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Dean's Stereotype Edition. 
 
 BIBLIOTHECA CLASSICA: 
 
 OR, 
 
 A DICTIONARY 
 
 OF ALL 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NAMES AND TERMS 
 
 RELATING TO THE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY, PlISTORY, LITERATURE, AND 
 
 MYTHOLOGY 
 
 OF 
 
 ANTIQUITY AND OF THE ANCIENTS 
 
 WITH 
 
 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 -_^- 
 
 By J. 1.EMPRIERE, D. D. 
 
 REVISED AND CORRECTED, AND DIVIDED, UNDER SEPARATE HEADS, 
 
 INTO THREE PARTS: 
 
 Part I. GEOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. 
 Part II. HISTORY, ANTiaUITIES, &c. 
 Part m. MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 BY 
 
 LORENZO L. DA PONTE AND JOHN D. OGILBY. 
 FIFTEENTH AMERICAN EDITION, 
 
 GREATLY ENLARGED IN THE HISTORICAL DEPARTMENT, 
 
 By LORENZO L. DA PONTE. 
 
 Ur 
 
 NEW-YORK; 
 W. E. DEAN, PRINTER & PUBLISHER, 2 ANN ST. 
 
 

 \ 
 
 Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the Year One Thousand Eight Hundred and 
 Forty-Jive, by W. E. Dean, in the Clerk*s Office of the Southern District of New-York. 
 
 cc£y y^ /2^ fy^^ ^^ . /r^^. 
 
«55. 
 
 TO 
 JOHN W. FRANCIS, A. M. M. D. 
 
 Late Professor of Materia Medica, Institutes of Medicine, Medical Jurispnidence, &c. in the 
 University of the State of New York ; Member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society of 
 London; of the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh ; of the Academy of Na- 
 tural Sciences of Philadelphia; of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York; of the 
 Historical Societies of Massachusetts and New York, &c. &c. 
 
 This edition of Lempriere's Classical Dictionary, after having undergone 
 such enlargements and improvements as may render it less unworthy of his name, 
 is respectfully inscribed, by his very often and very much 
 
 Obliged Friend, 
 
 THE EDITOR. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. 
 
 The peculiar circumstances under which the present edition of Lempriere's Classical Diction- 
 ary is offered to the public, and the changes which have been introduced into the plan of the 
 work, and still more in its execution, appear to demand from the editors an exposition of the 
 views by which they have been governed, and a justification of the various alterations which 
 they have ventured to make. They feel, however, that no apology can be required for the liber- 
 ties which they have taken with the text of Lempriere. The design of his work, the most com- 
 prehensive of all the publications of the class that have appeared, either in this country or in 
 England, and which has secured to it an unequalled popularity, can hardly atone for the many 
 glaring and pernicious inaccuracies which deface the detail ; inaccuracies misleading the mind, 
 and sometimes mixed with grosser failings, to pervert the moral sense and feeling of the youthful 
 inquirer who may have recourse to its pages. It was first in this city that the attention of the 
 public was called to these defects, and that some attempt was made to correct them ; and the last 
 American Edition may be considered, by the approbation with which it was received, to have as- 
 certained and collected the public voice in favour of further amendments. More recently, the 
 Quarterly Journal of Education undertook the task of reviewing the original book ; and that 
 paper, published under the authority of names beyond all competition in letters, among which are 
 tbbse ofLord Brougham, Lord John Russel, Sir T. Denman, Hallam, Hobhouse, Maltby, Mill, and 
 Pattison, appears to have set on it the final seal of absolute reprobation. Impressed with a full 
 conviction of the utter worthlessness of an authority so universally sought after, and so inces- 
 santly consulted, the editors of the present edition had long contemplated the publication of a 
 volume which should resemble Lempriere's in nothing but in the outline of its plan ; in embra- 
 cing, namely, a general account of antiquity. With this view, they proceeded to separate the 
 Mythological from the Geographical and Historical parts, and these from each other ; in- 
 tending, for the sake of distinctness, to treat them separately, that the certain and actual narra- 
 tions and descriptions which belong to the historian and geographer might not be blended with 
 the fictitious or allegorical representations of the poet or mythologian. To this they were tlie 
 rather induced, from observation of the inevitable and irremediable confusion produced in the 
 mind of the youthful readers of Lempriere, as a consequence of the indiscriminate blending of 
 these separate objects of study. Even the mind accustomed to analysis may be sometimes bewil- 
 dered, and forget the truth in its heterogeneous mixture with fable. Having accomplished this 
 separation, they had intended to re- write every article, and to introduce such new ones as might 
 appear requisite to make the work what it purports to be, a complete Bibliotheca Classica. Be- 
 fore, however, they could even prepare for the commencement of this task, by procuring from 
 Europe the proper authorities, the call of their publisher required them to begin ; and the demand 
 of the market, they were informed, was of so urgent a character, that unless the work could ap- 
 pear within a limited time, it was considered as of no avail to prepare it. This call the editors were 
 not at liberty to disregard, from the nature of their contract, and from the engagements which had 
 arisen out of it between their publishers and other parties not originally concerned. The seventh 
 edition is presented, therefore, with great diffidence to the public as the result of three months' 
 labour, bestowed on it by the editors in the evenings of days devoted to professional avocations. 
 Under circumstances such as these, it was impossible that the whole work should be re-written, 
 or even submitted to a perfect revision ; and as the Geographical department has always been 
 held the most important, at the same time that it was the most incorrect in the original work, 
 it will be observed that that department has claimed the principal care of the editors. The addi- 
 tion of many new articles, in all, it is believed, amounting to several hundred, was the smallest 
 part of their labour ; the greater number of all those which were to be found in former editions, 
 being entirely re-written in this. The geography of Italy and Greece has recently been admira- 
 bly illustrated by the research and the labours of many learned scholars ; but no writer has suc- 
 ceeded in describing more accurately or more eloquently the interesting cities, rivers, and moun- 
 tains, of those countries, all equally connected with the most pleasing associations of the clas- 
 sical scholar, than the Rev. J. A Cramer, in his Geographical descriptions of Ancient Italy and 
 Greece. The results of this able antiquary's investigations the editors have freely transferred to 
 their pages, having put to the test of a strict comparison with the ancient authorities the passa- 
 ges of which they have thus availed themselves. This may detract in some measure from the 
 originality of their work, but it is confidently presumed that it will greatly add to its value. Tho 
 editors, however, believe that whatever they may have now first introduced, and with whatever 
 exactness they may have corrected the original articles, they have performed in that a less useful 
 work than in the scrupulous care with which they have removed from their pages the offensive 
 matter with which those of the first author were so profusely stained, und which were not tho- 
 roughly eradicated in any subsequent edition. 
 
PART I. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c. 
 
 AB 
 
 AB^, an ancient city of Phocis, at no 
 great distance from Elatea, and to the right of 
 that city going towards Opus. It was early ce- 
 lebrated for an oracle and temple of Apollo, held 
 in great esteem and veneration. The temple, 
 being richly adorned with treasures and various 
 oflferings, was sacked and burned by the Per- 
 sians. Having been testored, it was again con- 
 sumed in the Sacred War by the Boeotians. But 
 Pausanias asserts that it was but half destroy- 
 ed at first, and, like many other Grecian temples, 
 was sufiered to remain in that condition as a 
 monument of Persian hostility. It was treated 
 with great favour by the Romans, who conced- 
 ed to it peculiar privileges, out of veneration to 
 the deity there worshipped. The ruins of the 
 place are pointed out by Sir W. Gell, in his 
 Itinerary, near the village of Exarcho. Cra- 
 mer, Anc. Chreece. — Strabo, 445. — Soph. (Ed. 
 Tyr. m.— Herod. 1, 46 ; 8, 134 ; 8, 33.— Di- 
 od. Sic: 16, 530. — Pausan. 10, 3 aiid 35. 
 
 Abalus, an island supposed to have been si- 
 tuated in the German ocean, on whose shores, 
 according to some of the ancients, the spring- 
 tides deposited amber. The same island is 
 called Baltia by Timseus. Plin. 37, 2, 
 
 Abantia. Vid. Abantes, Part 11, 
 
 Abarimon, a country of Scythia, near mount 
 Imaus. Plin. 1, c. 2. 
 
 Abas and Abus, I. a mountain of the greater 
 Armenia, probably Ararat, a part of the Ala- 
 Dag. That part of the Euphrates, sometimes 
 called the Arsanias, and into which the smaller 
 river of that name empties, has its source in this 
 mountain. Plin. 5, 24. — D'Anville. — Malte- 
 
 Brun. II. A river of Armenia Major, 
 
 where Pompey routed the Albani. Vid. Parts 
 II. and III. 
 
 Abasa, an island in the Red Sea, near Ethi- 
 opia. Pans. 6, c. 26. 
 
 Abasitis, a part of Mysia in Asia. Strab. 
 
 Abassena. Vid. Abyssinia. 
 
 Abatos, an island in the lake near Memphis 
 in Egypt, abounding with flax and papyrus. 
 Osiris was buried there. Lnican. 10, v. 323. 
 
 Abdera, I. a town of Hispania Baetica, built 
 by the Carthagiaians. Strab. 3. II. A mari- 
 time city of Thrace, to the east of the Nes- 
 tus, founded originally by Timesius of Clazo- 
 menas, and subsequently recolonized by a large 
 body of Teians from Ionia. Abdera was al- 
 ready a large and wealthy town when Xerxes 
 arrived there on his way into Greece ; returning 
 whence he presented the town with his golden 
 scymetar and train, as an acknowledgement of 
 the reception he had met with there. Abdera 
 was the limit of the Odrysian empire to the 
 west. It continued to increase in prosperity and 
 i-uportance until it became engaged in hostili- 
 
 AB 
 
 ties with the Triballi, who had gained an as- 
 cendancy over the Odrysas and the other na- 
 tions of Thrace. According to Diodorus, Abde- 
 ra at length fell into the hands of Eumenes king 
 of Pergamus, through the treachery of Pytho, 
 one of its commanders. In Pliny's time it was 
 considered a free city; and the circumstance of 
 having given birth to the philosophers Democri- 
 tus and Protagoras added to its celebrity. In 
 the middle ages it degenerated into a small town, 
 to which the name of Polystylus was attached, 
 according to the Byzantine historian Curopa- 
 late. Its ruins are said to exist near the Cape 
 Baloustra. Cramer, Anc. Greece, — Strab. 7, 
 120; 8, 120; 2,97.— Died. Sic. 15, 476.— jEa:- 
 cerpt. 3.— Plin. 4, 11.— Pomp. Mel. ^, 2.—Cic. 
 ad Attic 4. 16. 
 
 Abella, now Avella, a town of Campania, 
 whose inhabitants were called Abellani. Its 
 nuts, called avellancz, and also its apples, were 
 famous. Virg. JSn. 7, v. 740. -SLl. 8, v. 544. 
 
 Abia, a maritime town of Messenia, suppos- 
 ed to be the ancient Ira mentioned by Homer. 
 Pausan. 4, 30.- II. 1, 150. 
 
 Abila, or Abyla, a mountain of Africa, in 
 that part vhich is nearest to the opposite moun- 
 tain called Calpe, on the coast of Spain, only 
 eighteen miles distant. These two mountains 
 are called the columns of Hercules, and were 
 said formerly to be united, till the hero separa- 
 ted them and made a communication between 
 the Mediterranean and Atlantic seas. Strab. 
 3.— Mela, 1, c. 5, 1. 2, c. 6.— Plin. 3. 
 
 Abnoba, a mountain of Germany, now the 
 Black mountain. It is sometimes, though in- 
 correctly, given in the plural, as mountains of 
 Germany. The Danube has its source in this 
 spur of the Lepontine Alps, which forms the 
 southern extremity of the Hercynian range. 
 Bossi Cost.de Germ. — Tacit. Germ. 1. — Avien. 
 
 Abobrica, I. a town of Lusitania. Plin. 4, 
 c. 20. II. Another in Spain. 
 
 AbonitIchos, now AineJiboli, a town of 
 Paphlagonia towards the northern boundaiy, 
 and nearly midway between east and west. 
 The later writers among the Greeks called it 
 lonopolis. 
 
 Abobras. Vid. ChaJboras. ' 
 
 Abrotonum, a town of Africa, near the Syr- 
 tes. Plin. 5, 4. 
 
 Abrus, a city of the Sapaei. Paus. 7, c. 10. 
 
 Absinthh, a people on the coasts of Pontus. 
 Herodot. 6, c. 34. 
 
 Abs5rus, the principal of the Absyrtides, 
 with a town of the same name. 
 
 Absyrtides Insole, otherwise the Brigei- 
 des, four islands on the coast of Histria.^ Their 
 modem names are Cherso, Oscro, Ferosina and 
 Chao. Vid. Absyrtnis, Part III. 
 7 
 
AB 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AC 
 
 Abus, a river of Britain, now the Humber, 
 dividing the Brigantes of the modern York- 
 shire , from the Coritani of Lincolnshire. 
 Cambd. Brit. — Heyl. Cosm. 
 
 Abydos, I. a town of Asia, on the borders of 
 the Hellespont in the lesser Mysia, not far from 
 the mouth of the Simois, built, as pretended, by 
 the Milesians under the auspices of Gyges king 
 of Lydia. The strait by which the Asiatic 
 coast is here divided from Europe is so narrow, 
 that Abydos appeared from a distance as one 
 town with Sestos, which stood upon the other 
 side. The actual width was seven stadia; but 
 D'Anville asserts that these were the shortest 
 of the three measures of that denomination. It 
 was here that Xerxes constructed his celebrat- 
 ed bridge of boats for the transportation of his 
 innumerable hosts. Poetry and history com- 
 bined to render this place interesting to the an- 
 cients, and both in modern times concur to ren- 
 der it as interesting to us. Recent experiments, 
 moreover, have added probability to the story of 
 Leander's gallantry ; for the passage of the Hel- 
 lespont by an expert swimmer has been proved 
 to be easily practicable. Abydos being attacked 
 by the Macedonian king Philip, the inhabit- 
 ants devoted themselves to death rather than 
 fall into the hands of their enemy. For three 
 days this slaughter continued ; the king of Ma- 
 cedon forbidding his soldiers to leave the town, 
 lest the citizens should then desist from their vo- 
 luntary self-immolation. Abydos again became 
 famous for its firm and vigorous resistance 
 whenbesiegedby the Turks under Orchan, the 
 son of Othman. The treason of the gover- 
 nor's daughter, who had become enamoured of 
 a young Turk among the besiegers, is said 
 alone to have occasioned the fall of the place. 
 Since that time the town has remained in pos- 
 session of the Turks, who rmder Mahomet II. 
 erected the two castles of the Dardanelles for 
 the defence of Constantinople by sea. These 
 forts do not exactly occupy, as many have be- 
 lieved, the sites of the ancient Abydos and Ses- 
 tos ; the only remains of the former being now 
 the ruins at a spot called Nagara. Mela. — Just. 
 2, 13.— Plin.— Herod. 7, 36.—Polyb. 16, 29, 35. 
 
 — Liv. 31, 17. II. A town of Egypt, about 
 
 seven miles from the borders of the Nile to- 
 wards Libya. Its modern name, Madfune, is 
 expressive of its dilapidation, and of the ruins 
 which alone remain of its original splendour. 
 It was famous as the residence of Memnon, 
 and for a temple of Osiris. D Anville consi- 
 ders it the Oasis Magna, and says, that in the 
 time of the Lower Empire it was used as a 
 place of banishment, Plin. 5, 9. 
 Abyla, Vid. Abila. 
 
 Abyssinia, a large division of Africa, little 
 known to the ancients. In its least unstable 
 limits it corresponds to the southern part of 
 Ethiopia supra iEgyptum. This situation and 
 extent would make its eastern boundary the 
 Red Sea, with an indefinite limit upon every 
 other side. The name of Ethiopia, given to the 
 country of which Abyssinia is but a portion, 
 was from the Greek, and Abyssinia is the Ara- 
 bic name, which the inhabitants reject. All 
 history of this country is unsatisfactory ; but an 
 organized government of some kind existed 
 among the Abyssinians at least as early as 
 the time of Solomon, as is proved by the 
 8 
 
 scripture account of queen Sheba's visit to that 
 king. 
 
 AcACEsiuM, a town of Arcadia, Mercury, 
 surnamed Acacesius, was worshipped there. 
 Paus. 8, c, 3, 36, 6ic, 
 
 AcADEMiA, I, a part of the Ceramic us with- 
 out the city, from which it W£LS distant about six 
 stadia. Its name was derived from the hero 
 Academus, 
 
 'Ev iba-KfOK S'^ofA.oicrtv 'AxatTjI^oy ^iw. 
 
 Eupol. Fra^ 
 
 It was originally a deserted and unhealthy spot ; 
 but Hipparchus surrounded it with a wall at a 
 considerable expense, and it was afterwards 
 adorned with walks, groves, and fountains, by 
 Cimon. Here Plato possessed a small house 
 and garden ; and from the time that he there 
 delivered his mstructions, it became in a great 
 measure sacred to philosophy. From traditions 
 connected with the memory of Academus, it is 
 said that this place was spared by the Lacedee- 
 monians in their incursions into Attica. But 
 Sylla, during the siege of Athens, is said to 
 have cut ^ovm the groves of this celebrated 
 spot. Without the enclosure was the monu- 
 ment of Plato and the tower of Timon, The 
 name of Akathymia is still attached to this once 
 favourite haunt of philosophers and poets. Vid. 
 Plato. Cram. Gr. — Potter^ Arch. Gr. — Plut. 
 Vit. Cim. and Syll. — Paus. 1, 30.. — Hawkins^ 
 Topogr. of Athens. — —II. A villa of Cicero, 
 to which he gave the name of Academia^ and 
 where he probably composed his Academicix. It 
 was situated between the Lucrine lake and Pu- 
 teoli, and was close to the shore. Cicero more 
 generally terms it his Puteolanum. Cic. ad Att, 
 1, ep. 3; 14, ep. 7. 
 
 AcALANDRUs, or AcALYNDRUs, uow the Sa- 
 landella, a river falling into the bay of Taren- 
 tum. Plin. 3. c. 11. 
 
 AcAMPsis, the lower part of a river which 
 separates Colchis from Armenia. It rises in. 
 the country of the ancient Tzani or Sanni, 
 where it was called Boas. It rushes, says 
 DAnville, with such impetuosity into the sea, 
 as to forbid all approaches to the shore. 
 
 Acanthus, I. a town on the isthmus that lies 
 between the Strymonic and Singitic gulfs ; on 
 the former of which it is placed by Herodotus 
 and Mela ; on the latter, by Strabo and Pto- 
 lemy, Near this place was the canal of 
 
 Xerxes. II. A town of Athamania, between 
 
 the Aracthus and the Inachus. Cram. Gr. 
 
 III. A town of Caria, otherwise called 
 
 Dulopolis. Mela, 1, 16, 16.— PZm. 5, 28. 
 
 AcARiA, a fountain of Corinth, where lolas 
 cut off the head of Eurystheus, Strab. 8. 
 
 AcARNANiA, a country of Greece, having on 
 the north the Ambracian gulf, on the west the 
 Ionian sea, and on the east the Achelous, which 
 separates it from ^Etolia. To the north-west it 
 bordered on the districts of the Amphilochi and 
 Agrsei, barbarous tribes, whose history is chief- 
 ly connected with that of Acamania, and may 
 therefore be included in the description of that 
 country which now bears the name of, and 
 forms part of the modern Livonia. Travel- 
 lers, who have visited the interior, represent it 
 as covered with forests and mountains of no 
 great elevation, but wild and deserted, while 
 
AC 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AG 
 
 the valleys are filled with several lakes. The 
 earliest accounts represent this province as in- 
 habited by the Leleges, Curetes, and Teleboae ; 
 and it would seem that the name of Acarnanes 
 was unknown in Homer's time, since it does 
 not occur in his poems. Cram. Gr. — Strab. 10, 
 325, 335, 450, b%\.—Hobhouse, Travels.— Hol- 
 land, Travels. 
 
 AcARNAs and Acarnan, a stony mountain of 
 Attica. Senec. in Uippol. v. 20. 
 
 AcATHANTUs, a bay in the Red Sea. Strab. 16. 
 
 Ace, I. a towii in Phcsnicia, called also Pto- 
 lemais, now Acre. C. Nep. in Datam. c. 5. 
 
 IL A place of Arcadia, near Megalopolis, 
 
 where Orestes was cured from the persecution 
 of the furies, who had a temple there. Paus. 
 8, c. 34. 
 
 AcERR^, I. a town of Campania, near the 
 source of the Clanius. In the year of the city 
 442 it received the rights of a Roman city, but 
 was destroyed m the second Punic War by Han- 
 nibal. It was rebuilt, however,' by its former 
 inhabitants on his evacuation of Campania. It 
 still subsists, and the frequent inundations from 
 the river, which terrified its ancient inhabitants, 
 are now prevented by the large drains dug 
 there. Virg. G. 2, v. 225.— Liv. 8, c. 17.- 
 
 II. A town on the Addua, referred to by Plu- 
 tarch, Strabo, and Polybius. Its modern name 
 is Gherra. 
 
 Aces, a river of Asia. Herodot. 3, c. 117. 
 
 AcEsiA, part of the island of Lemnos, which 
 received this name from Philoctetes, whose 
 wound was cured there. Philostr. 
 
 AcEsiNEs, now Chenab, a river which rises 
 in the Himalah mountains and empties into the 
 Indus in the large province of Pendj-ab. Ac- 
 cording to Ptolemy the navigation was extreme- 
 ly dangerous, and an immense number of per- 
 sons had perished in attempting it. Its width 
 is computed by the same author at fifteen stadia. 
 The difficulties and the dangers of sailing on 
 this river are greatest at its confluence with the 
 Hydaspes ; and so great is the roar of the waters 
 and the terror of the scene at that place, that in 
 passing it the rowers of Alexander dropped their 
 oars, and were at first unable to proceed. This 
 river is, however, by Gluintus Curtius supposed 
 to unite with the Ganges near its entrance into 
 the Erythrean Sea. Alexander made the conflu- 
 ence of the Acesines and the Indus the limit of 
 the government of Philip. This point is about 
 one hundred miles above the city of Mooltan. 
 The effect of the rains on this river are remark- 
 able ; to such a degree that the ordinary width 
 of three hundred yards above Lahore is some- 
 times swollen to little less than a mile and a 
 half. Mela. — Arrian. — Q. Curtius. — Malte- 
 Brun. 
 
 AcESTA, a town of Sicily, called after king 
 Acestes, and known also by the name of Se- 
 gesta. It was built by ^neas, who left here 
 part of his crew as he weis going to Italy. Virg. 
 Mn. 5, V. 746, &c. 
 
 AcHffiORUM poRTus, ou the Messenian Gulf, 
 in or near the site of which stands Coron at the 
 present day. 
 
 ACH.E0RUM sTATio, a placc on the coast of 
 the Thracian Chersonesus, where Polyxena 
 was sacrificed to the shades of Achilles, and 
 where Hecuba killed Poljonnestor, who had 
 murdered her son Polydorus. 
 
 Part I.— B. 
 
 AcHAiA, I. a country of Peloponnesus, which 
 within its ancient limits was bounded on the 
 north by the Corinthian Gulf, and on the south 
 by a lofty chain of mountains which separated 
 it from Arcadia. On the east it bordered on Si- 
 cyonia. Towards the west it reached the con- 
 fines of Elis, the small river Larissus being 
 the common boundary. It was anciently called 
 JEgialus from its maritime situation, and its 
 earliest inhabitants are said to have been of the 
 Pelasgic race. These were succeeded by the 
 lonians, who were in turn dispossessed by the 
 Achaeans. The division into twelve districts, 
 which subsequently formed the Acheean league, 
 is generally attributed to its earliest population. 
 Achaia was at first a small and insignificant 
 state, and so thinly peopled, that the inhabitants 
 of its twelve districts were scarcely equal to 
 those of a single city. Upon the capture of Co- 
 rinth by L. Mummius, and the consequent dis- 
 solution of the Achaean league, the whole of 
 Greece was reduced to the condition of a Ro- 
 man province, and thenceforward the name of 
 Achaia was applied to the Peloponnesus and 
 all the country south of Macedonia. Cram. Gr. 
 — Pausan. 7, 1. — Herod. 7, 94. — Piut. Arat. — 
 
 Pohjb. 2, 89.— Tacit. 1, 76. II. A small part 
 
 of Phthiotis was also called Achaia, of which 
 Alos was the capital. 
 
 Achara, a town near Sardis. Strab. 14. 
 
 AcHARNJE, the most considerable of the Attic 
 demi, on or near the site of the modern Menidi. 
 Vid. Aristoph. 
 
 AcHELous, I. one of the largest rivers of 
 Greece, and the most celebrated in ancient 
 times. Thucydides describes it as flowing from 
 mount Pindus, through the country of the Dolo- 
 pians, Agraeans and Acarnanians, and discharg- 
 ing itself into the sea near the town of CEniadaB. 
 It was particularly noted for the quantit)'- of al- 
 luvial soil which is there deposited ; many of 
 the islands, known to the ancients under the 
 name of Echinades, being by that means con- 
 nected with the main land. As its course also 
 varied greatly, which occasioned inundations in 
 the districts through which it flowed, hence 
 called Paracheloitis, it was found necessary to 
 check its inroads by means of dykes and dams ; 
 which is thought to have given rise to the fable 
 of the contest of Hercules with the river for the 
 hand of Deianira, so beautifully introduced in 
 the Trachinicas of Sophocles, ver. 507. The 
 Achelous is said to have been formerly called 
 Thoas and Thestius. Most ancient writers 
 name it as a river of Acarnania ; some, how- 
 ever, ascribe it to JEtolia, which is owing to the 
 variation in the limits of these two countries. 
 The modern name is Aspropotamo. Cram. Gr. 
 2, 20.— /Z. 21, 193.— 7%7^c. 2, W2.—Diod. 4, 168. 
 Vid. Part III. II. A river of Arcadia, fall- 
 ing into the Alpheus. III. Another, flowing 
 
 from mount Sipjdus. Paus. 8, c. 38. 
 
 Acheron, I. a river celebrated in antiquity 
 from its supposed communication with the 
 realms of Pluto, which discharges itself into the 
 sea a little below Parga. Homer called it, from 
 the dead appearance of its waters, one of the ri- 
 vers of hell ; and the fable has been adopted by 
 all succeeding poets. It is known in modem 
 geography by the name of the Souli river, and 
 the gloominess of its scenery accords well with 
 the fancied horrors of Tartarus, It rises in 
 9 
 
AC 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AD 
 
 Molossia, flows through Thesprotia, and, after 
 passing through the Acherusian lake, falls into 
 the sea near the Chimerian promontory. The 
 word Acheron is often taken for hell itself. 
 
 Cram. Gr.—Livy, 7, 2i.— Thuc. 1,46. II. A 
 
 branch of the Alpheus in Elis. Vid. Part III. 
 
 AcHERONTiA, uow Accreuza, was situated, as 
 Horace describes it, on an almost inaccessible 
 hill, south of Ferentum. It is called Acheron- 
 lum by Livy, who mentions it as a strong place 
 of Apulia. Procopius notices it as a fortress 
 of very great strength. Cram. It. 2, 291. — 
 Liv. 9, 30. 
 
 AcHERusiA PALUs, I. a marsh through which 
 the Acheron flows, near its mouth. Its site is 
 now only to be discovered by the reeds and 
 aquatic plants which almost choke up the wa- 
 ter. The destructive effects of the malaria are 
 perceptible in the sallow and emaciated counte- 
 nances of the surrounding peasantry. Hence, 
 probably, it was that the ancients, ignorant of 
 the natural causes of disease transferred the 
 miasmata of the plain to the Plutonian lake, 
 and represented it as emitting a deadly effluvia. 
 Hughes' Travels. II. Another in Italy, be- 
 tween Misenum and Cumae, to which the mo- 
 
 AernLago di Fnsaro probably answers. III. 
 
 A lake of Egypt, near Memphis, over which, as 
 Diodorus, W). 1. mentions, the bodies of the 
 dead were conveyed, and received sentence ac- 
 cording to the actions of their life. The boat was 
 called Baris, and the ferryman Charon. Hence 
 arose the fable of Charon and the Styx, &c. af- 
 terwards imported into Greece by Orpheus, and 
 adopted in the religion of the country. 
 
 AcHERUsiAs, a place or cave in Chersonesus 
 Taurica, where Hercules, as is reported, drag- 
 ged Cerberus out of hell. Xenoph. Anab. 6. 
 
 Achillea. Vid. Leuce. 
 
 AcHiLLEUM, a town of Troas, near the tomb of 
 Achilles, built by the Mityleneans. Plin. 5, c. 30. 
 
 AciDAS, a river of Peloponnesus, formerly 
 called Jardanus. Pans. 5, c. 5. 
 
 AciLLA, a town of Africa, near Adrumetum; 
 (some read Acolla.) Ccbs. Afr. c. 33. 
 
 AciRis, now Agri, a river of Lucania. 
 
 AcoNTisMA, a defile on the Thracian coast, 
 eighteen miles from Philippi, also called Sym- 
 bolum and the Pass of the Sapsei. 
 
 AcoNTOBULUS, a place of Cappadocia, under 
 Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. Apollon. 
 arg. 2. 
 
 Agra, I. a town of Italy, II. Eubcea, 
 
 III. Cyprus, IV. Acarnania, V. Sicily, 
 
 -VI. Africa, VII. Sarmatia, &c. 
 
 VIII. A promontory of Calabria, now Capo di 
 Leuca. 
 
 Acradina, the citadel of Syracuse, taken by 
 Marcellus the Roman consul. Plut. in Mar- 
 cel. — Cic. in Verr. 4. 
 
 AcRiEPHiA, a town in Boeotia ; whence Apol- 
 lo is called Acraephius. Its ruins are still to be 
 seen on the eminence above the village of Car- 
 ditza. Herodot. 8, c. 135. 
 
 AcRAGAS, Vid. Agragas. 
 
 AcRATHOs, a promontory of the peninsula on 
 which mount Athos is situate, towards the 
 Strymonic gulf. It is the modem Capo Monte 
 Santo. 
 
 AcROCERAUNii MONTEs, loiown in modem geo- 
 graphy by the name of CAiTmxrra, formed the na- 
 tural boundanr of Illyria and Chaonia. This 
 10 
 
 lofty chain, so celebrated in antiquity as the 
 seat of storms and tempests, extends for seve- 
 ral miles along the coast, from Cape Linguei- 
 ta, the Acroceraunium Promontorium, to the 
 neighbourhood of ^w^ri^i^o ; while inland it is 
 connected with the ramifications of the Thes- 
 protian and Molossian mountains. The Greek 
 and Latin poets are full of allusions to these 
 dangerous-rocks. 
 
 Acroceraunium promontorium. Vid. Acro- 
 ceraunii Monies. 
 
 AcROCORiNTHUs, a lofty mountain on the isth- 
 mus of Corinth. There is a temple of Venus 
 on the top, and Corinth is built at the bottom. 
 Strab. 8. — Pans. 2, c. 4. — Plut. in Arat. — Stat. 
 Theb. 7, v. 106. 
 
 Acropolis, the citadel of Athens, built on a 
 rock, and accessible only on one side. Minerva 
 had a temple at the bottom. Paus. in Attic. 
 
 AcROREA REGio, the bordcr tract along ihe 
 boundary of Arcadia and Elis, so called from 
 its mountainous character. It contained several 
 towns, of which Lasion was one. Xen. Hell. 
 3, 2, 221. 
 
 AcTE, I. the peninsula in which mount Athos 
 rises, between the Singitic and Strymonic -gulfs. 
 II. Also a name applied to the coast of At- 
 
 tica, (from dxT«, a shore,) and sometimes ex- 
 tended to the whole country. Thuc. 4, 109. — 
 Pomp. Mel. 2, 3. 
 
 AcTiuM, I. a town of Acarnania, celebrated 
 for the victory to which it gave its name. Il 
 was situated close to the entrance of the Ambra- 
 cian gulf, on an elevated promontory. Thucy- 
 dides mentions Actium as a port in the territory 
 of Anactorium. The antiquity of the temple of 
 Apollo appears to have been great, since Virgil 
 supposes it to have existed in the time of ^Eneas, 
 The name of Azio is still attached to some 
 ruins which are visible on a bold rocky height 
 in the position assigned by D Anville to Actium. 
 Strab.— Thuc. 1, 29.— ^ti. 3, TiL— Hughes' 
 
 Travels. II. A promontory of Corey r a. Cic. 
 
 ad Att. 7, 2. 
 
 Addua, now the Adda, a river of Cisalpine 
 Gaul. It separated the Insubres from the Ce- 
 nomani, and, after supplying the lake Larius, 
 empties into the Po some distance below the 
 town of Acerree. Strabo refers its origin to the 
 mount Adula, which can only be correct if 
 Adula be a name applied to all the Rhoetian 
 Alps. Strabo. — Cram. It. 
 
 Adonis, a river of Phoenicia, rising in, 
 mount Lebanon, and falling, after a north-west 
 course, near Byblus, into the sea. The soil 
 through which this river flows is of a reddish 
 clay, and when the floods prevail the reddish 
 tinge of the waters affords occasion to the poets 
 for some of the fables connected with the name 
 of Adonis. 
 
 Adramyttium, an Athenian colony on the 
 sea-coast of Mysia, near the Caycus. Strab. 
 13.— Thucyd. 5, c. 1. 
 
 Adrana, a river of Germany, now the Eder, 
 running through Hesse, and falling into the 
 Weser not far from Cassel. Tac. Ann. 1, 56. — 
 Polyb. 
 
 Adranum, a toAvn of Sicily, near iEtna, with 
 a river of the same name. The chief deity of 
 the place was called Adranus, and his temple 
 was guarded by 1000 dogs. Plut. in Timol. 
 
 Adrastu, a region and city of the Troad in 
 
-EG 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MQ 
 
 Mysia, called, from the battle fought there by- 
 Alexander with the Persians, Adrasth Campi ; 
 and it was here that the first meeting took place 
 between the rival kings. Its earlier name was 
 Parimn, but Homer calls it Adrastia. Arrian. 
 ■ -Strabo. 
 
 Adria. Vid. HadricB. 
 
 Adrianopolis. Vid. Hadrianopolis. 
 
 Adrumetum. Vid. Hadrmnetum. 
 
 Aduatuca, and Atuatuca, a town in the 
 territory of the Eburones. The Itinerary of 
 Antoninus caUs it Aduaca, and Ptolemy speaks 
 of the Tongri and their city Atuacutum. Upon 
 the destruction of the Eburones the Tongri oc- 
 cupied their territory; whence Tongres^ the 
 modern name of the ancient town. Tongres is 
 in the Pays-bas, between MaestricM and Lou- 
 vain. CcBs. Bell. G. 6, 32 and 34, Lemaire^s ed. 
 
 Adula. Vid. Addua. 
 
 Adulis, a town of Upper Egypt. 
 
 JEje, jEa, or ^^A, an island of Colchis, in 
 the Phasis. Apollon. 3. 
 
 ^ANTiuM, the promontory which closes the 
 Pagasaean gulf on the Magnesian side. 
 
 ^AS. Vid. Aous. 
 
 .EcuLANUM, or iEcLANUM, a town of Sam- 
 nium, must be placed on the Appian Way, about 
 13 .miles from Benevento. Holstenius first dis- 
 covered its ruins near Mirabella, on the site 
 called by the natives Le Grotte. Cram. It. 2, 
 249.—^^. Civ. Bell. 1, 51. 
 
 tEdepsus, now, perhaps, Dipso, a town of 
 Eubcea, where were some warm springs conse- 
 crated to Hercules. Plut. Vit. Syll. 
 
 Odessa, or Edessa, a town near Pella. Ca- 
 ranus, king of Macedonia, took it by following 
 goats {ctiytt^') that sought shelter from the rain, 
 and called it hence ^gse, otherwise written 
 -Ege, .Egea, and -Egaea. It continued the 
 capital of the country until the seat of govern- 
 ment was transferred to Pella. It is believed 
 that Vodina on the Vistritza represents this 
 ancient city ; and there are still remains of se- 
 pulchres in the vicinity. Justin. 7, 1. — Clarke's 
 Travels. — Pliny, 4, 10. 
 
 Mmcvhk Ridiculi, a temple .raised to the god 
 of mirth from the following circumstance : af- 
 ter the battle of Cannee, Hannibal marched to 
 Rome, whence he was driven back by the incle- 
 mency of the weather ; which caused so much 
 joy in Rome, that the Romans raised a temple 
 to the god of mirth. This deity Avas worship- 
 ped at Sparta. Plut. in L/yc. Agid. and Cleom. 
 PausaniEis also mentions a 3-2o? yixanog. 
 
 Mgk, an island of the iEgean sea, between 
 Tenedos and Chios. 
 
 Mge, I. a town of Macedonia, Vid. Odes- 
 sa. II. A town of Achaia, on the Crathis, 
 
 celebrated for the worship of Neptune as early 
 as the days of Homer. In Strabo's time it had 
 
 ceased to exist. K 8, 203.—Strab. 8. III. 
 
 Another in Euboea, south of ^Edepsus ; proba- 
 bly the modern AJdo. 
 
 JEgmje,^. town and sea-port of Cilicia. Im- 
 can, 3, V. 227. 
 
 ^GiEUM mare, the Archipelago, that por- 
 tion of the Mediterranean which intervenes be- 
 tween the eastern shores of Greece and the op- 
 posite continent of Asia Minor. It was consi- 
 dered particularly stormy and dangerous; 
 whence the proverb, tov Atyatov ttku. Different 
 parts were known by particular names, as the 
 
 Mare Myrtoum, which lay between the Cy- 
 clades and the Peloponnesian coast ; and the 
 Icarium, which washed the Lydian coast j and 
 the islands Myconus, Icaria, and Samos. Tra- 
 dition referred the origin of its name to ^geiis ; 
 but Strabo, with more probability, deduced it 
 from the little island of jEgas in the vicinity of 
 Euboea. Cramer, Greece, 1, 7. — JEsch. Agam. 
 64:2.— Hor. Od. 2, 16. 
 
 ^GALEOs, or MgaIuEum, a mountain of Atti- 
 ca, opposite Salamis, on which Xerxes sat du- 
 ring the engagement of his fleet with the Gre- 
 cian ships in the adjacent sea. Herodot. 8, c. 
 dO.— Thucyd.% c. 19. 
 
 ^GAN, and ^GON, the iEgean sea. Flac. 1, 
 &2S.—Sat. 5, 56. 
 
 -Agates, I. a promontory of JEolia. II. 
 
 Three islands opposite Carthage, called Aras by 
 Virg. jEn. 1, near which the Romans, under 
 Catulus, in the first Punic War, defeated the 
 Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, 242 B. C. Liv. 
 21, c. 10 and 41, 1. 22, c. 54.— MeZa. 2, c. 7.— 
 Sil. 1, V. 61. 
 
 ./Egeleon, a town of Macedonia, taken by 
 king Attalus. It has been conjectured that, 
 instead of ^geleon in Livy, we should read 
 Pteleon. 
 
 -Egesta, an ancient town of Sicily near 
 mount Eryx, destroyed by Agathocles. It was 
 sometimes called Segesta and Acesta. Its 
 ruins are still seen in the vale of Mazara. Diod. 
 10. 
 
 -Egialea, I. an island near Peloponnesus, in 
 
 the Cretan sea. II. Another in the Ionian 
 
 sea, near the Echinades. . Plin. 4, c. 12. — He- 
 rodot, 4, c. 107. III. The ancient name of 
 
 Peloponnesus. Strab. 12. — Mela, 2, c. 7. 
 
 iEcriALUs, I. a city of Asia Minor, II. A 
 
 mountain of Galatia. Vid. Achaia. 
 
 Mg\T)x, a town in the little island of jEgidis, 
 on the coast of Histria, at the mouth of the 
 Formio. The later name of this place was 
 Justinopolis ; it is now Capo d'Istria. Plin. 3, 
 12.— Cram. It. 
 
 MgI'lk, a place in Laconia, where Aristo- 
 menes was taken prisoner by a crowd of reli- 
 gious women whom he had attacked. Pans. 
 
 4, c. 17. 
 
 .^GiLiA, I. a small island in the Euripus, be- 
 longing to the Styrians, where the Persian 
 fleet, under Datis and Artaphernes, was moor- 
 ed before the battle of Marathon. It is now 
 
 Stouri. Herod. 6, 101 and 107. II. Another, 
 
 now Cerigotte, between Cythera and Crete. 
 
 tEgimorus, or jEgimurus, an island near 
 Lybia, supposed by some to be the same which 
 Virgil mentions under the name of Arae. Plin. 
 
 5, c. 7. 
 
 jEgina, now Egina or Enghia, an island, 
 with a city of the same name, situated in the 
 Saronic gulf, at equal distances from the Athe- 
 nian, Megarian, and Peloponnesian coasts. 
 PausaniEis observes that of all the Greek islands 
 it is the most inaccessible, being surrounded by 
 hidden rocks and shoals. In fabulous times this 
 island is said to have borne the name of ^none, 
 which it afterwards exchanged for that of -(Egi- 
 na, mother of .Eacus and the long line of he- 
 roes descended from him. It received colonies 
 from Crete, Argos, and Epidaurus. The Cretan 
 may be referred to the time of Minos ; that of 
 Argos to the period in which Phidon was tjTant 
 11 
 
^G 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MG 
 
 of that city. The Epidaurians, who crossed 
 over into Egina, were a detachment of those 
 Dorians who had left Argos under Deiphontes 
 to settle at Epidaurus. After the battle of 
 Platsea, ^gina was at the height of its pros- 
 perity, and was looked upon as the chief em- 
 porium of Greece : but on the breaking out of 
 the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians expelled 
 the whole population from theisland, replacing 
 them with some of their own citizens. After 
 the battle of jEgospotami, Lysander re-esta- 
 blished the ^ginetse, but they never recovered 
 their former prosperity. According to Strabo, 
 the island is about 180 stadia in circuit. The 
 vestiges of the walls of the ancient city cover 
 an extensive plain, and the walls of the port 
 and arsenal may be traced to a considerable 
 extent. Cram. Gr. 3, p. 275. — Strabo, 8. — He- 
 rod. 8, 46.— Pans. 2, 29.— Thucyd.—Xen. Hell. 
 2, 2, 5. 
 
 ^GiNiuM, an important city in the north-west 
 of Thessaly, near the Ion, which Livy describes 
 as almost impregnable. The Epitomizer of 
 Strabo seems to place it in Macedonia, and 
 Steph. Byz., still more incorrectly, in Illyria. 
 It was taken by the Athamanes in the war with 
 Antiochus, and, some years after, given up to 
 plunder by Paulus iEmilius. Its strength de- 
 terred Flaminius from laying siege to it. Mo- 
 cossi probably stands near the site of the an- 
 cient city. Cram. Gr. 1, 355. — Livy, 32, 15 ; 
 36, 13 ; 44, 46 ; 45, 27. 
 
 tEgira, one of the 12 cities of the Achaean 
 league, was nearly opposite to CEanthe, in the 
 country of the Locri Ozolae, and near the sea 
 of Corinth, between Sicyon and ^gium. The 
 port was about twelve stadia from the town, 
 which was situated on an eminence. Accord- 
 ing to Sir W. Gell, its ruins are to be seen 
 on a woody hill above fhe spot now called 
 Bloubouki. Its most ancient name was Hyper- 
 esia. The change to ^gira is accounted for 
 by Pausanias, 7, 26. — Polyb. 4, 57. — Herodot. 1, 
 145. 
 
 ^Egiroessa, a town of jEtolia. Herodot. 1, 
 c. 149. 
 
 JEgitum, a town of JEolia, on a mountain 
 eight miles from the sea. Thucyd. 3, c. 97. 
 
 iEgiuM, now Vostizza, a town of Achaia, 
 near the mouth of the Selinus. Here for a long 
 time the general states of Achaia held their as- 
 semblies, until a law was made by Philopcemen, 
 by which each of the federal towns became in 
 its turn the place of rendezvous. According to 
 Strabo these meetings were convened near the 
 town, in a spot called iEnarium, where was a 
 grove consecrated to Jupiter. Pausanias affirms, 
 that in his time the Achseans still collected to- 
 gether at iEgium, as the Amphictyons did at 
 Delphi and Thermopylae. Among its temples 
 was one to Jupiter Homagyrius, which was 
 supposed to stand on the spot where Agamem- 
 non convened all the chieftains of Greece be- 
 fore the Trojan expedition. Cram. Gr. 3, 63 — 
 Liv. 38, 1.— Polyb. 2, 54, 3.—Strab. 8.— Pans. 
 7, 23 and 24. 
 
 iEooN, and JEgan, I, a promontory of Lem- 
 
 nos. II. A name of the iEgaean. Stat. Theb. 
 
 5, b&—Flacc. 1, 628. 
 
 .^gospotamoi, a small river of the Thra- 
 cian Chersonese, which empties into the Hel- 
 lespont. At its mouth stands a town or port of 
 12 
 
 the same name, where the Athenian fleet was 
 totally defeated by Lysander, A. C. 405, The 
 village of Galata probably stands on the site of 
 the ancient town. Cram. Gr. 1, 330. — Herodot. 
 9, 112.— Xen. Hell. 2, Id.—Plut. Alcib.—Corn. 
 Nep. Alcib. 
 
 ^gosag^, an Asiatic nation under Attains, 
 with whom he conquered Asia, and to whom 
 he gave a settlement near the Hellespont. Po- 
 lyb. 5, 
 
 ^GOSTHENJE, a towTi of Mcgaris, a little to 
 the south of Pagae, whither the Lacedaemonians 
 retreated after the battle of Leuctra. Ptolemy 
 erroneously assigns it to Phocis, According to 
 Sir W, Gell, the village of Porto Germano, 
 where there are yet considerable ruins of the 
 ancient fortifications, and a perfect town, may 
 be considered as the ancient ./Egosthense. 
 Cram. Gr. 2, 4Ti.—Xen. Hell. 6, 4, 26. 
 
 ^GUSA, the middle island of the Agates 
 near Sicily. 
 
 tEgypsus, a town of the Gelas, near the Da- 
 nube. Ovid, ex Pont. 1, ep. 8. 1. 4, ep. 7. 
 
 ^GYPTiuM MARE, that part of the Mediter- 
 ranean sea which is on the coast of Egypt, 
 
 iEoYPTUs, a coimtry lying between Arabia 
 on the east, Libya on the west, the Mediterra- 
 nean on the north, and Ethiopia on the south. 
 It has been by different writers assigned to Af- 
 rica and Asia, and the limits which separate it 
 from either country are not well defined. The 
 ancients, according to Strabo, confined the name 
 Egypt to the parts watered and overflowed by 
 the Nile. It presents itself to the eye as an 
 immense valley, extending nearly 600 miles in 
 length, and hemmed in, on either side, by a 
 ridge of hills and a vast expanse of desert. The 
 breadth of the cultivable soil varies, according 
 to the direction of the rocky barriers by which 
 its limits are determined; spreading, in some 
 parts, into a spacious plain, while at others it 
 contracts its dimensions to less than two leagues. 
 The mean width has been estimated at about 
 nine miles; and hence, including the whole 
 area from the shores of the Delta to the first 
 cataract, the extent of land capable of bearing 
 crops has been computed to contain ten millions 
 of acres. Egypt was divided into Superior and 
 Inferior, the latitude of Cairo presenting in our 
 day the line of demarcation. There was an- 
 other division, frequently alluded to by the Greek 
 and Roman writers, namely, that of the Delta, 
 the Heptanomis, and the Thebaid. The first 
 of these provinces was comprehended within 
 the two principal branches of the Nile from its 
 division to its mouths ; the third occupied the 
 narrow valley of Upper Egj^t ; while to the se- 
 cond was allotted the intermediate space, which 
 seems to have been divided into seven nomes, 
 districts, or cantons. The Delta is now called 
 Bahari, which signifies in the Arabic a mari- 
 time district. The modern name of Vostani, 
 which expresses in Arabic an intermediate 
 space, still marks the ancient Heptanomis, 
 Said, south of Vostani, designates the The- 
 baid. About the conclusion of the fourth cen- 
 tury, the eastern division of the Delta, between 
 Arabia and the Phatnitic branch of the Nile, as 
 high as Heliopolis, was erected into a new pro- 
 vince under the name of Angustamnica, The 
 Heptanomis took under Arcadius, son of the 
 great Theodosius, the name of Arcadia ; and at 
 
MG 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 -2EN 
 
 a later period the Thebaid was divided into 
 Anterior and Superior. As to the origin of the 
 name ^Egyptus much diversity of opinion has 
 existed. It is asserted by the Greeks, that a ce- 
 lebrated king of this name bequeathed it to his 
 dominions, which had formerly passed under 
 the appellation of Aeria, or the land of heat and 
 blackness. In the Sacred Writings of the He- 
 brews it is called Mizraim, the plural form of the 
 oriental noun Mizr, the name which is applied 
 to Egypt by the Arabs of the present day. The 
 Copts retaia the native word Chemia, which, 
 perhaps, has some relation to Cham, the son of 
 Noah ; or, as Plutarch insinuates, may only de- 
 note that darkness of colour which appears in a 
 rich soil or the human eye. Mizraim was one 
 of the children of Cham. Bruce remarks that 
 YGj^t, the term used by the Ethiopians when 
 they speak of Egypt, means the country of Ca- 
 nals ; a description very suitable to the improved 
 condition of that valley under its ancient kings. 
 In the heroic age of Greece the word ^gyptus 
 was employed in reference to an ancient sove- 
 reign, to the land, and also to the river. Ac- 
 cording to another opinion, the name of Copt, 
 which distinguishes the remains of the original 
 nations from the Arabs and from the Turks, is 
 in- the form of Kypt, no other than the root of 
 the Greek name >(Egyptus. Of all the countries 
 of the ancient world none is more deservedly the 
 subject of inquiry than Eg)rpt. The antiquity 
 of its institutions, their influence, real or imagi- 
 nary, upon the rest of the world, producing 
 revolutions abroad, though at home unvarying; 
 its stupendous monuments, which have resisted 
 the influence of time from a period so remote as 
 to defy calculation ; its peculiar climate and geo- 
 graphical relations ; and its mysterious river, to 
 which the country owes its very existence ; all 
 and each of these distinguish it from almost 
 every other portion of the globe. The aspect of 
 Egypt undergoes periodical changes with the 
 seasons. In our winter months, when nature is 
 for us dead, she seems to carry life into these 
 climates; and the verdure of Egypt's enamelled 
 meadows is then delightful to the eye. In the 
 opposite season this same country exhibits no- 
 thing but a brown soil, either miry or dry, hard, 
 and dust}'. During the period of summer, from 
 June to the close of September, the heat is in- 
 tense. The scarcity of rain is a remarkable 
 phenomenon. " A long valley," says M. Reg- 
 nier, " encircled with hills and mountains, pre- 
 sents no point in which the surface has sufficient 
 elevation to attract and detain the clouds. The 
 evaporations from the Mediterranean, too, du- 
 ring summer, carried off by the north winds, 
 which have almost the constancy of trade winds 
 in Egypt, finding nothing to stop their progress, 
 pass over the country without interruption, and 
 collect around the mountains of Central Africa, 
 There, deposited in rains, they swell the tor- 
 rents, which, falling into the Nile, augment its 
 waters, and, under the form of an inundation, 
 restore, with usury, to Egypt, the blessings of 
 which the defect of rain otherwise deprived it." 
 That the absence of rain is in part owing to the 
 previous aridity of the soil is clearly established 
 by the fact, that near the sea, where the soil is 
 moist, rain is not uncommon; while at Cairo, 
 for example, there are, perhaps, four or five 
 showers in the year ; in Upper Egypt, one or 
 
 two at most. The canals of Egypt were very nu- 
 merous, and extended the fertilizing influence 
 of the Nile beyond the limits of its inundation. 
 {Vid. Nilus.) D'Anville. — Russell's Egypt. 
 — Malte-Brun. — Herod. — Justin. 1. — Plin. 5, 
 1 ; 14, l.—Polyb. Ib.—Diod. I.— Curt. 4, 1.— 
 Paus. 1, H.—Mela, 1, 9. — Apollod. 2, 1 and 5. 
 
 ^GYs, a town of Laconia, on the borders of 
 Arcadia, and contiguous to Belmina. Its site 
 is probably the same with that of the modem 
 Agia Eirene^ near the village of Collina. Cram. 
 Gr.—Polyb. 2, bA.—Paus. 3, 2; 8, 27. 
 
 ^MATHioN, and ^MATHiA, Vid. Emathion. 
 
 ^MONA, now Laybach^ on the Save. At a 
 late period, when the confines of Italy were 
 extended beyond the Rhoetian Alps, this was 
 considered the last town of that country. He- 
 rodian. 
 
 ^MONiA, a country of Greece, which received 
 its name from ^mon or JEmus, and was after- 
 wards called Thessaly. Achilles is called JSwo- 
 nius^ as being born there. Ovid. Trist. 3, el, 
 11, I. 4, el. l.—Horat. 1, od. 37. It was also 
 called Pyrrha, from Pyrrha, Deucalion's wife, 
 who reigned there. — The word has been indis- 
 criminately applied to Greece by some writers. 
 Plin. 4, c. 7. 
 
 jEnaria, now Ischia, an island on the Cam- 
 panian coast. It was otherwise called Inarime 
 and Pithecusa. The latter name commonly in- 
 cludes the adjacent island of Prochyta, now 
 Procida. Inarime some consider of Tuscan 
 origin, signifying apes, rendered in Greek by 
 the term Pithecus83. Pliny refers these names 
 to the number of earthen vessels used in the 
 island. The Latin poets have applied it to Ho- 
 mer's description of the place of torment al- 
 lotted to the earth-born Typhoeus, in conse- 
 quence, no doubt, of the frequent volcanic erup- 
 tions. Three colonies in succession, of Eretri- 
 ans, Chalcidians, and Syracusans, were driven 
 by the earthquakes from the island. Mount 
 Epopeus, now Epomeo, or Monte San Nicola^ 
 was remarkable for its volcanic character. 
 Cram. It. 2, \SQ.—Liv. 8, 22.— iWfeZ. 2, l.—Plin. 
 3, G.—Strai. 5. 
 
 iENARiuM. Vid. Mgium. 
 
 jEnea, or ^NEiA, I. a town of Macedonia, 
 situated on the coast opposite to Pydna, on the 
 other side of the Gulf of Thessalonica, and fif- 
 teen miles from the latter place, Livy states 
 that sacrifices were performed here annually in 
 honour of JEneas, the reputed founder. Lyco- 
 phron alludes to the foundation of this city by 
 JEneas ; and Virgil has not omitted to notice 
 the tradition. It was given up to plunder by 
 P, JEmilius, after the battle of Pydna, Its 
 ruins are visible near the small to-v^Ti of Pano- 
 mi, close to the headland of the same name, 
 which is perhaps the iEnion of Scymnus. 
 Cram. Gr. 1, 242.— Liv. 40, 4 ; 45, 21.—jEn. 3, 
 
 16, -II, A city of Acarnania, on the right 
 
 bank of the Achelous, about 70 stadia from its 
 mouth, Strabo states that it was formerly si- 
 tuated higher up the river, but was afterwards 
 removed. It is not improbable that the ruins of 
 Trigardon represent the more recent iEnea, 
 and that those which are to be seen at Palao 
 Catouna answer to the more ancient town. 
 Cram. Gr. 2, ^d.—Strab. 10, 
 
 ^Enianum Sinus, a name given by some to 
 the Maliacus Sinus, Livy, 28, 5 ; 33, 3. 
 13 
 
^o 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 iET 
 
 ^Nos, I. a town of Thrace, to the east of the 
 Hebrus, at the mouth of the estuary formed by 
 that river. Herodotus calls it an iEolic city ; by 
 others its foundation is ascribed respectively to 
 Mitylene and Cumas. Its more ancient name 
 was Poltyobria. Virgil supposes ^Eneas to 
 have discovered here the tomb of the murdered 
 PolydoruSj and intimates that he founded a city 
 which he named after himself Pliny states 
 that the tomb of Polydorus was at ^Enos ; but it 
 is certain that, according to Homer, the city was 
 called iEnos before the siege of Troy. jEnos, 
 as well as Maronea, had been declared a free 
 town by the Roman senate before the time of 
 Pliay. It is known to the Byzantine writers 
 under the name of Enos, which it still preserves, 
 ^nos and its district belonged originally to the 
 Apsynthii; it was also called Apsinthus, and 
 the Apsynthii are named by Herodotus as a peo- 
 ple bordering on the Thracian Chersonnese. 
 We read of a river Apsinthus in Dionys. Pe- 
 rieg. 577. Cram. Gr. 1, Zld.— Herod. 4, 90; 
 6, 34; 9, n^.—Steph. Byz.—ApoUod. Bibl. 2, 
 5, 9.— Virg. ^n. 3, 18; 4, 11. 11. 4, 519.— 
 
 Plin. 4, 11. II. A town near mount Ossa. 
 
 Steph. Byz. 
 ^NUM, a mountain in Cephallenia. Strah. 7. 
 iENYRA, a town of Thasos. Herodot. 6, 
 0.47. 
 
 iEoLiA, or iEoLis, a country of Asia Minor, 
 near the ^Egean sea. It has Troas at the north, 
 and Ionia at the south. The inhabitants were 
 of Grecian origin, and were masters of many of 
 the neighbouring islands. They had 12, others 
 say 30, considerable cities, of which Cum^ and 
 Lesbos were the most famous. They received 
 their name from iEolus, son of Hellenus. They 
 migrated from Greece about 1124 B. C, 80 
 years before the migration of the Ionian tribes. 
 " The iEolian Greeks," says Gillies, " esta- 
 blished themselves, 88 years after the taking of 
 Troy, along the shore of the ancient kingdom 
 of Priam. They gradually diffused their colo- 
 nies from Cyzicus on the Propontis to the mouth 
 of the river Hermus, which delightful country, 
 with the island of Lesbos, thenceforth received 
 the name of ^olis or ^Eolia, to denote that the 
 inhabitants belonged to the ^olian branch of 
 the Hellenic race. JEolm continued for a long 
 time free, and the assembly of the confederated 
 cities met annually in the city of Cumas. The 
 country was, however, subdued by the Lydians, 
 and fell, with the rest of the empire of Croesus, 
 into the hands of the Persians. The dialect of 
 the ^olians was one of the principal forms of 
 the Greek tongue, and connects it with various 
 other idioms of Europe." Herodot. 1, c. 26, 
 &c.—Sirab. 1, 2 and 6.— Plin. 5, c. 30.— Me- 
 la, 1, c. 2 and 18. — Thessaly has been anciently 
 called iEolia. Boeotus, son of Neptune, having 
 settled there, called his followers Boeotians, and 
 their country Boeotia. 
 
 ^OLiiE and tEoltdes, seven islands between 
 Sicily and Italy; called Lipara, Hiera, Stron- 
 gyle, Didyme, Ericusa, Phoenicusa, and Eu- 
 onymos. They were the retreat of the winds ; 
 and Virg. jEn. 1, v. 56, calls them .^olia, and 
 the kingdom of .^olus, the god of stonns and 
 winds. They sometimes bear the name of Vul- 
 canicB and Hephcestiades, and Dioii,. Per. 1154, 
 calls them Plotse; but they are known now 
 among the modems under the general appella- 
 14 
 
 tion of Lipari Islands. lAican. 5, v. 609. — Jus^ 
 tin. 4, c. 1. 
 
 ^OLiDA, I. a city of Tenedos. II. An- 
 other near Thermopylse. Herodot. 8, c. 35. 
 
 ^PY, a town of Elis, under the dominion of 
 Nestor. Stat. 4, Theb. v. 180. 
 
 ^auiMELiuM, a place in Rome where the 
 house of Melius stood, who aspired to sovereign 
 power, for which crime his habitation was lev- 
 elled to the ground. Liv. 4, c. 16. 
 jEsacus, a river of Troy near Ida. 
 uEsARUs, now Esaro, a river in the Bruttio- 
 rum Ager. At its mouth stands Crotona. 
 The ^sarus was the scene of some of the best 
 Bucolics in Theocritus. Polyb. Fragm. 10, 1. 
 — Tlieoc. Idyll, i, 11. 
 
 jEsepus, a river of Mysia, which rises in 
 Mount Ida, and, flowing in a course very nearly 
 parallel with that of the Granicus, empties into 
 the Propontis between the mouths of the Tar- 
 sius and the Granicus. D^Anville. 
 
 JEsERNiA, now Isernia, a town of Samnium, 
 said to have been colonized about the be- 
 ginning of the first Punic War. In the Social 
 War it fell into the hands of the allies. Subse- 
 quently, it was re-colonized by Augustus and 
 Nero. Cram.- It. 2, 230.— Liv. Epit. \%.—App. 
 Bell. Civ. 1, 41. 
 
 ^sis, I. now the Esino or Fiumesino, a river 
 of Italy, which separates Umbria from Pice- 
 num. It rises in the Appenines, and empties 
 
 into the Hadriatic north of Ancona. II. A 
 
 town on the left bank of the iEsis. It is now 
 lesi. The name is also written JEsium. Old 
 inscriptions give it the title of colony. Cram. 
 —Strab. b.—Plin. 3, 14. 
 iEsruM. Vid. jEsis. 
 
 tEson, I. a river of Macedonia, which emp- 
 ties into the Thermaic gulf near Pydna, IL 
 
 A town of Magnesia, in Thessaly. 
 ^sopus, a river of Pontus. Sf>rai. 12. 
 .^STRJEUM, a city of the ^straei, a Paeonian 
 tribe named by Ptolemy. iEstraeum is proba- 
 bly the Asterium of Livy. Perhaps the As- 
 traea assigned by Steph. Byz. to Illyria, is the 
 city of which we are now speaking. Pliny calls 
 it Astr^a. Cram. Gr. 1, 213.— Liv. 40, 23.— 
 Plin. 4, 10. 
 
 jEusla, a town of Latium, mentioned by Ho- 
 race in the same line with Tibur, and there- 
 fore naturally supposed to have stood in its vi- 
 cinity. In Pliny's time it no longer existed. 
 This ancient site remains undiscovered. Cram. 
 It. 2, m.—Hor. 3, Od. 2d.— Plin. 3, 5. 
 
 iEsYME, or CEsYME, incorrectly written Si- 
 syme, a maritime town of Thrace, which op- 
 posed the Romans in the last Macedonian war. 
 The same as the Emathea of Livy. Horn. IL 
 S.— Thuc— Liv. 4.3,1. 
 
 JEthalia, called by the Latins Ilva, and now 
 the island of Elba. It was situated about ten 
 miles from Populonium, the nearest point of 
 the Tuscan coast. This island was early ce- 
 lebrated for its iron mines, which exhibit marks 
 of having been worked from the remotest times. 
 The supply of metallic substance was so great, 
 that it became a matter of popular belief that 
 it was constantly renewed. Arist. De Mirabil. 
 —Plin. 34, U.— Virg. 10, 113.— Cram. It. 
 
 ^Ethiopia. No name that occurs in the an- 
 cient writers is used with less precision than 
 ^Ethiopia. Homer represents Jove as leaving. 
 
iET 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AFR 
 
 Olympus, and repairing to a feast in Ethiopia 
 upon the Ocean. By some, Ocean, in the pas- 
 sage alluded to, is referred to the Nile ; but it 
 doubtless applies to the fabled waters which, 
 according to the notions of many of the ancients, 
 girt the earth like a zone. Virgil extends ^Ethi- 
 opia to the western coast of Africa, compre- 
 hending within it part of Mauretania. In fact, 
 it would seem that the ancients included in 
 jEthiopia all those southern regions which 
 were unknown to them. That division of Ethi- 
 opia which was distinguished from the rest els 
 ^Ethiopia supra JEgj^tum. or Superior, is the 
 only part of which any thing certaia was 
 known. Ethiopia Inferior comprehends Pto- 
 lemy's Ethiopia Interior and his Terra Incog- 
 nita, extending across Africa to the Ocean. 
 That part which bordered on the Atlantic was 
 called Hesperian, Ethiopia supra Eg5rptum 
 commences on the frontier of Egypt, and ex- 
 tends along the Nile, including Abyssinia with- 
 in its limits. A large portion of the country 
 along the Nile is, like Egypt, a narrow vale. 
 It was first called Etheria, and afterwards At- 
 lantia, as Pliny tells us. The name Ethiopia 
 has been traced to uldce, to burn, and 04, the 
 countenance, from the complexion of its inhabit- 
 ants. Some apply to this country the Scriptu- 
 ral appellation of L/iidim, from Lnid, son of 
 Mizraim ; others, that of Chus^ the son of Cham. 
 That of India is also given it in several pas- 
 sages of the ancient authors. The people in 
 the old time were said to be great astrologers ; 
 the firstordainers also of sacred ceremonies, and 
 in both tutors to the Egyptians. They held an 
 annual feast at Diospolis, which Eustathius 
 mentions, in which they carried about the sta- 
 tues of Jupiter and the other gods for twelve 
 days. Hence, probably, the Homeric fiction. 
 D^Anville. — Malte-Brun. — Heylin. — HoTtier, 11. 
 1, 423.— Fw-fi'. yEn. 10, 68; G. 2, 120; ^n. 4, 
 481. 
 
 Etna, a mountain of Sicily, now Gibello, 
 famous for its volcano, which, for about 3000 
 years, has thrown out fire at intervals. It is 
 two miles in perpendicular height, and mea- 
 sures 100 miles round at the base, with an as- 
 cent of 30 miles. Its crater forms a circle about 
 three and a half miles in circumference, and 
 its top is covered with snow and smoke at the 
 same time, whilst the sides of the mountain, 
 from the great fertility of the soil, exhibit a rich 
 scenery of cultivated fields and blooming vine- 
 yards. Pindar is the first who mentions an 
 eruption of Etna ; and the silence of Homer on 
 the subject is considered as a proof that the 
 fires of the mountain were unknown in his age. 
 From the time of Pythagoras, fhe supposed date 
 of the first volcanic appearance, to the battle of 
 Pharsalia, it is computed that Etna has had 
 100 eruptions. The poets supposed that Jupi- 
 ter had confined the giants under this moun- 
 tain, and it was represented as the forge of 
 Vulcan, where his servants, the Cyclops, fabri- 
 cated thunderbolts, &c. On its sides are 77 
 cities or villages, of which the principal is Cata- 
 nia, situate in the first of the three belts or zones 
 into which the mountain is divided by the dis- 
 tinct climates of equal number that characterize 
 its ascent. Diodorus Siculus is the earliest who 
 speaks of its eruptions; but since his time the 
 mountain has been burning with intervals down 
 
 to the present day. The last eruption took place 
 in the year 1819. The name Etna, sometimes 
 written Ethna, is derived most probably from 
 cti6ee, to burn ; and other etymologies of the same 
 word all refer to its volcanic character. Etna 
 supplies the luxury of ice to all the adjacent^ 
 and even to some comparatively distant, coun- 
 tries. Hesiod. Theog. v. 860. — Virg. Mn. 3, 
 V. blO.—Ovid. Met. 5, fab. 6, I. 15, v. 340.— 
 Ital. 14, V. 59. 
 
 Etolu, a country of Greece, bounded on 
 the west by the Achelous, which separated it 
 from Acarnania ; on the north by the mountain 
 districts occupied by the Athamanes, Dolopes_, 
 and Enianes; on the east by the country of 
 the Dorians and Locri Ozolae; and on the 
 south by the Corinthiacus Sinus. These were 
 the limits of Etolia during the time of Spartan 
 and Athenian glory; but when the Romans 
 achieved the conquest of the country, the Eto- 
 lians had extended their dominions on the west 
 and north-west as far as Epirus, where they 
 were in possession of Ambracia, leaving to 
 Acarnania only a few towns on the coast ; to- 
 wards the north they occupied the districts of 
 Amphilochia and Aperantia, and a great por- 
 tion of Dolopia. On the Thessalian side they 
 had made themselves masters of the country of 
 the Enianes, a large portion of Phthiotis, with 
 the cantons of the Melians and Trachinians. 
 On the east they had gained the whole of the 
 Locrian coast to the Crissaean gulf, including 
 Naupactus. This flourishing condition was of 
 short duration. Upon the failure of their re- 
 bellion against Rome, they were completely 
 subdued and humbled by their conquerors. The 
 chief cities of Etolia were Chalcis, Thermus, 
 Calydon; its principal rivers, besides the Ache- 
 lous, the Arachthus and Evenus. The most 
 ancient name of the country was Curetis, de- 
 rived from the Curetes, by some considered as 
 indigenous, by others traced to Eubosa. The 
 Hyantes, a primitive Grecian race, are said to 
 have settled in Etolia as well as in Bosotia, 
 where they are better known. The Eolians, 
 a Thessalian tribe, on being expelled from their 
 original settlements, occupied a part of Curetis, 
 thence called Eolis. Finally, it is said that 
 Etolus, the son of Endyinion, having arrived 
 from Elis in Peloponnesus at the head of an 
 army, defeated the Curetes, and forced them 
 to abandon their country, to which he gave the 
 name of Etolia. Strabo informs us that it 
 was usual to divide the country, as first de- 
 scribed, into Etolia Antiqua and Epictetos. 
 The former extended along the coast from the 
 Achelous to Calydon, answering to the Eolis 
 of Thucydides. The latter, as the name im- 
 plies, was a territory subsequently acquired, and 
 comprehended the most mountainous and least 
 fertile parts of the province. Cram. Gr. 2, 60. 
 —Strab. 10.— Thiic. 3, 102.— Liv. 33, 13, and 
 31. — Eustath. in II. B. 637. — Hesych. — Pausan. 
 5, l.—Scymn. ch. 472.— JZ. 9, 529. 
 
 Ex, a rocky island in the Egean Sea, be- 
 tween Tenedos, or rather, perhaps, between 
 Tenos and Chios. According to Pliny, from 
 this island, the sea, near the centre of which it 
 stood if Tenos be substituted for Tenedos, was 
 called the Egean. 
 
 Africa, called Ltjbia by the Greeks, one of 
 the three parts of the ancient world, and the 
 15 
 
AF 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AG 
 
 greatest peninsula of the imiverse, was bounded 
 on the east by Arabia and the Red Sea, on the 
 north by the Mediterranean, south and west by 
 the ocean. It is joined on the east to Asia, by 
 an isthmus 60 miles long, which some of the 
 Ptolemies endeavoured to cut, in vain, to join 
 the Red and Mediterranean seas. The know- 
 ledge which the ancients had of this continent 
 was no less vague than circumscribed; and 
 though Africa did, in their writings, often in- 
 clude all that they knew of the peninsula, the 
 names of its diiferent regions were more fre- 
 quently used as the generic names of countries, 
 than as designating inferior portions only of a 
 vast continent. Africa, therefore, must be 
 treated under the general head, and under that 
 of Africa Propria. In its greatest extent as 
 known to antiquity, it contained the divisions, 
 1st, of Egypt, from the Red Sea or Sinus Ara- 
 bicus, and from Rhinocolura in the Stony Ara- 
 bia, to Apis on the Plinthenetic gulf; 2d, of 
 Marmarica as far as 40 degrees east longitude, 
 whence the Cyrenaica extended three degrees 
 west as far as the Syrtis Major. Between this 
 and the Syrtis Minor lay the barren country of 
 the Regio Syrtica or Tripolitana, and west of 
 this began the settlements of Proper Africa, di- 
 vided into the countries of Numidia and Maure- 
 tania. All these regions were confined strictly 
 to the northern coast, except the kingdom of 
 Egypt, which extends some hundred miles 
 south along the valley of the Nile. Besides 
 these, the Greeks and Romans entertained cer- 
 tain indefinite notions of a country extending 
 to an unknown limit south of Egypt, which 
 they called jiEthiopia, and of a desert waste 
 lying west of Egypt and south of the coast that 
 we have described above. This they called 
 Libya, or Africa Interior, inhabited by the Gsb- 
 tuli, the Nasamones, the Garamantes, the Ni- 
 gritise, and the Hesperii, around the great de- 
 sert of sand or Sahara. " If," says Malte- 
 Brun, " Africa has so long remained inaccessi- 
 ble, we shall find in its physical form the princi- 
 pal cause of its obscurity. A vast peninsula of 
 5000 miles in length, and nearly 4600 in breadth, 
 presents few long or easily navigated rivers. 
 The Mediterranean on the north, and the At- 
 lantic and Ethiopic oceans which encompass it 
 on the west, form inconsiderable inequalities in 
 its line of coast ; and the Arabian Gulf separates 
 Africa from Asia without breaking the gloomy 
 uniformity of the African coast. At great dis- 
 tances are some large rivers, as the Nile in the 
 north-east, the Senegal and Gambia in the 
 west, and in the centre the mysterious Niger, 
 which conceals its termination as the Nile used 
 to conceal its origin. In the interior, and even 
 on the coast, are great and lofty rocks, from 
 which no torrents can proceed, and table-lands, 
 watered by no streams, as the great desert of 
 Sahara. At a greater distance are countries 
 wholly impregnated with moisture. The Afri- 
 can mountains are more distiaguished for their 
 breadth than for their height. If they reach a 
 great elevation, it is by a gradual rise, and in a 
 succession of terraces. Atlas, which lines nearly 
 the whole of the northern coast, is a series of 
 five or six small chains, including many table- 
 lands." Mela, 1, c. 4, &,c.—Diod. 3, 4, and 20. 
 —Herodot. 2, c. 17, 26, and 32, 1. 4, c. 41, &c.— 
 Plin. 5, c. 1, &c. ' ; 
 
 16 
 
 Africa Propria. A part of Africa, extend- 
 ing from the river Ampsaga, now the Suffeg- 
 mar, in Numidia, to the Cyrenaica; but this 
 will include in Africa the Tripolitana through 
 the sandy region, now the Barcan desert, as far 
 as the Syrtis Major. Pliny defines it to extend 
 from the eastern boundary of Numidia, the river 
 Tusca, as far as the bay of the Lesser Syrtis ; 
 that is to say, over the Carthaginian territory. 
 Plin. 5, 4. 
 
 Agagriane Port.e, gates at Syracuse, near 
 which the dead were buried. Cic. in Tusc. 
 
 Agalasses, a nation of India, conquered by 
 Alexander. Diod. 17. 
 
 Aganippe, a celebrated fountain of Boeotia, 
 at the foot of mount Helicon. It flows into the 
 Permessus, and is sacred to the muses, who, 
 from it, were called Aganippedes. — Paus. 9, c. 
 "iQ.—Propert. 2, el. "^.— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 312.— 
 Plin. 4, c. 7. Poetic license has sometimes 
 confounded Aganippe with Hippocrene, which 
 also belonged to the same region. 
 
 Agassje, a town of Macedonia, on a branch 
 of the Haliacmon in-Pieria. It was given up 
 to plunder by P. ^milius, after the defeat of 
 Perseus at the battle of Pydna, for having taken 
 part with that prince. It is supposed by some 
 to be the same as iEgae, the early capital of Ma- 
 cedon. Liv. 45, 27. — Mannert, Geog. Ant. 
 
 Agasus, supposed to be the modern Porto 
 Greco, between the promontory Garganus and 
 the Cerbalus in Paunia, 
 
 Agatha, a town of France, near Agde, in 
 Languedoc. Mela. 2, c. 5. 
 
 Agdestis, a mountain of Phrygia, where 
 Atys was buried. Paus, 1, c. 4. 
 
 Agendicum, now Sens, a town, of Gaul, the 
 capital of the Senones. Ccbs. Bell. Gall. 6, c. 44. 
 
 Agisymba, a district of Libya Interior, by 
 some considered as the limit of Africa south- 
 ward as known to the ancients. 
 
 Agoranis, a river falling into the Ganges. 
 Arrian. de Ind. 
 
 Agra, I. a place of Boeotia, where the Ilissus 
 rises. Diana was called Agraea, because she 
 hunted there. II. A city of Susa. 
 
 Agr5;is Regio, a small territory, separated 
 trom Acarnania by the mountain Thyamus. 
 It was inhabited for a long time by an iEtolian 
 tribe, and maintained its independence till con- 
 quered by the Athenians and Acarnanians un- 
 der Demosthenes, in the Peloponnesian war. 
 The inhabitants were accounted barbarians, 
 though Strabo calls them ^tolians. Thucyd. 
 —Polyh.—Strab. 
 
 Agragas, or AcRAGAS, now Girgenti, a town 
 of Sicily, so called by the Greeks, the Agri- 
 gentum of the Romans. The city was built 
 B. C. 584, by the people of Gela, on the river 
 from which it received its name. It was so 
 well defended by nature, being situate upon 
 an eminence at the confluence of the Agragas 
 and the Hypsa, and so strongly built, that Em- 
 pedocles, contrasting the luxurious style of liv- 
 ing among the inhabitants with their durable 
 and austere style of building, used to say " the 
 Agrigentini live to-day as though they were to 
 die to-morrow, and build as though they were 
 to live for ever." In its flourishing situation, 
 Agrigentum contained 200,000 inhabitants, 
 who submitted with reluctance to the superior 
 power of Syracuse. The government was mo- 
 
AL, 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AL 
 
 narchical, but afterwards a democracy was esta- 
 blished. The famous Phalaris usurped the sov^e- 
 reignty, which was also some time in the hands 
 of the Carthaginians. Agrigentum can now 
 boasts of more venerable remains of antiquity 
 than any other town of Sicily. Polyb. 9. — 
 Strab. Q.—Diod. 13.— Virg. ^n. 3, v. 707.— 
 Sil. It. 14, V. 211. 
 
 Agrianes, now the Ergene, a river of Thrace, 
 which empties into the Hebrus after receiving 
 the Conta Desdus. Herodot. 4, c. 9. Vid. 
 Part IL 
 
 Agrigentum. Vid. Agragas. 
 
 Agylla, called by the Latins Caere, which 
 may have been its earliest name. It was one of 
 the most considerable cities of Hetruria, upon 
 the coast. According to the poets this was a 
 flourishing city, under the rule of Mezentius, at 
 the time of the reputed arrival of ^neas in 
 Italy. We infer from hence that Agylla was 
 one of the early cities which distinguished He- 
 truria before the rise of the Roman domination. 
 The Romans were frequently engaged in wars 
 with this city ; but it is said, that afterwards, 
 when Rome was compelled to purchase her 
 liberation from the Gauls, the priests and ves- 
 tals were received at Agylla, and the barba- 
 rians, on their return, were defeated by the in- 
 habitants, and forced to make restitution to the 
 Romans. For this service the rights of citizen- 
 ship were in part extended to the people of 
 Ag}''lla, but not so as to afford them the privi- 
 lege of voting ; whence the proverb, in Cceritum 
 tabulas referre aliquem. At a later period they 
 enjoyed the immunities of a municipium. In 
 the Punic wars, Ag}41a lent a powerful aid to 
 the Romans, as attested by Livy. Its antiquity 
 was proved in the later days of the empire, by 
 paintings then extant, of an earlier date than 
 the founding of Rome. Before the time of Stra- 
 bo, however, it had sunk into insignificance ; 
 nor is the modem town of Cerveteri, which oc- 
 cupies its site, more remarkable. Virg. 8. — 
 Liv. 5, 40, and 18, 4b.— Val. Max. 1, I and 6. 
 — Strab. — Cram. It. 
 
 Agyrium, a town of Sicily, where Diodorus 
 the historian was bom. The inhabitants were 
 called Agyrinenses. Diod. 14. — Cic. in Verr. 
 2, c. 65. it w£is sometimes written Agurium, 
 now San Filippo d'Argirone, near the Symae- 
 thus in the Val di Demona. 
 
 Ajalon, a town in the part of Palestine al- 
 lotted to the tribe of Benjamin. It was in the 
 valley of this city that Joshua commanded the 
 moon to stand, that he might accomplish the 
 destruction of the army of the five kings. Josh. 
 10, 12. 
 
 Alabanda, ce, or orum, an inland town of 
 Caria, to the east of Stratonice, abounding 
 with scorpions. The name is derived from Ala- 
 bandus, a deity worshipped there. Cic. de Nat. 
 D. 3, c. \Q.— Herodot. 7, c. Vdb.— Strab. 14. 
 
 Alabastrum, a town and a mountain of 
 Egypt. Plin. 36, c. 7. 
 
 Alabos, a river of Sicily, now the Cantaro. 
 
 Al^i, a number of islands in the Persian 
 gulf, abounding in tortoises. Arrian. in Perip. 
 
 Al«sa, or Alesa, a city on a mountain of 
 Sicily, about a mile from the sea. In the Ale- 
 sian territory is a fountain mentioned by Pris- 
 cian and Solinus, w^hich is said to have been 
 excited to heaving and swelling at the sound of 
 
 Part I.- C 
 
 the music of a flute. Boch. Georg. Sac. 1, 27- 
 
 Alalcomenje, I. a city of Boeotia, where 
 some suppose that Minerva was bom, situate 
 to the east of Coroneea. So great was the ve- 
 neration with which this place was regarded a.s 
 sacred to that goddess, that the Thebans, when 
 their city was taken by the Epigoni, retired to 
 this city as to an inviolable asylum. The tem- 
 ple, however, was plundered by the Romans 
 commanded by Sylla ; yet even to this day a 
 few remains of the structure may be seen above 
 the ruins of the town which lies in the vicinity 
 of the modern Sulinara. Strab. — Pans. — Sir 
 
 W. Gell, Itin£r. II. Another in Acarnania, 
 
 or, according to Plutarch, in Ithaca. 
 
 Alalia, a town of Corsica, built by a colony 
 of Phocaeans, destroyed by Scipio 562 B. C. 
 and afterwards rebuilt by Sylla. Herodot. 1, c. 
 l%b.—Plin. 
 
 Alata Castra, a Roman port, south of the 
 Vallum Severinum and iEstuarium Bodotriae, 
 or Frith of Forth. It was called also Edeno- 
 dunum, and was the site of the present Edin- 
 burgh, the Celtic termination dune being chan- 
 ed into the Saxon burgh. Ptol. — Dionys. Pe- 
 rieg. 1083. 
 
 Alatrium, a town of Latium, to the east of 
 Ferentinum now Alatri. In Strabo it is writ- 
 ten 'AhiTpiov. It appears from CiceTo to have 
 been a municipium : and Frontinus informs us 
 that it was a colony. Cram. It. 2, 81. — Cic. 
 Orat. pro Cluent. — Liv. 9, 43. 
 
 Alazon, a river flowing from mount Cauca- 
 sus into the Cyrus, and separating Albania from 
 Iberia. Flac. 6, v. 101. 
 
 Alba, I. a city of the Marsi, in Italy, which 
 received the distinctive name of Fucentia, or 
 Fucensis, from its vicinity to the Fusine lake, 
 near the northern shore of which it stood. After 
 it became a Roman colony it was chiefly select- 
 ed as a residence for the captives of rank or con- 
 sequence, on account of its strong and secluded 
 situation. In the civil wars of Caesar and Pom- 
 pey it adhered to the latter, and received the 
 praises of Cicero afterwards for its resistance 
 to the attack of Antony. The ruins of the 
 ancient towm are considerable, and at no great 
 distance from them stands the modern city, 
 bearing the same name. Cram. It. — Plin. 3, 12, 
 
 —Liv. 30, 45; 45, 42.— Cic. Phil. 3, 3. II. 
 
 PoMPEU, a town of Liguria, on the Tana- 
 rus, the birth-place of the emperor Pertinax. 
 
 Plin. 3, 5. — Zon. Ann. 2. III. A river 
 
 of Tarraconensis in Spain, emptying into the 
 Mediterranean Sea a little to the south of the 
 Pyrenean promontory, near the Gallicus Sinus, 
 now the Gulf of Lyons. Its modem name is 
 
 the Ter. Plin. 33. IV. Longa, a towTi of 
 
 Latium, a little to the north of Aricia. Stra- 
 bo places Alba on the slope of the mons Alba- 
 nus, 20 miles from Rome. This position can- 
 not agree with the modern town of Albano, 
 which is at the foot of the mountain, and 12 
 miles from Rome. Dionysius informs us that 
 it was situated on the declivity of the Alban 
 mount, midway between the summit and the 
 lake of the same name. This description, and 
 that of Strabo, agree with the position of Pa- 
 lazzolo, a village belonging to the Colonna fa- 
 mily. The Latin poets ascribe the foundation 
 of Alba to Ascanius, and derive its name from 
 the white sow which appeared to iEneas on the 
 
 17 
 
AL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AL 
 
 Latin shore. Bardetti traced it to the Celtic 
 Alp, " white," for we find several towns of that 
 name in Liguria and ancient Spain j and it is 
 observed, that all were situated on elevated 
 spots. From the diversity of opinion in regard 
 to the origin of Alba, we may reasonably con- 
 clude that it was one of the most ancient towns 
 of Latium. Dionysius tells us, that the Albans 
 were a mixture of Greek and other tribes. To- 
 wards the close of the republic, Alba, or Alba- 
 num, as it was then named, seems to have been 
 a constant military station. It was occupied 
 by the Praetorian cohorts during the latter days 
 of the empire. As regards its history and final 
 destruction by Tullus Hostilius, see Liv. 1. The 
 Alban soil was famous for its fertility, and its 
 vines were held inferior only to those of the 
 Falernian vineyards. Cram. It. 2, 37. — Strah. 
 5. — Dionys. 1, QQ-, 2, 2. — jEn. 8, 47. — Propert. 
 4.—Eleg. L—Juv. Sat. 13, 10.— Capitol. Max- 
 im. — Dion. Hal. 1, 66. 
 
 Albania, a country of Asia, extending along 
 the Caspian Sea, from the mouth of the Cyrus 
 OT the Kur, to the borders of Sarmatia Asiatica, 
 and having for its south-west boundary the ri- 
 ver Cyrus, which separated it from Iberia and 
 the Caucasus. Out of this region, at the pre- 
 sent time, are formed the province of Kirvan in 
 the south, Z^a^Aesifan on the north-eastern side, 
 with a part of Georgia on the west. In Dag- 
 hestan the Lesghi still bear some analogy in 
 name to the Leges, the ancient inhabitants of 
 that district. Dan. — Plin. 6, 9. — Mel. 3, 5. 
 
 Albanije Pyl^, a remarkable defile be- 
 tween a promontory of Caucasus and the sea, 
 which gives entrance to Albania, and now closed 
 by the city of Der-bend. The passage itself, 
 according to D'Anville, is now called Tupkara- 
 gan. 
 
 Albana, a sea-port of Albania, now Bakre 
 in Skirvan. 
 
 Albanopolis, the chief city of the Albani, 
 a small Illyrian tribe, from which have sprung 
 the modem Albanians, who have extended 
 themselves in such a manner as to cover the 
 whole of Epirus. Cram. Gr. — Ptol. 
 
 Albanum Pompeii, the Alban villa of Pom- 
 pey is often mentioned by Cicero ; the modern 
 town of Albano is supposed to occupy its place. 
 Plutarch {Vid. Pomp.) states, that his ashes 
 were interred there by his wife Cornelia ; and 
 some have identified his tomb with the ruin 
 which is more commonly, but erroneously, as- 
 cribed to the Horatii andCuriatii. The burial- 
 place of these warriors, and the Fossa Cluilia, 
 or Camp of duilius, should not be sought for 
 at a greater distance than five miles from 
 Rome. Cram. It. 2, 40. — Cic. Orat. pro Mil. 
 et pro Reb. — Ep. ad Att. 7, 5. — Liv. 1, 25. — 
 Dion. Hal. 3, 4. 
 
 Albaitos lacus, a lake near Alba Longa, 
 doubtless the crater of an extinct volcano. It is 
 remarkable for the prodigious rise of its waters, 
 to such an extent as to threaten the surrounding 
 country, and Rome itself, with an overwhelm- 
 ing inundation. The oracle of Delphi being 
 consulted on that occasion, declared, that unless 
 the Romans carried off the waters of the lake 
 they would never take Veil. This led to the 
 construction of that wonderful subterranean ca- 
 nal or emissario, which is to be seen at this very 
 day, in remarkable preservation , below the town 
 18 
 
 of Castel Gardolfo. This channel is said to be 
 carried through the rock for the space of a mOe 
 and a half; and the water which it discharges 
 unites with the Tiber about five miles below 
 Rome. Cram. It. 2, 39. — Cic. de Div. 1, 44. 
 —Liv.b, 15.— Val. Max. 1, 6.— Pint. Vit. Co- 
 mill. 
 
 Albanus mons, now Monte Cavo, celebrated 
 in history from the circumstance of its being 
 peculiarly dedicated to Jove, under the title of 
 Latialis. It was on the Alban mount that the 
 Feriae Latinae were celebrated. The Roman 
 generals also occasionally performed sacrifices 
 on this mountain, and received there the honours 
 of the triumph. Cram. It. 2, 38. — Lucan. 1, 198. 
 — Vulp. Vet. Lat. 12, 4. 
 
 Albion, a name of Britain. The derivation 
 of this name has been supposed from every lan- 
 guage almost, in which analogous sounds were 
 to be found. Thus the Greek AK<pov, white, the 
 Hebrew Alben, white, the word alp itself of dis- 
 puted etymology, have been considered as the 
 root of the word Albion. Some writers believe 
 that the name of Albin, by which Scotland is 
 still designated, is but a corruption of Albion. 
 Plin. 4, 16.— Ptol. 
 
 Albis, the Elbe, a. river that divided ancient 
 Germany in the middle, flowing between the 
 Weser and the Oder, the Visurgis and Viadrus 
 of antiquity. It rises on the borders of Silesia, 
 and traversing Bohemia and Saxony, and pass- 
 ing by the northern boundary of Hanover, emp- 
 ties into the German Ocean below Gluckstadt 
 in Holstein. Though Germany, in the prospe- 
 rous days of the republic, was considered to ex- 
 tend as far as the Vistula, yet only the Cisal- 
 pine portion was known, by real intercourse, to 
 the Romans. Domitius Ahenobarbus, about six 
 years before the birth of Christ, eiFected the 
 passage of this ancient limit ; though unaccom- 
 panied by any victory or other advantage, this 
 exploit alone was thought worthy of a triumph. 
 When the irruption of the barbarians of the 
 east and north began to press upon the German 
 tribes, who were thus pushed upon the empire, 
 the Albis became the northern boundary of 
 Germany. 
 
 Albium Ingaunum, or Albingaundm, now Al- 
 benga, the chief town of the Ingaimi, lying on 
 the Ligusticus Sinus, at the mouth of the Me- 
 rula. Varr. de Re Rust.3, 8.— Mela, 2, 4.— Tac. 
 Hist. 2, 15. 
 
 Albium Intemelittm, or Alintemelium, now 
 Ventimiglia, a town of the Intemelii in Ligu- 
 ria. It was a place of some note, and a muni- 
 cipium. Varr. de Re Rust. 3, 8. — Tac. Hist. 2, 13. 
 Albius mons, a continuation of the Alpes 
 Carnicae, running through Illyricum, and hav- 
 ing at its base, upon the southern side, the 
 country of Liburnia. It is connected with 
 mount Scardus, by which it is united to the 
 Haemus range, and may be considered as a 
 link in the chain which the Alpine range ex- 
 tends over Europe. Strab. — Gram. Gr. 
 
 Albula, et ALBUL.E AQUiB, I. a sulphureous 
 stream flowing from the Albunean fount, now 
 Acqua Zolfa, or Solfatara di Tivoli. It falls 
 into the Anio a few miles below Tibur, and from 
 it the epithet " sulphureous" has been transfer- 
 red to the waters of the Anio. Hevne ad JEn. 
 7, 83.— Clnvcr. It. Mart. Ep. 1, 13.-5^7. Itai. 
 12, 538. II. A name of the Tiber. 
 
AL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AL 
 
 Albunea, a grove and fountain in the Ti- 
 burtine territory. At this place Virgil fixes 
 the oracle of Faunus. The fountain is a sul- 
 phureous source, which discharges itself by the 
 Albulae Aquae into the Anio a few miles below 
 Tibur. Servius incorrectly describes the foun- 
 tain as in Tiburtinis altis montibus. Virg. 7, 
 83.— Heyne ad loc. 
 
 Alburnts mons, a ridge of mountains in Lu- 
 cania, near the junction of the Silarus and Ta- 
 nager. It is now commonly called Monie di 
 Postiglioiie, and sometimes Alburno. Cram. It. 
 2, 316.— Virg. Geor. 3, 146. 
 
 Alcathoe, a name of Megara in Attica, be- 
 cause rebuilt by Alcathous, son of Pelops. 
 Ovid. Met. 8, v. 8. 
 
 Alcimedon, a plain of Arcadia. 
 
 Alcimus, a cape near the entrance of Phale- 
 rum and the mouth of the Ilissus, perhaps the 
 headland of the promontory of Munychia. 
 Here was erected the monument in memory of 
 Themistocles and in commemoration of his 
 services. This name is by some thought to be 
 written by mistake for Alimus. Pans. — Plut. 
 ' — Meurs. — Cram. Gr. — Clarke, Trav. 
 
 Alcyonia palus, a pool in Argolis, men- 
 tioned by Pausanias. who informs us that the 
 Bacchic orgies were once a year performed 
 upon its banks. When Nero endeavoured to 
 sound the depth of this pool, he is said by the 
 same author to have found it unfathomable. 
 Clarke, in bis travels found the same notion 
 still prevailing that prevailed in the days of 
 Pausanias, and the surrounding inhabitants be- 
 lieve that nothing will swim on the surface of 
 this pool. 
 
 Alcyonium mare, " that portion of the Corin- 
 thiacus Sinus lying between the promontory 
 Antirrhium and the Megarean coast." Cram. 
 Gi: 
 
 AtjDDABis. Vid. Dubis. 
 
 Alea, a town of Arcadia, built by Aleus. It 
 had three famous temples, that of Minerv'a, Bac- 
 chus, and Diana the Ephesian. When the fes- 
 tivals of Bacchus were celebrated, the women 
 were whipped in the temple. Paus. 8, c. 23, 
 
 Aleius Campus, a place in Cilicia, between 
 the rivers Pyramus and Sarus. ,Here it is said 
 that Bellerophon fell from the horse Pegasus, 
 and wandered over the country till the time of 
 his death. Homer, II. 6, v. 201. — Dionys. Pe- 
 rieg. 873. — Ovid, in Ibid. 257. 
 
 Alemania. Vid. Alevucni, Part II. 
 
 Ales. Vid. Hales. 
 
 Alesia, or Alexia, a very important town of 
 the Mandubii in Celtic Gaul, now Alise, in the old 
 dukedom of Burgundy, on an eminence near 
 the confluence of the Loze and the Oserain. Its 
 antiquity extended as far back as the fabulous 
 ages, and Diodorus refers its origin to Hercu- 
 les. " Though there remains of this town but 
 the name oi Alise" says D'Anville, " it remmds 
 us of one of the greatest achievements of Cee- 
 sar, and which may serve as an epoch of the 
 subjugation of Gaul." Liv. — Cces. — Diod. — 
 Flor. 3, 10. 
 
 ALfisroM, a town and mountain of Pelopon- 
 nesus. Paus. 8, c. 10. 
 
 Alex, a river of the Brutii, in the present 
 kingdom of Naples. It empties into that which 
 was called the Siculum Mare, between the pro- 
 montories Leucopetra on the east and Hercules 
 
 on the west. It runs parallel with the Caeci- 
 nus, and divides the Locri from the people of 
 Rhegium, though some consider the Caecinus 
 as the boundar}^ StraJ). — Pausan. — Theoc. 
 
 Alexandria,"^ I. the principal city of Egypt 
 since the accession of the Ptolemies, founded 
 by Alexander the Great A. C. 332. At first 
 it was merely a military colony ; but so well 
 adapted was it to the purposes of commerce, that 
 its population, composed of Eg}^tians, Alexan- 
 drians, (i. e. foreigners, of whom a large portion 
 were Jews,) and mercenaries in the pay of the 
 king, accumulated with astonishing rapidit}^ 
 The city was founded to the west of the Cano- 
 pic mouth of the Nile, on the site of a more an- 
 cient place, called Rhacotis, which name con- 
 tinued to designate a part of the new town. 
 The latter was situated on a peninsula, between 
 the Mediterranean and the lake Mareotis. Its 
 principal harbour was divided into two parts by 
 a dyke (called from its length Hepta-stadiiim), 
 wliich connected Pharos with the city. The 
 quarter of the city called Bruchion, near the 
 great harbour, contained the palaces, with the 
 Museum, including the greater portion of the 
 library, 400,000 volumes. This building re- 
 mained unhurt till the reign of Aurelian, when 
 it was destroyed during a civil commotion. The 
 Serapion, or temple of Jupiter Serapis, a mag- 
 nificent structure, containing the "Test of the 
 library-, 300,000 volumes, was destroyed under 
 Theodosius the Great, when all the heathen 
 temples were by his edict devoted to ruin. Most 
 of what had remained of the invaluable Alex- 
 andrian library perished. ■ This work of de- 
 vastation is usually, but erroneously, attributed 
 to the Arabs under Omar. The chief remains 
 of the splendid monuments of art, in which Al- 
 exandria abounded, are, 1. the Alexandrian Co- 
 lumn, dedicated, according to the most received 
 accoimts, to Diocletian by a prefect called Pom- 
 peius, or, according to Clarke, who has decy- 
 phered the inscription, to Adrian by the pre- 
 fect Posthumus: 2. Cleopatra's Needle, an 
 obelisk of granite, with an inscription in hiero- 
 gl}TDhics. There were originally two. 3. The 
 relics of a magnificent colonnade, which ex- 
 tended between the gates of the Sun and Moon, 
 and was regarded as one of the most striking 
 ornaments of the city. For miles the suburbs 
 of the modern tovm are covered with ruins, 
 whose history is absolutely unknown. The 
 commerce of Alexandria had three principal 
 branches : 1. The commerce by land through 
 Asia and Africa. 2. The commerce on the 
 Mediterranean Sea. 3. The commerce od the 
 Arabian Gulf or Indian Sea. The Asiatic and 
 Mediterranean commerce Alexandria shared 
 with other cities ; the African it chielly pos- 
 sessed; the Indian it monopolized. Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus promoted the latter by establish- 
 ing, on the Red Sea, the harbours Berenice and 
 Myos Hormos, and by forming the road be- 
 tween Berenice and Coptos. The vast com- 
 mercial advantages of Alexandria may be ima- 
 gined, when we take into consideration the 
 simple fact that, even when its government was 
 the prey of Roman fraud and faction, its pro- 
 gress in wealth and luxury was still unretarded. 
 Alexandria is no less interesting when viewed 
 as the seat of literature and science than as the 
 emporium of commerce. Ptolemy Lagus was 
 19 
 
AL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AL 
 
 . he first protector of science in Egypt. " The 
 Museum," says Heeren, (a learned academy) 
 " was founded, and the first library in Bruchion 
 (that in the Serapion is of later origin), proba- 
 bly under the direction of Demetrius Phalereus. 
 We have no just estimate of the merits of the 
 Museum. But what Academy of modern Eu- 
 rope has accomplished more 1" Nearly all we 
 have of ancient literature we owe to the Alex- 
 andrian school ; and how much larger would our 
 debt have been but for the destruction of the 
 Museum and Serapion'? The modern town, 
 called Scanderia by the Franks, is built upon 
 an accumulation of earth formed about the 
 Hepta-Stadium. It is inconsiderable in extent 
 if compared with the ancient city, its present 
 population being less than 13,000. Its decline 
 is chiefly owing to the diversion of its commerce, 
 consequent upon the discovery of the passage to 
 India by the Cape of Good Hope. B'Anville. 
 — Chaussard. — Heeren. — RusselVs Egypt. — Cce- 
 
 sar, B. C. 112, &c. II. A city situated at 
 
 the extremity of a morass called Rahemah, 
 formed by a canal derived from the right bank 
 of the Euphrates below Babylon, and repaired 
 by Alexander. This city was known by the 
 name of Hira, when it became the residence of 
 the Arabian princes who served the Persians 
 and Parthians against the Romans, and were 
 called Alamundari, after the name Al-Mondar, 
 common to many of these princes at the fall of 
 their dynasty in the first age of the Mahomme- 
 dan. The body of Ali, who had been assassi- 
 nated in Kufa, was interred in Hira ; which, 
 from the sepulchre of this Khalif, came to be 
 called Meshed-Ali. D'Anville. III. Ano- 
 ther in Aria, on the Aria Palus, probably Cor- 
 
 ra. D'Anville. IV. A town of Arachosia, 
 
 which preserves the name of Scanderie of Ar- 
 roJchage, though otherwise named Vaihend. 
 D^Anville. V. Another, founded by Alex- 
 ander at the confluence of the Acesines and 
 Indus. From the silence of modern travellers 
 in regard to it, we may infer that the growth 
 of the place, if it still exists, has borne no pro- 
 portion to the great advantages of its situation 
 in a commercial point of view, commanding the 
 
 Indus and its tributaries. Chcmssard. VI. 
 
 AD Paropamisum, a town founded by Alexander 
 at the foot of the Paropamisus, still a place 
 of importance. The modern Quandahar, ac- 
 cording to the opinion of DAnville and Ren- 
 nel, occupies the site of the ancient city. 
 
 Chaussard. VII. Cata Isson, a tovm of 
 
 Syria, near Issus, on the Issicus Sinus, and 
 south of the Syrioe Pylse. It is now called Al- 
 cxandreita, or, by the Syrians, Scanderona. 
 
 D^Anvilk. VIII. Oxiana, a town of Bac- 
 
 triana, to the north-east of Bactra. The sur- 
 name of Oxiana, which distinguishes its indi- 
 viduality, according to Ptolemy, authorizes the 
 presumption of its being upon the Oxus. D^An- 
 
 ville. IX. Troas, a town of the Troad, 
 
 which derived its name from Lysimachus, as 
 a descendant of Alexander. Under the name 
 of Old Constantinople it is considered as occu- 
 pying the site of ancient Troy, and the Roman 
 Itineraries distinguish it by the name of Ilium. 
 Hence it received from theRomans considerable 
 
 immunities. D'Anville X. Ultima, a town 
 
 built by Alexander upon the ruins of Cyrescha- 
 ta. 'The latter was built by Cyrus upon the 
 20 
 
 laxartes in Sogdiana. Ultima answers in La- 
 tin to £ff;^ar»7, the termination of Cyreschata. 
 Cogend on the Siho7i (laxartes) answers to the 
 ancient Alexandria. Chaussard. 
 
 Alexandrina aqua, baths in Rome, built by 
 the emperor Alexander Severus. 
 
 Alexandropolis, a city of Parthia, built by 
 Alexander the Great. Plin. 6, c. 25. 
 
 Alfaterna. Vid. Nuceria. 
 
 Algidum, a small place in Latium, on the 
 Via Latina; probably the modern VOsteria 
 dell Aglio. Strab. 5. 
 
 Algidus mons, the chain of mountains 
 which stretched from the rear of the Alban 
 mount, and is parallel to the Tusculan hills, 
 being separated from them by the valley along 
 which runs the Via Latina. The neighbour- 
 hood was the scene of numberless conflicts be- 
 tM^een the Roman armies and the ^qui and 
 Volsci. It was consecrated to Diana and to 
 Fortune. Cram. It. 2, 4Q—Ovid. Fast. 6, 721. 
 —Hor. Carm. Sec. 69.—Liv. 21, 62. 
 
 Aliacmon, Vid. Haliacmon. 
 
 Aliartus. Vid. Haliartus. 
 
 Altcis, I. a town of Laconia. II.- A tribe 
 
 of Athens. Strab. 
 
 Alif^e, Alifa, or Alipha, now Allife, a city 
 of Samnium. It is noticed by Strabo as being 
 in existence in his time. It was colonized un- 
 der the triumvirs. Strab. 5. — Front, de Col. 
 
 Aliljei, a people of Arabia Felix. 
 
 Alinda, a town of Caria. Arrian. 
 
 Aliphera, a town of Arcadia on the Al- 
 pheus, remarkable for its strength of position. 
 After the building of Megalopolis the Elians 
 got possession of Aliphera, which they retained 
 till it was wrested from them by Philip, in the 
 Social War. The modern Nevoritza corre- 
 sponds, probably, to the ancient Aliphera. Pans. 
 Arcad. — Polyb . — Liv . 
 
 Allia, a small river in the country of the 
 Sabines, descending from the Crustumine hills, 
 is generally supposed to be the stream on which 
 the Romans suffered their first great defeat, 
 when the Gauls were on their march, under 
 Brennus, to attack the capital. The engage- 
 ment took place on the Via Salaria, about 11 
 miles from Rome ; and the appearance of the 
 ground is still said to confirm the account of 
 the historian. The Dies Alliensis was, from 
 the defeat of the army of the Republic, consi- 
 dered as a day of evil omen. 
 
 " Hac est in fastis cui dat gravis allia nomen.^* 
 Ovid. — Liv. 5, 37. — Laic. 7. 
 
 Atxobroges, a warlike nation of Gaul near 
 the Rhone, in that part of the country now call- 
 ed Savoy and Dauphin e, between the rivers 
 Isaroand Rhone, and the lake Lemanus, lake of 
 Geneva ; having the Sequani on the north ; on 
 the east the Nantuates, the Veragri, and the 
 Centrones ; on the south, the Helvii and Valau- 
 ni ; and on the west, the Ambassi and Segusia- 
 ni. The Romans destroyed their city because 
 they had assisted Annibal. Their ambassadors 
 were allured by great promises to join in Cati- 
 line's conspiracy against his country, but dis- 
 covered the plot. Dio.— Strab. 4. — Tacit. 1. 
 Hist. c. m.—Sallust. in Jug. bell. DAnville 
 observes, that " the most considerable of the Al- 
 lobroges, quitting their villages, formed the city 
 of Vienna or Vienne., which was the capital of 
 
AL 
 
 Orography. 
 
 AL 
 
 a great people before it became the metropolis of 
 a province." They are also described as a scat- 
 tered people, perjusa gens montibus ; and it is 
 remarked, that their successors, the inhabit- 
 ants of Dauphiny, have fewer cities than any 
 other people of t'rance, 
 
 Allotriges, a nation on the southern parts 
 of Spain. Strab. 
 
 Alma, a river of Tuscany, by some suppos- 
 ed the modern Arbia. This river is much more 
 celebrated for the battle which, in the middle 
 ages, was fought there between the Tuscan 
 Guelphs and Ghibelines, and in which the form- 
 er were defeated with prodigious slaughter, 
 than from any report coming down from an- 
 tiquity. Ant. Iter. Ammirat. 
 
 Almo, a small stream that empties into the 
 Tiber near Rome. This river is much referred 
 to by the poets, in connexion with the name of 
 the goddess Cybele, whose image underwent an 
 annual ablution in its waters on the sixth day 
 before the kalends of April, (i. e. 25th March.) 
 Ovid. Fast. 4, 2,'il.— Claud. 15, 119.— Val. 
 Mac. 8, 239.— Sil. It. 8, 363. 
 
 Alone, a town of Hispania Tarraconensis, 
 founded by a colony from Marseilles, not far 
 from Alicant. It was remarkable for the abun- 
 dance and the excellent quality of salt which it 
 produced, and which, till recently, it continued 
 to produce. It is now called Guardamar ; the 
 name given to it by the Moors was Tudemir. 
 Mel. — Steph. Byzant. — Voss. Obs. ad Mel. 
 There were many other insignificant places of 
 the same name. 
 
