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THE MEASUREMENT OF 
 TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 BY 
 
 FELIX ARNOLD, Ph. D. 
 
 S. MANDEL, PUBLISHER 
 1916 
 
•MS 
 
 Copyright. 1916 
 By Felix Arnold 
 
 Published January, 1916 
 
 ^ 
 
 (to 
 
 FEB II 1916 
 
 i)CI.A428166 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Efficiency in any work deals with details 
 and particulars wliich are so numerous tliat 
 standards and measures must be explicit 
 and definite. To state that efficiency is the 
 process by which to secure the maximum of 
 result with the minimum of work and ma- 
 terial is to stir up further inquiries as to 
 what a good result is and how it may be 
 attained. General directions and principles 
 are here of little use for quiet effective ac- 
 tion, and for products economically brought 
 forth. On this account, any practical scheme 
 for measuring the efficiency of teaching must 
 be extremely detailed and specific. 
 
 In making five divisions for most of the 
 merits there is no assumption on my part 
 that any magic potency inheres in this num- 
 ber. It is simply convenient for purposes of 
 classification, and sufficient for the detail 
 necessary in distributing the constituent ex- 
 cellencies of any unit. Whatever unit or 
 standard is taken can readily be divided into 
 as many parts as one desires, whether the 
 number be three, four, five six, etc. The 
 
 ui 
 
PREFACE 
 
 divisions and the enumerations outlined in 
 the book have been found effective in meas- 
 uring practical, classroom work and will be 
 found inclusive enough to deal specifically 
 with any situation which may arise. The 
 categories employed have been kept as close 
 as possible to the material, work, and results 
 common in the school. 
 
 Due to the possibility offered in the New 
 York Public School System for experimen- 
 tation and investigation, and to the Lehr- 
 freiJieit to be found there, I have been able 
 to develop the various standards presented, 
 and to test them with teachers of various 
 grades of efficiency or deficiency. I have 
 had opportunity to make a close pedagogical 
 study of almost two hundred teachers for 
 this purpose. Two pamphlets which have 
 been helpful are Tests of Efficiency in 
 Teaching, by Superintendent E. B. Shallow, 
 and Document No. 5, 1914, On Examining, 
 
 Training and Selecting Teachers, by Direc- 
 tor A. Shiels of the Division of Research, 
 Department of Education, New York. 
 
 Felix Arnold 
 
 IV 
 
co:n'tents 
 
 PART P^CE 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 
 1. On measurement in general 3 
 
 2. On methods of teaching in general 12 
 
 3. On application and technique in general.. 22 
 Tables ^^ 
 
 II. The Teaching Process — Instruction and 
 Discipline. 
 
 1. Preparation 39 
 
 Topical outline and values ^-3 
 
 Common errors 44 
 
 2. Incentives ^^ 
 
 Topcal outline and values 53 
 
 Common errors 54 
 
 3. Visual appeal 55 
 
 Topical outline and values 61 
 
 Common errors ^2 
 
 4. Oral appeal 6 i 
 
 Topical outline and values 74 
 
 Common errors 
 
 5. Manual appeal 80 
 
 Topical outline and values 85 
 
 'Common errors 87 
 
 6. Application and tecknique 91 
 
 III. Personality— Co-Operation. 
 
 1. Personality in general -7 
 
 2. Towards pupils 29 
 
 Topical outline and values 1C4 
 
 Common deficiencies 105 
 
 3. Towards visitors HO 
 
 Topical outline and values 116 
 
 Common deficiencies 117 
 
 4. Towards the school 120 
 
 Topical outline and values 125 
 
 Common deficiencies 126 
 
 5. School activities 129 
 
 Topical outline and values 132 
 
 6. Records and reports 133 
 
 Topical outline and values 134 
 
 7. The negative instance . ^ 136 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART 
 
 PAGE 
 
 IV. Kesults Of Insthuction — Expression. 
 
 1. Oral expression 141 
 
 Topical outline and values 142 
 
 Common weaknesses 142 
 
 2. Appreciation — Study of the text-book 145 
 
 Topical outline and values 148 
 
 Common weaknesses 148 
 
 3. 'Manual expression 149 
 
 Topical outline and values 152 
 
 Common weaknesses 152 
 
 4. Motor Expression 155 
 
 Topical outline and values 156 
 
 Common weaknesses 156 
 
 5. Written expression 158 
 
 Topical outline and values — ^Form 159 
 
 Common weaknesses 159 
 
 Topical outline and values — Content 161 
 
 Common weaknesses 161 
 
 Results of Instruction — Arithmetic. 
 
 1. ^Addition 165 
 
 2. Subtraction 171 
 
 3. Multiplication 175 
 
 4. Division 179 
 
 5. Fractions 182 
 
 6. Decimals 186, 
 
 7. Compound numbers 188 
 
 8. Percentage 191 
 
 9. Indirect cases 193 
 
 10. Metric System 195 
 
 11. Mensuration 196 
 
 12. General suggestions 198 
 
 Common weaknesses » 199 
 
 Results of Instruction — Content of Other 
 Subjects. 
 
 1. Kinds of knowledge 202 
 
 2. History and Civics 210 
 
 3. Geography 214 
 
 4. The Study of Nature 215 
 
 5. Language 217 
 
 6. Manual work 223 
 
 7. General Suggestions 224 
 
 VI 
 
CONTEXTS 
 
 PART PAGE 
 
 V. Results of Discipline. 
 
 1. Personnel 229 
 
 2. Matei ial 231 
 
 3. Routine 234 
 
 4. Response 238 
 
 5. Class Activities 244 
 
 6. Social Morality 250 
 
 VI. Appendices. 
 
 A. Three Rules of Inspection 259 
 
 B. A Case in Point 265 
 
 C. Elliott Scheme of 'Measurement 272 
 
 D. Ohio State School Survey 276 
 
 VIJ 
 
I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
I 
 
 ON MEASUREMENT IN GENERAL 
 
 It is a popular superstition that human 
 action, personality, and behavior, will be 
 penned up and hindered when measured by 
 logical categories and fixed units. But, just 
 as the pound weight has not interfered with 
 the production of butter, and the yardstick 
 has not obstructed improvement in the man- 
 ufacture of cotton or other goods, so methods 
 in teaching, it may be assumed, will be free 
 to go their own way, even when fixed stand- 
 ards are applied. The spirit can still go 
 whither it listeth. Measurement must meek- 
 ly follow, gather up the results, and give 
 them a value. Analysis, in fact, will show 
 that the method in great degree determines 
 the standard, and may even become the 
 standard which will be applied on future 
 occasions. In the spiritual as in the material 
 world, nature can be conquered only by sub- 
 mission. 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 "Weights and measures call to mind such 
 units as pound, quart, or yard, and imply 
 definite amoimts and quantities. A pound 
 of steak is a pound of steak, a quart of milk 
 is a quart of milk, a yard of wool is a yard 
 of wool, here or elsewhere, now and to come 
 — with, however, a qualification. The steak 
 weighs a pound, but only for some purpose, 
 as, exchange, food value, comparison, or 
 other intent. The pound of steak, as such, 
 must therefore be further qualified. It must 
 have not more than a certain amount of con- 
 nective tissue, or bone, or fat. It must be of 
 a required age, and may be otherwise cir- 
 cumscribed. So, too, with milk. Milk is not 
 only measured by the quart, but it must also 
 be of grade A or grade B^ must be of limited 
 age, and without chalk or other added in- 
 gredients. With woollen cloth, the goods 
 must be all wool and of a yard or other de- 
 termined width. Expert knowledge of the 
 highest type is often demanded in apprais- 
 ing and evaluating qualitative characteris- 
 
ON MEASUREMENT 
 
 tics of substances which, to the man behind 
 the counter, are measured only by the yard, 
 or pound, or other measure. 
 
 Serial valuation is implicit in practi- 
 cally all measurement, whether this be by 
 volume, weight, length, or amount. To re- 
 turn to other homely instances, l&ve pounds 
 of chicken are not only five pounds of 
 chicken, but in addition the fowl must fit 
 somewhere in the series : soup — fricassee — 
 roast — capon. Tea likewise must fit in a 
 scale of values determined only by a highly 
 paid tester. So the story runs. Determina- 
 tion of such series and ability to give a sub- 
 stance its place in it require in most cases a 
 specialized training and ability. Though, 
 for the shop keeper and for the consumer, 
 this qualitative valuation has been done, it 
 can not be ignored. The pound, yard, or 
 quart tell but a part of the story. 
 
 Any judgment which we make, as good or 
 bad, or more or less, implies a series of 
 values and placement within the series. Gen- 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 eral knowledge is crude and often contains 
 for its standard the two or three values, as, 
 lad — good — excellent. More specific knowl- 
 edge not only extends the series, but also 
 adds qualifying characteristics to its mem- 
 bers, and closely analyses each one. The ex- 
 pert is so trained that he can define accu- 
 rately the different units in a series, and 
 give each of them a value. 
 
 Crude judgments, as, good — fair — poor, 
 etc., are passed upon work in the school and 
 the classroom. The judgment, poor — good — 
 excellent, or, satisfactory — unsatisfactory, 
 may in some cases be correct, and in most 
 cases be honest. Honesty, however, does not 
 preclude the possibility of ignorance or lack 
 of training, nor does it always include a free 
 and unbiased mind. The varying moods in 
 which the supervising official finds himself, 
 the different influences at play on various 
 occasions, and the overwhelming subjective 
 and dictatorial attitude which may sway 
 judgments of classroom work, render this 
 
ON MEASUREMENT 
 
 crude valuation and appraising of little 
 worth. Especially is tliis the case when 
 standards (if any at all are present) are not 
 known to the teacher who is being judged. 
 
 The teacher does not object to criticism. 
 The teacher does not frown upon definite, 
 objective standards. The teacher does not 
 fear measurement according to such known 
 standards. But what she does dread is the 
 mysterious inspection, which flows no one 
 knows from what source, which leads any- 
 where but to sweetness and light, and which 
 leaves her shaken, often to the extent of hys- 
 teria. A pillar of flame by night would in- 
 spire her with less alarm. 
 
 Measurement of school work by results 
 has fallen on evil days because due regard 
 has not always been given to the apparently 
 unmeasurable processes and methods used in 
 attaining these results. Properly relegated 
 to its place in a more complete scheme of 
 valuation, in which the process is also 
 judged, measurement by results is helpful 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 and can not be ignored. The result and 
 the process both are lit subjects for meas- 
 urement. 
 
 The chief difficulty in any scheme of valu- 
 ation lies in measuring, by known, objective 
 standards, the different phases of the teach- 
 ing process. Properly to evaluate the 
 teacher's presentation of her work, it is nec- 
 essary to analyse carefully her preparation, 
 the appeals which she uses, and the incen- 
 tives which she calls into play. Each aspect, 
 moreover, can be given a value, according as 
 it fills a position in a series of excellencies. 
 For example, preparation will yield a series 
 somewhat as follows : 
 
 (1) No preparation 
 
 (2) Plan hook and nothing else 
 
 (3) Plan hook + material at hand 
 
 (4) Plan hook + material + proper se- 
 
 quence and organization 
 
 (5) Plan hoolv + material -\- sequence and 
 
 organization + proynptness 
 
 8 
 
ON MEASUREMENT 
 
 Judgment of the teacher's preparation of 
 her work can not now be an offhand, **Very 
 poor, " ^ ^ Good, ' ' or ^ ^ Excellent. ' ' It must be 
 a simple statement of facts, or rather a 
 checking up under known categories and in 
 a definite series, with placement in one of 
 the five positions. If each position is given 
 a value, a rating can be given according to 
 the following scheme : 
 
 Position— 12 3 4 5 
 Rating— 25 50 75 100 
 
 Arranged more conveniently for purposes 
 of supervision, the following order results : 
 
 Preparation of work 100 
 
 Plan 25 
 
 Material 25 
 
 Sequence and organization 25 
 Promptness 25 
 
 Each of these four merits may be further 
 analvzed and each detail allowed a value. 
 
 Measurement of school work on its quali- 
 tative side is made possible by arranging a 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 series of excellencies, (standardization), 
 and by checking up the work and giving it a 
 place and a value according to its position 
 in the series. Measurement of school work 
 on its quantitative side is the valuation com- 
 monly known as ^measurement by results,' 
 that is, it is the correction of work on a per- 
 centage basis. It is all very simple, and 
 affords nothing new as far as the aspects 
 themselves are concerned. It is merely the 
 serial arrangement, organization, and valu- 
 ation, which may seem new. 
 
 Presentation of the lesson, results of in- 
 struction, results of discipline, personality 
 of the teacher, all these can be treated objec- 
 tively in the manner suggested. The value 
 of such serial treatment is almost self-evi- 
 dent. It ties down the one who inspects to a 
 definite procedure, and shuts out as far as 
 possible any subjective, irresponsible judg- 
 ment. A series of excellencies known to the 
 teacher guides her in right practice. A series 
 of objective standards allows of cooperation, 
 
 10 
 
ON MEASUREMENT 
 
 mutual understanding, and appeal to others, 
 where undue severity of judgment is exer- 
 cised on the basis of the facts checked up. 
 No one can well appeal a flat fiat of an official 
 superior. But justice may become more of a 
 reality when not only the judgment is given, 
 but also the data on which it is based. 
 
 11 
 
II 
 
 ON METHODS OF TEACHING IN 
 GENERAL 
 
 In the teaching process, two individuals, 
 the teacher and the pupil, are engaged upon 
 a third object, the material in instruction 
 and discipline. We have a triangle, as it 
 were, but a triangle of which the three sides 
 are not equal. The child is still in leading 
 strings, and the material is subject to selec- 
 tion, simplification, and arrangement. Fur- 
 ther considerations will involve the number 
 of pupils to be taught in a single class, and 
 the number of grades to be organized in a 
 single school. 
 
 On the one hand, the child conditions the 
 method which is to be used in presenting the 
 material to him. He will be able to progress, 
 only as he is able to see, hear, talk, manipu- 
 late, remember, think, feel, and in general, 
 react and express himself to the fullest ex- 
 
 12 
 
ON METHODS 
 
 tent of his powers. Moreover, he will be 
 found to react better under some condi- 
 tions than he will under others. He is more 
 responsive when his feelings have been 
 touched, his desires aroused, his ambition 
 stirred, or his experience called into play. 
 Physical and hj^gienic conditions may fur- 
 ther support instruction in this connection. 
 On the other hand, the material and the sub- 
 ject matter form an integral part of the 
 method of presentation. Organization, ar- 
 rangement, gradation, etc., are a prerequis- 
 ite to success. 
 
 On the side of presentation in instruction 
 and discipline, we have therefore the follow- 
 ing aspects of the teaching process : 
 
 Preparation of work 
 Use of incentives 
 Visual appeal 
 Oral appeal 
 Manual appeal 
 
 It is to be noted that these categories are 
 objective and refer to what the teacher does, 
 
 13 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Other categories which are in use often con- 
 fuse mental processes within the mind of the 
 pupil, with device and method emploj^ed by 
 the teacher. Induction and deduction, for 
 example, refer in part to thought processes 
 of the children, and as such are rather prin- 
 ciples which underlie and condition method, 
 than method itself. Other expressions, as, 
 the recitation lesson, the study period, ap- 
 preciation, problem work, etc., are either in- 
 cluded in the above headings, as, oral ap- 
 peal, or are to be considered a result of in- 
 struction, under one or more of the headings 
 given below, as, expression. 
 
 Motor expression, dramatization, and the 
 like may be considered a result of instruc- 
 tion, rather than a part of the presentation, 
 as such. If a motor presentation is given 
 for the benefit of the class, it becomes a vis- 
 ual appeal, and subject to consideration 
 under that heading. In fact, visual and oral 
 appeals are necessary before much motor 
 expression can take place. 
 
 14 
 
ON METHODS 
 
 Whether a subject is developed, reviewed, 
 or drilled, it makes its impress through much 
 the same avenues, visual, oral, or manual. In 
 drill, the essence is repetition, and in review 
 it is organization. Drill emphasizes f ocali- 
 zation upon a few topics, appeal to all the 
 members of the class, and stimulation of the 
 pupils as many times as possible through as 
 many appeals as possible. Review empha- 
 sizes logical system and order in the arrange- 
 ment of material, and employs condensation, 
 topical outline, and logical or other sequence. 
 
 After the teacher has presented the sub- 
 ject properly to the pupils, one naturally 
 looks for definite results. It has long been 
 the custom to hold oral and written expres- 
 sion synonymous with much of the language 
 work. And there were always added con- 
 ditioning directions to the effect that Eng- 
 lish should also be considered in recitations 
 in other subjects, as, arithmetic, geography, 
 etc. It seems better, however, to make 'ex- 
 pression' the larger term and * language' 
 
 15 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 only one of its different forms. For in- 
 stance, we may have valuable expression in 
 the different manual exercises, dramatiza- 
 tions, and the like. Expression, as such, can 
 be considered one of the chief results of in- 
 struction, without restriction by any such 
 limitations as inhere in language. Of the 
 different forms of expression, we have : 
 
 Oral expression 
 
 Appreciation and study of text-book 
 Manual expression 
 Motor expression 
 Written expression 
 Form 
 Content 
 Further results in instruction call for the 
 content of the different subjects of the grade. 
 These are the usual school subjects, namely : 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 History and civics 
 
 Geography 
 
 Study of nature 
 
 Language and music 
 
 Manual work, penmanship, etc. 
 
 16 
 
ON METHODS 
 
 Divisions and subdivisions can be given 
 according to the extent to which details are 
 required. It is to be noted that manual 
 work, and the like, have a content value 
 apart from their merits as expression. 
 
 Results in discipline, so called, are simi- 
 larly to be expected as a consequence of effec- 
 tive development, training, and practice. 
 These results include : 
 
 Personnel of the children 
 
 Material in the classroom 
 
 Routine 
 
 Response 
 
 Class activities 
 
 If social morality is a school subject and is 
 treated specifically like other school sub- 
 jects, as, arithmetic or geography, topics can 
 be arranged and organized for purposes of 
 checking up. 
 
 In so far as the teacher is before the pupils 
 during school sessions and should set an ex- 
 ample of correct behavior in many details, 
 
 17 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 her personality, considered in its relation to 
 the pupils, becomes of considerable moment. 
 Further relationships branch out and in- 
 clude reaction towards the parents of the 
 children, towards colleagues within the 
 school, superior officials, etc. Such relations 
 materially react on classroom instruction 
 and discipline. The close interest now man- 
 ifested in the welfare, progress, and num- 
 bers of the children under the ever expand- 
 ing wing of the school, necessitates an accur- 
 ate keeping of many records. Here, too, the 
 personality of the teacher makes for effici- 
 ency or inefficiency, as the case may be. 
 Enumerating the different directions in 
 which the teacher's personality should be an 
 influence, we have the following : 
 
 Towards the pupils 
 Towards visitors 
 Towards the school 
 School activities 
 Records and reports 
 
 18 
 
ON IVIETHODS 
 
 Such aspects as self -improvement, studies, 
 etc., may be counted in under the head of 
 personality towards the school. 
 
 A category which is now more popular 
 than ^personality' in present-day use, is ^co- 
 operation/ Cooperation is the same thing 
 as personality in its dynamic aspects, and 
 places greater emphasis upon the different 
 relationships, as, Cooperation with pupils, 
 Cooperation with visitors. Cooperation with 
 colleagues, and so on. But in essence, per- 
 sonality dynamically considered, and co- 
 operation are much the same. 
 
 The very fewest number of excellencies 
 which should be rated in testing the effici- 
 ency of the teacher, are four, namely : 
 
 Presentation in instruction and discipline 
 Results of instruction 
 Results of discipline 
 Personality and cooperation 
 
 A more complete scheme will include the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 19 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Presentation 
 Preparation 
 Use of incentives 
 Visual appeal 
 Oral appeal 
 Manual appeal 
 
 Personality (cooperation) 
 Towards the pupils 
 Towards visitors 
 Towards the school 
 School activities 
 Records and reports 
 
 Results of discipline 
 
 Personnel of the pupils 
 
 Material 
 
 Routine 
 
 Response 
 
 Class activities 
 
 Results of instruction 
 Expression 
 Oral 
 
 Appreciation and study 
 Manual 
 Motor 
 Written 
 
 20 
 
ON JVIETHODS 
 
 Content of subjects 
 Arithmetic 
 History and civics 
 Geography and nature 
 Language and music 
 Manual tvork, penmanship, etc, 
 (Social morality) 
 
 Still further details can be worked out as the 
 folloYNTLng pages will show. 
 
 21 
 
Ill 
 
 ON APPLICATION AND TECHNIQUE 
 IN GENERAL 
 
 To ensure cooperation between principal 
 and teacher, and to facilitate progress and 
 improvement in the efficiency of teaching, it 
 is necessary for the principal to employ a 
 standard which applies to all, and for the 
 teacher to know exactly what that standard 
 is. Whatever blanks, etc., are used in rating 
 and checking up classroom work should 
 therefore be placed in the hands of all the 
 teachers concerned. It is advisable, more- 
 over, for the teacher to check up her own 
 work from time to time, and to make ar- 
 rangements by which two teachers can visit 
 and give each other ratings according to the 
 blanks in use. 
 
 For the principal, printed blanks may be 
 considered one of the essentials in school 
 control. The head of the school usually be- 
 
 22 
 
APPLICATION AND TECHNIQUE 
 
 gins with considerable enthusiasm to give 
 model lessons, to write directions for the 
 benefit of new teachers, to outline plans, and 
 to correct error. These, however, soon as- 
 sume a monotonous uniformity. The same 
 suggestions are needed again and again. New 
 teachers floimder about in much the same 
 helpless fashion. Weakness and error fol- 
 low about the same general lines. Often the 
 principal will give up the never-ceasing, 
 Sisyphus-like occupation of improving the 
 work of teachers. He may allow matters 
 Ho settle themselves,' may lean back, and 
 find everything Very fine.' Sometimes he 
 will promulgate a long list of rules, from 
 number one, on, with subdivisions and de- 
 tails, which are handed, en hloc, to the teach- 
 er. Again, he may fear to bind himself in 
 writing, and deliver oral suggestions, which 
 soon become distorted in the reminiscent 
 consciousness of the teacher. What is need- 
 ed, is not a descriptive catalogue of merits 
 and demerits, given in extenso, but rather 
 
 28 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 a system of properly organized categories 
 wMcIi are based on sound principles and 
 which have been tested in practice. Printed 
 blanks carry with them their own correc- 
 tions, the headings automatically pointing 
 out to the teacher which excellencies she has 
 violated, or which merits she has attained in 
 her work. If the loose leaf form of blank is 
 used, a carbon copy can be made, and this 
 should be given to the teacher. Unless this 
 is done, the inspection is of little use in im- 
 proving the teacher's efficiency. 
 
 When an inspection is made by the prin- 
 cipal, he quietly enters the room, and with 
 the teacher's permission, begins to check up, 
 evaluate, and record merits and demerits. 
 The blank which deals with the excellencies 
 of the teaching process requires from 5 to 15 
 minutes to check and fill out, depending upon 
 the number of details recorded. In this 
 blank, all the merits may not apply, and so 
 need not be touched upon. For example, a 
 lesson may call for only oral work. In this 
 
APPLICATION AND TECHNIQUE 
 
 case only the headings under Oral Appeal 
 will be used, with perhaps some of the head- 
 ings under Preparation, or Incentives, In 
 the beginning, numerical values need not be 
 given. Such marks as cross, (x), question 
 mark, (?), dash, ( — ), or check, (^), may 
 be employed according as there is a defi- 
 ciency needing correction, a merit which is 
 in doubt, an excellence which is not required 
 by the lesson, and so does not figure in the 
 report, or a value which is present and fully 
 credited. Later, numerical ratings can be 
 given. The same general method of proce- 
 dure holds with the blank which considers 
 the Results of Discipline, N"o more than 5 
 or 10 minutes are needed to check up a class. 
 Entries under some of the details of Routine, 
 Response, and Class Activities do not re- 
 quire checking up in the room at all, and can 
 be calculated in the office. The blank on 
 Personality can be filled out in the office, and 
 so can some of the items on the blanks which 
 deal with Results of Instruction, 
 
 25 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 In the use of the blanks, two questions 
 which arise, are : How often should inspec- 
 tions be made? and, How many blanks of 
 each kind should the teacher receive? On 
 the assiunption that there exists a fairly imi- 
 form grade of efficiency throughout the 
 school, there will be needed for each teacher 
 one blank a term on Personality, from one to 
 three blanks on The Teaching Process, from 
 one to three on Results in Discipline, one to 
 three on Results in Expression, and one for 
 each test given for Results in Content. Tests 
 in content may be given to the whole school 
 once each month or two, according to the 
 time spent on the subject, as, arithmetic once 
 a month, geography or history every other 
 month, etc. The class teacher should check 
 herself up mentally, and reflect upon her 
 work, substituting month for term, and weeh 
 for month, in the time values given in the 
 preceding suggestions. 
 
 Variation from this general method is 
 necessary when deficiencies exist and are 
 
 26 
 
APPLICATION AND TECHNIQUE 
 
 found. A weakness which has been recorded 
 should be followed up. In such a case two 
 or three blanks on the same topic, and indi- 
 cating the same weakness or deficiency 
 should be sufficient to secure correction be- 
 fore a final inspection is made and the term 
 rating given. For example, the same sub- 
 ject may be inspected for from three to five 
 days in succession; two or three notes on 
 personality may be required ; results in dis- 
 cipline may require from three to a dozen or 
 more visits before the term is half way over ; 
 or some special item, as. Incentives, Voice 
 and Manner, Oral Appeal, etc., may need 
 correction several times. Such corrections 
 are emphasized when they are repeated in 
 exactly the same words, and with exactly the 
 same ratings, where no improvement is evi- 
 dent. Two or three such suggestions are 
 enough to effect a cure, without any com- 
 ment or oral expostulation of the least kind 
 by the principal. 
 
 27 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 What is to be done if that rara avis, the 
 teacher who combines inefficiency with con- 
 tumacy and aggressiveness, is found in the 
 school ? The blank on Personality is inclu- 
 sive enough to record deficiencies under the 
 headings of Helpfulness, Patience, Cour- 
 tesy, Ability to listen, etc. Further demerits 
 will probably crop up in the written work, 
 in the preparation of work, and in the use 
 of incentives. These should be recorded. 
 The same method of inspection which is used 
 in the case of the other teachers, should ap- 
 ply to the particular teacher imder observa- 
 tion. At least several ratings should be 
 given, with positive suggestions as to means 
 of correction. There will be no argument 
 nor ^fuss' of any kind with a teacher, if the 
 principal simply listens, without answering. 
 In such a case, it is a question of evidence, 
 and not a matter of personal argument. The 
 teacher who takes a kind of pride in ^assert- 
 ing herself,' in giving an argument, in let- 
 ting people know, etc., will then find herself, 
 
 28 
 
APPLICATION AND TECHNIQUE 
 
 as far as any results are concerned, beating 
 in the void her fluttering wings in vain. Once 
 an individual receives definite instructions 
 in writing, ignorance can not be an excuse, 
 violation implies lack of good will, and all 
 responsibility rests Vv^th the one who inten- 
 tionally fails to carr}^ out suggestions. The 
 duty of the principal ends when he has de- 
 livered his directions, given aid, and checked 
 up the results. 
 
 In calculating results, the basis taken will 
 depend upon the nature of the work in- 
 spected. If only four or five pupils are ex- 
 amined, (five best, five middle, or five worst), 
 a fifth will be deducted for each one who 
 misses. If the whole number of pupils pres- 
 ent forms the basis, as in inspection of the 
 Personnel of the children, an exact rating 
 can be rapidly worked out by means of the 
 tables on pages 33-35. For example, 20 counts 
 out of 100 are allowed for condition of shoes. 
 If there are 31 pupils present, and 8 have un- 
 shined shoes, each one will count 0.6452, ac- 
 
 29 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 cording to Table 10-34, page 33. The 8 will 
 count 5.16 out of the total of 20, which will 
 leave 14.84 as the rating of the class on con- 
 dition of shoes. A similar use of the tables 
 can be made in correction of sets of composi- 
 tion, and the like, where the register or the 
 attendance is taken as the basis in calcula- 
 tion. For example, if 9 out of 34 papers are 
 marred by blots or blurs, by reference to the 
 value of 1 out of 34 as given in the table, 
 (page 33), 9X0.5882, will have to be de- 
 ducted from the total of 20 counts allowed 
 for the merit in question, which gives 20 — 
 5.29=14.71. 
 
 Occasionally it is necessary to arrange the 
 classes in a series, and form four, five, or ten 
 groups. If a total of 20 is allowed for an 
 excellence, 5, 4, or 2 becomes the unit of in- 
 crease from the lowest group to the highest. 
 For example, if there are 35 classes in the 
 school, these can be grouped in 4 divisions of 
 merit, the highest being given 20, the second 
 highest, 15, the third, 10, and the last, 5. In 
 
 30 
 
APPLICATION AND TECHNIQUE 
 
 the first division there will be 9 classes, in 
 the second, 9, in the third, 9, and in the last, 8. 
 Such a method of valuation applies to room 
 decoration, to absence of pupils, etc. The 
 series in attendance of pupils can be ar- 
 ranged according to the per cent of attend- 
 ance obtained for a given period, week, 
 month, or term. 
 
 In checking up work on a percentage basis, 
 as, in arithmetic, or spelling, the average, 
 median, or mode may be used. The average 
 is the common measure employed by teach- 
 ers. The totals of each paper are added up 
 and divided by the number of cases. Thus 
 9, 9, 8, 8, 8, 7, 7, 6, 5, 4, 4, 3, added up give a 
 total of 78, divided by the number in the 
 series, 12, give an average of 6.5. If we 
 count down to the middle case, the sixth, the 
 median value, 7, will result. The median is 
 not affected by extremes, that is, by 100 's or 
 O's, but it is not a good measure imless there 
 is considerable variation in the results. 
 When the results show a massing about a 
 
 31 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 few values, the mode is a good measure. 
 Thus in the series, 10, 10, 9, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 7, 7, 
 7, 7, 7, 6, 5, 5, the mode, 7 — 8, would be a good 
 valuation to take. Where a single merit 
 is to be tested, as, general appearance of 
 papers in drawing or construction work, the 
 papers may be arranged in a series, and the 
 middle one selected as representative of the 
 whole set. For more accurate testing, how- 
 ever, it is better to mark the papers on a 
 numerical basis, giving values to the differ- 
 ent merits which inhere in the work. 
 
 32 
 
TABLE: 10-34 
 
 VALUE OF 1 OUT OF 10 — 34, 
 WHEN THE TOTAL IS 100, 25 OR 20 
 
 No. 
 
 100 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 10.0000 
 
 2.5000 
 
 2.0000 
 
 11 
 
 9.0909 
 
 2.2727 
 
 1.8182 
 
 12 
 
 8.3333 
 
 2.0833 
 
 1.6667 
 
 13 
 
 7.6923 
 
 1.9231 
 
 1.5385 
 
 14 
 
 7.1429 
 
 1.7857 
 
 1.4286 
 
 15 
 
 6.6667 
 
 1.6667 
 
 1.3333 
 
 16 
 
 6.2500 
 
 1.5625 
 
 1.2500 
 
 17 
 
 5.8823 
 
 1.4706 
 
 1.1765 
 
 18 
 
 5.5556 
 
 1.3889 
 
 1.1111 
 
 19 
 
 5.2632 
 
 1.3158 
 
 1.0526 
 
 20 
 
 5.0000 
 
 1.2500 
 
 1.0000 
 
 21 
 
 4.7619 
 
 1.1905 
 
 0.9524 
 
 22 
 
 4.5454 
 
 1.1364 
 
 0.9091 
 
 23 
 
 4.3478 
 
 1.0869 
 
 0.8696 
 
 24 
 
 4.1667 
 
 1.0417 
 
 0.8333 
 
 25 
 
 4.0000 
 
 1.0000 
 
 0.G000 
 
 26 
 
 3.8461 
 
 0.9615 
 
 0.7692 
 
 27 
 
 3.7037 
 
 0.9259 
 
 0.7407 
 
 28 
 
 3.5714 
 
 0.8928 
 
 0.7143 
 
 29 
 
 3.4483 
 
 0.8621 
 
 0.6897 
 
 30 
 
 z.iUi 
 
 0.8333 
 
 0.6667 
 
 31 
 
 3.2258 
 
 0.8064 
 
 0.6452 
 
 32 
 
 3.1250 
 
 0.7812 
 
 0.6250 
 
 33 
 
 3.0303 
 
 0.7576 
 
 0.6061 
 
 34 
 
 2.9412 
 
 0.7353 
 
 0.5882 
 
 33 
 
TABLE: 35—59 
 
 VALUE OF I OUT OF 35 — 59, 
 WHEN THE TOTAL IS 100, 25 OR 20 
 
 No. 
 
