COTTON MILL PROCESSES AND CALCULATIONS. An Elementary Text Book for the Use of Textile Schools and for Home Study. ILLUSTRATED THROUGHOUT WITH ORIGINAL DRAWINGS. By D. A; TOMPKINS. CHARLOTTE, N. C. PUBI^ISHED BY THE AUTHOR. 1899. L. t A ^O 2HBfi2 Copyright 1899 BY D. A. Tompkins. TVs,'OCOP!t;o K£CCIVcD. Presses Observer Printing House, Charlotte, N. C. preface* In the practice of my profession, Engineering, I have designed and had charge of the construction of a number of cotton mills in the Southern part of the United States The organization of the necessary force of employees to operate these mills has involved the "breaking in" of large numbers of. people who liad not been before accustomed to cotton mill work; as well as the advancing of others into more responsible places lequiring fuller knowledge and better skill. These conditions have brought to me many inquiries from young men and some from young women for a book describing the machines and the processes used in the manufacture of cotton mto yarn, sheetings, shirtings, drills, plaids and ginghams. It has been attempted in this volume to give a descrip- tion of the machines, and exhibit their various functions; also to give rules and formulas for making the calculations, in such a simple way, that they may be followed out by any person of ordinary intelligence, and with only a limited common school education To the student and apprentice, for whom this book is intended, it might not be amiss to say that skill in- opera- ting machines, and in keeping a manufacturing process well balanced throughout, cannot be acquired by reading any book. Both knowledge and skill are necessary in the produc- tion of good music. .So, in the manufacture of cotton, is both knowledge and skill equally necessary to get the best results. The best success will not come to the young man who acquires the fullest knowledge, and omits the practice necessary to make him skillful. Neither will it come to the one who works longest and hardest, and never studies. IV But rather to the one who with discretion and energy devotes reasonable time to the acquisition of both knowl- edge and skill. It is the purpose of the Author to revise and enlarge this book in a future edition. It will be regarded as a favor if those engaged in or interested in the subject of cotton manufacture will call attention to errors, and make sugges- tions as to any way in which the next edition may 1:te made of better service to the cotton mill worker. Contents* CHAPTER I. Page. INTRODUCTION i Cotton Classification. Mill Processes. Draft Defined. CHAPTER II. THE PICKER ROOM 7 Mixing. Opening-. Lapping. CPIAPTER HI. CARDING 28 Revolving Top Flat Card. VVellman Card. Card Clothing. Double Carding. CHAPTER IV. DRAWING 51 Stop Motions. Leather Covered Top Rolls. Metallic Top Rolls. Shell Rolls. CHAPTER V. RAILWAY HEADS 70 Eveners. R.ailway Troughs. Sliver from Cans. CHAPTER VI. HANKS AND NUMBERS 78 Definitions. Practical Methods. CHAPTER VII. SLUBBING AND ROVING 83 Bobbin Lead. Elyer Lead. Differentials. Taper. Lay. Short Methods. CHAPTER VIII. RING SPINNING 133 Bobbins. Warp Winding. Filling Winding. Combination Frames. Speeds. Spindles. Rings, Travelers, Separators. Uneven Yarn, VI CHAPTER IX. MULE SPINNING 165 Headstock. Soft Yarn. CHAPTER X. PREPARATION OF YARN FOR WEAVING. . . 172 Spooler. Warper. Slasher. Drawing In. Colored Work. CHAPTER XI. WEAVING 208 Plain Work. Tape Selvage. Reedy Cloth. Auto- matic Looms. Twill Work. Dobby Looms. Jacquards. Box Looms. Designing. Laying Out Looms. CHAPTER XII. LOOM SUPPLIES 239 Strapping. Shuttles. Temples. Reeds. Har- ness. CHAPTER XIII. THE CLOTH ROOM 247 Sewing Machine. Brusher. Shearer. Calender. Inspector. Folder. Stamping. BaHng. CHAPTER XIV. PREPARATION OF YARN FOR MARKET 263 Twisting. Chain VVarping. Beam Warping. Reeling. Cone and Tube Winding. CHAPTER XV. ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT 283 Range of Drafts. Two Ply Yarn. Cloth. Organ- ization Sheet. Equipment Sheet. APPENDIX. TABLES. RECIPES, RULES -295 IFntrobuction. COMMERCIAL i. Upland cotton, such as is used COTTON BALES, in the average Southern mill, is the raw material herein discussed. It usually arrives at the mill just as it comes from the plan- tation or custom gin house, in bales varying somewhat in size but averaging about 30 x 40 x 58 inches, and weighing from 400 to 600 pounds. There is at present no standard size or weight, but there is a movement on foot tO' induce all ginners to make their presses of uniform size, viz: 24 inches wide and 54 inches long. This still leaves one dimension undeter- mined, as this one depends upon how much cotton is piit into the press, and how hard the press is run down. No standard weight is contemplated, but it is the intention to have bales weigh as nearly 500 pounds gross as is practicable. Cotton is sold throughout the United States by the gross weight. Bagging and ties on a bale of cotton weigh 25 to 30 pounds, so that there is a loss in tare of about 6 per cent, on bales of 400 to 500 pounds. If the bales are lighter, the per cent, of loss is greater. And, since the final worth of the cotton to the mill is based on its net weight, a restriction is placed by the trade as to minimum weight of a bale. Nothing under 350 pounds gross is considered technically a "bale," and there are local rules among cotton buyers prescribing a reduc- tion in price per pound for bales under 350 pounds. A general rule is that for bales under 300 pounds one cent per pound is deducted from the standard price; for bales 300 to 350, one-half cent per pound. General cognizance is also taken of the average weights. If there are too many Hght weight bales (even above 350 pounds) in a lot of cotton, the buyer will not pay as much as for bale;-, averaging about 500 pounds. 2 COMPRESSED 2. For shipment by railroad or steam- COTTON. ship for any great distance, cotton is compressed by specially heavy presses at central shipping points, so that the bales occupy only about lialf as much space as formerly. Recently the round bale is being much discussed, but it is only in the experimental stage. The idea is to build ginneries where cotton may be ginned and put up on the premises in a dense round bale, wholly protected by bag- ging, and not requiring any ties. In this form it requires no further compressing, as it occupies in shipping much less space than even the standard compressed bale. On arrival at the mill, the cotton is supposed to unroll in a sheet and to be fed direct into the machinery. Neither the compressed bale nor the round bale are, as yet, a factor in the Southern cotton mill, so that here the cotton will be considered as arriving at the mill in the un- compressed state. The only difference is that the more compressed the cotton the longer time and greater care is necessary in mixing and allowing fibres to regain their original condition. CLASSIFICATION. 3. The quality of cotton when bought in the market is expressed in the following classification, beginning with the highest. Quarter Grade. Half Grade. Three-Quarters. Full Grade. FAIR. Barely Fair, Strict Middling Fair, Fully Middling Fair, MIDDLING FAIR. Barely Middling Fair, Strict Good Middling, Fully Good Middling, GOOD MIDDLING. Barely Good Middling, Strict MiddHng, Fully Middling, MIDDLING. Barely Middling, Strict Low Middling, Fully Low Middling, LOW MIDDLING. Barely Low Middling, Strict Good Ordinary, Fully Good Ordinary, GOOD ORDINARY. Barely Good Ordinary, Strict Ordinary, Fully Ordinary, ORDINARY. The above classification expresses the minutest differ- ences recognized in the most critical markets, but in most of the country markets quarter grades are not recognized. The discrimination, in fact, of quarter grades is an accom- plishment not possessed by many cotton buyers, though the half grades are readily distinguishable by good buy- ers. The classification is based on length of staple, color and freedom from leaf, dirt or other foreign matter. It is a matter of individual judgment, and cannot be reduced to rule. It is difficult, even, to keep type samples which will represent cotton grades, because of the bleaching ef- fect of light on the samples. The first consideration in buying cotton for mill con- sumption is maintaining uniformity of grade. This is the first step toward turning out goods of uniform quality. It is always desirable that purchasers of the mill products may feel sure of obtaining on every order exactly the same grade of goods. The great staple goods of the Southern mill is brown sheetings, about 4 yards per pound. For this, "middling" cotton is generally used. "Strictly middling" and "good middling" are sometimes bought for finer goods. PROCESSES. 4. The processes through which cotton must pass in the mill for makinp; cloth are: Mixing, Opening, Lapping, Carding, Drawing, Slubbing. Roving, y <" Spinning, ^ Spooling, Warping,/ Slashing, Drawing In, Weaving. Finishing. DRAFT. — Defined. 5. All processes, up to and in- cluding spinning, involve, among other things, drawing out or attenuating the cotton. The object is to take a mass of cotton like a bale, and by successive reductions, finally draw it out into a long thread. It may be considered that a bale of cotton (about i^ yards long, weigh- ing 500 pounds) weighs 333 pounds per yard. It is first passed through the picker room, where it emerges in a sheet weighing less than one pound per yard. The card reduces it to about i-ioo of a pound per yard, and so on through the various machines, until when the yarn is produced, it may require several miles to weigh a pound. Each machine must do its proportionate part in the drawing. The amount that it does is called its "draft." If a machine receives stock weighing 10 ounces per yard and delivers stock weighing i ounce per yard, the ma- chine is said to have a "draft" of 10. THE DRAFT OF A MACHINE, then, may be defined as THE QUO- TIENT OBTAINED BY 'dividing THE WeFgHT PER YARD OF STOCK RECEIVED BY WEIGHT PER YARD OF STOCK DELIVERED. The same result may be arrived at, if more convenient, by dividing the weight of any number of yards (say 120) received by the weight of the same numl^er of yards de- . livered, or by dividing the number of yards delivered by the number of yards received in a given time. There are several ways of re-stating the same formula, which are re- viewed at length in another chapter. The draft which each machine must have depends upon the fineness of the yarn to be produced. The arrange- ment and tabulation of drafts throughout the mill for production of any particular goods is called its "organiza- tion." CHAPTER II. ITbe picker 1Room. MIXING. 6. In the South the subject of mixmg cotton on the floor before putting through the open- ing machines is of not so much importance as in coun- tries where cotton must be brought to the mih from great distances, coming from various locaHties, and being- hi compressed bales. In this latter case it is necessary for the cotton to lie in the mixing pile on the floor, in order to expand to its original condition. The mixing itself is more necessary in that case, because each different bale may represent some difference of quahtv, either in color or staple. In order for the product to approach uniform- ity therefore, the larger the mixing the better. In Fro-. hsh mills, m particular, there are elaborate provisions for mixing large quantities, and there the mixing of different grades of cotton at different prices to produce goods at a certain cost becomes a fine art. _ Mixing large quantities of loose cotton on the floor is m any case, theoretically desirable, because, even where cotton comes to the mill from the immediate neighbor- hood, there are always some slight differences in quality, no matter how carefully bought. These would be mosti; due o different degrees of care in ginning. Another ad- vantage also results m the equahzation of moisture that wav in V . k'-i ?'" '''°""' °^ '^' universally careless way m which baled cotton is handled before reaching the mill some bales may stand in the weather a week or two rle a'; tT '''n ' "^"T^" ^" '^'' "^^' ^^e bale may ar- nerfeftl 1 "^^\f ^^^^^^^ '^^ wet, while another would be perfectly dry. If the two were intimatelv mixed the re- sul might work very well. But there is a practLl im t Thiffs thTlM''^" '''' "^^^ ^^ -^-^ '' -- time. This IS the limited room which can be spared for the pur- pose, and the danger from tire spreading in the loose cot- ton. It is usual to mix enough at one time to run the mill from two to six days, according to space available, the more the better. When cotton arrives at the mill the number of bales to be mixed are laid on edge, the ties and bagging taken ofif. and a large handful or sheet of cotton is taken from one bale after another by hand, and thrown into the mixing bin, so that the pile is a thorough average of all the bales. In the operation of the mill there is some stock wasted at each of the processes. This waste is carefully kept ui boxes or bags, and such as is good enough is returned to the picker room for mixing with new stock and re-work- ing. Waste from the pickers themselves consists mostly of motes and trash that cannot be again worked. This waste is sold. Loose cotton which may be wasted throughout the mill is very easily mixed and re-worked, but stock in which some twist has been introduced is more difficult to handle. In any case, the waste must be carefully scattered through the pile, so that it may not introduce important differences in the stock. In a large mill there is always a machine for working over the waste and delivering it in a perfect fleece for mixing. Such ma- chines are variously called "waste pickers," "waste open- ers." "waste cleaners," "thread extractors," etc. The best term, in accordance with the name given cotton pre- parers in general, is "waste picker." 7. There are special tools in the market for removing cotton ties from the bale, but the most common tool is a small, short crow bar. The bar is stuck under the tie near the buckle, and with a twist, the tie may be easily pulled out of buckle and taken off. Great care must be taken not to lose the small iron buckles in the loose cot- ton, as they would be disastrous to the machinery. A good plan is to count the buckles before removing them, and then count the number when the work is all done. A box for holding these buckles should be provided in the room. The ties and bagging should be carried out at once 9 to the waste house. There the ties should be straightened out and scrubbed with a brick to remove dirt and adhering cotton. They may be doubled once and put up in bun- dles of 30, fastened together with wire or iron bands, and having strung on one tie the whole 30 buckles. This is the usual shape in which new ties are sold. If old ties ar-s carefully cleaned and bundled, and finally dipped in hot coal tar, they may be sold for about the price of new ties. The bagging when removed is always in bad condition, and it is not possible to put it in good shape to sell, ex- cept to local trade. It is full of small bits of Hnt, is often discolored with clay and with many marks, and it is al- ways cut in several places, where samples have been drawn. It is usually rolled up, enough for five bales in a roll, and sold to neighboring ginners. . . OPENING. 8. Strictly speaking, the bale is "opened" when the ties and bagging are removed from the bale, and the cotton is torn off, but technically the "opener" is the first machine into which the cotton is fed, "and that process is known as "opening" or "picking." The term "picker" is a general term comprising all the beater machines, known individually as "openers" and as "lappers." The English use the word "scutcher" in place of "picker." They also call this machinery in general "blowing room machinery," from the fact that the ma- chines all have fans or "blowers." These machines are always in a room apart from other machines, called by the English the "blowing room," and by the Americans the "picker room." 10 Self-feeder and Opener, Fig. i. — Lettering. A. Feed Box. B. Lattice in Bottom. C. Vertical Lattice. D. Upper or Evening Lattice. E. Clearer. F. Flue to Opener. G. Feed Rolls to Beater. H. Beater. J. Grids or Screen. K. Mote Box or Dirt Box. L. Delivering Flue. M. Lattice to Feed Roll. Self-feeder and Opener — Process. Cotton is thrown into feed box A. Spiked lattice C picks it up in a sheet. Evening lattice D scrapes off surplus cotton. In some machines this lattice is so arranged that it may be ad- justed nearer to or further from lattice C, and thus regu- late the amotmt of cotton that may pass through. Other machines have arrangements for varying the speed of various parts to regulate the feed. Clearer E knocks cotton off clean and drops it into flue F. Feed rolls G deliver the sheet of cotton to beater H. Beater H, revolving about 1,300 revolutions per min- ute, beates the cotton down over the grids J. Motes and dirt fall through grids J into mote box K. Cleaned lint passes out through flue L, whence it is taken by suction to the next machine. LAPPING, g. A lapper is a machine for cleaning cot- ton and forming it into a "lap," or bat or roll. Li the best mills there are three processes of lap- ping. The first machine is called the "breaker lapper," cfq" in ft) o (T! rt) 12 the next the "intermediate" (lapper) and the next the "finisher" (lapper). The breaker lapper receives cotton from the opener, beats it in the same way as the opener, and rolls it up into a lap. Generally this machine is set some distance from the opener, either on the same leve] or on the floor above. This is for the purpose of inter- posing between the two machines a "trunk/'" which is a flue about 8 inches deep and 36 inches wide, and varying length, according to the room that can be spared, but usually 20 to 40 feet. The bottom of the trunk is com- posed of grids, and under the grids is another tight flue for catching dust and other foreign matter that may sift through. 10. Breaker Lapper, Fig. 2. — Lettering. A. Suction Fan. B. B. Perforated Revolving Screens. C. Feed Rolls. D. Beater. E. Fan. F. F. Perforated Revolving Screens. G. Calender Rolls. H. Lap Roll. J. Lap. K. Grid. M. M. Dust Flues. Breaker Suction fan A has its suction con- Lapper — Proces.s. nected with interior of perforated screens B B. Air is thus drawn from inlet fluejthrough the perforationsin screens. The inlet Hue leads from the delivery flue of the opener. Suction thus draws cotton against screens. Screens B B slowly revolve and slightly condense the sheet of cotton between them. The dust in cotton passes throup-h screen and through fan to dust flue M. 3 crq' ri re CD 14 Feed rolls C draw sheet of cotton in and feed it to beater. Beater D, revolving about 1,400 revolutions per min- ute, beats cotton down over grids K. Fan E, connected like fan A, draws cotton against screens F F. Screens F F condense cotton like screens B B. Calender rolls G condense the sheet harder. The sheet rolls up around lap roll H. There is usually an automatic stop motion so arranged that when 48 yards pass through the calender rolls the feed rolls and calen- der rolls stop. The lap is then removed by an attendant. The lap roll is pulled out and put back on the machine for forming the next lap. A rod, called the "lap-rod," is inserted in centre of lap just removed, so that when it is put on the succeeding machine it may unroll by re- volving on this rod as a centre. The upper feed roll C is held in place by springs or weights, so that if any foreign matter should by accident pass through, this roll would rise out of the way, instead of being bent. The top calender roll G is also weighted. These weights are arranged on levers, connected with the stop motion in such a way that, should any foreign mat- ter of too great bulk pass through, the machine would stop. II. The fans are all provided with regulating damp- ers, so that the cotton may be drawn with more or less force against the screens, according as the cotton is more or less damp, or according as a heavier or lighter sheet is passing through. In subsequent processes, when the rolled lap must be unrolled, it sometimes unrohs in a thicker or thinner sheet than the original lap. and hence splits. This causes irregular work, and should be cor- rected by regulating these fan dampers, and sometimes by adjusting the weights which are hung on the calender rolls. The air delivered by all the fans is more or less charged with dust and fine particles of short lint. The mill is 15 usually designed with a large room in the basement, made tight and used as a dust room. All fans deliver into this room. A large chimney is connected with it, so that the air may escape. Before it does so, it deposits much of the dust and lint in the large room, so that practically pure air issues from the chimney. Care must be taken to have free exit of air from all fans. If they should in any way become stopped up, bad work will result. Some old- fashioned dust rooms have no chimney, but c;ilow air to escape through a horizontal flue; while still others have no dust room, and let the fans deliver into open air. Both of these arrangements are bad; they scatter lint and dust over the premises, and when the wind is in the direction to blow up the flues, the fans work badly. Especial at- tention must be given to the first fan in breaker lapper, which has to draw the cotton from the opener through the cleaning trunk. A small leak in the trunk or a small obstruction in the discharge of the fan will cause the cot- ton to clog in the trunk, and sometimes to fill the trunk back as far as the opener, and choke that machine. Cleaning trunks are provided with glass windows, so that the attendant may easily see whether or not the passage is clear. 16 12. Intermediate Lapper, Fig. 3. — Lettering. A. Lattice. B. Laps Being Fed. C. Evener Roll. D. Evener. E. Feed Rolls. F. Beater. G. Grids. H. H. Screens. J. Calender Rolls. K. Lap Delivered. L. Fan. M. Dnst Flue. Intermediate This machine is same as breaker Lapper, PROChSS. lapper except that, instead of re- ceiving its feed in the form of a fleece, drawn automatically from the preceding machine, it is provided with a feed lattice A, on which laps from breaker lapper may be laid. These laps, generally four, unroll, and the four sheets are together fed between fluted rolls E, to beater F. This machine has an automatic stop motion for "knocking ofT" when laps measure 48 yards. It has also an evener D, which is an attachment designed to compensate for irregularities of feed, and thus make the delivered lap uniform in weight, irrespective (between certain limits) of the weight of cotton fed to it. This is accomplished by varying the speed of feed rolls E ac- cording as the sheet passing through them is thick or thin. These rolls are driven by a pair of cone pulleys. The mechanism for varying the speed is connected with a shifter operating on the cone belt. This mechanism is somewhat complicated. The general principle is that a series of narrow plates D rest against the roll C. The cotton passes between these plates and rolls C, on the way to feed rolls E. If a thick spot occur anywhere in crq' o 18 the width of the sheet, the plate mimediately over this spot is depressed, and operates to shift the beh so that the feed will go slower. A thin spot operates in the re- verse way, so that a thick sheet feeds slower and a thin sheet feeds faster, thus insuring a uniform quantity pass- ing through per minute. This is shown better in diagram. Fig. 4. In this diagram one lever is shown entire at the left, while the other levers are broken away, to more plainly show the arrangement. Finisher 13. This is a dupHcate of the intermedi- lyAPPER. ate. Four laps from the intermediate are placed upon lattice and fed through the finisher in the same manner as through the inter- mediate. The object is to still further whip out the dust, and to make the lap still more uniform in weight. It is usual to have the draft of these machines about equal to the number of laps fed on the apron, so that the la]) delivered by the machine will be about equal in weight to each of the laps received by it. If the laps fed to a lapper weigh 14 ounces per yard, and there are four of them, and the draft of the machine is 4, the lap delivered will weigh 14 ounces per yard. This does not take into ac- count the loss in weight due to motes and dirt. It is not necessary here to complicate the calculation with this allowance, because there is an easy way to make small adjustments in drafts on these machines, and this must be finally done by trial in order to get the weights just right. In fact, the adjustment must be frequently made to -compensate for changes in the weather, and for cot- tons of various degrees of cleanness. The details of mechanism by which this adjustment is made vary with dififerent builders. In all cases, however, the adjustment is made at the point where the evener levers connect with belt shifter. There is a long threaded rod which may be lengthened or shortened. This change of length tends I0 move belt toward one or the other end of the cone. If a heavier lap is wanted (that is, less draft) the screw must 19 be turned in such a manner as to move the belt toward the small end of upper (or driven) cone. This runs feed roll faster. If a Hghter lap (that is, more draft) is wanted, screw is turned to move belt toward large end of upper (or driven) cone. This runs feed roll slower. Some finisher lappers are provided with beaters and grids made with teeth or spikes, instead of with fiat edges, in order to obtain a carding action on the cotton. They turn out a smoother lap, and are much liked by many superintendents, while others claim that these toothed beaters m.ake too much waste. On the whole, it may be said that, when properly adjusted, they are of consider- able value. Single-beater, 14. The lappers above described are Double-beater. "single-beater" or "single-section" lappers. Each of these machines has but a single beater. There are also "double-beater" or "double-section" lappers. These have two beaters and two sets of revolving screens. When the cotton passes through the first beater and between the first pair of screens, a pair of feed rolls receives the sheet and feeds it to the second beater, which delivers it to the second set of screens, whence it goes (as in the case of single- beater lapper) to the calender rolls. This machine cleans the cotton as well as two single-beater machines, but it does not make laps quite as even, for the reason that in the two separate machines four laps are doubled into one, and this doubling tends to equalize irregularities, on the theory that a thick or thin place in one lap, which might amount to i per cent, of its thickness, would, when laid upon the others, amount to only ^ per cent, of the whole. On this theory it is common practice to double, in all the processes possible throughout the m.ill. The two-be-";! cr lapper takes up less room and costs less i\r\d requires Itss attention than two single-beater lappers. 20 PRODUCTION. 15. Pickers are rated at a capacity of 1,500 to 3,000 pounds of cotton per day, depending on the weight of the lap. Lappers are usually speeded so that they make a lap in about 8 minutes. An allowance of 2 minutes per lap is about right for "doffing" (taking off) the lap and for other stoppages. If an 8 ounce lap is being made, the full lap of 48 yards will weigh 24 pounds, and the capacity of machine for this work will be 24 pounds every ten minutes, or 144 pounds per hour, or 1,584 pounds per ii-hour day. If a i6-ounce lap is made, the capacity of lapper is of course double the above. If a small mill works only about half as much cotton as the rattd capacity of a lapper, one m.ac^une may be dispen- sed with; the laps froni the breaker lapper may be put twice through the intermediate, instead of through inter- mediate and then through finisher. .Some mills, making- coarse work, use only three processes of picking instead of four, as above described. This would still further econ- omise machines. If a mill uses only about 1,000 pounds per day on coarse work, it is possible to get along witli only one picking machine. In this case the self-feeder is arranged to deliver cotton on to the lattice of a finisher lapper. The day's run may be put through in one-third of a day. The self-feeder is then stopped, and (.he laps put up on the lattice and run through; the new^ laps from this process are then run through again. Except as to quan- tity, the same result is attained as if three pickers had been used. 16. Having decided upon the weight per yard* de- sired for the finished lap, say 12 ounces per yard, the weight of 48 yards must be computed. l-2_x^8-- ^5 pounds. Each finished lap being measured by the auto- matic stop motion, will be 48 yards. Each lap should be put on the scales, and should weigh 36 pounds. It is not possible, with the finest evener, to make every lap of pre- * For discussion tf proper weight per yard, see "Organization." 21 cisely the same weight, but it should never vary more than jr pound on either side of the desired weight, making a total allowable variation of i pound, or say about 2^ per cent. These variations should be closely watched. If the laps persistently run too heavy or too Hght, that is, if all the variations are one way, the feed should be adjust- ed until the variations occur first on the light side and then on the heavy side. Upon regular laps depend regu- lar yarn. If laps run uneven, nothing in the subsequent processes can ever entirely remedy it. General cleanliness is conducive to even work. Parts of the picker which are accessible while running should be kept constant^ clean. At least once every week the machine should have a thorough internal examination and cleaning. Short cotton and waste have a tendency to accumulate in various corners. If oil has been carelessly allowed to waste out of the beater boxes it will run down the beater shaft and help to accumulate dirt. The screens must be carefully looked after. They must at all times be free over their entire surface, otherwise laps will run thickest where there is most air and thinnest where screens are stopped up. 17. Throughout the ^picker room there must prevail the utmost precaution against fire. This is the most dan- gerous place in the mill, because of the foreign, matter li- able to be in cotton bales, and because of handhng the cotton in loose form. Matches are sometimes found in- side of bales, and matches are sometimes carelessly drop- ped by operatives. If a match passes through a picker it rarely fails to start a fire. All the conditions are favor- able, loose cotton is in abundance and the fans furnish a blast like a blacksmith's bellows. For the f^ame reason, a small piece of iron will strike fire in a picker and set cot- ton ablaze. If cotton is delivered througli a cleaning trunk, this furnishes for the flame a perfect passage to the next machine. Some cleaning trunks are provided with automatic sprinklers, which operate to put out a fire. Tj-lc machine 22 should be stopped as soon as fire is discovered, thus stop- ping- the air blast. The discharge pipes frcni all the fans are usually made of galvanized iron. Each oiie should run independently into the dust room, and should have a shutter on the discharge end in the dust rooni, which will automatically close in case of fire in the dust room or in the dust flue to which it is attached, thus preventing fire from passing-up flue into picker room. The automatic shutter consists of a sheet iron plate, so hinged and weighted that in its natural position it is closed. But it is fastened open by a fusible link. In case of fire in flue or dust room this link melts and shutter closes. A barrel of water and two or three fire buckets should always be a part of the equipment of the picker room. C.\LCULATIONS.-Draft. i8. It is not often necessary in a cotton mill to make any calculations as to draft of a picker. When the specific^.- tions for a mill are originally drawn up the weight of lap to be made is specified, and the maker of njachine sends with the machine the proper gears to produce the desired result. Any small changes that are ordinarily to be made in a mill may be made by adjusting the self-ieeder and making a heavier or lighter breaker lap, or by adjusting the evener on the finisher lapper. But a diagram, Fig. 4, is giv- en with calculations to show how it ma}- be done. This dia- gram is not intended to represent a picker in its exact me- chanical proportions, but is made with a view to separat- ing the gears so the}' may be readily seen in tlie order in which they transmit their power. Only such gears are given as have an influence on the "draft" of the machine; that is, the relation of the stock fed to that delivered. The lap is fed between the evener bars, a, and the feed roll, b. It passes through beater and screens, and is finally de- livered through calender rolls d. The pulley A is driven from a small pulley on main beater shaft. This pulley A 24 is on a shaft carrying gears, which drive both feed roll and calender rolls. The problem is to find the ''value" of this train of gears. Draft Rui.E. 19. The rule for lindinp: draft of a machine of any kind is to con- sider the gear on feed roll or place where stock enters ma- chine as the driver, whether it is, mechanically, or not. MULTIPLY TOGETHER THE DIAMETER OF DE- LIVERING ROLL AND ALL THE DRIVING GEARS FOR A DIVIDEND (OR NUMERATOR); MULTIPLY TOGETHER THE DIA^'IETER OF RECEIVING ROLL AND ALL THE DRIVEN GEARS FOR A DIVISOR (OR DENOMINATOR). The quotient is the draft. Applying this rule to pickers, it will be noted that a pair of cone pulleys intervene, but in making;" the calcu- lation the belt is considered as on the middle of the cones, so that the effect is just the same as if there were two gears or two pulleys of same size. The worm U working into wheel V is just tlie same as if the worm were a gear with one tooth; for one revolution of worm moves wheel V forward just one tooth. With the foregoing ex- planation, the formula for draft of a machine vath gears as per Fig. 4 is 5 X 10 X 50 X 38 X 35 X 22 X 24 X 18 i 2 X 33 X I X 30 X 21 X 53 X 72 X 48 This works out 4.15, and means that i yard of stock received by machine (when belt is in middle ..'t cone pul- leys) is 4.15 times as heavy as i yard delivered by machine. If cone belt is shifted to small end of 1op cone the draft, would be 1x4.15=2.77. If on the large end of top cone, the draft would be 1x4.15=6.23. From the above it will be seen that the draft 25 of this picker may be altered between the limits of 2.77 and 6.23, without changing a gear. The eveners a are connected with a mechanism which shifts cone belt to equaUze unevenness, as ex- plained in (12). By adjusting this connection the belt may be made to work at any given place when the lap is just right. It will play on both sides of this point according to the unevenness of feed. It is better to arrange it so the belt will play about the centre of the length of cones. Constant or 20. Referring to Fig. 4, R is marked Dividend. "draft;" this is the gear that is to be changed when a greater amount of change in draft is required. If twice .the draft is required, half the number of teeth should be in draft gear. If in the above formula this draft gear 30 is left out, it will read: 5 X 10 X 50 X 38 X 35 X 22 X 24 X 18 2 X 33 X I X 21 X 53 X 72 X 48 The result is 124.50, which of course is 30 times the former result, 4.15. If this amount (124.50) be divided by the draft gear (30) it will give the draft (4.15). If it be divided by the draft (4.15) it will give the draft gear (30). Thus it is seen that if this number, 124.50 (called the ''con- stant/' or "dividend"), be known for any particular ma- chine, the draft gear to produce any desired draft may be found by dividing the constant by the draft required. In like manner, if the gear is known and it is required to find what draft-it will give, this constant is divided by the gear. Suppose in the above machine there is wanted a draft of 2. Dividing 124.50 by 2 gives 62.25. This is theoreti- cally the correct draft gear, with belt in middle of cones. We may use 62 and adjust the belt to a point that will bring it right. Suppose there is on the above machine a draft gear 40, and it is required to know what draft it will give. Dividing the constant 124.50 by 40 gives 3.1 1. This is the draft when belt is in middle of cones. 26 SUnriARY 21. Cotton is mixed in piles or in mixing bins. It is fed to opener. Opener beats it and de- livers it loose into flue. Breaker lapper has a suction fan which draws cotton from flue of opener through cleaning- trunk and delivers it to beater. Cotton then rolls itself into a lap on the same machine. This lap may weigh lo to 1 8 ounces per yard, according to the organization. A number of these laps (usually 4) are laid on lattice of inter- mediate. Intermediate beats them and forms them into other laps, weighing about the same as breaker laps, sometimes less. A number of these intermediate laps (usually 4) are put on lattice of finisher and formed into finished laps, weighing about the same as intermediate laps, sometimes less. Thus cotton has been beaten four times, once at the opener, once at the breaker, once at the intermediate, once at the finisher. The same four beatings might be ac- complished by having the opener deliver to a two-beater breaker and taking laps from this machine to a single- beater finisher, or by having a single-beater breaker and a two-beater finisher. Where only a small production is required, the object may be attained by putting laps successively through one machine. It is not a fixed rule tliat there must be exactly four beatings. Common and coarse work might be done with three, or even two. Compressed cotton or cotton that is unusually dirty might require five beatings. But for the average class of cotton and the average class of goods made in the South, four beatings appear to have the pref- erence. It is quite possible to overdo the matter with more than four beatings. Excessive waste might be made, and the fibre might be damaged. 22. GENERAL DATA. Floor Space. Weight. Cost. Self-feeder 6 ft. x 7 ft. 1,000 Ids. $250.00 One- beater Lapper 6 ft. x 16 ft. 6.000 ibs 700.00 Two-beater Lapper. ... 6 ft. x 22 ft. 8,500 lbs. 1,000.00 27 Different builders make machines with dififerent dimen- sions and prices. The aboA^e figures are only intended as a general average. These machines are all furnished with countershafts which run 400 to 600 revolutions per minute. The re- ceiving pulleys on this countershaft are about 16 inches diameter, 4 inches face, tight and loose. The beater shafts are driven from countershaft, and run 1,200 to 1,400 revolutions per minute. Single-beater lappers require about 4-horse power and two-beater lappers about 6-horse power. SPECIFICATIONS. 23. The builders of all machines have blank specification sheets for purchasers to fill out in making an order. The following is a sample blank : Number of Self-feeders Openers Breaker Lappers.. Intermediate Lappers.. Finisher Lappers. . . Breakers. Interm'd'tes. Fin'h'rs. Single or Double Beater, Speed Counter Shaft, Receiving Pulley on Counter, Kind of Beater, Kind of Evener, Width of Lap, Number of Laps Fed, Weight of Laps Fed, Weight of Laps Del'd, Kind of Trunk Distance betwen floors where machines stand Shipping Instructions Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks CHAPTER III. 24. In a modern cottcn mill the revolvmg top flat card is the only one in use. It has displaced the older forms known as "Roller Cards," "Top Flat Cards," and "Wellman Cards." REVOLVING TOP FLAT CARD. FIG. 5— LETTERING. A. Fluted Feed Roll. B. Lap from Picker Room, C. Licker-in (or Taker-in). D. Cylinder. E. Doffer. F. Doffer Comb. G. Trumpet. FT. Calender Roll. J. Condenser Rolls. K. Can. L. Chain of Revolving Top Flats. (Sometimes called "Slats.") M. Brush to Clean Flats. N. Roll of Toppings (or Strippings). P. Top Flat Comb. R. Teeth on Card Clothing. T. Teeth on Top Flats. U. Teeth on Licker-in. W. Feed plate (or "Dish Plate," or "Shell Plate," or "Shell Feed"). X. Mote Knives Y. Grids under Licker-in. Z. Grids under Cylinder. orq* Ln < 5' o o 30 REVOI.VING Top Flat Card — Process. Lap unrolls and is drawn between feed roll A and feed plate W. Licker-in C cuis it down ynd carries it over grids Y. Cylinder D takes it up in a thin sheet and carries it over in contact with teeth on top flats T. This action cards or combs it into some degree of parallelism. Top flats remove short IVbres or "neps" (matted or im- mature fibres). Chain of flats move slowly forward, so that new flats are continually coming into action, while old fats are leav- ing the cylinder. Comb P removes short fibres from flats. These fibres, called "toppings," roll up on rod N. This rod is held in contact with the teeth of flats by springs. Brush M finishes the cleaning of flats. Doffer E removes sheer of carded cotton from cylin- der. Doffer comb F removes sheet from doffer. Sheet is drawn through trumpet G by calender rolls H. The sheet is thus formed into a round mass, called "sliver." Condenser rolls J take sliver and deliver it to coiler head. Coiler is a revolving pbte with a hole in it, revolving in such a way as Lo deliver sHver in coils in the can K. The can stands on a plate near floor, which revolves in the op- posite direction from coiler. Centre of can does not stand directly under centre of coiler. Fio-. 6. Coils ill Can. 32 Fisf. 6 shows how coils are laid in can. More stock may be put in a can in this way than any other. Fig. 7 shows how sliver is delivered from calender rolls R on card, taken to condenser rolls P, ai.d dehvered through hole T in coiler head to can U. By following the gearing, it will be seen that the coiler head turns 20 times in one direction while tijc can turns once in the other. This lays 20 series of coils in the can, as shown in Fig. 6. 25. The teeth on the licker-in are made strong, some- what like a gin saw. They whip out the motes and most other impurities. These fall through grids Y. The mote knives X are adjustable, and are set in such a manner as to intercept the motes, and not disturb the clean cotton. As the fibres pass around the cylinder, other impurities are sifted out through the grids Z, so that the sliver delivered should be reasonably free from all foreign matter. Setting up and adjusting a card is a delicate piece of work, and should be attempted only by an expert. New cards are sent from the shop "knocked-down," that is, in pieces. The builders always send a man to erect the card in the mill, clothe, grind, and adjust it, in the place where it is to stand. CLOTHING. 26. Card clothing consists of a heavy strip (called the "foundation") made of cloth or rubber, having teeth inserted in it. The foundation is usually made of alternate layers of cotton cloth and sheet rubber, about four ply, and about 3-32 inches thick. Different makers use various materials and methods in making it. The teeth are made from fine tempered steel wire, about 34 gauge. The wire is bent in the shape of a carpet tack and driven through the foundation, then slightly bent again in the direction of the length of the strip. The points project through about 5-16 inches, and the bend is about 1-16 inch from the face of foundation. The points stand 200 to 600 per square inch. The strips (called "fillets") Us Fig. 7. Coiler and Can. 34 are now made 2 inches wide by 275 feet long for a cylinder, p.ud 1 1 inches wide by 200 teet long for a 24 inch doffer. 27, Formerly the fillets were made 4 mches wide. The fmeness of setting of teeth, or what is known as "counts" was based on the number of rows of teeth in this width of four inches. Counts 100 meant that there were 100 rows of teeth across the 4-inch hilet. There was no variation hx the number of rows lengthwise of the fillet; all counts had formerly 10 rows per incli lengthwise. Since the intro- duction of 2-inch and ij-irich fillets, there bcs been no change in the method of expressing the "counts," though it does not now express anything definite. On examin- ing a large number of samples of English card clothing now on the market, it appears that the different numbers all run about the same lengthwise, viz: 23 points per inch, while in the same "counts'" of different makers, there is a wide variation in the number of points per inch of width. For example, 80 "counts," which should have 20 points per inch of width (to make 80 in 4 inches), has varying numbers from 18 to 20. Ninety counts averages about 21 points per inch of width, while 100 to 120 counts all aver- age about the same, viz: 23. Nominally no counts seemii to be about 529 points per square inch. While there is not any unanimity of opniion as to what the best thing is it would be best in all cases, where there is any real pref- erence, to specify not the "counts," but numi)or of points per square inch. After the teeth are inserted ni the foun- dation, the points are ground off even. Clothing is said to be "plow-ground" when, after being ground off eve;i, the sides of the teeth are ground with a thin emery whee'. so that the teeth are narrov, er across the fihet than the/ are lengthwise. This style of tooth is by mi\nv authori- ties considered the best, br.t it is not certain tliat it is of any great advantage for the class of work done in the South. Clothing is usually furri'shed by the builder of cards (though he does not make it), and it is inchi.led in the price of cards. 