 Alope. There were many towns in Greece 
 of this name. One in Thessaly, perhaps the 
 same as the Alitrope mentioned by Scylax. 
 Hom. — Strab. Another of the Locri Ozolas. 
 Strab. And a third of the Locri Opuntii. Strab. 
 
 Alopece, I. an island in the Palus Maeotis 
 
 Strab. II. Another ia the Cimmerian Bos- 
 
 phorus. Plin. 4, c. 12. III. Another in the 
 
 iEgean Sea, opposite Smyrna. Id. 5, c. 31. 
 
 Alopeces, a small village of Attica, where 
 was the tomb of Anchimolius, whom the Spar- 
 tans had sent to deliver Athens from the tyran- 
 ny of the Pisistratidae. Socrates and Aristides 
 were born there. JEschin. contra. 'Pimarch. — 
 Herodot. 5, c. 64. 
 
 Alos, or Halos, called Phthioticum to dis- 
 tinguish it from another of the same name in 
 Locris. It stood upon the coast, and there the 
 army destined for the defence of Greece against 
 Xerxes disembarked. The Amphyssus flowed 
 just imder its walls. There are said to be still 
 a few remains of this ancient town. Herod. — 
 Strab. — Demosth. — Cram. Gr. 
 
 Alpenus, the capital of Locris, south of 
 Thermopylae. Herodot. 7, c. 176, &c. From 
 this place Leonidas obtained the necessary sup- 
 plies for his little army. iEschines calls it Al- 
 ponus. 
 
 Alpes, the great mountain range of Europe, 
 connected by its branches with all the middle 
 and southern chains of that continent. They 
 commence in the vicinity of Nice, and, stretch- 
 ing in the form of a crescent with the concave 
 side towards Italy, they terminate, after a course 
 of almost 700 miles, at the head of the Adriatic, 
 over the ancient Absyrtides, merging there and 
 a little to the north m the branches that con- 
 nect them with the Carpathian mountains and 
 
 the mountains of Greece. Till the time of the 
 emperors the Romans were but little acquainted 
 with the Alps, but the various roads which were 
 then opened through their accessible passes 
 rendered them more familiar to the citizens. 
 The whole chain was then divided into, 1st. the 
 Alpes Maritime, Littoreae or Ligusticae, de- 
 riving their name from their proximity to the 
 sea, to the coast, or to the province of Liguria, 
 This elevation commences a little to the east of 
 the Var, near the town of Nice, not far from 
 which the branch which constitutes the Appe- 
 nines diverges from it. It separates Liguria 
 from Narbonensis Secunda, the southern part of 
 Gallia Provincia, now Provence^ and reaches as 
 far as the Mons Vesulus, Monte Viso, at the 
 source of the Po, upon the borders of Cisalpine 
 Gaul. The summit of the Alpes Maritimae 
 marked the limit between Gaul and Italy, and 
 there Augustus erected a trophy, inscribed with 
 the names of all the Gallic tribes subdued by 
 him. It was the earliest passage used by the 
 Romans, and that by which Caesar entered Italy 
 before engaging in the civil war. La Pur- 
 bia now occupies the site upon which Augustus 
 erected his trophy, 2d. The Alpes Cotti.e, 
 now mount Genevre, extending from the mons 
 Vesulus to mount Cenis, between that part of 
 Cisalpine Gaul which is Piedmont now, and 
 the part of Gallia Narbonensis which is now 
 Dauphiny. The name of this division of the 
 Alps was derived from Cottius, a prince of cer- 
 tain Alpine tribes in those regions, over which 
 he was permitted to enjoy the prefecture by Au- 
 gustus. Tiberius allowed him to rule over them 
 as sovereign. The Alpes Cottiae did not be- 
 come completely a Roman dependency till the 
 time of the emperor Nero. 3d. The Alpes 
 Graije, by the modern department of Isere, as 
 far as the Col de Bon Homme, separating Sa- 
 voy also on the west, from Piedmont, and the 
 dutchy of Aouste on the east. 4th. The Alpes 
 Penninjb, from the Col de Bon Homme to the 
 sources of the Rhone and the Rhine. The 
 north-east extremity of this division, in which 
 these rivers take their rise, was distinguished by 
 the name of the Lepontine Alps, from the Le- 
 pontii, who were scattered among them. The 
 Alpes Penninae separated the Valais, Vallis 
 Pennina on the north, from the Milanese upon 
 the south, and extended as far as the mons 
 Adula, the modern St. Gotherd. The Lepon- 
 tine range runs through the country of the 
 Grisons, and originates the Jura chain. 5th. 
 The Alpes Rh^ti^, or the Tridentine Alps, 
 extending from the Adula group to mount 
 Brenner ' in the Tyrol, which it separates, in 
 part, from Vindelicia. 6th. The Alpes Nori- 
 CM, from mount Brenner to mount Glockner, 
 and the sources of the river Piave. This is a 
 German branch, and scarcely relates to Italian 
 geography, passing between Carinthia and No- 
 ricum, and ending in the mons Cetitts, which 
 connects it with the mountains of Bohemia and 
 the Carpathian hills. 7th. The Carnic Alps, 
 between Carinthia and Carniola, branching to- 
 wards the south, and continuing in a south-east 
 direction as far as the springs of the Save, where 
 it declines into the Claudius mons and moun- 
 tains of Slavonia. 8th. The Alpes Juli^, 
 which, running south-east along the Save as the 
 Carnic Alps accompany the line of the Drave, 
 21 
 
AL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AM 
 
 are lost at last in the Albius mons, on the bor- 
 ders of lilyricum, about the springs of the 
 Kulpa, the ancient Colapis, near Mniona, or 
 Laybach. Other parts of the Alps were distin- 
 guished by particular names; as the Suabian 
 Alps, which unite the chain with the Hunga- 
 rian range. According to Justin, the first who 
 penetrated these mighty barriers, after the fa- 
 bulous passage of Hercules, were the Gauls, in 
 their early migrations. An infinite number of 
 these people occupied the Alpine regions long 
 before the Romans became acquainted with 
 their several passes ; and from the time of the 
 Gallic settlements the Alps remained inviolate 
 till the memorable passage of Annibal, which 
 admiration has converted into a fable. The 
 passes known to the ancients were chiefly at 
 three points through France and two through 
 Germany, Those through France were, 1st. 
 by the Liguria,n coast, a defile too narrow to 
 admit of the passage of numerous bodies ; an- 
 other over the Ginevre into Lombardy, by which 
 Charles the Eighth entered Italy, and which 
 was called the Roman way, as being the tho- 
 roughfare from Rome to France ; and the third 
 over mount Cenis, by which some pretend the 
 army of Annibal entered. This pass leads at 
 once to Aoust, the ancient Augusta Pretoria, 
 and Lombardy. Through Germany, the pas- 
 sages were by the Valtoline, the country of the 
 Grisons, over the Lepontine Alps, and through 
 the Tyrol, by way of Inspruck and Trent, over 
 the Rhsetian Alps. In modern times the passes 
 through this vast elevation were long the 
 same, but now the principal roads are over the 
 St. Gotherd, St. Bernard, and by the Simplon. 
 The average height of the summits of this lofty 
 region is from 10,000 to 15,000 feet ; and after 
 7,000 or 8,000 commences a region of perpe- 
 tual ice. Above an elevation of 10,800 feet the 
 ice no longer appears, but from thence to the 
 summit the mountain is covered with eternal 
 snow. " The great depth of the Alpine lakes," 
 says Malte-Brun, " is peculiar to these moun- 
 tains ; and one of them, the lake of Achen, is 
 not less than 1800 feet in depth." Cram. It. — 
 Mel. — Danv. — Plin. — Liv. — Amm. — Marcel. — 
 Suet. — Heylin. Cosm. — Malte-Brun. 
 
 Alpheus, now Alpheo, a river of Arcadia 
 and Elis in Peloponnesus. It rises on the bor- 
 ders of Laconia, (which it separates from the 
 territory of Tegea,) near the town of Phylace. 
 The same spring supplies the Eurotas, which 
 mingles with the Alpheus, and flows with it for 
 a short distance till both disappear below the 
 surface of the soil. The Alpheus emerges again 
 at a place called Pegae, the sources, in the terri- 
 tory of Megalopolis, and passing by Leuctra in 
 Arcadia in a north-west direction, it touches the 
 borders of Elis, where it receives its great tribu- 
 tary, the Ladon. Here it turns almost directly 
 west, and winding past Olympia, after receiving 
 the Acheron, it falls into the Sicilian sea ; after 
 which, it is said by the poets to shew itself again 
 near Syracuse in Sicily, and to mingle with the 
 waters of Arethusa. Strab. — Virg. — Paus. — 
 Mosch. Id. — Dionys. Perieg. 285. Vid. Are- 
 thusa, Part III. 
 
 Alpis, a small river rising in the Rhoetian 
 Alps, and falling into the Danube. 
 
 Alsa, now the Ausa, according to D'An- 
 rille a river of Camiola. Constantine was 
 22 
 
 slain in battle on its banks, by Constans his 
 brother. Plin. 17, 18. 
 
 Alsium, an ancient town of Hetruria, the 
 origin of which was ascribed to the Pelasgi. Its 
 precise site was a spot called Statua, near Palo. 
 Dion. Hal. — D^Anville. — Cram. An. Italy. 
 
 Alsus, a river of Achaia in Peloponnesus, 
 flowing from mount Sipylus. Paus. 7, c. 27. 
 
 Altinum, a flourishing city of Italy near 
 Aquileia, famous for its wool. Martial. 14, ep. 
 25. — Plin. 3, c. 18. This town is first men- 
 tioned ' by V. Paterculus, and the period of its 
 founding is unknown. It was afterwards sur- 
 rounded with the villas of the rich, and present- 
 ed an appearance so picturesque that it was 
 compared to the celebrated and beautiful Baiae 
 of Campania by the later writers of the empire. 
 Its exact situation is not knoA^ii, but the tower 
 of Altino on the right bank of the Silis, near its 
 mouth, is considered by D'Anville as a relic of 
 the ancient town. By others it is supposed to 
 have occupied the site of the modern Ravenna. 
 Plin. 3, 18.Strab.— Tac.—Mel. 2, 4.-~Vell. 
 Pater. 2, 76. 
 
 Altis. Vid. Olympia. 
 
 Aluntum, now Alontio, a town of Sicily. 
 Plin. 5, c. 8. — Cic. in Verr. 4 — D'Anville. 
 Dionys. Hal. mentions a town of the same name, 
 which seems to correspond with the village of 
 S. Filadelfo near JEtna, as ancient as the Tro- 
 jan war. 
 
 Aluta, a river of Dacia, rising in that part 
 of the Carpathian mountains which liesbetween 
 Moldavia and Austria, and flowing through the 
 same mountains on the borders of Transylva- 
 nia and Wallachia, to empty into the Danube 
 (after passing near Hermanstadt in the former 
 province) at Nicopolis. Its course to where it 
 passes the mountains lies in the ancient Dacia, 
 and afterwards in Moesia. The modern name, 
 the Olt, bears still some analogy to that which 
 it bore in antiquity. D'Anville. 
 
 Alyba, a country near Mysia. Homer. II. 2. 
 
 Alyssus, a fountain of Arcadia, whose waters 
 could cure the bite of a mad dog. Paus. 8, c. 19. 
 
 Alyzia, atownof Acarnania, on the western 
 mouth of the Achelous, opposite to the Echi- 
 nades. Cic. ad Fam. 16, ep. 2. 
 
 Amaltheum, a public place which Atticus 
 had opened in his country-house, called Amal- 
 thea, in Epinis, and provided with every thing 
 which could furnish entertainment and convey 
 instruction. Cic. ad Attic. 1. ep. 13. 
 
 Amanic^ Pyl^. Vid. Amanus. 
 
 Amantia, a town of Illyria, not far from the 
 borders of Epirus, and belonging to the territory 
 of Macedonia, in the greatest extent of that 
 country. It is said that the Abantes of Phocis, 
 on their return after the Trojan war, erected 
 this city, which they called Abantia ; and that 
 this name was changed, many years afterwards, 
 into Amantia. The inhabitants took part with 
 Caesar in the civil war, and their city was then 
 considered as of considerable importance. The 
 latest account of this place by an ancient wri- 
 ter, is that of Hierocles before the time of Jus- 
 tinian. It is said that a part of its ruins remain 
 near the village of Nivitza, on a branch of the 
 AoUs, now the Voioussa. Paus. — L/ycoph. — 
 Cic. — Cas. 
 
 Amanus, a mountain separating Syria from 
 Cilicia. It is. a branch of the Taurus, and ex- 
 
AM 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AM 
 
 tends from Cappadocia, on the borders of Arme- 
 nia Minor, to the Syriae Pylse, the Gates of Sy- 
 ria, on the Sinus Issicus. Above these are the 
 Amanicce Pylce, through which defile Darius 
 entered Cilicia. D'Anville calls the Amanus 
 the Al-Liican. Strab. — Plin. 
 
 Amardi, a people who inhabited the moun- 
 tains at the south of the Caspian Sea, near the 
 river Amardus. Vossius supposed that the Per- 
 sians used that name in general, to signify any 
 lawless people who lived a predatory life ; and 
 D'Anville observes that they inhabited the coim- 
 try which afterwards harboured the famous as- 
 sassins. Mela. — Voss. Obs. ad Mela. — D'Aji- 
 ville. 
 
 Amardus, a river of Media, now the Kezil 
 Ozein. It rises near the beise of the Orontes 
 mountains, and pierces the high range that lines 
 the southern coast of the Caspian. Pliny, 6, 13. 
 
 Amarynthtjs, a village of Euboea, whence 
 Diana is called Amarysia, and her festivals in 
 that town Amarynthia. — Euboea is sometimes 
 called Amarynthus. Pans. 1, c. 31. 
 
 Amas, a mountain of Laconia, Paus. 3. 
 
 Amasenus, a river flowing through the Pon- 
 tine marshes, and said to have a principal effect 
 in causmg them. Virg. JSn. — Strai. 
 
 Aausia, a principal city of Pontus on the 
 Iris, about the centre of the province north and 
 .south. Strabo, who was born there, describes 
 it as built in the valley lying between the Lycus 
 and the Iris, which unite considerably to the 
 north of the town, Strab. — Plin. 
 
 Amastris, a city of Paphlagonia, on the Eux- 
 ine Sea. Catull. Most prot)ably the Sesamus 
 of Homer. It took the name of Amastris at a 
 late period, in honour of the niece of Darius 
 Codomanus. It was remarked for its beauty 
 m the time of Trajan. Strab. — Plin. 
 
 AMATmjs, I. Limmedon antica, according to 
 D'AnviUe, a city on the southern side of the 
 island of Cyprus, particularly dedicated to Ve- 
 nus. The island is sometimes called Amathu- 
 sia, a name not unfrequently applied to the god- 
 dess of the place. Virg. JEn. 10, v. 51. — Ptol. 
 
 5, c. 14. II. A fortress at the head of the 
 
 Campus Magnus, east of Jordan, the site of the 
 modern Asselt. Here was established by Ga- 
 binius, proconsul of Syria, one of the five juri- 
 dical con ven tions of Judea. It was remarkable 
 for its strength. Jos. 
 
 Amaxu, or Amaxita, a place of Cilicia, 
 abounding with wood fit for building ships. 
 Plin. 5, c. 9.— Strab. 14. 
 Amazonia. Vid. Amazones, Part III. 
 Amazonium, a place in Attica, where The- 
 seus obtained a victory over the Amazons. 
 
 Ambarri, a people of GaUia Celtica, on the 
 Arar, related to the iEdui. Cces. bell. G. 1, c. 
 11. The modem name of the place in which 
 they dwelt is Bresse, in the department de 
 L'Ain. They were surrounded by the Allo- 
 broges, the Edui, and the Helvetii ; and, accord- 
 ing to Livy, they attempted settlements in Italy 
 as early as the age of the Tarquins. Liv. 5, 34. 
 Ambenus, a mountain of European Sarmatia, 
 on the Euxine, near Ophiusa. Flacc. 6, v. 
 85. 
 
 Ambianum, a town of Belgium, now Amiens, 
 Its inhabitants conspired against J. Caesar. 
 CcBS. bell. G. 2, c. 4. 
 Ambiatinum, a village of Germany, where the 
 
 emperor Caligida was born. Sueton. in 
 Cal. 8. 
 
 Ambracia, a celebrated city of Epirus, on 
 the Arachthus, near the gulf to which it gives 
 its name. The period at which it was founded 
 is unknown ; but it did not rise to great import- 
 ance till the arrival of a Corinthian colony about 
 650 years B.C. Its early forms of government 
 were various ; but about the time of the Persian 
 war it had taken its place among the most re- 
 spectable of the smaller republics. In the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war it took an active part, and was 
 distinguished for its frequent and vigorous at- 
 tempts to extend its authority by conquest and 
 territorial acquisition. When Philip of Mace- 
 don began to turn his arms against Greece, Am- 
 bracia appears to have been deprived by him of 
 its independence ; soon after which it fell into 
 the hands of Pyrrhus, Avho made it the royal 
 residence, and enriched and adorned it at a great 
 expense. It was always remarkable for the 
 spirit and gallantry of the inhabitants ; and 
 Thucydides observes that no people of Greece, 
 in all the Peloponnesian war, sustained, in the 
 same space of time, so great and universal a 
 slaughter as the Ambraciots at Olpae. Many 
 years afterwards they distinguished themselves 
 in a siege which they sustained against the Ro- 
 mans with tmequalled perseverance. Augustus 
 transferred the inhabitants to Nicopolis, and 
 Ambracia speedily fell into decay ; so that as 
 early as the time of the Byzantine historians 
 Cantacuzenus and Acropolita, the town of Arta 
 appears to have already arisen on its site. Di- 
 onys. Hal. — Herodot. — Thuc. — Liv. — Polyb. — 
 Cram. 
 
 AMBRAcros SINUS, a gulf or bay of that part 
 of the Ionian which was called the Sicilian sea, 
 lying between Epirus on the north and Acar- 
 nania on the south. At its mouth it is but 
 about 5-8 of a mile in width, but, expanding in- 
 land, it extends about 12 miles, making a circuit 
 of 36 miles. The name of Ambracius was ap- 
 plied to this basin as early as the time of Or- 
 pheus, or the writer of the poems ascribed to 
 him. Polyb. 5, &^.— Strab. 7, 325.— Cram. Gr. 
 
 Ambrones, certain nations of Gaul, who lost 
 their possessions by the inundation of the sea, 
 and lived upon rapine and plunder. They 
 were conquered by Marius. Pint, in Mario. 
 
 Ambryssus, a very ancient city of Phocis, to 
 the south-west of the mountain Parnassus. It 
 was destroyed by the Amphict}'-ons, and rebuilt 
 by the Corinthians. Its ruins are stUl visible. 
 Paus. — Cram. 
 
 Amenanus, a river of Sicily, near mount 
 ^tna, now GuidiceUo. Strab. 5. 
 
 Ameria, a city of Urabria. This to^vm, now 
 the inconsiderable village of Amelia, was one of 
 the finest and most ancient of Umbria. Cicero, 
 Virgil, and Silius Italicus have in different 
 manners celebrated this place, and secured it a 
 lasting memory. It was the birth-place of Ros- 
 cius, and could boast a greater antiquity than 
 Rome. Strab. — Cic. pro JRos. — Virg. Georg. 
 1, A62.—Plin. 3, 14. 
 
 Amestratus, a to■v^^l of Sicily, near the 
 Halesus. The Romans besieged it for seven 
 months, and it yielded, at last, after a third 
 siege, and the inhabitants were sold as slaves. 
 Polyb. 1, c. 24. 
 I Amida, a city of Mesopotamia, besieged and 
 23 
 
AM 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AM 
 
 taken by Sapor, king of Persia. Ammian. 10. 
 It stood on a lofty eminence on the Tigris, 
 bordering on the Armenian territory, as that 
 territory stood curtailed in the middle ages by 
 the extension of Mesopotamia on the north. It 
 is the modern Kara Amid, in the district of 
 Diar-Bekir. It was called Constantia for a 
 short time during the reigns of some of the suc- 
 cessors of Constantine, and has probably had 
 many other names. D'Anville. 
 
 Amilos, or Amilus, I. a river of Mauritania, 
 where the elephants go to wash themselves by 
 
 moonshine. Plin, 8, c. 1. 11. A town of 
 
 Arcadia. Paus. in Arcad. 
 
 Amine:, I. a people of Campania, who oc- 
 cupied, according to Macrobius, the territory 
 subsequently the Falernian. Virgil, however, 
 clearly distinguishes between the Falernian and 
 Aminean vines ; and Martorelli places both the 
 Aminean and Falernian hills above Naples, to- 
 wards Puteoli. Those who attribute to the 
 Thessalians the introduction of the vine into 
 Italy consider the Amioei of Thessalian ori- 
 gin. Virg. Geo. 2, 95. — Heyne, ad loc. — Ma- 
 
 crob. Sat. 2, 16. — Martorell. I. Fenici, &c. 
 
 II. A place of Thessaly. 
 
 Amiseus, or Amisenus sinus, a bay of the 
 Euxine Sea on the Pontic coast. The encroach- 
 ment of the waters of the sea by this bay on the 
 north, and a similar inroad of the Issicus Sinus 
 on the south, give to the eastern part of Asia 
 Minor the character of an isthmus, and to the 
 whole the form and name of a peninsula, Strab. 
 — Plin. — Cram. 
 
 Amisia, the river Ems. D'Anville writes 
 Amisus. 
 
 Amisus, a town of Asia Minor, east of the 
 Halys, "a Greek city," says DAnville, "but 
 which, subjected in the sequel to the kings of 
 Pontus, was aggrandised by Mithridates with a 
 quarter called from the surname that he bore, 
 Eupatoria ; and Samsoun, as it is now called, 
 preserves the ancient site." D^Anville. 
 
 Amiternum, *' whose ruins are to be seen 
 near Vittorino, a few miles to the north of 
 Aquila, was a Sabine city of great antiquity. 
 Under the Rom^ans it became successively a 
 praefectura and a colony, as we are informed by 
 Frontinus and several inscriptions. In Ptole- 
 my's time. Amiternum seems to have been in- 
 cluded among the cities of the Vesiini." Cra^ 
 mer^s It. 
 
 Ammon. Vid Hammon. 
 
 Ammonii, a nation of Africa, who derived 
 their origin from the Egyptians and Ethio- 
 pians. Their language was a mixture of that 
 of the two people from whom they were des- 
 cended. The modern Lantriah probably re- 
 presents the ancient Ammonia. D^Anville. — 
 Herodot. 2, 3, and 4. 
 
 Ammonis promontorium, a promontory on 
 the west side of the Syrtis Minor, to the north 
 of Thena. Strab. 834. 
 
 Ammonitis, a country of Arabia Petrssa, oc- 
 cupied by the children of Ammon, whence the 
 name. The principal city was called Ammon, 
 and Rabbath- Ammon, or the Great Ammon, 
 before the name of Philadelphia was given to 
 it. D'Anville. 
 
 Amnias, a river of Bith)mia. Appian. de bell. 
 Mithr. 
 
 Amnisus, the port of Gnossus, at the north of 
 Crete, with a small riverof thesamename.near 
 24 
 
 which Lucina had a temple. The nymphs of 
 the place were called Amnisiades. Callim. 
 
 Amorgos, now Amorgo, one of the Spo- 
 rades, situated to the south-east of Naxos. It 
 contained three towns, named Arcesine, Egia- 
 lus, and Minoa. Minoa was the birth-place of 
 Simonides, an Iambic poet mentioned by Stra- 
 bo and others. Amorgos gave its name to a pe- 
 culiar linen dress manufactured in the island. 
 Cram. — Strab. 
 
 Amorium, near the Sangarius in Galatia, 
 was a considerable city when it was taken and 
 sacked by the Caliph Motasem, A. D. 837. 
 
 Amorrh.eIj or Amorites. Vid Amorrhitis. 
 
 Amorrhitis, the country of the Amorrhaei, 
 in Persea of Judea, situate, according to Jose- 
 phus, between three rivers, the Arnon on the 
 south, the Jabok on the north, and the Jordan 
 on the west. 
 
 Ampelus, I. a promontory of the peninsula 
 which lies between the Soronaic and Singitic 
 gulfs. Pliny calls it the Soronean promontory. 
 
 Herod. 7, 122.— I.zv. 31, 45. II. Another, 
 
 of Crete, now Cape ^acro. Pliny assigns to 
 Crete a town of that name ; and there are, in 
 fact some ruins between the mouth of the river 
 
 Sacro and the promontory. Cram. III. A 
 
 promontory of Samos. Also a ridge of moun- 
 tains that crossed that island. Strah. 
 
 Ampelusia, a promontory of Africa, in Mau- 
 ritania, with a town of the same name, not far 
 from the river Lixus, near the Straits of Gib- 
 raltar. Plin. — Mela, 4. c. 5 and 6. 
 
 Amphaxitis, a district of the Macedonian 
 province Mygdonia. It was situated near the 
 Axius, and on its left bank, since Strabo, in the 
 Epit. states that the Axius separated Bottiaea 
 from Amphaxitis. Cram. 
 
 Amphea, a city of Messenia, taken by the 
 Lacedsemonians. Paus. 4, c. 5. 
 
 Amphiarai fons, I. a fountain and baths 
 
 named after Amphiaraus, near his temple 
 
 II. Templum, was 12 stadia from Oropus, and 
 not far from the sea. The oracle of Amphiaraus 
 was of considerable antiquity and reputation. 
 It was consulted by Crossus, also by Mardoni- 
 us. Livy speaks of the temple of Amphilochus 
 near Oropus ; meaning, probably,that of Amphi- 
 araus. But it would seem from Pausanias that 
 Amphilochus shared the honours paid to the lat- 
 ter. Cram.— Herod. 1. 48 ; 8, \M.—Liv. 42, 27. 
 
 Amphic^a, or AMPmcLEA, a town of Phocis, 
 sixty stadia from Lilgea. Its name is said to 
 have been changed, by a decree of the Amphic- 
 tyons, to Ophitea ; but the former appellation is 
 always employed by historians. Herodotus 
 says Amphicasa was ruined by the Persians. 
 Its site is commonly supposed to correspond 
 with that of Dadi, a populous Greek town 
 standing on a gentle elevation at the foot of Par- 
 nassus. Cram. — Paus. — Herod. 8, 33. 
 
 AMPmcLEA. Vid. AmpJiiccea. 
 
 Amphigenia, a towTi which, according to 
 Homer, belonged to Nestor, was assigned by 
 some critics to Messenia, by some to Triphylia. 
 It was situated near the river Hypsoeis, and pos- 
 sessed a temple of Latona. Cram. II.— B. 593. 
 —Strab. 
 
 AMPHiLOcmA. Vid. Argos. 
 
 Amphipolis, a town on the Strymon, between 
 Macedonia and Thrace. An Athenian colony 
 under Agnon, son of Nicias, drove the ancien 
 
AM 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AN 
 
 iahabitants, called Edonians, from the country, 
 and built a city, which they called Amphipolis, 
 1. e. a town surrounded on all sides, becauiie the 
 Strymon flowed all around it. It has been also 
 called Acra, Strymon, Myrica, Eion, and the 
 town of Mars. It was the cause of many wars 
 between the Athenians and Spartans. Thu- 
 cyd. 4, c. 102, &LC.~Herodot. 5, c. 126, 1. 7. c. 
 lU.—Diod. 11, 12, &C.—C. Nep. in Cim. ' In 
 the Peloponnesian war Amphipolis was taken 
 by the Lacedaemonians under Brasidas. Many 
 circumstances combine, besides its own import- 
 ance, to render the name of Amphipolis inte- 
 resting. The loss of this place to the Athenians 
 caused the banishment of Thucydides ; and the 
 loss of Brasidas to Sparta was accompanied by 
 the death of Cleon, a cause of scarcely less con- 
 gratulations to Athens. TheAmphipolitans from 
 this time chose to remain in the interest of 
 Sparta, and the Athenians never regained their 
 authority among them. When the Romans 
 spread their empire over these regions, Amphi- 
 polis constituted the chief place of the conquer- 
 ed territory. Its ruins are discernible near a 
 spot called Jenikevi. •' The position of Amphi- 
 polis is one of the most important in Greece. 
 It stands in a pass which traverses the mountains 
 bordering the Strymonic gulf, and it commands 
 the only easy communication from the coast of 
 that gulf into the great Macedonian plains. 
 The Strymon, after emerging from a large lake, 
 makes a half circuit in a deep gorge round the 
 hill of Amphipolis, and from thence crosses a 
 plain of two or three miles in width, to the 
 sea." Leake. — Thuc. — Demosth. 
 
 AMPfflssA, or IssA, I. a to'um of the Brutii on 
 the east coast. — -II. A town of the Locri 
 Ozote, at the head of the Crissaean gulf. This 
 city was destroyed after the Persian v/ar by or- 
 der of the Amphictyons, for rebuilding the walls 
 of Crissa and cultivating its fields which were 
 sacred. Amphissa was but about seven miles 
 distant from Delphi. Its citadel or acropolis still 
 remains near the modem town of Salona, "clos- 
 ing up the great CrissoBan plain, through which 
 a defile leads towards the Cephissus and the 
 straits of Thermopylae." Hughes. — Pans. — 
 Plin. 4, 2. — Cram. 
 
 AMPmssENE, a country of Armenia. 
 
 Amphrysus, a river of Thessaly, near which 
 Apollo, when banished from heaven, fed the 
 flocks of king Admetus. From this circum- 
 stance the god has been called Ampkryssius, 
 and his priestess Amphryssia. Ovid. Met. 1, 
 V. 580.— 'Lucan. 6, v. 261.— Virg. G. 3, v. 2. 
 jEn. 6, V. 398. 
 
 Ampsaga, a river of Numidia, which falls 
 into the Mediterranean at Tucca, and sepa- 
 rates Numidia from Mauretania. It is now the 
 Suffegmar,. a river of Algiers. Mela, 1, 6, 2. 
 
 Amsancti, lacus et vallis, a lake and val- 
 ley in Samnimn, by which Virgil represents 
 the fury descending to the infernal regions. 
 Some antiquaries have confounded this spot 
 with the lake of Cutilise ; but Servius distinct- 
 ly tells us that it was situated in the country 
 of the Hirpini, which is confirmed by Cicero 
 and Pliny, The latter writer mentions a tem- 
 ple consecrated to the goddess Mephitis on the 
 banks of this lake, of which a good description 
 is given by Roman elli. Cram,. It. 2. 2.51. — 
 .En. 7, 563".— Cic. de Div. I.— Plin. 2, 93. 
 
 Part L— D 
 
 Amygi portus, a place in Pontus, famous 
 for the death of Amycus king of the Bebryces. 
 His tomb was covered with laurels, whose 
 boughs, as is reported, when carried on board 
 a ship, caused uncommon dissentions among 
 the sailors. Plin. 5, c. 32. — Arrian. 
 
 AMYGLiE, I. a town of Italy between Caieta 
 and Tarracina, built by the companions of Cas- 
 tor and Pollux. The inhabitants were strict 
 followers of the precepts of Pythagoras, and 
 therefore abstained from flesh. They were kill- 
 ed by serpents, which they thought impious to 
 destroy, though in their own defence. Plin. 8, 
 c. 29. Once a report prevailed in Amyclse that 
 the enemies were coming to storm it; upon 
 which the inhabitants made a law, that forbade 
 such a report to be credited, and when the ene- 
 my really arrived, no one mentioned it, or took 
 up arms in his own defence, and the town was 
 easily taken. From this circumstance the epi- 
 thet of tacitce has been given to Amyclae. Virg. 
 
 ^n. 10, V. bU.—Syl. 8, v. 529. II. A city 
 
 of Peloponnesus, built by Amyclas. Castor 
 and Pollux were bom there. The country was 
 famous for dogs. Apollo, called Amyclseus, 
 had a rich and magnificent temple there, sur- 
 rounded with delightful groves. Pans. 3, c. 18. 
 —Stat. Theb. 4, v. ^2^.—Strab. S.— Virg. G. 3, 
 V. 345. — Ovid, de Art. Am. 2, v. 5. ^ The ruins 
 of this place are said to be more extensive than 
 those of the ancient capital of Laconia. 
 
 Amydon, a city of Paeonia, in Macedonia, 
 which sent auxiliaries to Priam during the 
 Trojan war. Ho'nier. II. 2. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Anacium, a mountain with a temple sacred 
 to the Anaces, in Attica. Polycen. 1, c. 21. 
 
 Anactoria and Anactorium, I. a to'WTi of 
 Acarnania, situated on a low neck of land op- 
 posite to Nicopolis, of which it was the empo- 
 rium. The present site is now called Punta, 
 which many antiquaries have erroneously iden- 
 tified with Actium. Anactorium was colonized 
 jointly by the Corcyreans and Corinthians, the 
 latter of whom afterwards obtained sole pos- 
 session of the settlement by unfair means. 
 They were subsequently ejected by the Acarna- 
 nians, who occupied the place in conjunction 
 with the Athenians. Augustus carried the in- 
 habitants to the city of Nicopolis after the bat- 
 tle of Actium. Strai). 10. — Thucyd. 1, c. 55. 
 
 Plin. 4, c. 1, 1. 5, c, 29. II. An ancient 
 
 name of Miletus. 
 
 ANACTORros SINUS, HOW the bay of Prevesa, 
 on which the battle of Actium was fought. 
 
 Anagnia, now Anagni, the principal city of 
 the Hemici, Here the general assembly of the 
 nation was convened. Virgil styles it " dives," 
 and Strabo terms it " an important city." In 
 its last war with Rome its own laws were set 
 aside, and it received in exchange the Roman 
 code ; justice being administered by a deputy of 
 the praetor. In other words, it became a pra:- 
 fectura. Cicero terms it municipium ornatis- 
 simnm. It was colonized by Drusus. Cram. It. 
 2, Id.—Liv. 9, 43.— ^n. 7, 68i.~Strab. 5.— 
 Cic. pro Dom. 30, and Mil. 1. — Front, de Col. 
 
 Anamanni, a people of Cisalpine Gaul, whose 
 name is sometimes written Ananes, Anamanes. 
 and even Andres. They occupied a small dis- 
 trict, intersected by numerous streams flowing 
 from the Appenines. Cram. — Polyb. 
 
 Anaphe, an island that rose out of the Cre- 
 25 
 
AN 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AN 
 
 tan sea, and received this name from the Argo- 
 nauts, who, in the middle of a storm, suddenly 
 saw the new moon, Apollo was worshipped 
 there, and called Anaphseus. ApoUonius. 
 
 Anaphlystus, now Anapkiso, a-town of Attica 
 of some note, with a harbour and fortifications. 
 
 Anapus, I. a river of Acamania, which emp- 
 ties into the Achelous. Cram. II. Of Si- 
 cily, near Syracuse. 
 
 Anartes, a people adjoining the Dacians, 
 whose territory, answering to part of Transyl- 
 vania, bordered on the Tibiscus, now the The- 
 iss. Cces. B. G. 6, 25. 
 
 . Anas, now the Guadiana^ a river of Spain, 
 which rises in Tarraconensis, and, after flowing 
 in a westerly direction past Metallinum and 
 Emerita Augusta, turns to the south and dis- 
 charges itself into the Atlantic, forming, in the 
 latter part of its course, the boundary between 
 that part of Lusitania which was called Cu- 
 neus, and Bsetica. Pliny informs us, that at a 
 short distance from its source this river is lost 
 in marshes, then is contracted into a narrow 
 stream, after which it flows under ground, till 
 re-appearing, it continues its course to the At- 
 lantic. Plin. 3, 1. 
 
 Anatolia, a name used to designate that 
 part of Asia vulgarly known as Asia Minor. It 
 is commonly met with under the corrupted form 
 ofNatolia. Under the lower empire, this coim- 
 try was divided into prefectures, called Themata; 
 and we find a Thema Anatolicum, {fiova dvaTo\yi, 
 t/te east,) i. e. easterly from Constantinople, the 
 imperial residence. The Turks retain the form 
 Anadoli, which, as applied to one of their pa- 
 chalics, does not quite fill up the space within 
 the limits of Asia Minor. D'Anville. 
 
 Anaurus, I. a river of Thessaly, near the 
 foot of mount Pelion, where Jason lost one of 
 
 his sandals. Callim in Dian. II, A river 
 
 of Troas, near Ida. Coluth. 
 
 Ancalites, a people of Britain, near the 
 Trinobantes. Cces. Bell. G. 5. c. 21. 
 
 Anchesmus, a mountain of Attica, where 
 Jupiter Anchesmius had a statue. 
 
 ANCfflALE, and Anchiala, a city on the sea- 
 coast of Cilicia. Sardanapalus, the last king of 
 Assyria, built it, with Tarsus in its neighbour- 
 hood, in one day. Strab. li.—Plin. 5, c. 27. 
 
 Anchisia, a mountain of Arcadia, at the bot- 
 tom of which was a monument of Anchises. 
 Paus. 8, c. 12 and 13. 
 
 Anchoe, a place near the mouth of the Cephi- 
 cus, where there is a lake of the same name. 
 Strab. 
 
 Ancon, and Ancona, a town of Picenum, 
 built by the Sicilians, with a harbour in the 
 form of a crescent or elbow (ayxwi/), on the 
 shores of the Adriatic. Near this place is the 
 famous chapel of Loretto, supposed by monkish 
 historians to have been brought through the air 
 by angels, August 10, A. D. 1291, from Judaea, 
 where it was a cottage, inhabited by the virgin 
 Mary. The reputed sanctity of the place has 
 often brought 100,000 pilgrims in one day to 
 Loretto. Although Strabo attributes the foun- 
 dation of Ancona to Syracusan exiles in the 
 reign of Dionysius, still it is probable the place 
 is of greater antiquity, as Scylax mentions it as 
 belonging to the Umbri, and Pliny to the Sicu- 
 li. In Trajan's time it was a port of importance. 
 Its purple dye is celebrated by Italicus. Ac- 
 26 
 
 cording to Catullus, Venus was the favourite, 
 deity of the place. Cram. — Strab. 5. — Catull. 
 36.— Plin. 3. c. IB.-lAican. 2. v. 402.— Ital. 8, 
 V. 437. 
 
 Angyra, a town of Galatia among the Tec- 
 tosages, or, according to others, of Phrygia. 
 Both accounts are, in fact, true ; the error lies 
 in not distinguishing between the condition of 
 the cotmtry at the period of Alexander's inva- 
 sion, when Ancyra was a town of Phrygia Ma- 
 jor, and its altered state at tlie time Arrian wrote, 
 when part of Phrygia had taken the name of 
 Galatia from the Gauls who occupied it about 
 250 B. C. According to the testimony of Q.. 
 Curtius and Arrian, Alexander marched from 
 Gordium to Ancyra ; so that the account of the 
 former writer, who represents him as entering 
 Paphlagonia, cannot be correct, as he must have 
 passed to the right of that region, since he ad- 
 vanced by Ancyra to Cappadocia. Ancyra re- 
 ceived many favours from Augustus, and the 
 modern Angoura still preserves a magnificent 
 inscription, reciting the principal circumstances 
 of the life of that prince. It was near this city 
 that Bajazet was made prisoner by Timour. 
 Chaussard. — D^Anville. — Q. Curt. — Arrian. 
 
 Ancyra, a town of Sicily, to the west of 
 Agrigentum, on the Halycus, above Heraclea, 
 which stood at its mouth. 
 
 Andania, a town of Messenia, on the Arca- 
 dian frontier, a capital city before the domina- 
 tion of the Heraclidee. Sir W. Gell observed 
 its ruins between Salimia and Krano. Cram. 
 
 Andecavi, and Andegavi. Vid. Andes. 
 
 Andes, I. a tribe of Gallia Lugdtmensis, to 
 the north of the Ligeris. The Meduana flows 
 through their territory, and near its mouth 
 stands Juliomagus, the capital. Their territory 
 is the modern Anjou. The name is otherwise 
 Andecavi and Andegavi. D'Anville. — Cces. 
 
 2, Bell. Gall. c. 35. II. A village of Italy, 
 
 near Mantua, where Virgil was born, hence 
 Andinus. Ital. 8, v. 595. 
 
 Andriclus, I. a mountain of Cilicia. Strah, 
 
 14. II. A river of Troas, falling into the 
 
 Scamander. Plin. 5, c. 27. 
 
 Andros, an island in the vEgean Sea, known 
 by the different names of Epagrys, Antandros, 
 Lasia, Cauros, Hydrussa, Nonagria. Its chief 
 town was called Andros. It had a harbour 
 near which Bacchus had atemple, with a foun- 
 tain, whose waters during the ides of January, 
 tasted like wine. Ovid. Met. 13, v. 648— 
 Virg. JEn. 3, v. 80.— Juv. 3, v. 10.— Plin. 2. c. 
 103. — Mela, I and 2. The Andrians were com- 
 pelled by Xerxes to join his armament, and 
 were, therefore, after the termination of the war 
 in Greece, reduced to the situation of a depen- 
 dency by the Athenians. The modern name of 
 the island is Andro, and, "though very fertile, 
 it contains a population of less than 12,000. It 
 is well watered, and its mountains are covered 
 with forests." Herodot.— Thuc.—Malte-Brun. 
 
 Anelon, a river near Colophon. Paus. 8,c. 28. 
 
 Anemorea. Vid. Hyampolis. 
 
 Angites, a river of Thrace, falling into the 
 Strymon. Herodot. 7, c. 113. 
 
 Angli, a people of Germany, at the north of 
 the Elbe, from whom, as being a branch of the 
 Saxons, the English have derived their name. 
 Tacit. G. 40. They were not among those 
 people, by whom, in its decline, the Roman em- 
 
AN 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AN 
 
 pire was so frequently harassed. Writers of 
 those times confounded them generally with the 
 Chauci, Catti, and Cherusci, who dwelt on 
 either side of the Weser as far as the Elbe or 
 the Ems, and consequently west of the Cimbric 
 Chersonese, the eastern corner of which (now 
 Holstein), by the Little Belt and the gulf of 
 Lubeck, was inhabited by the Angli. In the 
 5th century they united with the Saxons in the 
 conquest of Britain, and settled themselves in 
 that part of the island which took from them 
 the name of East Anglia, Danv. — Heyl. Cosm. 
 — Thierry, Hist. Eng. 
 
 Anguitia, a wood in the country of the Mar- ■ 
 ci, between the lake Fucinus and Alba. Ser- 
 pents, it it said, could not injure the inhabitants, 
 because they were descended from Circe, whose 
 power over these venomous creatures has been 
 much celebrated. Sil. 8. — Virg. jEn. 7, v. 
 759. 
 
 Anicium, a town of Gaul. Cess. Bell. Gal. 7. 
 
 Anigrus, now the Sidero, a river of Elis, 
 which rises in the Lapitha mons of Arcadia, 
 and has no visible outlet. For want of a de- 
 scent to carry off the water, it forms into marsh- 
 es, the miasma from which infects the country 
 around it. In the time of Pausanias the whole 
 district as far as the source of the river, was 
 equally impregnated with this malaria. The 
 fable of the Centaurs having infected the waters 
 of this stream by washing in it the wounds in- 
 flicted by the poisoned arrows of Hercules, was 
 foimded upon this fact in the physical history 
 of the country. The river was nevertheless 
 supposed to possess medicinal properties, and to 
 De under the protection of the nymphs called 
 Anigriades. By some writers this river is 
 thought to be the Minyeius, which belongs to 
 he same region. Paus. — Horn. H. — Cram. 
 
 Anio, and Anien, now Teverone, a river of 
 Italy, flowing through the country of Tibur, and 
 falling into the river Tiber about five miles at 
 .he north of Rome. At Tibur the Anio forms 
 a cataract. This river was formerly made to 
 contribute water for the supply of the capitol. 
 This was first effected by M. Curius Dentatus, 
 the censor, A. U. C. 471, who defrayed the 
 undertaking with the spoils of Pyrrhus. The 
 aqueduct was called Anio Vetus. The Anio 
 Novus or Aqua Claudia, was an improvement 
 upon these old works made under the reign of 
 Claudian. Cram. — Stat. 1, Sylv. 3, v. 20. — Virg. 
 JSn. 7, V. %m.—Strab. b.—Horat. 1, od. 7, v. 13. 
 — Plut. de Fort. Rom. 
 
 Anop^a, a mountain and road near the river 
 As©pus. Herodot. 7, c. 216. 
 
 Ansibarh, a people of Germany, in the 
 neighbourhood of the Chauci, on the lefi; bank 
 of the Weser. Cluv. — Tacit. Ann. 13, v. 55. 
 
 Antandros, now St. Dimitri, a city of Troas, 
 inhabited by the Leleges, near which Mneas 
 built his fleet after the destruction of Troy. It 
 has been called Edonis, Cimmeris, Assos, and 
 Apollonia. There is a hill in its neighbourhood 
 called Alexandreia, where Paris sat, as some 
 suppose, when the three rival goddesses ap- 
 peared before him when contending for the prize 
 of beauty. Strab. 13.— Virg. JEn. 3, v. 6.— 
 Mela. 1, c. 18. 
 
 ANTEMNiE, a city of the Sabines on the Anio, 
 built by the Aborigines, or, according to Dion. 
 Hal. by the Siculi. This city was older than 
 
 Rome, and among those which first resorted to 
 arms upon the rape of the Sabine women. 
 Near this place the younger Manlius forfeited 
 his life by accepting the challenge of the gigan- 
 tic Gaul. Dion. Hal. — Virg. jEn. 7. — Liv. 1, 
 10, and 7, 6. 
 
 Anthedon, a city of Boeotia, which receives 
 its name from the flowery plains that surround 
 it. In this place was a temple of Proserpine, 
 and also of the most ancient of the deities of 
 Greece, the mysterious Cabiri. The inhabit- 
 ants were principally fishermen, and are said to 
 have pretended that they came from the marine 
 god Glaucus. Paus. — Dijcoph. — Cram. Gr. 
 
 Anthele, a small village between the Phoe- 
 nix, a stream that falls into the Azopus, and 
 Thermopylae. " Close to this spot," says Cra- 
 mer, " is the temple of Ceres, that of Amphic- 
 tyon, and the seat of the Amphictyons." Hero- 
 dot. 7, m).— Strab. l.—Paus. 
 ■ Anthems, the same as Samos. Strab. 10. 
 
 Anthemusia, a city of Mesopotamia, of com- 
 paratively recent date, as its name was borrowed 
 from that of the Macedonian Anthemus. Strab. 
 
 Anthene, a town of Argolis. Thucyd. 5, c. 41. 
 
 Anthropophagi, a people of Scythla that fed 
 on human flesh. They lived near the cotmtry 
 of the Messagetse. Plin. 4, c. 12, 1. 6, c. 30. — 
 Mela, 2, c. 1. 
 
 Anthylla, a city of Egypt, on the Canopic 
 mouth of the Nile. It maintained the queens 
 of the country in shoes, or, according to Athe- 
 ncsus 1, in girdles. Herodot. 2, c. 98. 
 
 Anticragus, a mountain of Lycia, opposite 
 Mount Cragus. Strab. 4. ' 
 
 Anticyra, two towns of Greece, the one in 
 Phocis, and the other near mount Oeta, both 
 famous for the hellebore which they produced. 
 This plant was of infinite service to cure dis- 
 eases, and particularly insanity ; hence the pro- 
 verb Naviget Anticyram. Paus. 10, c. 36. — 
 Persius, 4, v. 16. — Strab. 9. — Mela, 2, c. 3. — 
 Ovid. Pont. 4, ep. 3, v. 53. 
 
 Antigonia, I. an inland town of Epirus. 
 Plin. 4, c. 1. II. One of Macedonia, found- 
 ed by Antigonus, son of Gonatus. Id. 4, c. 10. 
 
 III. One in Syria, on the borders of the 
 
 Orontes. Strab. 16. IV. Another in Bi- 
 
 thjTiia, called also Nicsea. Id. 12. V. Ano- 
 ther in Arcadia, anciently called Mantinea. 
 
 Paus. 8, c. 8. VI. One of Troas in Asia 
 
 Minor. Strab. 13. 
 
 ANTmiBANUs, a mountain of Syria, opposite 
 mount Libanus, near which the Orontes flows. 
 Strab.— Plin. 5, c. 20. 
 
 Antiochia, Epi-Daphne, I. a city of Syria, 
 situated on the Orontes near its mouth, and 
 now called Antakia. It was commenced by 
 Antigonus, and from him called Antigonia; 
 but completed by Seleucus, after he had defeat- 
 ed Antigonus at the battle of Issus. It was 
 built near the ruins of an ancient city, called 
 (2 Kings) Ribbah, in the land of Hameth ; by 
 Josephus, Rablata. It was called Epi-Daphne 
 from its proximity to Daphne, which was lower 
 down on the Orontes, and at length formed a 
 suburb to the city. When the Christian reli- 
 gion became predominant, Antioch received the 
 name of Theopolis, or The Divine City. Here 
 the disciples were first called Christians. This 
 city was for many ages the royal seat of the 
 kings of Syria, and during the prosperity of the 
 27 
 
AN 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AO 
 
 Roman empire, the residence of the prefect of 
 the Eastern Province, and afterwards of the 
 Praefectus praetorio Orientis, whose jurisdiction 
 extended over Thrace, Asia, Pontus, and Egypt. 
 It was the residence of many of the Roman em- 
 perors, and also the seat of the patriarch. Af- 
 ter changing masters frequently during the holy 
 wars, it at length fell into the hands of Saladin, 
 and thenceforth rapidly declined. Though al- 
 most depopulated, a great part of the ancient 
 walls still remain as a monument of its former 
 grandeur. Heylin. — D'Anville. — 2 Kings, 23, 
 
 33.— Acts, 11, 26. II. A city called also Ni- 
 
 sibis, in Mesopotamia, built by Seleucus, son 
 
 of Antiochus. III. The capital of Pisidia, 
 
 92 miles at the east of Ephesus. IV. A city 
 
 on mount Cragus. V. Another near the river 
 
 Tigris, 25 leagues from Seleucia, on the west. 
 VI. Another in Margiana, called Alexan- 
 dria and Seleucia. VII. Another near mount 
 
 Taurus, on the confines of Syria. VIII. An- 
 other of Caria, on the river Meander. 
 
 Antiparos, a small island in the JEgean Sea, 
 opposite Paros, from which it is about six miles 
 distant. 
 
 Antipatris, a city of Samaria, built by He- 
 rod in memory of his father Antipater, 15 
 miles distant from Lydda, and 26 from Caesa- 
 rea. The village which existed before the 
 Duilding of the city on the same spot, was 
 called Chabarzaha. 
 
 Antiphili pgrtds, a harbour on the African 
 side of the Red Sea. Strah. 16. 
 
 Antipolis, a city of Gaul, built by the peo- 
 ple of Marseilles. Tacit. 2, Hist. c. 15. 
 
 Antirrhium, a promontory of ^Etolia, oppo- 
 site Rhium in Peloponnesus, whence the name. 
 It was also called Rhium jiEtolicum, and Rhi- 
 um Molycrium. Together with the promonto- 
 ry of Rhium on the Achaian coast, it closed the 
 Sinus Corinthiacus upon the west, allowing but 
 a passage of about a mile in width, through 
 which the waters of this gulf pass into the Si- 
 nus Patrae. On the ^Etolian side stood a tem- 
 ple of Neptune, and on both are now erected 
 fortresses, whence, according to D'Anville, 
 their present name of the Dardanelles of Le- 
 panto, Strai). 8. — Thucyd. — Cram. Gr. 
 
 Antitaurus, one of the branches of mount 
 Taurus, which runs in a north-east direction 
 through Cappadocia, towards Armenia and the 
 Euphrates. 
 
 Antium, a maritime town of Italy, built by 
 Ascanius, or, according to others, by a son of 
 Ulysses and Circe, upon a promontory 32 miles 
 from Ostium. It was the capital of the Volsci, 
 who made war against the Romans for above 
 200 years. Camillus took it, and carried all the 
 beaks of their ships to Rome, and placed them 
 in the forum on a tribunal, which from ihence 
 was called Rostrum. Horat. 1, od. 35. — Liv. 
 8, c. 14. The town itself (now Anzo) had no 
 harbour ; but all its maritime and naval af- 
 fairs were conducted by means of the neigh- 
 bouring port Ceno. Antium and the Antiates 
 occupy a considerable space in the history of 
 Rome. From this city Coriolanus marched 
 against this country to punish the ingratitude 
 of his countrymen; and here the Roman Se- 
 nate conferred on Augustus the prostituted title 
 of father of his country. Several of the em- 
 perors in later days made Antium their resi- 
 28 
 
 dence, and Nero was bom within its walls. It 
 did not lay aside its hostility to Rome, notwith- 
 standing the frequent Roman colonies that set- 
 tled there, till the privileges of citizenship being 
 awarded to its inhabitants, it seemed rather to 
 share than to be subject to the Roman power 
 and empire. Its magnificence and taste are at- 
 tested by the remains of antiquity, and particu- 
 larly by the Apollo Belvidere discovered among 
 its perishing remains. Dion. Hal. 9, 56. — Suet. 
 — Cram. Gr. 
 
 Antonia, a castle of Jerusalem, which re- 
 ceived this name in honour of M. Antony, It 
 *was Herod, who, having fortified this castle so 
 that a whole legion might be defended within 
 it, assigned to it the name of Antonia in com- 
 pliment to Antony. 
 
 Antoniopolis, a city of Mesopotamia. Mar- 
 cell. 8. 
 
 Anxur, called also Tarracina, a city of the 
 Volsci, taken by the Romans, A. U. C. 348. 
 Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v. 26. Lucan. 3. v. 84. Virg. 
 JEn. 7, V. 799. 
 
 Anydros, one of the two summits of mount 
 Hymettus, sometimes called also the Dry Hy- 
 mettus. 
 
 Anzabas, a river of Assyria near the Tigris. 
 Marcel. 18. 
 
 AoNEs, the inhabitants of Aonia, called af- 
 terwards Bceotia. They were probably ante- 
 rior to that which is called the arrival of Cad- 
 mus, and may have been a branch of the primi- 
 tive tribes of semi-barbarians who occupied the 
 countries of Greece, even at that period with 
 which the received traditions of history com- 
 mence. The muses have been called Aonides, 
 because Aonia was more particularly frequent- 
 ed by them. Paus. 9, c. 3. — Ovid. Met. 3, 7, 
 10, 13. Trist. el. 5, v. 10. Fast. 3, v. 456, 1. 
 4. V. 245.— Hr^. G. 3, v. 11. 
 
 AoNiA, one of the ancient names of Boeotia. 
 
 AoRNOS, Aornus, Aornis, I. a town of India, 
 situate upon a high and almost inaccessible rock 
 near the springs of the Indus, towards the bor- 
 ders of Bactriana the present Cabul, and at the 
 base of that part of the Asiatic range of moun- 
 tains called by the ancients the Taurus, which, 
 with the name of Embodi, stretched to the north- 
 east and separated India from the nearer Scy- 
 thia. This town cost Alexander great pains 
 in its reduction, which, perhaps, would not have 
 been of such pressing importance to him, but 
 for the tradition which excited his vanity in re- 
 porting that Hercules himself had been foiled 
 in the attempt to accomplish the taking of the 
 place. According to D'Anville it is now Tche- 
 
 hin-kot, or Renas. II. Another, in Bactriana, 
 
 near the source of the Oxus, also taken by 
 Alexander. Its modern name is TeLchan. Arr. 
 — D'Anville. 
 
 AoTJs, or iEAs, now the Voioussa, a river of 
 Illyria, which rises in the Pindus chain of 
 mountains, and, passing by Apollonia, empties 
 into the Adriatic Sea, not far from the island of 
 Saso. The river crosses the defiles of Kleissoura 
 the ancient Aoi Stena. " The situation of this 
 town is singular in the extreme. It lies at a 
 considerable height up the mountain, which is 
 a rock totally bare of cultivation, and above it 
 appears a large fortress, built upon the very edge 
 of a precipice more than 1000 feet in perpendi- 
 cular height. Looking down, we beheld the 
 
AP 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AP 
 
 Aous still chafing its channel between two tre- 
 mendous walls of Rock, which scarcely leave 
 room for the river and the narrow road that rmis 
 along its side." Pouqueville informs us that 
 the flames which, according to the ancients, 
 used to issue in the midst of streams and ver- 
 dant meadows from extensive beds of fossil 
 pitch at the confluence of the Aous and the Sa- 
 chista are at present very rare. Vid. Nymphd- 
 um. Aristot. — Strab. — Hughes. — Malte-Brun. 
 
 Apamia, or Apamea, now Amphio7i Kara- 
 hisar, a city of Phrygia in Asia Minor, situate 
 either on the Meander, at its confluence with 
 the Marsyas, or in that immediate region. Its 
 ancient designation of Cibotos, a coffer, was ap- 
 plied to it from the quantity of wares which 
 were deposited and collected there to be exported 
 from Asia Minor, or to be distributed through 
 that peninsula. It was, next to Ephesus, the most 
 commercial city lying between the Mediterra- 
 nean, the Euxine, and the^gean seas. " Its 
 modern name, signifying the Black Castle of 
 Opium, justifies the belief," says D'Anville, 
 " that this narcotic is there prepared." Apamea 
 was not a very ancient city, having been found- 
 ed by Antiochus Soter (who named it after his 
 mother), on the ruin of the more ancient Celae- 
 
 nse.- Another, the earlier name of which was 
 
 Myrlea, in Bithynia. A third, in Syria, of 
 
 which it was a principal city. It was situated 
 between the Orontes and a little lake, and there 
 it is said that Seleucus Nicator fed his elephants 
 of war, the number of which was no less than 
 
 500. Strab.— Plin.—D'Anv. Of Media. 
 
 Mesopotamia. Another near the Tigris. 
 
 Aparni, a nation of shepherds near the Cas- 
 pian Sea. Strab. 
 
 Apelaurus mons, a hill in the Stymphalian 
 territory, where Philip defeated theEleansand 
 ^tolians. It was about a mile from the city 
 of Stymphalus. Polyb. 
 
 ApENNiNus,a ridge of high mountains through 
 the middle of Italy, "branching ofl" from the 
 maritime Alps in the neighbourhood of Genoa, 
 running diagonally from the Ligurian Sea to the 
 Adriatic in the vicinity of Ancona, and from 
 thence continuing nearly parallel with the latter 
 sea as far as the promontory of Gargano. From 
 this point it again inclines to the Mare Infe- 
 rum, tni it terminates in the promontory of Leu- 
 copetranear Rhegium." Cram. It. Some have 
 supposed that they ran across Sicily by Rhe- 
 gium, before Italy was separated from Sicily, 
 iMcan, % V. 306.— Ovi^. Met. 2. v. 22e.—Ital. 
 4, V. lid.—Strab. 2.— Mela, 2, c. 4. 
 
 Aphaca, a town of Palestine, where Venus 
 was worshipped, and where she had a temple 
 and an oracle. 
 
 Aphar, a city of Arabia Felix, the Saphar 
 of Ptolemy and Pliny. From the latter form 
 the Sapphoritse derive their name. 
 
 ApHETiE, a part of Thessaly, according to 
 Herod. 80 stadia distant from Artemisium, 
 though Strabo places it near lolchos. From 
 this port the Argonauts are said to have set sail. 
 Xerxes' fleet was stationed here previous to the 
 engagements ofl" Artemisium. It is now Fetio. 
 Cram. 
 
 Aphrodisias, now Gheira, a town of Caria, 
 jiacred to Venus. Tacit. Ann. 3, c. 62. 
 
 Aphrodisium, I. a town in the eastern part 
 of the island of Cyprus, to the north of Sal amis, 
 
 from which it is distant 70 stadia. II. A 
 
 temple of Venus, on the promontory at the 
 south-east extremity of the Pyrenees, and on 
 the common boundary of Spain and Gaul. It 
 
 is also called Venus Pyrenaea. III. Another 
 
 in Latium, common to the Latins, situated 
 probably between Ardea and Antium. Cram. 
 
 Aphytis, a town of the peninsula Pallene, 
 mentioned by Herodotus and Thucydides as 
 next to Potidsea. Here was a celebrated tem- 
 ple of Bacchus, to which Agesipolis king of 
 Sparta, was removed shortly before his death. 
 Lysander besieged the town ; but the god of the 
 place appeared to him in a dream, and advised 
 him to raise the siege,which he immediately did. 
 Theophrastus, who speaks of its vineyards, 
 makes the name Aphyte, as also Strabo. Cram. 
 —Herodot. 7, 123.— Thucyd. 1, 64. 
 
 Apia, an ancient name of Peloponnesus, 
 which it received from Apis, sop of Apollo, ac- 
 cording to iEschylus, or from ar Argive chief, 
 son of Phoroneus. 
 
 Apidanus, now the Vlacho lani, described 
 by Herodotus as the largest river of Achaia, 
 though its waters were insuflicient to supply the 
 Persian army. It joins the Enipeus near 
 Pharsalus, and flows with it into the Pe- 
 neus. Cram. — Herodot. 7, 197. 
 
 Apina, and Apin^, a city of Apulia, destroy- 
 ed with Trica, in its neighbourhood, by Dio- 
 medes ; whence came the proverb oi Apina and 
 Trica, to express trifling things. Martial. 14 
 ep.l.— PZm. 3, c.ll. 
 
 Aptola, and Apiol^, a city of the Latins, 
 in the territory of Setia, said to have b een taken 
 and burned by Tarquinius Priscus, and to have 
 furnished from its spoils the sums necessary for 
 the construction of the Circus Maximus. Ac- 
 cording to Corradini, the name of Valle Apiole 
 is given in old writings to a tract of countr)' 
 situated between Sezza and Piperno. Cram.— 
 Dion. Hal. 3, 49.— iit?. 1, 35. 
 
 Apollinis Arx, I. a place at the entrance of 
 
 the Sybil's cave. Virg. Mn. 6. II. Pro- 
 
 montorium, a promontory of Africa, hiv. 30, 
 
 c. 24. III. Templum, a place in Thrace. 
 
 IV. In Lycia. Mlian. V. H. 6, c. 3. 
 
 Apollonia, I. a town of Illyria, near the 
 mouth of the jEasor Aous, a celebrated colony 
 of Corinth and Corcyra. Its laws, commended 
 by Strabo for their wisdom, were framed rather 
 on the Spartan than the Corinthian model. 
 Pyrrhus is said to have contemplated the idea of 
 throwing a bridge over the Hadriatic from Apol- 
 lonia to the Apulian port Hydrus. Augustus 
 spent many years of his early life, which were 
 devoted to literature and philosophy, in this 
 city. The ruins of the ancient town still bear 
 the name of Pollina, but are very inconsider- 
 able. Cram. — Strab. — Scymn. ch. 438. — Scy- 
 lax. — jElian. Var. Hist. 13, 16. — Aristot. Po- 
 lite, L—Thuc. 1, 26.—Diod. Sic. 18.—Pli7i. 
 
 3, 11.— Siiet. II. A town of Mygdonia. 
 
 III. Of Crete. IV. Of Sicily V. 
 
 On the coast of Asia Minor. VI. Another 
 
 on the coast of Thrace, part of which was 
 built on a small island of Pontus, where Apollo 
 
 had a temple. VII. A city of Thrace. 
 
 VIII. Another on mount Parnassus. 
 
 Aponus, now Abano, a fountain, with a vil- 
 lage of the same name, near Patavium in Italy. 
 The waters of the fountain, which Avere hot, 
 29 
 
ACl 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Aa 
 
 were wholesome, and were supposed to have an 
 oracular power. Lmcan. 7, v. 194. — Suet, in 
 Tiber. 14. 
 
 Appia Via. Vid. Via. 
 
 Apsinthii. Vid. Absynthii . 
 
 Apsus, a river of Macedonia, falling into the 
 Ionian Sea between Dyrrachium and ApoUo- 
 nia. It is now the Crevasta, and was rendered 
 famous by the military operations of Caesar 
 and Pompey upon its banks. LMcan, 5, v. 46. 
 
 Aptera, an inland town of Crete. Ptol. — 
 Plin, 4, c. 12. 
 
 Apulia, now Puglia, a country of Magna 
 Graecia in the south of Italy. If this portion of 
 country received its name, as historians believe, 
 from the Apuli who early established themselves 
 there, it very soon extended itself, with the name 
 of Apulia, beyond the little territory occupied by 
 that obscure people. In the time of Augustus, 
 it comprehended all the region that lay between 
 Samnium and Lucania on the west, and the 
 Adriatic on the east, having for its northern 
 boundary the Tifernus, and terminating on the 
 south in the lapygian promontory, on either 
 side of which was the Adriatic or the Tarentine 
 gulf This tract of country was divided into 
 Messapia, or, as the Greeks denominated it, la- 
 pygia, Peucetia, and Daunia. The last of these 
 may be considered the proper Apulia, at least as 
 far as from the Tifernus, which separated it from 
 the Ager Frentanus, to the Lacus Urianus. 
 Within these narrow bounds the Apuli were 
 limited, and the rest of Daunia seems to have 
 had no greater right to the name of Apulia than 
 had Peucetia and Messapia. The Calabri 
 sometimes gave their name to the southern part 
 of Messapia, which was called from them Ca- 
 labria. The Greek historians extended the 
 name of lapygia so £is to make it coextensive 
 with the Apulia of the Latins in its greatest 
 width. This distinction in the use of the names 
 of Apulia and lapygium should be constantly in 
 the mind of the reader of Roman history. Apu- 
 lia was the scene of many contests between the 
 Romans and the Samnites in the early days of 
 the former people ; and after the fatal battle at 
 Cannae the Apulians took part with the Cartha- 
 ginians. After long and patient remonstrance, 
 the Apuli obtained from the Roman senate the 
 declaration of their civil and municipal rights. 
 Strab. — Plin. — Liv. — Polyb.— App. — Cram. 
 It. It was famous for its \^ools, superior to 
 all the produce of Italy. Some suppose that 
 it is called after Apulus, an ancient king of the 
 coimtry before the Trojan war. Plin. 3, c. 11. 
 Cic. de Div. 1. c. A^.— Strab. 6.— Mela, 2, c. 4. 
 — Martial, in Apoph. 155. 
 
 AauA Ferentina, a stream and a spring 
 near the ancient Bovillae, " distinguished in the 
 early annals of Latium as the place where the 
 confederate Latin cities assembled in council." 
 Cram. Gr. 
 
 Aquilaria, a place of Africa. Cces. 2, Bell. 
 Civ. 23. 
 
 Aquileia, or AauiLEGu, a celebrated city of 
 Venetia, between the Alsa and the Natiso, some 
 distance from the coast, at the head of the Adri- 
 atic. It was built by a party of Gauls about 
 187 B.C., and almost immediately fell into the 
 hands of the Romans. In the time of Caesar 
 it had become of the greatest importance as a 
 military post, and was, indeed, the " bulwark of 
 
 Italy on its north-eastern frontier." All the 
 trade of Italy with the Illyrians and Pannonians 
 passed through this place ; and, as it was situ- 
 ate near the easy passage of the Julian Alps, 
 and by this means in direct communication with 
 the Save, the intercourse with all the nations 
 with which the Romans were not at war, be- 
 tween the Adriatic and the Danube, was ren • 
 dered free to the Aquileienses. It successfully 
 resisted the assault of Maximinianus, who, in 
 the later days of the empire, sought to gain pos- 
 session of it; but it was unable to resist the 
 strength of Attila, and was conquered and sack- 
 ed by that barbarian. Ausonius had assigned 
 it the rank of the ninth city of the whole em- 
 pire. It is supposed that some change has taken 
 place in the bed of the Natiso, which has left 
 the site of Aquileia different from what it was 
 in former times as regards its proximity to the 
 banks of that river. The modern town, which 
 stands near the ruins of the old, has assumed 
 the name of Aquileia. Strab, — Herodian.- 
 Plin. — Aus. — Cram. It. 
 
 AauiLONiA. There were two towns of this 
 name in Samnium, one on the borders of Apulia, 
 now Lancedogua, and the other situate at the 
 source of the Trinius, east of Samnium. It was 
 here that the consecrated army of the Samnites 
 encamped to make a last mighty, but, as it 
 proved, an unavailing effort against the ambi- 
 tious power of Rome. Liv. 10, c. 38. 
 
 Aquinum, a town of Latium. on the borders 
 of the Samnites, where Juvenal was bom. A 
 dye was invented there which greatly resembled 
 the real purple. Horat. 1, ep. 10, v. 27. — 
 Strab.— Ital. 8, v. 4Q^.—Jnv. 3, v. 319. 
 
 Aquitania, a third of Gaul as described in 
 the commentaries of Caesar. It extended from 
 the Pyrenaei montes on the south, as far as the 
 Garumna (the Garonne') upon the north, and 
 from the Gallic ocean, now Bay of Biscay, on 
 the west, to Gallia Provincia or Narbonensis on 
 the east. This, though by no means one third 
 of Gaul in extent of surface, was considered to 
 constitute that proportion in population, and 
 still more in importance. On the establishment 
 of the empire by Augustus, when all his vast 
 dominions were divided again in accordance 
 with his views, Aquitania was continued from 
 the Garonne to the Loire, which formed the 
 half of its eastern limits as well as the whole of 
 its boundary upon the north. At a still later 
 period, another division of this district of coun- 
 try was made. The original Aquitania, with a 
 small addition on the north, was called Novem 
 Populana ; and the country on that side of the 
 Garonne was divided into Aquitania prima on 
 the east, and Aquitania secunda on the wesi 
 and bordering on the ocean. Aquitania prima 
 was an important part of Gaul long before it 
 assumed that name, and many centuries before 
 the christian era, was formed into a regular mo- 
 narchy. Its capital was first Avaricum, after 
 which it took the name of the principal inhabi- 
 tants, the Bituriges. It is now the city of Bour- 
 ses. The capital of Aquitania secunda was 
 Burdegala, Bourdeaux; and many modern 
 names of that part of France are manifest modi- 
 fications of those of the ancient inhabitants, as 
 the province of Saintonge from the Santones. 
 Aquitania proper, or Novem Populana, was 
 overrun by the Vascons in the ruin of the em- 
 
AR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AR 
 
 pire, and that part of France which is called 
 Gascony still bears their name ; while the pro- 
 vince of ChiieuTie upon its north still seems, as 
 D Anville thinks, to preserve something of the 
 former Aquitaine. 
 
 Arabia, a large country of Asia. Its situa- 
 tion and boundaries are thus given by Malte- 
 Brun. " It occupies an intermediate position 
 between the rest of Asia and Africa. Its south- 
 east boundary forms a part of the shore of the 
 Indian ocean. On the opposite side it is bound- 
 ed by Syria, by which it is separated from the 
 Mediterranean. On the north-east its variable 
 limits follow very much the course of the Eu- 
 phrates. From Persia it is separated by the 
 Persian gulf From Egypt and Abyssinia in 
 Africa, by the Arabian gulf or Red Sea." " An 
 important datum for the determination of Arabia 
 is contained in the statement that ' the Arabian 
 chain of mountains from west to CEist measures 
 iwo months' journey, (i. e. 12,000 stadia,) from 
 the edge of the valley of the Nile, to the region 
 of frankincense.' I say from the edge of the 
 valley of the Nile, because the gulf is considered 
 as inland, and not as a boundary of the country. 
 But according to this, the region of frankincense 
 cannot reach farther south than Upper Egypt, 
 which does not agree with the former statement 
 on the extension of Arabia to the south. It 
 may be, moreover, remarked, that no blame can 
 be attached to Herodotus for considering the 
 whole of Arabia as mountainous as Arabia 
 Petraea and the chain of mountains between the 
 Nile and. the Arabian gulf were alone known 
 to him." Niebuhr. g. The ancient division of 
 the peninsula, which in part originated with 
 Ptolemy, was into Arabia Petraea, Arabia Fe- 
 lix, and Arabia Deserta. The first of these 
 extended from the confines of Judse to the 
 Arabic gulf, and towards the west it bordered 
 on Egypt. The part that touched on Judae 
 was called Idumea. It was added by Trajan to 
 Palestine, and formed afterwards a province 
 apart, by the name of the third Palestine. 
 Through the deserts of this part of Arabia the 
 Israelites accomplished their miraculous pas- 
 sage ; and here arose the mountains of Horeb 
 and Sinai. South of the Stony Arabia was 
 Arabia Felix, bounded on the east by the Arabic 
 gulf, and on the south by the Erythrean Sea. 
 A great part of this portion of Arabia is now 
 called Yemen, a name analogous, in some mea- 
 sure, to that of Felix which it bore among the 
 Greeks and Latins. Its principal inhabitants 
 were the Sabsei ; but at a later period the in- 
 habitants of the southern coast, including the 
 SabaBi, were called Homeritge. In this region 
 are the more modem cities of Mecca and Me- 
 dina on the Sinus Arabicus. The ancients also 
 included the western shore of the Persian gulf 
 in the happy Arabia, confining Arabia Deserta 
 to the region lying between Syria and Babylon 
 south of the Euphrates. At a later period, all 
 this, confining Arabia Felix within narrow 
 bounds on the Arabian gulf, was considered to 
 belong to the barren Arabia. A small tribe in- 
 habiting, or rather wandering through,-a portion 
 of this district east of Arabia Petraea, were called 
 Saraceni by Pliny and Ptotemy, who were the 
 first that mention them, and gave its origin to 
 the wide empire of the Saracens in Asia, Eu- 
 rope, and Africa. The people of Arabia are of 
 
 two distinct races, the later of which descends 
 from Ishmael, and the earlier from Jectan or 
 Kaptan ; and these are the genuine Arabs, dis- 
 tinguished from the Ishmaelites in their mode of 
 life no less than in their origin. The nomadic 
 habits of the latter are proverbial ; but the de- 
 scendants of Jectan early formed themselves into 
 communities, and lived under the protection of 
 laws and the authority of kings. Arabia has 
 never been absolutely subdued by any of the 
 powerful empires that surrounded it. Alexan- 
 der failed to make it the centre of his dominion, 
 and the Roman authority was partially felt and 
 not widely diffused in this peninsula. Under 
 the Caliphs it formed a brilliant empire ; litera- 
 ture, science, and the arts flourished among its 
 inhabitants, but they have returned to their 
 nomadic habits, and now are, generally, but in 
 the second stage, not of civilized life, but of the 
 rudest society. Plin. — Ptol. — Arr. — D^ Anville. 
 — Malte-Brun. — Herodot. 1, 2, 3, and Diod. X 
 and 2. — Plin. 12 and 14. — Strab. 16. — Xenoph. 
 
 Arabicus Sinus, the Arabian Gulf, or Red 
 Sea. An arm of the sea lying between Egypt 
 on the west and Arabia on the east. The Red 
 Sea does not answer to the Mare Rubrum of 
 the ancient geographers, which lay between the 
 Indian peninsula and the coasts of Africa and 
 Arabia. " It occupies," says Malte-Brun, " a 
 deep cavity, which receives no riv^, and pre- 
 sents the appearance of an ancient strait which 
 once united the Indian ocean and the Mediter- 
 ranean, and which has been filled up at its 
 northern extremity. It is filled with sunken 
 rocks, sand-banks, &c. which allow but little 
 space for free navigation. The name of Red 
 Sea seems to be derived from Edom of Idumea, 
 which also signifies red." Plin. 5, c. \\.—Slrah. 
 
 Arabis, Arabius, Arbis, a river, which run- 
 ning nearly parallel with the Indus, separates 
 India from Gedrosia, the south-eastern pro- 
 vince of Persia. It emptied into the Erythrean, 
 now the Arabian Sea. The borders of this river 
 were inhabited by a people from whom it took, 
 or to whom, perhaps, it communicated, its 
 name. Arr. 
 
 Aracca, and Arecca, a city of Susiana, on 
 the eastern side of the Tigris. " It attracts the 
 attention of the learned," says D'Anville, "by 
 reason of the aflinity in its name with that of 
 Erech, mentioned in the Old Testament among 
 the cities constructed by Nimrod." Tibul. 4, 
 1. — D^ Anville. 
 
 Arachn^eus mons, I. a mountain of Argolis, 
 mentioned by jEschylus as the last station of 
 the telegraphic fire by which the news of the 
 capture of Troy was transmitted to Mycenae. 
 The modern name is Sophico. Cram. — Agam. 
 299. II. A city of Thessaly. 
 
 Arachosia, a province of Asia, bounded on 
 the north by the Paropamisus chain, on the east 
 by the mountains which form the western limit 
 of India, on the south by Gedrosia, and on the 
 west by Drangiana. Its capital, Arachotus, is 
 named Rockhage, and the country Mrockhage. 
 Chaussard. — D'Anville. 
 
 ARACHTmjs, or ARACTmjs, or Arethan, a 
 river of Epirus, which rises in the part of the 
 chain of Pindus belonging to the Tymphaei, and 
 flowing in a southerly direction, empties into 
 the Ambracius Sinus near Ambracia. As the 
 Arachthus, according to Lycophron, was consi- 
 31 
 
AR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AR 
 
 dered the boundary of Greece on this side, and 
 Ambracia was accounted a city of Grsecia Pro- 
 
 Eria, it must have been situated upon the left 
 ank of the river. That the Arachthas w£is a 
 considerable stream may be inferred from Livy, 
 who relates that Perseus, king of Macedon, was 
 detained on its banks by high floods in his way 
 to Acarnania. Cram. — Liv. 43, 21. 
 
 Aracynthus, I. a chain of mountains run- 
 ning in a south-easterly direction from the Ache- 
 lous to the Evenus, by Pliny and other writers 
 ascribed to Acarnania ; but by Strabo and Dio- 
 nysius Periegetes, to jEtolia. Its present name 
 
 is mount Zigos. II. Another in BcEotia, 
 
 whence Minerva is called Aracijnthia. Cram. 
 Aradus, a city of Phoenicia, which formed, 
 in very ancient times, an independent state. 
 This city was built upon a rock at some distance 
 from the coast, and was, perhaps, at one period 
 the third in magnitude and importance in the 
 country. The modern name is Ruad. The 
 rock upon which it stood was so steep that the 
 houses seemed to be built one on the top of the 
 other. Mela., 2, 7. — Vass. ad Mel. 
 
 A.B.m PmL^NORUM, I. altars erected by the 
 Carthaginians near the Syrtis Major, on the 
 common boundary of Cyrenaica and the terri- 
 tory of Carthage, in commemoration of the ge- 
 nerous self-devotion of the Philaeni. Pliny 
 says they were of sand, and in Strabo's time 
 they had ceased to exist. The surrounding 
 region, however, retained the name. Sallust. 
 
 Jug. 19, 79. — Plin. 5, 4. II. Rocky islands, 
 
 off the Carthaginian coast, 230 stadia from the 
 city, now called by the natives Zowamoore, and 
 laid down in charts under the name of Zim- 
 bra. They were anciently called ^gimurus. 
 The name of Arae Servius traces to the circum- 
 stance of the Romans and Carthaginians hav- 
 ing made peace there, and having fixed the 
 islands as the limits of their respective domi- 
 nions. But, according to Livy, a truce was 
 broken here, not peace made ; and in Polybius, 
 the limits of empire are otherwise established. 
 Some confound the islands in question with the 
 iEgates, which lay off Lilyboeum in Sicily. 
 
 Heyne, ^n. Exc. 4, lib. 1. III. An early 
 
 name of the little state of Phlius, which may be 
 referred to Argolis, since Homer represents it 
 as dependent on the kingdom of Mycenae. 
 Cram.— 11. B. 509. 
 
 Arar, a river of Gallia Celtica, which rises 
 in mount Vogesus, and flows into the Rhone 
 near lyyons, forming in its course the line of 
 separation between the JEdui and Sequani. 
 Ammianus Marcellinus first called it Sacona ; 
 whence the Sancona of later writers and the 
 French Saone. It flows with such incredible 
 slowness that the eye cannot distinguish the 
 direction of its current ; whence Pliny calls it 
 the " sluggish river." Cess. L^maire. 
 
 Arbages, I. a name given to several rivers 
 of antiquity, supposed by D'Anville to be used 
 as an appellative term. In the Anabasis of 
 Xenophon it is applied to the Mcsopotamian 
 
 Chaboras, Al-Khabow,. D'Anville. II. A 
 
 river which rises in mount Abus, and flowing 
 through Armenia past mount Ararat, holds its 
 course easterly to the Caspian, into which it 
 empties, having previously, according to Pliny 
 and others, fornted a junction with the Cyrus. 
 It is now the Arras. Chavssard. -III. The 
 
 same name is also applied to the Rha of Ptole- 
 my, the modern Volga. Chaussard. — IV. 
 Otherwise called the Oroatis, Arois, and Ares, 
 a river which serves as the boundary between 
 Persis and Susiana. It was composed of many 
 mountain torrents. It is now the Bendemir. 
 Chaussard. 
 
 Arbela, (orum,) the principal town of the 
 Assyrian province Adiabene, situated between 
 the rivers Lycus and Caprus, and still existing 
 under the name of Esbil. The final victory of 
 Alexander over Darius has rendered this place 
 famous, though the actual place of battle was at 
 Gaugamela, nearer to the Tigris, and on the 
 opposite side of the Zab to Arbela. D'Anville. 
 Arcadia, I. " a province of Peloponnesus, oc- 
 cupying the central part, and enclosed on all 
 sides by lofty mountains. On the north it is 
 separated from Achaia by the elevated summit 
 of mount Cyilene, extending from the borders 
 of Phliasia in Argolis to the chains of Eryman- 
 thus, Scollis, and Pholoe, on the confines of Elis. 
 From this point another ridge forms the western 
 boundary, dividing Arcadia from the latter pro- 
 vince and Triphylia, and uniting on the right 
 bank of the Neda and on the confines of Mes- 
 senia with those mountains which form the 
 southern belt of Arcadia ; these, under the names 
 of Lycseus, Cerausius, and Maenalus, run from 
 east to west along the Messenian and Laconian 
 frontiers as far as the bordeis of Argolis and 
 Cynuria, where they join mount Parthenius. 
 This last mountain, together with Artemisium, 
 closes the periphery of the province on the east- 
 ern frontier, by reuniting itself with the Stym- 
 phalian hills and the more elevated range of 
 Cyilene. Within this great quadrangular ba- 
 sin other secondary ridges branch off, and inter- 
 sect each other in various directions, forming 
 several minor valleys, the waters of which, how- 
 ever, all finally discharge themselves into the 
 Alpheus before it enters the Elean territory. 
 Arcadia was, next to Laconia, the largest and 
 most populous province of the Peloponnesus." 
 The Arcadians had remained in quiet posses- 
 sion of their country from time immemorial ; 
 whence their claim to an antiquity which ex- 
 ceeded that of the moon. Pelasgus was said to 
 have been their first king. In the time of Ho- 
 mer they were united under one chief; subse- 
 quently, till after the battle of Leuctra and the 
 buildin g of Megalopolis, they were mere soldiers 
 of fortune. The Theban policy of convening 
 a general council at Megalopolis, and thus 
 uniting the whole people, had the effect of 
 checking the power of Lacedaemon. After- 
 wards Arcadia became connected with the 
 Achaean league, of which Megalopolis was the 
 chief city after the death of Aratus. In Stra- 
 bo's time the principal cities of this province 
 had fallen into decay. Its natural resources 
 consisted chiefly in its rich pastures. Cram. 
 
 II. A town of Crete, north-east of Gortys 
 
 Its ruins are now named Arcadioti. 
 
 Arcanum, the name of a villa belonging lo 
 Cl. Cicero, between Arpinum and Aqninura. 
 It was so called from being situated near an 
 ancient city named Arx. Cram. 
 
 Archippe, a city of the Marsi, destroyed by 
 an earthquake, and lost in the lake of Fucinus. 
 Plin. 3, c. 19. 
 Ardea, formerly Ardua, a to^^n of Latium, 
 
AR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AR 
 
 built by Danae, or, according to some, by a son 
 of Ulysses and Circe. It was the capital of the 
 Rutuli, and was situated about three miles from 
 the sea. Strabo informs us that the country 
 about Ardea was marshy, and the climate there- 
 fore unhealthy. Ardea was colonized by the 
 Romans, and Menenius Agrippa was one of the 
 triumvirs M'ho led the colony. It was again co- 
 lonized under the emperor Hadrian. This cj.ty 
 at an early period contributed to the foundation 
 of Saguntmn in Spain. The ruins still bear 
 the name Ardea. Tarquin the Proud was 
 pressing it with a siege when iiis son ravished 
 Lucretia. A road, called Ardeatina, branched 
 from the Appian road to Ardea. Cram. — C. 
 Nep. in Attic. U.—Liv. 1, c. 57, 1. 3, c. 71, 1. 
 4, c. 9, &.~(i.— Virg jEii. 7, v. ^\±—Ovid. Met. 
 14, V. bl'i.—Strab. 5. 
 
 Arduenna, now Ardenne^ a large forest of 
 Gaul in the time of J. Caesar, which extended 
 50 miles from the Rhine to the borders of the 
 Nervii. Tacit. 8, Ann. c. 42.— C^s. Bell. Gall. 
 6, c. 29. 
 
 Arelatum, now Aries, a town in that part of 
 Gallia Narbonensis which bore the name of 
 Viennensis. Thither the emperor Honorius 
 transferred the seat of the prajtorian prefecture 
 of Gaul, when Treves, sacked by the barba- 
 rians, was no longer in a state to maintain this 
 pre-eminence. A little above Aries the Rlione 
 divides itself into two arms, to forin two princi- 
 pal mouths called Gradus, now Les Grans du 
 Rhone. D'Anville. 
 
 Areopagus, or the Hill of Mars. This emi- 
 nence, Avhich rose in the city of Athens a short 
 distance north-west of the Acropolis, derived 
 its name from the m}^hological tradition Avhich 
 reported that Mars "had been the first culprit 
 arraigned upon this spot, thenceforward sacred 
 to justice. At a period comparatively late, this 
 court was roofed in and otherwise enclosed; but 
 for a long time after it had been consecrated 
 to the trial and adjudication of criminal cases, it 
 was but an open space, in which were two rude 
 seats for the accused and his accuser, with an 
 altar dedicated to Minerva, the tutelar deity of 
 the Athenians. In the immediate vicinity was 
 the temple of the furies alluded to in the Eu- 
 menides of jEschylus and the CEdipus at Co- 
 lonos, of Sophocles. Pans. — Att. — jE&ch. 
 
 Arethusa, I. a fountain, now dry, in the 
 island of Ortygia near Syracuse. It was neces- 
 sary to defend this fountain from the sea, with 
 which it would have been confounded but for a 
 stone wall that protected it. Here it was that 
 the poets fabled the river god Alpheus to have 
 overtaken the nymph Arethusa, after having 
 followed her, transformed into a fountain, under 
 the bed of the sea. Ovid.— Thcoc. — -II. A 
 lake of upper Armenia, near the fountains of 
 the Tigris. Nothing can sink irader its waters. 
 Plin. 2, c. 103. HI. A town of Thrace. 
 
 IV. Another in Syria. 
 
 Argjsus, a mountain of Cappadocia, covered 
 with perpetual snows, at the bottom of which is 
 the capital of the country called Maxara, from 
 the summit of which it is said the Euxine on 
 one side, and the Mediterranean on the other, 
 are distinctly discernible." Claudian. 
 
 Arcsiathje, a village of Arcadia. Pans. 8. 
 c. 23. 
 
 Argenntm, a promontoiT of Ionia. 
 
 Part I.-E 
 
 Argentoratui^i, now Strasdurg, a city of the 
 Triboci, on the Rhine. 
 
 Argia. Vid. Argolis. 
 
 Argilus, a town of Thrace, near the Stiy- 
 mon, built by a colony of Andrians. Thucvd. 
 4, c. 103. Herodot. 7, c. 115. 
 
 ARGiNtJs^, three small islands near the con- 
 tinent, between Mitylene and Methymna, Avhere 
 the Lacedemonian fleet Avas conquered bj^ Co- 
 non the Athenian. Strab. 13. 
 
 Agrippei, a nation among the Sauromatians, 
 born bald an d Avith flat noses. They lived upon 
 trees. Herodot. 4, c. 23. D'Anville considers 
 them, Avith reason, to haA^e been rather a caste 
 than a nation. 
 
 Argolicus sinus, a bay on the coast of Argo- 
 lis, betAveen that district and Laconia; now the 
 Gnlf of Nap oil. D'Anville. 
 
 Argolis, and Argia, a part of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, bounded on the north by the country of 
 the Corinthians and Sicyonians, and on the 
 Avest by Arcadia ; on the south it terminated in 
 the territory of C5muria, on the borders of La- 
 conia, and on the east it Avas Avashed b)'' the 
 Saronic gulf. The southern shore of that part 
 of Argolis Avhich lay on the Avestern side of the 
 Argolic gulf extended to the Myrtoan sea. All 
 Argolis contained, perhaps, an area of nearly 
 1100 square miles. The face of the country 
 Avas diversified with hills, and the, A'alleys ex- 
 tending between them were Avell cultivated and 
 fertile. The Pelasgi are supposed to have been 
 its earliest colonists ; and the}'' probably gaA'e 
 their name to the country, till, on the arrival of 
 Danaus, its inhabitants assmned that of Danai. 
 For a long time Argolis is supposed to haA'c 
 formed but one undiAided dominion ; but about 
 the period to AA'hich belongs the historA^ or the 
 fable of Acrisius, it was divided into the king- 
 doms of Argos and Tir3ms, under the sway of 
 Acrisius and Proetus his brother. Perseus, the 
 grandson of Acrisius, erected yet another prin- 
 cipality, to which he gave the name of Mycenae, 
 and which, for a time, assumed the superiority 
 among all the cities of Argolis. The partial 
 union of the families of Pelops and Hercules in 
 the person of Aireus, again united the difierent 
 states of Argolis; and Tisamenes, the son of 
 Orestes, at the time of the return of the Hera- 
 clidse to the Peloponnesus, beheld himself ac- 
 knowledged lord of Argolis, and the most influ- 
 ential monarch of the south of Greece. Eighty 
 years after the destruction of Troy this prince 
 was expelled, and the lineal descendant of Her- 
 cules, Temenus, the restorer of his race, assum- 
 ed the government of a territory equally exten- 
 sive, but with poAver greatly curtailed. Some 
 time afterAA'ards the ArgiA^es deposed their soA^e- 
 reign Meltas, the last of the Temenic family, 
 and established republican institutions through- 
 out his former dominions. Argolis Avas, for the 
 most part neutral during the struggle of the 
 Greeks against their Persian enemies; but in 
 the Peloponnesian Avar it Avas generally found 
 in a state of hostility to Lacedaemonia. Strab. — 
 Pans. — Horn. 11. 2, 107. — Thncyd. — Cram. Gr. 
 Argo.s {sing. nent. and Argi, niasc. plvr.) 
 I. an ancient city, capital of Argolis in Pelo- 
 ponnesus, about tAvo miles from the sea, on the 
 bay called Argolicus sinvs. Juno Avas the chief 
 deity of the place. The kingdom of Argos Avas 
 founded bv Inachus 1856 vears before the 
 33 
 
AR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AR 
 
 Christian era, and after it had flourished for 
 about 550 years, it was united to the crown of 
 My cense. Argos was built, according to Eu- 
 ripides, Iphig. in Aulid. v. 152, 534, by seven 
 Cyclops who came from Syria. These cyclops 
 were not Vulcan's workmen. The nine first 
 kings of Argos were called Inachides, in honour 
 of ihe founder. Their names were Inachus, 
 Phoroneus, Apis, Argus, Chryasus, Phorbas, 
 Triopas, Stelenus, and Gelanor. Gelanor gave 
 a kind reception to Danaus, who drove him. from 
 his kingdom in return for his hospitality. The 
 descendants of Danaus were called Belides. 
 Agamemnon was king of Argos during the 
 Trojan war ; and 80 years after the Heraclidee 
 seized the Peloponnesus, and deposed the mo- 
 narchs. The inhabitants of Argos were called 
 Argivi and Argolici ; and this name has been 
 often applied to all the Greeks without distinc- 
 tion. Plin. 7, c, 56. — Pans. 2, c. 15, &c. — 
 Horat. 1, od. l.—Mlian. V. H. 9, c. \b.—Strab. 
 S.—Mela. 1, c. 13, &c. 1. 2, c. 3.— Virg. ^n. 
 1, V. 40, &c. This city, which still preserves 
 its name, " was generally looked upon," says 
 Cramer, " as the most ancient city of Greece. 
 The walls were constructed of massive blocks of 
 stone, a mode of building generally attributed to 
 the cyclops. It was protected by two citadels, 
 and surrounded by fortifications equally strong. 
 The principal one was named Larissa." The 
 government of Argos, after the expulsion of the 
 kings, was that of a republic ; and one cause of 
 her frequent wars with Sparta was the essential 
 difference of principle that actuated her repub- 
 lican institutions, contrasted with the aristocra- 
 tic character of the Spartan laws. The popula- 
 tion was divided into three classes, of which one 
 consisted of the free inhabitants of the city, the 
 surrounding people or Perioikoi constituted the 
 second, and the Gametes or slaves were the 
 third ; amounting in all, perhaps, to about 
 
 110,000 souls. II. Another in Macedonia, 
 
 called Oresticum. III, Another in Thessa- 
 
 ly, by some supposed to be the same as Larissa. 
 
 IV. Another in the country of the Am- 
 
 philochi, founded, according to tradition, by 
 Amphilochus the son of Amphiaraus,and thence 
 called Argos Amphilochium. Thucydides in- 
 forms us that it was once the most powerful 
 town of the region to which it belonged ; but 
 that, being much disturbed by the Ambraciots, 
 it was obliged to seek the protection of the 
 Acarnanians, and so sunk into a comparative 
 dependence. A great extent of wall is still re- 
 maining, together with other ruins sufficient to 
 manifest its former strength and to prove its Cy- 
 clopean origin. Thuc. 2, 68. — Holland, Trav. 
 
 Argyrtpa, a town of Apulia, built by Dio- 
 medes after the Trojan war, and called by Po- 
 lybius Argifana. Only ruins remain to show 
 where it once stood, though the place still pre- 
 serves the name of Arpi. Virg. Mn. 11, v. 246. 
 
 Aria, the name of a country in Asia, by ex- 
 tension from a particular province. It was the 
 same, very nearly, as the modern Khorasan,but 
 in its greatest extent, taking in a part of the 
 modern Cabul, it was bounded on the north by 
 Hyrcania and Parthia, on the east by Bactria 
 and India on this side of the Indus, by Gedrosia 
 on the south, and on the west by Media. Aria 
 Proper was confined, perhaps within the Paro- 
 pamisus. Its chief town Aria, or Artacoana, 
 34 
 
 on the Arius, now Heri Rud^ is Herat. Dionys. 
 Perieg. 918,— Mela, 1. c. 2, 1. 2, c. 7. 
 
 Ariani, and Arieni, the inhabitants of Aria. 
 
 Aricia, a very ancient town of Italy, now 
 Riccia, built by Hippolytus, son of Theseus, 
 after he had been raised from the dead by ^Es- 
 culapius, and transported into Italy by Diana. 
 In a grove, in the neighbourhood of Aricia, 
 Theseus built a temple to Diana, where he es- 
 tablished the same rites as were in the temple 
 of that goddess in Tauris. The priest of this 
 temple; called Bex, was always a fugitive, and 
 the murderer of his predecessor ; and went al- 
 ways armed with a dagger, to prevent whatever 
 attempts might be made upon his life by one 
 who wished to be his successor. The Arician 
 forest, frequently called nemorensis, or nemoro/- 
 lis sylva, was very celebrated; and no horses 
 would ever enter it, because Hippolytus had 
 been killed by them. Egeria, the favourite 
 nymph and invisible protectress of Numa, ge- 
 nerally resided in this famous grove, which was 
 situated on the Appian way, beyond mount Al- 
 banus. Ovid. Met. 15 ; Fast. 3, 2 63. — Ijucan. 
 6, V. 1 A.— Virg. Mn. 7, v. 761, &c. 
 
 Arimaspi, a people sometimes referred to 
 Scythia in Europe, and sometimes to Asiatic 
 Scythia. It is difficult, of course, therefore, to 
 fix the country of this fabulous people ; but it 
 seems, from all authority, that the region about 
 the Palus Mseotis and the Tanais was supposed 
 to be inhabited by them. They are said to 
 have had but one eye in the middle of their fore- 
 head, and waged continued war against the grif- 
 fins, monstrous animals that collected the gold 
 of the river. Plin. 7, c. 2. — Herodot. 3 and 4. 
 — Strah. 1 and 13, 
 
 Ariminum, (now Rimini^ an ancient city of 
 Italy, near the Rubicon, on the borders of Gaul, 
 on the Adriatic, founded by a colony of Umbri- 
 ans. When the Romans established a colony 
 in this place, it rose to the highest importance; 
 and in all the Punic wars, and afterwards in the 
 Gallic, a military force was stationed in Arimi- 
 num, which was looked upon as commanding 
 the entrance into Italy upon that side. Lnican. 
 1, V. 231.— PZm3,c. 15, 
 
 Ariminus, a river of Italy, rising in the Ap- 
 penine mountains, and falling into the Adri- 
 atic just above Ariminum. Plin. 3, c. 15, 
 
 Arimph^i, a people of Scythia, near the Ri- 
 phgean mountains, who lived chiefly upon ber- 
 ries in the woods, and were remarkable for their 
 innocence and mildness, Plin. 6, c. 7. 
 
 Aris a river of Messenia. Paus. 4, c. 31. 
 
 Arisba, I. a town of Lesbos, destroyed by an 
 
 earthquake. Plin. 5, c. 31. II. A colony 
 
 of the Mityleneans in Troas, destroyed by the 
 Trojans, before the coming of the Greeks. 
 Virg. jEn. 9. v. 264. — Homer. 11. 7. 
 
 ARisTiEUM, a city of Thrace, on the summit 
 of mount Haemus. Plin. 4, c. 11. 
 
 Arister^e, an island on the coast of Pelo- 
 ponnesus. Paus. 2, c. 34. 
 
 Aristonautje, the naval dock of Pellene, said 
 to have been so called from the Argonauts hav- 
 ing touched there in their expedition. Paus. 2. 
 
 Arius, a river of Asia. The inhabitants in 
 the neighbourhood are called Arii. 
 
 Armenia, a large country of Asia, divided 
 into upper and lower Armenia. Upper Arme- 
 nia, called also Major, has Media on the east, 
 
AR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AS 
 
 Iberia on the north, Mesopotamia on the south, 
 and the Euphrates, which separates it from 
 Armenia Minor, on the west. Lower Arme- 
 nia or Armenia Minor, which was but a part of 
 Cappadocia, lay along the Euphrates from Sy- 
 ria, which was separated from it on the south by 
 the Taurus mountains as far as the borders of 
 Pontus, which bounded it on the north. A 
 branch of the same mountain divided from the 
 rest of Cappadocia on the west. The history of 
 Armenia is always that of a province. A part 
 of the Assyrian empire, it passed with that into 
 the power of the Medes, and fell with them into 
 the hands of the Persians. For a short time, on 
 the overthrow of the Seleucidse, the governors 
 of Armenia exercised a kind of independent 
 rule ; but in the reign of Trajan it was reduced 
 in form, as it had long been in fact, to the mere 
 condition of a province of the empire. They 
 borrowed the names and attributes of their dei- 
 ties from the Persians. Armenia Major is now 
 called Turcomania, and Minor, Aladulia. He- 
 rodot 1. c. 194, 1. 5. c. ^9.— Curt. 4, c. 12, 1. 5, 
 c. l.—Strab. 1 and \\.—Mela, 3, c. 5 and 8.— 
 Plin. 6, c. 4, &c. — Lmcan. 2. 
 
 Armoric^ CiviTATEs, Certain districts of 
 Gaul, principally maritime ; whence the name, 
 the Celtic Ar-Mor, signifying by the sea. The 
 Armorica of Caesar was situate between the Se- 
 quana, the Liger, and the sea, including the 
 modern provinces of Normandy and Bretagne. 
 The name Armorica was at last confined to Bre- 
 tagne exclusively. The Armorici were an inde- 
 pendent people, united in confederacies, without 
 much superiority of power or of right. They 
 were of Celtic origin, and even after the decline 
 of Roman power had witnessed the exclusion 
 of Roman influence from the British Isles, the 
 Armoricans and the Britons continued to look 
 upon themselves and on each other as of one 
 stock, and the latter received from the continent 
 very timely aid against their Saxon enemies. 
 The Armoricans hold a conspicuous place in 
 romantic tradition and fable; prince Arthur 
 himself was an Armorican, and miDre than half 
 the story of his times relate to the chivalry of 
 Britany . C(bs. Bell. G. — Turn. Aug. Sax. 
 
 Arne, I. a city of Lycia, called afterwards 
 Xanthus. II. A town of Umbria, in Italy.. 
 
 Arnus, now Amo, the principal river of 
 Etruria. It rises in the Appenines, passes 
 through the cities of Florence and Pisa, and 
 empties into the Mediterranean at the Portus 
 Pisanus, or harbour of the latter city, Liv. 22, 
 2.—Strab. 
 
 Aromata, or Aromatum, " the most eastern 
 land of the continent of Africa, and of which 
 the modem name is Guardafui." D^Anville. 
 
 Arpi. Vid. Argyripa. 
 
 Arpinum, now Arpino, a town of the Vol- 
 sci, famous for giving birth to Cicero and Ma- 
 tins. The words of ArpincB Chartce are some- 
 times applied to Cicero's works. Arpinum 
 did not pass from the possession of the Volsci 
 to that of the Romans ; it was for some time a 
 town of the Samnites, and from these the Ro- 
 mans conquered it. Cicero enlarges on the pri- 
 mitive simplicit}'- of manners that prevailed there 
 so late as the time in which he himself flourish- 
 ed. Liv. 9, 44. 
 
 Arretium, now Arezzo, a town of Etruria, 
 and constituting one of its principal states in 
 
 the early time of the Romans. The Romans 
 placed there a force to repel the incursions of 
 the Gauls ; and there the consul Flaminius was 
 posted to contest with Annibal the entrance into 
 Etruria. It was a muncipium, and always 
 held a high rank among the cities of Italy. In 
 the middle ages it again became conspicuous for 
 its wars with Florence during the factious years 
 of the Guelphs and Ghibelines. It was like- 
 wise famous for its porcelain vases mentioned 
 by Pliny. Uv- 22, ^.—Strab. 
 
 Arsamosata, a town of Armenia Major, 70 
 miles from the Euphrates. Tacit. Ann. 15. 
 
 Arsanias, a river of Armenia, which accord- 
 ing to some, flows into the Tigris, and after- 
 wards into the Euphrates. Plin. 5, c. 24. 
 
 Arsena, a marsh of Armenia Major, whose 
 fishes are all of the same sort, Strab. 
 
 Arsia, a small river between Illyricum and 
 Istria, falling into the Adriatic. 
 
 Arsinoe, a town of Egypt, situated near the 
 lake of Moeris, on the western shore of the Nile, 
 where the inhabitants paid the highest venera- 
 tion to the crocodiles. They nourished them 
 in a splendid manner, and embalmed them af- 
 ter death, and buried them in the subterraneous 
 
 cells of the labyrinth. SiraJ). A town of 
 
 Cilicia of JEolia of Syria ofCj'prus 
 
 of Lycia of Crete, Cram. of -^- 
 
 tolia. Vid. Conope 
 
 Artabri, and Artabritje, a people of Lusi- 
 tania, who received their name from Artrabum, 
 a promontorv on the coast of Spain, now called 
 Finisterre. " Sil. 3, v. 362. 
 
 Artace, I. a town and sea-port near Cyzicus. 
 It did not exist in the age of Pliny. There 
 was in its neighbourhood a fountain called Ar- 
 tacia. Herodot. 4, c, 14. — Procop. de. Bell. 
 
 Pers. 1, c. '2b.— Strab. 13.— Plin. 5, c. 32. 
 
 II. A city of Phrygia. -III, A fortified place 
 
 of Bithynia. 
 
 Artatus, a river of Illyrifi. Liv. 43, c. 19. 
 
 Artaxata, {orum,) now Ardesh, a strongly 
 fortified town of Upper Armenia, the capital of 
 the empire, where the kings generally resided. 
 It is said that Annibal built it for Artaxias, the 
 king of the country. It was burnt by Corbulo, 
 and rebuilt by Tiridates, who called it Neronea 
 in honor of Nero. Strab. 11. 
 
 Artemisitjm, I. a promontory of Euboea, 
 where Diana had a temple. The neighbouring 
 part of the sea bore the same name. The fleet 
 of Xerxes had a skirmish there with the Gre- 
 cian ships. Herodot. 7, c. 175, &c. II. A 
 
 lake near the grove Aricia, with a temple sacred 
 to Artemis, whence the name. 
 
 Aremita, I. a cit}' at the east of Seleucia, 
 
 II. An island opposite the mouth of the 
 
 Achelous. Strab. 
 
 Aru^, a people of Hyrcania, where Alex- 
 ander kindly received the chief oflicers of Da- 
 rius. CuH. 6, c. 4. 
 
 Arverni, a powerful people of Gaul, now 
 Auvergne, near the Ligeris, who took up arms 
 against J. Caesar. They were conquered with 
 great slaughter. They pretended to be descend- 
 ed from the Trojans as well as the Romans, 
 C(BS. Bell. Gal. l.—Strab. 14. 
 
 AsBEST^:, and Asbyst^e, a people of Libya 
 above Cyrene, where the temple of Ammon is 
 built, Jupiter is sometimes called on that ac- 
 count A^stius. Herodot. 4, c. llO.-^Ptol 4, c. 3. 
 35 
 
AS 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AS 
 
 AscALON, a rown of Syria near the Mediter- 
 ranean, about 520 stadia from Jerusalem, still 
 in being. Joseph, de Bell. Jud. 3, c. 2.— T/ico- 
 jphrast. H. PL 7, c. 4. 
 
 AscRA, a town of Bosotia, built, according to 
 some, by the giants Otus and Ephialtes, on a 
 summit of mount Helicon. Its celebrity arises 
 from Hesiod's long residence there; whence he 
 is often called the Ascrcan poet, and whatever 
 poem treats on agricultural subjects, Ascrccum 
 Carmen. The town received its name from 
 Ascra, a nymph, mother to CEoclus by Nep- 
 t^me. Strab. 9. — Pans. 9, c. 19. — Pater c. 1. In the 
 age of Pausanias, a single tOAver of this town 
 remained ; and, according to Sir W. Gell, there 
 are still the remains of a tower, probably the 
 same, that mark its site, upon abarren rock a few 
 miles from the ancient Thespioe. He$. Oper. 
 