 100 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 2.8571 
 
 0.7143 
 
 0.5714 
 
 36 
 
 2.7778 
 
 0.6944 
 
 0.5555 
 
 37 
 
 2.7027 
 
 0.6757 
 
 0.5405 
 
 38 
 
 2.6316 
 
 0.6579 
 
 0.5263 
 
 39 
 
 2.5641 
 
 0.6410 
 
 0.5128 
 
 40 
 
 2.5000 
 
 0.6125 
 
 0.5000 
 
 41 
 
 2.4390 
 
 0.6097 
 
 0.4878 
 
 42 
 
 2.3809 
 
 0.5952 
 
 0.4762 
 
 43 
 
 2.3256 
 
 0.5814 
 
 0.4651 
 
 44 
 
 2.2727 
 
 0.5682 
 
 0.4545 
 
 45 
 
 2.2222 
 
 0.5555 
 
 0.4444 
 
 46 
 
 2.1739 
 
 0.5435 
 
 0.4348 
 
 47 
 
 2.1277 
 
 0.5319 
 
 0.4255 
 
 48 
 
 2.0833 
 
 0.5208 
 
 0.4167 
 
 49 
 
 2.0408 
 
 0.5102 
 
 0.4082 
 
 50 
 
 2.0000 
 
 0.5000 
 
 0.4000 
 
 51 
 
 1.9608 
 
 0.4902 
 
 0.3922 
 
 52 
 
 1.9231 
 
 0.4808 
 
 0.3846 
 
 53 
 
 1.8868 
 
 0.4717 
 
 0.3774 
 
 54 
 
 1.8518 
 
 0.4629 
 
 0.3704 
 
 55 
 
 1.8182 
 
 0.4545 
 
 0.3636 
 
 56 
 
 1.7857 
 
 0.4464 
 
 0.3571 
 
 57 
 
 1.7544 
 
 0.4386 
 
 0.3509 
 
 58 
 
 1.7241 
 
 0.4310 
 
 0.3448 
 
 59 
 
 1.6949 
 
 0.4237 
 
 0.3390 
 
 34 
 
TABLE: 60-84 
 
 VALUE OF I OUT OF 60—84, 
 WHEN THE TOTAL IS 100, 25 OR 20 
 
 No. 
 
 100 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 1.6667 
 
 0.4167 
 
 U33i 
 
 61 
 
 1.6393 
 
 0.4098 
 
 0.3279 
 
 62 
 
 1.6129 
 
 0.4032 
 
 0.3226 
 
 63 
 
 1.5873 
 
 0.3968 
 
 0.3175 
 
 64 
 
 1.5625 
 
 0.3906 
 
 0.3125 
 
 65 
 
 1.5385 
 
 0.3846 
 
 0.3077 
 
 66 
 
 1.5151 
 
 0.3788 
 
 0.3030 
 
 67 
 
 1.4925 
 
 0.3731 
 
 0.2985 
 
 68 
 
 1.4706 
 
 0.3676 
 
 0.2941 
 
 69 
 
 1.4493 
 
 0.3623 
 
 0.2898 
 
 70 
 
 1.4286 
 
 0.3571 
 
 0.2857 
 
 71 
 
 1.4084 
 
 0.3521 
 
 0.2817 
 
 72 
 
 1.3889 
 
 0.3472 
 
 0.2778 
 
 73 
 
 1.3699 
 
 0.3425 
 
 0.2740 
 
 74 
 
 1.3513 
 
 0.3378 
 
 0.2703 
 
 75 
 
 1.3333 
 
 0.3333 
 
 0.2667 
 
 76 
 
 1.3158 
 
 0.3289 
 
 0.2631 
 
 77 
 
 1.2987 
 
 0.3247 
 
 0.2597 
 
 78 
 
 1.2820 
 
 0.3205 
 
 0.2564 
 
 79 
 
 1.2658 
 
 0.3164 
 
 0.2532 
 
 80 
 
 1.2500 
 
 0.3125 
 
 0.2500 
 
 81 
 
 1.2346 
 
 0.3086 
 
 0.2469 
 
 82 
 
 1.2195 
 
 0.3049 
 
 0.2439 
 
 83 
 
 1.2048 
 
 0.3012 
 
 0.2410 
 
 84 
 
 1.1905 
 
 0.2976 
 
 0.2381 
 
 
 
 35 
 
II 
 
 THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 INSTRUCTION— DISCIPLINE 
 
IV 
 
 THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 §1. Preparation 
 
 The plan of work used by the teacher may 
 consist of written notes in a book, of clip- 
 pings, or of cards. The work for the day 
 should in some manner be indicated. When 
 a daily plan book is used, an outline of the 
 lessons is indicated, with the time to be ap- 
 portioned, and the method, (development, 
 drill, review, or test) , to be followed. When 
 cards are used they are shuiKed and ar- 
 ranged under the subject headings to be 
 taken up during the day. Whether the daily 
 plan or the card system is employed, each is 
 dependent for its relation to the classroom 
 routine upon a schedule or program of work 
 usually found at the back of the teacher's 
 desk. Such a program contains an arrange- 
 ment of subjects by days and lesson periods. 
 
 39 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 A complete plan will have the following 
 series of excellencies : (1) an outline of the 
 work stated in general terms; (2) specific 
 types and topics indicated under each sul- 
 ject to he taught during the day, as, type 
 examples, sentences, etc., facts or outlines in 
 geography, plans in draiving, m>aterial for 
 story telling, etc; (3) the time of the day at 
 tvhich each lesson is to start, and the method 
 which is to he followed, ivhether develop- 
 ment, drill, review, or test; (4) the whole 
 neatly written and ruled; and (5) a daily 
 program and a term plan to which the daily 
 plan can he referred. 
 
 Realization of such a plan requires in part 
 specific material, and such blackboard work 
 as can be prepared before the children are 
 to take up the lesson. The material usually 
 needed includes paper, pencils, ink, pens, 
 books, maps, specimens, apijaratus, etc. It 
 is not enough to have them. They should be 
 ready for distribution or use for the day's 
 work. 
 
 40 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 The series under the heading of material 
 will be : (1) llackhoard, chalk, rubbers, etc.; 
 (2) objects, etc, needed by the teacher, as, 
 map, specimen, apparatus, etc.; (3) objects 
 needed by the pupils, as, paper, pencils, 
 pens, etc.; (4) arrangem^ent and care before 
 distribution; and (5) distribution. 
 
 Inherent in a properly arranged plan and 
 carefully prepared material are sequence 
 and organization. This implies logical or- 
 ganization and psychological graduation. It 
 demands due regard for possible interrela- 
 tion of subject matter with other subjects, 
 and for some correlation with the environ- 
 ment and the life history of the pupils. It 
 requires gradation of work and a looking 
 before and after as far as the children are 
 concerned. First the subject is cut up into 
 a number of general divisions. The topics 
 may be arranged by weeks or by months. 
 Then further subdivision will yield the 
 method- wholes to be taken up in single les- 
 sons. The material must be graded, step by 
 
 41 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 step. Should interrelations be possible be- 
 tween subjects or topics, these are to be indi- 
 cated. References to the daily life of the 
 pupils, current events, general information 
 which the children may have — anything 
 which will lighten up and vivify the lesson — 
 are to be noted. 
 
 Sequence and organization, therefore, in- 
 clude (1) logical division of sithject matter 
 and arrangement hy months and weeks; (2) 
 interrelation hetween subjects; (3) correla- 
 tion with the pupils' environment and life 
 history; (4) correlation with the pupils' 
 stage of development and previous instruc- 
 tion; and (5) gradation of sulject matter. 
 
 Finally, in every lesson a reasonable 
 amount of promptness can be expected. If, 
 for example, a lesson is planned for 10 
 o'clock, delay after that will lower the value 
 of the preparation as far as promptness is 
 concerned. If a lesson of 40 minutes is 10 
 minutes late, it seems fair to deduct 10 — 40 
 from the full value credited to promptness. 
 
 42 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 As a matter of justice to an enthusiastic 
 teacher, 5, 10, or 15 minutes may be allowed 
 overtime for a preceding lesson of 15, 30, or 
 45 minutes. Such adjusted time may be 
 made the basis for the reckoning, and de- 
 lay after that may be counted against the 
 teacher. 
 
 If we allow 100 points for preparation, 
 and 25 points for each of its main divisions, 
 we shall have : 
 
 Preparation 100 
 
 Plan 25 
 
 Material 25 
 
 Sequence and organization 25 
 Promptness 25 
 
 If further particulars are required, the fol- 
 lowing scheme will apply : 
 
 Plan 25 
 
 General outline of ivorU 5 
 
 Types and topics indicated 5 
 
 Time and method indicated 5 
 
 Neatness and arrangement 5 
 
 Daily program 5 
 
 43 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Material 25 
 
 Blackhoard, etc, 5 
 
 Objects required hy the teacher 5 
 
 Objects required hy the pupils 5 
 
 Care and arrangement 5 
 
 Distribution 5 
 
 Sequence and organization 25 
 
 Outline by months and tveeks 5 
 Interrelation bettveen subjects 5 
 Correlation with the environment 5 
 Correlation ivith the pupil 5 
 
 Gradation of tvork 5 
 
 Promptness 25 
 
 1-5 to 5-5 late 20 to 
 
 Starting point, 5, 10, 15 minutes 
 after time planned for a previous 
 lesson of 15, 30, or 45 minutes 
 
 In the preparation of school work two 
 common errors, even when the teacher is in- 
 formed, are: (1) lack of preparation; and 
 (2) lack of promptness. There are other 
 deficiencies but these are usually due to 
 
 44 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 ignorance of what is expected. A new 
 teacher, or one who is inefficient, will have 
 no work ready, no plan in evidence, no ma- 
 terial at hand, and will wear herself down 
 with talk, talk, and then more talk — some of 
 it lecturing on subject matter, and some of it 
 hectoring on conduct. Her usual complaint 
 is that ^she could teach if the class only be- 
 haved itself, if the school had better discip- 
 line.' Such a teacher should check herself 
 up in detail under every one of the headings 
 and subheadings given. The total of credits 
 she would get would probably be rather 
 small. 
 
 Lack of promptness seems chronic and 
 needs constant watching. A lesson in arith- 
 metic, for instance, planned for 30 or 40 
 minutes, may run over into 60, 80 or 100 
 minutes. Reading, planned for 20 or 30 min- 
 utes, may be kept up for an hour or more. 
 Subjects like phonics, music, physical train- 
 ing, etc., are often neglected. A teacher who 
 knows thoroughly one or more subjects and 
 
 45 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 who has an overdeveloped interest in them, 
 very likely will be tempted to spend more 
 time on them than is allowed. Subjects 
 which may receive more time than is planned 
 are, arithmetic, composition, reading, and, 
 (when taught by an enthusiast), penman- 
 ship and drawing. 
 
 §2, Incentives 
 
 Work when properly prepared and pre- 
 sented to the children will of itself secure an 
 adequate response. Such response, however, 
 is of a purely individual character. From 
 the social point of view, from the standpoint 
 of completeness, any reaction, though satis- 
 factory to the individual, requires further 
 affirmation from one or more members in the 
 social body to which he belongs, and whose 
 power and influence he recognizes. It is here 
 that the incentive comes into play. Indi- 
 vidual response is encouraged and furthered 
 on the one hand, or is discouraged and hin- 
 dered on the other, according as the social 
 
 46 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 reaction is favorable or unfavorable, ac- 
 cording as the individual is rewarded or 
 punished. 
 
 The kind of incentive used is of impor- 
 tance. It may be mild, consisting merely of 
 a look or verbal rebuke, or it may be severe, 
 causing pain or distress of considerable in- 
 tensity. To-day there is a general spirit of 
 humanity which is regulatmg the infliction 
 of pimishment, and which is inclining more 
 and more towards probation, parole, and 
 allowance of ^another chance.' Similarly, 
 on the side of reward, efforts are constantly 
 being put forth to give each one his due, by 
 means of cooperative systems, and schemes 
 for task work with bonus, differential rate 
 piece work, and the like. 
 
 To be efficacious, an incentive must be 
 prompt, and certain. We all like to play 
 with fate, hoping always for the best. But 
 we sedulously avoid present distresses, and 
 seek present pleasures. And children are 
 no different. Often a gold star, or a credit, 
 
 47 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 or an expression of commendation given on 
 the spot, will have greater weight with the 
 child than more momentous occurrences 
 which are to take place a month or more in 
 the time to come. 
 
 Properly to apply an incentive it is neces- 
 sary for the teacher to have a standard of 
 excellence, and judgment in determining to 
 what extent the pupil's work comes up to 
 the standard set. A promiscuous and 
 thoughtless use of incentives destroys their 
 value. The children then no longer care — 
 come what may. 
 
 In comparing one incentive with another, 
 it is well for the teacher to consider how 
 much effort will be required to apply it, and 
 how imiversal will be its appeal to the chil- 
 dren. The wider the appeal, and the easier 
 the application of any reward or punish- 
 ment, the more valuable will it be to the 
 teacher in stimulating the pupils. The lack 
 of these two qualifications is what make 
 
 4S 
 
THE TEACmNG PROCESS- 
 
 prizes of so little value. Only a few pupils 
 can get a prize. 
 
 Finally, the personal manner of the 
 teacher, and the lack of personal animus 
 when she rewards or punishes, do much to 
 give incentives weight with children. A 
 pupil instinctively senses favoritism, weak- 
 ness, and lack of balance in a teacher. After 
 a teacher has decided that a reward or a 
 punishment is necessary she should give it, 
 and that should be the end of it. 
 
 The excellences, which inhere in proper 
 motivation, are : (1) -fitness and gradation; 
 (2) promptness and certainty; (3) judg- 
 ment and knowledge of standards; (4) dis- 
 tribution and appeal; and (5) a calm, firm, 
 undisturbed, and considerate manner in the 
 application of an incentive. These five char- 
 acteristics should be looked for no matter 
 what incentive is used. 
 
 A device which works automatically and 
 which is indispensable if good work is to be 
 secured is simple checking up, counting, and 
 
 4d 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 marking. This alone shows that the teacher 
 has at least enough interest in the work or 
 conduct of the pupils to see what they are 
 doing. It further stimulates such pupils as 
 are willing to take advantage of oversight 
 or neglect on the teacher's part. The mark 
 may vary from a check, count, or stamp, (as, 
 star, flag, *good,' ^excellent,' etc.), to correc- 
 tion on a percentage basis. Papers should 
 be marked the same day and returned to 
 the pupils the next. Written work can be 
 checked up while the pupils are at it. Note 
 books may be looked after by a pupil during 
 lunch period. Or the teacher may utilize a 
 study period for this purpose. 
 
 In such checking up, neither fear nor 
 favor should influence the teacher. Work 
 which is poor, slovenly, careless, or incor- 
 rect, is worth less than work which is pre- 
 cise, clean, neat, and correct. To secure the 
 best results distinctions must therefore be 
 made. The bully who thinks that an ob- 
 streperous attitude will increase his rating 
 
 60 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 can easily be met by further reduction in 
 rating because of his uncalled for opposi- 
 tion. With proper explanation of the stand- 
 ard used, and uniform application to the 
 work of all members of the class, the teacher 
 need fear neither the importunate demands 
 of pupils, nor investigation and comment by 
 parent or principal. 
 
 Oral approval and public exhibition of 
 good work and conduct are incentives which 
 are easy to give, and of universal appeal. 
 Such expressions, as, ^Good,' ^Very good,' 
 * Excellent,' 'Show it to the class,' etc., or 
 their opposites, never fail of their purpose 
 when rightly applied. As in the case of 
 marking and checking up, approval and 
 exhibition of work require judgment on the 
 part of the teacher, a knowledge of stand- 
 ards, and their application in a firm, even, 
 undisturbed manner. 
 
 Personal interest in the children and su- 
 pervision of their activities are evident often 
 in the manner of the teacher towards her 
 
 51 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 wards. Your little ragamuffin, so-called, 
 feels neglect, or a shrug of the shoulders, or 
 even slight, unintentional indifference, as 
 much as does his better dressed, and appar- 
 ently higher-keyed classmate. And he usu- 
 ally shows that he feels. A teacher can not, 
 therefore, be too careful in her manner to- 
 wards her pupils, in her attention to their 
 wants, in her readiness to help them over the 
 rougher portions of their work. Personal 
 interest has much in common with the incen- 
 tives discussed in the preceding paragraphs, 
 and includes the same excellencies, namely, 
 gradation, promptness, judgment, etc. 
 
 Individual aid given to pupils, either in 
 group or alone after sessions, is a pointed 
 form of incentive which combines justice 
 with charity. The weak pupil is not singled 
 out and made a mock of before his neighbors. 
 He need not shrink from their scorn or con- 
 tumely. Such aid or detention should be 
 applied promptly and with certainty. There 
 need be no feeling in the matter. In a cahn 
 
 52 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 and equable manner the teacher points out 
 what faults exist whether in lessons or con- 
 duct, what work is to be done, and devises 
 means to assist the pupil in overcoming his 
 faults. 
 
 Listing the incentives discussed above, 
 and assigning values, we have the following : 
 
 Incentives 100 
 
 Marks and checking up 25 
 
 Approval and exhibition 25 
 
 Supervision and interest 25 
 
 Individual aid and detention 25 
 
 In detail each of these incentives can be con- 
 sidered with regard to the characteristics 
 given below, with a value of 5 for each merit : 
 
 Fitness and gradation 5 
 
 Prom^ptness and certainty 5 
 
 Judgment and standard 5 
 
 Distribution and appeal 5 
 
 Manner of the teacher 5 
 
 A common error in the use of incentives 
 is a failure to follow up the w^ork or the con- 
 
 53 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 duct of the pupils. They may continue to do 
 poor work, hand in carelessly ruled, dirty, or 
 incorrect papers, submit written spelling 
 boolis which contain innumerable errors in 
 spelling, or even hand in no work at all. 
 Unless the work is checked up there results 
 a general demoralization in the activity 
 neglected. What is true in instruction holds 
 with equal force in discipline. Offenses 
 which are allowed to continue unchecked 
 may develop into disorder and riot. 
 
 A lack of human interest shown by the 
 teacher is often found in some classrooms. 
 The steady silence, lack of comment, social 
 barrenness, and inhuman indifference are 
 most oppressive to one filled more or less 
 with human kindness. If the teacher would 
 only smile, meet the inquiring look of the 
 pupils with a kindly glance, a friendly tap, 
 or a look of approval, one would feel that the 
 pupils might consider school life more worth 
 the living. It is not much. But the effects 
 are remarkable. Good class spirit and uni- 
 
 54 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 fied class action roll along apparently with- 
 out drag or drive. The pupils then feel that 
 the teacher is alive, is human, has interests 
 much like their o^vn, and that they them- 
 selves are not a species distinct, a kind of 
 animal, as it were, to be held in subjection. 
 
 Occasionally the best of teachers, while 
 trying to finish up some work or while dis- 
 ciplining an unruly pupil, may lose her 
 head, and may nag, yell, become sarcastic, 
 threaten, or stir things up with inmecessary 
 violence. One may sympathize with such a 
 teacher. But one must acknowledge that 
 little is accomplished in such a case. The 
 teacher will simply wear herself down with 
 outbursts of uncontrolled f retf ulness or an- 
 ger. Loss of self-control is a common com- 
 plaint among teachers and would seem to 
 indicate at times, ignorance of method, and 
 often, heavy pressure due to lack of power 
 and to untoward conditions in general. 
 
 55 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 §3, Visual Appeal 
 
 Appeal to the eye implies the use of black- 
 board, chart, map, perception card, object, 
 model, specimen, apparatus, etc., in the 
 proper manner. What is shown to the pupils 
 must in itself be clear and distinct. Die- 
 tinctness refers to the unity of the object as 
 a whole, while clearness inheres in the ar- 
 rangement of the parts and in their 'general 
 simplicity and organization. It is not 
 enough that an object be shown. It must be 
 such an object as stands out prominently, 
 with each of its parts limned in a striking, 
 vivid manner. The more important aspects 
 may be emphasized in various ways, as by 
 difference in color or size, by underscoring, 
 by use of signs, print, etc. All this implies 
 the use of a proper background as regards 
 the material, and a proper seating and 
 grouping as regards the pupils. The differ- 
 ent excellencies in a lesson will be dimin- 
 ished if the pupils are scattered about the 
 
 56 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 room and outside of the best angle of vision. 
 Good seating and grouping may be had by 
 massing the pupils the long way in front of 
 the object, or by arranging them in a semi- 
 circle around it. Good backgrounds are, 
 white for black, black for white, and black 
 or white for green, red, or orange. Finally, 
 sufficient time should be allowed for the 
 pupils to observe the model in front of them. 
 
 Arranged in a series, the points of excel- 
 lence in the presentation of a model are: 
 (1) clearness and distinctness of the ma- 
 terial sJiown; (2) proper emphasis of parts; 
 (3) correct placing of the model 'before the 
 pupils; (4) seating and grouping of the chil- 
 dren; and (5) allowance of enough time for 
 observation. 
 
 Given the matter to be observed, the pupils 
 must further understand what it is all about. 
 What connection has the material to the en- 
 tire subject? Is the topic presented as a 
 separate entity, an isolated unit, or is it 
 hooked on to what the pupils know? Are 
 
 57 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 there any incidents or experiences in daily 
 life to which the model applies ? Can other 
 subjects be called in to illustrate and explain 
 the object under observation? In short, are 
 there present sequence and organization? 
 
 Serially analysed, sequence and organiza- 
 tion show the following aspects : (1) rela- 
 tion to the subject as a tvhole; (2) interrela- 
 tion with other subjects; (3) correlation 
 tvith the environment; (4) correlation with 
 the pupil; and (5) gradation of the steps in 
 which the matter is presented. 
 
 Further consideration of the model will 
 result in analysis and sjaithesis; analysis 
 into its parts, proper emphasis on the char- 
 acteristics and uses of its members, and a 
 final synthesis into the original whole with 
 which the lesson began. This procedure 
 holds whether the model is an example in 
 arithmetic, a sentence in grammar, a prob- 
 lem in history, a visualization of the map in 
 geography, or a study of scientific or other 
 apparatus. The model is shown and ex- 
 
 58 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 plained in general. Then step by step, it is 
 taken apart, and characteristics, uses, etc., 
 are discussed and explained. Further com- 
 parisons may be made between parts, parts 
 and whole, etc. Finally the parts are uni- 
 fied, and cast into the original whole. 
 
 In a series of excellencies for analysis and 
 synthesis we have : (1) presentation of the 
 model as a ivhole; (2) presentation of its 
 parts; (3) comparison of the parts ivith the 
 whole to shoiv structure, use, development, 
 processes, etc.; (4) putting of the parts to- 
 gather; and (5) alloivance of sufficient time 
 to appreciate fully each step. 
 
 All these things can not be done in dumb 
 show. The teacher is compelled to talk, an- 
 swer questions, point out things, call upon 
 pupils, do and say things even while the 
 visual presentation is being made. Voice and 
 maimer therefore demand a place in the 
 series of values to be given to a visual ap- 
 peal. It is imperative for the teacher to 
 answer questions, to stimulate questioning 
 
 59 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 by the pupils, to call their attention to im- 
 portant parts of the model, to present cor- 
 related problem work, to encourage response 
 and individual effort of every kind. Often 
 an introduction is needed. Sometimes a 
 silent attitude will excite an interest in the 
 model. Above all, a patient and cheerful 
 manner is required lest the lesson become a 
 perfunctory one, and lest response by the 
 pupils be checked. 
 
 Voice and manner may be said to include 
 the following as far as the visual appeal is 
 concerned: (1) patient and cheerful man- 
 ner; (2) proper introduction of the model; 
 (3) necessary explanation; (4) answering 
 questions; and (5) encouraging questions hy 
 the pupils and getting them to express them- 
 selves. 
 
 In summary we have for the visual ap- 
 peal: 
 
 60 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 Visual appeal 
 
 100 
 
 Blackboard and model 
 
 25 
 
 Voice and manner 
 
 25 
 
 Sequence and organization 
 
 25 
 
 Analysis and synthesis 
 
 25 
 
 In detail each subheading may 
 
 be further 
 
 analysed as follows : 
 
 
 Blackboard and model 
 
 25 
 
 Clearness and distinctness 
 
 5 
 
 Proper emphasis 
 
 5 
 
 Position of the model 
 
 5 
 
 Grouping of the pupils 
 
 5 
 
 Time allotved 
 
 5 
 
 Voice and manner 
 
 25 
 
 Patience and cheerfulness 
 
 5 
 
 Introduction 
 
 5 
 
 Explanation 
 
 5 
 
 Anstvering questions 
 
 5 
 
 Encouraging pupils to react 
 
 5 
 
 Sequence and organization 
 
 25 
 
 Relation to the subject 
 
 5 
 
 Interrelation with other stibjects 5 
 
 Correlation tvith the environment 5 
 
 Correlation ivith the pupil 
 
 5 
 
 Gradation of tvork 
 
 5 
 
 61 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Analysis and synthesis 25 
 
 Presentation of model 5 
 
 Presentation of its parts ?5 
 
 Comparisons made 5 
 
 Eeeonstrttction of model 5 
 
 Time allowed 5 
 
 The great error in the presentation of 
 visual material is a lack of such material 
 and an attempt to substitute for it, words — 
 words, singly and in avalanche. Instead of 
 showing a problem on the board and work- 
 ing it out step by step, the teacher may 
 talk tell how to do the work, refer to rules 
 or definitions, and the like. For visual study 
 of the map, the pupil may have to listen to 
 more words, or may be compelled to read 
 matter which can be given with a few strokes 
 of colored crayon, and which should be so 
 given. Often material is not at hand be- 
 cause it may require a little extra effort to 
 get it or to make it. Maps^ charts, percep- 
 tion cards, simple apparatus, specimens, etc., 
 
 C2 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 can readily be obtained and are well worth 
 the trouble. 
 
 Good blackboard work is essential and 
 lack of it is without excuse. Writing which 
 stands out sharply against a clean board, 
 proper use of colored chalk, ability to sketch 
 simply and rapidly, these can be reasonably 
 expected of the class teacher, whether she is 
 a beginner or not. No tolerance should be 
 sho^m for grey, smeary blackboards, for 
 writing by children who can not write dis- 
 tinctly, when such writing should be done by 
 the teacher, or for the common excuse, ^^I 
 never could draw." 
 
 In the general use of the visual appeal a 
 host of errors creep into the teacher's work 
 chiefly because of a lack of preparation or a 
 lack of thought. The pupils may not be 
 allowed to react naturally, to see things at 
 first their own way, to ask questions appar- 
 ently irrevelant, to talk spontaneously and 
 naturally. The teacher ma}^ be impatient 
 and attempt to hurry the pupils on, to drive 
 
 63 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 them as it were into the narrow groove of 
 her own advanced and logically arranged 
 knowledge. There may be a lack of proper 
 correlation with the pupils' life history and 
 experience. Parts of the analysis ana syn- 
 thesis may be incomplete or entirely lack- 
 ing. Increasing knowledge and a rigid 
 study of standards will help to remove such 
 deficiencies. 
 
 §4, Oral Appeal 
 
 Two forms of oral appeal are (1) question 
 and discussion, and (2) the story, informal 
 talk, and lecture. Questioning requires prep- 
 aration and can not be made up ^as you go 
 along.' The language of a good question 
 will be clear, terse, and to the point. There 
 will be no verbiage, unnecessary remarks, 
 nor preliminary sputterings so significant of 
 lack of preparation, and of a general ignor- 
 ance of what is to be asked next. As regards 
 the content of the question, it should point 
 in one direction. It seems only fair to the 
 
 64 
 
THE TEACfflNG PROCESS 
 
 children that it admit of but a single answer. 
 As it is assumed that the question has 
 been formulated with regard to some logical 
 whole, that it has connections with what 
 went before and w^hat is to follow, so it is 
 expected that one question follow the other 
 logically, and lead onward to further dis- 
 cussion and oral work on the topic under 
 treatment. 
 
 After the question has been formulated 
 and presented, it requires time to sink in, to 
 allow for response. The teacher may simply 
 pause, and call for answers from the pupils. 
 Better, she may pause, glance rapidly round 
 the room, eye pupils who seem to be inatten- 
 tive or indifferent, and call for the response. 
 Or still better, she may make such a dra- 
 matic use of her hands, countenance, and 
 general posture that the class is stimulated 
 and anxious to react. 
 
 Arranged in order of merit, the excellen- 
 cies of the question as such will be: (1) 
 relevance and general fitness to the subject 
 
 65 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 in hand; (2) clearness and terseness; (3) 
 point and directness; (4) simple pause he- 
 fore delivery; and (5) pause with dramatic 
 attitude^ as shown iy the teacher's eyes, 
 position^ and general posture. 
 
 The story and informal talk follow the 
 same degrees of merit as inhere in the asking 
 of questions. The story must be apropos. 
 It is one thing to tell stories, it is another 
 thing to narrate something which has spe- 
 cific reference to the onward progress of the 
 subject matter of the lesson, or which has a 
 particular cultural or ethical value of its 
 own. Language which is simple enough for 
 the children to understand, which is clear to 
 their minds, and which has sufficient variety 
 and allusions to render the tale lively and 
 attractive, will add greatly to the success of 
 any narration by the teacher. Moreover, the 
 story as such should move, should have a 
 beginning, a middle, and an end. Point and 
 directness are required as in the case of the 
 question. 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 Proper pause lends greatly to the interest 
 of a story, and in many cases may make or 
 mar the tale. Intonation, dramatic gesture, 
 smiles or scowls as the case may be, these 
 give life to the narrative, and drive home the 
 more important aspects of the tale. In fact, 
 one can recite the multiplication table to the 
 children or read a laundrv ticket in such a 
 manner as to hold a class wrapt in attention. 
 The story is told of a recitation in French 
 delivered to an American audience by Sarah 
 Bernhardt, with such vividness and feeling 
 as to make many of the audience weep — yet 
 she confessed later, that, nonplussed for the 
 moment as to what recitation should be 
 given, she decided on delivery of the multi- 
 plication table. 
 
 As in the case of the visual appeal, voice 
 and manner need consideration but from a 
 different point of view. Proper use of the 
 voice demands considerable training. It may 
 express life and action, or may become a 
 monotonous drawl significant of sleep and 
 
 67 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 inanition. It may range from soft and low, 
 to loud and high. It may go, now slow, now 
 fast. This often requires a studied control 
 on the part of the teacher. Side by side with 
 such control should go a fitting attitude. It 
 is necessary that the teacher be self-con- 
 tained, that she be able to direct her expres- 
 sion, facial and otherwise, into the same 
 groove as runs the question, or goes the 
 story. A smile, a frown, a look of surprise, 
 a show of anger — each will express facially 
 what the words convey. 
 
 Finally, proper gestures are a consumma- 
 tion devoutly to be wished. In the use of the 
 hands, training is needed as much as and 
 often more than it is required in vocal and 
 facial expression. When should the hands 
 be quiet, and when should they move vio- 
 lently in the air? When should the finger 
 be pointed, if not in scorn, at least in indig- 
 nation at a reluctant or recalcitrant pupil, 
 and when should there be no mxotion of any 
 kind? When should the teacher lean for- 
 
 68 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 V7ard and be confidential, and when should 
 she be distant and austere 9 These are ques- 
 tions which should be decided properly by a 
 class teacher. 
 