85 28. The fillet is applied to cylinders and doffers, by being wound on spirally, under considerable tension. The cylinder is turned with a crank by hand, while the tension on fillet is produced by a special machine Hhich has a small drum around which fillet is wrapped, and a friction jav/ through which fillet passes on its way to tlie cylinder. There is a hand-screw on the jaw, and an indicator to show how many pounds the fillet is pulling A pull of about 400 pounds is used for a fillet 2 inclies wide, and 300 pounds for i^inches wide. The card cylinders are of iron, but they have wooden plugs inserted m the face at proper intervals for tacking on the fillet. It is necessary to have the surfaces very clean and smooth, so that there may be no lumps in the clothing. It is also necessary to have cards and clothing in the room at an even tempera- ture of 70 or 80 degrees F, and to let them remain there long enough to assume the same temperature. Any great difference might cause clothing to pucker. 29. After fillet is carefully put on and tacked in place, the surface is ground. This is done by apply- ing an emery roll on adjustable brackets, and re- volving it 400 to 600 revolutions per minute, at the same time running the cylinder 150 to 200 revolutions in a direction opposite to that in which the teeth are set. The emery roll is carefully set up until it touches the points of the teeth. If it toucher, too hard it will form hooks on the fine teeth and ruin them. It is run this way, being set closer to wire, from time to time for three or four days, or until tlie entire sur- face feels perfectly even and smooth. It re^iuires good judgment and experience to do this work, and to tell when it is complete. There are two kinds of grinding rolls, the "Long Grinder" and the "Traverse Grinder." The long grinder is a cylinder a little longer than the face of the card, say 42 inches, and 5 inches to 6 inclies in diam- eter. It is so arranged that while it revolves it also has a slight reciprocal motion. This causes more even grind- 36 iiig. The traverse grinder consists of a hollow shaft car- rying an emery wheel about 8 inches in diameter and 3 inches face. It is so arranged that while revolving, the wheel traverses from one end to the other of the shaft across the face of card. This shaft is mounted on adjusta- ble brackets, the same as long grinder. The long grinder is first used for rough grinding the surface. Afterwards, the finishing is done with traverse grinder. These grinders are made of metal and covered with strips of emery cloth, wound on spirally. The strips are called "fillets." When one fillet is worn, it may be easily replaced. 30. After cards are ground, the top flats and other parts are put on. Then the various parts are "set" to their proper working positions. For this purpose, a set of gauges is furnished with, the cards. It consists of a series of about four thin flat steel plates about 2 inches wide and seven inches long, lightly riveted together, form- ing a hinge at one end for convenience. The usual thick- ness of card gauges are 5, 6, 7, 10 thousands of an inch respectively. The figures 5, 6, 7, 10 are stamped on them. There are dift'erences of opinion as to the proper settings of cards, probably arising from different conditions of stock, different speeds, etc. The following represents a fair average rule for setting. Feed Roll to Licker-in 10 (Thousandths.) Licker-in to Cylinder 7 Cylinder to Doffer 7 Top Flats to Cylinder 10 Mote-knives to Licker-in 16 Bottom Screens or Grids 3-16 inch. It requires a delicate touch to perceive these minute differences. A point which is more important than set- ting the various parts at the exact figures given is paral- lel setting. Whatever gauge is determined upon for any part, let that gauge be the same at each end of card — that is, if the cylinder be 8 thousandths from the licker-in at one end, let it be 8 at the other end also, otherwise the Stripping Box. 38 web of cotton on card will be thicker in one part than another, and irregular work will result. 31. When card is set up, ground and ready for work, if the mill is not ready to run, it is best to run a little cot- ton through, to fill up the wire. This will tend to preserve the teeth from rust. It is best to keep the card room warm, so that the air will be relatively dry, and less apt to deposit moisture on the delicate teeth. The greatest care must be exercised to keep the card dry. If there are overhead water or steam pipes, they must be carefully examined for leaks. A very small leak will ruin an entire set of clothing. 32. Very little attention is required to operate cards, after they are once set up and adjusted to do the work. Putting on new laps and replacing full cans with empty ones constitute the principal duties of the attendant. But the machine must be carefully watched, to see that no ad- justment becomes deranged. Stripping, 33. About twice a day the cards are "strip- Grinding, ped." Stripping is cleaning out from the Burnishing, wire teeth the short fibres that imbed them- selves there. It is done by means of a re- volving brush, made of wire teeth, similar to card clothing, but with longer teeth. This brush is supported on the same brackets used for the grinding rolls, and is run by an endless rope, driven generally from a groove on the loose pulley of card. While the stripping roll is running, the belt is gently shifted from time to time on to the tight pulley, enough to produce a slow motion of cylinder for a few revolutions, so that the stripping may take place around the entire circumference of cylinders. The teeth of stripping roll naturally become filled with Hnt. This is removed with a hand card, or better, with a stripping box, such as is shov/n in Fig. 8. This is a box mounted on wheels, so that it may be rolled near each card, convenient for the purpose. The stripping roll is laid in the bearings, as shown, and turned backwards by hand. The coarse card clothing on the board just below o9 the roll combs out the strippings and drops them into the box in the form of a roll. The top fiats are kept constantly stripped while in op- eration, as shown in (24). The character of strippings from cylinder and from fiats is about the same. The fibres are white and clean, but short. They cannot be with advantage mixed with new stock again. One of the purposes of carding is to remove these short fibres, so that to mix them again would be to defeat this object and to give the cards double work. The strippings are generally sold for working into coarser fabrics in a waste mill. They bring about 60 per cent, of the value of good cotton. The total waste around a card amounts to about 5 per cent, of the stock worked, of which the strip- pings (including "toppings") form about two-thirds. 34. After cards are run a month or two the teeth be- come dull, and require re-grinding. This may be done without dismantling card. The casing at R, Fig. 5, is opened on its hinge and fastened back, while an emery roll (usually a traverse roll) is put up on its bracket and run in the same way it was when the card was originally set up and ground. Now, however, only a few hours' grinding is suf!icient. The teeth on clothing of main cyl- inder are inclined in the same direction in which this cyl- inder runs while at work. Hence when it is to be ground the belt must be crossed (or uncrossed, if it happens to be already driven with a cross belt) to reverse the direc- tion. The teeth on doffer, however, are inclined in the opposite direction from its direction of rotation. (This may be plainly seen by reference to Fig. 5.) iTence the doffer must be ground while it is running in the same direction as when at work. Sometimes it is necessary to burnish the teeth. This is done with a revolving burnishing brush made like the stripping brush, except with straight teeth. This is run in the same way as stripping brush. The teeth are set to run about ^ inch deep in card teeth. Burnishing re- 40 moves rust and any burrs that may have been formed by careless grinding. It is also necessary, at times, to grind and burnish the top flats. The long grinder is used for this pur- pose. Special appliances are sent with the card for grind- ing flats while they are running. Some makers have pat- ented appliances for grinding them while in their actual working position — that is, face downward. If ground with face uppermost the flat will spring by its own weight and by pressure of grinding roll, and the face side will grind convex — that is, with higher teeth in centre than at end. When flat turns itself over to its working position its weight will tend to sag the centre of the face still more, and ex- aggerate the convexity, so that the flat will be nearer card cylinder in its centre than at ends. On the other hand, if flats can be ground while in working position there will be no change, and flat will pass over cylinder, at same dis- tance, from end to end. Grinding, stripping and burnish- ing rolls are considered "extras" in the price of cards. They are commonly ordered in the following proportions: Traverse grinding rolls, i for lo cards or less. Long grinding rolls, i for 20 cards or less. Burnishing rolls, i for 30 cards or less. Stripping rolls, i for 30 cards or less. 35. Card sliver as it is delivered into the can should weigh a definite number of grains per yard. This, to- gether with draft of card and other particulars are all laid out on the "organization" sheet of the mill, for produc- ing a certain grade of goods. The sliver should be weighed each day, and kept within 5 per cent, of the spec- ified weight. One yard is weighed at a time. It is either measured with a yard stick or with the roving reel described in {jj^. Variations in its weight will occur from variations in the weight of lap supplied, from the accumulation of too much fibre in the clothing, from variation in grade of stock, and from variation in the state of the weather. Of the above factors, those which are 41 under control should be carefully managed so that the VN^eight of sliver delivered shall be as uniform as possible. CALCULATIONS.-Draft. 36. Fig. 9 is a diagram of draft gearing on card. This is made for the purpose of illustrating the method ol calcu- lating draft, and is not intended to exhibit the exact con- struction of the machine. Different makers have differ- ent details in gearing and different size gears, but the figures marked on the diagram v^ill serve as a guide for calculating draft of any card of this type. Folloiwing the rule laid down in (19,) multiply the diam- eter of delivery roll and the teeth of all driving gears, and divide the product by the product of diameter of feed roll and the teeth of all driven gears, considering the feed roll as the driver, i^ X 130 X 34 X 190 X 29 X 24 2| X 15 X 34 X 28 X 15 X 18 This works out 90.96, and means that i yard of stock fed to the card weighs 90.96 times as much as i yard of stock delivered; or, what is the same thing, i yard of the sliver delivered weighs 9-^.-9 g- of i yard of the lap fed. To ascertain the weight in grains of i yard of sliver that would be delivered by this card when fed with a lap weigh- ing 14 ounces per yard, reduce the 14 ounces to grains (there are 437i grains in one ounce) thus: 14 x 437 i^^ 6,125 gi'ains. Divide 6,125 by 90.96, and the result, 67.3, is the theoretical weight in grains of i yard of sliver. As there is about 5 per cent, of weight lost in the card, the actual weight of silver would be 5 per cent, less than 67.3. or 64 grains. The ACTUAL DRAFT of card is about 5 per cent, more than theoretical (on account of the waste), or say 95.50. Unless otherwise specified, the word "draft" always refers to theoretical draft. 42 37- Referring to Fig. 9, C is marked "draft." This is the gear to change to make a change in draft in card. Following the same method of calculations as in (19) the "constant" for this card is found by leaving the draft gear 15 out of the formula in (36), thus: 1 X 130 X 34 X 190 X 29 X 24 X34X 28x15x18 This works out 1,364.40, which is of course 15 times the former result. This is the "constant" or "dividend." If there be required a draft of 100, the draft gear would be ij3^6_4-_j^ as near as possible. Or if this card al- ready had on it a draft gear of 20, the draft of the card would be computed thus: L3|4^4o,^5g_22. 38. With the draft gear 15 on this card, using 14 ounce lap, it will be seen that the actual weight of sliver delivered is about 4 1-3 grains per tooth of draft gear. This fact gives a rough basis for estimating the effect on weight of sliver which a change in draft gear w^ould make, when other conditions remain the same. For example, suppose a carder, under above conditions, be called upon to make a 70 grain sliver instead of 65; he could estimate that a 16 tooth draft gear w^ould make from same lap about 69 1-3 grains. He could either make this change and a slight adjustment in the lapper to make lap a little heavier, or he could leave the same draft on card, and make the lap heavier. If he were called upon to make a 64 grain sliver, he would know that the change of one tooth in draft gear to 14 would reduce weight to about 60 2-3 grains, and so he would not disturb the card, but would make the lap Hghter. 39. Before the introduction of coders and cans, the webb from doffer passed through trumpet and was led into a troujjh in which was traveling an endless belt, which carried the sliver along with slivers from sev- eral other cards, to the "rail-way head," where they were 44 condensed and drawn out and delivered into cans. Under this arrangement it was necessary to compute the draft of card from the weight of shver as it was deHvered from doffer, instead of, as in (36), from the condenser rolls. This has led to a general idea that drafts on cards of all kinds must be computed from doffer. As there is a slight draft between dofifer and condenser rolls, this would not be correct. It may be calculated in that way, however, and the result multiplied by the draft from dofTer to con- denser roll. In order to do it this way, and also in or- der to illustrate the principle of partial drafts, the calcu- lation is submitted: Draft between feed roll (2^ inches diameter) and doffer (24! inches diameter over the wire): 24I X 130 X 34 2i X 15 X 34 This works out 85.80. This would be the draft of the card if the sliver left the machine at that part. But as it does not, the draft must be calculated between the doffer and condenser roll. Considering the doffer as driver, the draft is: i4 X 190 X 29 X 24 1.06 24^ X 28 X 15 X 18 Now if the draft from feed roll to doffer is 85.80, and the draft from dofTer to condenser roll is 1.06, the whole draft of card is 85.80 x 1.06=90.96, as before.** It is obvious that the method of finding the whole drafts at once, given in (36). is much easier and more logical than finding two separate drafts and multiplying them to- gether. ** It is a common error to suppose that in a case of this kind, the drafts should be added, not multiplied. 45 For good carding the extreme range of draft should not be less than 75 nor more than 125, while a draft of about 100 is considered best. Too little draft (which means faster feeding) crowds the card clothing, so that there are more fibres than can be properly carded. Too much draft is apt to leave too thin a sheet of fibres on the clothing and result in thin or "bald" spots. Production. 40. On all machines, production is meas- ured by two factors: speed of delivery roU and weight per yard of stock delivered. Applying this to the card, the condenser roll would be the one to measure and count, but it has become customary to gauge the production of a card by the speed of dofifer. This cus- tom arose at the time when the doffer was really the de- livery roll. As there is but a slight draft between doffer and present delivery roll, the custom continues, and is near enough for the purpose. Doffer speeds may vary between 10 and 20 revolutions per minute. A good average is 15. Slower than this makes a low production, and much faster crowds the card and makes poor work. A belt from main cyHnder shaft drives Hcker-in; a belt from opposite end of Hcker-in shaft drives a small counter-shaft, carrying a pinion which drives a large gear on doffer. The speed of dofifer may be varied by varying size of this pinion, which is called the "barrow-wheel." On account of the fact that this wheel controls the speed of doffer (which itself controls the output or production of card), it is also cahed the "production gear." The doffer drives feed roll -through side shaft, as seen in Fig. 9. It is thus plain that changing the production gear does not alter draft of card, because feed roll and doffer are changed proportionately. At a doffer speed of 15, and a diameter over the wire of 24I inches, the number of inches of sliver delivered will be 24^ X 3.1416 X 15=1166.32 inches or ^-||^^=32.39 yards per minute. This is 32.39 x 60 x 11 = 21,377 yards per day of 11 hours. If the sliver weigh 65 grains per 46 yard, the total weight produced is 21,377 x 65=1,389,505 grains per day or (since 7,000 grains make i pound) ""7^T¥l^ = i9^ pounds per day. This is the theoretical production, with no allowance for stoppage. At least 10 per cent, should be deducted for stoppage. This would leave the actual production at about 178 pounds. If the doffer be speeded faster or slower than 15 the production may be computed from the above by the rule of three. In the same way, the production may be figured if sliver is made to weigh more or less than 65 grains. Under the average conditions in the South, cards are figured at a production of 170 pounds per day of 11 hours. They may be crowded to 200 or even 225 pounds, but it is not ad- visable. Card clothing is so delicate, and the settings are so close, that in overloading there is always danger of damaging the clothing. STATIONARY 41. Fig. 10 is a diagram of the TOP FLAT, OR stationary flat card, as improved WELLHAN CARDS, by the addition of the coiler. Form- erly the sliver left doffer, passed through trumpet, and was led into a trough with other slivers to a rail-way head. Now, however., the coiler and can have been generally introduced in connection with stationary top flat cards, in place of the railway troughs and heads. This arrangement allows each card to work as an individual machine, to be stopped and started at will, instead of being part of a series. This card does its work in the same way as the revolv- ing top flat card, though it is smaller, and has less produc- tion. The principal difference consists in the mechanism for stripping flats. Formerly the flats were lifted out, one at a time, and stripped by hand. An American by the name of Wellman invented an ingenious attachment for automatically lifting and stripping these flats at regular intervals. With this attachment, the machine is known as the Wellman card. It is still widely in use in old mills. 3 (Tq' in r-t- r-t- o' H o n i-t 48 But the revolving top flat card is now being introduced in new mills, and is rapidly supplanting all others in old mills. DOUBLE CARDING. 42. With old fashioned cards it was in some cases necessary to card cotton twice. For double carding, the combined slivers from several cards, instead of being delivered to a rail-way head, are taken to a lap head, which is a ma- chine like the calender end of a lapper. Here the sHvers are consolidated and made into a lap ready to be carded again. The first lot of cards are called "breaker cards," while those performing the second carding are called "finisher cards." Double carding is also sometimes done with a double card, made for the purpose, where the webb from the doffer of the first cylinder is not compressed into a sliver, but passes to another cylinder, where it is carded the second time. With the introduction of more perfect machines, dou- ble carding is being abandoned. It is found that single carding with the improved machines is better than double carding with the old. QENENAL DATA. 43. A revolving top flat card usually has cyHnder 50 inches diame- ter (on the iron) and 40 inches wide on the face. The doffer is sometimes 24 inches, sometimes 26 inches, sometimes 27 inches in diameter and 40 inches wide on face. It has a coiler for can 9 inches, 10 inches or 12 inches diameter, as pre- ferred. The cans are 36 inches high. The floor space oc- cupied by card is about 5 feet 3 inches wide and 10 feet 6 inches long, over all, including 12 inch coiler and can on one end and a full lap in place on the other. Tight and loose pulleys are usually 20 inches by 3 inches, and should run 160 to 170. Power required, ^^ to f horse power Its weight complete is about 7,000 pounds, and cost about $600. Cards are being made with cylinder 45 inches wide 49 on face instead of 40 inches. This card has -J more ca- pacity, and only occupies a space 5 inches wider. One attendant can run as many large cards as small ones. Their introduction, however, would involve correspondingly wide lappers. For this reason wide cards will probably never be extensively put into old mills. Under average conditions, a card will use up a lap in about two hours. The sliver from it will occupy five or six 12 inch cans. Cans hold 7 to 8 pounds of sliver, and run full in about 20 minutes. The "hand" of a card is determined by standing in "front" of card — that is, at the doffer — and noting where main driving pulley is. If pulley is on right, it is a right hand card, otherwise left hand. There is some confusion existing in the use of this term, arising from a difference of opinion as to which is the "front" of the card. Eng- lish builders generally call the front the end where the stock enters machine, while American builders cah the front the place where stock leaves machine.** In view of this confusion, it is always better, in making specifica- tions, to state exphcitly that pulley is to be on right hand side (or left hand, as desired) when standing at doffer. English builders refer to cards as "carding engines." Revolving top flat cards were formerly made with about 80 flats. They are now made with about 104. ** It is more in accordance with the other notation throughout mill to call the "front" of a machine the place where stock leaves it. However illogical it may seem, there is no difference of opinion as to which is the front of a speeder or of a drawing frame. The "front roll" is where the stock is delivered from machine. 50 SPECIFICATIONS : 44. Following is a sample blank specification sheet to be filled out in ordering cards: Number of Cards Number right hand (standing at doffer) Number left hand Width of face (40 inch standard) Diameter of DofTer (on the iron) ! Diameter of Can Weight of Lap Weight of Sliver Production required per 1 1 hours Belted from above or below Size driving pulleys (20 x 3 standard) Speed driving pulleys Kind of Clothing preferred Number of Stripping Rolls ($20 extra) Number of Burnishing Rolls ($20 extra) Number Traverse Grinders ($60 extra) Number Long Grinders ($35 extra) Shipping Instructions Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks f)l CHAPTER IV. Drawing. 45. Following the stock through the mill in logical sequence, railway heads come before drawing. But drawing will be treated first, because it is rapidly super- ceding the railway head. As the latter is similar in prin- ciple to drawing, it will be briefly treated in the next chapter by reference to the principles laid down for draw- ing. 46. When the sliver leaves the card, the fibres of cot- ton have been laid approximately parallel; but, owing to a natural tendency to curl and twist, the fibres stand out in many directions, and are considerably entangled with one another. It is the purpose of the drawing frame to stretch some of the curl out of the fibres, and to finish the process of parallelizing, and to even up irregularities by the process of doubling and drawing out referred to in (14.) We have seen that the card delivers its product in the shape of a sliver coiled in a can. These cans are taken to the drawing frame and arranged so that several slivers may be fed between one set of drawing rolls. From 4 to 7 (usually 6) card slivers are fed together between rolls and drawn into one. This constitutes one "delivery" of drawing. One frame or "head" is built to contain 4 to 6 deliveries. The slivers fed to the machines are referred to as "ends," and the machine is .described as having 4, 5, or 6 "ends up." A machine of 5 deliveries with 6 "ends up" will take its stock from 30 cans of card sliver and de- liver "drawn sliver" into 5 cans. Fig. 11 is a diagram show ing how stock passes through a drawing frame. Like all the other illustrative diagrams, it is designed not to show the exact mechanism, but to illustrate the purpose for which the machine is made. It represents the action of one "delivery," in a frame having 6 ends up. 52 DRAWING FRAME. FIG. II. — LETTERING. A. Cans of Card Sliver. B. Slivers being fed. C. Separating Fingers. D. Sliver Spoon. F. Part of Stop Motion. K. Bottom Fluted "Front Roll," usually i f in. diameter. G, H, J. Bottom Fluted Rolls, usually i^ in. diame- ter. G', H', y, K'. Top Rolls. L. Cover Plate. M. Trumpet. N. Coiler Head. P. Calender Rolls. R. Trumpet Stop Motion. S. Stirrups. T. Weights hanging on top rolls. O. Can for receiving drawn sliver. DRAWING FRAriE. Card slivers B, B, (4 to 7, according to ProcEvSS. the "ends up," usually 6) are laid up, each one in its own division of the plate C, that is, between the "fingers." Each one then passes over its own spoon D. They all pass together between the bottom and top rolls. The top rolls are held down on the shver by weights hung with stirrups, as shown. The weights are usually 22 pounds for front roll, 20, 20 and 18 respec- tively for the second, third and back rolls. The front rolls K run faster than the back rolls and thus produce the drawing effect. Sliver leaves front roll K and passes through trum- pet M. Calender rolls P draw it through trumpet and deposit it through hole in cover plate to coiler N. Coiler N revolves in the same manner as coiler on cards (24) and coils the sliver in can O. 3 in CD o u t:5 crq 3 54 STOP MOTIONS. 47. Drawing frames are provided with stop motions, for the purpose of automatically stopping the machine when~ver certain conditions are not exactly right. There are mechanical and electrical stop motions. Figure 11 exhibits portions of the usual mechanical stop motions. To avoid com- plications, the entire mechanism is not shown. F is an arm, connected with shaft of machine in such a way that it oscillates around its pivot. As long as this arm is left free to oscillate, the machinery may run. But if this motion is interfered with, a strong spring is released, and shifts the belt to loose pulley and stops machine. The spoon D E is so weighted that when no sliver is passing, it assumes nearly a vertical position. When a sliver of proper weight is being drawn over it, the end D is depressed, as shown in figure 11. If sliver can should run empty, or if sliver should break, or if it should be much too light, the heavy end E would drop down, and the claw would arrest the oscillating arm F and stop the machine. Thus the machine will not run unless each one of the entire lot of (say 30) slivers is in place, and of approximately the correct weight. This is known as the "spoon (or back) stop motion." The spoon stop motion is of great value for preventing what is technically (througi'i erroneously) called "singles."* That is, the acci- dental feeding of 5 ends or less intO' one, where there should be 6. If this should occur, there would be a thin place in the drawn sliver, which would make itself felt throughout the succeeding processes, resulting finally in uneven yarn and cloth. A part of the "front (or trum- pet) stop motion" is shown at R. One end of R rests * A "single," anywhere in the mill, is the accidental feeding into a machine of a fewer number of doublings than is required. For example, a single occurs on a lapper when the machine is supposed to be working 4 laps, and i or 2 laps run out, so that only 3 or 2 laps are fed. A single occurs in a drawing frame when 6 slivers are being drawn into i, and i or more sliver, from some cause, fail, and 5 or less are fed instead of 6. The term originated in spinning and roving machinery, where only 2 ends are doubled into i. If one fails, of course what is left is "single." Its use has spread to include the broader cases. It is sometimes also called "singling." 55 under trumpet M, while the other end is weighted, and connects with an oscihating arm in the same manner as the spoon. As long as a normal sHver is passing through trumpet, friction in the trumpet holds trumpet and arm down, as shown. But if a lump or an extra heavy place occur in the sliver, it cannot pass through the small hole in the trumpet. The sliver thus breaks and the weighted end of R drops down, engages the oscillator and stops the machine. A "full can stop motion" is also generally applied to drawing frames. When can runs full, the coils of sliver pile up under coiler plate and lift it a small distance. A lever connection similar to R is attached to the coiler plate, so that when this plate rises, the lever engages oscillator and stops the machine as before. Equipped with all of these stop motions, it is impossi- ble for a drawing frame to run, unless all of the conditions are right. Therefore one attendant, usually a boy, may run several frames. 48. Electric stop motions are sometimes supplied in place of mechanical. A small dynamo is driven from the machine. A dynamo generates no current unless its negative and positive poles are connected by a completed circuit. It is arranged that the cotton going through the drawing frame is passed between two- extra or special rolls at whatever places a stop motion is desired. These rolls are insulated in their bearings one from the other. When the cotton is going through properly it acts as an insula- tor between the two rolls. One roll is connected by wire with the positive pole of the dynamo, and the other to the negative. In a normal working condition the electric circuit is incomplete, in consequence of the cotton holding the rolls apart. If, however, the sliver breaks, or for any reason the special rolls touch each other, the circuit is completed, the dynamo instantly generates cur- rent, and the current, in turn, makes a magnet which attracts a bar of iron so arranged as to stop the machine. 5.6 Mechanical stop motions are mostly preferred, because they may be kept in order by the most ordinary workmen, while some familiarity with electricity is required in dealing with electric appHances of all kinds. There is actually less mechanism in an electric stop motion than in a mechanical, and it would always be preferred under conditions where the character of labor employed would warrant it. BOTTOn ROLLS. 49. The bottom fluted rolls are made of steel, in sections, but are jointed into one con- tinuous roll for the whole length of frame, having one boss for each delivery, and having necks for bearings between each boss, as shown in Fig. 12. Driving pulley is on the extended end of front roll, as shown in Fig. 14. TOP ROLLS. 50. Top rolls are made in short Leather Covered, lengths, one for each delivery. They are made of cast iron, and are covered first with felt, then with leather. They rest in open bearings on the bottom rolls, and are weighted :^l Fig. 1 8. Roving Frame Section. 86 flyer and bobbin. It is wound up on bobbin by reason of the variation in speed between flyer and bobbin. Bobbin is traversed up and down while roving is being wound, so that roving will lie in smooth layers. 83. In order to make clear the reason for driving bob- bins at a variable speed, and to show the way the arrange- ment operates to wind roving uniformly on the bobbin refer to figure 19, which shows the two ways in which this result may be accomplished. On the left is a flyer and bobbin arranged for "bobbin lead." Both bobbin and flyer run "right handed," that is in the direction of the hands of a clock, or as it is sometimes called, "clock-wise." If bobbin made exactly the same number of revolutions as flyer, no roving would be wound. In the case of "bob- bin lead," the bobbin is running faster than flyer, and hence is winding roving on itself right handed. The presser foot A is seen pointing in the direction of motion of flyer, and at first sight, might seem to be running its end against the roving on bobbin, thus tending to rough it up. But as bob- bin is running faster than flyer, roving is paying out in the direction that presser foot is pointing, and is being wiped from under the end. If flyer is running 1200 and bobbin 1300, the winding effect is the same as if flyer were standing still, and bobbin running 100. On the right in Fig. 19 is shown a flyer and bobbin arranged for "flyer lead." As in the other case, both are revolving right handed, but now the flyer is traveling faster than the bobbin. The presser B is turned in an opposite direction from presser A, so that roving will pay out in the direction presser is pointing. This arrange- ment lays the roving on the bobbin in a left hand direction though all the motions are right handed. In this instance the relative motion between bobbin and flyer is the same as if the bobbin were standing still and flyer were running right handed. For example, if flyer is running 1200 and bobbin iioo, the winding efifect is the same as if bobbin were standing still, and flyer running TOO. This method has been named "flver lead," but this O < crq a 5' name is somewhat misleading. The speed of flyer remains constant under all circumstances, (both in bobbin lead and flyer lead) but in the case of flyer lead, the bobbin runs slower than flyer. It might be appropriately called "bobbin follow," in contradistincdon to "bobbin lead." For good reasons, based on the mechanism of the machines, "bobbin lead" is now universally used and in the discussion of the machines they will all be treated as bobbin lead machines. The calculations on varying speeds of bobbin, however, are the same in either case. 84. The front roll is delivering roving at a constant number of inches per minute, and this constant amount must be wound on the bobbin. This means that the bob- bin must lead the flyer the same constant number of INCHES per minute. If the bobbin always remained the same diameter, this would mean that the bobbin must lead the flyer a constant number of REVOLUTIONS per minute. But as the roving is wound on, the size of bobbin increases, and hence the number of revolutions necessary to wind a given amount becomes less and less. Therefore it l^ecomes necessary to provide some means for reducing the speed of bobbin as it fills up. (In the case of flyer lead, it is necessary to increase speed of bobbins as they fill up.) The decrease in speed must be exactly proportional to the increase in size of bobbin. This is accomplished by the use of the cones X and Y, Fig. 20. When bobbins are empty, the belt is on large end of cone X, which causes bobbins to run fast. As they fill up, the belt is gradually moved toward small end, thus decreasing speed of bobbins. It will be noticed that the shape of the cones is peculiar, the top one, or driver, being concave or hollowing, while the bottom one is con- vex or rounding. For mathematical reasonS; not necessary to discuss here, these shapes are found to be necessary in order to make the decrease of speed exactly proportional to the increase of diameter of bobbins. 85. Considerable mechanism is required for perform- 89 ing the comparatively simple operations necessary in making roving. Fig. 20 shows most of the mechanism, GEARING PLAN ROVING FRAHE.— FIGS. 20 TO 23— Lettering. A. Driving Shaft (sometimes erroneously called "Jack Shaft.") B. Twist Gear. C. Intermediate Gear. D. Middle Top Cone Gear. E. End Top Cone Gear. F. Large Gear on Front Roll. G. Small Gear on Front Roll. H. Crown Gear. J. Draft Gear. K. Back Roll Gear. L. Cone Gear. M. Intermediate Gear. N. Driven Gear on Jack Shaft. O. Tension Gear on Jack Shaft. P. Smi Wheel or Stud Wheel. R. Bevel in Compound. Q. Driving Bevel for Compound. P. R. O. Differential or Compound or "J^^k in the Box." S. Bobbin Driving Gear. T. Intermediate. U. Bobbin Shaft Gear. V. Bobbin Skew Bevel. W. Bobbin Bevel Gear. X. Top Cone. Y. Bottom Cone. Z. Cone Belt Shipper, a. Spindle Driving Gear. b. Intermediate. d. Spindle Shaft Gear. e. Spindle Skew Bevel. 90 f. Spindle Bevel or Toe Bevel. g. Lifter Bevel on Jack Shaft. h. Lifter Bevel on Upright Shaft. 1. Strike Pinion. m, m. Strike Bevels. n. Broad Pinion for Lifter. p. Driven Gear for Lifter Train, q. Lay Gear. r. Intermediate. s. Lifting Gear. t. Lifting Rack Pinion. u. Lifting Rack. a' Two-Bar, x\ttaciiea to Bobbin Rail. b' Taper Rack Bar or "Monkey Tail." c'. Taper Pinion. d'. Adjusting Screw for Pigeon Wing in upper cradle. e'. Adjusting Screw for Builder Weight in upper cradle. f. Pigeon Wing. g'. Lower Cradle. h'. Builder Weights. a' to h'. Builder or "Box of Tricks." q'. Shipper Rack Pinion. s'. Drag Weight. 86. For the purpose of making the explanation clearer, the gearing plan has been divided into sections. Fig. 20 shows the entire gearing. Fig. 21 shows the gears from A to K which drive the bottom rolls, and also shows the gears from a to f which drive the spindles. Fig. 22 shows the gears involved in driving the bobbins, lifting train, which traverses the bobbin rail up and down. All of the plans are lettered to correspond, so that in following the explanation, either the entire plan Fig. 20, may be referred to, or the different sections, as pre- ferred. Referring to Fig. 20 or 21, the main shaft A is driven by a belt from a countershaft. 92 Twist gear B drives the top cone shaft, through gears C and D. On the outer end of top cone shaft the gear E drives the front roll through gear F. On the front roll is small pinion G, which drives crown gear H. Crown gear H is on a stud which carries the draft gear J on the other end. Draft gear J is put on stud in such a way that it may be readily removed and changed to suit variations in draft required. The stud is mounted on a movable bracket which may be adjusted to suit different sizes of draft gear. Draft gear J drives back roll gear K. The draft of the machine depends upon the relation between speed of front roll G and back roll K. This relation depends upon the size of gears G to K. The relation might be mfinitely varied by changing any or all of the gears in this train; but as the required variation is not very wide, in any particular case, the gears G, H and K are made so that the range of variation may be covered by changing the draft gear J.' The back roll communicates motion to middle roll by the small gears shown, through large broad intermediate gear shown in dotted lines. These gears are so propor- tioned that there is a slight draft from back to middle roll, as in the case of the drawing frame (58,) but most of the draft is between middle and front roll. 87. Referring again to Fig. 20 or Fig. 21, the spindles are driven from main shaft from gear a, through interme- diate b to gear d on end of shafts which carry the skew bevels e, that finally drive spindle gears or toe gears f. There are two lines of spindles, one behind the other in these illustrations. Another gear behind d. and of same size, engages with d and drives another line, which also carries skew bevels to drive the back line of spindles. The gears e are made skew bevels, instead of plain bevels, ?o that the end of spindle may pass on by the spindle shaft and rest in its bearino- below. 94 This is plainly seen in Fig. i8, which also shows the bobbin skew bevels, made so for the same reason. 88. Referring to Fig. 20 or Fig. 22, the bobbins are driven through the train O, R, S, T, U, V, W, with the intervention of differential motion, whose action is more fully described in (116.) The gear Q is made fast to main shaft A. The gears P and R run loose on shaft. The gear R has a long hub, on which is made fast the bobbin driver S. If sun wheel P is held still, the gear Q turning with main shaft A will communicate motion to R, which will through the gears, S, T, U, V, W, drive the bobbins. If sun wheel P should be turned in either direction, it will alter the speed of bobbin, while shaft A continues to turn uniformly. This is arranged so for the purpose of slow- ing the number of revolutions of bobbin as the bobbin grows larger from winding on more roving. It is necessary to keep the surface speed of bobbin con- stant, as shown in (84.) The builder, Fig. 23, operates through pinion q' and rack Z to gradually shift the belt from large end of top cone, toward small end, as the bobbin fills, thus reducing speed of bobbin. 89. Referring to Fig. 23, the mechanism of the buil- der may be studied. It accomplishes not only the traversing of the cone belt by proper degrees, but it causes the bobbin carriage to reverse its motion at top and bottom and to do it at the proper time to shorten the travel of this carriage at each stroke, thus producing the taper on bobbins, as seen in Fig. 18. 90. The tendency of drag weight s', is to cause upright shaft and pinion q' to revolve. This would cause the shifting rack Z to move in the direction of the arrow toward the head. But this motion is prevented by the ratchet wheel j' and pawls m', n'. The ratchet and pawls form an "escapement" exactly like the pendulum escape- ment on a clock. The weight or spring in a clock can only cause movement of the wheels when pendulum o- Fig. 2.2. Bobbin Drive. 96 swings first to one side and then to tlie other, letting the wheel advance by half a notch at a swing. In the same manner the ratchet j' can only move when first one pawl and then the other is held back. The bevel o' is fastened to same shaft as ratchet, so that when ratchet is permitted to move, the bevel o' moves and allows bevel p' to move. Since bevel p' is fastened to upright shaft, the pinion q' moves with it, and feeds the shifting rack Z a small amount. 91. The pawls m' and n' are connected together by a spring, so that their tendency is to engage with the ratchet unless so held back. In figure 23, the pawl m' is seen held back by detent k', while pawl n' is holding ratchet. As will be shown below, the detent k' will move at the proper time toward head of machine and knock pawl n' out, and allow m' to catch the next tooth in ratchet, while ratchet will revolve half a tooth. 92. Detent k' is moved by the lower cradle g', as shown in Fig. 23. The cradle is rocked from one side to the other by one or the other of the weights h', whenever one or the other of the pigeon wings f are hfted out of their notches, by the action of the set screws d' in the upper cradle. As the lower cradle is rocked, the detent k' is moved to knock out one of the pawls m', n'. The lower end of k' also moves and shifts the reversing bevels m, m. These are connected with the train of gears which cause bobbin carriage to travel up or down according as one or the other of the reversing bevels is in action. This action may be readily followed in Fig. 23, where the train n, p, q, r, s, turns the lifting shaft s, on which are the lifting pin- ions t, engaging the lifting racks u, which are attached to and move the bobbin carriage up or down according to the direction in which shaft s is made to revolve. 93. Attached to the carriage rail r', is a slotted bar a', in which is guided a pin attached to back end of taper rack b'. When carriage goes up or down, the back end of taper rack goes with it. The taper rack is so hung L^u^^^m^^»^TO:v^ 98 that it is free to move forward and back in the slot when actuated by taper pinion c', which engages in the rack. At the same time, this taper rack, when going up and down with the carriage, rocks the upper cradle which carries the set screws d' e', which, as shown in (92) alter- nately lift the pigeon wings f out of the notches in lower cradle g'. The upper cradle, in moving, alsO' lifts up one weight l.)y the chain, while the other weight rocks the lower cradle. 