 Asia, one of the great divisions of the earth, 
 separated on the south-west by the straits of 
 Babelmandel and the Arabian gulf from Africa, 
 from Europe on the west by the Mediterranean, 
 the Archipelago, the Dardanelles, the Euxine, 
 the straits of Caffa, the Kooma, the Caspian 
 Sea, and the Ural river and mountains. The 
 Indian ocean and the Frozen sea confine the 
 continent of Asia on the south and north. A 
 very small portion of this immense extent of 
 country was knoAvn to the ancients, and of that 
 which was known, the name of Asia was ap- 
 plied to but a part. The Asia of Homer and 
 Herodotus signified only the region about the 
 Cayster, but by degrees the whole of what we 
 now call Asia Minor, the Turks Natclia, and 
 the later Greeks Anatolia, received the name of 
 Asia, Avhich was afterwards gradually extended 
 over the continent. The Nile was sometimes 
 made a boundary of Asia by ancient authors, 
 and Egypt was considered by them to be a part 
 of this geographical division. The natural di- 
 visions of Asia are formed by her extensive 
 mountain ranges, and the political and mor j^ 
 divisions correspond, in a great measure to thoto 
 marked out by the hand of nature. The first 
 of these, comprising the Russian province of 
 Siberia, was known but by the most uncertain 
 tradition to the polished nations of antiquit}^, 
 who yet were aware that those wild regions Avere 
 inhabited by a race as rugged as the climate and 
 the soil. South of the Altain chain began the 
 second division ; and the extensive prairies of 
 this country Avere peopled by nomadic tribes, to 
 whom they afforded pasture for their flocks and 
 herds, and Avho sought from them nothing else. 
 The third division south of the Taurus Avas a 
 civilized and populous country, thickly covered 
 with cities, and even with empires. The coun- 
 tries of peninsular Asia do not exactlj^^ corres- 
 pond to these distinctions; but east of the Cas- 
 pian Sea these lines in general separated people 
 differing in the manner just described. South- 
 ern Asia, best knoAvn at all times, and particu- 
 larly in antiquity, was subject again to a tAvo- 
 foki subdivision. Thus the Indus formed the 
 first great boundary between the eastern and 
 the Avestern nations of Asia, and the Euphrates 
 and the Tigris attain separated the latter into 
 three. These divisions, though understood, 
 were not geographically recognized by the an- 
 cients, AA^ho, after the name of Asia had attain- 
 ed with them its Avidest signification, divided it 
 into Citerior, the peninsula, and Ulterior or 
 36 
 
 Magna. The former was called also by the 
 Romans Intria Halyn and Intra Taurum, or 
 CisTaurum; and this contained (avc may here 
 observe) the territory of the Lydian Croesus. 
 The Romans, hoAve\Tr, applied the term Asia 
 absolutely, in many instances, to a small portion 
 of the peninsula, including the Phrygias, My- 
 sia, CEolia, and Ionia, Caria and Lydia. To 
 QEolia and Ionia the name was most peculiarly 
 proper, and many suppose that to this narroAV 
 region, it originally belonged, and that it ex- 
 tended thence o\'er the continent. The Ro- 
 mans kncAv it generally by that name alone. 
 It Avas called Proconsularis by Augustus, from 
 the title of the officer Avhom he set over it. The 
 mythologists have referred the origin of the 
 name of Asia to Asius, an ancient Lydian hero, 
 and to Asia the daughter of Oceanus, and The- 
 tis the Avife of Japetus and mother of Prome- 
 theus; but, says Mahe-Brun, "it appears pro- 
 bable that the Greeks extended this name by 
 little and little from the district to Avhich it Avas 
 first applied, till it embraced the AA^hole of Asia 
 Minor, and ultimately the other extensiA^e re- 
 gions of the east." The political constitution 
 of the Asiatic governments in all ages distin- 
 guished the people of Asia from those of the 
 European countries, and placed them general- 
 ly in a hostile position to each other, until the 
 difference betAveen them became settled by the 
 ascendency of the Greeks and Romans, and 
 the triumph of the more liberal policy of the 
 west. Until the time of Alexander, Avhen the 
 differences that had begun to display themselves, 
 perhaps in the Argonautic expedition, and cer- 
 tainly in the Trojan war, Avere terminated by 
 the A'ictory at Arbela, four great empires had 
 flourished m succession in Asia, perpetuating 
 the original political character, and striving for 
 its universal supremacy. The first Avas the 
 Ass3"rian, Avhich terminated about 700 before 
 ^ ^he Christian era, and Avas succeeded by that 
 / of the Medes, which in the 6th generation 
 merged in that of the Persians, even after the 
 representative of the Asiatic system and the 
 engrosser of all dominion in Asia. Contempo- 
 rary AAdth the later Assyrian em^^ire, out of 
 w-hich it grcAV, Avas the Babylon i an empire, Avhile 
 in Asia Minor the Lydian kingdom of Croesus 
 may almost compare Avitli the kingdom of Me- 
 dia. The conquests of Alexander, and the di- 
 \dsion of his empire among his generals, effected 
 a division in the Asiatic states, and ncAV king- 
 doms attained a temporaiy importance under 
 the different soA'^ereigns AA'ho assumed the names 
 Antigonus, Antiochus, Seleucus, &:c. ; but the 
 extension of the Roman arms reduced all to its 
 former uniformity, and made of many kingdoms 
 a dependent province. Over different parts of 
 this province different officers were placed by 
 the Romans, and the prefects of the East exer- 
 cised a poAver and authoritA'' little inferior to that 
 of the emperor in his immediate capital. Sfrah. 
 —Just.— Mel.— Malte-Brun. — Heercn.—D'An- 
 ville. — Hcyl. 
 
 Asius campus, or Asia pauus, ('Ao-ia Att/aor) 
 a tract of Ioav land along the Cayster, not far 
 from mount Tmolus. There is a diversity of 
 opinion among critics,as to the genuine reading 
 in Homer, {11. 11. 461,) some contending for 
 'AfTicj h >.£Lfiwvi "in the meadoAvs of Asias;" 
 others for 'Acico h yttnuvi, " in the Asian mea- 
 
AS 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AT 
 
 dows." Those who follow the former reading 
 adopt the Lydian tradition, and trace the origin 
 of the name Asia to Asias, the son of Cotys, or 
 of Atys. But, as Heyne well remarks, the lat- 
 ter reading is more poetical, and is supported by 
 the Asia Praia, and Asia Pains of Virgil. 
 Heync. Exce.—Il. 2, 4Sl.— Virg. Geo. I, 383. 
 jEn. 7, 701. 
 
 AsNAUS, a mountain of Macedonia, near 
 which the river Aous flows. Liv. 32, c. 5. 
 
 Asopus, I. a river of Thessaly, falling into the 
 bay of Malia at the north of Thermopylae. 
 
 Strab. 8. II. a river of Bogotia, which rises 
 
 in mount Cithseron, separates the territories of 
 Plataea and Thebes, and, after traversing the 
 whole of southern Boeotia, empties itself into 
 the Euripus near Oropus. On its banks the 
 battle of Platgea was fought, 479 B. C. It still 
 retains the name of Asopo. Cram. — Herodot. 
 
 9, AZ.— Strab. 9— Pans. 9, 4. III. A river 
 
 of Asia, flowing into the Lycus near Laodicea. 
 
 IV. A river of Peloponnesus, now Basi- 
 
 lico ; which rises in the mountains of Argolis, 
 and empties into the Corinthiacus Sinus below 
 
 Sicyon. Crccvi. V. Another of Macedonia, 
 
 flowing near Heraclea. Strab. 
 
 AsPKNDUs, a lownof Pamphylia, at the mouth 
 of the river Eurymedon. Cic. in Ver. I, c. 20. 
 The inhabitanis sacrificed swine to Venus. 
 AsPLEDON, a town of Boeotia, tw'enty stadia 
 from Orchomenus beyond the Melas. Its name 
 was changed to Eudielos, from its advantageous 
 situation. Cram. 
 
 Assos, a town of Phrj^gia Minor, by Pliny 
 called Apollonia. 
 
 AsTA, a city in Spain, near the Baetis. 
 
 Assyria, properly so called, a province of 
 Asia, boimded, according to Ptolemy, on the 
 north by part of Armenia and mount Niphates, 
 on the east by a part of Media and the moun- 
 tains Choatras and Zagrus, on the south by 
 Susiana, and on the west by Mesopotamia, from 
 which it was separated by the Tigris. Its ca- 
 pital was Nineveh. The country was very- 
 plain, fruitful, and abounding in rivers tributary 
 to the Tigris. It is thought to owe its name to 
 Ashur, the son of Shem ; and what this name 
 has in common with that of Syria, caused it to 
 be sometimes transferred to the Syrian nation, 
 whose origin refers to Aram, also descended 
 from Shem. The name of Kurdistan, which 
 modem geography applies to Assyria, comes 
 from a people who, under that of Carduchi or 
 Gordyaei, occupied the mountains by which the 
 country is covered on the side of Armenia 
 and Atropatene. Among the Jews, Assyria 
 was the name of a particular conquering nation, 
 while among the Greeks it was applied indiscri- 
 minately to the nations who ruled on the Euphra- 
 tes and Tigris before Cyrus. The Jewish ac- 
 counts refer to Assyria properly so called, and 
 give a chronological history of the empire be- 
 tween B. C. 800 and 700. The Grecian authors 
 include, under the designation of Assyrian, not 
 only the ruling nation, but also its dependencies ; 
 whence the frequent confusion of Syria and 
 Assyria. Assyrian history, according to Gre- 
 cian sources, contains nothing more than mere 
 traditions of ancient heroes and heroines, who, 
 in the countries on the Euphrates and Tigris, 
 once founded large empires. The events are 
 not chronologically ascertained, but there are 
 
 accounts, in the spirit of the east, of Ninus, 
 Semiramis, Ninyas, and Sardanapalus. Ac- 
 cording to Hei'odotus an Assyrian empire lasted 
 520 years, from 1237—717. Heeren.—D'Ati- 
 viLle. — Chaussard. — JHeylin. — Herod. — Diod. — 
 aes. 
 
 AsTACCENi, a people of India, near the Indus. 
 StraJ). 15. 
 
 AsTACUs. I. a town of Bithynia, in the vicini- 
 ty of Nicomedia, on the Sinus Astacenus, built 
 by Astacus, son of Neptune and Olbia, or rather 
 by a colony from Megara, and Athens. Lysi- 
 machus destroyed it, and carried the inhabitants 
 to the town of Nicomedia, which was then lately 
 built. Pans. 5, c. 12. -Arrian. — Strab. 17. 
 II. A city of Acarnania. Plin. 5. 
 
 AsTAPA, a town of Hispania Bactica, now 
 Estepa-la- Vieja. Liv. 38, c. 20. 
 
 AsTAPUs, a river of Ethiopia, falling into the 
 Nile. It is the Abarvi of the Abyssinians, the 
 sources of Avhich since their discoveiy in the 
 beginning of the last century, have been mista- 
 ken for those of the Nile. {Vid. Bruce' s Tra^ 
 vels.) Ptolemy makes the Astapus issue from 
 a morass or lake named Coloe, the Bohr Dam- 
 bea, into which the Abarvi, pours its rivulet. 
 D'Anville. 
 
 AsTERusius, I. a mountain at the south of 
 Crete. II. A town of Arabia Felix. 
 
 ASTR.EUS, a river of Macedonia, now the 
 Vistritza, which rises in the mountains of an- 
 cient Orestis and Eordeea, and flows, according 
 to iElian. between BenhcEa and Thessalonica. 
 Cram. 
 
 AsTU, a Greek word which signifies citij, ge- 
 nerally applied by way of distinction to Athens, 
 which was the most capital city of Greece. The 
 word ^trbs is applied with the same meaning of 
 superiority to Rome, and noXig to Alexandria, 
 the capital of Egypt, as also to Troy. 
 
 AsTiJRA, an island and river of Latium. 
 {Pliny.) It is, however, more properly a penin- 
 sula, situated at the mouth of the river which 
 Strabo calls Storas, Festus says it was some- 
 times called Stura as well as Astura. It is inte- 
 resting for the proximit}'- of Cicero's villa, where 
 Circaei and Antium could be distinguished. It 
 was the residence at one time of Augustus, and 
 also of Tiberius. Cram. 
 
 AsTijRES, a people of Hispania Tarraconen- 
 sis, who signalized themselves by their resist- 
 ance to the Pv,omans. Their capital was Asturica 
 Augusta, Astorga ; hence Asturias. D'Anville. 
 
 AsTYPAL^A, one of the Cyclades, between 
 Cos and Thera, called after Astyapalaea, the 
 daughter of- Phoenix, and mother of Ancaeus, 
 by Neptune. Pans. 7, c. 4. — Strab. 14. 
 
 Atabyris, a mountain in Rhodes, where Ju- 
 piter had a temple, whence he was surnamed 
 Atabyris. Strab. 14. 
 
 Atarantes, a people of Africa, ten days' 
 journey from the Garamantes. There was in 
 their country a hill of salt, with a fountain of 
 sweet water upon it, Herodot. 4, c. 184. 
 
 ATARBEcms, a town in one of the islands of 
 the Delta, where Venus had a temple. 
 
 Atarnea, a part of Mysia, opposite Lesbos, 
 with a small town in the neighbourhood of the 
 same name. Poms. 4, c. 35. 
 
 Atella, a town of the Osci in Campania. 
 The earliest scenic representations of the Ro- 
 mans were borrowed from those of the Atellani 
 37 
 
AT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AT 
 
 and were called Fabulas Alellanse . From these 
 were derived, as many think, the celebrated 
 names which delighted the emperors and the 
 people after the Fabulse Atellanse were pro- 
 scribed. On their first representation they were 
 received with such favour, that the actors in 
 them were allowed privileges refused to every 
 other class of histriones ; and the first youth of 
 Rome were often among the performers, Atel- 
 la took part with the Carthagenians in Anni- 
 bal's expedition against Italy, for which it was 
 reduced to a prefecture ; but Cicero speaks of it 
 as a municipium. The ruins of this town are 
 said to be still discernible by the village of Sant 
 Arpino, near Aversa. Liv. 22, 61 ; and 26, 34. 
 — Cic. — Strab. 
 
 Athamanes. " The Athamanes were a peo- 
 ple of Epirotic origin. Pliny, however, classes 
 them with the jEtolians. The earliest mention 
 of this people occurs in Diodorus, who mentions 
 their having taken part in the Lamiac war in 
 favour of the Athenians. They were at this 
 time apparently of little importance from their 
 numbers or territorial extent ; it was not til] 
 many years after that they acquired greater 
 power and influence, as it would seem by the 
 subjugation and extirpation of several small 
 Thessalian and Epirotic tribes, such as the 
 iEnianes, the jEthices, and Perrhasbi; they 
 subsequently appear in history as valuable allies 
 to the jiEtolians, and formidable enemies to the 
 sovereigns of Macedon. Little further is known 
 of the Athamanes ; and Strabo, who hardly con- 
 sidered them as Greeks, informs us that they 
 had ceased to exist as a nation in his time, 
 The rude habits of this people may be inferred 
 from a custom which, we are assured by an an- 
 cient historian, prevailed among them, of assign- 
 ing to their females the active labours of hus- 
 bandry, while the males were chiefly employed 
 in tending their flocks. Stephanus reports that 
 some considered them to be Illyrians, others 
 Thessalians. The four principal towns of 
 Athamania were Argithea, Tetraphylia, Hera- 
 clea, and Theodoria, as we learn from Livy in 
 his account of the revolution by which Amy- 
 nander was replaced on the throne. That part 
 of Athamania which was situated near the 
 Achelous was called, from that circumstance, 
 Paracheloitis. It was annexed to Thessaly by 
 the Romans, a circumstance which gave offence 
 to Philip of Macedon." Cram. 
 
 ATHEN.E, a celebrated city of Attica, founded 
 about 1556 years before the christian era, by 
 Cecrops and an Egyptian colony. It was called 
 Cecropia from its founder, and afterwards Atlie- 
 ncB in honour of Minerva, who had obtained the 
 right of giving it a name in preference to Nep- 
 tune. [ Vid. Minerva.] It was governed by 17 
 kings in the following order ; — after a reign of 
 50 years, Cecrops was succeeded by Cranaus, 
 who began to reign 1506 B. C. ; Amphictyon, 
 1497; Erichthonius, 1487; Pandion, 1437; 
 Erichtheus, 1397; Cecrops 2d, 1347; Pandion 
 2d, 1307; iEgeus, 1283; Theseus, 1235; Me- 
 nestheus, 1205; Demophoon, 1182; Oxyntes, 
 1149; Aphidas, 1137; Thymoetes, 1136: 
 Melanthus, 1128; and Codrus, 1091, who 
 was killed after a reign of 21 years. " "We have 
 little or no information respecting the size 
 of Athens under its earliest kings; it is ge- 
 nerally supposed, however, that even as late 
 38 
 
 as the time of Theseus the town was almost 
 entirely confined to the acropolis and the adjoin- 
 ing hill of Mars. Subsequently to the Trojan 
 war, it appears to have increased considerably, 
 both in population and extent, since Homer ap- 
 plies to it the epithets of evKTifxevos and eipvi- 
 yviog. These improvements continued probably 
 during the reign of Pisistratus ; and as it was 
 able to stand a siege against the Lacedaemo- 
 nians under his son Hippias, it must evidently 
 have possessed walls and fortifications of suffi- 
 cient height and strength to ensure its safety. 
 The invasion of Xerxes, and the subsequent 
 irruption of Mardonius, effected the entire des- 
 truction of the ancient city, and reduced it to 
 a heap of ruins; with the exception only of 
 such temples and buildings as were enabled, 
 from the solidity of their materials, to resist the 
 action of fire and the work of demolition. 
 When, however, the battles of Salamis, Pla- 
 taea, and Mycale, had averted all danger of in- 
 vasion, Athens, restored to peace and security, 
 soon rose from its state of ruin and desolation ; 
 and, having been furnished by the prudent 
 foresight and energetic conduct of Themisto- 
 cles with the military works requisite for its de- 
 fence, it attained, under the subsequent admi- 
 nistrations of Cimon and Pericles, to the high- 
 est pitch of beauty, magnificence and strength. 
 The former is known to have erected the temple 
 of Theseus, the Dionysiac theatre, the Stoae, 
 and Gymnasium ; and also to have embellished 
 the Academy, the Agora, and other parts of the 
 city at his own expense. Pericles completed 
 the fortifications which had been left in an un- 
 finished state by Themistocles and Cimon; he 
 likewise rebuilt several edifices destroyed by the 
 Persians, and to him his country was indebted 
 for the temple of Eleusis, the Parthenon, and 
 the Prbpylsea, the most magnificent buildings, 
 not of Athens only, but of the world. It 
 was in the time of Pericles that Athens at- 
 tained the summit of its beauty and prosperity, 
 both with respect to the power of the republic 
 and the extent and magnificence of the archi- 
 tectural decorations with which the capital was 
 adorned. At this period the whole of Athens with 
 its three ports of Piraeus, Munychia, and Phale- 
 rum, connected by means of the celebrated long 
 walls, formed one great city enclosed within a 
 vast peribolus of massive fortifications. The 
 whole of this circumference, as we collect from 
 Thucydides, was not less than 174 stadia. Of 
 these, forty-three must be allotted to the circuit 
 of the city itself; the long walls taken together 
 supply seventy-five, and the remaining fifty-six 
 are furnished by the peribolus of the three har- 
 bours. Xenophon reports that Athens con- 
 tained more than 10,000 houses which, at the 
 rate of twelve persons to a house would give 
 120,000 for the population of the city. From 
 the researches of Col. Leake and Mr. Haw- 
 kins, it appears that the former city conside- 
 rably exceeded in extent the modern Athens, 
 and though little remains of the ancient works 
 to afford certain evidence of their circumference, 
 it is evident from the measurement furnished by 
 Thucydides, that they must have extended con- 
 siderably beyond the present line of wall, es- 
 pecially towards the north. Col. Leake is of 
 opinion that on this side the extremity of the 
 city reached to the foot of mount Anchesmus 
 
AT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AT 
 
 and that to the westward its walls followed the 
 small brook which terminates in the marshy 
 ground of the Academy, until they met the 
 point where some of the ancient foundations 
 are still to be seen near the gate Dipylum ; 
 while to the eastward they approached close to 
 the Ilissus, a little below the present church of 
 the Mologitades, or confessors. The same an- 
 tiquary estimates the space comprehended with- 
 in the walls of Athens, the longomural enclo- 
 sure, and the peribolus of the ports, to be more 
 than sixteen English miles, without reckoning 
 the sinuosities of the coast, and the ramparts ; 
 but if these are taken into the account, it could 
 not have been less than nineteen miles. We 
 know from ancient writers that the extent of 
 Athens was nearly equal to that of Rome with- 
 in the walls of Servius. Plutrach compares it 
 also with that of Syracuse, which Strabo esti- 
 mates at 180 stadia, or upwards of twenty-two 
 miles. The number of gates belonging to ancient 
 Athens is uncertain, but the existence of nine 
 has been ascertained by classical writers. The 
 names of these are Dipylum, (also called Thria- 
 SI.E, Sacr^, and perhaps Ceramicje,) Diomei^:, 
 
 DiOCHARIS, MelITIDES, PiraIC^, AcHARNICiE, 
 
 Itoni^, HippADEs, Heri^. The Dipylum, as 
 we learn from Livy, was the widest, and led di- 
 rectly to the Forum. Without the walls, there 
 was a path from the Dipylum to the Academy, a 
 distance of nearly one mile. It was also called 
 Thriasian, and deemed sacred from its lying in 
 the direction of the Thriasian plain and Eleusis. 
 There are-still some traces of the Dipylum on the 
 north-west side of the acropolis. TheDioMEi^ 
 were probably so called from Diomeia, one of 
 the Attic demi, and situated to the north-east of 
 Athens ; the Diomeian gate must therefore have 
 been on this side of the town. The gate of Dio- 
 CHARES was opposite to the entrance of the Ly- 
 ceum, and near the fountain of Panops. The 
 Melitensian gate was to the south, towards the 
 sea and Phalerum. Near it was the monument of 
 Cimon and the tomb of Thucydides. There are 
 some remains of this gate, as well as of the Pirai- 
 cas, which led, as the name sufficiently implies, to 
 the Piraeus. The Acharnic^ doubtless were so 
 named from Acharnas, one of the most consider- 
 able of the Attic demi, and therefore must have 
 been in that direction. The Itonian gate, men- 
 tioned in the Dialogue of Axiochus, is placed by 
 Col. Leake about half-way between the Ilissus 
 and at the foot of the hill of Museium ; it seems 
 to have been on the road to Phalerum. The 
 gate called Hippades is conjectured by the 
 same antiquary to have stood between Dipy- 
 lum and the Piraicse. Plutarch is the only wri- 
 ter who mentions it ; he states that the tombs of 
 the family of the orator Hyperides were situated 
 in its vicinity. The Heri^ was so called from its 
 being usual to convey corpses through it to the 
 burying-ground. Its precise situation cannot 
 now be discovered, since, as Col. Leake observes, 
 ' Athens was on every side surrounded with an 
 immense cemetery, there being a continued suc- 
 cession of sepulchres on the north-west and 
 north from the northern long wall to mount 
 Anchesmus ; and there were burying-grounds 
 also on the outside of the southern long wall.' 
 Pausanieis begins his description of Athens ap- 
 parently from the Piraic gate. On entering 
 the city, the first building which he notices is 
 
 the Pompeium, so called from its containing the 
 sacred vessels {rroiirreTa) used in certain proces- 
 sions some of which were annual, while others 
 occurred less frequently. These vessels, toge- 
 ther with the Persian syoils, were estimated, as 
 we know from Thucydides, in the beginning of 
 the Peloponnesian war, at 500 talents. Near this 
 was a temple of Ceres containing statues of that 
 goddess, of Proserpine, andoflnachus, by Praxi- 
 teles. Pausanias next visits the Ceramicus, 
 which was one of the most considerable and im- 
 portant parts of the city. Its name was derived 
 from the hero Ceramus, or perhaps from some 
 potteries which were formerly situated there. It 
 included probably the Agora, the Stoa Basileios. 
 and the Pcecile, as well as various other temples 
 and public buildings. Antiquaries are not de- 
 cided as to the general extent and direction of 
 this part of the ancient city, since scarcely any 
 trace remains of its monuments and edifices ; 
 but we may certainly conclude, from their re- 
 searches and observations, that it lay entirely on 
 the south side of the acropolis ; in this direction 
 it must have been limited by the city walls, 
 which, as we know, came close to the fountain 
 Callirhoe or Enneacrounos. The breadth of 
 the Ceramicus, according to Mr. Hawkins, be- 
 ing thus confined on one side by the walls of the 
 city, and on the other by the buildings imme- 
 diately under the acropolis, could not have ex- 
 ceeded one half of its length. It was divided 
 into the outer and inner Ceramicus. The for- 
 mer was without the walls, and contained the 
 tombs of those who had fallen in battle, and 
 were buried at the public expense. From Plu- 
 tarch it appears that the communieation from 
 the one Ceramicus to the other was by the gate 
 Dip)'-lum. Philostratus, however, speaks of the 
 Ceramic entrance ; and though I think it pro- 
 bable that he alludes to the Dipylum, I would 
 not look upon this as certain. We shall now 
 give some account of the buildings of the inner 
 Ceramic, reserving the outer portion for our de- 
 scription of the suburbs of the city. The first 
 edifice mentioned by Pausanias is the Stoa 
 Basileios, so called because the archon Basi- 
 leus held his court there. There is here a 
 picture representing the achievements of the 
 Athenian cavalry sent to assist the Lacedse- 
 monians at the battle of Mantinea. This paint- 
 ing was by the celebrated Euphranor. The por- 
 tico here described by Pausanias is probably that 
 which Harpocration calls the Stoa of Jupiter 
 Eleutherius, since Pausanias himself places a 
 statue of this god in the immediate vicinity. 
 He next mentions the temple of Apollo Pa- 
 trons, in which was a statue by Euphranor, 
 two other statues by Leochares, and Calamis 
 adorned the front : this latter temple was dedi- 
 cated to Apollo Alexicacus, as having put an 
 end to the pestilence which caused such a dread- 
 ful mortality during the Peloponnesian war. 
 The Metroum was a temple consecrated to the 
 mother of the gods, whose statue was the work 
 of Phidias. Here the archives of the state 
 were deposited ; it served also as a tribunal for 
 the archon eponymus. Adjacent to the Me- 
 troum was the senate house (jSov'Xevrriipov') of the 
 Five Hundred who formed the annual council of 
 the state. It contained statues of Jupiter Coim- 
 sellor, {l3ov\aTos,) of Apollo, and the Athenian 
 demos. Close to the council-hall stood tlie 
 39 
 
AT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AT 
 
 Tholus, where the Prytanes held iheir feasts 
 and sacrifices; this building was also called 
 Scias. Somewhat above were the statues of 
 the eponymi, or heroes who gave their name to 
 the Athenian tribes ; also statues of Amphia- 
 raus, Lycurgus the orator, and Demosthenes. 
 Near the latter was a temple of Mars, having 
 several statues within, and around it those of 
 Hercules, Theseus, and Pindar, who was thus 
 honoured for the praise he bestowed on the 
 Athenians. Near these stood the figures of 
 Harmodius and Aristogiton. All the statues 
 here mentioned were carried away as spoils by 
 Xerxes, when he possessed himself of Athens, 
 but they were afterwards restored by Antiochus. 
 Above the Stoa Basileios, Pausanias notices 
 a temple of Vulcan, containing statues of that 
 god and of Minerva, also the temple of Venus 
 Urania, with a statue of the goddess in Parian 
 marble, the work of Phidias. These buildings 
 stood probably towards the western end of the 
 ridge of Areopagus. The Stoa Pcecile was so 
 called from the celebrated paintings it contained ; 
 its more ancient name is said however to have 
 been Peisianactius. The pictures were by Polyg- 
 notus, Micon, and Pamphilus, the most famous 
 among the Grecian painters, and represented the 
 battles of Theseus against the Amazons, and 
 that of Marathon and other achievements of 
 the Athenians. Here were suspended also the 
 shields of the Scionceans of Thrace, and those of 
 the Lacedsemonians, taken in the isle of Sphac- 
 teria. It was in this portico that Zeno first 
 opened his school, which from thence derived 
 the name of Stoic. No less than 1500 citizens 
 of Athens are said to have been destroyed by the 
 thirty tyrants in the Pcecile. Col. Leake sup- 
 poses that some walls which are still to be seen 
 at the church of Panaghia Fanaromeni are the 
 remains of this celebrated portico. Near the 
 Stoa Poecile was a statue of Mercury Ago- 
 raBus, which, from its position close to a small 
 gate, was sometimes termed 'Ep/if?? rrpd? Tr\ 
 m\i6i. From the name of Agoraeuswe must 
 conclude also that this brazen figure stood in the 
 ancient Agora, which is known from various 
 passages in classical writers to have formed part 
 of the Ceramicus. Xenophon also informs us, 
 that at certain festivals it was customary for the 
 knights to make the circuit of the Agora on 
 horseback, beginning from the Hermes, and, as 
 they passed, to pay homage to the temples and 
 statues around it. The Agora was afterwards 
 removed to another part of the town, which for- 
 merly belonged, according to Strabo, to the de- 
 mus of Eretria, and where it still continued to 
 be held in the time of Pausanias. Mr. Haw- 
 kins conceives that this change took place sub- 
 sequently to the siege of the city by Sylla, since, 
 after ' the Ceramicus had been polluted with 
 the blood of so many citizens, the Agora was 
 removed to a part of the city which was at this 
 period in every respect more central and conve- 
 nient for it, and where it is remarkable that the 
 market of the modern Athenians still continues 
 to be held at the present day.' Col. Leake also 
 observes, ' that as ihe city stretched round the 
 acropolis, the Agora became enlarged in the 
 same direction, until at length the best inha- 
 bited part of the city, being on the north side 
 of the acropolis, the old Agora having been de- 
 filed by the massacre of Sylla, and its buildings 
 40 
 
 falling into decay, the Agora became fixed, 
 about the time of Augustus, in the situdftion 
 where we now see the portal of that Agora.' 
 There was a street lined with Mercuries in 
 the Agora, Avhich communicated between the 
 Stoa Basileios and the Poecile. The Macra 
 Stoa was a range of porticoes extending from 
 the Peiraic gate to the Poecile. Behind it rose 
 the hill called Colonus Agor^us, v/here Me- 
 ton erected a table for astronomical purposes. 
 At a later period it was the resort of labourers, 
 who came there to be hired. We hear also of 
 an altar consecrated to the twelve gods in the 
 Agora. The Leocorium, which probably no 
 longer existed in the time of Pausanias, since he 
 has omitted all mention of it, stood also in the 
 Ceramicus. It was a monument in honour of 
 the daughters of Leos, who had devoted them- 
 selves for their country. Near this spot Hippar- 
 ehus was slain by Harmodius and Aristogiton. 
 The Ceramicus contained also the Agrippei- 
 um or theatre of Agrippa, and the Palcestra of 
 Taureas. The Stoce of the Thracians and of 
 Attains were likewise in the same quarter. 
 The Agora was divided into sections, distin- 
 guished from each other by the means of the 
 several articles exhibited for sale. One quarter 
 was called Cyclus, where slaves were bought, 
 and also fish, meat, and other provisions. We 
 hear of the ywaiKua dyopa where they sold wo- 
 men's apparel, the ixSvoTzwXig dyopa, or fish-mar- 
 ket, the iixa-idnoXig dyopa, clothes-market, also, 
 the dyopix 'Apy€io)v, Qecoy, J^epKcjTTwv ; in the lat- 
 ter stolen goods were disposed of. A peculiar 
 stand was allotted to each vender, which he was 
 not allowed to change. In the Ceramicus was 
 the common hall of the mechanics of Athens, 
 This quarter Avas also much frequented by cour- 
 tesans. In the New Agora Pausanias notices the 
 altar of Pity, worshipped by the Athenians 
 alone. Not far from thence was the Gymnasi- 
 um, called Ptolemoeum, from its founder Ptole- 
 my, son of Juba the Libyan. Cicero speaks of 
 another Gymnasium also named Ptolemceum, 
 which is supposed to have been established by 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus. Near it was the cele- 
 brated temple of Theseus, erected to that hero 
 after the battle of Marathon. This noble struc- 
 ture, which has suffered but little from the m- 
 juries of time, has been converted into a Chris- 
 tian church. It is formed entirely of Pentelic 
 marble, and stands upon an artificial foundation 
 formed of large quadrangular blocks of lime- 
 stone. Pausanias next passes on to the Ana- 
 CEiuM, or temple of the Dioscuri, a building of 
 great antiquity, and containing paintings of Po- 
 lygnotus and Micon. The name of Anaceium 
 was derived from that of "A )'««■£?, applied by 
 the Athenians to Castor and Pollux. Above 
 the Anaceimn, which, from the passages refer- 
 red to, must have stood at the foot of the acro- 
 polis, was the sacred enclosure of Aglaurus, 
 by which the Persians ascended to the citadel, 
 and scaled its ramparts. Near this spot was 
 situated the Prythaneium, where the written 
 laws of Solon were deposited. Here were se- 
 veral statues, among others that of Vesta, be- 
 fore which a lamp was kept constantly burning. 
 There were also the statues of Good Fortime, 
 of Miltiades, and of Themistocles. Pausanias 
 then proceeds to notice the temple of Serapis, 
 whom Ptolemy had introduced among the Athe- 
 
AT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AT 
 
 nian deities. Some remains of this building 
 are supposed to exist near the church of Pa- 
 naghia Vlasiiki. Not far from it wels another 
 temple, consecrated to Lucina. He next points 
 out several buildings erected in this part of the 
 city by Hadrian, which from that circumstance, 
 as we learn by an inscription, was sometimes 
 called Hadrianopolis. The Olympeium was 
 one of the most ancient of the sacred edifices of 
 Athens, since it is said to have beeen originally 
 founded by Deucalion. A more magnificent 
 structure was afterwards raised by Pisistraluson 
 the site of the old building, but he did not live 
 to accomplish his undertaking ; and during the 
 numerous wars in which the Athenians were 
 afterwards engaged, it remained in a neglected 
 state. In the reign of Augustus it is said that 
 the different kings in alliance with that emperor 
 had jointly undertaken to complete the unfinish- 
 ed structure of the Olympeium. But it is cer- 
 tain that it was not finally terminated until the 
 time of Hadrian, who, as we learn from Spar- 
 tianus, was present at the dedication. The 
 whole peribolus was four stadia in circuit, and 
 was crowded with statues of Hadrian, each of 
 the Grecian cities having supplied one ; but 
 the Athenians surpassed all in the very re- 
 markable Colossus they had raised behind the 
 temple. In the peribolus were several antiqui- 
 ties, such as a Jupiter in brass, the temple of 
 Saturn and Rhea, the temenus of Olympia, and 
 the chasm through which the waters of Deuca- 
 lion's flood are said to have retired. To Deu- 
 calion is attributed the most ancient temple of 
 Jupiter Olympius ; and his tomb was shown not 
 far from the present building. Hadrian also 
 embellished Athens with other edifices ; name- 
 ly, a temple of Juno, another of Jupiter Pan- 
 hellenius, and a temple com.mon to all the gods. 
 But the most remarkable of these was a build- 
 ing in which were 120 columns of Phrygian 
 marble. There was also a gymnasium erected 
 by that emperor, in which were to be seen 100 
 columns of African marble. The site of this 
 building is now occupied probably by the church 
 of Panaghia Gorgopiko. From the Prytaneium 
 a street led towards the Olympeium after di- 
 verging to the west of that edifice ; it was 
 called the street of the Tripods, from the cir- 
 cumstance of its being lined with small tem- 
 ples, where prize tripods were usually deposit- 
 ed : of this description was the beautiful little 
 choragic monument of Lysicrates, vulgarly 
 called the Lantern of Demosthenes, which 
 serves as an excellent illustration of this pas- 
 sage of Pausanias, and points out accurately the 
 site and direction of the street to which he re- 
 fers. One of the temples contained a satyr, 
 which was regarded by Praxiteles himself as 
 his chef d'oBuvre. Near this quarter was the 
 Len«um, "a most ancient sanctuary of Bacchus, 
 and probably the same to which Thucydides 
 alludes as the temple of that god in Limnis. 
 Near the Lenaeum stood the celebrated Diony- 
 siac theatre, in which, as we learn from Pau- 
 sanias, were many statues of tragic and comic 
 poets ; among the latter, Menander is the most 
 celebrated. Here were also the effigies of the 
 famous tragic writers Euripides, Sophocles, and 
 -ffischylus ; that of the latter wels done long 
 after his death. In this theatre, which, accord- 
 ing to Dicsearchus, was the most beautiful in 
 Part' I.— F 
 
 existence, dramatic contests were decided. From 
 Plato we may collect that it was capable of con- 
 taining 30,000 spectators. The situation of the 
 Dionysiac theatre is a disputed point among the 
 writers on Athenian topography; but Col. 
 Leake, I think, has satisfactorily proved that it 
 must have stood near the south-eastern angle of 
 the acropolis. Like the other theatres of Greece, 
 its extremities were supported by solid piers of 
 masonry, while the middle of it was excavated 
 on the side of the hill. Not far from thence 
 was the Odeium of Pericles, said to have been 
 constructed in imitation of the tent of Xerxes, 
 Plutarch informs us it was richly decorated with 
 columns, which terminated in a point. Xeno- 
 phon states, that during the tyranny of the 
 Thirty the Odeium was generally occupied by 
 their satellites. It was afterw^ards set on fire 
 by Aristion, general of Mithridates, who de- 
 fended Athens against Sylla. We learn how- 
 ever from Vitruvius, and an inscription cited by 
 Col. Leake, that the building was afterwards 
 restored at the expense of Ariobarzanes king of 
 Cappadocia. No vestiges have yet been dis- 
 covered which can be ascribed to this building, 
 nor are there any remains of the Lenaeum and 
 the temples which it once enclosed; but this 
 may be accounted for by the evident accumula- 
 tion of soil which has taken place under this end 
 of the acropolis. The Cecropian Citadel, which 
 forms so conspicuous a feature in the topography 
 of Athens, was situated on an elevated rock, 
 abruptly terminating in precipices on every side, 
 with the exception of its western end, from 
 whence it was alone accessible. Here stood the 
 magnificent Propyl^a of the acropolis, erected 
 by Pericles, which, though intended only as an 
 approach to the Parthenon, were supposed to ri- 
 val that edifice in beauty and dimensions. This 
 work was probably designed as well for the pur- 
 poses of security and defence as that of orna- 
 ment, from the massive solidity of its construc- 
 tion. The whole was of Pentelic marble, and, 
 as Pausanias informs us, the size of the blocks 
 surpassed all that he had ever seen. It consist- 
 ed of a great vestibule, with a front of six Doric 
 columns ; behind which was another supported 
 by as many pillars of the Ionic order; these 
 formed the approach to the five gates or entran- 
 ces to the citadel. On each side were two wings 
 projecting from the great central colonnade, 
 and presenting a wall simply adorned with a 
 frieze of triglyphs. This great structure is said 
 to have been five years in progress, and to have 
 cost 2000 talents. Pausanias informs us that 
 the Propylaea were ornamented with equestrian 
 statues. On the right stood a temple of Victo- 
 ry Apteros. On the left a building containing 
 several paintings representing diiFerent events 
 which occurred at the siege of Troy. Near 
 the entrance to the acropolis were the statues of 
 Mercury Propylseus, and the three Graces, said 
 to be the work of Socrates. The Parthenon, 
 or temple of Minerva, was placed on the sum- 
 mit of the acropolis, being far elevated above the 
 Propylaea aud the surrounding edifices. It oc- 
 cupied apparently the site of an older temple 
 called Hecatompedon, also dedicated to Miner- 
 va, and which had been destroyed in the Persian 
 invasion. In beauty and grandeur it surpassed 
 all other buildings of the kind, and was con- 
 structed entirely of Pentelic marble. The ar- 
 41 
 
AT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AT 
 
 chitect was Ictinus. Those who have studied 
 its dimensions inform us that it consisted of a 
 cell, surrounded with a peristyle, having eight 
 Doric columns in the two fronts, and seventeen 
 in the sides. These were six feet two inches 
 in diameter at the base, and thirty-four feet in 
 height, standing upon a pavement, to which 
 there was an ascent of three steps, the total 
 elevation of the temple being 65 feet from the 
 ground; the length was 238, and the breadth 
 102 feet. It was also enriched both within and 
 without with matchless works of art by the first 
 sculptors of Greece. We learn from Pausanias, 
 that those which decorated the pediment in front 
 related to the birth of Minerva, and those be- 
 hind to the contest between the goddess and 
 Neptune for Attica. The statue of Minerva 
 was of ivory and gold. On the sunmiit of the 
 helmet was placed a sphinx, with griffins on 
 each of the sides. The statue itself was erect, 
 and clothed in a robe reaching to the feet. On 
 the breast was a head of Medusa wrought in 
 ivory, and a figure of Victory about four cubits 
 high. She held a spear in her hand, and a 
 shield lay at her feet; near the spear was a ser- 
 pent, which might be supposed to represent that 
 of Erichthonius. According to Pliny the figure 
 was twenty-six cubits high. The whole was 
 executed by Phidias, who had further contrived 
 that the gold with which the statue was en- 
 crusted might be removed at pleasure. The 
 sculpture on the pedestal represented the birth 
 of Pandora. Pausanieis also notices the statues 
 of Iphicrates, Pericles, and his father Xantip- 
 pus, Anacreon, and a brazen Apollo, by Phidi- 
 as. On the southern wall were sculptured the 
 war of the giants who inhabited Pallene, and 
 the battle of the Athenians and Amazons ; also 
 that of Marathon, and the defeat of the Gauls 
 in Mysia, presented by Attains. Here was 
 likewise the statue of Olympiodorus, who freed 
 the Athenians from the Macedonian yoke in 
 the time of Cassander. On the northern side 
 of the acropolis stood the Erechtheium, or 
 temple of Erechtheus, a building of great an- 
 tiquity, since it is alluded to by Homer, and ad- 
 joining it was the temple of Minerva Polias, 
 the tutelary deity of the city, whose statue is 
 said to have been a common offering of the demi 
 before they were collected into one metropolis 
 by Theseus. The lamp which was suspended 
 in the sanctuary was never suffered to be extin- 
 guished. Another part of this compound build- 
 ing was the PANDROsroM, or chapel, sacred to 
 Pandrosus, one of the daughters of Cecrops. 
 The Erechtheium contained the olive tree, 
 and the well of salt water, produced by Minerva 
 and Neptune during their contest for Attica, 
 also the serpent of Erichthonius. In the tem- 
 ple of Minerva Polias was a wooden Hermes, 
 said to have been presented by Cecrops, a chair, 
 made by Daedalus, and some spoils of the 
 Medes, such as the silver-footed seat of Xerxes, 
 the sword of Mardonius, and the breastplate of 
 Masistius. Cecrops was said to have been 
 buried in the acropolis ; and it is probable that 
 a chapel was consecrated to him under the name 
 of Cecropium. We are informed by Xeno- 
 phon that the temple of Minerva was burnt in 
 the twenty-third year of the Peloponnesian war, 
 but it is not known by whom it was subsequent- 
 ly restored. The whole of the acropolis was 
 42 
 
 surrounded by walls raised on the natural 
 rock, of which the entire hill is composed. The 
 most ancient part of these fortifications was 
 constructed by the Tyrrheni Pelasgi, who, in 
 the course of their migrations, settled in Attica, 
 and, being probably skilled in works of this na- 
 ture, were employed by the Athenians in the 
 erection of these walls. Pausanias mentions 
 the names of Agrolas and Hyperbius as being 
 probably the chiefs of the colony. The ram- 
 part raised by this people is often mentioned in 
 the history of Athens under the name of Pe- 
 LASGicuM, which included also a portion of 
 ground below the wall at the foot of the rocks 
 of the acropolis. This had been allotted to the 
 Pelasgi whilst they resided at Athens, and, on 
 their departure, it was forbidden to be inhabited 
 or cultivated. It was apparently on the northern 
 side of the citadel as we are informed by Plu- 
 tarch that the southern wall was built by CimoD, 
 from whom it received the name of Cimonitjm. 
 Another portion appears from Thucydides to 
 have been constructed under the administration 
 of Themistocles ; and there is still great evi- 
 dence of the haste with which the historian de- 
 scribes that work to have been performed on the 
 termination of the Persian war. From the 
 acropolis Pausanias proceeds to the Areopa- 
 gus, or hill of Mars, which rises at a little dis- 
 tance from thence to the north-west. It was so 
 called in consequence, as it was said, of Mars 
 having been the first person tried there for the 
 murder of Halirrhothius son of Neptune. The 
 Pnyx was, in the days of Athenian greatness, 
 the usual place of assembly for the people, es- 
 pecially during elections. It appears to have 
 been situated on rising ground opposite the 
 Areopagus, and in a line with the Propylaea of 
 the acropolis, which faced it to the east. It was 
 also close to the walls of the city, as we learn 
 from the scholiast to Aristophanes. The cele- 
 brated Bema, from which the orators addressed 
 the people, was a simple pulpit of stone, which 
 at first looked to the sea, but in the time of the 
 thirty Tyrants it was turned towards the inte- 
 rior of the country. Some traces of this ancient 
 structure are still to be seen on a hill, the situa- 
 tion and bearings of which answer perfectly in 
 all respects to what has been collected from an- 
 cient authorities relative to the Pnyx. The 
 MusEroM was another elevation in the same vi- 
 cinity, to the south-west of the acropolis, and, 
 like the Pnyx, included also within the ancient 
 periphery of the city wall. It is said to have 
 been named from the poet Musaeus, who was 
 interred there. At a much later period a monu- 
 ment was erected here by Philopappus, a de- 
 scendant of the kings of Commagene, and who, 
 having been consul under the reign of Trajan, 
 retired to Athens, as we learn from the inscrip- 
 tion on this structure. Pausanias, who curso- 
 rily notices the monument, simply says it be- 
 longed to a Syrian. After speaking of the Are- 
 opagus, the same writer proceeds to mention 
 some other courts of judicature of less note. 
 The Parabvstum, where petty causes were 
 tried : the Trigonum, so called from its shape : 
 Batrachium and Phcenicium, from their co- 
 lour. The Helicea, a tribunal of much greater 
 importance, which is often alluded to by Aristo- 
 phanes and other classical writers, was situated 
 near the Agora, and so named from its bemg 
 
AT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AT 
 
 held in the open air. The Palladium was a 
 court in which persons accused of murder were 
 tried J those who confessed its perpetration, but 
 ■were prepared to defend the act, were judged in 
 the Delphinicm, which tribunal was probably- 
 near the temple of Apollo Delphinius. Having 
 now noticed the prmcipal buildings and monu- 
 ments within the city, we must proceed to re- 
 mark upon those in its suburbs and environs. 
 The quarter called Ccele was appropriated to 
 sepulchres, and consequently must have been 
 without the to'wn, since we are assured that no 
 one was allowed to be interred within its walls. 
 Cimon and Thucydides were both entombed in 
 this quarter. Coele is classed by Hesychius 
 among the Attic demi. Col. Leake places with 
 great probability this hollow way or valley, 'to 
 the south of the acropolis, near the gate of 
 Jju'inbardhari, which answers to the Portae Me- 
 litenses.' Melite, of which Pausanias makes 
 no mention, is supposed by the same judicious 
 antiquary to have been principally within the 
 walls. Here also was the place of rehearsal for 
 the tragic actors, the Eurysaceum or sanctua- 
 ry of Eury'saces son of Ajax, and the temple 
 of MenaUppus. Melite was a demus of the 
 tribe CEneis, but, according to Harpocration, of 
 the Gecropian. Colyttus was anotlier suburban 
 demus. it was remarked that the children of 
 this place were ver)- precocious in their speech. 
 Plato, according to some writer quoted by Diog. 
 Laert. in his life of the philosopher, was a native 
 of Colyttus, as also Timonthe man-hater, ^s- 
 chines the orator was said to have resided here 
 for forty-five years. It is sometimes written 
 Collyttus, as maybe seen from some inscriptions 
 cited by Spon, t. II. p. 427. Near the Ilissus 
 stood another Odeium, as Pausanias informs us, 
 ■which was adorned with various statues of the 
 Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, as well as of Phi- 
 lip and Alexander, Lysimachus and Pyrrhus. 
 This was apparently one of the minor theatres, 
 and probably erected by some prince of the 
 Macedonian djmasty. In the same "vicinity was 
 the Eleusinium, or temple of Ceres and Pro- 
 serpine, set apart for the celebration of the less- 
 er Eleusinian mysteries. It stood probably in 
 an island formed by the Ilissus, which is v*-ell 
 adapted for so sacred Eind retired a sanctuary^, 
 and where the foundations of an ancient build- 
 ing are still observable. Near the Eleusinium, 
 and on the left bank of the Ilissus, was the 
 Stadii:m erected for the celebration of games 
 during the Panathenaic festival by Lycurgus, 
 the son of Lycophron, as we find in Plutrach's 
 life of that orator. Antiquaries afiirm that the 
 area of this building remains entire, together 
 ■with other vestiges. Higher up the river v\-as 
 Agras and the temple of Diana Agrotera. He- 
 rodotus reports that a temple was erected to Bo- 
 reas by the' Athenians, to commemorate the 
 storm which destroyed so many^ of the Persian 
 ships on the coast of Magnesia. Beyond was 
 the Lyceiijm, a sacred enclosure dedicated to 
 Apollo, where the polemarch formerly kept his 
 court. It was decorated with fountains, planta- 
 tions, and buildings by Pisistratus, Pericles, and 
 Lycurgns, and became the usual place of exer- 
 cise for the Athenian youths who devoted them- 
 selves to military pursuits. Nor was it less fre- 
 quented by philosophers and those addicted to 
 retirement and study. We know that it was 
 
 more especially the favourite walk of Aristotle 
 and his followers, who thence obtained the name 
 of Peripatetics. Here was the fountain of the 
 hero Panops, and a plane-tree of great size and 
 beauty mentioned by Theophrastus. The posi- 
 tion conmaonly assigned to the Lyceium is on 
 the right bank of the Ilissus, and nearly op- 
 posite to the church of Petros Stuuromenos, 
 which is supposed to correspond with the temple 
 of Diana Agrotera on the other side of the river. 
 Ardettus was a judicial court on the banks of 
 the Ilissus, and not far removed from the Sta- 
 diima. Cynosarges was a spot consecrated to 
 Hercules, and possessed a g)-mnasium and 
 groves frequented by philosophers. Here was a 
 tribunal, which decided upon the legitimacy of 
 children in doubtful cases. After the victory of 
 Marathon the Athenian army took up a position 
 at Cynosarges, when the city was threatened 
 by the Persian fleet, which had sailed round the 
 promontory of Sunium. Cynosarges is sup- 
 posed to have been situated at the foot of mount 
 ABchesmus, now the hill of St. George, and to 
 the south-west of Asomato. In the same vi- 
 cinity we must place the demus of Diomeia, 
 which, according to Steph. Byz. appertained to 
 the tribe .^geis. From Aristophanes we col- 
 lect that a festival was celebrated here in honour 
 of Hercules. Pausanieis speaks of Anches- 
 Mus as an inconsiderable height, with a statue 
 of Jupiter on its summit. It now takes its 
 name from the church of St. George, which has 
 replaced the statue. Pioceeding beyond this 
 hill round the walls of the city, we shall arrive 
 at the outer Cera^hcus, which contained the 
 remains of the most illustrious w^arriors and 
 statesmen of Athens. Here were interred Pe- 
 ricles, Phormio, Thrasy^bulus, and Chabrias ; 
 the road, iu fact, was lined as far as the Acade- 
 my on either side with the sepulchres of Athe- 
 nians who had fallen in battle. Over each 
 tomb was placed a pillar with an inscription 
 recording the names of the dead, and those of 
 their demi and tribes. One column commemo- 
 rated the names of those who had fallen in 
 Sicily ; that of Nicias, however, was excepted, 
 in consequence of his having surrendered him- 
 self to the enemy; while Demosthenes was 
 adjudged worthy of having his name inscribed 
 for this reason, that having capitulated for his 
 army, he refused to be included in the treat}", and 
 made an attempt on his own life. Here were 
 also the cenotaphs of those who fell in the naval 
 fight at the Hellespont, in the battle of Chsero- 
 nea, and during the Lamiac war. Beyond 
 were the tombs of Cleisthenes, who increased 
 the number of the Attic tribes; of Tolmides ; 
 of Conon and Timotheus, a father and son, 
 whose exploits are only surpasssed by those of 
 Miltiades and Cimon. Here were interred 
 Zeno and Chrysippus, celebrated Stoics, Har- 
 modius and Aristogeiton, and the orators Ephi- 
 altes and Lycurgus. The latter is said to have 
 deposited in the public treasury 6500 talents 
 more than Pericles had been able to collect. It 
 was in the outer Ceramicus that the games 
 called Lempadephoria were celebrated. The 
 Academy was at the extremity of this burial 
 ground, and about six stadia from the gate 
 Dipylum. ' A few scattered olives grow on it, 
 and some paces further west we saw a number 
 of gardens and rinevards, which contained 
 43 
 
AT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AT 
 
 fruit-trees of a more exuberant growth than 
 in any other part of the plain.' A little to 
 the north-west of the Academy was the de- 
 mus of CoLONUs, named Hippeios from the al- 
 tar erected there to the Equestrian Neptune, 
 and rendered so celebrated by the play of Sopho- 
 cles as the scene of the last adventures of CEdi- 
 pus. From Thucydides we learn that Colonus 
 was distant ten stadia from the city, and that 
 assemblies of the people were on some occa- 
 sions convened at the temple of Neptune. The 
 celebrated long walls which connected Athens 
 with its several ports were first planned and 
 commenced by Themistocles after the termina- 
 tion of the Persian war ; but he did not live to 
 terminate this great undertaking, which was 
 continued after his death by Cimon, and at 
 length completed by Pericles. Sometimes we 
 find them termed the legs, (o-x:£'X/7,) and by La- 
 tin writers the arms, (brachia,) of the Pirseus. 
 One of these was designated by the name of 
 Piraic, and sometimes by that of the northern 
 wall, ^opeXov TEX'x^oi ; its length was forty stadia. 
 The other was called the Phaleric, or southern 
 wall, and measured thirty-five stadia. The in- 
 termediate wall, {6iaiiiaov reXxos,^ spoken of by 
 some ancient writers, may have been that portion 
 which was enclosed between the two longomural 
 arms. In the Peloponnesian war, the exterior 
 or Piraic wall alone was guarded, as that was 
 the only direction in which the enemy could ad- 
 vance, there being no passage to the south and 
 east of Athens, except through a difficult pass 
 between the city and mount Hymettus, or by 
 making the circuit of that mountain, which 
 would have been a very hazardous undertaking. 
 The long walls remained entire about fifty-four 
 years after their completion, till the capture of 
 Athens by the Peloponnesian forces, eleven 
 years after which, Conon rebuilt them with the 
 assistance of Pharnabazus. Col. Leake informs 
 us that some vestiges of this great work are still 
 to be seen. ' They are chiefly remarkable to- 
 wards the lower end, where they were connect- 
 ed with the fortifications of PiraBUs and Phale- 
 rum. The modern road from Athens to the 
 port Drako, at something less than two miles 
 short of the latter, comes upon the foundations 
 of the northern long wall, which are formed of 
 vast masses of squared stones, and are about 
 twelve feet in thickness. Precisely parallel to 
 it, at the distance of 550 feet, are seen the foun- 
 dations of the southern long walls ; the two 
 walls thus forming a wide street, running from 
 the centre of the Phaleric hill exactly in the di- 
 rection of the entrance of the acropolis.' Mari- 
 time Athens may be considered as divided into 
 the three quarters of Pir.eus, MuNYcmA, and 
 Phalerum. ' PiR^us,' says Pausanias , ' was 
 a demus from the earliest time, but it did not be- 
 come a port for ships before the administration 
 of Themistocles. Hitherto Phalerum had been 
 the usual harbour, as it was nearest the sea ; 
 and Menestheus is said to have sailed from 
 thence for Troy, and Theseus for Crete. But 
 Themistocles perceiving that the Piraeus pre- 
 sented greater advantages for the purposes of 
 navigation, and contained three ports instead of 
 one, when he was placed at the head of the go- 
 vernment, caused it to be adapted for the recep- 
 tion of shipping. And now there are still re- 
 maining the covered docks, and the tomb of 
 44 
 
 Themistocles, close to the largest of the har- 
 bours ; for it is said that the Athenians having 
 repented of their conduct towards him, his rela- 
 tives conveyed thither his remains from Mag- 
 nesia.' Strabo compares the maritime part of 
 Athens to the city of the Rhodians, since it was 
 thickly inhabited, and enclosed by a wall, com- 
 prehending within its circuit the Piraeus and 
 the other ports which could contain four hun- 
 dred ships of war. These lines being connect- 
 ed with the long walls, which were forty stadia 
 in length, united the Pirseus with the city. But, 
 during the many wars in which the Athenians 
 had been engaged, they were demolished, and 
 the Piraeus is now reduced to a few habitations, 
 which stand round the ports and the temple of 
 Jupiter Soter. The temple alluded to by the 
 geographer is doubtless the same described by 
 Pausanias as the temenus of Minerva and Ju- 
 piter, in which were deposited the statues of 
 these iwo deities in brass. That of Minerva 
 was an admirable work by Cephissodotus. The 
 arsenal, erected and supplied by the architect 
 Philo, was said to suffice for the equipment of a 
 thousand ships. It was destroyed by Sylla. 
 The maritime bazar or emporium was called 
 Macra Stoa, and was situated near the sea. 
 The agora named Hippodameia was at a great- 
 er distance from the coast ; it was so called from 
 Hippodamus, a Milesian, who had been em- 
 ployed by Themistocles to fortify the Pirseus, 
 and to lay out its streets as well as those of the 
 capital. The place called Deigma seems to 
 have answered the purpose of an exchange or 
 mart, where goods were exhibited for sale. The 
 Serangium WEis a public bath. The Phreat- 
 TYs was a court of justice which took cogni- 
 zance of murders when the party accused, hav- 
 ing been acquitted for an involuntary act, was 
 now tried for a voluntary crime. The defend- 
 ant in this case was ordered to plead on board a 
 ship, while the judges heard him from the shore. 
 The port of Pirseus was subdivided into three 
 lesser havens, named Cantharus, Aphrodi- 
 siuM, and Zea. The former was appropriated 
 to dock-yards for the construction and repairs 
 of ships of war. This was probably the inner- 
 most of the three basins. Aphrodisium seems 
 to have been the middle or great harbour, and 
 Zea the outermost, so called from the grain 
 which the Athenians imported from the Helles- 
 pont and other parts, and deposited in store- 
 houses erected there for that purpose. The en- 
 trance to the Piraeus was formed on one side by 
 the point of land called Eetioneia, on the other 
 by Cape Alcimus. Eetioneia was fortified 
 towards the close of the Peloponnesian war 
 by the council of Four Hundred, with a view of 
 commanding the entrance of the harbour, and 
 admitting, if necessary the Peloponnesian fleet. 
 They erected also a large building, in which 
 they caused all imported corn to be deposited. 
 Eetioneia, according to Col. Leake, was that 
 projecting part of the coast which runs west- 
 ward from the north side of the entrance into 
 the Piraeus, and is now called Trapezona. Pi- 
 raeus itself is kno"WTi by the name of Port Drako, 
 or Leone, derived from a colossal figure of a 
 lion in white marble, which once stood upon the 
 breach, but was removed by the Venetians in 
 1687. The port of MuNYcmA was so called, 
 as it is said, from Munychus, an Orchomenian, 
 
AT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 AT 
 
 who, having been expelled from Boeotia by the 
 Thracians, settled at Athens. Strabo describes 
 it as a peninsular hill, connected with the conti- 
 nent by a narrow neck of land, and abounding 
 with hollows, partly natural and partly the work 
 of art. When it had been enclosed by fortified 
 lines, connecting it with the other ports, Muny- 
 chia became a most important position from the 
 security it afforded to these maritime dependent 
 cies of Athens, and accordingly we find it al- 
 ways mentioned as the point which was most 
 particularly guarded when any attack was ap- 
 prehended on the side of the sea. The whole 
 peninsula abounds with remains of walls, exca- 
 vations in the rocks for the foundations of build- 
 ings, and other traces of ancient habitations. 
 Cape Alcimus, according to Plutarch, was a 
 headland near the entrance of Pirgeus, close to 
 which was to be seen the tomb of Themisto- 
 cles, built in the shape of an altar. Phale- 
 rum was the most ancient of the Athenian 
 ports; but after the erection of the docks in 
 the Piraeus it ceased to be of any importance 
 in a maritime point of view. It was, how- 
 ever, enclosed within the fortifications of The- 
 mistocles, and gave its name to the southern- 
 most of the long walls, by means of which it 
 wa^ connected with Athens. Pausanias no- 
 tices in this demus, belonging to the tribe An- 
 tiochis, a temple of Ceres, and another of Mi- 
 nerva Sciras ; also a temple of Jupiter at some 
 distance from the shore. Here were, besides, 
 altars sacred to the Unknown Gods, the sons of 
 Theseus, .the hero Phalerus, and Androgens 
 son of Minos, and the tomb of Aristides. Pha- 
 lerum supplied the Athenian market with abun- 
 dance of the little fish named aphyse so often 
 mentioned by the comic writers. The lands 
 aroimd it were marshy, and produced very fine 
 cabbages. The modem name of Phalerum is 
 Porto Fanari?'' Cro.mer. The ancients, to 
 distinguish Athens in a more peculiar manner, 
 called it Astu, one of the e^'es of Greece, the 
 learned city, the school of the world, the com- 
 mon patroness of Greece. The Athenians 
 thought themselves the most ancient nation of 
 Greece, and supposed themselves the original 
 inhabitants of Attica ; for which reason they 
 were called avro;^;(5ov£s produced from the savie 
 earth which they inhabited, yvyeveis sons of the 
 earth, and rertryej grasshoppers. They some- 
 times wore golden grasshoppers in their hair as 
 badges of honour, to distinguish them from 
 other people of later origin and less noble ex- 
 traction, because those insects are supposed to 
 be sprung from the ground. The number of 
 men able to bear arms at Athens in the reign 
 of Cecrops was computed at 20,000, and there 
 appeared no considerable augmentation in the 
 more civilized age of Pericles; but in the time 
 of Demetrius Phalereus there were found 21,000 
 citizens, 10,000 foreigners, and 40,000 slaves. 
 
 ATHEN.EUM, I. a place at Athens, sacred to 
 Minerva, where the poets, philosophers, and rhe- 
 toricians generally declaimed and repeated their 
 compositions. It was public to all the professors 
 of the liberal arts. The same thing was adopted 
 at Rome by Adrian, who made a public building 
 for the same laudable purposes. II. A pro- 
 montory of Italy. III. A fortified place be- 
 tween jEtolia and Macedonia. Liv. 38, c. 1, 
 1. 39, c. 25. 
 
 Athesis, now Adige, a river of Cisalpine 
 Gaul, rising in the mountains of Tyrol, and, 
 after flowing nearly 200 miles, emptying north 
 of the Po into the Adriatic. Virg. ^n. 9, v. 680. 
 Athos, a mountain of Macedonia, 150 miles 
 in circumference, projecting into the ^gean 
 Sea like a promontory. When Xerxes invaded 
 Greece, he made a trench of a mile and a half 
 in length at the foot of the mountain, into wkuch 
 he brought the sea-water, and conveyed his fleet 
 over it, so that two ships could pass one another; 
 thus desirous either to avoid the danger of sailing 
 round the promontory, or to show his vanity 
 and the extent of his power. — A sculptor, called 
 Dinocrates, offered Alexander to cut mount 
 Athos, and to make with it a statue of the king 
 holding a town in his left hand, and in the right 
 a spacious basin, to receive all the waters which 
 flowed from it. Alexander greatly admired the 
 plan, but objected to the place; and he observed 
 that the neighbouring country was not suffi- 
 ciently fruitful to produce corn and provisions 
 for the inhabitants which were to dwell in the 
 city in the hand of the statue. Athos is now 
 called Monte Santo, famous for monasteries, 
 said to contain some ancient and valuable ma- 
 nuscripts. Herodot. 6, c. 44, 1. 7, c. 21. &c. — 
 Jjucan. 2, v. 672. — yElian. de Anim. 13, c. 20, 
 &c. — Plin. 4, c. 10. — jEschin. contra Ctesiph. 
 ATmiULLA, a town of Arabia Felix. Strab. 
 Athyi/IBra, a city of Caria, afterwards called 
 Nyssa. Strab. 14. 
 
 Atina, 1. one of the most ancient cities of the 
 Volsci, situated to the south-east of Arpinum, 
 a considerable to-v^n as early, as the Trojan war 
 according to Virgil. Its situation, among the 
 loftiest summits of the Appenines, is marked by 
 Silius Italicus. It was taken by the Romans 
 A. U. C. 440. According to Cicero it was a 
 prsefectura, and one of the most populous in 
 Italy. It is now Atins. Cram. — jEn. 7, 629. 
 
 — Cic. Pro. Plane. II. A town of Lucania, 
 
 not far from the Tanager, now Atena. 
 
 Atlantes, a people of Africa in the neigh- 
 bourhood of mount Atlas, who lived chiefly on 
 the fruits of the earth, and Vv'-ere said not to have 
 their sleep at all disturbed by dreams. They 
 daily cursed the sun at his rising and at his set- 
 ting, because his excessive heat scorched and 
 tormented them. Herodot. 
 
 Atlantides, a people of Africa, near mount 
 Atlas. They boasted of being in possession of 
 the country in which all the gods of antiquity 
 received their birth. Diod. 3. 
 
 Atlantis, an island mentioned by the an- 
 cients, particularly by Plato in his Timaeus and 
 Critias, generally placed in the Atlantic ocean. 
 Much diversity of opinion has existed in regard 
 to it. It is commonly considered an island of 
 the Atlantic, but some {Vid. Lempriere, Art. 
 Atlantis, 6th American edition,) by " a diligent 
 examination" of ancient writers, discover it to 
 have been an extensive region, somewhere or 
 other " engulphed by some subaqueous convul- 
 sion of nature." 
 
 Atlas, a mountain of Africa, of poetical ce- 
 lebrity. It is at present obscurely known to 
 Europeans. M. Desfontaines considers it as 
 divided into two leading chains. " The south- 
 em one adjoining the Desert, is called the 
 Greater Atlas ; the other, lying towards the 
 Mediterranean, is called the little chain. Both 
 45 
 
AT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AT 
 
 run eajst and west, and are connected together 
 by several intermediate mountains running 
 north and south, and containing between them 
 both valleys and table lands. But it is worthy 
 of remark, that the great and little Atlas of 
 Ptolemy, the one of which is terminated at 
 Cape FelTieh, and the other at Cape Cantin, 
 difler from the chains of the French traveller, 
 being lateral branches which go off from the 
 main system to form promontories on the sea- 
 coast." — " The great height of mount Atlas is 
 proved by the perpetual snows that cover its 
 summits ia the east part of Morocco, under the 
 latitude of 32°. According to Humboldt's prin- 
 ciples, these summits must be 12,000 feet above 
 the level of the sea." — M. Desfontaines found in 
 the mountains large heaps of shells and marine 
 bodies at a great distance from the sea, a pheno- 
 menon noticed by all modern travellers. Ac- 
 cording to Pliny, " the sides of the Atlas which 
 look to the western ocean, that is, the south 
 sides, raise their arid and dark masses abruptly 
 from the bosom of a sea of sand ; while the 
 more gentle northern declivity is adorned with 
 beautiful forests and verdant pastures." M. 
 Ideler denies that the mountains above described 
 were the Atlas of the ancient poets. He is of 
 opinion, that the Phoenicians, who frequented 
 the Archipelago of the Canaries, were astonished 
 at the height of the Peak of Teneriffe; and 
 that the Phoenician colonies " brought to Greece 
 some information respecting that mountain 
 which towered above the region of the clouds, 
 and the happy islands over which it presides, 
 embellished with oranges or golden apples." 
 Hence Homer's Atlas, with its foundations in 
 the depths of the ocean, and the Elysian fields, 
 situated somewhere in the west. Hesiod adds 
 to this, that Atlas was a neighbour of the Hes- 
 perian nymphs ; to which later poets have added 
 the embellishments of the Hesperides, their 
 golden apples, and the islands of the Blessed. 
 When the Greeks passed the columns of Her- 
 cules, they looked for Atlas on the western coast 
 of Africa. It is thus that Strabo, Ptolemy, and 
 other geographers, have altered its position. — 
 To this opinion Malte-Brun objects. He is of 
 opinion that the name Atlas was first applied to 
 an isolated promontory, and cites a passage in 
 Maximus Tyrius in support of this hypothesis. 
 " The Ethiopian Hesperians worshipped mount 
 Atlas, who is both their temple and idol. The 
 Atlas is a mountain of moderate elevation, con- 
 cave, and open towards the sea in the form of an 
 amphithearre. Halfway from the mountain a 
 great valley extends, which is remarkably fer- 
 tile, and adorned with fruit trees. The most 
 wonderful thing is to see the waves of the ocean 
 at high water overspreading the adjoining 
 plains, but stopping short before mount Atl as, and 
 standing up like a wall, without penetrating into 
 the hollow of the valley. Such is the temple 
 and the god of the Libyans ; such is the object of 
 their worship and the witness of their oaths." 
 " In the physical delineations," says Malte- 
 Brun, " contained in this account, we perceive 
 some features of resemblance to the coast be- 
 tween Cape Tefelneh and Cape Geer, which re- 
 sembles an amphitheatre crowned with a series 
 of detached rocks." Vid. Part III. Malte-Brun. 
 — Plin. 5, 1. — Horn. Od. II. 4. — Hesiod. Theos;. 
 5, 517. O. et D. \G1.—Max. Tijr. Diss. 37th. 
 46 
 
 Atrax, I. "an ancient colony of the Per- 
 rhasbi, was ten miles from Larissa, higher up the 
 Peneus, and on the right bank of that river. It 
 was defended by the Macedonians agamst T. 
 Flaminius. Dr. Clarke was led to imagine 
 that this city stood at Ampelakia, from the cir- 
 cumstance of the green marble, known to the 
 ancients imder the name of Atracium Marmor. 
 being found there ; but it is evident from Livy 
 that Atrax was to the west of Larissa, and only 
 ten miles from that city; whereas Ampelakia is 
 close to Tempe and distant more than fifteen 
 
 miles from Larissa." Cram,. II. A city of 
 
 Thessaly, whence the epithet of Atracius. 
 
 III. A river of .^tolia, which falls into the 
 Ionian Sea. 
 
 Atrebates, a powerful people of Gallia 
 Belgica, contiguous to the Morini and Nervii. 
 Strabo styles them 'ArptParoi (Atrebati), and 
 Ptolemy 'ATpePdnot (Atrebatii), and calls their 
 chief city 'OpiyiaKov, a name cited by no other 
 ancient writer. Nemetacum or Nemetocenna, 
 now Arras, or, as the Flemings call it, Atrecht, 
 was their city. In the Nervian war they 
 pledged themselves for 15,000 armed men. Till 
 the time of Caesar they were independent. He 
 set over thern Commms. Their territory is in- 
 cluded in the modern VAriois, or, more pro- 
 perly, at the present time, Departement du Pas- 
 de-Calais. D^Anville. — Cces. Lemaire, Ind. 
 Geog. 
 
 Atrebatii, a people of Britain, north of the 
 Belgse, towards the Thames. Otherwise called 
 Atrebati, Atrebatse. 
 
 Atropatene, or Atropatia, a province of 
 Armenia, contiguous to Media, so called from 
 Atropates, its satrap, who, in the dissensions 
 which reigned among the Macedonian generals, 
 after the death of Alexander, rendered himself 
 independent, and took the title of king, which 
 his successors enjoyed for many ages. The 
 name now given to this country is Aderbigian, 
 from the Persian term ^^^er, signifying fire, ac- 
 cording to the tradition that Zerdust, or Zoro- 
 aster, lighted a pyre or temple of fire in Urmi- 
 ah, a city of this his native country. We find 
 also in an Arabian geographer Atrib-Kan, in 
 which it is easy to recognise Atropatena. The 
 capital is named Gaza or Gazaca, and its posi- 
 tion is that of Tebriz, or, as it is more com- 
 monly pronounced, Tauris. D'Anville. 
 
 Attalia, a city of Pamphylia, built by king 
 Attains. The modern site is called Palaia 
 Antalia. The present city of Antalia, or, as it 
 is commonly called, Satalia, corresponds with 
 the ancient Olbia. D'Anville. 
 
 Attica, a country of Greece, to the south of 
 Boeotia. Its name is said to have been derived 
 from that of Atthis, daughter of Cranaus. Pre- 
 vious to the reign of Cranaus, however, it was 
 called Acte, either from a chief Actaeus, or from 
 its extent of coast {dKTf}). Its more obscure ap- 
 pellation of Mopsopia was deduced from the 
 hero Mopsopus or Mopsops. From Cecrops the 
 country was called Cecropia, and it was not till 
 the reign of Erechtheus that it assumed its pre- 
 sent appellation. Attica was remarkable for the 
 poverty of its soil, in consequence of which, ac- 
 cording to Thucydides, it never changed its in- 
 habitants. To this fact we are to attribute the 
 pride of the Athenians in regard to their antiqui- 
 ty, which indulged itself in the h}'perbolical 
 
AT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AV 
 
 assertion of their being sprmig from the earth. 
 " Attica may be considered as forming a trian- 
 gle, the base of which is common also to Bceo- 
 tia, while the two other sides are washed by the 
 sea, having their vertex formedby Cape Smiium. 
 The prolongation of the western side, till it 
 meets the base at the extremity of Cithseron, 
 served also as a common boundary to the Athe- 
 nian territory as well as that of Megara. The 
 whole surface of the comitry contained within 
 these limits, according to the best modern maps, 
 furnishes an area of about 730 square miles, al- 
 lowing for the very hilly nature of the ground. 
 It appears that the whole population of Attica, 
 about 317 B. C, at which time a census was 
 taken by Demetrius of Phalerum, was estimated 
 at 528,000 ; of these, 21,000 were citizens, who 
 had a vote in the general assembly of the people. 
 The ^sToiKoc, or residents, who paid taxes but 
 had no vote, amotmted to 10,000; and the 
 slaves to 400,000 ; which, with a proportionate 
 allowance of women and children, furnishes the 
 number of souls above-mentioned." '' The 
 whole of Attica had been divided, as early as 
 the time of Cecrops, into four tribes or wards 
 {(pv\ai,) but these were afterwards increased to 
 ten by. Cleisthenes, which were severally named 
 after some Athenian hero, who was considered 
 as its apx'^iydi OY ap'xnyirr)^. Each tribe had also 
 its president or chief, distinguished by the title 
 of Phylarch {(hvXapxos)] these commanded also 
 the cavalry. The word (pvUms denoted an in- 
 dividual belonging to one of the ten tribes." 
 " The names of these wards we collect from an- 
 cient writers to have been as follows : 1. Erech- 
 theis, named after Erectheus. — 2. ^Egeis, from 
 jEgeus, father of Theseus. -3. Pandionis, from 
 Pandion, son of Erechtheus. — 1. Leontis, after 
 the three daughters of Leos, who were said to 
 have devoted themselves to avert a pestilence 
 from their country. — 5. Acamantis, from Aca- 
 mas, son of Theseus. This was the tribe of 
 Pericles. — 6. CEneis, from CEneus, grandson of 
 Cadmus. — 7. Cecropis, from Cecrops. —8. Hip- 
 pothoontis, from Hippothoon, son of Neptune 
 and Alope. — 9. Mantis, from Ajax, the son of 
 Telamon. — 10. Antiochis, from Antiochus, the 
 son of Hercules. Antigonis and Demetrias 
 were added to the number, in honour of Deme- 
 trius Poliorcetes and his father Antigonus. But 
 the names of these two tribes were afterwards 
 changed to those of Attalis and Ptolemais, in 
 compliment to kings Attalus and Ptolemy, son 
 of Lagus. Each tribe was subdivided into demi 
 or boroughs, the head officer of which was called 
 demarch (Sfijiapxos) ; this arrangement is by 
 some ascribed to Solon, by others to Cleisthenes. 
 The number of the Attic demi is stated to have 
 been 170 or 174, and most of their names are 
 preserved to us." Cram. 
 
 Atdatici, or Aduatici, a people of Belgie 
 Gaul, contiguous to the Nervii on the one hand 
 and the Eburones on the other. They were of 
 Celtic origin. The situation of the town of the 
 Atuatici, taken by Caesar, is a disputed point. 
 Some make it to have been Namurcum (Na- 
 mur) : but D'Anville disproves this, and con- 
 ceives it to be Falais sur la Mehaigne, the si- 
 tuation of which agrees well with the descrip- 
 tion of Caesar. Cces. Lem. Ind. Geog. 
 
 Aturia, a name sometimes applied to the 
 whole of Assyria, though proper only to a par- 
 
 ticular canton of the country in the environs of 
 
 Nineveh. D'Anville. 
 
 Aturus, a river of Gaul, now the Admir, 
 which runs at the foot of the Pyrenean moun- 
 tains into the bay of Biscay. Lucan. 1, v. 420. 
 
 AvALiTES SINUS, a gulf of the Erythraean 
 sea. Its port, now Zeila, corresponds with the 
 emporium of the Avalites, with whom a Nubian 
 nation was associated. D^Anvillc. 
 
 AvARicuM, the chief city of the Bituriges 
 Cubi, in Gallia Celtica. It was situated on the 
 Avara, a southern branch of the Ligeris. In 
 the course of time it received the names of Cas- 
 trum Mediolanense and Bituriga; the latter 
 from the name of the people ; and this, assum- 
 ing in charts the form of Biorgas, has at length 
 been changed into Bourges. The modern town 
 is in the province le Berry, now depariement du 
 Cher. — Cces. Lem. Ind. Geog. 
 
 Avella. Vid. Abella. 
 
 AvENio, a rich to^un of Gallia Narbonensis, 
 on the Rhone, now Avignon, the chief city of 
 the Befartment of Vaucluse. From 1305 to 
 1377 it was the residence of the popes. Avig- 
 non is dear to the lover of romance, from its as- 
 sociation with the memory of Petrarch and Lau- 
 ra. The fountain of Vaucluse is in its vicinity. 
 
 AvENTicuM, or AvANTicuM, uow Avcuche, 
 the chief town of the Helvetii. 
 
 AvENTiNus, one of the seven hills of Rome, 
 which, together with the space intervening be- 
 tween its base and the Tiber, composed the thir- 
 teenth region of the city. " The origin of the 
 name Aventine seems quite undetermined, 
 though it was currently reported to be derived 
 from Aventinus Silvius, king of Alba, who was 
 buried here. One part of this mount was knoT^oi 
 by the name of Saxum ; the other, of Remuria, 
 from Remus, who is said to have taken his sta- 
 tion there when consulting the aiispices with a 
 view to founding Rome. The ascent to the 
 Aventine was called Clivus Publicius, having 
 been made by two brothers named Publicii, with 
 certain sums of money which they had embez- 
 zled as Curule iEdiles, and which they were 
 compelled to expend in this manner. The Pub- 
 licii are said to have erected also a temple of 
 Flora on this site. In the same vicinity Roman 
 antiquaries place the baths of Decius ; a temple 
 of Diana, which faced the Circus Maximus ; 
 and a temple of Liuia. That of Juno Regina 
 was built and consecrated by Camillus, after the 
 capture of Veil. The church of St. Maria 
 Aventina, which belongs to the knights of Malta, 
 is supposed to stand on the site of an ancient 
 temple sacred to Bona Dea. Antiquities are 
 not agreed on which side of moimt Aventine to 
 place the cave of the robber Cacus ; but that is 
 a question too much allied to fiction to be treat- 
 ed of seriously. The other antiquities connect- 
 ed with this hill are, the altar of Evander ; the 
 sepulchre of Tatius, in a grove of laurels ; the 
 Armilustrum, a place in which soldiers were 
 exercised on certain holidays ; a temple of Mi- 
 nerva. The altar of Laverna, the tutelary god- 
 dess of thieves, was near the Porta Lavernalis. 
 The altar of Jupiter Elicius, dedicated by Nu- 
 ma, was also on the Aventine. At the foot of the 
 hill issued a ri^iilet, called the fountain of Picus 
 and Faunus. It is not certain on which part of 
 the hill the temple of Liberty was placed. This 
 edifice, which was constructed by the father of 
 47 
 
AU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AU 
 
 Tib. Sempronins Gracchus, is often mentioned 
 in the history of Rome on accomit of the hall 
 contiguous to it. That building contained the 
 archives of the censors, and was the place in 
 which those officers transacted a great part of 
 their business. Having been consumed by fire, 
 it was rebuilt on a much larger scale by Asinius 
 Pollio, who also annexed to it a library, which 
 was the first building of the kind opened to the 
 public at Rome. The house of Ennius the 
 poet was on the Aventine. At the foot of the 
 Aventine, and close to the Tiber, were the an- 
 cient Navalia, or docks, of Rome. The river 
 was here adorned with several porticoes, and an 
 emporium was established outside the Porta 
 Trigemina. Besides these porticoes, Livy men- 
 tions the temples of Hercules, of Hope, and of 
 Apollo Medicus, as being near the Tiber. The 
 public granaries stood in this quarter, on ac- 
 count of the convenience, probably, which the 
 river afibrded of landmg the wheat, which came 
 from Sicily, Egypt, and Africa." Cram. 
 
 AvERNUs LACUs, now Lago d^Averno, a lake 
 of Campania, in the vicinity of Cumae, connect- 
 ed by a narrow passage with the Lucrine lake, 
 which intervened between it and the bay of 
 Baise. It was surrounded on every side, except 
 this outlet, by steep hills ; its depth was report- 
 ed to be unfathomable. The story of birds be- 
 coming stupified by its exhalations, whence it 
 is said to have obtained its name (dopuoj,) is 
 well known from Virgil ; but Strabo expressly 
 states the whole story to be fabulous ; nor is he, 
 of course, more inclined to attach credit to the 
 accounts which placed here the scene of Ulys- 
 ses' descent to the infernal regions, and his 
 evocation of the dead, as described in the Odys- 
 sey, together with the subterraneous abodes of 
 the Cimmerians. According to Heyne, how- 
 ever, the vicinity of Avernus abounded in caves, 
 occupied by Troglodytse, whence the fables of 
 the Cimmerians; and the dense woods which 
 covered the neighbouring hills, adding to the 
 gloomy nature of the place, made it an appro- 
 priate scene for the necromantion, or invocation 
 of the manes. If we further take into consider- 
 ation the volcanic character of the surrounding 
 coimtry, it will not appear wonderful that the 
 imagination of the Greeks, excited by the ex- 
 aggerated tales of navigators, fixed here the 
 Phlegraei Campi, and the place of punishment 
 of the rebellious giants : and finally established 
 a connexion between the mysterious Avernus 
 and the infernal regions. " The groves and fo- 
 rests which covered the hills around the Aver- 
 nus, were dedicated, it seems, to Hecate ; and 
 sacrifices were frequently offered to that god- 
 dess. These groves and shades disappeared 
 when M. Agrippa converted the lake into a har- 
 bour, by opening a commimication with the sea 
 and the Lucrine basin. This harbour, which 
 was called Portus Julius in honour of Augus- 
 tus, served for exercising the galleys ; and it is 
 to this circumstance that he is said to have been 
 indebted for his victory over Sextus Pompeius," 
 Cram. — Mn. 6. — Heyne. Ezc. 2, 3. 
 
 AuFiDENA, now Alfiden^, the principal town 
 of the Caraceni, in Samnium, on the Sagnis or 
 Sarus, now Sangro. It was taken by a Roman 
 consul, A. U. C. 454, and became a military 
 colony and a municipal toAvn. Cram.. 
 
 AuFiDUS, now Ofanto^ a river of Apulia, 
 
 which rises in the Appenines and empties into 
 the Hadriatic. The plain between this river 
 and Cannae was the scene of Hannibal's signal 
 victory. Polybius remarks, that this river is the 
 only one, which, rising on the western side of 
 the Appenines, finds its way through that con- 
 tinuous chain into the Adriatic. But the Aufi- 
 dus cannot be said to penetrate entirely through 
 the chain of these mountains, since it rises on 
 one side of it, while the Silarus flows from the 
 other. Cram.'] 
 
 AuGEiE, the homeric name of .^gise, a town 
 of Laconia, situated 30 stadia from Gythium. 
 In its vicinity was a small lake, with a temple 
 of Neptune on the shore. Cram. 
 
 Augusta, I. Ausciorum, the metropolis of 
 the Ausci, a people of that part of Aquitania 
 called Novem populana. Vid. Ausci. D'Arv- 
 
 ville. II. Emerita, a colony of veterans or 
 
 pensioners, founded by Augustus, on the Anas 
 in Lusitania. It was the residence of the pro- 
 praetor or governor of the province, and the ca- 
 pital of a conventus. It is now Merida, on the 
 
 GuadioMa. III. -PRiETORiA, a city in the 
 
 territory of the Salassi, built upon the spot oc- 
 cupied by the camp of Terentius Varro during 
 the exterminating war carried on against that 
 people by order of Augustus, who gave his name 
 to the new city. It is now Aoste^ from which 
 the fine valley in which it lies is called, and 
 where several remains of the ancient city are 
 still to be seen. According to Pliny, Augustus 
 Prsetoria was reckoned the extreme point of 
 
 Italy to the north. Cram. IV. Rauraco- 
 
 rum, now Augst, a colony founded under the 
 auspices of Augustus, and sometimes called 
 simply Rauraci, from the people in whose ter- 
 ritory it is situated. It is on a bend of the Rhine, 
 
 a little above Basle. D'Anville. V. Sues- 
 
 sioNUM, the capital of the Suessiones, in Bel- 
 gica, on the Axona. By some supposed to be 
 the Noviodunum Suessionum of Caesar. It is 
 
 now Soissons. — Cas. Lem. Ind. Geog. VI, 
 
 Taurinorum, the capital of the Taurini, plun- 
 dered by Hannibal soon after his descent of the 
 Alps. Appian calls it Taurasia. As a Roman 
 colony it was named as above, and is now To- 
 rino or Turin., the present capital of Piedmont. 
 
 Cram. VII. Trevirorum, now Treves, the 
 
 metropolis of Belgica Prima. It served as the 
 residence of several Roman emperors, whom 
 the care of superintending the defence of this 
 
 frontier retained in Gaul. D'Anville. VIII. 
 
 Trioastinorum, a town of the Tricastini, on 
 the Rhone, now St. Paul- Trois-Cluiteaux: 
 
 IX. Vagiennorum, the capital of the Vagienni, 
 now Vico, according to D Anville ; more pro- 
 bably, according to Durandi, the modern Bene. 
 
 Cram. X. Veromanduorum, the capital of 
 
 the Veromandui, now 5'^. Quiniin. XI. Vin- 
 
 delicorum, a powerful colony established in 
 the angle formed by the two rivers Vindo and 
 Licus. It is now Augsburgh, between the ri- 
 vers Lech and Wertach ; the former of which 
 separated Suabia from Bavaria. D'Anville. 
 
 AuGusTOBONA, the capital of the Tricasses, 
 on the Sequana, now Troyes, formed by the 
 gradual corruption of the ancient name, 
 
 AuGUSTODUNUM, Vid. Biiracte. 
 
 AuGusTORiTUM, now Limoges, the capital of 
 the Lemovices in Aquitania. 
 
 Aulerci, a people of Gaul, inhabiting that 
 
AU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 AX 
 
 part which was called Lugdunensis. They were 
 divided into the Brannovices, the Cenomani, the 
 Diablintes, and the Eburo vices. The district of 
 country inhabited by the first is not precisely 
 known, but it is pretty well ascertained that they 
 dwelt upon the banks of the Loire ; or, like the 
 rest of the Aulerci, between that river and the 
 Seuie,in thatwhich was afterv\'ards the province 
 of Maine. The Cenomani occupied a tract of 
 country belonging alterv\-ards to Maine and Or- 
 leans. They were among the most eminent of 
 the Gallic tribes, and are mentioned by name 
 among the Celtae who passed the Alps in the 
 reign of the Tarquins. The Diablintes dwelt 
 upon the west and north-west of the Cenomani, 
 having upon their north the Eburovices, who 
 occupied so much of that part of the country 
 which was afterwards conquered by the North- 
 men, and took from them the name of Norman- 
 dy, as has since been formed into the depart- 
 ment de VEure. They have been confounded 
 with the Eburones, and their name became af- 
 .terwards by corruption Ebroici. Cas. B. G. 7, 
 75, and 3, 17. — Liv. 5, 34. 
 
 AuLis, a town of Boeotia, on the Euripus, 
 nearly opposite to Chalcis. The harbour, ac- 
 cording to Strabo, was so small that not more 
 than fifty vessels of the Grecian fleet could be 
 moored in it ; from whence he infers that not the 
 port of Aulis, but that of Bathys,' must have 
 been the true rendezvous of the Greeks when 
 about to sail for Troy. Diana seems to have 
 been peculiarly an object of worship at Aulis ; 
 and Pausanias observes that though the place 
 was greatly reduced and almost depopulated in 
 his day, the temple of that goddess was still in 
 existence. The harbour is now called Megalo- 
 Vathi. Eurip. Iph. in Aul. 120. — Horn. 2, 496 
 and 303. — D^Anville. Vid. Iphigenia. 
 
 AuLON, I. the name of a fertile ridge and val- 
 ley of Apulia, on the left bank of the Galsesus. 
 Its beauty and fertilit}'' are celebrated by Horace 
 and Martial ; the former of whom compares the 
 wine produced in this region to the famous Fa- 
 lernian. It is now Terra di Melone. Hor. 2, 6. 
 
 —Mart. 13, ep. 125. II. The name of that 
 
 part of Messenia which lay on the Neda near 
 its mouth, and was separated by that river from 
 Triphylia of Elis and from Arcadia. Pans. — 
 
 Messen. 36. — Strab. III. Cilicius, the strait 
 
 lying between Cilicia in Asia Minor and the isl- 
 and of Cyprus was called Aulon Cilicius.- 
 
 IV. A name of the Magnus Campus, or plain 
 lying along the course of the Jordan, from the 
 Tiberian lake to that of Asphaltides. It is 
 called by the Arabs el Gmir. 
 
 AuRANiTis, now Belad-Hauran, a tract of 
 country, having, as some suppose, a towTi of the 
 same name, on the confines of Syria and the de- 
 sert of Arabia, with which its limits were con- 
 founded, on the east. It had Iturea on the north, 
 which formed a part of the same boundary. 
 Josephus. — D'Anville. 
 
 AuRASius MONs, now Gebel Auras, a moun- 
 tain of Numidia. It is represented as offering 
 a rugged and uncultivated appearance, but with 
 extensive fields and fertile spots upon its top. 
 Procop. — D'Anville. 
 
 AuRUNCi, an ancient people of Latium, some- 
 times confounded with the Ausones, but distin- 
 guished by Livy. They occupied at first the 
 northern part of this region bordering on the 
 ^ PartL— G 
 
 Volsci, but were driven by that people towards 
 the south, and settled near the borders of Cam- 
 pania and the Ausones. " Some vestiges of their 
 principal XGvni, Aurunca, it is said, may still be 
 traced near the church of Santa Croce, situated 
 on the elevated ridge which rises in the vicinity 
 of Rocca Monfina." Liv. 2, 16 and 17. — Virg. 
 7.725. — Cram. Anc. Gr. 
 
 Ausci. the inhabitants of a part of Aquitaine, 
 among the bravest of the various races that 
 dwelt in that region. Their capital was Clem- 
 berris till the time of Augustus, when it assrmaed 
 the name of Augusta in compliment to that sove- 
 reign. At a later period it was known by the 
 name of the people who dwelt in it, and was 
 called Ausci; whence its modern name of Ausch 
 in Gascony and the modern department of the 
 Gers. Ptol.—Plin. 
 
 AusER, AusERis, and Anser, now the Ser- 
 chio, a river of Etruria. It rises in the Appe- 
 nines, towards the borders of the northern duchy 
 of Modena, and, running south-west after pass- 
 ing by the city of Lucca, it empties into the Arno 
 between the city of Pisa and the sea. 
 
 Ausones, a people of Italy of remote anti- 
 quity, and whose origin is unkno"v\Ti. It is be- 
 lieved by some, who consider them to have been 
 originally a powerful tribe, that they extended 
 over a wider region ; but at the period at which 
 they are found in connexion with Roman his- 
 tory they were confined to the narrow region 
 lying between the Liris and the coast. In poetry 
 the name of Ausonia is often intended to signify 
 the whole of Italy. This may have arisen from 
 the fact, that Ausonia was among the parts of 
 the peninsula first known to the Greeks, from 
 whom it may have come as a poetical designa- 
 tion of their country to the Italians themselves. 
 A part of this region sail bears the ancient 
 name ; and here it is pretended the early Au- 
 sona, the capital of the Ausones, was situate. 
 This place is known in history but from the ac- 
 count which Livy gives of the massacre of the 
 inhabitants. The principal ancient authorities 
 on this subject are Dion. Hal. 1, 11. — StraJ?. 
 Vid. also Cram. An. It. 
 
 Ausonia. Vid. Ausones. 
 
 AuTARUTffi, an Illyrian tribe, at one time 
 the most powerful of all the semi-barbarous peo- 
 ple residing in those parts. They were fre- 
 quently engaged in war with the Ardisei of Dal- 
 matia, whose territory they bounded on the 
 south. They were conquered at last by the 
 Scordisci. Diod. Sic. — Strab. 
 
 AUTOLOL.E, a people of Mauritania, descend- 
 ed from the Gastuli. 
 
 Automata, one of the Cyclades, between the 
 islands of Therae and Therasia. It arose from 
 beneath the water, probably from the action of 
 submarine fire, in the time of Pliny the natural- 
 ist. It was called also Hiera. 
 
 AuTURA, the Eure, a river of Gaul which 
 falls into the Seine. 
 
 AuxiNUM, now Osimo, a Roman colony, and 
 one of the strongest towns of Picenum. It stood 
 not far from Ancona, on the Flaminian Way. 
 Vel. Pat. 1, 15. 
 
 AxENus, the ancient name of the Euxine Sea. 
 The word signifies inhospitable. Ovid. 4, Trist. 
 4, v. 56. 
 
 Axius, a river of Macedonia. It rises in the 
 chain of moimt Scardus, and empties into the 
 49 
 
BA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 B^ 
 
 gulf of Thessalonica. Its present name is the 
 Vardar, derived from that of Bardarus, which it 
 bore in the middle ages. All the principal rivers 
 of Macedonia, except the Strymon and its tribu- 
 taries, fall into this stream. Herodot. 7, c. 123. 
 
 AxoNA, a river of Belgic Gaul, now the 
 Aisne. It rises in the lands of the ancient Remi, 
 and discharges itself into the Oise^ the ancient 
 Isara. 
 
 Axus, a town about the middle of Crete. 
 ApoUod. 
 
 AzAN, a tract of country lying between the 
 Ladon and the Alpheus. It is so named, ac- 
 cording to the mythologist, from Azan, the son 
 of Areas, who gave his name to Arcadia. Pans. 
 — Arcad. 25. 
 
 AziRis, a place of Libya, surrounded on both 
 sides by delightful hills covered with trees, and 
 watered by a river where Battus built a town. 
 Herodot. 4, c. 157. 
 
 AzoTUs, nov7 Ashdod, a large town of Judaea, 
 near the borders of the Mediterranean, Joseph. 
 Ant. Jud. 15. 
 
 B 
 
 Babylon, I. a celebrated city, the capital of 
 the Assyrian empire, on the banks of the Eu- 
 phrates. It had 1(X) brazen gates ; and its walls, 
 which were cemented with bitumen, and greatly 
 enlarged and embellished by the activity of Se- 
 miramis,measured 480 stadia in circumference, 
 50 cubits in thickness, and 200 in height. It 
 was taken by Cyrus, B. C. 538, after he had 
 drained the waters of the Euphrates into a new 
 channel, and marched his troops by night into 
 the toMm through the dried bed ; and it is said 
 that the fate of the extensive capital was un- 
 known to the inhabitants of the distant suburbs 
 till late in the evening. Babylon became famous 
 for the death of Alexander, and for the new em- 
 pire which was afterwards established there un- 
 der the Seleucidae. Vid. Syria. Its greatness 
 was so reduced in succeeding ages, according to 
 Pliny's observations, that in his time it was but 
 a desolate wilderness, and at present the place 
 where it stood is miknown to travellers. The 
 inhabitants were early acquainted with astrolo- 
 gy. Plin. 6, c. 26. — Herodot. 1, 2, 3. — Justin. 
 1, &c. — Diod. 2. — Xenoph. Cycrop. 7, &c. — 
 Propert. 3, el. 11, v. 'il.— Ovid. Met. 4, fab. 2. 
 
 — Martial. 9, ep. 77. II. There is also a town 
 
 of the same name near the Bubastic branch of 
 the Nile, in Egypt. 
 
 Babylonia, I. the surname of Seleucia, 
 which rose from the ruins of Babylon under the 
 
 successors of Alexander. Plin. 6, c. 26. II. 
 
 A country of Asia, forming once a portion of 
 the Assyrian monarchy. It was bounded on the 
 east by Susiana, on the north by Mesopotamia, 
 on the west by Arabia Deserta, and on the south 
 by a part of the Sinus Persicus and the Happy 
 Arabia. This was the country known as Chal- 
 daea, and was of greater extent than that which 
 was generally included mider the name of 
 Babylonia. The capital was Babylon. 
 
 Babylonh, the inhabitants of Babylon, fa- 
 mous for their knowledge of astrology, first di- 
 vided the year into 12 months and the zodiac 
 into 12 sighs. 
 
 Babtrsa, a fortified castle near Artaxata, 
 50 
 
 where Tigranes and Artabazus kept their trea- 
 sures. Steph. Byz. 
 
 Bacenis, a part of the great Hercynian fo- 
 rest, described by Caesar in the 6th book of his 
 Bell. Gall. These woods, according to the best 
 authorities, constituted the natural separation 
 between the Suevi on the east and the Cherus- 
 ci on the west. All authors, however, do not 
 agree upon this point ; and it may be considered 
 as doubtful still what portion of the great wil- 
 derness -to which it belonged was intended by 
 ancient writers m the name of Bacenis. It is a 
 part of the famous Hartz, according to the au- 
 thority followed above. 
 
 Bactra, and Zariaspe, now Balk, the capi- 
 tal of Bactriana. It was divided by the Bac- 
 trus, which ran through it, and from which it 
 took its name. Ancient authors themselves are 
 at variance in regard to the real site of this 
 capital city. Plin. — Strab. — Ptol. 
 
 Bagtri, and Bactriani, the inhabitants of 
 Bactriana, who lived upon plunder, and were 
 always under arms. They were conquered by 
 Alexander the Great: Vid. Bactriana. Curt. 
 4, c. 6, &c. — Plin. 6, c. 23.— Plut. in.vitios. 
 ad infell. suff.-Herodot. 1 and 3. 
 
 Bactriana, a country of Asia, forming a 
 part of the Persian empire. It was bounded on 
 the north by the river Oxus, on the west by 
 Margiana, on the south by the mountains called 
 Parapamisus, and on the east by the chain that 
 connects those mountains with the Imaus. Ac- 
 cording to D'Herbelot, the name is derived from 
 Bacter, which signifies the East. The extent 
 of this country was not at all periods the same, 
 and, to consider it properly, we must treat of it 
 as it stood in the time of Alexander ; and sepa- 
 rately, as it existed under the empire of his suc- 
 cessors. At the latter period it included a por- 
 tion of India. The inhabitants had early ad- 
 vanced in civilization ; and Zoroaster, the 
 law-giver of Persia, is pretended by some to 
 have flourished in Bactriana. Strab. — Q. 
 Curt. — Arr. 
 
 Bactros, now Dahesh, a river from which 
 Bactriana receives its name. Like the other 
 rivers of that country it runs almost in a straight 
 line from south to north, and empties into the 
 Oxus, w4iich separates Bactriana from Sog- 
 diana. Jjiican. 3, v. 267. 
 
 Bacuntius, a river of Pannonia, which falls 
 into the Save above Sirmium. Some writers 
 suppose it to be the Bosna, from Avhich the pro- 
 vince of Bosnia takes it name, and of which it 
 is a principal stream. According to D Anville 
 it is now the Bozzuet. 
 
 Badia, a town of Spain, by some supposed to 
 be the modern Badajoz, on the Guadiana. 
 Val. Max. 3, 7. 
 
 Baduhenn^, a sacred grove in the country 
 of the Frisii, where 900 Romans were killed. 
 Tacit. 4. Ann. c. 73. 
 
 B^TiCA, a part of Spain, corresponding, for 
 the most part, to the present Andalusia. It 
 formed, at first, apart of the division of Hispa- 
 nia Ulterior ; and a province apart, when, after 
 having completely reduced the whole peninsula, 
 the Romans divided all Spain into Tarraconen- 
 sis, B^tica, and Lusitania. Bcetica was confin- 
 ed by the Anas ( Guadiana) and the Mediterra- 
 nean on the north and south, on the west it was 
 washed by the Atlantic, and on the east, though 
 
BA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BA 
 
 its boundary was not so well defined, it may be 
 considered to have extended to the Orospeda 
 mons. All the region contained between the 
 Anas and the Bstis was called Baeturia ; and 
 that which bordered on the left of the latter ri- 
 ver, inhabited by the Bastetani, Bastuli, and 
 Turdetani, a name applied, perhaps, to the 
 whole country by the natives before the Roman 
 dominion. The surname of Paeni, by which the 
 Bastuli were distinguished, continued to mark 
 the connexion of Baetica with the empire of the 
 Carthaginians in Europe. It derived its name 
 from the river Bsetis, which flowed completely 
 through it, almost east and west. It was consi- 
 dered by the Romans as the most important part 
 of their Spanish proviuces, and is said to have 
 contained no less than eight Roman colonies, 
 the same number of municipal cities, and at 
 least 29 others enjoying the privileges of the 
 Italian towns. It submitted earlier than the rest 
 of Spain to the yoke of the despotic republic, 
 
 BjETis, a river of Spain, from which a part of 
 the country has received the name of Bcctica. 
 It was formerly called Tartessus, and now bears 
 the name of Guadalquiver, The wool produced 
 there was so good, that Batica was an epithet 
 of merit applied to garments. Vid. Bcctica. 
 Martial. 12, ep. 100. 
 
 B^TURU, a part of Baetica. The inhabit- 
 ants were of two distinct origins : the Celtici, 
 who border on Lusitania, and the Turduli, who 
 border on Lusitania and Tarraconensis. Vid. 
 Bcdica. 
 
 Bagrada, now Megerda, a river of Africa, 
 now Utica, where Regulus killed a serpent 120 
 feet long. Towards its mouth it stagnates, 
 and, overflowing its banks, is formed into pools 
 and lakes which overspread the adjacent coim- 
 try. Plin. 8, c. 14. 
 
 Bai^se, a city of Campania near the sea, be- 
 tween the promontory Misenum and Puteoli, 
 the name of which, according to the mytholo- 
 gists, was from Baius, a follower of Ulysses. 
 It was famous for its delightful situation and 
 baths, where many of the Roman senators had 
 country-houses. Its ancient grandeur, however, 
 has now disappeared, and Baiae, with its mag- 
 nificent villas, has yielded to the tremendous 
 earthquakes which afflict and convulse Italy, 
 and it is no longer to be foimd. Martial. 14, 
 ep. 81. — Horat. 1, ep. 1. — Strab.b. 
 
 Baleares, tw'o islands in the Mediterranean, 
 modernly called Majorca and Minorca, on the 
 coast of Spain. They were Carthaginian co- 
 lonies before the wars of Carthage with the Ro- 
 man republic, but were subjected to the latter 
 by Metellus, thence called Balearicus. The 
 chief town of Majorca retains its ancient name 
 of Palma ; and the Portus Magonis of the small- 
 er island is yet extant in the modern Port Ma- 
 hon. The island of Ivica, which lies near these, 
 was not considei'ed to belong to the Baleares, 
 but, together with Ebusus and Ophiusa, was 
 called in Greek " Pityusae, the IsUs of Pines." 
 The Baleares were included in the province of 
 New Carthage by their Roman conquerors. 
 Mel. 2, 7, l^'^.—Liv.—D'Anville. By Apollo- 
 nius, the Baleares are called Choerades ; and 
 by Strabo, Choeradades. The word Baleares 
 Is derived from PaWeiv, to throw, because the in- 
 habitants were expert archers and slingers, be- 
 sides great pirates. We are told by Florus, that 
 
 the mothers never gave their children breakfast 
 before they had struck with an arrow a certain 
 mark in a tree. Sirab. 14. — Flor. 3, c. 8. — 
 Diod. 5. 
 
 Balista, a mountain of Liguria, correspond- 
 ing with the Appenines about S. Pellegrino and 
 Monte Balestra. Cram. — Liv. 40, c. 41. 
 
 Balla, also Valla, a town of Macedonia, 
 not far from the foot of Olympus. It command- 
 ed the passage from Macedonia into Thessaly. 
 Its site is now occupied by the town of Servit- 
 za. Plin. 4, 10. — iitefli. Byz. — Cra'tn. 
 
 Balyras, a river of Messenia. It was a prin- 
 cipal branch of the Pamisus, and is now the 
 Mauro Zoumena. Paus. 4, c. 33. 
 
 Bantia, now St. Maria de Vanse, a town of 
 Apulia, whence Bantinus. Horat. 3, od. 4, v. 15. 
 
 Baphyrus, a river of Macedonia, called by 
 Ptolemy Pharybas. Pausanias informs us that 
 the first part of this stream from its fountain 
 was called Helicon ; that, after flowing some 
 distance, it was lost, and running under ground 
 a course of about 75 stadia, it rose again, as- 
 sumed the name of Baphyrus, and discharged 
 itself by that name into the Thermaic gulf. It 
 belonged to that little district of Roumelia which 
 w£Ls by the ancients called Pieria. Paus. Bccot. 
 30. — L/ycoph. 273. — Cram. 
 
 Barathrum, a deep and obscui;e gulf at 
 Athens, where criminals were thrown. — The 
 word is applied to the infernal regions by Val. 
 Flacc. 2, V. 86 and 192. 
 
 Barbaria, a name given to that part of the 
 African coast which extends northward from 
 Cape Gardafni. It was otherwise called Aza- 
 nia, now Ajan. D'Anville. 
 
 Barbosthenes, a mountain of Peloponnesus, 
 10 miles from Sparta. Liv. 35, c. 27. 
 
 Barge, a city of Cyrenaica, about nine miles 
 from the sea, founded by the brothers of Arce- 
 silaus king of Cyrene, 515 years before the 
 Christian era. Strabo says that in his age it 
 was called Ptolemais ; but this arises because 
 most of the inhabitants retired to Ptolemais, 
 which was on the sea-coast, to enrich themselves 
 by commerce. Strab. 17. — Ptol. 4, c. 4. 
 
 Barcino, now Barcelona, the capital of Ca- 
 talonia, a town of Hispania Tarraconensis. It 
 was a Roman colony. 
 
 Bardine, a river in the vicinity of Damas- 
 cus, called by the Greeks Chrysorroas. It di- 
 vides into many streams, of w^hich some flow 
 through the city, others through its environs. 
 D'Anville. 
 
 Bargyli^, a town of Caria, on the Sinus Ja- 
 sius. 
 
 Barium, a town of Apulia, on the Adriatic, 
 now called Bari. Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v. 97. 
 
 Basili A, atown of the Rauraci, on the Rhine, 
 now Basle, the capital of a Swiss canton of 
 the same name. 
 
 Basilia, or Baltia. Vid. Abalus. 
 
 Basilipotamos, the ancient name of the Eu- 
 rotas. Strab. 6. 
 
 Basilis, a city of Arcadia, built by Cypselus 
 near the river Alpheus. Paus. 8, c. 29. 
 
