for a third term. On account of the happy ending of the war, the party in power was still very popular, while the Federalists were very unpopular on account of the Hartford convention. James Monroe, the Democratic-Republican candidate, was elected by one hundred and eighty-three votes against thirty-four votes for Rufns King, the Federalist candidate. in Tarkington, The Gentleman from Indiana) Eggleston, The Circuit Eider, The Hoosier Schoolmaster, and The Eoosier School Boy. THIRTY YEARS PEACE, 1815-1845 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1817-1825 JAMES MONROE 393. James Monroe, President, 1817-1825.— President Mon- roe's administration marks the begin- ning- of an ' ' era of good feeling, ' ' and national growth. Noticeable and rap- id advancement was made in all lines. The people, now believing themselves free from all foreign entanglements, turned their attention to home indus- tries and internal improvements. 394. The Seminole War, 1818.— [Plate 5.] It will be remembered that in 1814 General Jackson defeated the Creek Indians 118 at Horseshoe Bend. [Section 366.] The remnant of the tribe escaped south into Florida and settled with the Seminole Indians. These Indians were friendly toward England and believed that after the war England would again restore to them their old hunting grounds. When they realized that the United States had been victorious in the war they became desperate and began to steal stock, burn the houses and barns, and murder the people all along our southern border. To restore order General Jack- son was sent against these Indians, and regardless of the fact that the Indians were on Spanish soil, he boldly marched against them, completely destroying their power. 395. The United States Buys Florida.— [Plate 9.] On ac- count of this trouble, the United States was eager to get con- trol of Florida and in 1819 a treaty was made with Spain by which Florida was transferred to the United States and the dispute settled regarding the western boundary of the Louisiana Purchase. According to this treaty, this boundary line extended from the Gulf of Mexico up the Sabine Piver to the 32d par- nsgchoulor, ii; Hildreth, vi ; McMaster, iv. THIRTY YEARS PEACE 237 allel; thence in a direct northern line to the Red River; thence up this river to the 100th Meridian ; thence northward to the Arkansas River; thence along the south bank of this river to its source in latitude 42 ; thence due west to the Pacific Ocean. In accordance with the treaty the United States paid to Spain $5,000,000.00. 396. The Canadian Boundary Line and the Oregon Coun- try. — During the year 1818 the boundary line between Canada and the United States was established. Beginning at the most northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods, the boundary line extended directly south to the 19th parallel ; thence west- ward along this parallel to the summit of the Rocky Mountains. Beyond the mountains the country was open to the settlers of both nations for ten years. This agreement was afterward ex- tended until definite lines were drawn in 1846. [Section 469.] 397. The Nation Honors its Heroes. — The United States was now at peace with all nations, and the people, appreciative of the services of those who had made this condition possible, pre- sented to the public many proofs of the high esteem in which these heroes were held. Great artists were at work painting such histo- ric scenes as "Patrick Henry before the House of Burgesses" [see picture under Section 2021 and "Washington Crossing the Delaware" [see picture under Section 238] . In 3 824 this nation, assisted by the venerable and aged Lafayette, who was at this time visiting the United States as a guest of the nation (Section 405), with appropriate services placed the corner-stone of the Bunker Hill monument. 398. The Rapid Development of the West. — As has already been stated [Section 52 ct seq.] the two things that stood in the way of western expansion were the Indians and the lack of roads through the mountains. These two obstructions had now been eliminated to a great extent. General Harrison and Gen- eral Jackson had broken the power of ail the great Indian tribes east of the Mississippi River and the Cumberland National Road had been built to Wheeling on the Ohio River. Emigrants could by this road reach the Ohio River, and then by water they could go to the valley of any part of the Mississippi and Ohio river systems. On account of these rich and productive valleys, the people from New England and the northern states, along with a vast foreign emigration, began to move westward. 399. Many States are Admitted. — On account of this rapid development of this western country, many states soon applied 238 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES for admission into the Union. Mississippi was admitted in 1817, Illinois in 1818, and Alabama in 1819. 400. The United States Senate and Slavery. — The north, hav- ing grown so much faster in population than the south, had a much larger representation in the house of representatives than the south. Having no particular use for slavery in the north, the people, of course, were naturally opposed to the extension of slavery. The only way the south could hope to overcome anti- slavery legislation, was by keeping the representation in the senate evenly divided between the slave and free states. Up to this time, there were eleven slave states and eleven free states, giving each side twenty-two senators. Maine and Missouri now applied for admission into the Union. Missouri w T ished to be admitted with a constitution allowing slavery, but the north was determined that no more slave states should be carved out of the Louisiana Purchase. 401. The Missouri Compromise of 1820. — The debate became very heated in congress. It seemed for a time that there would be no understand- ing reached whatever. Finally Henry Clay came forward with his Missouri com- promise, which provided that (1) Maine was to be admitted as a free state ; (2) Mis- souri was to come into the Union as a slave state: (3) that all the remaining territory in the Louisiana Purchase north of 36 Vv V W* degrees and 30 minutes (the southern boundary of Missouri) should be forever free. After much debate, the compromise was adopted, Maine, in 1820, being ad- mitted as a free state, and Missouri in 1821 being admitted as a slave state. This left the representation in the senate still equal. 402. James Fenimore Cooper, Author of the American Novel of Adventure. — Just a few months after Washington's inaug- uration, September 15, 1789, there was born at Burlington, New Jersey, a boy who in later years so vividly described the experi- ences and adventures of the people of this period that he is recognized as the American novelist of adventure. Soon after his birth his parents removed to the forest near the shores of the beautiful Shelling Lake in New York. Here in the grandeur of nature he spent his childhood making the ac- THIRTY YEARS PEACE 239 JAMES FENIMORE COOPER quaintanee of trappers and men who had fought in the Indian wars. After receiving a good educa- tion he became a seaman on the Great Lakes and the ocean, and later an officer in the navy. The vast store of information he gained from these different sources, coupled with a fer- tile imagination, made it possible for him to produce fiction which was realistic as well as interesting. The Leatherstocking Tales are doubtless the most widely read of all his works. 403. The Holy Alliance and the Monroe Doctrine, 1823. — On account of the prevailing tendency in many nations of rebellion arising against the different governments, there had, in Europe, been formed what is known as the holy alliance. This alliance was composed of Russia, Austria, Prussia, Prance, and Spain, and the real aim was to suppress all disturbances along the line of a revolution or rebellion. Following in the footsteps of the United States many of the Spanish-American colonies had thrown off the yoke of the mother country. It was believed that the holy alliance was about to aid Spain in an effort to recover these colonies. England had not joined in this arrangement, but instead proposed to the United States the expediency of acting in concert in opposition to the holy al- liance in this affair. This the United States refused to do but in 1823, in a message to congress, the president announced: 1. That it was the purpose of the United States to remain neutral in the political affairs of Europe ; 2. That any attempt by European governments to extend their monarchial system would be regarded as an unfriendly act; 3. That the time for colonization in free and independent American countries by European powers had passed ; 4. There was to be no intervention by any of the foreign nations in the political affairs of the Spanish-American repub- lics. The thought expressed in the above statements became known as the Monroe doctrine. It was simply a mild way the president 240 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES had in telling the European nations that as far as the western continent was concerned, they must keep hands off. President Roosevelt, in his speech given in Chicago in October, 1903. makes this very plain in the following statement : "This doctrine has nothing to do with the commercial rela- tions of any American power, save that it in truth allows each of them to form such as it desires We do not guar- antee any state against punishment if it misconducts itself, pro- viding that punishment does not take the form of the acquisition of territory by any non-American power. ' ' This doctrine, although not a law, has become a part of our administrative policy and has been asserted : 1. By Tyler, on September 30, 1842. 2. By Polk, on December 2, 1845. 3. By Polk, on December 7, 1847. 4. By Polk, on April 29, 1848. 5. By Buchanan, on December 6, 1858. 6 By Buchanan, on December 3, 1860. 7. By Grant, on May 31, 1870. 8. By Grant, on December 5, 1870. 9. By Cleveland, on December 17. 1895. Since Cleveland's administration, the Monroe doctrine has been referred to on numerous occasions. 404. The Tariff of 1824.— Tn 1824 the manufacturers of the northern states again petitioned congress for a higher protective tariff. The discussion of this measure was peculiar, as was the case in the tariff of 1816, inasmuch as Clay, from the southern state of Kentucky, was the leader in favor of the bill, while Webster, from the northern state of Massachusetts, vigorously opposed it. The vote, when taken, was found to be sectional, the South voting against the measure, on the ground that it enriched the manufacturers at the expense of the agriculturists, and the North voting solidly for the measure on the ground that higher tariff was necessary in order that the home manufacturers might com- pete with foreign manufacturers. The measure became a law by a very small majority. 405. Visit of Lafayette in 1824. — After forty years absence. Lafayette, the French hero of the Revolutionary War, visited for the last time the scene of the conflicts which he so generously undertook in behalf of American liberty. During this time the THIRTY YEARS PEACE 241 nation had grown from a confederation of colonies with no gov- ernment, to one of the foremost nations in the world. The prevailing prosperity and the memory of the dangers and hardships which Lafayette had undertaken in behalf of the young republic made his visit an occasion of great interest. He was received as the nation's guest and received the homage of a grateful people. When the time arrived for his departure to his native land he was presented, in behalf of his services during the Revolutionary War, a gift of two hundred thousand dollars and a township of land in Florida. He was carried home in one of our new naval vessels, the Brandywine, named from the battle in which he so honorably conducted himself in behalf of American liberty. 406. The Presidential Election. — President Monroe's second term was now drawing to a close and when the time came to choose his successor, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, General Jackson, and William H. Crawford entered the field as candi- dates. No one receiving a majority of the popular vote, the election went to the House of Representatives where John Quincy Adams was chosen President. This election proved a death blow to the custom of nominating candidates for president by the congressional caucus. NATIONAL REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1825-1829 «'^ JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 407. John Quincy Adams, 1825-1829. — The new president was probably as well qualified to fill the posi- tion of executive of the United States as any man who had ever been elected to that place. He was a graduate of one of our best colleges, an able lawyer, an experienced and distinguished diplomatist, and a man acquainted at home and abroad. His father, the second president of the United States, was still living, and must have been pleased to know that his son had been elected to this high and respected position. 408. The Death of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. — On July 4, 1826, just fifty years after the adoption of the declaration of independence, Thomas Jefferson, the man who wrote that immortal document, and John Quincy Adams, the man who made it pos- sible for its adoption, both passed away. No doubt that the death of these two presidents, on the anniversary of the adoption of the declaration of independence, has given to our independ- ence day an additional meaning. 409. The Erie Canal, 1825. 119 — [Plate 5.] During this admin- istration, every branch of industry seemed to increase in pros- perity. In 1825 the Erie Canal, connecting the Hudson River with the waters of the Great Lakes, was completed. This great undertaking was the work of the state of New York, and by many it was deemed to be impracticable. It was mainly through the efforts and energy of De Witt Clinton that the canal was built. He believed that by this canal the markets of New York and Europe would be in reach of the products of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys. us This canal, three hundred and sixty-three miles in length, connects the waters of Lake Erie with those of the Hudson. The canal is still in use and is of great commercial value. THIRTY YEARS PEACE 243 ...i^ v ^ n TRANSPORTATION ON THE ERIE CANAL Wfeiri — .— - ? S , ' i ; "--' %- .-■■-■,.- ■ - - AN EARLY RAILROAD TRAIN 244 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 410. The Introduction of the Steam Railroad 120 in the United States. — Although the canals did much to solve the question of transportation, yet this method was necessarily slow and tedious. Consequently people began to seek for swifter and more con- venient means. In 1829 the Delaware and Hudson Railroad, in the state of New York, placed an English engine (the Lion) on their road. Three years later two more engines, built by Robert Stephenson, were placed on the railroad which ran "from New Castle to Prenchtown. When these two locomotives landed at New Castle in Delaware, Mr. Matthias W. Baldwin was employed by the company to put them in running condition. While performing this work, he gained considerable information which he put into practical use, for in 1832 he built a locomotive for the railroad which ran be- tween Philadelphia and Germantown. This engine was known as "Old Ironsides." Soon other engines were put into service, and the railroads began to supersede the steam boats for passen- ger travel, and the canal for the heavy transportation. 411. Nathaniel Hawthorne, Author. — Nathaniel Hawthorne was the only son of a Salem sea captain. At the early age of four he was left fatherless. With his mother he moved to a home on Herbert Street, where the family lived a sad and secluded life. When he was about the age of twelve the family removed to a lonely place near Sebago Lake in Maine. Here he ^formed the habits of solitude which were so noticeable in his after life. From this time through his entire life there Nathaniel haw- would be months together when he thorne scarcely held any intercourse with peo- ple outside of his own family. This kind of life is plainly notice- able in his writings and probably had much to do with the pure- ness and simplicity of the same. His works are especially pleasing to children and young peo- ple, and among the best known are Twice-Told Tales, Grand- 120 Interesting data are given in Encyclopaedia Americana, vol. iv, p. 296. An admirable short essay on the railroads and their functions ap- pears in Shaler's The United States of America, vol. ii, pp. 65-131. See also Brown 's History of the First Locomotives in America. THIRTY YEARS PEACE 245 father's Chair, Biographical Stories for Children, Moses from an Old Manse, The Scarlet Letter, The House of the Seven Gables, A Wonder Book, and Tanglewood Tales. He died in 1864 and is buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Concord, near the large rock [see picture under Section 430] which marks the grave of Emerson. 412. The Tariff of Abominations, 1828. — Owing to a change in the protective policy of England, imported woolen fabrics became so cheap in the United States that the home manufac- turers asked for additional protection, and a bill which raised the tariff on woolen fabrics was presented to congress. The opponents to this bill, seeing that it was impossible to defeat it, made the duties unreasonably high hoping thereby to make the bill as obnoxious as possible. It finally became a law. but the rates were so alarmingly high that it was known as the Tariff of Abominations. So extremely unpopular was it in the south, that the vice presi- dent, John C. Calhoun of South ( iarolina in 1830 declared that any state had the right to decide whether an act of congress was constitutional or not. He thus launched forth his doctrine of state rights or nullification based upon the ground that the act was unconstitutional. 413. The Presidential Election of 1828.— Hardly had Adams assumed the duties of president when Jackson began his second campaign. He succeeded in forming an organization in opposition to the administration which completely put an end to the "era of good feeling." When the time arrived for the election, party lines were closely drawn. The spirit of contest was more pronounced than had ever been known. AVhen the votes were counted it was found that Jackson had been elected by a large majority. DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1829-1837 414. Andrew Jackson President, 1829- '37. 121 — On March 15, 1767, at Waxhaw Settlement, North Carolina, in a rough, low, un- couth house of logs was born Andrew Jackson. In less than a month from this time the widowed mother was forced to leave this miserable habitation and in order to support herself and her three young sons, went to work as a domestic at the home of a brother-in-law. With the ambition and self-sacrifice of a mother, she worked to support the family. At an early age An- drew was placed in school and made rapid progress in his studies. Some time after Andrew had entered this school the Revolu- tionary War broke out. One of the boys soon lost his life fight- ing for his country, and the other two boys became prisoners of the heartless and pitiless Tarleton. Andrew was about fourteen years old, and because he was a prisoner of war and refused to clean the boots of the haughty Tarleton he was severely wounded by that officer's sword. The two boys were now sent as prison- ers to Camden, where they were taken with the smallpox. The mother hastened thither and arranged for their exchange. She took them home where Andrew recovered and his brother died. After Andrew's recovery his motber hastened to the Charleston prison ships as a nurse, where she was taken with ship fever and died. Andrew, now at the age of fifteen, was without father, mother or brothers. He knew however that it had been his mother's wish that he should get an education, and so he devoted him- self to study. At the age of eighteen he began to study law and at the age of twenty-one was public prosecutor of the western 121 Reference Books (Jackson to Buchanan, inclusive): W. Wilson's Division and Reunion, eb. 1-8; W. C. Bryant and Gay, United States (re- vised edition), iv, 291-434; W. Macdonald, Jaclcsonian Democracy; A. B. Hart, Slavery and Abolition; G. P. Garrison, Westward Extension; T. C. Clarke, Fartics and Slavery; F. E. Chadwick, Causes of the Civil War, ch. 1-17; J. B. McMaster, United Staies, v, 523-556, vi; A. B. Hart, American History by Contemporaries, iii eh. 24-29; iv ch. 2-7; A. B. Hart, Source Bool; ch. 15-17; J. Schouler, United States, iii, ch. xiii; iv; v; classified list of books in the Appendix. THIRTY YEARS PEACE 247 district of North Carolina (now Tennessee). At twenty-nine he was elected to the United States house of representatives, and at thirty to the senate of the United States; at thirty-one he took the judgeship of the supreme court of Tennessee, and at thirty- seven he was made major-general of the militia of his state ; at forty-six he was engaged in war against the Creeks at Fort Minims; at forty-eight, at the battle of New Orleans, he put to flight the veteran troops which had captured Napoleon at Waterloo ; at fifty he put to flight the Seminole Indians of Georgia and Alabama; at fifty-two he served as governor of his state, and at fifty-six he was again sent by his state to the senate of the United States. Finally at sixty-one, after a long and honorable life spent in behalf of his country, he was elected to the presidency of the United States. This record of a poor orphan boy is certainly worthy of emulation. 415. Kitchen Cabinet. — Jackson, having been nominated by the state legislatures and elected by a large popular majority, was necessarily the first president of the people. He was a self-made man and as such, introduced many of his own ideas in his administration. Previous to this time the president had relied for advice upon his cabinet officers, but Jackson abolished this counsel entirely and instead he counselled with a few chosen men, some of whom were in the cabinet, while the most were simply his close frinds or associates. This group of individuals practically controlled the policy of the administration and in history is known as "Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet." 416. The Spoils System. — Another innovation introduced at this time was the practice of removing from office all those who were not of tbe same political faith as the president. This began in the removal of the cabinet officers, and was finally extended until it included even the postmasters. Before the middle of his first term Jackson had practically filled all public offices with men of his own party. The president evidently believed that in order to succeed in his administration as president it was necessary for him to place the responsible offices in the hands of his friends. 417. Jackson and the United States Bank. — According to the charter and a resolution of congress, tbe funds could be removed from the United States Bank only by the secretary of the treas- ury with the sanction of congress. The president, who wished to destroy tbe bank, resorted to 248 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES another plan in order to remove the deposits. On his own re- sponsibility he ordered William J. Duane, secretary of the treas- ury, to deposit the funds in certain state banks instead of the United States Bank. As it was necessarry to withdraw the funds already in the bank in order to meet the current expenses of the government, Jackson expected by this order soon to re- move the funds from the bank. Secretary Duane refusing to comply with the request, Jackson removed him and appointed Roger B. Taney, who proceeded to comply with the president's request. This action, with Jackson's veto of the new charter in 1836, put an end to the United States Bank. 418. Wild Cat State Banks.— The national debt at this time was fully paid and as there was no United States Bank congress ordered the surplus to be distributed among the banks of the different states. Soon state banks were springing up in every small village, each eager to receive its share of the surplus. These banks also issued "paper money" which made money very plentiful. 410. Jackson and the "Specie Circular," 1836. — The bankers having plenty of money, made very liberal terms in their loans. This led to speculation in government land, which at this time could be bought for one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre. When the payments became due Jackson found that they were made in paper money. He realized that the banks issuing the money might fail, then the government would necessarily be the loser, as the money received in payment would be worthless. He therefore issued his famous "Specie Circular," which instructed the government land agents to receive nothing but gold and sil- ver in payment for public lands. 420. The Panic of 1837. — In order to meet this new require- ment there became a great demand for specie. The people pre- sented the "paper money" to the banks for redemption in gold and silver, but many banks had issued this money in excess to the specie they had on hand, consequently they could not meet this demand and therefore "failed." Then commercial associa- tions of all kinds became bankrupt, the laboring classes were thrown out of emploj^ment, and great distress prevailed. 421. The Great Webster-Hayne Debate, 1830.— The tariff was ,-a very serious question at this time. Vice President Calhoun's spokesman in the senate was Robert Y. Hayne. In 1830 from his desk in the senate chamber, Hayne declared: "That each state is a sovereign power and the constitution is THIRTY YEARS PEACE 249 but a compact, from which any state may withdraw and govern itself if it prefers to do so. ' ' Hayne was answered by Daniel Web- ster, senator from Massachusetts, in one of the greatest speeches in the English lan- guage, which was in itself proof that love and respect for the Union had increased very much since Washington's administra- tion. 422. Tariff of 1832.— In 1832, however, another tariff bill was passed, which reduc- ed the rate to that of 1824, but this bill failed to satisfy the south. Acting in ac- daniel webstbr cor dance with the nullification doctrine of Calhoun and ITayne [Section 412], the people of South Carolina at a convention in Columbia, November 19, 1832, declared the tariff of 1828 and that of 1832, null and void in the state of South Carolina after February 1, 1833. 423. Jackson and Nullification. — The president, as was his habit, acted quickly and effectively. He at once issued a procla- mation declaring : 1 . That the Constitution did not form a league but a govern- ment. 2. That "nullification" was unconstitutional and revo- lutionary : 3. That he would enforce the laws without fear or favor. In order that he might be able to enforce the laws, he at once sent General Scott and two Avar vessels with troops to Charles- ton to aid the officers in the collection of the revenue. 424. Clay's Compromise Tariff of 1833.— Henry Clay, the "Great Pacificator," now came forward with one of his tariff compromises. The bill provided that the tariff should be grad- ually lowered until the year 1842, when it should reach the level of twenty per cent. This bill, with a mixture of threat and persuasion, caused the nullifiers to yield and became a law. From this time, the tariff became a party issue instead of an economic question. 425. Second Seminole War. — For some time there had been trouble between the Cherokees and the state of Gorgia. The president ruled that Georgia possessed the right to extend her municipal jurisdiction over the Indians. The case was carried 250 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES to the supreme court, and this court decided that the state of Georgia had no such authority. President Jackson replied by saying: "John Marshall (the chief justice) has made his decision, now let him enforce it. ' ' The Indians had to yield to their fate and in 3834 were removed to the territory west of the Mississippi River. Later a part of the Seminole tribe returned to Florida, and for ten years a sort of frontier war was carried on which, before it was ended, cost the government over $20,000,000.00, besides many lives. 426. The Black Hawk War.— Black Hawk was chief of the SaC and Fox tribes along the upper Mississippi. In 1830 Keokuk and others signed a treaty in which it was agreed that the Sac and Fox Indians should remove to territory west of the Missis- sippi River. Black Hawk was not a party to the treaty and so refused to give up the land. In the spring of 1832 hostilities be- gan and continued until August when Black Hawk was cap- tured. His capture, of course, closed the war. 122 427. Literature. — It may be said with truth that Jackson's administration was the beginning of a period of great exertion along the line of American fiction, for in fact, the most of our American authors began their work about this time. 428. Edgar Allan Poe. — The first of several American writers 122 i n the spring of 1832 hostilities were begun between Black Hawk and the whites, and the Black Hawk War followed. The then far west became alarmed. Illinois was the center of interest. General Scott was sent with the regulars to Chicago (Fort Dearborn), and Governor Reynolds called out several companies of volunteers. The point of rendezvous was for a time at John Dixon's Ferry, across Bock River (now the town of Dixon, with about 4,000 inhabitants), Illinois. (Dixon was called by the Indians Nachusa or White Head.) Here were camped, amongst other officers under command of General Atkinson, Lieutenant- Colonel (afterward president) Zachary Taylor, Lieutenant (afterward major and general) Robert Anderson, Lieutenant (afterward Senator) Jefferson Davis, Lieutenant (afterward major-general) David Hunter, and Private (afterward president) Abraham Lincoln of Captain Iles's company of Illinois Mounted Rangers. Major Anderson called upon President Lin- coln in April, 1861, after the evacuation of Fort Sumter. Mr. Lincoln said, "Major, do you remember of ever meeting me before?" "No, sir; I have no recollection of ever having had that pleasure. " " My memory is better than yours, then," replied Mr. Lincoln. "You mustered me into the United States service as a high private of the Illinois volunteers at Dixon 's Ferry in tlic Black Hawk War." Chicago Historical Society's Publications, no. 10, p. 15. THIRTY YEARS PEACE 251 mi who appeared at about this time was Edgar Allan Poe, aud the history of his life is probably the saddest in the catalogue of American authors. Left an orphan at an early age, he was adopted by John Allan, a very wealthy gentleman of Richmond. Here he was surrounded by luxury and the aristocracy of the South. It seems he was allowed in many respects to do as he pleased and oftentimes when he should have been disciplined he was granted indulgence instead. His later life was a con- tinuation of hardships, disappointments, and sorrow, and his literary works depict his life vividly, for they are a repeti- tion of gloom, despondency, and horror. Among his most interesting works are Tamerlane, The Rain n, Annabel Lee, The Bells, The Goldbug, A Descent into the Mael- strom, Tlu Pit and the Pendulum, Manuscript Found in a Botth , and The Fall of the House of Usher. 429. Henry W. Longfellow. — The early life of Henry W. Longfellow was much dif- ferent than that of Edgar Allan Poe. Reared in a home which contained books and music and having father and mother who were people of intellectual turn, Long- fellow spent his evenings around the table studying his lessons or playing games in the large kitchen before a broad open fireplace. At the early age of three years he was sent to school and at the age of ten years he read Latin and did work in other advanced subjects. At the age of thirteen he pub- lished his first poem "The Battle of Lovell's Pond," in the Port- land Gazette. At fourteen he entered Bowdoin College where he graduated fourth in a class of thirty-eight. His advancement was remarkable, for in early manhood he was recognized as one of the foremost of American poets. Among his many excellent works may be found Hyperion, Voices of the Night, Poems on Slavery, Evangeline, Song of Hia- tvalha, Courtship of Miles Standisli, Talcs of a Wayside Inn, and The New England Tragedies. 430. John Greenleaf Whittier. — Near the little old village of Haverhill, Massachusetts. John Greenleaf Whittier, the little Quaker boy, spent his childhood days. As he leaned upon bis hoe in the corn field bis mind was absorbed in bis fancies and dreams of nature, and at night he would scribble verses anl henry w. LONGFELLOW 252 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES rhymes on his slate. Being of a very independent and religious disposition, he oftentimes become involved in questions of scrip- ture and morality. At the age of nineteen lie sent a poem to Win. Lloyd Garrison, edi- tor of The Free Press. Garrison was so pleased with the poem that he visited the Whittier home and urged that the son be given a course of study preparatory to a literary future. When he was twenty years old, he entered Haverhill Academy, and his work in literary lines soon won admiration of many noted persons. At an early age he numbered among his friends such talented personages as Emerson, Lowell, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, Harriet Beecher Stow.e, Hawthorne and many others. Much of his literary work is along the line of slavery and he gave the best years of his life in earn- est work for the freedom of the slaves of the south. Some of his best works are Moll Pitcher, Poems of Abolition, Voices of Freedom, Political Works, Little Eva, Hemic Ballads, JOHN ORERNLEAF WHITTIER Photograph by Ton's GRAVE OP EMERSON In Sleepy Hollow cemetery, Concord, Massachusetts THIRTY YEARS PEACE 25)5 w ] li Hj§ Poems In War Time and Other Poems, Snow-Bound, Maud Mulli r, Pot ins of Nature, and At Sundown, 431. Ralph Waldo Emerson. — Ralph Waldo Emerson de- scended from a class of people who had for generations repre- sented the highest in both intellectual and moral culture. Al- though his father died when he was eight years old, his mother and aunt (two very remarkable women) directed his training and education in such a manner that he developed into a man of extraordinary ability. His work as a minister, lecturer, and writer has had a good and lasting effect on society in general. Representative Men, English Traits, Conduct of Life, May- Day and Other Pieces, Society and Solitude, and Natural History of the Intellect are often referred to as among his most interest- ing works. 432. Oliver Wendell Holmes. — Surrounded by his father's library, which contained about two thou- and volumes, and directed in his reading and studies by cultured and intellectual parents, Oliver Wendell Holmes early ex- hibited marked inclination toward a lit- erary life. Although he pursued the study of law and later the study of medicine with credit, yet these intellectual attributes were of no practical value to him, from a business standpoint. 433. Holmes had passed middle age before he settled down exclusively to purely literary work, and the culture and refinement of his ma- ture age is mainly noticeable in all his literary productions. A few of his many excellent works which may be mentioned are : Pages from an Old Volume of Life, The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, The Professor at the Breakfast Table, Elsie Tenner. The Guardian Angel, The Poet at the Breakfast Table, Life of Emerson, in the American Men of Letters series, and Over the Tea-Cups. 434. James Russell Lowell. — Another strong anti-slavery writer was James Russell Lowell, also a native of Massachusetts. Graduated from the Harvard College and from the Harvard Law School he was well prepared for his chosen work. Some of his works which are familiar to all, are : Class Poem. The Vision of Sir Launfal, A Eable for Critics, The Biglow Pa- OLIVER W. HOLMES 254 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES JAMES R. LOWELL pers, Fireside Travels, Commemoration Ode, Under tire Willows, and Political Essays. 435. George Bancroft. — It was also about this time that some of our best his- torians began to give to the world the re- sult of their labors along the line of his- tory. In 1834 George Bancroft publish- ed the first volume of his famous History of the United States. In 1885 he pub- lished a revised edition of his work, in six volumes. 436. Wm. H. Prescott. — Another his- torian who is probably, on account of his pleasing and romantic style, more favor- ably known, is Wm. H. Prescott. All students, whether American or for- eign, are familiar with his Ferdinand and Isabella, The Conquest of Mexico, and The Conquest of Peru. 437. John Lothrop Motley.— Added to the pleasing and romantic style of Pres- cott must be added the dramatic style peculiar to John Lothrop Motley. This in- dividual and peculiar power is quite pro- nounced in The Pise of the Dutch Republic. 438. National Nominating Conven- tions. — At the close of Jackson's hrst term there was instituted a new plan for the selection of candidates for president. By this new plan each party published : 1st. A platform explaining and defining the positions ad- hered to by the party. 2nd. The candidates for president and vice president were chosen by national conventions held for that purpose. This plan has been in vogue ever since. 439. Presidential Election, 1836. — Jackson, in accordance with the well established custom — that no president should serve more than two terms— refused to accept the nomination in 1836. The democrats, therefore, chose as their candidates Martin Van Buren, a man of Jackson's principles and beliefs, for president, and R. M. Johnson for vice president. There were several oilier candidates, but Van Buren and Johnson were elected by a large majority. WILLIAM PRESCOTT DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1837-1841 MARTIN VAN BUREN 440. Van Buren and the Independent Treasury System.— President Van Buren had scarcely entered upon the duties of his office when the ; ' Panic of 1847 ' ' [Section 420] swept over the country. Many wished to re-establish the United States Bank, but Van Buren was opposed to this. How- ever, he did not like Jackson's scheme of de- positing the surplus in the state banks, and therefore he proposed to establish a main treasury at "Washington with sub-treasuries in other important cities where revenue collec- tors might pay the money collected by them. Clay, Webster, and others opposed this bill, so it failed to become a law at this time. In 1840, however, a similar bill became a law and has been in effect ever since. 122 441. Anti-Slavery Movement. — President Van Buren had other matters of importance with which to contend, besides those of a financial character. While Jackson was still presi- dent — 1831 — -Win. Lloyd Garrison had begun the publication of an abolitionist paper, The Liberator. In 1832 an anti-slavery society was founded, which advocated immediate and absolute abolition of slavery. Other societies of like nature were found- ed, by the efforts of such men as James G. Birney, Gerrit Smith, Theodore Parker, James Russell Lowell, and Wendell Phillips. The south now became aroused. They insisted that the cir- culation of publications of anti-slavery nature through the mails should be prohibited, and also demanded that congress pass a rule to receive no petitions regarding slavery [Section 442]. This question became serious. In 1835 a meeting of the Women's Anti-slavery Society at Boston was broken up by a mob. Garrison, who was present, was dragged through the '■22 Garrison, i, eh. vii-xiv; Clay, ii, 70; Hart's Contemp's, iii, 595. 256 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES streets by the mob, with a rope around his body. He was with difficulty rescued and placed in jail for his own protection. In 1837 Elijah P. Lovejoy, who was publishing an anti-slavery paper at Alton, Illinois, was fatally shot. The poet, John G. Whittier, editor of the Pennsylvania Freeman, had his office press, and books and all destroyed and barely escaped being him- self mobbed. 442. The Gag Rule 1836.— In 1836 congress adopted the rule known as ' ' The Gag Rule, ' ' but ' ' The Old Man Eloquent, ' ' ex- President John Quincy Adams, with all the energy and elo- quence in his power, declared this rule an infringement of the "right of petition," as guaranteed by the Constitution. He made it his business to present to congress, regardless of the rule, every petition of every nature offered him. No exception was made. Once to the delight of his enemies, he brought to the notice of congress a petition presented to him, praying for his own expulsion from congress on the ground that he was a nuisance ; but John Quincy Adams had fought many a battle and knowing he was right kept up the fight until December, 1844, when the "Gag Rule" was rescinded. 443. Presidential Election of 1840. 123 — On account of the fi- nancial distress, the slavery disturbances, and his views on the independent treasury, Van Buren became very unpopular and although he was renominated by his party, he was defeated by the Whig candidate, William Henry Harrison of Tippecanoe fame. [Section 366]. 123 At this point in the study of United States history, a careful review should be made of the following political parties : Federalist, Anti-Feder- alist, Democratic-Republican (1793-1825), National Republican, Democratic, Anti-Masonic, and Whig. See some good political history for the study of these parties. WHIG ADMINISTRATION, 1841-1851 WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON 444. Harrison and Tyler Administrations 1841-1845.— On April 4, 1841, just one month after his inauguration, President Harri- son 12i died and Vice President John Tyler of Virginia became president. 445. Tyler and the United States Bank. — On account of financial troubles [Section 420] President Harrison called an extra ses- sion of congress to consider the question of finance. The AVhigs having elected their president and being in a majority in con- gress wished to reestablish the United States Bank. A bill to this effect framed by Henry Clay was passed, but failed to be- come a law as it was vetoed by President Ty- ler. A second bill to re-establish the bank was passed by congress, but the president ve- toed this bill also. 446. The President Deserted by the Whig Party. — The Whig party now became furious. The president was accused of be- ing a deserter. All the members of the cab-' inet except Daniel Webster resigned, and as far as possible, the president was ignored by the Whig party. 447. Webster- Ashburton Treaty. — [Plate No. 9.] Webster probably would have retired from the cabinet at this time, had it not been that he was engaged in a very important matter for the United States. The treaty of 1789 was quite indefinite regarding the bound- ary line between Maine and New Brunswick which at times had presented a very serious issue between the two govern- ments. In 1842, however, the two nations agreed to refer the questions to Daniel Webster and Lord Ashburton, w r ho fixed the bound- JOHN TYLER i 2 *Schurz's Clay, ii, 198; Von Hoist's United States, ii. 258 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ary line at its present limits. 125 The treaty also reestablished the northern boundary of the United States from the upper ex- tremity of Lake Huron, along the present boundary line to the crest of the Rocky Mountains. Nothing as yet was done re- garding the Oregon country. Webster now retired from the president's cabinet. 448. Tariff of 1842. — According to the compromise tariff of 1833 [Section 424] the rate was to be gradually lowered until the year 1842 when it should reach the level of twenty per cent. When congress convened, although contrary to the stipulations of the tariff of 1833, it proceeded to pass a high rate tariff bill. The bill, as usual with all bills, was promptly vetoed by Presi- dent Tyler. Another bill was passed and received the same fate. Finally, through the efforts of Millard Fillmore, the president allowed a third bill to become a law. This bill was virtually the same as that of 1832, as the aver- age duties were about thirty-five per cent, and therefore was in no way in accordance with the stipulations of the compro- mise tariff of 1833. However, we must not judge the president too harshly, as he had inherited from the Van Buren administration a deficit of over eleven million dollars. 449. Dorr's Rebellion, 1842.— Since 1663 [Section 118] Rhode Island had acted under the charter granted to Roger Williams by King Charles II. According to this charter only a freeman (that is one holding real estate of a certain value) or his eldest son could vote. In 1842 a new constitution was adopted and in the election that followed two parties — the "Law and Order" party and the "Suffrage" party — contested for the control of the state under the new constitution. The "Law and Order" party refused to count any votes ex- cept the votes of "freemen" and proceeded to organize the government under the new constitution. The "Suffrage" party, which claimd that Thomas W. Dorr had been elected governor, rose in rebellion and were dispersed only after the United States troops had been called. Dorr was tried and convicted of treason, but later was pardoned. 