94. Referring to the plan view of builder, Fig. 23, it will be seen that the ratchet is fastened to the same shaft as taper pinion c', and that when a tooth is released in ratchet, this taper pinion will revolve a small amount and draw in the taper rack, so that its back end with its pin in the slot will come nearer to the head of the machine. Therefore, when carriage goes up and down, set screws d', in upper cradle, will strike pigeon wings sooner and sooner, thus allowing weights to rock lower cradle sooner and sooner. As this lower cradle moves the reversing gears m, m, the reversals will occur sooner and sooner, thus making each successive layer of roving, wound on bobbin, shorter than the one before. This makes the taper as seen in Fig. 18. CALCULATIONS. 95- In starting up a new fly- frame, it is necessary to make cal- culations for the purpose of determining the gears to use to bring about the proper conditions for the particular hank roving to be made. These points are as follows: Draft. Twist, or turns per inch. Speed of Spindles. Speed of Front Roll. Speed of Bobbins. Lay, or number of rows of roving per inch, counted lengthwise bobbin. 99 Transverse Lay, or number of layers per inch counted crosswise, or from centre to circumference. Taper of Bobbins. Amount cone belt must move forward at each traverse of carriage. In all calculations concerning any machine or pro- cess, it is important to make two distinct divis- ions of the factors involved, namely: the known (sometimes called the "data,") and the unknown. The known factors should be further subdivided according to the way in which they have be- come known. So^me data are simple laws of Nature and need not be further considered or questioined, for example the law of gravitation. Some have been found out by experiment, and are reliable or not, according to the character of the Experimenter. They are recorded in tables and rules, for example: the front roll of a fly- frame should not exceed 165 revolutions per minute for a certain hank roving. Some data are simply assumed as a basis of some particular calculation, as, for example: assuming that a 20 inch pulley will be put on the line shaft, in order to calculate what size pulley is needed on a machine to give a certain speed. Some data are determined by actual observations and measurements on the machine or thing under consideration. 96. In case of the known quantities for calculations on fly-frames, the draft and twist are given on the organ- ization sheet for the work in hand. The speed of spindles is usually designated by the maker of the machine. 97. " llie speed of front roll is dependent upon the twist, as will be shown later; but it should not exceed the figures given in the tables in appendix for the various hanks roving. These figures were derived from experi- ence, and represent the speeds which will deliver the maximum amount of work. 98. The speed of bobbins must be nicely calculated to -vA/ind on at all stages the exact amount of roving deliv- ered bv front roll. 100 99- f he lay of roving is ascertained from the tables in the appendix. This has been determined by experience. It is for slubbing approximately lo times the square root of the hank, and for other roving 13 times the square root of the hank. Thus 3 hank roving has a lay of 22 rows per inch. The square root of 3 is 1.73. This mul- tiplied by 13 gives 22.5, which would answer about as well as 22. 100. The transverse lay is more variable than any of the other conditions. It is dependent upon the state of the weather, the smoothness of the flyers, the smoothness of the stock itself, and also upon the number of times the roving is wrapped around the presser foot in threading up the flyer. Tlie more it is wrapped, the more tension or stretch is put upon the roving, and hence the tighter it is wound on the bobbin, and the more layers put on per inch. In starting up a new frame, before flyers have become burnished by use, it is usual to wrap roving twice around presser. After it is run several days, it is usually wrapped three times, and sometimes four times. With three wraps and other average conditions, the transverse lay is 3 times the (longitudinal) lay. This means that there are 3 times as many layers of roving per inch count- ing from centre of bobbin outward, as there are rows when counted lengthwise bobbin. Thus 3 hank rov- ing would have a (longitudinal) lay of 22 and a transverse lay of 66. loi. The taper of bobbins is a matter of judgment, but must be enough to keep bobbins from tangling when roughly handled around the mill. The usual amount of taper is produced when each successive layer of roving on the bobbin consists of one row of roving less than the preceding layer. Thus if there are 132 rows in the first layer on a bobbin, the next layer will be shorter than the preceding one, by one diameter of the roving or half diameter at each end, or 131 rows. This condition would cause the individual rows composing each layer to lie in the V between the rows composing the preceding layer. 101 102. The amount that cone belt must move forward at each traverse of carriage must be calculated so that the speed of bobbins (which is controlled by the position of this belt) is reduced just the right amount to compen- sate for the increase in size of bobbin caused by the wind- ing on of one layer of roving. 103. For the sake of a defmite starting point in making calculations, take the following data for a roving frame. Hank roving to be made (From organization sheet.) 3-00 Draft (from organization sheet) 5.56 Twist per inch (from organization sheet) . .2.12 Speed of driving shaft (counted on machine) : 458 Lay (from table) 22 Transverse Lay (3 times lay) 66 Diameter Front Roll (measured on machine) i^ inch. Diameter Back Roll (measured on machine) i inch Large Diameter Cone (measured on machine) 6^ inches Small Diameter Cone (measured on machine) 3 niches Length of Cone (measured on machine) 30 inches Diameter Empty Bobbin (measured on machine) ^2 "^^^ Diameter Full Bobbin (measured on machine) 3^ inches Length of Bobbin (measured on machine) .... 7 inches Pitch of Belt-Shifting-Rack (measured on machine) 2-7 inch Pitch of Taper Rack (measured on machine) 2-7 inch. Pitch of Lifting Racks (measured on machine) 5-14 inch. Gears as numbered in Figs. 20 to 23 (counted on machines) Proceeding Math the above data, the calculations will be made for finding the change gears to produce the proper motions. Draft Gear. 104. From the various discussions heretofore given on drafts and constants, it may be seen that when the draft gear is inserted in the 102 formula, the result is the draft, and that when the draft is inserted in the formula, the result is the gear. We use one or the other of the above figures according as the draft gear or the draft is known. In the present case the draft is known (103) to be 5.56. We shall therefore insert it in the formula in the place where the draft gear would come, and the result of the formula is the draft gear required. Referring to Fig. 2T, and following the rule, consider- ing back roll the driver, the draft gear is found by the formula : i-| X 52 X 80 I X 5.56 X 20 This works out 42, and means that the draft gear neces- sary to produce a draft of 5.56 is 42. Contraction, 105. The foregoing figures give what is called "theoretical draft." But in practice the twist which is put in the roving shortens the length after it leaves front roll, so that the length wound on bobbin is less than length delivered by front roll. This difference is called "contraction." The amount of it depends mostly upon the amount of twist put in the rov- ing. It cannot with certainty be calculated. It must be determined for each particular case by the man in charge. It is part of his skill. The result of contraction is that roving delivered by a frame weighs more per yard than calculations show. Some of the waste made by the frame would tend tO' make the roving lighter, but the final result of both tendencies is that ordinary roving weighs from I to 4 per cent, heavier than it should by the calcu- lations. In order, therefore, to have the calculations come out right, the draft must be i to 4 per cent, greater than calcu- lations show. This corrected draft is called "actual draft." The draft gear to be used must have i to 4 per 103 cent fewer teeth than calculated. In the above case, the draft gear, instead of being 42 as figured, must be 41, or else the draft instead of being 5.56, as figured, would be about 5.40. Speed of Spindi.es. 106. Referring to Fig. 21, and noting from the data (103) that speed of driving shaft is 458, the speed of spindles is found from the formula: 458 X 40 X 55 37 X 22 This works out 1237. Twist Gear. 107. The flyer and spindle revolving with one end of the roving, while front roll holds the other end, produces a twist. If front roll delivers i inch per minute and flyer turns i time per minute, there will be a twist of I per inch. If front roll delivers 10 inches while flyer runs 2 revolutions, the twist will be .2. If a twist of .2 per inch, is required, and spindle (and flyer) runs 2 rev- olutions per minute, the front roll must deliver 2^-.2:=io inches per minute. From the above it will be seen that if a certain twist is required, and we know the speed of spindles, we may produce that twist by making front roll deliver a certain num-ber of inches, which is found by dividing speed of spindles by twist. Applying this rule to the case in hand, we know from (103) that the twist should be 2.12 and we have found (106) that spindles run 1237. The amount of roving that must be delivered by front roll is therefore i237-:-2.i2=583.5 inches. Since diameter of front roll is i-|. its circumference is i^ x 3.1416=3.53 inches, and it must run 583.5-^3.53^165 revolutions per minute in order to impart a twist of 2.12 per inch. The gearing must be so arranged that front roll will make that speed. From Fig. 21, it will be seen that the speed of front roll is controlled by gear B, (marked "twist.") The problem now reduces itself to finding the number of teeth in gear B on shaft A, running 458 revolutions to 104 run front roll 165. This may be expressed as a formula in two ways. First \)y considering the driving shaft A as the driver, thus: 458 X B X 44 5 =165 48 X 130 ^ or second, by considering the front roll as the driver, thus: 165 X 130 X 48 44 X B = 458- The latter formula presents exactly the same case as in (104) where the draft was known, and draft gear was required. There we inserted the known amount in the formula where the unknown gear would appear, and the result was the gear required. Proceeding in the same manner here, we insert the known amount 458 in the place where the gear B would appear, and we have 165 X 130 X 48 44 X 458 This works oiit 51, and means that if the gear B has 51 teeth, the front roll will make 165 revolutions. This may be verified by putting 51 in either of the two formulas in place of B. For example the first: 458 X 51 X 44 48 x 130 This works out 164.7, which is nearer 165 than either a 50 or a 52 gear would come, and so we choose 51. 108. To summarize the work in finding twist gear: 1. Find speed of spindles. 2. Divide speed of spindles by twist required, to obtain inches of roving delivered per minute. 3. Divide inches of roving by circumference of front roll to determine number revolutions of front roll per minute. 4. Find twist gear necessary to run front roll the proper speed. NO O iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiyijliniiiiiiiiiiiiyiijM|iiiiiiff^ m 106 109- All of the operations performed may be grouped together in one formula, thus: 4Q X 55 X 1 30 X 48 37 X 22 X 44 X I-J X 3.I416 X 2.12 This works out 51, as before. The above formula may be stated in general terms, thus: wSp. driving gear x Sp. skew bevel x fr. roll gear x Mid. cone gear divided by Sp. shaft gear x toe bevel x end cone gear x circ. front roll X twist = twist gear. Or, inserting twist gear in place of twist in above formula the result is twist per inch. Speed of Bobbins, ho. Referring to Fig. 22, we see that bobbin is driven from main shaft 1)y gear Q through the intervention of the differential train P, R, S, and that its speed is varied by varying the motion of the sun wheel P, which is itself driven from bottom cone through the train L, M, N, O, and its variations produced by changed positions of the cone belt. Tii. The action of the differential train will now be considered in itself, in order to enable us to see in what way it influences the speed of bobbin. If the sun wheel P were held still, and gear O revolved in the direction of the arrow, which we will call "forward," it is evident that gear R would revolve loosely on the shaft in the opposite direction, which we will call "backward." The gear R, having the same number of teeth as Q, will revolve at same speed as O. Now suppose O to be held still and P revolved backward. In this case, the intermediate bevel P' being pivoted in sun wheel P will be carried around by its centre, and the side next to Q will be held still, while the side next to roll R will cover twice the dis- tance made by its centre.* Therefore, if the sun wheel * This will be made plain by reference to the lower part of Fig. 22 which is a top view of gears Q and P^. If the part of P^ which is in contact with O be held still, and the centre moved a distance of i inch, as shown, the other side will move from R to R', a distance of 2 inches. 107 P revolve i time, it will carry the centre of P' a distance equal to i revolution of Q, and the outer edge of P' a distance equal to 2 revolutions of Q. Hence, when P makes i revolution, P' will make 2 revolutions/'- Since R has the same number of teeth as P' and Q, when P' makes 2 revolutions backward, R will make 2 revolutions backward. The result of the whole train is that when P is revolved backward i turn while Q stands still, R is revolved backward 2 turns. Now if Q should go forward 458 turns while P goes backward i turn, R will go backwards 458 tiu-ns on account of O, and 2 turns on account of P, making 460 turns in all. 112. The above examples lead to the general rule for the differential: THE SPEED OF BOBBIN DRIV- ING GEAR IS EOUAL TO SPEED OF MAIN SHAFT PLUS TWICE THE SPEED OF SUN WHEEL. The same rule in another form would be: THE SPEED OF SUN WHEEL MUST BE HALF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SPEED OF BOB- BIN DRIVING GEAR AND MAIN SHAFT.^ * 113. We found (107) that front roll delivers 583.5 inches of roving per minute. The speed of bobbin must be so adjusted that it leads the flyer just enough to wind up this amount. When bobbin is empty, its diameter (103) is i^ inches, and its circumference i^ x 3.1416=4.71 inches, there- fore when empty it must lead the flyer 583.5-^-4.71=124 revolutions. We found (106) that spindles (and Hyer) run 1237. hence bobbins must run when empty, or as it is called, "the beginning of the set," 1237+124=1361 revo- lutions. * The usual way of stating this condition is, that P^ makes i revo- lution on account of its contact with the teeth of O, and i revolution on account of the revokition of P, thus making 2 revolutions to i of P'' as stated above. ** It must be remembered that the whole of this discussion relates to bobbin-lead machines. In flyer-lead machines, the sun wheel P revolves forward, and an entirely different set of conditions arise, the discussion of which, while interesting as a study of mechan- ism, would only serve to confuse matters without being of any practi- cal value in the present circumstances. 108 114- The bottom cone is driven from top cone, while top cone is driven from main shaft through train B, C, D. Since speed of main shaft is 458, speed of top cone is 458x51 __^g5^^ ^jij since large end of cones is 6^ inches and small end 3 inches, the fastest speed that bottom cone can make is •^1^*^^^1054.3, and the sloAvest speed is 486.6x jj^__224..6. 6J/2 ^ This is a difference of 829.7 revolutions between hav- ing the belt on large end of top cone, and having it on small end of top cone. Since the cone is 30 inches long, the traversing of cone belt 30 inches makes a difference in speed of bottom cone of 829.7 o'^' ^ difference per inch of belt shift, 829.7-^-30=27.66 revolutions. It is usual to so adjust the machine that cone belt will not stand at the extreme end of cone when the set begins.' It may start at say 4 inches from end. In this case the speed of bot- tom cone begins less than 1054.3 by 4 x 27.66=110.6, which would be 943.7. 115. We found (113) that at the beginning of the set, the bobbin should run 1361 revolutions, while the bottom cone runs 943.7; and the problem is to find the train of gears to insert between these two places to bring about this condition. We shall for the present consider all of the gears fixed, as marked in Fig. 22, except cone gear L, and reduce the problem to finding this gear. Differential. 116. Owing to the nature of the differential, the problem must be broken into two parts, the first being to find the speed of the sun wheel P. Considering the bobbin as the driver and making 1361 revolutions, we find the speed of the bobbin driver vS from the formula: I3(iix32x37 5dx40 This works out 503.5. According to the rule in (112) the speed of sun wheel must be half the difference between speed of bobbin driver and speed of main shaft. This difference is 503.5 — 458=45.5, and half the differ- ence is 22.75. Hence sun wheel P must run 22.75. \a- Fig. 22. Bobbin Drive. 110 117. The other part of the problem now is to find what gear is necessary at L when P makes 22.75 revolu- tions and bottom cone 943.7. Proceeding exactly as in (107,) where twist gear was calculated, we may assume that bottom cone is the driver of the train and write the formula 943. 7xlxi5 __22.75; or we may assume (58x125 that sun wheel is the driver, and write the formula: 22.7s X I2S X 68 This latter formula presents exactly the case where, as in (104) and (107,) we inserted the known amount in the formula in the place where the unknown gear would ap- pear. Preceding thus, we have the formula 22.75 X 125 X 68 15 X 9437 This works out 13.6, and we may use a 14 gear and compensate for the slight difference by starting the cone belt farther from large end of top cone. 118. The result may be verified by putting the 14 in either of the formulas in place of L. Take the second formula: 22.75 X 125 X 68 15 X 14 This works out 920.8, and the coue belt may be started far enough from large end of top cone to make it run 920.8 instead of 943.7."^' Continuing the verification, we have the sun wheel running 22.75 revolutions. According to (112) the bob- bin driving gear runs at a speed equal to main shaft plus twice spefed of sun wheel. This would be 458+45-5=^ 503.5. Following the train from S to W, we have the speed of bobbin: s^^wxss This works out i .i7xr22 1360.8, which is within .2 of a revolution of the speed * We found (114) that with belt at extreme end, the bottom cone would run 1054.3, and that it reduced its speed 27.66 revolutions for every inch the belt was traversed. We now want 920.8 revolutions, which is 133.5 revolutions less than the maximum. _ This would require belt to be moved from the end 133. 5-=-27. 66=4.8 inches. Ill required as shown in (113,) and proves the correctness of the work. 119. Having- determined the speed of bobbin at beginning of set, and fixed upon the gears and position of cone belt to produce that speed, it is now necessary to determine the speed when the l^obbin has grown to its full diameter of 3^ inches. And having determined this speed, it remains to find the position of the belt on the cones to produce this speed with the same gears in use as at first. Following the same course as in finding the speeds for empty bobbins, we know from (107) that front roll delivers 583.5 inches per minute. If full bobbin is 3J- inches in diameter, it is 3I x 3.i4i6:=ii inches in cir- *cumference, and it must lead the flyer 583. 5-^-1 1=53 revolutions in order to wind up that amount. It must therefore run 1237+53=1290 revolutions. Considering the bobbin the driver, the speed of gear S may be compu- ted by the formula: 1290 X 22 X 37 55 X 40 ^ This works out 477.3. According to the rule in (112) the speed of sun wheel must be half the difference between speed of bobbin driver and speed of main shaft. This difference is 477.3-458=19.3, and half the difference is 9.6. Now the problem is to find the speed of cone that will run sun wheel 9.6 revolutions. Considering sun wheel the driver, the cone speed may be computed b\ the formula : 9.6 X 125 X 68 15 X 14 This works out 388.6. When the bobbin was empty at beginning of set, we found (118) the corresponding cone speed to be 920.8. At end oi set it is 388.6, which is 920.8-388.6=:532.2 revolutions less than at beginning. We found (114) that speed of cone was reduced 27.66 revolutions per inch traverse of cone belt, hence at end ' 112 of set the belt must be a distance from the startmg pomt of 532.2-f-27.66=ig.2 inches. Ratchet Wheei.. 120. We have determined (118) that cone belt must start 4.8 inches from large end of top cone and traverse 19.2 inches during the filling of the bobbin up to 3^ inches diameter. We must now provide for the uniform distri- bution of this motion between these extremes. The rack Z, which controls the belt traverse, has teeth with 2-7 pitch, that is, the teeth are 2-7 inch from centre to centre. When belt rack moves 19.8 inches, the number of teeth moved is i9.8-T-y=69.3. The pinion q' on upright shaft has 40 teeth and gears into this rack. While rack is moving forward 69.3 teeth, this wheel must turn 69.3-f-40=i.732 revolutions. From Fig. 23, it will be seen that upright shaft carries a bevel p' with 31 teeth gearing into bevel o' with 18 teeth. The last bevel o' is on the little shaft carrying the ratchet that regulates the movement of the belt rack. While upright shaft turns 1.732 times, this little shaft will turn hl^^ ^2.98 times. We have seen (92) how the movements of the bobbin carriage operate to let off half a tooth of the ratchet for each traverse up or down, which means for each l^yer of roving. If we now determine how many layers there are on the bobbin, this gives us twice the number of teeth that must be let off by the ratchet during a set. Since we have just found the number of revolutions of ratchet shaft during a set, we may then find the number of teeth that must be in the ratchet in order to deliver the given num- ber of teeth in 2.98 revolutions. From data (103) there are to be 66 layers of roving per inch, counting from centre outward. We know empty bobbin is i^ inches in diameter, and full bobbin 3I inches diameter. The roving is thus 2 inches thick on both sides of bobbin, or i inch thick on each side, and contains 66 lay- ers. Hence the bobbin carriage makes 66 traverses up and down, or 33 up and 33 down, and it will knock off half a IIB tooth of ratchet 66 times, and ratchet wih pass 33 full teeth. Since it does this during 2.98 revolutions, it must have 33-^2.98^11 teeth. 121. With II teeth in the ratchet wheel, the belt rack will move forward 19.8 inches, and 66 layers of roving Avill be wound on bobbin. It must be borne in mind that there is a wide variation in the ratchet required, depending upon the state of the weather, the smoothness of the flyer, the character of stock worked, and the num- ber of tmies that roving is wrapped around presser foot. All of these things affect the tension with which roving is drawn on the bobbin. This affects the hardness of the bobbin and the number of layers that may be put on in a given diameter. This is more variable than any other change about the machine, and should be allowed for by keeping on hand a number of ratchet wheels, to change when circumstances require it. The matter is easily adjusted by the attendant. If the bobbin winds up the roving properly at the beginning of set, but becomes too tight, with a tendency to pull apart toward the last of the set, it indicates that speed of bottom cone is not being reduced fast enough and that belt does not traverse far enough at each layer, and that teeth in ratchet are too near together. Hence a ratchet with fewer teeth is required. Having fewer teeth in the same diameter, spaces them farther apart and gives more belt traverse per tooth. A ratchet with more teeth is required when the conditions above are reversed. IvAY Gear. 122. From data (103) the lay of 3 hank roving is 22 rows (or turns on bobbin) per inch. The first layer is 7 inches long and contains 7 x 22=154 rows. The circumference of empty bobbin is i|- X 3.1416=4.71 inches, hence the 154 rows contain 154 X 471=725.3 inches. We found (107) that front roll delivers 583.5 inches per minute, hence the number of times that this first layer of 725.3 inches could be delivered per minute would be 583. 5-^725. 3=.8o, (that 114 is, it could lay on a little more than | of a layer per minute.) This means that bobbin carriage makes .80 traverses per minute up or clown, and the problem is to find the neces- sary gears to make the carriage move at that speed. 123. Referring to Fig. 23, it will be seen that the racks u, attached to bobbin carriage are traversed up and down by pinions t, which are on the lifting shaft driven from bottom cone through the train L, M, N, g, h, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s. We know the speed of up and down motion of bobbin carriage. We must find what speed the pinion t must have to produce the proper carriage motion. Then the train of gears must be determined that will give that speed. 124. We found (122) that the carriage makes a traverse of 7 inches in .80 minutes. From data (103) teeth in carriage rack are 5-14 inches from centre to centre. Therefore in 7 inches there are 7-^ j^5_ =ig,6 teeth. These 19.6 teeth must pass in .80 minute, which is 19.6 -r-.8o^24.5 teeth per minute. From data (103) pinions t on lifting shaft have 18 teeth. Therefore when 24.5 teeth pass, these pinions must revolve 24. 5-^ 18=-- 1.36 times. This means that lifting shaft revolves 1.36 times per minute, and the problem is to find the gears necessary to give it that speed. 125. As in the other cases, we shall assume that all the gears in the train are fixed, except the change gear, which is in this case the "lay gear" q. Proceeding as in similar cases above, we might com- pute the speed of lifting gear s by considering bottom cone the driver. We know (118) bottom cone speed is 920.8. Inserting the letter in place of unknown gear, the formula would be 920.8 X 14 X 44 X 15 X 13 X q ^^ 68 X 56 X 70 X 80 X 73 Or we might compute the speed of bottom conebyconsid- 116 ering- lifting gear s the driver, and inserting the letter in place of unknown gear. The formula would be: 1.^6 X 7^ X 80 X 70 X s6 X 68 -^ — '^ =Q20. 8 q X 13 X 15 X 44 X 14 In the last formula we have the unknown gear in the denominator, which is the condition under which we found that the formula could be rewritten, putting the known quantity in place of the unknown, and having the result give the unknown quantity. Thus we may re-write the formula: 1.36 X 73 X 80 X 70 X 56 X 68 920.8 X13X15X44X14 ^ This works out 19. i. 126. We shall therefore select 19 as the proper lay gear, and proceed to verify the work as in the other cases. Take the first formula and insert the value 19 in place of q, and we have: 920.8 X 14X44X 15 X 13X 19 68 X 56 X 70 X 80 X 73 This works out 1.35 revolutions of lifting shaft instead of 1.36, which would have been the case if we could have used a gear with 19. i teeth. In the calculations for lay gear, the speed of bottom cone was assumed to be what it is at the beginning of the set; and the number of rows to be put on was what would he oil the first layer at beginning of set. At the end of set, the speed of bottom cone is reduced, which also reduces the speed of carriage, and would, if same number of rows were to be put on, cause the rows to lie closer together. That is, larger number of rows per minute. But the niunber of rows per minute is less, because the nuni1)er of revolutions of bobbin is less. As both carriage and bobbin are controlled in speed by bottom cone, one reduction is in proportion to the other, and hence there is the same lay at end of set as at beginning. This 'might be verified if desired, by going over all the calcula- tions for lay gear, and substituting the proper speeds at end of the set in place of the speeds at beginning of set. 117 TapkR Gear. 127. We found (120) that when the bobbin grew to its full size, 3^ inches in diameter, the roving was in 66 layers on the bobbin. The taper should be about equar to half the diameter of the roving at each end of bobbin. This makes each row shorter than the preceding one by i diameter of roving, or sav by i row. As there are 22 rows per inch length- wise, each layer will be 1-22 inch shorter than the pre- ceding. In 66 layers, this would be 66-=-22=3 inches. Thus the last layer on a full bobbin is 3 inches shorter than the first layer. The first layer was 7 inches long so the last layer will be 4 inches long. 128. It was shown (93) that the taper rack is attached to the bobbin carriage by a pin at its end sliding in a slot, and that this taper rack, in its motions up and down with the carriage, rocks the upper cradle of the builder containing set screws, which release the pigeon wings and cause reversing bevels to move, and change direction of carriage. In order to make- the taper, the cradle must rock enough sooner at every traverse of carriage to make the total traverse 4 inches at end of set, instead of 7 inches, as at beginning of set. Taper Rack, Fig. 24. — Lettering. A. Lower Cradle. B. Outer End — Beginning of Set — Top of Traverse. C. Outer End — Beginning of Set — Bottom of Traverse. D. Outer End — End of Set — Bottom of Traverse. E. Outer End- — End of Set — Top of Traverse. F. G. Pigeon Wings. H. Upper Cradle. K, K. Set Screws in Upper Cradle. L. Frame in which Pigeon Wings are pivoted. The taper rack is shown in Fig. 24 in four positions: top of - traverse, beginning of set; top of traverse, end of set; bottom of traverse, beginning of set; bottom of traverse, end of set. To avoid confusion, only one posi- tion of top cradle is shown. 118 To produce the required taper the extreme end of rack must move 7 inches at beginning of set and 4 inches at end of set. In order for the reversal of carriage motion to take place, the set screw K must raise pigeon wing G entirely out of notch in lower cradle. Therefore the pigeon wing G must be in the position shown when at the top of each carriage traverse whether at beginning or end of set. This means that set screw K must be in same position at top of each traverse, and hence the angle of top cradle must be the same. Hence at the end of set and top of traverse, the end of rack B will be in position E. 129. We want to- find the size pinion necessary to draw the rack into position E during the building of the set. To do this, we must find the distance from B to E. Suppose, at beginning of set, the pin B measures 24 inches from centre of taper pinion in builder. We know that the points B and C are 7 inches apart, and that the points D and E are 4 inches apart. We may lay out the diagram to scale, as in Fig. 24, and measure the distance B E, or we may arrive at it by rule of three; because the distance H B must be to H E, as 7 to 4, thus: 7:4: : 24: 13.7. Hence H E is 13.7 and the travel of point B is 24 — 13.7=10.3 inches. The rack contains teeth 2-7 inches apart, hence the number of teeth represented by a travel of 10.3 inches will be 10.3-^=36. We found (120) that the little shaft in builder which carries taper pinion revolves 2.98 times during the build- ing of the set. This pinion must turn an amount equal to 36 teeth during 2.98 revolutions, hence the number of teeth it must contain is 36-^-2.98=^12. If taper pinion has more than 12 teeth it will in 2.98 revolutions draw the rack in more than 10.3 inches and thus make distance D E shorter than 4 inches. This means that outer layer of roving is less than 4 inches long, and that consequently there is more taper. Hence the more teeth in taper pinion, the greater the taper. 120 Constant. 130. We found in all the instances where change gears have been cal- culated that if the draft, for instance, is left out of the formula, the result is the draft constant. In all the instances where draft gear appeared in denominator of the formula, the constant was a "dividend." That is, if constant is divided by draft, the result is draft gear required. It follows from this, that if draft and draft gear be multiplied together, the result is the draft con- stant. This holds good in all cases where the unknown gear appears in denominator of formula. To save trouble, we may avail ourselves of this fact in determin- ing the various constants for the roving frame under discussion. Production. 131. By the same method as with other machines, the production is found by multiplying the circumference of front roll in inches b}^ its revolutions per minute. This gives the number of inches delivered per minute. This multiplied by the number of minutes in an hour and the number of hours in a working day, and divided by the number of inches in a yard will give the yards delivered per day. This divided by 840 will give the number of hanks per day. This divided by the "hank roving" (or number of hanks per pound of stock delivered) will give the result reciuired, namely: the numl^er of pounds produced per day per spindle. This is theoretical production if frame should run every minute of the day. But it is impossible for this to occur, l^iecause v/hen the bobbins are filled, the frame must be stopped to "dof¥" (or remove full bob- bins and put on empty ones.) Besides this, whenever the roving breaks, (or, technically, there is an "end down,") the frame must be stopped to piece up. Ten per cent is usually allowed for losses of time from all causes. This is a fair average allowance, but in some cases is hardly sufficient. 132. Expressed as a formula, the theoretical produc- #-' 121 tio'ii per spindle per clay for the frame discussed would be i| X 3.1416 X 165 X 60 X II 36 X 840 X 3 This works out 4.24 pounds per spindle when running every minute for 11 hours. Deduct 10 per cent, and the usual rating- would be 3.82: but 3.60 would be a safer estimate for ordinary operations. In figuring production of fly frames in general, the allowance for lost time must not be rigidly gauged by any fixed per cent. It will be readily seen that, in very coarse slubbing, the bobbins will fill quicker, and hence need doffing oftener than in fine roving. About as much actual time is lost in one case as in the other, but the per cent, is greater. Something like 15 minutes per set is right to allow for doft'ing and other stops. A slub- ber making .5 hank slubbing would run a set in about an hour, so that stoppage in that case would be 25 per cent., while 6 hank fine roving would run a set in about 5 hours, and a stoppage of 15 minutes per set would figure 5 per cent. Some difiierence may be made in prodtiction by the number of spindles under the care of one operative. If a mill is so designed that there is a liberal allowance for stoppage, fewer operatives are necessary than for the case where each machine must be pushed to the utmost for every minute of the day in order to keep up with the subsequent machines. The maximum speed of front roll that would be allow- able under certain conditions must always be determined by expermient at the time. Geuverally speaking, the finer the stock delivered, the slower the speed must be. If a machine runs faster than its maximum, the ends will break down more frequently, and more production will be lost by stoppage than will be gained by the greater delivery of front roll at the fast speed. In the Appendix will be found tables giving what are considered proper speeds under average conditions for various hanks roving. 122 Summary of 133. Including the data in (103,) Calculations. we now have complete information for gearing up the roving frame as follows: Speed of Driving Shaft , 458 Speed of Spindles , 1237 Diameter Front Roll i;^t inches Speed Front Roll 165 revolutions 583.5 inches Diameter Back Roll i inch Draft 5.56 Draft Gear 42 Draft Constant (5.56 x 42) 233.5 Twdst 2.12 Twist Gear 51 Twist Constant (2.12 x 51) 108. i Bobbin Diameter, empty i^ inches, full . . . . 3^ inches Bobbin Circumference, empty 4.71 inches, full, iiinches Bobbin Speed, empty, 1361, full 1290 Bobbin Length, first layer 7 inches, last layer 4 inches Layers on Bobbin 66 Cone diameters, 6 inches and 3^ inches Cone Length 30 inches Cone Belt starts from end of cone 4.8 inches Cone Belt travels 19.2 inches Speed Bottom Cone, at start 920.8, at finish 388.6 Reduction of Cone Speed per inch of length 27.66 rev. Cone Gear 14 Ratchet II Lay 22 Lay Gear 19 Lay Constant (22 x 19) 418 Taper Gear 12 Production: Pounds per spindle per 11 hours, (10 per cent allowance) 3.82 134. Concerning calculations on fiy frames in general, it may be said that very few overseers, or even superin- tendents in the Southern mills, have that easy familiarity with the subject that gives them the courage and incli- 123 nation to go through the calculations and see that every adjustment is exactly right. When machines are ordered the shop is generally given full information as to the character of work to be done, and they are supposed to send proper gears with the machines. Men are sent out from the shop to set the machines up and adjust them to the work required. Usually only small changes are necessary to fit the limited changes required in oue mill. Overseers usually make changes by "rule of thumb." If one gear does not m.ake the machine go right, another and another is tried until it seems right. It need scarcely be pointed out that this method is not the proper one. While the result may seem to be all that is necessary, much bad work developed in the after processes may be traced back to imperfect adjust- ment on the roving machinery. This is particularly true in regard to the matter of tension. As has been shown, the tension of roving between front roll and tlyer depends upon the cone gear in use, and upon the position of cone belt. When the cone gear has been determined, the position of cone belt at beginning of set is adjusted to give the proper tension, and the stop adjusted so that every time a set is finished and cone belt is run back, it will always go back to the same point, and it will start with the same tension. If the ratchet gear is properly selected, it will feed the cone belt along in such a way that the tension started with, will remain uniform, as the bobbin grows in size. If the ratchet has too many teeth, the belt will not be moved along cone fast enough, and tension will grow too tight. The principal trouble comes right at this point. As the tension becomes tighter, there will be a stretch in roving, thus developing a false draft between front roll and bob- bin. Hence the stock will run lighter. The roving is strong eno'Ugh to hold together under a considerable amount of draft, in some cases 20 per cent. When roving- finally breaks down from too much stretch, the operative "lets off" a tooth or two of the 124 ratchet by hand, and it runs on again with continually tightening- tension until it is ready to break, and then the ratchet is again let off by hand. It is easy to see that this sort of work results in a great variation in weight of roving, and it should not be permitted. A ratchet with fewer teeth should be applied at once. On the other hand, if a ratchet with too few teeth is in use, the cone lielt will be carried forward too fast and speed of bobbin will suffer too great a reduction; and the tension, however correct at beginning of set, will become too loose as the bobbin grows. The bobbin will not wind up the roving delivered, and roving will soon break down. The operative then stops machine and winds back the ratchet by hand a tooth or too by guess. He will be more likely to wind it back too much than too little; because if too much, it may, by straining the roving, keep running, while if too little, it will soon run slack, and break down again. The consequence is, that uneven stretching, or false draft, is again produced. Hence with a ratchet containing either too many or too few teeth, there will certainly be uneven roving, due tO' a constantly ^-arying stretch between' front rolls and bob- bin. Much ingenuity has 1:)een expended on roving machin- ery to make it automatic and regular in all its move- ments. If any ]:)articular machine requires constant manipulation to make it turn out regular work, either the machine or the operative needs immediate attention. Too much stress cannot be laid on the matter of keep- ing the tension right. There is always a temptation to let the machine run as long as the ends will stay up, but this is no criterion ; for it is quite .possible for the ends to stay up. while there is great unevenness of tension. SHORT METHODS. 135. In the actual operation of a mill, it is not always necessary to make complete calculations as for a new machine. If a machine is running and producing satisfactory results on a certain hank roving, and it is required to change the 125 gears to produce another hank, it is sometimes done by the use of constants and so^metimes by the rule of three. The use of constants has been fully discussed in connec- tion with all of the preceding machinery. Draft. In making new draft calculation, it has been shown (105) that a certain allowance is neces- sary for contraction. But in the case of a frame already running, a calculation may be made by the rule of three, which will include all allowances and give the correct result at once. For example, a frame is making 3 hank roving and the draft gear in use is 58, what gear is neces- sary to produce 4.80 hank. The required hank is to present hank, as present gear is to required gear, thus: 4.80: 3.00: : 58:? This works out 36.2, and means that a 36 gear is as near as possible, with all allowances made. Twist. As there are noi allowances necessary in the case of twist, the calculation by constants is the easiest. But if the constant is not known, or if for any other reason it is desired tO' work it out by rule of three, the required twist is tOi the present twist as the present gear is to required gear. For example, if the frame is now making roving with a twist of 4.10 per inch, and a twist gear 60: and a roving is required with a twist of 2.00, it is stated thus: 2.00: 4.10: : 60:? This works out 123, and means that a twist gear with 123 teeth will produce a twist of 2.00 per inch. This question has usually been made much harder to understand than it should be, on account of mixing up square roots in the problem. When the twist per inch is stated in both cases, as above, squares and square roots have nothing to do' with it. If a frame is now running with a 70 twist gear making 4 hank roving, and it is desired to change it to say 3 hank roving, the twists corre- sponding to- these hanks vary according to the square root of the hank in each case; but it is better to find what these twists are from the table before taking up the question of 126 the gears; and thus the question of square root is elimina- ted from the simple rule of three. But if desired, it can be all worked together, thus: square root of 4: square root of 3: : 70;? ;or 2: 1.73: :7o:? I'his works out 121 which is the twist gear required. Lay. Exactly the same methods may be pursued in working out a change of lay gear as in the case of cwist gear. GENERAL DATA. 136. Fly frames are generally 3 feet wide, and vary in length accor- ding to number of spindles and distance apart, spindles are placed, (known as "Gauge or space of spindles.") The width allowed for a slubber must be more than the bare width of machine, because three lines of cans must stand behind it. Only one can of sliver is fed to one spindle, but, as there are about 8 spindles to each 36 inches in length of frame, and as cans are usually 12 inches in diameter, the cans will have to stand three deep to supply the sliver. Hence the net width allowed for each slubber including cans must be not less than 6 feet. The length of any frame may be closely approxi- mated by multiplying half the number of spindles by the gauge, and adding to the result 3 feet for gearing, driv- ing, pulley, etc. The reason for using half the number of spindles is, that spindles are in two rows. If there were only one row, the whole number of spindles would be multiplied by the gauge. Suppose a frame contains 60 spindles, with gauge of 6 inches. The length of frame would be 30 X 6-:--i2=i5 feet+3 feet=^i8 fej^<5fal. The height of a frame is to top of roller beam about 3 feet for fine roving, and 3^ feet for intermediate and fclubbing. Top of creel is 6^ to 7 feet high. The weights of the average size frames in use are approximately as follows: For 60 spindle slubber 100 pounds per spindle; For 102 spindle intermediate, 75 pounds per spindle'; For 144 spindle roving 50 pounds per 127 spindle. The weight per spindle decreases sHghtly as number of spindles increases. The weight per spindle increases as the gauge increases. 