 Bass.e, a village of Arcadia, near mount 
 Cotylius. " Here was a temple of Apollo Epi- 
 curius. It was the most beautiful edifice of the 
 kind in all Peloponnesus, with the exception of 
 that at Tegea: the architect was Ictinus, who 
 built also the Parthenon at Athens. A great 
 51 
 
Bfe 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BE 
 
 part of this temple is yet standing ; it was 125 | 
 feet in length, about 48 in breadth, and deco- ' 
 rated with 48 columns of the Doric order, of 
 which 36 are still in their places. The sculp- 
 tures of the frieze, representing the battle with 
 the Amazons, and that of the Lapithse and 
 Centaurs, were discovered in 1812, and have 
 been deposited in the British Museum, and are 
 called the Phigalean marbles. Vid. Phigalea. 
 The site occupied by the ruins of that interesting 
 edifice is now known by the name of the Co- 
 l\min?,P Cram. 
 
 BASTARNiE, and BASTERN.E, a people of Eu- 
 ropean Sarmatia, destroyed by a sudden storm 
 as they pursued the Thracians. lAv. 40, v. 58. 
 — Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 198.—Stra3. 7. 
 
 B ATA VI, a people of German origin, who 
 separated from the Catti in consequence of do- 
 mestic commotion, and migrating to Gaul, set- 
 tled in the island enclosed by the ocean, the 
 Vahalis ( Waal), and the main branch of the 
 Rhine. From them the island was called Ba- 
 tavorum Insula, and also Batavia; whence the 
 modern Batavian RepiMic took its name. The 
 Batavi, according to Tacitus, were peculiarly 
 distinguished for their valour, and were for this 
 reason exempt from paying tribute to the Ro- 
 mans, who used their services in war. Tacit. 
 Germ. 29. 
 
 Bauli, a town of Campania, near the pro- 
 montory of Misenum. According to tradition it 
 was originally called Boaulia, from the circum- 
 stance of Hercules having landed there with 
 the oxen of Geryon on his return from Spain. 
 It was one of the most attractive spots on the 
 coast. Bauli was the scene of Nero's suc- 
 cessful plot against Agrippina, his mother. 
 Cram. 
 
 Bebriagum, or Bedriacum, a village of Gal- 
 lia Cisalpina, near Cremona, which witnessed 
 both the success of Vitellius over Otho, and the 
 defeat of his generals by Antonius, lieutenant 
 of Vespasian. It was situated on the Via Post- 
 humia, the road which led from Cremona to 
 Mantua, about 15 miles from the former city, 
 and at no great distance from the Po. Cluve- 
 rius imagined that Caneto, on the river Oglio, 
 might represent the situation of Bedriacum ; 
 but D'Anville is more accurate in fixing its po- 
 sition at Cividale. There was a temple and 
 grove sacred to Castor between Cremona and 
 Bedriacum. Cram. 
 
 Bebrycia, Vid. Bithynia. 
 Belg^. Vid. Belgica. 
 Belgica, a third part of Gaul in the Cassa- 
 rian distribution, having on the west the ocean 
 from the Seine to the principal mouth of the 
 Rhine, and on the north the latter river as far 
 as the territory of the Ubii, near the capital city 
 Colonia Agrippina. Here the river makes an 
 angle in coming from the south, and from hence 
 it may be considered, together with the Vosges 
 chain of hills, as the eastern boundary of Bel- 
 gica as far as the Brigantinus Lacus {Lake of 
 Constance^ The Alps continue the line as far 
 as the source of the Rhone, which carries it 
 around the south-east corner of this province as 
 far as its junction with the Arar or Saone. 
 The Seine and the Mame upon the south di- 
 vided Belgica from Celtic Gaul. Within the 
 limits thus defined this part of Gaul contained 
 the modern countries of Holland south of the 
 52 
 
 Rhine, the Netherlands, together with so much 
 of Germany as lies upon the left bank of the 
 same river, and contains the cities of Cleves, 
 Cologne, Coblentz, and Worms, which all with 
 other names were on the western boundary of 
 Belgica in the time of Augustus, Tiberius, and 
 Constantine. In addition to these were the 
 French side of Switzerland and the provinces of 
 Picardy, Artois, French Flanders, part of the 
 Isle of France, Champaigne, Lorraine, Alsace, 
 and Burgundy in France. A vast people in- 
 habited this region, divided and subdivided into 
 innumerable tribes. When the Romans effect- 
 ed its complete subjugation, they divided it at 
 different times into smaller provinces. Augus- 
 tus divided it into four, and the subdivision of 
 one of these into Germania Prima and Germania 
 Secunda remained so late as the era of Con- 
 stantine. The early division into Belgica Pri- 
 ma and Belgica Secunda was formed by the 
 course of the Mosa, Meuse, which traversed 
 nearly the whole length of the province from 
 south to north. Belgica Prima was possessed 
 by the Luci, the Mediomatrici, and the Tre- 
 veii ; whose capital,, after having for a period 
 borne the name of Augusta, assumed at last that 
 of the people, and became the capital' of this 
 subdivision, being also frequently the abode of 
 the emperors during their residence in Gaul. 
 Throughout the whole of that country the 
 names of its different inhabitants have been in a 
 great measure preserved in those of the mcdern 
 towns of France, &c. while the names of the 
 ancient places have been for the most part lost. 
 Thus, in Belgica Secunda, Durocotorum, the 
 capital of the Remi, was lost in the gentilitious 
 name of Rheims, and Augusta of the Suessones 
 in that of Soissons. So the Veromandui of the 
 same province have transmitted their name in 
 VermoMdois, the Bellovaci in Beauvais, and 
 the Ambiani, who had called their capital Sa- 
 maro-Briva, have left their name to modern 
 times in that of the city of Amiens. This part 
 of Gaul was more properly called Belgium ac- 
 cording to Caesar's account ; and its inhabitants, 
 i. e. the Atrebates, the Ambiani, and the Bel- 
 lovaci, may be considered as the Belgae distinctly 
 from the other people of Belgica. Their corner 
 of the province lay upon the Fretum Gallicum, 
 now Dover straits, extending inland to the 
 Axona, now the Aisne, and the Oise, which 
 empties into the Seifie, a little below the present 
 city of Paris. This, it will be seen, corresponds 
 to the limits of the new kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands, exclusive of the disputed Luxemburgh. 
 Besides these provinces, in the distribution of 
 Augustus was the Great Seqiimiois, Maxima 
 Sequanorum, lying south of the second Belgica, 
 between Celtica upon the west and Italy upon 
 the east, with the Province specially so called 
 upon the south. Here the .Jura chain of moun- 
 tains formed a natural division between the Se- 
 quani and the Helvetii, the latter of which peo- 
 ple extended themselves over the country lying 
 along that mountain from Lake Constance to 
 the Lake of Geneva. The subdivision into the 
 two Germanies mav be referred to the time of 
 Tiberius, and is said by D'Anville to have been 
 the earliest made in any part of Gaul after the 
 division of the whole into four parts by Augus- 
 tus, which succeeded the threefold division de- 
 scribed in the Commentaries. Germania prima 
 
BE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BE 
 
 joined upon the south the Maxima Sequano- 
 rum. Its principal inhabitants were the Triba- 
 ci, the Nemetes, and the Vaugiones, who sup- 
 planted the Leuci and the Mediomatrici upon 
 the eastern frontier of Belgicabordering on Ger- 
 many. The city of Strasburgh may be consi- 
 dered the capital. Between Germania prima 
 and Germania secunda was the famous forest 
 of Ardennes. The people of both these districts 
 resembled the Germans in manners,appearance, 
 and habits ; but those of the second Germany 
 in a greater degree than those of the first. Tribes 
 from the right bank of the river were continu- 
 ally crossing to the Gallic side, and thus main- 
 tained the German characteristics, introduced 
 at the early mingling of the strange tribes with 
 the first Celts of those regions ; and which, in 
 the other parts of Belgica, had been more equal- 
 ly blended with those of the earlier inhabitants. 
 In the remote corner of Belgica, between the 
 Vahalis, now the Waal, and the proper Rhine, 
 were situated the Batavi, considered the last of 
 the Gauls. It may here be observed, that the 
 first settlers of this portion of Gaul were Celts; 
 but tribe after tribe, in subsequent years, having 
 incorporated themselves with the first posses- 
 sors, they together constituted the people after- 
 wards called by ancient authorities Belgffi. 
 Belgium. Vid. Belgica. 
 Bellovaci. Vid. Belgica. 
 Benacus, a lake of Italy, now Lago di Gar- 
 d,a, from which the Mincius flows into the Po. 
 Virg. G. 2, V. 160. Mn. 10, v. 205. It formed 
 the division between Venetia, and Cisalpine 
 Gaul from the borders of Rhaetia, which lay 
 upon its northern extremity, to the ^mylian 
 Way, which passed along its southern border ; 
 that is to say, a distance of about 30 miles from 
 north to south, or 35 Roman miles. Its great- 
 est width did not exceed 12 miles by the same 
 ancient scale. 
 
 BENDinroM, a temple of Diana Bendis at 
 Munychia. 
 
 Beneventum, a town of the Hirpini, built by 
 Diomedes, 28 miles from Capua. Its original 
 name was Maleventum, changed into the more 
 auspicious word of Beneventum when the Ro- 
 mans had a colony there. It abounds in remains 
 of ancient sculpture above any other town in 
 Italy. Plin. 3, c. 11. Though tradition and 
 mytholog}'- confer upon Diomedes the honour of 
 founding the city of Beneventum, more certain 
 guides have traced its origin to the ancient Au- 
 sones. It received a Roman colony in the time 
 of Augustus, consisting of the veterans of the 
 emperor's army ; and Nero supplied it in part 
 with a new population. But the importance of 
 this place commenced with the era of the Lom- 
 bard conquests and rule in Italy. With a por- 
 tion of surrounding country it was one of the 
 dukedoms erected by those conquerors in Italy ; 
 and depending in name for a time upon the 
 Lombard sovereign in the north, it quickly be- 
 came a powerful independent state, and sur- 
 vived the ruin of the monarchy when Deside- 
 rius,the last of the Lombard kings, surrendered 
 to the arms of Charlemagne. The German 
 emperor Henry, some generations afterwards, 
 conferred it on the Pope, and it became a part 
 of the patrimony of the church. It is now a 
 principal city of the kingdom of Naples, on the 
 VoUurno, the Vulturnus of antiquity. 
 
 BfiRiEA, the same as Beroea. 
 
 Berenice, I. the name of a tovm in Egypt, 
 on the Arabian gulf. It was called Epidires, 
 because it was situated on that contracted part 
 of the Arabicus Sinus by which it communi- 
 cated with the iErythrean Sea. This was the 
 last towTi of Egypt, south, on the Arabian gulf, 
 and was placed in the region called Cinnamo- 
 nofera, from the quantity of cinnamon which 
 that country produced. It was a place of trade 
 with India, and was named after the mother of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus. Plin. 6, 27. — D^Anville. 
 II. Another of Cyrenaica in Libya, called 
 
 also Hesperis, the fabled abode of the Hespe- 
 
 rides. III. Another, surnamed Panchrysos, 
 
 on a bay of the Arabicus Sinus. IV. A town 
 
 in Arabia, at the head of the .^lanites Sinus, 
 mentioned by Moses under the name of Ezion 
 Geber, " From this place," says D'Anville, 
 " the fleets of Solomon took their departure for 
 Ophir, and the Arabic name of Minet ed-dahab, 
 signifying the port of gold, had reference to the 
 riches that were there debarked on the return 
 from Ophir." 
 
 Bergistani, a people of Spain, at the east of 
 the Iberus. Liv. 34, c. 16. 
 
 Bergomum, now Bergamo, a town of the 
 Orobii in Cisalpine Gaul on the ^mylian 
 Way. It stood nearly midway between the 
 Umatinus {Serio) and the Ubartus (^7-e7?i^o), 
 and is supposed to have been founded by some 
 early Gallic tribes. Plin. 3, 17. — Jiist. 20. 
 
 Bermius mons, now Xero Livado, a moun- 
 tam forming " a continuation of the great chain 
 of Olympus." The mountain was said to be 
 impracticable from the intensity of the cold, 
 yet in its vicinity were fabled to have been the 
 fruitful and flourishing gardens of Midas that 
 bloomed spontaneously. Here the Temenidae 
 first established themselves-in Macedonia. He- 
 rod. 8, 138. — Cram. 
 
 Bernus, or Bora mons, the southern extre- 
 mity of the Scardus Mons, which separated II- 
 lyria from Macedonia. 
 
 Bergba, I. a city of Syria, which received 
 this name in the time of theMacedonian princes. 
 It is now Aleppo, the richest and most powerful 
 
 city of Syria. D'Anville. II. A town of 
 
 Macedonia, now Kara Veria. This town of a 
 very great antiquity, was situated at the foot of 
 the Bermius Mons, and was distant from Pella, 
 the capital of the country, about 30 miles. It is 
 particularly mentioned in the Acts of the Apos- 
 tles, and its inhabitants are commended for the 
 readiness with which they received the gospel 
 on the preaching of St. Paul. Thuc. 1, 61. — 
 
 Acts, 17, 11. III. A town " on the confines 
 
 of the province of Thrace proper and Moesia. 
 This city, when re-established by the empress 
 Irene, assumed her name." D Anville. 
 
 Berrhcea. Vid. Beroea. 
 
 Berytus, now Berut, an ancient toT\Ti of 
 Phoenicia on the coast of the Miditerranean, 
 famous in the age of Justinian for the study of 
 law. Plin. 5, c. 20. 
 
 Besippo, a town of Hispania Bostica, where 
 Mela was born. Mela. 2, c. 6. 
 
 Bessi, a people of Thrace, who lived upon ra- 
 pine. Ovid. Trist. 4, el. 1, v. 67. They inha- 
 bited the district of country called Bessica to- 
 wards the borders of Macedonia, and formed, as 
 it is thought, a portion of the tribe called Salrjp, 
 62 
 
BI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BCE 
 
 wMch could boast that of all the Thracian peo- 
 ple they alone had never been subdued. Bessi- 
 ca is believed to have extended from the sources 
 of the Hebrus to the Nestus ; but the Haemus 
 was the favourite resort of this predatory but 
 spirited race. They were finally subdued by 
 Augustus. — Flor. 12, 4. Herodot. 7, 110. 
 
 Betis, a river in Spain. Vid. Batis. 
 
 Beturia, a country in Spain. Vid. Batica. 
 
 Bibracte, a large town of the ^dui in Gaul, 
 where Csesar often wintered. Cces. Bell. G. 7, 
 c. 55, &c. Ptolemy calls it Augustodunum, 
 which of course it assumed after its subjugation 
 by Caesar and the accession of his successor. 
 The corruption of this name gives the modern 
 Autun. 
 
 Bigerrones, a people of Aquitaine, at the 
 foot of the Pyrenees. The town of Bigorre 
 occupies, it is supposed, the site of their capital. 
 
 BiLBiLis, a town of Celtiberia, where Mar- 
 tial was born. It stood near a river named 
 Salo, now Xalon ; but Justin calls this river also 
 Bilbilis, Its water,s were " famous for tem- 
 pering steel, which Martial accounts the best 
 in the world." The town is now " known 
 only," says D'Anville, " by the name of Baubo- 
 la, in the vicinity of a new city constructed by 
 the Moors called Calalayud." Just. 44, 3. — 
 Mart. 1, ep. 50. 
 
 BiNcroM, a town of Germania Secunda, in 
 Belgica. Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 70. 
 
 BisALTiA, " that part of Macedonia between 
 the lake Bolbe and the Strymon," says Cramer, 
 "appears to have been called Bisaltia, from 
 the Bisaltge, a Thracian nation, who were gov- 
 erned by a king at the time of the invasion of 
 Xerxes," and who fell under the rule of the 
 Macedonians not long afterwards. Herodot. 7, 
 llS.— Thucyd.2,99. 
 
 BisANTHE, a town of Thrace, upon the Pro- 
 pontis. It is now Rodosto, by corruption from 
 the name of Rhcedestus, which it also bore with 
 the ancients. 
 
 BisTONis, a lake of Thrace, near Abdera. 
 Herodct. 7, c. 109. It is so called from the 
 Bistones, a Thracian people, who dwelt upon its 
 shores and ruled over the neighbouring inhabit- 
 ants. The poets sometimes bestow the name 
 of this people upon Thrace in general. Cram. 
 
 BiTHYNiA, a country of Asia Minor, accord- 
 ing to Strabo first peopled by the Mysiani, to 
 whom succeeded the Thyni and Bithyni from 
 Thrace. From these people the whole region 
 took its name, having until the era of their set- 
 tlement, been called Bebrycia. It was bounded 
 on the north by the Euxine and the Thracian 
 Bosphorus, on the east by Paphlagonia, on the 
 south by the Galatae, Tectosages, and a part of 
 Phrygia, and on the west by the Propontis and 
 Mysia, from which mount Olympus separated it. 
 The principal towns of Bilhynia were the royal 
 city of Prusa, Nicomedia, and Nice. This coun- 
 try underwent various changes under its differ- 
 ent possessors and masters. Thus, D'Anville 
 remarks, " there was a time when the depen- 
 dencies of Pontus extending to Heraclea, con- 
 fined Bithynia within narrow bounds ; and under 
 the lower empire, the principal part of Bithynia, 
 in the vicinity of the Propontis, assumed the 
 name of Pontica, and the part adjacent to Paph- 
 lagonia composed a separate province named 
 Honorias. The north-eastern corner, washed I 
 54 
 
 by the Euxme and the Propontis, was the pe- 
 culiar seat of the Thyni," Strab. 12. — Hero- 
 dot. 7, c. 75. — Mela, 1 and 2, According to 
 Paus. 8, c, 9, the inhabitants were descended 
 from Mantinea in Peloponnesus. 
 
 BiTHYNiUM, a town of Bythynia on the Bil- 
 baeus, in the country of the Caucones. It was 
 the capital of the province of Honorias in the 
 east of Bithynia, and became famous as the 
 birth place of the beautiful Antinous, the favour- 
 ite of the emperor Adrian. 
 
 BiTURiGEs, a people of that part of Gallia 
 Celtica which was added to the original Aqui- 
 tania in the time of Augustus. They were 
 among the principal of all the Gallic people be- 
 fore the arrival of Cassar, and were under the 
 government of a powerful king in the time of the 
 Tarquins. They were placed between the Car- 
 nutes and Senones on the north, the Boii and 
 Arverni on the east, the Lemovices on the south, 
 and the Turones and Pictones on the west. 
 These were the Bituriges Cubi. Another tribe 
 of the same people, distinguished as the Vibis- 
 ci, belonged to Aquitania Secunda, in which 
 they were the principal tribe, as the Cubi were 
 in Aquitania prima.- Their capital was Bur- 
 digala, Bourd^anx. Vid. Aquitania. 
 
 BiziA, a citadel near Rhodope, belonging to 
 the kings of Thrace. Tereus was born there. 
 
 Blandusia, a fountain in Apulia, " situated 
 near Venusia, about six miles from Venosa, on 
 the site named Palazzo." The more proper 
 name was Bandusia. Cram. 
 
 Blemmyes, a people of Africa, near the ca- 
 taracts of the Nile, who, as is fabulously re- 
 ported, had no heads, but had the eyes and 
 mouth placed in the breast. Mela. 1, c. 4. 
 
 Blucium, a castle where king Dejotarus kept 
 his treasures in Bithynia. Strab. 12. 
 
 BoAGRius, a river of Locris, sometimes called 
 also Manes. It was rather a torrent than a ri- 
 ver, and depended almost entirely on the seasons 
 for its waters, being often quite dry. Strab. 9. 
 
 BocALiAS, a river in the island of Salamis. 
 
 BoDOTRiA fretum. The Frith of Forth. 
 
 BoDUNi, a people of Britain, who surrender- 
 ed to Claudius Caesar. Die. Cass. 60, 
 
 BoE^, a town of Laconia, now perhaps Pa- 
 l(Bo Castro, on the Sinus Bceoticus. 
 
 Bgeoticus sinus, at the southern extremity 
 of the Peloponnesus, lying opposite the island 
 of Cythera, and taking its name from the town 
 of Boeoe, on its northern shore. Now the Gulf 
 of Vatilca. 
 
 BcEBEis, a lake of Thessaly, near mount Os- 
 sa, from which the Anchestus derives its 
 waters. The name was taken from the town 
 Boebe, which stood upon its banks. It is now 
 Carlos. Lnican. 7, v. 176, 
 
 BcBOTiA, a province of Greece, bordering on 
 Phocis to the west and north-west. On the north 
 its confines reached to the territory of the Locri 
 Opuntii ; it was bounded by the shore of the 
 Euripus, from Halae to the mouth of the Asopus, 
 on the east ; while to the south it was separated 
 from Attica by the chain of Cithseron and the 
 continuous range of Mount Pames, The ear- 
 liest inhabitants of this region were the Aones, 
 Hyantes, (fee. who formed, perhaps, a part of the 
 great family to which belonged also the Leleges. 
 Under Cadmus, Boeotia received a Phoenician 
 colouy, who, after being expelled at one time by 
 
BO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BO 
 
 the Thracians ana Epigoni, and afterwards by 
 
 Eowerful hordes of Pelasgi, succeeded in esta- 
 lishing themselves in this most fertile district 
 of all Greece, and in conferring on it the name 
 of Boeotia, from that which they had them- 
 selves assumed about the period of their second 
 expulsion. When, like the other provinces of 
 Greece, Boeotia rejected the monarchical form 
 of government, the institutions established in 
 their room were aristocratical, though not withj 
 out a mixture of the democratical in their form; 
 but the aristocracy greatly preponderated in the 
 administration of the government and laws. 
 This, and the natural jealousy of a powerful and 
 arrogant neighbour, begot an early hostility be- 
 tween the Boeotians and Athenians, who, in eve- 
 ry struggle of the democratic interest in Bceo- 
 tia, were ready to lend their aid against the aris- 
 tocracy of Thebes. Hence, in the Persian war, 
 the Boeotians, with the exception of those of 
 Plataea, were found assisting earnestly the Per- 
 sian arms. The same feeling arrayed them on 
 the side of the Lacedaemonians in the Pelopon- 
 nesian war ; and when the battle of ^gospo- 
 tamoi determined the war in favour of the Spar- 
 tans, the Boeotians zealously urged their victo- 
 rious allies to perfect their conquest by the 
 absolute destruction of Athens. When nothing 
 was left for the Boeotians to fear on the side of 
 their ancient enemy, they soon conceived an 
 equal jealousy of that power which they had 
 been greatly instrumental in forming ; and an 
 hostility of twelve years that thereupon ensued, 
 was terminated only by the battles of Leuctra 
 and Mantinea, " when Sparta saw a formidable 
 army occupied in freeing Arcadia and Messenia 
 from her chains, and menacing her own walls 
 and existence." " After the last stand," says 
 Cramer, " made by the Achaeans for the liber- 
 ties of Greece, Boeotia ceased to exist, and be- 
 came included under the general name of 
 Achaia, by which Greece was designated as a 
 province of the Roman empire." The inhabit- 
 ants were reckoned rude and illiterate, fonder 
 of bodily strength than of mental excellence ; 
 yet their country produced many illustrious 
 men, such as Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, &c. 
 Boeotia is celebrated, moreover, for the port of 
 Aulis, whence the Greeks departed for the siege 
 of Troy ; for the battle of Platasa, that estab- 
 lished the liberties of Greece ; and for the fatal 
 field of Cheronsea, in which they expired for 
 ever. Herod. 3, c. 49, 1. 5, c. 51.— Ovid. Met. 
 3,v. 10.— Pans. 9, c. 1, &c.— C. Nep. 7. c. 11.— 
 Strah. 9.— Justin. 3, c. 6, 1. 8, c. 4.—Horat. 2, 
 ep. 1, V. 2i4:.—Diod. 19.— Liv. 27, c. 30, &c. 
 
 Bon, a people of Celtic origin, coming ori- 
 ginally from the neighbourhood of the Helvetii, 
 and occupying a large district of Cisalpine Gaul, 
 between the Po, the Tarus (Taro,) and the 
 Appenines, corresponding, in some measure, to 
 the duchies of Parma and Modena, and the 
 Ecclesiastical state north of Tuscany. They 
 waged the most destructive wars with the Ro- 
 mans, who were at length obliged to expel them 
 from their ancient seats. They then appear to 
 have taken up their residence in the tract of 
 country lying within the Hercynian mountains, 
 which separated them on the north-west from 
 the Hermanduri, on the north-east from the 
 Marsigni of the modern Silesia, on the south- 
 east from the Gluadi, who inhabited the present 
 
 Moravia, and on the south-west from the Nasl- 
 ci, who dwelt between the hilly country and the 
 left side of the Danube. " In the name of this 
 country," observes D'Anville, " that of the more 
 ancient people who occupied it is followed by a 
 term in the German language which signifies 
 habitation ; and this name has continued to the 
 same country in that of Bohemia, although the 
 Boii had given place to the Marcomans, and 
 these to a Sclavonic people who have possessed 
 it since." On the entrance of the Marcomanni, 
 the Boii " abandoned these their native seats," 
 continues the same author, " and carried the 
 same name with them into that now called 
 Boiaria, Bagaria, or Bavaria.^' A small tribe of 
 the Boii settled in the time of Csesar in that 
 part of Gaul which is now the Bourdonais ; but 
 De Mandajor places them in Le Bas-Forest. 
 
 BoLA, a town of the jEqui in Italy. Virg. 
 jEn. 6, V. 775. 
 
 BoLBE, a marsh near Mygdonia. Thucyd. 
 1, c. 58. 
 
 BoLBiTiNUM, one of the mouths of the Nile, 
 with a town of the same name. Naucratis was 
 built near it, Herodot. 1, c. 17. 
 
 BoLissus, a town and island near Chios. 
 Thucyd. 8, c. 24. 
 
 BoMiENSES, a people in .^tolia. Thucyd. 3, 
 c. 96. 
 
 BoNoNiA, I. now Bologna, was an Etruscan 
 city before the incursion of the Boii, and was 
 known by the name of Felsina. It stood about 
 midway between Ravenna on the coast of the 
 -Adriatic, Mutina now Modena, the -Appenines, 
 and the Po ; and was exactly on the ^mylian 
 
 Way. II. A city on the Danube, below the 
 
 mouth of the Save, on the site of which is Elok. 
 
 III. Another on the Danube, now Bidin. 
 
 IV. Another in Belgica Secunda, supposed 
 
 to be the Itius Portus of Caesar, and by many 
 the modern Witsand. Liv. 33, 37. — Mela. — 
 Plin. — D'Anville. V. A town on the bor- 
 ders of the Rhine. Val. Max. 8, c. 1, — Ital. 8, 
 V, 599. 
 
 BoosuRA, {bovis cauda) a town of Cyprus, 
 where Venus had an ancient temple. Strab. 
 
 BoRYSTHENEs, a large river of Scythia, fall- 
 ing into the Euxine Sea, now called the Dnie- 
 per, and inferior to no other European river but 
 the Danube, according to Herodotus, 4, c. 45. 
 Above the city Kiov, in the modern province 
 of Volhynia, the principal branches of this river 
 unite. Of these the southern is now called the 
 Prypec. It assumed, in the middle ages, the 
 name of Denapris, which by corruption has be- 
 come the Dnieper. The proper division of Po- 
 land and Russia was formed by this river be- 
 fore the dismemberment of the former unfortu- 
 nate country. Very little of this river, or of the 
 basin through which it flows, was known with 
 accuracy by the people of antiquity. D'An- 
 ville. 
 
 BosPHORUs, and Bosp6RUS,two narrow straits, 
 situated at the confines of Europe and Asia. 
 One was called Cimmerian, and joined the Pa- 
 lus MoBotis to the Euxine, now known by the 
 name of the straits of Caffa ; and the other, 
 which was called the Thracian Bosphorus,and 
 by the moderns the strait of Constantinople, 
 made a communication between theEuxine Sea 
 and the Propontis. It is sixteen miles long, 
 and one and a half broad ; and, where narrow- 
 55 
 
BR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BR 
 
 est, 500 paces or stadia, according to Herodotus. 
 The word is derived from Booanopos, bovis mea- 
 tus, because, on account of its narrowness, an 
 ox could easily cross it. Cocks were heard to 
 crow, and dogs to bark, from the opposite banks ; 
 and in a calm day persons could talk one to 
 another. Plin. 4, c. 13, 1. 6, c. 1. — Ovid. Trist. 
 3, el. 4, V. i9.—Mela. 1, c. l.—Strab. 12— He- 
 rodot. 4, c. 85, 
 
 BoTTiA, a colony of Macedonians in Thrace. 
 The people were called Bottiai. Plin. 4, c. 1. 
 —Herodot. 7, c. 185, &LC.— Thucyd. 2, c. 99. 
 
 BoTTiJEis,a country at thenorth of Macedonia, 
 onthebayof Therma. Herodot. 7, c. 123, &c. 
 
 BouiANUM, an ancient colony of the Sam- 
 nites, at the foot of the Appenines not far from 
 Beneventum. Liv. 9, c. 18. 
 
 BoviLLiE, I. a town on the Appian Way, 
 about ten miles from Rome. It was one of the 
 first towns reduced by the Romans, and was 
 among the conquests of Coriolanus. At Bo- 
 villse took place the meeting of Milo and Clo- 
 dius, which terminated in the death of the latter 
 and in the perpetual banishment of his murder- 
 er. Flor. 1, 2.— Dion. Hal. 8, 20.— Cic. Orat. 
 
 pro Mil. II. Another, also in Latium, in 
 
 the country of the Hernici, mentioned by Flo- 
 rus, 1. 2. 
 
 Brauron, a town of Attica, where Diana 
 had a temple. The goddess had three festivals, 
 calledBrauronia, celebrated every fifth year by 
 ten men, who were called upunoioi. They sa- 
 crificed a goat to the goddess, and it was usual 
 to sing one of the books of Homer's Iliad. The 
 most remarkable that attended were young vir- 
 gins in yellow gowns, consecrated to Diana. 
 They were about ten years of age, and there- 
 fore their consecration was called SsKaTsvsii', from 
 SsKa decern ; and sometimes apKr^vsiv, as the 
 virgins themselves bore the name of apKroi, 
 bears, from this circumstance. There was a 
 bear in one of the villages of Attica, so tame 
 that he ate with the inhabitants, and played 
 harmless with them. This familiarity lasted 
 long, till a young virgin treated the animal too 
 roughly, and was killed by it. The virgin's 
 brother killed the bear, and the country was 
 soon after visited by a pestilence. The oracle 
 was consulted, and the plague removed by con- 
 secrating virgins to the service of Diana. This 
 was so faithfully observed, that no woman in 
 Athens was ever married before a previous con- 
 secration to the goddess. The statue of Diana 
 of Tauris, which had been brought into Greece 
 by Iphigenia, was preserved in the town of 
 Brauron. Xerxes carried it away when he in- 
 vaded Greece. The ruins of Brauron are 
 pointed out by modern travellers near the spot 
 now called Palaio Braona. Chandler calls the 
 modern site Vrouna. Cram. — Paus. 8, c. 46. 
 —Strab. 9. 
 
 Brigantes, I. the most powerful people of 
 Britain. They occupied the whole breadth of 
 the island, from the mouth of the Abus, or 
 Humber., to the wall of Hadrian. Their terri- 
 tory is now Yorkshire^ Lancashire, BishopricJc 
 of Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumberland. 
 
 D^Anville. — Camden. II. A people of Hi- 
 
 bernia. 
 
 Brigantia, now Bregentz, a town situated 
 at the eastern extremity of the Brigantinus La- 
 cus, now Lake Constance. D^Anville. 
 56 
 
 Brigantinus lagus, now the lake of Coti- 
 stance or Border-Zee, a lake belonging equally 
 to Vindelicia and Rhaetia, or the latter alone, 
 if, with Tacitus, we consider Vindelicia as a 
 part of Rhsetia. 
 
 Brilessus, a mountain of Attica. Thucyd. 
 2, c. 23. 
 
 Britannia, now Great Britain, the largest 
 island known to the people of antiquity ; the 
 sea north of Britannia was entirely tmknown to 
 them. On the east the island was bounded by 
 the Oceanus Germanicus, now the North Sea 
 or German Ocean ; on the south by the Fretum 
 Gallicum, Pas de Calais or Straits of Dover, 
 and the Brittanicus Oceanus, the English Chan- 
 nel ; and on the west it was separated from 
 Hibernia by the Verginium Mare, St. George's 
 Channel, and the Mare Internum vel Hiberni- 
 cum, now the Irish Sea. " At the time of the 
 Roman occupation of this island, its population 
 comprised about forty tribes. The long tract 
 of land to the south of the Severn and Thames 
 was unequally portioned among ten nations, of 
 which the principal were the Cantii, men of 
 Kent ; the Belgae, or inhabitants of the present 
 counties of Hampshire and Wilts; and the 
 Damnonii, who, from the river Ex, had gra- 
 dually extended themselves to the western pro- 
 montory. Across the arm of the sea, now the 
 Bristol Channel, the most powerful was the 
 tribe of the Silures. From the banks of the 
 Wye, their original seat, they had carried their 
 arms to the Dee and the ocean ; and their 
 authority was acknowledged by the Ordovices 
 and the Dimetse, the inhabitants of the northern 
 mountains and of the western district of Wales. 
 On the eastern coast of the island, between the 
 Thames and the Stow, lay the Trinobantes, 
 whose capital v/as London ; and from the Stour 
 to the Hii'rnber stretched the two kindred na- 
 tions of the Iceni, called Cenimagni and Cor- 
 tanni. The Dobunii and Cassii, confederate 
 tribes under the rule of Cassibelan, extended 
 along the left bank of the Thames, from the Se- 
 vern to the Trinobantes ; and above them dwelt 
 the Carnabii, and several clans of minor conse- 
 quence. The Brigantes were the most power- 
 ful of all the British nations. They were bound- 
 ed by the Humher on the south, and by the 
 Tyne on the north ; and had subdued the Vo- 
 lantii and Sistuntii of the western coast. To 
 the north of the Brigantes were five tribes, 
 known by the general appellation of the Maae- 
 tas ; and beyond these wandered, amid the lakes 
 and mountains, various clans, among which the 
 Caledonians claimed the praise of superior cou- 
 rage or superior ferocity." " When the Roman 
 conquests of Britain had reached their utmost 
 extent, they were irregularly divided into six 
 provinces, under the government of praetors ap- 
 pointed by the prsefect. The long tract of land 
 which runs from the western extremity of Corn- 
 wall to the Sonth Foreland in Kent, is almost 
 separate from the rest of the island by the arm 
 of the sea now called the Bristol Channel, and 
 by the course of the river Thames. This form- 
 ed the most wealthy of the British provinces; 
 and from priority of conquest or proximity of si- 
 tuation, was distinguished by the name of Bri- 
 tannia Prima. Britannia Secunda comprised the 
 present principality of Wales, with the addition 
 of that tract which is included by the Severn in 
 
BR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BR 
 
 its circuitous course towards St. George^s Chan- 
 nel. Flavia CaBsariensis was the next in order 
 but the first in extent. It was bounded on two 
 sides by the former provinces, and on the two 
 others by the Humber, the Don, and the Ger- 
 man Ocean. To the north of ihe Humber lay 
 the province of Maxima. It reached to the 
 Eden and T\ine, and its opposite shores Avere 
 washed by the western and eastern seas. Va- 
 LENTu followed, including the Scottish low- 
 lands, as far as the Friths of Clyde and Forth. 
 The tribes beyond the Friths formed the sixth 
 government of Vesp^siana, divided from the 
 independent Caledonians by the long chain of 
 mountains.which, rising near Du^nharton, cross- 
 es the two counties of Athol and Badenoch^ 
 and stretches beyond the Frith of Murray. But 
 the greater part of this province was wrested, at 
 so early a period, from the dominion of Rome, 
 that it is seldom mentioned by writei's ; and the 
 pretentura of Agricolahasbeen generally consi- 
 dered as the northern limit of the empire in Bri- 
 tain." Throughout these provinces was scatter- 
 ed a great number of inhabited towTis and mili- 
 tary posts, partly of British and partly of Ro- 
 man origin. They were divided into classes, 
 gradually descending in the scale of privilege 
 and importance. 1. The iirst rank was claim- 
 ed by the colonies, of which there were nine, 
 among them London. Each colony was a 
 miniamre representation of the parent city, both 
 as regarded customs, laws, and government. 
 2. Second in rank were the municipia, or mu- 
 nicipal cities, which enjoyed privileges nearly, 
 if not quite, equal to those conferred on the co- 
 lonies. These were but two, Verulam and 
 York. 3. The Latian cities were next in order, 
 and were ten in number ; enjoying the privilege 
 of electing their own magistrates, who became 
 citizens of Rome at the expiration of their oflice. 
 4. The remaining towns were stipendiaiy, and 
 governed by Roman otficers. It seems most 
 reasonable to conclude that Britain was origi- 
 nally peopled by the Celtse, who were first in or- 
 der of those nations that occupied gradually and 
 successively the western regions of the ancient 
 world. Next to the Celtoe came the Belgas, who 
 were either a branch of the Celtas that migrated 
 at a later period than the first occupants of Bri- 
 tain, or the van of the Gothi who followed the 
 Celtae in their progress westward. These new 
 invaders drove the first settlers of the isle in- 
 ward from the coast. Accordingly Caesar repre- 
 sents the Britons on the coast whom he encoun- 
 tered as of Belgic descent, by whom the inhabit- 
 ants of the interior were considered the spon- 
 taneous production of the soil. Britain, or more 
 properly, the staple commodity of the adjacent 
 islands, was first made kno\^Ti to the Euro- 
 peans of the south by the Phoenicians of Cadiz, 
 who, by keeping its situation secret, monopolized 
 the tin trade. At length Himilco, the Cartha- 
 ginian, discovered the CEestrynanides, as he calls 
 them ; and afterwards Pytheas of Massilia was 
 equally successful. The Cassiterides, or Scilly 
 Isles, were henceforth the sole attraction to these 
 seas. Till Caesar's time the island was known 
 to the Romans only by fame. In the reign of 
 Claudius, A. D. 43, the Romans first prepared 
 seriously for the conquest of Britain, and to this 
 were directed the exertions of Aulus Plautius 
 and Vespasian ; and also of Ostorius Scapula, 
 Part I.— H 
 
 who made captive Caractacus. The next ge- 
 neral of great abilities in this service was Sue- 
 tonius Paulinus, who reduced Anglesey and de- 
 feated Boadicea. After Vespasian had assumed 
 the purple, Petilius Cerealis subdued the Bri- 
 ganies, and Julius Frontinus nearly conquered 
 the warlike Silures, In the year 78 Agricola 
 became commander of Britain. Tribe after tribe 
 submitted, and the victor, in the fourth summer, 
 built a line of forts from the Frith of Forth to 
 that of Clyde, to check the inroads of the north- 
 ern Britons, whose territories he invaded with 
 success in the eighth and last year of his com- 
 mand. Agricola was the first who taught the 
 Britons to cultivate the arts of peace, and in- 
 spired them with a love of Roman manners. In 
 A. D. 120, the inroads of the Caledonians com- 
 pelled Hadrian to repair to Britain, where, in 
 defence of southern Britain, he drew a rampart 
 and a ditch across the island, from the Solway 
 Frith on the western, to the mouth of the Tyne 
 on the eastern, coast, Severus, the better to 
 protect the southern provinces, raised a solid wall 
 of stone a few paces to the north of the Vallum 
 of Hadrian. The wall was twelve feet high, 
 and in front of it was sunk a ditch of the same 
 dimensions with that of Hadrian. This wall is 
 called by the historian of Severus " the glory of 
 his reign." Towards the beginning of the 5th 
 century, the irruptions of the Picts and Scots be- 
 came more and more formidable ; till at length 
 the emperor Honorius wrote to the states of 
 Britain " to provide for their own defence." 
 Thenceforward Britain was independent of Ro- 
 man power. It is remarkable, that in the 4th 
 century the Caledonians and Maetae disappeared 
 from history, the Picts and Scots taking their 
 place. Dr. Lingard thus accounts for it : 
 " To me it seems manifest that, the Picts were 
 under a new denomination the very same people 
 whom we have hitherto called Masetae and Ca- 
 ledonians. The name of Caledonians properly 
 belongs to the nations of that long but narrow 
 strip of land which stretches from Loch Finn 
 on the western, to the Frith of Tayne on the 
 eastern coast : but it had been extended by the 
 Romans to all the kindred and independent 
 clans which lay between them and the northern 
 extremity of the island. In the 4th century the 
 mistake was discovered and rectified : and from 
 that time not only the Caledonians, but their 
 southern neighbours,thefive tribes of the Maae- 
 tse, began to be known by the generic appellation 
 of Picts ; a word derived, perhaps, from the na- 
 tural custom of painting the body, or more pro- 
 bably from the name which they bore in their 
 own language. 2. The Scots came undoubted- 
 ly from Ireland, which, like its sister island, ap- 
 pears to have been colonized by adventurers 
 from different countries. It is not improbable 
 that the Scoti were the most numerous tribe in 
 the interior of the island, and a division of the 
 great Celtic family of the Cotti. At last the 
 strangers acquired so marked a superiority over 
 the indigenous tribes, as to impart the name of 
 Scotland to the northern division of Britain." 
 After the abandonment of Britain by the Ro- 
 mans, the Picts and Scots still continued their 
 incursions against the more civilized Britons, to 
 such a degree that, in the year 449, Vortie:ern, 
 the most powerful of the British kiners, called in 
 the aid of the Saxons Henjrisl and Horsa. Kent 
 
BR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BXJ 
 
 was abandoned to Hengist, A. D. 455, and thus 
 the way was paved to Anglo-Saxon sway. 
 
 Lingard's England. — Camden. Heylyn. 
 
 D^Anville. 
 
 Brixellum, now Bresello, a town of Gallia 
 Cispadana, to the right of the JEmilian Way, 
 on the Po, where Otho slew himself after his 
 defeat at Bedriacum. It was a Roman colony. 
 Cram, 
 
 Brixia, now Brescia^ on the Mela, the ca- 
 pital of the Cenomani, was a Roman colony, 
 and also a mmiicipium. 
 
 Bructeri, a people of Germany, inhabiting 
 the country at the east of Holland. Tacit. 
 Ann. 1, c. 51. 
 
 BRUNDUsroM, or BRUNDisroM, now Brindisi, 
 the most ancient and celebrated town of Cala- 
 bria, on the Adriatic side of the lapygian pe- 
 ninsula. — By the Greeks the town was called 
 BpcvTsaiov a word which in the Messapian lan- 
 guage signified a stag's head, from the resem- 
 blance which its different harbours and creeks 
 bore to the antlers of that animal. The advan- 
 tageous position of its harbour for communicat- 
 ing with the opposite coast of Greece naturally 
 rendered Brundusium a place of great resort, 
 from the time that the colonies of that country 
 had fixed themselves on the shores of Italy. 
 Large fleets were always stationed there for the 
 conveyance of troops into Macedonia, Greece, 
 or Asia ; and for the convenience of its harbour, 
 and its facility of access from every other part 
 of Italy, it became a place of general thorough- 
 fare for travellers visiting those countries. Here 
 Caesar blockaded Pompey, and, according to his 
 account, it possessed two harbours, one called 
 the interior, the other the exterior, communicat- 
 ing by a very narrow passage. Cram. 
 
 Bruttii, a people occupying the southern ex- 
 tremity of Italy. On the south, west, and east 
 their country was enclosed by the sea, being se- 
 parated from Sicily by the Siculum Fretum. 
 On the north it was separated from Lucania by 
 the rivers Crathis and Laus. The origin of the 
 Brutti or Bpemoi is neither remote nor illustri- 
 ous. " They were generally looked upon as de- 
 scended from some refugee slaves and shepherds 
 of the Lucanians, who, having concealed them- 
 selves from pursuit in the forests and mountains 
 with which this part of Italy abounds, became, 
 in process of time, powerful from their numbers 
 and ferocity." " The Greek towns on the 
 western coast, from being weaker and more de- 
 tached from the main body of the Italiot con- 
 federacy, first fell into the hands of the Bruttii." 
 The principal cities of this league now sought 
 the aid of Pyrrhus against the now united Brut- 
 tii and Lucanians, who were effectually checked 
 during the life of that prince ; but, after his 
 death, they soon reduced the whole of the pe- 
 ninsula between the Laus and Crathis, except 
 Crotona, Locri, and Rhegium. At this period 
 Rome put an end at once to their conquests and 
 their independence. Both the Lucani and 
 Bruttii submitted to L. Papirius Cursor, A. U. 
 C. 480, which was two years after Pyrrhus had 
 withdrawn his troops out of Italy. On the ar- 
 rival of Hannibal, the Bruttii flocked eagerly 
 to the victorious standard of that general, who 
 was by their aid enabled to maintain his ground 
 in this comer of Italy when all hope of final 
 success seemed to be extinguished. But the 
 58 
 
 consequences of this protracted warfare proved 
 fatal to the country in which it was carried on; 
 many of their towns being totally destroyed, 
 and others so much impoverished, as to retain 
 scarcely a vestige of their former prosperity. To 
 these misfortunes was added the weight of 
 Roman vengeance. A decree was passed, re- 
 ducing this people to a most abject stale of de- 
 pendence : they were pronounced incapable of 
 being employed in a military capacity, and their 
 services were confined to the menial oflices of 
 couriers and letter carriers." Cram. 
 
 Bryges, a people of Thrace, afterwards called 
 Phryges. Strad. 7. 
 
 Brygi, an Illyrian people, whom Strabo 
 seems to place in the vicinity of the Taulantii 
 and Parthini, to the north of Epidamnus. The 
 town of Cydrise is assigned to them. Cram. 
 
 BuBASTis, a city of Egypt, in Scripture called 
 Pibeset, now Basta, in the eastern parts of the 
 Delta, where cats were held in great venera- 
 tion, because Diana Bubastis, who is the chief 
 deity of the place, is said to have transformed 
 herself into a cat when the gods fled into Egypt. 
 Herodot. 2, c. 59, 137 and Ib^.—Ovid. Met. 9, v. 
 690. 
 
 BuBAsus, a country of Caria, whence Bvba- 
 sides applied to the natives. Ovid. Met. 9, v. 643. 
 
 BucA, a sea-port town of the Frentani, the 
 position of which is now subject to much un- 
 certainty. Strabo places it near Teanum, on 
 the confines of Apulia ; and again states that it 
 was separated from Teanum by an interval of 
 200 stadia or 25 miles. It is probable that there 
 is an error in one of the passages. Romanelli 
 informs us that the ruins are to be seen at a 
 place named Penna. Cram. 
 
 BucEPHALA, a city of India, near the Hydas- 
 pes, built by Alexander, in honour of his favour- 
 ite horse Bucephalus. Curt. 9, c. 'i.— Justin. 
 12, c. S.—Diod. 17. 
 
 BucHETiuM, or BucHETA, or BucENTA, a 
 town of Epirus, situated close to the Acherusian 
 lake, and at no great distance from Ephyre or 
 Cichyrus. The remains of this town are thus 
 spoken of by Mr. Hughes: " Leaving the Ache- 
 rusian lake, we bent our steps to the ruins of 
 Buchetium, which are about one mile distant. 
 They are situated upon a beautiful conical rock, 
 near the right bank of the Acheron ; and the 
 Cyclopean walls, constructed with admirable 
 exactitude in the second style of ancient mason- 
 ry, still remain in a high state of preservation." 
 Cram. 
 
 BuDiNi, a people of Scythia, mentioned by 
 Herodotus in his account of the expedition of 
 Darius Hystaspes. By a detail which Herodo- 
 tus furnishes of the canton of the Budinians, we 
 think we discover it on the Borysthenes, a little 
 below Kiow. D'Anville. 
 
 BuDoRUM, or BuDORUs, a promontory of Sa- 
 lamis, opposite to Megara, with a fortress upon 
 it, which was taken by a Lacedeemonian fleet 
 under Brasidas. Strabo mentions it as a moun- 
 tain of Salamis. Sir W. Gell must be mistaken 
 in supposing Budorus to be opposite to .^gina. 
 He himself informs us, that " opposite the ferry 
 to Megara are the remains of a very ancient 
 fortress or city, whence there is a fine view to- 
 wards Corinth." This, no doubt, was Budorus. 
 Cram. 
 
 Bulls, a town of Phocis, " which Pausanias 
 
BY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BY 
 
 seems to assign to Boeotia, at the same time that 
 he allows it had joiaed the Phocian confederacy 
 in the Sacred War under Philomelus and Ono- 
 marchus. Steph. Byz. calls it a Phocian town ; 
 as do likewise Pliny and Ptolemy. Pausanias 
 states that Bulls was on a hill, and only seven 
 stadia from its port, which is doubtless the same 
 as the Mychos of Strabo and the Nautochus of 
 Pliny. Cram. 
 
 BuPHRASiuM, a town of Elis, often mentioned 
 by Homer as one of the chief cities of the Ep6- 
 ans. It had ceased to exist in the time of Stra- 
 bo, but the name was still attached to a district 
 situated on the left bank of the Larissus, and 
 on the road leading from Dyme to Elis. This 
 seems to answer to what is now called the plain 
 of Bakouma. Cram. 
 
 BuRA, " one of the twelve original Ach^an 
 cities, which stood formerly close to the sea, but 
 having been destroyed, with the neighbouring 
 to-vvn of Helice, by a terrible earthquake, the 
 surviving inhabitants rebuilt it afterwards, about 
 40 stadia from the coast, and near the small ri- 
 ver Buraicus. Bura was situated on a hill, and 
 contained temples of Ceres, Venus, Bacchus, 
 and Lucina ; the statues were by Euclidas of 
 Athens. On the banks of the river Buraicus 
 was a cave consecrated to Hercules, and an ora- 
 cle, usually consulted by the throwing of dice." 
 Sir W. Gell discovered its ruins close to the road 
 from Megastelia to Vostitza, and visited the cave 
 of Hercules Buraicus. Cram. 
 
 Buraicus. Vid. Bura. 
 
 BuRDiGALA, now Bourdeaux, the capital of 
 the Bituriges Vibisci, in Aquitania Secunda. 
 It was situated at the mouth of the Garumna, 
 and was the birth-place of Ausonius. D^An- 
 ville. 
 
 BuRGUNDioNEs, a branch of the ancient Vin- 
 dili. Their original seat is not easy to ascer- 
 tain, but they were probably established first be- 
 tween the Oder and the Vistula, whence they 
 were compelled to migrate, and settled near the 
 Alemanni. Finally they passed to Gaul, and 
 from them is derived the modern Burgundy. 
 
 BusiRis, a to\\Ti of Lower Egypt, on a branch 
 of the Nile called Busiriticus. It was siyled 
 the city of Isis, from its having a famous tem- 
 ple sacred to that deity. The modern Busir 
 occupies the site of the ancient town, which 
 was destroyed by Dioclesian. 
 
 BuTHROTUM, a iawrv of Epirus, situated on 
 a peninsula formed by the Pelodes Portus, into 
 which emptied the Xanthus, and a bay connect- 
 ed with the sea by a narrow channel. Buthro- 
 tum was occupied by Caesar in the civil wars, 
 and was afterwards colonized by the Romans. 
 It was opposite the island of Corcyra. Cram. 
 
 BuTOs, a to-um of Egypt, where there was a 
 temple of Apollo and Diana, and an oracle of 
 Latona. It was situated on a lake or basin, 
 to the west of the Ostium Sebennyticum. He- 
 rodot. 2, c. 59 and 63. 
 
 BuxENTUM, or Pyxus, a town of Lucania, 
 near the promontory of Pyxus, now Capo degV 
 Infreschi. Policastro is generally considered 
 the site of the ancient town. It became a Ro- 
 man colony A. U. C. 558. There was a river 
 Pyxus, now Busento. Cram. 
 
 Byblus, a town of Syria, not far from the sea, 
 where Adonis had a temple. It was situated 
 between Berytus and Botrus, and the Adonis 
 
 flowed into the Mediterranean in its vicinity. 
 Strab. 16. 
 
 Byrsa, Vid. Carthago. 
 
 Byzacium, a country of Africa, adjacent to 
 the Syrtis Minor, also named Emporia. Its 
 great fertility of corn might have caused it to be 
 regarded as a magazine of provisions, which was 
 resorted to by sea. There was a city of the 
 same name with that of the country, whose po- 
 sition Arabian geographers make known under 
 the name of Beghni. D'Anville. 
 
 Byzantium, a town situate on the Thracian 
 Bosphorus, founded by a colony of Megara, un- 
 der the conduct of Byzas, 658 years before the 
 Christian era. Paterculus says it was founded 
 by the Milesians, and by the Lacedaemonians 
 according to Justin, and according to Ammia- 
 nus by the Athenians. The Spartan claim 
 owes its origin to the occupation of Byzantium 
 by the Lacedaemonians, under Pausanias, with 
 the view of holding in check the threatening 
 power of the Persians. Philip of Macedon in 
 vain attempted to take this city ; and so flou- 
 rishing was it during the period of Roman do- 
 minion, that, when it sided with Niger against 
 Severus, it yielded to the victor only after an 
 obstinate siege of three years. The pleasant- 
 ness and convenience of its situation was ob- 
 served by Constantine the Great, who made it 
 the capital of the eastern Roman empire, A. D. 
 328, and called it Constantinople. ^ Constan- 
 tine endowed Constantinople with all the privi- 
 leges of Rome, whence at a late period it was 
 styled Nova Roma. Nor did it rival Rome only 
 in its civil and political privileges. In the second 
 ecclesiastical council held here, it was decreed 
 that the patriarch of ConstaWinople should be 
 second in dignity only to the bishop of Rome, 
 This so excited the jealousy of the Pontiffs, that 
 in after times they strove, inefficiently however, 
 to reduce the power of the patriarchs; who,main- 
 taining their privileges and independence, were 
 therefore accounted schismatics by the church 
 of Rome. John, Patriarch of Constantinople in 
 the time of Gregory the Great, first assumed the 
 title of Universal or (Ecumenical Bishop, Pas- 
 tor General, as it were, of the Christian church. 
 The limits of Byzantium were more contracted 
 than those of Constantinople ; the latter city 
 having been extended to include the seven hills, 
 which have given it also a claim to the title of 
 Urbs Septi-Collis. Within the limits of the 
 ancient Byzantium stand, at the present day, 
 the seraglio of the Turkish sultans and the fa- 
 mous temple of Saint Sophia. The ancient ci- 
 ty occupied a point of land contracted between 
 the Propontis and a long cove, named Chryso- 
 ceras, or the Horn of Gold. This extremity of 
 Thrace and of Europe, contracted between two 
 seas,was enclosed by a long wall called Macron- 
 tichosfiommendmg a little beyond Heraclea,and 
 terminating on the shore of the Euxine, near a 
 place named Derkon, or Derkous. This bar- 
 rier, of which there are only some vestiges re- 
 maining, was constructed by the emperor Anas- 
 tasius, at the beginning of the sixth century, to 
 resist the incursions of many foreign nations 
 who had penetrated even to the environs of the 
 city. Constantinople fell into the hands of the 
 Turks under Mahomet 2d A. D. 1453. The 
 modem city is called Stamboul, by some consi- 
 dered a corruption of the ancient name,by others 
 59 
 
CM 
 
 GECGRAPHY. 
 
 CA 
 
 Ganges 
 
 as an abbreviation of els rnv ttoXiv. A num- 
 ber of Greek writers, who have received the 
 name of Byzantine historians^ flourished at 
 Byzantium after the seat of the empire had 
 been translated thither from Rome. Their 
 works were published in one large collection, 
 in 36 vols, folio, 1648, &c. at Paris, and recom- 
 mended themselves by the notes and supple- 
 ments of Du Fresne and Du Cange. They 
 were likewise printed at Venice, 1729, in 28 
 vols, though perhaps, this edition is not so valu- 
 able as that of the French. A new and supe- 
 rior edition of this collection was commenced 
 by the late Mr. Niehbuhr in 1828. Strab. 1.— 
 Pater c. 2. c. 15. — C Nep. in Pans. Alcib. &. 
 Timoth. — Justin. 9. c. 1. — Tacit. 12. Ann. c, 
 62 and QZ.—Mela, 2, c. ^.—Marcel. 22, c. 8. 
 
 C. 
 
 Cabalinus. Vid. Aganippe. 
 
 Caballinum, a town of the ^dui, now Cha- 
 lons^ on the Saone. Cces. 7, Bell. G. c. 42. 
 
 Cabira, a town of Pontus, though only a 
 castle under Mithridates. It was enlarged un- 
 der Pompey. It was called Sebaste, (the Greek 
 word answering to the Latin Augusta,) in ho- 
 nour of Augustus, by the queen-dowager of 
 Polemon, king of Pontus. D'Anville. 
 
 CACUTms, a river of India flowing into the 
 Arrian. Indie. 
 
 Cadmea, a citadel of Thebes, built by Cad- 
 mus ; whence the Thebans are often called Cad- 
 means. Stat. Theb. 8, v. 601. — Pans. 2, c. 5. 
 CADMEis,an ancient name of Boeotia, 
 
 Cadurgi, a people of Gallia Celtica, accord- 
 ing to the division of Ceesar. They were next 
 to the Ruieni, along the Garumna, and had for 
 their capital Divona, now Cahors. Lemaire. 
 
 Cadytis. Vid. Hierosolyma. 
 
 C^cuBus ACER, a tract of country near Caie- 
 la in Latium, famous for the excellence and 
 plenty of its wines. According to Pliny, the 
 cultivation of this vine was considerably injur- 
 ed, in consequence of some works undertaken 
 by Nero. Cram. — Strab. 5. — Horat. 1, od. 20. 
 1. 2, od. 14, &c. 
 
 C^NEOPOLis, or C^NE, I. a town now Kene 
 in the Thebaid, on the right bank of the Nile, 
 
 nearly over against Tentyra. II. Another, 
 
 called also Taenarum. Vid. Tanarum. 
 
 C^NiNA, a town of the Sabines on the Anio. 
 Liv. 1, c. 9. 
 
 C^Nis, a promontory of Italy, opposite to Pe- 
 lorus in Sicily, a distance of about one mile and 
 a half, and forming the narrowest part of the 
 strait that lies between Italy and the island of 
 Sicily. 
 
 C^RATus, an ancient name of Gnossus, ac- 
 cording to Strabo. 
 
 CiERE, C^RES. Vid. Agylla. 
 
 Cesar Augusta, more anciently Salduba, 
 a town on the river Iberus, in the territory of 
 the Edetani and province of Tarraconensis. It 
 stood a little below the mouth of the Bilbilis, 
 and is now Saragossa. Mel. — Ptol. — D'An- 
 ville. 
 
 CiESAREA, the ancient name of the island of 
 Guernsey. — Another, called Ad Argeum from 
 its situation at the foot of the mons Argseus. 
 Its proper denomination was Mazaca. to which 
 in the time of Tiberius, was superadded that of 
 60 
 
 Caesarea. It was a capital town of Cappado- 
 cia, near the source of the Halys river, and oc- 
 cupied a site not distant irom that of the mo- 
 dern Kaisarieh. A town of Samaria,named, 
 
 on its becoming the residence of the Roman 
 governorSjCsBsarea Palaestinae. Its earlier name 
 was Turris Stratonis, but standing on the sea, 
 " it was chosen," says D'Anville, " by Herod, 
 for the site of a magnificent city and port." It 
 was this prince that gave it the name of Coesa- 
 rea, in honour of the emperor Augustus. It 
 belonged to the province of Palestine first, and 
 became the residence of a patriarch. There re- 
 main but a few ruins to mark the spot on which 
 it stood. This name was also given by Philip, 
 the son of Herod, to the town of Paneas, on the 
 division of his father's dominions ; and to dis- 
 tinguish it, the surname of Philippi was aitach- 
 ed to it. The name of Paneas is derived from 
 its position at the foot of mount Panium, at the 
 sources of the waters of Jordan. It afterwards 
 resumed this name, and was known as Belines 
 
 to the Crusaders. There are many small 
 
 insignificant towns of that name, either built 
 by the emperors, or called by their name in 
 compliment to them, " 
 
 C^SENA, " the last town of Cisalpine Gaul 
 on the Via JEmylia, retains its ancient name. 
 It is situated on the river Savio, anciently the 
 Sapis." The name of Curva is sometimes giv- 
 en instead of Ceesena. Cram. 
 
 CaicinuSj a river separating the territories of 
 Rhegium and Locri. It was believed that the 
 grasshoppers beside this river, on the Locrian 
 side, were continually singing, and that those on 
 the opposite bank were continually mute. It is 
 thought to be the present Amendolea. Cram. 
 
 Caicus, a river of Mysia, falling into the 
 ^gean Sea opposite Lesbos. Virg. G. 4, v. 
 310.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 243. 
 
 Caieta, a town, promontory, and harbour of 
 Campania, which received its name from Caie- 
 ta, the nurse of ^neas, who was buried there. 
 Virg. uEn. 7, v. 1. 
 
 Calabria, a country of Italy in Magna Grae- 
 cia. It has been called Messapia, lapygia, Sa- 
 lentinia, and Peucetia. The poet Ennius was 
 born there. The country was fertile, and pro- 
 duced a variety of fruits, much cattle, and ex- 
 cellent honey. This was the country of the 
 Calabri, who, however, were confined almost to 
 that part of Messapia and lapygia between 
 Brundusium and Hydrunturn which is now 
 Terra di Lecce. Virg. G. 3, v. 425. — Horat. 
 1, od. 31. Epod. 1, V. 27, 1. 1, ep. 7, v. 14.— 
 StraJb. 6.— Mela, 2, c. i.—Plin. 8, c. 48. 
 
 Calagurris, a capital of the Vascones, in 
 that which is now Navarre. It stood on the 
 southern side of the Iberus, considerably above 
 the town of Ceesar Augusta. 
 
 Calamos, I. a town of Asia, near Mount Li- 
 banus. Plin. 5, c. 20. II. A towTi of Phoe- 
 nicia. III. Another of Bab)donia, 
 
 Calaon, a river of Asia, near Colophon. 
 Pans. 7, c. 3. 
 
 Calathion, a mountain of Laconia. Pans. 
 3, c. 26. 
 
 Calates, a town of Thrace, near Tomus, on 
 the Euxine Sea. Strab. 7 — Mela, 2, c. 2. 
 
 Calatia, a town of Campania, on the Ap 
 pian Way. It was made a Roman colony m 
 the age of Julius Caesar. Sil. 8, v. 543. 
 
CA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CA 
 
 Calaurea, and Calauria, an island near 
 TrcEzene in the bay of Argos. The tomb of 
 Demosthenes was there. Paus. 1, c. 8, &c. — 
 Strab. 8.— Mela, 2, c. 7. 
 
 Gale, (es,) Gales, (imn,) and Galenum, 
 now Calvi, a town of Campania. Horat. 4, od. 
 12. — Tuv. 1, V. m.—Sil. 8, V. 413.— Virg, ^n. 
 7, V. 728. 
 
 Caledonia, a name applied properly to a 
 long but narrow strip of land, which stretches 
 from Loch Finn on the western, to the Frith of 
 Tayne on the eastern, coast of Scotland. It is, 
 however, very frequently made to include all 
 Scotland, except the Maaetse, and sometimes 
 used as a generic term for Northern Britain. 
 Camden traces the name to Kaled, " rough," 
 plural Kaledion; whence Galedonii, "the rude 
 nation," In the article Britannia we gave a so- 
 lution of the question concerning the disappear- 
 ance of the Caledonians from history about the 
 middle of the 4th century. Heylyn considers 
 that the word Scot denoted a body aggregated 
 into one, out of man)'' particulars ; that Scoti, 
 therefore, implies a union by which that nation 
 was formed; hence Scotland, " the land of the 
 united people." This would lead us to infer 
 that the Galedonii and Masetas united formed 
 the ScQti ; and that the Picts were a distinct 
 body of North Britons. Mac Bean considers 
 the Picts as a branch of the Galedonii, and de- 
 clares the proper form of the name to be Pecht, 
 " freebooters." The same writer traces Cale- 
 donia to Gael-doch, " the country of the Gael or 
 highlander ; " and concurs with Lingard in re- 
 presenting the Scoti as a distinct people, who 
 settled at a comparatively late period in the 
 southern part of Scotland. 
 Gales. Vid. Cale. 
 
 Galetes, a people of Gaul. They dwelt in 
 that part of Normandy which is called the Pays 
 de Caux, a peninsula formed by the Seine and 
 the sea. Caesar assigns them to the Belgas. 
 There is reason, however, to believe, that 
 though situated in Belgica, the Galetes had 
 some affinity with the Armorici. Cccs. Bell. 
 Gall. 2, i; and 8, 7; and 7, 75. 
 
 Callaicia, a district of Hispania, extending 
 over that part of Portugal which lay between the 
 Douro and Minho, with the greater part of Ga- 
 licia. The Lusitanian Gallaici, or those south 
 of the Minho, were called Bracarii, and those on 
 the north, Lucenses. Ovid. 6, Fast. v. 461. 
 
 Galle, " a town on the Douro, near its 
 mouth, called now Porto. It is remarkable by 
 the combination of its ancient and modern name, 
 for giving the denomination of Portugal to a 
 kingdom which, being limited before to the ex- 
 tent of a county or earldom, was conferred on 
 a French prince by a king of Leon." It was in 
 the country of the Calliaci. D'Anville. 
 
 Callichorus, a place of Phocis, where the 
 orgies of Bacchus were yearly celebrated. 
 
 CALLmROMus, a place near Thermopylae. 
 Thucyd. 8, c. 6. 
 
 Callipolis, I. a city of Thrace, on the Hel- 
 lespont. Sil. 14, V. 250. II. A town of Sici- 
 ly, near .^tna. III. A city of Calabria on the 
 
 coast of Tarentum, on a rocky island, joined by 
 a bridge to the continent. It contains 6000 in- 
 habitants, who trade in oil and cotton. All 
 these places retain their ancient names in the 
 slightly altered form GallipoM. 
 
 Callirhoe, or Enneacrounos, a fountain 
 near the city of Athens, from which the Athe- 
 nians still, as in ancient times, derive their sole 
 supply of water. Some authors place it within 
 the circuit of the ancient town. The natives 
 have preserved its name in that of Kalliroi. 
 Paus. Att. 14. — Thucyd. 2, 15. — Leake's To- 
 pog. 
 
 Galliste, an island of the iEgean Sea, called 
 afterwards Thera. Plin. 4, c. 12. — Paus. 3, 
 c. 1. Its chief town was founded 1150 years 
 before the christian era, by Theras. 
 
 Gallium, a town of the Ophionenses in 
 jEtolia, upon the road from Heraclea Trachi- 
 nia, by way of mount Corax to Naupactus. The 
 Gauls of Brennus having crossed the mountains 
 that lie between iEtolia, Doria, and Thessaly, 
 laid waste the town of Gallium ; but their re- 
 treat was intercepted by the iEtolians, who had 
 assembled to revenge the Callienses, and out of 
 40,000 barbarians who had entered this district, 
 it is said one half were destroyed before the de- 
 tachment could rejoin the army of Brennus. 
 The name is written also Callipolis and Callioe. 
 
 Galpe, a lofty mountain in the most southern 
 parts of Spain, opposite to mount Abyla, on the 
 African coast. These two mountains were call- 
 ed the pillars of Hercules. The name of Gi- 
 braltar, by which it is at present known, is a cor- 
 ruption of Gebel Tarik, given to it about the 
 year 710, from Gebel, a mountain, and Tarik, 
 the name of the Moorish leader, whd, crossing 
 this strait, effected the conquest of Spain for 
 his nation. " At the bottom," says DAnville, 
 "there existed heretofore a town called Carteia, 
 which appears to have been confounded with 
 that mentioned in antiquity under the name of 
 Galpe." 
 
 Galydon, a city of iEtolia, where (Eneus, 
 the father of Meleager, reigned. The Evenus 
 flows through it, and it receives its name from 
 Galydon, the son of ^tolus. Augustus re- 
 moved the inhabitants to Nicopolis, and so com- 
 pleted the ruin of the place, which had, in the 
 time of his uncle, still retained something of its 
 ancient importance. In poetry and mythology, 
 the name of Galydon is famous for the chase of 
 the boar, in which nearly all the princes of 
 Greece are reported to have joined. The tusks 
 were shown for a long time at Rome. One of 
 them was about half an ell long, and the other 
 was broken. Apollod. 1, c. 8. — Paus. 8, c. 45. 
 —Strab. 8. — Homer. 11. 9, v. bll.—Hygin. fab. 
 \lL—Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 4, &c. 
 
 Camaloduntjm, a Roman colony in Britain, 
 supposed Maiden, or Colchester. 
 
 Camarina, a lake of Sicily, with a town of 
 the same name, built B. C. 552. It was de- 
 stroyed by the Syracusans, and rebuilt by a cer- 
 tain Hipponous. The lake was drained con- 
 trary to the advice of Apollo, as the ancients 
 supposed ; and the words Camarinam movere 
 are become proverbial to express an unsuccess- 
 ful and dangerous attempt. Virg. jEn. 3, v. 
 1^\.— Strab. e.—Herodot. 7, c. 134. 
 
 Cambunii montes, mountains separating Thes- 
 saly and Macedonia, intersecting almost at 
 right angles the chains of Pindus on the west 
 and Olympus on the east. They were called 
 also Volustana, and retain that name in the 
 modification of Volutza. 
 
 Gamerinum, and Camertium, a iovrn of Um- 
 €1 
 
CA 
 
 GEOGRAPPIY. 
 
 CA 
 
 bria, on the borders of Picenum. Ciuverius 
 supposes it to have been the same as the Ca- 
 merte mentioned by Strabo ; but this is proved 
 by Cramer to be impossible. It may be the 
 same as the modern Camerino. Liv. 9, c. 36, 
 
 Campania a country of Italy included in the 
 dominion of the Osci. It was bounded on the 
 south by the waters of the Tyrrhene Sea ; the 
 mountains Callicula and Tifata divided it from 
 Samnium on the north ; it was separated by the 
 Liris from Latium, and by the Silarus from Lu- 
 cania. Into this district of country, celebrated 
 for its fertility by the poet and the historian, the 
 Etruscans, during the period of their military 
 superiority, introduced themselves, and brought 
 with them the civilization and the arts which 
 had been unknown to the earlier Osci, and 
 which afterwards became characteristics of the 
 Campanians. But the influence of the climate 
 affected in their turn the Etruscans, and the 
 hardier Samnites dispossessed them of their best 
 provinces in Campania. Greeks, Sabines, and 
 Volsci, at different periods estalDlished them- 
 selves in these regions ; and from the frequent 
 contests between the actual possessors and the 
 new comers, was imagined, says Strabo, the fic- 
 tion of the mythological wars that illustrate the 
 Phlegrsean plains. The Sanmites in Campa- 
 nia were, however, if perhaps we except the 
 Etruscans, by far the most imposing of the con- 
 querors of Campania ; and for a time appeared 
 among the boldest and most respected of the 
 Italian nations. The boundaries which we 
 have designated above were not at a later period 
 proper to define the limits of Campania ; and 
 the Massic hills became the dividing line be- 
 tween that region and Latium w'hen the latter 
 extended beyond the banks of the Liris. The 
 name of Campania was not used to designate 
 this tract of country till the establishment there 
 of the Samnites, and the dispossession of the 
 Etruscans. In the Carthaginian wars, when 
 the victories of Hannibal began to render it pro- 
 bable that the Roman empire over the Italian 
 cities was about to expire, the Campanians re- 
 volted from their allegiance ; " an offence which 
 they were made to expiate by a punishment, 
 the severity of which has few examples in the 
 history, not of Rome only, but of nations." 
 Under the Etruscans the scattered Osci were 
 collected into villages, and Vulturnus became 
 after a time the capital of this commingled race. 
 The same city under the Samnitic Campania 
 was afterwards the capital of those people who 
 changed its name to Capua. About the year 
 421 or 422 U. C. Campania became by conquest 
 subject to Rome, but the inhabitants were ad- 
 mitted to the honours of citizenship, without, 
 however, being permitted to exercise the right 
 of suffrage. Dion. Hal. — Micali. Italia. — 
 Cram. — Strab. 5. — Cic. de Leg. Ag. c. 35. — 
 Justin, 20, c. 1. 1. 22, c. l.—Plin. 3, c. 5.— 
 Mela, 2, c. ^.—Flor. 1, c. 16. 
 
 Campi Diomedis. Vid. Canna. Laborini, 
 
 the present Terra di Lavoro. Taurasini, 
 
 in Samnium, famous for the total defeat of Pyr- 
 rhus by Curius Dentatus, A. U. C. 477. — Rau- 
 dii, where Marius defeated the Cimbri. They 
 were in Cisalpine Gaul, and vaguely described 
 by Plutarch as being near the town of Vercel- 
 
 Ige. Rosci. These plains were sometimes 
 
 called Tempe ; and the name of Dewy Plains. 
 62 
 
 by which the Romans designated them, was in- 
 tended to convey the notion of their freshness 
 and verdure. They were situated about the 
 valley of the Velinus, and were often overflow- 
 ed by its waters. 
 
 Campus Martius, a large plain at Rome, 
 without the walls of the city, where the Roman 
 youths performed their exercises, and learnt to 
 wrestle, and box, to throw the discus, hurl the 
 javelin, ride a horse, drive a chariot, &c. The 
 public assemblies were held there, and the offi- 
 cers of state chosen, and audience given to fo- 
 reign ambassadors. It was adorned with sta- 
 tues, columns, arches, and porticoes, and its 
 pleasant situation made it very frequented. It 
 was called Martius, because dedicated to Mars. 
 It was sometimes called Tiberinus, from its 
 closeness to the Tiber, It was given to the Ro- 
 man people by a vestal virgin ; but they were 
 deprived of it by Tarquin the Proud, who made 
 it a private field, and sowed corn in it. When 
 Tarquin was driven from Rome, the people re- 
 covered it, and threw away into the Tiber the 
 corn which had grown there, deeming it unlaw- 
 ful for any man to eat of the produce of that 
 land. The sheaves which were thrown into the 
 river stopped in a shallow ford, and by the ac- 
 cumulated collection of mud became firm 
 ground, and formed an island, which was 
 called the Holy Island, or the island of ^scu- 
 lapius. Dead carcasses were generally burnt 
 in the Campus Martius. Strah. 5.— Liv. 2, c. 
 5, 1. 6, c. 20. 
 
 Campus EsauiLiNus, a piece of ground with- 
 out the city walls, in which the lower orders of 
 Romans were buried during the early ages of 
 the Republic. It appears to have been used also 
 
 as a place of execution. Sceleratus, a spot 
 
 near the Porta Collina on the CLuirinal hill, 
 where the vestals who had violated their vows 
 were buried alive, 
 
 CaNa, a city and promontory of ^Eolia. Me- 
 la, 1, c. 18. 
 
 Canarit, a people who received this name 
 because they fed in common with their dogs. 
 The islands which they inhabited were called 
 Fortunate by the ancients, and are now known 
 by the name of the Canaries. Plin. 5, c. 1. 
 
 Canathus, a fountain of Nauplia, where Ju- 
 no yearly washed herself to receive her infant 
 purity. Paus. 2, c. 38. 
 
 Candavia, a mountain of Epirus, which se- 
 parates Illyria from Macedonia, Lnican. 6, v, 
 331, 
 
 Caninefates, a people near the Batavi, 
 dwelling where modern Holland now is situate. 
 Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 15. 
 
 Cann^, a small village of Apulia near the 
 Aufidus, where Hannibal conquered the Roman 
 consuls P. ^mylius and Terentius Varro, and 
 slaughtered 40,000 Romans, on the 21st of 
 May, B.C. 216. " The field of battle was the 
 plain between Cannae and the Aufidus." These 
 plains were once known by the appellation of 
 the Campi Diomedis. Liv. 22, c. 44. — Flor. 
 2, c. 6. — Plut. in Annib. 
 
 Canopicum ostium, one of the mouths of the 
 Nile, 12 miles from Alexandria. Paus. 5, c. 21. 
 
 Canopus, a city of Egypt, twelve miles from 
 Alexandria, celebrated for the temple of Sera- 
 pis. It was founded by the Spartans, and there- 
 fore called Amycleea, and it received its name 
 
CA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CA 
 
 from Canopus, the pilot of the vessel of Mene- 
 .aus, who w£is buried in this place. The inha- 
 bitants were dissolute in their manners. Virgil 
 bestows upon it the epithet of Pellceus, because 
 Alexander, who was born at Pella, built Alex- 
 andria in the neighbourhood. Ital, 11, v. 433. 
 —Mela, 1, c. d.—Strad. 11— Plin. 5, c. 31.— 
 Virg. G. 4, V. 287. 
 
 Cantabri, a ferocious and warlike people of 
 Spain. Their country is now called Biscay. 
 Liv. 3, V. 32d. —Horat. 2, od. 6 and 11. 
 
 CantabrijE lacus, a lake in Spain, where a 
 thunderbolt fell, and in which twelve axes were 
 found. Suet, in Galb. 8. 
 
 Cantium, a country in the eastern parts of 
 Britain, now called Kent. Cces. Bell. G. 5. 
 
 Canusium, now Canosa, a town of Apulia, 
 whither the Romans fled after the battle of Can- 
 nse. The wools and the cloths of the place 
 were in high estimation. Horat. 1, Sat. 10, v. 
 20.— Mela, 2, c. 4.— Plin. 8, c. 11. 
 
 Capena, a gate of Rome. Ovid. Fast.b,y. 192. 
 
 Capeni, a people of Etruria, in whose terri- 
 tory Peronia had a grove and a temple, Virg. 
 jEn. 7, V. 691.— Liv. 5, 22, &c. 
 
 Caphareus, a lofty mountain and promontory 
 of EubcEa, where Nauplius, king of the coun- 
 try, to revenge the death of his son Palamedes, 
 slain by Ulysses, set a burning torch in the 
 darkness of night, which caused the Greeks to 
 be shipwrecked on the coast. Virg. yEn. 11, 
 V. 2Q0.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. ASl.—Propert. 4, 
 el. l,v. 115. 
 
 Capitolium, a celebrated temple and citadel 
 at Rome, on the Tarpeian rock, the plan of 
 which was- made by Tarquin Priscus. It was 
 begun by Servius Tullius, finished by Tarquin 
 Superbus, and consecrated by the consul Hora- 
 tius after the expulsion of the Tarquins from 
 Rome. It was built upon four acres of ground ; 
 the front was adorned with three rows of pil- 
 lars, and the other sides with two. The ascent 
 to it from the ground was by an hundred steps. 
 The magnificence and richness of this temple 
 are almost incredible. All the consuls succes- 
 sively made donations to the capitol, and Au- 
 gustus bestowed upon it at one time 2000 
 pounds weight of gold. Its thresholds were made 
 of brass, and its roof was gold. It was adorned 
 with vessels and shields of solid silver, with 
 golden chariots, &c. It was burnt during the 
 civil wars of Marius, and Sylla rebuilt it, but 
 died before the dedication,which was performed 
 by (X. Catulus. It was again destroyed in the 
 troubles under Vitellius ; and Vespasian, who 
 endeavoured to repair it. saw it again in ruins 
 at his death. Domitian raised it again, for the 
 last time, and made it more grand and magni- 
 ficent than any of his predecessors, and spent 
 12,000 talents in gilding it. When they first 
 dug for the foundations, they found a man's 
 head, called Tolius, sound and entire, in the 
 ground, and from thence drew an omen of the 
 future greatness of the Roman empire. The 
 hill was from that circumstance called Capito- 
 lium, a capite Toli. The consuls and magis- 
 trates offered sacrifices there when they first en- 
 tered upon their offices, and the procession in 
 triumphs wels always conducted to the capitol. 
 Virg. Mn. 6, v. 136, 1. 8, v. Ul.— Tacit. 3. 
 Hist. c. 72. — Plut. in Poplic. — Liv. 1, 10, &c. 
 — Plin. 33. &c. — SvMon. in Aug. c. 40. 
 
 Cappadocia, a country of Asia Minor, sepa- 
 rated on the Avest from Phrygia by the Halys 
 towards its source, and by the Euphrates from 
 Armenia Major. It had upon the north Gala- 
 tia and Pontus, and on the south the Taurus 
 mountains, which divided it from Cilicia and 
 the coast. In these limits, on the east, was in- 
 cluded Armenia Minor. The capital of Cap- 
 padocia proper, or Magna,otherwise calledCap- 
 padocia by the Taurus, was Masaca, afterwards 
 Caesarea Vid. Cccsarea. The country named 
 Pontus was, in fact, a part of Cappadocia, and 
 the people of both regions were the same. Till 
 this large district was formed into a separate 
 country, it carried the boundary of Cappadocia 
 on the north quite to the Euxine Sea. It re- 
 ceived its name from the river Cappadox, which 
 separates it from Galatia. The inhabitants 
 were called Syrians and Leuco-Syrians by the 
 Greeks. They were of a dull and submissive 
 disposition, and addicted to every vice according 
 to the ancients, who wrote this virulent epigram 
 against them : 
 
 Viper a Cappadocem nocilura momordit : at ilia 
 Gustato periit sanguhie Cappadocis. 
 
 When they were offered their freedom and in- 
 dependence by the Romans, they refused it, and 
 begged of them a king, and they received Ario- 
 barzanes. It was some time after governed by 
 a Roman proconsul. Though the ancients have 
 ridiculed this country for the unfruitfulness of 
 its soil and the manners of its inhabitants, yet 
 it can boast of the birth of the geographer Stra- 
 bo, St. Basil, and Gregory Nazianzen, among 
 other illustrious characters. The horses of this 
 country were in general esteem, and with these 
 they paid their tributes to the king of Persia, 
 while under his power, for want of money. The 
 kings of Cappadocia mostly bore the name of 
 Ariarathes. Horat. 1, ep. 6, v. 39. — Plin. 6, c. 3. 
 — Curt. 3 and 4. — Strab. 11 and 16. — Herodot. 
 1, c. 73, I. 5, c. 49.— MeZa, 1, c. 2, I. 3, c. 8. 
 
 Cappadox, a river of Cappadocia. Plin.6, c. 3. 
 
 Capraria, now Cabrera, a mountain island 
 on the coast of Spain, famous for its goats. 
 Plin. 3, c. 6. 
 
 CAPREiG, now Capri, an island on the coast 
 of Campania, abotmding in quails, and famous 
 for the residence and debaucheries of the empe- 
 ror Tiberius during the seven last years of his 
 life. The island, in which now several medals 
 are dug up expressive of the licentious morals of 
 the emperor, was about 40 miles in circumfe- 
 rence, and surrounded by steep rocks. Ovid. Met. 
 15, V. lOd.—Suet. in Tib.— Stat. Sylv. 3, v. 5. 
 
 Capre^ palus, a place near Rome, where 
 Romulus disappeared. Plut. in Rom. — Ovid. 
 Fast. 2, V. 491. 
 
 Capsa, " a town of Africa, in the province of 
 Byzacium, which from its difficulty of access, 
 was judged by Jugurtha a proper deposit for 
 reserved treasure. The position of it is known, 
 and its name is pronounced CafsaP H'Awnlle. 
 
 Capua, the chief city of Campania, of Etrus- 
 can origin. Its first founders called it Vultur- 
 nus, by which name they also designated the 
 river upon which it stood. Its change of name 
 was effected by its Samnite conquerors. Under 
 these people it established an aristocratic form 
 of government, and by the aristocracy of this 
 place the Romans were invited to extend their 
 63 
 
CA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CA 
 
 authority over the country of Campania ; thus 
 gaining, says Micali, ta this fertile and well-de- 
 fended region, more than they had been able to 
 wrest from the people of Tuscany and Latium 
 in four centuries of war. From this time for- 
 ward the nobility of Capua were greatly favour- 
 ed by the Roman senate, and the lower orders 
 became still more to this body an object of con- 
 tempt. Accordingly, on the approach of Han- 
 nibal, he found a population ready to receive 
 him with open arms. The vengeance of Rome, 
 on the departure of Hannibal, reduced this beau- 
 tiful place, with the adjacent country, almost to 
 a desert ; and it was not till the time of Julius 
 Caesar that the senate thought of restoring it. 
 From this time it began to recover its former 
 magnificence, and continued to flourish till, on 
 the invasion of the barbarians, it fell with the 
 rest of the exhausted empire. It is supposed to 
 have contained at one time a population of at 
 least 800,000, and its amphitheatre was built 
 to entertain 100,000 spectators. This city was 
 very ancient, and so opulent that it even rivalled 
 Rome, and was called altera Roma. The sol- 
 diers of Annibal, after the battle of Canna, 
 were enervated by the pleasures and luxuries 
 which powerfully prevailed in this voluptuous 
 city and under a soft climate. Virg. jEn. 10, 
 V. Ub.—Liv. 4, 7, 8, &c.—Paterc. 1, c. 7, 1. 2, 
 c. 44. — Flor. 1, c. 16. — Cic. in Philip. 12, c. 3. 
 — Plut. in Ann. 
 
 Caraca, supposed to be Caravaggio^ in the 
 Milanese. 
 
 Car AGATES, a people of Germany. 
 
 Caralis, (or es, mm,) the chief city of Sar- 
 dinia, now Cagliari, on a bay in the south of 
 the island, Paus. 10, c. 17. 
 
 Carambis, now Kerempi, a promontory of 
 Paphlagonia, pointing towards Taurica. Mela. 
 
 Carchedon, the Greek name of Carthage. 
 
 Cardia, a town of Thrace, near the isthmus 
 which connects the Chersonesus with the main 
 land. Eumenes, one of Alexander's most able 
 generals and Hieronymus the historian, were 
 natives of Cardia. When Lysimachus took 
 possession of the Chersonese, he founded a city 
 called Lysimachia, near the site of Cardia, and 
 transferred to it the greater part of the Cardians. 
 Lysimachia suffered greatly from the Thra- 
 cians, and was nearly in ruins when it was re- 
 stored by Antiochus, king of Syria. In the mid- 
 dle ages its name was lost in that of Hexamilion, 
 a fortress constructed probably out of its ruins, 
 and so called, doubtless, from the width of the 
 isthmus. Cram. 
 
 CARDUCffl, a people of Assyria, who occu- 
 pied the mountains by which that country is 
 covered on the side of Armenia and Atropatene. 
 From their names is derived that of the Kurdes ; 
 also that of Kurdistan^ which modern geogra- 
 phers apply to Assyria. D^Anville. 
 
 Caria, a country of Asia Minor, south of Io- 
 nia, at the east and north of the Icarian Sea, and 
 at the west of Phrygia Major and Lycia. It 
 has been called Phoenicia because a Phoenician 
 colony first settled there ; and afterwards it re- 
 ceived the name of Caria, from Car, an ancient 
 king of the country. A confederacy of Dori- 
 ans from Greece were established on the west- 
 ern coast. 
 
 Cariate, a town of Bactriana, where Alex- 
 ander imprisoned Callisthenes. 
 64 
 
 Carilla, a town of the Piceni, destroyed by 
 Annibal for its great attachment to Rome. Sil. 
 Ital. 8. 
 
 Carina, a quarter in the fourth region of 
 Rome, so called, as Nardini not improbably sup- 
 poses, from its being placed in a hollow between 
 the CoBlian, Palatine, and Esquiline hills. Ac- 
 cording to the same writer it corresponds with 
 that portion of the modern city which is known 
 by the appellation of Pantani. From the pas- 
 sage of Virgil (.<E%. 8, 359,) we may infer, that 
 this quarter was distinguished by an air of su- 
 perior elegance and grandeur. It appears that 
 the Carinee were contiguous to the forum. 
 Cram. 
 
 Carisiacum, a town of ancient Gaul, now 
 Cressy in Picardy. 
 
 Carmania, now Kerman, a country of Asia, 
 between Persia and India. Its capital, now 
 Kerman or Sirjan, was anciently Carmana. 
 Arrian. — Plin. 6, c. 23. 
 
 Carmelus mons, a mountain of Syria, bor- 
 dering on the shore to the north of Caesarea. 
 The respect of the Jews for this mountain was 
 communicated also to the Pagans. Several ma- 
 ritime cities are still recognized under mount 
 Carmel. D'Anville. 
 
 Carmentaus porta, one of the gates of 
 Rome, in the neighbourhood of the capitol. It 
 was afterwards called Scelerata, because the 
 Fabii passed through it in going to that fatal 
 expedition where they perished. Virg. ^E7i. 8, 
 V. 338. 
 
 Carmona, a town of Hispania Boetica, not 
 far from Hispalis, Seville. Now Carmone in 
 Andalusia. Lemaire. 
 
 Carnasfum, in Messenia, situated at the 
 end of the Stenyclerian plain, was a thick grove 
 of C3^resses, containing statues of the Carneian 
 Apollo, Mercury, Criophorus, and Proserpine. 
 It was here that the Messenians celebrated the 
 mystic rites of the great goddesses. Cram. — 
 Paus. — Mess. 33. 
 
 Carni, a people at the head of the Hadriatic, 
 below the Alps, to a part of which they gave 
 the name of Carnicse, also called Juliae. Their 
 name now subsists in what is called Carniola, 
 though more contracted in limits than the ter- 
 ritories of the Carni. D^Anville. 
 
 Carnion, " a small stream of Arcadia, which 
 had its source in the district of ^gys in Laco- 
 nia, near the temple of Apollo Cereates. Pliny 
 seems to speak of a town of this name." Crara. 
 —Plin. 4, 6. 
 
 Carnuntum, an important town of Panno- 
 nia, situated on the Danube, below Vindobona, 
 Vienna. As to the exact position of its site at 
 the present day, opinions vary between Petro- 
 nel, Haimbourg, and Altenimrg, (Old Town) 
 situated between the two former. D'Anville 
 inclines to the latter. D'Anville. 
 
 Carnus, one of the Taphian islands, now 
 either Calamo or Kastoni. Cram. 
 
 Carnutes, one of the most powerful nations 
 of Gallia Celtica, known before Caesar's expedi- 
 tion, and mentioned by Livy among those tribes 
 that crossed the Alps in the reign of Tarquinius 
 Priscus. Notwithstanding their flourishing 
 condition, they were dependent on the Remi. 
 Ceesar represents their country as in the middle 
 of Gaul : not that this was the fact in regard to 
 their geographical relation, but that there was 
 
CA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CA 
 
 the principal seat of the Druids, and the supreme 
 tribunal of confederate Gaul. The Carnntes 
 had on the north the Aulerci, Eburovices, and 
 Parisii ; on the east, the Senones ; on the south, 
 the Bituriges and Turones ; and on the west, 
 the Anlerci Cenomani. Their chief to\VTis were 
 Autricum, Chartres, and Genabum, Their ter- 
 ritory forms the provinces called le pays Char- 
 train, and VOrleanoAs, more properly at the 
 present time Departement d' Eure-et-Loir and 
 Dep. du Loiret. Lemuire. Ccbs. B. G. 2, cf5; 
 5,25; 29,54; 6,4; 7,6. 
 
 Carpathus, an island in the Mediterranean 
 between Rhodes and Crete, now called >Scar- 
 panto. It has given its name to a part of the 
 neighbouring sea, thence called the Carpathian 
 Sea, between Rhodes and Crete. It was 20 miles 
 in circumference, and was sometimes called 
 Tetrapolis, from its four toT\Tis, the principal 
 one of which was called Nisgrus. Ptolemy calls 
 the southern promontor}'' of the island Thoan- 
 T.inm, the modern Ephialtium. Plin. 4, c. 12. 
 —HerodM. 3, c. Ab.—Diod. b.—Strab. 10. 
 
 Carpetani, a people in the centre of Spain, 
 on either side of the Tagus. Their capital was 
 Toletnm. 
 
 Carpi, a people who inhabited the Carpa- 
 thian mountains. Aurelian subdued them, for 
 which the senate offered him the title of Carpi- 
 cus. This he declined accepting. 
 
 CARR.E, and Carrh.e, a town of Mesopota- 
 mia, between the Chaboras and Euphrates. 
 Here Crassus was defeated'. It is the Charan 
 or Haran to which Terah and his sons re- 
 moved from Ur of the Chaldees ; and whence 
 Abraham and Lot subsequently removed to the 
 land of Canaan. This city must be distin- 
 guished from another of the same name in Ara- 
 bia Felix, named in Ezekiel 27, 23, probably 
 the same mentioned in Plin. 5, 24. L/acan. 1, 
 107. — Genesis, 11, 31. — Rosenmuller ad loc. 
 
 Carseoli, a town of the Mqxxi, on the Via 
 Valeria, about 15 miles from Varia. It became 
 a Roman colony A. U. C. 451. It was one of 
 the 30 cities which refused their assistance to 
 the state at the most pressing period of the se- 
 cond Punic war. The site is now II piano di 
 Carsoli, and its ruins, that of Celle di Carsoli. 
 Cram.—Strab. 5, 238.— /.it". 10, 3 ; 27, 9. 
 
 Carsul^, a town of the Umbrians, on a 
 branch of the Flaminian Way, the ruins of 
 which are to be seen between San Gemino and 
 Acqua Sparta. It still retains the name of Co.r- 
 soli. It is noticed by Strabo among the princi- 
 pal touTLs of Umbria. Cram. — Strab. 5. 227. 
 
 Carteia. Vid. Calpe. 
 
 Cartenna, a town of Mauritania, now Te- 
 nez, on the shores of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Carthago, I. an ancient city of Africa Pro- 
 pria, situated on a peninsula, in the north-east- 
 ern part of the province. This peninsula ter- 
 minated in .Cape Carthage, and was connected to 
 the main land by an isthmus about three miles 
 wide, which is no longer to be distinguished, the 
 sea having retired from the adjoining beach. 
 D'Anville remarks that " the circuit of 300 sta- 
 dia given to this peninsula, must be of the short- 
 est measure to be commensurate with the 24 
 miles assigned by another authority to the vast 
 enclosure comprehending the city with its ports." 
 Another writer, of distingtiished learning, seems 
 to apply the latter measurement to the circum- 
 Part. 1.— I 
 
 ference of the city itself, and the former to that 
 of the peninsula. The town, he tells us, is " in 
 compass 24 miles, but, measuring by the outward 
 wall, it was 45. For, without the wall of the 
 city itself there were three walls more, betwixt 
 each of which there were three or four streets, 
 with vatilts under ground of 30 feet deep." It 
 had a citadel, named Byrsa, on an eminence ; a 
 harbour, still called el-Marza, or the port, but 
 now some distance from the sea ; and an inte- 
 rior port, excavated by human labour, and called 
 Cothon. The foundation of Carthage is gene- 
 rally attributed to Dido, whom Virgil makes a 
 contemporary of jEneas. In point of fact, Car- 
 thage was more than once fotmded, if we may 
 use the expression before the Roman conquest. 
 In the ancient writers, not only were those said 
 condere urbem, " to found a city," who laid its 
 first foundations, but also those who repaired, or 
 fortified it, or planted in it a new colony. Car- 
 thage was first founded, according to Appian, 
 by Tzorus and Carchedon, 50 years before the 
 fall of Troy, B. C. 1198 ; or, as Eusebius com- 
 putes, B. C. 1217. It is said to have been again 
 founded, or rebuilt, 173 years after the former 
 epoch, i. e. B. C. 1025, {Euseb. 1044). Still 
 later, by nearly 190 years, a third foimdation is 
 recorded, 143 years after the building of Solo- 
 mon's temple, B. C. 861, before the building of 
 Rome 108. Dido is said to have given the city 
 the name of Carthadt, or Cartha-Hadath, " the 
 new city," either because built anew by her, or 
 to distinguish it from Utica, on the opposite 
 shore of the intervening bay, v.'hich had been 
 founded at an earlier period . From the Phoeni- 
 cian name comes the Gr.ecian ILapxri^^^v and the 
 Latin Carthago. Carthag'e was distinguished 
 for the commercial enterprise of its inhabitants, 
 and its consequent wealth and power ; which 
 excited to such a degree the jealousy of Rome, 
 that nothing but her rival's extinction would 
 satisfy the destined mistress of the world. ( Vid. 
 Punicum Bellum.') Among the navigators of 
 Carthage were, Hanno, who wrote the Peri- 
 plus, and Himilco, the first Carthaginian who 
 reached the Cassiterides, or CEstr}^mnides, as he 
 calls them. Among her warriors were Hamil- 
 car, Mago, Asdrubal, and Hannibal. Scipio 
 Africanus Minor destroyed the city 146 B. C. ; 
 its re-establishment, projected by Csesar, was 
 executed by Augustus; and Strabo, writing 
 under Tiberius, speaks of Carthage as one of 
 the most flourishing cities of Africa. It became 
 the residence of the emperor's Vicarius, or Lieu- 
 tenant-General ; and the see of the chief pri- 
 mate of the African churches. During the 
 greater part of the 5ch and part of the 6th cen- 
 turies it was occupied by the Vandals. Having 
 been destroyed by the Saracens, it revived again, 
 and had the reputation of a city of no mean im- 
 portance till the year 1270, when, being forced 
 by the French under Lewis the 9th, and there- 
 upon deserted by its old inhabitants, it began to 
 languish, and was at last reduced to nothing but 
 a few scattered houses. The final ruin of Car- 
 thage contributed to the rise of Tunis, now the 
 capital city. The remains of the ancient city 
 are still visible near a fort, now called " the fort 
 of the Goulette,'' from the pass which connects 
 the gulf, at the head of which stands Tunis, 
 with the sea without. Heyne, Ezc 1. ad JEn, 
 lib. 4.— D'Anville.— Heyl. Cosm.—Burnouf.— 
 65 
 
CA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CA 
 
 de Brasses. — Justin. II. Nova, a town in 
 
 the south-eastern part of Hispania Tarraconen- 
 sis, on the coast of the Mediterranean, built by 
 Asdrubal the Carthaginian general. It was 
 taken by Scipio when Hanno surrendered him- 
 self after a heavy loss. It now bears the name 
 of Carthagenu. Polyb. 10. — Liv. 26, c. 43, &c. 
 —Sil. 15, V. 220, &c. 
 
 Carta, I. a town of Arcadia. II. A city 
 
 of Laconia. Paus. 3, c. 10. Here a festival 
 was observed in honour of Diana Caryatis. At 
 that time the peasants assembled at the usual 
 place, and sang pastorals, called BovKoXw/zot, 
 from QovKoXos a Tveatherd. From this circum- 
 stance some suppose that bucolics originated. 
 Stat. 4, Theb. 225. 
 
 Caryanda, a town and island on the coast of 
 Caria, now Karacoion. 
 
 CARYATiE, a people of Arcadia, According 
 to Vitruvius, the statues called Caryatides de- 
 rived their name from this place ; but the anec- 
 dote that pretends to explain the connexion is 
 improbable. 
 
 Carystus, a maritime town on the south of 
 EuboBa, still in existence, famous for its marble. 
 The spot at which it was obtained was called 
 Marmarium. Stat. 2, Sylv. 2, v. 93. — Martial. 
 9, ep. 76. 
 
 Casilinum, a town of Campania. When it 
 was besieged by Hannibal, a mouse sold for 
 200 denarii. The place was defended by 540 
 or 570 natives of Praeneste, who, when half 
 their number had perished either by war or fa* 
 mine, surrendered to the conqueror. Liv. 23, 
 c. 19.— Strab. b.—Cic. de Inv. 2, c. bl.—Plin. 
 3, c. 5. 
 
 Casius mons, I. a mountain at the east of 
 Pelusium, where Pompey's tomb was raised by 
 Adrian. Jupiter, surnamed Casius, had a tem- 
 ple there. iMcan. 8, v. 258. II. Another in 
 
 Syria, from whose top the sun can be seen ri- 
 sing, though it be still the darkness of night at 
 the bottom of the mountain. Plin. 5, c. 22. — 
 Mela, 1 and 3. It is watered the whole length 
 of its course upon the east by the Orontes. 
 
 Caspi^ PYLffi, a defile of mount Taurus, 
 aflfording a passage from Media into Hyrcania. 
 " The Tapusi, inhabiting this country, have 
 given it the name of Taharistan, though it is 
 otherwise called Mazanderan. Its principal 
 town Zadracarta has not entirely lost this name 
 in that of Sari." D'Anville. — Diod. 1. — Plin. 
 5, c. 27, 1. 6, c. 13. 
 
 Casph, a Scythian nation near the Caspian 
 Sea. Such as had lived beyond their 70th year 
 were starved to death. 'Their dogs were re- 
 markable for their fierceness. Herodot. 3, c. 92, 
 &c. 1. 7, c. 67, &c.— C. Nep. 14, c. S.— Virg. 
 jEn. 6, V. 798. 
 
 Caspium mare, or Hyrcanum, a large sea in 
 the form of a lake, which hsis no communica- 
 tion with other seas, and lies between the Cas- 
 pian and Hyrcania n mountains, at the north of 
 Parthia, receiving in its capacious bed the tri- 
 bute of several large rivers. Ancient authors 
 assure us, that it produced enormous serpents 
 and fishes, different in colour and kind from 
 those of all other waters. The eastern parts 
 are more particularly called the Hyrcanian Sea, 
 and the western the Caspian. It is now called 
 the sea of Sala or Baku. The Caspian is 
 about 680 miles long, and in no part more than 
 66 
 
 260 in breadth. There are no tides in it, and 
 on account of its numerous shoals it is naviga- 
 ble to vessels drawing only nine or ten feet wa- 
 ter. It has strong currents, and, like inland 
 seas, is liable to violent storms. Some naviga- 
 tors examined it in 1708, by order of the Czar 
 Peter; and, after the labour of three years, a 
 map of its extent was published. Its waters 
 are described as brackish, and not impregnated 
 with salt so much as the wide ocean. lierodot. 
 1, c. 202, &L(i.—Curt. 3, c. 2, 1. 6, c. 4, 1. 7, c. 
 2.~Strab. n.—Mela, 1, c. 2, 1. 3, c. 5 and 6. 
 — Plin. 6, c. 13. — Dionys. Perieg.Y. 50. 
 
 Caspius mons, a branch of the Taurus in 
 Media, parallel with the southern coast of the 
 sea. At mount Coronus, near the southern ex- 
 tremity, were the Caspiae Pylag. 
 
 Cassandria. Vid. Potidaa. Paus. 5, c. 23. 
 
 Cassiope, I. a city of Epirus, which termi- 
 nated the coast of Chaonia on the south. II. 
 
 Another, nearly opposite, in the island of Cor- 
 cyra. Near it was a cape of the same name, 
 now the cape of Santa Caterina. Cram. 
 
 Cassiterides, islands in the western ocean, 
 where tin was found, supposed to be the Scilli/ 
 Islands, the Land's End, and Lizard Point, ot 
 the moderns. Plin. 5, c. 22. Vid. Britannia. 
 
 Castabala, a city of Cilicia, whose inhabit- 
 ants made war with their dogs. Plin. 8, c. 40. 
 
 Castalius pons, or Castalia, a fountain of 
 Parnassus, sacred to the muses. It pours 
 from between the summits of Parnassus, called 
 Hyampeia and Naupleia, and was fed by the 
 perennial snows of the mountain. At the bot- 
 tom of the valley it begins to flow in a stream, 
 and joins the little river Pleistus. Cram. — 
 DodweWs Travels. The muses have received 
 the surname of Castalides from this fountain. 
 Virg. G. 3, V. 293.— Martial. 7, ep. 11, 1. 12, ep. 3. 
 
 Castanea, a town near the Peneus, whence 
 the nuces Castanece received their name. Plin. 
 4, c. 9. 
 
 Castellum Menapiorum, I. a town of Bel- 
 gium on the Maese, now Kessel. II. Mori- 
 
 norum, now Mount Cassel, in Flanders. III. 
 
 Cattorum, now Hesse Cassel. 
 
 Castra Alexandri, I. a place of Egypt 
 about Pelusium. Curt. 4, c. 7. — II. Corne- 
 lia, a maritime town of Africa between Car- 
 thage and Utica. Mela, 1, c. 7. The name 
 Cornelia was bestowed upon this spot in honour 
 of the first Scipio, who was of the Cornelian 
 family, and who had there established his camp, 
 when in imitation of Hannibal's policy, he had 
 carried the war of Rome and Carthage into Af- 
 rica. III. Annibalis, a town of the Brutii, 
 now Roccella. IV. Cyri, a country of Cili- 
 cia, where Cyrus encamped when he marched 
 
 against Croesus. Curt. 3, c. 4. V. Julia, a 
 
 town of Spain. VI. Posthumiana, a place 
 
 of Spain. Hirt. Hisp. 8. " The termination 
 Chester, applied to many cities in England, is 
 a depravation of the Latin term Castrum, which 
 the Roman domination had established and ren- 
 dered familiar in Britain; and which, under 
 the Anglo Saxons, having taken the form of 
 Ceaster, has become Cester or Chester indif- 
 ferently." D'Anville. 
 
 Castitj.o, a town of Spain, where Annibal 
 married one of the natives. It belonged to the 
 Oretani, and stood on the Baetis. Pint, in 
 Sert.—Liv. 24, c. A\.—Ital. 3, v. 99 and 391. 
 
CA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CA 
 
 Catabathmos, a great declivity near Cyrene, 
 fixed by Sallust as the boundary of Africa on 
 the side of Asia. It was the ]ast point of Mar- 
 marica on the limits of Cyrenaica, and is now 
 Abaket-assolom. Sallust. Jug. 17 and 19. — 
 Plin. 5, c. 5. 
 
 Catadupa, the name of the large cataracts of 
 the Nile, whose immense noise stmis the ear of 
 travellers for a short space of time, and totally 
 deprives the neighbouring inhabitants of the 
 power of hearing. Cic. de Somn. Scip. 5. " 
 
 Catana, a town of Sicily, at the foot of 
 mount iEtna, founded by a colony from Chal- 
 cis, 753 years before the christian era, Ceres 
 had there a temple, in which none but women 
 were permitted to appear. It was large and 
 opulent, and it is rendered remarkable for the 
 dreadful overthrows to which it has been sub- 
 jected from its vicinity to ^Etna, which has dis- 
 charged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of 
 lava 4 miles broad and 50 feet deep, advancing 
 at the rate of 7 miles in a day. Catana con- 
 tains now about 30,000 inhabitants. Cic. in 
 Verr. 4, c. 53, 1 5, c. M.—Diod. 11 and 14.— 
 Strab. 6—Thucyd. 6, c. 3. 
 
 Cataonia, a country above Cilicia,near Cap- 
 padocia. C. Nep. in Dot. 4. 
 
 Cataractes, a river of Pamphylia, now Do- 
 densoui. It rose in the mountains which lined 
 that province tovv^ards Phrygia, and crossing 
 nearly its whole width from north to south, it 
 emptied into the bay that washed the southern 
 coast of Pamphylia and the south-eastern cor- 
 ner of Lycia. 
 
 CYTH.EA, a country of India, the precise situa- 
 tion of which is not known. 
 
 Catti, a people of Germany. Caesar calls 
 them Suevi, of which they were in reality a 
 powerful iribe. The territory which they pos- 
 sessed it would not be easy to define, as it pro- 
 bably varied with the result of their conflicts 
 with the other Germanic families. They had, 
 if considered in their narrowest bounds, the 
 Sicambri on the west and the Cherusci on the 
 north ; the Maine, within which they were not 
 strictly confined, forming their southern boun- 
 dary towards that triangular tract of country, 
 which, l5ang between the Danube and the 
 Rhine, forms now the kingdom of Wurtemburg 
 and duchy of Baden. The name of Cassel is 
 supposed by D'Anville to retain something of 
 that of Castellum, a position of the Catti; and 
 Marburg is believed by him to represent Mat- 
 tium,their capital. Tacit Ann. 13, v. 57. 
 