 Voice and manner may be resolved into 
 the following aspects: (1) use of voice, 
 whether soft or loud; (2) use of voice, 
 whether lotu or high; (3) use of voice, 
 whether sloto or fast; (4) facial expression; 
 and (5) posture, gesture, and use of hands. 
 
 The five aspects of sequence and organiza- 
 tion which apply to question and story are, 
 as already discussed: (1) relation to the 
 subject, discussion, or topic as a whole; (2) 
 interrelation with other suhjects or topics; 
 (3) correlation with the environment; (4) 
 correlation with the pupiVs life history and 
 experience; and (5) gradation. 
 
 Each question should be one of a series, 
 each moment of the story should rise natu- 
 rally out of what has gone before. This is 
 necessary if the matter is to grip the pupils. 
 One is reminded in this connection of the 
 
 G9 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 monk who listened, as he thought, but for a 
 moment, and found that a thousand years 
 had passed away. Wherever matter in other 
 subjects may be called in to illustrate and 
 vivify what is being presented, it is reason- 
 able to expect such interrelation. Both ques- 
 tion and story should have a setting in the 
 race experience, should come into contact 
 with actual life, should, if necessary, touch 
 nerve centers in the spiritual life of the child. 
 The old adage about the fool and his ques- 
 tions refers to a neglect of this rule. A good 
 question, an interesting story, a heart-to- 
 heart talk, will not be followed by the blank 
 stare or the tired vawn which indicate so 
 well how the presentation is being received, 
 and, in most cases, of what particular worth 
 it is to the children. They fail to see the con- 
 nection. There is then no appeal to curi- 
 osity, to previous knowledge or other basis 
 which can be stirred. Finally, a proper 
 sequence demands that the questions be 
 asked slowly, one point being required at a 
 
 70 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 time, and that the story move onwards, step 
 by step. A class will then not fail to grasp 
 the meaning of the present moment because 
 of failure of the teacher to lead up to it. 
 
 In all oral work the great danger is that 
 the teacher keep on questioning and talking 
 like an animated machine, that she fail to 
 allow the pupils adequately to respond. If 
 a question has been carefully thought out 
 and prepared it is worth something. It 
 should not be allowed to pass unanswered. 
 It should be made to do its duty, to work. 
 Adequate response implies that not only is 
 the question answered, but that it also is 
 answered by a number of pupils correctly, 
 by six, eight, ten, or by the whole class, rap- 
 idly, one by one, if necessary, as in drill. 
 While the answering is going on, the teacher 
 simply leans back and listens, and corrects 
 or commends when need be. 
 
 Furthermore, to get good value out of a 
 question one must see that it is properly dis- 
 tributed. Pupils may be called upon at ran- 
 
 71 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 dom, now this one, now that one, now one 
 who is ready, now one who does not expect 
 it, now by pointing at a pupil and again by 
 calling him by name or by indicating by a 
 friendly nod who is to recite. From time to 
 time it is advisable to find out which pupils 
 have not been called upon at all during the 
 day. A teacher will usually be found to 
 possess a personal equation, and, either be- 
 cause of her position in the room, or because 
 of temperament, will systematically over- 
 look a group of pupils. They will be found 
 never or seldom to have a chance to recite, 
 and may so complain later. 
 
 To rate the teacher on response of pupils, 
 one has simply to count the answers and 
 give them a value on the basis of the number 
 to be expected. The answers given will vary, 
 according as there is no answer at all to 
 the question, or as there is a continued con- 
 nected talk given by several pupils on the 
 same topic. Different kinds of errors will 
 be found in the answers given by the pupils. 
 
 72 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 Flippant or careless answers, answers given 
 in haste or at random, guesses-, ungram- 
 matical expressions, continued yes — ^no re- 
 sponses, incomplete answers — all these are 
 to be considered as incorrect. If five answers 
 can be expected in response to the question 
 which has been put, one fifth should be de- 
 ducted for each error. If ten answers are a 
 reasonable number, each mistake counts a 
 tenth off, and so on to the whole class, if the 
 lesson is one of drill. 
 
 A similar numerical basis can be used to 
 determine what the response is in story tell- 
 ing. Use the number of pupils in the room 
 as a basis, and count the pupils who yawn, 
 squirm, play with objects imder the desk, 
 look out of the wmdow, talk, or show in other 
 ways that the story has little or no appeal. 
 If there are ten such pupils out of a class of 
 forty, this will cause the teacher to lose a 
 fourth of the credits assigned to response. 
 
 Summarizing the points above presented, 
 we have the following : 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Oral appeal 
 
 100 
 
 Question-storv 
 
 25 
 
 Voice and manner 
 
 25 
 
 Sequence and organization 
 
 25 
 
 Distribution and response 
 
 25 
 
 urther details give : 
 
 
 Question-story 
 
 25 
 
 Relevance and fitness 
 
 5 
 
 Clearness 
 
 5 
 
 Point 
 
 5 
 
 Simple pause 
 
 5 
 
 Dramatic emphasis 
 
 5 
 
 Voice and manner 
 
 25 
 
 Use of voice: soft to loud 
 
 5 
 
 Use of voice: low to high 
 
 5 
 
 Use of voice: slow to fast 
 
 5 
 
 Expression of face 
 
 5 
 
 Use of hands and hody 
 
 5 
 
 Sequence and organization 
 
 25 
 
 Relation to subject or topic 
 
 5 
 
 Interrelation with other subjects 5 
 
 Correlation with environment 
 
 5 
 
 Correlation with pupil 
 
 5 
 
 Gradation 
 
 5 
 
 Distribution and response 
 
 25 
 
 Measure on a numerical basis 
 
 
 74 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 Whether a teacher has been trained 
 within the system in which she teaches or 
 outside of it, whether she comes from a train- 
 ing school or from a college, whether she is 
 experienced or inexperienced, seems to influ- 
 ence her oral work but little as far as errors 
 are concerned. The same glaring ineffi- 
 ciency, when present, appears to be distri- 
 buted about evenly among the different 
 types of teachers. According to the accounts 
 found in the works of great educators, mis- 
 takes in oral presentation probably have 
 persisted from before the time of the middle 
 ages through the present day. Several of 
 the more common types of error can be speci- 
 fically defined. 
 
 An error which is frequently met with is a 
 lack of pause after the question has been put 
 to the class. The teacher seems in a hurry 
 to get a load of verbal matter out of her sys- 
 tem, and goes ahead quickly whether or not, 
 as tested by adequate response of the pupils, 
 the children are following. Sometimes one 
 
 75 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 question is given right after another, or a 
 medley of questions tumbles out, before any 
 answer is even possible. Added to this lack 
 of pause is often a monologue t^^pe of work, 
 in which the teacher not only sets the ques- 
 tion, but answers it herself; or, what is 
 almost as bad, lets only one pupil answer it, 
 and then herself repeats the answer. '^What 
 is 6 X 8?" ''Yes, 48.'' ''Who discovered 
 America V^ " Yes, Columbus discovered 
 America." So the teacher goes on, doing 
 almost all of the talking. 
 
 Neglect of the class as a whole is a mistake 
 which often leads to disorder. The teacher 
 may stare at the pupil and overlook the rest 
 of the children. Sometimes a teacher may 
 focus her attention so closely on the boy who 
 is reciting, that she does not see flagrant dis- 
 order within a few feet of her. She does not 
 seem to remember that one can watch the 
 class and listen to the pupil who is answer- 
 ing at the same time. The class is similarly 
 disregarded when the pupil is called by name 
 
 76 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 before the question is given, or when the 
 'next boy' is called upon to answer. As soon 
 as the class knows who is to recite, that lets 
 out every one else, as far as response is con- 
 cerned. To 'keep the pupils guessing,' as it 
 were, the question must be presented first 
 before any one knows who is to be called 
 upon. 
 
 Chorus answering is good at times to wake 
 up the class and to encourage the more timid 
 pupils. But it should not be run into the 
 ground. If the chorus answer is allowed, it 
 is necessary to insist on sharp, snappy an- 
 swering, and to reinforce it by individual 
 questioning. The yes-no answer is subject 
 to similar limitations. Continued yes-no an- 
 swers may be considered as errors. They 
 should be used only when it is necessary 
 sharply to define a topic, or to shut out aim- 
 less and incoherent thinking. More extended 
 responses should then be required. 
 
 Errors of omission are occasionally found. 
 There may be a lack of sequence in the ques- 
 
 77 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 tions which are presented. There may arise 
 unnecessary digressions from the topic 
 imder discussion. Very often there is no 
 topical recitation when the subject calls for 
 it, as in the case of composition or history. 
 The teacher is so anxious to help the pupil 
 that she seems unable to remain silent, to 
 let the pupil go on, without prompting by 
 her. 
 
 A study of the question, as such, will show 
 a variety of errors in the general composi- 
 tion. Several are worthy of notice. The 
 vague, indefinite question is a pest. It usu- 
 ally shows, on the part of the teacher, ignor- 
 ance of subject matter, or at times, a sudden 
 spurt for the purpose of making a good im- 
 pression upon the entrance of a visitor. 
 ' ^ Tell all you know about Boston, " is a some- 
 what indefinite manner of asking for infor- 
 mation on the manufactures, or the climate, 
 or the location, or the population of Boston. 
 A careless use of such expressions, as, 
 '^What did he do when, etc.," ^^What hap- 
 
 78 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 pens when, etc./' ^^What is, etc.,'' also leads 
 to senseless questioning. Tlie double bar- 
 relled question is confusing because it con- 
 tains too much. ^^Why did Washington 
 cross the Delaware, and what did he do when 
 he got there? Give the results," can be 
 broken in^o three or four speciJBc questions. 
 If to such a complicated question there are 
 added remarks like the following: ^^ Hurry- 
 up. We're waiting. Didn't we study that 
 last week?" the pupil can hardly gain in 
 clear and consistent thinking. 
 
 In story telling a few errors may be 
 pointed out. Usually a story is to be told, 
 not read out of a book. Nothing is more 
 pathetic than the sight of a teacher killing a 
 good story — droning it out of a book, and 
 indifferent to the response with which the 
 story is received. Even when the story is 
 such a one as requires telling in the actual 
 words of the book, it should be read in part 
 with appropriate gesture and dramatic ac- 
 tion. In both questioning and story telling 
 
 79 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 it is a good practice to write from five to ten 
 topics or questions which are to be preseni ed 
 in the lesson for the dsij, Nothing tends to 
 clarify thought more than expression in 
 w^riting, and careful reflection over what has 
 been written, both before and after. 
 
 §5. Manual Appeal 
 
 When manual work is given to the pupils 
 it should be arranged in a definite manner. 
 Specific merits to be noted are the following : 
 (1) writing of name and date on paper, lahel 
 or tag; (2) margination, ruling, setting, and 
 general formal arrangement; (3) spacing, 
 grouping, and proportion of the material 
 used; (4) neatness and order; and (5) clean- 
 liness and freedom from Mots, dirt and filth. 
 
 In arithmetic, arrangement of the written 
 work calls for ruling or folding of the paper 
 into boxes, with reservation of space for 
 name, date, and class at the top of the paper, 
 and for number of the examples and their 
 
 80 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 answers at the sides of the paper. Composi- 
 tion, spelling, dictation, and similar written 
 work should show margins, name and date, 
 and proper spacing. Written work which 
 does not completely fill the paper need not be 
 jammed close to the top with all the space 
 at the bottom. Several lines may be left 
 empty, ^skipped,' if necessary, to ensure 
 good spacing. Any paper which has on it a 
 blot, smear, finger mark or dirt of any kind 
 is to be counted out as regards cleanliness. 
 
 Shop work, clay modeling, painting, sew- 
 ing, cooking, etc., can each be judged accord- 
 ing to the scheme of excellencies enumerated 
 above. If the name and date can not be 
 l^laced upon the work, a tag or a label can be 
 used for this purpose. In addition to the 
 name and date, it might be well to have the 
 children indicate the amount of material 
 used, the time spent, and the cost of the 
 whole. Just as written work is set in a mar- 
 gined frame, as it were, so shop work, clay, 
 sewing, etc., can be set on a background, or 
 
 81 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 kept in an envelope, or preserved in a box or 
 other receptacle. 
 
 Proportion of parts, grouping, and bar- 
 mony are to be looked for in the arrange- 
 ment of the material. The size, structure, 
 use, and substance of what is being made 
 should bear the proper relations, one to the 
 other. System and order are necessary if 
 the lesson is to proceed expeditiously, es- 
 pecially where a large quantity of material 
 is to be used. This should be placed within 
 easy reach of the pupils. Each pupil should 
 know how to set up his desk, arrange his 
 tools, and place his material so that he can 
 work without confusion. Finally, the work 
 should be free from dirt, unnecessary litter, 
 and ^muss.' 
 
 In manual work, sequence and organiza- 
 tion can be resolved into the same details as 
 those given for the other appeals, namely: 
 (1) relation to the subject or topic as a 
 whole; (2) int err elatiomvith other suhjects ; 
 (3) correlation with the environment; (4) 
 
 82 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 correlation with the pupils' knowledge, ex- 
 perience, feelings, and desires; and (5) gra- 
 dation in the presentation, step hy step. 
 
 In a great deal of the manual work, se- 
 quence and organization constitute an im- 
 portant part of the method. In arithmetic, 
 a lesson degenerates into mere time-killing 
 if the examples are not graded in difficulty, 
 and if too many types are presented at once. 
 Much of the problem work will appear bar- 
 ren to the children if it has little connection 
 with real conditions outside of the school. 
 The concrete details which go to make up 
 most of the number experience of the child 
 may not be adequately utilized in the 
 classroom. These points must be carefully 
 watched if arithmetic is to be properly 
 taught. 
 
 Composition, dictation, spelling, and 
 grammar require similar care in planning 
 for sequence and organization. Grammar 
 and spelling have more meaning if taught in 
 connection with composition. Composition 
 
 83 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 has more life if it is based upon the experi- 
 ences of the children, and upon subject mat- 
 ter which has been presented in other lessons. 
 Dictation becomes an ally to composition 
 when used to teach specific aspects, as, para- 
 graph structure, use of the simple sentence, 
 correction of the ^and' obsession, etc. Com- 
 position work in general can bind together 
 many units in the curriculum. 
 
 Similar values inhere in a sufficient and 
 proper presentation and direction of other 
 manual exercises. Whether the work con- 
 sists of abstract arithmetic or the more con- 
 crete shop work, whether the children are 
 struggling with concepts and written work, 
 or with cooking, sewing, or modeling, some 
 relation to life must be present in the work, 
 some connection with the children's experi- 
 ence is necessary, if the presentation is to be 
 considered successful. Finally, gradation 
 step by step is a requisite if the children are 
 to work without confusion. 
 
 84 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 While the children are busy, a rapid 
 checking up will show that some of them 
 seem unable to do the work correctly. It is 
 necessary closely to supervise pupils to pre- 
 vent them from repeating mistakes in going 
 from one step to the next. Mentally, the 
 teacher should group the weaker pupils, and 
 halt them when they go wrong. If neces- 
 sary, the entire class may have to be stopped 
 before completing a step, because most of 
 the pupils are doing their work wrong. If 
 the work is arithmetic, it may be necessary 
 to work the problem over with the class, and 
 call for a show of hands, step by step. In 
 composition, it may be imperative to spend 
 further time on oral work and discussion. 
 Further explanation may be needed or 
 greater simplification demanded in sewing 
 or in cooking. There is no sense in letting 
 the children go ahead if they are not work- 
 ing correctly. Occasionally a teacher is 
 found who will allow the whole class to work 
 a series of examples of similar type, or to 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 analyse several sentences of the same kind 
 even though mistake after mistake is made. 
 Repetition of such errors can readily be 
 avoided by simple supervision and checking 
 up at the start. 
 
 Correctness and incorrectness can be 
 measured while the pupils are busy at their 
 work. A show of hands or supervision of 
 the children while working will indicate the 
 number whose work is incorrect. A rating 
 can then be given on a numerical basis. 
 
 In manual work voice and manner consti- 
 tute a series of excellencies like the series 
 given for the visual appeal. These merits 
 are enumerated below. 
 
 The different aspects of the manual ap- 
 peal are the following : 
 
 Manual appeal 100 
 
 Form and arrangement 25 
 
 Voice and manner 25 
 
 Sequence and organization 25 
 
 Correct and incorrect 25 
 
 86 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 and in detail : 
 
 Form and arrangement 25 
 
 Name and date 5 
 
 Margins, ruling, setting 5 
 
 Spacing, proportion 5 
 
 Neatness, order 5 
 
 Cleanliness 5 
 
 Voice and manner 25 
 
 Patience and cheerfulness 5 
 
 Introduction 5 
 
 Explanation 5 
 
 Anstvering questions 5 
 
 Encouraging pupils to react 5 
 
 Sequence and organization 25 
 
 Relation to the subject 5 
 Interrelation with other subjects 5 
 
 Correlation tvith environmeyit 5 
 
 Correlation tvith pupil 5 
 
 Gradation 5 
 
 Correct and incorrect 25 
 Numerical hasis 
 
 On the formal side of manual work the 
 
 leading error is the assumption by the 
 
 87 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 teacher that the children ought to know 
 where to put the name and date, how to rule, 
 and in general, what to do with the material 
 given to them. The children may arrange 
 their papers half a dozen different ways. 
 The teacher may fail to see that in the begin- 
 ning it is necessary to show pupils how to 
 fold paper, where to place the ruler to rule 
 a line, how to arrange material on the desk, 
 where to place the body of the written work, 
 and so on. Investigations on motion study 
 have shown that considerable time is wasted 
 because material is not placed within easy 
 reach nor arranged in a carefully planned 
 manner. 
 
 On the side of content the errors are more 
 numerous. Teachers will persist in confus- 
 ing pupils with too many type examples in a 
 single lesson, or with problems which are too 
 difficult because of a lack of gradation in the 
 presentation. It seems reasonable to ask 
 that only a single new type be presented in a 
 development lesson. If the pupils can not 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 do one, how can it be supposed that they are 
 able to do several ? And even in the ease of 
 the single type, at some stage there must be 
 a difficulty for the children. It is exactly 
 this stage which should, by graded work, be 
 found out. If the class can do the examples, 
 then the lesson is not one on new work, but is 
 one of review or of drill. 
 
 Composition is often required when the 
 pupils have really nothing to express. A 
 number of facts may hurriedly be given to 
 them which they are asked to vomit forth in 
 paragraph form. If the material is new, 
 strange, and weird to the children, they can 
 hardly be expected to have much energy or 
 inclination for composition, as such. The 
 same is true in the case of sewing, of cook- 
 ing, of drawing, and the like. The lesson 
 should have some connection with the life 
 history and development of the child. The 
 work should be such as can be done in the 
 home or such as has some connection with 
 the home. 
 
 89 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 A lack of proper grouping and of assist- 
 ance results when the correct and the incor- 
 rect cases are not checked up by the teacher. 
 Each step must be supervised. Pupils who 
 are wrong may be aided at their desks or 
 sent to the board as a special group, where 
 they can be closely watched. Special work 
 of simpler nature may be necessary for these 
 pupils. 
 
 Any appeal may be abused, but the man- 
 ual appeal lends itself more easily than an- 
 other to untoward uses. Manual work is a 
 good time-killer. It is so easy to ask the 
 pupils to *do the next ten examples' in arith- 
 metic, or to assign a number of sentences for 
 analysis, or to have them copy verbatim ac- 
 counts out of a history or geography, or 
 write up notes in cooking or science, or 
 answer questions at the back of the chapter, 
 etc. Much of what the children are required 
 to write in the shape of notes can be expe- 
 ditiously given to them in the form of dupli- 
 cated outlines. An inspection of note books 
 
 90 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 will show just how accurately any notes 
 given to the pupils are copied by them, and 
 a watch will indicate exactly how much time 
 is wasted in the process. Such errors can be 
 checked if the principal will follow a lesson 
 in the same subject for a series of days. It 
 will be possible then to trace the develop- 
 ment of the topic, the use of the different 
 appeals, and the kind of drills, reviews, and 
 tests that are given. 
 
 §6, Application and Technique 
 
 Whether a teacher wishes to check up her 
 own work or whether she is to be checked 
 up by a superior, it would be imwise, at first, 
 to use the complete scheme as outlined in all 
 its detail. Only the mala five standards, 
 Preparation, Incentives, Visual Appeal, 
 Oral Appeal, and Manual Appeal, should be 
 used. Nor need any numerical values be 
 employed. Checks or crosses with a few 
 helpful remarks are all that are at first 
 needed. 
 
 91 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 The further divisions may then be ap- 
 plied. It is evident that all the characteris- 
 tics and excellencies will not apply to every 
 lesson, and that all the details under one of 
 the main headings may not be required in 
 the process of inspection. Again, numerical 
 values need not be given in the beginning. 
 Four marks (^ X — ?) maybe placed along- 
 side the appropriate merit ; according as the 
 excellence is present, (^); is not present 
 though necessary, (X) ; is not at all appli- 
 cable to the lesson, ( — ) ; or is in question 
 and needs examination, study, and applica- 
 tion, (?). Further familiarity with the 
 standards will allow of rating on a numeri- 
 cal basis. For the sake of accuracy and con- 
 venience a table of values for different regis- 
 ters or attendance has been worked out on 
 pages 33-35. 
 
 When printed blanks such as are inserted 
 in the book are used, an inspection of a les- 
 son will take from three to ten minutes. 
 After the inspection has been completed, a 
 
 92 
 
THE TEACHING PROCESS 
 
 carbon copy is either left with the teacher, 
 or sent to her later in a sealed envelope. It 
 is to be remembered that inspections should 
 result in improvement, and that such im- 
 provement is not possible if the teacher does 
 not know what it is all about, and works in 
 the dark. 
 
 To determine whether a topic has been 
 presented completely, that is, has been de- 
 veloped, reviewed, drilled upon and tested, 
 it may be necessary for the principal to fol- 
 low up the topic in the one class for a suc- 
 cession of days. This is often necessary in 
 the case of reading, arithmetic, or composi- 
 tion, to name a few subjects in which a single 
 lesson may yield an incomplete or false im- 
 pression. 
 
 It is to be noted that the teaching process 
 applies equally to instruction arid discipline. 
 Discipline requires presentation in much the 
 same manner as does instruction, and the 
 same appeals must be made. The teacher 
 must define her field, prepare her material, 
 
 9$ 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 talk to the children, have them see illustra- 
 tive matter, etc., whether the topic is one in 
 ethics and social control, or one in arith- 
 metic or drawing. It is a mistaken notion 
 with many new teachers that discipline in 
 some mysterious fashion drops into the room 
 from above, and that the teacher can expect 
 to find it present as soon as she enters, all 
 ready for her convenience. No doubt the 
 pupils carry with them much of the training 
 they have already received, but this does not 
 preclude further efforts by the teacher to 
 lead the pupils along the right paths. 
 
 94 
 
Ill 
 
 PERSONALITY 
 COOPERATION 
 
V 
 
 PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 §1, Personality in General 
 
 Any individual who is considered as hav- 
 ing a ^wonderful personality/ as being 
 ^charming,' 'captivating/ or what not, cre- 
 ates such an impression by a series of reac- 
 tions each of which can be analysed out of 
 the total complex and studied. In many 
 social maneuvers it is somewhat pathetic to 
 see how few and how petty may be the shifts 
 and devices employed to create one impres- 
 sion or the other. No matter what one's 
 original nature may be, one can develop or 
 create practically any personality. 
 
 In the measurement of a phase of person- 
 ality it is important to appreciate fully what 
 basis is used. In social life, personal be- 
 havior is adversely judged solely by excep- 
 tions. We are all expected to be good and 
 
 97 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 honest, and we receive little credit for these 
 attributes. But let a single exception occur, 
 and rumor, than whom no pest is swifter or 
 more active, spreads broadcast our fall from 
 virtue. This single exception may be suffi- 
 cient to ruin what was before considered a 
 noble character, to nullify, it may be, all the 
 good work done in a life time. A cashier, 
 for example, no matter how talented, no 
 matter how long and meritorious his ser- 
 vices, falls at once from grace if he commit 
 but a single theft. Forthwith, a man of re- 
 ligious reputation will lose his good name if 
 he is seen at any time under the influence of 
 liquor. And in less degree the same thing 
 holds true. We can not average character, 
 conduct, and personality, as we do results in 
 arithmetic. We expect full merit, and con- 
 demn upon a single fault. 
 
 Social judgment has been somewhat se- 
 vere in this connection and will doubtless 
 continue to be so. There is, however, a ten- 
 dency towards a more liberal attitude in the 
 
 98 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 treatment of social offenses. Many seem 
 willing now that an offender try again, make 
 up for past offenses, and report from time 
 to time on parole. In measuring the per- 
 sonality of the teacher in school it seems 
 wise to adopt this newer liberalism. One 
 should not be too anxious to condemn. One 
 should allow several fresh starts, and should 
 wait patiently to see what improvement 
 there m.ay result. 
 
 §^. Towards Pupils 
 
 By being helpful and by showing a per- 
 sonal interest in their welfare, a teacher can 
 begin to create a personality in the class- 
 room as soon as the new pupils enter. She 
 can show the hesitating newcomer where to 
 place his things, how to find his place, etc. 
 She can carefully instruct the children 
 where to go at dismissal, how to come up 
 when the lines enter, and how to reach the 
 different parts of the building. During the 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 course of the lesson the pupils will feel this 
 helpful attitude if they receive material 
 promptly, if their questions are quietly an- 
 swered, if, in short, the teacher allows no 
 untoward circumstance to escape her. Direct 
 sunlight in a pupil's eyes or on his paper, 
 seat near a hot radiator or in a draught, desk 
 too high, etc., are material conditions which 
 may cause much distress. Strained gaze, 
 sickly or worried look, suspiciously flushed 
 face, an open sore, or bandaged face or hand 
 may indicate abnormal circumstances which 
 merit inquiry and perhaps further investi- 
 gation. A number of little acts of attention, 
 unremembered though they may be, will 
 make the children feel that the teacher has 
 an interest in their well being, and will cause 
 a warm glow to spread throughout the room. 
 Helpfulness and personal interest towards 
 pupils may be shown in the following par- 
 ticular instances : (1) personal comfort; (2) 
 physical well-leing; (3) requests of the chil- 
 dren, and their general social needs; (4) 
 
 100 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 mental sliortcomings, weaknesses, and indi' 
 vidual differences in instruction; and (5) 
 material ivants, supplies, etc. 
 
 Patience and sympathy are often required 
 to keep alive a persistent attitude of helpful- 
 ness and personal interest. Like silken ties 
 they bind heart to heart, and mind to mind. 
 In her general attitude and expression the 
 teacher will show that she is one with the 
 class. The happy contented looks of the 
 children are a reflex of this state of har- 
 mony. Objectively, such a condition is evi- 
 dent by the smile, the low responsive voice, 
 the friendly touch, and an even control 
 which is not put out by any petty annoy- 
 ances. These excellencies do not preclude 
 the sharp, stern tone of controlled indigna- 
 tion, nor the reasonable outbursts of feeling 
 which are necessary at times to meet the 
 wayward reactions of a few tumultuous and 
 tempestuous children. Without such a check 
 on sympathy, in fact, it is often mistaken for 
 weakness and may lead to a lack of respect. 
 
 101 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 The different merits inherent in patience 
 and sympathy are: (1) personal contact 
 with the pupils; (2) a soothing voice; (3) an 
 encouraging manner; (4) clemency and a 
 disinclination to use severe measures for 
 trivial offences, or first occurrences; and (5) 
 firmness. 
 
 A character which is tempered with sweet 
 reasonableness will have a modicum of hu- 
 mor and a generous supply of cheerfulness. 
 A teacher who has no sense of humor will be 
 unable to develop a personality of the high- 
 est type. Many of the incidents in school life 
 which loom to the greatness of tragedies in 
 the brooding consciousness of a moody 
 teacher, become absorbed in the solvent of 
 humor and disappear in the general atmos- 
 phere of cheer. 
 
 Further analysis of cheerfulness and hu- 
 mor will yield the following virtues : (1) an 
 even temper ^ and general lack of irritability ; 
 (2) tact, and an absence of hlundering man- 
 agement; (3) reasonableness in demands, 
 
 102 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 and appreciation of the difficulties ivhich 
 beset children in their work; (4) toleration 
 for their errors and for honest effort^ even if 
 not wholly successful; and (5) ability to get 
 a proper point of vieiv, and see things in the 
 right light. 
 
 Voice, language, dress, and manner, even 
 on the purely formal and physical side, help 
 greatly to form personality, in many in- 
 stances, are all that go to make what is con- 
 sidered personality. The teacher should 
 dress well. Not only should she be a model 
 whom the children can safely follow, but her 
 very appearance should be of a kind that 
 attracts the pupils towards her. And dress 
 does much to make this possible. The 
 teacher's manner towards children should 
 be such as she shows at home or on the street 
 to her relatives or her friends. It is not a 
 loss of dignity for her to say, ^ ^Please," 
 *^ Thank you," ^^ Excuse me," etc., even to 
 the tiniest of mites, or to the scrubbiest of 
 pupils. Her language, while at times it need 
 
 103 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 not disdain the patois of the street, should 
 always be within reach of the dignity 
 afforded by distinct enunciation, careful 
 pronunciation, slow delivery, and dramatic 
 emphasis. For the children under her care, 
 nothing is too good in this connection but the 
 best. 
 
 Voice and manner may therefore be said 
 to include : (1) good 'breeding; (2) courtesy, 
 with all that that implies; (3) the use of cor- 
 rect English; (4) proper appearance and 
 dress; and (5) neatness in person and in gen- 
 eral belongings, as, desk, room, etc. 
 
 Summarizing the important excellencies 
 which go to make up personality in its rela- 
 tion to the pupils, we have : 
 
 Personality towards pupils 100 
 
 Helpfulness and personal interest 25 
 Patience and sympathy 25 
 
 Cheerfulness and humor 25 
 
 Voice and manner 25 
 
 104 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 Details are as follows ; 
 
 Helpfulness and personal interest 25 
 
 Personal comfort of children 5 
 
 Physical tvell-heing of children 5 
 
 General requests and needs 5 
 Mental shortcomings, individual 
 
 differences 5 
 
 Material wants, supplies, etc, 5 
 
 Patience and sympathy 25 
 
 Personal contact 5 
 
 Soothing voice 5 
 
 Encouraging manner 5 
 
 Clemency 5 
 
 Firmness 5 
 
 Cheerfulness and humor 25 
 
 Even temper 5 
 
 Tact 5 
 
 Reasonableness 5 
 
 Toleration 5 
 
 Point of view 5 
 
 105 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Voice and manner 25 
 
 Good h reeding 5 
 
 Courtesy 5 
 
 Use of good English 5 
 
 Dress and appearance 5 
 
 Neatness and tidiness 5 
 
 Since error is the chief measure of lack of 
 personality, both error and measurement 
 can be treated together. Striking instances 
 in which the teacher fails to be helpful to 
 pupils are the following: (1) indifference 
 to reasonable requests for help or for infor- 
 mation; (2) neglect of the personal comfort 
 of the pupils, as, when the sun shines on 
 their papers or in their eyes, when they are 
 cramped in seats too small or compelled to 
 write on desks too high, or when they are 
 required to sit with 'hands behind backs,' or 
 with hands folded upon their heads ; and (3) 
 disregard for the physical welfare of the 
 children as shown by a manifest insensibility 
 to open sores, flushed faces, strained look or 
 attitude which may be due to defect in sight 
 
 106 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 or hearing, and by an indifference to such 
 untoward conditions as wet clothing, aisle 
 blocked with window pole or other object 
 nicely placed to trip up passersby, etc. 
 
 Many objective signs thrust themselves 
 upon one's notice when there is a lack of 
 patience and sympathy between the teacher 
 and the children. There may be open sneers, 
 sarcasm, and public abuse. The teacher may 
 coolly point to a child and remark loudly to a 
 visitor, ^^Yes, he is my stupid boy,'' or she 
 may indicate a line of pupils with the com- 
 ment, *^This is my defective row." When a 
 teacher constantly refuses to come near to a 
 pupil, or to allow him to approach close by 
 her, when she seems unable to smile, or to 
 respond to the advances of children, or to 
 encourage such advances, it is safe to assume 
 that she h^s made little effort to develop 
 sympathy between herself and the children. 
 The other extreme will be found where a 
 teacher seems afraid to assert herself, to call 
 sharply to order a palpable delinquent, or to 
 
 107 
 
TEACfflNG EFFICIENCY 
 
 admonish, firmly and forcibly, any child 
 who will not respond to gentler suasion. 
 