137. The bottom rolls are supported in stands made fast to roller beam. They stand from 18 inches to 22 inches apart according to gauge of frame. This distance from centre to centre is called by the English the "staff" of the frame. There is always a definite number of spindles between stands. Slubbers usually have 4, intermediates 6, and fine roving 8. If the slubber is 8 inch gauge, 4 spindles (2 in front and 2 in back row) will occupy 16 inches, and the stands are 16 inches, from centre to centre, and the gauge of the machine is sometimes expressed as "4 spin- dles in 16 inches," instead of "8 inch gauge." This is really the better way, as it gives information on two points at once. If a roving frame is 4^ inch gauge, 8 spindles (4 in front and 4 in back row) will occupy 18 inches, and the gauge may be expressed as "8 spindles in 18 inches." The rolls are made in sections to fit the stands. The ends are made with squares and sockets to be driven together, forming a continuous roll of the required length. The rolls are made with "bosses" (or enlarge- ments) w^hich deliver the roving to spindles. Sometimes the boss is made long enough to pass two separate ends of roving and deliver them to two spindles. In this case, it is called "double boss" or "Long boss." Sometimes there is one boss for each spindle; this is "single boss" or "short boss." On general principles it would seem better to have a boss for each delivery or spindle, but when the spindles stand very close together, that is, have a small gauge or space, the stirrups, by which weights hold top rolls down, would stand so close together in the case of single boss rolls, that they would interfere with cleaning off the roller beam. There is one set of stirrups and w^eights for every two bosses, whether single or double. In the case of single boss rolls, with say 8 128 I spindles in the space of i8 inches, there would be 8 bosses and 4 sets of stirrups. This would throw the stirrups 4^ inches centre to centre. In the case of double boss rolls, there would be 4 bosses and 2 sets of stirrups in 18 inches, which would throw them 9 inches apart. With slubbers and interme- diates, spindles stand farther apart than with fine roving so that, with say 4 spindles in 16 inches, there would only be 2 sets of stirrups in the space of 16 inches, even with single boss rolls. Hence slubbers and intermediates are usually made with single boss rolls, and fine roving with dou1)le boss. The roll weights are made heavier for double boss than for single boss, because as shown above, there are fewer weights used. 138. The roll weights are sometimes hung ''direct,'" which is one set of weights for each roll, front, middle and back; and sometimes hung double, which is a direct weight on front roll, and one weight on a saddle over both middle and Ijack rolls; and sometimes "lever weigh- ted," in which all or part of the weights hang by means of levers which increase the effect and enable lighter weights to be used. The direct weights seem simpler and better, though some superintendents, for various reasons, prefer double weighting, and some lever weight- ing. The frame works equally well in any case, and the only choice is in convenience of handling. Most English frames are direct weighted, and most American frames double weighted. For use with frames about like those discussed, say slul)ber with 4 spindles in 18 inches, single boss; interme- diate with 6 spindles in 19^ inches, single boss; fine rov- ing with 8 spindles in 20 inches, double boss, the weights hanging direct would be about as follows: Slubber. Intermediate. Fine Roving. Weight on Front Roll, 18 lbs 14 18 Weight on Middle Roll, 14 10 14 Weight on Back Roll, 10 8 12 139. Fly frames are supplied with leather covered top 139 rolls, similar to those for drawing frames. They are made solid or "shell" (or Loose "boss") and, like the drawing, are generally arranged with front roll shell, and back rolls solid. The frames are equipped with a roving traverse, which slowly moves the roving from end to end of rolls, to prevent wearing grooves in top rolls, whicb would occur if roving were always fed through in the same place. 140. For average size frames the power required is 2 horse power per frame; or about 30 slubber spindles, or 50 intermediate spindles, or 70 fine roving spindles per horse power. 141. Spindle and bobbin are guided in bobbin car- riage by the "collar." There are long collars and short collars. lyong collars have about supplanted the short. These collars are also- sometimes called "bolsters." 142. The "hand" of a frame is determined as described with the other machines, by standing at front or deliver}^ roll and noting whether driving pulley is at right or left hand. When standing at front roll, the driving shaft of all fly frames runs from you. The spin- dles and bobbins always run right handed, or "clock- wise," when looking down on them. Therefore, when looking up at delivery roll, the roving is turning left handed. But the roving itself, when viewed from either end, appears with right hand twist, that is, the twist may be followed around like the threads on a right hand screw. j 143. Three or four change gears for each change place, are furnished with each machine. The price of fly frames varies greatly with the specifications as to gauge, carriage traverse, number of spindles per frame, etc. The price increases with the increase of gauge and traverse, and decreases with the increase of spindles per frame. The price per spindle of frames such as have been dis- cussed is about as follows: Slubber, 60 spindles, $13.00; Intermediate, 102 spindles, $9.00; Fine Roving, 144 spindles, $6.00. 130 144- The calculations and the engravings relate principally to the standard patterns of English fly frames, which have been the basis of the designs in this country. There have been many variations in detail, but the gen- eral principles herein discussed may be readily applied to any frame. One important variation consists in the differential motion. The standard pattern is known as the "Holdsworth" motion. In this motion, some of the gears must revolve loosely on the driving shaft in an opposite direction to the shaft. ' This is objectionable on account of greater friction. One or two other motions were designed in England for the purpose of running in the same direction as the shaft. The most prominent of these is the "Tweedales" motion. Several good ones have also been designed in this country. They all have different formulas, which would be furnished and explained by the makers, whenever applied to their machines. They all have for their purpose the gradual slowing down the speed of bobbins as the set advances. In using other differentials than that illustrated and described in the text, the calculations proceed as usual, merely substituting in place of the formula for the Holdsworth motion, the formula for whatever new motion is used. 145. Frames are made in varying lengths (or number of spindles) to suit conditions of space, etc., but about 30 feet is considered the most convenient. When frames have small guage, (that is: spindles near together,) a larger number of spindles will be in a frame 30 feet long, have small gauge, (that is: spindles near together,) a with an arbitrary number of spindles. The number must be a multiple of the number of spindles between roll- stands. If a slubber has 4 spindles between stands (expressed in specification as "4 spindles in 18 inches, "' or 20 inches as the case may be) then a slubber may be ordered with 40, 44, 48, 52, etc., spindles, varying by 4 fDindles. If an intermediate has 6 spindles between biands, the frame ma}'- be ordered with 90, 96, 102, etc.. i:31 spindles, varying by 6. If a roving frame has 8 spindles between stands, the frame may be ordered with 120, 128, 136, etc, spindles, varying by 8. It is possible to make a frame otherwise, but it adds to the cost. SPECIFICATIONS. 146. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering fly frames. This blank ma}^ be used for slubbers, intermedi- cite or fine roving, making separate sheet for each. Slubber. Intermediate, or Fine Roving Number of Frames NiUTiber of Right Hand Number of Left Hand Spindles in each Frame Gauge of Spindles . . inches (or . . spds in , . inches) Diameter of Spindle (standard Slubber and Int. f , Roving f ) Hong or bhort Collars , Carriage Traverse (or lift) Diameter Empty Bobbin Diameter Full Bobbin Bobbins in '.he Creel: length , diameter Bobbins in Creel, Single or Double Single or Double Boss Rolls Weights: Flow hung Weights: On front Roll lbs.. Middle Roll lbs., Back Roll lbs. Diameter Bottom Rolls: Front. . ; Middle,. . ; Back,. .. Top Rolls: Shell, Front Fine, or all lines Driving Pulleys Diameter, Face, Driven from above or below Speed FVriving Pulleys Speed Spindles Length of Frame over all Hank of Roving in Creel Hank of Roving to be made Draft Twist per inch 132 Maker . . Purchaser Price . . . . Terms . '. . Remarks CHAPTER VIII. IRing Spinning* 147. In the processes thus far treated, the object to be attained was cleaning, straightening, evening and drawing out. Each process made the stock hghter, and only put in enough twist to hold it together until it could reach the next machine, which in drawing, would render practically inappreciable what little twist there was. The final process in making single ply yarn is spinning, which consists in still further drav/ing out and imparting the final twist to the product. There are two ways in which this may be done: "mule spinning" and "ring spin- ning." Mule spinning is the oldest system, and originated in England. It is still in almost universal use in that coun- try. It is also largely used in New England, and spar- ingly in the Southern States. 148. Ring spinning is in more general use in the United States, and especially in the South. It will there- fore be treated more in detail than mule spinning. In roving machinery, the processes of drawing and winding on bobbin are simple, and the mechanism and calculations complicated. In ring spinning, the processes are more complex than the mechanism. SPINNING FRAME. — FIG. 25.— LKTTERING. A. Bobbin in Creel. R. Saddle. B. Traversing Guide Eye. S. Stirrup. C. Bottom Fluted Rolls. T. Lever. D. To]) Rolls. U. Lever Screw. E. Thread Guide. V. Weight. F. Thread Board. vV. Cap Bar. G. Ring. X. Creel Post. H. Ring Rail. Y. Creel Board. J- Spindle Rail. Z. Skewer. K. Spindle. a. Ballooning Yarn, 134 L. Traveler. M. Bobbin. N. Spindle Base. P. Tin Cylinder. Q. Spindle Band. Spinning Frame — The roving, in some cases double. Process. and in some cases single, passes through guide eye B. between bot- tom and top rolls. Rolls produce drawing effect, in the same way as on drawing frames and fly frames. Top rolls are held in place by cap bars, the same as in roving machinery. Weights are hung with saddles (shown more plainly on the right hand side of Fig. 25) and stirrups and levers. Yarn delivered by front roll passes through thread guide E and through traveler L to bobbin M. Spindle is driven right handed, or clock wise by a round band made of twisted yarn. The band runs from tin cylinder around the whorl of spindle. Bobbin is fast on the spindle and revolves with it. As bobbin revolves, it draws yarn through traveler and causes traveler to also go around the ring. Revolution of bobbin and spindle produces twist. Traveler does not go around as fast as bobbin, hence yarn is wound on bobbin same way as by bobbin lead in fly frame. Traveler acts as a flyer. Ring is fastened to ring rail H which is traversed up and down by the lifting rod. Traveler goes up and down with ring and thus guides the yarn in layers on bobbin. Ring rail may be made to traverse in one of two differ- ent ways, producing a "warp wind," or a "filling wind." In the warp wind, the bobbin is built exactly like the rov- ing bobbin, that is, with each layer of yarn a trifle shorter than the preceding, as at A, Fig. 26. In the filling wind, the bobbin is built on an entirely different principle, as shown at B, Fig. 26. The mechan- ism of builder for filling is so arranged that there is a Fig. 25. Spinning Frame Section. 136 traverse first from base of bobbin a short distance up the bobbin. Then each successive traverse starts a trifle higher, and retaining the same length of traverse, causes the bobbin to be filled in the manner shown at B, Fig. 26. The base of wooden bobbin itself is made with a taper as shown, not as a perfect cone, but in small steps, the better to keep the yarn from tangling when 1)eing unwound. The slanting lines represent successive layers of yarn on bobbin. The length of lines are seen to be the same, but each successive layer starts a little higher up and ends a little higher up, thus preserving the same angle of the lay- ers. This peculiar shape is found to be the best adapted to the unwinding of the bobbin in the shuttle of loom. The main barrel of bobbin is made with ridges, so that when yarn is pulled off, it will come off one layer at a time, and not tangle. 149. When bobbins have run full, the frame is stopped and "doffed," one bobbin at a time being removed from the spindle without breaking the yarn. The empty bob- bin is turned a few times around the slack yarn between traveler and full bobbin. Empty bobbin is then put in place on the spindle, and the yarn is broken, to liberate the full bobbin. When frame starts, the yarn being already attached to new bobbin, begins to wind immedi- ately. 150. Another method of doffing sometimes practiced when the spindles used have no cup, is for the operator to press the ring traverse down with his foot, just before stop- ping frame, and cause yarn to be wound a few turns on the bare spindle below bobbin. The full bobbin is removed and yarn broken off and empty bobbin put oh spindle. When frame starts up, the ring rail guides yarn properly on new bobbin, and spinning proceeds as before. This process of doffing would seem to be the simplest and best. But an objection to it is that the yarn will, after a time, accumu- late on the spindle and prevent the bobbin from properly seating. 138 This yarn might easily be removed with each dolTing, but in practice it is not regularly done, and causes much trouble. 151. The gearing of a spinning frame consists princi- pally of one simple train. The spinner is not called upon to make any calculations, except for draft, twist and pro- duction. SPINNING FRAME GEARING. — FIG. 27. — LETTERING. A. Tin Cylinder, or driving shaft. B. Cylinder Gear. C. Jack Gear. D. Twist Gear. E. Intermediate. F. Large Gear on Front Roll. G. Small Gear on Front Roll. H. Crown Gear. J. Draft Gear. K. Back Roll Gear Driven L. Back Roll Gear Driver. M. Intermediate. N. Middle Roll Gear. P. Sprocket Wheel to drive Builder. O. O.' Builder Cam and Shaft. R. R.' Builder Lever. r. r.' Builder Pivot. S. S.' Star Wheel. T. T.' Pawl. U. U.' Chain to Lifting Rod. u. u.' Point of Attachment for Chain. V. Traverse Weight. W. Lifting Rod or (English) "Poker." X. *Ring Rail. Y' Y.' Driving Pulley on either end (but not on both.) O.' U.' Builder, as made for Filling Wind. 152. Some superintendents prefer to have driving pul- leys on opposite end of tin cylinder from the gearing. This preference is due to the fact that in this case the driv- 140 ing pulleys and belts are completely out of the way when making changes or repairs on gearing. Others prefer pulleys on same end of cylinder as gearing, for the reason that, Jn this case, the power to drive the gearing is near the pulleys, and does not strain the cylinder as it would in the other case, when it must be transmitted its entire length. The tin cylinder acts as a shaft. The small shafts shown at each end are only short pieces inserted for the purpose of carrying pulleys and gears. Experiment has shown, however, that the power consumed by the gearing is only about 1 1 per cent, of the entire power required, so that the strain would not seem to be excessive in either case. Most makers will arrange the gearing on either end to suit the ideas of the users. WARP BUILDER. 153. The upper part of Fig. 27 shows the builder arranged for warp wind. The point of attachment u on lever R. for chain U. is movable, being a nut on a screw. The screw carries star wheel S., so that if S is turned, the point u is moved in or out. The weight V. keeps lever R pressed against cam Q. When cam allows lever to go up, the pawl T., wliich is stationary, acts on star wheel, and turns it a small amount in the direction to feed the point u nearer to point r. This gives a smaller movement to the point u and hence reduces the traverse of lifting rod and ring rail. This winds a shorter layer of yarn on each traverse, and makes a warp bobbin like A., Fig. 2 6. FILLING 154. The lower portion of Fig. 27 BUILDER. shows how a builder is made for filling wind. The cam O.' has a different shape, and is arranged to make more traverses per revo- lution of builder shaft than the warp wind. It is also shaped so that the traverse down will be more rapid than the traverse up. This is for the purpose of crossing the 141 thread to some extent, to prevent bobbins tangling when they are unwound over the end, in the loom shuttle. But the most important difference is in the result of the turning- of the star wheel S/ by pawl T.' The star wheel instead of being carried on a screw, as in the case of warp builder, is attached directly to a spool, around which the chain may wind. As lever R.' moves up and down, actu- ated by cam, the point of attachment u' of chain does not move in toward the point r' and lessen its leverage. The leverage remains the same, but the spool unwinds a lit- tle of the chain every time star wheel strikes pawl. This ^ keeps the amount of ring rail traverse the same, but starts it higher every time, thus producing the filling bobbin as shown at B, Fig. 26. 155. A crank handle is provided, with which star wheel may be wound back to the starting point at the end of every "doff" (or "set," as it would be called m the case of roving frames.) If wheel is not run back to begin the new set, the new bobbins will begin to wind where the old ones left off, that is: in the case of warp bobbin, with a short traverse; and in the case of filling bobbin, with a traverse at top part of bobbin instead of at the bottom. It is necessary for the filling bobbin to begin building at the bottom part, because there the wooden bobbin is made with the taper which gives shape to the whole bob- bin of yarn. COMBINATION 156. Some spinning frames are so BUILDER. constructed that the bobbin may be built warp wind or filling wind. Such frames are called "combination frames." The differ- ence consists in arranging the builder so it may be quickly changed from one wind to the other. Two cams are put on cam shaft. When frame is being run for warp, the cam for filling wind is slipped out of the way on the shaft, and vice versa. In changing from one wind to the other on a combina- tion frame, the draft and twist gears are generally changed, and also the size of rings and the speed of cylin- 142 der. This is necessary on account of the difference between the character of warp and fihing yarn, warp being harder twisted than lihing. The amount of twist in yarn, hke that in roving depends virtuahy upon the relative speed of front roll and spindle. This relative speed is controlled by the twist gear. The larger the twist gear, the faster the front roll,, and the less the twist. FRONT ROLL SPEED. 157. The speed of a spinning frame is limited by the speed of its front roll. This, like the front roll speed of roving- machinery has been determined by experience. In the appendix will be found tables, giving among other data, the proper speed of front roll for the different numbers of yarn. These speeds are not fixed and invariable ; but they serve as a guide, and probably represent on the average the best speed for maximum output of yarn. A faster speed would necessarily deliver more yarn, but there would be so much more difBculty in keeping the ends up, that the time lost in piecing up would more than counter- balance the time gained in faster speed. Aside from the mere fact of lost production by piecing up, there is a cer- tain liability to bad piecing, which detracts from the per- fection of yarn. The amount of twist in yarn, limits to some extent the speed of front roll. The more the twist, other things being equal, the better the ends will stay up, and faster the front roll may run. Front roll may increase in speed with coarseness of yarn. These facts have been taken into consideration in the tables. The twist given opposite each number is based on the old English standards. STANDARD TWIST. 158. Almost in every instance in England, where ring frames are in use, they are for spinning warp (or "twist," as they call it) while mules are in use for filling (or "weft.") The 143 standard twists for warp spun on ring frames are there- fore all right, and are generally adhered to, while the twist for filling being based on mule spinning, are not correct for ring frames. They are softer or slacker twis- ted than can be easily spun on ring frames at the speed given in those tables. No original American tables have been published for ring spinning. They are all based on the old English stand- ard. The tables which have been published in /Vmerica, are mostly fottnd in the catalogues of builders of machin- ery. Every one knows, that in the case of filling, the standard of twist and speed cannot be profitably attained in practice. But no machinery builder wants to publish a table with a greater filling twist or lower speed, for the reason that the public might conceive such a falling off from the standard to be necessary on account of inferior machinery. 159. Standard warp twist is found by multiplying the square root of the number of the yarn by 4.75. Standard mule filling twist is found by multiplying the square root of the number by 3.25. These are considered to be the ideal factors. Filling frames are usually speeded to- give this twist at the speed in the old tables. The conse- quence in actual practice is, that the spinner, finding it difficult and unprofitable to run that way, increases the twist to about 3.60 times the square root. It would make better yarn, and remedy the difficulty just as well (though reducing productions,) to leave the twist as first designed and reduce the speed of the frame. But the twist may be altered by the change of a gear, which is easily and cheaply obtained, while a reduction of speed would necessitate new driving pulleys. Besides this, there is always such a drive for high production that qual- ity of yarn is apt to be sacrificed for production. NEW TABLES. 160. The tables pubhshed in the appendix have been carefully com- piled from experience, and may be relied upon, as giving 144 the best conditions under which ring yarn can be spun. Frames speeded in accordance with these tables will run and give maximum production for the twists named. The standard factors for twist have been retained, and the speed adjusted to suit. A soft filling yarn is desirable as it gives a soft "feel" to the cloth. Soft warp would also be desirable, but for the reason that less twist in any yarn means less strength. There is considerably more strain on warp yarn in the processes of preparation for the loom, and in the loom itself, than there is on filling. Hence, aside from any rea- sons involved in the quaHty of the cloth made, there is a need of greater strength in warp than in filling. In any case, from slubbing to spinning, it is desirable to put in the least twist compatible with the requirements of sub- sequent processes. i6i. When speed of front roll has been fixed at the correct amount for the average number of yarn to be spun the twist gear is computed tO' give proper twist for that number of yarn. Then the speed of driving shaft or tin cyHnder may be determined. Small changes of counts and consequent changes of twist will cause speed of front roll to vary from the standard, but it will not usually give trouble, because weights of traveler may be adjusted to suit speed. Formerly the speed of ring spinning was Hmitedby speed of spindle, and not by front roll. The mechanical perfec- tion of the present day spindle is such that it may run over 10,000 revolutions per minute. But in order not to get too much twist in yarn that is coarser than number 40. the spindle speed must be reduced proportionately (even below 5.000 revolutions in the case of spinning number 8 filling.) See the table in appendix for speeds correspond- ing to different numbers. When the maximum spindle speed was considered to be 4000, the front roll, in order to produce the proper twist, could only run about half as fast as the present standard. This is slower than is demanded by the necessity of keep- ing ends from breaking down. 145 SPINDLES. 162. The development of the spmdle is shown m Fig. 28, in which A is an old form, B the latest type, and C an enlarged section show- ing interior parts of spindle shown at B. There are sev- eral varieties of spindles based on the latest type. The most radical improvement over the old form consists in making the bearings self contained, sO' that when fastened in place, no work is required to produce alignment of parts. The older forms had two bearings, fastened to two independent rails. If these two parts were not perfectly adjusted, the spindles could not properly run. The mod- ern spindle is attached by its base to the spindle rail at one point only, and is always ready to run independently of external conditions. Another important feature is the flexibility of the bearings. The spindle accurately fits thebolster, but bolster is about 5-^-0 inch smaller than the base which holds it. The spindle, with its load of bobbin and yarn, having a certain amount of freedom, will, when running, adjust itself to a proper centre of revolution, much in the same way as a boy's top will do when it is spun. The whorl, where pressure of band pull comes, overhangs in such a way that the strain is directly resisted by the bearing. The little step in botto^m of baseis adjustable. By screw- ing it up or down the taper end of spindle may be made to fit looser or tighter in the bolster. An oil reservoir in the base keeps spindle constantly lubricated. In starting new spindles, it is necessary to supply fresh oil every few days, until the fibrous packing has become saturated. After this, fresh oil is required only about once a month. The oil tube in most general use for conveying oil to- spindle reservoir is shown in Fig. 28, and also on the right in Fig. 25. This tube has a hinged cover, carrying a slight projection which acts on a spindle guard, to hold spindle in place when doffing the bobbins. To pull the spindle out, it is only necessary to 146 raise this cover as shown in Fig. 28, when projection moves in out of the way. Another form of oil tube and spindle guard is shown at the left in Fig. 25. A wire bent at right angles is screwed into spindle base. It may be screwed around to hold spindle in place or to release it. 163. The spindle bands are made on a small machine in the mill, generally of yarn from tangled bobbins. They consist of 40 to 60 strands of yarn twisted into a two-ply cord about 3-16 inch diameter. Bands are sometimes also made of roving. Bands vary in size, but the most approv- ed size for average spinning is such that 120 bands weigh a pound. Bands are put around tin cylinder and whorl of spindle, drawn tight and tied. One end of band is in the form of a loop, where it has been doubled over itself to make it two-ply. This makes it convenient to tie. This style of band is sometimes called "loop-band." The tying on of these bands is an important matter. If they are too tight, the power consumed by the frame is excessive. Experiment has shown that the degree of tightness in spinning bands has more influence on con- sumption of power than any other one element. Usually bands are tied on by boys, who pull them as tight as they can. If the bands are tied too slack, the spindle will not run at its rated speed, and will produce slack twisted yarn. 164. Bobbins are carried by the spindle by virtue of the tight fit over the "blade" of spindle. The spindle is sometimes also provided with "a cup" into which the bot- tom of bobbin fits. There are "warp cups" and "filling cups," made to fit the shapes of warp or filling bobbins. Often, however, both warp and filling bobbins are made to fit warp cups. This arrangement enables all spindles to be alike, and gives less trouble in keeping them sepa- rate, and makes it easier to change from warp to filling. RINGS. 165. Within the past ten years, spinning rings have been brought to a high state of per- fection as to smoothness, roundness and hardness. Fig. Blade Fig. 28. Spindles. 148 29 shows a double ring, that is, one that may be used on one side until it is worn too much, and then turned over and used on the other side. Practically, however, the other side is rarely used. One side of a ring will wear 5 to 10 years. In that time, the underside of the ring will have become so gummed with oil and dirt, that it cannot be used without a most thorough cleaning. It is essential that the ring be absolutely clean and bright, otherwise the traveler will not be able to run freely, and bad work will result. A rapidly revolving brush, like a jewelers poHshing wheel, is the best instrument for clean- ing ring-s preparatory to turning them over. Rings are also made ''single,'' and, as they are much cheaper than the double ones, many people prefer to order single rings, especially in refitting old frames. New frames are gener- ally equipped with double rings by the maker. 166. Rings are held in place on the ring rail by "ring- holders," which are of two kinds: the cast iron. A, Fig. 29, and the plate B, Fig. 29. It is essential for good work, that rings be accurately adjusted, to be concentric with spindle. It is not possible to fix rings or ring-holders to ring rails with sufficient accuracy, hence the ring is made adjustable by its ring-holders. It may thus be accurately adjusted to the spindle. The cast iron ring-holder is adjusted by three screws: two in front and one in rear of ring rail, so that by loosening any one and tightening the other two, the ring may be moved a small amount in the direction of the loosened screw. The cast iron holder is made with a split, so that it may be slightly sprung open to receive ring. It then springs back and holds ring tight. The wire shown at A, Fig. 29, is called the "traveler clearer." It is sprung around the ring and has the end turned up as shown, so that it will just miss the traveler as it goes around ring. If traveler should accumulate any fly or broken threads, the clearer would knock it off. 167. Plate holders are held down to ring rail by sim- ple screws in slots from the top. These screws may be loosened, and the holder and ring moved to any desired crq 5" p. > DD 150 position within the limits of the slots. The rings are held in plate holder by being forced between the upturned flanges, as shown at B, Fig. 29. The traveler clearer on plate holder consists of a portion of the plate turned up as shown. Spindle rail is bored for spindle base somewhat larger than the base, so that by loosening the nut on base, spindle and base may be adjusted through a small range. The principle adjustment between spindle and ring i? made by mo\ang the the ring. RING SETTING. 168. Rings and spindles are set while spindles are running. A large bobbin is made and turned true on spindle about 1-32 inches smal- ler than ring. This bobbin is put on a spindle, the mechanism which traverses ring rail up and down is dis- connected, ring rail is raised to its highest position, and ring or spindle adjusted so bobbins will run in center of ring. Ring rail is then moved to bottom of traverse, and spindle and ring again adjusted. Sometimes the adjust- ment is made with ring rail at middle of traverse only. This is the easiest and most common way; but the first method is the best, and is known as "double setting." If rings and spindles are not perfectly concentric at all points, there will be unequal pulls on traveler, which will result in uneven yarn. Makers of spinning frames send men out with new machines, who adjust rings and spindles, as well as other parts, and start them up in perfect order; but these details must be examined from time to time, and not allowed to become deranged. SEPARATORS. 169. Warp frames are generally equipped with separators. These are blades, sometimes made from sheet metal, and sometimes cast. Formerly where travrse of warp frames did not exceed 5 inches, cast separator blades served the purpose. But with the introduction of longer traverse, wider blades were required than could be cast without too much weight; hence stamped blades have become almost universal. 151 Separators are attached to- light rods, running length- wise frame, so placed that one blade stands in the middle of each space, between spindles, and above the ring rail. These rods are attached to lifting rods similar to those for traversing ring rail, but with a smaller traverse. The sep- arator rises and falls with the ring rail, through a shorter distance. The separator is for the purpose of keeping the yarn from adjacent spindles from becoming entangled with one another. The yarn passing through thread guide and traveler, being rapidly twirled around spindle, has a centrifugal tendency, and forms, as shown at a, Fig. 25, what is called a "balloon." In the case of a warp frame, where traverse is so much longer than on filling frame, when ring rail is at bottom of traverse, there is a longer stretch of yarn between thread guide and traveler; and hence there is a tendency to bal- loon. The separator keeps ballooning yarn on one spin- dle from interfering with another. On filling frames, sep- arators are rarely necessary. If the frames were so constructed that spindles stood far enough from centre to centre, separators would not be necessary; but in order to economize, frames are generally made with spindles so close together as to need separators, especially on warp *^rames. 170. The thrashing of yarn against separators necessa- nly works some injury to the yarn. It would undoubt- edly be better for the product if frames were made with sufficient space between spindles ("gauge") to entirely dispense with separators. It is thought by some to be a paying investment to give up floor space for this purpose. An average ring frame, for spinning No. 20 warp yarn would have 208 spindles with 2f gauge, if rings, and 6 inch traverse; and would require separators. The frames would be about 27 ft. long. In order to dispense with separators, the gauge must be about 3^!, which would make the frame about 32 feet long. There are several varieties of separators on the market, all for accomplish- ing the same purpose, but dififering in details of applica- tion and operation. As a make shift, some frames are not 152 equipped with regular separators, but have been fitted up in the mill with a wire running full length of frame, just behind bobbins. The yarn strikes this wire, which partly checks the ballooning tendency and often does good work. TRAVELERS. 171. The selection of a proper weight traveler bears close relation to balloon- ing. The action of ring traveler is much like that of fiyer on roving frames. The roving flyer is driven at a constant speed by spindle, while bobbin is driven by a positive mechanism at a faster speed, in order to wind up roving. In the spinning frame, the spindle and bobbin revolve at a constant speed together. The yarn, passing through traveler on the way to the bobbin, is dragged around with the bobbin, but does not go quite so fast. This sagging back is equivalent to a bobbin lead, and allows yarn to wind on bobbin. At the same time, the going around of traveler causes twist to be put into the yarn. The drag of bobbin on traveler tends to revolve it as fast as the bob- bin itself, but the friction of traveler against ring, and of yarn in the traveler, and of yarn through the air, are all features tending to retard it. It is always possible to obtain the winding effect, no matter what the weight of traveler, so long as the yarn will hold together. If the traveler be very light, it will be willingly led, so to speak, and as there will not be much strain on the yarn in leading to traveler, it will balloon more. If a traveler be very heavy, it will be stubborn to lead, and the yarn will be much stretched in leading it. Carried to excess in this direction, the yarn will finally break. Hence the limit for lig-htness of traveler is the limit to which ballooning can be allowed; and the limit for heaviness is the limit to which stretch in yarn may be allowed. Since it is desirable to stretch yarn as little as possible, the ideal condition is to work the lightest traveler that will not damage yarn by beating too hard against separator. When double roving is being used, it is important to have the traveler heavy enough to break down the yarn in case one end of roving fails. When one of the two ends of 153 roving breaks or runs out, the resulting yarn, (called "sin- gle,") spun from the single roving, is only half the strength of the normal yarn; and, if the traveler is of proper weight, it will break down this "single," and thus prevent it being wound on the bobbin with the other yarn. 172. There has been no fixed rule discovered for deter- mining the size traveler which is proper for a certain num- ber of yarn. It has heretofore been determined entirely by experiment under the particular conditions in question. It varies with size of yarn, size of ring, length of traverse, speed of spindles, twist in yarn, whether warp or filling wind, whether single or double roving, and whether there are separators or not, also with atmosphere, and with quality of raw material. But, in order to convey an approximate idea of the size traveler to use under average conditions for certain numbers of yarn, a traveler ta;:»le is given in the appendix. Travelers are numbered according to an arbitrary standard. The weights of different numbers of travelers are given in the table. Some brands of travelers have square points and some have round points; some have flatter curves than others; some are thicker in proportion to width than others. Superintendents differ in opinion as to whether one or another kind is better. They also differ in regard to what is the proper weight under the same conditions. The whole subject seems to lack scientific definiteness, and has not yet been sufficiently mastered to warrant the publi- cation of any hard and fast rule that will cover all condi- tions. The only plan at present is to experiment in each case within the broad principles laid down, and select the particular kind and weight of traveler which gives the best average results under conditions 101 the case in hand. SIZE OF RING. 173. The best size of ring adapted to certain yarns, is also a matter of opinion and judgment; but a table is given in the appendix showing a system of good average sizes. On account of sav- ing time in doffing, it would seem theoretically best to 154 spin bobbins of very large size and long traverse. This would mean large rings; but experience has shown that there is a well defined maximum size of ring for each num- ber of yarn. With large rings the pull of traveler on the yarn varies greatly between empty bol^bins and full bob- bins. Referring to Fig. 30, it will be seen that the pull of yarn from bobbin through traveler, when bobbin is empty, meets a greater resistance than when bobbin is full. In the first instance the pull is more nearly a direct strain on the ring, while in the latter the pull is more in the direction of revolution of traveler; so that traveler, instead of being strained against ring, is mostly impelled in the direction of revolution. But when using smaller rings, the difference in the angle of pull is very much less, and hence there is less unevenness in the stretch of yarn, and also in the twist. There is a limit to the smallness of rings, on account of making small bobbins and entailing much loss of time from frequent doffing. There is a limit to largeness of rings on account of unequal strains and twists in yarns, even to the extent of breaking the yarn, and making it impossible to spin. The maximum limit varies with kind of stock, and the amount of twist impar- ted. Thus it is possible to spin yarn with standard warp twist on a ring that would not spin yarn of same count with filling twist. 174. It so happens that a large ring is not necessary or desirable in spinning filling, for the reason that the filling bobbin when spun, is ready without further manipulation to go to the shuttle for weaving. The size of bobbin which a shuttle will receive is always a smaller limit than the ring. That is, it is always possible to spin good filling of any number in a ring as large as the largest bobbin which a shuttle (designed for weaving that number of yarn) will receive. For the average sheetings woven in the South (from 3 to 5 yds. per pound) the shuttles are made to carry i^ inch bobbins, so that filling rings are very generally made i^ to if which is a good size for the counts spun, say 20 to 40. B Fig. 30. Pull of Traveler. 156 The final determination of size of ring which is proper under any given conditions, is a compromise between small size with small production and even yarn on the one side; and large ring, large production and more or less uneven yarn on the other. The length of traverse for filling wind is always small, from i^ to 2 inches, and the range has no important influ- ence on character of yarn spun. But for warp wind, the determination of the proper amount for a given set of con- ditions, is another compromise between short traverse, with small production, and even yarn on the one side, and long traverse, greater production, and more uneven yarn on the other. The longer the traverse the greater is the variation in length of yarn between front roll and traveler. If a traverse is 7 inches there is 7 inches more of yarn being spun with rail at bottom than with rail at top; whereas if traverse is 5 inches, the difference is but 5 inches. This constantly varying length introduces constantly varying tension through traveler, thus making minute variations in weight . There is also variations in twist from same cause. The maximum traverse for best work, for numbers up to 30, is 6^ inches, and for finer numbers, 5 to 6 inches. INEQUALITIES. 