 Cattjriges, a people of Gaul, now Charges, 
 near the source of the Durance. Cess. B. G. 
 1, c. 10.— PZm. 3, c. 20. 
 
 Cavares, a people of Gaul, who inhabited 
 the present province of Comtat in Provence. 
 
 Caucasus, a chain of mountains which close 
 the northern from the southern regions of Asia, 
 between the Euxine and the Caspian seas. 
 " On the south Caucsisus joins the numerous 
 chains of mount Taurus ; to the north it bor- 
 ders on the vast plains where the Sarmatce once 
 wandered, and where the Cossacks and Kal- 
 mucks now roam ; towards the east it bounds 
 the narrow plain that separates it from the Cas- 
 pian Sea ; on the west the high chain terminates 
 abruptly towards Mingrelia, by rugged moun- 
 tains, called the Montes Ceraunii by the an- 
 cients. The two principal passes are' mention- 
 
 ed by them under the name of the Caucasian 
 and Albanian gates. The first is the defile 
 which leads from Mosdok to Tiflis. It is the 
 narrow valley of four days' journey, where, ac- 
 cording to Strabo, the river Aragon, now called 
 Arakui, flows. It is, as Pliny calls it, an enor- 
 mous work of nature, who has cut oiU a long 
 opening through the rocks which an iron gate 
 would almost be sufficient to close. It is by 
 this passage that the barbarians of the north 
 threatened both the Roman and the Persian 
 empires. The ancients gave different names to 
 the strong castle which commanded this pas- 
 sage. It is now called Dariel. The Albanian 
 passes of the ancients were, according to com- 
 mon opinion, the pass of Derbend, along the 
 Caspian Sea : but if we compare with care all 
 the records which the ancients have left us ; if 
 we reflect that in no descriptions of this pass is 
 the Caspian Sea mentioned; if we remember 
 that Ptolemy expressly placed the gates on the 
 entrances of Albania, near the sources of the 
 river Kasius, which, according to the whole 
 tenor of his geography must be the modern 
 Koisu ; that the same geographer makes the 
 Diduri neighbours to the Tusci, near the Sar- 
 matian passes ; and that these two tribes, under 
 the names of Didos and Tushes, still dwell 
 near a defile passing through the territory of 
 Ooma Khan, along the frontier of Daghestan, 
 and then traversing the district of Kagmam- 
 sharie ; we shall conclude that to be the place 
 where we must look for the Albanian or Sar- 
 matian passes which have hitherto been misun- 
 derstood. The name of the Caspian pass, be- 
 longing properly to the defile near Teheran in 
 Media, is vaguely applied by Tacitus and some 
 other writers to diflerent passes of mount Cau- 
 casus. But we must distinguish from all these 
 passes which traverse the chain from north to 
 south, the Iberian passes or defile of Parapaux. 
 now Shaoorapo, by which they pass from Sme- 
 ritia into Kartalinia, a defile in which,according 
 to Strabo, there were precipices and deep abyss- 
 es ; but which, in the 4th century, the Persians 
 rendered practicable for armies. The breadth of 
 the isthmus over which these mountains extend, 
 is about 400 miles between the mouths of the 
 Don and the Kooma ; about 756 betu'een the 
 straits of Cafia and the peninsula of Absheron ; 
 and about 350 between the mouths of the Pha- 
 sis and the city of Derbend. It contains an ex- 
 traordinary number of small nations. Some 
 are the remains of Asiatic hordes, which, in the 
 great migrations, passed and repassed these 
 mountains ; but the greater number are com- 
 posed of indigenous and primitive tribes. The 
 etymology of the name is not agreed upon, but 
 it is probably a compound of a Persian word, 
 Caw a mountain, and a Scythian word Cawpi, 
 white mountain. Eratosthenes informs us that 
 the natives called it Caspios ; but Pliny says 
 that the native name was Graucasus, which 
 may be considered as Gothic." Malte-Brun. 
 
 Caucones, a people of Paphlagonia, original- 
 ly inhabitants of Arcadia, or of Scythia accord- 
 ing to some accounts. Some of them made a 
 settlement near Dvmse in Elis. Herodot. 1, 
 &c.— Strab. 8, «fec. " 
 
 Caudi, and Caudium, a town of the Sam- 
 nites, near which, in a place called Caudina 
 FhiTcula, the Roman army under T. Veturius 
 67 
 
CE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 C£ 
 
 Calvinus and Sp. Posthumius was obliged to 
 surrender to the Samnites, and pass under the 
 yoke with the greatest disgrace. Liv. 9, c. 1, 
 &c. — Lmcan. 2. v. 138. 
 
 Caulonia, or Caulon, a town of Italy near 
 the country of the Brutii, founded by a colony 
 of Achaeans, and destroyed in the wars between 
 Pyrrhus and the Romans. Pans. 6, c. 3. — 
 Virg. JEn. 3, v. 553. 
 
 Caunus, a city of Caria, opposite Rhodes, 
 where Protogenes was born. The climate was 
 considered as unwholesome, especially in sum- 
 mer. Cic. de Div. 2, c. i.—Strab. 14. Herodot 
 1, c. 176. 
 
 Cauros, an island with a small town, former- 
 ly called Andros, in the uEgean Sea. Plin. 
 4, c. 12. 
 
 Cayster, now KitchecJcMeinder, which sig- 
 nifies Little Meander, a rapid river of Asia, 
 rising in Lydia, and after a meandering course, 
 falling into the ^gean Sea near Ephesus. Ac- 
 cording to the poets, the banks and neighbour- 
 hood of this river were generally frequented by 
 swans. Ovid. Met. 2. v. 253, 1. 5. v. 386.— 
 Mart. 1, ep. 54. — Homer. II. 2, v, 461. — Virg. 
 G. 1, v. 384. 
 
 Ceba, now Ceva^ a town of modern Pied- 
 mont, famous for cheese. Plin. 11, c. 42. 
 
 Cebenna, mountains, now the Cevennes, se- 
 parating the Averni from the Helvii, extend- 
 ing from the Garonne to the Rhone. Cces. B. 
 G. 7, c. 8.— Mela, 2, c. 5. 
 
 Cebrenia, a country of Troas, with a town 
 of the same name, called after the river Cebre- 
 nus, which is in the neighbourhood. CEnone, 
 the daughter of the Cebrenus, receives the pa- 
 tronymic of Cebrenis. Ovid. Met. 11, v. 769. 
 —Stat. 1, Sylv. 5, v. 21. 
 
 Cecropia, the original name of Athens, in 
 honour of Cecrops, its first founder. The Athe- 
 nians are often called Cecrofidce. 
 
 Celjen^, or Celene, a city of Phrygia, of 
 which it was once the capital. Cyrus the young- 
 er had a palace there, with a park filled with 
 wild beasts, where he exercised himself in hunt- 
 ing. The Meander arose in this park. Xerxes 
 built a famous citadel there after his defeat 
 in Greece. The inhabitants of Celsenae were car- 
 ried by Antiochus Soter to people Apamea when 
 newly founded. StraJb. 12. — Liv. 38, c. 13. — 
 Xenoph. AnaJb. 1. Marsyas is said to have con- 
 tended in its neighbourhood against Apollo. 
 Herodot. 7, c. 2Q.—lMcan. 3, v. 206. 
 
 Celendr^, Celendris, and Celenderis, 
 a colony of the Samians in Cilicia, Lmcan. 8, 
 V. 259. 
 
 CelennA; or Cel^na, a town of Campania, 
 where Juno was worshipped. Virg. Mn. 7, v. 
 739. 
 
 Celt«, a name given to the nation that in- 
 habited the country between the ocean and the 
 Palus Mseotis, according to some authors men- 
 tioned by Pint, in Mario. This name, though 
 anciently applied to the inhabitants of Gaul, 
 as well as of Germany and Spain, was more 
 particularly given to a part of the Gauls, whose 
 country, called Gallia Celtica, was situate be- 
 tween the rivers Sequana and Garumna, mo- 
 dernly called la Seine and la Garonne. The 
 Celtae seemed to receive their name from Cel- 
 tus, a son of Hercules or of Polyphemus. The 
 promontory which bore the name of Celticum 
 68 
 
 is now called Cape Finisterre. The name of 
 Celta3 was bestowed in antiquity upon nume- 
 rous tribes of men, called by the Romans, in imi- 
 tation of the Greeks, Barbarians, and inhabit- 
 ing a;t diflferent periods difierent parts of the 
 " orbis veteribus notus." At the dawn of his- 
 tory they were found residing, in various fami- 
 lies, through all the north and north-east of Eu- 
 rope, and by the Palus Maeotis, extending from 
 the Asiatic side. Every possible theory has been 
 imagined and exhausted in regard to their ori- 
 gin ; and the sturdiest antiquarians are only sa- 
 tisfied with seeing clearly their descent from the 
 offspring of Noah. With these theories we 
 have nothing here to do. History, however, 
 traces their gradual progress towards the west, 
 as the Cimbric and Gothic races pressed on 
 them from behind from the same forests proba- 
 bly from which they had still earlier migrated 
 themselves. Their connexion with the Cimbri 
 is probable, as with an intermediate race ; but 
 their establishment in Gaul, while the Cimbri 
 still occupied the western banks of the Rhine 
 and extended to the Chersonese that bore their 
 name, marks out the chronological order of their 
 progress towards the west. As the northern ex- 
 tremity of this region became likewise subject 
 to the pressure of the later barbarians, the Cel- 
 tae passed across the Seine, established them- 
 selves between that river and the Loire, and 
 gave their name to the comparatively narrow 
 tract that lay between. In reference to later 
 ages, the people of this region are more special- 
 ly alluded to when the Roman historians name 
 the Celts. Other bodies, however, crossed over 
 to the British Isles, where they were still sub- 
 ject to the same invasion of their territory, un- 
 til they appear to have retreated at last to the 
 verge of the western ocean. Then it is that 
 poetry, if not history, drives them even across 
 the Atlantic, and claims for them the discovery 
 of America. When first the Gauls began to 
 find themselves restrained in their settlements 
 about the Rhine, or probably allured by the in- 
 ducements of a milder climate, they passed the 
 Alps on one side and the Pyrenees on the other, 
 establishing in Italy the name of Gaul from the 
 Alps and the Adige to the Appenines and the 
 Po ; and in Spain, the name of Celts in that of 
 Celtiberi. Vid. Gallia, Celtica, Celtiberi, Bri- 
 tannia. Cces. Bell. G. 1, c. 1, &c. Mela, 3, 
 c. 2. — Herodot. 4, c. 49. 
 
 Celtiberi, a people of Spain, descended from 
 the Celtse. Vid. Hispania. Their country, 
 called Celtiberia, is now known by the name of 
 Arragon. Diod. 6. — Flor. 2, c. 17. — Strab. 4. 
 —Lucan. 4, v. 10.— Sil. It. 8, v. 339. 
 
 Celtica, a third of Gaul in the division ot 
 the Commentaries ; its northern boundary was 
 formed by the rivers Seine and Marne, and the 
 territory of the Leuci ; its eastern, by the Rhse- 
 tian, Pennine, Graian, and Cottian Alps ; its 
 southern, by the Province, a part of the Ceven- 
 nes, and the river Garonne ; while the ocean 
 bathed it on the western shore. Within these 
 limits was a Celtic population, divided into at 
 least 43 separate people. This was not, how- 
 ever, the line which, under the empire, includ- 
 ed Celtic Gaul. Augustus extended Aquitania 
 to include that portion of Celtica which lay be- 
 tween the Garonne and the Loire ; and what 
 remained of this province assumed the name of 
 
CE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CE 
 
 Lugdunensis, Lionois. It is as thus reduced, 
 that Gallia Celtica is most frequently consider- 
 ed. When the Gauls of the Province assumed 
 in a measure the dress and manners of the Ro- 
 mans, their country was designated as Gallia 
 Braccata, from the garment which they wore ; 
 and Celtic Gaul was, from the inhabitants suf- 
 fering their hair to grow, called Gallia Comata. 
 
 Celtici, a people of Lusitania, between the 
 Anas, the Tagus, and the ocean. Their prin- 
 cipal city was Pax Julia, now Beja, according 
 to D'Anville, who observes, that a body of this 
 people " having crossed the Anas, was canton- 
 ed far distant in the neighbourhood of Finis- 
 terre^ which, besides the name of Artabrum, 
 was also called Celticum." 
 
 CELTOscYTHiB, a uorthcm nation of Scy- 
 thians. Strab. 10. 
 
 Censum, a promontory of Eubosa, where Ju- 
 piter CencEus had an altar raised by Hercules. 
 Ovid. Met. 9, v. 136.— Thucyd. 3, c. 93. 
 
 Cenchre^, I. now Kenkri^ the port or har- 
 bour of Corinth, on the Saronic gulf. It stood 
 from nine to ten miles distant from the capital, 
 and the road which led to it is said by Pausa- 
 nias to have been lined with temples and sepul- 
 chres. The bath of Helen near this place, 
 according to the account of Dr. Clarke, is a 
 spring, boiling up with force enough to turn a 
 mill. — —II. Another of Argolis, from which the 
 road to Tegea passed by mount Parthenius 
 which formed the limit between Argolis and 
 Arcadia. Paus. — Corinth. 24. — Arcad. 6, 54. 
 — Ovid. TVist. 1, el. 9, v. 19.— Plin. 4, c. 4. 
 
 CENCHRros, a river of Ionia, near Ephesus, 
 where some- suppose that Latona was concealed 
 after she had brought forth. Tacit. Ann. 3, c. 61. 
 
 Cenimagni, a name of the Iceni, according 
 to Caesar and Tacitus. Camb. Brit. 
 
 Cenomani. Vid. Aulerci. 
 
 Centrites, a river between Armenia and 
 Media, now the Khabour. D'Anville consi- 
 ders it to be the same as the Nicephorius, which 
 flowed beneath the walls of Tigranocerta. 
 
 Centrones, a people of Gaul inhabiting the 
 Graian Alps about the sources of the Isara, be- 
 tween the Salassi and the Allobroges, the mo- 
 dern Dauphine and department of Isere. A 
 small town under the Romans, Forum Claudii, 
 preserves the name of Centron, and was, per- 
 haps, at one time the capital of the Centrones; 
 but Monstier, which formerly weis known by 
 the name of Darantasia, and was certainly at 
 one period a capital, imparted its name in that 
 of Tarantois to the country of the Centrones. 
 
 Centum Cell«, a sea-port town of Etruria 
 built by Trajan, who had there a villa. It is 
 now Civita Vecchia. 
 
 Centuripa, (es, or ce, arum,) now Centorhi, 
 a town of Sicily at the foot of mount JEtna. 
 Cic. in Verr. 4, c. 23.—Ital. 14, v. 205.— PZm. 
 3, c. 8. 
 
 Ceos, and Cea, a principal island of the Cy- 
 clades. It was supposed to have been torn by 
 some convulsion from the southern coast of 
 Euboea. The inhabitants were lonians from 
 Attica, and are said to have fought for the liber- 
 ty of Greece at Artemisium and at Salamis. 
 It stood within five miles of the promontory of 
 Sunium. There w^ere at one time four flou- 
 rishing towns on this island, lulis, Carthsea, 
 Coressia, and Poeessa ; but before the time of 
 
 Strabo the population of the two latter had been 
 transferred to the former. The modem name 
 is Zia.—Plin. 4, 12. — Herodot. 8. 1.— Strab. 
 
 Cephalas, a lofty promontory of Africa, near 
 the Syrtis Major. Stra^. 
 
 Cephallena, and Cephallenia, an island 
 in the Ionian Sea, ofi" the coast of Acarnania, 
 about 120 miles in circumference by modern 
 measurement, though Strabo and Ptolemy re- 
 present it at much less. The name of Cephal- 
 lenia, as derived by mythologists from Cepha- 
 lus, who received it from Amphitryon, was later 
 than that of Teloboas, or than that of Samos, 
 by which it is designated b}^ Homer, Od. 4, 671, 
 and 2,634; though the same poet refers to the 
 inhabitants by the name of Cephallenians. II. 
 2, 631, and 4, 329. It was sometimes called 
 likewise Tetrapolis from its four principal ci- 
 ties, Palle or Pale, Cranii, Same, and Proni. 
 The modem name of Cephalonia has succeed- 
 ed, with a slight change, to that which desig- 
 nated the island as a part of the dominions of 
 Ulysses almost 3000 years ago. 
 
 Cephaloedis, and Cephaludium, now Ce- 
 phalu, a town at the north of Sicily. Sil. 14, 
 V. 253.— Cic. 2, in Verr. 51. 
 
 Cephisia, a part of Attica, through which the 
 Cephisus flows. Plin. 4, c. 7. 
 
 Cephisus, and Cephissus, I. a celebrated ri- 
 ver of Greece, that rises at Liloea in Phocis, and, 
 after passing at the north of Delphi, and mount 
 Parnassus, enters Boeotia, where it flows into 
 the lake Copais. The Graces were particularly 
 fond of rhis river, whence they are called the 
 goddesses of the Cephisus. Strab. 9. — Plin. Ay 
 c. l.—Paus. 9, c. "M.-Homer. 11. 2, v. 29.— 
 Lnican. 3, v. 175.— Om<^. Met.- 1, v. 369, 1. 3, v. 
 
 19. II. Another of Attica, which arose not 
 
 far from Colonos, and passing through the plains 
 to the west of the city, flowed under the Long 
 "Walls, and fell into the sea near Phalerum. 
 Though in the GEdipus at Colonos the Cephis- 
 sus is represented by Sophocles as a perennial 
 stream, it now scarcely reaches the harbour, 
 the water being drawn off" by the inhabitants of 
 the city and the plains for domestic purposes, 
 
 or for the irrigation of the ground. III. 
 
 Another, called Eleusinius, to distinguish it from 
 that at Athens called Atticus. Near this w^as 
 Erineus, w-hich the poets have rendered known 
 by the fable of Pluto's descent through the 
 earth at this spot with Proserpine. Soph. (Ed. 
 Cot. 68b.—Geirs Itiner.—Paus. Att. 38. 
 
 Cer amicus, I. now Keramo, a bay of Caria, 
 near Halicarnassus, opposite Cos, receiving its 
 name from Ceramus. Plin. 5, c. 29. — Mela, 1, 
 c. 16. II. A place in Athens. Vid. Athena. 
 
 Ceramus, a town of Caria, on.-the south side 
 of the Sinus Ceramicus, now Ceramo. 
 
 Cerasus, now Keresoun, a city of Pontus, on 
 a bay of the Euxine, afterwards called Phar- 
 nacia. It was a colony of Sin ope. Hence Lu- 
 cull lis brought the Cerasus cherry-tree into Eu- 
 rope. D^Anville. 
 
 Ceraunia, and Ceraunii. Vid. Acroceraunit. 
 
 Ceraunii, mountains of Asia, opposite the 
 Caspian Sea. Mela, 1, c. 19. 
 
 Ceraunus, a river of Cappadocia. 
 
 Cerbalus, a river of Apulia. Plin. 3, c. 11. 
 
 Cercasorum, a town of Eg}'pt, where the 
 Nile divides itself into the Pelusian and Cano- 
 pic mouths, Herodot. 2, c. 15. 
 69 
 
CH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CH 
 
 Cercina, I. now Kerkeni, a small island of 
 the Mediterranean, near the smaller Syrtis, on 
 the coast of Africa. Tacit. 1, Ann. 53, — Strab. 
 
 n.—Liv. 33, c. 48.—Plin. 5, c. 7. II. A 
 
 mountain of Thrace, towards Macedonia. Tku- 
 cyd. 2, c. 98. 
 
 Cercinium, a town of Macedonia, near lake 
 BcEbe. Liv. 31, c. 41. 
 
 Ceretani, a people of Spain that inhabited 
 the modern district of Cerdana in Catalonia. 
 Plin. 3, c. 3. 
 
 Cerilla, or C^RiLL^, now Cirella Vecchia, 
 a town of the Brutii near the Laus. Strad. 6. 
 
 Cerinthus, probably now Geronda, a town 
 of Euboea. Cram. 
 
 Cerne, an island without the pillars of Her- 
 cules, on the African coast, probably now Ar- 
 guin, which the Maures call Ghir. D'Anville. 
 — Strab. 1. — Plin. 5 and 6. 
 
 Ceron, a fountain of Histiaeotis, whose wa- 
 ters rendered black all the sheep that drank of 
 them. Plin. 3, c. 2. 
 
 Cetius, I. a river of Mysia. II. A moun- 
 tain which separated Noricum from Pannonia. 
 
 Chaboras, a river of Mesopotamia, now al- 
 Khabour, which joins the Euphrates at Circe- 
 sium. The name Araxes, by which it is called 
 in the Anabasis of Xenophon, appears to be an 
 appellative term, as we find it applied to many 
 other rivers in antiquity^ D^Anville. 
 
 CH.asRONEA, a city of Bceotia, to the north- 
 west of Lebadea, celebrated for a defeat of the 
 Athenians by the Boeotians, B. C. 447, and for 
 the victory which Philip of Macedonia obtained 
 there over the confederate army of the Thebans 
 and the Athenians, B. C. 338. This town wit- 
 nessed another bloody engagement, between the 
 Romans under the conduct of Sylla, and the 
 troops of Mithridates commanded by Taxiles and 
 Archelaus, 86 B. C. Chaeronea is now called 
 Kaprena, and is still a populous village, with 
 many vestiges of the ancient town. It was 
 the birth-place of Plutarch. Cram. — Pans. 9, 
 c. 40. — Plut. in Pelops. &c. — Strab. 9. 
 
 CHALiEON, a maritime town of Locris, on 
 the Crisssean gulf. Its harbour apparently stood 
 where the Scala of Salon/i is now laid down in 
 modern maps. Cram. 
 
 Chalcedon, an ancient city of Bithynia, op- 
 posite Byzantium, built bv a colony from Me- 
 gara, headed by Argias, B. C. 685. " Chalce- 
 don was called the city of the blind, in derision 
 of its Greek founders for overlooking the more 
 advantageous situation of Byzantium. A coun- 
 cil against the Eutychian heresy, in the middle 
 of the fifth century, has illustrated Chalcedon 
 which has taken under the Turks the name of 
 Kadi-Keni, or the Burgh of the Kadi." D'Ati- 
 ville.— Strab. l.—Plin. 5, c. 2Q.—Mela. 1, c. 19. 
 
 ChalcidTce, I. "a country of Macedonia, 
 south and east of Mygdonia, so named from the 
 Chalcidians, an ancient people of Euboean ori- 
 gin, who appear to have formed settlements in 
 this part of Macedonia at an early period. Thu- 
 cydides always terms them the Chalcidians of 
 Thrace, to distinguish them apparently from the 
 Chalcidians of Euboea."— " The whole of Chal- 
 cidice may be considered as forming one great 
 peninsula, confined between the gulf of Thes- 
 salonica and the Strymonicus Sinus. But it 
 also comprises within itself three smaller penin- 
 sulas, separated from each other by inlets of the 
 70 
 
 -11. A district of Syria. Vid. 
 
 sea." Cram. 
 Chalcis. 
 
 Chalcis, I. the principal city of Euboea, situ- 
 ate on the Euripus, nearly opposite Aulis, was 
 founded by a colony of lonians from Athens, 
 conducted by Cothus. " The Chalcidians hav- 
 ing joined the Boeotians in their depredations on 
 the coast of Attica, soon after the expulsion of 
 the Pisistratidae, afforded the Athenians just 
 grounds for reprisals." They therefore passed 
 over into Eubcea in great force, and, after defeat- 
 ing the Chalcidians, " seized upon the lands of 
 the wealthiest inhabitants, and distributed them 
 among 4000 of their own citizens. These, how- 
 ever, were obliged to evacuate the island on the 
 arrival of the Persian fleet under Datis and Ar- 
 taphemes. The Chalcidians, after the termina- 
 tion of the Persian war, became again depen- 
 dent on Athens with the rest of Euboea, and did 
 not regain their liberty till the close of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, when they asserted their free- 
 dom, and, aided by the Boeotians, fortified the 
 Euripus and established a communication with 
 the continent by throwing a wooden bridge 
 across the channel. Towers were placed at each 
 extremity, and room was left in the middle for 
 one ship to pass. Pausanias informs us, that 
 Chalcis no longer existed in his day. "Procopi- 
 us names it among the towns restored by Justi- 
 nian." Cram.— 11. B. b^l .—Hero dot. 5, 77.— 
 Diod. Sic. 13, 355. II. A town of the dis- 
 trict Chalcidice, in Syria, to which it probably 
 communicated its name. This town was situ- 
 ated- on the river Chains, which loses itself in a 
 lake below the city. The Greek name Chalcis 
 " had supplanted the Syriac denomination Kir- 
 mesrin, little known at present in the vestiges 
 of a place which the Franks call the Old Alep." 
 D'Anville. 
 
 CHALD.EA, a countr}' of Asia, between the 
 Euphrates and Tigris. Its capital is Babylon, 
 whose inhabitants are famous for their know- 
 ledge of astrology. " The name of Chaldaea, 
 which is more precisely appropriated to the part 
 nearest the Persian gulf, is sometimes employed 
 as a designation of the whole country; and the 
 greater part of it being comprehended between 
 the rivers, has given occasion to extend to it the 
 name of Mesopotamia. It is this country which 
 the Arabs name properly Irak ; and it is by the 
 extension that this name has taken in penetrat- 
 ing into ancient Media, that the part contiguous 
 to Babylonia is called Irak Araby. D'Anville. 
 
 Chalybes, and Calybes, a people of Asia Mi- 
 nor, near Pontus. They attacked the ten thou- 
 sand in their retreat, and behaved with much 
 spirit and courage. They were partly conquer- 
 ed by Croesus, king of Lydia. Some authors 
 imagine that the Calybes are a nation of Spain. 
 Virg. JEn. 8, v. 4QI.— Strab. 12, &c.—Apollon. 
 2, V. 375. — Xenoph. AnaJb. 4, &c. — Herodot. 1, 
 c. 28. — Justin. 44, c. 3. 
 
 Chalybon, now supposed to be Aleppo, a 
 town of Syria, which gave the name of Chalibo- 
 nitis to the neighbouring country. 
 
 Chalybonitis, a country of Syria, so famous 
 for its wines that the king of Persia drank no 
 other. 
 
 Chalybs, a river in Spain, where Justin. 44, 
 c. 3, places the people called Calybes. 
 
 Chaones, a people of Epirus. 
 
 Chaonu, a mountainous part of Epirus, which 
 
CH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CH 
 
 receives its name from Chaon, a son of Priam, 
 inadvertently killed by his brother Helenus. 
 There was a wood near, where doves {Chaonia 
 aves) were said to deliver oracles. The words 
 Chaonius victus are by ancient authors applied 
 10 acorns, the food of the first inhabitants. Lm- 
 can. 6, V. 426. — Claudian. de Pros. rapt. 3, v. 
 n.— Virg. Mn. 3, v. 335.— Pro^er^. 1, el. 9.— 
 Ovid. A. A. 1. 
 
 Charadros, a river of Phocis, falling into the, 
 Cephisus. Stat. Theb. 4, v. 46. 
 
 Charonium, a cave near Nysa, w^here the 
 sick were supposed to be delivered from their 
 disorders by certain superstitious solemnities. 
 
 Charybdis, a dangerous whirlpool on the 
 coast of Sicily, opposite another whirlpool called 
 Scylla, on the coast of Italy. It was very dan- 
 gerous to sailors, and it proved fatal to a part of 
 the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation of 
 the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, 
 as no whirlpool sufficiently tremendous is now 
 found to correspond to the description of the an- 
 cients. The words Incidit in Scyllam qui vult 
 vitare Charybdim, became a proverb, to show, 
 that in our eagerness to avoid one evil we often 
 fall into a greater. It is supposed that Charyb- 
 dis was an avaricious woman, who stole the 
 oxen of Hercules, for which theft she w^as struck 
 with thunder by Jupiter, and changed into a 
 whirlpool. L/ycophr. in Cass. — Homer. Od. 12. 
 — Propert. 3, el. 11. — Ital. 14. — Ovid, in Rid. 
 de Ponto, 4, el. 10, Amor. 2, el. 16. — Virg. Mn. 
 3, v. 420. 
 
 Chaubi, and Chauci, a people of Germany, 
 dwelling on the western coast, between the 
 Amisia, (the Ems) and the Albis (the Elbe)^ 
 that is to say, in a great measure the territory 
 included in the kingdom of Hanover. They 
 were divided by the Visurgis (the Wcser') into 
 the Chauci Majores on the east, and the Mi- 
 nores on the west ; and are mentioned particu- 
 larly by Tacitus as among the greatest of the 
 Germanic nations, and remarkable for their 
 virtues. 
 
 Chelidoni^ INSUL.E, Small islands opposite 
 the Sacrum Promontorium, which formed the 
 western extremity of the great Taurus range. 
 The promontory itself was also called Chelido- 
 nium, of which the modern name is Cape Keli- 
 doni. 
 
 Chelidonium. Vid. Chelidonice InsulcB. 
 
 Chelonatas, a promontory of Elis, below 
 Cyllene, and forming the northern point of land 
 which lies upon the bay of the same name. The 
 opposite point upon the south was the promon- 
 tory Pheia. The cape is now called Tornese. 
 
 Chelonophagi. a people of Carmania, who 
 fed upon turtle, and covered their habitations 
 with the shells. Plin. 6, c. 24. 
 
 Chelydoria, a mountain of Arcadia. 
 
 Chemmis, an island in a deep lake of EgyTpt. 
 Herodot. 2, c. 156. 
 
 Cheron^ea. Vid. Chceronea. 
 
 Chersonesus, a Greek word, rendered by the 
 Latins Peninsula. There were many of these 
 among the ancients of which five are the most ce- 
 lebrated; the Peloponnesus, and the Thra- 
 ciAN in the south of Thrace, and west of the Hel- 
 lespont, where Miltiades led a colony of Athe- 
 nians, and built a wall across the isthmus. From 
 its isthmus to its further shores, it measured 420 
 stadia, extending between the bay of Melas and 
 
 the Hellespont. Next to the Peloponnesus, 
 and scarcely less noted, was the Chersonesus 
 Cimbriga, now Eolstein and Jutland. It was 
 formed by the waters of the Sinus Codanus, 
 which surrounded it on the east and separated 
 it from Scandinavia; and on the west by the 
 ocean, which lay between it and the British 
 Isles. There is no portion of the ancient world 
 of greater interest than this. All Europe be- 
 came acquainted with the various people who 
 at different times obtained an establishment in 
 it, and who rarely departed from it, except to 
 carry slaughter and devastation into more civi- 
 lized regions; In the earliest ages it is thought 
 to have been occupied by the Celts; and to- 
 wards the close of the Roman republic, in the 
 time of Marius, it sent forth another popula- 
 tion, the Cimbri, that seemed to threaten even 
 the pride of the conquerors of Carthage, and, 
 as they boasted themselves, masters of the world. 
 Many centuries afterwards a new race of men, 
 the followers and worshippers of Odin left its 
 narrow bounds to trouble the new countries that 
 arose upon the ruins of the dismembered em- 
 pire. The Saxons, Jutes, and Angli, were the 
 principal inhabitants of this region, fertile in 
 warriors, before the passage of a great propor- 
 tion of the first and last of these to establish 
 themselves in the conquered provinces of Bri- 
 tain. The Chersonesus Taurica, now Crim 
 Tartary. It had been, like all the regit)n of the 
 Maeotis Palus, in the possession of the Cimme- 
 rians. The name Crim or Crimea, which re- 
 mains to it, is, however, in the opinion of D'An- 
 ville, a Cimmerian derivative ; though the Tau- 
 ri or Tauro-Scythas, at a very .early period dis- 
 possessed them of these their fijst European 
 abodes. From these latter people came the 
 name of Taurica. They in turn were for the 
 greater part reduced by Mithridates before the 
 overthrow of his power; and afterwards the 
 Chersonese became a tributary kingdom, ac- 
 knowledging the superiority of the emperors. 
 On the second coming of the barbarians, towards 
 the last years of the empire, this region was 
 again the prey of new conquerors and the es- 
 tablishment of Gothic tribes, about the Crimea 
 and the northern part of the Euxine Sea, gave 
 to the Chersonese the name of Gothia. The 
 situation of this singular peninsula is too well 
 known to require more than a brief notice of its 
 form and boundaries. It stands at the northern 
 head of the Euxine Sea, and forms the Sea of 
 Azof, by stretching over towards the eastern 
 shore, and blocking up the passage to the mouth 
 of the Tanais. On the north, the morass of 
 the Palus Meeotis, extending inland, formed the 
 peninsula ; and on the opposite side, the Euxine, 
 makiag there a bay called Carcinites, contract- 
 ed to an extreme narrowness the isthmus that 
 joined it to the shores of the main land. The 
 principal city was Panticupseum. It was of 
 Grecian origin, and is now perhaps Kerche. 
 The fifth, surnamed Aurea, lies in India, be- 
 yond the Ganges. Herodot. 6, c. 33, 1. 7, c. 58. 
 —lAv. 31, c. 16.— Cic. ad Br. 2. 
 
 Cherusci, a German people dwelling upon 
 the Albis above the Chauci, and extending be- 
 yond the Visurgis towards the Amisia and comi- 
 try of the Catti. These were all of one com- 
 mon race ; and some time after the defeat of Va- 
 . rus, by which the Cherusci and their leader Ar- 
 
CH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ^Ct 
 
 minius attained the highest honour and the 
 greatest glory, this people are supposed to have 
 become subject to their neighbours, the Chauci. 
 
 Chidorus, a river of Macedonia, near Thes- 
 salonica, not sufficiently large to supply the army 
 of Xerxes with water. Herodot. 7, c. 127. 
 
 Chios, now Scio, an island in the jEgean 
 Sea, between Lesbos and Samos, on the coast of 
 Asia Minor, which receives its name, as some 
 suppose, from Chione, or from %iwi', snow, 
 which was very frequent there. It was well in- 
 habited, and could once equip a hundred ships ; 
 and its chief town, called Chios, had a beauti- 
 ful harbour, which could contain eighty ships. 
 The wine of this island, so much celebrated by 
 the ancients, is still in general esteem. Chios 
 was anciently called -^thalia, Macris, and Pi- 
 tyasa. There was no adultery committed there 
 for the space of 700 years. Plut. de Virt. Mul. 
 —Horat. 3, od. 19, v. 5, 1, Sat. 10, v. 24.— 
 Pans. 7, c. 4:.— Mela, 2, c. %—Strab. 2. 
 
 Choaspes, I. a river of Asia, running from 
 north to south, and falling into the Persian gulf. 
 The water of this river was sacred to the use of 
 the Persian kings, who carried with them a 
 supply of it in all their expeditions. It rose near 
 the mountains Orontes in Media, and crossed 
 the Satrapy of Susiana, passing by the royal 
 city of Susa. The part of this river which be- 
 longs to Media was called Eulseus, the Ulai of 
 
 the prophet Daniel. II. Another, called also 
 
 Choes, which Chaussard believes to be the pro- 
 per name. III. Another, which rose in the 
 
 north-west of the Paropamisus mons, and, after 
 joining the Cophes near the town of Nysa, 
 emptied into the Indus on the- nearer side. 
 Herod. 1, 188.— PZiw. 6, 25.— ^rr. 
 
 Chorasmii, a Scythian tribe, of the great na- 
 tion of the Sacse, dwelling upon the Oxus from 
 the Caspian Sea to the borders of Sogdiana. On 
 the south and south-west they had the Parthi- 
 ans. Their country is now called Khoaresm. 
 Its present inhabitants are the Usbecks, or 
 Chinese Tartars. 
 
 Chronus, a river of European Sarmatia 
 (^Lithuania), now the Memel, or, as the Poles 
 denominate it, the Niemen. It rises in the same 
 country, in regions remote from the knowledge 
 and civilizations of the Romans, and, after pass- 
 ing in a winding course through the forests 
 which the arms of the conquering Republic had 
 not subdued, and which were little subject to 
 the ambition of the emperors, it falls into the 
 Baltic between the gulf of Dantzig and the gulf 
 of Livonia, scarcely better known to the people 
 of antiquity. 
 
 Chrysa, and Chryse, a town of Mysia, in 
 that part which constituted the Troad. It was 
 south of the island of Tenedos, upon the Sinus 
 Adramyttenus, and appears in the time of Ho- 
 mer to have been peculiarly dedicated to Apol- 
 lo, surnamed Smintheus. Mela. — Ham. 1,37. 
 
 Chrysas, a river of Sicily, falling into the 
 Simcethus, and worshipped as a deity. Cic. in 
 Verr. 4, c. 44. 
 
 Chrysop5lis, a promontory and port of Asia, 
 opposite Byzantium, now Scutari. 
 
 Chrysorrhoas, I. a river of Syria. It pass- 
 ed by Damascus, and streamed through the city 
 divided into several currents. The modern 
 name of Baradi is derived from another name, 
 Bardine, by which it was also known in anti- 
 72 
 
 quity. 11. Another of Argolis, that flowed 
 
 through the city of Trcezene. 
 
 CiBALJE, now Swilei, a town of Pannonia, 
 where Licinius was defeated by Constantine. 
 It was the birth-place of Gratian. Eutrop. 10, 
 c. 4:.—Marcell. 30, c. 24. 
 
 Cibyra, now Buruz, a town of Phrygia on 
 the Lycus, towards the borders of Lycia. It 
 was called Magna, to distinguish it from Cyba- 
 RA Parva in Pamphylia. The latter of these 
 towns stood near the coast, on the banks of the 
 Melas. Horat. 1, ep. 6, v. 33. — Cic. in Verr. 
 4, c. 13.— Attic. 5, ep. 2. 
 
 CicoNEs, a people of Thrace, near the He- 
 brus. Ulysses, at his return from Troy, con- 
 quered them, and plundered their chief city 
 Ismarus, because they had assisted Priam 
 against the Greeks. Ovid. Met. 10, v. 83, 1. 15, 
 V. 313.— Virg. G. 4, v. 520, SiC— Mela, e. 2. 
 
 CiLiciA, I. a country of Asia Minor, on the 
 south, said by the poets and mythologists to have 
 been founded by Cilix, the son of Agenor. On 
 the north mount Taurus divided it from Pisi- 
 dia, Lycaonia in Phrygia, and Cataoniain Cap- 
 padocia ; Pamphylia bordered on it towards the 
 north-west ; on the south-west it had the open 
 Mediterranean ; on the east the Amanus mons. 
 which separated it from Comagene ; and on the 
 south the Aulon Cilicius lay between it and 
 Cyprus, and formed with the Issicus Sinus its 
 boundary in that direction. The entrance by 
 land into this mountain-bound comitry was on 
 the side of Cappadocia, through the Ciliciae or 
 Tauri Pylag, through which Alexander effected 
 his passage, and the Armanicaj, or Syriae Pylae, 
 which gave entrance to the Persian Darius. 
 Cilicia was geographically divided into Cilicia 
 Aspera and Cilicia Campestris. The chief 
 towns of the former were, Selinus, afterwards 
 Trajanopolis, and now Selenti, Seleucia, and 
 Tarsus the common capital ; in the latter were 
 Anazarbus an d Issus, famous for the defeat of 
 the Persian king. In the historians of the east- 
 ern empire the name of Isauria extended over 
 the Taurus, and was often applied to the first di- 
 vision of Cilicia. The whole, at a still later pe- 
 riod, that is to say, in the ages of the Crusades, 
 was known as the kingdom of Leon. The ori- 
 gin of the Cilices is obscure ; but those who pos- 
 sessed the country in the time of the Romans 
 do not seem to have been of a date anterior to 
 the Trojan war, from which they are supposed 
 to have wandered to Syria, and to have received 
 then permission to fix themselves in the coun- 
 try called afterwards Cilicia. They fell succes- 
 sively into the hands of the Persians, of Alex- 
 ander, and of his successors. In the time of the 
 Seleucidae the people of Cilicia became greatly 
 addicted to piracy, and were only reduced by the 
 efforts of the Romans, who appointed three 
 leaders against them at different times ; Servi- 
 lius surnamed Isauricus for his victories obtain- 
 ed in these parts, Cicero, and Pompey. The 
 modern name of Cilicia is Itshil, which occupies 
 very nearly the extent of country between the 
 
 mountains and the sea. II, A part of the 
 
 Troad, about the Sinus Adramyttenus, was also 
 called Cilicia from the Cilices, who, together 
 with the Leleges in Homer's time, inhabited that 
 region. From these Cilices the name of Cilicia 
 was given to the country between the Taurus 
 and the Mediterranean, in which, after the Tro- 
 
CI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CI 
 
 jan war, they fixed themselves. The same name 
 was given to that part of Cappadocia which lay- 
 about the sources of the Halys, and was by the 
 Romans erected into a prefecture. It contained 
 the city of Mazaca, the capital of the province. 
 Apollod. 3, c. 1. — Varro. R. R.2, c. 11. — Siceton. 
 in Vesp. 8. — Herodot. 2, c. 17, 34. — Justin. 11. 
 c. \l.—Curt. 3, c. A.—Plin. 5, c. 27. 
 
 CiMBRi, a people of Germany, who invaded 
 the Roman empire with a large army, and were 
 conquered by Marius. Flor. 3, c. 3. Vid: 
 CeltcB and Chersonesus Cimbrica. 
 
 CiMiNUs, now Viierbe, a lake and mountain 
 of Etruria. Virg. AJyii. 7, v. 691.— Liv. 9, c. 36. 
 
 CiMMERii, I. a people near the Palus Mso- 
 tis, who invaded Asia Minor, and seized upon 
 the kingdom of Cyaxares. After they had been 
 masters of the country for 28 years, they were 
 driven back by Alyattes, king of Lydia. The 
 history of these people is wrapt in the same ob- 
 scurity as that which envelopes the accounts of 
 the Celtee, Cimbri, and Teutones. By some 
 antiquarians they are consiaered to have been 
 of Cimbric origin, and by others of Celtic ; and 
 though it would be unsafe to assert that such 
 was the case, it does not seem improbable that 
 they may have been originally that portion of 
 the Celtae which continued in the north-eastern 
 regions w^hen the greater part roamed onward 
 towards the west. In this case, and, perhaps, at 
 any rate, they must have greatly ditfered in the 
 lapse of ages from the other Celts, as well from 
 the mixture which the latter admitted in their 
 migrations, as from similar changes which they 
 must themselves have been subject to on the 
 passage of the numberless Asiatic and more 
 northern tribes that passed on their way to the 
 south, the region of the Tanais and the Palus 
 Maeotis, the gates of Europe tow'ards A sia. He- 
 rodot. 1, c. 6, &c. 1. 4, c. 1, &c. II. Another 
 
 nation on the western coast of Italy, generally 
 imagined to have lived in caves near the sea- 
 shore of Campania, and there, in concealing 
 themselves from the light of the sun, to have 
 made their retreat the receptacle of their plun- 
 der. In consequence of this manner of lining, 
 the country which they inhabited was supposed 
 to be so gloomy, that, to mention a great obscu- 
 rity, the expression of Cimmerian darkness has 
 proverbially been used. Homer, according to 
 Plutarch, drew his images of hell and Pluto 
 from this gloomy and dismal country, where also 
 Virgil and Ovid have placed the Styx, the Phle- 
 gethon, and all the dreadful abodes of the infer- 
 nal regions. Hom£r. Od. 13. — Virg. Mn. 6. — 
 Ovid. Met. 11, v. 592, &c.—Strah. 5. Vid. 
 CeltcB and Avernus. 
 
 CiMMERiuM, now Crim, a Xovm. of Taurica 
 Chersonesus, whose inhabitants are called Cim- 
 merii. Of this Chersonese, says D'Anville, 
 " the mountainous part towards the south pre- 
 served the name of mons Cimmerius, in which 
 an ancient place is discovered, called Eski 
 Krim, or the Old Krim.^' Mela, 1, c. 19. 
 
 CiMoLUs, now Argentiera, an island in the 
 Cretan Sea, producing chalk and fuller's earth. 
 Ovid. Met. 7, v. 463.— Plin. 35, c. 16. 
 
 CiKGA, now Cinea, a river of Spain, flowing 
 from the Pyrenean mountains into the Iberus. 
 iMcan. 4, v. ^\.—Ccp.s. B. C. 1, 48. 
 
 CiNGUi.uM, now Cingoli, a town of Picenum. 
 Ccrs. Bell. Civ. 1, c. 15.— Cic. AU. 7, ep. 11. 
 Part L— K 
 
 CiNTPs, and Cinyphus, a river of Africa, in 
 the country of the Garamantes. It rose in the 
 mons Chaiitum, and fell into the Sinus Syrticus. 
 On its banks was the town of Cinyps. Hero- 
 dot. 4, c. 198. — Plin. 5, c. 4. — Laican. 9, v. 787. 
 
 Cios, I. a river of Thrace. Plin. 5, c. 32. 
 
 II. A commercial place of Phrygia. 
 
 The name of three cities in Bith}'TLia. 
 
 CiRCEn, now Circello, a promontory of La- 
 tium, near a small town of the same name at 
 the south of the Pontine marshes. The people 
 were called Circeienses. Ovid. Met. 14, v. 248. 
 — Virg. ^n. 7, v. 19d.—Liv. 6, c. 11.— Cic. 
 N. D. 3, c. 19. 
 
 CiRRHA, and Cyrrha, a iGwa of Phocis, at 
 the head of the Crisssean gulf at the mouth of 
 the Pleistus. It was only 10 miles from Delphi, 
 and was used as its port. Cyrrha is famous for 
 the Sacred War excited against it for the vio- 
 lence offered by the Cyrrhaeans to a Phocian 
 maid returning from Delphi. The Amphic- 
 tyons, under w^hose protection all those were in 
 some measure considered who visited the Del- 
 phic oracle, denounced an exterminating war 
 against the inhabitants of the devoted place ; 
 and the oracle having seconded the denuncia- 
 tion of this body, the whole Cyrrhasan territory 
 was held accurst, and all the cities of Greece, 
 which belonged to the Amphictyonic league, 
 were called upon to take arms against Cyrrha, 
 For ten j'ears the little state held out against the 
 combined influence of violence and 6f supersti- 
 tion; but, at last, being overcome, the whole 
 country was laid under an interdict, the walls 
 of the city demolished, the surrounding habita- 
 tions were razed, and it was forbidden ever after 
 to cultivate the land which they had occupied. 
 These events took place in the time of the seven 
 sages ; and Solon, the greatest among them, took 
 part in this extirpating contest. " The Cyr- 
 rhsean plain and port, which are now accursed, 
 were formerly inhabited by the Cyrrhsei and 
 Acragallidse, a nefarious race, v/ho violated the 
 sanctity of the temple of Delphi, and ransacked 
 its treasures." The ruins of this place are said, 
 by Sir W. Gell, to be still discernible near the 
 village of Xeno Pegadia. Pans. — Phoc. 37. 
 — JEiSch. in Ctes. 
 
 CiRTA, a to-^Ti of Numidia, the residence of 
 the kings of that country. It stood about mid- 
 way between the coast and the Aurasius mons, 
 on the river Ampsagas, towards the source. In 
 the time of Caesar it assumed the name of Sitia- 
 norum Colonia, but this was changed into Co7h- 
 stantina, w^hich it has retained to modern times. 
 
 CisALPiNA Gallia. Vid. Gaul. 
 
 CisPADANA Gallia. Vid. Gaul. 
 
 CissA, one of the Absyrtides, on the coast of 
 Liburnia, above Dalmatia ; it is now Pago. 
 
 CissiA, a country of Susiana, of w^hich Susa 
 was the capital, Herodot. 5, c. 49. 
 
 Cissus, a mountain of Macedonia, near which 
 was a towm of the same name. 
 
 CiTHiBRON, a lofty ridge that lay between the 
 territories Boeotia and Megaris, and united 
 with mount Pames, which, stretching out to the 
 north-east, separated Bceotia from Attica. No 
 spot in Greece is more famous among the poets ; 
 and the scene of the tragical stories of Actaeon's 
 fate, of the death of Pentheus, and of the expo- 
 sure of GEdipus, which, in its result, afforded 
 matter for the two greatest efforts of the genius 
 73 
 
CL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CL 
 
 of Sophocles, was on this celebrated mount. 
 Pans. Baot. 2.— Soph. (Ed. Tijr. 1451. " It is 
 now shrouded by deep gloom and dreary de- 
 solation ; and covered only with dark stinted 
 shrubs. Towards its summit, however, it is 
 crowned with forests of fir, from which it derives 
 its modern name of Elatea." DodwelVs Travels. 
 
 CiTHARisTA, a promontory of Gaul. La 
 Ciotat, near Cereste. D'Anville. 
 
 CiTHiM, now Chitti, a town of Cyprus, where 
 Cimon died in his expedition against Egypt. 
 Plut. in dm. — Thucyd. 1, c. 112. 
 
 Cladeus, a river of Elis, passing near Olyra- 
 pia, and honoured next to the Alpheus. Paus. 
 6, c. 7. 
 
 Clanius, or Clanis, I. a river of Campania. 
 
 Virg. G. 2, V. 225. II. of Etruria, now CMa- 
 
 na. Sil. 8, v. ^U.— Tacit. 1, An. 79. 
 
 Claros, or Clarus, a town of Ionia, with a 
 fountain, grove, and temple of Apollo, on which 
 account he was surnamed Clarius, It is situated 
 near Colophon, and was founded, according to 
 mythologists, by Manto, the daughter of Tire- 
 sias. Nearchus says it received its name from 
 kMqos, sors. — (^Facciolcbti.) — Plin. 1, 2, c. 103. 
 — Ovid. 1, Met. v. 51.5. 
 
 Clastidium, a town of Liguria, now Chias- 
 teggio, celebrated as the place where Claudius 
 Marcellus gained the spolia opima by slaying 
 Viridomarus, king of the Gsesata. Clastidium 
 was betrayed to Hannibal after the battle of Ti- 
 cinus, with considerable magazines which the 
 Romans had laid up there ; and it formed the 
 chief depot of the Carthaginian army while en- 
 camped on the Trebia. It was afterwards burnt 
 bv the Romans in a war with the Ligurians. 
 Cram.—Strab. 5, 21.—Polyb. 2, 34; 3, 69.— 
 Plut. vit. Marc— Val. Max. 1, l.—Liv. 21,48; 
 32, 29, 31.-Cic. Tiisc. Disp. 4, 32. 
 
 Claterna, a town of Gallia Cisalpina, about 
 nine miles from Bononia. 
 
 Claudiopolis. a town of Cappadocia. Plin. 
 
 5, c. 24. Another of Pontus, of Dacia, 
 
 of Isauria, into which the emperor Clau- 
 dius introduced a Roman colony. Heyl. Cosm. 
 
 CLAzoMENiE, a city of Ionia in Asia Minor, 
 situated on a small peninsula projecting into 
 the Smyrnseus Sinus from a larger one. It was 
 celebrated as being the birth-place of the philo- 
 sopher Anaxagoras, for its wines, and for a 
 beautiful temple of Apollo in its neighbourhood. 
 The modern Vourla is near the site of the an- 
 cient city. Heyl. Cosm. — Plin. 1, 14, c. 7. — Cic. 
 3, de Orat. 34. 
 
 Cleon^, I. a town of Argolis, to the north- 
 east of Nemea and mount Tretus. Strabo places 
 it 120 stadia from Argos on the one side, and 
 80 from Corinth on the other : he adds that its 
 situation fully justifies the epithet EVKTifitvai 
 applied to it by Homer. The ruins of CleonsB 
 are to be seen on the site now called Courtese. 
 
 Cram. Gr. II. B. 570. II. A town in the 
 
 peninsula of Chalcidice, said to have been found- 
 ed by a colony from Chalcis. Herodot. 7, 22. 
 —Plin. 4, 10.— flferac. Pont. Polit. 30, 216. 
 
 Cleopatris. Vid. Arsinoe. 
 
 Clepsydra, a fountain on mount Ithome, 
 whence water was conveyed to the city of Mes- 
 sene. Cram. 
 
 Clibanus mons, a part of the Appenines 
 south of the river Neathus, now called Monte 
 Visardo. Cram. 
 
 74 
 
 Climax, I. a celebrated pass in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Phaselis, leading from Lycia into 
 Pamphylia. This pass is so much contracted 
 by a brow of mount Taurus, that Alexander, in 
 entering Pamphylia, was forced to lead his 
 
 troops through the sea. D^Anville. II. A 
 
 defile through which the road from Argolis to 
 Mantinea runs. The modern Scala Ton Bey, 
 or the Bey's Causey, probably answers to the 
 ancient pass. Cram. 
 
 Climberris. Vid Augusta Ausciorum. 
 
 CuTJE, I. a wild and savage people of Cilicia, 
 addicted to plunder. They assembled under 
 Trosobor, a warlike chief, and pitched their 
 camp on a craggy and almost inaccessible moun- 
 tain in the range of Taurus, whence they sal- 
 lied against the neighbouring cities, plundered 
 the people and merchants, and utterly ruined 
 navigation and commerce. They laid siege to 
 the city of Anemurium, and routed a body of 
 horse, sent from Cyria, under Curiius Severus, 
 to the relief of the place. They were at length 
 ruined by dissension among themselves, and 
 their leader, Trosobor, was put to death. Ta^ 
 
 cit. Ann. 12, 55. II. Livy (44, 2.) notices a 
 
 spot named Clitae, m the immediate vicinity of 
 Cassandrea. Cram. 
 
 Clitor, I. a town of Arcadia, situated on 
 the Aroanius, said to have been founded by Cli- 
 tor, the son of Azan. The site is now called 
 Katzanes. There was at Clitor, according to 
 Pliny, a fountain which rendered those who 
 tasted its waters averse to wine. Cram. — Paus. 
 Arcad. 21.— Plin. 4, 19, S.—Strab. 8, 388.— 
 
 Ovid. Met. 15, 322. -II. Pausanias likewise 
 
 mentions a river Clitor, whose fishes were said 
 to sing like thrushes. Cram. 
 
 Clitumnus, a small but noted river of Um- 
 bria, rising in the neighbourhood of Trebia, 
 which, with several small streams, unites in 
 forming the Tinia, modern Timia. The vici- 
 nity of this river is celebrated by many Roman 
 poets, as affording suitable victims to be offered 
 up on the solemn occasions of their country's 
 triumphs. This stream now bears the name 
 of Clitunno. Cram. — Plin. 8, ep. 8. 
 
 Cloacae. Vid. Cloasina, Part III. 
 
 Clupea, a maritime town of Africa Propria, 
 called by the Greeks Aspis, by the Romans 
 Clupea, or Clypea, so called from the figure of 
 the hill or eminence on which it was situated. 
 It was built by the Sicilians in the expedition of 
 Agathocles. Vestiges of this town are still 
 known to exist under the name of Aklibia. Liv. 
 27, 29. 
 
 Clusini pontes, baths in Etruria. Horat. 1. 
 ep. 15, V. 9. 
 
 Clusium, now Chiusi, one of the principal 
 towns of Etruria, the capital of Porsenna. It is 
 supposed to have borne the name Camera, and 
 to have belonged to the Camertes in ages ante- 
 rior not only to the founding of Rome, but even 
 to the occupation of Etruria by that race of 
 men, who, under the name of Tyrrheni. pos- 
 sessed it at the era assumed for the mythologi- 
 cal account of the Trojan settlement in Italy. 
 The Clanis flowed near it on the north-east, ly- 
 ing between it and the city of Perusia and the 
 Thrasymenian lake. This city was taken by the 
 Gauls under Brennus; and it was here that the 
 Roman ambassadors had an interview with that 
 conquering barbarian, and by their pride impel- 
 
CO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CO 
 
 led him to the sack of Rome. Modem Chiusiis 
 represented as occupying the site of the Clusium, 
 which we have just described ; but a more recent 
 city of the same name, called for distinction No- 
 vum, was built under the Appenines, north of 
 Arretium, and towards the borders of Cisalpine 
 Gaul. Of the magnificent mausoleum which 
 Porsenna is said to have erected for himself at 
 Clusium, no vestige remains to confirm the im- 
 probable account. Liv. 2, 9, and 5, 33, and 10, 
 '25.—Plin. 36, 13.— Cram. At the north of 
 Clusium there was a lake, called Clnsina lacus, 
 which extended northward as far as Arretium, 
 and had a communication with the Arnus. 
 Diod. U.— Virg. jEn. 10, v. 167 and 655. 
 CLUsros, a river of Cisalpine Gaul. Polyb. 2. 
 Cnemis, a mountain connected with the hills 
 of Bosotia, which now belongs to the chain 
 called Talanta. It imparted its name to the 
 Epicnemidian Locri. Cram. — Strab. 9. 
 
 Cnidus, and Gnidus, a tower of Doris in Ca- 
 ria, on the Triopian promontory. Venus was 
 the chief deity of the place, and had there a fa- 
 mous statue made by Praxiteles. The place is 
 now a mass of ruins. Horat. 1, od. 30. Plin. 
 36, c. 15. 
 
 Cnosus. Vid. Gnossus. 
 CoccYGius, a mountain, or rather hill, of Ar- 
 golis, on the road from Halice to Hermione, 
 opposite another called Thornax. The more an- 
 cient name of this mount was Pron, which was 
 changed to Coccygius from the fabled metamor- 
 phosis of Jupiter into the bird called Coccyx by 
 the Greeks. On its summit was a temple sacred 
 to that god, and another of Apollo at the base. 
 That of Juno was situated on the opposite hill. 
 Cram. — Pans. Cor. 36. 
 
 CociNTUM, I. apromontory of the Brutii, now 
 Capo di Stilo, which according to Polybius, 
 marked the separation of the Ionian from the 
 
 Sicilian Sea. II. " A to"«Ti probably named 
 
 Cocintum, but which is written Consilinum 
 Castrum, and Consentia, in Pliny and Mela, 
 accords apparently with Stilo, from which the 
 cape now derives its appellation." Cram. 
 
 CocYTUs, I, a river of Epirus, which blends 
 its waters with the Acheron. It is one of the 
 fabled rivers of hell. The word is derived from 
 
 KOiKveiv^ to lament. Vid. Aclieron. II. A 
 
 river of Campania, flowing into the Lucrine 
 lake. 
 
 CoDANiJs SINUS, one of the ancient names of 
 the Baltic, which Tacitus calls Mare Suevi- 
 cum, from the Suevian nations that bordered 
 upon it. He did not know that it was a gulf, 
 but imagined that it environed Scandinavia, 
 which he supposed to be an island or a collec- 
 tion of islands. D'Anville. 
 
 CcELA EuBCB^, that part of the coast of 
 Euboea which lay between Aulis and Gersestus. 
 It was dangerous to navigators in stormy wea- 
 ther. Cram.—Strab. \0.—Liv. 31, ^1.— He- 
 rod. 8. 13. 
 
 CcELE, a quarter of Athens. Vid. Athena. 
 
 CcELiMONTANA. Vid. Roma. 
 
 CcELros MONs, one of the hills of Rome. Vid. 
 Roma. 
 
 CoKAJON MONS, a mouutaui of Dacia, re- 
 markable as having been the residence of a pon- 
 tiff, in whose person the Getes believed the deity 
 was incarnate. D'Anville. 
 
 CoLcms, andCoLCHOs, a country of Asia, at 
 
 the south of Asiatic Sarmatia, east of the Euxine 
 Sea, north of Armenia, and west of Iberia, now 
 caQed Mingrelia. It is famous for the expedi- 
 tion of the Argonauts, and the birth-place of 
 Medea, It was fruitful in poisonous herbs, and 
 produced excellent flax. I'he inhabitants were 
 originally Egyptians, who settled there when 
 Sesostris, kingofEg5'pt, extended his conquests 
 in the north. In the time of the Lower Em- 
 pire Colchis was called Lazica ; and the name 
 of Colchi appears to have been replaced by that 
 of Laza, which was formerly only proper to a 
 particular nation,comprised in the limits of what 
 is now named Guria on the southern bank of 
 the Faz. That which is now known under the 
 name of Mingrelia, on the Black Sea, from the 
 mouth of the Phasis ascending towards the 
 north, is only a part of Colchis, as is that more 
 inland towards the frontier of Georgia, and 
 called Imeriti. D'Anville. — Juv. 6, v. 640. — 
 Flacc. 5. V. 4A.Q.— Horat. 2, od. 13, v. S.—Strab. 
 II.— Pt'ol. 5, c. 10.— Orz^. Met. 13, v. 24. Amor. 
 2, el. 14, V. 2^.— Mela, 1, c. 19, 1.2, c. 3. 
 
 CoLiAS, a promontory about 20 stadia from 
 Phalerum, whither the wrecks of the Persian 
 fleet were said to have been carried after the 
 battle of Salamis. Here was a temple of, Venus 
 Colias. This promontory still retains its an- 
 cient name, though it is occasionally designated 
 by that of Trispyrgoi. Cram. — Herod. 8. 96 ; 
 9, 398. 
 
 CoLLATiA, a town of Latium, to ^the north 
 of Gabii, a colony of Alba, celebrated by the 
 sacrifice of Lucretia. The road which led from 
 Rome to this to^um was called Via CoUatina. 
 Cram. — Strab. 5, 229. II. Another in Apu- 
 lia, near mount Garganus, now CoUatina. Cram. 
 —Plin. 3, 11. 
 
 CoLLiNA, the name of one of the four regions 
 into which Rome was divided by Servius. Vid. 
 
 Roma. Cram. — Varro. Porta, one of the 
 
 gates of ancient Rome, more anciently called 
 Agonensis, supposed to answer to the present 
 Porta Salara. It was by this gate that the 
 Gauls entered Rome. Cram. — Liv. 5, 41. 
 
 CoLONiE, a town in the territory of Lamp- 
 sacus, a colony of Miletus. 
 
 CoLomA, I. now Colchester, in the county 
 of Essex. This is not allowed by Cambden, 
 who derives the present name from that of the 
 river Colne. In the geography of the Roman 
 empire, no name will be more frequently found 
 than that of Col onia, if we except Augusta and 
 Castra. This name, when applied to a city, 
 indicated that on its reduction the Romans had 
 sent thither a colony from the capital ; and that 
 it had been invested with certain privileges, for 
 the most part municipal, though sometimes also 
 political. Such towns were designated gene- 
 rally by a surname, from some circumstance at- 
 tending their settlement. II. Equestris, a 
 
 colony planted by Caesar on the Lacus Lema- 
 nus, at a place called pre^dously Noviodunum, 
 It is nov7 Ny on, near the comer of the lake at 
 
 which the Rhone resumes its course. III. 
 
 Trajana, called also Ulpia, instead of Colonia. 
 It was a town of Belgica, and is now Kellen in 
 
 Cleves, about a mile from the Rhine. IV. 
 
 Agrippina, a town of Belgica in Germania Se- 
 cunda, of which it was the capital. The daugh- 
 ter of Germanicus was born in this place, and 
 when at her request the emperor Claudius esta- 
 75 
 
CO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CO 
 
 blished in it a colony, the name of its patroness 
 was bestowed on the new settlement. It is now 
 
 Cologne upon the Rhine. L/wc. — Suet. V. 
 
 MoRiNORUM, a town of Gaul, now Terrouen in 
 
 Artois. VI. NoRBENsis, a town of Spaia, 
 
 now Alcantara. VII. Valentia, a town of 
 
 Spain, which now bears the same name. 
 
 CoLONOs, an eminence near Athens. Vid. 
 Athence. 
 
 Colophon, a town of Ionia, at a small dis- 
 tance from the sea, first built by Mopsus the 
 son of Manto, and colonized by the sons of Cod- 
 rus. It was the native country of Mimnermus, 
 Nicander, and Xenophanes, and one of the cities 
 which disputed for the honour of having given 
 birth to Homer. Apollo had a temple there. 
 Strab. U.—Plin. 14, c. ^.—Paus. 7, c. 3.— 
 Tacit. An7i. 2, c. 54. — Cic. pro Arch. Poet. 8. — 
 Ovid. Met. 6, v. 8. 
 
 CoLOssE, and Colossis, a large town of Phry- 
 gia, near Laodicea, between the Lycus and the 
 Meander. The government of this city was 
 democratical, and the first ruler called archon. 
 One of the first Christian churches was esta- 
 blished there, and one of St. Paul's epistles was 
 addressed to it, Plin. 21, c. 9. 
 
 CoLUBRARiA, uow Monte Colvire, a small 
 island at the east of Spain, supposed to be the 
 same as Ophiusa. Plin. 3. c. 5. 
 
 C0LUMN.E Herculis. Vid. Abila. Pro- 
 
 tei, the boundaries of Egypt, or the extent of 
 the kingdom of Proteus. Alexandria was sup- 
 posed to be built near them, though Homer 
 places them in the island of Pharus. Odys. 4, 
 V. 2b\.— Virg. Mn. 11, v. 262. 
 
 CoMAGENA. A small portion of Syria was 
 distinguished by this name, having Cappadocia 
 and Armenia Minor on the north, on the east 
 and south the Euphrates, which separated it 
 from Mesopotamia, and on the west the narrow 
 district of Cilicia. The capital was Samosata, 
 now Semisat, and the whole region is now called 
 Aladuli. After the fall of the Persian empire, 
 a part of the family called Seleucidae are thought 
 to have established themselves as sovereigns in 
 this coantry, and to have maintained themselves 
 there till Vespasian reduced it to a province of 
 his mighty empire. It was afterwards incorpo- 
 rated in the Euphratesian province. Strab. 11 
 and 17. — D'Anville. 
 
 CoMANA, («, and orum,) 1. a town of Pon- 
 tus towards Armenia Minor, near the source of 
 the Iris. It had a famous temple of Bellona, 
 for an account of which see Comana Cappado- 
 cia, where the worsliip of that goddess was the 
 same as at this place. In this city Iphigenia is 
 said to have made the votive offering of her hair. 
 The modern name of this Comana is thought to 
 
 be Tabackza, in the district called Amasia. 
 
 II. Another in Cappadocia. According to 
 D'Anville its present name is El Bostan, but 
 others call it Arminacka. It was situate at the 
 head of the Sarus, near, or perhaps upon, the 
 hilly country of the Taurus mons and the bor- 
 ders of Syria. Comana was famous for a tem- 
 ple of Bellona, where there were above 6000 
 ministers of both sexes. The chief priest among 
 them was very powerful, and knew no superior 
 but the king of the country. This high office 
 was generally conferred upon one of the royal 
 family. Hirt. Alex. 66.— Mace. 7, v. 636.— 
 S^ab. 12. 
 
 76 
 
 CoALvRiA, the ancient name of Cape Conio- 
 rin in India. 
 
 CoMARus, a port in the bay of Ambracia, near 
 Nicopolis. 
 
 CoMBREA, a town near Pallene. Herodot. 7, 
 c. 123. 
 
 CoMED.E, a Scythian people, being a branch 
 of the Sacse. They belonged to Scythia intra 
 Imaum, and dwelt upon those mountains on the 
 north of Sogdiana, about the springs of the 
 laxartes. Ptol. 
 
 CoMMAGENE. Vid. Comagena. 
 
 CoMPSA, now Consa^ a town of the Hirpini 
 in Italy. This town revolted to Hannibal after 
 his victory at Cannse, and was made the deposi- 
 tory of his baggage and munitions when on his 
 march towards Campania. It was before this 
 city that Milo, the assassin of Clodius, was kill- 
 ed, according to VeU. Paterc. ; but others read 
 Cossa for Compsa. The territory of Lucania 
 was just south of this place ; and on the south- 
 east was the nearest frontier of Campania. 
 
 CoMPSATUs, a river of Thrace, falling into 
 the lake Bistonis. Herodot. 7, c. 109. 
 
 CoMUM, now Como, on the lake called by 
 the ancients Larius, in the Milatiese. It wets 
 situate at the north of Insubria, at the bottom 
 of the lake and was one of the most flourish- 
 ing municipia in the time of the younger 
 Pliny, a native of that idghland town. It was 
 afterwards called Novum Comum by Caesar, 
 who established there a colony. Plin. 3, c. 18. 
 — Liv. 33, c 36 and 37. — Suet, in Jul. 28.—^ 
 Plin. 1, ep. 3. — Cic. Fam. 13, ep. 3.5. 
 
 CoNCANi, a people of Spain, who lived chief- 
 ly on milk mixed with horse's blood. Their 
 chief town, Concana^ is now called Sa7itillana. 
 Virg. G. 3, V. 463.— ;SiZ. 3, v. Z6\.—Horat. 3, 
 od. 4, V. 34. 
 
 CoNDATE, a name common to many places 
 in Gaul. D'Anville says it denotes a situation 
 in a corner between two rivers. The principal 
 one is the capital of the Rhedones, still a popu- 
 lous city bearing the name of Rennes. 
 
 CoNDiviENUM, the chief town of the Nam- 
 netes, situated on the river Liger near its mouth ; 
 its modern name is Nantes. 
 
 CoNDOCHATEs, a rivcr of India, falling into 
 the Ganges. The modern name assigned to 
 this stream is Kandak, which flows into the 
 Ganges on the left side. 
 
 CoNDRUsi, a nation of Gallia Belgica, whose 
 name is retained in the modern canton of Coti- 
 dros, situated, according to Lemaire, on either 
 side of the river Z' Ourtlie, ancient Ultra. 
 
 CoNFLtJENTES, a towu at the confluence of the 
 Moselle, and the Rhine, now Coblentz, the sta- 
 tion, anciently, of the first legion. Heyl. Cosm. 
 
 CoNiACi, a people of Spain at the head of the 
 Iberus. Strcu). 8. 
 
 CoNiMBRiGA, a town of Lusitania, the modem 
 Coimbra, is celebrated in Portugul for its uni- 
 versity. D^Anville. 
 
 CoNSENTiA, situated near the source of the 
 river Crathis, is designated by Strabo, (6, 255,) 
 as the capital of the Brutii. It was taken by- 
 Hannibal after the surrender of Petilia, but 
 again fell into the hands of the Romans to- 
 wards the close of the war. The modern Cwt- 
 senza answers to the old town. Cram. — Liv, 
 23, SO.—Plut. 3, b.—Ptol. p. 67. 
 
 CoNSTANTiNOPOLis. Vid. Byzautium. 
 
CO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CO 
 
 CoNTADESDus, a rivei of Thrace, rising in 
 mount Hasmus, and discharging itself into the 
 Agrianes some distance above its confluence 
 with the Hebrus. 
 
 CoNTOPORiA. This name was given to the 
 route from Mycaene to Corinth, by way of Te- 
 nea. Polyb. 16, 16. 
 
 Contra- AciNUM, a Roman post in Dacia, 
 on the Danube. It received this name from its 
 situation opposite Aquincum, Buda, on the 
 Pannonian side, and is now Pest. 
 
 Cop^E, a small but ancient town of Bceotia, 
 on the northern bank of the lake to which it 
 gives its name. Near it was the Athamanian 
 plain, which takes its name from Athamas. so 
 famed in ancient traditions, who is supposed to 
 have dwelt there. North of Acraephia " is a 
 triangular island " in the lake, " on which are 
 the walls of the ancient Copse ; and more dis- 
 tant, on another island, the village of Topolias. 
 which gives its present name to the lake. Paus. 
 B(Bot. 23. — GelVs Itiner. 
 
 CoPAEs PALUS, now Limne, a lake in Bceo- 
 tia, towards the northern borders and the Opun- 
 tian bay. Its circuit was, according to Strabo, 
 not less than 47 miles, and it received the waters 
 of almost all the principal streams in that sec- 
 tion of coimtry. Although the name of Co- 
 pais, derived from that of Copae on the northern 
 shore, was generally given to this lake, it was 
 also frequently designated by the name of some 
 important town upon its bank, or on the rivers 
 that emptied themselves into its bosom. Thus, 
 at Haliartus it was called Haliartus Lacus, and 
 Orchomenian at Orchomenus. Homer and Pin- 
 dar call it Cephisus. From the mouth of this 
 river to the town of Copae, the water was navi- 
 gable for ancient vessels in the time of the geo- 
 grapher Pausanias. As no visible channel car- 
 ried off the waters of this lake, the surrounding 
 country was frequently threatened with inun- 
 dation ; and it was said that, on the draining of 
 the plains in the time of Crates, the ruins of 
 an ancient city were discovered between the 
 sites of Copae and Orchomenus. The da,nger, 
 however, was greatly diminished by the number 
 of subterranean passages that communicated 
 with the Opuntius Sinus and the Euripus. Of 
 these there were fifteen known to the suriound- 
 ing people ; and a modem traveller " observed," 
 says Cramer, " four at the foot of mount Ptoos, 
 near xlcraephia, which convey the waters of 
 Copais to lake Halica, a distance of two miles. 
 The other Katabathra are on the north-eastern 
 side of the lake." The Copaic eels, of great ce- 
 lebrity among the Grecian epicures, appear to 
 have been, in ancient times as at present, an ar- 
 ticle of trade to the surrounding countries ; and 
 the Boeotian in the Achamae of Aristophanes, 
 presents among the greatest luxuries of the mar- 
 ket, his Copaic eel : 
 
 'I>cri(5as evvSpovg iy^iXti^ Kw;rai(5af. 
 
 Paus. Baot. 24:.—Plin. 16, 36.—Dodweirs 
 Travels. 
 
 CoPHES, a river of Asia, which, rising in the 
 Paropamisus moimtains and the eastern parts 
 of Aria, after receiving the waters of the Choes 
 at Nysa, discharges itself into the Indus on the 
 borders of Scythia, which it separates from In- 
 dia. Plin. 
 
 CoPHOs, the name of the harbour of To- 
 
 rone in Macedonia ; so called because it was 
 said the noise of waves was never heard there ; 
 whence the proverb Kw^^drcpoj rov Topcovaiov Xi- 
 [levos. strati. — Mela, 2, 3. 
 
 CoPi^. Vid. Thurii. 
 
 CoPRATES, a river of Asia, falling into the 
 Tigris. Diod. 19. 
 
 CoPTUs, and Coptos, now Kypt, a town of 
 Egypt, about 100 leagues from Alexandria, on 
 a canal which communicates with the Nile. 
 Plin. 5. c. 9, 1. 6, c. 2X—Strab. 16. — Juv. 15, 
 V. 28. From this place to Berenice Epidires, 
 on the Arabian gulf, a road was carried across 
 the desert by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
 It was upwards of 250 miles m length, and ren- 
 dered the communication between the sea-port 
 and the Nile easy and secure. By means of 
 this road the commodities of India and the east 
 were received at Coptus, which thus became 
 the great inland mart for India and the south. 
 The intermediate towns or ports upon this road 
 have long since been buried beneath the sands 
 of the desert. The communication with Ara- 
 bia was from this city by Myos-Hormus, at the 
 commencement of the Sinus Heropolites. From 
 the name of this town some etymologists derive 
 the name of the whole country on the Nile. 
 Vid. JEgyptus. 
 
 Cora, a town of Latium, on the confines of 
 the Volsci, built by a colony of Dardanians be- 
 fore the foundation of Rome. Lucan. 7, v. 
 392.— Fir^. ^71. 6, V. 775. 
 
 CoRAX, that part of the Caucasus which 
 extended to the Palus Maeotis, and covered the 
 narrow strip of land which belonged to Colchis, 
 north of the Euxine Sea. 
 
 CoRCYRA, I. an island in .the Ionian Sea, 
 about 12 miles from Buthrotum, on the coast of 
 Epirus ; famous for the shipwreck of Ulysses 
 and the gardens of Alcinous. It has been suc- 
 cessively called DrepaTie, Scheria, and Phaa- 
 cia, and now bears the name of Corfu. " The 
 principal city of the island was situated pre- 
 cisely where the town of Corfu now stands." 
 
 Cram. II. Nigra, an island in the Illyrian 
 
 gulf, near the islands of Salo and Pharus. Cas. 
 Bell. Civ. 3, 10. 
 
 CoRDiJBA, now Cordova, b. famous city of 
 Hispania Baetica. This was the capital city 
 of the Turduli, and, under the ancient inhabit- 
 ants, of the whole of Baetica. The first colony, 
 which was led there by one of the Marcelli, 
 was called Colonia Patricia, U. C. 621. Cor- 
 duba is, however, much more famous as the 
 seat of the Moorish empire in Spain during the 
 middle ages, than for its superiority as a colony 
 of Rome; and the names of Avicenna and 
 Averrois cast little less glory upon this celebrat- 
 ed place than the births of Lucan and Seneca. 
 Martial. 1, ep. 62.— Mela, 2, c. 6.— Cas. Bell. 
 Alex. 57. — Plin. 3, c. 1. 
 
 CoRDYLA, a port of Pontus, supposed to 
 give its name to a peculiar sort of fishes caught 
 there (Cordyla.) Plin. 9, c. 15.— Martial. 13, 
 ep. 1. 
 
 CoRFiNiuM, was the chief cit}'' of the Peligni. 
 It enjoyed for a short time only the honour of 
 being styled the capital of Italy, under the 
 name of Italica, as it appears to have seceded 
 from the confederacy before the conclusion of 
 the war. In later times we find it still regard- 
 ed as one of the most important cities of this 
 
CO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CO 
 
 part of Italy, and one which Caesar was most 
 anxious to secure in his enterprise against the 
 liberties of his country. It surrendered to him 
 after a short defence, when Cn. Domitius, the 
 governor, was allowed to withdraw with his 
 troops to Brundusium. Cram. 
 
 CoRiNTHiAcus SINUS, a bay of the Ionian 
 Sea, between the Peloponnesus and the main 
 land of Greece. On the east it washed rhe 
 shores of the isthmus of Corinth, which sepa- 
 rated its waters from those of the Saronic gulf 
 and the .^gean ; upon its northern side were a 
 small portion of Boeotia, and the whole length 
 of Phocis ; and on the south it had Achaia from 
 Corinthia to the promontory of Rhium. This 
 point of land jutting out into the bay, and al- 
 most meeting the opposite promontory of An- 
 tirrhium on the side of Phocis, terminated the 
 gulf on the west, and left it but a narrow pas- 
 sage for its waters through the Sinus Patros to 
 the Ionian Sea. It is now the gulf of Lepanto. 
 
 CoRiNTHUs, " Placed on an isthmus where 
 it commanded the Ionian and .^gean seas, and 
 holding as it were, ihe keys of Peloponnesus, 
 Corinth, from the pre-eminent advantages of its 
 situation, was already the seat of opulence and 
 the arts, while the rest of Greece was sunk in 
 comparative obscurity and barbarism. Its ori- 
 gin is, of course, lost in the obscurity of time ; 
 but we are assured that it already existed, under 
 the name of Ephyre, long before the siege of 
 Troy, when Sisyphus, Bellerophon, and other 
 heroes of Grecian mythology, were its sove- 
 reigns." The name of Corinth was assumed 
 by this city before the expiration of the mytho- 
 logical era of Grecian history ; and Corinthus, 
 the son of Jove, was, according to the Corinthi- 
 ans, the author of their name. During all these 
 ages the family of Sisyphus continued in pos- 
 session of the sovereignty, which was only 
 transferred from them when the return of the 
 Heraclidae established a new population and 
 new masters in the Peloponnesus. After five 
 generations the Bacchiadae obtained the supreme 
 power, which they kept until the abolition of 
 royalty in the Corinthian state. " The Corin- 
 thian district was bounded on the north by the 
 Geranean chain, which separated it from Me- 
 garis ; on the west it was divided from Sicyonia 
 by the little river Nemea ; on the east it border- 
 ed on Argolis, the common limit of the two re- 
 publics, being the chain of mount Arachmeus." 
 A description of Corinth naturally divides itself 
 into that of the city and that of the territory. 
 The isthmus, the harbours on the Corinthian 
 and Saronic gulfs, and the Acrocorinthus, are 
 principal objects to be described under the se- 
 cond head. The width of the isthmus in the 
 narrowest part is, perhaps six miles ; and at 
 this point was the portage for the transporta- 
 tion of vessels from one sea to the other. Many 
 efforts were made by the Greeks, and after- 
 wards by the Romans, to effect a communication 
 between the waters of tjie iEgean and the 
 Adriatic, by cutting across the isthmus; and 
 traces still remain of these attempts, and of 
 others to fortify this narrow gate of the Penin- 
 sula. The celebration of the Isthmian games, 
 which were founded in honour of Neptune, and 
 continued after all the other gymnastic contests 
 of Greece had fallen into disuse, imparted a sa- 
 credness as well as an interest to this peculiar. 
 
 spot ; and here, during a celebration of these 
 festivals, the independence of Greece weis pro- 
 claimed by order of the senate and people of 
 Rome. On this little spot stood also the thea- 
 tre, the marble stadium, and the temple of Nep- 
 tune. The ruins of these and other buildings 
 are thus described by Dr. Clarke : " We rode 
 directly towards the port and the mountain, and 
 crossing an artificial causeway over a foss, we 
 arrived in the midst of the ruins. It was evi- 
 dent we had discovered the real site of the 
 Isthmian town, with the ruins of the temple of 
 Neptune, the stadium, and the theatre. I'hese, 
 together with walls and other indications of 
 a town, surround the port, and are, for the 
 most part, situated upon its sides, sloping to- 
 wards the sea. Pine trees are still growing in 
 a line near the temple as mentioned by Pausa- 
 nias." On the Corinthian gulf the port of Co- 
 rinth was Ijcchseum, from which the trade of 
 the Corinthians was carried on with western 
 Greece ; it stood about a mile and a half from 
 the city, and, at a distance of about nine miles, 
 on the Saronic gulf, they had the port of Cen- 
 chrese, from which they communicated with 
 Asia and the east. - " The Acrocorinthus," says 
 Strabo, as translated by Cramer, " is a lofty 
 mountain, the perpendicular height of which is 
 three stadia and a half; but by the regular road 
 the ascent is not less than thirty stadia. The 
 side facing the north, in which direction stood 
 the city, is the steepest. It is situated in the 
 plain below, in the form of a trapezus, and was 
 surrounded with walls wherever, it was not de- 
 fended by the mountain. Its circuit was esti- 
 mated at forty stadia. Walls had been con- 
 structed up the ascent as far as it was practic- 
 able; and as we advanced, we could easily per- 
 ceive traces of this species of buildings ; so that 
 the whole circuit was more than eighty-five sta- 
 dia. From the summit are seen to the north 
 the lofty peaks of Helicon and Parnassus cover- 
 ed with snow ; below, towards the west, extends 
 the gulf of Crissa ; beyond, are the Oneian 
 mountains, stretching from the Scyronian rocks 
 to Cithaeron and Bcsotia." The whole slope of 
 this ascent was diversified with temples erected 
 in honour of different deities ; but the Acroco- 
 rinthus was particularly dedicated to the wor- 
 ship of Venus. Accordingly her shrine ap- 
 peared above those of all the other gods ; and 
 iOOO beautiful females, as courtesans, officiated 
 before the altar of the goddess of Love. From 
 these rites, which they freely celebrated for hire 
 in honour of this goddess, a copious revenue 
 was secured to the city ; but as foreigners were 
 principally those who furnished it, there arose 
 
 the proverb ov iravrds dvSpd^ eU "K-opivdov tarlv h 
 
 nXovg, alluding to the tax there levied on their 
 superstition, their passions, or their vanity. 
 When the sovereign power was wrested from 
 the hands of the Corinthian princes, it was 
 transferred to annual magistrates, called Pry- 
 tanes, who were still chosen from the family of 
 the Bacchiadae. The oligarchy thus establish- 
 ed by this family was not overthrown till the 
 year B. C. 629, when the supreme authority 
 was usurped by Cypselus, the son of Eetion. 
 Cypselus was succeeded by his son Periander, 
 celebrated for his cruelties and for his patron- 
 age of science and literature ; the tyrant of Co- 
 rinth, and one of the seven whcm their contem- 
 
CO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CO 
 
 poraries and posterity have rendered illustrious 
 as the sages of Greece. On the death of Peri- 
 ander Corinth submitted to a moderate aristo- 
 cracy, and living contentedly under a well-regu- 
 lated government, enjoyed a repose unknown to 
 the other states of Greece. It had, however, 
 the misfortune to engage in a dispute with Cor- 
 cyra, its principal colony, and must therefore be 
 looked upon as a principal cause of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, if, indeed any other cause be 
 sought for than the mutual jealousy of Sparta 
 and Athens. From this time forth Corinth 
 shared all the misfortunes that dissention and 
 faction had entailed upon Athens, Thebes, Ar- 
 gos, &c. ; and the Corinthians, from this mo- 
 ment, appear in all the contests between Athens 
 and Sparta, now od one side and now on the 
 other ; in separate wars with the Lacedsemo- 
 nians, and leagued with this same people after- 
 wards against Epaminondas and the Boeotians. 
 At Corinth Philip was declared commander in 
 chief of the forces destined to act against the 
 Persian king ; and in that city also his son was 
 elected to fill this oifice, no less fatal to Grecian 
 liberty than to its Persian foes. On the death 
 of Alexander, when his generals distributed 
 among themselves his uselessly acquired pos- 
 sessions, Corinth came into the power of the 
 Macedonian kings, till we find it united by Ara- 
 ms to the Achaean league. On the final disper- 
 sion of that famous confederacy, the last hope 
 of the Greeks had been placed on the strength 
 of this place ; but it was not proof against Ro- 
 man perseverance, or, perhaps we should say 
 Roman destiny, and was taken by the consul 
 L. Mum mi us, and given up to the avarice or 
 rage of the Roman soldiery, the privileged ma- 
 rauders of the earth. The riches which the 
 Romans found there were immense. During 
 the conflagration, all the metals which were in 
 the city melted and mixed together, and formed 
 that valuable composition of metals which has 
 since been known by the name of Corinthium 
 JEs. This, however, appears improbable, espe- 
 cially when it is remembered that the artists of 
 Corinth made a mixture of copper with small 
 quantities of gold and silver, and so brillant 
 was the composition, that the appellation of Co- 
 rinthian brass afterwards stamped an extraor- 
 dinary value on pieces of inferior worth. For 
 many years Corinth remained as the desolation 
 and fury of war had reduced it ; but in the time 
 of Caesar it was colonized by his order, and soon 
 began to present something of its former mag- 
 nificence. It was the capital of Achaia when 
 St. Paul introduced there the new religion of 
 which he was so zealous a disciple. On the 
 division of the empire Corinth fell, of course, to 
 the share of the eastern emperors ; and on their 
 overthrow by the Turks, this famous city was 
 transferred, after a siege not surpassed by any 
 that it underwent in ancient times, into the 
 hands of those rude conquerors. It still retains 
 its ancient name, but with scarcely the ruins 
 of its ancient splendour. A single temple, itself 
 dismantled, remains to mark the site of one of 
 the most luxurious cities of antiquity, and dis- 
 tinguish it from any modern village of the 
 Turkish empire. Strab. — Pans. Att. & Co- 
 rinth. — Herod. — Thuc. — Cram. — Martial 9, ep. 
 b8.—Sueton. Aug. lO.—Liv. 45, c. ^.—Mor. 2, 
 c. IG.—Ovid. Met, 2, v. 2A0.— Herat. 1, ep. 17, 
 
 V. 36.—Plin. 34, c. 2.-Stat. Theb. 7, v. 106.— 
 Paus. 2, c. 1, &c.—^trai. 8, &c.— Homer. 11. 
 15. — Cic. Tusc. 4, c. 14, in Verr. 4, c. 44, de 
 N. D. 3. 
 
 CoRioLi, and Coriolla, a town of Latium, 
 on the borders of the Volsci. taken by the Ro- 
 mans under C. Martius, called from thence Co- 
 riolanus. Plin. 3, c. 5. — Plut. — Liv. 2, c. 33. 
 
 CoRONE, a city of Messenia, upon or near 
 the site of the present to^vm of Cor on. This 
 town, which was first called Epea, was situate 
 upon the Sinus Messeniacus, sometimes called 
 from it Coroneus. When the Messenians were, 
 for a time, restored to their country on the de- 
 cline of the Spartan authority, the name of Co- 
 rone was bestowed upon this place. 
 
 CoRONEA, I. a Xovnx of Boeotia, between the 
 Libethrius mens and the Copalc lake. This 
 place boasted an antiquity that mounted to the 
 fabulous era of the first kings of Thebes. It was 
 often the scene of important battles that more 
 than once decided, for a time, the fate of Bosotia. 
 Here, in the first year of the Corinthian war, 
 Agesilaus defeated the allied forces of Athens, 
 Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, B. C. 394. In its 
 vicinity was the temple of Minerva Itonis, the 
 edifice in which " the general council of the 
 Boeotian states assembled till dissolved by the 
 Romans." There are still to be seen the ruins 
 of this ancient town near the village of Koru- 
 nies. Paus. Baot. 34. — Thuc. 1, 113. — Xen. 
 
 Hell. 4, 3, 8. II. A iovm. of Pelopt)nnesus. 
 
 Another of Corinth of C}'prus of 
 
 Ambracia of Phthiotis. 
 
 CoRsi, a people of Sardinia. 
 
 Corsica, an island of the Mare Inferum, on 
 the Ligurian coast, about sixty miles from the 
 harbour of Genoa and seven to the north of the 
 island of Sardinia, in size and note the third of 
 the Italian seas. The children of Thespius are 
 considered by the mythologists to have first 
 peopled this island ; and Eustathius refers its 
 discovery to the accident of a woman, named 
 Corsa or Corsica, being led thither in pursuit 
 of a bull that had strayed from her herds. In 
 this obscurity the antiquary Heyl}Ti proposes 
 to refer the origin of the name to the Corsi, who, 
 crossing over from Sardinia at an early period, 
 established themselves in this smaller and less 
 inviting territor}^ By the Greeks Corsica was 
 called Cyrnos ; and the Grecian settlement was 
 effected by the Ph oceans, who, about the year 
 539 B. C. abandoned their homes to avoid the 
 Persian yoke, and to establish themselves and 
 their liberty in this distant spot. The next pos- 
 sessors of the island were the Carthaginians ; 
 and from their occupation the inhabitants were 
 sometimes denominated Phoenician Cyrnus. 
 When subdued by the Romans, it formed atfirst, 
 in connexion with Sardinia, the government of 
 a praetor ; but was afterwards joined to the Ro- 
 man patriarchate, and governed by the prefect 
 of the city. The fall of the Roman empire, 
 which witnessed the settlement of the northern 
 barbarians in all its pro\ances, left Corsica open 
 to their depredations ; and the Vandals of Afri- 
 ca took possession of the island, now a second 
 time subject to its sway. To the Vandal rule 
 succeeded that of the Saracens ; and the mid- 
 dle ages are full of the wars which, from this 
 and the neighbouring islands, they carried on 
 against the princes of Christendom, The prin- 
 79 
 
CO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CR 
 
 cipal Roman colonies established here were 
 those of Mariana and Aleria, the first by Ma- 
 rius and the second by Sylla; but though in 
 these places the Roman population may have pre- 
 ponderated, and though the Asiatic Greeks and 
 the Tyrians of Africa were, no doubt, in the tem- 
 porary possession of its coasts, "the insular peo- 
 ple," says D'Anville, " were Ligurian ; " and 
 Heylyn remarks that they " were stubborn, poor, 
 unlearned, and supposed to be more cruel than 
 other nations." Cas. — Strab. — Diod. Sic. 
 
 CoRSURA, an island in the bay of Carthage. 
 
 CoRTONA. " About fourteen miles south of 
 Arretiumwefind Cortona, a city whose claims 
 to antiquity appear to be equalled by few other 
 towns in Italy, and which to this day retains its 
 name unchanged. Concerning its origin, we 
 learn from Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who 
 quotes from Hellanicus of Lesbos, an author 
 somewhat anterior to Herodotus, that the Pe- 
 lasgi, who had landed at Spina on the Po, sub- 
 sequently advanced into the interior of Italy, 
 and occupied Cortona, which they fortified ; and 
 from thence formed other settlements in Tyr- 
 rhenia. On this account it is that we find Cor- 
 tona styled the metropolis of that province. 
 Silius Italicus calls it the city of Corithus, in 
 conformity with Virgil, who frequently alludes 
 to the land of Corithus as the country of Dar- 
 danus, the founder of Troy. 
 
 CoRUs, a river of Arabia, falling into the Red 
 Sea. Herodot. 3, c. 9. 
 
 CoRYBASSA, a city of Mysia. 
 
 CoRYciUM Antrum. " About two hours' 
 journey from Delphi is the celebrated Corycian 
 cave, surpassing in extent every other known 
 cavern, and of which it is not possible to advance 
 into the interior without a torch. The roof, from 
 which an abundance of water trickles, is ele- 
 vated far above the floor ; and vestiges of the 
 dripping moisture (i. e. stalactites) are to be seen 
 attached to it along the whole length of the 
 cave. The inhabitants of Parnassus consider 
 it sacred to the Corycian nymphs and the god 
 Pan." Immediately after the entrance, the cave 
 expands into a chamber of about 300 feet long 
 by perhaps 200 wide. In this sacred recess, 
 oh the approach of the Persians, the people of 
 Delphi concealed themselves. Cram. — Her. 8, 
 36. 
 
 CoRTcus, I, now Cur CO, a place in Cilicia, with 
 a cave, and a grove which produced excellent 
 safiron. Horat. 2, Sat. 4, v. 68. — Lucan. 9, v. 
 809.— PZm. 5, c. ^l.— Cic. ad Fam. 12, ep. 13. 
 
 — Strcd). 14. II. A spot called by Strabo 
 
 CiMARUs, now cape Carahusa., a point of land 
 in the island of Crete, from which it was usual 
 to compute the distances to the several ports of 
 Peloponnesus. Plin. 4, 12. — Strab. 17. 
 
 C5ryphasitjm, a promontory of Messenia, on 
 which the Athenians under Demosthenes erect- 
 ed the fortress that, after the destruction of the 
 ancient city of Pylus, assumed that name. 
 Pans. 4, c. '36. 
 
 Cos, now Stanco, and by corruption Lanjo, 
 an island of Asia Minor, in the entrance of the 
 Ceramic gulf It was one of the cluster called 
 Sporades. Before the name of Cos was as- 
 signed to this island it had been called Merope, 
 Caria, and Nymphea. The silks that were ma- 
 nufactured there became a great article of luxu- 
 ry at Rome, and the wine of Cos was a favour- ' 
 80 
 
 ite beverage with the richer citizens. Hippo- 
 crates, the father of medicine, and Apelles, the 
 matchless master of his art, were natives of Cos. 
 
 CosA, and Cossa, or Cos^, a maritime town 
 of Etruria. Virg. JEn. 10, v. 168.— iw. 22, c. 
 W.—Cic. 9, Att. 6.—C(SS. B.C.I, c. 34. 
 
 Coss5:i, a people of Asia, inhabiting the 
 northern parts of the mountains which limit 
 Susiana towards the west, and on the southern 
 boundary of Media. The conquest of this peo- 
 ple by Alexander was the work of 40 days. 
 
 CossEA, a part of Persia. Diod. 17. 
 
 CosYRA, a barren island in the African sea, 
 near Melita. Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 567. 
 
 Cotes, and Cottes, a promontory of Mauri- 
 tania. 
 
 CoTHON, a small island, near the citadel of 
 Carthage, with a convenient bay, which served 
 for a dock-yard. Servlus in Virg. jEn. 1, v. 
 431.— Diod. 3. 
 
 CoTTiffi Alpes. Vid. Alpes. 
 
 Cragus, a woody mountain of Cilicia, part of 
 mount Taurus, sacred to Apollo, Ovid. Met. 
 9, V. 645.— Horat. 1, od. 21. 
 
 Crambijsa, a town of Lycia. 
 
 Grange, a small island in the Sinus Laconi- 
 cus. In this spot the Trojan Paris first stopped 
 with Helen to enjoy the fruits of his violated faith. 
 It is now called. Marathonisi, and is situate but 
 about 100 yards from the shore. Horn. II. 3, 442. 
 
 Cranii, one of the four principal tovms of 
 the island of Cephallenia. Its ruins manifest its 
 great antiquity, as they are all of that kind call- 
 ed Cyclopian. When the Messenians were 
 expelled from their country in the Peloponnesus 
 on the restoration of Pylos to their Spartan op- 
 pressors, the city of Cranii was chosen by the 
 Athenians as a proper place for the establish- 
 ment of those unfortunate exiles. 
 
 Cranon, and Crannon, a town of Thessaly, 
 on the borders of Macedonia, where Antipater 
 and Craterus defeated the Athenians after Alex- 
 ander's death. Liv. 26, c. 10, 1. 42, c. 64. 
 
 Crater. The bay between the Misenum 
 and Surentum promontories, on the coast of 
 Campania, now the Gulf of Naples, was called, 
 in antiquity. Crater, Campanus, and Puteolanus 
 Sinus. In the time of the geographer Strabo, 
 the coast was so thickly lined between the pro- 
 montories, with cities, villas, and villages, as 
 to present the appearance of an uninterrupted 
 settlement, or rather of a continued city. 
 
 CRATffls, I. a river which, rising in Arcadia, 
 ran across the whole width of Achaia, and emp- 
 tied into the Corinthia Sinus, at the to-wTi of 
 
 jEgae, nearly opposite the Crissasan bay. 
 
 II. Another, now Crati, in Lucania and the 
 country of the Brutii. The town of Thurii 
 stood upon its banks ; and according to SMane- 
 burne, it now empties into the Sybaris, though 
 supposed to have discharged itself formerly 
 south of that river into the Tarentine gulf. Its 
 waters were believed to whiten the hair of those 
 who bathed in them. This river derived its 
 name from the Crathis in Greece. Ovid. Met. 
 14, V. 315.— Paws. 7, c. 25.— Plin. 31, c. 2. 
 
 Cremera, now the Valca, a small river of 
 Tuscany, falling into the Tiber, famous for the 
 death of the 300 Fabii, who were killed there in 
 a battle against the Veientes, A. U. C. 277. 
 Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 205.— Jw-y. 2, v. 155. 
 
 Cremmyon, and Crommyon, a town near Co- 
 
CR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CR 
 
 rinth, where Theseus killed a sow of uncom- ' 
 mon bigness. Ovid. Met. 7, v. 435. 
 
 Cremni, and Cremna, I, a place at which 
 the Romans established a colony in Pisidia. — 
 The fortifications in part remain, upon an ele- 
 vated point, now Kebrinaz. 11. A commer- 
 cial place on the Palus Mseotis. Herodot. 4, c. 2, 
 
 Cremona, a town of Cisalpine Ganl, below 
 the mouth of the Addua upon the Po. In this 
 place, and at Placentia, the Romans first esta- 
 blished themselves beyond the limits of what 
 was then called Italy proper, on the north ; and 
 from these cities they expected to hold in check 
 the unmanageable inhabitants of these northern 
 regions. The native Gauls were only succeed- 
 ed in this important post by the Romans one 
 year before the descent of Hannibal upon Italy. 
 In the civil wars Cremona espoused the cause 
 of the republicans ; and the rapacity of the sol- 
 diers of Csesar Augustus was satisfied out of the 
 spoils of the city. After a period, the advan- 
 tages of its situation restored to Cremona its im- 
 portance and opulence ; but the wars of Vitel- 
 lius and Vespasian again reduced it, and, as 
 Tacitus observes, " destroyed a colony, which, 
 for 200 years, had flourished and prospered. — 
 Uninjured by foreign attacks, it fell a victim to 
 domestic war." In the middle ages Cremona 
 shared the fortunes of the republics that first 
 asserted their liberty against the pretensions of 
 the German emperors. Liv. 21, c. 56. — Tacit. 
 Hist. 3, c. 4 and 19. _ • 
 
 Crestojstia, a district of Mygdonia in Thrace, 
 in which the Pelasgi are said to have remained 
 after their gradual disappearance from Greece 
 and the bordering countries. This region alone 
 was reported to produce lions in Europe ; and 
 here the camels of Xerxes are said to have been 
 attacked by those animals. The name of the 
 principal city was Creston or Crestone. Some 
 authors write for Crestonia, Grsestonia. It is 
 now Caradach. Herodot. 5, c. 5. 
 
 Creta, an island of the Mediterranean Sea 
 south of the ./Egean. It "forms an irregular 
 parallelogram, of which the western side faces 
 Sicily, while the eastern faces towards Eg3rpt ; 
 on the north it is washed by the Mare Creti- 
 cum; and on the south by the Libyan Sea, 
 which intervenes between the island and the 
 opposite coast of Cyrene." Various estimates 
 have been made of the circumference of this 
 celebrated island; Pliny reports it at 270 miles 
 in length from east to west ; while in breadth 
 it nowhere exceeds 50. He gives a circumfer- 
 ence of about 539 miles. It is impossible to 
 fix the etymology of its name, but most authors 
 concur in assigning it to Cres, the son of Jupiter, 
 in the accounts of mythology. Many, however, 
 derive it " by a syncope or abbreviation from the 
 Curetes, the first inhabitants thereof, who, to- 
 gether with the Telchines, were priests of Cy- 
 bele, the principal goddess of this land." Till 
 the era of Minos, Crete was supposed by the 
 Greeks to have been occupied by a barbarous 
 race, called by Homer, Eteocretes ; confounded 
 by many theorists with the Curetes, the Dactyli, 
 and Telchines, concering whose origin and 
 character even poetry and mythology have not 
 invented a continuous account. The age of 
 Minos, or rather, perhaps, the ages of the two 
 monarchs who ruled in Crete under that name, 
 is most probably to be considered as the epoch 
 
 Part I.~L 
 
 of the first dawn of civilization in the isljind, 
 where it seems to have anticipated the improve- 
 ment of Greece in all the arts of life and gov- 
 ernment. The Dorians early established them- 
 selves in Crete ; and it is quite possible, that 
 when Lycurgus is said to hai'e introduced the 
 laws of Minos into Laconia, it was only meant 
 at first that he introduced from Crete, and from 
 other settlements, the institutions of the Dorians. 
 After the Trojan war, the principal cities of 
 Crete constituted themselves republics, and 
 were generally governed according to the prin- 
 ciples which they had proved under the more 
 ancient state of things, " The chief magistrates, 
 called Cosmi, were ten in number, and elected 
 annually. The Gerontes constituted the council 
 of the nation, and were selected from those who 
 were thought worthy of holding the office of 
 Cosmus." But though the Cretan are supposed 
 to have answered as a model for the Spartan 
 laws, there was this material difference in their 
 constitution, that while every regulation of the 
 Lacedaemonian lawgiver had in view the pre- 
 servation and dignity of an aristocracy, the cha- 
 racter of the institutions, called those of Minos, 
 was essentially democratic. The island of 
 Crete underwent fewer political vicissitudes 
 than the other states of Greece. It did not, in- 
 deed, fall under the Roman dominion till after 
 the Mithridatic war, and formed, when conque- 
 red, a part of the government of the proconsul of 
 Cyrenaica. The name of Hecatompolis, which 
 Homer bestows on it, was derived, as the word 
 imports, from a hundred cities contained in it, of 
 which forty were still remaining in the time of 
 Ptolemy. Gnossus was the capital, and the early 
 court of the kings. Scarcely any part of Greece 
 was more the subject of poetry than this island, 
 " the mistress of the sea ;" and the name of 
 mount Ida, which rose to a great elevation in 
 the centre of the island, recalls the whole histo- 
 ry of the genealogy of the gods. The natives 
 of Crete, however, enjoyed but a bad reputation 
 with the other Greeks ; and the 'Katnra KaKiara 
 was made as often to include with the Cilicians 
 and Cappadocians, the people of Crete as the 
 citizens of the voluptuous Corinth. Candia is 
 now the name of this island. Hot at. 1, od. 36, 
 V. 10, epod. 9. — Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 444. Epist. 
 10, V. \OQ.— Val. Max. 7, c. Q.—Strab. 10.— 
 Lnican. 3, v. 184.— Fir^. Mn. 3, v. 104.— ikfeZa, 
 2, c. l.—Plin. 4, c. n.—Cram. 
 
 Creticum mare, that part of the Mediter- 
 ranean which intervened between the island of 
 Crete and the south-eastern part of the Pelopon- 
 nesus. Cram. 
 
 Creusa, or Creusis, a port of Bceotia, the 
 harbour of Thespise, on the confines of the Me- 
 garean territory. Its position seems to corre- 
 spond with that of Livadostro. Cram. 
 
 Crtmisa, a promontory, river, and town, on 
 the eastern coast of the Brutian territory, now 
 called respectively Ca.po delV Alice, Fiwmeniea, 
 now Ciro. The city of Crimisa was said to 
 have been founded by Philoctetes, alter the siege 
 of Troy. At a much later period Crimisa is 
 supposed to have changed its name to Patemum. 
 Cram.—Strab. 6, 254. 
 
 Crissa, a town of Phocis, near Parnassus, 
 
 above Cirrha. It was especially famous for the 
 
 celebration of the Pythian games in its plain. 
 
 The malpractices of the Crissaeans induced the 
 
 81 
 
CR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CU 
 
 Amphictyons to destroy their town in the Cris- 
 saean or Sacred war. Sir W. Gell points out 
 the ruins of Crissa near an old church, situated 
 on the spot still called Crisso. Cram. — Strab. 
 9, ^\S.—Paus.—Phoc. 37. 
 
 Crissjbus sinus, a part of the Corinthiacus 
 Sinus, which took its name from the town of 
 Crissa. The western shore of this bay belong- 
 ed to the Locrians, the eastern to the Phocians. 
 Strabo sometimes appears to have applied the 
 name of this particular bay to the whole Corin- 
 thiacus Sinus. It is now the Gulf of Salona. 
 Cram.— Strab. S.— Thuc. 1, 107. 
 
 Criu-Metopon promontorium, now Cape 
 Crio, the south-western extremity of Crete, 125 
 miles distant from Phycus, a promontory of Cy- 
 
 renaica. Cram. Or the Ram's Forehead, 
 
 a promontory running far into the Euxine, 
 which terminates the Tauric Chersonese. It is 
 now called by the Turks Karadje-bourun, or the 
 Black Nose. D'Anville. 
 
 Crogius Campus, an extensive plaia in Thes- 
 saly, watered by the Amphrysus; doubtless 
 the tract to which Apollonius gives the appella- 
 tion of Athamantius. Cram. — Argon. 2, 513. 
 
 Crocodilopolis, a name of Arsttioe, near 
 lake Moeris. Vid. Arsinoe. 
 
 Crommyon, a place in the Saronic gulf in 
 Corinthia, from whose capital it was 120 stadia 
 distant. It was near the Megarean frontier, 
 and was celebrated as the haunt of a wild boar 
 destroyed by Theseus. Cram. — Plut. 
 
 Cromni, and Cromi, a town of Arcadia, 
 which gave name to the district Cromites. A 
 place of strength, according to Xenophon. Now 
 probably Crano. Cram. — Hell. 7, 4, 21. 
 
 Cronius mons, or the hill of Saturn, a mount 
 of Elis, on the summit of which, priests, called 
 Basilae, otFered sacrifices to the god every year 
 at the vernal equinox. Cram. 
 