450. Anti-rent Difficulties, 1844. — In New York another dis- turbance which caused both riots and bloodshed was the trouble 125 Lodge's Webster, 252; Schouler, 396; Benton, ii, ch. ci and cvi. THIRTY YEARS PEACE 259 which arose over the old Dutch patroonates of 1629. [Section 121.] The proprietor of the Van Rensselaer estate, being of a gen- erous disposition, had not for several years collected the rents. At his death in 1839, the heirs undertook to collect the rents, but the tenants absolutely refused to pay them. The tenants of other estates joined in the contest, and sheriffs and rent col- lectors were murdered. Military forces had to be called to suppress the uprising. After several years of agitation, the trouble was settled by the landlords accepting a lump sum, the annual rents being discontinued. 451. The Mormons. — A very remarkable religious sect of people known as Mormons at this time created much trouble in the country. The Mormon church had been founded by Joseph Smith of Palmyra, New York, in 1829. The year follow- ing he published what is known as the Book of Mormon, which he claimed to have received in a very miraculous manner. With a body of followers he formed a settlement at Kirtland, Ohio. Later (1837) they settled at Independence, Missouri, but in 1838 they were driven out of Missouri and made a new settle- ment at Nauvoo (Illinois), where they erected a beautiful tem- ple; and by the year 1844 they had built a city of over ten thousand people. On account of their religious belief which sanctioned the practice of polygamy, they were very undesirable citizens. They were also held responsible for many crimes which were committed at this time. Finally their leader, Joseph Smith, was arrested and taken to Carthage (Missouri), where he was murdered by a mob while awaiting trial. 452. The Mormons Move to Utah. — Under their new leader, Brigham Young, these people now decided to move far from civilization where they would not be molested in the exercise of their religious teachings. They began a settlement in Iowa, near the present city of Council Bluffs, but later transplanted their entire sect far from civilization, in the desert region near the G reat Salt Lake in Utah. 453. The Republic of Texas. — Mexico, along with other Spanish colonies, had by a revolution gained her freedom from Spain. Previous to the treaty of 1819 with Spain [Section 396 and Plate 9] much of the country then known as Texas had been claimed by the United States, but in order to secure Florida all 260 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES claim to this country was relinquished by this nation. How- ever, on account of the fertile soil and delightful climate this country had been rapidly settled by people from the southern and western states. These people were naturally anti-Mexican in sentiment and in 1836, after a short but bloody war, they declared their inde- pendence from Mexico, adopted a constitution, and set up a gov- ernment, with Sam Houston (formerly of Tennessee) as president. It is well to note that according to the Texas constitution, slavery was a fundamental part of the government. "•--^'^^,, . ' ' THE MORMONS ON THEIR WAY TO UTAH •454. Texas Admitted, 1845. 126 — Soon after Texas declared her independence, she asked to be admitted into the United States as a state. The south was very anxious to have the state admitted as it would extend the slave territory. The north was not in favor of admitting the state for two reasons: 1. The boundary line between Mexico and Texas was still in dispute, as Mexico had not as yet acknowledged the inde- pendence of Texas. Consequently if she should be admitted into the Union it would lead to a war between the United States and Mexico. i2C Caldwell's American Territorial Development, 129; Johnson's Amer- ican Politics. THIRTY YEARS PEACE 261 2. Slavery being a fundamental part of the constitution would naturally tend to perpetuate the institution of slavery. However, after a long and passionate contest, Texas in 1854 was admitted as a slave state. 455. Florida Admitted, 1845. — A few months previous to the admission of Texas, Florida had been admitted to the Union as a slave state. By the admission of these two states, the bal- ance of power in the United States senate was with the south. 456. The Telegraph and Other Scientific Improvements. — While questions of national importance were being discussed by statesmen, and questions of sovereignty were being de- termined by the military forces, men of science were busily engaged in their lab- oratories making discoveries and im- provements along many different lines. In 1834 Cyrus H. McCormick invented the McCormick mowing machine. In 1835 Samuel F. B. Morse invented the magnetic telegraph. In 1835 Samuel Colt patented revolv- ing firearms. In 1839 Dr. Draper discovered the pro- cess of taking daguerreotype portraits. In 1841 Drs. Morton and Jackson discovered the use of ether as an anaesthetic. In 1844 Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, used nitrous oxide gas (laughing gas) for painless extraction of teeth. In the same year Charles Goodyear patented the process of vulcanizing India rubber so that it might be made into shoes, garments and other articles. In 1846 Elias Howe invented, perfected and patented the sewing machine. Soon these inventions and discoveries were put to practical use and have had much to do in making it possible for us to make rapid and wonderful strides in civilization. 457. Presidential Election of 1844. — Prior to the admission of Texas, the presidential election had been held, and the ques- tion of the admission of Texas to the Union became the main issue in the campaign. The democrats placed in nomination James K. Polk of Ten- SAMUEL F. B. MORSE (From an engraving in the Treasury Department, Washington, D. C.) 262 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES nessee who was in favor of annexation. This party was also in favor of establishing the northern boundary of the Oregon country at 54° 40' [Plate No. 9]. Previous to the democratic convention the Whigs had met in national convention and nom- inated as their candidate, Henry Clay. The "Liberty" or "Anti-Slavery" party nominated James G. Birney of New York. James K. Polk was elected president and George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania, vice president. During this election, the campaign cry of Polk's followers was, "Fifty- four Forty or Fight." Our claim to the territory (Oregon country) south of the parallel 54° 40' was through Captain Gray's discovery of the Columbia River [Section 345], Lewis and Clark's expedition (Section 345), our settlements, and the Spanish treaty of 1819. However, by the treaty of 1846 [Section 469], the line of 1818 [Plate No. 9] was extended through to the Pacific Ocean. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 127 DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1845-1849 JAMES 458. Dispute over the Boundary between Texas and Mexico and the Army of Occupation. — [Plate No. 6.] As had been anticipated, as soon as Texas was admitted into the Union [Sec- tion 454] trouble arose over the boundary line between this state and Mexico. Texas claimed the Rio Grande River as her southern boundary while Mexico declared it to be the Neueees River. The country between these two rivers was therefore in dispute, and President Polk at once sent an army under General Taylor to hold the territory for the United States. Mexico looked upon this as a declara- tion of war, and in April, 1846, her forces killed or captured every member of an American party who were out on a scout- ing expedition. 459. War Declared, May 13, 1846. 128 — As soon as this news reached Washington, the president sent a message to congress in which he declared that war already existed with Mexico in- asmuch as "Mexico has invaded our territory and shed Amer- ican blood on American soil." Congress acted promptly and on May 13 declared that "by the act of Mexico a state of war exists." In order to prosecute the war, an appropriation of ten million dollars was made and a call was issued for fifty 127 Ehodes's History of The United States, from the Compromise of 1860; The Century Company 's series, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. These same works give a very satisfactory discussion of the political and foreign affairs during the same period. See also Wilson's Division and Reunion, pp. 213-223, and Grant's Personal Memoirs, vol. i, ch. xvii-xxi. Among juvenile books, Champlin's War for the Union, C. C. Coffin's Drumbeat of the Nation, The Boys of '61, and Winning His Way, are among the best. 128 In the War of 1812, the south furnished 96,800 soldiers, and the north 58,500. In the Mexican War, the south furnished 43,600 and the north, 23,000. — Pollard's Southern History. 264 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES thousand volunteers. In answer to this call over three hundred thousand men responded. 460. Taylor's Campaign. — [Plate No. 6.] As soon as Gen- eral Taylor learned that the Mexicans had shed American blood, he started in search of the intruders. On May 8 at Palo Alto an engagement was fought in which the Americans were vic- torious. The next day the Mexicans were so badly defeated at Resaca de la Palina that they were forced to cross the Rio Grande. The student will notice that both of these battles were fought before the declaration of war by the United States, but General Taylor believed that this action was necessary and consequently did not wait. General Taylor followed the Mexicans to Monterey and after a long siege, on September 24 captured the city. 461. The President Sends General Scott to the Front. — [Plate No. 6.] On account of this brilliant campaign, General Taylor became very popular, and for political reasons this was very displeasing to the administration. Consequently General Winfield Scott, who was over all the American forces, was ordered to Vera Cruz, from which place he was to proceed directly to the heart of Mexico. 462. Battle of Buena Vista, February 22-23, 1847.— [Plate No. 6.] As soon as Scott received his instructions, he ordered General Taylor to send to him ten thousand men. This of course very much weakened General Taylor's army, and Gen- eral Santa Anna, president of the Mexican Republic, taking advantage of this situation, attacked General Taylor, with an army of over twenty thousand ; but the Americans, although greatly out-numbered, held the field, and at midnight the Mex- ican army retreated. 463. General Scott's Campaign. — [Plate No. 6.] After the battle of Buena Vista, Santa Anna hurried with his arnry to oppose General Scott at Vera Cruz. However, this place was soon captured by the combined efforts of the army and navy of the United States. The Mexicans now (April 18, 1847 s ) entrench- ed themselves at Cerro Gordo, where they were again defeated. By the tenth of August General Scott's army had reached the highlands surrounding the city of Mexico from which position the city was in plain view. The city of Mexico was originally surrounded by water and although this water has been drained off. still to this day, the city SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 265 Photograph by Voris Monument erected by the United States in memory of soldiers who fell in the Mexican War. 129 is surrounded by marshy ground and is reached by roads, known as causeways. Where these cause- ways entered the hills they were for- tified in as strong a way as possible by the Mexicans. On August 20th, with an army of only eleven thous- and, General Scott attacked and cap- tured Contreras. Soon Cherubnsco and Moline del Rev were occupied. Then in one last grand effort to pro- tect their capitol, the Mexicans gath- ered their forces, at the rock of Chapultepec; but this was taken by storm, and on September 14th Gen- eral Scott and his army took posses- sion of the city of Mexico. 464. Happenings in Other Parts of Mexico.— [Plate No. 6.] While these events were taking place, other issues of great im- portance were being enacted in other territories belonging to Mexico. In the early part of June, 1846, General Stephen W. Kearny with an army of only eighteen hundred left Fort Leavenworth (in Kansas) and following the old Santa Pe trail, on August 18th he entered and captured the city of Santa Fe without a single battle. He at once took charge of govern- mental affairs and declared New Mexico a part of the United States. General Kearny now started toward California, ex- pecting to conquer that country but in this venture he was too late, for California had already been subdued (July, 1846) by the combined efforts of a land and naval force under John C. Fremont, the "Pathfinder," and Commodore Sloat. Thus with- out even an important engagement all of the territory to the south of the Oregon country came under the control of the United States. 465. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848.— [Plate No. 6.] Soon after General Scott captured the city of Mexico, peace commissioners were sent by the United States who on February 2, 1848, at Guadalupe Hidalgo concluded a treaty with the Mexican government by which the Rio Grande 129 This monument is in the cemetery, lying between the city of Mexico and the castle of Chapultepec. Beneath the monument are the remains of nearly one thousand of the soldiers of the United States, who were killed on the near-by fields, during the Mexican War. 266 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES River was declared to be the southwestern boundary of Texas. The treaty also provided that the United States should pay to Mexico $15,000,000 in gold and assume $3,500,000 of debts which Mexico owed to citizens of the United States. In ex- change for this Mexico ceded to the United States all of Upper California and New Mexico, in all over five hundred thousand square miles. 466. Congress and the Wilmot Proviso. — Soon after the be- ginning of the war, President Polk requested congress to ap- propriate two million dollars with which to settle the dispute with Mexico. When the bill came before congress, David Wil- mot, a democratic member of the house from Pennsylvania, moved to amend the original bill by adding a provision of the Ordinance of 1787 which provided, "as an express and funda- mental condition to the acquisition of any territory . . . neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of the said territory." The bill failed to become a law, but the discussion was of such a nature that the question of the extension of slavery was again before the people to such an extent that it led to the formation of the Free Soil party. This party was opposed to the further extension of slavery in any territory which was under the control, or which should ever come under the control of the United States. i^wriCi""*!***^ GOLD DREDGING IN CALIFORNIA SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 267 467. The Walker Tariff, 1846.— During the year 1846 con- gress passed the Walker tariff, which was practically a "tariff for revenue only." The bill reduced the duties on imports to such an extent that they reached the conditions provided by the compromise tariff of 1833 [Section 424J. This bill practi- cally set to rest the tariff question until the opening of the Civil War, as the only other change that was made in the schedule was in 1857 when a few more changes were made in the direc- tion of lower duties. 468. Discovery of Gold in California and its effect on Slav- ery. At the close of the Mexican War. the south was pleased over the fact that more territory had been gained in which they believed they might introduce slavery. This expectation, however, was quickly blighted by an unexpected occurrence. A ^M*m^ % i'i*i V-^: 31 ^- —,>»%- -y )* : 4zTr ->.- ■J&SSS&&& -'. CROSSING THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA ON THE WAY TO THE GOLD FIELDS OF CALIFORNIA In 1848 James W. Marshall of New Jersey, a carpenter, em- ployed by John A. Sutter in building a mill-race in California, discovered some shining particles of gold. This news spread like wild-fire and soon people began to rush in from every coun- try and nation. Some came across the plains; others around Cape Horn, while others by ship to Panama, thence across the isoHenty's Captain Bayley's Heir. 268 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Isthmus and then by ship again to San Francisco. Cities soon sprang up as if by magic. The population of California, within one year (1849) was so great that they asked for admission into the Union as a state. These people Avere, generally speak- ing, not in favor of slavery and asked to be admitted into the Union with a constitution forbidding slavery. 469. Northwest Boundary Established. — [Plate No. 9.] As already stated [Section 457] the boundary line between Canada and the United States was, in 1846, by mutual agreement ex- tended along the forty-ninth parallel to the Pacific Ocean. In 1848 the Oregon territory was organized with a provision in its laws which forever excluded slavery from within its domains. Thus not only California but the Oregon territory was settled by the people who were antagonistic to slavery. 470. States Admitted : Iowa, 1846 ; Wisconsin, 1848. — During this administration two states were admitted, both being ad- mitted with constitutions forbidding slavery. Iowa the twenty- ninth state, was admitted in 1846, and Wisconsin, the thirtieth, in 1848. 47.1. Presidential Election, 1848. 131 - The most important question of course be- fore the people was whether the land lately acquired from Mexico should be slave or free territory. With this fact in view, the Free Soil party [Section 466] nominated ex-President Martin Van Buren ; the Dem- ocrats nominated Lewis Cass of Michigan, a northern anti-slavery man, while the Whigs nominated the popular Mexican war hero. General Zachary Taylor, a slave holder of the south, who was elected. i3i Johnson's American Politics. WHIG ADMINISTRATION, 1849-1853 472. Taylor's Policy Regarding Newly Acquired Terri- tory. — President Taylor entered upon the duties of his office, as president of the United States, with that regularity, straightfor- wardness, and honesty which had been so characteristic of him during his long military life. Although he was unversed in the ethics of politics and law, yet on account of his honesty of pur- pose he served the people who had elected him (Whigs) very ac- ceptably. He was very sincere in all his official duties. Although a slaveholder, yet since the people of California had already expressed their desire to come in as a free state [Section 468] he recommended that congress admit her with a constitution forbid- ding slavery. He was also in favor of admitting the territory which had been gained from Mexico as free territory, since Mexico several years previous to this time had passed a law abolishing slavery. 473. The Omnibus Bill, or the Compromise of 1850. 132 — This condition of affairs naturally aroused the south, and for some time it seemed as though the Union would be rent asunder. But the one man (Henry Clay) who had so often been able to suggest a plan which was acceptable to both the north and south, now came forward with his great compromise of 1850. This bill provided that 1. California should be admitted as a free state. 2. That the territories of Utah (including Nevada) and New Mexico (including Arizona) should be organized without any mention of slavery. 3. That the slave trade should be abolished in the District of Columbia. 4. That the dispute between Texas and New Mexico should be settled by the United States paying to Texas $10,000,000, and that she in turn should give up her claim to the territory claimed by New Mexico. 5. That new and more stringent fugitive slave laws be passed. 474. The Death of President Taylor. — While these scenes were being enacted in the senate chamber, a scene of a much 132 Hoist's United States, iii, 561, vol. iv, 14-21; Schurz's Clay, ii. 270 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES MILLARD FILLMORE different character had taken place at the executive mansion. President Taylor was suddenly taken ill with a severe case of cholera, and on July 9th he died ; thus the nation was suddenly cast into mourning, as the president was a man universally loved. On being officially informed of the death of the president, Vice President Fillmore immediately took the oath of office and as- sumed the duties of chief executive of the United States. 475. The Contest in the Senate. — It was in January, 1850, when Henry Clay intro- duced the omnibus bill, and in many re- spects the argument on this bill in the senate was the last act to a great oratori- cal contest which had been waged in the senate for more than forty years. In Feb- ruary, Clay spoke in behalf of the meas- ure. Day after day as the bill was being debated, the galleries of the senate chamber were crowded to overflowing. Clay although aged and lacking in the power which was so charac- teristic of him, argued and pleaded for conciliation. Calhoun, broken in health to such an extent that he could not give his own speech, sat in his chair feebly listening to his words read by a friend. He advocated better fugitive slave laws, and for an equal division of the territory between the slave and free states. Calhoun was followed by Webster, who on March 7th delivered his famous address, "For the Union and the Con- stitution." Many of the people of the north were disappointed in Webster, for they did not believe that he would support the compromise. The anti-slavery party was disappointed to such an extent that they began to look for other leaders. William H. Seward of New York, who was a representative citizen of the north, came forward and in his eloquent way warned the south that in their efforts to extend slavery they were only hastening the time when complete emancipation of the slaves would neces- sarily take place. He was bitter in his argument and remarks toward slavery, and in his speech said that if the constitution did not prohibit slavery, there Avas a higher law than the constitution by which the action of men should be guided. The fiijht was long and closely contested, but by September, 1850, a bill which agreed substantially with that introduced by Clay, SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 271 was passed. Thus it seemed for a time at least that the agita- tion over slavery had been settled. 476. The Passing 1 of Our Three Great Legislators. — The com- promise of 1850 was practically the last official work transacted by the three men who had held the legislative stage for over forty years. In fact, before the bill became a law (March 31, 1850) John C. Calhoun passed away. In the death of Calhoun the south had lost its great political leader, as he was the cham- pion of state rights. Next to answer the death call was the great compromiser, Henry Clay. Students of history will remember how he had labored to adjust matters so that the two opposite forces led by Calhoun on one side and Daniel "Webster on the other, might compromise their differences. Clay died July 29, 1852. Webster had been the champion of the constitution. How eloquently he argued for a stronger union, we all realize when reading the many different speeches which he delivered before congress. He performed a great work. Early in the autumn (October 24, 1852), at his old home in Marshfield, Massachu- setts, Webster passed away. We may truthfully say of all three of these men that they were extremely conscientious, and true to their own convic- tions. They each worked with a will and energy for those principles which they believed to be right, and each died with the conviction that he had done what he could to promote those principles. They were all admired and honored not only by the United States, but by the entire civilized world. 477. The Fugitive Slave Law. 133 — According to the stipula- tions of the compromise of 1850, the fugitive slave law was put into force in every state of the union. If the south supposed that this law would in any way benefit them, they must have been greatly disappointed, for the people in the north not only refused to aid in enforcing the law, but actually did everything in their power to hinder its enforcement. It will be remem- bered that, by the fugitive slave law, slaves or negroes claimed as slaves, were not allowed to have a trial by jury and were not even allowed to testify in their own defence. 478. Personal Liberty Bill. — In order to make the fugitive slave law ineffective, many of the northern states passed what is known as ''Personal Liberty Bills." These laws, in contra- diction to the fugitive slave laws, granted the slaves and ne- 133 Hart's Contemp's, iv, 84-91. 272 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES groes claimed as slaves, a trial by jury, and in many other ways protected them from the effects of the fugitive slave law. Of course these bills greatly aroused the south. The south claimed that the personal liberty bills were unconstitutional ; that they were diametrically opposed to the acts of congress, and that they were aimed at the ultimate extinction of slavery. 479. The Underground Railroad. — Another method of de- feating the fugitive slave law was by means of what is known as the "Underground Railroad System." The underground railroad was simply a system or convenience by which fugitive slaves were aided to escape from slavery through the free states to Canada. The stations, of course, were simply the homes of abolitionists or people who were friendly to the slaves. At these places the slaves were secreted, fed and clothed, and at opportune times were forwarded to the next station. By this method the slaves finally reached Canada. It is estimated that during the thirty years preceding the Civil War, between thirty and forty thousand slaves escaped by this method to Canada. 480. Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852). — Opposition to slavery now existed in nearly all quarters. In the north the press, pulpit, legislatures, and the people in their everyday conversation were doing everything in their power against the system. The peo- ple were now ready for a great social reform, and this was brought about by the pen of a skilful woman (Harriet Beecher Stowe), in a book entitled Uncle Tom's Cabin. This book created an overwhelming impression. Of course its fiction dealt with truth in an exaggerated form. Its circulation was not limited to the north, but in the south and in European coun- tries the book had a tremendous sale. It showed the light and fanciful life of the slaves, and as vividly it portrayed the sad- ness and suffering of these same slaves. While the people of the south laughed at the witticisms and mirth portrayed in the book, the people of the north shed tears and decided that slav- ery must be eliminated from the nation. 481. The Seventh Census, 1850.— The census of 1850 showed that the population of the United States had made a material gain since 1840. This may in part be explained from the fact that many people had come to this country from Ireland on account of the groat famine which during this time had pre- vailed in that land. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 273 The entire population at this time was found to be 23,191,876, which was over one and one-third times the population of 1840. 482. Presidential Election, 1852. — Contrary to what had been expected, the presidential election was not as exciting as had been anticipated, during the debates on the compromise of 1850. However, the fact was quite apparent that the Free Soil party was fast gaining in strength. When the time for the election arrived, the Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott for presi- dent and General William M. Graham of North Carolina for vice president. The Free Soil party in their convention nomi- nated John P. Hale of New Hampshire as president and George W. Julian of Indiana as vice president. The Democrats nom- inated Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire for president and William R. King of Alabama for vice president. Franklin Pierce and William R. King were elected. DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1853-1857 483. Franklin Pierce President, 1853-1857. — Franklin Pierce, the fourteenth president of the United States, had not distinguished himself as a party leader, but was a polished student, a skilful lawyer and a man of enviable reputation. He was true to his party doc- trine and did everything in his power to carry out the wishes of the party. His administration, on account of the slavery question, was disturbed throughout. 484. The Gadsden Purchase, 1857.— [Plate No. 9.] One of the first things the franklin pierce president was called upon to do was to set- tle the dispute between the United States and Mexico regarding the ownership of the Mesilla Valley. Owing to the incorrectness of the maps used in the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, there was a misunderstanding regarding the boundary line, and both coun- tries laid claim to this valley. Santa Anna, who was at this time president of the Republic of Mexico, finally agreed to ar- bitrate the matter, and through our minister to Mexico, James Gadsdeu, the territory was ceded to the United States, and in addition we were given the free navigation of the Gulf of Cali- fornia and of the River Colorado by paying to the Mexican gov- ernment ten millions of dollars. 485. Martin Koszta Affair, 1854. 134 — An affair of interna- tional nature occurred during this year which did much to make the citizens of the United States feel proud of their nation. Mar- tin Koszta, a Hungarian patriot who had been engaged in a rebellion against his country, was sentenced to death. Escaping to the United States he at once declared his intentions of becom- ing a citizen. Soon after this, business affairs called him to Turkey, and with the passports of a United States citizen, he landed at Smyrna where he was seized and taken on board an Austrian man of war. As soon as the American ambassador heard of this, he demanded his release, but this was refused. 134 Rhodes, i, 4] 6-410. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 275 Captain Ingraham of the United States war vessel St. Louis, then sailed into the harbor and immediately demanded his release at the cannon's mouth. Thereupon the Austrians agreed to de- liver him to the French consul, pending the settlement of the affair. This was agreed to and in the settlement Koszta was again turned over to the United States. Although we are not sure that international law was entirely on the side of the United States in this affair, yet the victory greatly strengthened our national pride and did much in giving us favorable recognition abroad. 486. Commodore Perry Secures a Treaty with Japan, 1854. — Japan, like China, had persistently refused to open her ports to the commerce of Christian nations. The United States wished very much to enter into commercial relations with Japan and with this idea in view the president, in 1853, sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry, a brother of the hero of Lake Erie, to try if possible to open negotiations and secure a commercial treaty. The Japanese were greatly astonished at the boldness of Com- modore Perry when he appeared in one of their harbors with his fleet of ships, and at once ordered him to depart ; but he refused to do so until he had communicated with the proper authorities and made known to them the object of his visit. Finally after much perseverance, he was received by the emperor and a treaty was entered into, by which the United States was permitted to trade at two ports. Commodore Perry also secured the protec- tion of United States citizens who wished to visit in Japan. Soon after the conclusion of this treaty a brisk commerce sprung up between the two nations which has increased rapidly until the present time. Japan today considers the United States her greatest friend and instructor, and gives to this nation a great deal of credit for the rapid advancement which she has made in civilization during recent years. 487. The Ostend Manifesto, 1854.— [Plate No. 2.] During the same year that Commodore Perry concluded a treaty with Japan, this country was involved in trouble with Spain, over the island of Cuba. 135 A certain class of people known as "filibus- ters" was determined to annex that island to the United States. These filibustering expeditions had always been discouraged by the United States government, but at different times this govern- ment had tried to buy the island from Spain. is* Channing and Hart's History Leaflets, no. 2. 276 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The people of the south of course were anxious to have the island annexed as they believed this would furnish territory for at least two more slave states. President Pierce, believing that some arrangement for the transfer of the island might now be made, appointed a committee consisting of the United States ministers to Great Britain, France, and Spain, respectively James Buchanan, John Y. Mason, and Pierre Soule, to meet and confer and report as to the best means of acquiring the island. These gentlemen met at Ostend, Belgium, and finally reported to the United States their conclusion in a document known as the "Ostend Manifesto." In this document they stated that the possession of Cuba was a necessity for the United States and inasmuch as Spain refused to sell the island, they recommended that the United States seize it. This report created a great deal of discussion among European powers, and such vigorous protests were made that the president concluded that it was best to drop the idea of the annexation of Cuba by any method whatsoever. 488. The Walker Expedition. — Three other fillibustering ex- peditions were organized by William Walker against Central America. In the first of these expeditions, Walker and his forces invaded Lower California and a portion of Mexico. He, how- ever, was defeated by the Mexicans, and was turned over to the authorities of the United States at San Francisco, where he was tried and acquitted. Hardly had he gained his freedom when he sailed to Central America, going directly to Nicaragua, where the natives rallied to his standard to such an extent that for a time he gained control of the government. Soon, however, the countries of Central America combined their forces and over- threw his authority and for a second time made him a captive. Regaining his liberty again, he at once set out for New Orleans where he organized a third expedition and descended upon Hon- duras. The president of Honduras, by the aid of a British gun- boat, captured Walker and his forces. Here he was not so for- tunate as he had been in his other two expeditions, for he was at once court-martialed and shot. 489. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854. 136 — It was thought that the Missouri compromise and the compromise of 1850 had practically settled the slavery question, but in 1854 Stephen A. Douglas, a Democratic senator from Illinois, offered a bill for the organi- zation of two territories from the area included in the present 136 Johnston's American Orations, ii, 183-255; Hart's Contem-p's, iv, 97. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 277 states of Kansas and Nebraska. In this bill was a clause which t stated that the question of slavery should be left entirely to the settlers themselves without any interference upon the part of congress whatsoever. This idea, known as "Squatter Sovereignty," was hailed with delight by the south, and was as vehement- ly denounced in the north. The south now believed that if this law could be passed, they might be able to gain this territory for slavery. The north believed that it was absolutely a repudiation of the Stephen a. douglas Missouri compromise [Section 401] and also the compromise of 1850 [Section 473]. After a most vio- lent discussion the bill, in May, 1854, became a law. 490. Civil War in Kansas. — As soon as it was known that this bill had become a law, the slave holders and the friends of freedom began a vigorous contest for the control of the new ter- ritory. The slave holders — especially of Missouri — did every- thing in their power to secure this territory for slavery. Great crowds of people poured into Kansas from this state and voted at the election and then returned home. By this method a con- stitution permitting slavery was adopted and a government under this constitution was organized. However, the anti-slavery people refused to acknowledge this new form of government. A meeting was called at Topeka and a constitution forbidding slavery was adopted. This constitution was submitted to popular vote and was adopted. Both sides now rushed settlers to the new territory and a civil war ensued. Homes were burned, cities destroyed, and men. women, and children were cruelly murdered. Under the pro- tection of such men as John Brown and his sons, the pro-slavery men were practically driven from parts of the territory. This unsettled condition of affairs, however, continued to a certain extent until the breaking out of the great Civil War, in 1860. 491. Assault on Sumner by Brooks. 137 — After hearing of the action of the Topeka convention, President Pierce sent to con- gress a message in which the anti-slavery people of Kansas were severely criticised. Charles Sumner, the senator from Massa- chusetts, in his celebrated speech entitled, "The Crime against Kansas," severelv criticised Andrew P. Butler, senator from i3r Johnston's American Oratioris, ii, 256, 288. 278 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES South Carolina. Two days later Preston S. Brooks, representa- tive in congress from South Carolina, who was a relative of Senator Butler, stealth- ily entered the senate chamber and with a heavy cane beat Senator Sumner over the head so severely that he narrowly es- caped death. In fact, he was absent from his place in the senate for over two years, and never fully recovered from the as- sault. This affair created the greatest ex- citement in all parts of the nation. So severely was Brooks criticized by the house charles sumner f representatives that he resigned and re- turned to South Carolina where he was immediately reelected to the position from which he had just resigned. Thus was his at- tack upon Senator Sumner applauded by his constituency in the South. 492. The Campaign of 1856.— The presidential campaign of 1856 turned on the extension of slavery in the territories or to its limitation to the states where it already existed. A new party known as the American party or "Know Noth- ing Party" had its origin as far back as 1852 as a secret organ- ization whose purpose was to limit the naturalization of foreign- ers to those who had resided twenty-one years in this country, and to prevent their election to public office. The term "Know Nothing" was applied to them as their members always declared that they knew nothing whatever of the organization of the party. In 1856 this party nominated Millard Fillmore as president and Andrew D. Jackson of Tennessee as vice president. Their cam- paign motto was "America for Americans." Meantime another party had also arisen, composed principally of the Whigs and Democrats who were opposed to the extension of slavery. This party was also joined by the Free Soil party, and was known as the Republican party. The Republicans nom- inated John C. Fremont of California as president and William L. Dayton of New Jersey as vice president. They declared for internal improvements and placed on congress the duty of pro- hibiting slavery and polygamy in the territories, and requested that Kansas be admitted as a free state. The Democratic party announced that it was willing to let slavery go into the territories if the inhabitants desired it, and therefore approved the Kansas-Nebraska bill and "Squatter Sov- SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 279 ereignty. " They nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania as president and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky as vice pres- ident. Mr. Buchanan and Mr. Breckenridge, receiving the largest number ol 3 electoral votes, were declared elected president and vice president. DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1857-1861 493. James Buchanan, President, 1857-61. — James Buchan- an, the fifteenth president of the United States, was born in Pennsylvania. After receiving a thorough education he applied himself to law, beginning the practice of the same in 1812. However, he did not stay- in his law office long, for soon after the breaking out of the War of 1812 he joined a party of volunteers and marched to the defense of Baltimore. Returning to his home in 1814, he was elected to the state legislature, and in 1820 he became a mem- james buchanan De r of congress. In 1831 he retired from congress, and the next year he was appointed minister plenipo- tentiary to St. Petersburg. After his return from Russsia, he was elected to the senate, in which position he remained until 1845, at which time he was appointed secretary of state under President Polk. In 1853 he was appointed by President Pierce United States minister to Great Britain. It will be remembered it was at this time [Section 487] that he served as one of the members of the Ostend conference. He returned from England in 1856, and was immediately nominated by the Democratic party for president. Although Buchanan was probably one of the best qualified men who ever entered the executive office of the United States, yet on account of the troublesome questions of slavery and his inability to adjust matters, it must be admitted that his admin- istration was not a success. In fact he seemed to realize this, for he was not desirous of being a candidate for reelection, but seemed glad to be able to retire to his home in Wheatland, Penn- sylvania. Here he died June 1, 1868. * 494. The Dred Scott Decision. 138 — On March 6, 1857, just two days after Buchanan's inauguration, the supreme court of the United States handed down a decision which again brought the question of slavery before the people. Dred Scott, a slave 138 Von Hoist's United States, ch. i of vol. vi; Hart's Contemp's, iv, 122. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 281 owned by Dr. Emerson, was the plaintiff in the case. Originally Dr. Emerson had lived in Missouri, but about 1834, being en- gaged as a surgeon in the United States army, he took his slave, Dred Scott, with him to Rock Island, Illinois; later, the doctor was called to Fort Snelling, near the present site of St. Paul in Minnesota, and while at this place, Dred Scott, with the consent of his master, married a negro woman whom the doctor had also purchased. Two children were born to them; one on free soil and the other in St. Louis, to which place Mr. Emerson had re- turned. In 1838 Dred Scott, with his wife and children, were sold by their master to a man from New York. It was at this time that he sued for his freedom, claiming that his residence on free soil had made him a free man. In the lower courts the case was decided in the slave's favor, but the supreme court of Missouri reversed the decision. The case was then carried to the supreme court of the United States, and after a long and elaborate discussion of all the questions in the case, a decision was handed down as follows : "Upon the whole, therefore, it is the judgment of this court that it appears, by the record before me, that the plaintiff in error is not a citizen of Missouri, in the sense in which that word is used in the constitution ; and that the circuit court of the United States for that reason had no jurisdiction in the case, and could give no judgment in it. Its judgment for the defend- ant must consequently be reversed, and a mandate issued direct- ing the suit to be dismissed for want of jurisdiction. ' ' This decision, it will be observed, practically opened all the territories of the United States to slavery and while gratifying to the southerners, it created a great discussion in the north, where it was believed that the decision was unjust. 495. Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858. 139 — As we have already noticed Stephen A. Douglas had, since his introduction of the ' ' Kansas-Nebraska Bill, ' ' been one of the foremost figures in the senate chamber. His second term was now drawing to a close, and the Republicans of Illinois chose Lincoln to oppose Douglas who was of course the Democratic candidate. Lincoln at once challenged him to a series of seven joint debates, on the issues of slavery. This series of debates was of more than passing interest since the discussion covered all the questions which were finally settled by the Civil War. 139 Caldwell's Great American Legislators; Von Hoist's United States, vi, 267; Burgess's Civil War, i, 46-50; Old South Leaflets, no. 85. 282 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Although Douglas was elected to the senatorship, Lincoln was brought prominently before the people and soon became the lead- er of the Republican party. 