175. There is in the nature of the ring frame a small variation in twist, due to the traverse, whether long or short. It is slightly more in a 7 inch traverse than 6 inch, but it does not amount to more than one tenth of a turn per inch. In practice, the twist per inch is found by dividing the number of revolutions of spindles per minute by the number of inches per minute of yarn twisted. In the case of roving fraines, where the flyer neither approaches nor recedes from front roll the amount of stock twisted is the exact amount delivered by front roll. But in spinning frame, where the ring with its traveler alternately approaches and recedes, this amount varies. Suppose front roll delivers 420 inches 157 per minute, and spindle turns 8,400. If ring rail were still, the twist would be 8400-^420=20. If the rail tra- verses downward 7 inches in one minute, the yarn being twisted at bottom of traverse would have a twist equal to 8400^-427=19.7. If rail traverses upward 7 inches in one minute, the yarn at top would receive a twist of 8400-^-413=20.3. This makes a total variation in twist between bottom and top of .6 turns per inch, or about three per cent. In the case of filling wind, where traverse is about i^ inches, this variation would seem to be very much less. But as a matter of fact, the filling traverse is much quicker than warp traverse, so that it traverses about as many inches per minute in one case as in the other, thus producing about the same variation in twist per inch. But as filling twist is naturally less per inch than warp, the same variation per inch would be a greater variation in per cent. Discussed as an abstract theory, the above calculation is not absolutely correct, because it is based on the assumption that twist is governed by the revolutions per minute of spindle, whereas it is in point of fact, governed by the revolutions of travelers as shown below. The relative difference in twist between top and bottom of traverse, however, would, in any case, be about the same as in the above calculation. There is a variation in, stretch between full bob- bin and empty bobbin, due to the fact that the traveler pulls harder when bobbin is empty, and hence stretches yarn more than when bobbin is full and traveler pulls easier. There is also a variation in twist between empty and full bobbin. The amount of twist put into yarn is generally consid- ered tO' be the ratio between yarn delivered by front roll, and the speed of spindle. This is near enough ^the truth to use as an easy basis for calculation. But as a matter of fact, the twist is produced by the revolution of traveler, and not the spindle. As the traveler revolves somewhat 158 slower than spindle, the actual twist is a little less than the calculated, and varies within small limits, from empty to full bobbin. Suppose empty bobbin is 2 inches in cir- cumference, and front roll deUvers 400 inches per minute, and spindle runs 8000 revolutions. If twist were produ- ced by spindle, the twist would be 8000-^-400=^20 per inch. But traveler must lag behind spindle and bobbin (400-^2^)200 revolutions, and will therefore run but 7800. Hence the real twist will be 7800-^400=19.5, which is about 2^ per cent, less than calculated. Suppose when bobbin is full, it measures 5 inches in circumference, traveler must sag (40o^-5=)8o revolutions, and will run but 7920. Hence the twist will be 7920-^400=19.8. This makes a difference in twist of .3 turns per inch between bobbin at beginning and at end of set. 176. Another cause of variation in stretch of yarn, is the varying length between thread guide and ring rail. The length is greater when ring rail is at bottom. If the weight of traveler be selected to suit the conditions at bot- tom of traverse, that is, to control the ballooning, the pull of traveler will exert a stretch on a longer portion of yarn than when rail is at top, and hence will produce a smaller amount of stretch per inch. When at top the stretch per inch will be greater. It is possible to put on a trav- eler that will run properly at bottom of traverse, but break down yarn at top. On the other hand, if traveler be selected light enough for the top, the ballooning will be excessive at the bottom, and might break down yarn by thrashing against separator; or in the absence of these, by entangling with adjacent bobbins. The traveler is selected to compromise these conditions, so that the machine may run; but the irregularities of stretch and tightness of bobbin wind still remain. It will be noted that while inequality of stretch is governed by varying distance between thread guide and ring rail, inequality of twist is governed by varying distances between front roll and ring rail. This is for the reason that the guide eye terminates the top end of the balloon, while front roll ter- 159 minates top end of twist. At one time, there was con- siderable money spent in making a spinning frame, in which spindles traversed up and down, while ring rail stood still. Theoretically this would eliminate the ine- qualities ol both stretch and twist, or so much of it as results from this cause. The mechanical difficulties in the way of perfecting this machine were never overcome. There is som^e experimenting now bemg done in making a movable thread guide, which will traverse up and down with ring rail, similar to the separator. This, if success- ful, will not only reduce inequality of stretch, but may diminish the total stretch by allowing a lighter traveler to be used ; or if the same traveler is used it may reduce the necessity for separators. Notwithstanding ah the theoretical imperfections of ring spinning, it has taken a firm hold on the spinning industry, and has reduced the cost of spinning. The labor required is about lo per cent, less than for mule spinning, and the space occupied is about half. 177. It has been stated that spindles in ring frames run clockwise. This is the usual custom; and traveler clearers and other things about the mill, are made to cor- respond. But there is no reason in the nature of the case why spindles should not run either way. CALCULATIONS. 178. In the operation of a mill, the only calculations necessary on a spinning frame, are for draft, twist and production. These are made on the same principles as for roving machinery. Referring to Fig. 27, (and noting that front roll is 8 eighths diameter and back roll 7 eighths,) and considering the back roll the driver, the formula for draft constant would be: 8 X 84 X 128 7 X — X 30 This works out 409.6. Divide the above constant by any draft required and the result will be the gear to use. 160 179- As previously shown, the twist is quotient obtained by dividing spindle speed by inches delivered. On the spinning frame, it is usually calculated by assum- ing speed of tin cylinder to be i. On this assumption, the spindle speed may be found by dividing the diameter of tin cylinder by effective diameter of spindle whorl. But on account of possible variation of diameter and tension of spindle band, the best way is to actually turn the cylin- der by hand, exactly one turn, and count the turns of spindle. Suppose this to count 7.75. Suppose the twist gear to be 28. The inches delivered by front roll for one turn of cylinder will be 30 X 28 X I X 3.1416 90 X 112 This works out .26. Dividing 7.75 by .26 gives as the twist 29.9. Written as a complete formula, the twist would be 90 X 112 X 7.75 30 X 28 X I X 3.1416 This works out 29.9, as before. An increase of i tooth in this twist gear decreases twist in yarn about i per inch. Decrease of i tooth increases twist about i per inch. The formula for twist constant would be the same as above, with the twist gear 28 left out. It would work out, 834, which, of course is 28 times the twist. Dividing the constant by any twist required will give the gear to use. I A good way to verify calculation on twist, or to quickly find out the twist on any given frame, is tO' find out revo- lutions of spindle per minute by actual count; find out revolutions of front roll by actual count; rnultiply this count by circumference of front roll to get inches per min- ute; divide revolutions of spindle by inches of yarn. The result is twist per inch. 180. The speed of a spinning frame is designated by speed of front roll. When this is given — say lOQ — the 161 speed to run driving pulley is obtained by considering the front roll as the driver, and writing the formula: ICO X 112 X 90 28 X 30 This works out 1200. With a given front roll speed, the tin cylinder (and driving pulley) speed will vary with the twist gear, the larger the twist gear the slower the pulley speed necessary. Production. 181. Speed of front roll per minute multiplied by its circumference in inches will give theoretical production in inches. This multiplied by 60 and 1 1 will give the inches per day. This divided by 36 and 840 will give hanks per spindle per day. Written as a formula this would be: 100 XIX 3.1416 X 60 X II 36 X 840 This works out 6.9 hanks per spindle per day of 1 1 hours, if running all the time. An allowance of 10 per cent must be made for doffing and other stops. The actual result to be expected is therefore 6.2 hanks. If spinning number 40, the pounds per spindle per day would be 6.2H-40=.i5. GENERAL DATA. 182. Spinning frames are made 36 inches or 39 inches wide, as ordered. On account of allowing long-er spindle bands the 39 inch frames are considered better; but on account of saving in space, 36 inch frames have become practically universal in the South. They are usually made about 27 feet long and contain more or less spindles for that length according tO' the gauge. A coiiimon gauge for numbers 16 to 30 is 2f inches. The ordinary number of spindles for such frames is 208, being T04 on a side. There are 8 spindles between roll stands, and hence the number of spindles on a side should be a multiple of 8. Thus 104 spindles would require fluted rolls to be in 13 sections. Frames are made longer or shorter, and with greater or fewer number of spindles as ordered. 162 Including space for alleys around frames, the floor space for spinning is considered to average about i square foot per spindle. Floor space for 5,000 spindles would be about 5,000 square feet, or say 67 x 75 feet. Most modern mills have their floors supported by heavy timbers running across the building 8 feet centre to cen- tre. These timbers are supported by columns standing about 25 feet centre to centre. Hence there are rows of columns 8 feet apart one way by 25 feet the other. The width of the mill is some multiple of 25 feet, as 75. 100, 125, and the length is a multiple of 8 feet. It is usual to place 4 lines of spinning frames length- wise mill, in a 25 foot space. Allowing i foot for the thickness of columns, this would give 6 feet space for each frame : 3 feet for frame and 3 feet for alley. This is a fair allowance. It is feasible to place them nearer, even 2^ feet; but this is not desirable, unless there is some special object to be attained. Mills are sometimes built with columns in rows 10 feet 8 inches centre to centre, with a view to placing frames crosswise. With round columns 8 inches in diameter, the clear space in a bay would be 10 feet. Two frames are placed in this space. As frames themselves occupy 6 feet, only 4 feet is left for 2 alleys, so they are only 2 feet wide opposite columns, and 2 feet 4 inches elsewhere. Some floor space is saved by this arrangement, and alleys are lighted better from the side windows; but a serious objection to it is the way columns obstruct the work of doffing and piecing. Every other alley with this arrange- ment, contains columns, while with the other arrange- ment, only every fourth alley contains columns. Another objection is the way in which frames must be driven. Shafting always runs lengthwise building, and hence guide pulleys or quarter turn belts must be resorted to for frames standing crosswise. On account of more or less sag in floor beams, it is harder to- keep crosswise frames leveled. 163 The weight of a spinning frame is about 25 pounds per spindle. The cost varies with the specifica- tions, but win average about $3.15 per spindle. The power required is about i horse power for 100 spindles, or say 2 horse power for i frame. The character of spindle oil used, and the tightness with which spindle bands are tied on, and many other small details make variations in the amount of power consumed. 183. Fluted rolls are made single or double boss (sometimes called short or long boss, respectively) and the top rolls are solid or shell (loose boss) in the same way as for roving frames. Single or short boss spinning rolls are more generally used in the South. 184. Top rolls are made with two bosses, and are reduced to a small diameter in the middle. The saddle rests on this small portion, across all three rolls. Stirrup passes between front and middle roll, so that the most weight will be on front roll. Lever is made with notches for adjusting the leverage of weight. Front rolls on spinning frames, as well as other machines that have drawing rolls, are made larger than the back rolls in order to stand the heavier weighting on the front roll. SPECIFICATIONS. 185. Following is a sample specifi- cation blank to be filled out in ordering spinning frames. The same form answers for both warp and filling frames; but warp frame specifica- tions should be fiJled out on one blank and filHng on another: Number of Frames Warp or Filling Number to be Combination Frames Combination to be set for Warp or Filling Width of Fram^e (36 inches or 39 inches) Length of Frame over all Number of Spindles per Frame 164 Gauge of Spindles Kind of Spindles Kind of Ring Burnished Ring or not (extra) Diameter of Ring Ring Holder (cast iron or plate) Separators Length of Traverse Saddle Lever Screw Thread Guide Rolls, Single (short) or Double (long) Boss Rolls, solid or shell Creels: one or two stories Single or Double Roving Size of Bobbin in Creel Hank of Roving in Creel Number Yarn to spin Twist per inch Size of Tin Cylinder Size of Spindle Whorl Size of Driving Pulleys Pulleys to be on Gear End or on Out End . Driven from above or below Speed of Driving Pulleys Maker ^ ' Purchaser Price Terms Remarks CHAPTER IX. fiDule Spinning, 1 86. As mule spinning has not been much introduced in the South, the subject will not be minutely treated. A complete elementary treatise on all the mechanism and calculations for the mule would make a book in itself. While the mule, as an autoimatic machine is complica- ted, the broad principles involved are the same as in the oldest hand spinning. The roving is drawn out while being spun, and is spun intermittently, and is wound on "cop" (or bobbin) intermittently. SPINNING nULE.— FIG. 31.— IvETTERiNG. A. Creel. B. Bobbin in Creel. C. Skewer for Bobbin. D. Bottom Fluted Rolls. E. Top Rolls. F. F.' Spindle. G. G.' Cop. H, H.' Whorl ou Spindle. J, ].' Tin CyHnder. K, K.' Carriage. L, L.' Wheels under Carriage. M. Head Stock. N. Fallers. P. Yarn being spun. SPINNIN(i nULE— 187. Roving is put up in creels, Process. and drawn through rolls, same as in ring spinning. Spindles, instead of being in a stationary rail, are moun- ted in a carriag-e, which alternately moves away from and back tO' the rolls, a distance of about 5 feet. Spindles revolve right or left handed as desired. As 166 yarn emerges from front roll, it is twisted over the top end of spindle, being held there by the "fallers." Spindles and carriage recede as fast as yarn is delivered, in some cases about 5 per cent, faster, making an addi- tional draft. The movement of carriage is called the "stretch." At end of stretch, rolls are automatically stopped, spin- dles are stopped and reversed in motion, while the falling rods guide yarn away from point of spindle to the place where it is to be wound up. This is called "backing off." After pausing at end of stretch, carriage approaches rolls again, while spindles revolve in the original direction again, this time winding (generally on the bare spindle) the yarn that was spun on outward stretch. 188. The character of winding is controlled by action of "fallers" or "falling rods." They move downw^ard quickly, and wind a layer of yarn in coarse rows ; and move upward more slowly, winding a layer in line rows. The result is that one layer is tO' some extent crossed over another. This holds the cop together after it is removed from spindle. On account of the fact that there is no bobbin to hold yarn, the shape in w-hich cop is wound is very important. Fig. 26 C, shows the manner of building a cop. The lines indicate successrive layers of yarn. The "chase'' of fallers (extent of their traverse) is short at first, say i inch, and puts short layers on spindle near the bottom. Grad- ually the chase is increased, and its starting point raised each time in the same way as filling wind, ring spinning. This action continues until the full size of cop is attained at lower part. This is called the "cop bottom." The amoimt of chase then remains the same, but it con- tinues to start higher, with each successive layer, in such a ratio that most of the cop will be cylindrical. Toward the upper end, the amount of chase begins to decrease, and make the taper of the yarn layers less sharp. This proceeds until the top end of spindle is reached. 189. Cop is now dof¥ed, and is a mass of yarn with a small hole through the centre. In order to keep it in 168 shape, a small wooden pin or "skewer" is sometimes run through it. It is then said to be "skewered." 190. There is no harsh treatment of yarn, or unequal straining in its production on the mule, and hence it is possible tO' spin a finer, softer and more even yarn on the mule than on ring frame. The limit of fineness on a ring frame is its ability to resist traveler pull. Ordinarily No. 60 is the finest that is spun on a ring frame, though it is possible, under the best circumstances, with good stock, hard twist and slow speed, to spin No. 100. With a mule No. 500 has been spun, even with soft twist. Advocates of mule spinning claim that as high as No. 700 can be spun on mules. A certain degree of hardness or twist is necessary on a ring frame, to give the yarn strength to stand traveler pull. 'I he absence of this strain enables the mule to spin with less twist. This also enables the mule to spin stock with exceedingly short staple On the ring frame, a thin place occurring in yarn between front roll and spindle will naturally receive more twist than the thicker parts, and thus accentuate the thinness. On the mule, the thin place will receive the most twist at first. But by reason of this twist, it will become stronger than the thicker part, and will resist the stretch- ing process between front roll and spindle. The thicker part will thus become more stretched and equalized with the thin. The finest yarn in the world is spun in Asia by hand on a spinning wheel, whose principles are those of the mule. The greatest skill is necessary for this fine hand spinning. This same skill is in a measure, necessary for fine soft mule spinning; and the limit of fine work for the mule is mostlv in the skill of the spinner. HEADSTOCK. 191. Power is transmitted to the various parts of the mule from the "headstock," which is a frame, as shown at M, Fig. 31, fastened to the fioor. A belt from line shaft or counter- shaft drives pulleys in the headstock. called "rim pulleys." 169 The driving- shaft, on which these puheiys are. may be parallel with the carriage of mule, or it may be at righ- ano-les with it, according as required to suit existmg shatt- ing. The former arrangement is described as liavmg "r?m at side," the latter as having "rim at back." A series of ropes, winding on drums, driven from head- stock, impart the required forward and backward motion to the carriages. A headstock is usually near the centre of mule, and drives a certain number of spindles on each side of it. Mules are usuaUy set up in pairs, facing each other, and tai enough apart, so that when the carriages are at their out- most point of travel, there will be room for the spinner to walk in the alley. Fig. 31 shows only one mule, ihe carriage sbo^wn in full lines is at its outward stretch, while the dotted lines show the same carriage when at nearest point to the roUs. Each one of a pair of mules has its own headstock. They are designed so that headstocks will not come exactly opposite each other. Headstocks are genera y designed with reference to posts in the budding, ihc amount that headstock lacks of being in the centre ot mule is called its "offset." iq^ The entire distance from back of creel on_^oiie mule to back of creel on the other is about 20 feet. Each mule requires about 9 feet from back of its creel to the end of carriage stretch. iQ-i A mule mav be set crosswise the mill, that is par- allel with the floor^beams; or it may be set lengthwise. In the former case, there is not room between the columns for a mule in an ordinary 8 foot bay. Buildings designed for mules generally have bays 10 feet 8 inches from centre to centre, and sometimes 11 feet. If mules are^ placed lengthwise, only one pair may be set in one span between columns. Spans are generally 25 feet from centre to centre, and a pair of mules occupy 20 feet, and there is some waste room. Hence the crosswise setting is more economical of room. 170 There is another reason why crosswise setting is pre- ferable. In mills lighted mainly from the side, a mule setting across the building will receive light down the alleys both back and rear, in all positions, and will not cast shadows and obstruct the light to the same extent as if set lengthwise. In the rare cases where mule rooms are well lighted through the roof, there is not so much difference in this respect. GENERAL DATA. 194. Mules may be made any length up to, about 125 feet. An average length is about 100 feet. The number of spin- dles in that length varies with the gauge. The headstock and end frames take up about 5 feet of the length of a mule, hence its length may be approximated by multiply- ing the gauge by number of spindles (and dividing by 12 to reduce to feet) and adding 5 feet tO' result. Thus a mule with 480 spindles and 2 inch gauge would be about 85 feet long. A mule with 800 spindles and i^ inch gauge would be about 88 feet long. Mules are ordered with small gauge for fine numbers and larger gauge for coarse numbers. Mules may be ordered with smaller gauge than ring frames for the same numbers. This is for the reason that, with the mule, it is not necessary to provide space for ballooning, or for thickness of rings. For No. 20 yarn, the mule gauge would be about if, and ring gauge 2f. 195. The floor space occupied by mrjles depends upon the manner of placing them in building, and on the gauge. For spinning numbers from 10 to 30, with the best econ- omy of room, mules occupy about i^ square feet of floor space per spindle. In a building not designed for the purpose, they would occupy about 2 square feet per spin- dle. The production of mules is about 10 per cent, less per spindle than ring frames. The cost of labor is about 10 per cent, more per pound of product. The value of pro- duct is ID to 20 per cent. more. The cost of the mule 17i is about 20 per cent, less per spindle than cost of ring frames. SPECIFICATIONS. 196. Following is a sample speci- fication blank to be filled out in ordering mules Number of Mules Number spindles in each Mule Gauge of Spindles Kind and Length of Spindles Length of Stretch Amount of Gain in Stretch Number Spindles each side of Head, (Offset) Diameter Fluted Rolls, Front . . . ; Middle . . . ; Back. . . Number Threads to i Boss Top Rolls .... Direct or Lever Weighted .... Shell or Solid Creels, i, 2 or 3 stories high .... For Double or Single Roving Length of Creel Skewer Size of Bobbin in Creel Hank of Roving Roving tO' be Single or Double .... Range of Yarn Numbers to be Spun Number to start on Range of Draft Draft tO' start on Range of Twist Twist to start on Rim. Pulley to be at Back or Side Diameter Rim Pulley Speed To Belt from Above or Below Send sketch showing position of mill columns, for loca- tions of headstocks Maker Purchaser Price . Terms Remarks CHAPTER X. preparation of l^arn for Meaning. 197. Yarn is spun either for utilization on the premi- ses — in weaving, knitting, etc. — or for shipment to mar- ket as yarn. In either case, it requires a certain amount of preparation. Considering first the preparation of warp for weaving brown goods (or goods not dyed,) the processes are: SpooHng, Warping, Slashing or Sizing, Drawing-in. Spooling. 198. The object of spooling is to take yarn from bobbins, on which it has been spun and wound with irregular tension, and to rewind it regularly on spools, which hold the yarn from 10 to 15 bobbins. SPOOLER. — FIQ. 32. — Lettering. A. Spinning Bobbin, in Holder B. Bobbin Holder C. Traverse Rod D. Thread Guide E. Spool, being wound F. Tin Cylinder G. Rock Shaft H. Rock Arm J. Connecting Rod K. Lifting Rod L. Bobbin Box. M. Empty Spool Box N. Full Spool Box Spooler — Process. 199. Bobbins are supported on spindles, or in some special form of bobbin holder, which allows it to revolve. Yarn from bobbin passes through thread guide, which is fast to the traverse rod. Fio". 32. Spooler 174 Traverse rod moves up and down, a distance equal to the "lift" or length of spool barrel, and guides the yarn evenly on the spool. Spindles are driven from tin cylinder with stout twisted yarn bands. Spindle is made with a broad flange on which the spool rests. Spool fits loosely over spindle, and rests on the broad ffange of spindle. It is made to revolve by the friction of its weight on this flange. The fact that spools are driven, not by any positive grip, but by light friction of its own weight on spmdle flange, causes yarn to be laid on with light and fairly uni- form tension. There is danger of badly stretching the yarn by excessive speed of machine. This should be guarded against by providing spooler spindles enough to take care of the yarn. From the fact that a spooler will run and wind yarn with apparent success at a speed considerably greater than is best for the yarn, there is a temptation to run the machine too fast. A spooler runs at a uniform number of revolutions per minute, and therefore the yarn is wound on the barrel of a full spool with greater velocity (or greater number of yards per minute) than on empty spool. The speed of machine must therefore be fixed at such a point as not to strain the yarn when at its greatest velocity. This speed varies with different num- bers of yarn and wath different kinds of stock. On the average, however, for numbers i6 to 30, the spindles should not exceed 800 to 700 revolutions. As the tin cylinder or driving shaft is usually 3 or 4 times diameter of spindle whorl, its speed should not exceed 250 to 175. Coarser yarns will stand higher speed and finer yarns should have slower speeds. 200. There is a number of different mechanisms in use for producing the traverse motion, most of which are so arranged as to be adjustable for various lifts of spool, and so designed as to pile up the yarn rather higher in the middle of spool than at ends, thus winding a barrel 175 shaped spool, which naturally holds more than a perfect cylinder. The lifting rods are placed about four feet apart, and are actuated by arms fastened to rock shaft. The point of attachment of connecting rods to- rock arms is movable, so that amount of traverse may be adjusted. The point of attachment of lifting rod to connecting rod is also mov- able so that the position of traverse may also be adjusted. Thus it is possible to adjust amount of traverse, say from 5 to 7 inches, and also the point at which traverse begins. Both of these adjustments are important, and should be independently made, first the amount, and then the posi- tion. The amount should be about y-g- inch less than lift of spool. The position should be such that this -^ inch is equally divided between the two flanges of spool, thus guiding the yarn to within -^i i^^h of each flange or head. If yarn runs closer than this, the head will grow too large, and yarn will tangle when being wound off. If it stops much short of this amount, the yarn will wind shorter for awhile but finally jump over intO' the space at ends and tangle when unwinding. 20I. There is a variety uf thread guides. Some of them not only guide the yarn on spool, but serve to break it whenever knots or lumps occur. This guide is made in twoi parts, so that the space through which yarn passes is adjustable, thus limiting to any desired extent the size of knot or lump that may pass. These guides are also adjus- table as to position on traverse rod; so that should any one spool wind too high (having yarn rub and pile up against top flange of spool,) or too low, the individual guide may be moved to correct the trouble. Production. 202. For average Southern condi- tions, a spool is 6 inches long- between heads, and heads are 4 inches diameter. It is known as a 4 x 6 spool. The barrel is i^ inches diameter, and the hole in centre f inches in diameter. The diameter of spool when half full is about 3 inches, and its circum- ference at that point about 9^ inches. If spindle runs 176 8oo revolutions per minute, the hanks wound per day of 1 1 hours would be theoretically. 9^ X 800 X 60 X II 36 X 840 This works out 166 hanks per spindle per day with no allowance for stopping. Allowing 20 per cent, this would be 133 per day. Spooling No. 20, this would be 6^ pounds. If No. 30, it would be 4^ pounds. Generally speaking, i spindle of spooler will wind yarn produced by 12 to 15 spinning spindles. General Data. 203. Spoolers have spindles on both sides, the same as spinning- frames. They are about 4 feet wide, including bobbin boxes and vary in length according to number of spindles and gauge. A spooler for 4x6 spools would have a gauge of 4f . Its length may be estimated by multiplying half the number of spindles b}^ the gauge in inches and dividing by 12 to reduce to feet. To this resvdt add i^ feet for end frames and driving pulley. Thus a 100 spool spooler would measure 4§ X so , , . , -^ — +i4 =21 feet 3 mches 12 The weight is about 40 pounds per spindle. The price per spindle varies according toi gauge. A spooler of 100 spindles and 4^ gauge costs about $2.75 per spindle. Smaller gauges cost less, larger ones more. Driving pulleys are usually 12x2 tight and loose. One operative can tend 40 to 50 spindles. A 4 X 6 spool will hold about 18,000 yards of No. 20, or the yarn from 10 warp bobbins, i^ x 6^. It will hold double this length of No. 30. 204. In ordering spoolers, it is always well to send to the shop a sample spool if spools are already on hand. If ordering a new outfit, request the maker of spoolers to send to spool makers specifications or sample, so that spools will fit machine. The English call spoolers "Bobbin winding machines." 177 Specifications. 205. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering spool- ers: Number of Spoolers Number of Spindles on each Machine Kind of Bobbin Holders Kind of Spindles Gauge of Spindles Amount of Traverse : Kind of Bobbin Boxes (wood or iron) Number of Yarn to be Spooled Diameter of Bobbin of Yarn Size Driving Pulley Speed Driving Pulley Belted from Above or Below Send Sample Bobbin Send Sample Spool Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks 206. The next process after spooling is unwinding a number of spools and laying the strands or "ends" evenly on a "beam," which is, in effect, a large spool. The machine for accomplishing this work is known as a beam warper. 178 BEAfl WARPER. — FIG. 33.— LETTERING. A. Spool in Creel B. Ends, unwinding from Spool C. Back Guide D Back Reed E. Slack Roll F. Rack for operating Slack Roll G. Pinion, Shaft and Weight for Slack Roll H. Measuring Roll J. Drop Wire K. Front Reed or Wraith L. Warp Beam M. Cylinder Beam Warper 207. Spools are put up in creel on Process. skewers so they may freely revolve. The creel may hold 300 to 600 spools, but usually 400 to 450. The creel consists of a pair of upright frames joined at one end, and opening at the other like the letter V. A creel for 450 spools will hold 225 in each wing of the V, 15 spools high and 15 spools long. A creel for more than 450 spools is made longer, but not higher. Fifteen 4x6 spools, placed one above the other, with space to be handled in and out make a creel as high as can well be worked. The various ends are brought together from the creel and passed through back comb, and over and under the various rolls shown. Each end is threaded through a drop wire J, and through a dent in front comb and tinally in a sheet around barrel of beam. There are usually 4 countersunk pins on the barrel of beam, tO' which the yarn in 4 divisions is attached. Barrel of beam rests upon the cylinder and is turned by friction. 208. The front comb is made expansible. Its teeth are mounted on a movable device so that by turning a lit- tle crank at one end, the fineness of the teeth may be regu- lated. This is for the purpose of uniformly distributing 180 the sheet of yarn, (no matter what the number of ends) over the whole width of machine or length of beam upon which it is wound (generally 54 inches.) If 400 ends are being warped, the comb is adjusted to 400 teeth in 54 inches; if 300 ends, comb is stretched out so that only 300 teeth occupy 54 inches. "Reed" and "heck" and "wmith" are other names for this front comb. Stop Motion. 209. A most important adjunct to^ the warper is the stop motion. It is necessary that the entire number of ends continue to be wound throughout the beam. To accomplish this, each end must pass through some kind of an eye, ("drop wire") which is connected to a stop motion in such a way that when an end breaks, the eye will drop and stop the machine. As in the case of the drawing frame (47, 48) there are mechanical and electrical stop motions. The drop wires shown in Fig. 33 belong to a mechanical stop motion. The bars J are caused to oscillate by the running of machine. As long as each end is passing properly through its eye, the bars continue to oscillate. If one end breaks down the corresponding eye falls and obstructs the oscillation. These bars are so arranged that when they stop oscilla- ting, they liberate a latch which normally holds belt shifter in such a position that belt is on tight pulley. Belt shifter is weighted so that when latch is released it moves belt on to loose pulley. 210. The electrical stop motion is made on the princi- ples explained in (49). Fig. 33 shows the warp ends pass- ing through drop wires on the machine. This is the mechanical stop motion. The electrical stop motion is shown on the creel in connection with the Denn warper. The detail is shown in Fig. 34. The ends pass through drop wires on the creel. Each creel rod z has two copper strips, x, y. fastened to it. The drop wire w is hinged on strip y, which is connected by wires to one pole of dynamo. The strip x is connected X Y Fig. 34. Llectric Stop Motion on Creel. 183 to the other pole. When the machine is running and all the ends are up, the drop wires are pulled up as shown in full lines in Fig. 34. If any end breaks, its corresponding drop wire will fall into the position shown by dotted lines. This makes the electrical connection which enables the dynamO' tO' generate current. The current makes a mag- net which operates to shift the belt on loose pulle3^ Sometimes, in connection with this stop motion, there is an annunciator which shows which particular end is down. It works exactly like the annunciator in a hotel ofifice, which shows in which room a button has been pressed. Knock-Off Motion. 211. There is another stop motion on a beam warper, which is made to stop the machine when a certain number of yards of yarn has been beamed. As will be shown in con- nection with the slasher, it is of the greatest importance that each warper beam shall contain exactly the same num- ber of yards. This stop motion is called the "knock ofif motion," and is illustrated in Fig. 35. On the end of the measuring roll H, Fig. 33, is a worm V, Fig. 35. This worm turns a gear N on a shaft carrying another worm P, which also turns a gear Q on the shaft R, carrying a coarse square threaded screw. A bar S rests in this screw, and is fed along as the screw turns. The bar S will finally run off the end of screw R and drop down. As it does so, the other end T operates the stop motion and machine stops. The length of time required for S to feed out to end of screw depends upon how far from the end of screw, S is placed when machine is started. The bar S slides along shaft U, and may be put anywhere on the screw. All of the yarn that is beamed passes over the measur- ing roll. This roll is made ^ yard in circumference. There- fore if we can determine how many times measuring roll turns to I of screw R, we will know how many yards of yarn is represented by each thread of the screw R. 184 Consider each worm as a gear with one tooth, and take the gears as marked in Fig. 35. Considering the screw R the driver, the nnml^er of times H tnrns to i of R is determined by the formula 100 X 80 I X I This is 8,000. The number of yards measured is -I of 8,000, or 2,000. By changing either of the gears, any other number of yards may be arranged for one revohition of R. Whatever this amount is, it is called a "wrap." If on this particular machine a wrap is 2,000 yards, and it is desired to wind 10,000 yards on a beam, 5 wraps are required. The bar S is placed 5 threads from the end of the screw. In 5 revolutions of screw. S will drop down and stop the machine. 212. The wrap gearing must be so calculated that the warp beam will run about full with a whole number of wraps. For example, if a beam will hold 16,000 yards, the knock off motion above described must be set to 8 wraps. If, however, the beam will hold only 15,000 yards, the gears must either be changed, or it must be set at 7 wraps and wind 14000 yards and stop. This is done so that each beam will stop with the same number of yards on it. 213. Whenever the warper stops, the spools, by their momentum will continue to run for a moment, and some yarn will be unwound from spools which cannot be taken up by the machine, because machine is stopped. The slack roll E, Fig. 33, is designed to evenly take up this slack, and prevent the yarn from becoming loose and kinky. There are two kinds of slack rolls: the falling roll, and the rising roll. The latter is the one shown in Fig. 33. The yarn passes under a roll which is in a fixed journal, and over the rising roll, which is mounted in a frame weighted in such a way that when yarn becomes slack it will rise and take up the slack. The falling roll accomplishes the same purpose in a 185 simpler way by merely lying on the top of the sheet of yarn, and haMng tlie journals work in upright slots ni the frame of machine itself. When yarn becomes slack, its weight carries it down in the slots until yarn is tight. While the falling roll has the advantage of simplicity, and is more generally used, the rising roll has the advantage of adjustability for different degrees of slackness. The amount of slack that will occur when machine stops, depends largely upon the friction of spools on their skew- ers. Iliis is variable, according to smoothness of skewers. It may thus become desirable to adjust the amount of motion of slack roll. In the case of rising roll, this adjust- ment may be made by varying the amount of weight hung on. SivOW Motion, 214. When the machine is ready to start (after it has stopped and slack roll has taken up the surplus yarn) if it should start suddenly at its usual speed, the slack roll would easily and quickly pull down tO' the bottom of its travel before any tension is exerted on spools. The consequence would be that the spools would be subjected to a sudden jerk which would break down many ends. To avoid this trouble, the machine is provided with a ''slow motion." As the same mechanism is used on the slasher, the detail is shown on Fig. 38. A. is a tight pulley, B, slov/ pulley, C, loose pulley. Loose pulley is mounted 011 one end of a hollow sleeve. On the other end of sleeve at D, is a small pinion driving a large gear E. This gear is moun- ted on a short shaft, the other end of which, carries a small pinion F, driving a larger gear G, which is fast on main shaft. When the warper is first started, the belt may be shif- ted on the slow pulley which will start the machine at a reduced speed. When the slack is all taken up, the belt may be shifted on to the regular fast pulley. The belt shifter is usually connected to a treadle, so that the whole operation of starting slow and speeding up may be performed in a moment with the foot. 186 215- When beam has run fuh, it is taken off ("doffed") and carried away on a beam truck, and an empty beam is put in place. The okl spools are taken out of creel and full ones put in their place, one at a time, tying the end from each new spool, as put in, to the corresponding yarn from old spool. Generally, the spool does not run empty; but as it does not hold enough for two warp beams, it is found better to take it out and fill it up again at the spooler. It requires about tw^o hours to doff, re-creel and start a new beam. Production. 216. The cylinderisusually about 18 inches diameter, and runs 30 to 50 revolutions per minute. Its surface speed is therefore 50 to 70 yards per minute. Since the yarn beam revolves by surface contact with this cylinder, the surface speed of cylinder, as above, will be the number of yards per minute that will be warped from each spool. If machine is running 70 yards per min- ute, the yards per day of 1 1 hours from each spool would be 70 X 60 X 11=^46,200, if running all the time. From 30 lo /JO per cent, must be allowed for stoppages, so that the actual production would be about 30,000 yards of v/arp per day. If there are 450 spools in creel, the grand total of yarn warped per day would be (30,000 x 450=) 13,- 500.000 yards, or 16,000 hanks. This is about the right speed for No. 20. If the yarn is No. 20, the weight would be 800 pounds. Finer yarn should run slower. No. 30 should not exceed 60 yards per minute. The production per day would at this speed be -f of 16,000 or say 14,000 hanks or 466 pounds. 217. An average warper beam has a barrel 9 inches in diameter and 54^ inches long. The heads are 26 inches diameter. Of No. 20 yarn from 450 spools, it will hold 12,000 yards or 321 pounds. Thus a day's produc- tion of No. 20 is a little more than 2 beams, of No. 30 yarn from 450 spools, it will hold 24,000 yards or 429 187 pounds. Thns a clay's production of No. 30 is about i beam. The speed of driving pulley must be determined by the gearing, if any, between it and the cylinder. 218. As in the case of the spooler, a warper will run at a much higher speed than is good for the yarn. The speed decided upon is generally a compromise between quantity and quality. It is made faster or slower, accor- ding as the one or the other is most desirable under the circumstances. Generally speaking, one warper will take the product of 1,200 to 1,500 warp spindles, or 100 spooler spindles. GeneraIv Data. 219. A beam warper, including creel for 450 spools will occupy a space of about 10 feet wide by 15 feet long. The length may be reduced i foot if desired, by placing creel nearer the machine. About 18 warp beams are furnished with a warper. From the fact that warp beams are carried for the next process to the slasher, they are sometimes called "slasher beams.'' They are soimetimes also called "section beams." The weight of a warper, coimplete with creel and beams is about 3,000 pounds. The cost is about $400. The machine is usually driven with a 2 inch belt. The "hand" of the machine is determined by standing in front, (or at beam) and noting whether driving pulleys are on right or left hand. 188 Specifications. 220. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering i;eam warpers : Number of Warpers Number Right Hand Number Left Hand Diameter of Cylinder Length of Cylinder ... Diameter of Beam Heads Diameter of Beam Barrels Number of Beams Diameter of Driving Pulley Speed of Driving Pulley Belted from Above or Below Number of Yarn to Start on Size of Spool in Creel Length of Skewer in Spool Number of Spools in Creel Iron or Wood, or Glass steps in Creel Rising or Falling Slack Roll Send Sample Spool Send Sample Skewer Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks 221. The next machine to the warper is the slasher, v.diich is a machine for putting "size'' or starch on the yarn. 189 SLASHER.— FIG. 36.— LETTERING. A. Superfluous Beams in Creel. B. Warp Beams (in use) in Creel. C. Immersion Roll. D. Squeeze Rolls. E. Top Rolls. F. Small Cylinder. G. Large Cylinder. H. Hollow Shaft of Cylinder. K. Friction Wheels for Shaft. L. Lease Rods. M. Fan. N. Reed, or Heck. O. Front Roll. S. Loom Beam. T. Presser Roll. U. Presser Roll Counter Weight. SivASHER Process. 222. Having predetermined the number of ends of warp to put on loom beams to produce the required cloth (as explained in the chapter on organization,) and having made up the warper beams to correspond, say 5 with 408 ends each, these 5 beams are placed in the creel. The beams are adjusted endwise with the hand screws until the heads are all in line. The sheet of warp is unwound by hand from the rear beam and carried over the next beam, where it is united with the sheet of warp from that, and so on with the other beams. The whole sheet is drawn through the starch box. The top rolls E are lifted ofi' squeeze rolls and put in the rests at the side of the bearings. The sheet is divided into about 4 parts. A small rope is tied to each division. The ropes are threaded around the cylinders as shown and pulled by hand until the sheet of yarn is entirely through to L. Ropes are united, and the yarn is divided over the lease 190 rods and threaded as shown, and fastened to loom beam. In order to effect a division of the warp at the lease rods, "thread leases" are put in as the warp is unwound from the beam. This thread lease consists of a small doubled cord. A thin stick is put between the doubled over ends of the cord, and pushed through between the sheets of yarn as they unwind from the beams. The stick is withdrawn. ♦ The cords remain, and pass over the cylinder with the yarn. When the first one reaches the first lease rod, this rod, having a flattened end, is pushed between the doubled cord, entirely across the sheet. The cord is then withdrawn. The other lease rods are inserted in the same manner. The yarn is thus divided up into as many parts at the front of the machine as there are beams in the creel. This division or leasing is made with every new set of warp beams. From the lease rods, the yarn passes through the front comb (or "heck," "reed," "wraith") where the ends are still further separated. 