 Croto, "now Crotone, on the little river 
 ^sarus, was one of the most celebrated and 
 powerful states of Magna Graecia. Its founda- 
 tion is ascribed to MyscelluSj an Achaean lead- 
 er soon after Sybaris had been colonized by a 
 party of the same nation, which was about 715 
 A, C. According to some traditions, however, 
 the origin of Croto was much more ancient, and 
 it was said to derive its name from the hero Cro- 
 ton. The residence of Pythagoras and his 
 most distinguished followers in this city toge- 
 ther with the overthrow of Sybaris which it ac- 
 complished, the exploits of Milo and several 
 other Crotoniat victors in the Olympic games, 
 contributed in a high degree to raise its fame. 
 Its climate also was proverbially excellent. This 
 town was also celebrated for its school of medi- 
 cine, and was the birth-place of Democedes, who 
 long enjoyed the reputation of being the first 
 physician in Greece." From the time of the 
 triumph over Sybaris, Croto began to languish, 
 in consequence of the increased love of luxury 
 exhibited by its inhabitants. " As a proof of 
 the remarkable change which took place in the 
 warlike spirit of this people, it is said that, on 
 their being subsequently engaged in hostilities 
 with t?ie Locrians, an army of 130,000 Croto- 
 niataewere routed by 10,000 of the enemy on 
 the banks of the Sagras. Dionysius the Elder 
 gained possession of the town, which he did not 
 long retain. When Pyrrhus invaded Italy, 
 Croto was still a considerable city, extending on 
 82 
 
 both sides of the river, and its walls embracing 
 a circumference of 12 miles. But the conse- 
 quences of its war with that king proved so 
 ruinous to its prosperity, that above one half its 
 extent became deserted." After the battle of 
 Cannae it surrendered to the Carthaginians, and 
 its inhabitants were allowed to withdraw to Lo- 
 cri. Cramer. — Strab. 6. — Diod. Sic. 4, 24. 
 
 Crustumerium, or Crustumium, a colony of 
 Alba, situated near the Tiber above Fidenae. Its 
 antiquity is attested by Virgil and Silius Italicus. 
 From this city, the ridge of which mons Sacer 
 formed a part, appears to have been called Crus- 
 tumini Colles ; since Varro, speaking of the se- 
 cession of the Roman people to that hill, terms 
 it Secessio Crustumina. The tribe called Crus- 
 tumina evidently owed its name to this city. Its 
 site is now probably occupied by Marcigliano 
 Vecchio. Cram. — Dion. Hal. 2, 53. — Liv. 1, 
 38; 42, 34. 
 
 Crustumius, a river of Umbria, flowing from 
 the Appenines into the Adriatic, between Ari- 
 minium and Pisaurum. It is now Conca. 
 
 Crypta, a passage through mount Pansily- 
 pus. Vid. Pansilypus. 
 
 Ctemene, or Ctimene, a town of Thessaly 
 belongiug to the ancient Dolopians. It is said 
 to have been ceded by Peleus, the father of 
 Achilles, to Phoenix, probably the Cymine of 
 Liyy. The name of Ctemene is still attached 
 to the site. Cram. — Apoll. Argon. 1, 67. 
 
 Ctenos, a port on the south side of the Cher- 
 sonesus Taurica, 
 
 Ctesiphon, a city on the Tigris, not far 
 from Seleucis, built by the Parthian monarchs 
 with the view of depopulating Babylon. It was 
 nearly opposite the ancient site of Coche. It 
 was first built by Vardanes, and afterwards 
 beautified and walled by Pacorus, who made it 
 a royal residence. It was several times assault- 
 ed by the Roman emperors, generally without 
 success; and, amongst others, by Julian the apos- 
 tate, who perished there. There is no doubt 
 that Ctesiphon was erected upon the ruins of a 
 still more ancient city, Calneh, in the land of 
 Shinar, {Gen. 10, 10.) The sites of Coche and 
 Ctesiphon are now called al-Modain, or the Two 
 Cities ; and in this last the ruins of an ancient edi- 
 fice are called Takt-Kesra, or the throne of Khos- 
 roes. D^Anville. — Heyl. Cosm. — Rosenmuller. 
 
 Cucusus, a town of Cappadocia, in the south- 
 eastern part of the province, now Cocson. It 
 was situated in one of the gorges of mount 
 Taurus, and is celebrated as the gloomy place 
 of exile of St. John Chrysostom. D'Anville. 
 
 CuLARO, a town of the Allobroges in Gaul, 
 called afterwards Gratianopolis, and now Gre- 
 noble. Cic. ep. 
 
 CuMA, CuMJE, and Cyme, I. the most pow- 
 erful of the ^olic colonies in Asia Minor. It 
 was situated on a bay called Cumsus Sinus, 
 and is now Nemourt. This city was the birth- 
 place of Ephorus, and the residence of the Si- 
 bylla Cumana, to be distinguished from the Si- 
 bylla Cumaea of Cumae in Italy. D'Anville. — 
 
 Heyl. Cosm. II. Another city of the same 
 
 name, in Campania, situated on a rocky hill 
 washed by the sea, near the peninsula which 
 terminates in the Misenum Promontorium, and 
 not far from the Avernian and Lucrine lakes. 
 " It is generally agreed that Cumae was found- 
 ed at a very early period by some Greeks of Eu- 
 
cu 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CY 
 
 boea, under the conduct of Hippocles of Cumae 
 and Megasthenes of Chalcis. The Latin poets, 
 with Virgil at their head, all distinguish Cumas 
 by the title of the Euboic city. The period at 
 which Cumae was founded is stated in the Chro- 
 nology of Eusebius to have been about 1050 
 A. C. that is, a few years before the great mi- 
 gration of the lonians into Asia Minor." In 
 ihe 228th year of Rome the Cumseans compel- 
 led the Etruscans, who sought to establish them- 
 selves in the south, to abandon the siege of their 
 city ; and twenty years later, Aristodemus, the 
 CumEean leader, defeated and slew Aruns, the 
 son of the Etruscan Porcenna. Shortly after, 
 Aristodemus usurped the chief command in his 
 native city, and held it 15 years, till deposed 
 and slain. Tarquinius Superbus died at Cumae 
 A. U. C. 259. " Here was the cavern of the 
 Sibyl, or the temple of Apollo : it consisted of 
 one vast chamber, hewn out of the solid rock ; 
 but was almost entirely destroyed in a siege 
 which the fortress of Cumae, then in the pos- 
 session of the Goths, maintained against Nar- 
 ses ; that general, by undermining the cavern, 
 caused the citadel to sink into the hollow, and 
 thus involved the whole in one common ruin. 
 The ruins of Cumae still bear the ancient name, 
 and are at the foot of the hill on which the city 
 was built." Cram. — Strab. 5, 243. — Virg. Mn. 
 6, 2, ^%—Liv. 2, 21, 34 ; 4, 44; 8, 14 ; 23, 31, 37. 
 
 CtJMANUs SINUS, a name of the Bay of Na- 
 ples, otherwise called Crater and Puteolanus 
 Sinus. 
 
 CuNAXA, a place of Assyria, 500 stadia from 
 Babylon, famous for a battle fought there be- 
 tween Artaxerxes and his brother Cyrus the 
 younger, B. C. 401. Mnemon probably occu- 
 pies the site of the ancient place, " immediately 
 preceding a canal of communication between 
 the Euphrates and Tigris. This canal is what, 
 in the march of Julian, is called Macepracta, 
 after the Syriac Maifarckin, denoting a deriva- 
 tion by the means of a canal." D^Anville. — 
 Plut. in Artax. — Ctesias. 
 
 CuNEUs, " the wedge," a name given to the 
 south-western extremity of Lusitania. It is 
 now Algarve, from Garb, the Arabic for " west." 
 D^Anville. 
 
 CupRA Maritima, I. a town of Picenum on 
 the coast ; according to Strabo, an establishment 
 of the Etruscans, who worshipped Juno under 
 
 the name of Cupra. II. Montana, another 
 
 town of Picenum, on the left bank of the iEsis, 
 called Montana from its situation on the moun- 
 tains. Cram. 
 
 Cures, a city of the Sabines, on the Via 
 Salaria, " celebrated as having communicated 
 the name of duirites to the Romans, and dis- 
 tinguished also as having given birth to Numa 
 Pompilius. Antiquaries are divided as to the 
 site occupied by the ancient Cures. — Cluverius 
 places it at Ve&covio di Sabina, about 25 miles 
 from Rome. The opinion of Holstenius ought, 
 however, to be preferred ; he fixes it at Correse, 
 a little town with a river of the same name." 
 Cram.— Strab. 5, 228.— Varr.—JEn. 6, 811 : 8, 
 637. 
 
 CuRETES. Vid. jEtolia, and Part III. 
 
 CuRETis, a name given to Crete, as being the 
 residence of the Curetes. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 136. 
 
 Curia. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Curias, a promontory which divides the 
 
 southern shore of Cyprus into two parts. It is 
 now called Gavata, or della Gatte. D'Anville. 
 
 CURI0S0LIT.E, a people of Armorica, bound- 
 ed on the east by the territory of the Ambibari 
 and Rhedones ; on the south by that of the Ve- 
 neti ; on the west by that of the Osismii and 
 Lemovices ; on the north by the ocean. Their 
 district is now the Department-des-Cotes-du- 
 Nord. Lem.—CcES. Bell. G. 2, c. 34, 1. 3, c. 11. 
 
 Curium, a town of Cyprus, probably now 
 Piscopia. D^Anville. 
 
 CuTiLi.aE, an aboriginal town in the Sabine 
 territory, to the east of Reate, on the right bank 
 of the Velinus. " It was celebrated for its lake, 
 now Pozzo Ratignano, and the floating island 
 on its surface. This lake was farther distin- 
 guished by the appellation of Umbilicus, or cen- 
 tre of Italy. Cutiliae is noticed by Strabo for 
 its mineral waters, which were accounted salu- 
 tar}'' for many disorders : they failed, however, 
 in their efiect upon Vespasian, who died here." 
 Cram.— Dion. Hal. 1, 14; 2, 49.— Plin. 2, 95. 
 — Varr. ap Plin. 3, 12. 
 
 Cyane^e, now the Pavonare, two rugged isl- 
 ands at the entrance of the Euxine Sea, about 
 20 stadia from the mouth of the Thracian Bos- 
 phorus. One of them is on the side of Asia, 
 and the other on the European coast ; and, ac- 
 cording to Strabo, there is only a space of 20 
 furlongs between them. The waves of the sea. 
 which continually break against thenj with a 
 violent noise, fill the air with a darkening foam, 
 and render the passage extremely dangerous. 
 The ancients supposed that the these islands 
 floated, and even sometimes united to crush 
 vessels into pieces when they passed through 
 the straits. This tradition arose from their ap- 
 pearing, like all other objects, to draw nearer 
 when navigators approached them. They were 
 sometimes called Symplegades and Planetcc. 
 Their true situation and form was first explored 
 and ascertained by the Argonauts. Plin. 6, c. 
 12. — Herodot. 4, c. 85. — Apollon. 2, v. 317 and 
 m).—lAjcoph. 1285.— Strab. 1 and 3.— Mela, 2, 
 c. l.—Ovid. Trist. 1, el. 9, v. 34. 
 
 Cyglades, a name given to certain islands 
 of the -^gean Sea that surrounded Delos as with 
 a circle; whence the name {kvk'Xos, circulus.') 
 " Strabo writes that the Cyclades were at first 
 only twelve in number, but were afterwards in- 
 creased to fifteen. These, as we learn from 
 Artemidorus, where Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, 
 Melos, Siphnos, Cimolos, Prepesinthos Olearos, 
 Paros, Naxos, Syros, Myconos, Tenos, Andros, 
 and Gyaros ; which last, however, Strabo him- 
 self was desirous of excluding, from its being a 
 mere rock, as also Prepesinthos and Olearos." 
 Thera, Anaphe, and Astjrpalasa are by some as- 
 signed to the Cyclades, by others to the Spo- 
 rades. " It appears from the Greek historians, 
 that the Cyclades were first inhabited by the 
 Phoenicians, Carians, and Leleges, whose pi- 
 ratical habits rendered them formidable to the 
 cities on the continent, till they were conquered 
 and finally extirpated by Minos. These islands 
 were subsequently occupied for a short time by 
 Poly crates, tyrant of Samos, and the Persians ; 
 but after the battle of Mycale they became de- 
 pendent on Athens." Cram. — Strab. 10. — 
 Plin. 4, 12.— Thucyd. 1,4, and 94.— Herodot. 
 1, 171 ; 5, 28. 
 
 Cydnus, a river of Cilicia near Tarsus, where 
 83 
 
CY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CY 
 
 Alexander bathed when covered with sweat. 
 The consequences proved ahnost fatal to the 
 monarch. The Cydnus rose in mount Tau- 
 rus, and emptied itself into the sea below Tar- 
 sus, forming by its expansion the port of that 
 city. According to Paul Lucas, the Cydnus is 
 now called MeriJbafa or Sinduos ; at least he 
 thus styles the river on the banks of which he 
 fixes the ruins of Tarsus. Facciolati gives the 
 modern name as Carasu. D'Anville. — Chaus- 
 sard. — Curt. 3, c. 4. — Justin. 11, c, 8. 
 
 Cydonu, " one of the most ancient and im- 
 portant cities of Crete, probably founded by the 
 Cydones of Homer, whom Strabo considered as 
 indigenous. But Herodotus ascribes its origin 
 to a party of Samians, who, having been exiled 
 by Polycrates, settled in Crete when they had 
 expelled the Zacynthians. Six years afterwards, 
 the Samians were conquered in a naval engage- 
 ment by the iEginetae and Cretans, and reduc- 
 ed to captivity ; the town then probably revert- 
 ed to its ancient possessors, the Cydonians. In 
 the Peloponnesian war we find it engaged in 
 hostilities with the Gortynians, who were as- 
 sisted by an Athenian squadron. At a later 
 period it formed an alliance with the Gnossians. 
 Diodorus reports that Phalaecus, the Phocian 
 general, after the termination of the Sacred 
 War, attacked Cydonia, and was killed, with 
 most of his troops, during the siege. The ruins 
 of this ancient city are to be seen on the site of 
 JeramV Cram. — Herodot, 3, 59. — TJiucyd. 2, 
 m.—Liv. 37, 60. 
 
 Cyllene, I. " the loftiest and most celebrat- 
 ed mountain of Arcadia, which rises between 
 Stymphalus and Pheneus, on the borders of 
 Achaia. It was said to take its name from Cyl- 
 len, the son of Elatus, and was, according to the 
 poets, the birth-place of Mercury, to whom a 
 temple was dedicated on the summit. The per- 
 pendicular height of this mountain was esti- 
 mated by some ancient geographers at 20 stadia, 
 by others at 15. The modern name is Zyria. A 
 neighbouring mountain was called Chelydonea, 
 from the circumstance of Mercury having found 
 there the tortoise shell from which he construct- 
 ed the lyre." Cram. — Pans. — Strab. 8. II. 
 
 The haven of Elis, was situated 120 stadia from 
 that town, and to the west of Cape Araxus. 
 Pausanias, who agrees with Strabo in regard to 
 the above distance, is not, however, correct in af- 
 firming that Cyllene looked towards Sicily ; for 
 in that case it must have stood on the western, 
 instead of the northern, coast of Elis : whereas 
 all accounts concur m fixing its site between 
 the two promontories of Aruxas and Chelonatas, 
 on the shore facing the north. Pausanias, per- 
 haps, only meant that this was the usual place 
 of embarkation for those who sailed from Pelo- 
 ponnesus to Sicily and Italy. He also informs 
 us, that at an early period CJyllene was the em- 
 porium to which the Arcadians conveyed the 
 goods which they disposed of to the merchants 
 of ^gina ; and elsewhere states that its name 
 was derived from an Arcadian chief. Dionysius 
 Perigetes indeed affirms that it was the port 
 from which the Pelasgi sailed on their expedi- 
 tions into Italy. The ruins of Cyllene have ge- 
 nerally been looked upon as corresponding with 
 some slight remains of antiquity visible at Chia- 
 renza, once a flourishing town under the domi- 
 nation of the Venetians, to the south-east of 
 .84 
 
 cape Tornese. But the distance between this 
 place and Palaiopoli or Elis, does not agree with 
 that assigned by Strabo and Pausanias, being 
 considerably more than 120 stadia according to 
 the best modern maps. Cram. — Strab. 8 — 
 Pans. El. 2, 26. Arc. b.—Dian. Per. 347. 
 
 Cyma, or Cyme. Vid Cuvicc. 
 
 CYN.ETHA, a town of Arcadia, situated 
 among the mountains. It had been united to 
 the Achaean league, but was betrayed to the 
 iEtolians in the Social War, and the inhabitants 
 massacred without distinction. " Polybius ob- 
 serves that the calamity which thus overwhelm- 
 ed the Cyngethians, was considered as a just 
 punishment for their depraved and immoral 
 conduct, their city forming a striking exception 
 to the estimable character of the Arcadians in 
 general, who were esteemed a pious, humane, 
 and sociable people. Polj'-bius accounts for this 
 moral phenomenon from the neglect into which 
 music had fallen among the Cynssthians. The 
 historian adds, that such was the abhorrence 
 produced in Arcadia by the conduct of the 
 Cynaethians, that, after a great massacre which 
 took place among them, many of the towns re- 
 fused to admit their deputies, and the Manti- 
 neans, who allowed them a passage through 
 their city, thought it necessary to perform lus- 
 tral rites and expiatory sacrifices in every part 
 of their territory. Near the town was a foun- 
 tain named Alyssus, from the nature of its wa- 
 ters, which were said to cure hydrophobia. 
 Cynaetha is supposed to have stood near the 
 modern town of Calabryta." 
 
 Cynesii, and Cyneta-, a nation of the re- 
 motest shores of Europe, towards the ocean. 
 Herodot. 2, c. 33. 
 
 Cynosarges, a place in the suburbs of Athens. 
 Vid. Athena. 
 
 CYNOSGEPHAL.E, I. hills of Thcssaly, forming 
 part of the range that separated the plains of 
 Pharsalia from that of Larissa. These hills were 
 the memorable scene of two celebrated conflicts. 
 Alexander, the tyrant of Phers, was defeated 
 here by Pelopidas, the Theban genera], who lost 
 his life in the engagement. And here Philip 
 of Macedon was defeated by T. Cluinctius Fla- 
 minius. Gillies. — Cram. — Strab. '^^ 441. — Liv. 
 33, 6. II. A town of BoBotia, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of ThespiaB, taken by the Spartans 
 previous to the battle of Leuctra. Cram. 
 
 Cynoscephali, a people in India, who have 
 the heads of dogs according to certain tradi- 
 tions. Plin. 7, 2. 
 
 Cynthus, a mountain of Delos, now Cirdhia. 
 Apollo was surnamed Cynthius, and Diana 
 Cynthia, as they were born on the mountain, 
 which was sacred to them. Virg. G. 3, v. 36. 
 —Ovid. 6, Met. v. 304. Fast. 3, v. 346. 
 
 Cynuria, a district lying between Argolis 
 and Laconia, on the Argolicus Sinus. " Its in- 
 habitants were an ancient race, accounted indi- 
 genous by Herodotus, but belonging probably to 
 the Leleges or the Pelasgi." The possession of 
 this district caused continual hostilities between 
 the Spartans and Argives. Thyrea was the 
 principal town of Cynuria. Vid. Thyrea. Cram. 
 —Herodot. 8, 73. 
 
 Cynus, " At a distance of ninety stadia from 
 Daphnus, and opposite to CEdepsus, a town of 
 Euboea, was Cynus, theprincipal maritime city 
 of the Opuntian Locri. According to ancient 
 
CY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CY 
 
 traditions, it had long been the residence of 
 Deucalion and Pyrrha ; that princess was even 
 said to have been interred there." The city- 
 was taken by Attains, king of Pergamus, ia the 
 Macedonian war. Cram. — Strab. 9, 425. — 
 Liv. 28, 6. 
 
 Cyprus, an island in the eastern corner of 
 the Mediterranean Sea, south of Cilicia, from 
 which it was separated by the Aulon Cilicius, 
 and west of Syria, from which, according to 
 Pliny, it was severed by the action of the sea.' 
 No place in antiquity was known by a greater 
 number of names than this island, many of 
 them of a less disputed origin than that by 
 which it was most generally known, and which 
 prevailed over all the rest. The opinion adopt- 
 ed byD'Anville is generally received,and leaves 
 the etymology as open to useless discussion as 
 before. " It is thought that its mines of copper 
 caused it to be called Kupros, or rather that this 
 metal owes the name which distinguishes it to 
 that of the island. Its other names are thus re- 
 corded and accounted for by the old antiquary 
 and chorographer, Heylin. Cyprus, " called at 
 first Cethinia, from Ketim, the son of Javan, 
 who first planted it ; 2. Cerastis, from the abun- 
 dance of promontories, thrustiag like horns into 
 the sea; 3. Amathusia; 4. Paphia; 5. Sala- 
 mina, from its principal towns; 6. Macaria, 
 from its fruitfulness and felicities ; 7. Asperia, 
 from the roughness of the soil ; 8. Collinia, from 
 the frequency of hills and mountains ; 9. ^ro- 
 sa, from, the mines of brass which abound there- 
 in ; and, finally, all those forgotten or laid by, it 
 settled at last in the name of Cyprus. Nor is it 
 more strange that Cyprus should be so called by 
 the Grecians from its a.bundance of cypress 
 trees, anciently and originally peculiar to this 
 island, than that the same Greeks should give 
 unto the neighbouring island the name of 
 Rhodes, from its great plenty of roses." The 
 Phoenicians early established themselves in Cy- 
 prus, the Greek settlement being effected later, 
 and not before the termination of the Trojan 
 war. A separate government was generally 
 established in each of the populous cities, but 
 the larger eastern empires early exercised the 
 power of ultimate sovereignty over the whole. 
 The Persians organized nine principalities. 
 From their hands it passed into those of Alex- 
 ander, and the contest of his successors settled 
 it on Ptolemy, and united it to the Alexandrian 
 kingdom of Egypt. In the time of Ptolemy Au- 
 letes the Romans possessed themselves of this 
 island, and in their power it remained till the 
 dissolution of the unwieldy empire. During the 
 crusades, the king of England, Richard Coeur 
 de Lion, reduced it, first to the obedience of the 
 knights templars, and afterwards to that of Lu- 
 signan, the titular monarch of Jerusalem. This 
 event occurred about the year 1191, and, until 
 1570, it remained an independent state with 
 some interval of subjection to Venice. About 
 that year, however, it was reduced by the Turks, 
 and has continued in their possession to the pre- 
 sent day. The ancient towns of note were Sa- 
 lamis, the principal ; Citium, the birth-place of 
 Zeno; Amathus, sacred to Venus; Paphos, 
 Ledra, now Nicosia, the present capital, in the 
 centre of the isle ; Idalium, the groves of which 
 are celebrated in poetry : 
 
 ' foium gretmo dea tollit in altos 
 
 Malice lucos : ubi mollis amaricus ilium 
 Floribus et dulci adspirans complectiPur umbra.^ 
 
 " The ancients," says Malte-Brun, " extol 
 the fertility of this island; the moderns entertain 
 nearly the same opinion of it. The most valua- 
 ble production at present is cotton ; we also send 
 thither for turpentine, building timber, oranges, 
 and most of all, Cyprus wine. The inhabitants 
 of Cj'prus are a fine race of men ; the women, 
 by the vivacity of their large eyes, seem to de- 
 clare how faithful they are still to the worship of 
 Venus. This island anciently had perhaps a 
 million of inhabitants ; it has now only 83,000." 
 The rivers of Cyprus were all inconsiderable 
 streams, frequently dry during the warmer 
 months. The principal, however, were the Ly- 
 cus and the Lapithus, running from Momit 
 Olpnpus, now Santa Croce, the highest moun- 
 tain of the island of which it occupies almost the 
 centre. It has been celebrated for giving birth 
 to Venus, surnamed Cypris, who was the chief 
 deity of the place, and to whose service many 
 places and temples were consecrated. Its 
 length, according to Strabo, is 1400 stadia. 
 There were three celebrated temples there, two 
 sacred to Venus and the other to Jupiter. Strab. 
 Ih.—Ptol. 5, c. U.—Flor. 3, c. d.— Justin. 18, 
 c. b.—Plin. 12, c. 24, 1. 33, c. 5, 1. 36, c. 26.~ 
 Mela, 2, c. 7. 
 
 Cyrenaica, a part of Africa, north of Libya 
 Inferior, bounded on the east by Marmarica, 
 and on the west by Africa Propria, the Carthagi- 
 nian territory. The name of Cyrenaica is deri- 
 ved from its principal city Cyrene ; though Pli- 
 ny and some others call it P.entapolis, from its 
 five cities of Cyrene, Ptolemais, Barce, Darnis, 
 and Berenice. Gillies, in his history of Greece, 
 has given a brief outline of the first Greek set- 
 tlement in this part of Africa, till their arrival 
 the habitation of a savage race, if inhabited at 
 all. " The African Geeeks were a colony of 
 Thera, the most southern island of the ^gean, 
 and itself a colony of the Lacedaemonians. Du- 
 ring the heroic ages, but it is uncertain at what 
 precise era, the adventurous islanders settled in 
 that part of the Sinus Syrticus which derived 
 its name from the principal city Cyrene, and 
 which is now lost in the desert of Barca. De- 
 scended from the Lacedaemonians, the Cyrene- 
 ans naturally preserved the regal form of go- 
 vernment. Under Battus, the third prince of 
 that name, their territory was well cultivated, 
 and their cities populous and flourishing. Six 
 centuries before the Christian era they received 
 a considerable accession of population from the 
 mother country. Emboldened by this reinforce- 
 ment, they attacked the neighbouring Libyans 
 and seized on their possessions. The injured 
 craved assistance from Apries, king of Eg}'pt. 
 a confederacy was thus formed, in order to re- 
 press the incursions and to chastise the auda- 
 city of the European invaders. But the valour 
 and discipline of the Greeks always triumphed 
 over the numbers and ferocity of Africa ; nor 
 did Cyrene become tributary to Egypt till Egypt 
 itself had been subdued by a Grecian king, and 
 the sceptre of the Pharaohs and of Sesostris 
 had passed into the hands of the Ptolemies."' 
 In the time of Augustus, the Cyrenaica was in- 
 corporated, together with the island of Cretej 
 85 
 
CY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CY 
 
 into one province, but they were afterwards se- 
 parated, and Cyrenaica constituted a proviuce 
 apart. A fit conclusion to this brief review of 
 its ancient state will be found in the sketch of 
 its present condition by Malte-Brun. " The 
 country of Barca is the first that comes in our 
 way on leaving Egypt. Some call it a desert, 
 and the interior coimtry merits that name; oth- 
 ers call it a kingdom, an appellation founded 
 on the existence of this country as the indepen- 
 dent kingdom of Gyrene, governed by a branch 
 of the Ptolemies. The coasi of Barca, once 
 famed for its threefold crops, is now very ill 
 cultivated ; the wandering tribes of the desert 
 allow no rest to the inhabitants, or security to 
 their labours. The sovereignty is divided be- 
 tween two Beys, one of whom resides at Derne^ 
 a town surrounded with gardens and watered 
 by refreshing rivulets ; his subjects may amount 
 to 30,000 tents or families. The other lives at 
 Bengazi, a town of 10,000 houses, with a tolera- 
 ble harbour in a fertile territory. The Bey of 
 Tripoli, appoints these governors. Among the 
 magnificent ruins of Gyrene, the limpid spring 
 still flows from which the city had its name. A 
 tribe of Arabs pitches its tents amidst its sadly 
 mutilated statues and falling colonnades. Tolo- 
 meta, or the ancient Ptolemais, the port of Bm- 
 ca, preserves its ancient walls. This coast seems 
 to hold out an invitation to European colonies. 
 It seems to be the property of no government or 
 people. A colony established here would re- 
 discover those beautiful places which the an- 
 cients surnamed the hills of the Graces and the 
 garden of the Hesperides." D'Anville, corrob- 
 orated by modern travellers, informs us that the 
 cities from which the Gyrenaica received the 
 name Pentapolis are still extant in Tolometa, 
 Barca, Derne, and Bernie, or Bengazi ; while 
 Teuchira, which under the Ptolemies was Ar- 
 sinoe, "is found in its primitive denomination 
 on the same shore." Mela, 1, 8. — Herod. 4, 19. 
 
 Gyrene, the capital of Gyrenaica. Ptolemy 
 places it eleven miles from the sea, and ten from 
 Apollonia, which served as its port, on the bor- 
 ders of Marmarica. The Gyreneans became 
 " so expert," says Heylin, " in the management 
 of the chariot, that they could drive it in a 
 round or circle, and always keep their wheels 
 in the self-same track." Gyrene was the birth- 
 place of Eratosthenes, of Gallimachus, " and of 
 that Joseph whom the Jews compelled to carry 
 our Saviour's cross." Vid. Part III. Herodot. 
 3 and \.—Paus. 10, c. n.—Strah. VI.— Mela, 
 1, c. S.—Plin. 5, c. b.— Tacit. Arm. 3, c. 70. 
 
 Gyropolis, a city built by Gyrus, was situa- 
 ted on the river laxartes in Sogdiana, D'An- 
 ville calls it Cyreschata. It was, according to 
 Strabo, the last city in the north of the Persian 
 empire. Chaussard. 
 
 Cyrrhestica, a district of Syria, so termed 
 from Cyrrhus, its chief town, which was situa- 
 ated at the foot of the mountains north of Beria, 
 and which still exists imder the name of Corns. 
 D'Anville. 
 
 Gyrrhus. Thucydides (2, 100,) calls this 
 a town of Macedonia, situate near Pella, men- 
 tioned in Ptolemy's list of Emathian towns un- 
 der the name of Gyrius. Palao Castro, about 
 sixteen miles north-west of Pella, is very likely 
 the site of ancient Cyrrhus. This city proba- 
 bly gave name to the Syrian city. Cram, 
 86 
 
 Gyrus, a large river of Iberia, which, rising 
 in the mountains on the frontier of Armenia, 
 pursues, for some time, a north-easterly course. 
 At length, after traversing nearly the whole ex- 
 tent of Iberia, and forming part of the bounda- 
 ry between that country and Albania, it dis- 
 charges itself into the Caspian Sea, by two 
 mouths. The modern name of this river is 
 Kur. D'Anville. 
 
 Cyta, a town of Colchis, situated on the 
 river Rheon, celebrated as being the birth-place 
 of Medea ; hence the term Cytseis applied to 
 her by Propertius, and Cytasa Terra for Col- 
 chis. Val. Flac. 
 
 Cythera, now Cerigo, an island of the Med- 
 iterranean, lying off" the southern coast of La- 
 conia, about 5 miles from the promontory of 
 Malea. — It was once called Porphyris, either 
 from the purple fish found on its shores, or the 
 marble in which it abounded. Cythera, how- 
 ever, is as old as the time of Homer. This isl- 
 and was governed by an annual magistrate, call- 
 ed Cytherodices, appointed by the Spartans, on 
 whom it was dependant. Great importance 
 was attached to the possession of this island, as 
 it afibrded to the Lacedaemonians safe harbours 
 for their fleets, and to an enemy great facilities 
 in prosecuting a war against Laconia ; so much 
 so, that Ghilon, the Lacedaemonian sage, declar- 
 ed it would be well for Sparta if that island 
 were sunk in the deep. After circumstances 
 proved these apprehensions not unfounded ; Ni- 
 cias, with an Athenian force, seized upon this 
 place in the Peloponnesian war, and greatly an- 
 noyed the Spartans, " by landing on the coast, 
 ravaging the country, and cutting ofi" detach- 
 ments." The island was restored to the Lace- 
 daemonians after the battle of Amphipolis, but 
 was again taken by Gonon after the defeat of 
 the Spartan fleet off" Gnidus. Hither Venus is 
 said to have been wafted in a sea-shell, after her 
 fabled birth from the ocean ; whence her sur- 
 name Cytherea. There was a temple sacred to 
 Venus Urania in this place, the most ancient 
 dedicated to her by the Greeks. In this temple 
 the goddess weis represented in complete ar- 
 mour. Its principal town was Cythera, situat- 
 ed opposite Malea, about ten stadia from the 
 sea, which had a harbour called Scandea. Pav^ 
 san. — Lacon. 23. Phcenicus is another har- 
 bour of this island, probably the modern Ante- 
 mono or San Nicholo. Platanistus its chief 
 promontory, is now Cape Spati. — Cram. — Heyl. 
 Cosm.—Odyss. 1, Q{}.— Herod. 7, 285.— TAwc. 
 4, 53 and 55; 5, 18.— Diod. Sic. 15, 442. 
 
 Cythnus, one of the Cyclades, lying between 
 Geos and Seriphos, now called Thermia. Here 
 the pretender Nero is said first to have made 
 his appearance. It was colonized by the Dry- 
 opes ; hence the name Dryopis applied to the 
 island Cram. — Herod. 8, 46. 
 
 Cytineum, one of the four cities which gave 
 the name Tetrapolis to Doris. St/rab. 9.— 
 Thuc. 1, 107. 
 
 Cytorus, a town and mountain of Paphla- 
 gonia, situated west of the promontory of Ga- 
 rambis. Strabo says it was a colony of the 
 Milesians and the port of Sinope. It was built 
 by Cytorus, son of Phryxus. The mountain 
 abounded in boxwood of a peculiar quality. 
 The modem name is Kudros or Kitros. Mela^ 
 I, 19.—Strab. 11.— Virg. Gear. % 247. 
 
DA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 D^ 
 
 Cyzjcus, a town of Mysia, situated on an 
 island of the same name in the Propontis, con- 
 nected to the main land by two bridges built by 
 Alexander, This city was founded by a colony 
 of Milesians, and soon rose to such splendour 
 as to be styled by Florus the " Rome of Asia." 
 It was adorned with many splendid edifices, 
 among which was a magnificent temple, " the 
 pillars whereof being 4 cubits thick and 50 cu- 
 bits high, were each of one entire stone only ; 
 the whole fabric all of polished marble, every, 
 stone joined unto- the other with a line of gold." 
 Heyl. Cosm. The whole Peloponnesian fleet 
 was captured oflfthis place by Alcibiades, A. 
 C. 411. Mithridates laid siege to this city, and 
 though he "lost before it, by sword, pestilence, 
 and famine, no fewer than 30,000 men, did not 
 succeed in his attempt." In later times this city 
 was the metropolis of the province of Helles- 
 pont. The channel between the island and the 
 maia land has become blocked up with the rub- 
 bish, and the city itself was finally destroyed by 
 an earthquake. Cyzicus is the name still ap- 
 plied to the ruins, which, in the words of Hey- 
 lin, are daily made more ruinous by the stones 
 and marbles being transported to Constantino- 
 ple. The inhabitants of this city gave rise to 
 two proverbs of different characters : from their 
 efleminacy and tmiidity arose Tinctura Cyze- 
 nica ; • and from the beauty of their coins, kv^l- 
 Kj)voL cTarnptg. Heyl. Cosm. — D^Anville. It has 
 two excellent harbours, called Panormus and 
 Chytus. Flor. 3, b.—Plin. 5, d2.—Diod. 18. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dam, and Dahje, a Scythian people, dwell- 
 ing south of the Ochus in Hyrcania. Noma- 
 dic in their character, the Dahae, under various 
 names, encroached upon the territories of the 
 neighbouring nations, and sometimes spread 
 themselves to a great distance from their proper 
 settlements. The principal branches were the 
 Xanti, the Pissuri, andthePamiorApami. The 
 best authorities confine this people within the 
 left bank of the Ochus, though Arrian places 
 them on the laxartes, which he took for the Ta- 
 nais. Their country is now the Dahestan. 
 
 Dacia, the extensive coimtry reaching from 
 the Euxine Sea, on the north of that part of the 
 Danube which was called Ister,to the Tibiscus, 
 and having on its northern line Sarmatia {Po- 
 land) and the unexplored regions of the barba- 
 rians, was inhabited by a people called Getae 
 and Daci, of Scythian origin. The former name 
 prevailed, for the most part, among the Greeks, 
 and the latter among the Romans. During the 
 years of the republic, and for some time after the 
 establishment of the empire, their territory, se- 
 parated by the Danube from that which had ac- 
 knowledged the Roman supremacy, offered little 
 attraction to the imperial or consular leaders ; 
 and the Danube, while it bounded the Roman 
 ambition on the north, seemed to offer a barrier 
 beyond which this formidable name should in- 
 spire no terror. In the reign of Trajan their 
 barbarism, and the ignorance of their country 
 which prevailed among the civilized people of 
 Italy, no longer availed them, and attempts were 
 made upon their territory by the arms of the 
 empire. This reign includes the history, there- 
 fore, of the principal war with the Dacians ; of 
 
 the obstinate resistance offered by their kiag 
 Decebalus to the attacks of the emperor ; of his 
 subjugation; and of the reduction of Dacia to 
 the condition of a province. In these wars was 
 erected that famous bridge over the Danube, 
 near the to\^Ti of Zemes, which the jealousy or 
 the fear of the successor of Trajan destroyed, 
 and the ruins of which have excited the admi- 
 ration of the modems. After this conquest the 
 term of Dacia assumed its greatest latitude; 
 and the vanity of the conqueror was pleased to 
 fix his name to a province that carried the limits 
 of his empire beyond the researches of authen- 
 tic geography. The colonies then planted by 
 order of this aspiring prince, are supposed, by 
 mingling with the former inhabitants, to have 
 generated that peculiar dialect called Daco-La- 
 tin, of which some traces remain in the idiom of 
 the Wallachians. If the conquest of this coim- 
 try added splendour to the Roman name, the 
 maintenance of its borders against the barba- 
 rians, who, in these days began to encroach on 
 the limits of the empire, was found to be, on 
 the contrary, at the same time useless and im- 
 possible, the moderation af Aurelian conse- 
 quently induced him to forego the empt}' advan- 
 tage of a nominal extent of territory, over which 
 he could not exercise an actual government; 
 and removing the population of Dacia, in a 
 great measure, to the right bank of the Danube, 
 he gave his own name to that part of Moesia 
 which lay eastward from the Margus, and to- 
 wards the borders of Scythia Minor, calling it 
 Dacia Aureliani. Of this province, the part that 
 bordered on the river was called Dacia Ripen- 
 sis, while that w^hich coniined upon Macedonia 
 received the name of Dardariia. In its greatest 
 extent Dacia comprehended the modem cotm- 
 tries of Hungary east of the Teiss, Transylva- 
 nia, with the Bannat, Wallachia, and Moldavia : 
 its capital being Sarmizegethusa, the residence 
 of king Decebalus. On the reduction of the 
 province by Trajan, this city assumed his name 
 in that of Ulpia Trajana. The western part of 
 Dacia was inhabited by a different race of men, 
 who, coming from Sarmatia, fixed themselves 
 between the Roman province of Dacia on one 
 side of the Danube, and Pannonia on the other. 
 These were the Jazyges Metanastse. Aurelian's 
 Dacia included chiefly a part of Bulgaria and 
 Servia. The people inhabiting this region were 
 called Getae and Daci, generally considered, 
 having been different only in their geographi- 
 cal situation, in the country which they both 
 inhabited, and having one language and similar 
 customs, &c. But it does not seem improbable 
 that the Getse were the earlier possessors of 
 the land, and that the Daci subsequently esta- 
 blished themselves in it, and obtained there 
 greatly the ascendancy. They were, most pro- 
 babl)'-, of Scythian origin, differing in the set- 
 tlement and migration in regard to time, and 
 both in a great measure superseded by the 
 Goths, a still later people from the common 
 Scythian hive. The names Geta and Davus, 
 supposed to be the same as Dacus, conferred in 
 all the Greek and Latin comedies upon the ser- 
 vants and slaves, may serve to show how early 
 the Daci and Getae were kno"WTi in Greece and 
 Rome, and in what estimation the character of 
 these barbarians was held. 
 DsiDALA, a mountain and city of Lycia, 
 87 
 
DA 
 
 GEOGRAPfiY. 
 
 DA 
 
 where Daedalus was buried, according to Pliny, 
 5,27. 
 
 Dalmatia, one of the provinces into which 
 Illyria was subdivided. On the west it was se- 
 parated from Liburnia by the Titius; the Scar- 
 dus range of mountains confined it on the east ; 
 on the north were the Bebii montes ; and on the 
 south the waters of the Adriatic Sea. " The 
 country, in the time of the Romans, was full of 
 woods, and those woods of robbers, who from 
 thence issued out to make spoil and booty. 
 Dalmatce sub sylvis aguni, inde ad latroci7iia 
 promptissimi. By the advantage of these woods 
 they intercepted and discomfited Gabinius, one 
 of Cassar's captains, marching through the 
 coimtry with 1000 horse and 15 companies of 
 foot. But these woods being destroyed, they 
 began to exercise themselves at sea, in which 
 their large sea-coasts and commodious havens 
 served exceedingly." In this new occupation 
 the inhabitants retained the natural ferocity of 
 their character, and their maritime transactions 
 were for the most part piracies, for which they 
 were soon engaged m a war with the Romans. 
 In the reign of Tiberius the Roman power was 
 extended over all the country of Dalmatia. The 
 principal towns of this province were Salona, 
 the birth-place of Diocletian, and the place of 
 his retirement after he had laid down the pur- 
 ple, Narona, Epidaurus, Lissus, and Scodra. 
 This -country has retained its ancient name, 
 though sometimes it is written Delmatia, and 
 veiy little alteration has been made in its 
 boundaries. Strab. 7. — Ptol. 2. — Cces. Bell. 
 Civ. 3, 9. — Heyl. Cosm. 
 
 Damascena, a part of Syria near mount Liba- 
 nus, so called from Damascus, its principal 
 city. 
 
 Damascus, a city of Syria m Phoenicia of 
 Libanus, to the east of Sidon, "situate in a 
 plain environed with hills and watered by the 
 river Chrysorrhoas." The first historical ac- 
 counts of this place are found in the Sacred 
 "Writings, where its princes are mentioned as 
 having formed an alliance with Hadadezer king 
 of Zobah, against the Jewish conqueror David. 
 The supreme authority in Damascus was some 
 time afterwards usurped by a soldier of Hadade- 
 zer's army, from which time this city became 
 the capital and royal seat of Syria, When 
 Syria was reduced to the state of a dependency 
 on the Assyrian empire, it lost, of course, its 
 greatpre-eminence, and passed successively into 
 the power of the Persians, of Alexander, and of 
 the successors of that unrestrained libertine of 
 ambition. Under the Roman government the 
 city of Antioch attained the supremacy, and 
 Damascus ceased to be the principal among the 
 capitals of Syria. The following account is 
 from Heylin, the old corographer and antiqua- 
 rian, whose work, though written almost 200 
 years ago, and quite before the rise of the mo- 
 dern art of criticism, is replete with the most 
 accurate information in regard to the ancients 
 and the countries of antiquity. " Damascus, a 
 place so surfeiting of delights, so girt about with 
 odoriferous gardens, that Mahomet would never 
 be persuaded (as himself was used to say) to 
 come unto it, lest, being ravished with its inesti- 
 mable pleasures, he should forget the business 
 he was sent about, and make there his paradise. 
 But one of his successors, having no such scm- 
 88 
 
 pies, removed the regal seat unto it, wnere it 
 continued till the building of Bagdat, a hundred 
 years afterwards. The chief building in it, in 
 later times, till destroyed by the Tartars, was a 
 strong castle, deemed impregnable, and not 
 without difficulty tbrced by Tamerlane, whom 
 nothing was able to resist ; and as majestical a 
 church, with forty sumptuous porches, and no 
 fewer than 9000 lanterns of gold and silver j 
 which, with 30,000 people in it, who fled thither 
 for sanctuary, was by the said Tamerlane most 
 cruelly and unmercifully burnt and pulled down 
 unto the ground. Repaired by the mamelukes 
 of Egypt, when lords of Syria, it hath since 
 flourished in trade, the people being industrious, 
 and celebrated as artisans." In the New Tes- 
 tament Damascus is famous for the first preach- 
 ing of St. Paul on his miraculous conversion. 
 It is now Demesk, as named by the inhabitants 
 of the country, according to D'Anville ; who 
 adds, that the valley in which it stands is also 
 called Goutah Demesk, the Orchard of Damas- 
 cus. This is not the only name by which it is 
 known, and the moderns generally call it Sham. 
 It is inhabited by about 80,000 souls. Heyl. — 
 2d Sam. 8, 5, 6. — Jos. 7, 5. — Lnican. 3, v. 215. 
 — Justin. 36, c. 2. — Mela, 1, c. 11. 
 
 Damasia, a town called also Augusta, now 
 Augsburg, in Sv/abia, on the Leek. 
 
 Damnu, a people " dwelling in Clydesdale, 
 Lenox, Stirling, and Monteith, whose chief city 
 was Vanduara, now Renfrew." Heyl. — Cambd. 
 Brit. 
 
 Damnonii, a people of the west of Britain, 
 in Cornwall and Devonshire. Cambd en sup- 
 poses that the name is more correctly written 
 Danmonii. 
 
 Dana, a town of Cappadocia, which D'An- 
 ville thinks may have been the same as Tyana. 
 He does not, however, insist on this opinion. 
 It was near the Cilician Gates, and is mention- 
 ed as one of the places at which Cyrus halted 
 on his march against Artaxerxes. Xen. Anab. 
 1,2. 
 
 Danai, a name given to the people of Argos, 
 and promiscuously to all the Greeks, from Da- 
 naus their king. Virg. and Ovid, passim. 
 
 Danapris, now the Nieper, a name given in 
 the middle ages to the Borysthenes. Vid. Bo- 
 rysthenes. 
 
 Danaster, a name given in the middle ages 
 to the Tyras, whence the modern Dniester. 
 Vid. Tyras. 
 
 Dandari, and Dandarid^, the inhabitants 
 of an elevated district on the Caucasus, about 
 the part called Corax. According to D'Anville 
 this region still preserves the name of Dandars. 
 
 DANUBros, the first and greatest river of Eu- 
 rope after the Volga. It rises in the mountains 
 called by the ancients Abnoba, Schwartzen- 
 Wald, about the borders of Bavaria, and Wir- 
 tembnrg, in a little village called Eschingen, 
 only two miles from the shores of the Rhine, 
 and, after flowing through the greater part of 
 the northern countries, a distance of more than 
 1,600 miles, discharges itself by two channels 
 into the Black Sea. This river was fortified 
 nearly the whole length by the Romans, who 
 considered it the northern limit of their empire, 
 though they did not pretend to have explored 
 very accurately the country through which it 
 flowed, and which they claimed as their territory. 
 
DA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 DA 
 
 In the begirmuig of its course the Danube runs 
 almost directly east, dividing Vindilicia, the 
 southern part of Bavaria, from Geimania An- 
 tiqua on the north, in that part which is now 
 the kingdom of Wirtemiv/rg and the northern 
 portion of Bavaria. Continuing in this direc- 
 lion, after collecting the waters of many smaller 
 streams, among which are the Licus {Lech) and 
 the Isarcus {Iser), it receives the CEnus {inn) 
 on the borders of Noricum. From this point it 
 constituted the dividing line between the last- 
 named country, now Saltzburg, Stiria, and the 
 southern part of Austria, upon the south, and 
 Germania, the northern portion of Austria upon 
 the other side as far as Vindobona, now the ca- 
 pital of the Austrian empire, below the Cetius 
 mons. Dividing still the modern Austria, it had 
 the country of the Cluadi, Moravia, some dis- 
 tance father on the north, to the mouth of the 
 Marus {March), where it entered Dacia, the 
 modern Hungary. In all its course, from the 
 mons Cetius, Pannonia was upon the southern 
 shore. In this part of its course the Danube re- 
 ceived the Arrabona,a Pannonian river, now the 
 Raab in Hungary, besides innumerable other 
 smaller streams. " The Danube," says Malte- 
 Brun, " passes into Hungary at the burgh of De- 
 ven, immediately after it is joined by the March 
 or Morave ; it is covered with islands below 
 Presburg, and divides itself into three branches, 
 of which the greatest flows in an east-south-east 
 direction ; the second and third form two large 
 islands ; and the second, having received from 
 the south the waters of the Laita and the Raab, 
 unites with the first ; the third, increased by the 
 streams of the Waag, falls into the main chan- 
 nel at Komorn, More than a hundred eddies 
 have been counted on the Vag or Waag within 
 the distance of 36 miles. The Danube flows 
 eastwards from the town of Raab, receives on 
 the left the waters of the Ipoly and the Gran, 
 and becomes narrower as it approaches the 
 mountains, between which it passes beyond 
 Esztergom ; it makes several sinuatjons round 
 the rocks, reaches the burgh of Vartz, whence it 
 turns abruptly towards the south, and waters the 
 base of the hills of St. Andrew and Buda. Its 
 declivity from Ingolstadt to Buda is not more 
 than eight feet ; the sudden change in its di- 
 rection is determined by the position of the hills 
 connected with mount Czarath, and by the level 
 of the great plain. The river expands anew in 
 its course through the Hungarian plains, forms 
 large islands, and passes through a country of 
 which the inclination is not more than twenty 
 inches in the league. Its banks are covered 
 with marshes in the southern part of Pest to- 
 wards its confluence with the Drave. It ex- 
 tends in a southern direction to the frontiers of 
 Sclavonia, where the first hills in Fruska Gora 
 retard its junction with the Save ; it then re- 
 sumes its eastern course, winds round the 
 heights, turns to the south-east, receives first 
 the Theiss," the ancient Tibisus, "then the 
 Save (Savus) at Belgrade (Singidunum), and 
 flows with greater rapidity to the base of the 
 Servian mountains. Its bed is again contracted, 
 its impetuous billows crowd on each other, and 
 escape by a narrow and steep channel, which 
 they appear to have formed between the heights 
 in Servia and the Bannat." In all the windings 
 thus described, the Danube traversed only, in 
 Part I. — M 
 
 antiquity, the countries of Pannonia on the one 
 hand, and Dacia, or rather that part of the 
 country which the Jazyges Metanastse had 
 taken from Dacia, on the other. From the 
 mouth of the Save, however, it formed a new 
 boundary , having Dacia on the north and Moesia 
 on the south, for nearly the whole length of that 
 extensive country. " It issues," continues Mal- 
 te-Brun, " from the Hungarian states at New 
 Orsova; and having crossed the barriers that op- 
 pose its passage, waters the immense plains of 
 Wallachia and. Moldavia" (country of the Da- 
 cian Getae), where its streams unite with the 
 Black Sea." Below the confluence of the Save 
 and Danube it is that the latter receives the 
 greater part of its tributaries. On the side of 
 Moesia, the Margus {Morava), Mscvls {Esker), 
 and latrus ; on the side of Dacia, the Aluta 
 ( Olt), the Ardeiscus {Argis), the Naparis {Pro- 
 ava), and the Ararus {Siret). From Belgrade 
 to the Argis, and for some distance below, the 
 course of the river is generally east ; but be- 
 tween the Argis and the Proava it turns abrupt- 
 ly north as far as the Sirat, where, with no less 
 suddenness, it bends towards the east, enclosing 
 thus within its own shores and those of the 
 Euxine a narrow peninsula once called Scythia, 
 now the north-eastern corner of Bulgaria. 
 This river, for the most part called Ister by the 
 Greeks, did not take that name among the La- 
 tins till it had passed the cataracts near the 
 mouth of the Save and the city of Belgrade. In 
 the whole course thus described by this noble 
 stream, 60 rivers of magnitude discharge their 
 waters collected from the Carpathian mountains 
 and the Alps, beside a number, much more 
 than double, of less important streams. It emp- 
 ties, by a number of mouths,' into the Euxine 
 Sea. The ancients generally reckoned seven ; 
 Gibbon states them at six, and most other mo- 
 dern writers find but two. It is hence to be 
 inferred, that as the country upon the shores of 
 the sea are flat and soft, the alluvial depositions 
 have choked up the ancient channels referred 
 to by ancient authorities. The waters of the Da- 
 nube are particularly remarked by Malte-B run 
 for their turbid appearance compared with the 
 clear blue current of the Inn, which has been 
 mentioned as its principal branch. The Danube 
 was worshipped as a deity by the Scythians, 
 Malte-Brun. — D^Anville. — Dionys. Perieg. — 
 Herodot. 3, c. 33. 1. 4, c. 48, &c.—Strab. 4.— 
 Plin. 4, c. 12. — Ammian, 23. 
 
 Daphne, a grove in Syria, about five miles 
 from the city of Antioch. The establishment of 
 a Greek empire in Syria on the death of Alex- 
 ander the Great, involved the introduction of 
 Grecian fable and mythology. Of all the fic- 
 tions that poetry had rendered sacred and beau- 
 tiful among the people of Greece, there was 
 none that experienced a readier or more enthu- 
 siastic reception in the east than that which had 
 consecrated the fate of Daphne and the story of 
 Apollo's love. The god and the nymph were 
 both adopted by the lively imaginations of their 
 new votaries, and 
 
 " that sweet grove 
 Of Daphne by Orontes, and the inspired 
 Castalian spring — " 
 
 seemed fitter for the scene of such a tale than 
 the cold clime of Greece, and even Tempe's Pe- 
 89 
 
DA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 DE 
 
 neus. Here summer was tempered in its heat 
 by hundreds of fountains ; and an impenetrable 
 laurel shade, that extended for miles, excluded 
 the fiercer blaze of that sun whose worship im- 
 parted its sacred character to the place ,and made 
 it religious. Here the oracular voice of Apollo 
 spoke with truth as certain as in his early 
 Delphic sanctuary ; and the games which con- 
 stituted so large a portion of the sacred rites in 
 Greece were here performed with enthusiasm 
 and devotion. But here, too, the fate of Daphne 
 was received as a warning, and all who profess- 
 ed to worship in this grove were the votaries of 
 gentleness and love. No spot in all the Pagan 
 world was more revered than this ; and when 
 the establishment of a Christian church had su- 
 perseded the rites of the old and cherished faith, 
 the pilgrims of Daphne could hardly bear to see 
 its recesses and its shades converted to the uses 
 of a cold religion that forbade them the enjoy- 
 ment to which a voluptuous climate and the soft 
 allurements of the spot invited them. The 
 grove and temple of Daphne were burned by 
 the Christians of Antioch in the time of Julian. 
 
 Daphnus, a river of Opuntian Locris, into 
 which the body of Hesiod was thrown after his 
 murder. Plut. de Symp. At the mouth of 
 this river stood the town of Daphnus, once in- 
 cluded in the limits of Phocis. In the time of 
 Strabo this town no longer existed. Cram. — 
 Strab. 9, 424.— PZiw. 4, 7. 
 
 Dara, a town of Mesopotamia, situated near 
 Nisibin, fortified by the emperor Anastasius, and 
 from him called Anastasiopolis. Its modern 
 name is Dara-Kardin. D^Anville. 
 
 Darantasia, a town of Belgic Gaul, called 
 also Forum Claudii, and now Motier. 
 
 Dardania, I. anciently a large tract of coun- 
 try forming part of Dacia and Moesia,and inclu- 
 ded in the modern Servia. This country was si- 
 tuated north of Macedonia, near to mount Has- 
 mus. It was inhabited by a fierce and barbarous 
 race of men, whose perpetual hostility to Mace- 
 donia was, from their frequent inroads, very an- 
 noying to that country. Philip, the father of 
 Perseus, in order to rid himself of his trouble- 
 some neighbours, invited the Bastarnse to come 
 and settle in this country, promising to assist 
 them in expelling the Dardani. But Philip 
 dying while they were on their march, and Per- 
 seus not wishing to accomplish his father's pur- 
 pose, they returned home, except 3000, who set- 
 tled in Dardania and became gradually mingled 
 with the people of that country. This nation 
 was vanquished by C. Scribonius Curio, and re- 
 duced to a Roman province, which was, how- 
 ever ,much smaller in its extent than the ancient 
 country. Its capital, Scupi, modem Uskup, 
 was situated near the sources of the Axius, at 
 the foot of mount Scardus. Heyl. Cosm. — Z>'- 
 
 Anville. II. A small district of Troas, lying 
 
 along the Hellespont, which receives its name 
 from the town Dardanus, situated upon a pro- 
 montory called Dardanium by Pliny, and Dar- 
 danis by Strabo, about 70 stadia distant from 
 Abydos. From the name of this town is de- 
 rived the modern Dardanelles. A name 
 
 applied anciently to Samothrace. 
 
 Dargomanes, a river of Bactriana, which, 
 rising in the mountains of Taurus, unites with 
 the Ochus, and both together fall into the Oxus. 
 Heyl. — D Anville. 
 
 90 
 
 Dariorigum, a town of Gallia Lugdunensis, 
 the capital of the Verxeti, now Vennes, in Brit- 
 tany. 
 
 Dascylium, a town in the north-western part 
 of Bithynia, placed by D' Anville " on a lake of 
 the same name, formed by the diffusion of a 
 river that descends from mount Olympus." 
 Pomponius Mela places it beyond the Rhynda- 
 cus, and calls it Dascylos. Freinshemius, in his 
 supplement to Gluintus Curtius, (2, 6.) calls it 
 Dascyleum, and says that Alexander sent Par-, 
 menio to take possession of this place, which 
 was occupied by a guard of Persians. Its mo- 
 dern name is Diaskillo. 
 
 Dase.e, a town of Arcadia, situated on the 
 left bank of the Alpheus, 29 stadia from Mega- 
 lopolis. 
 
 Dassaretii, a people of Illyria, whose tei- 
 ritory was adjacent to that of the Albani and 
 Parthini. This nation occupied the borders of 
 the Palus Lychnilis, the modern lake of Ochri- 
 da. From their situation on the borders, between 
 Illyria and Macedonia, their country was fre- 
 quently " the scene of hostilities between the 
 contending armies." Their chief town was 
 Lychnidus, situated on the great lake Lichnitis. 
 Vid. Lychnidus. Livy (30, 33.) says .that this 
 country was fruitful in corn, and well calculated 
 to support an army. We learn from Polybius 
 that it was populous, and contained many towns 
 and fortresses. Cram. — Polyb. 5, 108. — Strab. 
 7, 316. 
 
 Datos, or Datdm, a town of the Ed ones, in 
 Thrace, situate near Neapolis. Near this place 
 an engagement was fought between the natives 
 and the Athenian colonists who attempted to 
 settle here, in which the latter were defeated. 
 " Its territory was highly fertile; it possessed 
 excellent docks for the construction of ships, 
 and the most valuable gold mines; hence arose 
 the proverb Aaro? ayaQiiv, i. e. an abundance of 
 good things." Scylax calls this a Greek colony, 
 but Zenobius mentions it as founded by the 
 Thasians. It was originally called Crenides,on 
 account of its springs ; subsequently Datos, and 
 lastly Philippi, near which Brutus and Cassms 
 were defeated. Cram. — Herod. 9, 75. — Scyl. 
 Peripl. p. 27. — Xenob. loc. cit. 
 
 Daulis, a city of great antiquity in Phocis, 
 south of the Cephissus. ( Vid. Daulis, Part III.) 
 It was destroyed by the Persians, and rebuilt, 
 after which it was taken by T. Flaminius in 
 the Macedonian war. It was, according to Livy, 
 (32, 18.) situated on a lofty hill, difficult to be 
 scaled. The Daulians are reported by Pausa- 
 nias {Phoc. 4.) as superior in strength and sta- 
 ture to the other inhabitants of Phocis. The 
 modem Daulia occupies the site of the ancient 
 city. Polyb. 4, 25, 2.—Plin. 4, 4. 
 
 iDAUNiA,"a district of Apulia, on the Adria- 
 tic, so called from Daunus, the father-in-law of 
 Diomede and king of this country. Still more 
 ancient accounts make Daunus an Illy ri an chief, 
 who was expelled from his country by an ad- 
 verse faction, and settled in this part of Italy. 
 The river Frento and the Appenines bounded 
 it on the north and west, and it extended south 
 as far as the Aufidus. The modern Puglia 
 Piana nearly answers to the ancient Daunia. _ 
 
 Decap5lis, a confederation of ten Gentile ci- 
 ties in Palestine, entered into by the inhabit- 
 ants for their common protection against the 
 
DE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 DE 
 
 Jews. Their names are given by D'Anville in 
 the following order : Scythopolis, Gadara, Hip- 
 pos, Gerasa, Canatha, Pella, Dium, Philadel- 
 phia, Abila, and Capitolias. Dr. Heylin, ia 
 his cosmography, says that this was another 
 name for the two Galilees, {Mark. 7, 31, and 
 Matth. 4, 25.) so called from their ten chief ci- 
 ties. "It stretched from the Mediterranean to 
 ihe head of Jordan, east and west, and from Li- 
 banus to the hills of Gilboa, north and south ; 
 which might make up a square of 40 miles." 
 
 Decelia, now Biala Castro^ a town on the 
 frontier of Attica, situated on the road from 
 Athens to Eubcea, and equidistant between 
 Thebes and Athens, from each of which it was 
 fifteen miles. Agis, the Spartan king, during 
 .he Peloponnesian war seized upon this fortress 
 Dy the advice of Alcibiades, and placed in it a 
 Lacedaemonian garrison, which proved a seri- 
 ous annoyance to the Athenians. Herodotus 
 says that the Peloponnesian army always re- 
 spected the territories of the Deceleans, because 
 ihey had pointed out to the Tyndaridse the 
 place where Helen was secreted by Theseus. 
 Gillies. — Cro.m. — Herod.. 9, 73. 
 
 Decetia, a town of the ^dui, situated on an 
 island formed by the Liger ; it still exists under 
 the name of Decize, in the province of le Niver- 
 Tims, the present department of la Nievre. Le- 
 Tnaire. 
 
 Decumates agri, certain lands of Germany, 
 situated at the foot of mount Abnoba, Black 
 Mountain, which, upon their evacuation by the 
 Marcomanni, were occupied by a body of Gauls, 
 who paid annually to the Romans a tenth part 
 of their produce, from whence the name. 
 
 Delium, a town of Boeotia, opposite Chalcis, 
 about four miles from Aulis, towards the mouth 
 of the river Asopus. In the battle fought at this 
 place between the Athenians and Boeotians, 
 Socrates is said to have preserved the life of 
 Xenophon, or, as some accounts represent, of 
 Alcibiades. Pans. Baeot. 20. — Strab. — Diog. 
 Laert. — Liv. 31, c. 45, 1. 35, c. 51. 
 
 Delminium, a town of Dalmatia. According 
 to D'Anville it was in the centre of the country : 
 the site, however, of this town has not been as- 
 certained, though, as giving its name to all the 
 country, it must have been of some importance. 
 It seems, nevertheless, that it may yet fairly be 
 questioned whether the name of Dalmatia were 
 really a derivative from that of this town. Flor. 
 4, c. 12. 
 
 Delos, the principal island of the Cyclades, 
 of which it was the centre. It was known by 
 other names besides that of Delos, as Asteria, 
 Ortygia, Cynthia, &c., for which a variety of 
 curious etymologies have been imagined. This 
 island was early celebrated for the meetings of 
 the Ionic people of Greece, who there celebrated 
 national games, &c. The principal deity of the 
 place was Apollo, whose fabled birth upon one 
 of its mountains invested it with a peculiar 
 sanctity in the eyes even of the Barbarians. 
 When the Athenians obtained possession of the 
 island, they ordered that neither deaths nor 
 births, that could be prevented, should occur 
 there ; enacting a law that all sick persons and 
 women enceinte should be removed to the neigh- 
 bouring island of Rhenea. They instituted also 
 the festival called Delia, in which offerings were 
 brought from the distant Hyperboreans who 
 
 worshipped the peculiar deity of this place with 
 zealous devotion. ( Vid. Lelia, Part II.) Even 
 the Persians refrained from violating this sa- 
 cred spot, and consented to offer sacrifice to the 
 deity whose attributes, under other forms and 
 with other rites, was the object of their o"«ti 
 adoration. The peculiar veneration in which all 
 nations seemed to hold this island, indicated it 
 to ihe Athenians as a proper depository for the 
 treasures of the Greeks, which accordingly were 
 lodged here after the Persian war. On the des- 
 truction of Corinth all the commercial interests 
 of the Corinthians w^ere transferred to Delos, on 
 account of its advantageous situation between 
 the countries of Europe and Asia. With pros- 
 pects of increased prosperity the islanders began 
 to assume an important aspect among larger 
 nations, when the soldiers of Mithridates, hav- 
 ing landed on their coasts, and committed the 
 most unrelenting devastations, reduced the 
 whole island to a condition of poverty and misery 
 from which it never recovered. The principal 
 town, called also Delos, was situated in a plain 
 through which ran the little river Inopus, near 
 the lake Trochoeides. Above this plain the bar- 
 ren heights of mount Cynthus raised themselves. 
 The mountain is now Cintio, and the island 
 has taken the name of Delo, or Sdille. Delos 
 remains a heap of rubbish and ruins, as in for- 
 mer days, overrun with hares and scarcely inha- 
 bited. Vid. Rhenea. One of the altars of Apol- 
 lo in the island was reckoned among Che seven 
 wonders of the world. It had been erected by 
 Apollo, when only four years old, and made with 
 the horns of goats killed by Diana on mount 
 Cynthus. It was unlawful to sacrifice any liv- 
 ing creature upon the altar, • which was reli- 
 giously kept pure from blood and every pollution . 
 Apollo, whose image was in the shape of a dra- 
 gon, delivered there oracles during the summer, 
 in a plain manner, without any ambiguity or ob- 
 scure meaning. No dogs, as Thucydides men- 
 tions, were permitted to enter the island ; and 
 when the Athenians were ordered to purify the 
 place, they dug up all the dead bodies that had 
 been interred there, and transported them to 
 the neighbouring islands. Mythologists suppose 
 that Asteria, who changed herself into a quail 
 to avoid the importuning addresses of Jupiter, 
 was metamorphosed into this island, originally 
 called Ort}''gia, ab oprv^, a quail. The people of 
 Delos are described by Cicero, Arcad. 2, c. 16 
 and 18, 1. 4, c. 18, as famous for rearing hens. 
 Strab. 8 and 10.— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 329, 1. 6, v. 
 333.— Mela, 2, c. l.—Plin. 4, c. 12.— Pint, de 
 Solert,. Anim. &c. — Thucyd. 3, 4, &c. — Virg. 
 JEn. 3, V. 73. — Ptol. 3, c. 15. — Callim. ad Del. 
 — Claudian. 
 
 DELPffl, more anciently Pytho, now Castri, 
 the largest town in Phocis, and in some respects 
 the most remarkable in Greece. This town was 
 built at the foot of mount Parnassus, in the form 
 of an amphitheatre, and so defended by the pre- 
 cipices which surrounded it, that it was not ne- 
 cessary to fortify it with a wall. The great 
 celebrity of this place arose from the oracle of 
 Apollo, who there declared the fates, and from 
 the council of the Amphict}'ons which held there 
 its alternate session. No oracle in Greece en- 
 joyed a reputation equal to that of the Delphic, 
 though the venerable Dodona boasted a greater 
 antiquity. The first temple erected at this place 
 91 
 
BE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 DE 
 
 to the deity, whose worship invested it with so 
 much dignity, was of brass, according to the 
 opinion of Pausanias ; but no record remains of 
 the era at which it was built, and the second 
 more sumptuous one, containing the presents of 
 the splendid Midas and the magnificent CrcE- 
 sus was consumed by fire B. C. 548. To the 
 erection of a third all the cities of Greece con- 
 tributed, and even the king of Egypt lent his 
 aid. The Athenian Alcmaeonidae contracted, 
 under the superintendence of the Amphictyons, 
 to finish it, and for the sum of 300 talents a beau- 
 tiful building of Parian marble and Porine stone 
 was erected for the oracle and temple of the 
 prophetic god. It cannot be matter of wonder, 
 that, enriched as this most celebrated shrine per- 
 petually was by presents from the wealthiest 
 individuals and the most opulent states, there 
 should be those who, disregardful of its sacred 
 rights, should endeavour to appropriate a portion 
 of its incalculable treasures. The distant cities 
 of Greece, and of nations in habits of intercourse 
 with her states, long cherished for this spot 
 those feelings of religious awe which supersti- 
 tion had generated, and which distance kept 
 undisturbed in their sacred mysteiy; but the 
 neighbouring Crissa became early acquainted 
 with the Delphic city, proximity begat familiari- 
 ty, and familiarity dissipated reverence. The 
 Crissseans soon began to look upon the sacred 
 temple as an object of plunder, and its votive 
 treasures excited the same cupidity as any others 
 that might not have been hallowed as oflerings 
 to the god. For many years afterwards the Cris- 
 saean plains were declared accursed by the Am- 
 phictyons, as a fit punishment of the sacrilegious 
 attempt which they had made on the shrine and 
 the temple confided to the charge of the vener- 
 able assembly. The avarice of Xerxes, who 
 meditated a similar outrage, was disappointed, 
 as the Delphians asserted, by the manifest in- 
 terposition of the deity who presided over this 
 holy place. In the time of king Philip this long 
 venerated abode of Apollo was violated again ; 
 but no desire of plunder then animated the as- 
 sailants, and the political objects avowed by the 
 Phocians in seizing the temple, and of those who 
 abetted and aided them, made it apparent that 
 the deep religious feeling that the name of Del- 
 phi and its god could once excite, had passed 
 from the minds of men. Religion had ceased 
 to be a feeling in Greece, and existed but as a 
 moral or political instrument. From this time 
 forward the treasures of the temple were viewed 
 with no feeling but that of desire by the foreign 
 cities to which the report of their value had 
 reached. The Gauls, under Brennus, stripped 
 it of its most valuable ornaments ; and, on the 
 conquest of the Gallic city of Tolosa by the Ro- 
 mans, a long time afterwards, the Delphic plun- 
 der was found there by the Roman conquerors, 
 Sylla also, regardless of its masterpieces of art, 
 plundered the temple of its silver and gold ; and 
 Nero, long after the reputation of the oracle had 
 expired, removed from it 500 statues of bronze, 
 the wonders of art. Paus. Phoc. 34. — Strab. — 
 Herod. The origin of the oracle, though fabu- 
 lous, is described as something wonderful. A 
 number of goats that were feeding on mount 
 Parnassus, came near a place which had a deep 
 and long perforation. The steam which issued 
 from the hole seemed to inspire the goats, and 
 92 
 
 they played and frisked about in such an un- 
 common manner, that the goatherd was tempted 
 to lean on the hole and see what mj'steries the 
 place contained. He was immediately seized 
 with a fit of enthusieism, his expressions were 
 wild and extravagant, and passed for prophe- 
 cies. This circumstance was soon known about 
 the country, and many experienced the same en- 
 thusiastic inspiration. The place was revered, 
 and the temple was soon after erected in honour 
 of Apollo, and a city built. According to some 
 accounts, Apollo was not the first who gave ora- 
 cles there ; but Terra, Neptune, Themis, and 
 Phoebe, were in possession of the place before 
 the son of Latona. The oracles were generally 
 given in verse ; but when it had been sarcasti- 
 cally observed that the god and patron of poetry 
 was the most imperfect poet in the world, the 
 priestess delivered her answers in prose. The 
 oracles were always delivered by a priestess 
 called Pythia. ( Vid. Pythia.) It was universal- 
 ly believed and supported by the ancients, that 
 Delphi was in the middle of the earth ; and on 
 that account it v/as called Terra umbilicus. 
 This, according to mythology, was first found 
 out by two doves, which Jupiter had let loose 
 from the two extremities of the earth, and 
 which met at the place where the temple of 
 Delphi was built. ApoUon. 2, v. 706. — Diod. 
 16. — Plut. de Defect. Orac. &c. — Paus. 10, c, 
 6, &.c.— Ovid. Met. 10, v. 168.— Strab. 9, If 
 the oracle and temple of Apollo gave to the town 
 of Delphi a religious character, the meetings of 
 the Amphictyonic council gave it no less politi- 
 cal importance ; so much so, indeed, that from 
 the influence of the two combined, it might be 
 said that all the interests and all the glory of 
 Greece were organized and planned in this re- 
 nowned and cherished spot of earth. Etymo- 
 logists dispute concerning the derivation of the 
 name, though they generally refer it to the word 
 Ae^cpnc. Mythology, however, more generally 
 followed, assigns to Delphus, the son of Apollo, 
 the glory of having given name to this place 
 so peculiarly the object of his father's care. 
 To those who are curious in reconciling the re- 
 ligion of the Hebrews and the Pagan supersti- 
 tions, the remarks of one who has laboured with 
 unwearied industry to that end may not prove 
 uninteresting. " The Greeks had a notion of 
 Delphi being the navel of the world. The idea 
 originated in a misconception of the sacred 
 term Om-phi-al, the oracle of the solar god, which 
 the Greeks corrupted into Om,phalus, and the 
 Latins into Umbilicus. Delphi is a word of the 
 very same import, being compounded of Tel- 
 phi, the oracle of the sun." To this is added in 
 a note, " the connexion of Delphi with the di- 
 luvian as well as with the solar worship, ap- 
 pears from a tradition preserved by Tzetzes, that 
 this oracular city derived its name from Del- 
 phus, who was supposed to have been the son 
 of Neptune, by Melantho, the daughter of Deu- 
 calion. Deucalion is said to have first landed 
 upon the summit of mount Parnassus, at the 
 foot of which Delphi was built." Fab. Cab. 
 
 DELPmNiuM, a port of Boeotia at the mouth 
 of the Asopus, opposite the Euboean Eretria. 
 It was sometimes denominated the sacred port. 
 
 Delta, a part of Egypt, which received that 
 name from its resemblance to the form of the 
 fourth letter of the Greek alphabet. It lies be- 
 
DI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 DI 
 
 tween the Canopian and Pelusian mouths of the 
 Nile, and begins to be formed where the river 
 divides itself into several streams. It has been 
 formed totally by the mud and sand which are 
 washed down from the upper parts of Eg}^t by 
 the Nile, according to ancient tradition. Vid. 
 jEgyptus. Cces. Alex. c. 27. — Strab. 15 and 17. 
 — Herodob. 2, c. 13, &c. — Plin. 3, c. 16. 
 
 Demetrias, a Xown of Thessaly, founded by 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes B. C. 290. The popu- 
 lation of this place was collected from a great 
 number of neighbouring towns included in the 
 territory over which it soon assumed the domi- 
 nion. It was placed in such a manner as to 
 defend the passes into the northern parts of 
 Greece, which gave it great importance in a mi- 
 litar}"- point of view ; while its situation in the 
 Pagaseticus Sinus aflforded it great advantages 
 of communication with Eubosa, southern 
 Greece, the Cyclades, and the Asiatic coasts. It 
 became the capital of a small state, called the 
 Magnesian Republic, after the battle of 0)1105- 
 cephalse. Soon after it yielded to Macedonia, 
 and fell with that kingdom into the hands of 
 the Romans. The name was common to oth- 
 er places. Plut. — Polyh. — Liv. 36, 33. 
 
 Derbe, a town of Lycaonia, at the north of 
 mount Taurus in Asia Minor, now Alab-Dag. 
 Cic. Fam. 13, ep. 73. 
 
 Derbic^:, a people of Asia, dwelling north 
 of the Dahae and the countries of Parthia and 
 Margiana. The greater part of the countrj'^ 
 between the Ochus and the Oxus was occupied 
 by this people. Gluintus Curtius (2, 7,) enu- 
 merates them among the people who formed the 
 cavalry of -Darius. 
 
 Dercon, a town of Thrace on the Euxine 
 Sea. From this place, directly across the penm- 
 sula to Heraclea on the Propontis, the emperor 
 Anastasius constructed a wall, called Macron- 
 Tichos, of which some vestiges are said to re- 
 main. The object of building this wall was to 
 defend Constantinople on this side, on which 
 alone it could be approached by land. 
 
 Dertona, a iavm. of Liguria. As a Roman 
 colony, it was surnamed Julia. The modern 
 name is Torton^, to the west of Asti. 
 
 Dertose, now Tortosa, a town of Spain on 
 the Iberus. 
 
 Deva, according to some authorities, Deva- 
 na, the town of Chester on the Dee. This river 
 was also called by the ancients Deva, except 
 at its mouth, where it assumed the name of Se- 
 teia. The surrounding country was peopled by 
 the Comabii ; and in the town, during the Ro- 
 man occupation of the island, was stationed a 
 legion. From this circumstance the Britons 
 gave the town the name of Caerlegion and Ca- 
 erleon Vaur. — The Scottish Dee was also call- 
 ed Deva, and gave its name to Aberdeen, which 
 stood upon its banks towards the mouth. 
 Cambd. Brit. — Horsl. Brit. Rom. 
 
 DiA, I. an island in the ^gean Sea. Vid. 
 
 Naxos. II. Another on the coast of Crete, 
 
 now Stan Dia. III. A city of Thrace. 
 
 IV. Euboea. 
 
 DiANiuM, now Dania, a town of Tarraco 
 nensis on the Mediterranean. The Massilians 
 founded this town, to which the name of Dia- 
 nium (in Greek, Artemisium), was given, from 
 the peculiar reverence which was there paid to 
 her divinity. The cape on which it was built 
 
 bore the same name in antiquity, and is now 
 Cape Martin. 
 
 picjEA, and DicEARCHEA, a town of Italy. 
 Vid. Puieoli. 
 
 DICT.E and Dict^eds mons, a mountain of 
 Crete, in the CEistern part of the island. On 
 this mountain was bom the father of the Gre- 
 cian gods, and in its recesses, the Dictsean cave, 
 he lay concealed and was miraculously nourish- 
 ed by bees. It was not agreed, however, by all 
 the writers of antiquity that the mountain thus 
 branching from Ida was the celebrated Dicte ; 
 and Callimachus refers it to the country adja- 
 cent to Cydonia. Near this mountain, in the 
 time of Diodorus, were the ruins of a town said 
 to have borne the name of Dicte, and to have 
 been founded by Jupiter. Jupiter was called 
 DictcEus, because worshipped here; and the 
 same epithet was applied to Minos. Virg. G. 
 2, V. 536.— Ovid. Met. 8, v. 43.—Ptol. 3, c. 17. 
 —Strab. 10. 
 
 DicTiDiENSEs, certain inhabitants of mount 
 Athos. Thucyd. 5, c. 82. 
 
 DiGENTiA, a small river which watered Ho- 
 race's farm in the country of the Sabines, now 
 la Licenza. Horat. 1. ep. 18, v. 104. 
 
 DiNDYMus, or A, {orum,) a mountain on the 
 borders of Galatia and Phri^gia Major, over- 
 looking the city of Pessinus. " Strabo has two 
 mountains of this name: one in Mysia, near 
 Cyzicus ; the other in Gallo-Graecia, near Pessi- 
 nus ; and none in Phrygia. Ptolemy extends 
 this ridge from the borders of Troas, through 
 Phrygia to Gallo-Grsecia. Though, therefore, 
 there were two mountains called Dindymus in 
 particular, both sacred to the mother of the gods, 
 and none of them in Phrygia Major ; yet there 
 might be several hills and eminences in it on 
 which this goddess was worshipped, and there- 
 fore called Dindyma in general." Cram. It 
 was from this place that Cybele was called DtV 
 dymene. Strab. 12. — Stat. l.—Sylv. 1, v. 9. — 
 Horat. 1, od. 16, v. b.— Virg. jEn. 9, v. 617. 
 
 DiNiA, a town of Gallia Narbonensis, now 
 Digne. 
 
 D10MEDE.E insula;, islands situated off the 
 Apulian coast, opposite to the bay of Rodi or the 
 Sinus Urias, " celebrated in mythology as the 
 scene of the metamorphosis of Diomed's com- 
 panions, who were changed into birds, and of 
 the disappearance of that hero himself. An- 
 cient writers differ as to their niunber. Strabo 
 recognizes two, whereof one was inhabited, the 
 other deserted. This is also the account of 
 Pliny, who states that one was called Diomedia, 
 the other Teutria. Ptolemy, however, reckons 
 five, which is said to be the correct number, if 
 we include in the group three barren rocks, 
 which scarce deserve the name of islands. The 
 island to which Pliny gives the name of Dio- 
 medea, appears to have also borne the appella- 
 tion of Tremitus, as we learn from Tacitus, 
 who informs us it was the spot to which Augus- 
 tus removed his abandoned grand-daughter Ju- 
 lia, and where she terminated a life of infamy. 
 Of these islands, the largest is now called Isola 
 San Domino, the other San Nicolo." Cram. — 
 Aristot. de Mirab. — Ovid. Metam. 14. — Strab. 
 6,284.— Tflc. Ann.4.,l\. 
 
 DiOMEDis CAMPi, the plains between Cannae 
 and the Aufidus, the scene of the famous victo- 
 rv of Hannibal over the Romans. Cram. 
 93 
 
DO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 DO 
 
 Dion. Vid. Dium. 
 
 DioNYSiADEs, two sHiall islaiids of Crete, 
 now Yanidzares, to the north-east of the gulf 
 of Sitia. 
 
 DioscoRiDis INSULA, an island situated at the 
 south of the entrance of the Arabic gulf, and 
 now called Socotara. Its aloes are more es- 
 teemed than those of Hadramaiit. If we believe 
 the Arabian writers, Alexander settled here a 
 colony of louanion, that is to say, of Greeks. 
 Become christians, they remained such, accord- 
 ing to Marco Folo, at the close of the thirteenth 
 century." D'Anville. 
 
 DioscuRiAs, a town of Colchis, on the shore 
 of the Euxine, at the mouth of the Charus. It 
 was also named Sebastopolis, and " in the ear- 
 liest age was the port most frequented in Col- 
 chis, by distant as well as neighbouring nations, 
 speaking different languages ; a circumstance 
 that still distinguishes Iskuriah, whose name is 
 only a depravation of the ancient denomina- 
 tion." D'Anville. 
 
 DiospoLis, or TiiEBJE. Vid. Thebce. Par- 
 
 VA, the capital of the Nomos Diospolites in 
 JEgyptus Superior, situated "at the summit of 
 a sudden flexure in the course of the Nile, in a 
 place now called Hora" D'Anville. An- 
 other in Samaria, the same with Lydda. 
 
 Dip^A, a place of Arcadia, belonging to Me- 
 galopolis, near which the Spartans gained a 
 victory over the Arcadians. Cram. 
 
 DiPOLis, a name given to Lemnos, as having 
 two cities, Hephsestia and Myrinia. 
 
 DiPSAS, {antis,) a river of Cilicia, flowing 
 from mount Taurus. Lmcan. 8, v. 255. 
 
 DiPYLON, a gate of Athens. Vid. AthencB. 
 
 DiRJE, or DiRA, the strait by which the Ara- 
 bic gulf communicates with the Erythrean Sea, 
 In Greek it " expresses a passage, straightened 
 in the manner of a throat. Its modern name of 
 Bab-el-Mandel signifies in the Arabic language, 
 the Port of Mourning or Affliction, from appre- 
 hension of the risk of venturing beyond, in the 
 expanse of a vast ocean." D'Anville. 
 
 DruM, I. " one of the principal cities of Ma- 
 cedonia, and not unfrequently the residence of 
 its monarchs. Livy describes it as placed at the 
 foot of mount Olympus, which leaves but the 
 space of one mile from the sea ; and half of this 
 is occupied by marshes formed by the mouth of 
 the river Baphyrus. The town, though not ex- 
 tensive, was abundantly adorned with public 
 buildings, among which was a celebrated temple 
 of Jupiter and numerous statues. It suffered 
 considerably during the SocialWar, from an in- 
 cursion of the iEtolians under their prsetor Sco- 
 pas. It is evident, however, from Livy's ac- 
 count, that this damage had been repaired when 
 the Romans occupied the town in the reign of 
 Perseus. Dium, at a later period, became a Ro- 
 man colony ; Pliny terms it Colonia Diensis. 
 Some similarity in the name of this once flour- 
 ishing city is apparent in that of a spot called 
 Standia, which answers to Livy's description." 
 Cram.—Liv. 44, 6 and 7—33, Z.—Polyb. 4, 62. 
 
 — Plin. 4, 10. II. Another in Chalcidice. 
 
 III. A promontory in Crete, now Cape Sas- 
 
 soso. Cram. 
 
 DivoDURUM, a town of Gaul, now Metz, in 
 Lorrain. 
 
 DoDoNA, next to Delphi the most famous 
 oracle of Greece, and more anqient even than 
 94 
 
 that. Yet, famous as this oracle of Jupiter be- 
 came, the very site was, at a comparatively early 
 period, a matter of dispute. All authorities re- 
 fer it to Epirus, but many contend for that part 
 which belonged to the Molossi ; while others, 
 with better reason, decide for Thesprotia. It 
 seems, indeed, that without fear of misleading, 
 we may place this noted spot on the borders of 
 the territories occupied by these people ; and as 
 their respective boundaries were unsettled, it 
 may have been at one time in the country of the 
 Thesproti, and afterwards have been found in 
 that of .the Molossi, who are known to have ex- 
 tended their limits on the borders of Thespro- 
 tia. The town of Dodona, together with the 
 oracle, was built upon the hill or mountain To- 
 marus ; but as so much of Epirus was covered 
 with high land and hills, it is not possible, with- 
 out peculiar guides, and such as have not yet 
 been found, to settle the disputed question of lo- 
 cality by these inconclusive data. Tomarus, 
 however, is represented as being singularly 
 abundant in fountains and torrents, from which 
 it supplied innumerable streams. The fable of 
 Herodotus concerning the origin of this oracle 
 is of some avail in showing at least the connex- 
 ion between the superstitions of Greece and 
 Egypt ; and more particularly in lending some 
 clue to the history of the Pelasgic people, and 
 their aflinity with other nations ; as we know 
 that the real origin of the Dodonean shrine is 
 attributed to the Pelasgi. Its antiquity is car- 
 ried to a period long before the Trojan war, and 
 seems coeval with the fabulous, and perhaps al- 
 legorical , ages of Deucalion and Inachus. We 
 know less of the vicissitudes of Dodona than of 
 those to which the oracle of Apollo at Delphi 
 was subject ; but it is probable that the fatal blow, 
 from which it never revived, was struck in the 
 Social war by the iEtolians under their leader 
 
 Dorinaachus. There was another town of 
 
 this name in Thessaly, in the vicinity of mount 
 Ossa, It is doubtful whether Homer, in alluding 
 to the " wintry Dodona," refers to this place, or 
 to that more famous one of Epirus; but the 
 opinion was extensively received among the 
 later Greeks, that the oracle had been removed 
 from the western to the eastern side of Greece, 
 and that Jupiter delivered his oracles in Thes- 
 saly, having abandoned his sacred grove by To- 
 marus. To this opinion inclined the geogra- 
 pher Pausanias. The remarks which follow, 
 however, apply to the Thesprotian town and 
 oracle. The town and temple were first built 
 by Deucalion, after the universal deluge. It 
 was supposed to be the most ancient oracle of all 
 Greece, and according to the traditions of the 
 Egjrptians, mentioned by Herodotus, it was 
 founded by a dove. Two black doves, as he re- 
 lates, took their flight from the city of Thebes, 
 in Eg5^t, one of which flew to the temple of 
 Jupiter Ammon, and the other to Dodona, where 
 with a human voice they acquainted the inhabit- 
 ants of the country that Jupiter had consecrated 
 the ground which in future would give oracles. 
 The extensive grove which surrounded Jupiter's 
 temple was endowed with the gift of prophecy, 
 and oracles were frequently delivered by the sa- 
 cred oaks, and the doves which inhabited the 
 place. This fabulous tradition of the oracular 
 power of the doves is explained by Herodotus, 
 who observes that some Phcenicians .carried 
 
DO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 DO 
 
 away two priestesses from Egj^t, one of which 
 went to fix her residence at Dodona, where the 
 oracle was established. It may further be ob- 
 served, that the fable might have been founded 
 upon the double meaning of the word ne\eiai, 
 which signifies doves in the most parts of Greece, 
 while in the dialect of the Epirots it implies old 
 women. In ancient times the oracles were de- 
 livered by the murmuring of a neighbouring 
 fountain, but the custom was afterwards chang- 
 ed. Large kettles were suspended in the air near 
 a brazen statue, which held a lash in its hand. 
 When the wind blew strong, the statue was agi- 
 tated, and struck against one of the kettles, 
 which communicated the motion to all the rest, 
 and raised that clattering and discordant din 
 which continued for a while, and from which 
 the artifice of the priests drew their predictions. 
 Some suppose that the noise was occasioned by 
 the shaking of the leaves and boughs of an old 
 oak, which the superstition of the people fre- 
 quently consulted,and from which they pretend- 
 ed to receive oracles. It may be observed, with 
 more probability, that the oracles were delivered 
 by the priests, who by artfully concealing them- 
 selves behind the oaks, gave occasion to the su- 
 perstitious multitude to believe that the trees 
 were endowed with the power of prophecy. As 
 the ship Argo was built with some of the oaks 
 of the forest of Dodona, there were some beams 
 which gave oracles to the Argonauts, and warn- 
 ed them against the approach of calamity. 
 Within the forests of Dodona there were a 
 stream and a fountain of cool water, which had 
 the power of lighting a torch as soon as it 
 touched it. This fountain was totally dry at noon 
 day, and was restored to its full course at mid- 
 night, from which time till the following noon 
 it began to decrease, and at the usual hour was 
 again deprived of its waters. The oracles of 
 Dodona were originally delivered by men, but 
 aftervt-ards by women. ( Vid. Dodonides.) Plin. 
 2, c. 103.— Herodot, 2 c. bl.—Mela, 2, c. 3.— 
 Homer. Od. 14. IL.—Paus. 7, c. 2l.—Strab. 17. 
 — Plut. in Pyrrh. — Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Lucan. 6, 
 V. 421.— Cyvid. Trist. 4, el. 8, v. 23. 
 
 DoDoNE, a fountain in the forest of Dodona. 
 Vid. Dodona. 
 
 DoLicHE, I, a town of Thessaly, towards the 
 borders of Macedonia. Here the historian Po- 
 lybius, at the head of the embassy of the Achae- 
 an league, received an audience of the Roman 
 general Ctuintus Marcius Philippus. It was a 
 
 town of Livy's Tripolis. II. a town of Co- 
 
 magene, south of the capital Samosata, upon the 
 mountains. " The name of Doliche is pre- 
 served, in that of Doluc, to a castle on a chain 
 of mountains which, detached from Amanus, 
 is prolonged towards the Euphrates." D'An- 
 ville. 
 
 DoLONCi, a people of Thrace, inhabiting the 
 Chersonese. It was over these people that Mil- 
 tiades the Athenian was called to rule. Hero- 
 dot. 6, c. 34. 
 
 DoLOPiA. The country of the Dolopes, or 
 Dolopia, was that district of Thessaly M'hich 
 touched upon Epirus, Acamania, and JEtolia ; 
 and was separated from the iEnianes, another 
 Thessalian people on the south, bordering to 
 the east upon the region Phthiotis. The Dolo- 
 pians are mentioned by Homer as being subject 
 to Pelius, the king of Phthiotis, who placed them 
 
 in the Trojan war under the conduct and care 
 of the aged Phoenix. The Dolopes were en- 
 titled to a representative in the council of the 
 Amphictyons, but on the invasion of Xerxes 
 they were found among the enemies of Greece. 
 Their territory was a continual source and scene 
 of contest between the iEtolians and the Mace- 
 donians, and was onlj' fully subdued by the lat- 
 ter in the reign of their last monarch, whose 
 empire was transferred to the Romans. 
 
 DoNYSA, one of the Cyclades, in the ^gean. 
 
 DoRiDis SINUS, an arm of the Mges.n Sea, be- 
 tween Doris and the narrow peninsula which 
 terminated on the promontory Cynosema. 
 
 DoRES, the inhabitants of Doris. Vid. Doris. 
 
 DoRioN, a town of Thessaly, where Thamy- 
 ras the musician challenged the Muses to a trial 
 of skill. Stat. Theb. 4, v. \Q2.—Propert. 2, el. 
 22, V. \d.—lMcan. 6, v. 352. 
 
 Doris, a small part of Greece, lying between 
 Thessaly on the north, ^toiia on the west, the 
 country of the Locri Epicnemidii on the east, 
 and the mountain Parnassus on the south. My- 
 thology assigns their origin to Dorus, the son of 
 Deucalion; but criticism derives the names of 
 Dorus, and of many other of the early heroes 
 and colonists of Greece, from the name of the 
 country which they are pretended to have settled. 
 Before the occupation of the narrow territory 
 here described, by the people who were the un- 
 doubted progenitors of the later Dorians, it was 
 called Dry op is, from the primitive inhabitants. 
 Long afterwards, from the confederacy of the 
 cities Erineus, Boium, Pindus, and Cytinium, 
 the country was designated the Tetrapolis. 
 The inconsiderable district of Doris ofiers little 
 matter of interest to the inquirer, but the ac- 
 counts of the Dorians are full of matter import- 
 ant in the investigation of ancient nations and 
 manners. The dispossessors of the Dryopes 
 were, doubtless, from the Histiseotis in Thessa- 
 ly, and the Dorians of the Peloponnesus were 
 as certainly the descendants of those who had 
 crossed the Pindus and occupied the mountain- 
 ous regions of CEta and Parnassus ; but their 
 previous migration, and the origin of their pecu- 
 liar institations, which were only kno"WTi to later 
 Greece in their full developement, as the laws of 
 Lycurgus, constitute the difiicult, important, and 
 interesting part in the search concerning this 
 singular people. In the time of Hercules, a fa- 
 vour conferred by that hero upon ^gimius or 
 CEpatius, a king of Doris, secured to his des- 
 cendants an asylum in that kingdom, whence the 
 better fortune of the Pelopidse obtained the Pelo- 
 ponnesus; and on the return of the Heraclidae 
 80 years after the destruction of Tro)', a Doric 
 population poured into the southern peninsula, 
 to establish or restore the peculiar habits and 
 institutions of that race. From this period the 
 Peloponnesus, and perhaps, more particularly 
 the territory of Laconia, may be considered the 
 country of the Dorians in Greece. Besides 
 these, the Dorians sent out a great many colo- 
 nies. The most famous was Doris in Asia Mi- 
 nor, of which Halicarnassus was once the capi- 
 tal ; this part of Asia Minor was called Hex- 
 apolis, from the confederation of the six prmci- 
 pal cities ; but on the exclusion of Halicarnas- 
 sus, it received the name of Pentapolis. That 
 peninsula and cape which extended from the 
 shores of Caria far into the sea between the 
 95 
 
DR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 DY 
 
 islands of Cos upon the north and Rhodes on 
 the south, was the country of the Asiatic Do- 
 rians. Strab. 9, &c. — Virg. JEn. 2, v. 27. — 
 Plin. 5, c. 29.—ApoUod. 2.—Herodot. 1, c. 144. 
 1. 8, c. 31. 
 
 DoRiscus, a place of Thrace near the sea, 
 where Xerxes numbered his forces. Herodot. 
 1, c. 59. 
 
 D6RYL.EITM, and Doryl.eus, a city of Phiy- 
 gia, now Eski Shehr. Plin. 5, c. 29. — Cic. 
 Flacc. 17. 
 
 Drangiana, a port of the Persian empire, in 
 the province of Aria in the largest extent of 
 that district. It had upon the south the Betii 
 montes, on the east Arachoisa, on the north the 
 Paropamisus mons, and the desert of Carmania 
 on the west. 
 
 Dravus, a river of Rhgetia, that, running al- 
 most parallel with the Danube, united with that 
 river at that point at which, after its southward 
 inclination, it resumes an easterly course on the 
 southern border of the country belonging to the 
 Jazyges Metanastas. In its course it flowed 
 through Noricum and Pannonia, between the 
 Claudius mons and the mons Pannonius. In 
 modern geography it is the Draxe, and, after 
 flowing through Stiria, it passes by the south- 
 western boundary of Hungary, which it sepa- 
 rates from Croatia and Sclavonia, and falls into 
 the Danube below Essek. 
 
 Drepana, and Drepanum, now Trapani, a 
 town of Sicily near mount Eryx. Anchises 
 died there in his voyage to Italy with his son 
 .^neas. Virg. JEn. 3, v. 707. — Cic. Verr. 2, 
 
 c. 56.— Ovid. East. 4, v. 474. The same 
 
 name was given, according to D'Anville, to a 
 promontory in the Sinus Arabicus, north of 
 Myos-Hormus. In both cases the name was 
 derived from the form of the coast, which pre- 
 sented the figure of a scythe. 
 
 Drilo, a river which separated the Roman 
 Illyricum from that part of Macedon which, 
 before it formed a part of the Macedonian king- 
 dom, was occupied by an Illyrian people. It 
 emptied into the Adriatic near the town of Lis- 
 sus, on the side of Macedon. Two principal 
 branches, the one north, from the Bertiscus 
 mountains in Illyricum, and the other south, 
 from the Palus Lychnites and the Candavii 
 montes, contributed to form this largest of che 
 Illyrian streams. The modern name of this 
 river is Drino, the northern branch being called 
 the White, and the southern, the Black, Drino. 
 The confluence of these branches was on the 
 boundary line mentioned above, and towards 
 the province of Dacia Mediterranea, and Dar- 
 dania. To this point the river was considered 
 navigable. The whole course of this stream, 
 together with both its branches, belongs now to 
 Albania. Strab. — Diod. Sic. 
 
 Drinus, a river, now the Drin. which sepa- 
 rated the province of Moesia from Illyricum, and 
 flowing almost directly north, discharged itself 
 into the Savus west of Sirmium. This river 
 now bounds upon the west the province of Ser- 
 via, which it separates from Bosnia. 
 
 Dromos AcmLLEi. " Between the mouth 
 of the Borysthenes and the gulf of Carcine, the 
 long and narrow beaches uniting and terminat- 
 ing in a point, and thereby forming inlets or 
 creeks, were called Dromos Achillei, or 
 the Course of Achilles, from a tradition that 
 96 
 
 this hero there celebrated games." D^Anville. 
 
 Druentius, and Druentia, now Durance, a 
 rapid river of Gaul, which falls into the Rhone, 
 between Aries and Avignon, Sil. Ital. 3, v. 
 ^m.—Strab. 4. 
 
 Druna, the Drome, a river of Gaul, falling 
 into the Rhone. 
 
 Dryopes, a people of Greece, near mount 
 CEla. They afterwards passed into the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, where they inhabited the tOA^Tis of 
 Asine and Hermione in Argolis. When they 
 were driven from Asine by the people of Argos, 
 they settled among the Messenians, and called 
 a Xovm by the name of their ancient habitation 
 Asine. Some of their descendants went to 
 make a settlement in Asia Minor together Avith 
 the lonians. Herodot. 1, c, 146, 1. 8, c. 31. — 
 Pans. 4, c. U.— Strab. 7, 8, I'i.—Plin. 4, c. 1. 
 — Virg. jEn. 4, v. 146. — Jbucan. 3, v. 179. 
 
 Dubis, or Alduadubis, a river of Gaul in 
 the Maxima Sequanorum. It rose in the Jura 
 chain of mountains, and emptied in the Arar, 
 on the borders of the Celtic province of Lugdu- 
 nensis. The modern name is Le Doubs. 
 
 DuLiCHjuM, an island of the Ionian Sea, op- 
 posite the mouth of the Achelous, belonging to 
 the group called Echinades. The exact posi- 
 tion of this island cannot be determined ; some 
 have confounded it with Cephallenia ; but Stra- 
 bo contradicts this, and makes it a separate 
 island, styled, in his time, Dolicha, " situated at 
 the mouth of the Achelous, opposite to CEnia- 
 dse, and 100 stadia from cape Araxus." Others 
 have supposed this to be another name for Itha- 
 ca, from the epithet Dulichius applied to Ulys- 
 ses ; but it is more probable that this was an 
 adjacent island, forming part of the kingdom of 
 that chief. To assign a modern name to an 
 island whose position was a matter of uncer- 
 tainty as far back as the time of Strabo, is as- 
 suredly assuming a great deal ; but if conjecture 
 may be hazarded, that of Mr. Dodwell, who 
 thinks Dulichium may have been swallowed 
 up by an earthquake seems to be the safest. 
 Odyss. A. 246, ii. 24.1.— Strab. 10, 456 and 458. 
 — Cram. — Heylin. Cosm. 
 
 DuRius, a large river of ancient Spain, now 
 called Duero, which, rising in Cai'petania near 
 the Pyrenees, runs through the plains of Spain, 
 and then dividing Gallicia from Lusitania, and 
 receiving very many rivers, falls into the ocean 
 after a course of about 300 miles. Near the 
 sources of this river stands Numantia. Vid. 
 Numantia. Voss. in Pomp. Mela. 
 
 Durocasses, the chief residence of the Druids 
 in Gaul, now Dreux. Cas. Bell. G. 6, c. 13. 
 
 DuROCORTORUM, the chief toMTi of the Remi, 
 from whom it receives its modern name of 
 Rheims. Strabo says the Roman prefects of 
 Belgic Gaul resided here ; whence we infer it 
 was the metropolis of that province. Strab. 4, 
 IH.-Co'.s. 6, 44. 
 
 Dym^, or Dyme, a city of Achaia, situated 
 on the Ionian Sea about 40 stadia west of the 
 mouth of the Pierus. According to Pausanias 
 it was more anciently called Palea. Strabo, (8, 
 387,) thinks that the name Dyme referred to its 
 western situation, and declares that it was for- 
 merly called Stratos. Dyme, after its inhabit- 
 ants had expelled the tyrant Alexander, became 
 one of the principal cities in Achaia. Its ter- 
 ritory was frequently laid waste, in the Social 
 
EB 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EC 
 
 War, by the Eleans and -ZEtolians, who were 
 united against the Achaeans. In the suburbs of 
 this city was the tomb of Sostratus, a companion 
 of Hercules, much venerated by the inhabitants ; 
 within the city were temples sacred to Miner- 
 va, Cybele, and Attes. Dyme was given up to 
 plunder by Olympicus, a Roman general, for 
 having refused to take part with that people 
 against Philip of Macedon. There is no mo- 
 dern town on the exact site of the ancient 
 Dyme ; but Palnio Achaia is within a short dis-^ 
 lance. Strab. 8, 381.— Diod. Sic. 18, 707.— 
 Polyb. 4, 59. — Paus. Achaic. 18 and 17. — Cram. 
 
 Dyras, a river of Trachinia, twenty stadia 
 south of the Sperchius, said to have sprung 
 from the ground to assist Hercules when burn- 
 ing on the funeral pile. It rises at the foot of 
 mount CEta, and falls into the Sinus Maleacus. 
 Herod. 7, 199.— Strab. 9, 4!28.— Cram. 
 
 DyRRAcmuM, a toTVTi of Illyria, situated on 
 the Hadriatic, nearly opposite Brundusium in 
 Italy. This city was founded by a colony of 
 Corcyreans, B. C. 623, who, in compliment to 
 their mother city, invited Phaleus, a citizen of 
 Corinth, to lead them. According to some 
 writers, and among these Pomponius Mela, 
 Epidamnus was the more ancient name, applied 
 to ft by the Greeks, which the Romans changed 
 on account of its evil import. Scaliger thinks 
 that Epidamnus was a city, and Darrachium its 
 harbour ; in this supposition, however, he is 
 supported by no other writer. Strabo, Eratos- 
 thenes, and other authors, apply the name Dyr- 
 rachium to the Chersonese, on which the town 
 was situated ; from this fact, and the circum- 
 stance of Avppa^Lov being a Greek term denot- 
 ing ruggedness, we infer that the Greeks gave 
 the name of Dyrrachium to the peninsula on 
 which Epidamnus was situated, and this, in the 
 course of time, may have been confounded with 
 the town. Possessed of every advantage for 
 the promotion of commerce, in its situation at 
 the entrance of the Hadriatic, and its relations 
 with Corinth and Corcyra, notwithstanding the 
 envious hostility of the neighbouring barbarians, 
 it soon rose to such opulence and power as to 
 vie with the most ancient cities of Greece. The 
 difference between this city and Corcyra, aris- 
 ing from the introduction of Corinthian colo- 
 nists, is intimately connected "vvith the origin of 
 the Peloponnesian war. Pompey encamped on 
 the heights of Petra, in the neighbourhood of 
 this city, after having been forced to retire from 
 Italy ; and here Caesar made an attempt to 
 blockade him, which he frustrated by carr}'ing 
 ihe war into Thessaly. The possession of this 
 place was of the highest importance to the Ro- 
 mans, as a connecting link between the capital 
 and all the eastern provinces ; from this place 
 was the passage to Brundusium, the commence- 
 ment of the Appia Via; and here began the 
 Via Egnatia ( Vid. Egnat. Via), which " may 
 be considered as the main artery of the Roman 
 empire." The site of this city, once so import- 
 ant, is now occupied by what is scarcely more 
 than a village, under the name of Durazzo. 
 Pomp. Mel. 2, 3.— Strab. 1,316.— Herod. 6 
 V2n.— Thucyd. 1, 24. -Cfl^s. Bell. Civ. 3, 41.— 
 Voss. in Pomp. Mel. — Cram. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eblana. the name which Ptolemy gives for 
 Part I.— N 
 
 the modern Dublin, the capital of Ireland. The 
 Latins called it Dublinium; the Cambro-Bri- 
 tons Dinas Dulin ; the Saxons Duplin ; and 
 the Irish Balacleigh, i. e. " a town built upon 
 piles." According to tradition, the vicinity of 
 the city being marshy, it received an artificial 
 elevation ; whence the name given it by the na- 
 tives. It was situated on the Auen-Liff, Am- 
 mis Lifnius, now the Liffey. Camden. 
 
 Eboracum, now York, the chief city of the 
 Brigantes, in the province of Maxima Caesarien- 
 sis. It was situated on the river Urus, now the 
 Ou&e ; and Camden traces the name of the tovm 
 to that of the river, Eb-oracum or Eb-uracum, 
 as if " the city on the Urus." Keimius calls it 
 Caer Ebrauc ; the Britons styled it Caer Effroc. 
 At Eboracum the sixth legion was stationed, 
 and it was a Roman colony. It was the resi- 
 dence of Severus and Constantius Chlorus, both 
 of whom terminated their lives there. Camden. 
 
 EsuDiE, the Greek name for the Hebrides, 
 as Pliny calls them, now the Western Isles. The 
 principal were Ricina, otherwise called Ricnea, 
 or Riduna, Epidium, Maleos, Ebuda Occi- 
 dentalior, now Skie, and Ebuda Orientalior, 
 now Lewes. Ptolemy enumerated but five ; 
 Pliny states the number to have been 30. 
 Camden. 
 
 Eburones, a people of Belgic Gaul, whom 
 Caesar describes as chiefly dwelling between the 
 Meuse and the Rhine. To the north they had 
 the Menapii; to the east, the Germans, v\'ho 
 dwelt this side the Rhine ; to the south, the Con- 
 drusi ; and to the west, the Aduatici' and the 
 Ambivariti ; their territor}^ accordingly corre- 
 sponds with the modern ^ei/s de Liege. Caesar, 
 to avenge the defeat of Sabinus and Cotta, ex- 
 terminated this people ; afterwards the Timgri, 
 who are not mentioned by Caesar, a branch of 
 the Aduatici, took possession of the vacant re- 
 gion ; whence the names of the Tungri and 
 Eburones are frequently confounded. Lem. 
 
 Ebusus, now Ivica, one of the Pitj^usae, or 
 Pine Islands, lying between the main land of 
 Hispania and the Baleares Insulae, and opposite 
 the promontory of Ferraria in Valentia. This 
 island abounded in corn and all kind of fruits. 
 Its chief town was Ebusus, now Yvica, whose 
 inhabitants made a large quantity of salt an- 
 nually, which they exported to Spain and Italy. 
 Hey I. Cosm. 
 