 When cheerfulness and humor are marked 
 by their absence, the result quickly shows in 
 the teacher's voice and manner. A queru- 
 lous note is detected in her manner, and a 
 peevish, fretful attitude becomes manifest. 
 The children are continually harried by 
 directions, and a rain of ^Don'ts' descends 
 upon their heads. There is present a ten- 
 dency to nag and to overvalue slight breaches 
 of discipline. The teacher does not mean to 
 be unjust, she does not intend to be hasty 
 she may really consider that the occasion 
 calls for her outbursts of censure, and for 
 her continual complaints and importunities. 
 But she errs in not seeing incidents in the 
 right perspective, in not having a proper 
 point of view, in lacking a sense of humor. 
 
 A lack of courtesy towards pupils, a disre- 
 spect in the manner of treating them, a gen- 
 eral disregard for such amenities as are re- 
 quired in social life, etc., may be considered 
 
 108 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 as errors iii voice and manner and checked 
 up against this aspect of personality. Incor- 
 rect pronunciation, slovenly English, or a 
 continual use of slang in an effort to be 
 familiar, are bad. Dirty linen, clothing 
 marked by grease or other spots, unshined 
 shoes, careless coiffure, etc., may seem out- 
 side of the pale of criticism in the academic 
 atmosphere of the classroom, but they de- 
 mand just as close inspection as is accorded 
 them in business life outside. Occasionally 
 among teachers (men as well as women) a 
 chewer of gum is found. In such matters 
 one must have in mind reasonable standards 
 as well as the feelings of the teacher. A 
 teacher who is so careless or so ignorant as 
 to offend in the particulars mentioned should 
 have her attention called to them. 
 
 On the occurrence of the first offence, a 
 question mark placed under the proper 
 heading, with a definite statement of the 
 error committed, will be sufficient to cause 
 reflection and efforts at correction. The 
 
 109 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 statements should simply give the fact with- 
 out further comment, as, ^^Five pupils writ- 
 ing on desk with sun on paper, ' ' or, ^ ' Smith 's 
 face flushed. Sickness?" or, ^^Sigs for six, 
 goner for going to, keepin for keeping, etc.," 
 or, ''Why call the boy defective, in front of 
 the class?" It is necessary then to follow 
 up the suggestions which are thus given to 
 the teacher, to see whether there is any im- 
 provement. Repetition of the offense after 
 one or two more warnings should be rated a 
 flat out of the total allowed. 
 
 §3. Towards Visitors 
 
 A parent who calls at the school is usually 
 a parent who is in trouble, or looking for it. 
 In either case such a parent needs help. He 
 may be nonplussed by the meaning of a re- 
 port card. He may complain because his 
 child has no home work. He may be flUed 
 with wrath over some imagined abuse by 
 either teacher or pupils. He may wave a 
 doctor's certificate in his hand and threaten 
 
 110 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 to sue the school because of punishment 
 which his child has received. A teacher who 
 has developed a personality towards the chil- 
 dren has in part secured the good will of the 
 parents. In exceptional cases, however, such 
 good will may be put to a strain, with the 
 resulting visit. In such an instance it is 
 advisable to show the parent every courtesy, 
 listen to him, and let him have his say with- 
 out interruption. Tell him what he wants 
 to know. Answer his questions quietly, even 
 if they are not presented with deference, nor 
 couched in friendly terms. Never start to 
 disagree, argue, or interrupt him with a 
 ^ ' But, etc. ' ' After he is all through, explain 
 what is necessary, give facts, and finally, 
 *put it up to him' squarely with a ^^ What do 
 you want us to do ?'' 
 
 Official visitors may grace the classroom 
 from time to time with requests of their own. 
 The teacher need not show feeling over such 
 visits. Information should be cheerfully 
 given, data furnished, blanks filled out, etc., 
 
 Ill 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 as the occasion demands. It is foolish for a 
 teacher to deny any reasonable requests or 
 to dispute over matter about which she 
 knows little. A teacher very quickly gets a 
 good name in the school as a worker and one 
 who is to be relied upon, or, contrariwise, as 
 a nuisance and general disturber of the 
 peace. And it is by her manner of response 
 and her helpfulness upon innumerable small 
 occasions that her personality in this direc- 
 tion is developed. 
 
 Helpfulness towards visitors implies the 
 following virtues: (1) a response to re- 
 quests, etc; (2) reasonable promptness in 
 satisfying demands; (3) a fair degree of 
 completeness in what is done, and a certain 
 adequacy in the satisfaction afforded; (4) 
 care and accuracy in the performance, and 
 correctness and attention to detail in the 
 result; and (5) a manner which is agreeahle 
 and pleasing. 
 
 Ability to listen quietly, note the essential 
 points to be remembered or carried out, 
 
 112 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 and readiness to execute requests promptly, 
 make for solidarity between the teacher and 
 her superiors. One of the first things a 
 teacher ought to learn is how to listen care- 
 fully, how to carry out instructions, and 
 when, if need be, to take a hint. Any visitor 
 who takes the trouble to come to a teacher's 
 room, call her from her work, and make a 
 request of her, does so with a purpose, and 
 should be so respected. Whether the visitor 
 is a heated, angry parent, or a superior offi- 
 cial, it will not pay the teacher in the long 
 run to show indifference, ignore requests, or 
 interrupt, even if the language with which 
 she is addressed carries with it a note of 
 abuse or threat. It is far better to listen, 
 say nothing, correct the error mentioned, 
 note in writing what is asked for, smilingly 
 agree, and, in general, try to straighten mat- 
 ters out in a calm and unruffled manner. 
 
 Ability to listen contains the following 
 merits : (1) quiet attention to luhat is said; 
 (2) an understanding of what is required; 
 
 113 
 
TEACfflNG EFFICIENCY 
 
 (3) selection of the essentials, noting of im- 
 portant points, etc,; (4) folloiving out of 
 suggestions, and general good will; and (5) 
 serenity and self-control. 
 
 Courtesy is necessary at all times and 
 with every one — inferior, equal, and supe- 
 rior. It implies knowledge of the conven- 
 tional forms of behavior and a general ab- 
 sence of roughness, censoriousness, raillery, 
 contradiction, captiousness, excess of cere- 
 mony, interruption, and dispute, as Locke 
 in his Thoughts Concerning Education 
 points out. There is also implied the pres- 
 ence of dignity, self-control, consideration 
 for others, and the exhibition of self-respect 
 in the matter of general appearance, use of 
 English, etc. 
 
 The series of excellencies to be looked for 
 in courtesy are: (1) proper conventional 
 hehavior; (2) respect for the opinions, feel- 
 ings, heliefs, etc, of others; (3) a general 
 attitude of docility, willingness to learn, and 
 ahility to see both sides of a question; (4) 
 
 114 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 dignity; and (5) a use of English tuhich 
 befits the time, the person, and the occasion, 
 with due regard for such conventions and 
 formalities as exist. 
 
 Finally, as the teacher expects others to be 
 patient with her, so she herself should show 
 a modicum of this virtue. The essence of 
 patience lies in waiting — in saying nothing 
 and in doing nothing, in letting the clouds 
 roll away of themselves, and in allowing any 
 untoward incident to be seen in its right 
 perspective and in the proper atmosphere. 
 It seems fair to assume that others have a 
 sense of decency, that others are trying to 
 do what is right, that all the merits and all 
 the virtues do not inhere solely in ourselves. 
 In addition to quiet waiting, patience im- 
 plies an ability carefully to analyze not only 
 another 's actions, but more particularly our 
 
 OT\TL. 
 
 Patience implies that : (1) ti^ne is given 
 for thought, reflection, and understanding 
 of the matter in question; (2) some effort is 
 
 115 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 put forth, and some application and endur- 
 ance shown; (3) oral expression is not hasty 
 or ill-considered; (4) other expression which 
 may result is fitting and proper; and (5) 
 composure is manifest through it all. 
 
 Briefly, the excellencies contained in a fit- 
 ting personality towards others are ; 
 
 Personality towards visitors 
 
 100 
 
 Helpfulness 
 
 25 
 
 Ability to listen 
 
 25 
 
 Courtesy 
 
 25 
 
 Patience 
 
 25 
 
 and in detail : 
 
 
 Helpfulness 
 
 25 
 
 Response to requests, etc. 
 
 5 
 
 Promptness 
 
 5 
 
 Adequacy and completeness 
 
 5 
 
 Care and accu7^acy 
 
 5 
 
 Personal manner 
 
 5 
 
 116 
 
PERSONALITY—COOPERATION 
 
 Ability to listen 
 
 25 
 
 Quiet attention 
 Understanding 
 Selection of essentials 
 Following of suggestions 
 Serenity 
 
 6 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 
 Courtesy 
 Conventional behavior 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 Respect 
 Docility 
 Dignity 
 Language 
 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 
 Patience 
 
 25 
 
 Time allowed 
 
 5 
 
 Effort and endurance 
 
 5 
 
 Oral expression 
 Other expression 
 Composure 
 
 S 
 5 
 5 
 
 A teacher violates the spirit of helpful- 
 ness v/hen she meets complaint or request 
 with abuse or counter complaint. She com- 
 mits an error when she ignores any matter 
 which requires correction and to which her 
 
 117 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 attention has been called, either orally or in 
 writing. She makes a grievous mistake in 
 refusing to grant reasonable requests made 
 from time to time, or in delaying to answer 
 or respond when called upon. She does 
 wrong in sticking so closely to the letter of 
 the law that she emphasizes its violation 
 rather than its observance. The individual 
 who is looking for trouble, as the old adage 
 advises, usually finds it. 
 
 Young teachers, and occasionally older 
 ones who consider themselves above criti- 
 cism and beyond stricture, may show an 
 irritating inability to listen. ^You can't tell 
 them anj^thing.' Sometimes, like the Pre- 
 torian guards of old, they assume special 
 rights and privileges; and sometimes, they 
 imagine that perhaps wisdom will die with 
 them. As the poet, Butler, writes. 
 
 They keep their consciences in cases, 
 As fiddlers do their crowds and bases, 
 Ne'er to be used but when they're bent 
 To play a fit for argument. 
 
 118 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 Their usual weapons are argument, recrimi- 
 nation, and abuse. A teacher who shows so 
 little training and self-control, when ap- 
 proached with a reasonable request and in a 
 respectful manner, as to become vitupera- 
 tive or disrespectful, deserves no further 
 consideration than a flat out of 25, and if 
 other merits are involved, possibly out of 
 the entire 100. It is useless to prolong any 
 discussion, once it reaches the stage of argu- 
 ment and recrimination. Since it takes two 
 to make a quarrel, either side can cut short 
 the matter by listening and saying nothing. 
 
 Lack of courtesy in more insidious form 
 is shown by slouching posture, sneering atti- 
 tude, lack of attention, etc., and should, after 
 several warnings have been noted, receive 
 out of 25. Loose English, slovenly or dirty 
 dress, etc., are worth about the same con- 
 sideration. 
 
 Patience or its lack may be measured by 
 (1) the length of time between action and 
 reaction, and (2) by the effort shown on the 
 
 119 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 part of the teacher to understand and inter- 
 pret what has been presented for her con- 
 sideration. A teacher may be rated as defi- 
 cient in patience if she continually indulges 
 in outbursts of various kinds, fails to try 
 out suggestions before passing public com- 
 ment upon them, and neglects to consult with 
 other teachers on the meaning of circulars 
 or directions, or on the significance of direc- 
 tions about which there is some doubt. 
 
 §4. Towards the School 
 
 A teacher who considers her work to be 
 bounded by the four walls of her classroom 
 limits her personality just to that extent. 
 As far as the school as a whole is concerned, 
 such a teacher is of little worth. Many in- 
 stances occur from time to time which call 
 for prompt action on the part of any one 
 within effective reach. Noise or disorder of 
 any kind in the hall, on the stairs, or in the 
 yard should receive prompt attention. 
 Untoward incidents may develop into more 
 
 120 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 serious complications later, and should 
 promptly be reported or corrected. It is 
 implied in all this, however, that there be 
 no interference with any one who is already 
 in charge. 
 
 In school routine the same spirit of help- 
 fulness can facilitate smooth, well-oiled 
 progress. The slight requests made from 
 time to time by teachers or superior officials 
 should receive prompt and courteous re- 
 sponse. In making requests of other teach- 
 ers for books, supplies, etc., which are in 
 common use among several classes, it seems 
 reasonable to ask that these be secured be- 
 fore or after sessions. Interruptions in 
 class work tend constantly to break up the 
 continuity of the lesson, and the children 
 who enter from time to time for one or the 
 other thing, tend to become a nuisance. To 
 prevent possible imposition by pupils, and 
 to ensure an accurate delivery of any mes- 
 sage or request, it is well to put it in writing, 
 and have the pupil do nothing more than 
 
 121 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 deliver it. Closely allied with these matters 
 is the usual permission given to pupils to 
 leave the room, go to some other class to see 
 the teacher or borrow from another pupil, 
 and go to the yard for a drink of water, or 
 what not. It seems a safe rule to follow 
 never to allow a pupil to leave the room, and 
 thereby the sight of the teacher, unless he is 
 ill, or compelled to leave because of the de- 
 mands of nature. If inkwells are to be 
 cleaned, or notes to be sent, they can be 
 attended to after the session is over. 
 
 In school matters, helpfulness can be 
 shown in the following fields ; (1) records, 
 reports, and general requests for aid or in- 
 formation; (2) school instruction; (3) school 
 discijjline; (4) school administration; and 
 (5) a general forbearance and manifest ten- 
 dency to tread softly in douhtful matters 
 rather than to rush ahead. 
 
 Cooperation to the fullest extent implies 
 not only the acquiescence a1)ove outlined but 
 also an active participation in the work of 
 
 122 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 the school, inside and outside of the class- 
 room. A lack of initiative will make the 
 teacher seem much like Tennyson's Lotos- 
 eater to whom, 
 
 The gushing of the wave 
 Far, far away did seem to mourn and rave 
 On alien shores ; and if his fellow spake, 
 His voice was thin, as voices from the grave ; 
 And deep-asleep he seem'd yet all awake, 
 And music in his ears his beating heart did make. 
 
 A school is a small community in which each 
 one is to take an active part. A teacher who 
 is always waiting to be asked to try out some 
 new device or method, and who has little of 
 her own to offer, will find that she is grad- 
 ually drifting into the limbo of the non-pro- 
 gressive and the inconsequential. In the 
 matter of classroom exercises and school 
 activities the same holds true. Assistance 
 of any sort can be volunteered quietly and 
 without ostentation. There is inherent in 
 the right kind of initiative a imif orm cour- 
 tesy and consideration, and an entire free- 
 
 123 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 dom from aggressive or insolent insistence. 
 Noise and fuss are not to be considered as 
 signs of initiative. 
 
 Analysis of initiative will show the fol- 
 lowing aspects : (1) promptness, readiness, 
 and a general preparedness to meet a situa- 
 tion; (2) quiet methods and easy control; 
 (3) judgment and skill in knotving when, 
 tvhere, and how to act, and in selecting 
 means, details, etc.; (4) the assumption of 
 full control and responsibility in the matter; 
 and (5) securing of the necessary result, im- 
 provement, or correction. 
 
 Unless the teacher is on hand each day 
 punctually, the work of the school will suffer. 
 Moreover, it seems like a travesty on discip- 
 line to have a late teacher instruct the chil- 
 dren on the advantages of coming early. No 
 teacher can so adjust herself as to come in 
 at the last minute each day. The law of 
 variation forbids. Continued entries in the 
 time book which state that the teacher has 
 entered on the stroke of the late bell may be 
 
 x24 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 considered, on their face, to be false. One 
 who aims at this last minute will hit it on 
 most of the occasions, but sometimes one 
 will come shortly before the bell, and a few 
 times will be decidedly late. Suspicious en- 
 tries of this sort require watching, of both 
 clock and teacher. 
 
 A summary of excellencies in personality 
 towards the school will yield the following : 
 
 Personality towards the school 
 
 100 
 
 Helpfulness 
 
 25 
 
 Initiative 
 
 25 
 
 Courtesy 
 
 25 
 
 Punctuality 
 
 25 
 
 detailed analysis will give : 
 
 
 Helpfulness 
 
 25 
 
 Reports, requests, etc. 
 
 5 
 
 School instruction 
 
 5 
 
 School discipline 
 
 5 
 
 School administration 
 
 5 
 
 Foriecrance 
 
 5 
 
 125 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Initiative 25 
 
 Readiness and preparedness 5 
 
 Quiet, easy control 5 
 
 Judgment and skill 5 
 
 Responsibility 5 
 
 Result attained 5 
 
 Courtesy 25 
 
 Conventional heJiavior 5 
 
 Respect 5 
 
 Docility 5 
 
 Dignity 5 
 
 Language 5 
 
 Punctuality 25 
 
 Numerical measure 
 
 A deficiency in any of the above virtues 
 should be rated 0. Cautions are advisable 
 for a few times before a final judgment is 
 passed. First offences may be noted on the 
 blanks with a question mark (?) or a cross 
 (X). Continued violation then seems with- 
 out much excuse and deserves no further 
 leniency on the part of the principal or head 
 teacher. 
 
 126 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 Flagrant o:ffences against helpfulness by 
 teachers in the school are : (1) general in- 
 difference to what is going on outside of the 
 classroom whether or not any untoward 
 incidents may be checked by the teacher's 
 presence, and practically invite attention 
 because of their proximity; (2) failure to 
 report occurrences which may either benefit 
 or hurt the reputation of the school; (3) 
 interference with the work of colleagues, as 
 by delay in filling out departmental blanks, 
 by lack of support and cooperation with 
 other teachers in matters of discipline, or 
 by direct interference and quarreling with 
 coworkers; (4) carelessness and lack of 
 thought in sending boys to other rooms with 
 notes, to the yard to clean inkwells, or 
 around the building on various unnecessary 
 and spasmodic requests, all these violations 
 occurring while the school is in session and 
 the children are busy at work; and (5) gen- 
 eral interference of any kind with the work 
 of the school. 
 
 127 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Initiative of high type may be shown by 
 the teacher who quietly manages her class, 
 takes any pupils sent to her, and runs things 
 smoothly, successfully, and without com- 
 plaint. Should, however, an occasion arise, 
 it is to be reasonably expected that the 
 teacher, who is nearest at hand or most 
 directly concerned, will respond properly. 
 The teacher need not hesitate even if it 
 seems necessary to point out possible im- 
 provement in the management of the school, 
 provided this be done with tact and cour- 
 tesy. Active interference with the work of 
 others, however, merits scant consideration, 
 and is well worth a zero out of the totality 
 of merits. 
 
 Lateness of teachers can be rated on a 
 numerical basis, the denominator being 4, 5, 
 or 10 according to the exigencies of school 
 control. Degrees of early entrance can be 
 similarly arranged and a scheme of values 
 set according as the teacher comes after a 
 set time. If, for example, early entrance 
 
 128 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 varies between 8 o'clock and 8;40 A. M., 2 
 entrances after 8 :30 may merit a deduction 
 of 1 point from the total of 25 for punctu- 
 ality. It is a sad commentary on human 
 nature as it exists in some teachers to record 
 the fact that, if the question of lateness is 
 not looked after, not only may lateness run 
 riot, but false entries may be made without 
 scruple. 
 
 §5, School Activities 
 
 School music, singing, and exercises at 
 general assembly are necessary in a school, 
 and are usually taken in charge by two or 
 three teachers, one who plays the piano, one 
 who directs the singing and organizes spe- 
 cial programs, and one who arranges for 
 color-guard drill, marching of the pupils, 
 and their general entry into the exit from 
 the assembly hall. In addition there may be 
 a debating club, a dramatic society, or a 
 school band, each of which requires volun- 
 teer service, where no provision for bonus or 
 special reward is made in the budget. 
 
 129 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 A monitor corps or school patrol is a de- 
 sideratum. Pupils for such service require 
 careful selection, drilling, instruction, and 
 occasional meetings. Duplicated directions 
 may be necessary to ensure effective service 
 from the pupils. Side by side with such a 
 corps may be organized an athletic associa- 
 tion in which the pupils are grouped accord- 
 ing to class, age and weight. Interclass and 
 other meets may be held from time to time. 
 Other forms of pupil cooperation under 
 supervision by teachers are, a civic league, 
 a sanitary squad, a corps to look after 
 absentee pupils, a group to provide and pre- 
 pare specimens, apparatus, etc., one to mend 
 and cover school books, etc. 
 
 It is not enough simply to organize a 
 committee or corps of pupils. Written or 
 printed instructions, a constitution, or a 
 charter tend to give the group a corporate 
 dignity. Badges, banners, or sashes give to 
 each member of the club an added impor- 
 tance. Meetings are necessary from time to 
 
 130 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 time, to hold the pupils of the group to- 
 gether, and to keep alive their enthusiasm. 
 Special exercises, games, reception, class 
 day, etc., with entertainment and refresh- 
 ment are usually red-letter events for the 
 children. When any corps has done good 
 work its members deserve some special treat. 
 
 In organization of any activity, the fol- 
 lowing excellencies should be looked for: 
 (1) appropriateness and need of what is in 
 the process of formation; (2) written plan, 
 schedule, instructions, constitution, etc.; (3) 
 fit insignia, tanners, flags, etc.; (4) pupil 
 aid, officers, leaders, etc.; and (5) duties out- 
 lined and made specific. And in a meeting 
 the following merits can be expected : (1) 
 need, numher, etc.; (2) instruction^ ad- 
 dresses, etc.; (3) discipline and general man- 
 agement; (4) exercises; and (5) refresh- 
 ments, exhibition of work, presence of visi- 
 tors, etc. 
 
 Properly to check up a school activity, one 
 must consider the following merits : 
 
 131 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 School activities 100 
 
 Organization 25 
 
 Meetings 25 
 
 Number active 25 
 
 Contribution 25 
 
 And in detail : 
 
 Organization 25 
 
 Appropriateness and need 5 
 
 Written plan, instructions, etc, 5 
 
 Insignia, banners, etc, 5 
 
 Pupil aid, officers, etc. 5 
 
 Duties outlined 5 
 
 Meetings 25 
 
 Need and number 5 
 
 Instruction, addresses, etc. 5 
 
 Discipline, management, etc. 5 
 
 Exercises 5 
 
 Refreshments, exhibition, etc. 5 
 
 Number active 25 
 Numerical basis 
 
 Contribution 25 
 Numerical basis 
 
 132 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 Since school activities call for volunteei 
 service, it is impossible to insist in a partici- 
 pation by all the teachers. Some are neither 
 fitted for such service nor able to give it. 
 Teachers who do not engage in any school 
 activities deserve no credits out of the total 
 of 100 assigned to this aspect of personality. 
 Teachers who are willing to expend extra 
 energy in this work deserve not only the 
 credits assigned, but further reward in the 
 matter of official ratings, assignment to 
 rooms or classes, distribution of books and 
 material, etc. As they are doing much to help 
 the general spirit of the school, every effort 
 should be made to make them feel that their 
 services are fully appreciated. 
 
 §6. Records and Reports 
 
 As soon as an official record or report is 
 asked for it should be attended to, if not 
 immediately, at least within the same day, 
 or within the time limit set. Since many of 
 these records are required by state or city 
 
 133 
 
TEACfflNG EFFICIENCY 
 
 law, neglect of them becomes an offense of 
 serious moment. To lay a blank aside is 
 usually to delay it or forget about it alto- 
 gether. Receipts, figures, signatures, etc., 
 can be given at once. In the filling out of 
 forms, spaces in books, etc., neatness, care, 
 and accuracy can be required. Careful writ- 
 ing, legible figures, and ruled lines are a sme 
 qua non. 
 
 Care can be shown in the following par- 
 ticulars: (1) ruling; (2) penmanship; (3) 
 figures, columns, etc.; (4) general English; 
 and (5) cleanliness. 
 
 Rating of teachers in the matter of 
 records and reports is possible under the 
 following headings : 
 
 Records and reports 
 
 100 
 
 Care 
 
 25 
 
 Promptness 
 
 25 
 
 Completeness 
 
 25 
 
 Accuracy 
 
 25 
 
 134 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 And in detail : 
 
 Care 
 
 25 
 
 Ruling 
 
 Writing 
 
 Figures 
 
 English 
 
 Cleanliness 
 
 5 
 6 
 5 
 6 
 5 
 
 Promptness 
 Numerical measure 
 
 25 
 
 Completeness 
 Numerical measure 
 
 25 
 
 Accuracy 
 Numerical measure 
 
 25 
 
 The records which require periodical in- 
 spection are, roll books, attendance sheets, 
 pupils' report cards, and supply books. It 
 may be well to point out what errors to avoid 
 when these are written up, and what mis- 
 takes to check up when they are being in- 
 spected. Roll books and pupils' report cards 
 may not be written up on time. Sometimes 
 
 135 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 entries are not made, as of new admissions, 
 discharges, changes in register, and daily 
 latenesses of pupils. Occasionally com- 
 I>laints that a pupil has not received his 
 monthly report card are justified. The 
 printed or duplicated supply blank is better 
 than the supply book. If, however, the 
 teacher uses a supply book to note what sup- 
 plies she needs each month, this should be 
 neatly ruled, with columns for the kind of 
 supply, the amomit asked for, the amount 
 received, and the date. The hurried, care- 
 less writing in pencil deserves nothing out 
 of 25 in *care.' No records or reports should 
 ever leave the teacher's hands unless there 
 is recorded on the outside of the paper, book, 
 envelope, or what not, the name of the 
 teacher, the number of the room, and the 
 class taught, with possibly the date or the 
 term. 
 
 §7. The Negative Instance 
 
 One violation of any excellence in person- 
 ality or cooperation is sufficient to destroy a 
 
 136 
 
PERSONALITY— COOPERATION 
 
 host of other merits in the same field, as far 
 as the teacher's practical value to the school 
 is concerned. A good record for punctuality 
 extending over a number of years can be 
 spoiled if a teacher comes late once only, and 
 signs early, that is, makes a false entry. Re- 
 fusal to sign a receipt or to fill out a blank 
 m.ay seem to the teacher an incidental mat- 
 ter and of small account ; but such a single 
 violation is enough to mar her record for 
 the whole school term. These are but single 
 instances. One who is experienced in school 
 work can recall many more like them. 
 
 A satisfactory record is a good thing. So 
 are proper food, good air, and sufficient 
 sleep. But the fact these have existed for a 
 period of years is no necessary guarantee 
 that they will continue automatically to per- 
 sist. The good dinners we had last year will 
 do us no especial good if we are hungry at 
 present. So no teacher should presume on 
 her past record, nor assume liberties, nor 
 allow deficiency and weakness to creep into 
 
 137 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 her work. Contrariwise, no teacher who has 
 not succeeded in the one term need be so 
 discouraged as to give up all hope. Each 
 term should be considered, in its way, a law 
 unto itself. 
 
 It behooves a teacher, therefore, carefully 
 to consider any negative action she may take. 
 It is always wxU to acquiesce for the time, 
 think matters over, and, if need be, talk 
 things over with others. In logic, it is an 
 elementary rule that negatives can not be 
 used to prove anything. So, in social life, 
 adverse criticism helps but little, and de- 
 structive action hinders progress. One need 
 be marked with onlv the name of ^ crank' or 
 'seeker after trouble,' and one will be con- 
 sidered as a nuisance, as a social block, and 
 will be treated as such. Wliat are wanted 
 in this world of give and take are cheerful, 
 helpful workers. 
 
 3.38 
 
IV 
 
 RESULTS OF INSTRUCTION 
 
VI 
 
 EXPRESSION 
 
 §1, Oral Expression 
 
 To speak or to read properly one must 
 give due regard to (1) pause, (2) pronun- 
 ciation, (3) accent, (4) stress, and (5) pos- 
 ture. Pronunciation as here used includes 
 enunciation and articulation. Stress refers 
 to proper inflection, tone, and rhythm. 
 Proper posture implies that when he is 
 standing, the pupil is erect, with head up, 
 with his book about 12 inches from his eyes, 
 and at right angle to the line of vision ; that 
 when he is sitting, he does not lean forward, 
 does not lay the book flat on the desk, but 
 holds it properly, either leaning it against 
 the desk ledge, or placing it against the up- 
 turned desk, as the case may be. 
 
 Giving oral expression a value of 100, we 
 may give as its specific merits the following : 
 
 141 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Oral expression 
 
 100 
 
 Pause 
 
 20 
 
 Pronunciation 
 
 20 
 
 Accent 
 
 20 
 
 Stress 
 
 20 
 
 Posture 
 
 20 
 
 Errors in oral expression require constant 
 checking up and correction. Most pupils, 
 and in fact, most adults, read and talk too 
 fast. They do not noticeably stop at the end 
 of the sentence. They rush ahead whether 
 or not the hearer is able to follow. Nice 
 distinctions in dramatic pause are com- 
 monly neglected. 
 
 Pronunciation is violated in the following 
 specific instances : 
 
 (1) tli^ mispronounced as d^ or t^ espe- 
 cially after prepositions, as, to^ in, on, from, 
 etc. ; and in such words, as, father, mother, 
 brother, nothing, together, thing, three, 
 third, etc. 
 
 (2) ing, mispronounced variously as en, 
 ink, ine. 
 
 142 
 
EXPRESSION 
 
 (3) ir, ur^ mispronounced as oi, in girl, 
 first, third, church, etc. 
 
 (4) Baby talk, as, 
 
 d for g in give, good, etc. 
 t for c in cat, can, etc. 
 / for th in thing, think, etc. 
 5 for sh in shrimp, shroud, etc. 
 
 (5) Dropping of the final i^ or d as in the 
 expressions : 
 
 Lemme go, Leggo. 
 
 Watcher say? I dunno, 
 Shoudjer go? Goo iye. 
 I don wanna, Dontcher know? 
 
 (6) Addition of final letter, as in satv(r), 
 law(r), etc. 
 
 (7) Omission of middle letter, as in gov- 
 ernment, library, picture, Saturday, etc. 
 
 (8) Insertion of middle letter, as in par- 
 liament, umbrella, gymnasium, athletic, etc. 
 
 (9) Mispronunciation of vowel sounds, 
 as in his, music, netv, ttvelve, and the like. 
 
 (10) Softening of sounds, as in cease, 
 baseball, acid, six, longer, etc. 
 
 143 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 It might be well to collect and list the errors 
 in pronunciation which are peculiar to the 
 neighborhood and to the school. 
 
 There is often ignorance of the simple 
 rule in phrasing, namely, that a phrase is 
 read as a single moment up to the first quali- 
 fying word. Thus, in the park, is to be read 
 with a single stress, and with a single sweep ; 
 but in the hig, white, 'building calls for a 
 pause after hig and white, with added stress 
 for each of these words. Most children fail 
 to pause after qualifying words and to give 
 proper stress to phrase groups. 
 
 In the testing of a class, five of the best 
 readers may be called upon each to read a 
 sentence or two from a lesson which they 
 have already had. Each one can rapidly be 
 checked up on the five merits enumerated 
 above. Should these pupils fail in one or 
 more of the qualities inherent in good read- 
 ing, it is safe to assume similar deficiencies 
 in the rest of the class. Two or three medium 
 pupils may be called upon and marked. 
 
 144 
 
EXPRESSION 
 
 With a very simple selection, five of the 
 poorest readers might be tried and rated 
 
 §2. Appreciation — Study of the Text-Book 
 
 Appreciation deals with the content of the 
 lesson, with the reading matter, as such. It 
 implies ability to miderstand and give the 
 meaning of the lesson, tell the story briefly, 
 note the chief points in the discussion, and 
 illustrate the significance of what has been 
 read. The subject to be considered may be 
 the usual reading lesson, or it may be a 
 memory selection, a passage in history or 
 geography, or it may even include a problem 
 in arithmetic. 
 