223. The front comb is expansible, in the same way as 'on the warper. It is adjusted to about the width of the sheet of warp. This comb has usually 300 to 350 teeth or "dents." The total number of warp ends is divided as ec|ually as possible in this comb. If there are 2040 warp ends and 300 dents in comb, the division would not be even, if all the dents are used, because if 7 ends were put in one dent, it would require 2100 ends to fill the comb. We might use only 291 dents, putting 7 warp ends in each. This would use 2037 ends. The other 3 could be accom- modated by going in another dent to themselves, thus using 292 in all. The division might be made in other ways. The object of the lease rods and the comb is to sep- arate the threads as much as possible, so they may lie flat and consecutive on the loom beam. When yarn has been properly placed in comb, the top rolls E are put in place as shown, and the immersion roll C run down into the size box, by a crank mechanism for the purpose. 192 224- The size box is filled from a kettle which stands on an elevated platform. The kettle is made of cast iron and has a revolving stirrer, and is provided with a steam pipe aronnd inside of bottom. This pipe is perforated. When steam is turned on, it comes out of the perfora- tions and heats the contents of kettle, while the stirrer mixes them. Fig. 37 shows a late improvement in starch kettles. There are stationary blades, as well as revolving stirrers. These make the mixing more thorough than in the old style machines, which have only the revolving stirrers. Revolving stirrers are mounted on an upright shaft, and geared 2 to i to a horizontal shaft carrying tight and loose pulleys lo x 2. The driving shaft should run about lOO, and stirrer shaft 50. The kettle in Fig. 37 is round, 3 feet six inches in diam- eter, 3 feet six inches high and weighs 1400 pounds. It holds about 200 gallons, and will cook 160 gallons. It is sold separately from the slasher and costs about $125. 225. The size is made of starch and "softener," which is composed of tallow or similar grease, and an antiseptic like chloride of magnesia. These softeners may be bought in barrels prepared, ready to be mixed with starch in size kettle. Recipes for mixing size will be found in the appendix. When size is cooked and stirred sufficiently (the proper time — about 15 to 40 minutes — can only be determined by experience.) It is drawn through a 2^ inch or 3 inch pipe to the size box of slasher. This is a wooden box lined with copper and provided with perforated steam pipes for keeping size warm. It holds about 80 gallons. This amount will size 700 to 800 pounds of yarn. Steam inside the copper cylinders dries yarn as it passes around. These cylinders are 60 inches wide. The large one is 7 feet diameter, the small one 5 feet. Steam is admitted through hollow shaft of cylinder. It first passes through a reducing valve, which is adjustable so that boiler pres- n n n i n n n n OXF ¥ njLfl TTTT n n n Finn n n n inn] n n n n ^1 Fig. 37. Starch Kettle. 194 sure may be reduced to 5 to 15 pounds, or entirely shut off. The reducing valve is connected to the belt shifter in such a way that when machine is stopped, steam is entirely shut off. The opposite side of cylinder from steam inlet serves as an outlet for condensed steam. Inside the copper cylin- der, close to the shell are cups, extending across entire cylinder. These cups are so set that they lift the conden- sed water and deliver it through a pipe out of hollow shaft of cylinder. It is important to have cylinders put in the frames correctly when machine is first set up, so that they may run in the right direction for cups to lift the water. The makers commonly put arrows on the out- side of cylinder to indicate the proper direction of revo- lution. The pipes leading condensed steam from the hollow shafts lead to steam traps which are for the purpose of allowing only the water to escape, and thus prevent waste of steam. Cylinders have steam valves in the heads, which may be easily opened to allow steam to escape in case the machine has to be stopped. This cools the cylinders, and to some extent, prevents browning the yarn. It is important to occasionally try the pet cocks in end of cylinders to see that trap is properly working and that the steam inside cylinders is dry. There is a gauge to indicate pressure of steam in cylinders, but it is possible for the gauge to indicate pressure while cylinders are cold, because of the presence in them of condensed water. Steam must be kept dry in order to properly dry the yarn. The fan M dries the yarn. The large wooden hood (which is built over the machine after it is set up) carries away the steam arising from the yarn drying on the hot cylinders. Whenever possible this hood should lead through the roof. If slasher is not in a room next to roof a large wooden flue from hood may be run out the side of building and turned up a few feet. The flue leading from slasher should 195 incline toward the outside of building, so the condensed steam will run out of the building. Sometimes, when a number of slashers are run in the same room, an exhaust fan is attached to the hoods, tO' draw out the steam. This is a good arrangement in any event. Slasher Gearing. — Fig. 38. — Lettering. A. Tight Pulley. B. Slow Pulley. C. Loose Pulley. D. Slow Pinion. E. Slow Gear. F. Reducing Pinion. G. Shaft Gear. H. Pawl. K. Ratchet Gear. L. Driving Cone. M. Fan. N. Driven Cone. P. Cone Pinion. Q- Front Roll Gear. R. Beam Gear. S. Friction Plates. T. Hand Screw Wheel. U. Loom Beam. V. Bearing for Loom Beam. w. Dog to Drive Beam. X. Front Roll Bevel. Y. Side Shaft Bevel, Front. Z. Side Shaft Bevel, Rear. a, b , Squeeze Roll Gear. d. e , Squeeze Rolls. f. Worm on Side Shaft. S- Gear to Drive Cut Marker. h. Change Gear for Cut Marker. k. Intermediate. 1. Gear on Cut Marker. m. Cut Marker. 196 Slasher Gearing 226. Main belt on pulley A Operation. drives cone shaft L. This drives by cone belt another cone N. Cone N drives by gearing the front roll Q which draws the sheet of yarn and causes cylinders to revolve. Side shaft Y Z is driven by bevel gears X Y, Bevel gears on the other end drive copper squeeze rolls d, e. Heavy iron rolls covered with flannel rest on the copper rolls. Yarn passes between these at same speed as at front roll. Q. A pulley on driving cone L drives fan M. The pulley B is a slow pulley, the action of which has been described in connection with warper (214.) In Fig. 38, however, is shown a ratchet and pawl, through which slow motion drives main shaft. When slow motion is in action the pawl H drives ratchet K, which is fast on main shaft. When main drive pulley is in action, the ratchet K runs and leaves the pawl. By this arrangement, slow pulley does not turn when belt is on main drive pulley. If the connection were through direct gearing, the slow pulley would be driven even when drive pulley is running. But it will work either way. Cut Marker. 227. On the side shaft is a worm f which drives the cut marker. This is a device for marking the warp at regular intervals, to indicate where to cut the piece of cloth, when woven from this warp. Worm f drives through the train f, g, h, 1, a small short shaft carrying a wooden disc which dips into a pot of ink or dye, and marks the warp at every revolution. The disc is not made fast to the little shaft, but is connected through a clutch, and counterweighted. so that as soon as it is carried to its topmost position in contact with the yarn, it falls to its lowest position, to be carried up by the clutch again at its next revolution. The disc is connec- ted in this way in order to make but a short mark on the yarn. If it were rigidly connected, the shaft turns so slowly that the mark would be many yards lone;. SRG4 w Fig. 38. Slasher Gearing. 198 The gear marked h is the one to change to control length of cut. Suppose it is desired to mark the yarn every 50 yards. The front roll Q is 285 inches in circum- ference. This roll must turn — TT^— =63.7 times to deliver 50 yards, and the cut marker must turn once. Consider the cut marker the driver and write the formula 100 X 42 X 22 —, =63.7 h X I X 44 This is the same kind of formula discussed in the calcu- lation for roving machinery, in which the known quantity is substituted for the unknown in the denominator. Pro- ceeding thus, we write the formula 100 X 42 X 22 63.7 X I X 44 This works out about 31, and this is the change gear to put on to mark yarn every 50 yards. 228. Multiplying 50 by 31 gives 1550 for a constant. This constant may be divided by any length wanted to get the change gear that will make that length. If a 60 yard cut is wanted the gear would be i55o-=-6o=26. These lengths of warp must be calculated somewhat longer than the cut of cloth is wanted, because there is a certain amount of contraction in weaving. This amount varies with the number of the yarn in both warp and filling and with the character of cloth woven; but it is for ordinary sheetings from 5 to 7 per cent. Thus, if cloth is wanted in 50 yard cuts, the warp must be marked in slasher about 53 yards. The squeeze rolls d, e and front roll O are made the same size, so that the same amount of yarn will be deliv- ered as received, and there will be no stretch and no sag. Generally, however, the front roll is covered with a few thicknesses of heavy sheetings toi make a perfectly smooth soft surface for the yarn. This makes a very slight stretch, but does not effect the result. 199 The amount of yarn delivered is governed by speed of front roll. The looiii beam must run just fast enough to take up this warp at all times. When it first starts, its circumference is small and it must turn faster than it does later after its diameter has increased. This variation is accomplished through the friction connection R, S. The hand wheel T is screwed up against the fric- tion plate until the yarn between front roll and loom beam feels tight. The amount of this tightness is noticed and adusted by feeling, from time to time. The tendency of the gear R is to run too fast even to wind the yarn on the smallest diameter. If the friction is screwed up too tight, the loo'm beam will run too fast and break the yarn. If the friction is too loose, the yarn will be slack on the beam. The adjustment must be made entirely by judgment and experience. It is best to err on the slack side. 229. A pressure roll, resting on anti-friction rolls under the loom beam, is kept pressed tight against the yarn on beam by means of a counterweight. This keep'i it even and tight. It is natural, at the first glance, to assume that the cones are for the purpose of adjusting the tension between fromt roll and loom beam. But it has no connection whatever with, it. The position of belt on cones deter- mines the speed of front roll; but it controls the speed of friction plate R in exactly the same way, driving it, in fact, with the same gear, hence it does not alter the rela- tive speed of front roll and loom beam. This can only be regulated by the friction. 230. The cones are for the purpose of varying the entire speed of the machine. The speed of driving pulley is calculated to run front roll at maximum speed desired when cone belt is at fastest point, and warp beams in creel are full. The come belt may be shifted to reduce speed whenever desired. The primary purpose of the cones is to reduce speed as the warp beams in creel become reduced in diameter. If speed of machine is adjusted to maximum allowable when beams are full, the 200 yarn pulls off easily, and the beams revolve slowly. As the set proceeds, and beams reduce in diameter, the leverage of yarn in turning" beams becomes reduced; and at the same time the beams must revolve more rapidly. Thus, if yarn retains its same speed, it will become strained. To reduce this strain, the cone belt is shifted to reduce speed. There is a device arranged to automati- cally shift belt as set proceeds, but it is not much used, except in cases where the capacity of slasher is strained to the utmost, and it is necessary to obtain all possible pro- duction. The cone belt is also used for reducing speed in case the slasher tender is temporarily called away. It is also used when the weather is wet, and there is so much humidity that yarn does not dry well on cylinder at fast speed. The slow motion is thrown into action whenever there are ends to piece up. Unless it becomes absolutely necessarv the machine should never be entirely stopped for the reason that the steam inside of cylinders will burn a brown place on the yarn. Of course it is necessary to stop it when loom beam runs full; but with quick and careful attention, the stop should be very short for doff- ing — not more than 2 minutes. A bell is attached to cut marker to ring at each mark so that the slasher tender will be notified in time to doff loom beam at a cut mark. An index is also attached to count the cuts, so that, if desired, a uniform number of cuts may be put on the loom beams. The front comb is adjustable in the same way, and for the same purpose as for warper. The adjustment is also used for gradually narrowing the sheet of warp when loom beam is full, so that warp may be piled up and narrowed, after the fashion of a bobbin. It is possible to pile up three or four cuts after beam is level full. There is an attachment to the comb adjuster that is arranged when desired, to automatically contract the comb for this purpose. 231. When a loom beam is filled and ready to be taken 201 off, the bearing- V, Fig. 38 is slipped off the end of beam spindle, and the beam laid on the floor. A slasher comb is put in the sheet of warp to hold the threads in line. The slasher comb is a fine reed, with about half as many dents as there are ends in the warp. It is like a loom reed cut in two lengthwise, thus leaving the teeth exposed. When reed is stuck in the sheet of warp a wooden protector is put over the teeth and tied in place at each end. The warp threads are now cut and the loom beam is removed. Waste. 232. If the warper beams have been carefully made, with exactly the same amount of yarn wound on each, they will all run empty about the same time. If by any error at the warper more yarn is wound on one beam than another, this beam will have yarn on it when all the others have run empty, and this yarn will be wasted. It is usually cut off with a knife and sold for waste. There will always be a small amount of waste on the beams at the end of a set, and a fixed amount of waste left aro'und the cylinders between beams in creel and the loom beam, after the last loom beam is wound. Altogether it should not be allowed to exceed 4 pounds for amount on cylinders, and ^ pound for each beam in creel. W^ith 5 beams in creel, the maximum waste should be 6^ pounds. This, of course, varies with counts of yarn and with num- ber of ends being slashed, and with the skill of the opera- tive. 233. It might seem that slasher waste would be reduced by putting more ends on a warp beam, and thus using fewer beams to make up the requisite total. Thus, instead of using 5 beams with 408 ends each, use 4 beams with 510 ends each. But in doing this, a smaller number of linear yards can be put on each beam, and hence the slasher set would run out oftener. The waste on beams themselves would be about the same per cent, (of total yarn sized) in one case as in the other, but the most important item, the waste for each set 202 between creel and loom beam, would be multiplied. Therefore, so far as total waste is concerned, the more warp beams that are used for a given number of ends the better. But there are other practical conditions, such as more handling and more trouble when beams are too numerous, which have made the practice common to put only 400 to 450 ends on a beam. The exact number of ends and exact number of beams are governed, of course by the number of ends wanted in warp of cloth. Production. 234. The beam for a 40 inch sheet- ing loom is about 44 inches between heads. The barrel is 5 inches in diameter, and the heads 16 inches. It will hold when level full about 900 yards of number 20 warp, containing 2040 ends. Of number 30 yarn, it will hold 2,000 yards. One set of 5 warp beams with 408 ends each 12,000 yards will fill about 13 loom beams. A common speed for driving pulley of slasher is 200 revolutions per minute. When geared as per Fig. 38. the front roll will run 33.3 revolutions, and deliver 26 yards per minute. This may be reduced toii3 orincreased to 52 by shifting the cone belt. It may be reduced to about one-twelfth the above by using the slow motion. About one loom beam per hour is the average produc- tion of a slasher, but may easily be doubled. One slasher is supposed to be sufficient for about 300 looms. Coarse yarns must be run through the slasher slower than fine. It requires more time to take up the starch. Hard twisted yarns are harder to size than soft twisted. Uniformity in the mixing of size and in the method of running slasher is essential for uniformity in weight of cloth. General Data. 235. A slasher is usually furnished (at extra charge) with a chain hoist and an overhead track and carriage, running lengthwise over the creel. This is for the purpose of handling the heavy warp beams. 203 A slasher with one 5 foot and oiie 7 foot cyUnder, with creel for 8 beams, will occupy a space 7 feet wide and 40 feet long. The top of large cylinder will be 8 feet frorn the floor. The pulleys are about 16x3. The power required is about 2 horse power. The weight is about 10,000 pounds. It costs about $1,300. For the purpose of reducing the cost, slashers are sometimes made with one cylinder instead of two. Where the production required is small, and machines may run very slow, this arrangement works very well. Specifications. 236. Following is a sample blank to fill out in ordering slashers: Number of Slashers Size of Beams in Creel Number of Beams in Creel Length of Loom Beams over all Size of Driving Pulley Speed of Driving Pulley Belted from Above or Below With or Without Size Kettle With or Without Chain Hoist If With Overhead Track, What Length Maker Purchaser • Price Terms . Remarks 204 DRAWING IN. 237. After warp has been sized and wound on loom, before going to the loom, it must be "drawn in.'' Every end of warp must be drawn through an eye in the harness and a dent in the reed. The harness and reed are, strictly speaking, parts of the loom, but they are taken out for the purpose of threading the warp through them. The warp beam is put on the drawing-in-frame. The sheet of warp is thrown over the top rod. The harness is suspended near the top. The operative with a drawing- in-hook reaches through each eye of harness and pulls a warp end through. There are two or more harnesses, according to the char- acter of cloth to be woven. The effect of various numbers of harness will be fully discussed in the chapter on weaving. If two harnesses are used, one end of warp is drawn through an eye in one harness, and the next end through an adjacent eye in the other harness. If more harnesses are used, the ends may be drawn in in various ways accord- ing to design of cloth. A "drawing-in-draft" is made to indicate how this work is to be done. This is made when cloth is designed. When warp is drawn in the harness, it is then drawn in the reed, while oil same frame. No matter how many harnesses are used, two ends are usually drawn through one dent of reed. Sometimes three or more are drawn in one dent to produce certain efifects. To make the selvage, from 6 to 10 ends are drawn in double at each edge of warp. That is, two ends instead of one are drawn through one harness eye, and four ends, instead of two are drawn through each dent of reed. COLORED WORK. 238. The field of weaving colored and fancy goods is well nigh infi- nite. The present discussion will deal only with the out- lines of the preparation of yarn for weaving ordinary plaids and ginghams commonly made in the South. 205 The dyeing is done in one of three systems: ''short chain," "long chain" or "raw stock." Short Chain 239. Yarn intended for this system is System. put up in "chains" for the warp and in "skeins" for the fiUing. The methods of making chains and skeins are fully discussed in chap- ter XIV. The short chains are in lengths of 1,000 to 1,500 yards. These are passed through a boiling vat con- taining clear hot water, and then through a dye vat. The skeins of filling yarn are strung on sticks and dipped in the vats and worked over and over by hand until they have become sufficiently dyed. When the warp chains leave dye vats they are passed around "drying cans," which are hollow revolving cylin- ders filled with steam at a low pressure. The warp is then put on slasher beams, each color on its own beam. When the yarn has passed over the slasher cylinders, the various colors are laid in the front reed according to the pattern or order in which they are to appear in the cloth. They are wound on the loom beam in this order, and are "drawn in" according tO' the design intended. 240. The dyed filling skeins are dried, generally, by hanging in a hot air room. They are then taken to the quilling machine, which winds the yarn on filling bobbins or "quills" ready for the loom. Long Chain 241. Yarn intended for this system is System. generally put up in what is known as "balls," but what, in reality, is not a ball in the ordinary sense. The ball warp is made by winding on a wooden cylinder a number of warp ends drawn together as one strand. This strand is traversed back and forth along the cylinder, crossing and recross- ing to prevent tangling. The ball warp may be made by a balling attachment to- the beam warper or to- the Denn warper. The Denn warper is described in Chapter XIV. The 206 ball warp may consist of any desired number of ends. If less than 500 to 600 ends are required, it may be made on the beam warper. If more ends are required, it is made on the Denn warper. Long chains are about 10,000 yards long. They are frequently made 10,080 yards, to allow for shrinkage, waste, &c., thus assuring a net length of 10,000 yards. 242. Both warp and filling yarn may be put up in long- chains. Long chains are boiled, dyed, dried and beamed the same as short chains. The chains intended for warp are beamed and slashed the same as short chains. That intended for filling is taken to a "quiller" and wound on "quills" or filling bobbins ready for the loom. This quil- ler is adapted for use with this system, and is more eco- nomical than the machine used to quill from skeins. This machine could also be used in the short chain system, and quill yarn from short chains, instead of from skeins. But the machine would require threading up so much oftener, on account of the short lengths, that there would be no saving over the skein quilling. Raw Stock 243. In this system, the lint cotton is Dyeing. put into a large dyeing machine. This machine consists of a revolving cylindri- cal cage, hanging in a dye vat in such a manner that when the cylinder revolves, the cotton in the cage is carried down into the dye stufif. When sufficiently saturated, the cotton is taken out, put into a centrifugal machine to drive out the water, and then into a dry room, arranged to receive a blast of air for drying. There is considerable trouble experienced in drying the cotton in such a manner as to leave it in the best worka- ble condition. Hot air is sometimes used but cold air seems to give better results. The dyeing of raw stock gives good opportunity tO' mix colors, and when the yam is spun it may be prepared for the market, or for weaving in exactly the same manner as undyed yarn. Thus the whole process of dyeing and prep- aration for weaving becomes considerably cheaper. 207 244- It is claimed that cloth \voven from raw stock has not the same brilliancy of color as that woven from dyed yarn. In order tO' compromise this condition, mills are sometimes designed to dye warp in the yarn, and to dye raw stock for spinning filling yarns. This saves the process of quilling, and at the same time gives to the warp whatever advantage in brilliancy may accrue from yarn dyeing. CHAPTER XI. Meavtng, 245. Cloth consists of warp and filling. Warp is yarn running lengthwise the cloth. Filling is yarn run- ning crosswise. Weaving consists in entwining warp and filling in various ways to produce various designs of cloth. The essential operation of weaving consists in "shed- ding," "pickin adjustable. The height of breast beam may also be varied by fastening a thicker or thinner strip on the top, where cloth passes over. Most cloth is woven with the line of warp as shown, for the reason that in this position, the top shed of warp is slacker than the bottom, and it may be more evenly beaten up, giving a better "cover" to the cloth. As two warp threads pass through each dent in the reed (plain weaving) and in shedding, one of these is up while the other is down, it can be seen that if both threads, the one up and the one down is pulled equally taut, they will be held close together while reed is beating up the filling. But if the lower shade is pulled down harder than upper shade is pulled up then the lower shade will be held tight while the upper shade is comparatively slack. In this condition when the filling is beat up, the bending of the filling threads push the comparatively loose warp 221 threads in the upper shade to positions halfway between the taut threads of the lower shade. 268. Two or more warp threads are drawn through one dent of reed, and hence the tendency in cloth is to have the warp threads grouped together, according to the way they pass through reed. Cloth with this appear- ance is defective, and is called "reedy," and sometimes "two'-ey." High whip roll and breast beam tend to remedy this defect. Other remedies for reediness are slacker warp tension, "sooner" shedding and moving lease rods further back from harness. 269. As shown in Fig. 39, the cloth, after going over and around the breast beam, passes nearly around sand roll, and is wound up, in contact with it, on cut roll. Sand roll is so called because formerly it was covered with sand paper to make it adhere to the cloth and pull it along. The sand roll is now usually covered with perforated sheet steel, with edges of perforation burred up on outside to form rough surface. The sand roll is driven by a train of gears and a ratchet wheel which is moved one tooth at a time by a pawl driven from a cam or eccentric on cam shaft. This is called the "take up motion." One gear in the train is adjustable, to alter speed of sand roll. This speed deter- mines the number of filling threads or "picks" per inch, and hence this change gear is called the "pick gear". 270. The "let off motion" sometimes consists of a brake of some kind on the loom beam to hold the warp tight and let it be unrolled by the pull of take up motion on cloth. A more popular method, however, is partly shown in Fig. 39. There is a short shaft at back of loom carrying a small pinion which gears under one of the gear heads on yarn beam. This pinion and shaft is turned by a worm gear, which is turned by a ratchet, actuated from the motion of one of the swords which carry the lay. At every stroke of 222 lay, a certain number of teeth in ratchet are moved up, and this gives a smaU unwinding motion to yarn beam. The amount of this motion may be varied to regulate tension of warp. 271. In weaving ordinary cloth the tension of filling is not usually considered. The turns made by filling in coming through eye of shuttle, together with the natural resistance in unwinding from the bobbin, usually gives enough tension. In some cases, additional tension is made by tacking a small woolen cloth in the shuttle near the eye, so that the filling must drag over it in pulling out. For special purposes, shuttles are made with adjustable tensions. Sometimes the tension in a common shuttle becomes too great on account of the eyes becoming gum- med or wearing rough. The remedy is to clean it out or get new eyes or a new shuttle. STOP nOTION. 272. If fining should break or give out while loom is running, the loom should immediately stop, otherwise there would be a thin streak across the cloth. The filling stop motion, or "'fill- ing fork" is designed for this purpose. FILLING STOP flOTION.— FIG. 41.— LETTERING. A Loose Pulley. B Tight Pulley. C Belt Shifter. D Guide for Belt Shifter. E Loom Handle (broken off at top.) F Shifting Lever. G Fork Frame. H, J, Filling Fork on Breast Beam. K Filling Thread. L Grate on Lay. M Lay. N Cam Shaft. P Stop Motion Cam. Q, R, Oscillating Bar. S Spring to Shift Belt on Loose Pulley. 224 FILLING STOP MOTION. — Fig. 41 shows position of Operation. parts when loom is run- ning. Loom handle E is pulled over so that belt is on tight pulley. It is held in the notch in loom beam, otherwise the spring S would shift belt on loose pulley. Cam P keeps bar O oscillating. As long as the filling is intact in the loom, when the lay beats up it will raise fork J, H, in the position show^n, so that oscillating bar cannot catch the claw H, and loom will continue to run. If filling should break or run out, the heavy end H of fork would drop down, the bar O would catch the claw H and pull forw'ard the fork frame G, and through lever F, knock loom handle out of notch. The spring then shifts belt, and stops loom. 273. Care must be taken to keep filling fork in exact adjustment. If one of the tines should be bent so that it would strike the grating, instead of passing through, the grating w'ould lift the fork every time, whether filling- were present or not, hence loom would not stop for broken fill- ing. The fork must not project too far through the gra- ting, as that W'Ould draw out more filling than is necessary to reach across cloth, and thus make puckers or loops of loose filling at the selvage. 274. Another stop motion is for stopping loom when- ever shuttle, from any cause, fails to properly enter shuttle box. It is called "dagger stop motion" or "protector." The finger which is pressed by a spring against swell of shuttle box is connected wdth a short stiff piece of steel called a "dagger." This dagger, being attached to lay, goes forward with it at every beat. In a normal position it is arranged to knock out the loom handle at every beat. But when shut- tle has properly entered loom box, the swell moves out and changes position of dagger so that it will not strike loom handle. This keeps loom from running wdien shut- tle is not properly timed. 225 SHUTTLE 275. If by any accident to the DERANGEMENTS. dagger stop motion or otherwise a shuttle should be in the warp shed at the time when the shed is closing, the warp threads would be broken throughout the length of the shuttle. Such an accident is called a "smash." A shuttle may get out of time from any one of several causes. The loom may not have "power" enough to drive shuttle home. It ma}^ have too much power and drive shuttle against picker and rebound entirely out of box, or it may rebound so far that the picker cannot give it a sufficient lick for the next pick. The swell may be set too tight or too loose. The shuttle may be damp or gummy. Any part of the pick- ing mechanism may be broken, or deranged, such as pick cam, lug strap, picker stick or picker. The rivet in shut- tle may work out and keep shuttle from entering box. A screw may work up in race plate and catch shuttle. Either of the last two faults might cause shuttle to fly out of loom. Other causes for shuttles flying out might be improper position of picker, or trouble with the parallel motion at bottom of picker stick. AUTOMATIC LOOMS. 276. Considerable experi- menting has been done with a view to building a loom that will run continuously and not stop to renew the bobbin when the fifling gives out. One loom takes its filling from cones of yarn standing on the floor on each side of the loom. Another is arranged to automatically exchange the shuttle containing an empty bobbin for one containing a full bobbin. Another automatically throws the empty bobbin out of shuttle, and takes in a full bobbin. On this loom, the full bobbins are mounted on a skeleton cylindrical rack or magazine, con- venient to the bobbin-changing device. This is the Northrop loom, sometimes known as the "magazine loom." It is at present the most successful of them all, and is the only one of the so-called automatic looms that is in practical use to any extent. 236 2/7. Variation in design of cloth may be made by vary- ing the style of weave; the colors of warp; the color of filling; or the character or weight of materials woven; or by making any combinations of the foregoing. The style of weave is varied in the majority of cases, in connection with other variations. Plain intersections of warp and filling in regular order is known as "plain weave." It may be made with two har- nesses or with four harnesses coupled together and working as two. Four harnesses are used for plain weaving when the warp threads lie very close together, say more than 70 per inch. The cloth weaves in this way with less chafing in the process of shedding. Some weavers prefer this arrangement even with 60 threads per inch. TWILLS. 278. Twill weaving is the simplest variation from plain weaving. It may be done with any number of harnesses above two. It is generally designated "three-leaf," "four-leaf" twill, etc., according to number of harnesses used. In plain weaving the harness cams may be placed on cam shaft (which, as was shown (257) revolves half as fast as crank shaft) because the pick cams on this shaft cause two picks to be made for each revolution. Two harness cams on this shaft will cause two sheds, being one shed for each pick. 279. In twill weaving, it is still necessary to produce I shed for each pick. If 3 harness cams are used, each cam will make a shed, and it is therefore necessary to have the 3 cams revolve once during 3 picks, or during i^ rev- olutions of cam shaft. Hence harness cams must be put on another shaft, called the "auxiliary shaft," which shall revolve in proper relation to cam shaft, that is | as fast for three leaf twill and |- for 4 leaf work, &c. This is usually a short shaft, near cam shaft, and geared to it in the required ratio. Auxiliary shaft is sometimes supplied with several sets of cams with gears to correspond, so that a chang-e may be quickly made from 2 to 3, 4, 5 &c.. leaf work, when recjuired. 227 ■ 28o. Cam twills are sometimes described as |- |, f &c., meaning a twill woven with 3 harnesses up, 2 down; i up, 4' down; 2 up, i down, &c. The mechanism in cam weav- ing is such that when cams are once arranged for a piece of cloth, say |- this cannot be changed without changing the cams. They may be set to raise in succession any 3 of 5 harnesses while the remaining 2 are down, but not to raise 2 while 3 are down. This fact limits the possibility for wide variations of design in cam weaving-. TAPfci SELVAGE. 281. Cloth is sometimes required with tape selvage, which is a narrow stripe, say ^ inch wide, twill woven at each edge. This is produced by separate cams operating separate little short harnesses at edges of cloth. The arrangement for doing this work is called the "tape selvage motion." The har- nesses, jacks, cams, &c., for the purpose are sometimes called "baby harness," "baby jacks" &c. DOBBIES. 282. An arrangement for harness lifting to give a wider variation, is the "dobby head." This is a frame placed on top of loom, and carrying a num- ber of levers equal to the number of harnesses desired. Each lever is connected at one end to its corresponding- harness. The other end is arranged to be pulled up at any required time by an oscillating bar worked by the loom. A broad endless chain called the "pattern chain," deter- mines the order in which the oscillating bar will lift the harness. 283. When the cloth has been designed, and the order of harness lifting determined upon, the pattern chain is arranged with a boss or projection on certain links corre- sponding with the particular harness to be lifted at any given moment. With a large number of harnesses and a long pattern chain, it is evident that an almost infinite variety of harness lifting may be obtained. About 40 is considered the maximum number of harnesses practicable to use on a dobby loom. Generally 12 to 20 is the number used. 228 Looms, as ordinarily built for cam weaving, have not harness room for more than 6 to 12 harnesses. Looms for dobby work should be designed with reference to the maximum number of harnesses desired to be used. 284. In cam weaving, when one or more harness is lifted, the others are depressed so that the amount of lift need be only half the opening of shed. In dobby weaving, no harness is depressed, so that the amount of lift must be as great as the opening of shed. 285. Each warp thread must be drawn through an eye of some one harness. If there are 400 warp threads, there must be 400 harness eyes in use. If it is 2 harness work, each harness must have 200 eyes in use. If it is 40 harness work, each harness must have 10 eyes in use. If it were possible to have 400 harnesses, each harness would need but one eye; and with a proper system for lifting any har- ness at will, the variation in harness lifting would be prac- tically infinite and it would be possible to weave any pat- tern whatever which depends upon warp threads. JACQUARDS. 286. Such a loom as has been described, having one harness for each warp thread, has in fact been invented, and it is called the "Jacquard." The order of lifting is determined by a series of needles — one for each thread. At each shed, all the needles are thrust forward toward corresponding holes in a square revolving shaft. When a needle is allowed to go far enough forward to project into the hole in shaft, the warp thread corresponding to this needle is lifted. If needle is held back it does not cause its warp thread to lift. The operation of these needles is controlled by a chain of perforated card l:ioards, which is fed along by the square shaft. The card boards are perforated according to a pre-arranged plan, corresponding to the pattern to be woven. The holes when cut correspond to the holes in the square shaft. When needles are pushed forward, those opposite the holes in card board pass in and cause their corresponding warp threads to lift, while the others, striking the blank places, will have no effect. This 239 is but a brief outline of the general principles of the Tacquard. It has a great variety of detail that may only be mastered by careful study of the machine itself. BOX LOOnS. 287. Changes in the color of the filling are made while weaving, by "box motions," or "drop boxes." These consist of a series of shuttle boxes, arranged to move up and down to bring any required shuttle box into working position. Each box contains a shuttle carrying a different kind of filling bob- bin. No shuttle is driven through warp shed unless it is in the proper working position. The moving of these shuttles into place, according to a pre-arranged plan, is done by the intervention of a "pattern chain," as described in (282.) 288. Drop boxes may be arranged on one side of a loom, with one plain shuttle box on the other. With this arrangement, the filling may be varied only at alternate picks. There may be drop boxes on each side of loom, in which case the filling" ma}'^ be varied at every pick. Looms may be made with as many as 6 drop boxes on each side. If a loom is arranged with 2 boxes on one side and 4 on the other, it is called a "2x4 box loom." 289. Drop boxes may be put on looms in combination with any of the various arrangements for harness lifting, such as dobbies, Jacquards, &c. Common ginghams and checks are mostly woven on plain 2 cam looms with boxes on one side only, generally 2x1 or 4x1. Fancy carpets and tapestries are woven on looms having Jacquard heads, and with various arrange- ments of drop boxes. 290. There are many other arrangements of looms for fancy weaving, embracing combinations already described, and involving still other principles. Among these may be mentioned the double warp, in which two separate warp beams are put in the loom, and arranged so that the threads of either may be made to predominate on the face of the cloth, at will. One form of 330 weaving with double warp is known as "Terry," in which one warp is left in loops over the surface. The Turkish towel is woven in this way. Velvet is woven in this way. Cut pile velvet is made by cutting the loops in the loom as fast as made. DESIGNING 291. In discussing the various designs of cloth, it is necessary to have some conventional method of laying out the design on paper. It is usual to represent designs on "point paper," such as shown at A, Fig-. _j2. The spaces (not the lines) running up and down- i, 2, 3, 4, &c., are taken to represent warp threads, whde those running across: a, b, c, d, &c., are filling threads. Marks are made in the blank checks to show where warp threads are to appear on the surface of cloth.* In the plain weave, each alternate warp thread appears on the surface, for each pick of filling. This is represented at B. A 3 leaf twill is shown at C. Following the lowest hor- izontal space across the page, which represents the first pick a of filling, the warp is shown at 1,2, 4. 5, 7, 8. There are 2 warp threads showing and i missing in regular suc- cession. Following the next pick, I), the warp is seenat2,3, 5, 6, 8. This shows that the cloth is produced with ^ arrangement of cams, that is, 2 up and i down. A 3 leaf twill with ^ arrangement of cams is shown at D. There, the warp is seen in the first pick at 1,4, 7, and in the second at 2, 5. 8. The filling predominates on the surface of this cloth, and it is sometimes known as a "fill- ing twill." while that shown at C is a "warp twill." These terms relate to the face of the cloth. The under side of a filling twill cloth would be warp twill. 292. After the cloth Is designed, it is necessary to have some method of showing how the warp is to be drawn in the harness to produce that design. This is also represen- ted on point paper, and is called the "drawing in draft," * Some designers mark the 7? //z«^ threads, instead of warp; but the best practice seems to favor marking the warp. K 9 £ e d c h a I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 A h X X X X 9 X X X X J X X X X e X X X X d X X X X c X X X X b X y X X a X X X X I a 3 4 5 6 V 8 B K X X X X X 9 X X X X X X f X X X y y e X X X X X d X X X X y X c X x- X X y b X y X X X a X X X y X X 1 t 3 4- 5 G 7 s K X X X g X X X £ y X e X X X d X X y c y y b X X y a y X X 1 Z 3 4 5 G 7 8 D Fig. 42. Point Paper. 232 and sometimes simply "draft." In plain 2 harness weave, and in simple twills, the drawing in is so easy and regular, that no draft plan is needed. Bnt in more complicated weaves, it is important to have it plainly indicated. 293. It is also necessary in complicated designs to show the order of lifting for the harness. This is also shown on point paper, and is called the "lifting plan, or, in case of dobby looms "pegging plan." In sim])le weaves the drawing in draft and lifting plan are not laid out on point paper, but are indicated by fig- ures. For example, a drawing in draft marked i, 3, 5, 7, would mean that the first warp thread is drawn in harness I, the second in harness 3, the third in harness 5, the fourth in harness 7. The fifth thread would repeat and be drawn in harness i. A lifting plan marked 2-4, 1-6, 3-5, would mean that at the first pick, harness 2 and 4 are lifted, at the second pick I and 6, &c. For weaving cloth of complicated design, it is necessary to have 3 different plans worked out and put on paper to guide the operations. These are (i) The design of the cloth; (2) The drawing in draft; (3) The (harness) Lifting plan. 294. The foregoing paragraphs are intended only as a bare outline of the subject of designing, to sketch out some of the general principles. The scope of the subject is infinite, involving the treatment of colors, materials and methods even into the field of fine arts. It extends into a technical comprehension of the scope and limita- tions of dobbies, Jacquards and other fancv looms. A full discussion may be found in books devoted entirely to this subject. There is but very little original designing done. Most of the so-called designing is but copying and adapting. CALCULATIONS. 