496. John Brown's Raid, 1859. 140 — John Brown was a man who had all the finer and better feelings of his heart wrung from him by the outrages of the Kansas border warfare and only revenge for his wrongs and sufferings was left. Like many others, he emigrat- ed to Kansas for the purpose of making that territory his home ; but differing in regard to the best pol- icy to adopt for the rapid develop- ment and growth of the territory, with another class of immigrants, an attempt was made by those last mentioned to over-ride and to drive JOHN BROWN . As he appeared in 1855 when he first f rom the territory all who differed passed through iowa f rom t i iem i n politics. In the at- tempt to carry out this desperate scheme, among others a son of Brown, who had been elected to the legislature, was arrested at Osawatomie, his hands and feet chained together with a heavy log chain, and thus hobbled he was compelled to travel on foot to Lecompton. The sun was burning hot and the heavy chain wore its way into his flesh. Under this barbarous treatment he was seized with brain fever and soon afterward died. Some time after this an attack was made on Osawatomie by the Missourians and another son of Brown was taken prisoner and afterward shot in cold blood. Brown now became a monomaniac on the subject of slavery. He fought the invaders of Kansas with intrepidity and bloodthirstiness. He made invasions into the border counties of Missouri, and aided slaves in escaping from their masters. After these repeated wrongs, Brown conceived he was com- missioned by Heaven to exterminate the blot of slavery from our country. To effect this imaginary commission of his dis- ordered brain, he had been working with a few deluded follow- ers, white and black, with a self-sacrificing zeal. In 1856, James Townsend, a member of the Society of Friends, 140 Von Hoist's United States History, v, 172-286; Hart's Contemp's, iv, 114; Rhodes, ii, 150-215. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 283 kept a public house, "The Travelers' Rest," in the little village of West Branch, in Cedar County, Iowa. In October, John Brown, on his way from Kansas, reached the "Travelers' Rest" and stopped over night. Learning that the landlord was a Quak- er, Brown made known to him that he was " Osawatomie Brown" of Kansas, and at once received a most cordial welcome. He was told of the strong anti-slavery views of the Quaker settle- ment at Springdale, four miles to the east, which place later also gave him a cordial reception. Brown believed that a body of fearless men could make a safe lodgment in the mountains of Maryland and Virginia and liber- ate the slaves. His plan was to arm the escaped slaves with pikes, organize and drill them under experienced officers selected from young men who had seen service in the Kansas war. With this plan in view, he called to his standard a number of men who had fought with him in the Kansas struggle. Among these men were John C. Cook, two Coppock boys, and others from the vicinity of West Branch and Springdale in Iowa. They proceeded to Springdale, where they were quartered on the farm of William Maxson, three miles from the village. The Spring- dale settlement was remote from railroads or any public thor- oughfare and was a peaceful community of thrifty, prosperous farmers, most of whom were abolitionists. While the Quakers were from principle opposed to war, so warm were their sym- pathies for the oppressed that they found a way to hold in high esteem and admiration these fearless young men who had risked their lives in striking sturdy blows for freedom in Kansas. The fame of John Brown, as one of the most daring leaders of the free state men, had reached every part of the country and the peaceful people of the Quaker settlement saw in him a leader so devoted to emancipation that his life would be freely given to secure freedom of the slaves. During the winter he revealed to some of his friends his plans for the future and the purpose for which he was drilling his followers. Not one of these looked with favor upon his desper- ate enterprise and all tried to dissuade him from such a hazard- ous and hopeless undertaking. In the east, Gerrit Smith, F. B. Sanborn, Wendell Phillips, and Theodore Parker remonstrated with him in vain. To all he re- plied that it was his mission to aid in the overthrow of slavery and every one of his followers was willing to risk his life in the 284 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES attempt. ' ' I tell you, ' ' he said, ' ' it will be the beginning of the end of slavery." With this end in view, Brown and his followers went to Mary- land, as stated above, attacked and captured Harper's Ferry (West Virginia), seized the United States Arsenal and endeav- ored to incite the slaves to insurrection. However, in this Brown was disappointed and he and several of his men were soon after- ward captured, tried, and executed for treason. This affair set the whole country aflame over the question of slavery. In the south it was believed that the northerners were planning a gen- eral insurrection, and they believed that their only security lay in secession and absolute independence from the northern states. OLD COURT HOUSE At Charlestown, Virginia, in which John Brown was tried and sentenced 497. The Campaign of I860. 1 " — The campaign opened with discord in the Democratic party. Stephen A. Douglas announc- ed himself as candidate for the presidency on the Democratic ticket; but, as had been anticipated, on account of the position which he had taken regarding the slavery question during the Lincoln-Douglas debates, the southern Democrats proceeded to i4i Morse's Lincoln, i, ch. iv; Rhodes, ii, 454; Von Hoist's United States, vii, ch. iv-vi; Hart's Contemp's, iv, 155-159; Seward, iv, 679; Tarbell, i, ch. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 285 ignore him completely. In fact the Democratic party was now divided on the great question of slavery, and proceeded to nominate two people for president. The northern Democrats supported Stephen A. Douglas for president and Herschel V. Johnson of Georgia for vice president. In their platform they declared that the question of slavery should be settled by the supreme court and by the principle of squatter sovereignty. The southern Democrats nominated John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky for president and Joseph Lane of Oregon for vice presi- dent. In their platform they pledged their party in support of the Drecl Scott decision and the acquisition of Cuba. The Constitutional Union party, which was composed of the old American party and remnants of the old Whigs and some Democrats, nominated John Bell of Tennessee for president and Edward Everett of Massachusetts for vice president. In their platform they declared for ' ' The constitution of the country, the union of the states, and the enforcement of the laws. ' ' The Republican party in their platform declared in favor of internal improvements and protective tariff and denied the con- stitutional authority of congress, of a territorial legislature, or of any individual to have the power to make slavery in the terri- tories legal. This party nominated Abraham Lincoln for presi- dent and Hannibal Hamlin for vice president. These two gen- tlemen having the highest number of electoral votes were de- clared elected. 498. Buchanan's Policy. 142 — -When congress met on Decem- ber 3, 1860, the entire nation awaited anxiously the message of the president. The north well realized that his sympathies were with the south, but they did not understand the plans and pur- poses of the president and the southern leaders. Three of his cabinet officers. John B. Floyd of Virginia, secretary of war; Howard Cobb of Georgia, secretary of treasury, and Jacob Thompson of Mississippi, secretary of interior, had for months been using their powers to prepare the south for the struggle which they saw was close at hand. The president in his message laid the blame of existing conditions on the north, and declared that while he did not believe a state had the right to withdraw from the union, yet the constitution conferred no rights on the federal government which gave it the privilege of preventing such withdrawal; in other words, he made the state the sover- eign power instead of the general government. 5 42 Rhodes, iii, 114, 132, 196; Burgess's Civil War, i, 74. 286 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 499. Secession. 343 — As the student of history has already ob- served, the idea of secession was not at all new. It will be re- membered, that in the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798, [Section 338], this idea was promulgated; also in the War of 1812, the New England states contemplated withdrawing from the Union [Section 385] ; South Carolina in 1832 in her nullifi- cation ordinance [Section 422] brought prominently forward the same doctrine. In the north it was believed that such talk was simply a "political bluff," so when the southern states declared they would secede if Lincoln were elected they were not taken seriously. Even James Russell Lowell wrote, "The old Munbo- Jumbo is occasionally paraded at the north, but however many old women may be frightened, the pulse of the stock market re- mains provokingly calm." However, on December 20, 1860, the people of South Carolina in a convention at Charleston passed the following ordinance : "We, the people of the state of South Carolina, in convention assembled, do declare and ordain . . . that the union now subsisting between South Carolina and other states under the name of the 'United States of America' is hereby dissolved." Soon Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas passed like ordinances. The senators and representatives of these states soon resigned their places in congress. On February 8th, at Montgomery, Alabama, delegates from these states elected Jefferson Dav- is of Mississippi, president, and Alex- ander H. Stephens of Georgia, vice pres- ident of the Confederate States of America. 500. The North and the South Com- pared — New States. — Before taking up the study of the Civil War, it is well for us to review the conditions of the two sections which engaged against (From a photograph in the pos- each other in this great struggle. session of his family) T n ig58 Maine had been admitted to the Union and in 1859, Oregon. The constitution of each of these states prohibited slavery. In 1861 Kansas was admitted, and its constitution not only forbade slavery, but it also prohibit- ed colored persons ever settling within the state. By the admis- 143 Fart's Contemp's, iv, 164; Ehodes, iii, 207. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 287 sion of these three free states, the north had gained a majority in the senate and a vast amount of free territory. In 1860, the eighth census was taken, and it was found that the population was 31,413,332. Of this number, 23,000,000 were in the free states and of the 9,000,000 in the slave states, three and one-half millions were slaves. This vast difference in pop- ulation is readily explained when we take in account the fact that working people could not exist in the south where they must compete with slave labor. Consequently, nearly all of the for- eign immigrants settled in the northern states. Besides these differences, the south was a strictly agricultural section, while in the north were many factories where they could manufacture the supplies needed in the Union armies. Although the people of the south were fighting on their own territory and on the defensive and had many experienced generals in their army, yet the advantages enumerated above were of more im- portance when it came to actual warfare. HOME LIFE, SCHOOL ADVANTAGES, LITERATURE, AND GENERAL CONDITIONS 501. The Extent of Territory.— [Plate No. 9.] It will be remembered [Section 303] at the time of "Washington's inaugur- ation, that the United States consisted only of the territory north of Florida and east of the Mississippi river, but in 1860, in addi- tion to this, the United States had acquired the Louisiana Pur- chase (1803), Florida (1819), Texas (1845), Oregon territory (1846), the Mexican cession (1848), and the Gadsden purchase (1853). Thus, in less than three-quarters of a century, the Unit- ed States had grown to over three times its original area. It will also be remembered that at the time of Washington 's in- auguration, our entire population of 4,000,000 was to be found in the thirteen original states east of the Allegheny Mountains. All of the country west of the Allegheny Mountains was a vast wil- derness, save where a few pioneers had established their trading posts and settlements in the Ohio Valley. In 1860 a great change had taken place ; cities had sprung up in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys and in the country beyond the Rocky Mountains. 502. Means of Travel.— In 1779 [Section 189], the best way to travel was by the stage coach. It will also be remembered that on account of the means of communication and the modes of travel, very few of the congressmen had arrived on March 4th at the national capital, and on this account, the president was not inaugurated until April 30th. By 1860 a material advance- ment had been made along these lines. Steamships were now crossing the Atlantic ; almost instant communication was had by the telegraph with all parts of the nation ; people traveled to and fro on fast moving railroad trains ; even an ocean cable had been laid (1858) and although this proved unsuccessful, yet it demonstrated the fact beyond a doubt that such a thing was possible. 503. Schools and Colleges. — During Washington's time [Sec- tion 186] schools were generally supported by donations, subscrip- tions, tuition, or by the different religious denominations, al- though in a few instances taxes were levied for their support. In 1860, a marked improvement was made along this line. The SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 289 public school system had been adopted ; high schools were estab- lished in all the cities and the higher studies had been introduced into the curriculum. Teachers' colleges, agricultural colleges and universities had been established in most of the states. All of these educational institutions were also supported by taxation ; congress also reserved a certain amount of land, the proceeds of which were placed in the school fund, making a per- AN EARLY PUBLIC SCHOOL HOUSE u manent school fund. Although in many instances the old log school house still remained, especially in the newer states, and although many of the text books were crude and undesirable, yet 144 The pioneer school house was generally a small structure built of logs, with a puncheon door and two or three small windows. The building was generally placed on the edge of the forest, near a spring or river from which drinking water could be obtained The better buildings were supplied with puncheon floors, but generally earth answered this purpose. In the middle of the room was placed the large long wood stove. The benches on which the pupils sat were made of half logs hewn flat and smooth, and supplied with wooden pegs or legs. Higher benches made on the same plan, except that they were slanted, served as desks. 19 290 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the teachers were better prepared, the terms of school were long- er, and instead of there being a select few who could read and write, as was the case in Washington's time, in 1860 it was sel- dom a young person could be found who did not have a good common school education. 504. Newspapers and Mails. — Marked advancement had also been made along the line of literature, newspapers, and mails. During Washington's time [Section 187] the newspaper only contained the local news, but with the establishment of the tele- graph, the newspaper contained all the current news of the United States. Instead of a weekly or tri-weekly mail as was the custom in Washington's administration, the people of the cities in 1860 received their mail daily. The daily newspaper was to be found at all news-stands, and generally all the people were well informed on topics of general interest. 505. The Public Library. — Public libraries had also been established in nearly all the cities and in some of the larger towns. In these libraries the works of the best American and English authors were to be found. Here might be found school children, college students, and in fact all classes of people, read- ing the books on the subjects in which they were interested. The effect of the public library was tremendous. Next to the schools and newspapers, the public library was the strongest factor in the way of intellectual advancement. 506. Home Life in 1860. — Home life in 1860 was much dif- ferent than in 1789 [Section 188]. Homes were more comfort- ble and convenient. The effect of immigration, combined with our democratic form of government, had extinguished all social distinction. People now intermingled freely. There was no such thing as the aristocratic, the middle, or the common people. All people were on the same social plane. While the cities were not supplied with all the conveniences to which we are accus- tomed in this day, yet a great advancement had been made. Street cars (drawn by horses) were found in all the larger cities, and in a few places parks had been laid out. In fact, advancement had been made along many lines which made the home more cheerful and comfortable. REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1861-1865 507. Abraham Lincoln, President, 1861-1865. — On February 11, 1861, President Abraham Lincoln bade farewell to the people at Springfield and started on his journey to Washington. He gave speeches at several of the principal cities, but when he reached Pennsylvania, rumors were in circulation that the pres- ident-elect would be assassinated, while on his way to the capital. ABRAHAM LINCOLN On this account Mr. Lincoln made the remainder of the journey in disguise, arriving at Washington on the morning of February 23d. On March 4th, surrounded by a strong military force, he took the oath of office. In his inaugural address, he stated his position on the slavery question and secession in the follow- ing language : "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not 292 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The government will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath registered in heaven to destroy the government; while I shall have a most solemn one to 'preserve, protect and defend it.' "I am loth to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though passion may have strained, it must not break our bonds of affection. The mystic cords of memory, stretching from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the union when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature." 508. The Fall of Fort Sumter.— [Plate No. 8.] When South Carolina seceded from the union, Major Anderson, who had charge of the fortifications in Charleston harbor, fearing that he would be attacked, moved from Fort Moultrie over to Fort Sum- ter, which was a much stronger position. On January 5th, the steamer "Star of the West" carrying supplies to Major Ander- son, was fired upon by the southern people and forced to leave the harbor. President Buchanan in no way interfered in this matter nor did he do anything to relieve Anderson and his men, and soon they were in a vexatious dilemma, as their supply of food, medicine, and other necessary supplies had given out. The day after President Lincoln assumed the duties of chief executive, he received a message from Major Anderson stating that reinforcements and supplies must be sent to him immediate- ly, or he would be forced to abandon the fort. The federal gov- ernment acted promptly and a ship was immediately fitted out in New York harbor and dispatched to Anderson's relief. The seceded states learning of this, ordered General Beauregard to get control of Fort Sumter at once. Acting on this advice, on April 11th, Beauregard sent to Major Anderson a formal demand to surrender, and immediately received a reply which stated that if unmolested he would evacuate the fort on the fifteenth, unless previous to that time he had received supplies or contrary orders from Washington. This answer, of course, was unsatis- factory, and the next morning General Beauregard opened fire on the fort. The battle lasted for thirty-four hours, no one being wounded on either side. At the end of this time Major Ander- son surrendered, with the understanding that he and his men march out with the honors of war, being allowed to salute the flag and embark for Washington unmolested. [Note 122.] SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 293 The effect of this battle was marvelous. In the north party lines quickly vanished, and President Lincoln was urged by an enthusiastic people to save the union at all hazards. In the south the news was received with the greatest joy, and it was thought that in a short time the "Government of the Southern Confed- eracy" would be firmly established. 509. Lincoln's Proclamation Calling for Volunteers. — The day following Major Anderson's surrender (April 16) President ( J - CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve for three months in protecting the capital at Washington and in recovering United States forts and arsenals which had been seized by the seceded states. This call was answered by three hundred thousand volunteers, who were composed of all nationalities, re- ligious faiths, political parties, who came from all the different walks of life. The day following the proclamation, troops began to arrive in Washington and operations for the protection of the city were begun at once. Soon after the president's proclamation, the states of Virginia, 294 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas seceded from the union, and cast their fortunes in with the Confederacy. 145 51 0. Davis 's Reprisals and Lincoln 's Blockade Proclamation. — On the same day that the volunteer troops began to arrive at Washington (April 17), Jefferson Davis, in a proclamation, made known that he would grant letters of marque and reprisal to all merchantmen who would prey on the commerce of the northern CONFEDERATE CAPITOL AT RICHMOND, VIRGINIA 148 states. Lincoln soon (April 19) declared all the southern ports to be in a state of blockade, and in a short time, the federal navy was guarding every port from the Chesapeake Bay to Galveston. So effectual was this blockade that soon the only supplies received at the southern ports were brought in the long, low, fast sailing 1*5 The states withdrew from the Federal Union in the following order : South Carolina, December 20, 1860; Mississippi, January 9, 1861; Florida, January 10; Alabama, January 11; Georgia, January 18; Louisiana, Jan- uary 26; Texas, February 1. 146 The capital was removed from Montgomery, Alabama, to Eichmond, Virginia, in July, 1861. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 295 blockade runners. The export of cotton alone decreased over 150,000,000, the first year of the war. Soon the commerce of the south was completely destroyed. 511. Campaign in West Virginia. — [Plate No. 8.] The mountainous region in West Virginia was not adapted to the raising of cotton, and so slavery did not exist to such an extent as it did in the eastern part of the state. For this reason the forty-eight counties west of the mountains were not in accord with the secession movement. Governor Letcher was anxious to hold this part of the state for the Confederacy, and with this end in view the Virginia militia was ordered to hold the territory by force. General McClellan 147 was sent to oppose this force, and by July had conquered all this part of the state. In 1862 this territory was admitted to the Union as a separate state under the name of West Virginia. 512. Missouri Saved to the Union.— [Plate No. 7.] In Mis- souri the government was in the hands of people who were in sympathy with secession, although the majority of the citizens were doubtless loyal to the Union. Governor Jackson and the legislature did all within their power to force the state into the Confederacy, but through the prompt and energetic work of such men as General Nathan Lyon, Hon. F. P. Blair, Colonel Fremont, and General Halleck, Missouri was saved for the Union. 513. Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware also Remain in the Union. — [Plate No. 8.] For some time Kentucky was undecid- ed whether to cast her fortunes with the Confederacy or to re- main true to the Union. In fact, she wished to be neutral, but this being impossible the most influential men called mass meet- ings. At these meetings it soon became apparent that the people were in favor of remaining in the Union. As soon as this senti- ment became known, the matter was soon settled, for thousands of volunteers rushed in from the free states and practically took charge of affairs. Although a slave state, Maryland also remained true to the Union, and Delaware, after listening to the pleas of the commis- sioners from Mississippi who urged the legislature and common- ly General McClellan graduated from West Point in the same class with "Stonewall" Jackson. He took an active part in the Mexican War and soon after the close of the war was sent by this government to Europe, where during the Crimean War, he made many valuable reports on the art of war. After his return to this country up and until the beginning of the Civil War, he was engaged in the railroad business, being president of the eastern division of the Ohio and Mississippi Eailroad when the war broke out. 296 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES wealth to join the southern states, refused to do so, but remained loyal to the Federal constitution which she had been the first to ratify and adopt. 514. Foreign Affairs. — The north was greatly surprised at this time by the position which England, France, Spain, and Portugal took in respect to the war between the north and the south. Hardly had the contest begun, when England recognized the Confederacy as a belligerent power. However, there were at least two good reasons for this action. In the first place Lincoln had been so successful in establishing the blockade over southern ports, that the English manufacturing establishments of cotton goods were nearly ruined, as they were no longer able to get cotton from the southern states ; the second cause grew out of the results of the high protective tariff which had recently been passed by the United States, on articles man- ufactured from iron. This tariff was so high that it resulted in the immediate development of the manufacturing interests of the northern states to such an extent that they were soon able to supply the entire demand for such goods. These conditions of course, left hundreds of thousands of working people of Eu- rope out of employment, and caused much distress in commercial and financial affairs (See note 170.) 515. The Trent Affair. 148 — On account of the friendly atti- tude shown by these foreign governments toward the Confed- eracy, John M. Mason and John Slidell were sent by the Con- federacy as special envoys to England and France, to induce these nations to recognize the southern Confederacy as an inde- pendent nation. These men sailed from Charleston, South Car- olina, on one of the swift blockade runners, and at Havana went aboard the English mail steamer "Trent." Captain Charles Wilkes, who had command of one of the United States sloops of war, soon overhauled the Trent and seized the two men as pris- oners of war. The news of this seizure caused intense excite- ment. At first the people in the north approved of the action, but on second thought it was remembered that this mode of pro- cedure and seizure of men on the high seas was actually what caused us to enter into the "War of 1812. England soon demand- ed the return of the prisoners and the government promptly disavowed the action of Captain Wilkes and returned the pris- 3 48 The Trent affair is fully discussed in Foster's A Century of American Diplomacy, pp. 366-376, and also in the following named volumes of the American Statesmen series: Abraham Lincoln, vol. i, ch. xii; William H. Seward, ch. xviii, and Charles Sumner, ch. xiii. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 297 oners. This prompt action on the part of the United States probably averted a war with England. 516. The Battle of Bull Run.— [Plate No. 8.] As fast as the Federal troops entered Washington they were put to work con- structing lines of earthworks for the protection of the city. While this was going on the volunteer troops were being drilled and organized into an army. The Confederates also had collected at advantageous points in the Shenandoah Valley and along the Potomac river, an army with which they hoped to capture the national capital. General Scott believed that by a concerted action, the troops might easily disperse the Confederate army in the vicinity of Washington and then march directly into Virginia and capture Richmond. With this idea in view, he ordered General Patter- son, who was northeast of Washington with an army of twenty thousand, to capture, or prevent the Confederates in the Shenan- doah Valley under Joseph E. Johnston from joining Beauregard, who was near Manassas Junction. General McDowell, who had charge of the Union forces along the river opposite Washington, was to move on Manassas Junction. Both the Union generals started to execute the work entrusted to them, but General Pat- terson for some unknown cause executed his work in such a man- ner that Johnston was able to place his entire army in a position where he could immediately assist Beauregard. On July 21st, McDowell attacked Beauregard in the vicinity of the little creek of Bull Run which was near Manassas Station. After four hours of hard fighting, the Federal forces were in possession of the field, and believed they had won the victory. However, at this moment, Johnston's trooj)s came upon the field and in a vig- orous charge, forced the Federal troops to retreat. The retreat soon became a stampede, and later developed into a regular panic, with cannons, guns, canteens, blankets, and everything which would in any way impede their flight, left behind. In fact the troops did not stop until they were safe within the fortifications around the city of Washington. 517. The Effect of the Victory.— [Plate No. 8.] This victory inspired the south with such confidence that they believed they would soon be able to dictate terms of peace to the north. In the north the people now realized that the rebellion could only be put down by a large army, placed under competent leaders. In order that this might be realized, congress voted $500,000,000 for war purposes and President Lincoln issued a 298 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES call for 500,000 more volunteers. General Scott asked to be re- tired and General McClellan, who was placed in command, at once began to drill, discipline, and organize the troops, for the battle of Bull Run had proven to the north that an army in order to be effective, must be well organized in all departments. One other incident occurred which is worthy of note. This was the capture by the Federals of the forts at Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, and the forts at the entrance of Port Royal Sound, South Carolina. Port Royal from this time became the chief supply station of the Federals in the south. 518. The Federal Plan of Campaign for 1862.— [Plate No. 8. ] In order to defend the Union and at the same time put down the rebellion, the government at Washington planned the follow- ing operations : First, the establishment of a complete blockade of the southern ports. Second, the attack and capture of Richmond. Third, the opening of the Mississippi River. Fourth, in order to insure the success of these plans, the Fed- eral authorities planned to march an army from the line estab- lished by Confederate forces in the west, through the Carolinas to the Atlantic Ocean and thence northward into Virginia. 519. Operations in the West. — [Plate No. 7.] In the west the Confederates under General Albert Sidney Johnston had established a line extending from Columbus on the Mississippi through Fort Henry on the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland to Mill Spring in Kentucky. General Halleck, who had charge of the Union forces in the west, wished to open the upper Mississippi and gain control of the cotton growing states. In order to do this he planned a general attack on the line estab- lished by General Johnston. 520. Capture of Mill Spring, Fort Henry and Fort Donel- son. — [Plate No. 7.] The first attack was made in January by General George H. Thomas, who captured Mill Spring. The results of this battle were of much importance to the Union forces, for soon the entire eastern part of Kentucky and Cum- berland Gap passed into the hands of the Union forces, thereby opening a way by which the Union forces might enter eastern Tennessee. General Grant now was ordered to proceed with his army from Cairo, Illinois, and cooperate with Commodore A. H. Foote, who had been ordered north from St. Louis with his SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 299 ULYSSES S. GRANT 149 (From an old engraving in grand jury room at Marion, Iowa) fleet of iron-clad river boats, and attack and capture Fort Henry and Port Donelson. 521. Fort Henry surrendered to Commodore Foote before Gen- eral Grant arrived. Thereupon both forces proceeded to Fort Donelson where, after righting for three days, General Buckner, the Confederate commander, asked for an armistice until terms of capitulation could be agreed upon. Grant replied with his famous ' ' Unconditional Surrender ' ' which is as follows: Hd. Qrs. Army in the Field, Camp Near Donelson, Feby 16, 1862 Gen A. B. Buckner, Confed. Army Sir : Yours of this date pro- posing armistice and appoint- ment of commissioners to settle terms of capitulation is just re- ceived. No terms except an unconditional and immediate sur- render can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works. I am sir, very respectfully, Your obt. servt. U. S. Grant, Brig. Gen. General Buckner, being convinced that further resistance was useless, surrendered the fort, fifteen thousand men, and large quantities of arms and ammunition and supplies to the Union forces. 522. Battle of Pittsburg Landing and Island Number Ten. — [Plate No. 7.] General Grant now moved up the Tennessee 149 Ulysses S. Grant was a graduate of West Point and served in the Mexican War. At the breaking out of the Civil War he was clerking in his father 's store at Galena, 111. At the beginning of the war a company of volunteers was organized at this place and Grant drilled them and remained with them until they were mustered into actual service. Soon after this, while engaged in the adjutant general's office, his knowledge of military affairs began to attract a great deal of attention, and soon he received the appointment of colonel of the twenty-first Illinois Infantry. His rise, from this time, was very rapid, for every movement which he made showed study, courage, skill, and sound judgment. His success in the western campaign led to his immediate appointment as major general. 300 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES River. On April 6th, at Pittsburg Landing, he was attacked by General Albert Sidney Johnston, and for some time was forced, to retreat. Finally General Buell came to his aid and the contest was turned into a Federal victory. The battle of Pitts- burg Landing was one of the most stubbornly contested battles fought by the western armies and by many is considered one of the most important battles of the war. On April 8th the Confederates at Island. Number Ten surren- dered to Commodore Foote. He then proceeded down the river and about a month later Fort Pillow, situated just above Mem- phis, also passed, into his hands. 523. The Effects of this Campaign.— [Plate No. 7.] By this campaign the Federals had gotten control of much of the ter- ritory of Kentucky and Tennessee, for Memphis was placed in such a position that she soon fell into their hands. The north had complete control of the Mississippi to Vicksburg. 524. Capture of New Orleans. — [Plate No. 7.] While these forces were engaged in the west, other forces were in the south working with the same idea in view — the opening of the Mis- sissippi River. In March General Butler had concentrated an army of fourteen thousand men upon Ship Island, near the city of New Orleans, with a view of cooperating with Commodore Farragut and Captain Porter and the fleet in opening the Mis- sissippi and capturing the city of New Orleans. About seventy-five miles below the city of New Orleans were Fort Jackson and Fort Saint Philip, located on opposite sides of the Mississippi. On these forts, which were very strongly forti- fied, depended the safety of New Orleans. In order to obstruct the passage of the river, the Confederates had stretched across it just below Fort Jackson a strong chain which connected the hulks of a number of wrecked vessels. Above the forts and below the city of New Orleans, they had a very strong fleet con- sisting of rams and gunboats. After bombarding Fort Jackson for three days without any apparent effect, Commodore Farragut decided to run his ships past the forts. Protected by the darkness of night, two small gunboats proceeded up the river and cleared the channel by cutting the chain. On the morning of April 24th, while the forts were being shelled by the mortar boats, the Federal fleet succeeded in passing up the river, past the forts, and the next day, after successfully dealing with the fire rafts and boats loaded with burning cotton, which had been set adrift by the Con- SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 301 NATIONAL CEMETERY AT CHALMETTE Near New Orleans where are buried thirteen thousand Union soldiers federates, completely shattered the Confederate fleet. Commo- dore Farragut then sail- ed to the city of New Orleans, which was promptly surrendered to him. Thus the Confederacy lost not only its great- est commercial port, but its prestige abroad. It could no longer expect to receive recognition, from either France or England, as an inde- pendent nation. 525. The Federals control the Mississipi River with the excep- tion of that part lying between Port Hudson and Vicksburg. — [Plate No. 7.] Soon after the fall of New Orleans, the Federal forces occupied Fort Jackson, Fort Saint Philip and the city of Baton Rouge. The remaining boats of the Confederate fleet were soon destroyed or captured, leaving the Mississippi River, with the exception of that part lying between Port Hudson and Vicksburg, in the hands of the Union forces. 526. War in the East.— [Plate No. 8.] We have so far de- voted our attentions to the campaigns of the western armies. We will now pass over to the eastern part of the United States, where the government was keeping a close blockade over all the Atlantic coast, while McClellan. who had been drilling his troops near Washington, was planning for the capture of Richmond. 527. The Plan of Campaign.— [Plate No. 8.] As to how this feat was to be accomplished, there was much difference of opinion. General McClellan wished to approach Richmond by the way of the James River, while the Federal authorities and the people wished him to march directly south so that the city of Washing- ton would at all times be protected by the Federal armies. After much discussion, the following plan was adopted : 1. General Banks was to occupy the Shenandoah Valley and protect the city of Washington on the west. 302 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 2. General McDowell was to move directly upon Richmond from Washington, thus protecting the city from that direction. 3. McClellan was to approach Richmond by the way of the peninsula lying between the James and York rivers, using the York river as a basis for his supplies. 528. The Two Iron-clad War Vessels. 150 — At the opening of the war, the Federal forces were forced to abandon the navy yards at Norfolk, Virginia. At this place there were large quan- tities of supplies, many guns, and eleven war-ships. In order to keep these from falling into the hands of the Confederates, the guns and supplies were destroyed and the war-ships were set on fire. One of the vessels, known as the "Merrimac," after burn- ing nearly to the water line, sank, and the Confederates on tak- ing charge of the navy yard, finding that the hull of the ship was in no way damaged, raised and rebuilt her into an iron-clad ves- sel, having a sloping roof, built of strong oak timbers and overlaid with heavy railroad iron. This roof extended several feet below the water line, and about ten feet above. The vessel was also fitted with a long iron beak which she could easily run through any of the wooden vessels then afloat. While the Merrimac (or Virginia as she was renamed) was being repaired, another iron-clad vessel, known as the "Moni- tor," was being built in the Brooklyn navy yard for the Federal government. This vessel was the invention of John Ericsson, and was so constructed that the greater part of her hull was below the water line and was covered with thick plates of iron. Upon the front part of the deck, which was also covered with iron plates, was a low conning tower from which place the vessel was steered. In the center of the deck was a revolving turret, made of steel and containing two eleven-inch guns. 529. The Battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac.— [Plate No. 8.] On the 8th of March the Merrimac steamed into Hampton Roads, and off the coast from Fort Monroe she made straight for the frigate Cumberland and rammed a hole in her big enough for a man to enter. The Cumberland soon went down with all on board, including many wounded and sick. The Con- gress was also forced to surrender and was set on fire. The Minnesota, in order to escape the Merrimac, ran into shallow water where she was grounded. The Merrimac, being satisfied with her day's work, returned to Norfolk intending to return the next morning and complete the work which she had so ably begun. "0 Morse, Lincoln, i, 356; Hart's Contemp's, iv, 329. 304 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The news of this conflict immediately reached Washington, where all was consternation. It seemed that nothing could be done to prevent this ship from breaking the blockade, destroying Washington, New York, and all the other coast cities. During the night, however, the Monitor arrived and took her position beside the ill-fated Minnesota. The next morning the Merrimac again appeared, and made straight for the Minnesota, when suddenly the Monitor steamed from behind the Minnesota and began to hurl at the Confederate boat the solid shot from the two immense guns in her revolving turret. For two hours the iron-clad vessels poured into each other volume after volume, as fast as the heavy cannons could be reloaded. Several times the Merrimac tried to ram the Monitor, but the huge iron beak could make no impression on the iron- clad hull of the Monitor. Neither vessel could harm the other and finally the Merrimac withdrew to her moorings at Norfolk. 530. Effect of the Battle. — Although the battle was a victory for neither side, yet the results were very much in favor of the north, for the blockade had not been raised, and Washington, New York, and other coast cities were safe. The contest had also eliminated forever from naval engagements the wooden war ves- sels of which the navies of the world were, at this time, composed. On this account the south was at a great disadvantage, for she had no iron manufacturing establishments and could therefore make but very few iron-clad boats, while the north, on account of her iron and ship building industries (Section 500), could and did build as many of this style of vessels as she needed. 531. McClellan's Peninsular Campaign.— [Plate No. 8.] The day following the fight between the Monitor and the Merrimac, General McClellan began his campaign for the capture of Richmond. He first ad- vanced toward Manassas, where Gen- eral Joseph E. Johnston was stationed. Johnston now withdrew toward Rich- mond, and McClellan, placing his army |k (ninety thousand strong) on trans- I *orts, was carried down the Chesapeake to Fort Monroe, from which place he gen. george b. McClellan marched slowly toward Yorktown. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 305 532. Capture of Yorktown. 151 — [Plate No. 8.] When McClel- lan appeared before the city, he found that it was well protected. He therefore decided to take the place by siege. Heavy guns were ordered from Washington, and after a month of prepara- tion, just as he was ready to reduce the fortifications by bombard- ment, the Confederates (on April 4th) quietly evacuated the city and retreated toward Williamsburg, which place was also cap- tured by the Union forces two days later. McClellan gradually moved forward until he was within seven miles of Richmond. 533. Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines, June 1. — [Plate No. 8.] McClellan now moved the left wing of his army across the Chickahominy and camped along the Williamsburg and Richmond railroad between Pair Oaks and Seven Pines. Here he was at- tacked by Johnston and for two days the ground was closely con- tested by both sides. Finally the Confederates gave way and ^yVigp^ retired to Richmond. /" U X \3\ During this battle General Johnston / /Ajt'V* was wounded and was succeeded in /x^- ^fpvf® command by General Robert E. Lee. W'^.^'kJw '^" Stonewall Jackson's Raid in &'\*\$/: ! f^ the Shenandoah Valley.— [Plate No. *^^^' /W^Mt >W*7 ^■ : " if | Sf.mewall Jackson had suddenly ap- : ^P/i? t 7 7 " t peared in the Shenandoah Valley, 'iW*' and the authorities at Washington gen. robert e. lee ordered McDowell's army to reenforce General Banks (Section 527), who had been attacked and defeated by Jackson. 535. McClellan Changes his Base of Supplies. — [Plate No. 8.] McClellan's supplies having been threatened on the York River, and being aware that he could now expect no aid from Mc- Dowell, he decided to change his base of supplies from the York River to the James River. This was a great undertaking, for he had more than five thousand wagons, loaded with provisions, be- sides twenty-five thousand cattle and other large quantities of ammunition, guns, and supplies. 536. The Seven Days Battle, June 26 to July 2.— [Plate No. isi Schouler, History of United States, vi, 188-214; Paris, ii, 1-14; Mc- Clellan, xix-xxii. 152 Paris, ii, 14-34; Jackson, 100-109; Rhodes, iii, 460. 20 306 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 8.] 153 Hardly had McClellan begun to move his supplies, when he was attacked with terrific energy by Lee and Jackson. This attack terminated in a series of battles which lasted for seven days, during which time the Federal troops were moved from the Chickahominy to Malvern Hill on the James River. At this place McClellan dealt to Lee such a blow that he was forced to withdraw his forces. General Halleck, who had gained much fame on account of the brilliant feats of Grant, Farragut, and Porter in the west, was Photograph by Toris SUNKEN ROAD ON BATTLEFIELD OP ANTIETAM WHERE MANY LIVES WERE LOST now given general supervision of the army, and he at once ordered McClellan to join Pope. McClellan consequently retreated slow- ly toward Fortress Monroe, from which place his army was trans- ported up the Potomac. 537. Lee and Jackson Invade the North. — [Plate No. 8.| 154 Before McClellan was able to join Pope, Lee and Jackson had al- ready started north. Pope moved his army southwest from Wash- ington across to Bull Run, where, on August 29th, he was attacked 153 Paris, ii, 51, 148; Morse, Lincoln, ii, 56-64; McClellaii, eh. xxiii; Long, 156-160. 1 54 Henty, With Lee in Virginia. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 307 and defeated by Lee and Jackson. For a second time the Fed- eral forces fled from the battlefield of Bull Ran to the protection of the fortifications around Washington. The Confederates now moved into Maryland, where General Lee expected that the inhabitants would gladly join his army. In this, however, he was disappointed. 538. Battle of Antietam, September 17.— [Plate No. 8.] Pope and MeClellan now joined their forces and attacked Lee's forces at the village of Sharpsburg near Antietam Creek. The contest by many is believed to be the bloodiest single day's battle of the war. The Federals lost over twelve thousand men and the Con- federates over eleven thousand. Lee was beaten back and re- treated across the Potomac unmolested. It was generally believed that MeClellan should have pursued the retreating Confederate army, and, on account of his over- cautious course of procedure, he was removed from command. General A. E. Burnside became his successor. 539. Emancipation Proclamation. 155 — After the battle of An- tietam President Lincoln decided that it was expedient, as a war measure, that he emancipate the slaves in the seceded states. He therefore on September 22d, issued his "Emancipation Proclam- ation," in which he declared that after January 1. 1863, "All persons held as slaves in any state or designated part of a state, the people whereof shall be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforth, and forever free." Thus by a single stroke of the pen. President Lincoln made free over three millions of people who had been reared in bondage. 540. The Thirteenth Amendment. — It will be noticed that the emancipation proclamation did not free the slaves in the loyal states or in the territory already in the control of the Federal forces. However, in January, 1865, congress passed the "Thir- teenth Amendment," which provided that slavery should no longer exist in the United States. This did for the whole of the United States what the emancipation proclamation did for the seceded states. 541. Burnside at Fredericksburg.— [Plate No. 8.1 General Burnside was as rash as MeClellan was cautious, and it is doubt- ed by many whether or not it was an act of wisdom on the part of the government in having him supersede MeClellan. On December 13th he attacked Lee, who was strongly en- 155 Lincoln, ii, 508, 227, 396; Rhodes, iv, 67-76; Blaine, i, 435; Car- penter, 20-24. 308 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES trenched at Fredericksburg, and met a crushing defeat. This was the closing battle of a series of defeats which marked an entire year of disaster to the Union forces in the east. 542. Hooker in Command. — The army of the Potomac was completely demoralized by the disastrous battle of Fredericksburg. It was evident that General Burnside was incapable of handling the Federal troops in a way that they could successfully cope with General Lee and his Confederate forces. Again the authorities in Washington sought for a new commander and President Lin- coln named General Joseph E. Hooker ("Fighting Joe"), one of the most capable generals in the army, to succeed Burnside. General Hooker at once set to work to reorganize the army and in a short time had his command in a splendid condition. GEN. AMBROSE E. BURNSIDE THE YEAR 1863 WAR IN THE WEST 543. Capture of Vicksburg.— [Plate No. 7.] After General Halleck was called to Washington [Section 536] to take general supervision of the army, Grant was given the command of the army in western Tennessee. By November, 1862, he had gath- ered his forces together and commenced operations for the cap- ture of Vicksburg (the Gibraltar of the Mississippi) then occu- pied by the Confederate commander, General J. C. Pemberton. At first an attempt was made to capture Vicksburg by an attack from the land side, but here the army encountered many obsta- cles. Grant therefore decided to dig a canal across the neck of the peninsula which lies opposite Vicksburg, by which he hoped to divert the waters of the river into a, passage through which Porter's boats might pass up and down without being in danger from the batteries, but heavy rains set in and the river became dangerously high and the plan proved a failure. Grant there- fore moved his army down the west side of the river, crossed over and attacked the city from the south. 156 General Pemberton now marched out from Vicksburg and at- tacked Grant, hoping also to be able to unite with General Jo- seph E. .Johnston, who was hastening with an army from the east to join him. Grant becoming aware of this plan, threw his entire force between the two Confederate armies, drove Pember- ton into the city of Vicksburg and forced Johnston to retreat. He then laid siege to the city, cutting it off from all supplies whatsoever. Pood soon became so scarce that mules, and even rats were eaten. Thousands and thousands of shells were thrown into the city; people left their homes and lived in caves, which they dug in the sides of tunnels which had been cut through the hills. After seven weeks of suffering General Pemberton, on July 4th. surrendered the city with thirty-two thousand men, one hundred seventy-two cannon, and thousands of stands of small arms. issSchouler, History of United States, vol. vi, 375-398. 310 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 544. The Fall of Port Hudson. — [Plate No. 7.] Four days later Port Hudson also surrendered. The entire Mississippi River was now in control of the Union forces, while the Confed- eracy was cut in twain. Grant, on account of his brilliant and successful campaigns, now received the rank of major-general in the regular army, and received many testimonials of gratefulness from the people of the loyal states. 545. Chattanooga and Chickamauga. — [Plate No. 7.] Af- ter gaining control of the Mississippi river, the next position of importance in the west to be gained by the Union forces was Chattanooga, which on account of its geographical position and railroad facilities, was the gateway to eastern Tennessee and Georgia. General Rosecrans, who had charge of the Army of the Cum- berland, remained inactive until in September, when in a series of movements he forced the Confederate army, under General Braxton Bragg, to withdraw from Chattanooga. Soon, howev- er, Bragg received reinforcements, and taking the offensive, he attacked the Union forces which now were stationed along the Chickamauga Creek. The first day (September 19), Bragg di- rected his attack against General George H. Thomas, who had charge of the left wing of the Union forces, but secured no great advantage. The next morning he attacked the right wing, sweeping the Federal right and center, including General Rose- crans, from the field. All now depended on Thomas. All day he and his troops fought against double their number, but dur- ing the night he slowly retreated. As soon as convenient he en- tered Chattanooga, where the shattered remnants of the army were again collected and reorganized. The Union forces were now shut up in Chattanooga, where they were practically in a state of siege for over two months. General Thomas virtually saved the Union army from defeat and on account of this brilliant feat was thenceforth known as the "Rock of Chickamauga," a title which he justly earned. 546. The Battle of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — [Plate No. 7.] The battle of Chickamauga and the siege of Chattanooga had clearly shown the inability of General Rose- crans to plan and execute great movements. Grant, who had proven himself equal to all the contests which had confronted him, was therefore given command over the entire department of the Mississippi, which included the Army of the Cumberland SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 311 and the Ohio. General Thomas succeeded General Rosecrans as commander of the Army of the Cumberland. The Confederates held Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, which overlooked the beautiful valley of Chattanooga. On November 23d General Thomas seized the works at the foot of Missionary Ridge. The next day General Hooker in the noted "Battle Above tbe Clouds" carried the works on Lookout Moun- tain. On the 25th the heights of Missionary Ridge were carried and General Bragg was forced to retreat to Dalton, Georgia, General Bragg was now superseded by General J. E. Johnston. WAR IN THE EAST 547. Hooker at Chancellorsville, May 1 to 4.— [Plate No. 8.] General Hooker, while reorganizing the Army of the Poto- mac [Section 542], secured a very important addition to the army, of twelve thousand well drilled cavalry. "With this addi- tion the Union army at Fredericksburg numbered one hundred and thirty thousand men. To oppose this force Lee could not muster more than seventy thousand men, but they were men who had complete confidence in their commander owing to their successes in previous battles. Hooker now started to put into operation a plan which he had outlined for the capture of Richmond. At Chancellorsville the two armies met and after a severe battle, which continued for four days, the Union forces were defeated with a loss of over sixteen thousand men. The north was greatly alarmed. The Army of the Potomac had again been defeated. Hooker became discourag- ed and at his own request was relieved of his command. General Geo. G. Meade was appointed to take his place. 157 Lee now believed, if he could cap- ture one of the important northern cities, the European powers might yet recognize the independence of the Confederacy. With is- Battles and Leaders, iii, 244; Paris, iii, 451; Rhodes, iv, 268; Lin- coln, ii, 143. During this battle the brilliant Confederate general, T. J. Jackson (Stonewall Jackson), was mortally wounded by a shot fired by his own men, who mistook the general and his immediate command for Federal troops. He was removed from the field, and it was found necessary to amputate his left arm. Lee, observing the loss of the arm, said: "General, you have fared better than I, for you have lost only your left arm, while I have lost my right." So Jackson came to be regarded as the "right arm of the Confederacy." He died (May 10) a few days after the battle. ' ' The South always believed that, had he lived, her cause would have won. ' ' — ■ Hosmer. GEN. GEORGE G. MEADE SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 313 this purpose in view, he started down the Shenandoah Valley and entered southern Pennsylvania. General Meade also put his army in motion, and the two forces met at Gettysburg. 548. The Battle of Gettysburg.— [Plate No. 8.] The meet- ing of the two armies at Gettysburg was quite unexpected. Neither commander expected to fight the battle at this place, but Lee seemed to be best prepared for the conflict, for during the BATTLEFIELD OF GETTYSBURG Photograph by Voris first day the Union forces were driven back and for some time it seemed that the Confederates would carry everything before them. During the following night both generals arranged their forces for the contest of the morrow. During all the second day (July 2d), the battle raged with terrible losses on both sides, no great advantage being gained by either army. About noon on the third day, Lee opened with his artillery on the Union center and for over two hours both armies threw shot and shell into the opposing forces. Finally the firing began to cease in the Union lines. Lee, believing the Union forces had exhausted their ammunition, ordered General Pickett with fif- teen thousand of the best troops of the Confederate army to 314 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES attack the Union center. The two armies were about a mile apart and Pickett's division had passed over half this distance when the Union artillery again blazed forth. The slaughter was terrible. Entire companies were swept away, but the Confed- erate forces never wavered ; they were soon in range of the Union infantry, who thinned their ranks so fast that it seemed impos- sible that any could escape alive ; on they came ; a hand to hand struggle ensued. To General Pickett it soon became apparent that the Union army could not be forced back, and he gave the order to retreat. Soon the broken ranks of the Confederate army were slowly wending their way across the Potomac. 549. The Results of the Battle. — During the battle the Fed- erals lost over twenty thousand in killed, wounded, and missing, while the loss on the Confederate side was more than a third of their entire army of over seventy-three thousand men. Lee well realized that these men could never be replaced. He could never again invade the North. From this time he would be compelled to fight on the defensive. It will also be remembered (Section 543) that it was at this same time that the "white flags" were waving from the Con- federate trenches at Vicksburg. The Union armies had been victorious in both the east and the west. 550. Discontent in the North. — During the year 1862 [Sec- tion 541] , it will be remembered, the Union forces were not very successful. Consequently there arose many fault-finders who persisted in uttering and publishing statements which were detri- mental to the best interests of the government. In order to pro- tect itself, the Federal government, under the law of March, 1862, arrested many prominent men throughout the states not occupied by military force, and confined them to prison, even going so far as to suspend the writ of ' ' habeas corpus. ' ' 551. Draft Riots. 158 — The discontent which had naturally arisen from the publication of articles of a disloyal nature, in- tensified by the harsh and rigid action taken by the government in such affairs, combined with the conscription act of March, 1863, had caused volunteer enlistments to almost cease. This condition may probably also be further accounted for from the fact that the tariff acts and the high prices of products made many very favorable business opportunities, which caused many 158 Rhodes, iv, 320; Lincoln, ii, 381. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 315 men of all classes to be willing to stay at home and devote their attention and time to speculation and business. As a result of this general dissatisfaction, in July, 1863, a riot broke out in New York City which for some time defied both city and state authorities. The Federal recruiting offices, and other valuable properties were destroyed. Federal troops finally arrived; but not until over a thousand of the rioters had been killed, was order restored. The Federal government now took complete charge of affairs and soon the work of drafting was allowed to proceed peaceably. 552. Conscription in the South. — In the south as in the north, at first all the young men were eager to join the army, but as the great armies of the north were continually being hurled against their defenses, the south was forced to put into opera- tion the same methods that were used in the north, in order to fill its ranks. In April, 1862, an act was passed which made all white men between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five, sub- ject to draft. Later in the same year another bill was passed in which the ages were changed to eighteen and forty-five years, and near the close of the war the law was again modified so that all white people between the ages of sixteen and sixty were sub- ject to conscription. Well was it said, that the Confederate ranks included men "from the cradle to the grave." The con- scription law was more rigorously enforced in the south than in the north, and caused great suffering throughout the Confeder- acy. The slaves were also enlisted in the ranks. They did the work on the fortifications, drove the commissary wagons, and did all other work that was necessary to be done around the army camp. THE YEAR 1864 553. Grant is made Lieutenant-General. — So far the different Union armies had acted independently of each other. President Lincoln had for some time seriously considered the necessity of having these armies act in unison, but found it very difficult to select a man who was capable of successfully managing all the Union forces. However, the events of the last two years had practically solved this question, for the man who had success- fully met all issues was General Grant. Early in 1864 Grant was summoned to Washington by the president and given the rank of lieutenant-general. This rank made him next in command to the president and gave him imme- diate command of all the Union forces. 554. Plan of Campaign for 1864.— [Plate No. 8.] 159 Grant proceeded at once to make arrangements for the execution of the task which confronted him. General Meade remained in imme- diate command of the Army of the Potomac and General William Tecumseh Sherman was appointed to Grant's old command in the west. The military strength of the Confederacy lay in the forces under General J. E. Johnston in Georgia and Lee's army which was now stationed on their old camping ground, on the Rappa- hannock. Grant and Sherman soon formulated their plan of operations for the Union armies. Grant with the Army of the Potomac was to capture Lee's army and Richmond, while Sherman was to de- feat Johnston, gain control of the state of Georgia, and after touching at some point on the Atlantic Ocean, march north and join with Grant, providing Lee's army and Richmond had not been captured by this time. Both generals started on their cam- paigns in the early part of May. thus giving the Confederate armies no chance to aid each other. "9 Battles and Leaders, iv, 97-117; Grant, ii, 44-62. WAR IN THE WEST 555. Sherman's Campaign against Atlanta. — [Plate No. 8.] On May the 4th General Sher- man with an army of one hun- dred thousand men started from Chattanooga on his campaign against Johnston. At Dalton (Georgia), he met Johnston's army of sixty-five thousand men, and drove him step by step through the mountainous coun- try of Georgia until they had reached the vicinity of Atlanta. Johnston not being strong enough to offer battle to the superior forces which were under Sher- man, constantly resisted the Union advance, retreating it is true, but ever ready to offer bat- tle when a favorable opportunity presented itself. On account of his method of conducting the campaign, President Davis and his chief of staff. General Bragg, removed Johnston from the command and appointed General Hood to take his place. Hood pursued much the same policy as did General Burnside when he superseded General McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac [Section 541], for in July he made three furious attacks in which he lost over ten thousand men. In Sep- tember, hoping to draw Sherman out of the State of Georgia, he abandoned the city of Atlanta and started northward. 556. Sherman's March from Atlanta to the Sea. — [Plates Nos. 7 and 8.] This was exactly what Sherman wished. He now ordered General Thomas with sixty thousand effective men to Nashville to intercept Hood. Believing that Thomas was able to cope with Hood, Sherman now planned to march into the very heart of the Confederacy, depending upon the inhabitants of the GEX. WILLIAM T. SHERMAN From an old print at Court House, Marion, Iowa 318 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES country for his provisions. Destroying all railroad communica- tions with the city of Atlanta, cutting the telegraph wires, and applying the torch to all public buildings, and severing his com- munication with the authorities at Washington, on November 15th, Sherman with an army of sixty thousand men, marching in four columns, started from Atlanta on his celebrated march to the sea. When next heard from, Sherman was in front of the city of Savannah, having in his march destroyed everything which could be of any value to the Confederacy in a strip of country over three hundred miles, extending from Atlanta to Savannah, and forty miles in width. 160 On December 21st he entered the beautiful city of Savannah (which had been evacuated by the Confederates) and immediate- ly sent to President Lincoln his famous dispatch, ' ' I wish to pre- sent you as a Christmas gift, the city of Savannah, with one hundred fifty heavy guns, a plenty of ammunition and also about twenty-five thousand bales of cotton. ' ' 557. Hood and Thomas in Tennessee. — [Plate No. 7.] 1G1 After Sherman left Atlanta, General Hood crossed the Tennessee River and immediately began his march northward. Thomas, who had proven himself so eminently fitted to conduct a campaign, dispatched Schofield to delay Hood's advance northward as much as possible, in order that he might drill and get his army into the proper condition to successfully cope with the Confederate forces. General Thomas was so deliberate in this matter that the people of the north and even General Grant and the officials at Washing- ton, became very impatient. In fact they even went so far as to appoint General Logan as his successor, but before he could reach Nashville, Thomas had not only attacked, but had actually de- stroyed Hood's army to such an extent that it was never reorgan- ized. Thus Thomas had vindicated his policy of being well pre- pared, by one of the most brilliant victories of the war. In all his campaigns of the Civil War, General Thomas never lost a battle. 160 The March to the Sea, by Gen. .7. I). Cox. 1*1 Harris, A Little Union Scout. WAR IN THE EAST 558. The Wilderness Campaign. — [Plate No. 8.1 As pre- rioasly arranged, on May 4th, General Grant, who had taken personal command of the Army of the Potomac, crossed the Rapi- dan River and entered the "Wilderness. On the second day, Lee, being confident that he could deal Grant a terrible blow, as he had previously dealt one to Hooker, attacked the Union army. For several days the fighting continued with terrible losses on both sides, but no advantage was gained by either side. Grant again pushed around Lee's right to Spottsylvania Court House, where for three days the fighting was terrible, and the loss was even greater than at the battle of the Wilderness. It was at this time that Grant sent his famous dispatch, saying, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all Summer. ' ' On the first day of June, Grant's men advanced against Lee's right at Cold Harbor. 102 Here he ordered a general attack and in a half hour lost over twelve thousand men, while the Con- federates lost less than one thousand. Finding that it would be impossible to gain any advantage, Grant again resorted to his favorite movement, and again advancing on Lee's right, he crossed the James River and attacked Lee's forces at Peters- burg. Being unsuccessful again, he now settled down to a regular siege. During this campaign, the loss on both sides had been tre- mendous, while no special advantage had been gained by either side. 559. Early Raids on the Shenandoah. 103 — In order to draw off Grant's troops from the siege of Petersburg. Lee resorted to his oft successful scheme of sending troops up the Shenandoah Valley to threaten Washington. In the early part of June, General Early, who was given com- mand of this expedition, appeared before the city of Washing- ton, and had he made his attack immediately, might have cap- tured the city. During the night, however, L T nion forces arrived 162 Grant, ii, eh. vi, viii, xiii; Rhodes, iv, 440-448. !63 Parrish, My Lady of the North. 320 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and Early was forced to retire. In the latter part of July lie ap- peared in the Shenandoah Valley, sweeping everything before him until he reached Chambersburg (Pennsylvania), which place he burned to the ground. Grant now decided to forever put an end to these raids up the Shenandoah Valley, and dispatched General Philip Sheridan with orders to attack Early and destroy everything in the valley which would be of any possible use to the Confed- erate Army, making it impossible for them to stay in the valley or ever again make a raid in that direction. Houses, barns, stock, crops, and in fact everything on which an army could exist was destroyed. On ^^jr, ^V "• September 1!>th the two forces met at Win- chester, where, after a severe struggle the general philip h. Confederates were forced to retire. 560. The Battle of Cedar Creek. 104 — Receiving reinforcements, Early, on October 19th, suddenly fell on the Union forces at Cedar Creek during Sheridan's absence, and so completely surprised them that the commanding officer ordered a general retreat towards Winchester, twelve miles away. The retreat soon became a panic and it seemed that the entire army might be destroyed. General Sheridan, who was at Winchester on his return from Washington, and hearing the cannonading, hurriedly mounted his horse and started for the scene of the battle. He met his dis- organized troops in full retreat and, rising in his stirrups, he dashed along the broken lines, with the command of "Turn, boys, turn ; we 're going back. ' ' The lines were soon reorganized and under the inspiring leadership of Sheridan, Early's forces were completely defeated and routed. This was the last raid in the Shenandoah Valley, for there was nothing left but the smoke and ruin of what had once been a very beautiful and productive valley. 561. War on the Sea and Coast. — [Plate No. 8.] During the war several cruisers were constructed at the ship-building docks of England for use in the Confederate uavy. Our minister, Mr. Adams, repeatedly remonstrated with the English government against the building of these ships, but although their mission is* Sheridan, Personal Memoirs, ii, 66-92; Grant, ii, 204-224. SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 321 was well known, they were allowed to be built, and oftentimes fitted out with guns, ammunition, and supplies from English factories. The most noted and destructive of these vessels was the Ala- bama. Sailing to and fro on the seas, she captured or destroyed nearly seventy of the Union merchantmen. Finally, in June, while sailing off Cherbourg in France, she was destroyed by the Union ship-of-war Kearsarge, under command of Captain J. A. Winslow. 562. Farragut Enters Mobile Bay, August 5.— [Plate No. 7.] After the capture of New Orleans, Mobile became the stronghold and storehouse of the Confederacy. Here entered the blockade runners with supplies for the army from Europe, and from this place it was an easy matter to ship by railroad or river to other parts of the Confederacy. The city was protected by the Con federate fleet, including the iron ram Tennessee, and two power- ful forts built on the low-lying sand-shore guarding the entrance to the bay, about thirty miles below the city. On the morning of August 5th, placing his iron-clad vessels between the wooden vessels and the forts. Farragut advanced to the attack. In order that he might have a clear view-point from which he could direct the battle, Farragut had himself lashed to the rigging of his flagship. After a short but terrific contest, the Union fleet, with the loss of but one boat, safely passed the forts and entirely destroyed the Confederate fleet. Soon afterward the forts also surrendered, although the city of Mobile was not occupied by the Union forces until the following year. 563. Fort Fisher Captured.— [Plate No. 8.] Early in Janu- ary, 1865, Fort Fisher, which defended the harbor of Wilming- ton, N. C, was captured by the Union forces. With the capture of this place the last Confederate fort was closed. 564. Lincoln's Second Election and Inaugural Address. — During this year, while the struggle was being waged by the army and navy for the preservation of the Union, another strug- gle of equal importance was being waged by the voters in the presidential campaign. 165 A faction, consisting of dissatisfied Republican politicians, known as the "Radical Republicans," called a convention and nominated for president. General John C. Fremont, but he, refus- ing to be a candidate, their efforts came to naught. The Demo- ns Rhodes, iv, 456-475; Blaine, i, eh. xxiv. 21 322 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES crats declared that the prosecution of the war had been a failure, and nominated General George B. McClellan. The Republican party, or more properly speaking, "The National Union" party, again nominated Lincoln, who received two hundred twelve of the two hundred thirty-three electoral votes. Andrew Johnson of Tennessee was chosen vice president. In his inaugural address, Lincoln left no doubt but that the war would be prosecuted until the Union was restored and the slaves freed, for he said, "Yet if God wills that it [the war] continue until all the wealth piled up by the bondman's two hundred fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash shall be paid by an- other drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be. 'The judgments of God are true and righteous altogether. ' With malice towards none ; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive to finish the work we are in ; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the bat- tle, and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves, and with all nations. ' ' THE YEAR 1865 565. The Fall of Richmond.— [Plate No. 8.] 1G6 During the winter and spring, Grant continued the siege in and about Rich- mond. Lee had hoped to break through the Federal lines and join another Confederate force which had been raised and placed under the command of General J. E. Johnston at Goldsboro, North Carolina, but the Union forces were so arranged that this was impossible. On Sunday, April 2, Grant made a general attack upon the Confederate forces and it soon became apparent that Richmond must be evacuated. President Jefferson Davis, who was in his place in church, received a note to this effect from General Lee, and hastily departed from the city. On April 3d the Federal forces entered the city, and six days later Grant received the surrender of the Confederate army under General Lee at Appomattox. 107 i<56 Grant, ii, 174-204; Humphreys, ch. vii, xii ; Sage, The Claybomes. 167 Grant, ii, ch. xxii-xxv; J. Davis, ii, 661-678. It is also interesting to note that in the preparation of the terms of surrender of Lee 's Army and the acceptance of the same, use was made of a domestic table. Confederate ink, and Union paper. Then as a most extraordinary and fitting sequel to the great struggle which had been waged between the North and the South, a full blooded Indian (a chief) was called upon to write out the immortal document which re-united the two sections again into one great nation. Gen- eral Horace Porter, who was at this time on General Grant's staff, in an article ''The Surrender at Appomattox," in Century War Books, no. 20, p. 316, very graphically describes this incident, as follows: "He (Lee) handed the draft of the terms back to General Grant, who called Colonel T. S. Bowers of his staff to him and directed him to make a copy in ink. Bowers was a little nervous, and he turned the matter over to Colonel (afterward General) Parker, whose hand- writing presented a better appearance than that of any one else on the staff. Parker sat down to write at a table which stood against the rear side of the room. Wilmer McLean 's domestic resources in the way of ink now became the subject of a searching investigation, but it was found that the contents of the conical- shaped stonew T are inkstand which he produced appeared to be participating in the general breaking up and had disappeared. Colonel Marshall now came to the rescue, and pulled out of his pocket a. small boxwood inkstand, which was put at Parker's service, so that, after all, we had to fall back upon the resources of the enemy in furnishing the stage 'properties' for the final scene in +he memorable drama. "Lee in the mean time had directed Colonel Marshall to draw up for his signature a letter of acceptance of the terms of surrender. Colonel Mar- 324 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES After the surrender, General Lee returned to his command, and to them in a trembling and sorrowful voice said : "Men, we have fought through the war together. I have done the best I could for you. My heart is too full to say more." The follow- ing day, bidding farewell to the soldiers, who had fought so valiantly while in the Army of Northern Virginia, General Lee, with a few friends, left for Richmond. 565. Death of President Lincoln. — On the evening of April 14th (just four years after the surrender of Fort Sumter and five days after the surrender of Lee at Appomattox) John Wilkes Booth, an actor, stealthily entered a box at Ford's Theater in Washington, which was occupied by the Lincolns and some friends, and shot the President. No more tragical event ever happened in the annals of American history. The president fell forward, and never regained consciousness. He died early the next morning. 168 shall wrote out a draft of such a letter, making it quite formal, beginning with ' I have the honor to reply to your communication, ' etc. General Lee took it and, after reading it over very carefully, directed that these formal expressions be stricken out and that the letter be otherwise shortened. He afterward went over it again and seemed to change some words, and then told the colonel to make a final copy in ink. When it came to providing the paper, it was found we had the only supply of that important ingredient in the recipe for the surrender of an army, so we gave a few pages to the colonel. . . ( ' While the letters were being copied, General Grant introduced the gen- eral officers who had entered, and each member of the staff, to General Lee. "The general shook hands with Seth Williams, who had been his adjutant when Lee was superintendent at West Point, some years before the war, and gave his hand to some of the other officers who had extended theirs, but to most of those who were introduced he merely bowed in a dignified and formal manner. He did not exhibit the slightest change of features during the ceremony until Colonel Parker of our staff was presented to him. Parker was a full-blooded Indian, and the reigning chief of the Six Nations. When Lee saw his swarthy features, he looked at him with evident surprise, and his eyes rested on him for several seconds. What was passing in his mind probably no one ever knew, but the natural surmise was that he at first mistook Parker for a negro, and was struck with astonishment to find that the commander of the Union armies had one of that race on his per- sonal staff." 168 Walt Whitman, "My Captain, O My Captain;" also, Century Maga- zine, April, 1896, in "Four Lincoln Conspiracies." The assassin was an actor, Wilkes Booth, who was one of the Virginia soldiers who were on duty at the execution of John Brown. Booth was shot a fortnight later near Bowling Green, Virginia, by Sergeant Boston Corbett, who, with a company of men, was hunting for him. On the 7th of July three men and a woman were executed for complicity in the assassination. At the same time that Booth shot President Lincoln, another assassin SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL AVAR 325 Andrew Johnson, the vice president, immediately took the oath of office and assumed the duties of the president of the United States. 567. Sherman Marches North.— [Plate No. 8.] After resting his army for a month at Savannah, on February 1st, General Sherman and his army started across South Carolina to Colum- bia, which place they reached about the middle of February. From this place they started into North Carolina where they again met General J. E. Johnston. After severe fighting, John- ston, on April 26th, was forced to surrender his entire army, near Raleigh, North Carolina. 169 ^WTRWW^W^ Photograph by Yoris NATIONAL CEMETERY NEAR WASHINGTON (Home of General Lee) 568. The Disbanding of the Army. — All now realized that the war was at an end. The other small Confederate forces winch were farther to the west, soon surrendered. The soldiers of the conquered army were allowed to take to their homes their attempted to murder Secretary Seward, who was ill at home, and wounded him seriously, but not fatally. There had been a plot, at the time of the downfall of the Confederacy, to pull down the leaders of the nation ; but it was the plot of only a few men, who perished miserably. — ■ Scudder. 169 Sherman, ii, ch. xxii ; Grant, ii, ch. xix, xx. 326 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES horses and such other things which would be of any use to them on their farms or in their shops. The Union soldiers treated their conquered brothers as they would have treated a friend in dis- tress. The Union army was soon disbanded, and with assur- ance of friendship and good cheer, the northern soldier and his "brother of the South" separated, both sworn to vie with each other in endeavoring to make the "re "-United States the great- est nation this world has ever known. 569. Cost of the War. — No correct estimate can be made of the loss of life and property, but from the most conservative esti- mates it is believed that the loss of life, in battle, from wounds and from disease, in both the North and the South was not far from 650,000 men. This means that between seven and eight hundred men died each day during the entire war. The cost in property and money to both sections has been esti- mated at eight billion dollars. The National debt, alone, on August 31, 1865, was nearly two billion, eight hundred fifty million dollars. 570. How the Money was Raised. — In order to raise money to carry on the war, the nation resorted to at least five different methods. (1) By direct taxation in which all incomes of eight hundred dollars or more a year were taxed, each state also being taxed ac- cording to the population. (2) An "Internal Revenue Tax" levied in the shape of stamp duties. All drugs, marriage certificates, and in fact legal paper's of all kinds, in order to become legal, were required to be stamped with one of these stamps. (3) A high protective tariff. 170 (4) The sale of interest bearing bonds. (5) Notes and currency. These notes were of two kinds, the "Greenback" and the "Interest Bearing Treasury Notes." The "Greenback," like common paper currency, was payable to the i7o A high protective tariff known as the Morrill tariff was passed March 2, 1861. As this bill raised the duties considerably, it was the means of bringing into the treasury an increased amount of money. It also tended to en- courage home manufactures, as it was essentially a protective tariff. During the next three years the tariff was repeatedly revised and duties made higher and higher. No essential change was made in the tariff laws after the war until 1884 when Mr. Cleveland was elected on a general reform platform. (See Section 514.) SLAVERY AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 327 holders on demand. The "Interest Bearing Treasury Notes" were of several kinds and were very popular. It also became necessary to issue fractional paper currency for the simple reason that the silver coin became very scarce; in fact silver nearly disappeared from circulation. PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION (1865-1877) 571. Andrew Johnson President, 1865- '69. — The new presi- dent was a man of strong conviction, firm resolution, and great determination. Brought up in the south where slavery existed, a Dem- ocrat and states-rights man by political faith, yet he believed that "the Union should be preserved," and on account of this convic- tion he refused to follow his state (Tennes- see) when it left the Union at the opening of the Civil "War. The firm stand which he had taken made him the logical man to be president Andrew selected for the vice presidency by the Re- johnson publicans, who wished to place some one on the ticket who would be acceptable to the war Democrats. He was therefore nominated as vice president, on the ticket with Abraham Lincoln. 572. Johnson carries forward Lincoln's Plan of Reconstruc- tion. 171 — For some time previous to the closing of the war, Lin- coln had been devising plans by which the seceded states might be reinstated to their rights in the Union. After Lee's sur- render, these states were left, practically, without any form of government whatever. President Johnson, following the course as planned by Lincoln, at once began to make arrangements whereby some form of civil government might be established in these states. With this end in view, he appointed provisional governors, provided for the convening of the state legislatures, reestablished the United States mail service, opened to trade all the southern ports, and provided for the collection of the reve- nues and taxes. The provisional governors of the different states called con- stitutional conventions, where delegates (who had been elected by the white vote only) proceeded to (a) ratify the thirteenth amendment, (b) declare that the Confederate war debt was i7i Page, Tied Bock; Caldwell, American History; Blaine, ii, ch. viii, xii; Hart, Contemp's, iv. PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 329 "null and void" and should never be paid, and (c) deny the right of any state to secede from the federal Union. These requirements being complied with, the seceded states proceeded to elect their representatives and senators to congress. 573. The Freedmen's Bureau Bill. — At the close of the war, those who had been slaves were left without any means of sup- port whatsoever. Consequently, in March, 1865, congress passed a law which established in the war department a branch known as the "Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands." It was the business of this department to provide food, clothing, and fuel for destitute negroes, to take possession of abandoned lands in the seceded states and divide them among the loyal male refugees and negroes, not more than forty acres being given to any one individual. The purposes of the bill were good, but the actual results were bad in the extreme, for many of the negroes, believing that the government would support and protect them, became a class of indolent, insolent, and abusive loafers, who soon were dangerous to the general public. 