 Further study will call for explanation of 
 allusions which occur, for a knowledge of 
 the author, similar selections, etc., and for a 
 description of the background in which the 
 action takes place, or the description is set. 
 Appreciation should lead to further study, 
 and this is encouraged when the pupil knows 
 where to go for similar selections, and what 
 other works the author wrote. 
 
 145 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 More detailed analysis demands topical 
 study of the lesson. The pupils should be 
 able to go through a piece or paragraph, pick 
 out the topic or the topic sentence of each 
 paragraph, and arrange them in outline 
 form. Then they should amplify the outline 
 which they have constructed, using words 
 and expressions of their own in the process. 
 One is reminded of what Franklin did with 
 the Spectator. ' ' I took some of the papers, ' ' 
 writes he, *^and, making short hints of the 
 sentiment in each sentence, laid them by a 
 few days, and then, without looking at the 
 book, tried to complete the papers again, by 
 expressing each hinted sentiment at length, 
 and as fully as it had been expressed before, 
 in any suitable words that should come to 
 hand. Then I compared my 'Spectator' 
 with the original, discovered some of my 
 faults, and corrected them.'' 
 
 The structure and the style of the selec- 
 tion may be studied, but without any attempt 
 at formal definition or naming. Pupils can 
 
 146 
 
EXPRESSION 
 
 be then required to show how one paragraph 
 leads to the other, how the transitions are 
 made, how each paragraph is guided by the 
 general theme or subject, and how the same 
 idea is expressed and amplified by the vari- 
 ous expressions. Sequence and organization 
 become a part of the study. 
 
 Finally, word study for meaning, style, 
 (clearness, force, elegance), and grammati- 
 cal arrangement completes a thorough ap- 
 preciation. Formal definition should be 
 avoided in this, and no attempt need be made 
 to use rhetorical terminology. The pupil 
 should be able to substitute words for those 
 in the lesson, and should give, if possible, 
 different words which are used to express 
 the same idea, words based on the same 
 stems, opposites, plural expressions, and 
 so on. 
 
 In summary, the merits in a complete 
 appreciation and study of text are the 
 following : 
 
 147 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Appreciation and study of text- 
 book 100 
 General meaning and story 20 
 Background, allusions, etc. 20 
 Topical study, outline, etc. 20 
 Sequence and organization 20 
 Word study, etc. 20 
 
 That children do not know how to use the 
 text-book is a common complaint. They may 
 try to study a lesson verbatim, word for 
 word, without attempting to get the mean- 
 ing of the whole before beginning detailed 
 study. They may be unable to take a num- 
 ber of paragraphs, and without prompting 
 by the teacher, to express the thought in each 
 paragraph by means of a topic or sentence. 
 At times it may be found that the class is 
 unfamiliar with the whole work from which 
 a selection is taken. For the children simply 
 to Hell what they have read or studied,' is 
 only a part of the entire result which is to 
 be attained. 
 
 148 
 
EXPHESSION 
 
 §5. Manual Expression 
 In a narrow and technical sense, manual 
 work refers to such activities as, drawing, 
 modeling, weaving, sewing, cooking, shop 
 work, and the like. Written work m com- 
 position and dictation, penmanship, etc., are 
 also manual expression in part, and are sub- 
 ject to the same standards. Written work, 
 however, has a content peculiarly its own, 
 and on this account requires separate treat- 
 ment as given below (page 158). 
 
 After the pupils have finished using the 
 material, and have produced a definite ob- 
 ject, a proper setting is usually in evidence. 
 This setting may consist of margination, 
 mounting, covering, boxing, etc., according 
 as the results are obtained in drawing, mod- 
 eling, sewing, cooking, shop work, etc. The 
 same general excellence is to be looked for 
 in all, the variation depending upon the 
 kind of material used. The work as such 
 can not be considered as finished until it has 
 received its proper background or setting. 
 
 149 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Grood results will show proper spacing, 
 arrangement, and proportion of parts. 
 Colors should be in harmony, the material 
 should be adequate, and the size of the object 
 and the amount of material used should be 
 commensurate with the purpose in view. 
 For example, to teach a class how to make 
 strawberry shortcake, it is not necessary to 
 feed each pupil and half of the teaching 
 corps with strawberry shortcake. Nor in 
 shopwork, is it necessary to use the work of 
 the pupils to supply the neighborhood with 
 cutting boards or stools. In sucn cases the 
 amount of material is not commensurate 
 with the purpose of the work. The general 
 form of the objects made b}^ the pupils 
 should be neat and j^leasing to the eye. 
 
 Work done by the pupils should be tick- 
 eted or labeled. On one side of the tag the 
 pupil should write his name, class, and 
 school ; on the other side he might indicate 
 the date when the work was finished, the 
 date when it was begun, the time taken to 
 
 150 
 
EXPRESSION 
 
 complete it, and possibly, the amount and 
 cost of the material needed. 
 
 Sequence and organization in the pro- 
 duction of the results are merits worthy of 
 attention. Has the task been planned so as 
 to secure results economically and expedi- 
 tiously ? Has the work any meaning to the 
 children ? Is it a barren, scholastic exercise, 
 or does it apply in some manner to the lives 
 of the pupils ? Do they know what it is all 
 about ? For example, is the patch made in 
 the sewing lesson a patch in dbstracto, or is 
 it one in a pair of pantaloons or in a real 
 jacket? Is the cooking such as the children 
 should do at home, or is it concerned with 
 pastry and tidbits ? Has the drawing, color 
 w^ork, design, or shop work any relation to 
 outside industries, or to other school sub- 
 jects, as, geography, nature study, science, 
 or arithmetic ? Do the problems in weaving, 
 modeling, scissor work, etc., connect in any 
 manner with the children's practical experi- 
 ence, and with the language or number work 
 
 161 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 of the school ? Finally, have the different 
 objects produced by the children any rela- 
 tion to one another? Can they all be in- 
 cluded in a unity of meaning ? Is the term's 
 work a correlated whole, in which each part 
 and each product follow, one out of the 
 other? 
 
 Neatness, cleanliness, and a general trim 
 appearance inhere in the best work. Spots, 
 stains, finger marks, rough edges, lack of 
 finish, etc., are to be counted against the 
 work in this particular. 
 
 In summary, the excellencies to be looked 
 for in manual work are as follows : 
 
 Manual expression 100 
 
 General setting 20 
 
 Proportion, harmony, etc. 20 
 
 Name, date, etc, 20 
 
 Sequence and organization 20 
 
 Neatness and cleanliness 20 
 
 It is still too common to find teachers of 
 special subjects averse to supervision, and 
 to criticism and suggestion from the head of 
 
 152 
 
EXPRESSION 
 
 the school. There may exist a vague idea 
 that the head of the school is better qualified 
 to look after the three R's, and that these 
 essentially limit his domain in the matter 
 of instruction. If a principal or head of a 
 school is responsible for everything that 
 goes on within it, and for the results which 
 are to be obtained, it seems reasonable to 
 assume that he should have standards and 
 measures for the different activities which 
 are going on. He should not hesitate to 
 check up and rate all the work, whether this 
 is manual, special, or other kind. 
 
 A fault which can be charged against 
 much of the manual work is its splendid 
 isolation. It moves grandly onwards, and 
 is apparently indifferent to the surging 
 activities outside of the school, and the 
 buzzing interests withm it. It seems not too 
 much to ask, for example, that the kinder- 
 garten manual expression lead up to the 
 content number work and the oral expres- 
 sion of the first school year; that drawing 
 
 153 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 be correlated closely with geography, indus- 
 trial exercises, and science ; that sewing and 
 cooking make a considerable appeal to the 
 home interests and occupations of the chil- 
 dren; that, in short, special subjects ; weave 
 their exercises and their results into the 
 experiences of the pupils, and connect as 
 much as possible with the grade work. 
 Where this is not f omid, the deficiency is to 
 be checked up under the heading of sequence 
 and organization. 
 
 A numerical basis can be used in rating 
 the results under the other headings. Each 
 pupil can be held responsible for proper set- 
 ting, proportion, etc., as explained above. 
 With the register of the class or the attend- 
 ance as the denominator, the different excel- 
 lencies in the manual work can be counted 
 up and rated. 
 
 154 
 
EXPRESSION 
 
 §4, Motor Expression 
 When a dramatization, a drill, or a dance 
 has been prepared, specific excellencies are 
 to be kept in mind in judging of the work. 
 How is the grouping? Are the children 
 massed properly? Are there centers of 
 interest, adequate contrasts, and unified 
 arrangement ? In their actions, do the chil- 
 dren move naturally, gracefully, and quiet- 
 ly ? Are these actions a part of the story or 
 of the feeling they are supposed to repre- 
 sent ? Do the individuals in the group move 
 promptly on time, and in proper rhythm? 
 Is there good response to music, cue, pre- 
 ceding speaker, or leader? Is it necessary 
 for the teacher to direct and be in evidence, 
 or does the action go along of itself, under 
 full control of the children themselves? 
 Finally, are the postures easy and natural, 
 and in harmony with the meaning of the 
 presentation ? 
 
 Giving motor expression 100 credits, each 
 of the following aspects may be valued at 20 : 
 
 155 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCl 
 
 Motor expression 
 
 100 
 
 Grouping 
 
 f20 
 
 Actions 
 
 20 
 
 Time, rhythm 
 
 20 
 
 Response 
 
 20 
 
 Posture 
 
 20 
 
 Dramatization and dancing are infants in 
 the general school family of subjects, and 
 must be handled with care. One may see 
 them so seldom that one fears to arrest such 
 activities by giving criticisms and direc- 
 tions. To comment upon their excellence or 
 lack of excellence seems much like looking 
 a gift horse in the mouth, especially where 
 extra time, labor, and expense have been 
 necessary. Still, faults are faults in the most 
 commendable of endeavors, and must be 
 indicated if they are present — though this 
 should be done slowty and gently. 
 
 In dancing, drills, etc., a common de- 
 ficiency is an indifference to time and 
 rhythm. The children do not keep step, nor 
 
 156 
 
EXPRESSION 
 
 do they keep time with the music. Consid- 
 erable practice is often necessary to secure 
 good rhythm, and often the children must 
 be selected for the attainment of the best 
 results. Many pretty effects are often 
 spoiled by this weakness. 
 
 Sometimes, in dramatization, dancing, or 
 drill work, the grouping is not managed as 
 well as it might be. The children often 
 straggle, break formations, interfere with 
 one another, and do not keep a unit forma- 
 tion. This may be due to either a lack of 
 discipline and control, or to lack of sufficient 
 drilling. Proper grouping sometimes con- 
 stitutes the essence of the meaning which 
 the motor expression is intended to convey. 
 
 While the children are presenting their 
 work, the teacher should not be in evidence. 
 It spoils the general effect if the teacher 
 hovers around, steps in to direct, or enters 
 the 'unity of place' in which the action takes 
 place. The responses of the pupils should 
 be automatic, or directed by the cues of the 
 
 157 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 preceding speakers, or by one of their own 
 number. 
 
 §5. Written Expression 
 
 Written work can be judged under two 
 general headings, (1) form, and (2) content. 
 In most cases it refers particularly to work 
 in composition and dictation. 
 
 As regards the form of the written work 
 which is examined, one can reasonably ex- 
 pect that proper margins are kept, one on 
 each side of the paper ; that the body of the 
 written matter is spaced from above and 
 below, and not pushed up close to the top ; 
 that the name and date are written in a set 
 place on the paper, each paper being the 
 same in this particular ; that both topics and 
 subtopics are at the top of the paper under 
 the title or heading; and finally, that the 
 work is clean, without blots, blurs, or dirt 
 marks. 
 
 Arranged in serial order these excellencies 
 are: 
 
 158 
 
EXPRESSION 
 
 
 Written work— Form 
 
 100 
 
 Margin, ruling 
 
 20 
 
 Spacing, arrangement 
 
 20 
 
 Name, elate 
 
 20 
 
 Title, heading 
 
 20 
 
 Blurs, blots 
 
 20 
 
 In the checking up of the form of written 
 work, several inaccuracies will usually be 
 found. No margins may be kept, or there 
 may be conspicuous ruling in pencil to help 
 the pupil keep a margin. Such ruling is to 
 be counted as error. A good test for margi- 
 nation, is to distribute paper without ruling 
 of any kind, and have the children write a 
 sentence or two. The names and dates on 
 the written papers, unless the pupils have 
 been properly instructed, will be carelessly 
 written, and written differently as regards 
 placing and arrangement on the papers. 
 Dirty papers, or papers in which the writing 
 is marked with blots or blurs, can readily 
 be counted. 
 
 159 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 One may take either the median paper for 
 such examination and rate it on the values 
 suggested, or five of the best papers, and 
 five of the worst. While it may take more 
 time, however, to correct each paper in the 
 pack, and count up the errors on each paper, 
 it is well worth the trouble in the improve- 
 ment which results. Succeeding correction 
 will involve less labor and will find fewer 
 inaccuracies, these being chiefly confined to 
 the blots and blurs which seem to persist 
 where ink is used. 
 
 On the side of content, written work can 
 be rated for its spelling, punctuation, para- 
 graphs, sequence and organization, and 
 grammar, (misuse of 'and'). In spelling 
 and punctuation, each paper may be comited 
 as wrong, if it contains one or two errors. 
 Paragraphs and paragraph structure are 
 considered as deficient if any paper has 
 more or less paragraphs than the number 
 which the outline of topics calls for, or if the 
 paragraph form is violated. Sequence and 
 
 160 
 
EXPRESSION 
 
 organization imply that the matter of the 
 composition has some relation to the chil- 
 dren's experience, studies, or interests, and 
 that the composition reads smoothly from 
 paragraph to paragraph. Gross error in 
 grammar, or the abuse of *and' in a com- 
 position counts as failure. 
 
 In summary, the values of the content of 
 written work are : 
 
 Written work — Content 
 
 100 
 
 Spelling 
 
 20 
 
 Punctuation 
 
 20 
 
 Paragraphs 
 
 20 
 
 Sequence and organization 
 
 20 
 
 'And,' Grammar 
 
 20 
 
 Where there has been a lack of prelimi- 
 nary oral work and topical development, it 
 is usual to jBind a number of compositions 
 wrong in the number of paragraphs, with a 
 corresponding looseness in the general struc- 
 ture. The cover sheet of the pack may 
 bravely show three topics for paragraphs. 
 
 161 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Count of the compositions may yield only a 
 small number whieli have three paragraphs, 
 the rest varying from one paragraph to six 
 or seven. Again there may be found the 
 dictated composition, in which there is such 
 a suspicious similarity in expressions, intro- 
 ductions, etc., throughout the work, that one 
 suspects that much of the composition has 
 been remembered by the pupils, or copied 
 from the board. It is a very easy matter 
 to detect this by counting the number of 
 papers which use the same predominating 
 expressions. 
 
 In mostly all written work the *and' habit 
 is one most difficult to suppress. Composi- 
 tion after composition in a set will show 
 *and, etc.,' where the structure calls for a 
 period, new sentence, and capital letter. 
 One or two violations of this kind can be 
 considered enough to count the paper out. 
 
 While the form and content of written 
 work call for eight merits, the errors which 
 require most attention are blurs and blots, 
 
 162 
 
EXPRESSION 
 
 spelling, punctuation, and *and' or gram- 
 mar. Once a teacher understands what ex- 
 cellencies are looked for, and which of them 
 is to be specially guarded against, the work 
 of correction can be done very rapidly. In 
 the beginning, the work of correcting com- 
 positions is somewhat laborious, but it soon 
 becomes easier. A teacher can be expected 
 to look over a set each month. It is sufficient 
 if the principal goes through a set for each 
 class once a term. If the median composi- 
 tion is selected for correction, this can take 
 place each week. 
 
 In written work and in manual expres- 
 sion, each paper or object is counted as a 
 unit in each of the values checked. For 
 example, in the correction of a set of com- 
 positions, errors in margins, spacing, etc., 
 are rapidly scored, an arbitrary marking, 
 as, line, cross, check, circle, shaky line, etc., 
 being used for each of the errors. These 
 errors are then counted, each paper count- 
 ing one. The results will then appear some- 
 
 163 
 
TEACfflNG EFFICIENCY 
 
 tiling like the following; margins and rul- 
 ing, papers wrong 6; spacing and arrange- 
 ment, 2 ; name and date, 5 ; title and heading, 
 8 ; blurs and blots, 17. If the total number of 
 papers in the set is 34, each incorrect paper 
 will count 0.5882 out of the total of 20. ( See 
 table, page 33). The ratings which result 
 will then be as follows : margins and ruling, 
 20 — - 3.12 == 16.88 ; spacing and arrange- 
 ment, 20 — 1.17 = 18.83 ; name and date, 
 20 — 2.94 = 17.06; title and heading, 20 — 
 4.70 = 15.30 ; and blots and blurs, 20 — 10 = 
 10 ; total, 78.07. A similar numerical valua- 
 tion can be given for the content of written 
 expression, and for the different excellencies 
 enumerated under the heading of manual 
 expression. 
 
 164 
 
VII 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 §1, Addition 
 
 For testing in simple formal addition, 
 arrange a series of figures as follows : 
 
 123456789 10 
 
 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 
 
 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 
 
 Etc., etc., etc. 
 
 Have the pupils add to each one, 1, 2, 3, etc., 
 within the limits of the grade requirements. 
 Then use as addends, 11, 12, 13, etc.. Ill, 
 112, 113, etc., and on through figures of four 
 or five places. In this way it will be possible 
 to find out what ability the pupils possess in 
 reading numbers, writing them, and in con- 
 tinuous, simple addition. 
 
 The following graduation of difficulties is 
 good to test a class and to discover at what 
 point in the series the pupils break : 
 
 165 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 (1) No carrying 
 
 
 
 1 12 113 
 
 1114 
 
 1115 
 
 + 3 +13 +13 
 
 + 123 
 
 + 2113 
 
 (2) Carrying in only one place 
 
 1 11 111 1111 1111 
 + 9 +9+19 +19 +91 
 
 (3) Carrying in only two places 
 
 91 91 191 191 111 
 
 + 9+19 +9+19 +99 
 
 (4) Position of the 
 
 10 120 101 101 1001 
 + 4 +4+14 +9 +191 
 
 A selection of examples from these graded 
 examples will enable one to place one's finger 
 on the place at which the pupils become con- 
 fused in the problem of carrying. Other 
 combinations, like, 7 + 4, 8 + 4, etc., can be 
 graded in the same manner. A selection of 
 types to test the class in * carrying' would 
 
 166 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 be one like the following : 1 +9, 11 + 9, 
 111 + 19, 91 +9, 191 +9, 191 + 19, etc. 
 
 Testing of a more advanced type will in- 
 clude single and double column addition like 
 the following ; 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 119 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 128 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 37 
 
 137 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 46 
 
 146 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 55 
 
 155 
 
 iWhenever it is possible, it is well to grade 
 the difficulties, adding only a single new ele- 
 ment at each step. 
 
 A good time test is to assign 50 examples 
 in addition with a time allowance of 15 min- 
 utes. The examples are all of five addends, 
 of two places, and are on printed or dupli- 
 cated sheets. All that the pupils have to do 
 is to add the columns and write the answers 
 under the printed examples. In correcting 
 the papers, the teacher counts (1) the num- 
 ber done, and (2) the number correct. A 
 
 167 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 test like this can be given uniformly through 
 the school, on the same day and at the same 
 time. It can also be given at the beginning 
 of each month. When the results are tabu- 
 lated, they can be so arranged as to show: 
 (1) average number done correctly for each 
 grade; (2) average number done correctly 
 for each age; (3) variation and variation 
 percent for grade and age; and (4) the 
 effects of practice, season, etc. 
 
 In problem work, the chief difficulty for 
 the children is in understanding the English 
 used, and in interpreting correctly the ex- 
 pressions which indicate that addition or 
 some other arithmetical process is to be per- 
 formed. Problems in addition will make 
 use of terms like : add, plus, more, get, gain, 
 sum of, had, made, found, saved, etc. Two 
 general forms may be used, one, a very sim- 
 ple form, as. Had 3e and made 2e more, Hoiv 
 much have I? and the other a more complex 
 form, as, // a man makes $3 and increases 
 this hy $1, how much has he then? and, Mr. 
 
 168 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 Smith has $3, and his brother has $1 more. 
 How much have they loth? Simple nuiriber 
 analysis may be required, as, What numbers 
 added will give 10 f 
 
 Reconstruction work by the pupils re- 
 quires greater effort and calls for a more 
 accurate knowledge of the work. In calling 
 upon the pupils to construct problems of 
 their own on a topic, it is advisable to cir- 
 cumscribe the situation and define the limits 
 set. The materials may be taken from the 
 following : 
 
 (1) The home (a) Things 
 
 (h) People 
 
 (c) What is done 
 
 (2) The neighborhood 
 
 (a) Work and industries 
 (h) People 
 (c) Things 
 
 (3) The school (a) Work and exercises 
 
 (h) People 
 (c) Things 
 
 (4) The classroom, as above 
 
 169 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 (5) Correlated subjects, as, geography, 
 (areas, products, population, exports, im- 
 ports, duties, etc.), nature study, word study, 
 etc. 
 
 (6) Pictures and the things in them 
 
 (7) Plays and games 
 
 (8) Specific material, as, pads used per 
 pupil, supplies each month, cost, etc. 
 
 In such problem work, the situation may 
 be given in general or it may be specifically 
 determined. Several variations are possi- 
 ble, as : 
 
 (1) Make up five problems connected with 
 the ivork outside of school, 
 
 (2) Think of some store or husiness in the 
 neighborhood. What material do the 
 people use f What amounts ? Costs ? 
 Make up five problems about them, 
 
 (3) John is a grocer, and sells coffee, tea, 
 sugar, butter, eggs, canned goods, etc. 
 On Saturday, he does a rushing busi- 
 ness. Make up five or ten examples stich 
 as he tvill have to do in making up his 
 
 170 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 hills, counting Jiis sales, or reckoning 
 his profits. 
 
 (4) Make up five prohleyns on the style of 
 the following: A butcher sold, etc. 
 Keep to the butcher shop and what the 
 butcher does in his shop. 
 
 §2. Subtraction 
 
 A series similar to that used in addition 
 can be employed in trying out the pupils in 
 subtraction, thus : 
 
 123456789 10 
 
 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 
 
 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 
 
 Etc., etc. 
 
 Pupils should be required to subtract 1 from 
 each of the above, then 11, 111, etc. The 
 same process can be carried with other fig- 
 ures, as, 12, 22, 13, 23, 33, 112, 122, etc. 
 
 Weakness in borrowing can be detected 
 by the use of examples of the following de- 
 grees of difficulty : 
 
 171 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 (1) No borrowing 
 
 
 
 9 19 29 
 
 129 
 
 129 
 
 -1 -1 -11 
 
 -1 
 
 -11 
 
 (2) Borrowing in only one place 
 
 21 121 121 212 212 
 _9 _9 -19 -91 _i9i 
 
 (3) Borrowing in only two places 
 
 231 331 1331 1331 4331 
 -49 -149 -419 -491 -1491 
 
 (4) Position of the 
 
 
 
 20 10 20 
 
 20 
 
 102 
 
 10-4-4 
 
 -14 
 
 -4 
 
 Sets of 4 or 5 examples of the same degree 
 of difficulty may be given, and each stage of 
 difficulty tried out in this manner. Or a 
 series of examples increasing in difficulty 
 from no borrowing through borrowing in 
 two or three places may be given. 
 
 Problems in subtraction involve the 
 equivalents in language for the - sign. Such 
 
 172 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 expressions are, subtract, take away, minus, 
 difference, lost, gave away, spent, less thafi, 
 left ?, change received ? missing ?, etc. Sev- 
 eral examples of the same form but with 
 different expressions for subtraction may be 
 given to the pupils, to test their understand- 
 ing of the terms used. The form may be 
 a simple one, as, Take 3 apples from 34 
 apples. How many left ? or. Give the differ- 
 ence between 43 and 13; or it may be some- 
 what more complex, as, // you have $18 and 
 spend $3, how much will you have left F or, 
 Hoiv much older is Mary than John, if Mary 
 is 18 years old, and John is 3 years old? 
 Reconstructive exercises may also be re- 
 quired of the pupils as in the case of addi- 
 tion. Situations are outlined in much the 
 same way and the children are asked to make 
 up five or ten problems with the material 
 given. ( See page 169 ) . 
 
 By combining addition and subtraction 
 one can construct problems which involve 
 two processes. Simpler problems would rim 
 
 173 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 something like the following : // you spend 
 3c and give away 2c^ liow much will you have 
 left if you first had 10c. A more complex 
 type would be: John has 15 marhles, and 
 his hrother has 6 less than he. How many 
 have hoth? It is possible to lead up to the 
 final problem, step by step, and find out 
 where pupils fail, thus: (1) John has 15 
 marhles and his irother has 9. How many 
 have the ttvo hoys? (2) John has 15 marhles, 
 and his brother 5 less. How many has his 
 irotherf (3) John has 15 marbles and his 
 brother has 7 less. Hoiv many have the two ? 
 A similar series is the following : (1) Gave 
 away 8c. Hoiv much left out of 20c? (2) 
 Spent 5c out of a total of 20c. Hoiv much 
 left 9 (3) Spent 5c and gave away 4c. What 
 was the total? (4) Spent 5c and gave away 
 Ic. How much left out of a total of 18c? 
 Problems like the above need not be given in 
 order of difficulty, but might be effectively 
 mixed with other problems and examples. 
 
 174 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 §5. Multiplication 
 
 The simplest test in multiplication is work 
 in the multiplication tables, as such, without 
 added difficulties, as carrying, or problem 
 w^ork. It is advisable to try the pupils rap- 
 idly on a multiplication of all numbers from 
 1 through 12 by all numbers from through 
 12, within the limits of the grade require- 
 ments. Keeping to the tables, one can give 
 graded work as follows : 
 
 (1) No carrying 
 
 (2) Carrying in one place only 
 
 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19, etc. 
 Multiplication by numbers from 1 through 9 
 
 (3) Carrying in two places only 
 
 122 133 144 155 166 177 188 199, etc., and 
 221 331 441 551 661 771 881 991, etc. 
 Multiplication by numbers from 1 through 9 
 
 (4) Carrying in three or more places, and 
 multiplication by 10, 11 and 12. 
 
 After the pupils have been tested in 
 multiplication which involves simple use of 
 
 175 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 the tables, more advanced multiplication 
 may be required in the following stages of 
 difficulty : 
 
 (1) No carrying 
 
 111 122 123 213 312, etc., multiplied by 
 numbers like 11, 12, 21, 22, 23, 31, 32, 33, etc. 
 
 (2) Carrying in only one place 
 
 111 122 123 213 312, etc., multiplied 
 by numbers like 61, 71, 62, 72, etc., and 
 16, 17, 26, 27, etc. 
 
 (3) Carrying in two or more places 
 
 In problems which call multiplication into 
 use there are several types which may be 
 used. One involves the use of determinate 
 units, as, feet in - yards; quarts in - gallons; 
 quarts in - pechs, etc. A second type em- 
 ploys indeterminate units, as. Pieces of soap 
 in - hoxes, each of which holds - pieces ; Seats 
 in - rooms, if each room has - seats; Boohs 
 on - shelves, if each shelf holds - hooks, etc. 
 A third kind of problem is the usual : Cost 
 of — , at -a piece, etc. A fourth possibility 
 is the simple area and surface problem, Area 
 
 176 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 of a room 15 feet square? or, Area of a yard 
 25 feet hy 40 feet f 
 
 The four types enumerated above require 
 but a single process, one of multiplication. 
 A combination of these types will yield 
 problems which necessitate two or more pro- 
 cesses. Thus we may have the following: 
 Cost of 3 dozen pens at 2c a pen? Value of 5 
 gallons of milk at 4c a pint? Weight of 8 
 "boxes of canned tomatoes^ each hox holding 
 144 cans, if each can weighs 2 pounds? Each 
 of the difficulties in a more complex type 
 can be brought out in a single example, thus : 
 
 (1) Weight of 144 cases if each tveighs 288 
 pounds each? 
 
 (2) Hotu many cans of tomatoes in 8 boxes, 
 if each hox holds 144 cans? 
 
 (3) How much will 1100 cans weigh at 2 
 pounds a can? 
 
 (4) How much tvill a box of 144 cans weigh, 
 if each can weighs 2 pounds? 
 
 (5) Weight of 8 boxes of canned tomatoes 
 if each box holds 144 cans, and each can 
 weighs 2 pounds, 
 
 177 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 Another series is the following : 
 
 (1) How many things in 35 dozen? 
 
 (2) Cost of 200 pens at 2c a pen? 
 
 (3) Cost of 35 dozen pens at 2c a pen? 
 
 These problems may be given in graded 
 series, or they may be presented at random, 
 or mixed up with other examples. They will 
 enable one to check up the pupils on the diffi- 
 culties involved in the final, complex type. 
 
 Pupils should be required to make up 
 problems as in the case of addition and sub- 
 traction and with similar material (page 
 169) . If the pupils have been encouraged to 
 collect circulars, advertisements, bids, etc., 
 there should be a plentiful supply of ma- 
 terial at hand. Tests based on such material 
 will require the pupils to construct five or 
 ten problems which deal with bills such as 
 are made out in the stores, with expenses 
 such as are incurred in the shop, the home, 
 etc., with cost of school supplies, etc., and 
 with area, space, etc. 
 
 178 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 Addition and subtraction may be com- 
 bined with multiplication to form problems 
 of further difficulty. Two, three, or four 
 processes may be necessary. Several types 
 may be given, as : 
 
 (1) Bought - pounds of candy at 6c a pound, 
 and sold it for 10c a pound. Gain on the 
 candy f 
 
 (2) Bought - gallons of vinegar at 8c a 
 quart. If - gallons leaked out, and I 
 sold the rest at 15 a quart, gain or loss 
 and how much? 
 
 (3) Bought - gallons of milk at 15c a gallon, 
 and sold it at 9c a quart. Gain or loss 
 and how much? 
 
 (4) A gang of 20 men work for a week at $2 
 a day. Then 10 more men come, and 
 they all ivork for 2 tveeks. What will 
 the total wages he for the 3 weeks? 
 
 §4, Division 
 
 Graded tests in division will proceed ac- 
 cording to the following series : 
 
 179 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 (1) Short division with no remainders 
 77-^7, 88-^8, etc., 147-^7, 168-^8, 
 etc., 714 -^ 7, etc., etc. 
 
 (2) Same as (1) but with remainders 
 
 (3) Long division with no remainders 
 21-^21, 63-^21, 231-^21, 168-^21, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 (4) Same as (3) but with remainders 
 Exactly where the pupils find difficulty, 
 whether in trial divisor, remainder, carry- 
 ing the cipher, etc., can be discovered by 
 giving a series of examples which are gradu- 
 ated in difficulty. 
 
 Problems in division fall into two or three 
 types: (1) sharing or partition, as, Share 
 
 evenly among 23 hoys, or, If 36 pens 
 
 cost -, what is the cost of 1 pen? (2) measur- 
 ing or division, as, How many 5c hooks can 
 you get for |? - ? or, IIoiv many 6 inch pieces 
 of rihion can you cut out of - inches of 
 rihlon? and, (3) analysis and missing part 
 problems, in which the process of multipli- 
 cation is reversed, as, <9 X ? == 360^ An area 
 
 180 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 of - square feet measures 15 feet on one side. 
 How long is the other side? Any of the 
 examples in multiplication can be converted 
 to problems in division by changing the 
 parts, making the answer one of the given 
 parts, and one of the given parts, the answer 
 to be found. By making use of the material 
 suggested above, (page 169), pupils may 
 construct problems of their own, with divi- 
 sion the chief process. 
 