295. Connected with the sul^ject of producing a certain kind of cloth of a certain weight per yard, numerous calculations are necessarv, such as finding the numbers of yarn to spin and 233 the right harness and reeds. These particular calcula- tons are fuhy described in the chapters on Organization, and on Harness and Reeds respectively. The principal calculations involved in the weaving of common cloths relate to finding the proper gear to pro- duce the required number of picks per inch; and conversely the number of picks per inch produced by a given g;ear; and finding the production of loom. Pick Gear. 296. Referring to Fig. 40 the ratchet gear A is driven by a pawl actuated by a cam or eccentric on cam shaft. At every pick of loom, it moves up one tooth of ratchet gear. The pick gear is fastened on same stud with ratchet gear and drives gear on end of sand roll. Assuming gear on sand roll to have 80 teeth, pick gear 20 teeth, and ratchet 80 teeth, the num- ber of picks per inch of cloth may be found as follows: One revolution of sand roll takes up I2f inches of cloth, and turns ratchet wheel 80-^20=4 times. Since ratchet contains 80 teeth, 320 teeth must pass in 4 revolu- tions, and pawl must move forward 320 times. Pawl is driven from cam shaft and makes one forward motion for every 2 picks, hence there are 640 picks in I2f inches of cloth or about 50 picks per inch. 297. Expressed as a formula this would be 80 X 80 X 2 20 X 12 =50 In this formula the 20 in the denominator is the pick gear. Treating this formula as we did similar ones where change gear appeared in denominator, and leaving change gear out, the result gives the constant, thus: 80 X 80 X 2 — =1004 12 This constant 1004 divided by pick gear will give number of picks per inch that the gear will put in cloth. The constant divided by any number of picks per inch will give the pick gear required. One tooth more in pick gear 234 gives about 2^ fewer picks per inch in cloth; one tooth less gives about 2^ picks more. 298. The take up gearing shown in Fig. 40 is only one of several ways of arranging this motion. Some pick gears are arranged in the train so that the larger the pick gears, the more picks per inch. Some are arranged this way. and so geared that an increase of one tooth in pick gear gives an increase of 2 picks per inch. On these looms no constant is required. This is a good practical arrangement. Production. 299. The theoretical production of a loom depends upon the number of picks that it runs per minute, and upon the number of picks per inch in the cloth produced. The number of picks per minute multiplied by the minutes in a day, divi- ded by picks per inch and inches in a yard, will give the total number of }'ards possible to weave per day under these circumstances. For example, suppose a loom runs 180 picks per minute, and weaves cloth with 50 picks per inch, the possible production in 1 1 hours is expressed by the formula: 180 X 60 X II — =^66 yards. • 50 X 36 This is called "100 per cent production,"' or "possible pro- duction." An allowance must be made for stoppage. A good average allowance for plain work is 15 per cent, in which case, the looms are said to be making "85 per cent, production." It is possi1)le to make 90 per cent., but 80 is more common. 300. In cases where abnormally large per cents are claimed, investigation will generally show that the actual number of picks per inch in the cloth is less than is stated. Sometimes this condition is brought about by fraud on the part of t1ie weaver, who is paid by the piece. He might occasionally move up the sand roll a few teeth by hand, and thus cause fewer picks per inch. Sometimes it is 1)rought about intentionally by the management of the 235 mill. They might have an order for cloth with 64 picks per inch, and so calculate the gears as to produce only 63, or even 62-^- per inch, gaining some in the production of loom, and turning out a cloth so near the requirement that it may pass on the market. GENERAL DATA. 301. A common sheeting loom is about 42 inches wide from breast beam to whip roll. A 40 inch loom is about 54 inches long and 30 inches high to top of breast beam. The lay is about 7 feet long. For a 40 inch loom running 170 picks per minute the usual allowance is about ^ horse power for driving. The driving pulleys are about 12 x 2, tight and loose, but may be had any size from 8 to 20 inches. They may have a clutch pulley instead of tight and loose pulleys. This loom weighs about 1,000 pounds, and costs about $50. Attachments for making twilled goods, such as auxiliary shaft, g-ears, cams, jacks, &c., cost about $10 extra. Looms for producing other varieties of cloth vary so much in detail of construction, that it is not easy to tabu- late their cost, &c.,without giving detailed description. 302. Looms may be driven from a shaft under the floor, or from one above. In the latter case, the shaft must be carefully located over the alleys, and never directly over the looms, on account of the Hability of oil dripping from the bearings on to the cloth or the warp. No matter what kind of bearing- or oil pan is used, some oil will drip on the cloth at some time, if the shaft is over the loom. One oil spot on a piece of cloth or on the warp will cause the cloth to pass as "seconds." Looms are generally arranged in parallel lines length- wise building, about as shown in Fig. 43, half of them being- right hand and half left hand, to throw the driving pulleys together. The pulley ends of loom are placed as close together as possible, while an alley of 16 to 18 inches is left between the projecting lays at the other end. The 336 breast beams are placed 24 to 26 inches apart, making the "weaver's alley." The distance between backs of looms is somewhat greater, generally 30 to 36 inches. This is the "back alley." It may be much narrower but should be as wide as the space will permit, to facilitate the hand- ling of yarn beams. Four lines are placed in one span between columns, as shown. The width of back alleys is regulated, therefore, by the width of loom, and the dis- tance between columns. The overhead driving shaft is over the middle of back alley. The looms are placed staggering, or zigzag, as shown, so that one shaft may drive two lines of looms. The hand of a loom is determined by standing at breast beam and noting whether driving puUe}^ is on right or left. SPECIFICATIONS. 303. The following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering common looms: Width of Cloth to Weave Number of Looms Number Right Hand Number Left Hand ]''or Plain or Twilled Work Heavy or Light Pattern With or Without Auxiliary Shaft Plow Many Cams on Aux'liary Shaft How Many Harness to be Up Down Kind of Take-up Kind of Let-off Kind of Whip Roll Reed Space Width of Loom over all, Including Yarn Beam and Full Cloth Roll Length of Loom Frame Length of Lay Size Beam Heads Distance Between Heads Number Beams (i^ per loom is usual) oo m j-^m 011]]= OHt) fflffl J-'^T fflO} =oa> J L. CH> iHQ} X^^-E WEAVERS ALLEY 3_ , I -U— 1= BACK ALLEV 3 C axt> (DD fflO} =ClKt> T^ I ZIT Fig. 43. Laying out Looms. 338 Shuttle Binder (or Swell) to be Wood or Iron Cloth Roll Arranged for Long or Short Cuts Diameter Cloth Roll When Full Style and Construction of Cloth to Weave T hree pick Gears Furnished to make from to picks per inch. The following parts are considered to belong to the loom without extra charge: Lease Rods. Jack Sticks. Connector Blocks. Treadle Stirrups. Lease Rod Weights. Picker Sticks. Maker to send purchaser full set of samples to cover ■'supplies" necessary to start one loom. Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks CHAPTER XII. Xoom Supplies, 304. Unlike other machines in the mill, the loom comes to the purchaser in what seems to be a half made condition. It cannot possibly rtm without the addition of a lot of straps and hooks and buckles &c., together with shuttles, reeds and harnesses, all collectively classed as "supplies." Each particular make of loom requires its own special kind of supplies. Each maker differs more or less from the others as to exactly what constitutes "supplies," as distinguished from the loom itself. For example, some makers include, as part of the loom, the lease rods, and some consider that lease rods properly belong to supplies. It is important to have these things understood in order- ing the looms, so that the purchaser may know what to expect when looms arrive, and know what supplies are to be ordered. The only safe way when putting in new looms, is to order the loom manufacturer to send a com- plete sample set of supplies necessary to produce the par- ticular kind of cloth desired. These samples may then be sent to the supply dealer, and there will be a fixed respon- sibility as to the fit of all supplies furnished. STRAPPING. 305. Under the head of strapping is included all the various pieces of leather or canvass about the loom, and sometimes also the neces- sary buckles and hooks for fastening them on. It is not safe to venture on ordering strapping except by sample to suit the particular loom and the particular goods to be made. Strapping is sometimes taken to include the pickers and picker loops. Most of the strapping is of leather, but lug straps and picker loops are sometimes made of canvass. The leather is sold by the pound (at 30 to 50 cents,) and the canvass strapping by the piece. 240 SHUTTLES. 306. These have been discussed in the chapter on weaving. Sample shuttles should invariably be furnished by the loom manufacturer, or furnished to him by the purchaser before the looms are made. Shuttles cost from $4.00 to $6.00 per dozen. It is useless to get any but the very best that can be found. They have to stand hard usage, both in the loom and at the hands of the operatives. TEMPLES. 307. Usually the manufacturer of temples can give good advice as to the special form of temple to use for each particular kind of cloth to be woven. It is a subject that has not been given sufficient attention except by temple manufacturers; but it is of great importance to have the temples not only to fit the loom perfectly, but to suit the cloth. The temple is shown in position on the loom in Fig. 39. The heel R should be long enough to reach well down on the lay, and it should be set just far enough forward to strike the lay, or the strip of leather on the lay at a time when the temple roll is about -gj inch from the reed. The temple should be examined to see that these adjust- ments are possible for the case in hand. A great mistake is to order temples with rolls too short. This is frequently done to save in the first cost, but it will lose in the character of cloth woven. For common sheet- ings and print cloths up to 28 inches wide, a roll 2 inches long will answer. For the same goods up to 40 inches wide, a roll 2-| to 2^ inches long should be used. Heavier or wider goods require longer rolls, or special forms of temples. REEDS. 308. Great care is necessary in making speci- fications for reeds. The number of dents per inch must be calculated for the kind of cloth to be woven. There can be no fixed rule for this, on account of the numerous conditions to be fulfilled. But the general principles will be discussed. 309. Two warp ends ( in special cases 3 to 8) are usu- 241 ally drawn in one dent of reed. This means that there must be half as many dents in reed as there are ends in the warp yarn; or, what is the same thing, half as many dents per inch as there are ends per inch in the warp yarn. This is not the same as ends per inch in the warp of the woven cloth, because of the fact that the cloth is narrower than the sheet of warp from which it is woven. Tho process of weaving contracts the cloth. This contraction varies with the character of cloth, and the tension with which it is woven — both in warp and filling. It varies from 5 to 15 per cent. For common sheetings, a fair average is about 8 per cent. If sheeting is to weave 36 inches wide, the warp yarn should be spread in the reed about 39 inches. Suppose the cloth is to contain 60 warp ends per inch. Not counting the extra ends for selvage, the number of warp ends in the whole width of cloth will be 36 X 60^2160. If 2160 ends are drawn through the reed, two in a dent, for a space of 39 inches, there will be 1080 dents in 39 inches or (1080-^-39=) about 28 per inch, and so the reed must be ordered with 28 dents per inch. But it ought to be ordered longer than 39 inches, because the reed forms a guide for the shuttle in its passage through the shed, and the longer the reed, the better it acts as a guide. It is a very good plan to order the reed as long as the reed space in the loom. In addition to forming the guide, it allows a chance for weaving goods somewhat wider than that for which reed is at first ordered. The reed space is generally 6 to 7 inches longer than the rated size of the loom. Thus a 36 inch loom has reed, space 42 to 43 inches long. Counts. 310. In making the order for reeds, accord- ing to the above calculation, it might be specified as a 28 dent reed, 43 inches long; or as a reed with (28 X 43^) 1204 dents "spread" on 43 inches. The width of reed over all (4 U) 4-! inches) should also be speci- fied. It is also well to state in the specifications what cloth is intended to be woven with the reed. This eives 242 the reed maker a chance to correct any error that might be made by the purchaser. 311. For the purpose of producing the cloth at (an inhnitesimal) smaller orl it is the practice of some mids to steal a few warp ends per inch, that is, weave it with less ends per inch than the specifications demand. For example, instead of weaving the cloth above men- tioned with 2160 ends in 36 inches, it will be calculated to contain say 2100, and the reed accordingly made coarser, say 1 1 50 spread on 43 inches. Tliis is 26.7 dents per inch, and is irregtilar. These fractional count reeds are called "l^astard reeds." But after all the calculating on reeds, if the weaver does not maintain uniform conditions of ten- sion &c., the cloth will not count as desired. It is possi- ble for the weaver to take warp that is drawn in 39 inches wide in reed, and make cloth anywhere from 34 to 38 inches wide. 312. Reeds should be designed with a view to ordinary and normal contraction in weaving, and the weaver should be made to maintain such conditions on the loom as will produce that contraction and hence the required width and count. In unusual kinds of cloth, such as is not entirely familiar to the weaver, it is best, when possible, to first order one or two sample reeds according to the best calcidations, and weave some of the cloth to see that it produces just the character of cloth desired. 313. In ordering reeds for special cases where 3 or more ends are to l)e drawn in one dent, the calculations proceed as before, except the number of warp threads is divided by 3 or more, as the case may be, instead of by 2, as when only 2 ends were to be drawn in a dent. 314. In England, there is no uniform way to specify the count of reeds. There are several methods in use in the various milling districts, one of which is to specify the number of dents in a cjuarter of an inch. In this country it is almost a uniform practice to specify reeds by the dents per inch. 243 BiKR. 315. Reeds are bought by the "bier/' which is an arbitrary term, generally meaning 20 dents, but not uniformly so. Some few reed makers call 19 dents a bier. Ordinary reeds are worth about i^ cents per bier of 20 dents. A reed with 1200 dents would have 60 biers and would cost about 75 cents. In ordering a new set of reeds, ah equipment is consid- ered to be about i^ reeds per loom. This allows the loom to be full, some to be in use at the drawing in frames,, and some extra. Specifications, 316. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering reeds: Number of Reeds Length over all Width over all Dents per inch Warp Ends per inch in Cloth ; Kind of Cloth Cloth to be Full Count or Scant Make of Loom Total Number of Biers (20 dents each) Price Per Bier Price for the Whole Order Maker Purchaser Terms Remarks HARNESS. 317. There is more latitude allowable in the specifications for harness than for reeds. They ought to be ordered just right for each particular count of warp, but considerable variation from the correct specification may still make the cloth count right, provi- ded the reed is right. 318. To prevent the chafing of warp threads in the act of shedding, it is customary to spread the warp on a wider space in the harness than in the reed. There is no fixed rule about this, but good average practice would be 244 an increase of spread of 2 or 3 per cent. Thus for weaving a 40 inch cloth that would be spread 43 inches in the reed, the warp would, for the best results, be spread on 44 inches. It would be possible to weave with the warp on 40 or on 45 inches; but the former would produce some chafing- of the warp on itself, and the latter would strain the reed, and produce chafing of the warp in the reed. Counts. 319. If the reed has 30 dents per inch and has the warp drawn in on 43 inches, there will be (43 X 30 X 2=) 2580 warp ends. In the harness these 2580 ends should occupy a width of say 44 inches, and hence the harness eyes (in all the harnesses) will stand (258o-f-J4:-— ) ri!)Out 59 per inch. If there are 2 harnesses in the set, each harness would have about 29^ eyes per inch; if 3 harnesses, each harness would have about 19 2-3 eyes per inch. Harness should generally be ordered as wide as the loom will take, even if the cloth to be woven at first should be narrower than the full capacity of loom. This gives an opportunity to use the same harness in case at some other time, wider goods should have to be woven. In the case above, the harness would be ordered about 47 inches wide, with eyes spaced as above. This would be (47 x 59=) 2773 eyes in all the harnesses used in the set. The practice in making specifications is not uniform, but generally the eyes are not designated as so many per inch, but as spread on so many inches. In the example above, the most approved specification would be "2773 eyes per set, spread on 47 inches- — 2 ( or 4 as the case may be) shades per set." * *The word "shade" in this connection means one single harness of the set. The same word is sometimes used in place of the word "shed" in weaving. The two terms are frequently used one for the other. But the best usage seems to justify the distinction observed in the text. V 245 Parts. 320. The threads in which the harness eyes are knit are called "healds." The wooden bars on which the healds are slipped, top and bottom, are called "shafts." In these shafts are "screw eyes" for hooking the harness up in the loom. The harness straps ha\e hooks that fasten in the eyes in top shaft; and the jack hooks fasten in the eyes in bottom shaft. It is necessary in ordering harness to send sketch showing the spacing of these screw eyes, both top and bottom. Bier. 321. The word "bier" in connection with har- ness is an arbitrary and somewhat indefinite term usually denoting 40 eyes but sometimes 38. Its use in this country is mostly confined to the harness makers. They price harness at so much per bier. The price of harness is usually made up in a complicated manner, con- sisting of so much per bier (about 2^ cents) and so much per inch for shafts (about i mill) and so much per screw eye (about i cent.) Shafts are usually ordered i to 2 inches longer than the spread of the harness. 322. One set of 2 shade harness with 1363 eyes per set spread on 44 inches, with 46 inch shafts, with 6 screw eyes per shade would be billed about as follows: I Set of 2 Shade Harness. 34 Biers @ 2|c yj Shafts, 184 inches @ i mill 18 12 Screw Eyes @ ic 12 1.07 246 SPhCiFiCATiONS. 323. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering harness: Number of vSets Shades Per Set Number of Eyes Per Set Eyes Spread On inches. Length of Shafts \Mdth of Harness Over All Number of Screw Eyes Sketch the Spacing of Screw Eyes Warp Ends Per Inch in Cloth Kind of Cloth Make of Loom Total Number of Biers Price per Bier Total Liches of Shafts Price Per Lich Total Number of Screw Eyes Price Per Screw Eye Price for Whole Order Maker Purchaser Terms Remarks CHAPTER XIII. ^be (Llotb IRoom, 324. When the cloth leaves the loom it is in rolls. As it was woven, it was rolled up on the cut roll until as large as desired, or as the loom would permit: generally 2 to 3 cuts, but sometimes 4 to 5. The cut roll is slipped out of the roll of cloth and put back on the loom. A "cut" is the length into which the cloth is finally cut and folded in the piece, commonly known in the retail trade as a "bolt." It varies in length from 40 to 60 yards, according to the requirements of the trade, for that particular kind" of cloth. The rolls are taken to the cloth room, where the cloth is put in shape for the market. The processes in cloth room vary according to the kind of cloth and the market for which it is intended. The processes here described are about what ordinary Southern undyed goods should receive. SEWING HACHINE. 325. There are several varieties of sewing machines in use for sew'ing together the cloth from several rolls to make a long continuous piece in a larger roll for convenience at the succeeding- machine. Besides the actual sewing mechan- ism, there is generally a rolling attachment to the sewing- machine, for making the large roll out of the small ones, as fast as the ends of cloth are sewed together. Some- times the rolling mechanism is on another machine, for example, the inspecting machine. In this case the cloth is inspected as it slowly winds from one roll to the other. In its passage, it goes over a wdde smooth board, painted black, so that the cloth inspector may more easily see any defects. Sometimes the cloth, in small and badly equip- ped mills, is sewed by hand. About 20 cuts or 1,000 yards is commonly put into one roll. In any case it is necessary to be careful, in making the large rolls, to see that the edges of cloth are kept even at 248 . the ends of roll. It is very easy to make A roll uneven at the ends. This causes unevenness in all the after pro- cesses, and is apt to turn out bolts of cloth at the folder with edges very uneven. In this case, the folds have to be straightened out by hand, at considerable expense, and are never quite so good in appearance as they would have 'been if good even rolls had been made in the first instance. 326. Such a sewing machine as described above would weigh about 1,500 pomids, and cost about $200. There are smaller and cheaper machines without cloth rollers. BRUSH ER. 327. There is a variety of machines and SHEARER. combinations of machines for cleaning and CALENDER. finishing cloth. Fig. 44 shows one machine combining all the operations con- sidered necessary in finishing white goods. By finishing, in this connection, is meant the ordinary processes of brushing-, shearing and calendering on "gray" goods. The same term is sometimes used to designate bleaching, starching, printing, dyeing. &c. These last processes are also called "converting," and goods made for this purpose are sometimes called "converter's goods." BRUSH ER, FIG. 44. — LETTERING. A Roll of Cloth to be Brushed. B Emery Rolls. C Beaters. D Cloth Spreader. E Card Rolls. F Brushes. G Shears. H Measuring Roll. J Vapor Cylinder. K Bottom Calemder. L Top Calender. M Roll of Finished Cloth. N Latch Bar. P Pressure Rack. Pinion and Brake. R Line of Cloth. S Cloth Lifting- Bar. 250 BRUSH ER— Process. 328. The cloth is unwound from the large roll A, and "threaded" through the machine, as shown by the solid line R. Each side of the cloth is operated on by one or more of the cleaning devices. The emery rolls consist of wooden cylinders covered with coarse emery grains, held in place by glue, or in some cases covered with fillets of emery cloth, tacked on. These rolls grind off the rough places on the cloth. The beaters come next. They are steel blades with sharp corners, which beat loose any thread ends that have been carelessly left in the cloth. The cloth next passes over a spreader, which is a bar with grooves running diagonally across it in such a way as to continually stretch the cloth from the centre toward each edge. This keeps the cloth smooth and free from wrinkles while passing through the machine. The card ])rushers are wooden rolls covered with fillet- ing of wire clothing similar to card clothing, but with longer teeth, set farther apart. The shearer is a cylinder carrying spiral blades with sharp corners. These blades run very close to a station- ary blade with sharp edge. The cloth passes over revol- ving cylinder and presses on stationary blade. The revol- ving cylinder has a traverse motion lengthwise as it revolves. It cuts off the loose ends of threads that have been beaten loose by preceding operations. This machine has two shearers on bottom side of cloth, and one on top. In front of each shearer is a lifting bar, operated by a handle at side of machine. When a seam in the cloth comes to the shearer, this handle is pulled and the lifting bar raises the cloth from all the shearers, and thus prevents the seams being caught between the 1)lades. Any care- lessness on the part of the operative in this respect will cause the seams to catch and wind up and cut to pieces a lot of cloth before machine can be stopped. The bristle brushes, one on top and the other on bottom, 251 are wooden cylinders filled with stiff bristles for giving a final brushing to the cloth. The cloth next passes over the measuring roll under another spreader and over the vapor cylinder and over another spreader to calender rolls, where it is wound up into a large smooth hard roll of cloth. 329. Vapor cylinder is a horizontal brass tube with a number of fine perforations in the top. A small amount of steam is admitted in the tube, and sprayed out through the perforations on the cloth. The steam valve is connec- ted with-the belt shipper, so that when machine is stopped, steam is shut off; and when started, steam is turned on again. 330. Calender rolls are heavy cast iron rolls, ground very smooth on the surface. They are hollow for the admission of steam to heat them. They are driven by gear at one end, and are arranged so that either the sur- face speed of one roll is the same as the other; or so that one is running faster than the other. In either case there is an ironing- effect on the cloth; but when one roll is faster than the other, there is a slipping on the cloth which gives it a smoother finish. But this process also stretches the cloth, and would in some cases be objection- able. 331. Cloth roll is of wood, and has iron gudgeons in the end which run in the half boxes formed in the lower ends of pressure bars. ■ Pressure bars slide up and down in the upright frame. They are controlled by the pinions working in the racks shown. The pinions are on a shaft carrying a brake wheel at one end. Brake is adjusted so that the down pressure on cloth roll may be adjusted to make a roll of any desired hardness. 332. When cloth roll has become as large as desired, the latch bar N is turned down on its pivot, the pressure bars are run up out of the way, and cloth roll rolled out on top of latch bai* and removed. 333. An exhaust fan, working in the lower part of the machine, draws out the dust and lint made by the vari- 252 oils operations, and blows it out through a pipe which may lead into the dust room. The various rolls are driven by endless belts from main driving shaft, passing under and over the pulleys on ends of rolls. These are generally 2 inch belts. Some are on each side of machine. ]t will be noticed that some of the rolls run with the cloth and some against the cloth. It is necessary in starting a new machine to get full instruction from the manufacturer as to which direction the various rolls run. In the machine illustrated by Fig. 44, arrows show these directions. The theory of this arrangement is that the brushes immediately in front of the shearer blades shall run with the cloth and with a greater surface speed than cloth in order to lay the fibres forward so that shearer may catch them. The brushes immediately behind the shearers run in the opposite direction from the cloth in order to brush loose any fibres that shearers may have cut. 334. The calender rolls are driven by a belt from a countershaft on the main machine. A pulley on calender roll drives the measuring roll. The pulley on measuring roll is adjustable in size, so that speed of cloth delivered may be adjusted to suit the speed of calenders. The measuring roll is generally run a little slower than calen- der, to ensure a tight smooth winding. 335. Sometimes a considerable draft is introduced between measuring roll and calender thus stretching the goods as much as 8 to 10 per cent. But this much is injurious to the goods, and is of no advantage, as goods are now all sold on the basis of weight. A draft of 2 to 3 per cent, is about right. If goods are to go direct into consumption, without further manipulation, the question of stretch, within moderate limits is immaterial. But if goods are to be sold to a bleachery, the trade imposes certain limits on stretch. A common requirement is that goods shall stand without damage a stretch of 4 per cent, at bleachery. This would not permit of much stretch in 253 the mill, and would entirely prohibit the use of differential speeds of calender rolls. 336. If for any reason it is desirable, the calender rolls may be run cold, and the vapor cylinders also dispensed with. The calender rolls may be left oE the machine entirely, and the cloth rolled up on a device near the measuring roll. The shearing part may be left ofT entirely or the number of shears reduced. The same applies to all of the various rolls. Machines are made with simply bristle brushes or with brushes and beaters, and in many combinations of the elements shown, according to the thoroughness of the cleaning required. 337. The drawing shows more operations on bottom side of cloth than on top side. It is intended that the bottom side of cloth in lIiis machine shall be the side that was woven up. in the loom. This is called the "thread side" of the cloth, and is also the "face" of the cloth. The broken threads and ends of filling are more numerous on this side than on the other, and so the machine is designed to do more work on that side. Gknerai. Data. 338. The machine shown is made to take cloth, up to 44 inches wide. It occupies a space of 6^ feet wide and 13 feet long. It requires about 3 horse power to operate it. It is driven by pulleys 14 x 3^ and should run 400 revolutions per minute. At this speed, it will finish about 125 yards per minute. It may be run 500 to 600 revolutions per minute; but this is too fast for good work. It may be run slower than 400 if desirable. 339. The "hand" of the machine is determined by standing in front or at the point where cloth enters the machine, and noting whether pulleys are on right or left hand. To avoid confusion as to which might be called the "front." i<- i;' better, m referring to the hand, to state whether driving pulley is on right or left hand side when standing where cloth enters. 254 340. The price and weight of these machines vary greatly with the specifications. The machine shown in Fig. 44 weighs about 8,000 pounds, and costs about $1,000, Without steam calender, it would weigh about 4,000 pounds and cost about $700. A machine with i beater and i brush on each side would cost $250 to $300. Specifications. 341. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in orderino; brush- ers: Number of Machines Number Right Hand Number Left Hand Widest Cloth to be Brushed Yards Per Minute Size Driving Pulley Speed Driving Pulley Driven from Above or Below Number of Steel Beaters: Top of Cloth. . . . Bottom. . . . Number of Emery Rolls: Top of Cloth .... Bottom .... Number of Bristle Brushes: Top of Cloth .... Bottom .... Number of Card Brushes: Top of Cloth. . . . Bottom. . . . Number of Shear Blades: Top of Cloth. . . . Bottom .... With Cloth Roller or Steam Calender If with Steam Calender Size of Bottom Rolls ; Top Rolls With or Without Differential Gears With or Without Vapor Cylinder Space Occupied: Width Length Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks 342. In some cases, cloth is sold to converters in the form of rolls, just as delivered by the brusher. In most cases, however. Southern undved goods are put up in yard folds. 256 FOLDER, FKj. 45. — Lettering. A Roll of Cloth. B Feed Roll. C Zinc Scray. D Folding Blades. E Crank. F Stationary Upper Jaw. G Spring for Lower Jaw H Jaw Rod. J Jaw Openers. K Cams. L Jaw Treadle. M Cloth, Being Folded. FOLDER — Process. 343. Large roll of cloth is taken from the brusher and put up on stands behind folder. Cloth is fed between two wooden rolls and delivered by them into the scray, which is a zinc trough for holding a surplus of several yards, for the reciprocating arms of the folding mechanism to draw from. Cloth is threaded through machine as shown. There is a guide on top of machine for each edge of cloth. It is passed through blade of folder, the treadle is pressed to open a jaw and receive one end of a fold. The treadle is fastened and machine started. 344. The jaws on table are made to open and receive and hold each fold as it is delivered. The folding bar is operated from a pair of cranks on the crank shaft. The jaws on the table are opened and closed by means of cams on the crank shaft. 345. The jaws hold the cloth at each end of the folds. The central part of cloth not being held down, will appear thicker. If only 40 to 60 yards are to be put up in a piece, this does not matter. But if "long cuts" (100 to 120 yards) are to be folded, this puffing up in the middle of cloth would tend to pull it out of the jav/s. To obviate this, the table is sometimes made with a "drop centre.'^ 257 The centre of the table has a hinge m it, which allow.s the centre to drop a trifle below the ends, and the puffing effect is on the under side, instead of top side; and there, it does no damage. 346. The cranks are adjustable within a small range, so that the length of cloth in a fold may be varied a small amount to suit the requirements. Ordinarily cloth is put up in I yard folds. Some Superintendents want to give ^ inch short measure, and some ^ inch full measure. It makes but little difference in the income to the mill, how the measure runs, for the reason that the stated number- of yards in a piece must weigh a stated amount. If the goods made are to be 4 yards to the pound, the weight of yarn in the cloth must be so adjusted that what is put up for 4 yards (be it long or short) must weigh a pound. But there is a difference when it comes to the retail trade, tor the reason, generally speaking that no attention is paid to small differences in weights — a yard being a yard. Hence a mill must be governed, in the matter of long and short measure, by the requirements of the purchaser. For some purposes, cloth is required to be put up in i^- yard folds. This would require a machine made for the purpose. 347. The man who runs the folder watches for the "cut marks" on the cloth, and stops the machine and cuts the cloth at the cut marks. Generally he counts the folds as they are being made and when the piece is cut off, marks the number of yards with a pencil on the piece. Some- times, when the machine runs very fast, he counts the folds after taking piece out of folder. 348. Frequently the folder is used also as an inspecting- machine. This is not the best practice, but will answer very well for common goods if folder is run slow enough, say 50 yards per minute, "in a small mill, where one folder can do all the work required, this slow speed is not objec- tionable. If twice this amount is required, it is better to run the folder at 100 yards per minute, and get an inspec- ting machine. About 75 yards per minute is a good average speed. 258 349- The machine shown in Fig. 45 has what is known as a "low back." The back at M stands about 5 feet from the floor. Machines are also made with "high front," in which the cloth roll is put up behind the operator, and cloth is fed over his head. A 40 inch folder weighs about 1,500 pounds, and costs about $300. It is about 5 feet wide and 12 feet long, including cloth roll. SpKCifica-Tions. 350. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering folders: Number of Machines Number Right Hand Number Left Hand Widest Cloth to be Folded . Length of Folds For Long or Short Cuts Drop Centre or Plain Table Low Back or High Front Number of Yards to Fold per Minute Size Driving Pulley Speed Driving Pulley Belted From Above or Below Space Occupied: Width Length Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks 359 STAMPING. 351. When cloth goes from the miU to the bleachery, it is not stamped. When it is made for consumption without further treatment each piece is usuahy stamped. Mihs with less than 300 to 400 looms generally stamp goods by hand. Larger mills have stamping machines. The usual hand stamping outfit consists of a. "head- piece," name, weight mark and yard mark. The head piece is some fanciful design, used as a sort of trade mark. The name may be the corporate name of the mill or any other name not already in use by some other mill. The weight mark is for the purpose of indicating the weight per yard of the cloth. It may be any arbitrary letter or combination of letters, as AA or LL. It may also be figures, as 2.85, indicating that there are 2.85 yards per pound. This is the simplest and best way. The yard mark simply shows the number of yards in the piece. Mills always have at least two different sets of stamps; one for the first quality and one for the second. If differ- ent kinds and weights of goods are made, different stamps are required. A full outfit for hand stamping in a small mill making only one kind of goods costs $150 to $250. A stamping machine alone costs $400. to $500. It may be arranged to use the same stamps that are designed to use by hand. The stamps are generally made of copper strips inserted edgewise in the face of a block of hard wood. Each design should be on a separate block, so that no one block will be too large. Most sheetings are put up in yard folds. The piece is folded once over itself, thus showing 18 inches face. For goods folded this way, none of the stamps should be more than 15 inches wide. The yard mark is usually two figures on one block, say 40, 50, 51, 5 1 J, &c. This requires a large number of blocks to cover the range of variation in length; but it is a better way than to have single figures made on a block, as 4 on one block and 5^^ on another, to mark 45^^. The ink for stamping is distributed with a brush on the ink pad. The pad may be made of folds of soft cloth, but 260 the best pad is an iron box filled with water, with a sheet of rubber clamped down on the top like a cover. One thickness of flannel is laid on this, and the ink put on with a brush. The water forms a firm smooth back to the pad, and ensures an even distribution of ink on the stamp. Ink. 352. The ink is commonly blue and is made of ultramarine mixed with gum Arabic or some other gum, to give it body and make it adhere to the cloth. Sometimes red ink is used; but it is much harder to mix and use than the blue. English vermillion is the most common pigment for making red stamping ink. Recipe^ for making stamping ink may be found in the Appendix. BALING. 353. Goods are put up in bales of various kinds and sizes to suit the requirements of the purchaser. If they are baled to go to the converters, the kind and style of l3ale is not of great consequence, except as a mat- ter of uniformity. Such goods are generally in double cuts 100 to 120 yards, and about 20 pieces to the bale. Goods for domestic consumption are generally in single cuts, 50 to .60 yards and about 20 pieces to the bale. Col- ored and fancy goods are put up in various ways, according to the custom for any particular style. Some are baled, and some put up in wooden boxes or "cases." 354. The proper way to pack any kind of goods is to lay the pieces on a scale, making note of the number of yards in each piece, until there are as many pieces as are required for the bale. The net weight is then noted, together with the total number of yards. The exact average weight per yard is thus found for each l^ale. This record governs the operations of the whole mill. It shows each day how well the weights and numbers are regulated throughout. ■ A piece of gunny cloth is laid in the press, and on this a piece of stout paper. The pieces of cloth are then piled carefully on this. Another piece of paper and another piece of gunny cloth are put over the top of pile and the press run down on it. The paper is arranged to cover 261 the doth, and the gunr,y cloth .s drawn smoothly over the bale, and the ropes tied on. The pressure is then relieved and the bale rolled ont and thihea'ds sewed up and stenc.led with a sertal number and any other shipping mark desn-ed. , , =; The sue, shape and style of bale varies according to whether it is intended for a foreign or domestic market. Almost any neat looking bale that wiUlK^ld together nasses muster in the domestic markets. But the require men ad restrictions on bales for foreign shipment a e ZZous and exacting. They vary --^ -^ '° j^^^ countries for which goods are intended. In all cases howev r the bale must have a certain "density" or weight ^rcubk oot, and it must have enough ropes on ,t to hold Z ;1 in shape. This is about one rope I -*-;-!-- eter every three or four inches, or say ii ropes tor 30 inc goods. Bales for domestic markets frequently use quarter inch ,opes 6 inches apart, or say 6 ropes for 36 mch goods. • ,,6 Presses may be operated by a screw, by toggle join s or by hydraulic pressure. Toggle joint presses ar the most popular ,n the South. They are made to suit ''re mreme^ts as to size and shape of bale, a^ - °^P - sure recmired They are rated at so many tons pressure. A huX'ton press'would answer for . ^.eaed .tiref. A;™" ?;r;rcirr^:S^.:-;rs;;ning;rnforDenn warps. r. „„., DATA ^80. A Denn warper with creel for about 8 feet wide by 25 feet long revolutions Pulleys are about 12 x 2 and run 150 to .00 le '"irddtvers about 33 to 44 yards per nru,ute^ It requires about half a day for one hand to creel 2,000 .p::is,lnd about a day ^ -^^^^^i:^::^- ^IZ spools holding- I pound of yarn, tne pi tLefore '-about 2^000 pounds^, a d^^^^^^^^^^ J^ ;X^r;ren.^;trgtwr;iX for that part of the wor. the slngllunk and the double link. The latter ts.cons.d- "Th'er" mav be double head machn,es as well as single held Tire double head ..achine has two -es -1 two linkers, and has double the capacity of a sni„ie ""'t"''/^ Denn warper may be made single head, single hnfe"; singl^TLd, double linker; double head, smgle Im- ker- double head, double linker. , nnn snools A single head double linker machine f° |:°°°^P°* weighs about 3.000 pounds, and costs about $1,000, or 50 cents per spool. 278 Specifications. 383. Following is a sample blank to be tilled out in ordering Denn warper: Number of Machines Double Head or Single Head Double Linker or Single Linker Num.ber Spools in Creel Size of Spools Amount of Yarn to be Warped per day Average Number and Ply With or Without Electric Stop Motion With or Without Annunciator With or Without Ball Warp Attachment Width Over Ah Length Over All Size of Driving Pulley Speed of Driving Pulley Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks BEAM WARPING. 384. Coarse yarns are sometimes put on cheap homemade beams, with a beam warper, and sent to the market in that shape. These beams are built up of wood, similar in shape to reg- ular slasher beams. The ends are bored to receive iron gudgeons to use in winding. These are removed when beams are shipped. At their destination, other gudgeons are inserted, and beams are mounted in the slasher creel. This method of shipping yarn is not much in use, except where the mill is comparatively near the market, so that empty beams may be returned to the mill. REELING. 385. Fig. 52 shows a reel, winding yarn from bobbins into skeins. The yarn passes through the thread guide on the frame, and through thread guides on a traversing bar, which spreads the yarn on the arms of the "swift" as it revolves. 279 386. The arms of the swift are usually adjustable, so that the size of skein may be varied from 54 to 72 inches. The most common size skein is 54 inches, or i^ yards in circumference. The amount of yarn in a skein is usually the amount that comes from one bobbin, but the pur- chaser sometimes requires skeins of a certain weight, say I, i^ or 2 ounces. It costs more to furnish skeins of a certain uniform weight. A special stop motion may be had with the reel, to knock off after a certain amount of yarn is reeled. 387. Such a reel as shown in Fig. 52 will take yarn from warp or filling or twister bobbins. The spindles, on which bobbins are held, are stationary, and the yarn pulls Fig. 52. Reel. 280 off over the top. This style is called "dead spindle." Reels are also made with "live spindles," which are suppor- ted in bearings, and revolve with the bobbins, as the yarn pulls. The yarn from live spindle reels usually pulls square off the bobbins from the side, to the traversing eyes, and does not pass through the upper eves. Production. 