 EcBATANA, {orum,) I. the chief city of Media 
 Major, and the capital of the whole kingdom, 
 situated, according to Diodorus, at a distance of 
 12 stadia from mount Orontes. According to 
 D'Anville, Hamadan occupies the site of the 
 ancient city. " It is of as great antiquity as 
 Babylon ; for we find that Semiramis, the wife 
 of Ninus, in- a war made against the Medes who 
 had then rebelled, taking an affection to the 
 place, caused water-courses to the made to it 
 from the further side of the mountain Orontes, 
 digging a passage through the hills with great 
 charge and labour. Destroyed by the injury of 
 time, it was re-edified by Dejoces, the sixth king 
 of the Medes ; and afterwards much beautified 
 and enlarged b)^ Seleucus Nicanor, successor 
 unto Alexander in his Asian conquests. For 
 beauty and magnificence little inferior to Baby- 
 lon or Nineveh. In compass 180 or 200 fur- 
 longs, which make about 24 Italian miles. The 
 walls thereof affirmed, in the book of Judith, to 
 97 
 
ED 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EL 
 
 be 70 cubits high, 50 cubits broad, and the 
 towers upon the gates 100 cubits higher; all 
 built of hewn and polished stone, each stone 
 being six cubits in length and three in breadth. 
 But this is to be understood only of the inner- 
 most wall, there being seven in all about it ; each 
 of them higher than the other, and each distin- 
 guished by the colour of the several pinnacles ; 
 which gave unto the eyes a most gallajit pros- 
 pect. From which variety of colours it is thought 
 to have the name of Agbatha, or Agbathana. In 
 former times the ordinary residence of the mo- 
 narchs of the Medes and Persians in the heats 
 of the summer ; as Susa, the chief city of Susi- 
 ana, in the cold of winter. The royal palace, 
 being about a mile in compass, wels built with 
 all the cost and cunning that a stately mansion 
 did require ; some of the beams thereof of silver, 
 and the rest of cedar ; but those of cedar, 
 strengthened with plates of gold. Said by Jo- 
 sephus to be built by the prophet Daniel ; which 
 must be understood no otherwise than that he 
 oversaw the workmen or contrived the model ; 
 appointed to that office by Darius Medus, to 
 whom the buUding of the same is ascribed by 
 others. Neglected by the kings of the Parthian 
 race, it became a ruin." Heyl. Cosm. — Chaus- 
 
 sard. II. A town of Syria, where Cambyses 
 
 gave himself a mortal wound when mounting 
 on horseback. Herodot. 3. — Ptol. 6, c. 2. — 
 Curt. 5, c. 8. 
 
 EcHiNADES, or EcfflN^, islands near Acar- 
 nania, at the mouth of the river Achelous. They 
 have been formed by the inundations of that 
 river, and by the sand and mud which its wa- 
 ters carry down. " These rocks, as they should 
 rather be termed, were known to Homer, who 
 mentions them as being inhabited, and as hav- 
 ing sent a force to Troy under the command of 
 Meges, a distinguished warrior of the Iliad. 
 Herodotus informs us, that in his time half of 
 these islands had been already joined by the 
 Achelous to the main land. Strabo reports that 
 the Echinades were very numerous, being all 
 rugged and barren; Scylax, indeed, says they 
 were deserted ; but this was not always the 
 case according to Homer's account, and Ste- 
 phanus names Apol Ionia as a towTi belonging to 
 one of those islands, on the coast of Acarnania. 
 Ovid reckons five ; but Pliny enumerates nine. 
 ' The Echinades,' says Mr. Dodwell, ' at pre- 
 sent belong to the inhabitants of Ithaca, and 
 produce corn, oil, and a scanty pasture for sheep 
 and goats. The names of some of the largest 
 are Ozeiai, Natoliko, BromTna, &c. There are 
 a great many other smaller rocks scattered 
 about, which are entirely deserted.' " Cram. 
 —Plin. 2, c. 85.— Herodot. % c. \0.—Ovid. Met. 
 8, V. b88.—Strab. 2. 
 
 EcfflNUssA, an island near Euboea, called af- 
 terwards Cimolus. Plin. 4, c. 12. 
 
 Edessa, I. a town in Osroene, a district of 
 Mesopotamia, which received its name from the 
 Macedonian conquerors of the country. "An 
 abundant fountain which the city enclosed, 
 called in Greek Calir-rhoe, communicated this 
 name to the city itself. In posterior times it is 
 called Roha, or, with the article of the Arabs, 
 Orrhoa, and by abbreviation Orha. This name 
 may be derived from the Greek term signifying 
 a fountain ; or, according to another opinion, it 
 may refer to the founder of this city, whose 
 98 
 
 name is said to have been Orrhoi ; but, however 
 this be, it is by corruption that it is commonly 
 called Orfa. A little river, which, by its sudden 
 inundations, annoys this town, was called Scir- 
 tus, or the Vaulter; and the Syrians preserve 
 this signification in the name of Daisar." 
 
 D'Anville. II. A city of Macedonia. Vid. 
 
 .Odessa. 
 
 Edon, a mountain of Thrace, called also 
 Edonus. From this mountain that part of 
 Thrace is often called Edonia which lies be- 
 tween the Strymon and the Nessus, and the 
 epithet is generally applied not only to Thrace, 
 but to a cold northern climate. Virg. yE?i. 12, 
 V. 325.— Plin. 4, c. 11.— Lmcan. 1, v. 674. 
 
 Edoni, or Edones, a people of Thrace, on 
 the left bank of the Strymon. " It appears 
 from Thucydides, that this Thracian clan once 
 held possession of the right bank of the Stry- 
 mon as far as Mygdonia, but that they were 
 ejected by the Macedonians." Cram. — Thuc. 
 2,99. 
 
 Egeria Vallis, "a small valley, now called 
 la Caffarella, and which, according to the pop- 
 ular opinion, answers to the valley of Egeria, 
 while the source of the Almo is thought to cor- 
 respond with the fountain sacred to that nymph, 
 according to Juv. Sat. 3, v. 10. 
 
 Sed dum tota dovius rheda componitur una, 
 Substitit ad veteres arcus madidamque Capenam ; 
 Hie, ubi nocturnes Numa constituebat amicaP 
 
 Cram, 
 
 Egesta, a town of Sicily. Vid. Mgesta. 
 
 Egnatia, a town of Apulia, " which com- 
 municated its name to the consular way that 
 followed the coast from Canusium to Brundu- 
 sium. Its ruins are still apparent near the 
 Torre d^Agnazzo and the town of Monopoli. 
 Pliny states that a certain stone was shown at 
 Egnatia which was said to possess the property 
 of setting fire to wood that was placed upon it. 
 It was this prodigy, seemingly, which afforded 
 so much amusement to Horace." Cram. — Ho- 
 rat. Sat. 1, 5. Via. Vid. Via. 
 
 Eton, a commercial place at the mouth of the 
 Strymon, distant 25 stadia from Amphipolis, of 
 which it was the port, according to Thucydides, 
 who makes it more ancient than that city. " It 
 was from hence that Xerxes sailed to Asia on 
 his return from Greece, after the battle of Sala- 
 mis. In the middle ages a Byzantine town was 
 built on the site of Eion, which now bears the 
 name of Contessa. Cram. — Tkuc. 4, 102. — 
 Herod. 8, 118.— Paus. 8, c. 8. 
 
 El.ea, a town of .^olia, in Asia Minor, at 
 the mouth of the Caicus. It was the port of 
 Pergamus, and is now lalea. D'Anville. 
 
 El^us, a town of the Thracian Chersone- 
 sus, a colony of Teos, in Ionia, according to 
 Scymnus. Liv, 31, c. 16, 1. 32, c. 9. 
 
 Elatea, I. "the most considerable and im- 
 portant of the Phocian cities after Delphi, was 
 situated,accordingto Pausanias, 180 stadia from 
 Amphicsea, on a gently rising slope, above the 
 plain watered by the Cephissus. It was cap- 
 tured and burnt by the army of Xerxes; but 
 being afterwards restored, an attack made on 
 it by Taxilus, general of Mithridates, was suc- 
 cessfully repulsed by the inhabitants ; in conse- 
 quence of which exploit they were declared 
 
EK 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EL 
 
 free by the Roman senate, Strabo remarks on 
 its advantageous situation, which commanded 
 the entrance into Phocis and BoBotia. Its ruins 
 are to be seen on the site called Elephta, on the 
 left bank of the Cephissus, and at the foot of 
 some hills which unite with the chain of Cne- 
 mis and CEta." — Cram. — Paus. Phoc. 34. — 
 
 Herod. 8, S3.—Liv. 32, 18.—Stra6. 9. II. 
 
 A town of Thessaly, situated on the Peneus 
 above Gonnus. It is, doubtless, the Iletia of 
 Pliny and the Iletium of Ptolemy. 
 
 Elaver, a river in Gaul falling into the Loire, 
 now the Allier. 
 
 Elea. Vid. Velia. 
 
 Electrides, islands in the Adriatic Sea, 
 which received their name from the quantity of 
 amber (electrum) which they produced. They 
 were at the mouth of the Po, according to Apol- 
 lonius of Rhodes, but some historians doubt of 
 their existence. D'Anville places the Electri- 
 des Insulae in the Baltic, near the Sarmatian 
 coast, and identifies them with the long and 
 narrow sands that separate the gulfs named 
 Frisch-haf and Curisch-haf. Tacitus cells us 
 that the amber was gathered here by the natives, 
 who called it Glass or Gles^ which in Latin is 
 Succinum and in Greek Electron. D'Anville. 
 — Tacit. German.— Plin. 2, c. 26, 1.37, c. 2, 
 —Mela, 2, c. 7. 
 
 Elei, a people of Elis in Peloponnesus. 
 They were formerly called Epei. Vid. Elis. 
 
 Eleontum, a town of the Thracian Cherso- 
 nesus. 
 
 Elephantine, an island of the Nile, with a 
 town of the same name, distant but half a sta- 
 dium from. Syene and seven stadia below the 
 lesser cataract. According to Russell, this island 
 . is much richer in architectural remains than 
 Syene. " Romans and Saracens, it is true," 
 observes that able writer, " have done all in their 
 power to deface or to conceal them ; but, as De- 
 non remarks, the Eg}^tian monuments conti- 
 nue devoted to posterity, and have resisted 
 equally the ravages of man and of time. In the 
 midst of a vast field of bricks and other pieces of 
 baked earth, a very ancient temple is still left 
 standing, surrounded with a pilastered gallery 
 and two colunms in the portico. Nothing is 
 wanting but two pilasters on the left angle of 
 this ruin. Other edifices had been attached to 
 it at a later period, but only some fragments were 
 remaining which could give an idea of their 
 form when perfect •, proving only that these ac- 
 cessory parts were much larger than the origi- 
 nal sanctuary. Could this be the temple of 
 Cneph, the good genius, that one of all the 
 Egyptian gods who approaches the nearest to 
 our ideas of the Supreme Being 1 Or is it the 
 temple of this deity which is placed 600 paces 
 further to the north, having the same form and 
 size, though more in ruins ; all the ornaments of 
 which are accompanied by the serpent, the em- 
 blem of wisdom and eternity, and peculiarly that 
 of the god now named ']" Russell's Egypt. 
 
 Eleusinium, an Athenian temple of Ceres 
 and Proserpine. Vid. Athence. 
 
 Eleusis, a tovm of Attica, on the way be- 
 tween Megara and Athens, about 13 miles dis- 
 tant from the former and 15 from the latter. 
 " It derived its name from a hero, whom some 
 affirmed to be the son of Mercury, but others, of 
 Ogyges." Its origin is certainly of the highest 
 
 antiquity, as we find it contending with Athens 
 for the supremacy. under Eumolpus, in the reign 
 of Erechtheus. The war was amicably con- 
 cluded, Athens and Eleusis being united as one 
 government under Erechtheus and his descend- 
 ants, whilst the priesthood was confined to the 
 Eumolpidse, and the worship of Ceres adopted 
 by the Athenians. " The temple of Eleusis 
 was burnt by the Persian army in the invasion 
 of Attica, but was rebuilt under the administra- 
 tion of Pericles, by Ictinus, the architect of the 
 Parthenon. Strabo states that the mystic cell of 
 this celebrated edifice was capable of containing 
 as many persons as a theatre. A portico was 
 afterwards added by Demetrius Phalereus, who 
 employed for that purpose the architect Philo. 
 Within the temple was a colossal statue of 
 Ceres, the bust of which was removed in 1802 
 by Dr. Clarke, and brought to England. This 
 magnificent structure was entirely destroyed by 
 Alaric, A. D. 396, and has ever since remain- 
 ed in ruins. Eleusis, though so considerable 
 and important a place, was classed among the 
 Attic demi. It belonged to the tribe Hippo- 
 thoontis. Eleusis, now called Lesina, is an in- 
 considerable village, inhabited by a few Alba- 
 nian Christians. The Thriasian plain formed 
 part of the Eleusinian district ; another portion 
 was designated by the name of Rarius Campus. 
 It was in this plain that Ceres was first said to 
 have sown corn." Cram. Dr. Clarke de- 
 scribes as follows the most prominent objects 
 that present themselves to the traveller on ap- 
 proaching Eleusis : " Arriving upon the site of 
 the city of Eleusis, we found the plain to be 
 covered with ruins. The first thing we noticed 
 was an aqueduct, part of which is entire. Six 
 complete arches are yet to be seen. It conduct- 
 ed toward the Acropolis, by the temple of Ceres. 
 The remains of this temple are more conspicu- 
 ous than those of any other structure except the 
 aqueduct. The paved road which led to it is 
 also visible, and the pavement of the temple yet 
 remains. But, to heighten the interest with 
 which we regarded the relics of the Eleusinian 
 fane, and to fulfil the sanguine expectations we 
 had formed, the fragment of a colossal statue, 
 mentioned by many authors as that of the god- 
 dess herself, appeared in colossal majesty among 
 the mouldering vestiges of her once splendid 
 sanctuary." In relation to the name of this 
 place, Faber, who discovers in the mysteries of 
 Ceres the arkite worship, thus writes : " As for 
 the city Eleusis, the principal seat of the myste- 
 ries of Ceres, it is said to have derived its name 
 from the hero Eleusis. This fabulous personage 
 was by some esteemed the offspring of Mercu- 
 ry and Daira, daughter of Oceanus ; while by 
 others he was believed to have been the son of 
 Ogyges. Both these genealogies manifestly re- 
 fer to the diluvian idolatry, which was insepara- 
 bly interwoven with the orgies of the Eleusinian 
 Ceres." Eater's Cabiri. — Cram. — Clarice's 
 Travels. — Paus. — Strab. 
 
 Eleuther^, a town situated " on the road 
 from Eleusis to Platsea, which appears to have 
 once belonged to Boeotia, but finally became in- 
 cluded within the limits of Attica. Pausanias 
 reports that the Eleutherians were not conquer- 
 ed by the Athenians, but voluntarily united 
 themselves to that people, from their constant 
 enmity to the Thebans. Bacchus is said to 
 99 
 
EL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EM 
 
 have been bom in this town. Eleulherse was 
 already in ruins when Pausanius visited Attica. 
 This ancient site probably corresponds with that 
 now called Gypto Castro, where modern travel- 
 lers have noticed the ruins of a considerable for- 
 tress, situated on a steep rock, and apparently 
 designed to protect the pass of Cithseron." 
 Cram. — Strab. 9. — Paus. Att. 38. — Diod. Sic. 
 3, 139. 
 
 Eleutheros, a river of Syria, falling into the 
 Mediterranean on the northern confines of 
 Phoenicia. Plin. 9, c. 10. 
 
 Elimea, or Elymiotis, a district of Macedo- 
 nia, east of Stymphalia. This rugged coun- 
 try, important in a political view, notwithstand- 
 ing its sterility, from its affording a passage 
 either into Epirus or Thessaly, was divided 
 from the latter by the Cambunii montes ; while 
 the chain of Pindus, extending north with the 
 name of Canalovii, confined it on the west. 
 The Haliacmon flowed through this obscure, 
 and, perhaps, not yet well defined region, Liv. 
 42, c. 53, 1. 45, c. 30. 
 
 Elts, a principal division of the Peloponne- 
 sus, consisting of the three smaller parts of Elis 
 proper, Pisatis, and Triphylia. This important 
 country of southern Greece, lying west of Ar- 
 cadia, had on the north the Larissus, which se- 
 parated it from Achaia; and on the south the 
 Neda, on the boundary of Messenia ; the whole 
 of its western border lying upon the jEgean. 
 In the earliest ages to which the historical ac- 
 counts may be traced, and even to a period 
 much later, the people of this district were sepa- 
 rated into various little republics, of which, for a 
 long time, it would not be easy to name one as 
 the principal. The Caucones were, however, 
 the most ancient ; and there are authorities 
 which would lead us to believe that at an early 
 period the whole of Elis bore the name of Cau- 
 conia. The Epei were also an early race, re- 
 garded by Pausanias as indigenous. This part 
 of the peninsula, including the city of Elis itself, 
 was called the country of the Epii for a long 
 time after the Trojan war and the establishment 
 of the Dorians in the Peloponnesus. The .^to- 
 lian Oxylus, at the latter epoch, fixed himself 
 with mgmy of his countrymen in Elis, not yet 
 known as a whole province by that name. In 
 the time of Lycurgus, the Lacedasmonian Elis, 
 properly so called, was governed by Iphitus, a 
 descendant of Oxylus ; and by this prince, after 
 ihey had been neglected for many years, were 
 reviv ed the Olympic games. The right to Olym- 
 pia, in which these games were celebrated, was 
 long contested by the Eleans and the Pisatae ; 
 but in the end, as the former gradually extend- 
 ed their authority over the whole country from 
 the Neda to the Larissus, their right to all pow- 
 er and authority in this favoured city, and to the 
 pre-eminence in these national games, remained 
 undisputed and undisturbed. In the Persian 
 and in the Peloponnesian wars, Elis was found 
 in the same cause as Sparta, against the enemies 
 of Greece and of the Peloponnesus, but it could 
 not be induced to join in the Achaean league. 
 It was not till the time of the Persian invasion 
 that the city of Elis became the capital of the 
 province which then bore the same name. 
 About that time a great number of scattered but 
 neighbouring villages uniting, formed the city, 
 which thenceforth increased with astonishing 
 100 
 
 rapidity. As the whole territory was deemed 
 sacred, it was not thought necessary to defend 
 the city by walls ; and all who crossed this pri- 
 vileged territory were obliged to yield up their 
 arms, which on the frontiers were restored to 
 them. The city of Elis stood towards the north- 
 ern part of the country, on the river Peneus ; 
 its ruins are now called Palczopoli. In the coun- 
 try comprised within the boundaries of Elis in 
 its greatest extent, were, at very early periods, 
 the kingdom of Pelops, including the territories 
 of Pisa and Olympia, and the later, though still 
 ancient dominions of Nestor, the district of Tri- 
 phylia. The whole of Elis constituted one of 
 the most fertile districts of the Peloponnesus ; 
 and the people were addicted to such pursuits 
 and such a mode of life as the cultivation of 
 such a soil would naturally superinduce ; they 
 were, perhaps, the most agricultural people of 
 Greece. Strab. — Paus. Eliac. — Polyb. — Strab. 
 8.— Plin. 4, c. 5.— Paus. b.— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 
 494.— Ctc. Fam. 13, ep. 26, de Div. 2, c. 12.— 
 Liv. 27, c. 32.— FiV^. G. 1, v. 59, 1. 3, v. 202. 
 
 Ellopia, a town of Euboea. An ancient 
 
 name of that island. 
 
 Elymais, a district in the Persian empire, de- 
 riving its name from that of its inhabitants, the 
 Elymai. This name extended over a large 
 part of Susiana, though belonging properly to 
 the mountain region in the north on the con- 
 fines of Media. On the formation of new em- 
 pires, after the destruction of that which had 
 existed as the united dominion of the Persian 
 kings, Elymais appears to have. erected itself 
 into an independent state, subject to its own 
 kings. It is comprehended in the modern Kur- 
 distan. Strabo. 
 
 Emathia, an ancient name of a large portion 
 of Macedonia, including at one time Paeonia, 
 though in Homer's age the name was confined 
 to the region south of that district, about the 
 Erigon and on the Thermaic gulf. In this 
 part, however, was founded the empire of the 
 Macedonian kings on the arrival of the Teme- 
 nidae, who established themselves on the Ery- 
 gon and founded iEgae or Edessa, their capital, 
 and the first capital of Macedonia. The name 
 Emathia was long used as a poetical designa- 
 tion of the whole country, not only after it had 
 come to form a narrow portion of it alone, but 
 even after the subversion of the Macedonian 
 throne. — Polyb. — Horn. — Jjucan. 
 
 Emerita. Vid. Augusta. 
 
 Emessa, and Emissa, a large town of Syria, 
 now Hems, near the Orontes on the right, and 
 towards the source. It was famous for a temple 
 of the sun, worshipped in those regions under 
 the name of Heliogabalus. An emperor of 
 Rome assumed the name of Heliogabalus from 
 having officiated as priest in this famous tem- 
 ple of that god. Vid. Heliogobalus, Part. II. 
 
 Emodi montes, the eastern extremity of the 
 Paropamisus range, extending over the north of 
 India, and between that country and Scythia. 
 All these mountains belong to the Taurus in 
 the greatest extent allowed to that comprehen- 
 sive range. Vid. Aornos. 
 
 Emporia Punica, another name for Byza- 
 cium. Its capital at one period was Adnime- 
 tum, and near to its northern limits was fought 
 the battle between Scipio and Haimibal, which 
 put an end to the second Punic war, and, in fact, 
 
EP 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EP 
 
 to the Carthaginian empire, Vid. Byzacium. 
 
 EMPORiiE, a town of Spain in Catalonia, now 
 
 Ampurias. Liv. 34, c. 9 and 16, 1. 26, c. 19. 
 
 Eneti. Vid. Heiieti. 
 
 Enipeus, I. a river of Thessaly, flowing from 
 
 Pharsalia. Lmcom. 6, v. 373. II. A river of 
 
 Elis, floM^ing near the ancient towTi of Salone. 
 Ovid. Am. 3, el. 5. — Strai). 
 
 Enna, now Castro Janni, a town in the mid- 
 dle of Sicily, with a beautiful plain, where Pro- 
 serpine was carried away by Pluto. Mela, 2, c. 
 l.—Cic. Verr. 3, c. 49, 1. 4, c. \0A.—Oxid. Fast. 
 4, V. 522.— Lit;. 24, c. 37. 
 
 Entella, a town of Sicily, south of Panor- 
 mus on the Hypsa river, near the source, and 
 about midway between the northern and south- 
 ern coasts of the island. Ital. 14, v. 205. — Cic. 
 Ver. 3, c. 43. 
 
 EoRD^A, a district of Macedonia, deriving 
 its name from that of its inhabitants, the Eordi 
 or Eordaei. These people were early dispossess- 
 ed of their country, which, nevertheless, retain- 
 ed their name ever afterwards. The Lyncestse 
 bounded on the north the territory of the Eordsei, 
 which had upon the opposite side Elymais or 
 Elymiotis. Xerxes was reinforced by the peo- 
 ple of this country, who resorted to his standard 
 on his invasion of southern Greece. Liv.Zl, 
 c. 39, 1. 33, c. 8, 1. 42, c. 53. 
 
 Epei, and Elei, a people of Peloponnesus. 
 Plin. 4, c. 5. Vid. Elis. 
 
 Ephesus, a city of Ionia, built, as Justin men- 
 tions, by the Amazons, or by Androchus, son of 
 Codrus, according to Strabo ; or by Ephesus, a 
 son of the river Cayster. It is famous for a tem- 
 ple of Diana, which was reckoned one of the 
 seven wonders of the world. This temple was 
 425 feet long, and 200 feet broad. The roof was 
 "supported by 127 columns, sixty feet high, which 
 had been placed there by so many kings. Of 
 these columns, 36 were carved in the most 
 beautiful manner, one of which was the work 
 of the famous Scopas. This celebrated build- 
 ing was not totally completed till 220 years af- 
 ter its foundation. Ctesiphon was the chief ar- 
 chitect. It was burnt on the night that Alex- 
 ander was born ( Vid. Erostratus), and soon af- 
 ter it rose from its ruins with more splendour 
 and magnificence. Alexander offered to rebuild 
 it at his own expense, if the Ephesians would 
 place upon it an inscription which denoted the 
 name of the benefactor. This generous offer 
 was refused by the Ephesians, who observed, 
 in the language of adulation, that it was impro- 
 per that one deity should raise temples to the 
 other. Lysimachus ordered the town of Ephe- 
 sus to be called Arsinoe, in honour of his wife ; 
 but after his death the new appellation was lost, 
 and the tovim was again known by its ancient 
 name. Though modern authors are not agreed 
 about the ancient ruins of this once famed city, 
 some have given the barbarous name of Ajasa- 
 louc to what they conjecture to be the remains of 
 Ephesus. The words liter cb EphesitEare ap- 
 plied to letters containing magical powers. 
 Plin. 36, c. U.—Strab. 12 and U.—Mela, 1, c. 
 17. — Pans. 7, c. 2. — Plut. in Alex. — Justin. 2, 
 c. 4. — Callim.in Dian. — Ptol. 5. — Cic. de Nat. 
 D. 2 
 
 Ephyre, It is not easy to ascertain in all 
 cases the particular city referred to when ancient 
 authors speak of Ephyre. In Epirus the town 
 
 of Cichyrus was more anciently called by tk^ 
 name, being then, perhaps, the capital of the 
 kings of Thesprotia. The place was famous 
 in Homer's age for producing poisonous drugs. 
 Its ruins are supposed to be still discernible 
 about the Acherusian pool, and manifest an an- 
 tiquity the most remote in the rudeness of their 
 architectural remains. Indeed, Ephyre could 
 not be other than one of the most ancient towns 
 of Greece, as, according to mythological tradi- 
 tions, referring to the obscurest periods, in this 
 city was made the bold attempt of Theseus and 
 Pirithous to carr)'" off Proserpina, the wife of 
 Aidoneus ; in other words, the wife of the king. 
 
 Horn. 1, 259.- Paus. 1, 17. Cranon, in 
 
 Thessaly, is believed to have been intended by 
 Homer in his account of the wars of the Ephy- 
 ri and Phleg}''as. II. n. 301. It was also a not 
 
 uncommon name of Corinth. A town in 
 
 Elis, the later name of which is not with accu- 
 racy known, is also mentioned by Homer. Ac- 
 cording to Cramer, when this name is mentioned 
 in connexion with that of the Selleis, on which 
 it stood, the Elean town is referred to by Ho- 
 mer ; at other times the Ephyre of Thesprotia 
 is to be understood. There were many other 
 places of this name, but all too inconsiderable 
 to require particular notice. 
 
 Epidamnus. Vid. Dyrrachium. 
 
 Epidaphne, a town of Syria called also An- 
 tioch. 
 
 Epidaurus, I. a cit)'- of Argolis, on t,he Saro- 
 nic gulf, the more ancient name of which was 
 Epicarus. But though in the Argian division of 
 the Peloponnesus, Epidaurus was by no means 
 subject to the dominion of Argos, and was al- 
 ways found, on the contrary, in alliance with 
 the Lacedaemonians, the government of this 
 city, with its little state, extending in the envi- 
 rons perhaps about two miles, was decidedly 
 aristocratical ; and the administration was con- 
 fided principally to the care of a select council, 
 consisting of a limited number of persons de- 
 nominated Art}Tii. Epidaurus was famous for 
 its breed of horses and its vines, but most of all 
 for its worship of iEsculapius, and the magni- 
 ficent temple erected to that god in its vicinity. 
 The modem name of the site, and of the few 
 ruins that remain, is Epithauro. II. Ano- 
 ther to"wm of the same name, and dedicated to 
 the same deity, was in the country of Laccnia. 
 This place, Avhich stood exposed to the naval 
 power of Athens upon the coast of the Myrtoan 
 sea, was much and frequently ravaged by the 
 Athenians during the Peloponnesian war. It 
 was surnamed Limera, and stood at no great 
 distance north of Epidelium. Thvc. — Strab. 
 S — Virg. G. 3, V. U.—Paus. 3, c. 21.— Me/a, 
 2, c. 3. 
 
 Epidtom, one of the western isles of Scotland, 
 or the Mull of Cantyre according to Cambden, 
 who describes it as an extensive tract of land, 
 intersected by marshes and swamps in every di- 
 rection. The name he derives from the Epidii, 
 who inhabited it. Ptolem. 
 
 Epiphanea, I. a town of Cilicia, near Issus. 
 now Surpendkar. Plin. 5, c. 27. — Cic. ad Fam. 
 
 15, ep. 4. II. Another of Syria, on the 
 
 Orontes, between Arethusa and Larissa on the 
 same river. The endeavour to change the name 
 of this town from Hamoth, derived, it was pre- 
 tended, from Hamoth. the son of Canaan, into 
 101 
 
EP 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ER 
 
 Epiphania, in honour of the king of Syria, An- 
 tiochus Epiphanes, was only partially success- 
 ful ; and though the Europeans, and perhaps the 
 Asiatic subjects of that king, were willing to 
 lose the former name in that of their conqueror, 
 the natives and citizens continued to call it 
 Amatha. Hence the modern appellation of Ha- 
 mal. Plin. 5, c. 24. 
 
 EpiPOLJE, a district of Syracuse, on the north 
 side, surrounded by a wall by Dionysius, who, 
 to complete the work expeditiously, employed 
 60,000 men upon it, so that in 30 days he finish- 
 ed a wall four miles and a quarter long, and of 
 great height and thickness. 
 
 Epirus, a large division of Greece, forming 
 the north-western section of that country. The 
 river jEas on the north divided it from Illyria, 
 and the lofty Pindus range intervened to form 
 its boundary on the Thessalian side, including 
 Athamania, however, in the territory of Epirus, 
 as well as Ambracia, which confined upon 
 Acarnania on the south. Considered apart 
 from these smaller districts, the western boun- 
 dary of Epirus was formed by the river Arach- 
 thus. The origin of the Epirotic people is in- 
 volved in an obscurity more profound than that 
 which envelopes the accounts of southern 
 Greece ; and all that can be said of them, is, 
 that, according to Strabo, their early manners, 
 customs, and habits, indicated a common origin 
 for them and their neighbours the Macedonians. 
 The name of Epirus, which signified Main- 
 land, and appears to have been given to this 
 country in contradistinction to the many islands 
 on its coast, included in the boundaries assign- 
 ed to it above, a great number of others, each 
 of which at the earliest dates represented a se- 
 parate and independent nation or tribe. Very 
 early, however, the Molossian princes extended 
 their authority over all, and the history of Epi- 
 rus is, therefore, almost restricted to that of the 
 Molossi. The traditionary account of the rise 
 and advancement of this people refers its origin 
 to a period comparatively late, and assigns to 
 the Molossi, as their first founder, Molossus, the 
 son of Pyrrhus and Andromache. The people 
 of this distant part of Greece make little show 
 in her annals ; and when, in the time of the 
 Persian war, we are enabled to form some no- 
 tion of its state and government, we find them 
 both unequal to the danger of contending with 
 even the smaller Grecian states for power or 
 rank. The first who assumed the title of king 
 of Epirus, having annexed the larger districts 
 of Chaonia, Thesprotia, and perhaps also 
 others, to the crown of Molossia, was Alexan- 
 der, the brother-in-law of Philip of Macedon 
 and the father-in-law of the still more renowned 
 successor of that prince. Not content with en- 
 larging his dominions at home, Alexander car- 
 ried his arms into Italy, where, after giving sig- 
 nal proofs of conduct and valour, he was slain 
 before the walls of Pandosia. In the reign of 
 his successors ^acides and Alcetas, Cassander 
 obtained possession of the throne of Epirus ; but 
 by the aid of the Illyrian king it was soon after 
 restored to the heir of the last-mentioned sove- 
 reign, who proved the greatest of the Epirot 
 princes, and, in the estimation of many, second 
 to none of the most illustrious names of anti- 
 quity. This was Pyrrhus ( Vid. Pyrrhus), the 
 great enemv of the Romans. In his reign the 
 102 
 
 name of Epirus and her arms became terrible to 
 all the surrounding nations, Italy, Sicily, Ma- 
 cedon, and the Peloponnesus, were successively 
 the objects of his ambition and the witnesses of 
 his prowess and abilities. But though he in- 
 spired among the other princes, and among the 
 people of Greece, a new and unusual respect for 
 the name of Epirus, he added little to her terri- 
 tory ; and when he was slain in his attempt to 
 reduce the citadel of Argos with a handful of 
 men, he had added almost nothing to the boun- 
 daries of his realm. After the reigns of three 
 successors to this prince, the line of his family 
 becahae extinct, and the Epirots adopted the re- 
 publican form of government, which they en- 
 joyed until the destruction of the Macedonian 
 kingdom, in which was involved the subversion 
 of their liberties. The Epirots had favoured, in 
 some measure, the views of the Persians in the 
 Macedonian war ; and the barbarous policy of 
 the Romans compelled them to exact the bitter- 
 est atonement for this ill-judged opposition to 
 the hopes of the usurping republic. The whole 
 of Epirus is included in the modern Albania. 
 Find. Nem. od. 7, 56.— Tkuc.—Liv.8, 24.— 
 Plut. Pyrrh. — Just. — Polyb. 
 
 Equotuticum, now Castel Franco, a little 
 town of Apulia, to which, as some suppose, Ho- 
 race alludes in this verse, 1 Sat. 5, v. 87 : 
 
 " Mansuri oppidulo, versu quod dicere nan est."^ 
 
 Erectheium. Vid. Athence. 
 
 Eresus, a town of Lesbos, in which Theo- 
 phrastus was born. 
 
 Eretria, a principal town of Eubcsa, north 
 of Chalcis, on the Euripus. Various accounts 
 are given of its origin ; but as its inhabitants 
 were certainly of Ionic blood, it seems most pro- 
 bable that the writers who deduce them from 
 the Attic demus, which also bore the name of 
 Eretria, were best informed on this particular 
 subject. The Eretrians early became a flou- 
 rishing people, engaged in many wars of am- 
 bition with their rival of Chalcis. They took 
 part in the revolt of the lonians, who, in the 
 time of Darius, at the instigation of Aristagora^, 
 attempted to throw off the yoke of the Persians. 
 Their city was therefore, like Athens, a particu- 
 lar object of dislike to the eastern monarch ; and 
 his orders and preparations were directed with 
 peculiar animosity against the inhabitants. Af- 
 ter a six days' siege the city was betrayed into 
 the hands of the enemy, and the citizens were 
 carried awaj^ to populate the Asiatic colony of 
 Cissia. On its recovery from this disaster, Ere- 
 tria deserted or abandoned its alliance with 
 Athens, and was found in league with Sparta 
 against the Athenians. The people being go- 
 verned by tyrants, according to the ancient use 
 of that term, and consequently entertaining, as 
 was natural, a very small portion of that love of 
 their own institutions which generally distin- 
 guished the inhabitants of republican Greece, 
 passed, with very little resistance or care, into 
 the power of Antigonus, and with just as little 
 afterwards into the hands of the Romans. This 
 last event occurred during the Macedonian war. 
 Strab. — Herod. — Diod. Sic. — Liv. — Polyb. 
 
 Ericusa, one of the Lipari isles, now Alicudi. 
 
 Eridanus, the name of the Po among the 
 Greeks. It is well known that in the historical 
 ages of Italy and Greece, the Eridanus and the 
 
EB 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EU 
 
 Padus were certainly the same ; but it is almost 
 equally certain that the fables of the early poets 
 belonging to the latter country, either did not at 
 all refer to the Po, or were founded upon very 
 indefinite noti ons of its rise and course . C lu\ e- 
 rius, indeed, expresses his opinion that the Po, 
 beside which Phaeton was buried, so far from 
 being the river of Italy, was a northern stream 
 called Rhodaune, and emptying into the Vistu- 
 la. This would give, perhaps, a northern ori- 
 gin to the fable oi his death, and serve to mark 
 the connexion of some at least among the classic 
 fictions with those of the people called Barba- 
 rians. The name of the Italian Eridanus, among 
 the early inhabitants of Gaul, was Bodencus. 
 Ii rose in the mons Vesulus, and running nearly 
 east, was the boundary line between Liguria 
 and Cisalpine Gaul, as far as its confluence 
 with the Ticinus. Here, continuing its course, 
 it left Liguria on the south, and traversing Cis- 
 alpine Gaul, divided that part which now con- 
 stitutes the duchies of Parma and Modena and 
 the Bolognese upon the south, from Lombardy 
 . upon the north. On the east, however, as it ap- 
 proached the coast, this noble river, having run 
 a navigable course of almost 250 miles, became 
 again a boimdary line, separating Cisalpine 
 Gaul from Venetia. AH the waters of the 
 north of Italy, formed from the springs and 
 snows and torrents of the Alps, unite to swell 
 the current of this famous stream. The whole 
 length of this river was computed to be 288 
 miles, and the number of rivers which paid tri- 
 bute, through it to the Adriatic, were by Pliny 
 computed at about thirty. The mouths of the 
 Eridanus or Po are thus described by D'An- 
 ville; "The nearest to Ravenna derives the 
 name of Spineticum Ostium from a very ancient 
 city founded by the Greeks, called Spina. They 
 applied to it specially the name of Eridanus. 
 This channel was also named Padusa ; and at 
 the place where the city of Ferrara is situated, 
 there separates from it a channel named Vole- 
 na, which preserves this name and communi- 
 cates it to its mouth. The principal arm of 
 the Po only arrives at the sea by dividing itself 
 into many channels, whose issue was called 
 septim maria, the seven seas." Cic. in Oral. 
 145. — Claudian. de Cons. Hon. 6, v. 175. — Ovid, 
 Met. 2, fab. ^.—Paus. 4, c. S.—Strab. 5.— 
 lAican. 2, V. A09.— Virg. G. 1, v. 482. jEn. 6, 
 V. 659. 
 
 Erigonus, a river of Thrace. 
 
 Erindes, a river of Asia, near Parthia. Ta- 
 cit. Ann. 11, c. 16. 
 
 Erymanthus, I. a ridge of mountains in Ar- 
 cadia, now the Olonos, considered one of the 
 most elevated in Greece. It was one of that 
 range, which, under the name of Scollis, Ery- 
 manthus, Aroanii, Colossa, &c. stretched across 
 the Peloponnesus, south of Achaia, Sicyonia, 
 and Corinthia, from the Ionian to the Myrtoan 
 sea. In poetry this mountain is famed for the 
 ferocious boar which haunted its wilds; and 
 whose death was one of the exploits of Her- 
 cules. II. A river of the same name, now 
 
 the Dagana, flowed from this mountain, passed 
 near the town of Psophis at the confluence of 
 the Arvanius, and emptied into the Alpheus 
 below the mouth of the Ladon on the borders of 
 Elis. Horn. Od. z, 102. — Dionys. Perieg. 115. 
 ^ — CaUiiru 
 
 Erythea. Though this place, the scene of 
 Hercules' victory over Geryon, is universally 
 allowed to have been an island, it is by no means 
 CELsy to ascertain precisely what one is intended 
 when Erythea is named. According to Vossius 
 it was a small island at the mouth of the Anas. 
 Here he thinks the first PhcEnician colony to 
 have settled itself before the founding of Gades ; 
 and ancient vestiges remaining in the place 
 make manifest that it was once inhabited, al- 
 though so insignificant in modern times as not 
 to be distinguished by a name. Mela, 3, 6. — 
 Voss. ad Pamp. Mel. 
 
 Erythrje, I. a town of Ionia, opposite Chios, 
 once the residence of a Sybil. It was built by 
 Neleus, the son of Codrus. Pans. 10, c. 12. — 
 
 Liv. 44, c. 28, 1. 38, c. 39. II. A town of 
 
 Boeotia. Id. 6, c. 21. III. One m Libya. 
 
 IV. Another in Locris. 
 
 Erythreum mare. The Red Sea of the 
 ancients did not correspond to the sea which the 
 moderns have designated by that name. In an- 
 tiquity, from having entertained a very vague 
 and indefinite notion of this sea, to which they 
 ELScribed a vast extent, the Greek and Latin geo- 
 graphers came to signify, at last, by Erythreum 
 Mare, the Arabian sea, which washes the coasts 
 of Arabia and of Persia, and into which the 
 modern Bed sea, with them the Sinus Arabi- 
 cus, discharges itself. The Sinus Persicus, or 
 Persian gulf, on the eastern side of Arabia, was 
 also included by the ancients in the M^re Ery- 
 threum. The etymology of the word is so un- 
 certain, that it cannot be yet established whether 
 this sea received its name from the colour ot 
 its waters, or from the name of an individual 
 or from that of a country. Citrt. 8, c. 9. — Plin. 
 6, c. 23.—Herodot. 1, c. 180 and 189, 1. 3, c. 93, 
 1. 4, c. 31.— Mela, 3, c. 8. 
 
 Eryx, a mountain in the island of Sicily, on 
 which was a city of the same name, and a tem- 
 ple dedicated to Venus Erycina. The moun- 
 tain arose in the north-eastern corner of the 
 island, over the promontory of Drepanum. 
 
 EsQUiLi^, and Esquilinus mons, one of the 
 seven hills of Rome, which was joined to the 
 city by king Tullus. Birds of prey generally 
 came to devour the dead bodies of criminals who 
 had been executed there, and thence they were 
 called EsquilincB alites. It was the largest of 
 the seven hills of Rome. Liv. 2, c. 11. — Horat. 
 5, epod. V. 100.— Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 32. 
 
 EsTiiEOTis, a district of Thessaly, Vid. 
 HesticBotis. 
 
 Etruria. Vid. Hetruria. 
 
 Etrusci, the inhabitants of Etruria. Vid. 
 Hetruria. 
 
 Evarchus, a river of Asia Minor, flowing 
 into the Euxine on the confines of Cappadocia. 
 Flac. 6, V. 102. 
 
 EuBOEA, the largest island in the ^gean Sea, 
 extending from the Malaic gulf on the south 
 of Thessaly, as far as the latitude of Athens, 
 along the coasts of Locris, Boeotia, and Attica. 
 The following is a description of the island in 
 outline from Pliny, according to the translation 
 of Cramer. " Torn from the coast of Boeotia, 
 it is separated by the Euripus, the breadth of 
 which is so insignificant as to allow a bridge to 
 be thrown across. Of its two southern promon- 
 tories, Gersestus looks towards Attica, Caphare- 
 us to the Hellespont ; Censeum fronts the north, 
 103 
 
EV 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EU 
 
 In breadth this island never exceeds twenty- 
 miles ; but it is nowhere less than two. Reach- 
 ing from Attica to Thessaly, it extends for 120 
 miles in length. Its circuit is 365 miles. On the 
 side of Caphareus it is 225 miles from the Hel- 
 lespont." The earliest name by which the 
 Greeks designated this important tract of coun- 
 try was Macris, referring to its disproportion- 
 ate length ; and Oche, Ellopia, Asopis, and 
 Abantia, were also names by which it was fre- 
 quently denominated. Its inhabitants are al- 
 ways called, in Homer, Abantes, though, from 
 their early skill and boldness on the seas, they 
 were considered by some to have been of Phoe- 
 nician origin. The traditional account of the 
 later name of Euboea derives it from the pas- 
 sage of lo, who is said to have given birth to 
 Epaphus in this island. The Abantes esta- 
 blished colonies in Illyria, Sicily, Italy, and 
 Asia Minor. As every city either of note or 
 magnitude in EubcEa pretended to an entire in- 
 dependence it is impossible to sketch a general 
 history of the changes which took place in the 
 political geography of the island ; the Chalcidi- 
 ans and Eretrians inhabiting the principal towns, 
 however, by their jealousies and their wars gave 
 a pretext to the people of the main land and the 
 peninsula for interfering in the afiairs of the 
 island, and uniting all, if not in a common sla- 
 very, yet in a common subjection to a foreign 
 influence. Accordingly, in the time that inter- 
 vened between the Persian and the Peloponne- 
 sian wars, we find the Athenian authority and 
 supremacy acknowledged over the whole of Eu- 
 boea, which only recovered its independence in 
 the 21st year of the latter celebrated war. Its 
 vicissitudes became from this moment frequent ; 
 and we find the Euboeans returning almost to 
 the rule of the Athenians, attaching themselves 
 to the Macedonian interest, or swallowed up in 
 its empire, and finally restored by a decree of the 
 senate and people of Rome to a nominal liberty. 
 When Euboea arose to great opulence and com- 
 mercial prosperity, we may infer that she must 
 have held no inconsiderable place among the 
 trading nations of antiquity, from the value and 
 universal currency of the Euboean talent, known 
 in every country as the Euboicum. The soil of 
 this island has been compared for its fertility to 
 that of the fruitful Cyprus ; but, at least in an- 
 cient times, this enviable advantage was greatly 
 diminished by the frequency of earthquakes, to 
 which it was subject. The modern name of 
 Negropont is supposed to be the result of many 
 corruptions by gradual transition from the Eu- 
 ripus. Horn. b. 538. — Pans. — Strab. The 
 lapse of ages and the oppression of the Turks 
 have not been able to contend with the natural 
 fertility and productiveness of the island. Corn 
 and wine are still produced there in abundance, 
 and numerous flocks are dispersed over its wide- 
 spreading pastures. Its valleys, which centu- 
 ries ago were covered by the trees of the forest, 
 are still enclosed by their branches and shaded 
 by their luxuriant foliage. The Euripus is 
 now crossed by a brids:e, that joins the island 
 to the eastern shores of Greece. 
 
 EvENUs, a river of ^tolia, which, rising in 
 the country of the Bomienses in the north-east- 
 em part of .^tolia, flows through the country of 
 the ancient Calydon, after which it takes a 
 westerly course towards the plains of ancient 
 104 
 
 Pleuron, and then turning to the south, falls 
 into the Ionian Sea near the entrance to the 
 Corinthiacus Sinus. The more ancient name 
 of this river was Lycormas ; its modern name is 
 Fidara. On the banks of this stream Hercules 
 is said to have slain the centaur Nessus, for 
 attempting to offer violence to Dejanira. It re- 
 ceives its name from Evenus, son of Mars and 
 Sterope, who, being unable to overcome Idas, 
 who had promised him his daughter Marpessa, 
 in marriage if he surpassed him in running, 
 grew so desperate that he threw himself into 
 the .river, which afterwards bore his name. 
 Strab. 10, ^b\.— Cram.— Ovid. Met. 9. 104.— 
 Strab. 7. 
 
 EuERGET^, a nation of Drangiana, called 
 also Ariaspge, from their chief city Ariaspe, si- 
 tuated at the foot of mount Becius. The name 
 Euergetae is a Greek translation of the Persian 
 term applied to this nation by Cyrus for the as- 
 sistance they rendered him in his Scythian ex- 
 pedition. 
 
 EuGANEi, one of the most ancient nations of 
 Italy, as their name denotes, inhabiting that 
 district subsequently called Venetia, from the 
 Veneti, who expelled the original possessors, 
 the Euganei. After being driven from their 
 ancient abodes, they settled on the borders of 
 the lakes Benacus and Sebinus, and in the 
 neighbouring valleys. Cram.. — Liv. 1, 1. 
 
 EuMENiA, I. a city of Phrygia, built by Atta- 
 ins in honour of his brother Eumenes, situated 
 
 on the river Clurus, II. A city of Thrace. 
 
 III. Of Caria. Plin. 5, .29. IV, Of 
 
 Hyrcania. 
 
 EuPATORiA, a tovm of Pontus, on the Iris, 
 " at its confluence with the Lycus ; begun by 
 Mithridates under the name of Eupatoria, it 
 received from Pompey, who finished it, the 
 name of Magnopolis. It a.ppears to be that 
 now called Tchenikeh.^^ D'Anville. 
 
 Euphrates, a river of Asia, which rises in 
 Armenia, and, forming in its course the west- 
 ern boundary of Mesopotamia, empties into the 
 Persian gulf. " The Euphrates takes its rise 
 from several sources ; two branches in particu- 
 lar dispute the honour of being the principal ; 
 one, not far distant from the town of Bayazid,'' 
 the ancient Ligua, " in the mountains named 
 Ala-Dag, anciently the mountain Abus of 
 which Ararat makes a part. This river, which 
 bears the name of Murad, disappears under 
 ground at a distance of four hours' travelling 
 from Bayazid. It re-appears, and receives near 
 Melaskerd" the ancient Mauro-Castrum, " ano- 
 ther river of this name, and traverses all the 
 district of Turvberan, the southern part of 
 Armenia proper." In its passage through this 
 country it receives the Telaboas, which the ten 
 thousand met with between the sources of the 
 Tigris and their passage of the Euphrates. 
 Continuing its course towards the west, the 
 Euphrates meets its other branch, which forms 
 the eastern boundary of Armenia Minor, a little 
 below Arabrace, AraJbTcir. The stream is form- 
 ed by the junction of a small river, which rises 
 near Arze, Erzroom, with the Lycus, whose 
 sources are called in the country Bing-gheul, 
 or the Thousand Fountains. These two rivers 
 united do not equal the Murad, which Xeno^ 
 phon considers the real Euphrates. The Frat 
 and Murad enclose the district Acilisene, whose 
 
EU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EU 
 
 apex is the point of junction. The river, now 
 very considerable, descends towards the south, 
 receiving the Arsanias, now Arsen, a stream 
 which flows tlirough the district of Sophene ; 
 although the name of Arsanias is not unfre- 
 quently applied to the M^irad, which is doubt- 
 less the Euphrates crossed by the ten thousand, 
 and " the same that Corbulo, charged with the 
 conduct of the war in Armenia under Nero. 
 makes issue from a district called Caranites, ac- 
 cording to the report of Pliny. A little below" 
 its junction with the Arsen, " and at a place of 
 the same name, with the Elegia, or Ilija, near 
 Erzroom, the Euphrates pierces the chain of 
 mount Taurus ; and this place is now called the 
 Pass of Nushar." (D'Anville.) Having pass- 
 ed thfs, it winds along an elevated plain, but 
 soon meeting with a fresh inequality of ground, 
 forms a double cataract twenty-two miles above 
 Samosata, or Semisat, the capital of Comagene, 
 which is situated at the apex of a great parabo- 
 la, by which this river, which hitherto appears 
 to direct its course to the Mediterranean, turns 
 suddenly towards the east and south. " In pro- 
 portion as the Tigris and Euphrates approach 
 one another, the intermediate land loses its ele- 
 vation, and it is occupied by meadows and mo- 
 rasses. Several artificial communications, per- 
 haps two or three that are natural, form a pre- 
 lude to the approaching junction of the rivers, 
 which finally takes place near Korna. The 
 river formed by their junction is called Shat-al- 
 Arab, or ihe river of Arabia. It has three 
 principal mouths, besides a small outlet ; these 
 occupy a space of 36 miles. The southernmost 
 is the deepest and freest in its current. Bars of 
 sand formed by the river, and which change in 
 their form and situation, render the approach 
 dangerous to the mariner. The tide, which 
 rises above Bassora, and even beyond Korna, 
 meeting with violence the downward course of 
 the stream, raises its waters in the form of frothy 
 billows. Some of the ancients described the 
 Euphrates as losing itself in the lakes and 
 marshes to the south of Babylon ; others con- 
 sider the river formed by the union of the two 
 as entitled to a continuation of the name of Eu- 
 phrates. According to some, the Euphrates ori- 
 ginally entered the sea as a separate river, the 
 course of which the Arabs stopped up by a 
 mound. This last opinion has been in some 
 measure revived by a modern traveller (Nie- 
 buhr), who supposes that the canal of Naar-Sa- 
 res, proceeding from the Euphrates on the north 
 of Babylon, is continued without interruption to 
 the sea. The bay called Khore-Abdallah would, 
 according to this hypothesis, represent the an- 
 cient mouth of the river ; but this bay existed 
 in the time of Ptolemy under the name of the 
 Sinus Mesanites. With regard to the canal 
 Nahr-Sares, it appears for certain to rejoin the 
 river near Semawe. The dry bed correspond- 
 ing to the gulf of Khore-Abdallah, and on which 
 we find the remains of the old city of Bassora, 
 terminates in the Euphrates a little to the west of 
 Korna. The Pallocopas, or the canal of Koufa, 
 seems to extend no farther than the lakes on the 
 south of Babylon. The continual changes to 
 which this flat and movable ground is subject, 
 the inundations of the rivers, and the works of 
 human labour, concur to render the solution of 
 these points impossible. There is also some un- 
 Part I.— O 
 
 certainty respecting the relative size of the Ti- 
 gris and Euphrates. This last, certainly, has 
 the largest course, but weakened by drains ; it 
 presents at Hilleh a width not exceeding 420 
 feet ; while the Tigris at Bagdat is more than 
 600. The inhabitants of the country, in order 
 to irrigate their lands, dam up both tlie one and 
 the other with dykes, which the historians of 
 Alexander have, in their simplicity, mistaken 
 for military bulwarks intended to check the 
 progress of the Arabian pirates up the river. 
 The Euphrates and the Tigris deposit no slime 
 like the Nile ; yet these natural irrigations are 
 suflicient to make the fields of Bagdai the gar- 
 den of Asia." {Malte-Brun.) The Euphrates 
 is the Perah of the Old Testament. Arrian. 7, 
 l.—Mela, 3, S.—Plin. 5, 26; 6, 21.—Strai. 2, 
 2, 130 ; 15, 1060.— D'Anville. 
 
 EuPHRATEsu, or EuPHRATENSis, 0. name given 
 to Comagene when a Roman province. 
 
 EuRiPus, a narrow strait which separates the 
 island of Euboea from the coast of BcEotia. Its 
 flux and reflux, which continued regular during 
 18 or 19 days, and were uncommonly imsettled 
 the rest of the month, was a matter of deep m- 
 quiry among the ancients ; and it is said that 
 Aristotle threw himself into it because he was 
 unable to find out the causes of that phenome- 
 non. Liv. 28, c. 6.— Mela, 2, c. l.—Plin. 2, c. 
 95. — Stral). 9. The frequency of the currents, 
 or rather of eddies, in this narrow channel, in- 
 duced many among the ancients to believe that 
 the tide ebbed and flowed through* it more 
 frequently than upon the open coast ; and some 
 of them maintained that this occurred no 
 less than seven times during the day, and as 
 many during the night. The efiect of the wind 
 upon this confined channel was sometimes such 
 as to give it the appearance of a wild mountain 
 torrent. 
 
 EuRoPA, one of the three grand divisions of 
 the earth known among the ancients. It is 
 bounded on the east by the ^gean Sea, Hel- 
 lespont, Euxine, Palus Mseotis, and Tanais in 
 a northern direction. The Mediterranean di- 
 vides it from Africa on the south, and on the 
 west and north it is washed by the Atlantic 
 and Northern oceans. It is supposed to re- 
 ceive its name from Europa, who was carried 
 there by Jupiter. Mela, 2, c. 1. — Plin. 3, c. 1, 
 6>iC.—lMcan. 3, v. 275.— Hr^. ^n. 7, v. 2^2. 
 Malte-Brun gives the following table of dis- 
 tances from various points or extremities of 
 this continent, containing an area of 500,000 
 square miles, and a population of 200,000,000. 
 Length from Cape St. Vincent to the Ural 
 mountains near Ekaterineburg, 1215 leagues ; 
 from Brest to Astracan, 860. Breadth across 
 the Spanish peninsula, from Cadiz to Cape Or- 
 tegal, 210 leagues ; from Port Verdre to Ba- 
 yonne, (the narrowest part) along the line of the 
 'Pyrenees, 95 leagues; from the Black Sea to 
 the Baltic, 268 ; from the Caspian to the White 
 Sea, 485: and from Cape Matapan, the an- 
 cient Taenarum, in Greece, to Cape North, the 
 greatest breadth of Europe, 870 leagues. Not 
 all, nor even the greatest part, of the country 
 lying within these several points was accurately 
 known to the people of antiquity, though the 
 boundaries given above demonstrate, that, ex- 
 cept upon the north, they must have had a §:e- 
 nerally correct notion of its extent and limits. 
 105 
 
EU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EU 
 
 The strict and accurate acquaintance of the 
 Greeks and Romans extended hardly beyond the 
 limits of the Dnieper and Dwina on the east, 
 and the southern borders of the Baltic on the 
 north. The rest was vague conjecture and sur- 
 mise, concerning vast islands extending in the 
 northern ocean , and to which they gave the name 
 of Scandinavia; and of impenetrable forests on 
 the east and north-east, to which they gave the 
 indefinite, and, as applied by them, unmeaning 
 titles of Scythia and Sarmatia. Some inter- 
 course they had, moreover, with the coasts of the 
 Cimmerian Bosphorus, the Straits of Caffa, 
 and the Palus Mseotis. The rivers, and even 
 the mountains, of this continent, notwithstand- 
 ing the Alpine chain and the elevation of mount 
 Blanc, are on a diminutive scale in comparison 
 with those of the other continents ; and Malte- 
 Brun observes that the whole peninsula would 
 hardly be sufficient for the basin of one great 
 river like the Nile. That very curious inquirer, 
 the author of the Dissertation on the Cabiric 
 Mysteries, observes, in regard to the derivation 
 of the word, " the continent of Europe derived 
 its name from the worship of Eur-op, the Ser- 
 pent of the Sun; and not from the fabulous 
 Europa. Herodotus justly explodes the notion 
 of its being so called from the Persian princess, 
 observing that she never saw the region which 
 the Greeks denominated Europe ; but that she 
 was conveyed from Tyre into Crete, and from 
 Crete into Africa." But, however we may 
 choose to accept the derivation of this name, 
 it is now very well understood that the whole 
 country now known as Europe was not origi- 
 nally included in that designation. The Ro- 
 mans gave to that part of the coast which lay 
 opposite to them, the name of Africa, which 
 only, by gradual extension, came at last to sig- 
 nify the whole of the vast peninsula which now 
 bears that appellation. The same was equally 
 the case in regard to Asia ; and from the parts 
 contiguous to Europe, the name extended over 
 the largest part of the world of the ancients. 
 On the shores of the Propontis, a portion or 
 region of Thrace was first denominated Europe, 
 in the opinion of D'Anville, as being " the en- 
 trance of Europe, opposite the land of Asia ; " 
 but more probably, the first called by that name, 
 which it communicated at an early period to 
 one whole division of the earth. The capital 
 of Europa, in the limited sense in which, accord- 
 ing to this opinion, that title was first applied, 
 was Heraclea, which continued among the Ro- 
 mans of the empire a place of some importance 
 till the removal of the imperial seat to Byzan- 
 tium, thenceforward Constantinople. " Euro- 
 pean languages may be divided into two great 
 classes ; the first consists of those which re- 
 semble one another, and have some aflinity 
 with the Sanscrit and Persic ; the second com- 
 prises those in which such resemblance does 
 not exist, or at all events is faint and indistinct. 
 In the first class maybe distinguished the Greek 
 and partly the Latin, the Slavonic and its 
 branches, the German and Scandinavian: in 
 the second, the Finnic, the Celtic, and the 
 Basque or Biscayan. It is impossible to deter- 
 mine whether such radical differences are to 
 De attributed to two different Asiatic invasions 
 or to two separate periods of civilization. Ten 
 distinct races exist still in Europe, but the most 
 106 
 
 ancient are, on the whole, the least numerous 
 The Greeks, of whom the Pelasgi were a very 
 ancient branch, after having peopled with their 
 colonists the most of the coasts on the Mediter- 
 ranean, now exist only in some provinces of 
 Turkey, chiefly in the Archipelago and the Pe- 
 loponnesus. The Albanians are the descend- 
 ants of the Illyrians, who mingled formerly with 
 the Pelasgic Greeks, and at a later period with 
 the modern ; enough of their ancient language 
 remains to enable us to discover its European 
 character, and its connexion with the German 
 and Slavonic, No trace is left of the ancient 
 people that are supposed to have inhabited 
 Thrace and the countries adjacent to the Da- 
 nube ; they were probably composed of differ- 
 ent races, as the Phrygian, the Slavonic, the 
 Celtic, and the Pelasgic; perhaps, too, what is 
 strictly called the Thracian language, was the 
 common source of the Phrygian, the Greek, 
 the Illyrian, and even the Dacian or Dake. It 
 is towards Thrace, mount Hemus, and the Low- 
 er Danube, that we can discover the earliest 
 origin of European states ; but these indications 
 disappear if we traverse Asia Minor, or travel 
 by the north round th£ Euxine Sea. The Turks. 
 the modern rulers of the Greeks, belong to the 
 same family as the Tartars, and are scattered 
 throughout Russia from the Crimea to Kasan ; 
 one of their colonies is established in Lithua- 
 nia. That people, foreign to Europe, or who 
 only occupied in ancient times the Uralian con- 
 fines, are now domiciled in our peninsula, and 
 probably fixed in it for ages ; they are incorpo- 
 rated with the Greek races, and with the an- 
 cient nations of Asia Minor and Thrace. The 
 Turcomans, of whom a branch is settled in 
 Macedonia, have preserved incorrupted their 
 Asiatic origin. Two great races have probably 
 existed in the north-east of Europe for some 
 thousand years. The vain Greeks and proud 
 Romans despised the obscure names of Slavo- 
 nians and Finns, {Slavi and Finni;) but these 
 populous tribes have occupied, from the earliest 
 dawn of history, all the countries comprehend- 
 ed under the vague and chimerical names ot 
 Scythia and Sarmatia. Almost all the topo- 
 graphical names of these countries are derived 
 from the Slavonic and Finnic ; a very small 
 number owe their origin to the short empires of 
 the Scythians, the Sarmatians, the Ostrogoths, 
 and the Huns, the successive conquerors and 
 rulers of these immense plains. It is probable 
 that a Scythian nation, sprung from theMedes. 
 ruled over the Finns and Slavonians,who formed 
 the agricultural and pastoral tribes. The Sar- 
 matians, who appear to have been of Tartar 
 descent, mixed with the Scythians and their 
 vassals ; the Huns were another horde of the 
 same people ; both the one and the other came 
 from the banks of the Wolga and the shores of 
 the Caspian Sea. It is certain that, at the 
 time in which they appeared in these countries, 
 the banks of the Vistula and the Dnieper were 
 peopled by Slavonic and Finnic tribes. The 
 Slavonic nations are divided, according to their 
 dialects, into three branches ; first, the eastern 
 Slavi, including the Russians, a people descend- 
 ed from the Roxelans or Roxolani, the Slavi 
 and Scandinavians, the Eousniacs, in Galicia, 
 the Servians or Slavi on the Danube, the Scla- 
 vonians, the Croatians, and others; secondly, 
 
EU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EU 
 
 the western Slavi, or the Poles, Bohemians, 
 Hungarian Slavi, and the Sorabs or Serbs of 
 Lusatia; thirdly, the northern Slavi or the 
 Venedes of the Romans, the Wends of the 
 ancient Scandinavians, a very numerous tribe, 
 earlier civilized, but at the same time earliei 
 incorporated in diflferent states than the other 
 two. The same tribe comprehends the remains 
 of the German Wendes or Polabes, the Obo- 
 trites and Rugians, long since confounded with 
 their conquerors the Germans ; it also includes 
 the Pomeranians, the Kassubs, subdued by the 
 Poles ; the ancient Prussians or Prutzi, exter- 
 minated or reduced to disgraceful slavery by 
 their Teutonic conquerors ; and lastly, the Li- 
 thuanians, the only branch which has retained 
 some traces of its ancient language, although 
 mixed with the Scandinavian and Finnic. The 
 Wallachians, in the ancient Dacia and the 
 adjacent countries, are the descendants of the 
 GetJE, the Slavi, and the Romans ; their lan- 
 guage resembles the Latin. The Bulgarians 
 are a Tartar tribe, that migrated from the neigh- 
 bourhood of Kasan, and perhaps ruled over 
 Finnic vassals ; after having reached mount 
 Hemus, they mingled with the Slavi on the 
 Danube, and partly adopted their language. 
 The Finns, whom Tacitus designates under the 
 name of Fenni, and Strabo under that of Zou- 
 mi.wahdered probably from time immemorial in 
 the plains of eastern Europe. Some of their 
 tribes having mixed with other nations, were in- 
 cluded by the Greeks among the European Scy- 
 thians. Their descendants were subdued and 
 driven to the north and the east by the nume- 
 rous hordes- of Slavonians. It is probable that 
 the branches of the Finnic race are the Lap- 
 landers, who are also perhaps connected with 
 the Huns, the Esihes, or ancient Esthonians 
 and Livonians ; the Permians incorporated with 
 the Scandinavians.particularly the Norwegians, 
 the last people founded a powerful state in the 
 tenth centur}'- ; lastly, the Hungarians or Mag- 
 yars, who were composed of Finnic and Turk- 
 ish tribes, and governed by Persians or Bucha 
 rians. Such are considered the ramifications of 
 the Finnic race, or, as it is called in Russia, the 
 Tchoude. There are, without doubt, many rea- 
 sons that may induce some to regard the Hun- 
 garians as a separate branch, or at all events a 
 mixed, though ancient people. The Teutonic 
 nations, of which the most important are the 
 Germans, the Scandinavians, and the English, 
 are situated to the west of the Slavonians and 
 Finns, in the western and central regions of 
 Europe. The Germans, on account of their 
 different dialects, maybe divided into two class- 
 es; the inhabitants of the mountains on the 
 south, and those of the plains on the north. 
 The hi^h German, and its harsh and "guttural 
 dialects, are spoken in Switzerland, Swabia, Al- 
 sace, Bavaria, the Austrian States, Silesia,'and 
 Transylvania. The softer dialects, or the low 
 German, may be again divided into Dutch and 
 Flemish, or into all that remains of the ancient 
 Belgian, which extended from the Zuider-zee 
 to Sleswick ; and into lov) or old Saxon, which 
 was spoken from Westphalia and Holstein to 
 eastern Prussia. We ought, lastly, to mention 
 the Saxon, as holding an intermediate place be- 
 tween these two German dialects, almost as dif- 
 ferent from each other as the Italian and the , 
 
 French. The Saxon is the language of Fran- 
 conia, and of the higher orders in Livonia and 
 Esthonia. The Scandinavian nations, or the 
 Swedes, Goths, Norwegians, Danes, and Jut- 
 landers, form a distinct race from the German 
 nations, and were separated from them at a re- 
 mote period. Still, however, there is some re- 
 semblance between them and the Dutch, the 
 Frieslanders, and the low Saxons. All that 
 remains of the ancient Scandinavian, as it was 
 •spoken in the ninth century, is retained in the 
 Dalecarlian, the old Norwegian of the valleys of 
 Dofre, in the dialect of the Feroe islands, and 
 the Norse, the language of the Shetland island- 
 ers. Two others, or rather modern dialects, the 
 Swedish and the Danish, are both of them 
 branches of the ancient Scandinavian ; but in 
 the progress of civilization they have lost much 
 of their strength, and even of their copiousness. 
 A third dialect, that of Jutland, retains the 
 marks of the old Anglo-Saxon, M^'hich has some 
 affinity with the ancient Scandinavian. The 
 English and Scots in the lower part of Scot- 
 land, are sprung from Belgians, Saxons, Anglo- 
 Saxons, Jutlanders, and Scandinavians. Their 
 diflferent dialects united and modified, formed 
 the old English or the Anglo-Dano- Saxon, a 
 language which was corrupted by the sudden 
 introduction of barbarous Latin and barbarous 
 French at the Norman invasion ; but its an- 
 cient character was not thus destroyed ; it was 
 afterwards slowly but gradually improved. It 
 must be confessed, however, that the dialects 
 spoken in Suffolk, Yorkshire, and in the low 
 counties of Scotland, bear a stronger resem- 
 blance than the English to the Teutonic tongues. 
 The languages derived from the Latin are now 
 spoken in the west and the south of Europe ; 
 but it is necessary to make, in connexion with 
 the subject, some remarks on certain nations 
 that were oppressed and subdued. No distinct 
 trace remains of the Etruscans, the Ausonians, 
 the Osci, and other indigenous states, or such 
 at least as were anciently settled in Italy. The 
 words Celts and Iberians are no longer used in 
 France, Spain, and Britain ; but under other 
 denominations we may discover the descend- 
 ants of these great and ancient nations. The 
 Basques, confined to the western base of the 
 Pyrenees, still retain one of the most original 
 languages in our part of the world ; it has been 
 proved that it is a branch of the Iberian, which 
 was spoken in eastern and southern Spain, and 
 was common also in Aquitanian Gaul. The 
 Celts, one of the primitive European races, 
 were most widely scattered in different coun- 
 tries. We may learn from the earliest histories 
 of Europe, that they were settled at a remote 
 epoch on the Alps and in the whole of Gaul, 
 from which they migrated into the British isl- 
 ands and the central and western regions of 
 Spain ; at a later period they inundated Italy, 
 Thrace, and Asia Minor. The Hibernians 
 are an old branch of the same people ; and ac- 
 cording to some authors, the highlanders of 
 Scotland are a colony of the native Irish. The 
 Erse or Gaelic is the only authentic monument 
 of the Celtic language ; but it may be readily 
 admitted that a nation so widely extended must 
 have been incorporated with many states whose 
 dialects are at present extinct. Belgium was 
 at one period inhabited by Celts and GermanSj 
 107 
 
EU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 EU 
 
 but it may be proved that the earlier inhabitants 
 were of Celtic origin ; the Belgians, having con- 
 quered parts of England and Ireland, mingled 
 with the native Celts, and were afterwards sub- 
 dued by the Anglo-Saxons of Wales, Cumber- 
 land, and Cornwall ; from these districts they 
 returned to the continent, and peopled lower 
 Brittany. The Gaulois or Gallic that is still 
 spoken, is derived from the Belgian, which is 
 very different from the Celtic, and the more 
 modern dialect of lower Brittany is composed 
 of several others j the Gauls called their lan- 
 guage the Kumraigh or the Kymri, and the La- 
 tin authors of the middle ages den minated the 
 people Cambrians ; some geographical writers 
 have incorrectly styled them Cimbres. Such 
 are the three native and ancient races of west- 
 ern Europe. The language of the Romans, 
 particularly the popular dialect or Romana rus- 
 tica, came gradually into use in different coun- 
 tries it was thus mixed with native languages, 
 and gave rise to provincial idioms ; the purer 
 Latin was spoken in the towns and churches. 
 The irruption of the northern states, all of 
 them, or almost all of them, of Teutonic origin, 
 introduced new confusion and new idioms into 
 the Latino-Gallic and Latino-Iberian dialects; 
 the language of the Troubadours, of which the 
 seeds had been sown in a very remote age, ap- 
 peared about the same time in western Europe. 
 From it emanated the Italian, the Lombard, 
 Venetian, and Sicilian dialects, and also the 
 Provengal, the Oc or Occitanian, the Limosin 
 and Catalonian. The old French and some of 
 its dialects, as the Walloon and that of Picardy, 
 must have existed for many centuries before 
 the French name was known ; to the same 
 source must be attributed the modern Spanish, 
 or the Castilian and Gallician. We are enti- 
 tled to conclude from this imperfect account of 
 the ancient European languages, that the three 
 most populous races were the Romano-Celtic in 
 the south and west; the Teutonic in the centre, 
 the north, and north-west; and the Slavonic in 
 the east. The Greek, the Albanian, the Turk- 
 ish, and the Finnic languages in the east ; the 
 Basque, the Celtic or Erse, and the Gaelic or 
 Kymric, however interesting to the philologist, 
 are considered secondary by the political arith- 
 metician. These seven languages are not spo- 
 ken by more than twenty-five or twenty-seven 
 millions in Europe, whilst the three great races 
 comprise a European population of more than 
 a hundred and seventy-five millions. Europe 
 reckons among its inhabitants the descendants 
 of Arabians ; they are distinguished in the is- 
 land of Candia by the name of Abadiotes, and 
 are confounded with the natives in the south 
 of Spain. There are also two tribes of Kal- 
 mucs, who lead a wandering life between the 
 Wolga and the Don. We may likewise men- 
 tion the Jews that are dispersed throughout Eu- 
 rope, Zigeunes or gjrpsies, an ancient Indian 
 caste, and other tribes of the same sort, that are 
 treated with greater or less severity." Malte- 
 Brun. 
 
 EuROTAS, a river of Laconia, now the Ere, 
 or Vasilico Potamos. Its source was in Arca- 
 dia, near Asea, and the springs of the famous 
 Alpheus. For some distance this stream is lost 
 beneath the surface of the ground, ( Vid. Al- 
 pheus,) but rising a^ain in the Laconian terri- 
 108 
 
 tory near Belmina, it takes a southerly course, 
 and running almost midway between the Saro- 
 nicus Sinus and the Myrtoan Sea upon the east, 
 and Messenia on the west, it discharged itself 
 into the Laconic gulf. All the streams of La- 
 conia poured their waters into this largest of the 
 Peloponnesian rivers, by means of which they 
 paid their tribute to the sea. On the banks of the 
 Eurotas stood Sparta, the great capital of Laco- 
 nia and of the Peloponnesus, and, for a short 
 time, of all Greece ; besides which, innumerable 
 towns and villages gave to its margin the ap- 
 pearance of a regular and continuous settle- 
 ment. . 
 
 EuRYTANEs, the greatest of the three princi- 
 pal tribes into which the -^tolian people were 
 divided. They occupied the northern part of 
 ^Etolia, from the lakeTrichonisto the borders 
 of Thessaly. The Eurytanes are said by Thu- 
 cydides to have been a barbarous people, speak- 
 ing a language foreign to the Greeks, and un- 
 civilized in their habits and lives. 
 
 EuxiNus PoNTUs, one of the principal reser- 
 voirs of the great rivers which drain the conti- 
 nent of Europe, This celebrated sea is situated 
 between Europe and Asia, forming a part of the 
 line of separation, and encroaching upon the 
 boundaries of both. In antiquity, the countries 
 which bordered upon this remarkable basin were 
 on the south, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, 
 and Pontus in Asia, and the Byzantine penin- 
 sula upon the side of Europe ; the western shore 
 was peopled by the Thracians, the Scythians, 
 and the Cimmerians; upon the north, a great 
 variety of tribes, chiefly Sarmatian, occupied the 
 coast between the Tyras and the Tauric Cherso- 
 nese ; the eastern and north-eastern shores for 
 the most part constituted the kingdom of Col- 
 chis between this coast and Taurica, the wa- 
 ters of the Palus Maeotis passing through the 
 Cimmerian Bosphorus, emptied into the Euxine, 
 which disgorged itself again on the opposite side, 
 through another narrow strait into the Propon- 
 tis ; thence, again through the Hellespont into 
 the jiEgean and the Mediterranean, of which it 
 constituted the principal basin and first deposi- 
 tary. It was frequently called by the ancients, 
 Pontus, without any peculiar name or designa- 
 tion, as the only body of water in those regions 
 which could be called a sea ; but many distin- 
 guishing appellations were afterwards given to 
 it, derived either from some peculiar property or 
 appearance in its waters or its coast, from tra- 
 dition ; or lastly, from the character of the tribes 
 which were settled on its shores. It was an- 
 ciently called a^eivos, inhospitable, on account 
 of the savage manners of the inhabitants on its 
 coasts. Commerce with foreign nations, and 
 the plantation of colonies in their neighbour- 
 hood, gradually softened their roughness, and 
 the sea was no longer called Axenus, but Euxe- 
 nus, hospitable. The Euxine is supposed by 
 Herodotus to be 1387 miles long and 420 broad. 
 Strabo calls it 1100 miles long, and in circum- 
 ference 3125. It abounds in all varieties offish, 
 and receives the tribute of above 40 rivers. It 
 is not of great depth, except in the eastern parts ; 
 whence some have imagined that it had a sub- 
 terraneous communication with the Caspian. 
 It is called the Black sea from the thick dark 
 fogs which cover it. Qind. Trist. 3, el. 13, 1. 4, 
 el. 4, V. M.—Strab. 2, Sac— Mela, 1, c 1.— 
 
FM 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 FA 
 
 Plin. 3. — Herodot. 4, c. 85. The principal 
 riveis that empty into the Euxine or Black Sea, 
 are the Don, formerly the Tanais, through the 
 Palus Maeotis, the Dnieper, Danapis, and Bo- 
 rysthenes ; the Bog, which joins the Dnieper at 
 its embouchure, and the Dniester, Danaster or 
 Tyras, which emptied north of the mouths of 
 the Danube. All these rivers drain the Russian 
 empire, formerly Sarmatia, between the Volga 
 and the Danube, east of a line drawn from Mos- 
 cow to "Warsaw. The Danube itself, the prin- 
 cipal tributary of this body of water, supplies it 
 from the streams collected in its course of 1500 
 miles from Germany, the Alps, and the greater 
 part of Turkey north of the Balkans, the Hae- 
 mus of antiquity. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fabaris, now Farfa, a river of Italy in the 
 territories of the Sabines, called also Farfarus. 
 Ovid. Met. 14, V. 334.— Virg. jEn. 7, v. 715. 
 
 Fabrateria, now Falvaterra, a town of La- 
 tium, situated on the Latin Way, It belonged 
 first to the Volsci, but as early as 424 U. C. 
 placed itself imder the protection of Rome. It 
 was colonized 628 U. C. Cram. 
 
 Fabricius pons, " the bridge which connects 
 the island in the Tiber with the left bank of 
 that river. Dio Cassius speaks of it as having 
 been built of stone soon after the conspiracy of 
 Catiline ; whence it might be inferred that a 
 wooden one existed previously on the same spot. 
 Its modem name is Ponte di qvMtro Capi." 
 Cram. 
 
 FjesuljE, a considerable to-^Ti of Etruria, 25 
 miles to the south-east of Pistoria, and a short 
 distance to the north-east of Florence ; " its 
 ruins and name are preserved in the well-known 
 hill and village of Fiesole. It is noticed for the 
 first time in history by Polybius, in his account 
 of the early wars between the Gauls and the Ro- 
 mans. We find Feesulas subsequently men- 
 tioned as one of those colonies which Sylla es- 
 tablished to reward his adherents ; and we know 
 that Catiline made it the chief hold of his party 
 in Etruria. It was still a flourishing city in the 
 time of Pliny and Ptolemy." Cram. The 
 author of a " Tour through part of France, 
 Switzerland, and Italy," gives this account of 
 the modem Fiesole. " A walk of about 4 miles 
 brought us to Faesulge, one of the 12 ancient 
 cities of Etruria, and famed in those days for its 
 skill in divination and interpretation of omens. 
 Parts of the ancient walls, being stones of im- 
 mense size, piled without cement one upon the 
 other, still remain. Within the last 12 years an 
 amphitheatre has been discovered by digging. 
 A portion of the rising seats and steps ; a re- 
 servoir for water under an arch ; together with 
 several vaulted caves, supposed for the w-ild 
 beasts ; and entrances for the people, remain in 
 excellent preservation. A church dedicated to, 
 and containing the corpse of St. Alexander, was 
 built in the 6th century on the site of a temple 
 supposed sacred to Bacchus. Its 14 ancient 
 Ionic columns support the roof, while outside 
 the door stands the very altar where Pagan in- 
 cense formerly smoked in honour of the jolly 
 god, Fiesole is placed on the summit of a high 
 hill, and the delighted eye ranges on every side, 
 over one unbounded prospect of the riches of 
 
 nature perfected by cultivation, and embellished 
 with innumerable villas which seem to extend 
 even to the distant Appenines." At Fiesole 
 are the church of St. Lawrence, adorned by the 
 skill of Michael Angelo : the splendid mauso- 
 leum of the first six Grand Dukes of Tuscany; 
 and the Laurentian library, which owes its ori- 
 gin to Cosmo de Medici. Here are several cu- 
 riosities ; among them the famed Pandects of 
 Justinian, found at Amalfi in 1137 ; also the 
 oldest manuscript Virgil extant, with the notes 
 'of a Roman consul of the 5th century ; likewise 
 a Horace, with Petrarch's own hand-writing in 
 it, and notes ; and a complete copy of Terence's 
 six plavs, written throughout by Boccaccio, in a 
 beautiful hand. Polyb. 2, 25; 3, 82.— Czc. Cat. 
 Orat. 2, 9.— Bell. Cat. 31.— Plin. 3, 5. 
 
 Falerii, or Falerium, a town of Etruria, 
 to the south-west of Fescennium, "the capital 
 of the ancient Falisci, so well known from their 
 connexion with the early history of Rome. 
 Much uncertainty existed respecting the site of 
 this city; but it seems now well ascertained 
 that it occupied the position of the present 
 Civita Castellana. Falerii, according to Dion. 
 Hal. (1, 21.) belonged at first to the Siculi; 
 but these were succeeded by the Pelasgi, to 
 whom the Greek form of its name is doubtless 
 to be ascribed, as w^ell as the temple and rites 
 of the Argive Juno, and other indications of a 
 Greek origin which were observed by that his- 
 torian, and with which Ovid, who had married 
 a lady of that city, seems also to have been 
 struck, though he has followed the less authen- 
 tic tradition, which ascribed the foundation of 
 Falerii to Halesus, son of Agamemnon. We 
 find the epithet of ^qui commonly attached to 
 the Falisci by the poets, as they are said to 
 have paid particular attention to the laws of 
 equity ; and it is supposed the Romans derived 
 from them their feciales and other ceremonies 
 for making war or peace ; but Strabo seems to 
 have considered this word as part of their name, 
 rather than an adjunct. The same writer 
 states, that many conceived the Falisci to be a 
 peculiar people, distinct from the Tuscans, and 
 having a language of their own. They formed 
 part, however, of the Etruscan confederacy, and 
 constituted one of its principal states. The 
 early wars of the Falisci with Rome are chiefly 
 detailed in the fifth book of Livy, where the ce- 
 lebrated story of Camillus and the school-mas- 
 ter of Falerii occurs. It was not, however, till 
 the third year after the first Punic war that this 
 people was finally reduced. The waters of the 
 Faliscan territory were supposed, like those of 
 the Clitumnus, to have the peculiar property of 
 communicating a white colour to cattle." Cram. 
 —Strab. 5, ^6.— Plin. 3, b.— Ovid. Am. 3, 
 Eleg. 13, Fast. 4, 13.— ^n. 7, 695.— Liv. 4, 
 23.— Pint. Vit. CamilL— Polyb. 1, 65. 
 
 Falernus ager, a district in Campania, 
 contiguous to the Ager Calenus, celebrated " as 
 producing the best wine in Italy, or indeed in 
 the world. Without pretending to fix the limits 
 of this favoured portion of Campania with scru- 
 pulous accuracy, it seems evident, from the tes- 
 timony of Livy and Pliny, that we must regard 
 it as extending from the Massic hills to the 
 Vultumus. That part of the district which 
 grew the choicest wine was distinguished by the 
 name ofFaustianus, being that ofa village about 
 109 
 
PE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 FE 
 
 six miles from Sinuessa." Cram. Eustace con- 
 siders the cause of the decline of Italian wines 
 in the estimation of the connoisseur, and is in- 
 clined to attribute it to a change in the taste of 
 the Italians, and not to any alteration in the cli- 
 mate or want of skill in the cultivation of the 
 vine. " The modern Italians are extremely so- 
 ber; they drink wine as Englishmen drink 
 small beer, not to flatter the palate but to quench 
 the thirst. In the cultivation of the vine, very 
 little attention is therefore paid to the quantity 
 or perfection, but merely to the quality of the 
 produce. Not so the ancients ; they were fond 
 of convivial enjo5rments ; they loved wine, and 
 considered it not only as a gratification to the 
 palate, but as a means of intellectual enjoyment 
 and a vehicle of conversation. To heighten 
 its flavour, therefore, to bring it to full maturi- 
 ty by age, in short, to improve it by every me- 
 thod imaginable, was with them an object of 
 primary importance ; nor can it heighten sur- 
 prise that in circumstances so favourable the 
 vine should flourish. Yet with all this encou- 
 ragement, the two most celebrated wines in Italy, 
 the Csecuban and the Falernian, had lost much 
 of their excellency and reputation in Pliny's 
 time; the former, in consequence of a canal 
 drawn across the vale of Amyclae by the empe- 
 ror Nero ; and the latter, from its very celebrity, 
 which occasioned so great a demand, that the 
 cultivators, unable to resist the temptation, turn- 
 ed their attention from the quality to the quan- 
 tity." Classical Tour, vol. 2, p. 322.-811. 
 Jtal. 7, \m.—Hor. 1, od. 20.—Propert. 4, El. 6. 
 —Liv. 22, 13.—Plin. 14, 6. 
 
 Falisci. Vid. Falerii. 
 
 Fanum Fortunje, now Fano, a town of 
 Umbria, on the Flaminian Way, between Pi- 
 saurum and Sena Gallica, and near the river 
 Metaurus. " About seven miles further, (from 
 Pesaro), is Fano (Fanum Fortunse), a well- 
 built and very handsome town. One of the 
 gates of Fano is a triumphal arch of Augustus ; 
 a gallery or portico of five arcades was built over 
 it at a late period, that is, under Constantine ; 
 the whole is, or was, Corinthian. The theatre 
 was a noble and commodious edifice, but has 
 been so long neglected, that it has at present 
 much the appearance of a ruin." Eustace's 
 Classical Tour. 
 
 Farfarus. Vid. Fabaris. 
 
 Faventia, now Faenza, a town of Gallia 
 Cisalpina, situated on the Via Emilia, between 
 Ariminum and Bononia, and nearer the latter 
 than the former. " It is noted in the history of 
 the civil wars of Rome for the defeat of Carbo's 
 party by that of Sylla." Cram. — Liv. Epit. 
 88.— Veil. Paterc. 2, 2S.—Strab. 5, 216. 
 
 Faustianus Acer et Vicus. Vid. Falernus 
 Ager. 
 
 Felsina. Vid. Bononia. 
 
 Feltria, now Feltre, a town of Venetia, 
 on a branch of the Plavis, and on a road, which, 
 leaving the Via JEmilia at Concordia, joins at 
 Tridentum " the great road which leads now, 
 as formerly, from Italy into Germany by the 
 pass of the Brenner, a mountain to which, with 
 the adjacent Alps, the Tridentini communicated 
 their name. It was a town of some consequence, 
 as would appear from inscriptions." Cram. — 
 Plin. 3, 19. 
 
 Fenni, or FiNNi. Vid. Europa. 
 110 
 
 Ferentinum, I. a town of Etruria, now Fe- 
 renti, situated on the right of the Via Cassia to 
 one going from Rome. Horace probably al- 
 ludes to this town (1 Epist. 17.) " From Vi- 
 truvius, who speaks of some valuable stone quar- 
 ries in its neighbourhood, we collect that it was 
 a municipium : Strabo ranks it with the lesser 
 towns of Etruria; but it is remarked that Fron- 
 tinus names it among the colonies of that pro- 
 vince. The emperor Otho's family was of that 
 city." Cram.—Strab. 5, 22b.— Suet. Oth.— 
 
 Tacit. Hist. 2, 50. Ann. 15, 53. II. A town 
 
 of Latium, " now Ferentino, about eight miles 
 beyond Anagnia, on the Via Latina. It ap- 
 
 Eears to have belonged originally to the Volsci, 
 ut was taken from them by the Romans, and 
 given to the Hernici. It is afterwards men- 
 tioned as being in the possession of that peo- 
 ple {Liv. 9, 43) ; but subsequently it appears to 
 have fallen into the hands of the Samnites, un- 
 less the name of Ferentinum be corrupt in the 
 passage of Livy referred to (10, 34). It should 
 be observed also, that Stephanus Byz., who is 
 not, however, much to be depended upon with 
 respect to Italian cities, assigns Ferentinum to 
 this people. According to Livy, Ferentinum, 
 though subject to Rome, was governed by its 
 own laws, but in the time of Gracchus it had 
 become a municipal town ; for Aulus Gellius 
 quotes part of an oration, in which that cele- 
 brated character inveighed against the conduct 
 of a Roman praetor who had most tyrannically 
 ill-treated two quaestors of Ferentinum. Cluve- 
 rius is mistaken in supposing Ferentinum to 
 have been a colony ; in the passage he quotes 
 from Livy (35, 9), we should read Thurinum, 
 and not Ferentinum." Cram. — Liv. 4, 51 ; 9, 
 43.—Aul. Gell. 10, 3. 
 
 Ferentum, or Forentum, a town of Apulia, 
 now Forenza, about 8 miles south of Venosa, 
 and on the other side of mount Vultur. Cram. 
 —Horat. 3, od. 4, v. \b.—Liv. 9, c. 16 and 20. 
 
 FERONiiE Lucus, a grovc with a temple and 
 fountain, situated in Latium, and sacred to the 
 goddess Feronia. It is thus described by Eus- 
 tace : " Between two and three miles from Ter- 
 racina, a few paces from the road, a little an- 
 cient bridge crosses a streamlet issuing from 
 the fountain of Feronia. 
 
 Viridi gaudens Feronia luco. Virg. 7, 800. 
 
 The grove in which this goddess was supposed 
 to delight has long since fallen ; one only soli- 
 tary ilex hangs over the fountain. The temple 
 has sunk in dust, not even a stone remains ! 
 Yet she had a better title to the veneration of 
 the benevolent than all the other goddesses 
 united. She delighted in freedom, and took 
 deserving slaves under her protection. They 
 received their liberty by being seated on a 
 chair in her temple, inscribed with these words, 
 Bene meriti servi sedeant ; surgant liheri.'"^ 
 ( Vid. Servius, quoted by Cluverius.) Classical 
 Tour. 
 
 Fescennium, or Fescennia, a town of Etru- 
 ria, near the Tiber. It is now Galese. Here 
 that species of poetry was first cultivated, which 
 was sung or declaimed during the pomp of sa- 
 crifices or celebration of marriages; whence the 
 ancient nuptial hymns of the Romans were 
 called Fescennine. " It is evident, however, 
 
FI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 FL 
 
 that these Etruscan songs, or hymns, were of 
 the ver}'- rudest description, and probably never 
 were reduced to writing. They were a kind of 
 impromptus^ composed of scurrilous jests, origi- 
 nally recited by the Italian peasants at those 
 feasts of Ceres which celebrated the conclusion 
 of their harvests; and they resembled the verses 
 described by Horace, Epist. Lib. 2, Ep. 1." 
 Dunlop's Roman Literature. 
 
 FiBHENus, a small river of Latium, which 
 empties into the Liris, and now bears the name 
 of Eiume della Posta. Above its junction with 
 the Liris, it forms a small island, now S. Do- 
 menico Abate, which belonged to Cicero, and 
 where was laid " the scene of his dialogues with 
 Atticus, and his brother Cluintus, on legisla- 
 tion. He describes it in the opening of the 
 book as the property and residence of his an- 
 cestors, who had lived there for many genera- 
 tions : he himself was born there, A. U. C. 646. 
 The island afterwards came into the possession 
 of Silius Italicus." Cramer.— Martial. 11. ep. 
 49.— Silius, 8, 401. 
 
 FicuLEA, or FicuLNEA, a town of Latium, be- 
 yond mount Sacer, at the north of Rome. Ci- 
 cero had a villa there, and the road that led to 
 the town was called Eiculnensis, afterwards 
 Nomentana Via. Cic. 12. — Att. 34. — Liv. 1, c. 
 38, 1. 8, c. 52. 
 
 FIDEN.S;, or Fidena, a town of the Sabines, 
 near the Tiber, at a distance of between four 
 and five miles from Rome, originally an Alban 
 colony, " but fell subsequently into the hands of 
 the Etruscans. According to Dionysius, it was 
 conquered by Romulus soon after the death of 
 Tatius ; he represents it as being at that period 
 a large and populous town. It would be tedious 
 to enumerate the different attempts made by 
 this city to emancipate itself from the Roman 
 yoke ; sometimes with the aid of the Etruscans, 
 at others in conjunction with the Sabines. Its 
 last revolt occurred A. U. C. 329, when the 
 dictator ^milius Mamercus, after having van- 
 quished the Fidenates in the field, stormed their 
 city, which was abandoned to the licentiousness 
 of his soldiery. From this time we hear only 
 of Fidenae as a deserted place, with a few coun- 
 try-seats in its vicinity. In the reign of Tibe- 
 rius, a terrible disaster occurred here by the fall 
 of a wooden amphitheatre during a show of gla- 
 diators, by which accident 50,000 persons, as 
 Tacitus reports, or 20,000 according to Sueto- 
 nms, were killed and wounded. {Ann. 4, 62.) 
 From the passage of Tacitus here cited, it ap- 
 pears that Fidenae had risen again to the rank 
 of a municipal town." The site of the ancient 
 city is probably near Castel Giubileo. Cram. 
 —Dion. Hal. 2, 23, and bi.—Liv. 1, 6: 4, 9.— 
 5!^r«A. 5, 226. ' 
 
 FiDENTiA, a town of Gallia Cisalpina, to the 
 south of the Padus, on the ViajEmilia between 
 Placentia and Parma. Here " Sylla's party 
 gained a victory over Carbo. From the martyr- 
 dom of Saint Donninus, Fidentia has obtained 
 the name of Borgo San Donnino.^^ Cram. — 
 Veil. Paterc. 2, 28.— jLw. Epit. 88.— Plin. 3, 
 15. 
 
 FiRMUM PicENUM, a towu of Picenum, situ- 
 ated about five miles from the sea, on which 
 stood the Castellum Firmanorum, now Porto 
 di Fermo. It was colonized towards the begin- 
 ning of the first Punic war, and is accordingly 
 
 styled in ancient inscriptions as Col. Augusta 
 Firma. The modern town of Fermo is yet 
 a place of some note in the Marca d'Ancona, 
 Cram.— Plin. 3, 13.— Strab. 5, 241. 
 
 FiscELLUs MONS, that part of the Appenines 
 which separated the Sabines from Picenum. 
 At its foot the Nar rises. It was, according to 
 Varro, the only spot in Italy in which wild 
 goats were to be found. Cram.— Plin. 3, 12 
 —R. Rust. 2, 1. 
 
 . Flaminia via. Vid. Via. porta, one of 
 
 the gates of Rome, added by Aurelian. 
 
 Flanaticus sinus, a bay of the Flanates, in 
 Liburnia, on the Adriatic, now the gulf of 
 Quarnaro. Plin. 3, c. 19 and 21. 
 
 Flano, a commercial town on the Illyrian 
 side of the Flanaticus Sinus, to which it is sup- 
 posed by many to have imparted its name. 
 
 Flevo, a canal which was excavated by or- 
 der of Drusus, to convey the waters of that 
 branch of the Rhine, which, among the many- 
 mouths of that river, retained its proper name, 
 with the northern ocean, and to drain the coun- 
 try of the Frisii through which it passed. In 
 the centre of this country or thereabouts, was a 
 lake of considerable magnitude, called also 
 Flevo, and through this lake passed the Isala or 
 Yssel to the sea. The lake appears to have 
 owed its origin to this canal. " This canal," 
 says D'Anville, " by a derivation of the waters 
 of the Rhine into the Y5scZ,had expanded to such 
 a degree as to form a considerable lagune or lake, 
 whose issue to the sea was fortified by a castle 
 bearing the same name. This lagune, having 
 been in the progress of time much increased by 
 the sea, assumed the name Zuyder-zee, or the 
 Southern Sea ; and of several channels which 
 afford entrance to the ocean, that named Vlie 
 indicates the genuine egress of the Flevo." 
 D'Anville.— Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 6, 1. 4, v. 72 — 
 Plin. 4, c. lb.— Mela, 3, c. 2. 
 
 Florentia, the chief tov/n of Tuscany, is 
 comparatively a modern city. It extends on both 
 sides of the Arno at the present day, though, 
 when first founded, and for a long time after- 
 wards, it served for little else than as a port and 
 market of the older town of Faesulae. In the 
 time of Csesar a colony was first established 
 there, and by the period at which the barbarians 
 first began their incursions into Italy it had be- 
 come a respectable city. It suffered, however, 
 very much in the wars which those savage con- 
 querors brought upon Italy, and no indications 
 of its future splendour are to be found in any 
 era of its early history. During the reigns of 
 the dukes of Tuscany, Florence was not a ca- 
 pital city ; and Lucca, till about the epoch of 
 the accession of the catholic countess Matilda, 
 enjoyed the rank and character of principal 
 among the cities of Tuscany. From that time, 
 however, Florence took its place among the first 
 cities, not merely of Tuscany but of all Italy; 
 and by the year 1300 it had assumed a rank for 
 power and learning that placed it far before any 
 other city of Europe. Neither the literature 
 nor the arts, nor yet the proud and independent 
 spirit of the early Greeks, gave them any boast 
 over the Florentines of the period that succeed- 
 ed ; and Florence remained, till the commence- 
 ment of the era of modern history, the first city 
 of Europe for her arts, her letters, and the m 
 dependent character of her citizens. Tacit 
 111 
 
FO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 FO 
 
 Ann. 1, c. 19— Flor. 3, c. ^l.—Plin. 3, c. 5. 
 
 FoNS SoLis, a fountain, cool at mid-day and 
 warm at the rising and setting of the sun. He- 
 rodot. 4, c. 181. Vid. Hammon. 
 
 Formic, now Mola di Gacda^ one of the 
 most ancient towns of Italy. It was near the 
 borders of Campania in Latium, upon the Caie- 
 tanus Sinus, and all antiquity concurred in fix- 
 ing there the seat of the fabled Laestrigones. 
 Formise was a favourite residence of Cicero, 
 who was also treacherously murdered there on 
 being proscribed by the second triumvirate. 
 Liv. 8, c. 14, 1. 38, c. 2,^.—Horat. 1, od. 20, v. 
 11, 1. 3, od. 17. Sat. 1, 5, v. Zl.—Plin. 36, c. 6. 
 
 FoRMiANUM, a villa of Cicero near Formiae, 
 near which the orator was assassinated. Cic. 
 Fam. 11, ep. 37, 1. 16, ep. 10. — Tacit. Ann. 16, 
 c. 10. 
 
 FoRMio, a river emptying into the Flanati- 
 cns Sinus, and forming, till the reign of Au- 
 gustus, the eastern boundary of Italy. The 
 modern name is Risano. Plin. 3, c. 18 and 19. 
 
 Fortunate Insulje, islands at the west of 
 Mauretania in the Atlantic Sea. They are sup- 
 posed to be the Canary Isles of the moderns, 
 though only two in number, at a little distance 
 one from the other, and 10,000 stadia from the 
 shores of Libya. They were represented as 
 the seats of the blessed, where the souls of the 
 virtuous were placed after death. The air was 
 wholesome and temperate, the earth produced 
 an immense number of various fruits without 
 the labours of men. When they had been de- 
 scribed to Sertorius in the most enchanting co- 
 lours, that celebrated general expressed a wish 
 to retire thither, and to remove himself from the 
 noise of the world and the dangers of war. 
 Strab. 1. — Plut. in Sertor. — Horat. 4. od. 8, v. 
 ^l.—Epod. 16.— Plin. 6, c. 31. " Those of 
 them that lie nearest the continent were called 
 Purpurarise, as Juba, king of Mauretania, in- 
 tended to establish there a manufactory for pur- 
 ple dye. The more remote being specially de- 
 nomiriated the Fortunate Isles, we must recog- 
 nise in them Lancarota and Forteventura. Ca- 
 naria has given the name of Canaries to these 
 islands in general." These islands were the 
 most western of all the lands with which the an- 
 cients were acquainted ; and from the fables in 
 which their poets indulged in regard to them, we 
 may suppose that their knowledge of these dis- 
 tant places was not improved by frequent com- 
 munication. The Peak of Teneriflfe rises in one 
 of these islands, in the form of a pyramid, to an 
 enormous height, and being covered with snow 
 upon the summit, is supposed to have given the 
 name of Nivaria to the island on which it stood. 
 All knowledge of the Insulae Fortunae was lost 
 to the ignorant ages that saw and succeeded the 
 fall of the empire. They were again discover- 
 ed about the year 1330, by the crew of a vessel 
 driven thither by the impetuosity of a storm. 
 
 Forum Romanum. " It is collected from Livy 
 and Dionysius, that the Forum was situat- 
 ed between the Capitoline and Palatine hills ; 
 and from Vitruvius we learn that its shape was 
 that of a rectangle, the length of which exceed- 
 ed the breadth by one third. From these data, 
 which agree with other incidental circumstan- 
 ces, it is generally thought that the four angles of 
 the Roman Forum were formed by the arch of 
 Severas at the foot of the Capitol : the arch of 
 112 
 
 Fabian, which was placed at the termination 
 of the Via Sacra ; the church of St. Theodore^ 
 at the foot of the Palatine ; and that of the Con- 
 solazione, below the Capitol. The ground which 
 it occupied is now commonly known by the 
 name of Campo Vaccino. The Forum was 
 first adorned with porticoes and shops by Tar- 
 quinius Priscus. We hear of its being sur- 
 rounded also with temples, bassilicks, and innu- 
 merable statues ; among which were those of 
 the twelve deities, named Consentes Urbani, 
 whereof six were males and six females. The 
 first object to be considered in a detailed exa- 
 mination of the Forum is the position of the 
 Rostra. It is well known that this name was 
 given to the elevated seat from whence the Ro- 
 man orators and men in office addressed the 
 assembled people ; from the circumstance of its 
 having been adorn'id with the beaks of some 
 galleys taken from the city of Antium. When 
 Livy applies the word templum to this struc- 
 ture, we are to understand him as alluding ra- 
 ther to the reverence with which it was regard- 
 ed by the Romans, asbeiag a consecrated place, 
 than to its size or shape. It appears that the 
 Rostra were first placed opposite the middle of 
 the south side of the Forum, near the Comi- 
 tium, and that part where the senate usually 
 met. Julius Caesar removed the Rostra from 
 the position they first occupied, and placed them 
 close under the Palatine hill, near the south- 
 western angle of the Forum. From this cir- 
 cumstance the new Rostra were commonly 
 known by the name of Julian. Amongst the 
 illustrious characters who enjoyed the distinc- 
 tion of having their statues placed near the Ros- 
 tra, we may notice Sylla, Pompey, and Augus- 
 tus. Likewise the ambassadors who might pe- 
 rish in the discharge of their public functions : 
 as in the instance of those who were put to 
 death by order of Lars Tolumnius, king of 
 Veil, and of Teuta, queen of the Illyrians. 
 Above the Rostra was the Curia, or senate- 
 house, sometimes called Hostilia from having 
 been originally built by Tullus Hostilius. The 
 ascent to it from the Forum was by a flight of 
 steps . It was repaired, and probably embellish- 
 ed, by Sylla ; soon after which it was set on fire, 
 on the occasion of the corpse of P. Clodius 
 being burnt in it by the populace, when it was 
 totally destroyed. Somewhat behind the Curia 
 was the Comitium, a space of ground, as it 
 appears, elevated above the rest of the Forum, 
 which was appropriated to the meetings of the 
 Curiae in the early days of Rome, and subse- 
 quently to the trials of civil causes. Here also 
 delinquents were publicly scourged. This area 
 was at first uncovered, but a roof was added 
 nine years after the entrance of Hannibal into 
 Italy, that is, 542 A. U. C. The celebrated 
 Capitoline marbles, so called from the circum- 
 stance of their being preserved in the modem 
 Campidoglio, were discovered in the sixteenth 
 century, and lately other fragments of the same 
 records have been found on the supposed site 
 of the Comitium ; hence it is conceived that 
 these monuments were commonly affixed to 
 some part of that building. The following 
 buildings appear to have been connected with 
 this edifice. The Graecostasis, a hall in which 
 the envoys of foreign nations awaited the an 
 swer of the senate on the subject of their mis- 
 
FO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 FO 
 
 sion. It was burnt, together with the Curia 
 Hostilia, by the partisans of Clodius after his 
 death, but was atterwards rebuilt by Antoninus 
 Pius. A Senaculum, or building in which the 
 senate met on extraordinary occasions. The 
 Basilica of Opimius, and a small temple of Con- 
 cord. This temple was of bronze, and was 
 built and consecrated by C. Flavins, a Curule 
 jEdile. The famous fig-tree, called Ruminalis, 
 under whichRomulus and Remus were said to 
 have been suckled by the she-wolf, grew in the 
 area of the Comitium. An image of the ani- 
 mal and her nurslings was cast in bronze, and 
 placed under this tree. To the right of the Cu- 
 ria stood the Basilica Porcia, built by Porcius 
 Cato when consul, A. U. C. 564, and is thought 
 to have been che first edifice of that kind which 
 was erected in Rome. Plutarch informs us 
 that It was the hall in Avhich the tribunes of the 
 people sat to administer justice. That part of 
 the Forum which lay at the foot of the Palatine 
 is known to have been called Velia, and per- 
 haps there was a street of this name leading up 
 to the hill just mentioned, one summit of which 
 might be thence called Veliensis. In the Velia 
 stood the temple of the Penates, supposed to 
 have been brought by ^ne as from Troy. In 
 the court of ihis temple was a palm-tree planted 
 by Augustus. This edifice was burnt in the 
 great fire which occurred under Nero. Under 
 the Palatine was a celebrated temple of Cas- 
 tor and PolliLX, said to have been erected to 
 those deities for the aid which they were sup- 
 posed to have afforded to the Romans in the bat- 
 tle fought near the lake Regillus. It was situat- 
 ed near a fountaia commonly called the lake of 
 Juturna. 
 
 At qua Venturas pracedit sexta Calendas, 
 Hoc sunt Ledcns templa dicata Deis, 
 
 Fratribus ilia Deis fratres de gente Deoruin 
 Circa Juturna composuere lacus. 
 
 According to Nardini, the Forum had four 
 outlets on the side that we are now considering, 
 which looks to the west and to the Tiber. These 
 were the Vicus Jugarius, Vicus Tuscus, Via 
 Nova, and a branch of the Via Sacra. The 
 first of these streets is supposed to have derived 
 its name from an altar of Juno, sumamed Juga, 
 because she presided over marriages. It passed 
 at the foot of the Capitol, and terminated op- 
 posite the Porta Carmentalis. In this street we 
 must place the house of the seditious Spurius 
 Ma^lius, which being razed to the ground, the 
 space which it occupied was afterwards called 
 ^quimselium. Livy mentions a great fire 
 which broke out in this part of the city, and 
 lasted two nights and a day. The Vicus Tus- 
 cus was a little to the south of the street above 
 mentioned, and consequently nearer the Pala- 
 tine ; it appears to have led from the Forum 
 to that part of the city which was called the 
 Velabrum, and from thence to the Circus Maxi- 
 mus. The fourth street which issued from the 
 western angle of the Forum seems to have been 
 a continuation or branch of the Via Sacra. Be- 
 tween the Via Nova, and that part of the Via 
 Sacra above described, was the celeb'^ated tem- 
 ple of Vesta, in which the eternal flame was 
 preserved, and where the Palladium, saved from 
 the ruins of Trov, was also deposited. This 
 Part I.— P 
 
 temple was erected by Numa, together with the 
 neighbouring building called the hall of Vesta 
 which was afterwards added, having been orig- 
 inally the dwelling of that king. 
 
 Hie focus est Vestce, qui Pallada servat et ignem. 
 Hicfuit aiUiqui regia parva Numee. 
 