 Division calls into play all the processes, 
 addition, subtraction, and multiplication, 
 besides division itself. It also makes use of 
 selective judgment in trial divisor, and is 
 the best of the four processes to test pupils 
 formally. All the grades in the school may 
 be given a 15 minute test in short division, 
 with examples of the type, 7 ) 34291. Fifty 
 such examples on printed or duplicated 
 sheets are given to the children, a time allow- 
 ance of 15 minutes is set, and the pupils are 
 asked to write the answers on the sheets 
 given. If the test is given on the same day 
 
 181 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 and the same time, averages, variations, and 
 variation percents can be calculated for each 
 grade, each age, and if need be, each nation- 
 ality under the two headings, grade and age. 
 Such tests may be given at the beginning of 
 each month to test progress and habit for- 
 mation. It will be found that the division 
 test correlates most closely with general 
 ability in arithmetic, than do most of the 
 other formal tests. 
 
 §5. Fractions 
 
 Reduction of fractions can be tested in 
 short division with remainder, as, 39-^9, 
 and in the addition and subtraction of frac- 
 tions. Examination of pupils in the addi- 
 tion and subtraction of fractions can be car- 
 ried on in work of the following degrees of 
 difficulty : 
 
 (1) Identicals, no reduction nor borrowing 
 
 % Vs iVe 3V9 
 
 ±V4 ±% ±% ±179 
 
 182 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 (2) Factors, no reduction nor borrowing 
 
 A /s 1/2 3 /q 
 
 ±% ±% db V4 ±273 
 
 (3) Primes, no reduction nor borrowing 
 
 V2 V4 IV3 3V5 
 
 (4) Identicals, with reduction or borrowing 
 
 1% iVs 376 5% 
 
 rb % Hz 7s dzlVe ±3% 
 
 (5) Factors, with reduction or borrowing 
 
 1% 1% 4% 573 
 
 ± 72 ± Vs ±172 ±379 
 
 (6) Primes, with reduction or borrowing 
 
 173 275 6V2 5V2 
 
 ± 72 ± % dz2V3 d=2V5 
 
 Pupils may be tested in several examples of 
 the same type, or in a series of several ex- 
 amples taken from types (1), (2), etc. 
 
 183 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Cancellation and examples in multiplica- 
 tion which involve fractions can be graded 
 as follows : 
 
 (1) Parts of a whole number 
 
 1/2 of 12, 1/3 of 12, 1^ of 144, % of 12, etc. 
 
 (2) Multiplication by a mixed number. 
 12x11/2, 12x31/3, 144X1%, 36 X 
 21/2, etc. 
 
 (3) Parts of a fraction, mixed number, and 
 cancellation. 
 
 V2 of %, 1/3 of 34, 1/2 of 1/3, 1/3 of 11/2, 
 V2 X 1/3 X % X 11/5, etc. 
 
 Gradation in division by fractions gives 
 the following types : 
 
 (1) Division of a whole number by a frac- 
 tion, as, 2, 3, 4, etc., divided by %, %, 
 1/4, etc., and then by %, %, %, etc. 
 
 (2) Division of a fraction by a whole num- 
 ber, (1) reversed. 
 
 (3) Division of a fraction by a fraction, as, 
 
 1/2 - 1/3, % - 1/2, % - 2/3, etc. 
 
 (4) Use of mixed numbers, as, 1% ^ 2, etc., 
 2 - 11/2, etc., 1/2 -- 11/2, etc., II/3 -^ II/2, 
 etc., and II/2 -7- 1%, etc. 
 
 184 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 (5) More complicated forms which combine 
 addition, subtraction, multipl ication, 
 and division. 
 
 A few simple questions like the following 
 will quickly enable one to get a general idea 
 of what a class knows in fractions : ^^ + %, 
 
 Vs + V2, 1/2 - Vs, 1/2 -^ Vs, 1/3 - 1/2, V% X Vs, 
 
 etc. 
 
 Problems which involve manipulation of 
 fractions are much the same as the problems 
 suggested for work in addition, subtraction, 
 multiplication, and division. It might be 
 well to give these problems first with whole 
 numbers, and then with the addition of frac- 
 tional parts to one, two, or three elements of 
 the problem. A series like the following 
 will result : 
 
 (1) Cost of 2 dozen pens at 3c a pen? 
 
 (2) Cost of 2^2 dozen pens at 3c a pen? 
 
 (3) Cost of 2 dozen pens at SYoC a penf 
 
 (4) Cost of 2y2 dozen pens at 3y2C a pen? 
 
 185 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 For other types see the work outlined above 
 (pages 168, 173, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180). 
 Reconstructive work in fractions will fol- 
 low similar lines (See pages 169, 170). 
 
 §6. Decimals 
 
 For a test on the ability of the pupils to 
 read and write decimals, the following series 
 may be used: 1. .1 .001 10 .01 .0001 
 1 . 01 10 . 1 etc. Pupils may be required to 
 read them, write them at dictation, or ar- 
 range them for addition or subtraction. 
 
 For multiplication the work may be 
 graded as follows: 
 
 (1) Multiplication by a whole number, as, 
 .31X2, .313X3, .34X4, .313X40, 
 etc. 
 
 (2) Multiplication by a decimal, as, .31 X .2, 
 .313 X .22, etc. 
 
 (3) Use of mixed numbers, as, 3.13 X .2, 
 3.13 + .6, 3.13 X .22, 3.13 X 4.4, etc. 
 
 Graduation of the work in division will 
 jdeld the following series : 
 
 186 
 
ARITHAIETIC 
 
 (1) Division by a whole number, as, . 66 -> 2, 
 .66^5, .06H-2, .06^-5, etc. 
 
 (2) Division by a decimal, as, .66->-.2, 
 .66-^ .5, .06-^ .2, .06-^.02, etc. 
 
 (3) Use of mixed numbers, as, 6.6-^-2, 
 6.6-f-.2, 6.6-f-2.2, 6 . 6 -- . 22, etc. 
 
 A combination example which will test 
 ability to handle decimals is the following : 
 Divide 360 hy 12, lyl.2, ly 120, and hy .12, 
 and add the results, A more complex ex- 
 ample along the same lines is : 360 -^1.2, 
 3.6-^ 120, 360 -^ . 12, 36 -^ 1200. Add the 
 results. If it is necessary to find out exactly 
 where pupils have any difficulty, a graded 
 series is better. The series may use the same 
 numbers all through, the only variations 
 being in the position of the decimal point, 
 as: 4-^2, 4-f- .2, 4-^20, .4-^2, .4-20, 
 . 4 -^- . 2, . 4 -^ . 02, etc. Problems will follow 
 the same types as those given in the work of 
 simple numbers (pages 168-180) and frac- 
 tions (pages 185, 186). Reconstructive exer- 
 cises will be similarly conditioned (pages 
 
 187 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 169, 170). Examples which involve dollars 
 and cents require a knowledge of decimals 
 and the use of the decimal point. 
 
 §7. Compound Numbers 
 
 The use of simple denominate units is im- 
 plied in work which applies multiplication 
 and division (pages 177-181). The inch- 
 foot, foot - yard, pint - quart, quart - gallon, 
 quart - pech, day - week, cent - nickel, cent - 
 dime, dime - dollar, thing - dozen, etc., may 
 be used in examples which call for multipli- 
 cation or division by 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10 and 12. 
 If pupils fail in such simple work it may be 
 necessary to test them in their denominate 
 measures. 
 
 All work in compound numbers falls into 
 two general divisions: (1) reduction de- 
 scending, and (2) reduction ascending. 
 Graded examples in these two divisions will 
 go somewhat as follows : 
 (1) Reduction descending 
 
 188 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 (a) Two steps, as, quarts to pints, 
 gallons to quarts, quarts and pints to 
 pints, gallons and quarts to quarts, and 
 similarly with the other measures 
 
 (b) Three steps, as, gallons to pints, 
 etc., gallons and quarts to pints, etc., 
 gallons, quarts, and pints, to pints, etc. 
 
 (c) Subtraction, as, pints from 
 quarts, quarts from gallons, etc. 
 
 (d) Division, as, sharing gallons 
 among individuals, gallons and quarts, 
 gallons, quarts, and pints, etc. 
 
 (2) Reduction ascending 
 
 (a) Two steps, as, pints to quarts, 
 quarts to gallons, pints to quarts and 
 pints, quarts to quarts and gallons, etc. 
 
 (b) Three steps, as, inches, to inches, 
 feet, and yards, quarts to hushels, pecks, 
 and quarts, etc. 
 
 (c) Addition and multiplication, two 
 orders, three orders, etc. 
 
 Practical work in compound numbers as- 
 sumes the following forms : 
 
 189 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 (1) Cost problems which involve either re- 
 duction ascending or descending, as, 
 Cost of - 'bushels, etc, at 5 cents a quart, 
 or 1.20 a husJiel? Cost of - quart, etc., 
 at 25c a gallon? 
 
 (2) Problems in the four rules, addition, 
 subtraction, multiplication, and divis- 
 ion, as, additions, leakage, loss, sharing, 
 etc. 
 
 (3) Fractional or decimal parts of denomi- 
 nate units 
 
 (4) Areas, contents, etc. 
 
 If the pupils fail in any problem, it can be 
 given to them in a number of simpler forms, 
 thus: 
 
 (1) Cost of 53 pints of milk at 5c a pint? 
 
 (2) How many pints in 23 quarts and 1 
 pint 9 
 
 (3) Hotv many pints in 6 gallons, 2 quarts, 
 and 1 pint ? 
 
 (4) Cost of 6 gallons, 2 quarts, 1 pint of 
 milk at 5c a pint ? 
 
 190 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 These steps may be given in the order (4) 
 through (1), or (1) through (4), or they 
 may be presented at random and mixed with 
 other problems in the test. Reconstructive 
 exercises may be required as suggested above 
 (pages 169, 170). 
 
 §8. Percentage 
 
 Knowledge of percentage, as such, is 
 tested in much the same manner as is knowl- 
 edge of decimals. A series of examples like 
 the following may be given: 2 X 12, 
 .02 X 12, 2% of 12, 1/2 of 12, 1/2% of 12, 
 2%% of 12, etc. In the more advanced 
 stages of the work, examples may be mixed 
 like the following: 2% of 36, 20% of 36, 
 1/2% of 36, 50% of 36, 5% of 36, Difference 
 between 2% of 36 and 1/2% of 36 ? Between 
 1/2% of 36, and 50% of 36? 
 
 Problems in percentage involve the use of 
 different expressions for the base on which 
 the percentage is reckoned, as, cost, pro- 
 ceeds, sales, list price, face, principal, real 
 
 191 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 estate, personal property, policy, etc., and 
 the employment of the corresponding terms 
 which indicate tlie percentage, as, profit, 
 loss, commission, allowance, relate, rate, dis- 
 count, interest, tax, assessment, levy, fee, 
 premium, specific duty, ad valorum, etc. If 
 one wishes to find out whether the pupils 
 understand the significance of the terms, one 
 can give problems in which the numbers are 
 the same, but the expression different. Such 
 problems can be given at random and mixed 
 with other work. Interest may be graded 
 somewhat as follows : 
 
 rincip^ 
 
 il Time Rate 
 
 $36 
 
 1 year 2% 
 
 $36 
 
 lyr. 6 months 2% 
 
 $36 
 
 lyr. 6mos. 15 days 2% 
 
 $36 
 
 From Feb. 6, 1912, to date 
 
 Required, Interest and amomit 
 Reconstructive exercises are also in order 
 (See pages 169, 170). 
 
 192 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 §9, Indirect Cases. 
 
 The type form, What part of - is - ? may 
 be graded as follows; (1) Use of \Yliole 
 numbers in the given elements, as. What part 
 of 36 is 12f (2) Use of fractions or mixed 
 numbers in one or both of the given ele- 
 ments, as, What part of 4 is lYo? What part 
 of y^isYo"^ (3) Use of denominate units in 
 the given elements, as. What part of 3 quarts 
 are 5 pints'^ (4) Use of decimals in the 
 given elements, as. What part of 3.6 is . 012? 
 Combination of decimals and fractions, as, 
 What part of 3.6 is %? Three variations 
 are possible in the requirements of each of 
 the series. Either the fractional part, the 
 decimal part, or the percent may be asked 
 for in the answer. 
 
 Indirect cases of the equation type vary 
 from examples which can be done at sight, 
 to those which require two or three pro- 
 cesses to solve the equation. Graduation of 
 the difficulties will give the following : 
 
 193 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 (1) 12 is 1/3 of what number'? 
 
 (2) 12 is % of what number? 
 
 (3) 12 is V3 more than (less than) 
 
 what number ? 
 
 (4) 12 is % of what number ? 
 
 (5) 2% is 1/3 of what number ? 
 
 (6) 2% is % of what number ? 
 (More than, less than) 
 
 (7) % is 1/2 of what number? 
 
 (8) % is % of what number ? 
 (More than, less than) 
 
 Applications of this type of work can be 
 similarly graded, thus : 
 
 (1) S.P. $360 Loss .25 Cost? 
 
 (2) S.P. $360 Gain 25% Cost? 
 
 (3) S.P. $360 Loss 15% Cost? 
 
 (4) S.P. $360 Gain 15% Cost? 
 
 The terms may be varied, as, commission, 
 premium, etc., (See page 192), and recon- 
 structive exercises may be required (See 
 pages 169, 170). 
 
 194 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 §10, Metric System 
 
 The chief difficulty in examples which in- 
 volve the use of the metric system is the 
 significance of the terminology. The famili- 
 arity of the pupils with the terminology may 
 be tested by examples in addition or sub- 
 traction which are based on: (1) measure- 
 ments of the same denomination, as, all cm, 
 or Kg, or mm, etc.; (2) measurements of 
 only two denominations, as, cm and dm, Kg 
 and g, cm and mm, etc. ; (3) measurements 
 of three or more denominations. 
 
 Changes from one system of measurement 
 to another, and the use of equivalents, can 
 be graded as follows: (1) changes within 
 the given table of equivalents directly, as, 
 meters to inches, (IM = 39 . 37 inches), 
 Kilos to pounds, lKg = 2.2046 lbs.), etc.; 
 (2) changes which come within the table of 
 equivalents only indirectly, as, meters to 
 yards, (meters to yards to inches). Cost of 
 Kg at so much a pound, (Kg to lb. X cost 
 per lb.), etc. It may be necessary to test the 
 
 195 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 pupils on their knowledge of the following 
 table of equivalents : 
 
 ji M =39.37 inches 
 
 1 Km = . 62137 miles (% mi.) 
 
 1 L =0.908 dry qt. or 1.0567 
 wet qt. (1 qt.) 
 
 1 Kg =2.2046 lbs. (2^^ lis.) 
 
 1 in. =z 2.540 centimeters 
 
 1 ft, =0.3048 meters 
 
 1 yd. =0. 9144 meters 
 
 1 mi. = 1 . 6093 Kilometers 
 
 1 qt. =0. 94636 liters, wet 
 
 1 gal. = 3 . 7854 liters, wet 
 
 1 qt. =1.1012 liters, dry 
 
 1 Tb, =0.45359 Kilos 
 Similar units for foreign money may be 
 worked out and applied. 
 
 §11. Mensuration 
 In its simpler stages, mensuration requires 
 chiefly a knowledge of rules and formulas. 
 Some of the more important of these are the 
 following : 
 
 196 
 
ARITHIMETIC 
 
 (1) The area of any parallelogram is equal 
 to the product of its hase iy its altitude. 
 
 (2) The area of any triangle is equal to 
 half the product of its 'base hy its alti- 
 tude. 
 
 (3) The area of a circle is equal to the 
 product of the square of its radius X 
 3.1416, 
 
 (4) The circumference of a circle is equal 
 to the product of its diameter X 3.1416, 
 
 (5) The volume of a prism or cylinder 
 equals the area of the hase X the 
 height, 
 
 (6) The surface of a prism' or cylinder 
 equals the product of the perimeter X 
 the height, + the area of the upper and 
 loiver faces. 
 
 (7) The volume of a pyramid or cone 
 equals a third of the product of the 
 hase hy the height. 
 
 (8) The surface of a pyramid or a cone 
 equals half the product of the peri- 
 meter X the slant height, 
 
 197 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 (9) The volume of a sphere equals two- 
 thirds of the volume of a cylinder of 
 the same diameter and height^ or, 
 % of -rzr^Xh (2r) ^Vs tt r\ 
 
 (10) The surface of a sphere equals the 
 curved surface of a cylinder of the 
 same diameter and height, or,2'Kr xh 
 (2r) =4'Kr\ 
 
 (11) The square on the hypotenuse is equal 
 to the sum of the squares on the other 
 two sides. 
 
 In many instances it is enough for the pupil 
 to know how to use the rule, without having 
 to repeat it by rote. 
 
 ^12, General Suggestions 
 
 Tests in arithmetic may require any of 
 the following types of work : 
 
 (1) Formal work and examples 
 
 (2) Problems and applications 
 
 (3) Reconstructive exercises, and ex- 
 
 planation of processes 
 
 1S8 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 (4) Knowledge and recognition of the 
 
 terms, expressions, symbols, and of 
 a few rules in number work 
 
 The work itself may briefly be classified 
 as follows : 
 
 (1) Pour rules 
 
 (a) Addition 
 (h) SuMr action 
 
 (c) MtiUiplication 
 
 (d) Division 
 
 (2) Fractions 
 
 (3) Decimals 
 
 [(4:) Compound numbers 
 
 (5) Percentage 
 
 (6) Indirect cases 
 
 In all the grades, the pupils will probably 
 be found weak in rapid addition of columns 
 of figures. In the lower grades the children 
 find difficulty with long division, and with 
 some of the tables, notably those from 7 
 through 12. Easy control in work which 
 calls into use fractions and decimals is 
 
 199 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 seldom found in the higher grades. The full 
 value of the position of the decimal point is 
 not appreciated. In percentage, there seems 
 at times a negligence in pointing off the two 
 places. The simplest kind of examples, 
 using figures as simple as 2, 3, or 4, can 
 be used to test the ability of the pupils in 
 handling the aspects mentioned. 
 
 In an oral test, a call for hands and a 
 random selection of pupils may be sufficient. 
 If only a few pupils raise their hands, it 
 may be assumed that the rest do not know. 
 Or five of the best pupils, five of the mid- 
 dling, and five of the poorest may be selected 
 to answer. A rating can then be given on 
 the numerical basis chosen. Very easy ex- 
 amples or problems should be presented in 
 such oral work, as. Bought lie worth of 
 goods, and gave 25c. Changed John is 15 
 years old, and Mary is 8 years older. How 
 many years in the ages of hoth? Cost of iV^ 
 dozen pens at 2c a penf What is % of 2^2 
 dozen? 1^-4-%=? 1/3-^-%==? What is 
 
 200 
 
AEITHMETIC 
 
 2% of 129 %% of 12? What is the interest 
 of $2, for 2 years, at 2%? 
 
 In a written examination, it is advisable 
 to have the teacher select the types. The 
 figures and the wording may then be slightly 
 changed by the principal or head teacher. 
 About half the paper should consist of work 
 which the whole class can reasonably be ex- 
 pected to do, about a quarter should be of 
 material so simple that even the poorest 
 pupils ought to master it, and the rest should 
 be more difficult work to bring out the abili- 
 ties of the brighter children. If it is neces- 
 sary to find out at what point in a problem 
 the class breaks, then graded work should 
 be given, or the problem should be worked 
 out step by step, a call for hands after each 
 step has been worked out indicating how 
 many pupils succeeded up to that point. 
 
 201 
 
VIII 
 
 CONTENT OP OTHER SUBJECTS 
 
 §1. Kinds of Knowledge 
 
 The simplest type of knowledge is that of 
 recognition. Though, as such, it requires 
 little effort and calls for no great expense 
 of energy, it is in constant demand in our 
 daily life. For many practical purposes it 
 is indispensable. For example, one need do 
 little more than recognize the poison tablet, 
 know counterfeit money at sight, under- 
 stand the significance of specks in tainted 
 food, judge between good conduct and evil 
 behavior, etc., in order to react properly. 
 No long series of events need be recalled, no 
 process of reasoning is called into play, nor 
 is there required any control of material to 
 ensure the simple recognition. "While, no 
 doubt, judgment and long training may be 
 
 202 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 a prerequisite to some of the more difficult 
 acts of recognition, once the knowledge has 
 become automatic, the acts of recognition 
 are immediate and make no demands on 
 associative memory, complicated reaction, 
 or motor control. 
 
 In school work this recognition is indi- 
 cated by simple naming of an object, by loca- 
 tion of a situation or event in time or place, 
 by giving the significant attributes of a 
 thing, by showing its use, and so on. A 
 simple sentence is all that is required of the 
 pupil. In history, for example, many names, 
 events, processes, actions, etc., require for 
 practical purposes simply recognition. 
 Questions which would call knowledge of 
 recognition into play are the following: 
 Give sentences which tell something each 
 about the following: Washington, slavery, 
 Monitor, Declaration of Independence, cot- 
 ton gin. Queen Elisabeth, etc. In geography, 
 nature study, and science, similar questions 
 may be formulated, as, Give for each of the 
 
 203 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 following a sentence which tells something 
 about each one: Product, Germany, Wash- 
 ington, Rhone, industry, flax, etc., or, poli- 
 wog, fern, woodpecker, sepal, petal, etc., or, 
 magnet, rheostat, vacuum, Newton, etc. 
 
 A type of knowledge which makes a more 
 immediate and pressing demand upon the 
 pupils is knowledge of recall. Recall in- 
 volves memory exercises of the school, and 
 is concerned with such topics, as, spelling 
 words, dates, lists, definitions, topics, topical 
 outlines, memory gems, human activities, 
 causal series, etc. A cue is given to the 
 children, and they are expected to respond 
 with verbal series, written expression, man- 
 ual work, etc., and in a more or less extensive 
 manner. 
 
 The highest type of knowledge for the 
 individual concerned is that of reconstruc- 
 tion or control. Considerable initiative and 
 ability are often demanded. A problem is 
 set before the pupils, material is given, and 
 they are told to go ahead. Knowledge of 
 
 204 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 recognition, knowledge of recall, and ade- 
 quate motor and manual responses are put 
 to the test. Knowledge of control is de- 
 manded when the pupil is called upon to 
 exercise his judgment, to put forth effort in 
 a manner somewhat different from the rou- 
 tine, to handle material in his own way, to 
 exercise his selective choice and controlled 
 reaction. He may be required to get the 
 topics of a series of paragraphs, form a 
 topical outline of his own, and then expand 
 this outline in his own language. He may 
 be allowed to dramatize a situation and add 
 words and actions of his own. He may be 
 requested to impersonate a character, with 
 the direction. What would you do in such a 
 case? Or a situation may be presented to 
 the class with conditions changed, and the 
 pupils may be asked to trace and expand 
 possible results. Thus : Suppose the Alle- 
 ghany Mountains were as high as the Rock- 
 ieSy how would it have effected - ? (Discov- 
 eries, settlements, population, etc) What 
 
 205 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 if - had not invented the - ? Suppose the 
 harbor of - to he clogged up. What would 
 the result he on the commerce, population, 
 export trade, manufactures, etc. 
 
 In summary, we have as kinds of knowl- 
 edge: 
 
 Knowledge of recognition 
 Knowledge of recall 
 Knowledge of control 
 
 These three types are all relative to the stage 
 which the pupil has attained. To the be- 
 ginner, knowledge of recognition is very 
 limited, and most of his information is the 
 result of memory and recall. What required 
 considerable judgment and associative mem- 
 ory in the earlier stages, however, must take 
 its place in the field of recognition, if the 
 individual is to progress. The movement is 
 ever onwards, effort in all reactions becom- 
 ing less, and the horizon ever widening for 
 new endeavors. 
 
 206 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 Simple reference to any of the following 
 aspects is sufficient to indicate knowledge of 
 recognition : 
 
 Relations 
 
 (1) Quantitative 
 
 Time : Succession, duration, simultaneity 
 What folloivs in ti7nef 
 What is present at the same time? 
 How long ? When f 
 
 Space : Contiguity, distance, direction 
 Location f Position f 
 Distance f Direction f 
 
 (2) Qualitative 
 
 Characteristics ? Attributes ? 
 Substance? Kind? 
 Parts? Whole? 
 
 Genus? Species? 
 
 (3) Formal, logical, analytical 
 
 Cause? Effect? 
 Similar ? Contrast ? 
 Purpose ? Opposite ? 
 Use? Design? 
 Signi-ficance? Meaning? 
 
 207 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY ' 
 
 (4) Personal ] 
 
 Superior 
 
 Ruler \ 
 
 Employer i 
 
 Parent i 
 
 Etc. ■ ;; 
 
 Equal ' 
 
 Equal \ 
 Coworker 
 
 Relative j 
 
 Etc. \ 
 
 Subordinate ] 
 
 Subject .; 
 Employee 
 
 Child ] 
 
 Etc. ^ 
 
 It is evident that an extensive use of these j 
 
 relations may give rise to knowledge of re- ; 
 call, and call into play considerable control. 
 
 In their first intent, however, they inhere I 
 particularly in knowledge of recognition. 
 
 Knowledge of recall embraces memory j 
 
 work in the following subjects and topics : | 
 
 208 1 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 Spelling 
 Reading and pronunciation of words 
 Spelling, stem analysis^ meaning, use 
 Antonym, synonym, grammatical forms 
 
 History 
 Names, dates, events, etc. 
 Topics and topical outlines 
 
 Geography 
 Names, places, activities, etc. 
 Topics and topical outlines 
 
 Study of nature 
 Names, processes, products, etc. 
 Topics and topical outlines 
 
 English 
 Memory gems, selections, etc, 
 Nam^es, definitions, forms, in grammar 
 Punctuation, written form, paragraph 
 structure, etc. 
 
 Music 
 Notes, scales, songs, etc. 
 
 Drawing 
 Forms, lines, colors, etc. 
 
 209 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 General information 
 
 Knowledge of control makes more of a 
 demand upon the pupils, and includes work 
 in the following : 
 
 Topics and topical outline 
 
 Series of related events 
 
 Dramatic impersonation 
 
 Dramatization 
 
 Reasoning from changed conditions 
 
 Reasoning from given data 
 
 Control of material 
 
 Original problem work and reconstructive 
 exercises are here required of the children. 
 
 §2. History and Civics 
 
 While the general forms of knowledge 
 may be considered the three above discussed, 
 the specific details and content depend upon 
 the subject under consideration. For pur- 
 poses of testing, one can outline each of the 
 subjects in a number of topics and sub- 
 
 210 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 topics. Examination in United States his- 
 tory may be given under any of the follow- 
 ing heads : 
 
 Discovery and exploration 
 
 Colonization 
 
 English supremacy 
 
 Colonial supremacy 
 
 The United States 
 
 Use of the text-book 
 
 Current events, holidays, etc. 
 
 In detail, the following facts can be used : 
 Discoveries and explorations 
 Nationalities 
 Spanish, French 
 English, Butch 
 
 Localities 
 
 Coast, north, south, middle, etc. 
 Inland, west 
 South America, etc. 
 
 Purpose, etc. 
 
 European and American backgrounds 
 
 211 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY ^ 
 
 Colonization (as above) \ 
 
 Southern type, Virginia \ 
 
 Northern type, Massachusetts \ 
 
 Middle type, Pennsylvania \ 
 
 Local type, New York (for Neiv \ 
 
 York) I 
 
 Organization, people, activities, life, j 
 
 events, etc. ] 
 
 English supremacy (as above) ; 
 
 Indian wars \ 
 
 ■i 
 
 Intercolonial wars \ 
 
 Attempts at union 
 
 European history \ 
 
 Colonial supremacy (as above) \ 
 
 Conflicting interests \ 
 
 New British policy of control \ 
 
 The Revolution ' 
 The Constitution 
 
 The United States j 
 
 A dministrations \ 
 
 Industries and invention ^ 
 
 Transportation and communication j 
 
 Education, life, and literature \ 
 
 Money and finance \ 
 
 212 \ 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 Tariff and slavery 
 Wars 
 
 Legislative changes 
 National expansion 
 Political parties 
 European history 
 World relations. 
 Use of the text-book 
 
 General meaning, story, etc. 
 Background, allusions, etc. 
 Topical study, outline, etc. 
 Sequence and organization 
 Word study, etc. 
 Holidays and current events 
 Civics 
 Local, state, national government 
 Organization, departments, officials, 
 
 etc. 
 Time and place of meeting 
 Powers, duties, responsihilities 
 Contrihutions, ivork accomplished, 
 etc. 
 Use of the text-book 
 Current events 
 
 213 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 §3, Geography 
 
 Ejiowledge in geography may be tested in 
 any of the following main divisions : 
 
 Human activities and their products 
 Human habitations (Cities, states, 
 
 countries, etc.) 
 Surface (Highlands, lowlands, plains, 
 
 rivers, etc.) 
 Climate, seasons, day and night, time 
 Maps, graphs, cartography, etc. 
 Use of the text-book 
 Current events 
 
 According to the age and grade of the pupils, 
 the above categories may be applied to the 
 following topics : 
 
 Home locality and neigJiborhood 
 Home city, state, or country 
 The world in general 
 The United States in detail 
 Other countries in detail 
 
 214 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 The use of the text-book follows the same 
 scheme of merits already enumerated, name- 
 ly: (1) general meaning of text, illustra- 
 tion, map, graph, etc.; (2) background, allu- 
 sions, comparisons, etc.; (3) topical study 
 and outline; (4) sequence and organization; 
 and (5) word study and interpretation. Cur- 
 rent events are treated as in the case of the 
 other subjects. Individual contributions of 
 the pupils should be recorded, credit given 
 according to the class register and the num- 
 ber contributing, and a general knowledge 
 of the leading currents required. 
 
 §4. The Study of Nature 
 
 The same general content inheres in both 
 nature study and science. The difference 
 in the treatment of the topics distinguishes 
 one from the other. Nature study deals with 
 description and appreciation, and keeps in- 
 tensive analysis in the background. It is 
 concerned more with life, function, and 
 environment, than mth structure and or- 
 
 215 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 ganization. Science makes more of a 
 search after cause and effect, requires more 
 thorough study of parts, and makes use of 
 logical categories and divisions. Both 
 science and nature study call for actual con- 
 tact with objects, for field work, excursions, 
 and controlled experimentation. 
 
 General topics which apply in the study 
 of nature are the following : 
 
 External characteristics, form, color, etc. 
 Internal characteristics, structure, parts, 
 
 etc. 
 Growth, development, function of parts, 
 
 etc. 
 Actions, processes, work, life, etc. 
 Favorable conditions, environment, etc. 
 Uses to man, products, etc. 
 Use of the text-book 
 
 Contribution of specimens, apparatus, etc. 
 Current events 
 
 The use of the text-book and of current 
 events follows the same general scheme out- 
 
 216 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 lined above (page 213). Each pupil should 
 have a record of the experimentation done 
 by him, the material contributed, the ap- 
 paratus made, etc. With the register of the 
 class as a basis, the whole class can be rated 
 in this particular. The grade of the pupils 
 will determine what aspect of the study of 
 plant life, animal life, natural phenomena, 
 or man. is to be required. 
 
 §5. Language 
 
 The study of language on its content side 
 includes chiefly the following subjects: 
 
 Word study 
 Spelling, meaning and use 
 Stem, prefix, suffix 
 Synonym antonym 
 
 Grammar 
 Proper usage 
 
 Naming (parts of sentence, of speech) 
 Formal analysis 
 Syntax 
 
 217 
 
TEACmNG EFFICIENCY 
 
 Race inheritance 
 Jingles, rhymes^ proverhs, etc. 
 Myths, legends, fairy tales, folk-lore^ 
 
 etc. 
 Biography, narrative, etc. 
 Selections from literature 
 Memory gems, etc. 
 
 Written work 
 
 Writing, punctuation, etc. 
 Letter forms, paragraphing, etc. 
 
 Library, reading habits, etc. 
 
 In language tests, the questions may deal 
 with particular instances, forms, etc., or 
 with sentences in series, in paragraph struc- 
 ture, etc. Thus, spelling words may be given 
 in a list, or in a dictation exercise. Simi- 
 larly, word study may be correlated with a 
 selection in reading, or may deal with iso- 
 lated cases assigned by the teacher. In 
 grammar a paragraph may be given, and 
 the class required to treat it in any one of 
 the following ways : (1) rewrite and change 
 to plural (or singular) form, to first person 
 
 218 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 (second or third), to present time (past or 
 future), to different discourse (direct or in- 
 direct), to different sentence type (inter- 
 rogative, declarative, etc; (2) pick out the 
 types of sentence and name each kind; (3) 
 pick out parts of speech; (4) analyse sen- 
 tences into parts, with diagram, if neces- 
 sary; (5) give syntax of selected ivords; and 
 so on. Separate sentences may also be given, 
 or the text-book may be used and treated as 
 suggested. 
 