388. About half the time of the reel is consumed in doffing and re-creel- ing, so that its actual production is only about half the theoretical. Reels may run 150 to 200 revolutions per minute. At 150 revolutions, and with i^ yards circum- ference the theoretical production per spindle in 11 hours would be : 150 X i^ X 60 X I I ^77 =177 hanks, 840 and the actual production about 88 hanks. Of No. 20 single yarn, this would be 4.4 pounds; of No. 30, it would be 2.9 pounds. Thus one reel spindle will take the pro- duct of about 12 spinning spindles, even at 150 revolu- tions. The production may 1)e increased in proportion by increasing the speed to the limit that the machine will run, ■or that the yarn will stand without undue stretching. 389. Reels are rarely made with more than 50 spindles, for the reason that the swift would be too long to run steadily. They may Ije made with fewer spindles, but 50 is the usual size. This reel is about 2 feet wide and 16 feet long and weighs 700 pounds. The driving pulleys are about 12 inches in diameter, and made for i| inch belt. The dead spindle reel costs $80 to $ioo, and live spin- dle reel $10 extra. The hand of reel is determined by standing in front of the swift, and noting whether driving pulley is on right or left hand. 5i81 Specifications. 390. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering reels: Number of Reels Number Right Hand Number Left Hand Number Spindles in Each Live or Dead Spindles Size of Swift With or Without Stop Motion Size of Driving Pulley Speed of Driving Pulley Width Over All Length Over All Send Sample Bobbin Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks CONE AND 391. For knitting and some other TUBE WINDING. purposes yarn is required in "cones." These are made on the "cone winder," which is a machine with horizontal revolving cylinders or drums. Bobbins from the spinning frame or twister are put verti- cally in the creel below the drum, one bobbin for each winding drum. There is a mechanism for holding a con- ical paper tube in contact with the revolving drum. The yarn is attached to the tube, and winds on it by contact with the revolving drum. A traversing motion moves rapidly back and forth and guides on the yarn in crossed layers, thus winding a firm cone usually about 8 inches long and 5 inches diameter at one end and 7 inches at the other, weighing about 2 pounds. The same machine may wind the yarn in cylinders instead of cones. This is gen- erally called a "tube" of yarn. The cone winder may also be arranged to take yarn from skeins instead of from bobbins. 282 392. The machines have drums on each side, and may be made with any number of drums. One hundred drums is a common size. Such a machine is about 4 feet wide and 30 feet long, weighs about 6,000 pounds, and costs about $1,000, or $10 per drum. One drum will wind tiie yarn made by 15 to 20 spinning spindles. Cones are wrapped with tissue paper and packed for shipment in wooden "cases." Specifications. 393. Following is a sample blank to be filled out in ordering cone and tube winders: Number of Machines Number of Drums in Each Machine To Wind Cones or Tubes or Combination To wind From Bobbins, Cops, Swifts or Combination Size of Cone Number of Yarn Production Required per Drum Size Driving Pulley Speed Driving Pulley Width Over All Length Over All Maker Purchaser Price Terms Remarks CHAPTER XV. ©raantsatton an^ Equipment 394. The term "organization" is a somewhat ambigu- ous one, when relating to cotton mills. It might mean the arrangement and composition of a corporation. But the technical significance relates to the physical arrange- ment of machinery in proper details to make some certain kind of product. It is always desirable to lay out the organization sheet, in the case of a new mill, before any work is done on the drawings or the plant. Equally in the case of remodeling an old mill, or of making a considerable change in the work to be done by an old mill, the organization for that work should be carefully drawn up. 395. Having as a starting point a certain piece of cloth, or a certain kind of yarn to produce, it must be determined what combination of machinery is necessary to produce the result, and in exactly what way all the drafts are to be distributed, from the first lap to the finished goods. The general plan of the work is somewhat empirical, that is, not founded on any exact rules but following rather the lead of experience. RANGE OF DRAFTS. 396. The ordinary range of drafts for each machine in the mill, has already been discussed in connection with other features. It is not necessary here to enter into the rea- sons for these ranges. It will be assumed that under ordi- nary conditions existing in Southern mills, the range of 284 drafts now in use is right. They are about as follows: Machine. Doublings. Drafts. Dappers (3 processes) 4 Cards I Drawing (3 processes) 6 Slubbing I Intermediate 2 Fine Roving 2 Spinning- 2 Spinning I 2 to 6 75 to 125 4 to 7 3i to 5 3i to 5 4 to 7 6 to 15 6 to 10 The whole draft in a mill from breaker lap to spun yarn would be according to above table — minimum: 2 X 2 X 2 X 75 X 4 X 4 X 4 X 3^ X 3^ X 4 X 6=1 1,289,600; and maximum : 6 X 6 X 6 X 125 X 7 X 7 X 7 X 5 X 5 X 7 x 15=24,310,125,- 000. But as there are doublings in most of the processes the effective draft in the whole mill would be the draft as above divided by the product of all the dou1)lings. In the minimvmi, the doul)lings are: 4 X 4 X 4 X 6 x 6 X 6 X I X 2 x2 x 1=55,296. The minimum effective draft then is: 11,289,600-^55,296 =204. In the maximum, the doublings are the same as above except in the case of spinning, in which there are 2 doublings, so that the total doublings are: 2 x 55,296= 110,592. Hence the total maximum effective draft is 24,310,125,000^-1 10,592=219,822. 397. Theoretically, therefore the total range of drafts in a mill, according to established custom is from 204 to 219,822. On account of contraction from twist in various processes, this would be in practice about 170 to 170,000. The weight per yard of laps to start with may range from 8 ounces to 20 ounces. The total maximum draft throughout the mill would reduce an 8 ounce lap to yarn weighinpT-^^VTTTr ounces per vard. This weight would correspond to number 400 yarn. The total minimum draft would reduce a 20 ounce lap to yarn weighing j-j-q ounces per yard. This weight would correspond to number .16 yarn. 385 398. The above figures are not given as in any sense a guide to the actual organization of any mill, but merely to show the wide range of possibihties of the work. In ordinary Southern work the rang-e of practical require- ments is for yarn between number 2 and number 60, so that it does not become necessary to approach either of the extremes of lap weight, or either of the extremes of drafts. 399. On numbers of yarn below 12, it is usual to omit the intermediate roving. Considerable variation in yarn numbers may be made by running the same roving single or double in the spin- ning frame, it is always best for the yarn, to use double roving; but for the sake of cheapness in first cost of machinery, and also in cost of manipulation, single roving is often used for common work. To illustrate the way in which this cheapness is brought about, suppose it is desired to spin number 24 on spinning frames with a max- imum draft of 8 for single roving or 12 for double roving (which is an ordinary condition.) With double roving it would be necessary to make (24 x 2-^12^) 4 hank roving, while with single roving it would be necessary to make only (24 X 1-^8^) 3 hank roving. It requires fewer rov- ing spindles to produce a given amount of 3 hank roving than 4 hank. Thus there is a saving- both in first cost of roving machinery and in the cost of operating it. But it must be remembered that the saving is at the expense of quality of goods produced. 400. To give greater flexibility to an organization and to prevent the necessity for making too many sizes of rov- ing in a mill, single roving is sometimes allowed. This is especially the case in mills that weave their own yarns. As will be shown later, the filling is generally spun 3 to 10 numbers finer than warp. When a mill is regularly running on one kind of cloth, in most cases it makes the same hank roving- for the filling as it does for warp; but the roving is put up single in the spinning frames for making- filling, and put up double in the frames for making warp. 386 SAMPLE 401. A table is given in the appen- ORQANIZATION. dix to show examples of the way organizations may be designed to produce certain numbers of yarn. There may be many variations made in the detail of the organization, and still produce the same yarn number. This is shown in the table. TWO PLY YARN. 402. Having shown how to arrange drafts &c., to produce any required yarn, it remains to show what yarn number is required for certain goods to be put on the market. If a certain 2 ply yarn is wanted, the proper single yarn must be decided upon to make it. Suppose it be required to make 2 ply 30s. The weight of this must be twice as much per yard as single 30s. If there were no contraction or extension of the yarn in the twisting process, it would simply be necessary to spin single 30s. But in twisting, there occurs sometimes a contraction in length, and sometimes an extension. In the case of number 30, there is a contraction of about i per cent, so that it is necessary to spin about number 30.3 single to twist into 2 ply 30s. 403. The operation of twisting has a tendency to make the yarn shorter, as was shown in the discussion of spin- ning. But as the twister turns the yarn in the opposite direction from the first twist put in the single yarn on spinning frame, there is also a tendency in the twister to untwist the single yarn and thus lengthen it. With coarse yarns, up to about number 24, this lengthening by taking out twist in the single yarns is greater than the shortening made by putting in new 2 ply twist and there is "exten- sion." At about number 24, the two tendencies are equal, and for finer yarns the shortening tendency is greater than the lengthening, and there is "contraction." It is dif^cult to exactly define the amount of extension or contraction to allow in all cases on account of various degrees of twist per inch in various yarns. In practice, it is generally determined by trying a few bobbins in each -case. 387 404- As a general guide, to show about what the aver- age allowance should be the following figures are sub- mitted for contraction and extension. Numbers i to8 3 per cent, extension. Numbers 8 to 16 2 " " " Numbers 16 to 24 i " " " Numbers 24 No extension; no contraction. Numbers 24 to 30 i per cent, contraction. Numbers 30 to 40 2 " " " Numbers 40 to 50 3 " This means that for making yarns for 2 ply less than 24, the single yarn must be spun coarser than the designated 2 ply number; number 24 must be spun about 24; num- bers higher than 24 must be spun finer than the designated numbers. CLOTH. 405. If it is required to produce cloth of a certain construction and weight, calculations must be made, to show the proper number of yarn to spin for warp and for filling, to produce this cloth. By "construction" of cloth is meant the number of warp threads per inch, (sometimes called the "sley" of the cloth, and sometimes expressed as so many "ends per inch;") and the number of filling threads per inch, generally called the "picks per inch." The warp is expressed first: thus a cloth 46 x 48 means 46 warp ends, and 48 filling picks per inch. The weight of cloth is generally expressed as so many yards per pound. In heavy goods, like ducks and denims, the weight is expressed as so many ounces per yard. 406. Assuming a cloth 46 x 48, 39 inches wide, 3 yards per pound, what numbers of warp and of filling are required ? The calculation involves finding the number of yards of yarn in one yard of cloth, and finally in one pound. The number of yards of yarn in a pound being divided by 840, (the number yards of yarn in a hank) will give the hanks 288 per pound or "number" of yarn, if both warp and tilling are to be the same. If there is to be a difference, the above calculation gives the "average number." 407. Disregarding, for the moment, the weight due to sizing and the shortening of yarn due to the filling being bent partly around the warp, and the warp being bent partly around the filling, ("contraction") the yards of yarn in a pound of the above cloth would be found as follows: As there are to be 46 warp threads per inch, there would be (46 X 39^) 1794 in the width of the cloth. In addi- tion to this there are some extra threads (from 6 to 8) put in each edge for selvage. If there are to be 12 extra threads in all, there will be (1794 + 12^ 1806 threads. In a yard in length of cloth, there will be 1806 yards of warp. As there are to be 48 filling threads per inch, in one yard in length of the cloth there will be (36 x 48=) 1728 filling threads 39 inches long. This makes (1728 x 39-^-36=) 1872 yards. In one yard in length of this cloth there will be 1806 yards of warp and 1872 yards of filling, or 3678 yards of yarn in all. In one pound there will be (3678 x3=) 11034 yards or (11034-^840=) 13. 1 hanks. Hence, not allowing for contraction or sizing the average number required is 13.1. Expressed as a formula the yards of yarn in one yard of cloth would be: 48 x 36 X 39 46 X 39 + 12 +2 ^ ^ This is the same as (46 + 48) 39 + 12. and works out 3678 as before. 408. Hence TO FIND THE THEORETICAL AVERAGE NUMBER TO SPIN FOR ANY GIVEN CLOTH, WE HAVE THE RULE: ADD THE NUMBER OF WARP ENDS PER INCH TO THE NUMBER OF PICKS PER INCH. MULTIPLY BY THE WIDTH OF CLOTH. ADD THE NUMBER OF THREADS FOR SELVAGE. MULTIPLY BY THE NUMBER OF YARDS OF CLOTH PER POUND. DIVIDE BY 840. 289 But, on account of sizing and contraction, the actual average number to spin is somewhat higher than that given by the rule. The amount of allowance varies accor- ding to the amount of sizing put on the warp, and upon the construction of the cloth and upon the tightness with which the cloth is held in the loom while being woven. 409. In calculating" yarn number for any given cloth, the particular circumstances must be considered which govern that particular case. Under ordinary circumstan- ces, such cloth as above calculated would contain about 5 per cent, of starch and would contract in weaving about 5 per cent., so that altogether the yarn should be about 10 per cent, lighter than would be shown by the rule. Thus instead of the average number being 13.1, it would be about 14.4. If filling is to be lighter than warp, say 2 numbers, then for the above cloth, we might spin number 1 31^ warp and 1 5-I filling. In this example, there was 11034 yards of yarn per pound of cloth, which amount we divided by 840 (yards in I hank) to arrive at the theoretical number. We then added 10 per cent, to this number. Approximately the same result may be obtained by deducting the 10 per cent, from 840, dividing the yards of yarn by 756. This would give 14.6 as the average number. 410. Theoretically the above way of averaging num- bers and dealing with per cents is not strictly correct, but there are so many other points involved in the problem, all of which are subject to variation, that it is useless in practice to strive for too great refinement of theory. 411. A weaver may make several points difference in the weight of two pieces of cloth woven from the same warp and filling. This may be done by weaving with vary- ing tension in the warp. 412. Manufacturers learn by experience what average allowance should be made for contraction in the various lines of goods they make. This allowance is fixed upon, and the weavers are made to work in such a way that the final weights and widths stay right. In the South, the 290 allowance is mostly made by adding- something to the the- oretical number of the yarn. In England, and to some extent in New England, the allowance is made in dividing the number of yards of yarn in a pound of cloth by some arbitrary number (derived from experience) less than 840. This gives the average actual yarn number at once. EQUIPMENT. 413. Having decided upon the kind of goods to make, and decided upon the organization, it remains to find the proper arrangement of machinery to produce the desired result. 414. The unit of capacity for a cotton mill is the spin- dle. In the South, a mill is frequently alluded to as being a 5,000 or a 10,000 spindle mill, irrespective of whether it also contains looms or not. In working out the equipment for a mill, it is usual to begin with the given number of spindles and keeping the organization sheet in mind at all points, (i) compute from production tables the number of pounds of yarn that these spindles will deliver. (2) Find the number of fine roving spindles necessary to produce say 2 per cent, more in weight than the yarn; (3) the number of intermediate spindles for say 4 per cent, more than yarn; (4) the number of slubber spindles for 10 per cent, more than yarn; (5) the number of drawing deliveries for 10 per cent, more; (6) the cards for 15 per cent, more; and (7) the pickers for 20 to 25 per cent. more. These allowances are for waste and various accidents liable to occur to the preparation machinery. There may, with propriety, be even more than the above allowances to provide for changes in the organization. On the other hand, the allowances might be diminished, with a view to finally making finer goods than those on which the mill is to start. This is because the finer the yarn, the fewer pounds can be spun, and the smaller the amount of carding and other preparation machinery required. 415. After the equipment is determined upon for making the yarn, as above, tlie machines must be compu- 291 ted for further disposition of the yarn, whether for weav- ing on the premises, or for sale as yarn. If in the former case, the number of spoolers, warpers, slashers, looms and cloth room machines must be determined. If in the latter case, it is necessarry to determine (with the aid of produc- tion tables,) the number of spoolers, twisters, warpers, reels, cone winders, &c., according to style in which yarn is to be sold. Finally will be determined the amount of power to ope- rate the mill. 416. The following example illustrates the method of filling out an organization sheet. It is only one of several ways to accomplish the result. In specifying the drafts, allowances have been made for waste and contraction. In starting a new mill, it must not be expected that the drafts and weights will all come exactly as shown on the sheet. The stock must be weighed after each process, if necessary and correction made in the gears to bring the weights right. Organization Sheet for Producing Sheeting 4 Yards per Pound ; 36 inches Wide ; 56 Warp Threads per Inch ; 60 Filling Threads per inch. Average Yarn No. 22 ; Warp No. »9 ; FillingNo. 25 . Finished Laps: Ounces per yd.*3 1=2; Grains per yd. 59oo Cards: Draft. 93-4 ; Grains per yard 60 , Drawing: Process 3 Draft.6; Doubling 6 ;Hank->389 Slubbing: Draft 4-o8; Hank -55 ; Twist -85 . Intermediate: Draft 4-88 ; Doublings. 2.; Hank..' -so . TwistJ.-.37.. Fine Roving: Draft 5-55 . Doublings 2 ; Hank.3-5o ; T wist. 2-24 ; Warp: Draft .Vi-9 ; Doublings..2 ; Number. 1.9; Twist 20.7 Fii.i,ing: Draft. 7-6 ; Doublings..!..; Number 25 ; Twist .i.6-3.. 292 417- The following example illustrates the method of filling out an equipment sheet for a mill to produce the goods according to the organization given in (416.) Equipment Sheet for "O'Ooo Spindle Hill to Produce 4 yard Sheetings, as per Attached Organization. Production per Day of ii Hours: 37ooibs; M.Sooyds. Openers and Se[28o. Spinning (48 frames; 2o8Sp. each: 22 Warp; 22 Filling, 6 Combination) Spindles 9984 . Spoolers (4 Machines ^oo.Sp. each) Spindles 400 . Beam Warpers A. Slashers '.. Drawing In Frames 4 Looms 320 Sewing Machines \ Brushers .' Inspectors } Folders ".. Cloth Presses ' Waste Presses . V Stamping Machine ^one Band Machine .' . Motive Power . . . Shafting 293 BEI.TING Machine Shop Equipment Heating Lighting Peumbing Water Suppi^y Fire Protection MoisTERiNG Apparatus . . Sundries In effecting a reduction in weight of the lap to the weight of the finished yarn, it is easy to see that the total draft necessary from begnning to end may be distributed in a variety of ways, and produce the same final result. Just the proportion of the total draft to be assigned to each machine may be varied. The distribution, as set out in the above organization, is only one way. The equipment is designed to correspond with that way. HppcnMx* Containing tables, IRecipce anb Short 1Rule9/ The tables have been compiled from the experience of some of the best Southern superintendents, and are there- fore in accord with current Southern practice. Most of the production tables now current have been elaborately worked out to 3 or 4 places of decimals. There must always be an allowance for time lost in piecing up, doffing", &c., which allowance must be estimated, and which will vary according" to skill of operative. It does not seem consistent, therefore, to make an appearance of refinement in decimal places, when there are other ele- ments which might make differences even affecting the whole numbers. The production tables jn this volume are made with but few decimal points. It is hoped that they may be more easily used on this account. 296 PRODUCTION TABLE— CARD. DOPFER 24^ INCHES DIAMETER OVER ALL. Weight in Grains of Sliver. 60 65 70 Pounds in 11 Hours 9 6() 75 83 91 100 108 116 125 10 74 83 92 102 111 120 129 139 11 81 91 101 112 122 132 142 153 13 89 100 110 122 133 144 155 167 13 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 181 14 104 116 129 142 155 168 181 195 16 111 12.5 138 152 166 180 194 208 16 118 133 147 1()2 178 192 207 222 17 126 141 156 173 189 204 220 236 18 133 150 166 183 200 216 233 250 19 141 158 175 193 211 228 246 264 20 148 166 184 203 222 240 259 278 DOFFER 271^ INCHES DIAMETER OVER ALL. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 75 84 83 93 91 102 99 112 108 121 116 1.30 124 140 133 149 141 158 149 168 158 177 166 186 93 103 113 124 134 144 155 165 176 186 196 207 103 114 125 137 148 160 171 183 194 205 216 228 112 124 137 149 162 174 187 199 212 224 237 249 121 131 135 145 148 160 161 174 175 189 188 203 203 218 215 232 229 247 242 261 25(i 276 270 290 140 155 171 186 302 317 233 348 263 279 294 310 This table is calculated with 10 per cent, allowance. The production is based as usual on surface speed of doffer If there is a draft from doffer to delivery roll, the production will be more in proportion to such draft. See paragraph 40. 297 PRODUCTION TABLE— DRAWING. FRONT ROI.Iv lU, INCHES DIAMETER. Weight in Grains of Sliver. ft 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 CI Pounds Per Delivery in 11 Ho urs. 350 91 102 113 124 136 147 158 170 360 94 10(i 118 129 141 153 165 176 370 98 110 122 134 147 159 171 183 380 101 114 137 139 153 165 177 190 390 105 118 131 144 157 171 184 197 300 109 122 136 149 163 176 190 304 310 112 126 140 154 168 182 196 310 330 116 130 145 159 174 188 203 217 330 119 134 149 164 179 194 209 224 340 133 138 154 169 185 200 215 331 350 127 143 158 174 190 206 222 338 360 130 147 163 179 195 212 228 344 370 134 151 167 184 201 218 334 351 380 137 155 172 189 306 224 341 358 390 141 159 176 194 212 229 247 364 400 145 163 181 199 217 235 253 272 This table is calculated with 20 per cent, allowance. The production is based as usual on surface speed of front roll. If there is a draft from front roll to delivery roll, the production will be more in proportion to such draft. See paragraph 60. 298 SLUBBINQ AND ROVINQ TABLE. o o J3 o C 10 inch Gauge 9 inch Gauge 8 inch Gauge 6 inch Gauge 5 inch Gauge 454 inch Gauge o 05 =1 tn U ft 308 111 1-1 64 a a .2 m = IS Pi a Is Ph3 a 2„ l« n 2m p IS .30 500. .45 .54 .30 333. .55 .66 351 1 46 386 43 .40 350. .63 .76 330 34 351 33 .50 200. .71 .85 195 36 221 36 .60 1(57 .77 .93 179 31 204 33 .70 143. .84 1.00 164 17 187 18 .80 125. .89 1.07 154 14 175 15 214 17 .90 111. .95 1 14 144 13 163 13 197 15 1.00 100. 1.00 1.20 138 11 157 13 192 13 271 14.0 1.10 90.9 1.05 1.26 153 11 180 11.8 260 13.0 1.30 83.3 1.09 1.31 |175 10.7 250 13.0 1.30 76.9 1.14 1.37 163 9.4 240 11.0 1.40 71.4 1.18 1.42 158 8 6 330 10.0 1.50 G(i.7 1.33 1.47 153 7.7 220 9.0 1.60 li3.5 1.37 1.53 147 7.0 214 8.3 1.70 58.8 1.30 1.56 208 7.7 1.80 55.6 1.34 1.61 303 7.1 1.90 53.6 1.38 1.66 196 6.6 3.00 50.0 1.41 1.70 190 6.3 215 6.5 3.10 47.7 1.45 1.74 186 5.7 210 6.1 3.30 45.5 1.48 1.78 182 5.3 305 5.8 3.30 43.5 1.52 1.83 178 5.0 300 5.5 3.40 41.7 1.55 1 86 174 4.8 195 5.3 3.50 40.0 1.58 1.90 170 4.6 190 4.9 3.00 33.3 1.73 3.08 155 3.6 175 3.9 190 3.9 3.50 38.6 1.87 2.24 165 3.3 175 3.3 4.00 25.0 3.00 3.40 150 3.6 160 3.7 4.50 33.2 3.13 3.54 145 3.3 150 3.3 5.00 30.0 3.34 3.68 135 1.9 145 3.0 5.50 18.2 2.34 2.81 130 1.7 14'0 1.8 6.00 16.7 3.45 2 94 135 1.5 135 1.6 6.50 15.4 3.55 3.06 130 1.4 7.00 1.43 2.65 3.17 135 1.3 The production in this table is calculated with an allowance of 15 minutes per set. The twist is calculated at 1.30 times square root of the hank. 299 TABLE SHOWING LAYERS PER INCH ON SLUBBINQ AND ROVING BOBBINS. I,ayers per Inch 6} o a" Layers per Inch H 3 .30 .447 4.5 5.4 3.30 1.48 14.8 17.8 .30 .548 5.5 6.5 3.30 1.51 15.1 18.1 .40 .633 6.3 7.6 3.40 1.55 15.5 18.6 .50 .703 7.0 8.4 3.50 1.58 15.8 19.0 .60 .775 7.8 9.3 3.00 1.73 17.3 20.8 .70 .837 8.4 10.4 3.50 1.87 18.7 22.4 .80 .894 8.9 10.7 4.00 3.00 30 24.0 .90 .949 9.5 11.4 4.50 3.13 31.3 25.4 1.00 1.00 10.0 13.0 5.00 2.34 22.4 26.9 1.10 1.05 10.5 13.6 5.50 3.35 33.5 38.3 1.30 1.10 11.0 13.3 6.00 3.45 24.5 • 29.4 1.30 1.14 11.4 13.7 6.50 2.55 25.5 30.6 1.40 1.18 11.8 14.3 7.00 2.65 26.5 31.8 1.50 1.33 13.3 14.8 7.50 2.74 37.4 32.9 1.60 1.27 13.7 15.3 8.00 3.83 28.3 34.0 1.70 1.30 13.0 15.6 8.50 3.92 29.2 35.0 1.80 1.34 13.4 16.1 9.00 3.00 30.0 36.0 1.90 1.38 13.8 16.6 9.50 3.08 30.8 37.0 3.00 3.10 1.41 1.45 14.1 14.5 18.9 17.4 10.00 11.00 3.16 3.33 31.6 33.2 37.9 39.8 Some superintendents calcvilate the "lay" of slubbing at 10 times the square root of the hank; and the lay of the intermediate and fine roving- at,13 or 13 times square root. Some calculate 10 times square root for both slubbing and roving. The machine will run and give good service either way. 300 RING SPINNING TABLE. ■C CD o o HI Warp Filling Warp or Filling .2 "OS ^ Oi en fe ^ P. >< 1) P. o t t-i 3 3 P..2 t' £-1 h-l &§ = P..N2 o a > a a 3 ;z; « <'io!4 ^ajH (L/J-. g Without Roller M •?1 6 6 1.25 1.31 8 6 .94 .99 lO 6 .75 .81 13 6 .63 .66 14 5.50 .49 .51 IG 5.50 .43 .45 18 5.50 .38 .40 30 5 50 .34 .35 33 5.50 .31 .32 34 5.50 .29 .30 36 5.25 .25 .26 38 5.25 .23 .24 30 5.25 .22 .23 33 5.25 .21 .22 34 5.25 .19 .20 36 5.13 .18 .19 38 5.13 .17 .18 40 5.00 .16 .17 43 5.00 .15 .16 44 4.75 .14 .15 46 4.75 .13 .13 48 4.50 .12 .12 50 4.50 .11 .12 The production i.s calculated on 10 per cent, allowance. 303 PRODUCTION TABLE— SPOOLER. Pounds per spindle in 11 hours with 30 per cent, average allowance. Spindle 800 Revolutions. No. Yarn No. Pounds 4 24. 6 15. 8 13. 10 9.4 13 7.9 14 6.6 16 5.9 18 5.3 30 4.7 No. Yarn No. Pounds 33 4.4 34 3.9 36 3.6 38 3.4 30 3.1 33 3.9 34 3.8 36 3.6 38 3.5 No. Yarn No. Pounds 40 3.3 48 3.3 44 3.1 46 3.0 48 1.9 50 1.9 53 1.8 56 1.7 60 1.6 PRODUCTION TABLE.-WARPER. Pounds per machine in 11 hours for each 100 spools in creel. 18 inch cylinder run- ning 30 revolutions per minute, 30 per cent, allowance. No. Yarn No. Pounds 4 835 6 557 8 418 lO 334 13 379 14 339 16 .309 18 186 30 167 No. Yarn No. Pounds 33 153 34 139 36 139 38 119 30 111 33 104 34 98 36 93 38 88 No. Yai-n No. Pounds 40 84 43 80 44 76 46 73 48 70 50 67 53 64 56 59 60 55 304 TWISTER TABLE. Two Ply Lb. per Spindle in 11 Hours Three Ply Lb. per Spindle| in 11 Hours i ZW ^-< ' .2x H« v«0 S'^o ■5S 3 g 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO 120 115 110 105 100 95 93 1.41 1.58 1.73 1.87 2.00 2.13 7.07 7.91 8. 66 9.35 10.00 10.(51 11.18 5.1 3.9 3.1 3.5 3 3 lio 1.6 5.6 4.3 3.4 2.8 3.3 2.0 1.7 1.15 1.39 1.41 1.53 1 63 1.73 1.83 0.1 1 6.45 7.07 7.64 8.16 8.66 9.13 5.8 4.6 3.7 3.3 3.8 2.4 8.4 6.4 5.1 4.3 3.4 3.0 2.5 11 13 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 30 31 33 33 34 36 36 37 38 39 30 31" 33 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 43 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 90 88 86 85 84 83 82 81 80 79 69 69 68 68 67 67 66 66 65 64 3.34 2.45 3.55 3.64 2.74 2.83 2.91 3.00 3.08 3.16 3.24 3.33 3.39 3.46 3.54 3.61 3.67 3.74 3.81 3.87 64 63 63 63 63 61 61 60 60 59 3.94 4.00 4.06 4.13 4.18 4.35 4.30 4.36 4.42 4.47 4.52 4.58 4.64 4.69 4.74 4.79 4.85 4.90 4.95 5.00 5.05 5.10 5.15 5.20 5.24 5.29 5.34 5.39 5.43 5.48 11.73 12.25 12.75 13.23 13.69 14.14 14.58 15.00 15.41 15.81_ 16.20 16.58 16.96 17.32 17.68 18.03 18.37 18.71 19.04 19.37 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.0 .95 .89 .82 .77 .72 .67 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 .95 .90 .84 .78 .73 1.91 2.00 2.08 3.16 2.24 2.31 2.38 2.45 2.53 3.58 9.57 10.00 10.41 10.80 11.18 11.55 11.90 13.35 13.58 13.91 3 1 1.8 3.0 1.6 1.9 1.5 1.8 1.4 1.7 1.3 1.6 1.3 1.5 1.1 1.4 1.0 1.3 .95 1.3 19.69 20.00 30.31 :M.63 30.93 21.31 31.51 21.79 32.08 23.36 23.64 33.91 23.18 23.45 23.72 23.98 34.34 24.49 24.75 25.00 .63 .59 .56 .53 .50 .47 .45 .43 .41 .40 .69 .65 .61 .58 .55 .52 .49 .47 .45 .43 .39 .37 .35 .33 .33 .31 .30 .29 .28 .27 .26 .29 .25 .28 .34 .27 .33 .26 .23 .25 22 .34 .32 .23 .21 .33 .21 33 .20 .33 3.65 3.71 3.77 3.83 3.89 3.94 3.00 3.06 3.11 3.16 3.31 3.27 3.32 3.37 3.42 3.46 3.51 3.56 3.61 3.65 13.23 13.54 13.84 14.14 14.43 14.73 15.00 15.38 15.55 _15.81_ 16.07 16.33 16.58 16.83 17.08 17.33 17.56 17.80 18.03 18.36 .91 1.1 .87 1.0 .83 .93 .79 .87 .75 .83 .73 .78 .69 .74 .66 .70 .63 .67 1 .60 .64 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 _20_ 21 22 33 34 35 36 27 28 35.35 35.50 25.74 25.98 26.23 36.46 36.69 36.93 37.16 27.39 .30 .19 .19 .18 .17 .17 .16 .16 .15 .15 .21 .31 .30 .20 .19 .19 .18 .18 .17 .17 3.70 3.74 3.79 3.83 3.87 3.92 3.96 4.00 4.04 _4J)8_ 4.13 4.16 4.30 4.34 4.38 4.33 4.36 4.40 4.43 4.47 18.48 18.71 18.93 19.15 19.36 19.58 19.79 30.00 20.21 30.41 .57 .54 .53 .50 .48 .46 .44 .43 .41 .40 .61 .58 .55 .53 .51 .49 .48 .47 .46 .45 20.62 20.83 31.02 21.21 21.41 21.60 21.79 21.98 22.17 23.36 .29 .28 .27 .26 .35 .34 .24 .23 .33 .33 .43 .42 .41 39 .38 .36 .35 .33 .33 .31 .27 .27 .36 .36 31 33 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 43 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 53 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 The production is calculated on 10 per cent allowance. The twist is calculated at 5 times the square root oi the twisted number; (that is, 1/2 square root of single ply number for 2 ply, and V3 for 3 ply). This is an average requirement. Some yarn is required with less, and some with more twist. The roll speeds are averages now in use for Southern work. Unless speed of driving pully is changed, every change of twist alters speed of roll. There is con- siderable latitude allowable in this respect, depending upon .skill ot operative, and character of stock. 305 PRODUCTION TABLE. 54 INCH REEL— SINGLE PLY. Pounds per Spindle in 11 Hours. Fifty per cent, allowance. 6 -12; a u REVOLUTIONS 6 a > 38 REVOLUTIONS > 150 160 170 180 190 300 150 "3.2 160 170 180 190 300 4 22. 23. 25. 26. 28. 30. 3.3 3.5 3.6 3.8 4.1 17. 19. 20. 21. 23. 24. 39 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.7 4.0 6 14. 12. 16. 13. 17. 14. 18. 15. 19. 16. 20. 17. 30 31 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.9 7 2.9 3.0 3.2 3.3 3.5 3 8 8 11. 12. 12. 13. 14. 15. 33 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.4 3.7 9 10. 11. 11. 12. 12. 13. 33 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.3 3 (i 10 9. 10. 10. 9.1 11. 11. 12. 34 35 2.6 2.5 3.7 2.6 2.9 2.8 3.0 3.9 3.3 3.1 3.5 n 8. 8.5 9.7 10. 11. 3.4 13 7.4 7.8 8.3 8.9 9.3 10. 36 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.3 13 6.8 7.2 7.7 8.2 8.7 9.1 37 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.9 3.3 14 6.3 6.7 7.2 7.7 8.2 8.6 38 2.3 2.4 2.6 3.7 2.8 3.1 15 5.9 fi.3 6.8 7.3 7.7 8.2 39 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.0 16 5.5 5.2 5.9 5.5 6.4 5.9 6.9 6.3 7.3 6.8 7.8 7.3 40 2.2 2.3 2.5 3.6 2.7 3.9 17 41 2 2 2 3 2.4 3.5 3.6 => 8 18 4.9 5.2 5.6 5.9 6.3 6.8 43 2 1 2.2 3.4 3.5 2.6 9, 8 19 4 6 4.9 5 3 5.6 5.8 6.3 43 2 1 O 9 2 3 3.4 2.6 ^ 7 30 1 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.3 5.5 5.9 44 45 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.3 3.2 3.4 3.3 2.6 2.5 3.7 31 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.6 3.6 33 4.0 4.3 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.3 46 1.9 2.0 3 3 2.3 2.5 3.5 33 3.8 4.1 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.1 47 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.4 3.4 34 3.7 3.9 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.9 48 1.9 2.0 2.1. 3.3 3.3 3.4 35 3.5 3.7 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.7 49 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.4 3B 3 4 3 6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.5 50 1.8 1.9 2.0 3.1 2.2 2.3 37 3.3 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.3 TABLE OF BREAKING STRENGTH OF RING SPUN WARP YARN. Pounds to Break one Skein of 120 Yards. Yarn No. Single 2 Ply 4 400 900 5 350 800 6 300 650 250 550 8 220 500 9 200 450 10 180 400 11 160 350 13 140 300 13 130 280 Yarn No. Single 2 Ply 14 130 260 15 115 .250 16 110 240 17 105 230 18 100 330 19 95 210 30 90 200 31 85 190 33 80 180 33 75 175 Yarn No. Single 2 Ply 34 72 170 35 69 165 36 66 158 37 63 151 38 61 146 39 59 141 30 57 137 31 55 133 33 53 129 33 52 125 Yarn No. Single 2 Ply 34 51 122 35 50 119 36 49 116 37 48 113 38 47 110 39 46 108 40 45 106 41 44 104 43 43 102 43 42 100 Yarn No. Single 2 Ply 44 41 98 45 40 96 46 40 94 47 39 93 48 31 91 49 38 90 50 37 89 53 36 • 87 54 35 85 611 33 79 Breaking strengths vary according to character of cotton from which yarn is made. They vary according to twist put in yarn. They appear to vary according to the way in which the testing machine is used. The above strengths are about the average for the kind of cotton used to make the designated numbers. 306 SOME PRACTICAL ORQANIZATIONS. ( u o S o Ca rd Draw- ! ing SI abbing Interme- diate Roving Fine Roving Spinning J3 l-r as p. c8 be bfl bo bo Q, bt > ►4 c a a B I-. a u o o 4J ^ 3 fc.S ^ 3 M ^ 3 M ^ 3 rt ^ ii^ 3 CS > cd a 3 > a "3 3 a '3 3 a nl 3 S d 3 s O u 3 1-1 1^ S '-' u ca IH O ni IH O n! »- *-• O 1? 20 92 90 6 6 90 R 4.4 P W .40 j Q W 5.2 Q 2 w 0^ Q ^ 4 1.0 8.3 ^ 4 6 20 92 90 6 6 90 4.4 .40 5.2 2 1.0 12.4 2 6 X 20 104 80 6 6 80 4.0 .40 5.2 3 1.0 16.6 2 8 10 20 104 80 6 6 80 4.5 .45 5.9 2 1.3i 16.6 2 10 13 18 106 70 6 6 70 5.2 .60 1 ! 6.9 2 2.0 12.6 2 13 14 18 1 106 70 6, 6 70 1 4.3 .50J 4.1 2 1.0 5.3 2 2.5 13.0 2 14 16 16 95 70 6 6 70 4.3 .50 4.1 2 1.0 5.2 2 3.5 14.0 2 16 18 16 95 70 6 6 70 4.3 .50 4.1 3 1.0 6.3 . 2 3.0 13.0 2 18 30 16 95 70 6 6 70 4.3 .50 4.1 2 1.0 6.2 3.0 14.5 2 20 8«> 14 83 70 6 6 70 ; 4.3 .50 4.1 2 1.0 6.2! 3 3.0 7.3 i 20 35 14 83 70 6 6 70 4.3 .50 4.1 2 1.0 6.2 2 3.0 9.1 1 25 30 12 83 60 6 6 60 ! 4.4 .60^ 5.1 2 1.5 6.1 2 4.5 14.0 2 30 35 12 100 50 6 6 50 4.9 .80 5.1 2 2.0 5.7 2 5.5 14.0 2 35 aO 10 104 40 6 6 40 5.0 1.0 5.1 2 2.5 5.4 2 6.5 14.1 2 40 SO 8 83 40 6 6 40 5.0 1.0 5.1 2 2.5 6.6 2 8.0 14.0 3 50 60 8 110 30 6 6j 30 4.8 1.3 5.6 2 i 3.5 6.0 2 10.0 13.5 2 60 Above drafts allow for contraction and waste. Contraction in spinning is variable according to stock and twist. Allowances above are for average warp twist. In spinning filling the drafts should be 3 to 5 tenths less than in table. This table is made to illustrate the variations that can be made within the limits of practical drafts on each machine. The range of draft for each machine makes thecombinations that are practicable well nigh infinite. At each separate process difierent superintendents might differ in opinion. Some might prefer more draft at tlie card and less at the slubber, or more at the spinning and less in the roving. It becomes evident, therefore, that the table can onlj' be worked out for exhibiting to students and apprentices what is the ordinary range in practice. Experienced superintendents will in most cases have preferences of their own, based upon their practice. .307 IReclpes, STAMPING INK. I Pound Ultra Marine. 1 Pound GiUTi Arabic. 2 Quarts Water. Dissolve Gum Arabic in the water. Let stand 24 hours. Stir in the Ultramarine, and boil slowly 15 to 20 minutes. Use when cold. This amount will stamp 300 to 400 pieces of cloth. Stamping ink may be bought ready for use; but it is more expensive than the above. VARNISH FOR LEATHER COVERED TOP ROLLS. I Pound Best Pulverized Glue. I Quart Acetic Acid. 1 Quart Water. 1} Pound Venetian Red. "2 Ounce Oil of Origanum or Oil of Cloves. In place of i quart each Acetic Acid and water, 2 quarts good vinegar may be used. SIZE niXTURE FOR SLASHER. For sizing i set of beams. 1,500 to 2,000 pounds medium numbers t6 to 30, for sheetings. It adds 3 to 6 per cent, to weight of warp. 100 Pounds Starch. 160 Gals. Water. 20 to 40 Pounds Sizene (according to make.) 2 to 10 Pounds Tallow (according to results.) 308 To Find the "hank" of roving. Divide lOO by the weight in grains of 12 yards. To Find the number of yarn. Divide 1,000 by the \\ eight in grains of 120 yards. To Find circumference of a roll. Multiply diameter by 3.1416 or, for an approximation, 3 1-7- To Find approximate production of Spinning and roving machinery. Multiply diameter of iront roll by the speed and divide by 16. Result is possible hanks per spindle in 11 hours, without allowance for ^:•cops. NOTE. — In all calculations with gears, the "driver" may for convenience be assumed to l^e at either end of the train, without regard to where the actual power is applied. To Find draft of spinning or roving frame. Consider gear on back roll the driver (i) multiply the diameter of front roll by all the drivers. (2) Multiply the diameter of back roll by all the drivens. Divide (i) by (2.) To Find draft constant on spinning or roving frame. Proceed as in last rule, leaving the draft gear out of the calculation. To Find twist on spinning frame. Consider gear on from roll the driver, (i) Multiply diameter tin cylinder ])y aU the drivers. (2) Multiply diameter of spindle whorl by all the drivens and by circum- ference of front roll. Divide (i) by (2.) To Find twist constant on spinning frame. Proceed as in last ru]% leaving twist gear out of the cal- culation. 309 To Find draft gear to use when changing from one number to another. Multiply number being- spun by draft gear in use. Divide by number to be spun. To find twist gear to use when changing from one num= ber to another. Multiply twist gear in use by the twist per inch in the stock being spun. Divide by twist per inch in the stock to be spun. Or multiply twist gear in use by square root of number being made. Divide by square root of number to be made. NOTE. — The rule novv' in common use is -as follows: "Multiply square of twist gear in use by number being- spun. Divide b)^ number to be spun. Extract square root of result." This involves the work of squaring a number and of tak- ing square root of a number. The rule in the text only involves looking up square roots of yarn (or roving) num- bers in the tables. To Find draft when a draft constant is known. Divide constant by dsaft gear. To Find draft gear to use when draft constant is known. Divide constant by dr:ih required. To Find twist when twist constant is known. Divide constant by tv/ist gear. To Find Twist gear to use when .twist constant is known. Divide constant by twist required. NOTE. — For exceptions to the rules about constants, see paragraph 70. 310 1ln^ex. Paragraph. APPENDIX, Page 295-309 Automatic Looms 276 Auxiliary Shaft 279 BAGGING & TIES i Bales— Cotton i Cloth 353-356 Ball Warp 378 Bands 163 Beamers Lease 372 Beam Warper 206,384 Beating up 248 Bobbins 148 Bobbin Lead 83 Bout 373 Box Looms 287-9 Breaking Strengths.. .Appendix Brusher 327-341 CAM — Harness, 258-9 Pick 260 Stop Motion 272 Twills 280 Cards 24.44 Burnishing 33-4 Calculations 36-40 Clothing 26-8 Flats 24,41 General Data 43 Grinding 29-34 Revolving Top Flat 24 vSetting 30 Sliver 35 Specifications 44 Stripping 33 Tables Appendix Waste 36 Wellman 41 Calender — Cloth 330-6 Cast Ring Holder 166 Chain Warping 367-8^ Cloth— Baling 353-6 Calculations 407-12 Construction 405-7 Press 356-7 Room 324-57 Stamping 351 Combination Builder 156 Cone Winding 391-3 Construction of Cloth 405-7 Cop 188 Cotton Bales 1-2 Classification 3 Cut Marker 227 Paragraph. DAGGER Stop Motion 274 Denn Warper 367-83 Calculations 374-6 Genera;l Data 380 Production 380 vSpecifications 383 Designing Cloth 291-4 Dobby . 282-4 Double Carding 42 Double Roving 399-400 Draft Defined 5 Range 396-8 Rules i9,App. Drawing 45-64 Bottom Rolls 49 Calculations 56-60 General Data 61-63 Metallic Top Rolls 52 Production Talkie . . . .Appendix Roll Setting 53 Shell Rolls 51 Specifications 64 Stop Motions 47 Top Rolls 50 Drawing In 237 Drawing In Draft 293 Dust Room II Dyeing 239-44 vShort Chain .... 239-40 Long Chain 241-2 Raw Stock 243-4 EVENER— Railway Heads 67 Lapper . . •. . . 13 Equipment 413-17 FEEDER for Opener 8 Filling Bobbin 148 Builder 154 Stop Motion 272 Twist 159 Floor Space — See General Data Each Machine Flyer 82 Flyer Lead 83 Folder 342-50 r^ RADES— Cotton 3 HANKS and Numbers 74 80 Definition 74-5 To Find 76 311 Paragraph. Harness 317-23 Cams 258 Specifications 323 Headstock, — Mule 191 TNEQUALITIES of Yarn . . 175 Ink for Stamping 352, App. JACK Roving 8 Jacquard Loom 286 IT" NOCK off Motion 211 LAPPER 10-23 Ivaying Out — ^Drawing. . 61 Looms 302 Mules 193 Slubbers 136 Spinning Frames 182 Leases 369-73 Letting Off 249,270 Lever Screw 184 Long Chain Dyeing 241-2 Lifting Plans 293 Looms 245-303 Automatic 276 Box 287-g Calculations 295 Dobby 282-4 General Data 301-2 Harness 317-23 Jacquard 286 Laying Out 302 Magazine 276 Northrop 276 Plain 252-66 Production 299 Specifications 303 Speeds 253 Stop Motions 272 Strapping 305 Supplies 304-23 Swells 257 Twill 278 MAGAZINE Looms 276 Mixing 6 Mule Spinning 186-96 Cop 188 Cost of Labor 195 General Data 194 Headstock 191 Laying Out 193 Production 195 Specification 196 Paragraph. NORTHROP Loom 276 Numbers Definition. ... 74 To Find 76, App. Tables Appendix. o RGANIZATlONand Equipment 394-417 Table Appendix. PATTERN Chain 282 Pegging Plan 293 Pick Gear 296 Pick Cam 260 Pickers 6-23 Calculation 18-20 General Data 22 Loom 261 Specifications 23 Power — See Gen. Data — Each Machine. Preparation of Yarn for Mar- ket . . 358-93 For Weaving 197-243 Price — See Gen. Data — Each Machine. Processes — Tabulated 4 RAILWAY Heads 65-73 Calculations 69-71 Evener , 67 General Data 72 Specifications 73 Range of Drafts 396-8 Raw Stock Dyeing 243-4 Recipes ... Appendix Reeds 308-16 Reedy Cloth 267 Reel 385-90 Table Appendix Ring Holders 166-7 Setting 168 Sizes 173-4, Appendix Travelers 171 Twister 359-65 Ring Spinning 147-85 Roving 81-146 Calculations 95-135 Contraction 105 Differential 116 Gauge 137 Gearing 85-94 General Data 136-145 Jack 82 Long Boss Roll 137 Reel 77 Short Boss Roll 138 Short Methods 135 312 Paragraph. Summary of Calculations. . 133 Tables Appendix Tension 134 Rules Appendix SAMPLE Organization. .401,416 Scutcher 8 Self Feeder 9 Separator 169 Sewing Machine 325-6 Shearer 327-41 Shedding 246,258 Short Chain Dyeing 239-40 Short Methods 135 Short Rules Appendix Shuttles 263-5,275,306 Shuttle Marks 264 Singles Defined 47 Single Roving 399-400 Size Kettle 224 Size of Rings. . . .173-4, Appendix Size Recipe Appendix Slasher 221-36 Calculations 234 Cut Marker 227 General Data 235 Production 234 Specifications 236 Waste 232 Slow Motions 214,226 Slubbing and Roving 81-146 Tables Appendix (See Roving) Speed Tables Appendix Spindles 162 Spinning — Bands 163 Calculations 178-81 General Data 182-4 Laying Out 182 Mule 186-96 Rings 165-8 Specifications 185 Speed Tables Appendix Table Appendix Spooler 198-205 Calculations 202 General Data 203-4 Production Table. .. .Appendix Specifications 205 Square Root Tables. . . .Appendix Stamping Cloth 351 Stamping Ink 352, App. Standard Twists 158-9, App. Paragraph. Starch Kettle 225 Stationary Flat card 44 Stop Motions 209-10,272,371 Strapping — Loom 307 Supplies — Loom 304-23 TABLES Appendix Take-up. Motion 250 Tape Selvage 281 Temples 307 Thread Lease 370 Ties — Bundling . . 7 Tie Cutter 7 Travelers 171.362, Appendix Tube Winding 391-3 Twills 27S-80 Twist — Standard. . . 159, Appendix Tables Appendix Variations 175-96 Twister Rings 361 Twisting 359-65 Two-ey Cloth 267 Two Ply Contraction 403-4 Extension 403 4 Tables Appendix VAPOR Cylinders 329 Vertical Ring 361 WARP Bobbin 148 Builder 153 Chain 367-83 Twist 159 Warper — Beam 206 Calculations 216 Denn 367-83 General Data 219 Knock Off Motion . 211 Production 216, App. Slow Motion 214 Specifications 220 Stop Motion 209-10 Waste — Card 36 Picker 6 Re-Working 6 Slasher 232 Weaving 245-323 Weight— See Gen Data— Each Machine. Wellman Card 41 Y ARN — Measuring Reel . . 78 Yarn — Tables for Number- ing Appendix LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 021 929 992 8 ■x^v\W^xi$