574. The Southern States also Pass Laws Regarding the Ne- gro. — The legislatures of the southern states, on account of the prevailing conditions, caused to some extent by the effects of the Freedmen's Bureau bill, passed laws aimed at the pauper negro population, which virtually placed these defenseless people in bondage, for these laws provided that the courts could inflict a heavy fine against any negro who refused to work for the "cus- tomary wages," and if the fine was not paid immediately said negro might be sentenced to work for some white citizen until such fine was declared paid. Of course the "customary wages" were extremely small. Consequently many of the negroes abso- lutely refused to work, and the fines which were imposed on them were of such a nature that such negroes virtually became slaves. 575. Congress Refuses to Seat the Representatives and Sen- ators from the Seceded States. — The policy of the president in establishing provisional governments in the seceded states, as explained in Section 572, was generally conceded to be a wise and well executed plan. However, the president also believed that when these states had adopted these measures, their representatives and senators should be allowed to take their places in congress. This congress absolutely refused to permit, es- pecially since these states had passed such severe laws regarding the unemployed negro. Congress also contended, that since the 330 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES negro was free, and that in the apportionment of representatives in congress all negroes would be counted, instead of three-fifths (see constitution of United States), therefore they should also be given the right to vote. 576. The Civil Rights Bill.— At the time that the Freedmen's Bureau bill was introduced in the senate, another bill was pre- sented, although it did not become a law until a later date. This bill provided that all negroes and slaves should be citizens of the United States, and gave to them the right of suffrage and the right to sue in the United States courts. This bill, in order to become a law, had to be passed over the president's veto. 577. The Fourteenth Amendment. — It was feared by many that some succeeding congress might repeal the civil rights bill. Therefore, in 1866, the fourteenth amendment, which embodied the principles of the civil rights bill, was passed by congress. During the year 1868 this amendment was duly ratified and be- came a part of the constitution. The acceptance of this amendment by the seceded states was made necessary, before congress would admit their senators and representatives. 578. The Breach Between the President and Congress Wid- ens. — It now seemed that both the president and congress took great delight in doing those things which they knew would be displeasing to the other. It was nearing the time for the con- gressional election and the president made a tour of the west, giving a series of lectures in which he denounced congress in a very imprudent manner. Some of the members of congress were as inconsiderate as the president, and in their conversations and speeches regarding the president, they were so unmindful of re- sults that they to a great extent brought dishonor on their official position. 579. The Tenure of Office Act.— In February, 1867, congress passed the tenure of office act, which provided that officers ap- pointed by and with the consent of the senate could not be re- moved without the consent of that body. It will readily be seen that this was appropriating, by the legislative branch of the government, the powers and prerogatives of the executive branch. 580. Impeachment of the President. — The trouble between the president and congress came to a crisis when, in February, 1868, the house of representatives passed a resolution to impeach the president for "high crimes and misdemeanors," the princi- PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 331 pal charge being the attempt to remove Secretary of War E. M. Stanton without the consent of the senate. After a long and tedi- ous trial before the senate the president was acquitted, the nec- essary two-thirds majority for the conviction lacking but one vote. 172 After the president's acquittal, Secretary Stanton at once sent his resignation to the president. TEAM OF ESQUIMAUX DOGS Used for transportation purposes on the Alaskan trails 581. The Purchase of Alaska. 173 — In 1867 (before the resig- nation of Mr. Seward and through his efforts), we were able to purchase from Russia for $7,200,000 the territory of Alaska. 172 Blaine, ii, ch. xiv. 173 Another noteworthy event of this administration was the successful attempt to lay a cable across the Atlantic ocean. In 1866 (a previous at- tempt in 1858 having failed), a telegraphic cable was laid upon the bed of the Atlantic between America and Europe. This cable was followed by others; but a closer connection between the United States and the Old World than any effected by the telegraph is formed by the constant passage back and forth of people. With the close of the war, immigration, which had suffered a check, increased rapidly. From 1871 to 1880 nearly three mil- lions, and from 1881 to 1890, more than five millions, of people migrated to the United States. During the decade ending 1900, nearly four millions 332 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Although, at the time of the purchase, many people believed we had paid more than it was worth, the recent discoveries of large coal and gold fields, its fisheries, and many other natural re- sources, have shown the wisdom of the transaction. 582. Mexico and Maximilian, 174 1864-1867.— Previous to the Civil War, Mexico had become badly indebted to Great Britain, France, and Spain, and as Mexico was unable to meet these obligations, these nations sent troops, which took charge of the seaports until the debts were paid. When the obligations were cancelled, Great Britain and Spain at once withdrew their forces, but Napoleon III, believing there was a good opportunity to extend the French dominion, instead of removing his troops, proceeded to depose the head of the Mex- ican government and appointed in his stead Maximilian, arch- duke of Austria, as emperor. According to our interpretation of the Monroe doctrine this had to be considered " as an unfriend- ly act," but as we were engaged in a Civil War, the only thing we could do was to protest. However, as soon as the war was over, Secretary Stanton requested the French emperor to with- draw from Mexico all the French troops immediately, and in order to emphasize the demand General Sheridan with fifty thous- and troops was ordered to Texas. The French troops were with- drawn, but Maximilian, believing that the Mexicans would still continue to be his loyal subjects, remained. In this he was mistaken, for as soon as the French troops were withdrawn, the Mexicans seized Maximilian and, after a short trial, he was condemned and shot (June 19, 1876). The Mexi- cans now quietly passed back under the republican form of gov- ernment. 583. The Carpetbaggers. — At the close of the war the gov- ernment at Washington disqualified the leaders and officers of the southern Confederacy, so that they were not permitted to hold any office of public trust. Of course the poor whites and the ne- groes were unfit and incapable of carrying on matters of this nature. Consequently, many adventurous politicians (known as carpetbaggers (from the fact that it was said they packed their goods in a carpetbag) from the north moved to the south for the express purpose of getting control of the government. Had they of immigrants have swelled the population of the country. From 1789 to 1900, a period of one hundred and five years, the United States has ab- sorbed an alien population of over eighteen millions. — Seudder. 174 Caldwell, American History. PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 333 carried on the official business in an upright and straightforward manner, it would not have been so bad, but instead, in official business the most corrupt and debased methods w T ere pursued. Taxes increased over fifty per cent and often times, instead of being used for the public good, they were actually stolen by these carpetbag officials. It must be admitted also, to the shame of all patriotic citizens, the Federal government supported and pro- tected the "carpetbag government." 584. The ' ' Ku Klux Klan. ' ' — It now became absolutely neces- sary for the people of the south to do something in order to pro- tect themselves, their homes, and property. It soon became ap- parent that they must regain control of their state governments, and with this end in view, many combinations and secret organi- zations were formed. Probably the most distinguished of these secret organizations was the one known as the "Ku Klux Klan." This organization had for its object the intimidating of the black voter, for it was by this vote that the "carpetbaggers" were able to keep control of the government. Had this society confined its energy to this work alone, it would not have been so bad, but in time it became the medium through which much wickedness and private revenge was carried out. 585. The Fifteenth Amendment, 1869.— A great deal of trouble still existed in regard to the negro voting. Consequently, in February, 1869 (just before Grant's inauguration), congress passed the fifteenth amendment which declared that the right to vote should not be denied or abridged in the United States or any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servi- tude. This bill was duly ratified by the necessary number of states and was declared in force March 30, 1870. 586. Force Bills. — On account of the extreme harsh methods used, to intimidate the negro and keep him from voting, by the Ku-Klux and kindred clans, congress passed, under provision of the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments, the series of bills known as "force bills." Under the provisions of these bills Federal troops were stationed at the voting places during elections to protect the voter, and persons found guilty of trying to intimi- date voters were dealt with severely by the United States courts. 587. The Presidential Election. — "While the impeachment troubles were still being discussed and the quarrel over recon- struction w r as still being waged, the presidential campaign was being fought. The Republicans nominated General U. S. Grant for presidenl 334 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and Schuyler Colfax for vice president. This party declared that the United States bonds should be paid in coin and favored the existing plan of reconstruction. The Democrats selected as their candidates Horatio Seymour for president and General Francis P. Blair for vice president. This party declared for a complete pardon for those who had been en- gaged in the Rebellion, that government bonds might be paid in any legal tender (this virtually meant greenbacks, which were at this time much below par), and requested that all government bonds be taxed. Grant and Colfax were elected by a big majority. REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 18694877 588. Reconstruction Completed. — In January, 1871, Georgia, the last state to comply with the requirements of congress, had completed the process of reorganizing its plan of government, and was admitted to the Union. This completed the work of re- construction hy congress. 589. Amnesty Bill and Withdrawal of Troops from the South. — Although the states were now all in the Union, the gov- ernment still retained in the south certain military forces to protect the colored man. However, it soon became apparent that the mass of the people of the south were law-abiding citizens, who were doing all in their power to better conditions in the south. Although once enlisted in the Confederate army, they were now good, upright, and loyal citizens of the Union. Congress appre- ciated this fact, and in 1872 that body passed a general amnesty bill, pardoning all who had been engaged in rebellion against the United States, with the exception of a few of the more prominent leaders, but still retained her troops in this section, to keep a watchful eye on the elections. As fast as the troops were removed, the state governments of the south quietly passed into the hands of the more responsible class of individuals, and the new south began to regain her lost prestige in the nation. 590. The Great Trans-continental Railway. 176 — The abun- dance of good and productive farming land in the middle west brought forcibly to the attention of the people and government the necessity of having a trans-continental railroad, for without a quick and substantial means of transportation this vast section of our country could not be developed. Consequently, about 1862 two companies (the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific) were formed, and as soon as possible began work on the trans-conti- nental system. The former company started at Omaha, Nebraska, building westward, and the latter from Sacramento, eastward to a point where the two roads met near Ogden, Utah, where the last spike was driven May 10, 1869. In order to meet the expense of building this road, the com- "6 Bret Harte, "What the Engine Said." 336 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES panies borrowed money from European nations, from the United States government, and in addition received the odd numbered sections in a strip of land twenty miles in width along the entire route of the railway. This line of railroad passed over hundreds and hundreds of miles of undeveloped and unpeopled territory, yet so successful was the venture that within a few years other trans-continental Courtesy B. & O. Railroad Co. A MODERN MAMMOTH FREIGHT ENGINE lines were being built. In addition to the trans-continental lines, other roads were also being built. The Southern Pacific, which extends to the Pacific Ocean, was finished in 1883. The Santa Fe, which extends into the southwest, was built about the same time. 591. The Credit Mobilier. — In the building of the Union Pa- cific and the Central Pacific railroads a scheme was devised, whereby the companies let the contracts to themselves, operating under a different charter known as the Credit Mobilier. So fla- grant were the methods employed by this company that govern- ment officials (congressmen) received bribes, in the form of PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 337 stocks in the Credit Mobilier, supposedly for certain favors which the company expected to receive from congress. So strong was the public sentiment against these practices that the granting of public lands or subsidies by the government to corporations practically ceased. 592. The Whiskey King. — During the year 1872 a combina- tion was formed by certain distillers and revenue officers, where- by the government was defrauded of money, by keeping back part of the money on whiskey and other distilled liquors. This affair was brought to light in 1875, and upon investigation, it was found that the government had been defrauded of nearlv $2,000,000. 593. Salary Question and the Salary Grab. — When compared with the salaries paid to public officers by foreign nations, the salaries paid to its officers by the United States government have always been meager. In fact, it is declared upon good authority that the salaries received by many officers of the United States are insufficient to meet the demands upon these officers in order that they may uphold the dignity of the office which they oc- cupy; consequently, in March, 1873, congress proceeded to raise salaries of most of the important officers, including the speaker of the house of representatives, which was raised from $8,000 to $10,000, and those of senators and representatives, raised from $5,000 to $7,500. Had congress stopped here, it is probable no trouble would have arisen, but by another act, which is known as the "salary grab," congress made the change in the salaries of its own members date back to 1871. This aroused indignation to such an extent that it became necessary for the act to be repealed, and, in fact, the next year all the salaries which had been raised were reduced to their former figures, except those of the president and the justices. 594. Grant's Second Term. — Although the president was not in any way identified in any of these scandals, yet on account of these many misdeeds in both the financial and political world, and in addition to the strong feeling among many of the Republi- cans, who believed that congress was too severe in its treatment of the south, a branch of the Republican party known as the "Liberal Republican party," nominated for president Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune. The Democrats were not strong at the time, and accepted the nominee as their candi- date. However, Grant carried all but six states, and was elected. Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, was elected vice president. 338 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 595. Treaty of Washington and the Geneva Award. — A not- able example of the great advancement in the method of dealing with international affairs was exemplified in the settlement of the differences which existed at this time between the United States and Great Britain. This nation was of the opinion that it had a just claim against Great Britain, for injury done to our trade and commerce by the English Confederate war vessels, especially the Alabama [Sec- tion 561], during the Civil War. On May 5, 1871, an agreement, known as the treaty of Wash- ington was entered into, by which the United States and Great Britain arranged to submit their differences to an arbitration tri- bunal, consisting of commissioners from five friendly nations. This tribunal met at Geneva, Switzerland, and awarded to the United States the sum of $15,500,000, which Great Britain paid in the most honorable and courteous manner. Since this time many serious questions have been submitted to arbitration by Christian nations. 596. Trouble with the Western Indians. — Although in the preceding paragraph we note with pride the methods pursued in our settlement of differences with Great Britain, yet in our deal- ings with our western Indians, it is a lamentable fact that we still often resorted to force. Much of the discontent which existed among the Indians at this time, had been caused by the swindling methods employed by the Indian agents. On account of these and other troubles, the Modocs of southern Oregon went upon the warpath and after an expensive war, in which many lives were lost, this tribe was removed to Indian territory, where today many of their people are civilized and show remarkable ability in many different lines. Hardly had this trouble subsided when the Sioux Indians, who had been driven off their reservation in the Black Hills by gold seekers, suddenly returned and murdered the settlers, burned the homes, and destroyed the property. United States troops were sent against them and General Cus- ter, with about two hundred and fifty men, was surprised and massacred. The war lasted from June, 1876, to the winter of 1877, when the Indians went across into Canada. 597. Great Fires. — The building of the great trans-continental railroads, with the numerous branch lines, caused such cities as Chicago and Boston to build up very quickly. Naturally the PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 339 buildings which were erected under such conditions were of an unsubstantial nature, almost all of them being built of wood ; con- sequently, when in October, 1871, a conflagration broke out in Chicago in the face of the strong gale which was then blowing, it became impossible to manage it, and a section of nearly five square miles in the business district of this city was completely burned. A hundred thousand persons were thus made homeless and three hundred millions of dollars of property destroyed. In November, 1872, a fire broke out in Boston, and this city suffered a loss of over seventy-five millions of dollars. The fire burned over a district of nearly sixty acres of the business part of the city. The people of the entire nation responded to the calls for aid from the suffering people of these cities, and an amount exceed- ing millions of dollars was sent for their benefit. 598. The Great Panic of 1873. — As so often recorded in his- tory, periods of great prosperity are generally followed by pe- riods of equal financial distress. After the building of the rail- roads and the many other improvements which took place at this time, people began to engage in speculation of all kinds. In their schemes of speculation the people entered into obligations which, when they became due, they could not meet. Money also became very scarce. The cause for this demand and scarcity of money may be item- ized as follows: (a) building and operating of many new rail- roads; (b) building of many large manufacturing establish- ments; (c) decrease of the national debt, which came about from the fact that under the high tariff laws a large amount of revenue was collected, consequently the government used this revenue in paying off the national debt and withdrew from circulation over one hundred millions of dollars of greenbacks; (d) the vast amount of imports which we received had far exceeded the amount of exports, consequently causing a heavy drain on the gold and silver of this country to foreign nations (in one year, 1871, an amount equal to over sixty millions of dollars was taken from the United States to the European countries) ; (e) the great fires in Chicago and Boston, which caused the loss of hundreds of millions of dollars to property. On account of these and other influences, the banks and other financial concerns all over the country were forced to close their doors. The panic be- came general and not until 1880 was the country free from its effect. 340 STUDENTS' HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 599. Demonetization of Silver. — Another event which had much to do with the financial condition of the country at this time was the demonetization of silver, i. e., the withdrawing from circulation of the use of silver as money, by the government. Pre- vious to this time there had been discovered in Nevada and other western states many silver mines which yielded an enormous amount of silver. The development of these mines threw upon the market much more silver than was needed for use as coin, therefore the market price began to fall rapidly, and as a result the United States, in conjunction with the European nations, demonetized it (1873). Courtesy of B. <£ O. Railroad OIL FIELDS OF WEST VIRGINIA This affected especially two classes of people; first, those who were in any way associated or dependent upon the silver mines, and second, the agricultural classes of the west, who claimed that on account of the withdrawing by the government of silver as money they were unable to make payment on the mortgages which were against their real estate. PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION 341 600. Discovery and Uses of Petroleum. — Just previous to the Civil War (August, 1859) there was near Titusville, Pennsyl- vania, discovered a strong flow of natural coal oil. A great terri- tory was found to be underlaid with this product and after the war, capital was invested in the development of these fields. During this administration great advancement was made along this line, the refined product being used in factories, for street lighting, and the illumination of homes. At the present time coal oil is not only used for fuel and illumination, but for loco- motion and many other purposes. 601. Other Important Events. — Since Jackson's administra- tion the theory, "To the victors belong the spoils," had been fol- lowed in the appointment of Federal officers ; consequently, per- sons were very frequently appointed to fill the important offices who were absolutely unfit to hold such responsible positions. In 1871 a civil service commission was appointed to look into this matter and to draw up rules and regulations for the appoint- ment of such officers. It was also during this administration (1876) that Colorado, the thirtieth state, was admitted to the Union. The admission of this state took place just one hundred years after the issuing of the Declaration of Independence. Therefore, Colorado is known as the Centennial state. 602. Presidential Elections. — On account of the financial troubles, and the widespread graft schemes which had been so prevalent previous to and during Grant's administration, the Republican party had come somewhat into disrepute, and the election was very closely contested. The Republicans nominated on their ticket Governor R. B. Hayes, of Ohio, for president, and W. A. Wheeler, of New York, for vice president. The Democratic party placed on their ticket Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, for president, and T. A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for vice president. The Prohibitionists and the Greenbackers also placed tickets in the field. 603. The Electoral Commission. — The contest was very close between the Republicans and Democrats. In fact, the Democrats held that in certain southern states the vote had been incorrectly returned. After a long controversy, it was finally decided to leave the matter to an electoral commission, consisting of five supreme court justices, five senators, and five members of the house. This electoral commission decided in favor of Hayes, and declared that 342 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES he had been elected by a vote of one-hundred eighty-five to one hundred eighty-four for Tilden. Of the men who were chosen on this electoral commission, eight were Republicans and seven Democrats. PERIOD OF EXPANSION — 1877 REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1877-1861 PRESIDENT RUTHER FORD B. HAYES 604. The President's Southern Policy. 177 — President Hayes was a man of very liberal education. He was generous, conscientious, noble-minded,, and intensely interested in his official duties. He was convinced that the time had arrived when all military authority should cease in the south [Section 588]. Consequently he removed the last of the United States troops from the south, much to the delight and as- tonishment of the southern Democrats. In this affair he was bitterly opposed by the Republican party, but the justice and wis- dom of his action were soon apparent, for as soon as the soldiers were removed, the ' ' car- petbag" government and the Ku Klux Klan disappeared, and the civil affairs of the south passed into the hands of the white citizenship, who were left to work out the future of the south as best they might. [See Section 583.] 605. The Bland-Allison Bill, 1878. 178 — It will be remembered that during Grant's administration [Section 598] congress demonetized sil- ver, but the western states, where the silver mines had been discovered and de- veloped, clamored for the coinage of sil- ver again. Consequently, Congressman Bland, of Missouri, introduced a bill which provided (a) that silver dollar's should be received in payment for all legal debts; (b) that the ratio of gold to silver should be sixteen to one; (c) that the government should coin all silver bullion brought to the mints, without cost to the holder. SENATOR WILLIAM B. ALLISON 177 Burgess, Reconstruction, 295; Brice, ii, ch. xeii. 3 78 Andrews, i, 264; Hart, Contemp's, iv, 531. 344 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The bill passed the house, but the senate rejected the last pro- vision. Then Senator Allison, of Iowa, offered an amendment which provided that the secretary of the treasury should purchase not less than two million nor more than four million dollars' worth of silver each month and coin the same into dollars. Presi- dent Hayes vetoed the bill, but the congress passed it over his veto. 606. Resumption of Specie Payments. — After the passage of this bill financial matters became more settled, and on January 1, 1879, the United States government and the national banks resumed specie payments. 607. Great Corporations, Strikes, etc. 179 — After the comple- tion of the great railroads and the many manufacturing estab- lishments, it required a great many men to keep these organiza- tions running. During the financial panic many of the manu- falturing establishments were forced to either close their doors or put their men on lower wages. The railroads also, on account of this depression in business, were forced to lower the salaries of their employees. The labor classes felt as though they were being unjustly treated, and demands were being made for an increase in wages. In 1877 the employees of the Baltimore & Ohio rail- road not only protested against the reduction of wages, but left their work on a strike. The center of the difficulty was at Pitts- burgh, where at one time nearly one hundred thousand men were without work. The greatest disorder prevailed, much property was destroyed, and many people were killed and wounded in the riots which took place. Finally the governor of Pennsylvania called out the state troops and order was restored. The strike was unsuccessful, and, on its account tbere were losses to both employers and employees amounting to millions of dollars. 608. Presidential Campaign of 1880. — During this campaign four parties presented candidates to the people for the presidency of the United States. The Greenback party, which stood for a greater issue of paper money, nominated General James B. Weaver, of Iowa. The Prohibitionists presented General Neal Dow, and the Democratic party, whose platform called for ' ' hon- est money" and "tariff for revenue only," presented W. S. Hancock, of Pennsylvania. The Republican party in their plat- form demanded a radical reform in the civil service and the ab- solute suppression of polygamy, and presented as candidates General James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur, of 179 Appleton, Annual Cyclopedia, 1887. PERIOD OP EXPANSION 345 New York, who were elected by a majority of fifty-nine electoral votes over the Democratic nominees. Courtesy of Current Events THE NEW MANHATTAN SUSPENSION BRIDGE Recently built across East River REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1881-1885 G09. Garfield and Arthur Presidents, 1881-1885. 180 — Hardly had the president entered upon the duties of his office when serious trouble arose regarding the disposal of the Federal offices. In New York, because the president refused to submit to their dic- tation, both senators resigned. Although the president had been elected upon a platform which demanded a radical reform in the JAMES A. GARFIELD CHESTER A. ARTHUR civil service, yet congress seemed reluctant to cooperate with the executive in his efforts to bring this about. On July 2d, the country was shocked by the news that the president had been shot by a disappointed office-seeker named Guiteau, as he was about to take the journey to celebrate the 4th of July in his old college town. He died at Long Branch, New Jersey, September 19, 1881. On being officially informed, Arthur assumed the duties of president of the United States, and served the rest of the term. 610. Pendleton Civil Service Act. — The suffering and death of the president brought vividly before the people the urgent and immediate need of a revision of the civil service laws. In 18S3 Senator Pendleton introduced a civil service bill which author- ized the president to appoint commissioners to decide by exami- nations whether candidates for office could qualify, the appoint- iso Andrews, i, 307; Redpatli, eh. xii. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 347 ment to be made from this list. The bill became a law, and although at first it only applied to a few positions, since it has been extended until it applies to nearly all important appointive positions under the government. 611. Polygamy and Its Suppression. — In 1882 a bill was pre- sented to congress which prohibited plural marriages, which up until this time had been practised by the Mormons in Utah. The bill became a law, and in 1890 the Mormon church announced that it would abide by the law, and that it had abandoned the practice of polygamy. Other Important Legislation. — During this administration let- ter postage was reduced from three to two cents. Later, in 1885. it was still reduced by allowing one ounce instead of one-half ounce to go through the mails for two cents. It was also during this administration the Chinese were pro- hibited from coming into the United States. The period of this prohibition was for ten years. 612. The Brooklyn Bridge. 1S1 — It was also during this ad- ministration (1883) that the steel suspension bridge across East River, connecting the city of New York with Brooklyn, was com- pleted. The bridge was designed by a Prussian engineer by the name of John A. Roebling, and it has proven so successful that the plan has been followed quite extensively since in the building of bridges which must cross deep waterways. 613. The Presidential Election of 1884. — On account of the financial conditions, the tariff question, which had not been before the people since the Civil War [note 170], became the main issue in the campaign. 182 The Republicans chose James G. Blaine, of Maine, as their isi The total length of the bridge is 5,990 feet, or more than one and one-eighth miles. The distance between the two great stone piers is 1,600 feet. These piers, rising 270 feet above high water, rest on caissons sunk upon the solid bedrock. The tops of the piers carry four steel-wire cables weighing 3,600 tons; and from these hang 2,172 small cables, which support the iron and steel bridge at a height of 135 feet, allowing the tallest ships to pass beneath. The width is 85 feet. Through the middle runs a road for foot passengers; on each side of this is the pair of tracks for the cable ears which carry passengers back and forth all day and night; outside of the tracks are two driveways for teams moving in opposite directions. These five parallel roads are entirely separate, and the central footway is some- what higher than the others, affording a vast panoramic view of the two cities and beyond. The cost of this world's wonder was $15,000,000. The work was begun in 1870 and finished in 1883. — Fiske, School History of United Staies. 182 Taussig's Tariff History. 348 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES candidate for president and John A. Logan, of Illinois, for vice president. The Democrats selected as their candidates, Grover Cleveland, of New York, for president, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, for vice president. The contest was very close, but on counting the electoral votes it was decided that Cleveland and Hendricks had received the largest number of votes, and they were declared elected. DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1885-1889 614. Cleveland and the Spoils System. — In the matter of the distribution of government positions President Cleveland used the greatest discretion, for he declared vacancies on- ly in such offices where there was just cause on account of inability, and ap- pointed only such of his friends to fill the vacancies who were known to be es- pecially fitted for the position to which they were appointed. 615. Anti-Contract Law. — The for- eign population of tins country is very grover Cleveland large, and in almost every respect, where these people have come here of their own accord, they have made our very best citizens. However, a peculiar phase of the emigrant question presented itself at this time. The large corporations found that they could import labor cheaper than they could procure it at home. Consequently, they sent their agents to foreign countries, where they procured large numbers of laborers who, under contract for very small wages, were shipped to this country and given employment which should have been given to our citizen laborers. This alone would not have been so bad, but the class of laborers which was brought to this country was often of the lowest type. Among them were included the criminals, the destitute, the poor, the beggars, and the anarchistic element, nearly all of whom expected to return to their own coun- try when they had hoarded sufficient wealth. They were not a class of people who would become a part of the citizenship of this country. Therefore, the importation of these people into this country was not only an injustice to the laboring class, but an absolute detriment to the government, and in 1885 congress passed a law which forbade the importation of contract labor into the United States. 616. Labor Organizations. — The manufacturing industries had now grown to such an extent, that entire localities were en- gaged in such industries. In these large manufacturing centers 350 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES vast numbers o£ laboring people were of necessity forced to live. These people in order to protect themselves against unjust de- mands of their employers, and to be the better prepared to pro- mote their own interests, formed themselves into local organiza- tions, which later grew into what is now known as the American Federation of Labor. Through the agency of these organizations the laboring classes receive the benefit of united effort and are able to present their petitions and demands in the same manner as an individual, a corporation, or any other business organiza- tion. 617. Labor Disturbances, Strikes, etc. 183 — On account of the financial difficulties of 1873, the railroads and other large corpo- rations declared that it was necessary for them to discharge part of their help and reduce the wages of the remaining force. This led to discontent among the laboring classes, who in return de- manded a raise in wages and shorter hours. These differences led to numerous strikes and riots (1886, 1892, 1900, 1902), during which time much property was destroyed and great suffering en- dured. 618. Presidential Succession Law. 184 — The sudden demise of both President Garfield and Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks called the attention of congress to the necessity of passing a law which would provide for the succession to the office of president in case both president and vice president could not serve. Such a law was passed (1886), providing that the secretary of state, 183 The formation of what is now the American Federation of Labor originated in a meeting held in Terre Haute, Indiana, on August 2 and 3, 1881. This meeting resulted in the issuance of a call for a convention at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which opened November 15, 1881. See also Andrews, ii, 114; Hart's Contemp's, iv, 518; History of Labor Legislation in Iowa, by E. H. Downey, published by The State Historical Society ; Unionism and Labor Problems, by Commons. 184 The presidential succession is fixed by chapter iv of the acts of the forty-ninth congress, first session. In ease of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of both the president and vice president, then the secretary of state shall act as president until the disability of the president or vice presi- dent is removed or a president is elected. If there be no secretary of state, then the secretary of the treasury will act; and the remainder of the order of succession is as follows: The secretary of war, attorney-general, post- master-general, secretary of the navy, and secretary of the interior. The acting president must, upon taking office, convene congress, if not at the time in session, in extraordinary session, giving twenty days' notice. This act applies only to such cabinet officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the senate, and are eligible under the constitution to the presidency. See also Stanwood, ch. xxviii. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 351 followed by the other members of the cabinet in order of their creation, shall act as president until the disability is removed. 619. Inter-State Commerce Law. — Another very important law at this time (1887) passed by congress is known as the inter- state commerce law. The purpose of this law is to regulate in an equitable manner all matters pertaining to freight and passenger rates, transfer privileges, and all other matters pertaining to inter-state traffic. In order that the purposes of this law might be realized, con- gress created an inter-state commerce commission, whose powers have from time to time been extended, until at the present time its duties are considered of vast importance. THE STATUE OP LIBERTY 620. The Statue of Liberty. — During this administration an event of international importance took place, in the presenting, by the people of France to the United States, the statue of " Liberty Enlightening the World." Tbe monument was de- signed by a Frenchman, Frederic Auguste Bartholde, and is situ- 352 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ated on Bedloe's Island in New York harbor, and celebrates the one hundredth (1776-1876) anniversary of American indepen- dence. It is indicative of the cordial relations which have always existed between the republic of France and the United States, and as a gift is expressive of that nation's confidence in this government. 621. The Surplus Revenue.— After the panic of 1873 the country passed into an era of great prosperity, during which much wealth was accumulated at home. This condition created a de- mand for foreign products to such an extent that the duties and revenues collected under the high tariff law [Section 598] brought into the treasury much more money than was needed for the run- ning expenses of the government. In fact, in 1885, there was stored away in the government vaults nearly four hundred and fifty millions of surplus. On account of this surplus being in the government vaults there was a lack of currency needed for busi- ness transactions. Furthermore, the taxes were high, although this money was lying idle in the treasury vaults. A private individual having at his command money which was bringing no returns would immediately pay his obligations, but it was a far different proposition with the government, for its debts were largely in the shape of bonds issued for long periods of time, which were held as investments by people who, on account of the general prosperity of the government, would not sell them unless they received much more than the face value. Besides this, if the government bonds were all called in and cancelled, it would necessarily decrease the issue of the national bank currency, since these bonds were held as security on the notes issued by such banks. It therefore seemed that in order to withdraw this sur- plus from the treasury, it would be necessary to reduce the tariff. 622. Cleveland's Tariff Reform and the Mills Bill. 185 — Presi- dent Cleveland now (1887) issued his famous "Tariff reform mes- sage," which definitely committed his party to that policy. In order that the surplus in the treasury might be reduced, the president recommended that a tariff with very low rates be passed. In this way it was hoped that the surplus would be with- drawn from the vaults in order to meet the necessary expenses of the government. At this juncture a bill known as the "Mills bill." reducing the duties on imports, was passed by the Demo- cratic house, but failed to pass the Republican senate. 623. The Campaign of 1888. — During the time this bill was 185 Andrews, ii, 114; Hart's Contemps, iv, 518. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 353 before congress the presidential campaign was being waged. On account of the extreme views of the president in regard to this question, the tariff question became the main issue of the cam- paign. The Democrats nominated as their candidates Grover Cleve- land and Allen G-. Thurman. The Republicans named Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, of New York. Harri- son and Morton received the largest number of electoral votes and were elected, although Cleveland and Thurman received the majority of the popular vote. REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1889-1893 BENJAMIN HARRISON 624. The McKinley Tariff. 180 — As previously stated, the presi- dential campaign had been fought out on the tariff issue and the Republicans had been victorious, not only with their presidential candidate, but also in both houses; consequently, in the spring of 1890, William McKinley, of Ohio, who was chairman of the committee on ways and means, introduced a tariff measure which very materially increased the duties on food stuffs, carpets, clothing, tools, coal, wood, tinware, linen, thread, and in fact, almost all articles needed in everyday life. At the same time this tariff gave great prominence to reciprocity, inasmuch as it pro- vided that certain duties which either this or previous tariffs had wholly or partially abolished, such as those on tea, coffee, sugar, molasses, and hides, might be revived by the president against any nation which should impose unfair duties upon any agricul- tural products of the United States. The occasion for making use of this provision was for the president himself to determine. This led in the course of time to treaties of reciprocity with Spain and Great Britain (for their possessions in the West Indies), also with Germany and Austria-Hungary, with Brazil, and several Spanish-American republics. G25. The friends of the "Mills bill" [Section 6211 had hoped to reduce the amount of revenue by reducing the tariff rates, but the friends of the McKinley bill hoped to bring about the same result by exactly an opposite course. They hoped to reduce the revenue by making the rates so high as to check or monopolize importation. In fact, the rates were so high that it was absolute- ly impossible to import goods into this country and place them on the market, for the reason that the same goods could be pro- 186 McMasters's History of the United States; Fiske's School History of the United States; Caldwell's American History, 219; Taussig's Tariff History , ch. v. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 355 duced in this country and placed on the market and sold much cheaper than the foreign product. The McKinley bill, therefore, was not only a protective, but in many respects a prohibitive tariff also [Section 312]. As soon as the bill became a law, the surplus in the United States treasury began to diminish rapidly. At the beginning of 1893 the gold reserve had reached so low a point that it was feared the treasury might soon suspend gold payments, A disastrous commercial depression, attributed chiefly to the above causes, began early in this year. 626. The Sherman Silver Act of 1890. 1S7 — In order to insure the passage of the McKinley bill in the senate, it became neces- sary for the Republican senators from eastern states to compro- mise with the Republican senators from the western states. Nearly one-third of the Republican strength of the senate came from the states west of the Mississippi, and these states were de- voted mainly to farming and mining. These senators, and especially those who were interested in silver mining, were not necessarily interested in high protection, for they believed that silver was entitled to as much protection as wood and iron. They realized that this could not be done by tariff legislation, but they argued that the government might purchase enough of this metal to keep the market prices from declining. By the Bland-Allison act [Section 605]. the government had purchased silver at the rate of about two millions of dollars per month, but there had been such a great production of the metal, that it still continued to decrease in price. The senators from the western states argued that the government should coin all the silver brought to the mints. The senators from the east would not agree to this, but in order to secure the vote of the west in favor of the McKinley bill, it became necessary for them to compromise matters. This was done by the passage of the "Sherman Silver Purchase Act." By this bill the government was pledged to buy four and one-half million ounces of silver each month, and issue certificates to the full amount of the silver purchased. After the bill became a law, the silver began to collect in the vaults, and, contrary to the expectations of many, still continued to decline in value. 627. Congressional Election and the Admission of States. — As the time for the congressional election arrived, the Republi- cans realized that it was doubtful whether or not they would have a majority in the next session. So dubious was the outcome that 187 White, eh. viii ; Taussig's Silver Situation. 356 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the party tried to revive the policy of securing the election in the south by the presence of Federal forces, knowing that if the negro vote could be secured, they would doubtless be victorious in that section. This plan failing, they next tried to insure the election in their favor, by admitting several states as follows : North Dakota and South Dakota (1889), Montana (1889), Washington (1889), Idaho (1890), and Wyoming (1890) , 188 This brought forth great criticism, inasmuch as several of the states admitted had a population which was far below the federal ratio of repre- sentation, for previous to this time it had not been the custom to admit a state when this condition existed. All efforts failed, however, for when the election returns were made known it was found that the Democrats had a majority in the house by a vote of two hundred and thirty-five to the Republi- cans ' eighty-eight. In the senate, however, the Republicans had a majority of six. Owing to this fact, the Democrats were un- able to repeal the McKinley bill, which in many respects had proven unsatisfactory. 628. Foreign Affairs. — Mr. Blaine, as secretary of state, on account of his firm and energetic execution of affairs pertaining to his office, did very much during this administration in bring- ing to the attention of foreign nations the fact that the United States in international affairs was one of the foremost nations of the world. For some time there had been a dispute between Germany, Great Britain, and the United States regarding their rights in the Samoan Islands. [Plate No. 10.] As these islands were possessed of good harbors, and as they were in the direct line of the trade routes, these nations became desirous of controlling them. These troubles became exceedingly serious when Prince Bismarck, the German chancellor, caused the flag of that nation to be raised over Apia, the chief town of the islands. The native king was immediately deposed and the German emperor declared war on all the inhabitants who should not declare their allegiance to the empire of Germany. The United States acted promptly, and vessels were hurried to this place with much speed. On March 16, 1889, the American and German ships prepared for action, when a terrific typhoon caused such destruction among the ships of both nations that they were forced to put in for re- pairs. Fortunately, soon after, at a conference at Berlin, it was agreed that the neutrality of these islands should be recognized 188 Wister 's The Virginian. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 357 between Germany, England, and the United States, and that they should recognize and protect the native king. Trouble con- tinued to exist, however, between the three nations regarding the management of affairs in the islands until 1899 (during McKin- ley's administration), when the dispute was finally settled by dividing the islands between Germany and the United States, this nation being given the Tutuila group, including the excellent harbor of Pago Pago. Another matter of international importance occurred at New Orleans, when, in the spring of 1891, several Italians who were accused of murdering some of their countrymen, were convicted of perjury. While working on this ease the police discovered the existence of the "Mafia," a secret order, whose members were bound by oath to obey the commands of the order, and whose purpose was to shield the crimes committed by its members. While pursuing the investigation the chief of police was shot and killed, and on this account nine of the members of this order were arrested, but at the trial were acquitted. The enraged citizens, charging that the jury had been intimidated by the "Mafia," thereupon took the law into their own hands, and in a riot which followed, murdered all of the accused men. Three of the victims thus dealt with were citizens of Italy, and this nation, through its minister at Washington, at once demanded an indem- nity for the support, of the families of the victims. Secretary Blaine tried to explain that under our representative form of gov- ernment, this was a matter which did not concern the national government, but the state of Louisiana, whereupon the Italian minister, misconstruing this statement, at once severed his official relations with the United States, and a serious conflict seemed im- minent. However, after much explanation and patience on the side of our government, a settlement was finally reached by which the United States paid to the Italian government twenty-five thousand dollars for distribution among the relatives of the mur- dered men. 629. Trouble with Chile. — At about this same time there had broken out in Chile a revolution and the revolutionists had been successful to such an extent that they had overthrown the gov- ernment. The United States in her official capacity saw fit, not only to offer an asylum to the leaders of the defeated faction, but she had captured and detained a Chilean vessel that was carrying munitions of war to the revolutionists. This enraged the revolu- 358 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES tionists to such an extent, that in the autumn of 1891 some sailors from the United States ship Baltimore were attacked while on the streets of Valparaiso (Chile) , two being killed and several wound- ed. It seemed that it would he impossible to avoid war, as Chile refused to offer either an apology or reparation. xVgain, how- ever, through the exercise of wisdom and patience on the part of the secretary of state (James G. Blaine), the difficulty was finally adjusted. A MODERN BATTLESHIP Compare this ship with those illustrated under Section 529 and Section 372 630. A Great Navy. — Since the Civil War very little atten- tion had been given to our navy. In fact, eleven other nations of the earth had navies which were far superior to ours, It now be- came apparent, if we were to take such a leading place in inter- national affairs as we had in the incidents relating to Samoa [Section 627], the Italian citizens at New Orleans, and to Chile [Section 629], we must necessarily be the possessor of a strong and efficient navy. With this end in view, congress appropriated forty millions of dollars for the building of new warships. Sub- sequent appropriations have been made until at the present time the United States has one of the strongest, best equipped, and most efficient navies in the world. 631. Campaign of 1892. — In this campaign a new political party, known as the Peoples party, presented candidates for president and vice president. In their platform they asked for the free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of sixteen to one, an income tax, and the government ownership of railroads and telegraph lines. This party placed in nomination for president, General James B. Weaver, of Iowa, and for vice PERIOD OF EXPANSION 359 president, James G. Field, of Virginia. The Republicans, who stood for the McKinley bill, nominated for president, Benjamin Harrison, and for vice president, Whitelaw Reid, of New York. The Democrats, who promised to repeal the McKinley tariff, nominated for president, Grover Cleveland, and Adlai E. Steven- son, of Illinois, for vice president. The Democrats won a com- plete victory, inasmuch as they elected not only their candidates for president and vice president, but gained complete possession of both branches of congress. DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATION, 1893-1897 632. Grant's Tomb. — In the fore part of Cleveland's first administration (July 23, 1893), General Grant passed away. Af- ter his death a subscription was raised for the building of a state- ly monument on the banks of the Hudson in Riverside Drive, New York. The unveiling of the monu- ment took place on April 27, 1897. Henry Ward Beecher, in speak- ing of Grant said, that as "A man he was without vices, with an ab- solute hatred of lies and an in- eradicable love of truth, of a per- fect loyalty to friendship, neither envious of others, nor selfish of himself. "With a zeal for the pub- lic good unfeigned, he has left to memory only such weaknesses as connect him with humanity, and such virtues as will rank him among heroes." 633. The Panic of 1893 and the Repeal of the Sherman Act- When Cleveland entered upon the duties of his office as president for the second time, he found the financial affairs of the country in a bad condition. In accordance with the Sherman act [Section 626], the govern- ment had continued to buy silver bullion, issuing in payment treasury notes or silver certificates. It had always been the custom of the government to keep in the vaults at Washington at least $100,000,000 in gold with which to redeem such of the $346,000,- 000 of "greenbacks" as were still in circulation; but under the Sherman act the " greenbacks " and silver certificates in circu- lation had accumulated until the grand total was $500,000,000. Furthermore, under the McKinley act, the customs duties had fallen off, and while it had been the custom to receive in payment over eighty per cent of the duties in gold, at this time (1893) GENERAL GRANT'S TOMB PERIOD OF EXPANSION 361 only about twenty per cent of the duties were paid in gold. Con- sequently the surplus in the United States treasury had rapidly diminished until at the beginning of 1893 the gold reserve had reached so low a point that it was feared the treasury might soon suspend gold payments. A disastrous financial panic [Section 625] began early in 1893, and on this account President Cleveland summoned an extra session of congress to deal with the silver question. After being in session nearly all summer, congress finally repealed that part of the Sherman act known as the "pur- chasing clause." This left the government free to purchase or not purchase silver as it saw fit. Contrary to the views of those who had urged the repeal of the Sherman act, the panic did not end, but continued throughout the administration. 634. The Wilson-Gorman Bill. 189 — Congress at the next regu- lar session, true to its campaign promises, gave its attention to the revision of the McKinley law. Congressman Wm. L. Wilson, of West Virginia, introduced a bill which provided for the re- moval of duties on such materials as sugar, wool, iron, coal, and lumber. The bill immediately passed the lower house, but when it reached the senate, through the influence of Senator Gorman, it was amended to such an extent that the purposes of the original bill were made impossible, for it retained the principle of pro- tection, although it reduced the duties upon many articles, and in particular placed wool upon the free list, The bill became a law without the president's signature. 635. The Venezuelan Question and International Arbitra- tion. — During this administration it again became necessary for this government to put in force the principles as embodied in the "Monroe Doctrine" [Section 403]. For many years there had been a dispute between Great Brit- ain and Venezuela regarding the boundary line between Vene- zuela and British Guiana. Gold having been discovered in the district in controversy, the dispute became serious, for although Venezuela wished to submit the matter to arbitration, Great Britain (the stronger nation) refused. President Cleveland, on being informed of this fact, sent to congress a message in which he recommended the immediate ap- pointment of a commission to determine and report upon the true boundary line. Both branches of congress, regardless of party, rallied to the support of the president and the bill was passed, the committee appointed, and Great Britain notified that, if neces- 189 Andrews, ii, 303 ; Stanwood, 523. 362 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES sary, this government would take the necessary action to enforce the "Monroe Doctrine" should that nation try to exercise control over any of the territory in dispute, other than that to which she was lawfully entitled. After some delay, Great Britain finally agreed to settle the controversy by arbitration. 636. Presidential Campaign of 1896. — On account of the "hard times" the money question became the principal issue of the campaign. The Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska, for president, and in their platform declared in favor of the free coinage of silver at the ratio of sixteen to one. The Republicans nominated William McKinley, of Ohio, for president, and in their platform declared in favor of protection and reciprocity, and against the free coinage of silver except by international agreement. The republican candidate was elected by a vote of 271 to 176 for the Democratic candidate. REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1897-1905 637. The Monetary Commission and the Gold Standard.- Soon after entering on the duties of his of- fice, in conformity with the principles of the Republican election platform, President McKinley appointed a monetary commis- sion, consisting of three members, whose duty it was to confer with the leading commercial nations, and arrange, if pos- sible, for an international agreement for the sf\'W^W ■&*' coinage of both gold and silver. The com- mission, however, was unable to make any^ arrangements by which the bimetallic stan- dard could be generally recognized, inas- william Mckinley much as England refused to give the proposition any considera- tion, and India had already suspended the coinage of silver. Receiving no encouragement from other nations, congress be- lieved it would be unwise to pass a law admitting of the free coinage of both silver and gold, as this country would then be- come the dumping ground for the silver of the world. Conse- quently, in March, 1900, the gold standard act, making the gold dollar the standard of value, was passed by congress. 638. The Dingley Tariff. — Not only were the Republicans pledged to investigate the question of bimetallism, but also as sacred were their pledges to a revision of the tariff laws. Conse- quently the president called congress in extra session in March, 1897. with special instructions to consider the revision of the tariff. Congressman Dingley, of Maine, introduced a bill which was not only protective [Section 312], but in many respects prohibi- tive [Section 312], inasmuch as many of the duties were even higher than they had been under the McKinley bill [Section 624]. One peculiar feature of the bill was that in many cases the "spe- cific" duty was substituted for the "ad valorem," which tended very much to increase the revenue. In contradistinction to the Wilson-Gorman law, a duty was levied on raw wool [Section 634]. and on many woven fabrics in- cluding woolens and silks. 364 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES This bill also forbade the forming of combinations which would in any way hinder commercial transactions in foreign produc- tions which were shipped into this country. 639. The United States and Spain.— In the contest for life, liberty, and civil equality, no nation ever had greater opportuni- ties than has Spain. Just previous to the discovery of America by Columbus, the Spanish nation had by a process of consolida- tion, formed the small Spanish kingdoms into one strong nation. Then the vast quantities of gold from her possession in the New World began to pour into her coffers. Then it was that Spain entered upon her conquest of European territory, which lasted until the Spanish dominion included not only the peninsula of Spain but Sicily, Sardinia, parts of Italy, the territory tributary to the Rhine, most of the western hemisphere, and the islands of the Pacific and Indian oceans. With all these advantages it seems that the Spain of today should be one of the strongest nations of the world, but avarice, illiberality, covetousness, intoleration, uncharitableness, duplicity, cruelty, her antagonism to the education of the masses, and her absolute refusal to listen to the dictates of reason, sense, justice, civilization, and righteousness, has characterized her every action, until either by revolution, or by interference of other and more progressive nations, these numerous advantages have been taken from her. 640. Cuban Affairs. 190 — In Cuba, as in her other possessions, Spain insisted on the cruel and unjust execution of governmental affairs. Bloodshed and oppression had been the history of her centralized and inefficient administration until 1895. when the inhabitants revolted against these injustices. Under the leader- ship of such patriots as Gomez, Garcia, the two Maceos, and others, it was impossible for the Spaniards to subdue the rebellion. 641. The Reconcentrados. — Realizing that it would be impos- sible for them to subdue the Cubans by civilized warfare, General Weyler ordered that not only all buildings and crops be de- stroyed, but the non-combatants, including the old men and women and children, be driven from their homes within great pens, where on account of the unsanitary conditions and lack of food and clothing, thousands and thousands died. 642. The Sinking of the Maine. — These conditions aroused universal sympathy in the United States, and popular sentiment insisted that this nation should protect the Cubans against such 1 90 Hart's Contemps, iv. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 365 GENERAL WEYLER outrages. Popular sentiment declared that if necessary the United States should, by force, demand instant relief to these unfortunates, or the imme- diate removal of the Spanish forces from the island. However, it had always been the policy of this nation never to interfere in foreign affairs, but even with this principle of our previous governmental policy still in con- sideration, yet events now took such a seri- ous turn that it became absolutely necessary for the government to take some action, for during the evening of February 15, 1898, the battleship Maine, while on a friendly visit to Havana, was destroyed by an explosion and two hundred and sixty-six of her crew perished. 643. The Report of the Board of Naval Experts. — The peo- ple of the United States now became thoroughly aroused. Con- gress, without a dissenting vote, appropriated fifty millions of dollars for the national defense, for, although we had been for some time building a navy [Section 630], yet we were in need of more ships and stronger coast fortifications. An investigating board of naval experts was appointed who, after careful examina- tion, gave out information which led to the belief that the vessel had been destroyed by a submarine mine. 644. War Declared. — Upon receiving this information, Presi- dent McKinley, after due deliberation, during which time Spain was requested to withdraw from Cuba, sent to congress a message in which he declared that it was the duty of the United States, in behalf of humanity, to interfere in the war between Spain and Cuba. On April 19, 1898 (just one hundred and twenty-three years after the battle of Lexington), war was formally declared in be- half of the freedom of the oppressed Cubans. 645. Battle of Manila. — [Plate X.] Commodore George Dewey, who had seen service with Farragut at the battle of New Orleans [Section 524], was at this time in command of the Asia- tie squadron, which was in the Chinese waters. Receiving orders to capture or destroy the Spanish Pacific fleet, he at once set sail in search of the enemy. On May 1st, he entered Manila Bay, where the Spanish fleet, supported by a fortified port, was at anchorage. Although the Spaniards had twice as many vessels, and were sup- 366 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ported by the land batteries, yet in less than two hours three of her largest vessels were sunk, and the rest set on fire. After a short rest, the attack was renewed, and in a short time every gun in the Spanish fleet and forts was silenced. In a short time Gen- eral Merritt arrived with land forces, and after a combined at- tack received the surrender of the city. The Americans imme- diately took possession not only of Manila but of the Philippine Islands. 646. Admiral Cervera Enters Santiago Harbor. — Shortly be- fore the battle of Manila Admiral Cervera sailed from the Cape Verde Islands. As our coast was unprotected, it was feared that the Spanish fleet might bombard our principal Atlantic coast cities. This fear was dispelled, however, in the latter part of May, when it was learned that the Spanish fleet was in the harbor of Santiago, on the southern coast of Cuba. At this place it was blockaded by the American squadron under the command of Ad- miral Sampson. 647. Hobson and the Merrimac. — The entrance from the ocean to the harbor of Santiago is through a narrow winding channel between high fortified hills. Lieutenant Richmond P. Hobson believed that this channel might be closed by the sinking of the large collier "Merrimac" in the narrow passage, and that it would be impossible for the Spanish vessels to escape. In the early morning of June 3d, Hob- son with seven men started with the Merrimac on their mission, but a shell from the Spanish batteries tore away the rudder and the experiment was only partially successful, inasmuch as the vessel sank lengthwise instead of across the channel. Hobson and Iris brave men were made prisoners of war by the Spanish, but later were exchanged. 648. Cervera 's Fleet Destroyed, and the Surrender of San- tiago. 191 — On learning that the Spanish fleet was at Santiago, General Miles ordered General Shafter, with a force of seventeen thousand men, to approach Santiago by land and assist the fleet in the capture of the Spanish fleet and the city of Santiago. The force landed a little to the east of Santiago and at once made ar- i9i After the destruction of the Maine in the harbor of Havana, the Ore- gon, then on the Pacific coast, was ordered to join Admiral Sampson. In order to do this it was necessary for her to sail clear around Cape Horn, a distance of fourteen thousand miles, which she did in sixty-six days, arriving in time to take part in the battle of Santiago. The advantage of an ocean to ocean passage through Panama, controlled by the United States, was made apparent by this event. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 367 rangements to bombard the city. while COMMODORE WINFIELD S. SCHLEY On the morning of July 3d, Admiral Sampson with his flagship, the New York, was away consulting with General Shafter, the Spanish fleet was discovered trying to make its escape out of the harbor. Immediately Commodore Schley, who had charge of the American fleet during Admiral Sampson's ab- sence, ordered an attack, and so well did our sailors do their work that in a few hours every Spanish vessel was either captured, set on fire, or sunk. After some hard fighting (July 15th) by the land forces, under the immediate command of Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, General Joseph "Wheeler, and others, the entire district of Santiago was surren- dered. General Miles had al- ready proceeded to Porto Rico and later in the month (July 25th) he raised the United States flag over that island. 649. The Treaty of Peace. — [Plate 10.] The capture of Santia- go and the destruction of Cervera's fleet practically closed the war. Soon after a treaty was signed in Paris whereby Spain relinquished all title and sovereignty in Cuba and ceded to the United States the Philip- pines, Porto Rico, and other Spanish possessions in the West Indies (excepting Cuba) , together with the island of Guam in the Ladrones. Spain furthermore agreed to release all prisoners held for political offenses in Cuba and the Philippines, and fur- thermore agreed to guarantee religious freedom in the Caroline islands, assuring the rights of American missionaries there. The United States agreed to send the Spanish troops who were in Cuba and the Philippines, back to Spain, and to pay $20,000,- GENERAL NELSON MILES GENERAL WHEELER JOE 368 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 000 for the improvements Spain had made in the Philippines. She also agreed to inaugurate in the Philippines a generous com- mercial policy toward Spain. 650. Regulation of Affairs in Cuba. — By the terms of the treaty the United States assumed the sovereignty of Cuba only to a time when the inhabitants of the island might be able to assume the obligations of self-government. Accordingly, about three years after the signing of the treaty of peace, under the directions of the United States authorities, the local government of the island was organized and turned over to the inhabitants. Since that time Cuba has been making notable progress in every respect. 651. Hawaii. 192 — [Plate 10.] For many years American citi- zens had been emigrating to the Hawaiian Islands where they had become interested in the great sugar plantations. Becoming dis- satisfied with the government of the islands, these people (1893) revolted against the home government and deposed the queen. Soon after this, the islands were placed under the protectorate of the United States, and negotiations were at once opened for their annexation. However, Mr. Cleveland, who was at this time president, after making an investigation, disapproved of this policy, and the islands became an independent republic. How- ever, during the Spanish-American War, the necessity of having control of the islands was very apparent, and in 1898 they were annexed to the United States, and two years later organized into a territory under the name of Hawaii. 652. The Hague Peace Conference.— Just after our war with Spain (May, 1899), at the suggestion of Czar Nicholas of Rus- sia, commissioners from twenty-six different nations met at The Hague and formed a "Court of Arbitration" to which perplex- ing controversies, which might otherwise lead to war, might be submitted. Subsequently this tribunal has been recognized by several important nations, and several questions of great import- ance have been submitted and adjusted satisfactorily to the nations concerned. 653. The Boxer Uprising and the Open Door. — Early in the spring of 1900, an association known as the "Boxers," inaugu- rated a reign of terror in and about the city of Peking, Cliina. The insurrection was directed against all foreigners, including the missionaries. Many people, including the German minister, were murdered in cold blood. 192 Hart's Contemps, 439; Larned's Beady Reference, vi. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 369 Five thousand of our troops, which were at this time stationed in the Philippines, were rushed to the scene of the attack, and did what they could to protect the besieged foreigners. Later, this army was reinforced by troops from Great Britain, France, Germany, Japan, and Italy, and under the command of Count Von Waldersee this great international army soon relieved the distressed foreigners and captured the capital city of the Chinese empire. In the settlement Avith China the nations followed the advice of the United States, inasmuch as the territory of the empire was left intact. However, the Chinese were forced to indemnify each government for such losses as it or its citizens had sustained, punish the instigators of the revolt, and open certain ports to the commerce of all nations. CULTIVATING CORN IN IOWA 654. The Presidential Election of 1900. — In this campaign the Democrats declared against "territorial expansion" and those who were in favor of the free coinage of silver nominated for their standard bearers William Jennings Bryan for president, and Adlai E. Stevenson for vice president. The Republicans nomi- nated as their candidates, Wm. McKinley for president, and Theodore Roosevelt for vice president, who were elected by a vote of two hundred and ninety-two to one hundred and fifty-five for the Democratic candidates. 655. The Progress of a Great Nation. — When President Mc- Kinley entered upon his duties as president of the United States 370 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES for a second term, never was there such an outlook before any president for a prosperous administration. The great valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers had yield- ed wonderful crops. The nation's financial conditions were never better. The commercial and manufacturing establishments were all prosperous. Many great corporations had been organized which employed thousands and thousands of working men. Every person who wished to work had a chance on a remunerative basis. In a single year of this administration the excess of our exports . ■ ■■ .- rrf ' ' :. -«>v Courtesy of American Canadian Land Co., Cedar Rapids, Iowa HARVESTING SMALL GRAIN IN MINNESOTA AND THE DAKOTAS over our imports was nearly twice as much as it had been during the entire period from Washington's to McKinley's administra- tion. We were mining nearly half of the coal, iron, and copper produced in the world, and instead of borrowing money from abroad, we were loaning to nearly every nation in Europe. It is stated, on good authority, that even the king of England was receiving more each year on his private investments in the United PERIOD OF EXPANSION 371 States than King George had received during his entire admin- istration from his unjust tax-levies upon the thirteen colonies, previous to the Revolutionary War. 656. The Pan-American Exposition and the Assassination of President McKinley. — This great prosperity was not confined to the United States, but to a greater or less extent existed through- out the republics of the western hemisphere, and in celebration of this fact, there was held in Buffalo, New York, in the summer of 1901, a Pan-American Exposition. A THRESHING SCENE IN THE MISSISSIPP On September 6th, while holding a public reception on the ex- position grounds, President McKinley was shot by an anarchist and fatally wounded. After a few days of intense suffering the president passed away. 657. Vice President Roosevelt takes the Oath of Office. — On being officially notified of the death of President McKinley, Vice President Roosevelt quietly took the oath of office and immediate- ly pledged himself to the policies of the martyred president, and invited the entire cabinet to remain. 658. The Alaskan Boundary Dispute.— [Plate No. 10.] At the time of the purchase of Alaska from Russia, the boundary was agreed upon by these two nations, but there was still some misunderstanding with Great Britain, for the simple reason that 372 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES there had been some misunderstanding between Russia and Eng- land. After the discovery of gold in the Klondike and Yukon regions, the question of the boundary became very serious. How- ever, in 1903, Secretary of State Hay and the British ambassador agreed to refer the dispute to a joint commission, consisting of three representatives of the United States, two from Canada, and one from England. Later in the year, this commission rendered a decision by which the United States was awarded two islands at the mouth of the Portland Canal and a continuous strip of land along the coast from the Portland Canal northward, and the two important towns of Skagway and Dyea. Thus by this agree- ment the United States gained all the important seaports along this part of the coast, although it lost some of the principal gold fields. THEODORE ROOSEVELT NATIVE INDIANS OP ALASKA 659. The Great Anthracite Coal Strike. — During the summer of 1902 the miners of the anthracite coal mines of Pennsylvania struck for higher wages and shorter hours. It soon became ap- PERIOD OF EXPANSION 373 parent that this strike would cause suffering during the winter. Consequently, the president saw fit to call together at a confer- ence at the White House, representatives of the miners and the owners of the coal fields. He then persuaded them to submit their dispute to a board of arbitration which he should appoint. It was doubted by many whether or not the president had any constitutional authority to do this, but if he did not act officially, as a citizen of the United States he did what was right by inter- vening, inasmuch as he alleviated much suffering which would have necessarily been brought upon millions of his fellow country- men. A GARDENER'S HOME IN ALASKA 660. The Isthmian Canal. — Since the discovery of gold in California, the question of a canal across Central America has often been up before congress. In 1878 a French company was organized, with this idea in view, having a capital of $260,000,- 000. After working ten years, this company failed for want of funds. Another French company took up the work with the same result. The one thing which hindered the United States from taking up the project sooner, was the fact that in 1850, in the Clayton- 374 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Bulwer treaty with Great Britain, 193 each nation was pledged never to gain exclusive control over the said ship-canal, and as the people of the United States were not desirous of building a canal unless they had absolute control of the same, the scheme was de- ferred from time to time. However, during the Spanish-Ameri- ^ ' • V- .':.., ■ , Courtesy of Current Events VIEW OF PANAMA CANAL The picture shows a part of the canal near the Culebra cut, where the hardest work was done in cutting through miles of rock. By the recent breaking of a dam some water was let into the canal, as shown, and the slide of the east bank raised the bottom of the canal eighteen feet in one place. can War, when the battleship Oregon was forced to sail from San Francisco clear around South America in order to join the Ameri- can fleet in the West Indies [see note 191], public sentiment be- 193 The discovery of gold in California called the attention of capitalists to the advisability of establishing transportation routes across the Isthmus of Panama, but here they came into collision with the British, who had a colony in Central America, and were attempting to extend their "protec- torate" over the coast. A British warship even bombarded the port which the American transportation company was making its terminus on the At- Atlantic side of the Isthmus. — American History, by David Saville Muzzey. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 375 -came so strong in favor of a canal that the government at once communicated with Great Britain and entered into a treaty with this nation (Hay-Pauncefote treaty) by which the United States was given sole power to construct, control, and defend a canal built for the benefit of commerce, and open to all nations on equal terms. Congress now (June, 1902) passed the "Isthmian Canal Act," which empowered the president to secure the unfinished Panama Canal from the French company at a cost not to exceed forty mil- lions of dollars, and to secure the necessary concession from Colombia to a strip of land at least six miles wide across the isthmus through which the canal should be built. In 1903 a treaty was negotiated with Colombia for the construction of this canal and although the treaty was ratified by the senate of the United States, Colombia rejected it. The people of the state of Panama felt that Colombia had disregarded her best interests and (November, 1903) thereupon declared themselves free and independent and at once organized a provisional government, which was recognized by the United States. In February, 1904, a treaty was entered into by the republic of Panama and the United States, by which the United States gained complete control of a strip of land ten miles in width ex- tending from ocean to ocean for ten millions of dollars. Soon after this, the unfinished canal was bought of the French com- pany for forty millions of dollars. On May 9, 1904, General Davis, president of the canal commis- sion, issued a proclamation, which formally placed this strip of land under the jurisdiction of the United States. Work of con- struction was at once begun and by a very conservative estimate it is believed the canal will be finished and open to the commerce of the world during the year 1915. 661. Presidential Election of 1904. — During this campaign, such leading questions as the constitutional power of the presi- dent in both foreign and domestic affairs, the government in its relation to the Philippines, the governmental regulation of the corporations and trusts, and the tariff question were all freely and thoroughly discussed. However, the discussion soon turned to the personality of the candidates who represented the two great parties. Alton B. Parker, chief justice of the court of appeals of the state of New York, who was especially noted for his conservative policy, was nominated for the presidency by the Democrats. 376 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Theodore Roosevelt, whose personality was the attribute of ag- gressiveness, was chosen by the Republicans for their presidential candidate, and was elected by the largest popular vote ever given any presidential candidate. It might be well also to note that Theodore Roosevelt was the first vice president who, having suc- ceeded to the presidency through the death of his chief, was subsequently elected to fill that same responsible position. REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1905-1909 662. The Rate Law of 1906. — On account of the difference in shipping rates which were charged by the railroad corporations, a great injustice was brought upon many localities, cities, and individuals. For a long time there had been complaints to the effect that the railroads were discriminating against certain lo- calities and industries. Consequently, in 1906, through the ef- forts of President Roosevelt, congress passed a law giving the interstate commerce commission the power of regulating sche- dules of railroads in regard to interstate passenger and freight rates. Since the passing of this law, the interstate commerce commission has done much towards doing away with this in- justice. 663. San Francisco Earthquake. — On the 18th of September the entire world was shocked, upon learning that almost the en- tire city of San Francisco had been utterly destroyed by an earth- quake, followed by a terrible fire. Almost all of the more im- portant buildings of the city were destroyed, the total loss of property reaching nearly a billion of dollars. Over five hundred people lost their lives in this disaster, besides many hundreds who were crippled for life. The government rushed relief trains with food, medicine, tents, physicians, and soldiers to the scene as soon as possible. People from all over the United States contributed vast amounts to the relief of the distressed. 664. Preservation of Natural Resources. — During this ad- ministration, at the urgent request of the president, much atten- tion was given by the national government as well as state gov- ernments, toward the passing of laws which would protect our great forests, and our immense fields of coal, oil, and gas. The president entered heartily into this movement and through his energy the general public became very much interested in the movement. 665. Presidential Election, 1908. — The Republicans in this campaign nominated William H. Tafi of Ohio, who had so ably served the government in his administration of affairs as civil governor of the Philippines. The Democrats for the third time 378 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES nominated William Jennings Bryan, while the Socialists brought out as their candidate, Eugene V. Debs. During this campaign the subject of the tariff was freely discussed. Mr. Taft in his speeches pledged himself to the immediate revision of the tariff. The Republicans won, their candidate receiving three hundred and twenty-one out of the four hundred and forty-two electoral votes REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION, 1909-1913 President Taft and the Tariff. — True to his promise, after his inauguration, President Taft imme- diately called an extra session of congress to consider the subject of tariff revision. After a long session, congress passed a new tariff law, which provided for the readjustment of the tariff rates on many different commodi- ties, and especially provided for a tariff board, whose mission it is to secure informa- tion to assist the president in the discharge of the duties imposed upon him, and the offi- cers of the government in the administration of the customs laws. 667. The Galveston Disaster and the Commission Plan of Government. — In September, 1900, a tidal wave devastated the city of Galveston, Texas, and the people, during the rebuilding of the city, entrusted the management to a committee of experts. WILLI TAFT ,« v | aBa»,f-l ill M 1 ^ ^^^^^MSi >•- c Courtesy of Fire Department, Sioux City, Iowa A MODERN FIRE ENGINE Compare this with fire engine under Section 187 380 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Such efficient service was rendered by these experts that other cities began to investigate the plan and to pattern their munici- pal government accordingly. Des Moines and Cedar Rapids, two cities of Iowa, took the lead in this matter, and developed a plan of government which is being adopted by many of the leading cities of the United States. According to this plan of govern- ment, the city is governed by a mayor and a number of commis- sioners (generally five, including the mayor) selected by a direct non-partisan vote of the people, and the majority vote of these officials is necessary to pass any ordinance or other important matter. The entire affairs of the city are administered through departments and each member of the city council is made super- intendent of one of these departments. All other city officers are elected by a vote of the city council. It is thus readily discerned that the mayor and the council have and exercise all the executive, legislative, and judicial powers and duties. The executive and administrative powers, authority, and duties in such cities are generally distributed in and among five depart- ments as follows : 1. Department of public affairs. 2. Department of accounts and finances. 3. Department of public safety. 4. Department of streets and public improvements. 