 On the side of content, composition corre- 
 lates closely with the subject matter of the 
 grade, and with the children's life history 
 and experience. History, geography, nature 
 study, science, dramng, reading, games, 
 neighborhood life, school life, business, etc., 
 Yvill furnish sufficient material on which the 
 pupils may be tested. For purposes of ex- 
 amination, the formal composition written 
 each week or so is not as good as an im- 
 promptu test which requires only a single 
 paragraph to be written on some topic with 
 
 219 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 which the pupils are familiar. Several topics 
 may be assigned and the pupils allowed to 
 choose one for composition. In correcting 
 the paragraphs which have been written, -a 
 set of values may be assigned, according to 
 the aim of the work, as, paragraph structure, 
 margins, punctuation, etc. For example, if 
 two merits are looked for, (1) paragraph 
 structure, and (2) spelling, each may be 
 valued at 5 out of a possible 10. If the con- 
 tent in history, or geography, this may also 
 be rated on its correctness. 
 
 Dictation may be treated in the same man- 
 ner. The content of the dictation may in- 
 clude the following : 
 
 (1) Short memory gems and classic prose 
 selections 
 
 (2) Short sentences which employ such 
 words, as, (1) forms of the verhs, is, do, 
 see, come, go, give, write, sing, bring, 
 think, break, catch, drive, knotv, throw, 
 lie, lay, run, eat, tear, etc., and (2) 
 plurals, irregular comparisons, etc, 
 
 220 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 (3) Short sentences, or a short paragraph 
 to illustrate use of the period, comma, 
 question mark, and quotation marks, 
 etc, 
 
 (4) Common expressions, conventional ex- 
 pressions of courtesy, greetings, idio- 
 matic expressions, etc, 
 
 (5) Letter forms. 
 
 (6) Correlated material from history, geo- 
 graphy, etc. 
 
 Should a prevailing error be discovered in 
 composition work of the grade, a dictation 
 exercise on the error in question will enable 
 one to see what pupils require individual 
 attention, and what steps towards correction 
 need be taken. 
 
 Paragraph structure may be required in 
 tests on meaning and use. Often, the full 
 meaning of a word can not be well given in 
 a single sentence. Several sentences may be 
 required fully to amplify and make clear the 
 meaning of the idea expressed by the word. 
 Pupils should be asked to write a short para- 
 
 221 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 graph for a single word, if necessary, when 
 a test in meaning and use is given. In an 
 exercise on word analysis, the children may 
 be requested to give words having the same 
 stem, and being in the same ^family,' to give 
 opposites, to tell the usual phrase combina- 
 tion in which the word is found, to write 
 other grammatical forms of the word, and 
 so on. A real spelling test involves much 
 more than simple spelling of words. 
 
 To test the use and effects of the library 
 one must consider the following points : (1) 
 number of books read by each pupil, or used 
 by him for reference ; (2) quality of the mat- 
 ter read; (3) periodic discussion of current 
 events, contents of newspapers, weeklies, etc. 
 If there is a list kept of the books read by 
 the pupils it will be easy to rate the class in 
 this particular, the register of the class be- 
 ing taken as the basis. A few questions put 
 to the pupils ma}^ be necessary to test to what 
 extent the pupils have really made use of the 
 books drawn. 
 
 222 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 §6. Manual Work 
 
 Such exercises as drawing, writing, sew- 
 ing, modeling, shop work, etc., are usually 
 rated solely from the side of expression. 
 Any piece of work, however, may be ex- 
 amined from the standpoint of content, ana- 
 lysed into a number of parts, and given a 
 mark for each part. In the drawing of a 
 box or a cylinder, for example, values may 
 be assigned to the characteristic lines and 
 curves. A single aspect may be made the 
 standard and the work counted right or 
 wrong as a whole, according as it meets or 
 fails to meet the requirements. 
 
 Penmanship may be analysed into several 
 merits, as, (1) slant, (2) movement, (3) 
 quality of line, (4) legibility, and (5) clean- 
 liness. Each of the pupils' papers may be 
 marked according to these merits, and a 
 value given to the set, on the basis of 20 for 
 each excellence. If the papers are arranged 
 in the order of legibility and general ap- 
 pearance, the median paper may be selected 
 
 223 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 and marked. To test specific aspects of pen- 
 manship, one can arrange special sets of 
 words for loops, small letters, etc. Thus, the 
 words, going, going, gone^ contain exactly 
 five lower loops. If these words are dictated 
 to the class, the papers can be corrected on a 
 numerical basis, 2 points out of 10 being 
 allowed for each loop. If the same set of 
 words is given to each of the grades, it is 
 possible to find how the classes compare in 
 this particular. Similar series of words can 
 be given to test other formations, as. This is 
 his happy, happy home, for the upper loop. 
 Very many men came, for the m form, and 
 so on. 
 
 §7. General Suggestions 
 
 In most of the oral work, the pupils will 
 be found weak in sustained oral discourse. 
 They seem to need, or to be accustomed to 
 continual prompting by the teacher. They 
 give partial answers, and expect the rest to 
 be filled in by the listener. The use of ^and' 
 may be overprominent. When a written test 
 
 224 
 
CONTENT SUBJECTS 
 
 is given in history or geography, the pupils 
 do not consider so much the language which 
 they use as the accuracy of the facts given. 
 As a result the English is usually vile. 
 Papers which call for written expression 
 should be marked not only on the correct- 
 ness of the content, but also on the written 
 expression. A general, serial rating may be 
 given, as, A, B, C, or D, 
 
 In oral testing, a call for hands may be 
 sufficient to indicate to what extent the 
 pupils are able to answer. Several oral ques- 
 tions may be given, and the pupils required 
 to write the answers on a small sheet of 
 paper. Correction is then made as in the 
 usual marking of written work. In a written 
 examination, the work may be all of the 
 same kind, as, knowledge of recognition, or 
 of recall, etc., or it may contain a mixture 
 of the three varieties. Three separate tests, 
 each rated on the basis of 100, may be neces- 
 sary to rate the knowledge of the pupils in 
 recognition, recall, and reconstruction. 
 
 225 
 
V 
 
 RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
IX 
 
 RESULTS OP DISCIPLINE 
 §1. Personnel 
 
 Checking up the personal neatness and 
 cleanliness of the pupils is done in much the 
 same manner as is the daily inspection of 
 hands, clothing, etc. The children place out- 
 stretched hands upon the desks, and a rapid 
 count is made of dirty hands and finger nails. 
 Peet are then placed in the aisles for inspec- 
 tion of shined and unshined shoes. The 
 number of pupils who have hair uncombed, 
 and the number of girls whose hair is not 
 properly arranged are counted. Purther 
 inspection will note the clothing of the chil- 
 dren and its condition, as, buttons off jack- 
 ets, waists without collar or tie, absence of 
 hair ribbon, etc. A rating can be given on 
 each of these points, the attendance of the 
 
 229 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 pupils being taken as a basis. The excel- 
 lencies to be considered in an inspection of 
 the personnel of the pupils are the follow- 
 ing: 
 
 Personnel of the pupils 100 
 
 Hands 20 
 
 Face 20 
 
 Hair 20 
 
 Shoes 20 
 
 Clothes 20 
 
 A little investigation of the personal 
 habits of the children will show some pecu- 
 liar conditions. Pupils of 10, 11, or 12 years 
 of age may confess that they have never 
 combed their hair as long as they have lived. 
 Teachers have voluntarily gone to the homes 
 of their wards and in some cases have com- 
 pelled the parents to stop the practice of 
 sewing up their children in one or more 
 undershirts to protect them from the cold; 
 the aforesaid undershirts remaining un- 
 changed on the children throughout the win- 
 ter. If the pupils are too poor, there may 
 
 230 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 be a class committee to look after collection 
 of clothes, etc. Such material as soap, paper 
 toweling, (newspaper serves the purpose), 
 blacking box, etc., will do much to improve 
 the personnel of the pupils. 
 
 §2, Material 
 
 Material of the children may be checked 
 up in the same manner. If books are to be 
 inspected, some book in constant use, as, 
 reader or geography, is selected. Books are 
 placed on the desks, and the outside is noted, 
 as, covered or uncovered. The inside of the 
 book is then looked at, advisedly some page 
 that has been read, or some map in constant 
 use. A count is made of books which are 
 marked, etc., as by tracing of maps, scrib- 
 bling, pictures, etc. Material in other sub- 
 jects, as, shop w^ork, sewing, etc., may be 
 similarly examined. In such instances, the 
 external condition is noted, as, of covering, 
 envelope, oiling, freedom from rust, etc.; 
 
 231 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 and the general condition of the objects 
 checked up, as, lack of waste, fitness for use, 
 order, etc. 
 
 Written papers, drawings, note books, 
 etc., are next in order. Some specific aspect 
 should be made the point in the inspection, 
 as, accuracy of the text, cleanliness and free- 
 dom from blots or dirt, general appearance, 
 and the like. If the books, etc., show no 
 indication that the teacher has looked at 
 them and marked them in some manner, this 
 should be noted. 
 
 Pencils, pens, pencil bags, ink, etc., re- 
 quire constant looking after. Pupils are 
 more or less careless in these particulars, 
 and weak discipline shows itself, in one way, 
 when many pupils are badl}^ provided with 
 pencils, etc., and when there is a general lack 
 of order and system in their care. 
 
 A final consideration on the material side 
 is the general condition of the pupils' desks, 
 floor, etc., and, if necessary, of the teacher's 
 closet. After the pupils have placed hats, 
 
 232 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 books, etc., out of the desk boxes, a rapid 
 count of desks with dirt under them or in 
 them can be made. 
 
 The different points included under the 
 head of material are : 
 
 Material of the children 100 
 
 Books, etc., outside 20 
 
 Books, etc., inside 20 
 
 Blank books, papers, etc. 20 
 
 Ink, pencils, pens, etc. 20 
 
 Floor, desks, closets, etc. 20 
 
 As a basis for the ratings given, the attend • 
 ance of the class is taken, and deficiencies 
 are calculated and deducted from the total 
 of 20 in each merit. 
 
 It is surprising what demoralization re- 
 sults when there is no systematic attention 
 to the details above enumerated. Geograph- 
 ies may be marked by tracings of m.aps, etc., 
 pages may be torn from arithmetics or 
 grammars, or remarks of questionable ethi- 
 cal import may be inscribed on the margins. 
 
 233 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 Home work books and written note books 
 will usually show rapid deterioration to- 
 wards the end. Dirty floor, missing ink- 
 wells, loss of pencils, rulers, scissors, etc., 
 are the additional burdens which a teacher 
 \Nrill create for herself by neglecting the 
 material aspects of discipline. All these 
 deficiencies will be in great part avoided by 
 systematic inspection and checking up. 
 
 §5. Routine 
 
 Routine includes such results of discipline 
 as should be more or less automatic. Things 
 should go on of themselves, as it were, with- 
 out continued exhortation and instruction. 
 The details to which routine should apply 
 are, heating, lighting and ventilation, pass- 
 ing of material, entrance and dismissal of 
 pupils, and absence and lateness. 
 
 Ventilation, etc., can be attended to by 
 the pupils. Windows may be found closed, 
 slightly open at the top (or bottom), wide 
 open at the top (or bottom), or properly 
 
 234 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 open at both top and bottom, where auto- 
 matic ventilation is not in use. During 
 physical exercise and setting up drills, win- 
 dows should be opened both at top and bot- 
 tom. The above degrees of excellence may 
 be rated 5, 10, 15, or 20. If ventilation is 
 regulated by some system out of control of 
 the teacher, it can be reasonably expected 
 that unsatisfactory ventilation be reported 
 at the close of the session. Failure to report 
 or keep a record may be rated on a basis of 
 4, 5, or 10 as the case may be. Improper use 
 of shades and control of lighting may be 
 checked up in a similar fashion. 
 
 In a class properly disciplined and under 
 good control material will usually be passed 
 in a systematic and orderly fashion. It may 
 be passed by the pupils from the front to 
 the rear of the room, by aisles, or across, 
 from one side to the other. Pupils who do 
 not pass properly may be counted against 
 the total number present. If a teacher has 
 apparently no system at all, and flutters 
 
 235 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 around the room giving out material herself, 
 the principal should be charitable, and call 
 her attention to her fault by putting a ques- 
 tion mark under the proper heading on the 
 blank. Persistence of this error should be 
 rated 0. Books, rulers, pencils, etc., may be 
 distributed and collected as a formal drill. 
 
 Entrance and dismissal are subject to the 
 same method of examination. Do the pupils 
 keep a good line formation ? Do they pause 
 at the corners of hallways, at the door of the 
 room, etc. ? Has the leader been carefully 
 selected ? Is there a class captain, or presi- 
 dent, who can direct the class if necessary? 
 Such faults as running, irregular line for- 
 mation by some of the pupils, improper 
 spacing, hurry in entering the room, etc., 
 should be counted up, and given a negative 
 value on the basis of the total number of 
 pupils present. 
 
 In the case of absence and lateness of 
 pupils, a record can be kept each month, and 
 the teachers graded in four, five, or ten 
 
 236 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 divisions on a percentage basis. The highest 
 division will receive 20, and the others a pro- 
 portionate rating according to the division 
 in which they are. 
 
 In summary, routine consists of the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 Routine 100 
 
 Heating, ventilation, etc. 20 
 
 Passing of material 20 
 
 Entrance and dismissal 20 
 
 Absence 20 
 
 Lateness 20 
 
 A number of signs, like the handwriting 
 on the wall, indicate upon only a cursory 
 inspection, that something is wrong with the 
 discipline of the room. If the class is under 
 poor control, passing of material may vary 
 between omissions to pass, to throwing 
 things across the room. Entrance and dis- 
 missal then become a shaking of the head 
 and a byword among the teachers on the 
 floor, and consist chiefly of rushes out of the 
 
 237 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 room, or rushes into the room, helter skelter. 
 In less deficient form they may be marked 
 b^ straggling, lack of orderly line forma- 
 tion, or hurried, rapid marching. When 
 truants abound, and late pupils regularly 
 equal a large part of the class, it is safe to 
 infer that the discipline needs tightening. 
 It is surprising to note what a difference 
 results either for better or for worse when 
 a new teacher enters the room. The class 
 may, within a day or two, become one noted 
 for order, or, contrariwise, it may pass from 
 order to anarchy. 
 
 §4. Response 
 
 Psychologists are not agreed as to what 
 constitutes a test for attention. In the 
 classroom, therefore, it may be impossible 
 definitely to determine whether this or that 
 pupil is attentive, and fully occupied with 
 the work which is being presented. For 
 practical, pedagogical purposes, however, it 
 is safe to assume that those children are not 
 
 238 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 paying sufficient attention who are looking 
 out of the window, talking with their neigh- 
 bors, playing with and looking at objects 
 under the desk, etc. So long as a pupil has 
 the attitude of attention and fixates ade- 
 quately the object, blackboard, teacher, etc., 
 he may be counted as attentive. This does 
 not necessitate a rigid posture, nor does it 
 preclude leaning forward, or the various 
 motor diffusions which may manifest them- 
 selves by finger or face movements, etc. 
 
 Pupils are sitting properly when their 
 feet touch the ground, and when their bodies 
 are reasonably erect. Hands should be in 
 front of them, and not ^behind backs,' nor 
 on top of heads. In written work, the elbows 
 should not be too high, nor should the pupils 
 bend over the desk or press closely against 
 it. A rapid count will tell how many pupils 
 are sitting properly and how many are not. 
 Correct grouping of the pupils is also a 
 desideratum. Effective visualization re- 
 quires the pupils to sit the long way of the 
 
 239 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 room, to prevent foreshortening of objects, 
 and to be within the teacher's line of sight. 
 Massing in semicircular form in front of the 
 teacher may also be necessary, as in group 
 instruction. 
 
 When pupils are standing properly, the 
 head, and not the abdomen, is up and for- 
 ward. Hands are by the side, not on top of 
 desk or in pockets. The basis for rating 
 may be the four or five children who have 
 stood while reciting during the lesson, or it 
 may be the whole number of pupils observed 
 during a drill, or called upon to stand for 
 setting up exercises. If the pupils are called 
 upon to ^show how well they can stand,' they 
 are practically told what to do, and no hon- 
 est rating can be given. 
 
 Individual response of pupils can be meas- 
 ured in the classroom and out of it, in fact, 
 wherever the pupils may be met. Training 
 leaves its mark and can always be told. Lack 
 of such training and response is evident 
 when the teacher is continually reporting 
 
 240 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 pupils for misbehavior, and seems unable to 
 control them. Disorder in the room, as, per- 
 sistent talking, changing seats without per- 
 mission, walking around the room to attract 
 attention, etc., indicates a similar lack of 
 individual response on the part of the pupils. 
 Class response, as a whole, is a somewhat 
 different result from individual response, 
 and calls for another type of discipline. 
 Class response is not made up of the sum of 
 individual responses, as such. It is an in- 
 tegral whole, and calls for unit action. It 
 is manifested in satisfactory drills, singing, 
 group work, and the like. It differs from 
 routine, in that directions are necessary 
 from time to time. Straggling reaction, in- 
 tentional interference by one or more pupils, 
 weakness in rhythmic movements, etc., count 
 against this merit. A rating may be given 
 on a numerical basis, the number of pupils 
 interfering being counted out and valued on 
 the basis of class attendance; or a general 
 estimate may be made. In the latter case 
 
 241 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 the teachers are grouped in four or five 
 divisions, according to the number of times 
 the class has been disorderly while in the 
 teacher's hands, or has failed to respond as 
 shown by inspections, complaints, or calls 
 for help. 
 
 The excellencies which constitute response 
 of pupils in general, are the following : 
 
 Response 
 
 100 
 
 Attention 
 
 20 
 
 Sitting 
 
 20 
 
 Standing 
 
 20 
 
 Individual 
 
 20 
 
 Class 
 
 20 
 
 Lack of attention is a common complaint, 
 even with the classes of experienced teach- 
 ers. A teacher makes matters only worse by 
 constantly asking for the attention of pupils, 
 or by nagging. It may be that a drill is 
 needed, with such exercises as breathing, 
 stretching, etc. It often happens that a 
 teacher runs over the time assigned for the 
 
 242 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 subject, and becomes a bore to the children. 
 There may be no proper use of incentives, 
 questioning, etc. The pupils, like the pris- 
 oners in cells who can not escape, may be 
 compelled to listen to the talk of the teacher, 
 when they are longing for a chance to talk, 
 or work, or do something. Wliere most of 
 the pupils show little attention, it is safe to 
 assume that the lesson is a failure. 
 
 Sitting and standing of pupils often is 
 neglected by some teachers. Desks may be 
 too high. Pupils may be allowed to stand 
 with hands in pockets, or holding on to desk 
 tops. The old practice of having the chil- 
 dren sit with their hands behind their backs 
 or placed on top of their heads may be found. 
 Where there is lack of response, it may be 
 due to a weak, flabby manner of the teacher, 
 and an insipid, droning manner in giving 
 commands. Pupils like snap and vigor, and 
 will respond to it. 
 
 243 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 §5, Class Activities 
 
 A number of simple class activities can be 
 expected of the teacher, and will do much to 
 create good class spirit, and easy, natural 
 discipline. Classroom decoration, as a re- 
 sult of the efforts of both pupils and teacher, 
 is one of these. Statues, framed pictures, 
 charts, work done by the pupils, contribu- 
 tions, etc., can be so arranged within the 
 room as to make it attractive and pleasant. 
 Quantity alone is not the sole requisite. 
 There must also be considered the grouping, 
 color, form, and subject harmony, appropri- 
 ateness, and placing. The different rooms 
 in the school can be arranged in a series of 
 4, 5 or 10 grades according to their excel- 
 lence, and a rating given on the basis of 20. 
 
 Interclass exercises differ from interclass 
 games in that they are concerned more with 
 the different grade subjects, history, lan- 
 guage, spelling, arithmetic, etc., and are 
 more academic in character. All written 
 work of any kind can be passed from one 
 
 244 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 class to another, of about the same grade, for 
 correction, imitation, answer, etc. So, too, 
 one class can visit another to see the room 
 decorations, to hear the oral work, to observe 
 a drill, and so on. An interchange of cour- 
 tesies, as it were, can take place. The best 
 pupils, at times, might be allowed to go to 
 another class to show their work, recite, etc. 
 It will be found that some teachers have a 
 program of interclass exercises nicely pre- 
 pared, well integrated with their work, and 
 faithfully carried out. At the other extreme 
 will be found those who have not tried any- 
 thing as yet, who may, perhaps, not believe 
 in it, or who do not quite know what it is all 
 about. The classes can be arranged in a 
 series between these two extremes, and a 
 value given according as they fit in one of 
 four or five divisions. 
 
 Interclass games can be treated in a simi- 
 lar manner. Competitive athletics, gyimias- 
 tics, dancing, games of any sort, are here 
 included. They may call for the services 
 
 245 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 of teachers after sessions, and they necessi- 
 tate program and preparation. A final tour- 
 nament among several classes may be held. 
 Interclass games are sometimes correlated 
 with the other class activities, as in the case 
 of excursions, or individual studies of pu- 
 pils. When a class is taken out on an excur- 
 sion, it may meet another class, and co- 
 operate with it in its work, games, and exer- 
 cises. Similarly, in organizing interclass 
 games, an appeal may be made to some of the 
 pupils, by assigning them posts in the game, 
 or parts in the play. 
 
 A promised excursion to the country, to 
 a museum, historic place, park, etc., usually 
 sets the children wild with excitement and 
 pleasure, especially in crowded sections of 
 the city where they have little opportunity 
 to get out. In such a case a regular program 
 should be arranged and details of the fol- 
 lowing nature recorded: (1) permissions 
 from the parents allowing the children to 
 go ; (2) provision for such pupils as remain; 
 
 246 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 (3) the route to be taken; (4) the number 
 taken, and the number returned; (5) the 
 number of accidents, if any; (6) the pro- 
 gram, giving exercises, games, points to be 
 noted, etc. A record of each excursion, with 
 the above data, properly dated, should be 
 kept by the class teacher, and a copy filed 
 in the office of the school. A class club may 
 also be organized. Meetings are held, recep- 
 tions are given, parents are invited, a class 
 * party' is arranged, and a good social spirit 
 is developed. In rating teachers in this par- 
 ticular, the classes may be arranged in a 
 series, and grouped in four or five divisions. 
 Those in the first division get 20 credits out 
 of 20, those in the second get 15, and so on. 
 
 Finally some credit is due the teacher who 
 makes a special study of a pupil who has a 
 bad name, who is truant, or reputed to be 
 incorrigible. How has she handled such a 
 case? What has she done m adapting the 
 work to the pupil, in helping him individu- 
 ally, in cooperating with his parents, in visit- 
 
 247 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 ing his home, and so on ? What use has she 
 made of manual work, or dramatics, of occu- 
 pations which call for responsibility, etc.? 
 Has she spoken to him alone, and used every 
 kind of personal appeal ? With one teacher, 
 such a pupil seems no different from the 
 others, and mil respond naturally and cheer- 
 fully. With another teacher trouble starts 
 as soon as the pupil is in the room, or shortly 
 after he enters. Grading of teachers and 
 rating will follow the general scheme out- 
 lined in the preceding paragraph. 
 
 The various class activities with their 
 value is given below : 
 
 Class activities 100 
 
 Classroom decoration 20 
 
 Interclass exercises 20 
 
 Interclass games 20 
 
 Excursions, clubs, etc. 20 
 
 Individual studies of pupils 20 
 
 In the matter of class activities some de- 
 
 iciencies and dangers are to be noted. Many 
 
 248 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 teachers decorate the room in a somewhat 
 aimless fashion. The growth is one of accre- 
 tion, as it were. A new picture or chart 
 appears, and it is placed in the first empty 
 space that presents itself. As a result, there 
 will be a mass of room decoration, of which 
 the greater part detracts from the appear- 
 ance of the room because it is either in 
 excess, or not properly placed. One should 
 avoid making of the room a curiosity shop. 
 Planning and care are necessary. 
 
 When an excursion or a class ^ party' has 
 been arranged for, it is necessary to keep the 
 children within bounds. There is usually 
 the danger that, in the excitement, disorder 
 results, and other classes are interfered 
 with. No children should be allowed to roam 
 about the halls, pay ^friendly visits' to other 
 classes, or to show themselves outside of the 
 classroom. When the class moves, it should 
 move as a body, without stragglers of any 
 kind. 
 
 249 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 §^. Social Morality 
 
 It is evident that in the results of discip- 
 line as enumerated above, there is present 
 ethical training of a high order. Cleanli- 
 ness, hygienic and external, is necessary if 
 the personnel of the children is to reach a 
 satisfactory standard. Material and its care 
 involve such virtues as system, order, neat- 
 ness, economy, service, and work. Routine 
 demands such good habits as obedience, 
 regularity, cooperation, and the like, while 
 response necessitates courtesy, respect, self- 
 control, docility, and so on. In the different 
 class activities there is opportunity for 
 social contact, intercourse, and practice. 
 
 Results in instruction also carry with 
 them, by necessity, considerable ethical 
 training. Obedience is necessary to secure 
 such reaction as is indispensable to good 
 work. Neatness, cleanliness, order, system, 
 and arrangement receive a value in all of 
 the subjects. Good habits of thought are 
 provided for in the organization of the 
 
 250 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 material, and in problem work and recon- 
 structive exercises. Initiative is similarly 
 encouraged, and individual control is stimu- 
 lated in the requirements which call for 
 knowledge of control. Regularity, industry, 
 and persistence are essential to progress iu 
 any subject.. The different forms of expres- 
 sion which are required, allow for such in- 
 dividual differences as the pupils may pos- 
 sess, and tend to develop individual interests 
 among the children. Honesty, truthfulness, 
 obedience, respect, and effort are a sine qua 
 7ion in the teaching process, if satisfactory 
 results are to be reached. So the story runs. 
 Among many, however, there is a demand 
 for more specific instruction in ethics, and 
 for a conscious, systematic treatment of 
 social morality. Just as the various school 
 subjects undergo differentiation in the 
 grades, so, it is held, social morality should 
 become essential rather than incidental in 
 the teaching process. Systematic guidance 
 by topics is asked for, with marks, check- 
 
 251 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 ing up, etc., as in the ease of arithmetic or 
 history. 
 
 A convenient list of topics and headings 
 under which the different aspects of social 
 morality may be grouped are the following : 
 
 Conventional courtesy 
 
 Use of such expressions^ as, Please, 
 Thank you, Excuse me, Yes sir, Yes 
 ma'am, etc. 
 
 Good breeding, and absence of rough- 
 ness, censoriousness, raillery, con- 
 tradiction, captiousness, excess of 
 ceremony, interruption, and dispute 
 (See Locke, Some Th, Con, Ed,) 
 
 Social duties 
 Courtesy and consideration 
 Toleration and reasonableness 
 Respect and reverence 
 Obedience and docility 
 Self-reliance and self-control 
 Social service and cooperation 
 
 252 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 School conduct 
 
 In the school building 
 Outside of the school huilding 
 In the classroom 
 (Results of discipline, in part) 
 
 Civic obligations 
 Absolute rights 
 Of person 
 Of property 
 
 Obligatory rights 
 Of contract 
 Of domestic relations 
 
 Remedial rights 
 
 , Private wrongs 
 
 Assault and battery 
 Defamation, libel, slander 
 Fraud and oppression 
 Trespass and conversion 
 Nuisance 
 Negligence 
 
 253 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 Public wrongs 
 
 Treason^ rebellion, resistance, etc. 
 Embezzling, bribery, perjury, etc. 
 Smuggling, usury, etc. 
 Adulteration, vagabondage, nuisance, 
 
 etc. 
 Assault, battery, kidnapping, etc. 
 Larceny, robbery, forgery, etc. 
 
 Many of these topics are treated incidentally 
 in subjects like history and civics, but the 
 legal aspects are not presented specifically 
 and with sufficient emphasis. 
 
 As in the case of knowledge, so with social 
 morality, three grades of reaction can be 
 demanded. The pupils may be told or shown 
 an instance, and asked to tell what it repre- 
 sents, what specific virtue or moral it car- 
 ries, or simply, whether it is good or bad, 
 legal or illegal, satisfactory or unsatisfac- 
 tory. A higher type of reaction is necessary 
 if the children are asked to recite on a given 
 topic, answer questions at length, tell illus- 
 
 254 
 
RESULTS OF DISCIPLINE 
 
 trative stories or incidents, etc., just as 
 they do in history, geography, or grammar. 
 Finally, complete reaction as in dramatiza- 
 tion or in actual behavior may be required, 
 or a discussion with reasons, etc., may be 
 asked. The three types of reaction are there- 
 fore, (1) recognition^ (2) recall, and (3) con- 
 trol or reconstruction. 
 
 For example, one may ask the class to dis- 
 tinguish between the correctness or the in- 
 correctness of the forms. Give me, and 
 Please give me. They may be required to 
 make requests for different objects. Or one 
 may give help to a pupil, incidentally, and 
 see whether he will respond with a. Thank 
 you. The class may be tested on the propo- 
 sition so common among the children, Find- 
 ings is keepings. Explanations, reasons, and 
 a discussion may be called for. They may 
 be asked to explain and discuss the maxim, 
 Honesty is the best policy. Specific instances 
 may be put before the class for recognition 
 as to their ethical import, for discussion, 
 
 255 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 imitation, etc. Current events, history, and 
 biography afford abundant material for 
 such a purpose. Dramatization is possible 
 in many cases to show types of social be- 
 havior which should be imitated. 
 
 256 
 
YI 
 APPENDICES 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 THREE RULES OF INSPECTION 
 
 Whether it is the teacher who is testing pupils, 
 the principal who is inspecting teachers, or the 
 superintendent who is examining a school, the fol- 
 lowing three rules should be followed, rigidly and 
 without exception: 
 
 Rule one: Whatever standards and tests are 
 
 APPLIED should BE DEFINITE AND KNOWN IN ADVANCE 
 BY THE INDIVIDUALS WHO ARE TO BE EXAMINED. 
 
 It is very easy to evade this rule by assuming that 
 the teacher should know her work and should be 
 able to meet any tests given. But inexperienced 
 teachers will neglect some phases of the teaching 
 process, while older ones may follow narrow but 
 well-grooved paths. Moreover, (whisper it softly), 
 there is always the possibility that the examining 
 official may have unique standards which will not 
 bear the cool air and dry light of reason, may, in 
 fact, know less than the one whom he is inspecting. 
 If the teacher is instructed in the details which are 
 to be looked for, right or wrong, she can at least 
 follow instructions, and meet the examiner half way. 
 Then there are always differences due to varying 
 
 259 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 emphasis on one or the other phase of the teaching 
 process. If stress is to be laid on oral or other work, 
 the teacher should know of it, lest she unconsciously 
 offend by spending too much time on written or 
 motor appeals. If a superior official really has 
 standards, these should be definitely stated, and 
 given to the teachers concerned. 
 
 So much is usually granted. But in the matter 
 of tests and examinations, it is too often the custom 
 to * spring' a set of questions upon the teacher, and 
 to ask her to give them to the class, without consult- 
 ing her about what she has done, or cooperating with 
 her in the least. Just what is gained by such a pro- 
 cess, it is hard to determine. If the examiner wants 
 to know what the teacher has taught, he can find out 
 by asking her, or by looking at her plan book. If he 
 wants to find out the results of the teacher's instruc- 
 tion, any tests given should correspond with such 
 instruction, and this is possible only when the teacher 
 is consulted in the matter. If the supervising official 
 wishes to have types of a special kind taught, it 
 seems only fair that such types should be given to 
 the teacher in advance. "Whatever be the case, there 
 should be some cooperation between the inspecting 
 official and the teachers supervised by him. 
 