5. Department of parks and public property. The council determines the powers and duties to be performed by and assigns them to the appropriate department, and pre- scribes the powers and duties of officers and employes; it also assigns particular officers and employes to one or more of the de- partments, and may require an officer or employe to perform duties in two or more departments. It may also make such other rules and regulations as may be necessary or proper for the effi- cient and economical conduct of the business of the city. HOME LIFE, SCHOOL ADVANTAGES, LITERATURE, AND GENERAL CONDITIONS 668. The People and the Nation. — After the completion of the first census (1800) the population of the United States was found to he 5,308,483. Now, after a lapse of only oue hundred and ten years (1910) the census returns show a population of 92,228, 535, 194 or, including our insular possessions, we have al- most multiplied the original population by twenty. NEW YORK CITY AND HARBOR In 1789 the United States contained about 827,800 square miles. In little over a century (1789 to 1900) she has added to her is* Does not include Porto Eico, which had 1,118,012; persons in military and naval service stationed abroad, 55,608 ; Philippine Islands, estimated at 8,000,000; Island of Guam, estimated at 8,661; and Tutuila, estimated at 4,600. Grand total population of United States and possessions, 101,415,412. 382 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES territory over 2,929,000 square miles, giving a grand total of nearly 3,757,000 square miles of territory. This great increase in population and territory may be ac- counted for in part from the fact that the colonists and pioneers who first settled in this country were thrown entirely upon their own resources. This compelled them, in order to bring the wild land under cultivation, to devise many new plans which led to the rapid progress which has been so apparent throughout the en- tire history of this nation. This entire nation has, therefore, been settled by a class of people characterized for their adaptability, resourcefulness, inventive genius, education, and high moral character. A CITY PLAY GROUND In the larger cities, during the summer vacation, competent instructors are given charge of the public play grounds, and arrange and assist in the games and see that all the children get proper exercise. 669. Growth of Cities. — Along with the growth of our nation in territory and population, even greater has been the growth of our cities. This perhaps may be attributed to the fact of the establishment of the many great manufacturing and commercial institutions, good school advantages, and city conveniences. In 1790 there were in the country but six cities with a population of more than eight thousand, and the total urban population at that time was but one-thirteenth of the whole, while at the present time nearly one-third of our entire population are inhabitants of tlif cities. New York City alone, at this time, has a population PERIOD OF EXPANSION 383 equal to that of the thirteen colonies at the beginning of the Revolutionary War. Until quite recently it was the practice of the people to live close in, near to the center of the great cities, but at the present time, on account of the improved methods of transportation, the conveniences of the home, the free delivery of the mail, the police and fire protection, and the educational advantages, this is not necessary. Therefore, it is the trend at the present time for the people to build their homes in the outlying districts of the great cities. In fact, the general trend of society at the present time is not toward the cities to such an extent as it was a few years ago. Now the larger and more beautiful residences are not found within the confines of the great cities, but in the countryside. CONSOLIDATED HIGH SCHOOL AT BUFFALO CENTER, WINNEBAGO COUNTY, IOWA 670. Higher Institutions of Learning. — What the United States has been able to do in the many different lines of advance- ment may be traced to our system of education. Not only does each state support colleges and universities for the training of teachers, farmers, professional men, mechanics, etc., but many other institutions of higher learning are provided by churches and other benevolent organizations. Besides these institutions, many of our wealthier citizens have endowed educational insti- tutions of research and learning, throughout the United States, where students wishing to follow any special line of study may do so. In all cities and towns high schools are provided for 384 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES the children, where they may prepare themselves for either a course in a higher institution of learning, or for different business occupations. 671. The Common Schools. — Not only have the higher insti- tutions of learning received special attention, but more especially has the common school system of the United States in recent years received such attention. The inhabitants of the rural school districts are persuaded that if agriculture is to be pursued on a practical and scientific basis, it must be brought about by correctly educating the farmers' sons and daughters. With this end in view there has been .established a system of consolidated schools, which are becoming abundant throughout the country and mark a great advancement in the development of rural edu- cation in America. This new system of schools is bound to set a new standard of living for the farmers and their families, for in these consolidated schools the pupils are not only instructed in all subjects formerly taught in the sub-district school, but in addi- tion they have the benefit of a good high school course adapted especially to agriculture. The scheme of consolidation makes it possible to maintain a thorough up-to-date equipment, a large laboratory with the necessary equipment, school gardens, and many other accessories. The teachers are paid better salaries and selected with greater care. The course of study is laid out with a view to help the boys and girls of the country, and the students are hauled to and from the building in suitable vehicles made es- pecially for this work. Thus, the country life is made to appear as the ideal life and is offering as many, if not more advantages, than the life of the town or city. 672. The Education of the Negro. — Since the Civil War much has been done by the people of this country in behalf of the edu- cation of the negro, aiming to improve his moral condition, and make it possible for him to advance and become an intelligent citizen. Foremost among the educators of this race, stands Booker T. Washington, who has organized a colored normal school at Tuskeegee, Alabama. This institution, opened in two shabby buildings with one teacher and thirty scholars, has made a wonderful growth, for at the present time nearly two thousand students art enrolled, besides the property owned by the school is valued a1 nearly two millions of dollars. The object of the school is to furnish such mental, moral, and manual training as will fit its students to become better citizens of the United States and leaders of their people. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 385 673. Education in Our Insular Possessions. — The govern- ment lias also done much toward the reorganization of our insular possessions through its public school system. Teachers possessing the highest qualifications are stationed in all the islands con- trolled by the United States, and are given supervision of the schools where the children are educated. It is nothing out of the ordinary to meet a child of the Philippines, Porto Rico, or the Hawaiian Islands who can speak his native language and the Eng- lish language both equally well. It is believed that in the near future the children who receive their education in our insular possessions will be as well prepared for their life's work as the children of the United States. A WRIGHT BIPLANE JUST LEAVING THE GROUND 674. Inventions.- — Certainly the many great inventions and discoveries which have been brought forward by the citizens of this nation, and which have revolutionized the industrial and social life, not only in this nation, but the world, is due to the outgrowth of the system of education, introduced by our fore- fathers. The cotton gin, sewing machine, the steamboat, the screw propeller, the modern automobile, the reaper, the rotary printing 386 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES press, the linotype, the phonograph, the incandescent light, tele- graph, telegraph cable, the telephone, the electric street car, Wright's flying machine, and many other inventions proves the truth of the statement that in the world of invention and research the United States is far in advance of other nations. 195 675. Newspapers and Magazines. — Among the many forces which have worked for the progress and civilization of this na- tion, none is of greater importance than the modern newspaper, for in point of both literary and mechanical perfection the news- papers of the United States stand supreme. The fathers of our constitution well understood the necessity of giving the news- paper field all the freedom that was possible, and in the constitu- tion the freedom of the press was guaranteed. Therefore, being untrammeled by any but self-imposed checks or hindrances, the great newspapers of the United States are the best exponents of freedom and the greatest enemies of unlawful adventures. During recent years many improvements have been made in a mechanical way, which help much in making it possible to bring news immediately into the hands of the reader. The modern press, running at almost lightning-like rapidity, will print many thousands of twenty or twen- ty-four page papers each hour. The linotype machine has also aided much in the saving of time, for this machine does the work of By courtesy of the National Printing many men with such speed and ac- Gompany, Cedar Rapids, iowa. curacy that it has become one of rm, v A LIN0TYP ^ the necessities of the modern news- The above cut is a Mergenthaler Linotype machine, No. 5. This ma- paper plant. chine makes and sets its own type. „ - It does the work of eight men and On aCCOUnt 01 these modern only requires one man to operate it. improvements> the subscription price of newspapers has been reduced to such an extent that they are within reach of every household. 676. Public Libraries. — In almost every hamlet and in con- nection with all educational institutions may be found free public 195 Great American Industries, by W. F. Eocheleau ; American Railway Transportation, by Emory K. Johnson. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 387 Courtesy of Gazette Company, Cedar Rapids, Iowa A MODERN TWENTY-PAGE DAILY NEWSPAPER PRINTING PRESS This press when running at full speed will print, fold and count over twenty- five thousand papers per hour. libraries, where the young as well as the old get books treating on any educational subject. Many of these libraries have been founded and equipped by such men as Andrew Carnegie, who have seen fit to distribute their vast fortunes in this way, know- ing that in so doing they will be benefiting humanity generally. : JM. ■MR' •*P*l|i Photograph by Voris INTERIOR OF CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY, WASHINGTON, D. C. 388 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 677. Railroads. — The improvement in railroad affairs has been a great factor in the wonderful development of the wild and uncultivated parts of our country. The purpose of the first rail- roads was merely to serve local needs, but in time the railroads were extended far in advance of civilization. This was made pos- sible, as has already been stated, by the aid given by the govern- ment to such companies as should extend their lines into the unsettled territory. After the country became settled, the smaller lines began to merge into trunk lines, and these in turn into great railroad systems. Mammoth engines now pull enormous trains from ocean to ocean at the speed of a mile a minute. Our great AN IDEAL HIGHWAY This road connecting two large cities was given a heavy coat of crushed gravel and after fifteen years of service, without being repaired, is still so smooth that automobiles run over it at the rate of thirty and forty miles an hour. Before receiv- ing the coat of gravel it was almost impassable nearly the entire year. passenger trains are heated by steam, lighted by electricity, made safe by the airbrakes and patent couplings, and the numerous kinds of signals which automatically announce to the engineer and conductor the presence of any approaching danger. The sleeping car, the dining car, the buffet car, the library car, the parlor car, and the observation car all add to the comfort of the traveler. It is said that the American railways are the safest in the world, and this is especially interesting when we take into consideration that the mileage of the American railways equals PERIOD OF EXPANSION 389 the mileage of all Europe, excluding Russia but including the British Isles. 678. Rural Highways. — While the United States is far in ad- vance of other nations in the building of railroads, she is far behind in the construction and maintenance of public roads. In fact, it is stated upon good authority that we have the poorest roads of any civilized nation in the world. This may properly be accounted for to some extent by the fact that our new territory has developed very fast, and the building of good roads neces- sarily takes time ; consequently, numerous poor roads are found Photograph by B. L. Wick, Cedar Rapids, 7c A TYPICAL AMANA HOME within our borders. However, recently much attention has been given to this question. Now good roads conventions are held in different parts of almost every state each year. This agitation has been brought about to a great extent by the advent of the rural free delivery of mail, the great and increasing use of the auto- mobile, and the establishment of the consolidated high schools. Many of the interurban highways are now being drained and given a covering of crushed stone. This in time will insure a 390 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES system of permanent roads which will alleviate much of the in- convenience which is experienced at the present time. 679. Communistic Societies. — Ever since the establishment of this republic, from time to time there have sprung up societies whose aim has been to eliminate the wretchedness and suffering among all classes. The most noted and the only successful colony of this kind may be found on the banks of the Iowa River, in Iowa county, in the state of Iowa. This colony is locally known as the "Dutch Colony;" in history, the "community of true inspiration," and in law and business circles, as the Amana Society. There are in all, in this community, about two thousand members, who own in common nearly thirty thousand acres of land ; operate a number Photograph by B. L. Wick, Cedar Rapids, Iowa A GROUP OF TOURISTS BEING DRIVEN THROUGH THE AMANA COLONY of factories, mills, and wholesale establishments; control the stores, shops, hotels, and traffic of every kind of eight small vil- lages. The Amana people trace their origin back to the year 1714, at which time a religious sect was organized in Germany. Their chief characteristic is their unwavering faith in the Al- mighty. Religion is the keynote, piety and uprightness of char- acter their watchword, and authority and willing obedience their law. s The community so far has been very prosperous, and there seems to be no reason why in the future it should not continue to prosper. PERIOD OF EXPANSION 391 680. The Free Ballot and the Nation. — Much has been said on the platform and in the press the world over, regarding our system of representative government. Noted foreign educators have prophesied ultimate failure, or the degeneration of our party government into a tyrannical state of "bossism," which would necessarily destroy the fruits of the free ballot, causing the offices of public trust to be filled by "politicians of availa- bility" rather than the "politicians of ability." While there may be some grounds for such criticism, there is no cause for distrust as long as the ballot is cast by individuals who are educated in the use of the franchise, the moral obligation of each individual to all others, and the political and economic theory of government to such an extent, as are the citizens of the United States. Leaders of opposite political faiths, carelessly and without any reason whatsoever, declare that the permitting by the voters of the exercising of government affairs by the opposite party, would mean the surrender of our rights, religion, morals, education, the regulation of governmental affairs, and the exercise of our rights as free citizens of the nation. Such men should remember that people will, honestly and rightfully, differ regarding questions of importance, and that in the future as in the past, the wielding of governmental affairs by any party chosen by the people, will of necessity be along those lines which are the best for the people and the nation. 196 The evils which arise from our system of party government 196 "A resume shows that the federalist party controlled the government twelve years, the old republican party, under John Q. Adams, four years, the democratic party, including the Tyler regime, thirty-six years, the whig party, four years, the republican party, forty years, ending with Eoosevelt in 1909. During this period of one hundred and twenty years the government has been administered, at one time or other, by six different parties, if the parties are distinguished by name; if by political theory, only two have been in control. The old republican and the modern democratic party held the same theory of government, and should be identified in name as well as in principle. The federalist, the national republican, the whig, and the republican, all advocated similar principles, and should be regarded as the same party with different names. Taking this view of parties, the one has stood from the beginning for strong central government, the other for local self-government. The one employed the broad or loose construction of the constitution, the other the narrow or strict construction. During the one hundred and twenty years of national existence, each party has conducted the affairs of the nation one-half of the time. One of the most striking features of this party struggle is the remarkable evenness with which these contests have been fought out. While almost the entire electorate appears 392 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES are but temporary, and the ability of any leader to dispel these evils soon asserts itself to such an extent that the people recognize it and insist upon placing such individuals where they will be of the greatest service to the nation. Lincoln, Morris, Franklin, Hamilton, Jefferson, Washington, the Adamses, Jackson, Webster, Clay, Grant, Sherman, Clara Barton, Blaine, Allison, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Cleveland, Roosevelt, Horace Mann, Booker T. Washington, and our many other American heroes and heroines, have not come into their usefulness and greatness by inheritance, but by hard and persistent labor, which made them the proper persons for the places to which they were called by the voice of a free and independent people. Judging the future by the past, no fear need be felt for this, the greatest of all nations. at the polls to express its conviction on public questions, only a few thousands make up the majority of one party over the other. ' ' — Political Theory and Party Organization in the United States, by Fess. APPENDIX THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE In Congress, July 4, 1776. A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident: — That all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive to these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organising its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But, when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies; and such is now the necessity that constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having, in direct object, the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be ob- tained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large dis- tricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representa- tion in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, 394 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of offi- cers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: — For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States; For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; For imposing taxes on us without our consent; For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing there an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies; For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments; For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most bar- barous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. APPENDIX 395 He has excited domestic insurrection amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, &exes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress, in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by re- peated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant as unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would in- evitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation; and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. We, therefore, the Bepresentatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish com- merce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and signed by the following members: — New Hampshire Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. Massachusetts Bay Samuel Adams, John Adams, Eobert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. Connecticut Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. New York William Floyd Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris, John Hancock George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. New Jersey Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. Pennsylvania Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton. Delaware Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. Maryland Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll, of Car- rollton. Virginia George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton North Carolina William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. South Carolina Edward Rutledge. Georgia Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. Resolved that copies of the Declaration be sent to the several assemblies, conventions, and committees, or councils of safety, and to the several com- manding officers of the continental troops; that it be proclaimed in each of the United States, at the head of the army. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA [In reprinting the Constitution here, the spelling, punctuation, and cap- italization of the original have been preserved.] We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I Section 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Eepresentatives. Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second year by the People of the several States, and the Elec- tors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and exclud- ing Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enum- eration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Con- gress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representa- tives shall not exceed one for every Thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New- York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the Representation from any state, the Execu- tive Authority thereof shall issue Write of Election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first 398 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one-third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by Eesignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Execu- tive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present. Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and Disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honour, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. Section 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Sen- ators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legisla- ture thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the places of chusing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meet- ing shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Section 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Mem- bers for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensa- tion for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the APPENDIX 399 Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continu- ance in Office. Section 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to recon- sider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been pre- sented to him, the same shall be a law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws, on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures; To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and cur- rent Coin of the United States; To establish Post Offices and post Roads; 400 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES To promote the progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for Limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Eight to their respec- tive Writings and Discoveries; To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court; To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations; To declare War, grant letters of Marque and Eeprisal, and make Eules concerning Captures on Land and Water; To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; To provide and maintain a Navy; To make Eules for the Government and Eegulation of the land and naval Forces; To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the Discipline prescribed by Congress; To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such Dis- trict (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise Like Authority over all Places pur- chased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, Dock- Yards, and other needful Buildings ; — And To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Con- stitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. Section 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or Duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, un- less when in Cases of Eebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. No Preference shall be given by any Eegulation of Commerce or Eevenue to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Ap- propriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Eeceipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the APPENDIX 401 Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. Section 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confed- eration; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws; and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Ton- nage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agree- ment or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of Delay. ARTICLE II Section 1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. i The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Ma- jority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority and have an equal number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representa- tion from each State having one Vote; a Quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Ma- jority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. 1 This clause has been superseded by the 12th amendment. 26 402 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES The Congress may determine the Time of chusing.the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President ; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of Thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Eesident within the United States. In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said office the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his services, a Compensa- tion, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, pre- serve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Depart- ments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Ap- pointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be estab- lished by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall ex- pire at the End of their next Session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordi- nary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the officers cf the United States. APPENDIX 403 Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on impeachment for, and Con- viction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. ARTICLE III Section 1. The Judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Section 2. The Judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority ; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;— to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party ; — to Controversies between two or more States; — between a State and Citizens of another State; — between Citizens of different States, — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be a Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Section 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. ARTICLE IV Section 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public. Acts, Eecords, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records, and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Section 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation 404 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Section 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Eules and Eegulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Eepublican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion, and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. AETICLE V The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all In- tents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legis- latures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Eatification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. AETICLE VI All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Con- stitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. The Senators and Eepresentatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. AETICLE VII The Eatification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand APPENDIX 405 seven hundred and Ei: States of America the subscribed our Names, John Langdon Nathaniel Gorham Wm Saml Johnson Alexander Hamilton Wil Livingston Wm Paterson B Franklin Robt Morris Tho Fitzsimons James Wilson Geo Read John Dickinson Jaco Broom James M 'Henry Danl Carroll John Blair Wm Blount Hu Williamson J Rutledge Charles Pinckney William Few Attest : ?hty seven and of the Independence of the United Twelfth. In Witness whereof We have hereunto Go Washington — Presidt and deputy from Virginia New Hampshire Nicholas Oilman Massachusetts Rufus King Connecticut Roger Sherman New York New Jersey David Brearley Jona Dayton Pennsylvania Thomas Mifflin Geo Clymer Jared Ingersoll Gouv Morris Delaware Gunning Bedford, Jun'r Richard Bassett Maryland Dan of St Thos Jenifer Virginia James Madison, Jr North Carolina Rich'd Dobbs Spaight South Carolina Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Pierce Butler Georgia Abr Baldwin William Jackson, Secretary ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF, THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth article of the original Constitution. ARTICLE I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE VI In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been pre- viously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have APPENDIX 407 Compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favour, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. AETICLE VII In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. AETICLE VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. AETICLE IX The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be con- strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. AETICLE X The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. AETICLE XI The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. AETICLE XII The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabi- tant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and trans- mit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Eepresentatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Eepresenta- tives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Eepresentatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President 408 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional dis- ability of the President. — The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a ma- jority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole num- ber shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish- ment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. ARTICLE XIV Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States, and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States, according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participa- tion in rebellion or other crimes, the basis of representation shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens, twenty-one years of age, in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of president or vice-president, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States or under any State, who having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each house remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States, nor any State, shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. APPENDIX 409 Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS FROM 1789 TO 1908 (From World Almanac, 1909.) AGGREGATE POPULAR VOTE AND ELECTORAL VOTE FOR CANDI- DATES FOR PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENT AT EACH ELECTION. Note — There is, properly speaking, no popular vote for President and Vice-President; the people vote for electors, and those, chosen in each State meet therein and vote for the candidates for President and Vice-President. The record of any popular vote for electors prior to 1824 is so meager and imperfect that a compilation would be useless. In most of the States, for more than a quarter century following the establishment of the Government, the State Legislatures ' ' appointed ' ' the Presidential electors, and the people therefore voted only indirectly for them, their choice being expressed by their votes for members of the Legislature. In this tabulation only the aggregate electoral votes for candidates for President and Vice-President in the first nine quadrennial elections appear. REFERENCE NOTES TO THE FIVE SUCCEEDING PAGES * The candidates starred were elected, (a) The first Republican party is claimed by the present Democratic party as its progenitor, (b) No candidate having a majority of the electoral vote the House of Representa- tives elected Adams, (c) Candidate of the Anti-Masonic party, (d) There being no choice, the Senate elected Johnson, (e) Eleven Southern States, being within the belligerent territory, did not vote, (f) Three Southern States disfranchised, (g) Horace Greeley died after election, and Demo- cratic electors scattered their votes, (h) There being a dispute over the electoral vote of Florida, Louisiana, Oregon and South Carolina, they were referred by Congress to an electoral commission composed of eight Republi- cans and seven Democrats, which, by a strict party vote, awarded 185 electoral votes to Hayes and 184 to Tilden. (i) Free Democrat, (j) Free Silver Prohibition party, (k) In Massachusetts. There was also a Native American ticket in that State, which received 184 votes, (m) Middle of the Road or Anti-Fusion People's party, (n) United Christian party, (o) Union Reform party. ELECTORAL VOTES 1789. Previous to 1804 each elector voted for two candidates for Presi- dent. The one who received the largest number of votes was declared President, and the one who received the next largest number of votes was declared Vice-President. The electoral votes for the first President of the United States were: George Washington, 69; John Adams, of Massachu- setts, 34; John Jay, of New York, 9; R. H. Harrison, of Maryland, 6; John Eutledge, of South Carolina, 6; John Hancock, of Massachusetts, 4; George Clinton, of New York, 3 ; Samuel Huntingdon, of Connecticut, 2 ; John Milton, of Georgia, 2; James Armstrong, of Georgia, Benjamin Lincoln, of Massachusetts, and Edward Telfair, of Georgia, 1 vote each. Vacancies (votes not cast), 4. George Washington was chosen President and John Adams Vice-President. 1792. George Washington, Federalist, received 132 votes; John Adams, Federalist, 77; George Clinton, of New York, Republican (a), 50; Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, Republican, 4; Aaron Burr, of New York, Republi- can, 1 vote. Vacancies 3. George Washington was chosen President and John Adams Vice-President. 1796. John Adams, Federalist, 71; Thomas Jefferson, Republican, 68; Thomas Pinckney, of South Carolina, Federalist, 59 ; Aaron Burr, of New York, Republican, 30; Samuel Adams, of Massachusetts, Republican, 15; Oliver Ellsworth, of Connecticut, Independent, 11; George Clinton, of New York, Republican, 7; John Jay, of New York, Federalist, 5; James Iredell, of North Carolina, Federalist, 3 ; George Washington, of Virginia, John Henry, of Maryland, and S. Johnson, of North Carolina, all Federalists, 2 votes each; Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina, Federalist, 1 vote. John Adams was chosen President and Thomas Jefferson Vice- President. 1800. Thomas Jefferson, Republican, 73; Aaron Burr, Republican, 73; John Adams, Federalist, 65; Charles C. Pinckney, Federalist, 64; John Jay, Federalist, 1 vote. There being a tie vote for Jefferson and Burr, the choice devolved upon the House of Representatives. Jefferson received the votes of ten States, which, being the largest vote cast for a candidate, elected him President. Burr received the votes of four States, which, being the next largest vote, elected him Vice-President. There were two blank votes. 1804. The Constitution of the United States having been amended, the electors at this election voted for a President and a Vice-President, instead of for two candidates for President. The result was as follows: For President, Thomas Jefferson, Republican, 162; Charles C. Pinckney, Feder- alist, 14. For Vice-President, George Clinton, Republican, 162 ; Ruf us King, of New York, Federalist, 14. Jefferson was chosen President and Clinton Vice-President. 1808. For President, James Madison, of Virginia, Republican, 122; Charles C. Pinckney, of South Carolina, Federalist, 47; George Clinton, of New York, Republican, 6. For Vice-President, George Clinton, Republican, 412 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 113; Eufus King, of New York, Federalist, 47; John Langdon, of New Hampshire, 9; James Madison, 3; James Monroe, 3. Vacancy, 1. Madison was chosen President and Clinton Vice-President. 1812. For President, James Madison, Republican, 128; De Witt Clinton, of New York, Federalist, 89. For Vice-President, Elbridge Gerry, of Massa- chusetts, 131; Jared Ingersoll, of Pennsylvania, Federalist, 86. Vacancy, 1. Madison was chosen President and Gerry Vice-President. 1816. For President, James Monroe, of Virginia, Republican, 183; Rufus King, of New York, Federalist, 34. For Vice-President, Daniel D. Tomp- kins, of New York, Republican, 183; John Eager Howard, of Maryland, Federalist, 22 ; James Ross, of Pennsylvania, 5 ; John Marshall, of Virginia, 4; Robert G. Harper, of Maryland, 3. Vacancies, 4. Monroe was chosen President and Tompkins Vice-President. 1820. For President, James Monroe, of Virginia, Republican, 231; John Q. Adams, of Massachusetts, Republican, 1. For Vice-President, Daniel D. Tompkins, Republican, 218; Richard Stockton, of New Jersey, 8; Daniel Rodney, of Delaware, 4; Robert G. Harper, of Maryland, and Richard Rush, of Pennsylvania, 1 vote each. Vacancies, 3. James Monroe was chosen President and Daniel D. Tompkins Vice-President. 1824-1908. 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V ,.V Pistol iJ.ircl . iV/ J ■» • tCrt'-o '*v-° ■,„•■' V".. V..W ,i V, 1 """ " 4 « ,.. •»<**,,„ "^WJT * MI0 '' ""■ v 1 c ALASKA i** o^ o %i " Territorial Uroirth of the UNlTlii) STATES PLATE NO. 10 INDEX NUMBERS REFER TO SECTIONS AND NOT TO PAGES ARBITRATION, international, 635 Acadians, removed, 174 Adams, John, vice president, 307; death of, 408 Adams, John Quincy, elected presi- dent, 407; the "Gag Rule," 442 Adams, Samuel, and committee of correspondence, 212; and the Bos- ton tea party, 213; and first Con- tinental congress, 216; is sought by General Gage, 218; escapes Gage, 219 Alabama, admitted as state, 399; secession in, 499 Alaska, purchase of, 581; gold dis- covered in, 658; boundary dispute, 658 Albany Congress, and Franklin's plan of union, 171 Algiers, war with, 388 Algonquins, and Champlain, 39 Allen, Ethan, captures fort Ticon- deroga, 220; and Benedict Arnold, 220 Allison, Senator Wm. B., and the Bland bill, 605; and the Sherman silver act of 1S90, 626 Alexander VI., and line of demarca- tion, IS Alien and Sedition Laws, the, 337 America, named after Americus Vespucius, 33 Americus Vespucius, visits South America, 33; believes he has vis- ited a new world, 33; New World named after, 33 Amnesty Bill, and removal of troops, 589 Andre, Major, and Benedict Arnold, 280; pass of, 280 Anderson, Major, surrenders Fort Sumter, 50S Andros, Sir Bdmund, and the Mas- sachusetts charter, 103; in Con- necticut. 115; and the Charter Oak. 115; in New York, 124; and New Jersey, 131 Annapolis, convention, 301 Anti-contract, law passed, 615 Anti-Federalists, organized, 309; and Thos. Jefferson, 309 Anti-rent, difficulties, 450 Argall, Samuel, in Virginia, 76; suc- ceeded Yeardly in Virginia, 78 Armed Neutrality, of the north, 277 Arnold, Benedict, and Ethen Allen, 220; given command of West Point, 280; turns traitor, 280; in the south, 284 Arthur, Chester A., as president, 609 Articles of Confederation, adopted, 290; government under the, 295; foreign affairs under the, 298; land sessions under the, 299 Astor, John Jacob, and the fur trade, 346 Astoria, founded by John Jacob As- tor, 346 Atlanta, captured by Sherman, 555 Atlantic Plain, physical features of, 54 Aztecs, conquered by Cortes, 22 BACON, rebellion in Virginia, 85 Bafflns' Bay, visited by Martin Fro- bisher, 48 Balboa, and the Pacific Ocean, 21; marries daughter of Davila, 21; the death of 21 Bancroft, George, and his works 435 Banks, first United States, 317; sec- ond United States, 389; Andrew Jackson and the United States, 417; wild cat state, 418; and Pres- ident Tyler, 445 Barbary States, war with, 353; Jef- ferson and the, 353; Captain Brainbridge and the, 353; Decatur and the, 353; second war with, 388 Baton Rouge, surrendered to the Federals, 525 Beauregard, General, attacks Fort Sumter, 508 Berkeley, Sir William, in Virginia, 84; and Bacon, 85; and New Jer- sey, 129 Berlin Decrees, and their effect on the United States, 354 Bill of Rights, the, 319 Black Hawk, chief, 426; war, 426 Blaine, James G., secretary of state, 628; and the Samoan Islands, 628 Blair, Hon. P. P., in Missouri, 512 Bland, Richard P., and Allison bill, 605; and the Sherman silver act, 626 Blue Laws, of Connecticut, 116 INDEX 427 Bobadilla, sends Columbus home in chains, 17 Boone, Daniel, in the west, 276 Boston, and the King's soldiers, 206; massacre, 207; tea party, 213; port bill, 214; massacre and John Han- cock, 216; British shut up in, 224; is evacuated by British, 227; fire, 597 Boxer Uprising 1 , and its effect, 653 BracUlock, General, defeat of, 173; death of, 173 and note 57; is suc- ceeded by Washington, 173 Bradford, William, governor of Massachusetts, 92; writes history of Plymouth, 92 Bragg - , General Braxton, at Chatta- nooga, 545; succeeded by General Johnston, 546. Brainbridge, Captain, and the Bar- bary states, 353 Brandy wine, battle of, 256 Birney, James G., and slavery, 441 British, evacuate Boston, 227; trans- fer war to the south, 228; re- pulsed at Fort Moultre, 230; plan campaign for 1777, 245 Brooklyn, bridge, 612 Brooks, Freston S., assaults Sumner, 4 91 Brown, General Jacob, captures Fort Erie, 382 Brown, John, and his raid Brown University, founded, 186 Bryant, William Cullen, and his writings, 360 Buchanan, James, and the Ostend Manifesto, 487; as president, 493; and his policy toward slavery. 198 Buell, General, in the west, 522 Bull Bun, first battle of, 516; effect of, 517 Bunker Hill, battle of 222 Burgoyne, to capture Hudson Val- ley. 24 5; starts up the St. Law- rence. 