 It is held that if type problems or outlines are 
 given to the teacher, she will work along narrow 
 lines and will present only individual cases to the 
 children. But types and outlines can be made suffi- 
 ciently inclusive to cover any field in any subject. 
 
 260 
 
THREE RULES OF INSPECTION 
 
 And when a teacher is not taken into confidence nor 
 allowed to cooperate, a condition is created which 
 results in a process more narrowing than any which 
 could be produced by the setting of types and out- 
 lines. In fact, when arbitrary and unrelated exami- 
 nations are given by the supervising official, the 
 teacher quietly collects the few questions given at 
 different times, studies the peculiarities of the ex- 
 aminer, (who is but one and therefore narrow), and 
 then does little more than drive the pupils along the 
 lines unconsciously laid by the examiner. He natu- 
 rallj^ finds 'improvement,' and smugly reports the 
 progress made under his supervision. And with each 
 new supervisor the process may be repeated. 
 
 Even if it be granted that such a thing as general 
 * power' can be developed and tested, the limits 
 within which such power is to operate can be clearly 
 indicated in advance. Usually such 'power' consists 
 in the knowledge of two or three tricks in number 
 which can be readily memorized, and in the cram- 
 ming of a set response to a form of question which is 
 considered by the examiner as a sure test of ' power. ' ^ 
 
 i There seems to be no good reason why courses of study 
 should not contain, not only directions on method, but se- 
 quence and organization of subject matter, and definite 
 types and outlines. The usual course of study is arranged 
 logically, may be followed, and so may automatically ensure 
 poor instruction. See the excellent analysis of different 
 courses of study in arithmetic, in A Brief Course in the 
 Teaching Process, by G. D. Strayer, Ch. XVIII, 
 
 261 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 When a supervisor neither assists nor encourages 
 the teachers, and fails to get their respect and co- 
 operation by such means, as a last resort, he has the 
 examination which he can use like a lash. It is a 
 petty way to arouse a stir which is mistaken for 
 increased efficiency, and to create a feeling which 
 may wrongly be considered respect or reverence, but 
 which is neither the one nor the other. The feeling 
 aroused is much akin to the sense of disgust and 
 unrest which is produced in one, when one is aware 
 that there is a snake loose, nearby. One knows not 
 what is to follow, nor what is to be expected. It is 
 well known, that, when an examination is given 
 without cooperation with the ones to be tested, the 
 questions can be 'jockeyed' so as to produce practi- 
 cally any result, from 5 or 10% upwards. And it is 
 equally well known that the results of examinations 
 can be used as a kind of ' evidence, ' if, as the politi- 
 cians say, it is necessary 'to get' the teacher. Varia- 
 tions within the course of study are infinite, and, 
 when subject to the whim of an irresponsible ex- 
 aminer, are capable of producing any percentage 
 results. 
 
 Rule two : Any written report, inspection, etc., 
 
 USED officially AND BEARING THE TEACHER 's NAME, 
 SHOULD BE GIVEN IN DUPLICATE TO THE TEACHER CON- 
 CERNED. 
 
 This rule is followed to a great extent by many 
 principals and superintendents, and is gradually re- 
 ceiving wider recognition. It is now common for 
 
 262 
 
THREE RULES OF INSPECTION 
 
 the supervising official to write a criticism, of a 
 teacher 's lesson and to leave a copy with the teacher. 
 It is, however, not so common to leave with the 
 teacher a copy of any report which is regarded as 
 'confidential' in the higher circles. But the rule 
 should hold without exception. Everything con- 
 nected with the teacher 's record should be given to 
 her in duplicate. 
 
 It is seen that the first rule is closely related to 
 the second. If the teacher has not received standards 
 and types as a guide, a written report may mean 
 little to her, for it may be written from a different 
 viewpoint each time. It is this inconsistency which 
 makes of supervision such a bugbear — usually an 
 actual hindrance to classroom work. The inspecting 
 official may have a set — and a wrong set — of which 
 the teacher is not aware. The written suggestion 
 operates then like a damper; and supervision, in- 
 stead of aiding and encouraging the teacher, de- 
 presses her and hangs like a yellow cloud over her 
 work. 
 
 Rule three : Any report which may be ques- 
 tioned, SHOULD be supported BY FACTS — BY PRIMARY 
 
 EVIDENCE. Without the data upon which it is 
 
 BASED, IT SHOULD BE THROWN OUT WITHOUT THE LEAST 
 CONSIDERATION. 
 
 When reports upon classroom work are written 
 from wrong points of view, or upon slight and in- 
 sufficient data, they mean practically nothing more 
 than the whim or opinion of a biased or incompetent 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 official. It is easily conceivable that a sodden Phari- 
 see may report on his own efficiency and fulness of 
 heart, and upon the weakness and inefficiency of the 
 teacher, when the facts might reverse the positions 
 stated in the report. What is means by ' unsatisfac- 
 tory ' service ? How large a share in the school work 
 is taken up by the weaknesses noted? How often 
 have such weaknesses occurred? Are they in fact 
 real weaknesses? When, for example, the facts are 
 simply, ' some paper on the floor, ' ' two or three boys 
 talking,' 'argument with the teacher,' etc., during 
 the single visit of the examiner, one questions the 
 validity of any report supported solely by the opinion 
 of the supervising official. And the judgments of 
 the average supervising official can not, in the wild- 
 est flights of the imagination, be regarded as expert 
 testimony. 
 
 It is expected, in the teacher-pupil relation, that 
 the teacher show good cause for rating a pupil * un- 
 satisfactory, ' such cause including, evidence of help 
 given, of poor work done by the pupil, of notice to 
 parents, etc. So, too, in the case of the principal- 
 teacher relation, no teacher should be reported upon 
 adversely, unless evidence is presented, (1) that 
 standards and types have been outlined for her; (2) 
 that aid and encouragement have been given; (3) 
 that repeated inspections have been made; and (4) 
 that any examination given has been based upon 
 work done by the teacher as outlined in her plan or 
 progress book. Cooperation all along the line should 
 be the aim in view. 
 
 264 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 A CASE IN POINT 
 
 The following statements resulted from a report 
 made by a principal against a teacher. The teacher 
 appealed. It is to be noted that no real evidence is 
 presented to support any of the judgments given by 
 either side. As evidence, they are worthless. The 
 exhibits speak for themselves. 
 
 Exhibit A 
 
 Appeal of the teacher, A. B. C. 
 
 Q. E. D., Esq., Superintendent. 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 Herewith I respectfully enclose a statement of my 
 case which I trust you will be kind enough to recon- 
 sider in view of the circumstances. I have the honor 
 
 to be, 
 
 Yours respectfully, 
 
 A. B. C, Teacher. 
 
 To Q. E. D., Esq., Superintendent. 
 Dear Sir : 
 
 With regard to the non-renewal of my License, I 
 respectfully submit the following statement which con- 
 tains good reasons why I was not treated justly. 
 
 265 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 At 10 o'clock, A. M., Friday, September — , 19 — , 
 Mr. X. Y. Z., the Principal, called me from my class- 
 room, told me that my License was not renewed, and 
 that I should leave at once. This information came 
 to me as a great surprise as I was tacitly allowed by 
 the Principal to assume that my work for the past 
 year was quite satisfactory. On June — , 19 — , I com- 
 pleted two years in the service of the Board, during 
 which I lost no time and was never late nor unpunc- 
 tual. During the two years or four terms, I was never 
 told by the Principal how he rated me or what my 
 marks were. And having asked him how he marked 
 me for the fall term, 19 — , he evaded the question by 
 a sarcastic piece of wit at my expense. Now the lack 
 of this information was quite unfair to me because I 
 naturally assumed that my work was meritorious. 
 The fact of heing ignorant of their ratings may be cor- 
 roborated by other teachers in respect to themselves. 
 
 With regard to the Data I wish to make and declare 
 the following statement as true : 
 
 During the first two terms (19 — , ), the Prin- 
 cipal, Mr. X. Y. Z., never once came to my classroom 
 to give a lesson, to hear a lesson given hy me, or to 
 make any suggestions for a change or improvement in 
 my class instruction ; nor did he help me by either giv- 
 ing or recommending any preferable text-books, but 
 his invariable reply to any question asked by me was : 
 ''I have no time." For this period he did not ask for 
 nor examine any of the written work of my classes ; in 
 fact the only purpose for which he ever came to my 
 
 266 
 
A CASE IN POINT 
 
 classroom was to find something from my Roll Book, 
 such as the figures for the 3,Ionthly attendances. Tak- 
 ing the first term of my second year into consideration 
 as regards Discipline, he personally commended me 
 once or twice casually when passing the classroom 
 door. But in respect to Instruction, he never stopped 
 in my classroom long enough to knoiv what it ivas like 
 or what the residts of it luere. During the second 
 term of my second year I had a class of 48 Boys and as 
 before he personally approved of my Discipline (He 
 could see that in passing my classroom door), but with 
 regard to class instruction, he did not come to my 
 classroom until, I think, the third-last day of the term, 
 when the following was the procedure : 
 
 The Principal came to my classroom at 15 minutes 
 before closing time. I was having a reading lesson 
 then. He appeared to be excited, nervous, and in a 
 hurry. He told me to ask the boys a few general ques- 
 tions in the class History, which I did. He then re- 
 peated his question as to Geography and Elementary 
 Science. I gave the boys a few questions in each 
 subject. This occupied altogether about seven min- 
 xites. He then went away and came back excited and 
 complaining about all his work, etc. It was about 
 3.10 o'clock. He asked me to show him the written 
 work of the term. I gave it to him. It consisted of 
 Writing copies. Compositions, Dictations, Transcrip- 
 tions, and Drawings. He gave a cursory glance over 
 a few pieces of the work, occupying, I judge, about 
 half a minute, during which time he complained of all 
 
 267 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 his work. Then he showed a report sheet on which he 
 said he should answer questions regarding me. He 
 said, ' ' How will I answer this question ? ' How do you 
 use apperception?' " to which I replied, "That's for 
 you to answer. ' ' He said, ' ' How do you expect me to 
 answer? I am on the verge of nervous breakdown 
 from want of sleep." He then left my classroom say- 
 ing that the report should be sent by him to Mr. Q. E. 
 D. on that afternoon, the latest. 
 
 If you think I have been treated fairly, I will re- 
 spectfully submit to your decision; but if you think 
 I have not, I ask for a renewal of License and a trans- 
 fer to another School. 
 
 Respectfully yours, 
 
 A. B. C, Teacher. 
 
 Sworn before me this — day of 
 
 September, 19 — , 
 
 M. N. 0., Notary Public. 
 
 Exhibit B 
 
 Letter of lawyer to principal. 
 
 Mr. X. Y. Z., Principal. 
 My Dear Sir : 
 
 Will you kindly let me know what assistance and 
 inspection was given to the work of A. B. C, who 
 was for two years teaching under a temporary license 
 under you? Kindly indicate specifically the number 
 ( ?) and amount of time given to assisting him in his 
 work, examination of his work by attendance and 
 
 268 
 
A CASE IN POINT 
 
 observation in his classroom, and observation of Ms 
 discipline. He has called upon me and feels that an 
 injustice has been done him by reason of the failure 
 to renew his license for the third year. I have his 
 story, but want to hear from you before doing any- 
 thing. 
 
 Thanking you in advance I am, 
 
 Very truly yours, 
 
 L. L. B., Lawyer. 
 
 Exhibit C 
 
 Reply of Principal, X. Y. Z. 
 
 Dr. Q. E. D., Superintendent, 
 Dear Sir : 
 
 I have read the statement of Mr. A. B. C. in refer- 
 ence to non-renewal of his license. I notified Mr. A. 
 B. C. that his license had not been renewed as soon 
 as I received word from you to that effect. I did not 
 evade Mr. A. B. C.'s request as to his rating, and have 
 no recollection of making sarcastic remarks to him 
 about the matter. Mr. A. B. C. in his communication 
 gives the impression that his discipline was very good. 
 In point of fact, until about the middle of last term his 
 discipline was very poor; frequently the entire class 
 was in an unproar, while he stood before them helpless 
 and apparently dazed. A number of times I requested 
 him to give me the names of the worst boys ; he almost 
 invariably declined, sometimes saying, '^Ah! Well! 
 What is the use ! ' ' From statements made to me by 
 
 269 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 parents it looked as though at times he resorted to 
 violent means to maintain discipline. I allowed the 
 parents to see him, and as no formal complaints were 
 made, the matter rested. Finally, and this occurred 
 the early part of last term, I called him out of his 
 room, and told him that if a parent again came, I 
 would prefer charges against him to the local school 
 board. I may have commended his class when they 
 were behaving in order to encourage him; until last 
 term his rating in discipline was C, and it was not 
 until June of this year that I gave him for the first 
 time the rating B, straining a point to do so. In my 
 report to you, under heading, 'Control of Class,' I 
 said, "Fair to good. There has been considerable 
 improvement. ' ' 
 
 The statement in the matter of my report to you as 
 to his use of apperception, correlation, etc., is also very 
 misleading. In my report on his case made to you in 
 June, I call your attention especially to what I said 
 in answer to the different headings. Is it likely that 
 I obtained these answers from him? I have been in 
 Mr. A. B. C.'s room many times and he knew 
 that I was not satisfied with his work. At 
 the formal examination I gave his class towards 
 the end of the term I spent a much longer 
 time in his room than would appear from his state- 
 ment, in order to make sure that I would do him no 
 injustice. The account of what occurred, of the re- 
 marks I made, is ridiculous and intended to excite 
 prejudice. 
 
 270 
 
A CASE IN POINT 
 
 I have not, during the past year, been able to spend 
 the time in his room that would have been desirable 
 in his case, owing to conditions in my school. There 
 are in the school a number of teachers who began 
 teaching with me, among them, four young men, who 
 are doing excellent work. Mr. A. B. C. claimed to 
 have had seven or eight years' experience, three of 
 
 them in the schools of , and three in the schools 
 
 of , before he was appointed to this school. Is 
 
 it not strange that he needed all the extra help, and 
 that in his case the principal of the school was to blame 
 because he did not succeed ? The teacher has not done 
 well because, in the first place, he is uncouth and awk- 
 ward — as I said in my report to you, "His ways 
 
 impress boys as strange " and the pupils do not 
 
 have the feeling of respect which the teacher should 
 inspire. Besides this, he is not only a little slow to 
 follow instructions, but he does not seem to care to 
 follow them. A number of times I have found fault 
 with him in respect to the manner in which he 
 attended to his work while on duty in the yard or 
 street, at dismissal or during recess. He did not 
 attend to the work of classroom instruction with that 
 enthusiasm and zeal that the earnest teacher should 
 have, but he was mechanical, easy-going, and indif- 
 ferent. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 X. Y. Z., Principal. 
 
 271 
 
APPENDIX C 
 ELLIOTT SCHEME OF MEASUREMENT. 
 
 OUTLINE 
 
 OF 
 
 Tentative Scheme for the 
 
 Measurement of Teaching 
 
 Efficiency 
 
 EDWARD G. ELLIOTT 
 
 University of Wisconsin 
 
 PRESENTED TO THE 
 
 SECOND ANNUAL STATE CONVENTION 
 
 OF CITY SUPERINTENDENTS 
 
 OCT. 7 AND 8, 1910 
 
 HELD UNDER DIRECTION OF 
 
 G. P. GARY 
 
 State Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 
 272 
 
Tentative Scheme for Measurement of 
 Teaching Efficiency 
 
 NOTE. — ^Criticisms and suggestions of the scheme will be ap- 
 preciated, and should be sent to Edward C. Elliott, University of 
 Wisconsin, Madison. 
 
 City School 
 
 Teacher Grade 
 
 No. of Pupils 
 
 Boys Date 
 
 Girls 
 
 Special conditions 
 
 Room. 
 
 Subject — 
 
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 Deduct from possible 4; very slight V2', slight 1; marked 2; very 
 marked iVz', extreme 3i/^. (Possible 8 or 
 12, in same proportion.) 
 
 Deduct from possible 2; very slight 1^4; slight V2', marked 1; very 
 marked l^/^; extreme 1%. 
 
 Minimum standard for approval; according to the exigencies of the 
 
 school system. 
 
 TEACHING EFFICIENCY— 100 Points. 
 
 Sug- 
 gested 
 values 
 
 Defi- 
 cien- 
 cies 
 
 Deter- 
 mined 
 values 
 
 PHYSICAL EFFICIENCY— 12 points 
 
 1. Impressions — general 
 
 2. Health — general 
 
 3. Voice 
 
 4. Habits — personal 
 
 5. Energy 
 
 6. Endurance 
 
 273 
 
 (12) 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 TEACHING EFFICIENCY— 100 Points. 
 
 Sug- 
 gested 
 valuers 
 
 Defi- 
 cien- 
 cies 
 
 II. MORAL— NATIVE EFFICIENCY— 14 points 
 
 1. Self control 
 
 2. Optimism — enthusiasm 
 
 3. Sympathy — tact 
 
 4. Industry — earnestness 
 
 5. Adaptability 
 
 6. Sense of humor 
 
 7. Judicial mindedness 
 
 III. ADMINISTRATIVE EFFICIENCY— 10 points 
 
 1. Initiative 
 
 2. Promptness and accuracy 
 
 3. Executive capacity 
 
 4. Economy (time, property) 
 
 5. Co-operation (associates and superiors) 
 
 IV. DYNAMIC EFFICIENCY— 24 points 
 
 1. Preparation 
 
 Including: 
 
 a. Intellectual capacity. 
 
 b. Academic education. 
 
 c. Professional training. 
 
 2. Professional attitudes and interest 
 
 3. Human nature attitudes and interest 
 
 (Appreciation of values — intellectual, 
 social and moral in child life) .... 
 
 4. Instructional skill 
 
 Including: 
 
 a. Attention and interest of pupils. 
 
 b. Formality vs. vitality of instruc- 
 
 tion. 
 
 c. Motor vs. verbal methods. 
 
 d. Application of the technique of 
 
 teaching; organization and 
 presentation of subject matter; 
 the recitation as artistic prod- 
 uct. 
 
 e. Application of the technique of 
 
 living; participation and con- 
 tribution of pupils; the recita- 
 tion as a democratic activity. 
 
 f. The tools and machinery of in- 
 
 struction; effective adaptation. 
 
 g. Assignment of work 
 
 5. Governmental and directive skill. 
 
 (discipline) 
 
 274 
 
 (14) I 
 2 I 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 (10) 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 (24) 
 4 
 
ELLIOTT SCHEME 
 
 TEACHING EFFICIENCY— 700 Points. 
 
 gested 
 values 
 
 Den- 
 cien- 
 cies 
 
 Deter- 
 miced 
 values 
 
 Y. PROJECTED EFFICIENCY— 6 points 
 
 1. Continuing preparation 
 
 a. Daily; b. Weekly; c. Annual 
 
 2. The school program 
 
 3. Increase of professional equipment 
 
 (professional reading and study; 
 travel) 
 
 vl. ACHIEVED EFFICIENCY— 24 points 
 
 1. Achievement. 
 
 a. Illustrative results 
 
 b. Examinations; success and at- 
 
 tainment of pupils 
 
 2. Stimulation of individuals and com- 
 
 munity 
 
 VII. SOCIAL EFFICIENCY— 10 points 
 
 1. Intra-mural interests 
 
 2. Extra-mural interests. 
 
 a. Cultural and ethical 
 
 b. Civic 
 
 c. School — ^patrons 
 
 (6) 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 (24) 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 (10) 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 PROPOSITIONS 
 
 1. Is it possible to devise, and to apply to the teaching 
 
 process, impersonal, quantitative standards 
 v\^hereby the relative worth and efficiency of 
 teachers may be determined more justly and 
 with greater precision than under the ordinary 
 practices of the day ? 
 
 2. Does not the effective organization, administration 
 
 and supervision of public schools require that 
 the conditions and results of the teacher's work 
 be subjected to measurements of a quantitative 
 rather than of a qualitative nature? 
 
 3. Is it possible for the present generation to make any 
 
 reliable and satisfactory conclusions concerning 
 the direction and rate of educational progress 
 without standards of value resting upon a quan- 
 titative basis ? 
 
 275 
 
APPENDIX D 
 
 SCHEME OF MEASUREMENT BASED ON 
 THE OHIO STATE SCHOOL SURVEY 
 
 A. Physical conditions affecting instruction 
 
 1. Does the teacher show in practice knowledge 
 
 of proper heat control and ventilation? 
 
 2. Examples of good and bad practice in this 
 
 respect. 
 
 3. What was the relative humidity of the 
 
 room? 
 
 4. Would you detect foul air by the sense 
 
 of smell? 
 
 5. Does the teacher seat the pupils as well as 
 
 possible under the conditions found ? 
 
 a. No. of seats too large (feet dang- 
 
 ling). 
 
 b. No. of seats too small. 
 
 c= No. of pupils seated in seats of one 
 size with desks of another. 
 
 6. Other examples of good and bad practice in 
 
 seating. 
 
 7. Does the teacher show in practice knowl- 
 
 edge of good lighting? 
 
 8. Examples of good and bad practice (Men- 
 
 tion particularly means taken to obviate 
 cross lights and to make up for insuffi- 
 cient window area). 
 
 B. Personality of teacher (Check V) 
 
 1. Teacher appears to be 
 
 vigorous weak 
 
 poised nervous ■ 
 
 neat slovenly — 
 
 at ease embarrassed- 
 Remarks 
 
 276 
 
OHIO STATE SCHOOL SURVEY 
 
 Days absent on account of own illness since 
 
 September to date ; during 
 
 previous term if teacher taught 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Voice is ( Check V ) 
 
 pleasing 
 
 clear 
 
 low 
 
 Remarks 
 
 harsh — 
 indistinct- 
 high 
 
 4. In her personal relations with her pupils 
 does she appear (Check V) 
 
 to stimulate - 
 
 to win cordial 
 
 co-operation- 
 
 to be 
 
 sympathetic- 
 strict 
 
 even 
 
 tempered 
 
 reasonable — 
 
 tolerant 
 
 dignified 
 
 courteous — 
 encouraging - 
 firm 
 
 tactful 
 
 enthusiastic - 
 quick to react- 
 quiet 
 
 systematic ■ 
 resourceful- 
 Remarks — 
 
 to suppress 
 
 to antagonize- 
 
 harsh 
 lax — 
 
 irritable 
 
 unreasonable- 
 intolerant — 
 undignified - 
 
 rude 
 
 nagging 
 
 weak 
 
 blundering 
 
 diffident 
 
 slow to react 
 noisy 
 
 disorderly 
 dependent 
 
 277 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 C. The recitation 
 
 1. Type of lesson (Check V) 
 
 a. Drill lesson 
 
 (1) simple (to make re- 
 sponse automatic) 
 
 (2) study (to memorize, e. 
 
 g., a poem) 
 
 (3) review (to fix automatic 
 
 response) 
 
 b. Problem lesson 
 
 (1) recitation (to solve 
 
 problem, material, previously 
 given) 
 
 (2) study (to teach how to 
 
 study) 
 
 (3) review (as above, to fix 
 
 and test) 
 
 (4) topic recitation 
 
 c. Appreciation lesson (to develop 
 
 tastes, interests, ideals in art, litera- 
 ture, etc.) 
 
 2. Time lost Check (V, and indicate num- 
 ber of minutes) 
 
 a. Calling class — — 
 
 b. Dismissing class 
 
 c. Distributing materials 
 
 d. Indistinct speech of teacher 
 
 e. Indistinct speech of pupils- 
 
 f. Unnecessary talking of teacher — 
 
 g. Unnecessary talking of pupils — 
 h. Failure to have devices ready 
 
 i. Use of ill-adapted devices 
 
 Remarks 
 
 278 
 
OHIO STATE SCHOOL SURVEY 
 
 3. No. of pupils in class appearing 
 
 to be interested indifferent- 
 energetic lazy 
 
 independent dependent- 
 
 4. No. of pupils asking 
 
 pertinent questions of fact 
 
 relevant thought provoking questions- 
 Remarks 
 
 5. Responses of pupils : No. giving 
 
 a. fluent topical recitations 
 
 b. word or phrase responses 
 
 c. sentence responses 
 
 d. incoherent responses 
 
 e. failing to answer 
 
 (If impossible to give number for b, c, 
 and d, indicate to what extent responses 
 were choppy or incoherent) 
 6. Evidence of teaching ability as shown by 
 (Check V). 
 
 a. Extent to which teacher's questions 
 are 
 
 (1) thought provoking 
 
 (2) calling for facts 
 
 (3) suggesting the answer 
 
 (4) answered by **yes'' or '*no" 
 
 (5) irrelevant 
 
 (6) not definite — vague 
 
 b. Extent to which material of recita- 
 tion is 
 
 (1) confined to text 
 
 (2) within pupil's comprehension 
 
 (3) related to children's lives 
 and experiences. 
 
 (4) adapted to children's pres- 
 ent and future needs. 
 
 (5) worth while 
 
 279 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 c. Extent to which the teaching 
 
 (1) is rambling 
 
 (2) is formal, mechanical 
 
 (3) stimulates initiative of pupils 
 
 (4) requires independent think- 
 ing 
 
 (5) develops pupils' resource- 
 fulness 
 
 (6) requires co-operation of pu- 
 pils. 
 
 (7) is fixed on essentials 
 
 (8) requires pupils to organize 
 material 
 
 (9) utilizes children's experi- 
 ences 
 
 (10) clears up pupils' difficulties 
 
 (11) shows use of material in solu- 
 tion of present or future 
 problems 
 
 S. Extent to which pupils 
 
 (1) had a clear idea of purpose 
 of lesson 
 
 (2) were self-reliant 
 
 (3) tested their own solutions 
 
 (4) acted and thought on their 
 own account 
 
 (5) cooperated with the teacher 
 and classmates 
 
 (6) persisted in getting desired 
 result 
 
 (7) differentiated between essen- 
 tials and non-essentials 
 
 (8) organized their material 
 
 (9) seemed well grounded in pre- 
 vious work 
 
 280 
 
OHIO STATE SCHOOL SURVEY 
 
 e. Correction of essential errors 
 
 (1) Describe method used 
 
 (2) Are non-essential errors too 
 much emphasized? 
 
 (3) What record is kept of re- 
 curring errors likely to re- 
 tard progress of pupils? 
 
 7. No. of pupils 
 
 not reciting — reciting once — twice — 
 three times — more than three times — 
 
 8. Was the assignment (Check V) 
 
 a. definite and clear ? 
 
 b. related to present lesson? 
 
 c. such that the pupils were prepared 
 to attack it intelligently ? 
 
 d. formal — from text-book? 
 
 e. by topics or problems ? 
 
 f. hastily made at dismissal? 
 
 g. omitted? 
 
 D. No. OF PUPILS IN ROOM BUT NOT IN RECITING SEC- 
 TION 
 
 No. industrious indolent 
 
 No. minding their own business 
 
 No. interfering with others 
 
 E. Subjects 
 
 1. Reading 2. Writing 
 
 3. Grammar 4. Language 
 
 5. Spelling 6. Arithmetic 
 
 7. Geography 8. Civics 
 
 9. History 10. Physiology and Hygiene 
 11. Music 12. Drawing 
 No. of pupils supplied with necessary books — 
 No. of pupils not so supplied 
 
 281 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY | 
 
 I 
 
 18. Composition 
 
 a. No. of pupils writing composi- ' 
 tions 1 
 
 b. No. of pupils not writing com- j 
 positions j 
 
 c. Total no. of words in composi- 
 tions j 
 
 d. No. of mistakes in spelling ! 
 
 e. No. of mistakes in grammar ; 
 
 f . No. of mistakes in punctuation 
 
 g. No. of mistakes in capitalization 
 
 h. No. of papers well written i 
 
 i. No. of papers legibly written I 
 
 j. No. of papers illegibly written ; 
 
 k. No. of cases of incomplete sen- 
 tences 
 
 1. No. of cases of sentences run to- j 
 
 gether j 
 
 m. No. of pupils showing inability 1 
 
 to paragraph correctly I 
 
 n. Ave. mark in spelling at last ■ 
 
 report > 
 
 o. Ave. mark in writing at last 
 
 report , 
 
 Remarks j 
 
 F. Errors and good points (Check V) ] 
 
 1. Errors i 
 
 a. Repeating answers \ 
 
 b. Repeating questions i 
 
 c. Leading questions I 
 
 d. Questions requiring Yes and No j 
 answers only j 
 
 e. * Pumping ' questions 
 
 f . Unnecessary telling 
 g. No topical recitations 
 
 h. Teacher teaches from book 
 
 282 
 
OHIO STATE SCHOOL SURVEY 
 
 i. Pupils recite in words of book, etc. 
 j. Teacher unnecessarily interrupts 
 
 pupils' recitations 
 k. Insufficient emphasis on vital points 
 (Take notes of actual blackboard work 
 — good, fair and poor) 
 
 2. Good points 
 
 a. Frequent legitimate questions by 
 pupils as to (1) What? (2) How? 
 (3) Where? (4) Why? (5) 
 When? 
 
 b. Pupils at blackboard 
 
 c. Work at board neat 
 
 d. Teacher insists on clear and distinct 
 enunciation 
 
 e. Initiative taken by pupils 
 
 (Note any other striking points. 
 Underline teacher's favorite subject) 
 
 G. Qualifications of the teacher 
 
 1. Teacher's age Sex Grade of cer- 
 
 tificate 
 
 2. Length of professional training in months — 
 
 3. Character of professional training: Nor- 
 
 mal school, normal college, college of 
 education, summer courses, other 
 (Underline) 
 
 4. Length of academic training in months 
 
 Elementary High College 
 
 5. Length of teaching service in months 
 
 6. Length of service in present school up to 
 
 September, 19 — , in months 
 
 7. Length of present contract in months 
 
 8. What educational periodicals does the 
 
 teacher read? 
 
 283 
 
TEACHING EFFICIENCY 
 
 9. What professional works has the teacher 
 read this year? 
 10. What other lines of self -improvement is the 
 teacher following? 
 
 H. Records and reports 
 
 1. Are visits of parents and supervisors re- 
 
 corded ? 
 
 2. Is the length of each visit recorded? 
 
 3. Is tardiness recorded? Causes? How? 
 
 4. Are absences recorded ? Causes ? How ? 
 
 5. Are ' beginners ' indicated in the records ? 
 
 6. Are causes of leaving school, dropping out, 
 
 recorded ? 
 
 7. Are continuous pupil record cards kept ? 
 
 8. Are the records and reports carefully kept ? 
 
 9. Are they easily accessible ? 
 
 10. Are they in good condition as to neatness 
 and order? 
 
 I. Health regulations 
 
 1. Periods per week of class work required 
 
 of normal pupils 
 
 2. Hours per week of study in school outside 
 
 of class periods 
 
 3. Hours per week of home study required 
 
 4. Minutes per day of rest and recess 
 
 periods 
 
 5. Hours per week of organized exercise and 
 
 athletics 
 
 6. No. of pupils taking part regularly in ex- 
 
 ercise in gymnasium on field 
 
 284 
 
BOOKS BY FELIX ARNOLD, Ph. D. 
 
 PRINCIPAL PUBLIC SCHOOL, NEW YORK 
 
 1. SPECIAL METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. Vol. I. 
 
 Model lessons in arithmetic, reading, phonics, 
 spelling, dictation, language forms, grammar, 
 composition, geography, history, and study of 
 nature. 
 
 Published by S. Mandel, 27 St. Nicholas Place 
 
 New York City 
 
 8 vo. Cloth Binding. 416 Pages 
 
 Price, $1.65 
 ^Z. OUTLINE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Outlines for students preparing for examinations 
 for license, etc. 
 
 Published by S. Mandel, 27 St. Nicholas Place 
 New York City 
 
 12 mo. Cloth Binding. 109 Pages. 
 
 Price, 50 Cents 
 3. SCHOOL AND CLASS MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Vol. I. Supervision and Class Management. 
 12 mo. Cloth. 409 pages. 
 
 Price, $1.25 
 
 Vol. II. Administration and Hygiene. 12 mo. 
 Cloth. 288 pages. 
 
 Price, $1.00 
 
 The MacMillan Co. New York City