247; surrenders, 249 Burnside, General A. E., succeeds General McClellan, 538; at Fred- ricksburg, 541 Burr, Aaron, elected vice president, 341; kills Hamilton, 348; commits treason, 349 Butler, General, in the south, 524 CABOTS, sail under English flag, 45; give to England a claim to North America, 45 Cabrillo, visits California, 29 Calhoun, John C, and the war con- gress, 367-368; and the tariff of abominations (1828), 412; and the Omnibus bill (Compromise bill of 1850), 473, 475; death of, 476 California, visited by Cabrillo, 29; gold discovered in, 468 Calvert, Sir George, settles Mary- land, 141; tries to found a colony in Newfoundland, 141; dies and is succeeded by Cecil Calvert, 141 Camden, captured by the British, 279 Campbell, General John, at Kings Mountain, 283 Canada, colonized by Cartier, 37; United States boundary dispute in 1808, 395 Canonicus, gives Rhode Island to Roger Williams, 117 Capitol, National, and Hamilton's financial policy, 313; removed to Washington, 340 Carolinas, the early history, 140; and the Grand Model, 147; and the smugglers and pirates, 14S; and the Indians, 150 Carpetbaggers, in the south, 583 Carteret, Sir George, and New Jer- sey, 129; and East Jersey, 130 Cartier, discovers the St. Lawrence, 37; names Montreal, 37; in Can- ada, 37; and Roberval, 37 Carver, John, first governor of Mas- sachusetts, 89; dies, 90 Casswell, Colonel Bichard, at Moore's Creek, 229 Cedar Creek, battle of, 560 Cedar Bapids and Des Moines, com- mission plan of city government, 667 Census, the first, 329; in 1800, 340; in 1850, 481; in north and south and opening of Civil War, 500 Central Plain, physical features of, Cervera, Admiral, at Santiago, 646 to 649 Champlain, the father of New France, 39; in the St. Lawrence River, 39; and De Monts, 39; and the Algonquins against the Iro- quois, 39 Charles X,, executed, 84 Charles II., recalls Berkeley, 85 Charleston (S. C), captured bv Brit- ish, 278 Charter Oak, and Andros, 115 Chattanooga, battle of, 545 Chesapeake, the, and the embargo act, 357; is captured by the Shan- non, 375 Chicago, fire, 597 Chickamauga, battle of, 545 Chinese, prohibited from coming to United States, 611 Chippewa, battle of, 382 Cibola, visited by Coronado, 27 Civil Bights Bill, passed, 576 Civil Service, commission appointed, 601; Pendleton act, 610 Civil War, cost of, 569-570 Clark, Colonel, in the west, 276 Clark and Lewis, expedition, 345 Clark, Wm„ and Lewis explore Louisiana, 345 Clay, Henry, and war congress, 367- 368; and Missouri Compromise, 401; and his compromise tariff (1833), 424; and the United States 428 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Bank, 445; and the Compromise bill of 1850 (Omnibus bill), 473- 475; death of, 476 Clinton, DeWitt, and the Erie Canal, 40!) Claiborne's rebellion, 144 Class Distinction, in the thirteen colonies, 184 Clinton, General, succeeds Howe, 265 Colleges, in colonial times, 186; at time of Civil War, 503; at present time, 670 Colonies, Original Thirteen, natural division of the, 182, 183; occupied by, 183; population in, 1S3; occu- pation of the inhabitants of the, 183; class distinction in, 184; re- ligion in, 185; education in the, 186; libraries in, 187; literature in, 187; postofflces in, 187; home life and domestic customs in, 188; modes of travel, 189; monev in, 190; government in, 192 Columbus, Christopher, his early life, 10; sees Iceland, 11; meets Perestrello, 12; and Toscanelli, 13; seeks aid, 14; and King John of Portugal, and Queen Isabella, 16; the courage of, 16; is successful, 16; discovery of America, 16; other voyages of, 17; sent home in chains, 17; the death of, 17; his heirs and Porto Rico, 20 Colt, Samuel, invents modern fire- arms, Constitution, adopted, 304; adoption of, a rebellion, 305; ten amend- ments to, 319; twelfth amendment to, 362 Cold Harbor, battle of, 55 S Commission, plan of government for cities, 667 Committees of Correspondents, and their effect, 21 2 Communism, in Virginia, 73; at the present time, G79 Commiinistic Societies, in United States, 679 Compromise of 1850, or the Omni- bus bill, 373, 375 Concord, military stores at, 218-219; and General Gage, 218-219 Congress, Continental, during Revo- lution, 258 Connecticut, visited by fishermen, 110: and the trading posts, 110; settled by people from Massa- chusetts, 113; receives a charter, ill; under royal governors, 115; and Sir Edmund Andros, 115; charters annulled, 115; and the "Blue Laws," 116; and the Char- ter Oak, 115; relinquishes her land claims to general government, 299 Conscription, in the south, 552 Constantinople, fall of, 2 Constitutional Convention, in Phila- delphia, 302; and the three great compromises, 303; presents the constitution, 304 Constitution, first written, 113; of Pennsylvania, 134 Constitution (old Ironsides), in War of 1812, 373 Continental Congress, the first, 215; second, 221; resolutions of inde- pendence at second, 232 Conway Cabal, and its effect, 262 Conway, Thos., and his cabal, 262 Cook, John C, and John Brown, 496 Cooper, James Penimore, and his works, 402 Coppock Brothers, and John Brown, 496 Cornwallis, General, in the south, 278; at battle of Camden, 279; at King's Mountain, 283; and Greene in the south, 285; retreats to Yorktown, 290; surrenders at Yorktown, 293 Coronado, and the cities of Cibola, 27; and the plains of Quivira, 27; and Grand Canon of the Colorado, 27 Cortes, Hernando, picture, 22; con- quers the Aztecs, 22 Cotton-gin, and slavery, 326 Cotton, John, settles in Massachu- setts, 98 Cowpens, battle of, and effect, 286 Court, Supreme, established 31 S; John Jay, first justice of, 314 Credit Mobilier, and the railroads, 591 Cromwell, succeeds Charles I, 84; removes Berkeley, 84 Crown Point, and Ticonderoga dur- ing French and Indian War, 175; captured by Seth Warren, 220 Cuba, visited by Columbus, 16; gov- erned by De Soto, 28; during Spanish-American War, 640, 641; after Spanish-American War, 650 Cumberland, National Road, I mi It. 350 Caster, General George A,, and the Indians, 596 DALE, SIR THOMAS, and Commun- ism, 73 Dan River, British and Continentals race for, Davis. Jefferson, elected president of the Confederacy, 499; reprisals, 510 Dearborn, General Henry, fails in campaign of 1S12, 371-372; given command of 'Army of Center," 374 Dearborn, Port (Chicago), passes in- to hands of British, 372 De Ayllon, and San Miguel, 24; and the mines of St. Domingo, 24 Decatur, Stephen, and the Barbary states, 353; and war with Algiers, 388 INDEX 42!) Declaratory Acts, and the colonies, 203 De Gorges, and the Spanish in Flor- ida, 3S De Kalb, ioins the American army, 247; killed at Camden, 279 Delaware, settled at Wilmington, IMS; captured by the Dutch, 139; saved to the Union, 513 Delaware, Lord, and the Virginia charter of 1609, 72; gets sick, 73 Des Moines and Cedar Rapids com- mission plan of government, 667 De Monts, and Champlain, 39 De Narvaez, visits Tampa Bay, 26; at Gulf of Mexico, 26; meets dis- aster, 26 De Soto, Ferdinand, in Peru. 28; governor of Cuba, 28; in Florida, 28; on the Mississippi, 28; at Mo- bile Bay, 28 D'Estaing, loses at Savannah, 275; wounded, 275 De Vries, settles Delaware, 138 Dewey, George, and the battle of Manila, 645 Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of Cape of Storms, 9 Ding-ley Tariff, and its effect, 638 Dinwiddie, Governor, alarmed about the Ohio Valley, 168; sends George Washington to Fort Le Boeuf, 168 Dickinson, John, and the "Letters of the Pennsylvania Farmer," 205 Donaldson, Port, captured, 520 Douglas, Stephen A., and the Kan- sas-Nebraska bill, 489; and Lin- coln debates, 495 Dover, settled by Georges and Mason, 104 Dorr, Thonias W., and his rebellion, 449 Draft, riots in the north, 551 Drake, Sir Francis, sails around the world, 47; and the Spanish, 47 Draper, Dr., discovers process of taking portraits, 456 Dred Scott decision, 494 Dukes laws, in New York, 126 EARLY, GENERAL JUBAL A., in the Shenandoah Valley, 559 Earth, the, circumnavigated by Ma- gellan, 23; circumnavigated by Drake, 4 7 East India Company, is organized, 43; engages Henry Hudson, 44 East Jersey, and Sir George Car- teret. 130 Education, in the thirteen colonies, 186; at time of Civil War. 503; and the public library, 505; at present time, 671-672, 673 Edward, Fort, captured by British. 248 El Cano, circumnavigates the globe, 23 Electoral Commission, and its use, 603 Ellsworth, Senator, and the United States supreme court, 318 Elizabeth, and her commerce, 46; and the Spanish Armada, 51 Emancipation Proclamation, issued by Lincoln. 539 Embargo Act, and the Chesapeake, 357 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, and his works, 431 Endicott, John, settles at Salem, 94 Engine, Steam, the invention of the, 327 England, claims North America through exploration of Cabots, 45; and the Spanish Armada, 51 ; trouble with during Washington's administration, 324; and her or- ders in council, 354 English throne passes from the Tudors to Stuarts, 63 Ericson, John, builds the Monitor, 5 29 Erie Canal, built, 409 Erie, Fort, battle of, 382 Erskine, Minister, and President Madison, 365 Espejo, founds Santa Fe, 31; ex- plores New Mexico, 31 Excise Tax, and whiskey insurrec- tion, 315 FAIR OAKS OR SEVEN PINES, battle of, 5S3 Family Forts, The, during War of 1812. 377 Farragut, General, in the south, 524; New Orleans surrendered to, 524; in Mobile Bay, 562 Federalist, papers and their effect, 306; party organized, 309 Ferguson, Major, at Kings Moun- tain, 283 Fillmore, Millard, and the "Tariff of 1842," 442; as president of United States. 4 74 Financial Conditions, in thirteen colonies, 190; during the Revolu- tion, 282; under the Confedera- tion. 296; during Jefferson"s ad- ministration, 343 Fitch, John, and his steamboat, 328 Flag, first, 25?, Fletcher, Governor, and the smug- glers and pirates, 148 Florida, discovered by Juan Po^ce de Leon, 20: visited by John Ri- baut, 38: admitted as state, 455; secession in, 4 99 Foote, Commodore A. H., in the west, 520-522 Force Bills, in the south. 5S6 Fort Carolina, built by Ribaut, 38 Fort D'lqnerne, captured by Wash- ington. 177; renamed Fort Pitt, Fort Fisher, captured by Union. ."<;:; Fort Frontenac, captured in French and Indian War. 177 Fort La China, built by LaSalle. 41 430 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Fort Jackson, surrendered to the Federals, 525 Fort Niinins, attacked by Indians, 366 Fort St. Louis, built by La Salle, 41 Fort Saint Philip, surrendered to the Federals, 525 Fourteenth Amendment, to consti- tution, 577 Franklin, Benjamin, and the Albany Congress, 171 and his plan of union, 171; and first anti-slavery society, 226; and the American navy, 272; death of, 314 Franklin, Win., governor of New Jersey, 131 Freedmen's Bureau Bill, passage of, 573, 574 Frederick the Great, reference to Washington, 243 Fredericksburg - , battle of, 541 Fremont, John C, conquers Cali- fornia, 464; saves Missouri to the Union, 512 French, the, fishermen, 34; and the Indians, 35; help the colonists, 263; trouble during John Adams's administration with, 333; and X. Y. Z. papers, 334, 335; United States in 1804, 354; and the Milan decree, 354 French and Indian War, cause, 166; and the Ohio Valley, 167; and plan of campaign, 172; treaty of peace, 180 Frobisher, Martin, sails into Baf- fin's Bay, 48 Frontenac, Count, and the Indians, 156 Fugitive Slave Law, of 1793, 321; of 1850, 477 Fulton, Robert, and his steamboats, Fundamental Orders, of Connecticut, 113 GADSDEN, JAMES, and the Gads- den Purchase, 484 Gage, General, tries to capture Adams and Hancock, 218; tries to destrov militarv stores at Con- cord, 218 Gag Rule, of 1836, 44 2 Gallatin, Albert, and the excise tax, 315; and the whiskey insurrection, 315; and financial reform, 343 Galveston, flood, 667; and the com- mission plan of government, 667 Gama, Vasco de, sails to Calicut, 10 Garfield, Jas. A., elected president, 60S; and the federal offices, 609; his death. 609 Garrison, Wm. Lloyd, and slavery, 441; and the "Liberator," 441 Gaspee, the burning of the, 211 Gates, General, Burgoyne surren- ders to, 249; and the Conway cabal, 262; loses at Camden, 279; superseded by General Greene, 285 Genet, Edmund, trouble with, 323 Geneva Award, and treaty of Wash- ington, 595 Genoa, Venice battles against, 4; Columbus born in, 11 Georgia, settled at Savannah, 151; and her colonists, 152; and the Spanish and Indians, 153; almost lost to the British, 275, 278; re- gained by Green, 288; secession in, 499 Germain, Lord George, and the Rev- olution, 245, 249, 261; plans fail with Howe, 254 Germantown, battle of, 257 Gerry Elbridge, and X. Y. Z. papers, 334-335 Gettysburg, battle of, 548 Ghent, treaty of, 386 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, visits New- foundland, 49 Gist, Christopher, accompanies Washington. 168 Cleveland, Grover, elected president, 613; and the spoils system, 614; and the tariff, 622; elected presi- dent second time, 631 Gold, discovery of in California, 468; standard, 637 Gorges and Mason, settle New Hampshire and Maine, 104; di- vided their territory, 105 Gorman-Wilson Bill, 634 Gosmold, lands at Cape Cod, 64 Government, in thirteen colonies, 192 Grand Model, in the Carolinas, 147 Grant, Ulysses S., in the west, 520; captures Vicksburg, 543; made lieutenant general, 553; in Wil- derness battles, 558; captures Richmond, 565; captures Lee's army at Appomattox, 565, and note 167; elected president, 587; and reconstruction, 588; death of, 632; tomb, 632 Greene, General, supersedes Gen- eral Gates, 285; recovers South Carolina and Georgia, 288 Guerriere, the, in War of 1812, 373 HAGUE PEACE CONFERENCE, and its effect, 652 Halleck, General, in the west, 519; given supervision of army, 536 Hamilton, Alexander, writes the "Federalist" papers, 306; and the Federalist party, 309: secretary of treasury, 310; financial policy and the national capital, 313; and United States Bank. 317; and mint. 317; killed by Burr, 348 Hamilton, Colonel, captures Vin- cennes, 276 Hampton, General Wade, given com- mand of "Army of North," 374 Hancock, John, and Boston mas- sacre, 216; president of second Continental congress, 221 INDEX 431 Harrison, Benjamin, elected presi- dent, 623; and the tariff, 624 Harrison, William Henry, in battle of Tippecanoe, 366: given com- mand of "Army of the West," 374; makes arrangements to cap- ture northwest, 376; wins battle of Thames, 379; as president, 444; his death, 444 Harrod, James, in the west, 27 6 Hartford, Connecticut, founded. 111; convention, 385 Harvard College, founded, 186 Haverhill, captured, by the Indians, 156, 160 Hawaii, during Cleveland's admin- istration, 651; and United States, 651 Hayes, B. B., elected president, 602, 603; his southern policy, 604 Hawkins, Sir John, and the slave traffic, 46 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, and his works, 411 Hayne, Robert Y., and Webster de- bate, 421 Hayti, visited by Columbus, 17 Henry, Fort, captured, 520 Henry, Patrick, and the parson's cause, 199 Henry, Prince, the navigator, 8 Herkimer, General Nicholas, in battle of Oriskany, 251 Hohson, and the Merrimac, 64 7 Holland, and the New Netherlands, 42; received the Separatists, 87 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, and his works, 432 Holy Alliance, and its effect, 403; and the Monroe Doctrine, 4 03 Home Life and Domestic Customs, in thirteen colonies, 188; at time of Civil War, 506 Hood, General, John B., succeeds Johnston and Thomas, 556, 557 Hooker, Thomas, settles in Connec- ticut, 111 Hooker, General J. E. (Fighting Joe), succeeds General Burnsides, 542; at battle of Lookout Moun- tain and Missionary Ridge, 546; at battle at Chancellorsville, 547; is succeeded by General Meade, 547 Horse Shoe Bend, battle of, 366 Houston, Sam, and the republic of Texas, 454 Howe, Admiral, strives for peace, 235, 237; General Howe In New York, 254; and Washington in New Jersev, 255; is succeeded by Clinton, 265 Howe, Elias, invents sewing ma- chine, 456 Hudson, Henry, is engaged by the East India Company. 4 4; explores the Hudson River, 44 Huguenots, attacked by Menendez, 30, 38 Hull, General William, surrenders to British, 371, 372 Hutchinson, Anne, settles at Bos- ton, 98; gets into religious trouble, 98; moves to New Port, 98; killed by the Indians, 98 ICELAND, Columbus visits, 11 Idaho, admitted, 627 Illinois, admitted, as state, 188 Impressment, of American seamen, 356 Indentured Servants, in Virginia, SO Indians, The, and the French, 35; why so called, 5"; and his con- querors, 56; races, nations, and clans, 57; food and occupation, 58; and Wm. Penn, 56; houses and clothing, 59; religion and educa- tion, 60; future and the allotment acts, 61; uprising in Virginia, 82; and Miles Standish, 93; murder Anne Hutchinson, 98; and King Philip's War, 100; and John Eliot, 101; in the Pequod War, 112; and Peter Minuit, 119; in Delaware. 138; in the Carolinas, 150; and Count Frontenac, 156; capture Saco, 160; Haverhill, 156-160; Schnectady, 156; Salmon Falls, 156; and St. Leger in Mohawk Valley, 250; and western immigra- tion, 320; at battle of Tippecanoe, 366; at Horse Shoe Bend, 366; massacre people at River Rasin, 377; in Seminole War, 4 25; in the Black Hawk War, 426; and Gen- eral Custer, 596 Indiana, admitted as state, 391 Independence, of England in south- ern colonies, 231; declared by the colonies July 4, 1776, 233 Inter-Colonial Wars, causes of, 154 Inter-State Commerce Law, passed, 619; rate law, 662 Intolerable Acts, viz., Boston Port, Transportation bill, Massachu- setts bill, Regulation act, Quar- tering act, and Quebec act, or Proclamation Line act, 214 Invention, and the discovery of America, 7; at present time, 674 Iowa, visited by Coronado, note 8; admitted in 1846, 470 Iroquois, and Champlain, 39 Irving, Washington, and his writ- ings, 359 Island Number Ten, battle of, 522 JACKSON, ANDREW, at battle of New Orleans, 387; at battle of Horse Shoe Bend, 366; as president, 413; and his Kitchen Cabinet, 415; and the spoils system, 416 ; and the United States bank, 417; and the "specie circular," 419; and nulli- fication. 423; and the Seminole War, 4 25 432 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Jackson, T. J. (Stonewall), raid in the Shenandoah Valley, 534; mor- tally wounded, note 157 Jamestown, the first English settle- ment, 67; colonized by fortune hunters, 68; during the starving time, 71 Jasper, Sergeant, saves flag at Fort Moultrie, 230, and note 78; his death, 27 5 Jay, John, writes the "Federalist" papers, 306; first chief justice, 314; treaty with England, 325 Jefferson, Thos., and the anti-Fed- eralists, 309; secretary of state, 310; and the national capital, 313; president, 342; and his financial reform, 343; and the Barbary states, 353; and his "Gunboat" navy, 355; and the Embargo act, 357; death of, 408 John I., King, and his discoveries, 8; Columbus and, 14 Johnson, Andrew, vice-president, 564; as president, 565, 571; car- ries forward Lincoln's plan, 572; and congress, 575, 578; impeach- ment of, 580 Johnston, General Albert Sidney, in the west, 519, 522 Johnston, Joseph E., at battle of Bull Run, 516; in the west, 519; in Georgia, 554; around Atlanta, 555; captured by Sherman, 567 Joliet and Marquette, explore the upper Mississippi rivfr, 40 Jones, John Paul, on the sea, 273 Julian Calendar, dropped, 191 KASKASKIA, captured by Clark, 276 Kansas, visited by Coronado. 27; and Nebraska bill, 489; civil war, 490; John Brown, 486 Kearney, General Stephen W., cap- tured Santa Fe, 464 Kentucky, admitted as state, 3 29; and Virginia resolutions, 338; saved to the Union, 513 King George's War, begins, 164; and the French, 163; treaty of peace, 165 Kings Mountain, battle of, 282 King William's War, cause of, 155; convention of the colonies called, 156 Kitchen Cabinet, of Andrew Jack- son, 415 Knox, Henry, secretary of war. TMO Koscuisko, joins the American army, 246; with Greene in the south, 285 Koszta, Martin, in trouble, 485 Ku Klux Klan, in the south, 585 r-ABOR UNIONS, and their effect, 613, 617, and note 183 Lafayette, joins American armv, 246; at battle of Monmouth. 266; and Wayne oppose Cornwallis, 290; and the Bunker Hill monu- ment, 397; visit to United States, 405 Lake Champlain, battle of, 383 Lake Michigan, explored by La Salle, 41 La Salle, and New France, 41; builds Fort La China, 41; explores Mis- sissippi River to its mouth, 41; builds Fort St. Louis; gave to France Louisiana, 41; is mur- dered, 41 Lee, Charles (the traitor), in New Jersey, 239; is captured, 240; at battle of Monmouth, 266; is court- martialed, 267 Lee, Harry (Light Horse Harry), in the south. 2S2 Lee, Richard Henry, and his resolu- tions of independence, 232 Lee, General Robert E., succeeds General Johnston, 533; invades the north, 537; at battle of An- tietam, 538; second invasion of the north, 547, 548; at battle of Get- tysburg, 548; surrenders to Giant at Appomattox, 565, and note 167 Leisler, Jacob, in New York, 124 Letters of The Pennsylvania Parm- er, and their effect, 205 Lewis, Meriwether, and Clark ex- plore Louisiana, 345 Lexington, battle of, 219 Libraries, in colonies, 187; at time of Civil War, 505; at present time, 676 Liberator, The, and slavery, 441 Lincoln, Abraham, and Douglas de- bates, 495; as president, 507; first proclamation of blockade, 510; and the emancipation proclama- tion, 539; second election, 564; death of, 565 Lincoln, General Benjamin, given army in the south, 274: and d'Estaing lose at Savannah, 275 Line of Demarcation, Alexander VI. and the, 18; establishing of the, IS: Spain and the, 18; Portugal and the, 18; England and the, 18; France and the, 18 Linotype, and its uses, 675 Literature, in colonies, 187; at the time of Jackson's administration, 427 Livingston, Robert R., administers oath of office to Washington, 307 London and Plymouth Companies, and the Virginia Company, their charter. 65 London Company, settles James- town, 67 Longfellow, Henry, and his works, 429 Long Island, battle of, 236 Lords of Trade, and first taxation law, 196 Louisiana, claimed by France, 41; transferred to Spain, ISO; re- INDEX 433 ceded to France, 344; purchased by United States, 344; admitted as state, 391; secession in, 499 Louisburg, captured, 164; during French and Indian War, 176 Lookout Mountain, battle of, 546 Lovejoy, Elijah P., and slavery, 441 Lowell, James Russell, and his works, 434; and slavery, 441; and secession, 499 Lundy's Lane, battle of, 382 Lyon, General Nathan, saves Mis- souri to the Union, 512 McCLELLAN, GENERAL GEORGE B., in West Virginia, 511; and his education, note 147; Pennsylvania campaign, 531; captures York- town, 532; in battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines, 533; at Seven Days' battle, 536; at battle of An- tietam, 538; removed from the command, 538 McCormick, Cyrus H., invents mow- ing machine, 456 McDowell, General, at battle of Bull Run, 516 McKinley, Win., and the tariff, 624, elected president, 636; and the gold standard, 637, death of, 656 MADISON, JAMES, writes the "Federalist" papers, 306; as pres- ident, 364; negotiation with Eng- land and France, 365; and the war congress, 367-368 Mafia, in New Orleans, 629 Magellan, discovers Straits of Ma- gellan, 23; completes circuit of Magna Charta, in Virginia, 77 Maidens, arrive in Virginia, SI Maine, settled, 66-107; united with Massachusetts, 108; character of people in, 109; admitted, 1820, 401 Maine (battleship), sinking of the, 642-643 Maine and New Hampshire, settled by Gorges and Mason, 104; di- vided, 105 Mandeville, Sir John, and his trav- els, 5 Manila, battle of, 645 Marion, General Francis, in the south, 282, 285 Marshall, James W., discovers gold in California, 468 Marshall, John, and X. Y. Z. papers, 333, 334; announces death of Washington, 339; justice of su- preme court, 340; and the Seminole War, 425 Marquette, and Joliet explore the upper Mississippi River, 40; ex- plore the Illinois River, 40; visit Lake Michigan, 40; the present site of Chicago, 40; dies of a fever, 40; buried at Mackinaw, 40 Maryland, settled at St. Mary's, 141; and the first colonists, 143; and her government, 14 2; and Clai- borne, 144; and her growth and toleration, 145; saved to the union, 513 Mason, John M., and the Trent af- fair, 515 Mason, John Y., and the Ostend manifesto, 487 Mason and Dixon Line, between Pennsylvania and Delaware, 136 Mason and Gorges, settle Maine and New Hampshire, 104; divide their territory, 105 Massachusetts, is settled through religious controversy, 86; settled at Plymouth, 90; during the first winter, 91; first governor, John Carver, 89; second governor, Wm. Bradford, 92; settled at Salem and Boston, 94; charter, 95; charter and Governor Andros, 103; bill or regulation act, 214; organizes a provincial government, 217; re- linquishes her land claims to gen- eral government, 299 Massasoit, in Massachusetts, 93 Mayflower, compact, 89; sails into Cape Cod Bay, 88 Maximilian, in Mexico, 582 Maxon, William, and John Brown, Meade, General George E., succeeds Johnson, 547; at battle of Gettys- burg, 548, 549 Mendenez, founds St. Augustine, 30; and the Huguenots, 30; builds Fort San Marco, 30 Merrimac and Monitor, battle be- tween the, 528, 529, 530 Merritt, General, and Manila, 645 Mexico, and Maximilian, 582 Mexican War, declared. 459; closed bv treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 465 Milan Decree, and its effect on the United States. 354 Miles, General Nelson A., in Cuba, 648 Mill Spring, captured. 520 Mint, United States, first, 317 Missionary Ridge, battle of, 546 Mississippi, admitted as state, 399; secession in, 499 Mississippi River, visited by De Soto, 28; explored by Marquette and Joliet, 40; explored by La Salle 41 Missouri, admitted, 1821, 401; saved to the Union, 512 Missouri Compromise, in the sen- ate. 401 Mobile Bay, visited by De Narvaez, 26 Modes of Travel, in thirteen col- onies, 189 Mohammed II., captured Constan- tinople, 2 Money, used in thirteen colonies. 434 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 190; bad during Revolutionary War, 281 Monitor and Merrimac, battle be- tween the, 528-529-530 Monmouth, battle of, 266 Monroe Doctrine, and holy alliance, 402; and its use in our admin- istrative policy, 402; and Vene- zuela, 635 Monroe, James, elected president, 392, 393 Montana, admitted, 627 Montcalm, General, is captured at Quebec by Wolfe, 179 Montezuma, conquered by Cortes, 22 Montreal, is named by Cartier, 37; captured during French and In- dian War, 180 Moore's Creek, battle of, 229 Morgan, General, with Green in the south, 285; at battle of Cowpens, 285 Mormons, found a religion, 451; move to Utah, 452; give up poly- gamy, 611 Morris, Robert, aids Washington, 244, 291; his greatness, 244-292 Morse, Samuel F. B., invents tele- graph, 456 Morton and Jackson, Drs., discover uses of ether in surgery, 456 Moultrie, Colonel, defend Charles- ton, 230 Moultrie, Port, during Revolution- ary "War, 230; abandoned by Major Anderson, 508 Mound Builders, in the United States, 62 NAPOLEON, BONAPARTE, be- comes first consul of France, 336, makes peace with United States, 336; and death of Washington, 339; sells Louisiana, 344; and the Berlin Decrees, 354; and his Milan Decree, 354; deceives the United States, 369 Naturalization, fraudulent, 356 Navigation Acts, and acts of trade, 195 Navy, improved, 630 Nebraska, visited by Coronado, 27 New Amsterdam, and Dutch Trad- ers, 119; and West India Com- pany, 119; and her settlements, 120; and the patroons, 121; be- comes New York, 122 New Poundland, is visited by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 49 New Prance, visited by Verrazano, 36; visited by Champlain, 39; ex- plored by La Salle, 41 New Hampshire, government of, 106; and Maine settled by Gorges and Mason, 104; and Maine di- vided, 105 New Jersey, visited by Henry Hud- son, 129; settled by Dutch and Swedes, 129; captured by the Stuyvesant, 129; given to Berk- eley and Carteret, 129; and the Duke of York, 131; and Sir Ed- mund Andros, 131; Washington retreats across, 239; battles in by "Washington and Howe, 255 New Mexico, visited by Coronado, 27; explored by Espejo, 31 New Netherlands, and Holland, 42; establishes colonies, 44; and New York. 120 New Orleans, battle of, 387; cap- tured by Jackson, 387; surren- dered to Farragut, 524; and the Mafia, 628 New York, and the Dutch Traders, 119; and the West India Company, 119; and her settlements, 120; and the patrons, 121; and Andros, Leisler and Sloughter, 124; and her government, 125; and Duke's Laws, 126; and religion, 127; and education, 128: protected by Washington, 234; captured by British, 238; surrenders her land claims to government, 2S9, 299 Non-Importation Agreement, and the Virginia resolutions, 209 Non-Intercourse Act, against Eng- land and France, 358 North America, physical features of, North Carolina, formed, 149 North Dakota, admitted, 627 Nullification, launched by Calhoun, 412; in South Carolina, 423 OGLETHORPE, JAMES E., returns to England, 153 Ohio, admitted, 361 Ohio Company, and the buried plates, 167; employed Geo. Wash- ington, 168 Ordinance, of 1787; passed by Con- gress. 300; its effect, 300 Omnibus Bill, and the Compromise of 1S50, 475, 573 Original Thirteen Colonies, severe punishment in, 193; growth of democracy in, 194; makes treaty with France, 263 Oriskany, battle of, 251 Ostend Manifesto and its effect, 4 87 Otis, James, and "Writs of Assist- ance," 198 PACKENHAM, GENERAL, at battle of New Orleans, 387 Panama Canal, and its future, 660 Pan-American Exposition, and as- sassination of President McKin- ley, 656 Panic, of 1837, 420; of 1873, 598; of 1S93, 633 Parker, Captain, at Concord and Lexington, 219 Parker, Ely P., writes terms of sur- render at Appomattox, note 167 Parker, Theodore, and slavery, 441 INDEX 435 Partisan Leaders, Harry Lee, James Williams, Andrew Pickens, Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion, 282; William Campbell, John Sevier, 283; General Mor- gan, 285 Patroons, The, in New York, 121 Femberton, General J. E., surren- ders Vicksburg to General Grant, 543 Pendleton, civil service, 610 Pennsylvania, and the Quakers, 133; and her constitution and laws, 134; growth, 137 Penn, Wm., and the Indians, 5G, 135; in West Jersey, 130, 131; and his holy experiment in Penn- sylvania, 133; in Delaware, 139, 140 Fequod, war, 112 Perestrello, Columbus meets, 12 Perry, Matthew C, secures treaty with Japan, 4S6 Perry, Commodore O. H., captures British, of Lake Brie, 378 Peru, captured by Pizarro, 25 Personal Liberty Bill, and slavery, 4 78 Petroleum, discovery and uses of, 600 Pirates and Smugglers, in the Caro- linas and Governor Fletcher, 148 Philip, King-, war, 100; is murdered, 100 Phillip II., and Queen Elizabeth, 51; and his Armada, 51 Phillips, "Wendell, and slavery, 441; and John Brown, 496 Phipps, Sir William, captures Port Royal, 157 Pickens, General Andrew, in the South, 282 Pickett, General, at battle of Gettys- burg, 54S Pinckney, Charles C, and the French, 333; and the X. T. Z. papers, 334, 335 Pierce, Pranklin, as president, 483; and Kansas, 491 Pike, Zebulon, explores the Missis- sippi valley and the southwest, 347 Pilgrims, also known as Separatists, 88; land at Plymouth Rock, 90; experience "hard times," 91 Pitt, Wm., and the French and In- dian War, 177; and the Revolu- tionary War, 264; dies, 264 Pittsburg- Landing-, battle of, 522 Pizarro, conquers Peru, 25 Plymouth, colony on the Kennebec, 66 Plattsburg-, battle of, 383 Pocahontas, and John Smith, 70 Poe, Edgrar Allan, and his works, 428 Polk, James X., elected president, 457 Polo, in the Orient, 4; captured by the Genoese, 4 Ponce de Leon, accompanies Colum- bus, 20; governor of Porto Rico, 20; and the fabled fountain, 20; discovers Florida, 20; his death, 20 Pontiac, and his conspiracy, 181 Popham, Geo., and the Plymouth colony, 66 Population, in 1790, 329; in 1S00, 340; in 1850, 481; in north and south, and opening of Civil War, 500 Port Hudson, captured by the Fed- erals, 544 Port Royal (Annapolis), captured, 157, 161; renamed Annapolis, 161 Port Royal (South Carolina), Ri- baut at, 3S Porter, Captain, in the South, 524 Portsmouth, settled by Gorges and Mason, 104 Portug-uese, The, early discoveries of, 8 Postag-e, reduced, 611 Postofflces and Mails, in colonies, and mails at time of Civil War, 504; and reduced postage, 611; and newspapers and mails at present time, 675 Prediscovery, conditions, 1 Prescott, Wm. H., and his works, 436 Preservation of Natural Resources, 664 Presidential Election, of 1788, 307; of 1796, 331; of 1800, 341; of 1808, 363; of 1816, 392; of 1824, 406; of 1828, 413; and national nom- inating- conventions, 438; of 1836, 439; of 1840, 443; of 1S44, 457; of 1848, 471; of 1852, 482; of 1856, 492; of 1860, 407; of 1864, 564; of 1S68, 587; of 1872, 594; of 1876, 602; of 1SS0, 608; of 1844, 613; of 1888, 623; of 1892, 631: of 1896. 636; of 1900, 654; of 1904, 661; of 1908, 665 Presidential Succession Law, passed, 618. and note 1S4 Princeton University, founded, 186 Pnlaski, joins the American army, 246; is killed, 275 Puritans, settle at Salem, 94; ex- odus. 96 Proclamation Line Act, or Quebec act, 214 QUAKERS, THE, in Massachusetts, 99: in West Jersey, 130; in Penn- sylvania, 13 2 Quartering- Act, or Massachusetts bill. 214 Quebec, captured by Wolfe, 179; act or proclamation act, 214 Queen Anne's War. caused by, 158; in the south, 159; in the north, 160; is closed by treaty, 161 Quivira, visited by Coronado, 27 436 STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES RAILROADS, introduction of, 410; slavery and the underground, 479; transcontinental, 590; at present time, 677 Railroad Rate Law, of 1906, 662 Raleigh, Sir Walter, on Roanoke Is- land, 50; made a prisoner, 63 Randolph, Henry, attorney general, 310 Regulation Act, or Massachusetts bill, 215 Religion, in the thirteen colonies, 185 Reconcentrados, during Spanish- American War, 641 Religious Toleration, in Connecticut, 113; in Rhode Island, 117; in New York, 127; in Pennsylvania, 134; in Maryland, 145 Renaissance, in Italy, 3 Representative Assembly, the first, 78 Resumption, of specie payment, 606 Revere, Paul, rallies the minute men, 218 Rhode Island, settled at Providence, 117; by Rodger William, 117; and religious toleration, 117; and her constitution, 117; and her char- ters, 118 Ribaut, John, and the Huguenots in Florida, 38: at Port Royal, 38; names Fort Carolina, 38; and Menendez, 3S Richmond, captured by Grant, 565 River Rasin, captured by Indians, 377 Roanoke Island, settled by Sir Wal- ter Raleigh, 50; captured, 50 Roberval, and Cartier, 37 Roosevelt, Theodore, elected vice president, 654; as president, 657; elected president, 661 Rural Highways, as they are to- day, 678 ST. AUGUSTINE, is founded by Menendez, 30 St. Lawrence, is discovered by Car- tier, 37; visited by Champlain, 39 St. Leger, and his Indians in Mo- hawk Valley, 250; at battle of Oriskany, 251; returns to Canada, 252 St. Marys, first settlement in Mary- land, 141 SACO, captured by the Indians, 160 Salary Grab, and its effect, 593 Salem, witchcraft, 102, 158 Salmon Falls, captured by the In- dians, 156 Sampson, General, at battle of San- tiago, 648 Samoan Islands, trouble in the, given to United States, 628 San Diego, is visited by Cabrillo, 29 Sandys, in Virginia, 81 San Francisco, earthquake, 663 San Marco, Fort, built by Menendez, 30 San Miguel, and De Ayllon, 24 San Salvador, visited by Columbus^ 16 Santa Fe, and Coronado, 27; found- ed by Espejo, 31 Santiago, battles around, 646-649 Saratoga, Burgoyne surrenders at, 249 Savannah, first settlement in Georgia, 151; captured by British, 275 Say and Brooke, Lord, receive grant of Connecticut, 110 Schenectady, captured by the In- dians, 156 Schley, General Winfield S., at San- tiago, 648 Schools, books studied by the col- onial children, note 61-a; in col- onial times, 186; at time of Civil War, 503; at the present time, 671 Schuyler, General, opposes Bur- goyne, 248, 262 Scott, Winfield, General, captures British at Chippewa, 382; in Mex- ican War, 461, 462 Secession, in the South, 499; of the different, 499, and note 145 Seminole War, and its effect, 394; second, 4 25 Separatists, emigrate to Holland, 87; decide to move to America, 88; sail into Cape Cod Bay, 88; known as Pilgrims, 88 Seven Days Battle, and McClellan, 536 Seven Fines or Fair Oaks, battle of, 533 Sevier, General John, at Kings Mountain. 2S3 Seward, William H., and the com- promise bill of 1850 (omnibus bills), 473, 475 Shafter, General, in Cuba, 648 Shay, Daniel, causes rebellion in Massachusetts, 297 Shannon, The, captures Chesapeake, 375 Shenandoah Valley, Jackson in the. 534; Early in the, 559 Sherman, General Wm. T., cam- paign against Atlanta, 555; marches from Atlanta to sea, 556; in the Carolinas, 567 Sherman Silver Act, of 1S90, 626; repeal of, 633 Sheridan, General Philip H., in the Shenandoah Valley against Gen- eral Early. 559. 560; at battle of Cedar Creek, 560 Silver, demonetization of, 599 Slavery, in the West Indies, 46; in Virginia, 79; first anti-slavery formed, 226; laws of 1793, 321; and the cotton gin, 326; and the United States senate, 400; and INDEX 4)1 7 the Missouri compromise, 401; anti-slavery movement, 441 Slidell, John, and the Trent affair. 515 Sloat, Commodore, captures Cali- fornia, 464 Sloughter, Governor, in New York. 124 Smith, Captain John, his history, 68; and Pocahontas, 70; and the starving time, 71 Smith, Garret, and John Brown, 496 Smith, Joseph, and the Mormons, 451 Smugglers and Pirates, in the Car- olinas, 148 Snyder, Christopher, first martyr of revolution. 207 Soule, Pierre, and the Ostend Man- ifesto, 487 South America, visited by Americus Vespucius, 33 South Carolina, visited by I >>• Soto, 28; formed, 150; almost lost to the British, 275, 278; regained by Greene, 288; Secession of. 499 South Dakota, admitted, 627 Spain, and Queen Elizabeth, 51; and war with United States, 639; at close of war, 64 9 Spanish, The, reasons for coloniza- tion by, 19; reasons for the fail- ures of, 32; in Florida and de Gorges, 38: Armada and England, 51; and Indians in Georgia, 153; treaty of 1795, 316; American War, 63 9, 64 4; at close of Spanish- American War, 649 "Specie Circular," and President Jackson, 419 Spoils System, and Andrew Jackson, 416; and Civil Service, 601, 610; and Garfield, 609; and Cleveland. 614 Springdale (Iowa), and John Brown, 4 96 Squanto, in Massachusetts, 93 Stamp Act, and taxation without representation, 200; congress, 201; repeal of, 2112 Standish, Miles, and tin- Indians, 93 Stark, John, captures tin- Hessians, 249 Statue of Liberty, presented to United States. 620; built by Bar tholde, 620 Steamboat, first, 3 28 Steuben, Baron, joins American army, 246; and his military school, 260; in the south against Arnold, 284 Stephens, Alexander 11.. vice presi- dent of tin- Confederacy, 499 Stephenson, Geo., and tin' steam en- gine, 326 Stony Point, captured by Wayne, 271 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, and her "Unci.' Tom's Cabin," 480 Strikes, and corporations, 607; anthracite coal, 659 Sumner, Charles, assaulted by Brooks, 4 91 Sumter, Fort, captured, 508 Sumter, General Thomas, in the sou tli. 282; 285 Surplus Revenue, and its effect, 621 Sutter, John A., gold discovered in mill race owned by, 16s TAFT, WM. H., elected president, 665; and the tariff, 666 Tampa Bay, visited by De Sot". 28 Tariff, defined. 312; of 1789, 311; first protective (1816), 390; of 1824, 104; of abmoniations (1828t. 412; of 1832, 122; of 1833, by Clay. 4 24; of 184 2. 44S; Walker tariff of 1S46. Mills Tariff, 622; McKin- ley, 624; Dingley bill, 638; under Taft. 666 Tarleton, in South Carolina. 2 ,s ; at Battle of Cowpens, 286 Taxation law, first and lords of trade, 196 Taxation without Representation, and the stamp act. 200 Taylor, Zachary, campaign in Mex- ican War, 460, 162; as president, 471-472: his death, 17 1 Tea Tax, removed, 210 Tecumseh, Chief, killed at battle of the Thames. 2,79 Telegraph, inventions of the, 456 Tennessee, admitted as state. 329 Tenure of Office Act, passed, 579 Texas, the republic of, 153; admit- ted as state, 454; dispute about boundary line between Mexico and, 458; secession in. 499 Thames, battle el' the. :',7'.i Thirteenth Amendment, passed, 54 (see also constitution in ap- pendix > Thomas, General George H., in the west. 5 20; at Chattanooga and Chickamauga, 545; succeeds Rose- crans, 546; and Hood. 556, 557 Ticonderoga, and Crown Point dur- ing French and Indian War. 175; captured by Ethan Allen. 229; falls into hands of British, 248 Tippecanoe, battle of, 366 Travel, means of. 1 7 T !». 189; at the opening of Civil War. 502 Tobacco, raised in Virginia, 7 3 Toscanelli, idea of the earth, 6; Col- umbus and, 1 2 Townsend, James, and John Brown, 496 Townshend, Acts, and the colonies, 204 Trade Acts, and navigation acts, 195 Transportation, hill. 214 Trent, The, affair, .".15 Trenton, captured by Washington, 2 1 1 438 STUDENTS' HISTORY OP THE EXITED STATES Tuscuroras, in North Carolina, 150, 153, 162; joins the "Six Nations," 150, 162 Tyler, John, as president, 444; and the United States bank, 445; deserted by the Whig party, 446 UNCLE TOM'S CABIN, by Harriel Beecher Stowe, 4S0 Underground Railroads, and slavery, 479 Union in the Colonies, luck of, 208 United States, territorial develop- ment of, in 1789, 308; in 1795, 316; in 1803, 344; line of 1818, 395; in 1819, 396; by Webster- Ashburton treaty of 1842, 446; northwest boundary in 1846, 469; extent of at time of Civil War, 501; Alaska annexed, 581; progress as a na- tion, 655; Samoan Islands an- nexed, 62S; is given Philippines, Porto Rico, etc., 649; Hawaii an- nexed, 651; growth of, 668; and 669; future of, 680 VALMY FORGE, suffering at, 259 Van Buren, Martin, as president, 440 Van Rensselaer, General Solomon, and his campaign into Canada, Venezuela, and the Monroe Doctrine, 6 3 5 Vermont, admitted as state, 329 Verrazano, and New France, 36; his letters to the French King, 3 6 Vicksburg, battle of, 543 Vincennes, captured by Clark, 276; captured by Hamilton, 27 6 Virginia, settled at Jamestown, 67; and the charter of 1609, 72; and the third charter, 74; and the cul- ture of tobacco, 75; ruled by Sam- uel Argall, 76; and the Magna Charta, 77; and slavery. 79; and indentured servants, 80; has trouble with the Indians, 82; and the first representative assembly, 78; receives a ship load of maidens, 81; has charter revoked, 83; under Sir William Berkeley, 84; and Bacon's rebellion, 85; and the London and Plymouth Com- pany, til. 65; resolutions, 209; re- linquishes her land claims to general government, 299; and Kentucky resolutions, 338 WALKER, WILLIAM, and the Walker expedition, 488 War of 1812, declared, 368; causes for, 368; relative strength of na- tions engaged in, 370; plan of operation for year 1812, 371; plan a failure, 372; plan of operations for 1813, 374; on the ocean, 373, 384; plan of operations for year 1814, 381 Warner, Seth, captures Fort Crown Point, 220; captures the Hessians, 249 Washing-ton, admitted, 627 Washington, Geo., employed by Ohio Company, 168; sent by Governor Dinwiddie to the French, 168; advises the English to build forts, 169; builds Fort Necessity, 170; defeated by the French, 170; takes command of Braddock's army, 173; captures Fort Duquesne, 177; ap- pointed commander-in-chief by second Continental congress, 221; takes command Continental army, 224; keeps British in Boston, 224; at New York with army, 234; and battle of Long Island, 236; re- treats across New Jersey, 239; and Charles Lee, 240; captures Hessians at Trenton, 241; cap- tures Princeton, 242; winters at Morristown, 243; and Howe in New Jersey, 255; at Germantown, 257; at Valley Forge, 259: and the Conway Cabal, 262; sends aid to General Lincoln, 278; and Benedict Arnold, 280; out-generals Clinton, 293; at Yorktown, 293; greatness of, 292; resigns his commission, 294; inauguration as president, 307; and his cabinet, 310; nominates John Jay chief justice, 314: and his proclamation of neutrality, 322; farewell ad- dress. 330; death of, 339 Watt, James, and steam engine. 326 Wayne, Anthony (Mad Anthony), captures Stony Point, 271; and Lafayette opposes Cornwallis, 291 Weaver, James B., candidate for president, 608 Webster, Daniel, and Hayne debate ( 1 S 3 > , 421; and the Webster- Ashburton treaty, 447; and the Compromise bill of 1850 (Omni- bus bill), 473, 475; the death of, 476 Wells, Horace, discovers use of laughing gas in dentistry, 456 Western Immigration, and the In- dians, 320; and its effect, 398 West India Company, establishes colonies in the New Netherlands, 44, 119; make settlements, 120 West Jersey, and the Quakers, 130 West Virginia, campaign in, 511 Whitney, Eli, invents cotton gin, 326 Whittier, John Greenleaf, and his works, 430; and slavery, 441 Wilderness, battles, 558 Wilkes, Captain Charles, and the Trent -affair, 515 Wilmington, first settlement in Delaware, 138 William and Mary's College, found- ed, 186 Williams, James, in the south, 282; INDEX 439 . at Kings Mountain, 2S3; is killed, 2 S3 Williams, Robert, settles in Massa- chusetts, 97; moves to Salem, 97; called before the general court, 97; lives with the Indians, 97; founds Rhode Island, 97 Wilniot, David, and the Wilmot pro- viso, 466 Wilson, Wm. L., and the Gorman bill. 634 Winthrop, John, Jr., settles in Con- necticut, 111 Wisconsin, admitted as state, 17a Witchcraft, at Salem, 102 Winthrop, John, settles in Massa- chusetts, 96 Wolfe, General, defeats Montcalm at Quebec, 179 Writs of Assistance, in the colonies, 197; James (His and the, 198 Wyoming, admitted, 627 Wyoming Valley, and Cherry Val- ley massacres, 268 YALE COLLEGE, founded, 186 Yorktown, Cornwallis surrenders at, 293; captured by McClellan, 532 . LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 01 1 446 694 3