 If w^e now turn to the north side of the Forum, 
 being that which is imder the Capitol, we shall 
 have to notice the following buildings. The arch 
 of Severus, which is yet entire, and is known 
 to have been erected in honour of the victories 
 of that emperor, and his two sons Geta and Ca- 
 racalla, over the Parthians. The name of Geta 
 has been erased, and supplied by other letters. 
 The temple of Concord, stood, as we are in- 
 formed b}'- Festus, between the Capitol and the 
 Forum ; while we learn from Plutarch that it 
 fronted the Comitium, and was built by order of 
 the senate in consequence of a vow made by 
 Camillus. It was for a long time supposed that 
 the architrave, supported by eight pillars of the 
 Ionic order, which is yet standing at the foot of 
 the Capitol, originally formed part of this tem- 
 ple ; but it seems now agreed that this opinion 
 is erroneous, and some late discoveries have 
 brought to light, as it is thought, the area of the 
 temple of Concord, near the ruins supposed to 
 belong to the temple of Jupiter Tonans, and 
 somewhat lower than the architrave and pillars 
 above mentioned. Close to the temple of Con- 
 cord was the Senaculum, or occasiohal senate- 
 house, in w^hich, by the ad-vice of Cicero, deci- 
 sive measures were determined upon against 
 Catiline and his associates. Contiguous to this 
 last building was the temple of Saturn, situated 
 at the foot of the ascent called Clivus Capitoli- 
 nus. The date of its construction is not kno^wn, 
 but it w-as considered as one of the most an- 
 cient edifices of Rome. We learn from Plu- 
 tarch, that Valerius Publicola selected this buil- 
 ding for a public treasur}', to which use it ap- 
 pears to have been appropriated ever after. Still 
 lower, and in the vacant space of the Forum, 
 w^as the celebrated Milliarium Anreum, from 
 which it has been supposed by some antiquaries, 
 and more particularly by D'Anville, that all the 
 roads which lead to the different parts of the 
 empire were measured ; but though this idea 
 seems to derive some support from a passage in 
 Plutarch's life of Galba, it is evident from Pliny, 
 that the Milliarium Aureum was that point in 
 the Forum from which the distances to the se- 
 veral gates of the cit}^ were alone reckoned. 
 All the Roman ways had already been measur- 
 ed in the time of C. Gracchus, as Plutarch in- 
 forms us. Milliarium Aureum was erected by 
 Augustus. In the open space of the Forum 
 stood also the tribunal of Aurelius Cotta, the 
 praetor, which appears to have been a court of 
 justice surrounded by steps like an amphithea- 
 tre, in order that the people might sit and hear 
 the trials decided there. In the centre of the 
 Forum was the celebrated Lacus Curtius, so 
 called, according to some accounts, from Melius 
 Curtius, a Sabine officer ,who, in the engagement 
 between Tatius and Romulus, was nearly im- 
 mersed ill its muddy hollow. According to 
 others, from Curtius. a Roman knight,who frorn 
 a spirit of devotion to his countiy leaped into it 
 on horseback, after the oracle had declared thai 
 113 
 
FO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 FO 
 
 tliis dangerous gulf could not otherwise be 
 closed. This bog having in process of time be- 
 come dry, an altar was erected on the spot. It 
 was the custom also to erect pillars in the Forum 
 commemorative of great victories and achieve- 
 ments; of this kind were the Fila Horatia ; the 
 column of C. Menius, who conquered the La- 
 tins and placed the Rostra in the Forum ; the 
 rostral column of Duilius, who gained the first 
 naval victory against the Carthaginians. The 
 Puteal Libonis, mentioned by ancient authors 
 as being in the Forum, was either an altar or a 
 tribunal, and certainly the haunt of usurers and 
 money lenders. There was a statue of Marsy- 
 as near the above-mentioned spot, which seems 
 likewise to have been frequented by the same 
 description of persons, who came probably to 
 have their causes tried. 
 
 Deinde eo dormitum, non sollicitus, mihi quod 
 
 eras 
 Surgendum sit mane ; obeundus Marsya, qui se 
 Vultumferre Tiegat Noviorum posse minoris. 
 
 The celebrated temple of Janus is known to have 
 stood in the Forum, though it is not easy to de- 
 termine the precise situation which it occupied. 
 Procopius says it was a small square edifice of 
 bronze, containing a statue of Janus, placed in 
 front of the Curia, and a little above the chapel 
 of the three Fates. It is probable, however, 
 that he does not mean the ancient Curia Hos- 
 tilia ; as the temple of the three Fates or Parcas 
 is known to have stood near the church of /S". 
 Adriano, distinguished in old ecclesiastical wri- 
 tings by the title of "in tribus Fatis." Ovid 
 seems to imply, ihat this edifice, consecrated to 
 Janus, stood close to two Fora, which are sup- 
 posed to be those of Ca3sar and Augustus. Great 
 confusion has arisen on the subject of the build- 
 ing in question, from the number of temples and 
 arches erected to Janus in different parts of the 
 city. The one of which we are now speaking 
 was built by Romulus and Tatius, and was dis- 
 tinguished by the title of duirinus. According 
 to Suetonius, this was the temple which Au- 
 gustus closed for the third time from its founda- 
 tion after the battle of Actium, which statement 
 is confirmed by Horace, 
 
 et vacuum dv£llis 
 
 Janum Quirini clausit, et ordinem 
 Rectum, et vaganti frcena licentics 
 Injecit 
 
 Li vy speaks, however, of a temple of Janus built 
 by Numa in the Argiletum, to which he applies 
 the fact above stated. This seems to have been 
 called Janus Geminus; or perhaps the two 
 buildings were designated by that name, as it 
 appears that they were always closed together. 
 Besides the temple of Janus, there were three 
 arches dedicated to this god in different parts of 
 the Forum, as we learn from Horace. The 
 central one was the usual rendezvous of brokers 
 and money-lenders. On the eastern side of the 
 Forum were the Tabernse Argentarise, or bank- 
 ers' shops, called also Novae, to distinguish 
 them from the Tabernse Veteres; which stood, 
 as we have seen, in another part of the Forum. 
 It was near this spot, as we learn from Livy, 
 that Virginius shed the blood of his daughter to 
 114 
 
 save her honour. On the same side was the 
 statue of Venus, surnamed Cloacina. We hear 
 also of the Stationes Municipiorum as being in 
 this part of the Forum. These were probably 
 rooms where the municipal deputadons from 
 different parts of the empire met previous to 
 their appearing in court, whenever they had any 
 cause to plead. The Basilica of L. iEmilius 
 Paulus is supposed to have occupied the site of 
 the church of St. Adrian, if that modern struc- 
 ture be not in a great measure formed from the 
 materials of the ancient building. This Basili- 
 ca was erected by L. ./Emilius Paulus, who was 
 consul A. U. C. 702, out of the sum of 1500 ta- 
 lents sent him by Ceesar from Gaul, in order to 
 gain him over to his side. Appian, who relates 
 the same fact, says it was one of the most splen- 
 did edifices of Rome ; and Pliny speaks of its 
 columns of Phrygian marble as most worthy c 
 admiration. This building was repaired sue 
 cessively by different individuals of the Mnu 
 lian family under Augustus and Tiberius. In 
 this vicinitv we hear also of a temple of Hadri- 
 an, erected to the memory of that emperor by 
 Antoninus Pius. Connected with the great 
 Forum of Rome, the whole of which has now 
 been described, were two on a smaller scale, 
 built by Julius Csesar and Augustus. That which 
 Coesar erected, as Appian states, was not for the 
 purposes of trade, but was used for pleadings, 
 and meetings on public business. Its principal 
 ornament was a magnificent temple of Venus 
 Genetrix, with a highly prized statue of that 
 goddess, and one of Cleopatra by her side. 
 Several other statues, and some pictures belong- 
 ing to this temple, are noticed by Pliny. In 
 front of this edifice was an equestrian statue of 
 Cassar. The horse of bronze gilt was said to be 
 the celebrated figure of Bucephalus, the work 
 of Lysippus. Dio. Cassius asserts that the 
 great Forum was inferior in beauty to that of 
 Caesar, upon the area of which alone, according 
 to Suetonius, 4000 sestertia, or upwards of 
 800,000Z. of our money, had been expended. 
 Contiguous to it, but nearer the Capitol, was the 
 Forum of Augustus, which seems to have been 
 entirely appropriated to law business. Sueto- 
 nius informs us that it was of no great extent, 
 that emperor being unwilling to inconvenience 
 persons whose houses stood in the way of his 
 improvement. It boasted, however, of a double 
 portico, adorned with several statues and pic- 
 tures, and a temple consecrated to Mars the 
 avenger, which Augustus had vowed to that 
 deity during the civil war. It was ordered by 
 Augustus that the senate should always hold 
 their consultations on the affairs of war in this 
 temple. The Forum of Trajan, which occupied 
 the extreme portion of the eighth region,between 
 the Capitol and duirinal, was yet more exten- 
 sive and magnificent than any of the structures 
 which have been hither to described. It is stated 
 byAmmianus Marcellinus, that no part of Rome 
 excited so much wonder and admiration in the 
 emperor Constans and the Persian prince Hor- 
 misdas, when viewing the city, as this superb 
 Forum and its stupendous assemblage of build- 
 ings. It was surrounded with a portico, the top 
 of which was crowded with equestrian statues 
 and military ornaments, principally in bronze. 
 Its chief buildings consisted of a basilica, a 
 triumphal arch, a temple, and a library. The 
 
FO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PR 
 
 famous column wnicli yet remains entire, points 
 out more particularly the situation of the Forum 
 now under consideration, to the splendour of 
 which it doubtless added considerably. It was 
 erected by order of the senate in commemoration 
 of Trajan's victories over the Daci, which are 
 described in the bas reliefs with which the shaft 
 of the pillar is ornamented. The ashes of Tra- 
 jan, it is said, were contained in an urn placed 
 on the summit, an honour, as Eutropius ob- 
 serves, which never had been paid to any before 
 that emperor. At the angle formed by the Via 
 Nova and Valabrum, was the tomb and statue 
 of Acca Laureniia, the wife of Faustulus and 
 nurse of Romulus and Remus, to whom an 
 annual sacrifice was offered on this spot. Here 
 were also the chapel and grove of the Lares, 
 and likewise a temple of Fortune built by Lu- 
 cullus. Nearer the Circus Maximus was the 
 Forum Boarium, so called from a brazen bull 
 which stood in the centre. 
 
 Pontibus et magno juncta est celeberrima Circo 
 Area^ qucB posito de bove nariien habet. 
 
 According to Pliny, this figure was brought to 
 Rome from ^Egina. It probably served to de- 
 note the business carried on in this Forum, 
 which was, in fact, the sale of oxen, according 
 to Livy. We learn from the same author, and 
 from Pliny, that this part of Rome was the scene 
 of a barbarous sacrifice, which was not entirelj^ 
 abolished even in the latter's time. It consisted 
 in burying alive two persons of each sex belong- 
 ing to some hostile nation. We must now turn 
 to the Capitoline hill, which contained the cita- 
 del and fortress of Rome. Three ascents led 
 to its summit from the Forum. 1st, By the 100 
 steps of the Tarpeian rock, whicli wels proba- 
 bly on the steepest side, where it overhangs the 
 Tiber. 2d, The Clivus Capitolinus, which be- 
 gan from the arch of Tiberius and the temple 
 of Saturn, near the present hospital of the Con- 
 solazione, and led to the citadel by a winding 
 path. 3d, The Clivus Asyli, which, being less 
 steep than the other two, was on that account 
 the road by which the triumphant generals were 
 borne in their cars to the Capitol. This ascent 
 began at the arch of Septimius Severus, and 
 from thence, winding to the left, passed near the 
 ruined pillars of the temple of Concord as it 
 is commonly but improperly called, and from 
 thence led to the Intermontium. The Capito- 
 line hill is said to have been previously called 
 Saturnius, from the ancient city of Saturnia, of 
 which it was the citadal. Afterwards it was 
 known by the name of Mons Tai'peius ; and 
 finally it obtained the appellation first mentioned, 
 from the circumstance of a human head being 
 discovered on its summit in making the founda- 
 tions of the temple of Jupiter. It wels con- 
 sidered as forming two summits, which, though 
 considerably depressed, are yet sufiiciently ap- 
 parent. That which looked to the south and 
 to the Tiber, was the Tarpeian rock or citadel ; 
 the other, which was properly the Capitol, faced 
 the north and the Gluirinal. The space which 
 was left between these two elevations was 
 known by the name of Intermontium. It was 
 on this part of the Capitoline mount that Ro- 
 mulus established his Asylum, which appears 
 to have been an enclosure formed by a thick 
 plantation of trees and underwood, having a 
 
 small temple within, consecrated to some un- 
 known divinit}'." Cram. Anc. It. 
 
 Forum Appi, I. a tov,n:i of Latium, on the 
 Appia Via. Cic. 1, Att. 10.— Horat. 1, Sat. 3, 
 
 V. 3. II. Augustum, a place at Rome. Ovid. 
 
 Fast. 5, V. 552. III. Allieni, a towm of Ita- 
 ly, now Ferrara. Tacit. Hist. 3, c. 6. IV. 
 
 Aurelia, a town of Etruria, now Montalto. Cic. 
 
 Cat. 1, c. 9. V. Claudii, another in Etruria, 
 
 now Oriolo. VI. Cornelii, another, now 
 
 Jmola, in the Pope's dominions. Plin. 3, c. 
 
 "16. — Cic. Fam. 12, ep. 5. VII. Domitii, a 
 
 touTi of Gaul, now Frontignan in Languedoc. 
 
 VIII. Voconii, a to-wn of Gaul, now Gon- 
 
 saron, between Antibes and Marseilles. Cic. 
 
 Fam. 10, ep. 17. IX. Flaminii, a town of 
 
 Umbria, now So.n Giovane. Plin. 3, c. 14. 
 
 X. Gallorum, a town of Gaul Togata, now 
 
 Castel Franco in the Bolognese. Cic. Fam. 
 10, ep. 30. XI. Also a town of Venice, call- 
 ed Forajuliensis urbs, now Friuli. Cic. Fam. 
 
 12, ep. 26. XII. Julii, a town of Gallia Nar- 
 
 bonensis, now Frejns in Provence. Cic. Fam. 
 10, ep. 17. — Strab. 4. Many other places 
 
 bore the name of Forum wherever there was a 
 public market, or rather where the praetor held 
 his court of justice, {forum vel conventus,) and 
 thence they were called sometimes conventus as 
 well a.sfora, into which provinces were general- 
 ly divided under the administration of a sepa- 
 rate governor. Cic. Ver. 2, c. 20, 1. 4, c. 48, 1. 
 5, c. 11. — Vatin. 5, Fam. 3, ep. 6 and 8. — Attic. 
 5, ep. 21. 
 
 Fosi, a people of Germany contiguous to the 
 Chenisci, in whose ruin they were involved 
 when the victories of Germanicus extended the 
 Roman empire beyond the Rhine. 
 
 Fossa, I. the straits of Bonifacio, between 
 Corsica and Sardinia, called also Tephros. 
 
 Plin. 3, c. 6. II. Drusi, or Drusiani, a canal, 
 
 eight miles in length, opened by Drusus from 
 the Rhine to the Issel, below the separation of 
 the Waal. [Vid. Flevo.] Suet. Claud. 1.— Ta- 
 cit. Hist. 5, c. 23. III. Mariana, a canal cut 
 
 by Marius from the Rhone to Marseilles during 
 the Cimbrian war, and now called Galejon. 
 Sometimes the word is used in the plural, Cos- 
 see, as if more than one canal had been formed 
 by Marius. Plin. 3, c. 4. — Strab. 4. — Mela, 
 2, c. 5, 
 
 Franci, a German people, or rather a gene- 
 ric term for a confederation of certain Germanic 
 tribes. Much labour has been spent in the at- 
 tempt to ascertain the original seats of these 
 warlike people, but they have all been more or 
 less unsuccessful, except where directed to the 
 examination of particular divisions of the league. 
 There can be little doubt, however, that they 
 all were branches of the greater Suevic nation, 
 detached, perhaps, at different periods from the 
 parent stock. They formed, moreover, the most 
 important body of the German nation at the 
 time that they first became known to the Ro- 
 mans. At this time they dwelt between the 
 Albis, Elbe, the Maenus, Mayne, the Rhine, and 
 the Northern Ocean, in the modern countries 
 of Franconia, Thuringia, Hesse Frisia, and 
 Westphalia; or, according to the present po- 
 litical division of Germany, the kingdoms of 
 Hanover and Holland, a part of Prussia, Sax- 
 ony, the smaller German states, a part of the 
 kingdom of Bavaria, and the Grand Duchv of 
 115 
 
FR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 FR 
 
 the Rhine. This famous league appears to 
 have been formed about the year two hundred 
 and forty. The principal people of the Francic 
 association were the CJierusci, by whom the Ro- 
 man legions of Augustus were destroyed, to the 
 disgrace of the name of Varus and the imperial 
 arms ; the Chauci, the Catti, and the Sicambri. 
 These resistless barbarians, in the reign of Gal- 
 lienus. having forced the passage of the Rhine, 
 the limits and bulwark of the empire, and cross- 
 ing the last defences of the distant province of 
 Hispania, the vainly trusted ramparts of the 
 Pyrenees, brought devastation and slaughter 
 into the defenceless region of Tarraconensis. 
 From thence they crossed over into Africa, 
 wiiere they renewed the barbarities to which 
 ihey seemed to have been invariably excited in 
 those ages by the Roman name, the appearance 
 of Roman manners, and the recollection of the 
 long Roman usurpations. But through all these 
 manifestations of an unyielding character, and 
 an uncompromising and savage independence. 
 The Roman discipline still reached its end in 
 subdumg, to a partial and temporary allegiance, 
 such of these fierce people as remained in their 
 seats in Germany. The emperor Probus re- 
 moved them in great numbers to colonize the 
 most distant regions of his dominions ; and a body 
 established in conformity with this policy, near 
 the Phasis on the Euxine Sea, attested the power 
 which the Roman arms had acquired over the 
 refractory Germans. From this settlement, how- 
 ever, resulted consequences unexpected, and 
 involving the fate of a great part of Europe for 
 centuries afterwards. These barbarians, dis- 
 contented with their situation in an unknown, 
 distant, and inhospitable country, resolved to 
 abandon it, and seizing on some vessels which 
 they found in one of the ports on the Euxine, 
 they ventured themselves upon the unknown 
 seas. Through the Euxine, the Propontis, the 
 Hellespont, the iEgean, and the Mediterra- 
 nean, this bold colony, till then untried upon 
 the waters, carrying the same irresistible fury 
 in their way, arrived at the Straits of Gibraltar, 
 the renowned Pillars of Hercules, and laimch- 
 ing into the open ocean, returned in their frail 
 barks, the first circumnavigators of Europe, to 
 the lands of their countrymen, the coasts of Ba- 
 tavia and Frisia, by the Rhine, the Ems, and 
 the Elbe. After this memorable exploit, the 
 northern barbarians became no less formidable 
 by sea than by land to the countries of Europe ; 
 and the reduction of a part of Gaul, the con- 
 quest of Britain, and all the long series of the 
 Danish and Norwegian piracies and victories, 
 were the fruits of this bold and successful ad- 
 venture. The leader under whom the Francs 
 thus returned to their homes is one of those, 
 who, in the obscurity of history, lay claim to 
 the introduction of a new religion, and to the 
 title of a supreme divinity, under the name of 
 Odin among his countrymen. It is more pro- 
 bable, however, that admiration of his achieve- 
 ment first conferred upon him the title of a 
 deity, long before worshipped in Germany, and 
 that succeeding generations confounded the 
 deity and the deified through ignorance and er- 
 ror. An uneasy and precarious authority still 
 marked the power of the Empire over the people 
 of the north; but when the emperor Constan- 
 tius invited them to cross the Rhine, and al- 
 116 
 
 lowed them, on condition of aiding against his 
 enemies, to establish themselves within that bar- 
 rier of the empire, the Francs and Allemani, re- 
 gardful as little of the rights of his subjects as of 
 tliose of his enemies, established themselves on 
 the ruin of whole provinces and people in those 
 regions, from which they extended themselves 
 indefinitely over the empire, but from which they 
 were never again to be removed. The Franci 
 first settled themselves in a part of Brabant^ 
 then called Toxandria, and originated there the 
 empire of the French. Established in their 
 new abodes, the Franks began to assume, in 
 some degree, the manners and feelings of those 
 among whom they had taken up their homes, 
 and a gentler influence than that of conquest 
 began to effect what attempted conquest had 
 failed to do, in producing a gradual assimilation 
 to the Roman character and a regard for the 
 Roman name. Hence, on the invasion of Gaul 
 by the Suevi, Vandali, Alani, and Burgundi- 
 ones, the Franci were found on the side of Stili- 
 cho and the Empire, resisting, though unsuccess- 
 fully, the incursion which constituted, according 
 to the opinion of Gibbon, " the fall of the western 
 empire be3''ond the Alps." In the reign of the 
 third Valentinian, the king of the Franks, who 
 held his royal court at Dispargum, a village be- 
 tween the modern Brussels and Louvain, and 
 who still retained the characteristics of his Ger- 
 man ancestry, courage and a fierce spirit of en- 
 terprise and gain, resolved upon the conquest of 
 the Belgic province of Gaul ; and under his con- 
 duct his subjects eflected their first settlement 
 in the country to which they were subsequently 
 to transmit their name. The son of Clodion, 
 Meroveus, began the dynasty and line of the 
 Frank kings, which was confirmed a few years 
 afterwards, about 486 A.D. by Clovis, " who 
 in 30 years," says Gibbon, " accomplished the 
 establishment of the French monarchy in Gaul. 
 Twenty-five years afterwards," continues the 
 same historian, " Justinian, yielding to the 
 Franks the sovereignty of the countries beyond 
 the Alps which they already possessed, absolved 
 the provincials from their allegiance, and esta- 
 blished on a more lawful, though not more solid 
 foundation, the throne of the Merovingians." 
 The name of Franci is of doubtful origin ; but 
 the ferocious courage of the people to whom it 
 belonged, their unquenchable fondness for liber- 
 ty, and their success in maintaining it, have 
 caused the general belief that this name was in- 
 tended to designate its possessors as more pe- 
 culiarly endued with these attributes than any 
 of the people by whom they were environed. 
 While the Franks continued a German people, 
 though we hear of their chiefs, who exercised a 
 kind of royal power, it was by no means of that 
 nature which became afterwards the attribute of 
 sovereignty and the inherent right of the sove- 
 reign. Their laws were few and simple ; and 
 those which formed the Salic and the Rippua- 
 rian customary or prescriptive law, being, in the 
 reign of Dagobert, collected and revised, were 
 formed into a code, the basis and the constitu- 
 tion of those mstitutions by which France was 
 afterwards to be governed for almost a thousand 
 years, and which still exclude the daughters of 
 its monarchs from ihe throne. The Franks 
 were converted to Christianity in the reign 
 of Clovis, about the period of the establish- 
 
FU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GA 
 
 ment of their rule in the ancient province of 
 Gaul. 
 
 Fregell^, a famous town of the Volsci in 
 Italy, on the Liris, destroyed for revolting from 
 the Romans. Ital. 5, v. 452. — Liv. 8, c. 22, 1. 
 27, c. 10, &c. — Cic. Fam. 13, ep. 76. 
 
 Frentani, a people of Samnite origin, but 
 at an early period separated from the Sam- 
 nites, and constituting a separate and inde- 
 pendent state. The little country of the Fren- 
 lani, though it may at one time have been more 
 widely extended, was, in the time of Augustus, 
 confined within the river Aternus, Pescara, and 
 the Tifernus, Biferno ; the former of which se- 
 parated them from the Marrucini, while the lat- 
 ter flowed between their territory and Campa- 
 nia. Its greatest length was on the Adriatic, 
 from the shores of which it extended in the in- 
 terior to the borders of Samnium. Strab. — Liv. 
 9, 45.— App. Civ. Bell. 1, 39. 
 
 Fretum, {the sea), is sometimes applied by 
 way of eminence to the Sicilian Sea, or the 
 straits of Messina. Ccbs. C. 1, c. 29. — Flor. 1, 
 c. 26.— Cic. 3, Alt. 1. 
 
 Frish, a German people, north of the mouth 
 of the Rhine, and extending thence upon the 
 coast across the Yssel and the canal of Drusus, 
 to the mouth of the Amisea, Ems. The 
 spreading of this canal and the lake which it 
 formed ( Vid. Flevo), submerged a great portion 
 of the country of the Prisons or Frisii, which 
 now lies under the Zuyder Zee, or appears at its 
 mouth in the form of the islands Texel, Vlie- 
 land, Schelling, Ameland, Schiermonickoog, &c. 
 What remains now constitutes the districts of 
 Priesland, Overyssel, and Groningen. 
 
 Frusino, now Prosinone, a small town of the 
 Volsci, on one of the branches of the Liris. 
 ■Juv. 3, V. 223.— Z.W. 10, c. l.-Sil. 8, v. 399.— 
 Cic. Alt. 11, ep. 4 and 13. 
 
 FtJciNUs LACUs, a celebrated Italian lake in 
 the territory of the Marsi, now Lago Fucino 
 and Lago di Celano. The circumference of 
 this lake wa,s not less than 40 miles, and els it 
 had no visible outlet, the surrounding country 
 was frequently inundated by its extensive sheet 
 of water. It was believed, according to a vulgar 
 tradition of the Romans, that the waters of the 
 Pitonius did not mingle with those proper to 
 the lake, but that, preserving a much greater 
 degree of coolness, they passed under the bed 
 of the lake, and emerging again, assumed the 
 name of Aqua Marcia. Suetonius relates that 
 Jalius Caesar and his successor had both in- 
 tended to secure the neighbouring people from 
 the effects of the inundations of this body of 
 water, by effecting an artificial drain, but that 
 they were deterred by the diflaculty and the ex- 
 pense of the undertaking. "The emperor 
 Claudius," proceeds that writer, " entered upon 
 the task of draining the superfluous waters of 
 the Fucine lake, not less from the expectation 
 of gain than from the hope of glory, when seve- 
 ral individuals proposed to furnish the means, 
 on condition that they should receive the lands 
 to be thus recovered. After eleven years of la- 
 bour, although he had kept at the work no less 
 than 30,000 men incessantly employed, he suc- 
 ceeded with the greatest difficulty in excavating 
 a canal of three miles in length through a moim- 
 tain which he was obliged in part to dig 
 through, and in part absolutely to level." Suet. 
 
 Claud. 20. The lake, surrounded by a ridge 
 of high mountains, is not more than 12 feet 
 deep on an average. Plin. 36, c. 15. — Tacit. 
 Ann. 12, c. 56. — Virg. jEn. 7, v. 759. 
 
 FuLGiNATEs, a pcoplc of Umbria, whose chief 
 town w^as Fulginum, now Poligno. Sit. It. 
 8, V. 462.— Plin. 1, c. 4, 1. 3, c. 14. 
 
 FuNDANUs, a lake near Fundi in Italy, which 
 discharges itself into the Mediterranean. Tacit. 
 Hist. 3, c. 69. 
 
 Fundi, a town of Italy near Caieta, on the 
 'Appian road, at the bottom of a small deep bay 
 called Lacus Fundanus. This town was very 
 early admitted to the privileges of Rome, except 
 that the inhabitants were not admitted to the 
 exercise of the right of suffrage, to which the 
 Romans attached so much importance, and 
 which they accorded with such reluctance to 
 the neighbouring districts. This privilege was 
 granted to them A. U. C. 564. The veterans 
 of Augustus afterwards formed a colony in this 
 place. Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v. 34. — Liv. 8, c. 14 
 and 19, 1. 38, c. ^6.— Plin. 3, c. b.—Cic. Rull. 
 2, c. 2b.— Tacit. Ann. 4, c. b9.— Strab. 5. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gab.e, a city on the northern borders of Sog- 
 diana, supposed by D'Anville to be the same 
 as the present Kauos, and among the first places 
 in which Alexander signalized himself in the 
 countries of the east, beyond the well known 
 regions of the Asiatic peninsula. 
 
 Gabali, and Gabales, a people of Aquitania, 
 near the borders of Narbonensis. They were 
 subordinate to the Arverni, and dwelt in the 
 country lying between the possessions of the 
 Cadurci and the Velauni. Their chief town 
 was Anderitum, now Anterieux, in Anvergne. 
 Plin. 4, c. 19. 
 
 Gabaza, the same as Gabae. Curt. 8, 4. 
 
 Gabellus, now La Secchia, a river falling in 
 a northern direction into the Po, opposite the 
 Mincius. Plin. 3, c. 16. 
 
 Gabh, a city of the Volsci, built by the kings 
 of Alba, but now no longer in existence. It 
 was taken by the artifice of Sextus, the son of 
 Tarquin, who gained the confidence of the in- 
 habitants by deserting to them, and pretending 
 that his father had ill-treated him. Romulus 
 and Remus were educated there, as it was the 
 custom at that time to send there the young no- 
 bility, and Juno was the chief deity of the place. 
 The ruins of her famous temple are said to be 
 still visible near a spot called VOsteria del 
 Pantano. Before this place the banished Ca- 
 millus retrieved the character of the Romans, 
 who had seen their capital in the hands of the 
 Barbarians, by the final and total defeat of the 
 Gauls. The Cinctus Gabinus was a peculiar 
 mode of folding the toga, which the Gabini are 
 said 10 have adopted for the sake of giving more 
 ease to their motions when suddenly summoned 
 from a sacrifice to the field. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 
 773, 1. 7, V. 612 and 6%2.—Liv. 5, c. 46, 1. 6, c. 
 29, 1. 8, c. 9, 1. 10, c. l.— Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 709. 
 — Plut. in Romul. 
 
 Gades, a town of Bastica in Spain, on the 
 Atlantic, now Cadiz, equally important and 
 celebrated in antiquity and among the moderns. 
 It was early founded by the Tyrians, in com- 
 pliance, according to Strnbo, with the command 
 117 
 
GA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GA 
 
 of an oracle. The ancients place it on an isl- 
 and connected by a causeway with the coast of 
 Spain; but the probability is that alluvial 
 changes have transformed the aspect of the 
 coast in that region, and incorporated the former 
 island with the great peninsula. The inhabit- 
 ants retained to the last the characteristics of 
 the people from whom they sprung, and their 
 vessels were continually seen on every sea 
 which the navigation of their times had been 
 able to compass. " This island," says Strabo, 
 " arrived at such a pitch of fortune, that though 
 it is situated in the farther regions of the earth, 
 it yet surpasses all in fame, and only yields to 
 Rome." Five hundred Roman knights were a 
 part of the stable population of this place ; a 
 greater number than any of the towns of Italy 
 could boast with the exception of Padua alone. 
 The Greek name for this place was Gadira, but 
 it was also called Cotynusa. The first was but 
 the Greek form of the Phoenician name, which 
 signified a hedge. After the accession of Oc- 
 tavius to the imperial sceptre, with the title of 
 Augustus, a colony was established at Gades, 
 which took the name of Augusta Julia. On 
 the same island the ancients placed the town of 
 Erythea, sacred to Juno. Vid. Erythea. Ho- 
 rat. 2, od. 2, v. 11.— 5*^^. 3, Sylv. 1, v. 183.— 
 Uv. 21, c. 21, ]. 24, c. 49, 1. 26, c. 43.— PZw. 4, 
 c. 23. — Strab. 3. — Cic. pro Gab. — Justin. 44, c. 
 4.— Pans. 1, c. 3b.—Ptol. 2, c. i.—Paterc. 1, 
 C.2. 
 
 Gaditancjs sinus, an arm of the ocean setting 
 into the coast of that part of Spain which is 
 now Andalusia, and was called by the Romans 
 Baetica. It was between the Straits of Gibral- 
 tar, Fretum Herculeum, and the mouth of the 
 Baetis, (the Gioadalquiver,) and is now called 
 the Gulf of Cadiz. 
 
 Gaditanum fretum, the same as Herculeum 
 Fretum, or Straits of Gibraltar. 
 
 G.ETULIA, a country of Libya, near the Ga- 
 ramantes, which formed part of king Masinis- 
 sa's kingdom. The country was the favourite 
 retreat of wild beasts, and is now called Bildul- 
 gerid. The people are called Berbers, and 
 reside in the lofty regions of Atlas. Sallust. 
 in Jug. — Sil. 3, v. 287. — Plin. 5, c. 4. 
 
 Gal ATA, I. a town of Syria. II. An island 
 
 near Sicily. III. A town of Sicily. IV. 
 
 A mountain of Phocis. 
 
 GALAT.E, the inhabitants of Galatia. Vid. 
 Galaiia. 
 
 Galatia, or Gallogr.ecia, a large country 
 of Asia Minor, originally belonging to Phrygia, 
 having Bithynia and Paphlagonia on the north ; 
 Pontus and Cappadocia on the east ; on the 
 south, Cappadocia and Phrygia ; and Phrygia 
 alone upon the west. This name was given 
 to the country when the Gauls, about 270 B. 
 C, after the defeat of their leader Brennus in 
 his designs against Rome, passing over into 
 Bithynia, extorted from the king a territory for 
 themselves and their posterity. The compound, 
 Gallogrsecia, was also derived from this Gallic 
 settlement, and from the Greeks, who, in the 
 time of Alexander, established themselves in the 
 same district of country. The two races must 
 have kept themselves distinct for many genera- 
 tions ; since, in the time of St. Paul, when the 
 common dialect was Celtic, we find that apo!*tle 
 addressing the Galatians m the language of 
 118 
 
 Greece, or rather, perhaps, as we should say, m 
 Syro-Greek. The preaching of St. Paul was 
 as much almost as three centuries after the 
 Gallic invasion ; and their language, whatever 
 it was, we find to have been still preserved for 
 at least 200 years longer. The principal Gallic 
 tribes which emigrated to these distant seats 
 were the Tolistoboii, who fixed themselves on 
 the borders of Phrygia ; the Trocmi, towards 
 Cappadocia ; and the Tectosages, who occupied 
 the country in the direction of Bithynia and 
 Paphlagonia. Their chiefs or kings were called 
 by the Greeks, Tetrarchs; and the sovereign 
 power was divided in each district among a 
 number of individuals, of whom no one was ab- 
 solute or independent of the rest or of the coun- 
 cil of nobles. These tetrarchs were long, in 
 fact, dependants upon Rome ; under the favour, 
 however, and protection of Pompey, Dejotarus, 
 one of these tetrarchs, obtained the supremacy, 
 and ruled as king alone. To him succeeded 
 Amyntas, the creature of Antony, in whose 
 reign, Galatia, his kingdom, was extended be- 
 yond its natural limits, within those of Lycao- 
 nia and Pisidia. This extensive region before 
 the death of Amyntas was reduced by Augustus 
 to a province of the empire. At a later period 
 Galatia was divided into two provinces by The- 
 odosius, the second Galatia being called Salu- 
 taris. This was a permanent subdivision, con- 
 fining Galatia within the ancient boundaries, 
 beyond which they had been extended for a 
 time over a part of Pontus and Paphlagonia. 
 On the other hand, the Galatians had lost a 
 portion of the territory that seemed naturally 
 to belong to them, between the mountains and 
 the mouth of the Halys. The principal town 
 of Galatia was Ancyra, the capital of the Tec- 
 tosages, the modern Angoura ; Pessinus, famous 
 for the worship of Cybele, belonging to the 
 same; Gordium, the ancient capital of the 
 country before the arrival of the Gauls, on the 
 Sangarius, and called, on its rebuilding in the 
 time of Augustus, Juliopolis ; Tavium, belong- 
 ing to the Trocmi, on the borders of Pontus, 
 and Eccobriga, a Celtic name, on the Halys. 
 The northern parts of Galatia towards Bithynia 
 rose into mountains, which, with the name of 
 Olympus, divided those countries. The prin- 
 cipal rivers, the Sangarius and Halys, arose, the 
 former on the borders of Phrygia, and traversed 
 the western corner of Galatia, passing into Bi- 
 thynia ; and the latter in Cappadocia and the 
 mountains of Cilicia, watering the eastern sec- 
 tion of Galatia, and passing from that country 
 between Pontus and Paphlagonia to the sea. 
 The part towards the source of the Sangarius 
 belongs only to Galatia, which claimed the mid- 
 dle course of the Halys, the boundary of the 
 dominions of Croesus. The name of Gallograe- 
 cia, which seems to indicate the origin of the 
 people by whom this part of the peninsula was 
 inhabited, has not been sufficient to allay the 
 doubts which etymologists and others have en- 
 tertained and excited in regard to the true deri- 
 vation of the inhabitants of Galatia. It is ob- 
 served, that the Treveri, whose language was 
 said by St. Jerome to have been the same as 
 that of the Galatians, were a German people, 
 and that Treves was also a city of Germany, 
 
 Galesus, now Galeso, a river of Calabria, 
 flowing into the bay of Tarenium. The poets 
 
GA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GA 
 
 have celebrated it for the shady groves in its 
 neighbourhood, and the fine sheep which feed 
 on its fertile banks, and whose fleeces were said 
 to be rendered soft when they bathed in the 
 stream. Martial. 2, ep. 43, 1. 4, ep. 28. — Virg. 
 G. 4, V. l26.—Horat. 2, od. 6, v. 10. 
 
 Galil^a, a part of Palestine, between the 
 coast upon the west, Samaria upon the south, 
 Batanea upon the east, and the mountains of 
 Antilibanus upon the north. It was extremely 
 fertile and populous ; and while inhabited by a 
 Jewish population, was the dwelling-place of 
 the tribes of Aser, Naphtali, part, of Dan, to- 
 gether with Zebulon and Issactiar. The later 
 Galilaeans are known to have been a mingled 
 race of Assyrians and Hebrews, the former 
 established in the country on its subjugation by 
 the Babylonish kings, and the latter, descend- 
 ants of such of the Jewish tribes as were ena- 
 bled to conceal themselves in those regions, the 
 property of which was thus transferred to 
 stranger hands. After the extension of the 
 first sect of Christians, and before that name 
 was assumed by them, they were generally de- 
 signated by the epithet of Galileean, bestowed 
 on them in derision or contempt. The di- 
 vision of Galilee was into Galilee Superior, to- 
 wards Phoenicia and the mountains ; and Ga- 
 lilee Inferior {the Lower), on the boundaries 
 of Samaria. The former of these was called 
 also Galilgea Gentium, or Galilee of the Gen- 
 tiles, both on account of its greater remoteness 
 from the limits of Judaea, and from the inter- 
 mixture of the Tyrian people and manners, 
 which from the time of king Solomon had be- 
 gun to distinguish the people in the northern 
 parts of his realm. Vid.Decapolis. 
 
 Gallia, properly so called, was bounded on 
 the east by the Rhine, Rhsetia, and the Alps, 
 which separate it from Gallia Cisalpina; on the 
 south by the Mediterranean and the Pyrenees ; 
 on the west by the ocean ; and on the north by 
 the ocean and the Rhine. Thus enclosed on 
 every side by the natural barriers of the moun- 
 tains, the ocean, the sea, and the Rhine, with 
 a surface happily divided into mountains, and 
 plains, and valleys, watered by fertilizing rivers ; 
 Gaul was prepared by nature for the abode of 
 a numerous and enterprising people. Few 
 countries are so advantageously intersected with 
 rivers. The Rhine receives the Mosella, 31o- 
 selle; the Vahalis, or Waal, joins the Mosa, 
 Meuse, or iVfes, which also receives the Scaldis, 
 Scheldt, some distance from its mouth. On the 
 western side of Gaul are the Sequana, Seine, 
 with its tributaries, of which the chief one is 
 the Matrona, Marnc; the Ligeris, Loire, which 
 receives the Elaver, Alier ; the Garumna, Ga- 
 ronne, with which the Duranius, Dordogne, 
 unites near its mouth ; and the Aturus, Adour, 
 near the base of the Pyrenees. On the south- 
 ern or Mediterranean side is the Rhodanus, 
 whose tributaries are the Arar, Saom, Isara, 
 Isere, and Druentia, Durance. The principal 
 mountains of Gaul are Jura, Vogesus, Vosges, 
 and Cebenna, Cevennes. Gallia took its name 
 from that of its inhabitants, whom the Romans 
 called Galli, converting into a Latin word the 
 term Celtae, by which the nation styled them- 
 selves; or, perhaps, more properly the word 
 Gael, whence the Latin Galli and the Greek 
 VaXarai. Some etymologists have traced the 
 
 name Celtae to KA???, " a horseman-," and Ga- 
 latae, to yaXa, " milk," in reference to the com- 
 plexion of the Gauls, thus referring both those 
 appellations to the Greek. Properly the Celtae 
 were the occupants of a third part of Gaul, ac- 
 cording to the account of Caesar ; but Diodorus 
 {lib. 5.) informs us, that all the nations from the 
 Pyrenees to Scythia were called Gauls ; and we 
 may gather from Strabo that a fourth part of the 
 known world was possessed by the Celtae; and, 
 in fact, the Germans, Gauls, and even the His- 
 pani, were called Celtse by the Greeks. The 
 Gauls, who had migrated from eastern regions 
 towards the west, till they had arrived in the 
 country called from them Gallia, having at 
 length attained in this favoured region a degree 
 of prosperity which justified a diminution of i^e 
 population by migration to other lands, atlengtli 
 determined on sending expeditions in the direc- 
 tion of the land whence their race originally 
 sprung. In the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, the 
 Bituriges enjoyed an ascendency over the rest of 
 the Gallic nations, and their king exercised re- 
 gal authority over all Gaul. It was at this time 
 that the disposition to migrate manifested itself. 
 Accordingly, Ambigatus king of the Bituriges, 
 gave his nephews Bellovesus and Sigovesus 
 each command over a powerful body of adven- 
 turers. The Gauls, under Sigovesus, took the 
 direction of the Hercynian forest, which they 
 passed through; they then penetrated Illyria, 
 and established themselves in Pannonid. This 
 branch of the Gauls, retaining the restless spirit 
 which characterized the nation at large, at length 
 formed a plan of further conquest, B. C. 281. 
 They divided their army into three parts. One 
 directed its efibrts against Macedonia, and re- 
 turned to their homes after having defeated and 
 slain Ptolemy Ceraunus, the Macedonian king. 
 Another division laid waste ^tolia, and ad- 
 vanced to plunder Delphi, under the conduct of 
 Brennus (younger than the conqueror of Rome.) 
 The Gauls were repulsed and almost extermi- 
 nated, and that by the miraculous interposition of 
 the deity in defence of his favoured shrine, ac- 
 cording to the fictions of Grecian superstition. 
 Thethirdbranch,commandedbyLeonoriusand 
 Lutarius, advanced to Thrace, took Byzantium 
 and Lysimachia, Hexamili ; and having cross- 
 ed the Hellespont, successfully aided Nicome- 
 des, king of Bithynia, agamst ZybcEa. They 
 then subdued Ionia and ^olis, and at length 
 established themselves near the Halys, giving 
 name to Galatia or Gallograecia. Bellovesus 
 took the route by the Alps to Italy, where he 
 defeated, and expelled from their possessions, 
 the Tuscans, who then occupied the country 
 between the Alps and the Padus. Here he 
 founded the city of Mediolanum, Milan. The 
 Cenomani, who had accompanied him, settled 
 in the vicinity of Brixia and Verona; the 
 Salluvii, in the neighbourhood of the Ticinus. 
 The Boii and Lingones, who, upon crossing 
 the Alps, found all the country north of the 
 Pa already seized upon, crossed the river, 
 and driving before them not only the Etrus- 
 cans, but also the Umbrians, established them- 
 selves between the Po and the Appenines. 
 The Senones pushed their conquest still far- 
 ther, and occupied the region bordering on the 
 Hadriatic, and extending from the Ufeus, Mon- 
 . tone, near Ravenna, to the iEsis, Esino near 
 119 
 
GA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GA 
 
 Ancona. The northern part of Italy being now 
 in the possession of Gallic tribes, was called Gal- 
 lia ; and, for distinction's sake, the two Gauls 
 were named, in reference to their situation this 
 side or the other side of the Alps as regarded 
 Rome, respectively, Gallia Cisalpina and Gal- 
 lia Transalpina. In the year of Rome 364, 
 A. C. 390, the Gauls under Brennus waged 
 against the Romans the w'ar in which the city 
 was sacked by the Barbarians. After the lapse 
 of nearly three centuries, the Romans seized on 
 a luvourable pretext for gaining a footing in 
 Transalpine Gaul, and sent Fulvius Flaccus to 
 aid the Massilians against their troublesome 
 neighbours, the Salii. A few years later, A. U. 
 C. 633, Fabius Maximus and Cn. Domitius 
 JEnobarbus, having been sent to support the 
 -^dui against the Allobroges and Arverni, sub- 
 dued that part of Gaul which was at first styled 
 Provincia, and afterwards Narbonensis, from 
 Narbo, now Narbomie. It was surnamed Brac- 
 cata, from a garment worn by the natives, as 
 Celtic Gaul was called Comata, because the peo- 
 ple wore long hair. The Roman possessions in 
 Gaul were confined to the province, until the in- 
 vasion of CsBsar, more than sixty years after the 
 victories of Fabius. At the time that Gaul was 
 conquered by Csesar, " three great nations, Cel- 
 tae, Belgoe, and Aquitani, distinguished by lan- 
 guage as by customs, divided among them the 
 whole extent of Gaul." Vid. Celtica, Belgica, 
 and Aquitania. " When Augustus gave laws 
 to the conquests of his father, he introduced a 
 division of Gaul, equally adapted to the progress 
 of the legions, to the course of the rivers, and 
 to the principal national distinctions, which had 
 comprehended a hundred independent states. 
 For one hundred and fifteen cities {civitabes) 
 appear in the Notitia of Gaul, and it is well 
 known that this appellation was applied not only 
 to the capital towns, but to the whole territory 
 of each state. The sea-coast of the Mediterra- 
 nean, Langv£doCy Provence, Dauphine, received 
 their provincial appellation from the colony of 
 Narbonne. The government of Aquitania was 
 extended from the Pyrenees to the Ligeris. 
 The country between the Loire and the Seine 
 was styled the Celtic Gaul, and soon borrowed 
 a new denomination from the celebrated colony 
 of Lugdunum, or Lyons. The Belgic lay be- 
 yond the Seine, and in more ancient times had 
 been bounded only by the Rhine ; but a little 
 before the age of Caesar, the Germans, abusing 
 their superiority of valour, had occupied a con- 
 siderable portion of the Belgic territory. The 
 Roman conqueror very eagerly embraced so flat- 
 tering a circumstance ; and the Gallic frontier 
 of the Rhine, from Basle to Leyden, received 
 the pompous names of Upper and Lower Ger- 
 many. Such, under the reign of the Antonines, 
 were the six provinces of Gaul ; the Narbon- 
 nese, Aquiiaine, the Celtic or Lyonnese, the Bel- 
 gic, and the two Germanys. " ( Gibbon.) In the 
 new modelling of the empire by Constantine the 
 Great, Gaul was appointed for the seat of one 
 of the four Praefecti Praetorio. His title, Prae- 
 fectus Prsetorio Galliarum ; his government ex- 
 tending over the diocesses of Gaul, Spain, and 
 Britain : this diocess being cast into seventeen 
 provinces, that is to sav : 1 . Lugdunensis Prima ; 
 2. — Secunda; 3. — Tertia; 4. — Cluarta; 5. 
 Belgica Prima; 6. — Secunda: 7. — Germanial 
 120 
 
 Prima; 8. — Secunda; 9. — Narbonensis Prima; 
 10. — Secunda; 11. — Aquitania Prima; 12. — 
 Secunda ; 13. Novem-Populana ; 14. Viennen- 
 sis; 15. Maxima Sequanorum; 16. Alpes 
 Graise and Penninae; 17. Alpes Maritimae, "But 
 long it stood not in this state. For within sixty 
 years after the death of Constantine, during the 
 reigns of Honorius and Theodosius, the Bur- 
 gundians, a great and populous nation, were 
 called in by Stilico, lieutenant to Honorius the 
 western emperor, to keep the borders of the em- 
 pire against the French, then ready, with some 
 other of the barbarous nations, to invade the 
 same. The Goths, not long after, by agreement 
 with the same Honorius, leaving their hold in 
 Italy, were vested in Gaul Narbonois, by the 
 gift of that emperor, with a good part of Tar- 
 raconensis, one of the provinces of Spain ; Aqui- 
 tania being soon after added, in regard of the 
 service they had done the empire in driving the 
 Alani out of Spain, then likely to have made a 
 great impression on that country. And in the 
 reign of Valentinian the third, the French, 
 who had long hovered on the banks of the Rhone, 
 taking advantage of the distractions of the em- 
 pire, ventured over the river ; first made them- 
 selves masters of Belgic Gaul, and afterwards 
 spread themselves over the rest of the provinces 
 which had not been subdued by the Goths and 
 Burgundians, excepting a small corner of Ar- 
 morica, then possessed by the Britons." — {Hey- 
 Im.) A. D. 582, the Burgundians yielded to 
 the overwhelming force of the Franks, who fol- 
 lowed up this success by an attack on the do- 
 minions of the Goths. Under the pretence of 
 exterminating the Arian heresy, Clovis, the 
 christianiiero of the Franks declared war against 
 the Goths, and slew wiih his own hand their 
 king Alaric, at the decisive battle of Poictiers, 
 which transferred the ample province of Aquita- 
 nia to the dominion of the Franks, A. D. 508. 
 At length, 25 years after the death of Clovis, in 
 a treaty between Justinian and the sons of Clo- 
 vis, the sovereignty of the countries beyond the 
 Alps was yielded to the Franks, and thus was 
 lawfully established the throne of the Merovin- 
 gians, A. D. 536. The population of Gaul in 
 the lime of Caesar, as well as the degree of civi- 
 lization existing there, has given rise to much 
 discussion. On the former point, if we take as 
 the basis of a calculation the catalogue given by 
 Caesar of the confederate Belgae, and make al- 
 lowance for the women,children,slaves,and such 
 as were incapable of bearing arms, we shall find 
 the probable amount to be more than 30,000,000. 
 D.PIume makes the number as low as 12,000,000; 
 and Wallace, in his dissertation on the popula- 
 tion of ancient nations, extends it to 49,000,000. 
 A French critic, CI. Dulaure, has attempted to 
 overthrow the received opinions in regard to the 
 condition of ancient Gaul, by perverting the 
 meaning of the terms civitas, urbs, and oppidum, 
 as used by Cassar. He argues, that because civi- 
 tas is used in reference to Tolosa, Carcasso, and 
 Narbo, cities of the Gallic province, the same 
 term would have been applied to Bibracta,Gena- 
 bum, and Gergovia, if they had been entitled to 
 rank as towns. But the cases are not parallel. 
 Tolosa, &c., were colonies, and, as such, formed 
 with their respective territories independent 
 states ; enjoying, in a greater or less degree, the 
 privileges of Roman citizens and therefore called 
 
GA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GA 
 
 civitates, in reference to their citizens and the 
 immunities they enjoyed. Had he spoken of 
 those same places without reference to their in- 
 habitants or their privileges, he would have styl- 
 ed them urbes or oppida. When we go be- 
 yond the province, we find him still using the 
 appellation civitas, where the people are intend- 
 ed, and not the place merely which they occu- 
 pied. Thus we read civitas uEduorum, civi- 
 tas Arvernorum ; but not civitas Bibracta, civi- 
 tas Gergovia, because here the places are in- 
 tended and not the people. In tne latter case, 
 urds or oppidum are the proper terms. Nor 
 are we to consider, with Dulaure, the Gauls of 
 that period too rude to possess towns. In truth, 
 their early migrations, which indicate an excess 
 of population, lead us to conclude that they 
 must have assembled in towns ; and we are jus- 
 tified in this inference, by the fact, that before 
 the Phoceeans had set the example of building 
 cities to the Gauls, Bellovesus founded in Cisal- 
 pine Gaul the city of Mediolanum. (See this 
 question fully and ably discussed in the reply of 
 de Golbery to Dulaure, entitled " Dissertatio de 
 antiquis urbibus Galliarum.") Under the Low- 
 er empire, " when the government of the church 
 in Gaul had conformed itself to that of the 
 state, the ecclesiastical provinces, if we ex- 
 cept those formed by the elevation of a few cities 
 to the dignity of metropolitan sees, correspond 
 with the division of civil provinces. This con- 
 formity extends even to the particular cantons of 
 which each province was composed, the ancient 
 civitates, or communities, corresponding for the 
 most part with the ancient diocesses. D'A7i- 
 ville. — Lieviaire. — Brotier, ad Tac. 1, p. 367, 
 ed. in V2.—C(es. Bell. Gall.— Sir ab. A.—Senec. 
 . 3, Nat. QucEst.—Cic. pro M. Font.—Liv. 5, 34, 
 35, et seqq. 38, 16.—riin. 32, 1, b.—Pausan. 
 
 10. — Polyb. 4. — Justin. 25, 2. Cisalpina. 
 
 "It is well ascertained, that in times beyond 
 which the annals of Italy do not reach, the 
 whole of that rich country, which now bears 
 ihe name of Lombardy, was possessed by the 
 ancient and powerful nation of the Tuscans ; 
 but that subsequently the numerous hordes 
 which Gaul poured successively over the Alps 
 into Italy, drove by degree the Tuscans from 
 these fertile plains, and at last confined them 
 within the narrow limits of Etruria. The 
 Gauls, having securely established themselves 
 in their new possessions, proceeded to make 
 further inroads into various parts of Italy, and 
 thus came into contact with the forces of Rome. 
 More than two hundred years had elapsed from 
 the time of their first invasion, when they total- 
 ly defeated the Roman army on the banks of 
 the Allia, and became masters of Rome itself 
 The defence of the Capitol, and the exploits of 
 Camillus, or rather, if Polybius be correct, the 
 gold of the vanquished, and dangers which 
 threatened the Gauls at home, preserved the 
 state. From that time, the Gauls, though they 
 continued by frequent incursions to threaten 
 and even to ravage the territory of Rome, could 
 make no impression on that power. Though 
 leagued with the Samnites and Etruscans, they 
 were almost always unsuccessful. Defeated at 
 Sentinum in Umbria ; near the lake Vadimon 
 in Etruria; and in a still more decisive action 
 near the port of Telamo in the same province, 
 they soon found themselves forced to contend 
 Part l.~a 
 
 not for conquest, but for existence. The same 
 ill success, however, attended their efforts in 
 their own territory. The progress of the Ro- 
 man arms was irresistible •, ttie Gauls were beat- 
 en back from the Adriatic to the Po, from the 
 Po to the Alps, and soon beheld Roman colo- 
 nies established and flourishing in many of the 
 towns which had so lately been theirs. Not- 
 withstanding these successive disasters, their 
 spirit, though curbed, was still unsubdued ; and 
 when the enterprise of Hannibal afforded them 
 "an opportunity of retrieving their losses, and 
 wreaking their vengeance on the foe, they ea- 
 gerly embraced it. It is to their zealous co-ope- 
 ration that Polybius ascribes in a great degree 
 the primary success of that expedition. By the 
 eificient aid which they afforded Hannibal, he 
 was enabled to commence operations immedi- 
 ately after he had set foot in Italy, and to follow- 
 up his early success with promptitude and vi- 
 gour. As long as that great commander main- 
 tained his ground, and gave employment to all 
 the forces of the enemy, the Gauls remained 
 unmolested, and enjoyed their former freedom, 
 without being much burdened by a war which 
 was waged at a considerable distance from 
 their borders. But when the tide of success 
 had again changed in favour of Rome, and the 
 defeat of Asdrubal, together with other disas- 
 ters, had paralysed the efforts of Carthage, they 
 once more saw their frontiers menaced ; Gaul 
 still offered some resistance even after that hum- 
 bled power had been obliged to sue for peace ; 
 but it was weak and unavailing; and about 
 twelvfe years after the termination of the second 
 Punic war, it was brought under entire subjec- 
 tion, and became a Roman province. Under 
 this denomination it continaedto receive various 
 accessions of territory, as the Romans extend- 
 ed their dominion towards the Alps, till it com- 
 prised the whole of that portion of Italy which 
 lies between those mountains and the rivers 
 Macra and Rubicon. It was sometimes known 
 by the name of Gallia Togata, to distinguish it 
 from Transalpine Gaul, to which the name of 
 Gallia Comata was applied. Another frequent 
 distinction is that of Ulterior and Citerior. Ac- 
 cording to Polybius, the whole of the country 
 which the Gauls held was included in the figure 
 of a triangle, which had the Alps and Appe- 
 nines for two of its sides, and the Adriatic, as 
 far as the city of Sena Gallica, Sinigaglia, for 
 the base. This is, however, but a rough sketch, 
 which requires a more accurate delineation. 
 The following limits will be found sufficiently 
 correct to answer every purpose. The river Or- 
 gus, Orca, will define the frontier of Cisalpine 
 Gaul to the north-west as far as its junction 
 with the Po, which river will then serve as a 
 boundary on the side of Liguria, till it receives 
 the Tidone on its right bank. Along this 
 small stream we may trace the western limit, 
 UT) to its source in the Appenines, and the 
 southern along that chain to the river Rubico, 
 Fiumesino, which falls into the Adriatic near 
 Rimini. To the north, a line drawn nearly 
 parallel with the Alps across the great Italian 
 lakes will serve to separate Gaul from Rhae- 
 tia and other Alpine districts. The Athesis, 
 Adise, from the point where it meets that line, 
 and subsequently the Po, will distinguish it 
 on the east and south from Venetia; and the 
 121 
 
GA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GA 
 
 Adriatic will close the last side of this irregu- 
 lar figure. The character which is given us of 
 this portion of Italy by the writers of antiqui- 
 ty is that of the most fertile and productive 
 country imaginable. Polybius describes it as 
 abounding in wine, corn, and every kind of 
 grain. Innumerable herds of swine, both for 
 public and private supply, were bred in its fo- 
 rests ; and such was the abundance of provisions 
 of every kind, that travellers when at an inn 
 did not find it necessary to agree on the price of 
 every article which they required, but paid so 
 much for the whole amount of what was furnish- 
 ed them ; and this charge at the highest did not 
 exceed half a Roman as. As a proof of the 
 richness of the country, Strabo remarks, that it 
 surpassed all the rest of Italy in the number of 
 large and opulent towns which it contained. 
 The wool grown there was of the finest and 
 softest quality ; and so abundant was the supply 
 of wine, that the wooden vessels in which it was 
 commonly stowed were of the size of houses. 
 Lastly, Cicero styles it the flower of Italy, the 
 support of the empire of the Roman people, the 
 ornament of its dignity. The division of Cisal- 
 pine Gaul into Transpadana and Cispadana is 
 one which naturally suggests itself, and which it 
 will be found convenient to adopt in the descrip- 
 tion of that extensive province." The whole 
 of this country was distributed among Gallic 
 tribes, the principal of which, with their chief 
 cities, are as follows: Salassi; city, Augusta. 
 VrsBtoridi (Auoste) ; Orobii^Gomum, Bergamum 
 {Como and Bergamo) ; Cenomani, Cremona, 
 Brixia, Mantua (CrsmoTia Brescia, Mantoua) ; 
 Lingones, Forum Allieni, Ravenna {Ferrara 
 and Ravenna) ; Boii, Bononia, Faventia {Bo- 
 logna, and Faenza) ; Anamani, Parma {Par- 
 ma); Insubres,'M.edio\dinvim{Milan) ; Taurini, 
 Augusta T aurinorum ( Turin.) Chief rivers ; 
 Padus, with its tributaries, Ticinus, Addua, 
 Mincius, Tanarus, and Trebia. Cramer. 
 
 Gallicus Ager, was applied to the country 
 between Picenum and Ariminum, whence the 
 Galli Senones were banished, and which was 
 divided among the Roman citizens, Liv. 23, c. 
 14, 1. 39, c. 44.— Cic. Cat. 2.—Ccbs. Civ. 1, c. 
 
 29. Sinus, a part of the Mediterranean on 
 
 the coast of Gaul, now called the gulf of Ia/07is. 
 
 Gallinaria sylva, a wood near Cumse in 
 Italy, famous as being the retreat of robbers. 
 It furnished the fleet with which Sextus Pom- 
 pey afterwards infested the Mediterranean. It 
 is now called Pineta di Castel Vulturno. Cram. 
 —Juv. 3, V. 307. 
 
 Gallipolis, a fortified town of the Salen- 
 tines, on the Ionian Sea. 
 
 Gallogr^cia. Vid. Galatia, 
 
 Gangarid^, a people near the mouths of the 
 Ganges. They were so powerful that Alexan- 
 der did not dare to attack them. Some attribu- 
 ted this to the weariness and indolence of his 
 troops. They were placed by Valer. Flaccus 
 among the deserts of Scythia. Justin. 12, c. 8. 
 —Curt.. 9, c. 'H.— Virg. jEn. 3, v. 21.—Flacc. 
 6, V. 67. 
 
 Ganges, a large river of India, which emp- 
 ties into the Gangeticus Sinus, Bay of Bengal, 
 and which was but little knovm to antiquity. 
 " The upper part of its course, to the point where 
 it changes from Scythian to Indian, by opening 
 a passage through a chain of mountains, was 
 122 
 
 not known in geography till our days." (Z)'ilw- 
 ville.) " The Ganges is called by the Hindoos. 
 Padde, and Boor a Gonga^ or " the river," by 
 way of eminence. This mighty river was long 
 supposed to have its origin on the north side of 
 the Himalah mountains, till the fact came to be 
 doubted by Mr. Colebrook; in consequence of 
 which Lieut. Webb being sent in 1808 by the 
 Bengal government to explore its sources, ascer- 
 tained that all the different streams above Hurd- 
 war, which form the Ganges, rise on tlie south 
 side of the snowy mountains. At some places 
 above the confluence with the Jumna, the Gan- 
 ges is fordable ; but its navigation is never in- 
 terrupted. At a distance of 500 miles from the 
 sea, the channel is thirty feet deep when the 
 river is at its lowest. This depth it retains all 
 the way to the sea, where, however, the settling 
 of sand, by the neutralization of the current, 
 from the meeting of the tide with the stream 
 of the river, produces bars and shallows which 
 prevent the entrance of large vessels. The 
 accessions which the Ganges receives in the 
 spring by the melting of the mountain snow are 
 not considerable. At any great distance from 
 the sources, as at Patna, any cause affecting 
 these sources produces little comparative effect. 
 About 200 miles from the sea, the Deltu of the 
 Ganges commences by the dividing of the river. 
 Two branches, the Cossimhazar and the Jel- 
 linghy, are given off to the west. These unite 
 to form the Hoogly, or Bhagirathy, on which 
 the port of Calcutta is situated. It is the only 
 branch commonly navigated by ships, and in 
 some years it is not navigable for two or three 
 months. The only secondary branch which is 
 at all times navigable for boats, is the Chandah 
 river. That part of the Delta which borders 
 on the sea is composed of a labyrinth of creeks 
 and rivers called the Sunderbunds, with nume- 
 rous islands, covered with the profuse and rank 
 vegetation called jungle, affording haunts to nu- 
 merous tigers. These branches occupy an ex- 
 tent of 200 miles along the shore. The Gan- 
 ges is calculated to discharge in the dry season 
 80,000 cubic feet of water in a second ; and, as 
 its water has double the volume when at its 
 height, and moves with a greater velocity in 
 the proportion of five to three, it must at that 
 time discharge 405,000 cubic feet. The ave- 
 rage for the whole year is reckoned 180,000. 
 That line of the Ganges which lies between 
 Gangootre, or the source of the leading stream, 
 and Sag or islduudi, below Calcutta, is held parti- 
 cularly sacred. The main body, which goes 
 east to join the Brahmapootra, is not regarded 
 with equal veneration. Certain parts of the 
 line now mentioned are esteemed more sacred 
 than the rest, and are the resort of numerous 
 pilgrims from great distances to perform their 
 ablutions, and take up the water to be employed 
 in their ceremonies. Wherever the river hap- 
 pens to run from north to south, contrary to its 
 general direction, it is considered as peculiarly 
 holy. The places most superstitiously revered 
 are the junctions of rivers, called Prayags, the 
 principal of which is that of the Jumna with 
 the Ganges at Allaliahad. The others are situ- 
 ated among the mountains. Hurdwar, where 
 the river escapes from the mountains, and Sagor 
 island, at the mouth of the Hoogly, are also sa- 
 cred. The water of the Ganges is esteemed 
 
OK 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GE 
 
 for its medicinal virtues, and on that account 
 drunk by Mahometans as well as Hindoos. In 
 the British courts of justice, the water of the 
 Ganges is used for swearing Hindoos, as the 
 Koran is for Mahometans and the gospels for 
 Christians. The waters of the Ganges are aug- 
 mented by many successive tributaries, some of 
 which are very large rivers. On its right bank 
 it receives the Jumna, which has a previous 
 course of 780 miles from the lower range of Hi- 
 malah between the Sutledge and the Ganges, 
 and falls into the latter at the fortress of Alla- 
 habad. It is said to receive at the same point a 
 rivulet under ground, on which account the 
 junction is called, according to Tiefenthaler, 
 TVebeni, or the confluence of three rivers. The 
 Gogra, after forming the eastern boundary of 
 the British district of Kemaoon, which it sepa- 
 rates from the Goorkha territory, passes near 
 Fizabad, and joins the Ganges in Berar, where 
 it is called Dewa, being one of the longest tribu- 
 taries which the Ganges receives. Malte-Brun. 
 
 Garamantes, (sing. Garamas.^ a people in 
 the interior parts of Africa. " Major Rennel 
 and the learned Larcher consider Fezzan as the 
 ancient country of the Garamantes; a point 
 still, however, very doubtful." The name of 
 the modern town Germ/ih resembles that of the 
 ancient Garama. Malte-Brun. — Virg. jEn. 4, 
 V. 198, 1. 6, V. l^b.—Uican. 4, v. ^U.—Strab. 2. 
 —Plin. 5, c. S.—Sil. It. 1, v. 142, 1. 11, v. 181. 
 
 Garganus mons, now St. Angela, a lofty 
 mountain of Apulia, which advances in the 
 form of a promontory into the Adriatic Sea. 
 The promontory is now called Punta di Viesti, 
 and extends between the bays of Rodi and Man- 
 fredonia. One of the summits of this hill was 
 called Drium, from which there issued a stream 
 whose waters were of peculiar virtue in healing 
 the disorders of cattle. Horace, Lucan, and 
 Silius Italicus, have celebrated this spot in their 
 verses. Virg. jEn. 11, v. 257. — Laican. 5, v, 
 880. 
 
 Gargaphia, a valley near Platsea, with a foun- 
 tain of the same name, where Actgeon was torn 
 to pieces by his dogs. Ovid. Met. 3, v. 156. 
 
 Gargarus, (plur. a, orum,) a town and moun- 
 tain of Troas, near mount Ida, famous for its 
 fertility. Virg. G. 1, v. 103.— Macrob. 5, c. 20. 
 —Strab. IZ.—Plin. 5, c. 30. 
 
 Garumna, a river of Gaul, now called Ga- 
 ronne, rising in the Pyrenean mountains, and 
 separating Gallia Celtica from Aquitania. It 
 falls into the Bay of Biscay, and has, by the per- 
 severing labours of Lewis 14th, a communica- 
 tion with the Mediterranean by the canal of 
 Languedoc, carried upwards of 100 miles 
 through hills and over valleys. Mela, 3, c. 2. 
 According to the early division of the Gallic 
 provinces, when Aquitania was extended to the 
 Liger, this river formed the northern boundary 
 of Novem Populana. In its course it watered 
 the regions of the Garumni, who dwelt near 
 its source, the Nitisbriges, the Bituriges, the 
 Vibisci, and the Santones who occupied the 
 lands from its mouth. This river, the third of 
 the purely Gallic streams in magnitude and im- 
 portance that empty into the ocean, received the 
 tributary waters of almost all the many rivers 
 and rivulets that drain the provinces of Guienne, 
 Gascony, and Langicedoc. Below the mouth of 
 the Dordogne, which discharges itself into the 
 
 Garonne, 3. little to the north-west of Bour- 
 deaux, this river expands itself, and assmnes 
 the appearance of a bay. Here the name of 
 Garonne is exchanged for that of Gironde, 
 which is used to designate the present depart- 
 ment on its southern bank. The canal royal 
 connects the waters of the Garonne with the 
 Mediterranean, uniting with that river above 
 its junction with the Tarn, near the city of Toiu- 
 louse, and passing through the departments of 
 Upper Garonne, Aude, and Herault, the former 
 'Languedoc. 
 
 Gaugamela, a village near Arbela, beyond 
 the Tigris, and between that river, the Buma- 
 dus, and the Zabus, where Alexander obtained 
 his second victory over Darius. Curt. 4, c. 9. 
 —Strab. 2 and 16. 
 
 Gaulus and Gauleon, I. an island in the 
 Mediterranean Sea. It was contiguous and 
 belonged to Melita {Malta), and is now called 
 
 Goso. II. Another, on the coast of Crete 
 
 towards Libya, called also Goso in modem geo- 
 graphy. 
 
 Gaurus, a m.ouiitain of Campania, famous for 
 its wines. Lnican. 2, v. 667. — Sil. 12, v. 160. — 
 Stat. 3, Sylv. 5, v. 99. 
 
 Gaza, a town of Palestine upon the south, 
 and towards the borders of Egypt. It was near 
 the coast between Ascalon and Raphia, and, 
 though destroyed by Alexander, it still occupies 
 its former site, and holds its former name, hav- 
 ing been rebuilt after its demolition. This was 
 a prmcipal town of the Philistines, the gigantic 
 offspring of Anak, and was never subdued by 
 the Jews, who waged such unrelenting wars 
 with that people, till the time of the Maccabees, 
 According to Mela, the origin of this name, 
 which was a Persian word signifying ^rras7^res, 
 was derived from the circumstance of its being 
 made the depository of a part of his treasures by 
 Cambyses, the Persian king. Vossius, in his 
 commentary upon the Latin geographer, suffi- 
 ciently establishes, on the contrary, the Hebrew 
 origin of that name. " The port," according to 
 D'Anville,"formed a town at some distance, 
 and a small stream runs a little beyond it." 
 Mela, 1, 11. — Voss. ad Pomp. Mel. 
 
 Gedrosia, a province of Persia, on the Ery- 
 threan or Arabian Sea. Its northern boundary 
 was formed by the Boetius mons, which sepa- 
 rated it from Arachosia ; the Arbiti montes lay 
 between it and the nearer India ; while on the 
 west, its deserts were prolonged in those of Car- 
 mania. A few rivers on the coast discharged 
 their feeble waters into the ocean ; but towards 
 the mountains, the desert and the desert sands 
 disputed the empire of man. The armies of 
 Semiramis and Cyrus were unable to contend 
 with the inhospitaiity of these barren and burn- 
 ing regions ; and that of Alexander, on its re- 
 turn from India through the same steril tract, 
 lost more than all its battles or its victories 
 had cost or gained. The inhabitants who 
 dwelt by the sea-side, were Ichthyophagi ; and 
 the produce of the waves afforded them at once 
 clothing and food. The modern name of the 
 country is Mekran, and Pura, the ancient capi- 
 tal towards the borders of Carmania, is the mo- 
 dern Foreg or Purg. Am. — Strab. 
 
 Gela, a town on the southern parts of Sici- 
 ly, about 10 miles from the sea, which received 
 its name from the Gelas. It was built by a 
 123 
 
GE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GE 
 
 Rhodian and Cretan colony, 713 years before 
 the Christian era. After it had continued in ex- 
 istence 404 years, Phintias, tyrant of Agrigen- 
 tum, carried the inhabitants to Phintias, a town 
 in the neighbourhood, which he had founded, 
 and he employed the stones of Gela to beautify 
 his own city. Phintias was also called Gela. 
 The inhabitants were called Gelensis, Geloi, 
 and Gelard. Virg. uE7b. 3, v. 702. — Paus. 3, 
 c. 46. 
 
 Gelones, and Geloni, a people of Scythia, 
 inured from their youth to labour and fatigue. 
 They painted themselves to appear more terri- 
 ble in battle. They were descended from Ge- 
 lonus, a son of Hercules. Virg. G. 2, v. 15. — 
 jE,n. 8, V. 725. — Mela, 1, c. 1. — Claudian inRuf. 
 1, V. 315. 
 
 Gemoni^, a place at Rome where the car- 
 cases of criminals were thrown. Suet. Tib. 
 53 and 61.— Tacit. Hist. 3, c. 74. 
 
 Genabum, a town of Celtic Gaul, upon the 
 Liger, belonging to the Carnutes, Its modern 
 name of Orleans it derived from the name of 
 an ancient people the Aureliani. Cess. B. C. 
 7, 3. — lAtcan. 1, 440. 
 
 Geneva, an ancient, populous, and well-for- 
 tified city, in the country of the Allobroges on 
 the Rhone, as it passes from the Lacus Lema- 
 nus, now Lake of Geneva, to form the boundary 
 between France and Savoy. This town, of some 
 repute and importance in the days of Caesar, 
 was held by the Allobroges, on the borders of 
 the Helvetii, the progenitors of the Swiss. It 
 now belongs to the latter people, giving name 
 to a very large canton. 
 
 Genua, now Genoa, a celebrated tovim of Li- 
 guria. The earliest accounts of this city, which 
 does not appear to have been a very important 
 place in the early ages of Roman history, repre- 
 sent it as taking part with the Romans in the 
 first Punic war, and as suffering the penalty of 
 its adherence, being burnt to the ground by 
 Mago, the Carthaginian general. It was rebuilt 
 by the Romans, and continued, as the capital of 
 Liguria, one of the 11 regions into which Au- 
 gustus portioned Italy, to belong to them till the 
 overthrow of their empire. About the year 600 
 of our era, Genua was again laid waste, the 
 Lombards, under their king Alboinus, having 
 taken and pillaged it. The present town was 
 built by Charlemagne, and rapidly increased in 
 ambition and power. As an independent com- 
 monwealth, it was at one time mistress of the 
 greater part of the surrounding country of Ligu- 
 ria, and of the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, 
 the Baleares, a part of Tuscany, and even the 
 distant Constantinopolitan suburb of Pera. Its 
 wars with Pisa and Venice, and the facilities 
 which these and other internal dissentions of the 
 Italians gave to foreign powers, deprived Genoa, 
 first of her liberty, then of her independence, 
 and lastly of her political existence. Liv. 21, 
 c. 32, 1. 28, c. 46, 1. 30, c. 1. 
 
 Genusus, now Semno, a river of Macedonia, 
 falling into the Adriatic above Apollonia. Z/w- 
 can. 5, V. 462. 
 
 Geraneia. The loftiest summit of the Onaei 
 montes, which extended south from the Cithae- 
 ron mons across the territory of Megaris, was 
 called Geraneia, and was said to afford the only 
 passage through its defiles from the north of 
 Greece to the Peloponnesus. It was fortified in 
 124 
 
 such a manner as to render it almost imprac- 
 ticable. The modern name of this pEiss is Der- 
 beni-vouni, and it continues to be the avenue for 
 travellers into the Morea. Thucyd. 
 
 Germania. The geographical description of 
 Germany for any given era or age, will suffice 
 for that age or that era alone ; and the Germa- 
 ny of Tacitus is not the Germany of any other 
 Roman geographer. In order, therefore, that 
 the student may not be rather misled than in- 
 structed in our account of this country, it will 
 be necessary to consider it in various sections, 
 as represented in one age by Caesar, in another 
 by Strabo, in a third by Pliny ; and lastly, to 
 compare all these with the relations of the most 
 approved among modern geographers. A se- 
 cond division, applicable more particularly to the 
 moral and ethnographical description of Germa- 
 ny, will require that the period anterior to the 
 Roman occupation, that, during which the con- 
 quering legions of the emperors established their 
 name and precarious authority beyond the Rhine, 
 and that which is generally designated as the 
 dark or middle ages, be carefully separated and 
 distinguished. Before attempting the compli- 
 cated relation of the various divisions, both in 
 regard to time and place, the various people and 
 the infinite geographical changes, we may ob- 
 serve, that the greatest extent of Germany was 
 from the Rhine to the Vistula, and from the Da- 
 nube to the Northern seas. This was Germany 
 Proper, or the Greater Germany, called also 
 Transrhenana, to distinguish it from the pro- 
 vince of Belgic Gaul west of the Rhine, which, 
 from the access of German tribes, and the pre- 
 valence of German manners, &c., was called 
 also Germany. This smaller province of that 
 name was considered as altogether distinct from 
 the country called from one of its tribes Germa- 
 ny, and included in the above-defined bounda- 
 ries ; and all that region which is now called 
 Germany, south of the Danube, is to be omit- 
 ted in the account of Germania Antiqua, of 
 which it was not considered a part. Of the na- 
 tural divisions of Germany formed by her moun- 
 tains and rivers, the ancients have transmitted 
 but confused accounts, demonstrating nothing 
 more fully than the ignorance of their authors. 
 Concerning the earliest inhabitants of Germa- 
 ny, it is easy to form plausible theories ; and not 
 a doubt remains that the first people of this vast 
 region were Celts, who migrated long before the 
 dawn of history from the regions of the Palus 
 Maeotis towards the farthest west. ( Vid. Celta.) 
 So far the Gauls and Germans had one origin, 
 and so far they were one people ; but the Ger- 
 mans of this race had long been superseded by 
 the Teutonic tribes that in the ages of the Ro- 
 man dominion occupied the country north of the 
 Danube, and who were justly considered to be 
 a separate people. In order to produce some- 
 thinglike a regular succession in the account of 
 the various settlements which we shall have to 
 detail, we shall follow the progress of the early 
 tribes that successively established themselves 
 in Germany. The first branch from the Ta- 
 nais and the Palus MsRotis appear to have fol- 
 lowed the shores of the Baltic and the German 
 seas ; a second population, crossing the Vistula 
 and the Oder, fixed themselves for a period be- 
 tween the latter river and the Elbe, in the coun- 
 try now forming a large part of the kingdom of 
 
GE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GE 
 
 Prussia. These were the Suevic family, which 
 afterwards became and long continued the chief 
 hive of the German migratory tribes. An early 
 detachment that first crossed the Elbe and jour- 
 neyed towards the borders of the Rhine, were 
 the Semnones, supposed in antiquity the noblest 
 of the Suevic race. To these succeeded the 
 Casti, and the other people living towards the 
 Rhine, from whence the Batavi and all the 
 greater part of the inhabitants of Lower Ger- 
 many. At the same time the Danish peninsula, 
 then the Cimbric Chersonese from the name 
 of its inhabitants, was peopled by races of men 
 called Cimbri and Teutones; while the still 
 more northern regions, by the gulfs of Finland 
 and Bothnia, were held by the last of the Ger- 
 manic people called Fenni or Finni, by some 
 authors considered of Sarmatian, and not of 
 Scythian or Germanic origin. Among innu- 
 merable tribes of these people, all the country 
 of ancient Germany was disiributed in such a 
 manner as to make it almost impossible to de- 
 fine their settlements, more particularly as 
 these were subject to continual change. With- 
 out attempting this, we shall pass to the differ- 
 ent accounts and descriptions of Germany 
 according to the most authentic writers of an- 
 tiquity. The first among these, in point of 
 time and authority, is Caesar in his Commenta- 
 ries, in which we are only to understand the 
 territory of the Suevi. Of these people the 
 principal were the Semnones, between the 
 Warta and the Oder; the Longobardi, border- 
 ing upon the Semnones in the district of Bran- 
 d^nburg ; the Angli and Varini, who, with five 
 other tribes, formed one confederacy, and dwelt 
 between the 'Elbe and the Suevic ocean. The 
 Germania of Strabo, referring to the time of 
 Augustus or Tiberius, included only the comi- 
 try between the Rhine, the Dannie, and the 
 Elie ; which last river, according to that geo- 
 grapher, divided Germany into two parts, the 
 known and the unknown. The Germany of 
 Pomponius Mela extended but little beyond that 
 of Strabo. In the works of Pliny we find, how- 
 ever, all Sarmatia, nearly, included in the 
 limits of Germany ; but this was at no time, 
 politically considered, a recognised description. 
 He divides all Germany between the Istevones, 
 from the Rhine to the Elbe, and from the ocean 
 to the springs of the Danube ; the Erminones, 
 between the Danube and Vindilia ; the Vindili 
 along the Baltic and the Cimbric Chersonese ; 
 the Ingerones in Scania and Finningia; and 
 the Peucini to the east of all these people as far 
 as the Tanais and the Palus Mgeotis. The va- 
 rious emigrations of the Suevic tribes, with par- 
 ticular names which they imparted to the coun- 
 tries in which they took up their abodes, soon 
 reduced the name of Suevia to signify merely 
 the country between the Elbe and the Vistula. 
 It might be possible to give a catalogue of all 
 the subdivisions of the two races of Cimbri and 
 Suevi, the great division of the Teutonic or 
 German family, but such a list would occupy 
 too large a space ; and, though of great value in 
 tracing the origin of nations, would not be re- 
 quired to illustrate the writings of antiquity. 
 For that purpose we must examine particularly 
 the Germania Romana. The first conflict of the 
 Romans with the people from beyond the Rhine, 
 when Marius is reported to have made a tremen- 
 
 dous slaughter of the united Cimbri and Teu- 
 tones, was B. C. 114. The seats abandoned by 
 these people were immediately occupied by the 
 Suevi, who already began to extend themselves 
 towards the west. For a long time no interfer- 
 ence of the Germans with the Roman provinces 
 gave them a place in Roman history, and we 
 know little of their state. The conquests of 
 Caesar, and the defeat of A riovistus. in no respect 
 altered the common limits of Germany and the 
 empire, though they repressed the advances of 
 the Suevi, who had been urging forward towards 
 the borders of the Rhine. The regions of Au- 
 gustus and Tiberius saw the reduction of Ger- 
 many to the form of a province ; divided, for the 
 most part, among difierent people, as follows : 
 the country between the Danube and the Rhine, 
 as far as the Mayne, comprising the circle of 
 Suabia, or the Grand Duchy, of Baden and the 
 kingdom of Wirtemburg, was occupied by the 
 Allemani and Marcomanni, of Suevic origin, 
 but earl}'- separated and distinguished by their 
 proper name. North of these, along the margin 
 of the Rhine, were the Teucteri, the Usipii, and 
 the Marsaci ; extending east towards the Ems, 
 were found the Frisii, the Bructeri, the Batavi, 
 the Chamavi, the Marsii, and the Sicambri, all 
 included in the nation of the Istaevones, occu- 
 pying the modern kingdom of Holland and the 
 Grand Duchies of the Lower Rhine and Hesse 
 Darmstadt. Still farther east the Chauci oc- 
 cupied the region lying between the Ems and 
 the Elbe, towards the mouths of those rivers or 
 the kingdom of Hanover. Between the same 
 rivers, but nearer to their rise, the Cherusci and 
 Catti, possessed the countr}'- now divided among 
 the petty states of central Germany. From the 
 Elbe to the Oder, the Suevi, divided into many 
 tribes, of which the Longobardi were the prin- 
 cipal, held that which afterwards received the 
 name oi Saxony, being themselves no longer the 
 great parent stock of all the German races. 
 " The entrance of the Cimbrian Chersonese, or 
 that which corresponds with modern Holstein, 
 contained two nations highly illustrious in their 
 progress; on one side the Angli, on the other 
 the Saxones. These last were bounded in their 
 primitive state by the issue of the Elbe." The 
 Burgundiones, Guthones, Semnones, and Lon- 
 gobardi, were fixed in those parts which is now 
 formed into Brandenburg. The people of that 
 part of Germania which is now called Pomera.- 
 nia, were Goths, Rugii, and Herules. Bohemia 
 was occupied by the Boii, and the Cluadi were 
 settled in Moravia. During the vicissitudes of 
 the Roman empire which preceded and led to 
 its fall, such was, for the most part, the distribu- 
 tion of the countries of Germany. In the latter 
 days of this exhausted power, new names, if not 
 new people, began to figure in Germany, which 
 loses the name for so long a time distinguishing 
 it. The Franks, a league of all the principal 
 German tribes known as the Chauci, Catti, Bruc- 
 teri, &c. united with the Saxons of the Cher- 
 sonese, and, pushing across the barriers of the 
 Rhine, began to seek for settlements among the 
 more civilized people of the Roman provinces. 
 Gaul, Hispania, and even the shores of Africa, 
 became the prey of these barbarians. Yet these 
 were not the most formidable enemies that Ger- 
 many sent forth in the weakness of the Roman 
 power to revensre the wrongs and injuries that it 
 125 
 
GE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GL 
 
 had sustained from it in the days of its prosperi- 
 ty and strength. The Lombards, expelled from 
 their seats by yet more savage tribes, advanced 
 towards the empire ; and while a Lombard na- 
 tion was established in Italy, so much of Ger- 
 many as had been held by them before now took 
 the name of the Vandili. The same people 
 spread themselves over Pomerania, when the 
 more ancient inhabitants, the Goths and Heruli, 
 passed also to the invasion of the empire. From 
 the northern regions (now Meckle^iburg,) the 
 Vandals, in formidable numbers, threatened the 
 defenceless provinces that had vainly trusted to 
 the name and protection of the Roman arms ; 
 and their comitry, thus abandoned, was soon 
 occupied by the Vendili or Wends, who were 
 preparing a powerful empire in the north. Such 
 were the changes that were altering the political 
 geography of Germany while the Franks were 
 engaged in the subjugation of Gaul and the 
 establishment of a German empire upon the 
 Roman side of the Rhme, now no longer a pro- 
 tection against the inroads of the barbarians. 
 ( Vid. Franci.) The manners of the Germans 
 were various, according to the tribe and the 
 times ; they were, however, all a warlike people, 
 and distinguished alike for the virtues and the 
 blemishes of uncivilized life. Their religion the 
 Romans endeavoured to interpret according to 
 the notions of their own mythology ; but very 
 little resemblance existed, in fact, between the 
 rude worship of Germany and the refined reli- 
 gion of Rome. In the middle ages the worship 
 of Odin prevailed, and of this religion were 
 those barbarians who established the Saxon do- 
 minion in Britain. In the cosmography of Hey- 
 lin we find the following remarks upon the ori- 
 gin of the name: "Germany was thus called 
 first by the Romans, (as some conceive,) who, 
 seeing the people both in customs, speech, and 
 course of life, so like those of Gallia, called them 
 brothers to the Gauls. And of this mind is 
 Strabo, who, speaking of the great resemblance 
 which v/as between those nations, concludes that 
 the Romans did, with very good reason, call 
 them Germans ; intending to signify that they 
 were brethren of the Gauls. But this is to be 
 understood of those people only which dwelt 
 next to Gaul, it being very well observed by Ta- 
 citus, that Germany was at first nationis non 
 gentis novien, the name of some nations only 
 and not of all the country. Others will have the 
 name to be merely Dutch, deriving it fromGer, 
 which signified all ; and the word man signi- 
 fying in that language as in ours." Bochart 
 refers the name also to Ger, which he derives 
 from the ancient Gallic, signifying guerre, or 
 war, and supposes that this name of warrior 
 was given to them by the Gauls. The princi- 
 pal rivers of ancient Germany, between its 
 three great boundaries, the Danubius, the Rhe- 
 nus, and the Vistula, were the Amisia, Ems, 
 which passed through the country of the Fran- 
 cic league; the Visurgis, (or Weser,) which 
 arose in the country of the Cherusci, and, to- 
 wards its mouth, divided the Chauci into the 
 Greater and the Less; and the Albis, Elbe, di- 
 viding the Suevi from the people of Cimbric 
 or Cimbro-Saxon origin, and emptying on the 
 western side of the Cimbric Chersonese. All 
 these rivers flowed into the northern ocean. 
 East of the Albis, the Viadrus, Oder, after 
 126 
 
 draining in several branches the Suevic coun» 
 tries, poured its waters into the Sinus Codanus, 
 now Baltic Sea. Of all these rivers, the 
 chief tributaries were the Menus, Mayne, be- 
 longing to the Rhine, into which it flows near 
 Meritz ; the Lupia, Lippe, which discharges 
 itself into the same river farther north; and 
 the Sala, which belongs to Thuringia, and 
 empties into the Elbe. A striking feature in 
 the geography of Germany is the mountains, 
 which, in antiquity, under the name of Hercy- 
 nian, and, in modern times, with the appellation 
 of the Hartz, extend with the woods of the same 
 name. over the greater part of the south-west of 
 Germany. Vid. Hercynii Monies. 
 
 Gerra, a town of Arabia, " on a little 'gulf, 
 making a creek of the Sinus Persicus. A city 
 enriched by the commerce of the perfumes 
 brought from the Sabaean country, sent up the 
 Euphrates to Thapsacus and across the desert 
 to Petra, The city, for the construction of 
 whose houses and ramparts stones of salt were 
 used, appears to be represented by that now 
 named el Katif." D'Anville. 
 
 Gerrh^, a people of Scythia,inwhose coun- 
 try the Borysthenes rises. The kings of Scy- 
 thia were generally buried in their territories. 
 Herodot. 4, c. 71. 
 
 Gerus, and Gerrhus, a river of Scythia. Id. 
 4, c. 56. 
 
 Geronthr.5;, a town of Laconia, where a 
 yearly festival, called Geronthraa, was observed 
 in honour of Mars. Pans. Lacon. This town 
 belonged to the Eleutherolacones, and was of 
 great antiquity. 
 
 Gerunium, a fortified place in Apulia, on the 
 borders of the Frentani, a few miles from Luce- 
 ria upon the north. It suffered greatly in the 
 wars of Hannibal, being laid waste by that ge- 
 neral after his campaign against the temporizing 
 Fabius. The Carthaginians wintered within 
 its walls, and converted its public buildings into 
 store-houses for provisions, &c. Polyb. — Liv. 
 22, 18. 
 
 Gessoriacum, the name of Boulogne before 
 it assumed that of Bononia, from which its mo- 
 dern appellation is derived. 
 
 Get^, a people of European Scythia, near 
 the Daci. Ovid, who was banished in their 
 country, describes them as a savage and warlike 
 nation. The word Geticus is frequently used 
 for Thracian. Ovid, de Pont. T^rist. 5, el. 7, 
 v. 111.— Strab. 1 .—Stat. 2. Sylv. 2, v. 61, 1. 
 3, s. 1, V. 17. — lAican.2, v. 54, 1. 3, v. 95. 
 Though the Getse were unquestionably Goths, 
 and though the whole extensive people who, as 
 Gotthi, or under analogous names, invaded the 
 Empire, were also designated sometimes by the 
 term Getse, yet, in the more limited application 
 of the name, the latter were only the inhabi- 
 tants of the more eastern parts of Dacia between 
 the Danubius and the Danaster. 
 
 Getulia, Vid. Gceiulia. 
 
 Glaucus sinus, " a gulf which confines Ly- 
 ciaon the side of Caria,"nowthe Gulf of Maori. 
 At the head of this bay stood the ancient town of 
 Telmissus, the modern Mzcri, whence the name 
 Telmissus, often applied to the Sinus. D'Anville, 
 
 Glissas, a town of Bceotia, mentioned by 
 Homer. It was situated on the borders of the 
 Aonius Campus, on mount Hypatus. 
 
 Glota, the ancient name of the Clyde. 
 
GO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GO 
 
 Glyppia. " This is apparently the fortress 
 called by Polybius Glympes, and which he de- 
 scribes as being in the northern part of Laco- 
 nia, on the Argive frontier. It has been suc- 
 ceeded by the little town of Cosmopolis, which 
 is also the name of a district of modem Laco- 
 nia." Cram. — Polyb. 4. 
 
 Gnatia. Vid. Egnatia. 
 
 Gnossus, a famous city of Crete, the resi- 
 dence of king Minos. This city was situated 
 on the small river Caeratus, now Carter o, which 
 IS said to have been the first name of this town. 
 It derived its early importance and splendour 
 from king Minos, who made it the capital of 
 his kingdom; and it is celebrated in the le- 
 gends of fable for the famous labyrinth of Daeda- 
 lus, which contained the Minotaur said to have 
 Deen in its neighbourhood. Long Candia is the 
 modern name applied to the site of the ancient 
 Gnossus. Strab, 10,476.— 7Z. Z. 490— Cmm. 
 
 GoMPm, a town in Thessaly, situated on the 
 Peneus, was a place of great strength and im- 
 portance, as commanding the passes from Epi- 
 rus into Thessaly. Its modern name is Sta- 
 gous, according to Meletius ; but Pouqueville 
 makes it Cleisoura. Cram. 
 
 GoNNi, and Gonocondylos, a town of Thes- 
 saly at the entrance iuto Tempe. Liv. 36, c. 
 10, 1. 43, c. 54.—Strab. 4. 
 
 G0RDI.E1, mountains in Armenia, where the 
 Tigris rises, supposed to be the Ararat of scrip- 
 ture. 
 
 GoRDiuM, a town of Phrygia, in that part 
 which was afterwards called Galatia, on the 
 Sangarius. duiutus Curtius places it at equal 
 distance from the Euxine and Cilician seas ; 
 but his account is not to be followed. D An- 
 ville accords with Ptolemy, and assigns as the 
 site of this city a spot removed from the southern 
 coast about eighty leagues, and from the north- 
 ern only twent)'-five. In the reigns of Gordius, 
 from whom it took its name, and of his succes- 
 sor Midas, Gordium was the capital of Phry- 
 gia ; and the events which signalized the era of 
 those princes, according to the poets, and to 
 those historians who followed their inventions, 
 have made the city among the most noted of 
 antiquity. {Vid. Gordius and Midas.) In 
 more historical years this city had lost all its 
 splendour and magnificence ; but, being rebuilt 
 by order of Augustus, it assumed the name of 
 Juliopolis, and for some time it was compara- 
 tively flourishing. In the time, however, of 
 Justinian, it again required the imperial patron- 
 age. It is not possible now to define with ac- 
 curacy its site. Justin. 11, c. 7. — Liv. 38, c. 
 18.— Curt. 3, c. 1. 
 
 GoRGO, the capital of the Euthalites, a tribe 
 of the Chorasmii. Its present name of Urg- 
 henz is the same, says DAnville, as the Cor- 
 cany of the eastern geographers. 
 
 GoRTYN, GoRTYs, and GoRTYNA, a principal 
 town in the island of Crete. As second in im- 
 portance and power to Cnossus, the chief town 
 on the island, Gortyna, ambitious of the high- 
 est place, was continually engaged in contests 
 with her rival. It was situated off the coast 
 of the Libyan Sea, on the river Lethe, about 
 nine miles, having at that distance Lebena and 
 Metallum, its ports. In antiquity Gortjma 
 might vie with any of the cities of Greece, its 
 traditionary founder having been Gortys, the 
 
 son of Tegeates, or, as the Cretar^s themselves 
 asserted, of Rhadamanihus. It was, however, 
 most probably, like the other cities of Greece 
 and Italy which bore the name of Gortyna, of 
 Pelasgic origin. Modern travellers have been 
 induced, from an examination of Gortyna's very 
 few remains, to fix there the celebrated Laby- 
 rinth ; but the proof is not sufliciently strong 
 against the concurrent evidence of all antiquity. 
 In the Peloponnesian war this city took part 
 against the Lacedaemonians. The site and 
 'ruins of this ancient town are now denominated 
 Metropoli. 
 
 GoRTYNiA, a town of Arcadia in Pelopoime- 
 sus. Paus. 8j c. 28. 
 
 GoTTHi. The most ancient records and tra- 
 ditions relating to the Goths, reler their first 
 settlement in Europe to Scandinavia, where 
 their name is extant still in that of the exten- 
 sive tract of country between Siceden Proper 
 and the kingdom of Noncay. This region, se- 
 parated by a narrow strait from the islands of 
 Denmark^ and opposite to Rugen and the coast 
 of Pomeraiiia on the narrowest part of the Bal- 
 tic, is called Gothland, and was most probably 
 the first established seats of the Gotthi in Eu- 
 rope. Originally one extensive nation, the 
 Gotthi and the Vandali, in the progress of years, 
 became divided, as a consequence of numbers 
 and of frequent migration. Each people, how- 
 ever upon this separation, appeared in subse- 
 quent history sufiicient for the conduct of the 
 most adventurous enterprises and the" subver- 
 sion of the best established empires. The 
 Goths themselves were subdivided into Ostro 
 Goths and Visi Goths, referring to their relative 
 geographical situation most probably, after the 
 passage of the Baltic Sea ; besides which were 
 the Gepidae, who also belonged, as may be ga- 
 thered from a comparison of manners and a 
 collation of records, to this division of the Scan- 
 dinavian horde. The Lombards, Burgundians, 
 and Herulians, are merely to be mentioned as 
 of Gothic blood •, in Europe they made them- 
 selves known as a distinct people, or connected 
 at most with the Vandalic stem. From the 
 shores of the Baltic the first migration of the 
 Goths conducted them through the savage region 
 that intervened, to the cotuitries lying on the 
 Euxine Sea. From this sea they next opened 
 themselves a passage to the southern branch of 
 the Borysthenes, supposed to be the Prypee of 
 the present day, their numbers increasing at 
 each march by the Venedi and Bastarnae, who 
 united with them in their devastations, allured 
 by their success or terrified by their irresistible 
 power. The province of Dacia, reduced but 
 not subdued by the arms of Trajan, offered lit- 
 tle resistance to the entrance of the Goths, now 
 fixed on its confines ; and through this unre- 
 sisting country, abandoning the Ukraine, they 
 passed, in the reign of the Roman emperor De- 
 cius, into the second Mopsia, a civilized province 
 and colony of the Empire. The events of this 
 war exaltedthe character of the Barbarians, and 
 struck a fatal blow to the vanity of Rome ; the 
 Goths advanced as far as Thrace, defeated the 
 emperor in person on their way, and secured an 
 introduction within the now defenceless limits 
 of the Empire at any future time. Their re- 
 moval, on this occasion, was only effected by the 
 pa\Tnent of tribute, which Rome, still boasting 
 127 
 
GO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GO 
 
 her empire over the world, was content to pay 
 lo an undisciplined and half-armed tribe of bar- 
 barians. Such was the result of the first de- 
 scent of the Goths upon the outposts of the Ro- 
 man dominion, A. D. 252. Diverted from the 
 western territory of the Empire, the Goths next 
 turned to the no less inviting regions of the east. 
 They seized on the Bosphorus, and, passing 
 over into Asia, they acquired an incalculable 
 booty, effecting the subjugation of all the coun- 
 try through which they passed, and which of- 
 fered scarcely a show of resistance to their 
 dreaded arms. This is recorded as the first 
 naval expedition of the Goths. A second suc- 
 ceeded, and a third, which brought these north- 
 ern barbarians before the Long Walls of Athens, 
 the once famous Piraeus. The whole of Greece 
 on the main land was ravaged in this descent of 
 the Goths, who pursued their way to the borders 
 of the sea, beyond which they could behold the 
 coasts of Italy, which had not yet been violated 
 by the foot of a barbarian. Here they paused 
 in their career of devastation and victory ; num- 
 bers were induced to submit to the authority of 
 the Roman empire, and incorporated with the 
 soldiers of the emperor. The rest returned, 
 with various fortune and adventures, to their 
 seats in the Ukrai7ie and on the borders of the 
 Euxine Sea. Innumerable wars succeeded the 
 period of this great expedition of the Goths, in 
 which the Romans were not always sufferers ; 
 yet the Gothic power steadily increased till the 
 appearance of an enemy as formidable as they 
 themselves had been when they first broke the 
 bounds of their native wilderness, who threat- 
 ened war and ruin no less to the half civilized 
 people who had preceded them in their march 
 towards the rich capital of the world, than to that 
 capital itself The kingdom of the Ostro Goths 
 then extended from the Baltic to the Euxine Sea, 
 and its throne was occupied by Hermanric, one 
 of their greatest princes, who ruled over an im- 
 mense number of tribes. The Visi Goths, at the 
 same time, occupied the banks of the Niester and 
 the German side of the Danubius. Before the 
 valour and ferocity of the Huns and Alani, these 
 once dreaded conquerors were either prostrated 
 or put to flight ; and the barbarians, who had 
 so often sent terror to the gates of Rome, now 
 begged its clemency, and sued to be taken under 
 its protection and received into the Empire, 
 The emperorValens was then upon the throne ; 
 and in his reign the Visi Goths were transport- 
 ed as tributaries and subjects within the an- 
 cient limits, which had not yet receded from the 
 Danube and the Rhine. Established in Moe- 
 sia, and for a time beyond the fear of the Sar- 
 matians, the Goths soon began to forget their 
 allegiance, and to desire, if not to enjoy, their 
 old independence. The next Gothic war was 
 conducted, therefore, within theboundaries over 
 which the Roman emperor pretended to rule ; 
 and the conflict was no longer for the integrity 
 of the empire, but for its existence. Huns, 
 Alani, Ostro Goths, and Visi Goths, united in 
 this war ; but the death of the Gothic leader, 
 and the accession of Theodosius in the east, 
 preserved yet a little longer the Empire and its 
 name. For some time after this, the principal 
 seats of the Gothic tribes were in Thrace and 
 on the coast of Asia Minor, in which, in some 
 measure,' they resided as the stipendiaries of the 
 128 
 
 emperor. The reigns of the successors of The- 
 odosius were coeval with the elevation of Alaric 
 to the throne of the Visi Goths ; and the wars 
 of that people were renewed with a spirit which 
 proved that they had not yet accustomed them- 
 selves to look upon the Romans as other than 
 their enemies, and that they considered them 
 still as legitimate a prey as when they first 
 broke into their empire from the regions of the 
 north. In the year 410 the city of Rome fell 
 into the hands of these long-aspiring warriors; 
 and all Italy, that had so long been the privi- 
 leged destroyer of nations, experienced the retri- 
 butive justice which had for ages been invoked 
 against her ambition. But no permanent em- 
 pire succeeded the occupation of the Goths, and 
 the death of Alaric terminated their sovereignty 
 in Italy. Very soon afterwards, however, they 
 obtained a less illustrious dominion in Gaul, in 
 which they occupied the whole of the 2d Aqui- 
 taine on the sea-coast from the Garomie to the 
 Loire. From this comparatively narrow terri- 
 tory, and which, moreover, they enjoyed but as 
 subjects of Rome, the Goths extended them- 
 selves over all the other southern parts of Gaul, 
 and crossing the Pyrenees, established a new 
 monarchy in Spain. We have thus tiaced 
 the progress of the Visi Goths to their final set- 
 tlement in that part of the Empire which they 
 were to hold as a permanent possession; they 
 here become the progenitors of the modern 
 Spaniards, and require no longer notice from 
 the historian of antiquity. The fortunes and 
 fate of the other races were not yet decided ; but 
 a branch of one of them, the Heruli, was des- 
 tined very soon afterwards to put an end to the 
 still remaining name and office of imperial 
 power, and to fix a Barbarian throne in the seat 
 of universal empire. The reign of Odoacer, 
 however, and his Heruli, can hardly be placed 
 to the account of the Goths, so long had that 
 branch been severed from the original stem. 
 When the Visi Goths became satisfied with the 
 possession ofHispania, another numerous horde, 
 the Ostro Goths, still roamed without dominion 
 equal to their courage and their wants. The 
 last years of the reign of Odoacer embroiled 
 him with the leader of those still craving ma- 
 rauders ; and the overthrow of the Heruli, and 
 of the first Barbarian empire in Italy, was suc- 
 ceeded by the reign of Theodoric and the do- 
 minion of the Ostro Goths, A. D. 493. About 
 60 years afterwards the eunuch Narses, at the 
 head of the forces of Justin emperor of the east, 
 put an end to the Gothic usurpation in Italy. 
 The above account is furnished by the accredit- 
 ed authority of history ; but another inquiry 
 concerning the origin of the Goths proceeds 
 upon other data, and innumerable theories sup- 
 ply the place of authenticated fact. Two only 
 seemdeservinghere ofparticular notice ; the first 
 involving the question, " were the Goths Scy- 
 thians T' and the second, that of their affinity 
 with the Germans. It seems, the better argu- 
 ments are brought to prove that, in the early 
 settlement of Europe, when a second migration 
 from the east impelled the Celtse beyond the 
 Danube and the Rhine, a division of the great 
 Teutonic horde occurred ; that a large portion 
 directed itself beyond the Sinus Codanus to- 
 wards the wild countries of the present Sweden 
 and Norway, while the rest proceeded towards 
 
GR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GR 
 
 the centre of Europe. These latter people were 
 the Germans ; the former were the Scandina- 
 vians, who, at a later period recrossed the golf 
 or sea, and, with the name of Goths, &c. pos- 
 sessed themselves of the abodes which the Ger- 
 mans, pressing on towards the limits of the em- 
 pire, were abandoning almost from day to day. 
 
 Gr.s:cia. " It is universally acknowledged 
 that the name of Hellas, which afterwards serv- 
 ed to designate the whole of what we now call 
 Greece, wels originally applied only to aparticu- 
 ar district of Thessaly. At that early period, ' 
 as we are assured by Thucydides, the common 
 denomination of Hellenes had not yet been re- 
 ceived in that wide acceptation which was after- 
 wards attached to it, but each separate district 
 enjoyed its distinctive appellation, derived mostly 
 from the clan by which it was held, or from the 
 chieftain who was regarded as the parent of the 
 race. In proof of this assertion the historian 
 appeals to Homer, who, though much posterior 
 to the siege of Troy, never applies a common 
 term to the Greeks in general, but calls them 
 Danai, Argivi, and Achsei. The opinion thus 
 advanced by Thucydides finds support in Apol- 
 lodorus, who states, that when Homer mentions 
 the Hellenes, we must understand him as refer- 
 ring to a people who occupied a particular dis- 
 trict in Thessaly. The same writer observes, 
 that it is only from the time of Hesiod and Ar- 
 chilochus that we hear of the Panhellenes. 
 Scylax, whose age is disputed, but of whom we 
 may safely affirm that he wrote aboitt the time 
 of the Peloponnesian war, includes under Hellas 
 all the country situated south of the Ambracian 
 gulf and the Peneus. Herodotus extends its 
 limits still further north, by taking in Threspo- 
 tia, or at least that part of it which is south of 
 the river Acheron. But it is more usual to ex- 
 clude Epirus from Grsscia Propria, and to place 
 its north-western extremity at Ambracia,onthe 
 Ionian Sea, while mount Homole, near the 
 mouth of the Peneus, was looked upon as form- 
 ing its boundar}'' on the opposite side. In Gree- 
 cia Propria were the following divisions : Thes- 
 salia, Acarnania and its islands, iEtolia and 
 Athamania, Doris, Locris, and Euboea, Phocis, 
 Boeotia, Attica, and Megaris. The Pelopon- 
 nesus and its provinces, together with the adja- 
 cent islands, form the third and last portion of 
 the whole. The northern boundary of the Gre- 
 cian continent is formed by the great mountain- 
 chain, which, branching off from the Julian 
 Alps near the head of the Adriatic, traverses 
 those extensive regions kno-v^Ti to the ancients 
 under the names of Illyria, Dardania, Paeonia, 
 and Thrace, and terminates at the Black Sea. 
 The principal summits of this central ridge are 
 celebrated as the Scardus, Orbelus, Rhodope, 
 and Hsemus of antiquity, and constitute some 
 of the highest land of the European contment. 
 Of the seas which encompass Greece, that on 
 the western side was called Ionium Mare ; the 
 portion of it which at present bears the name of 
 Adriatic, or gulf of Venice, being termed by the 
 Greeks lonius Sinus. This was reckoned to 
 commence from the Acroceraunian promontory 
 on the coast of Epirus, and the lapygian pro- 
 montory on that of Italy. On the south-east 
 the Peloponnesus was bounded by the Cretan 
 Sea, which divided it from the celebrated island 
 whence its name was derived. St!febo, in his 
 
 Part I.— R 
 
 view of Greece, Mhich is peculiar to himseli, di- 
 vides it into five peninsulas, the first of which 
 is Peloponnesus, separated from the Grecian 
 contment by an isthmus of forty stadia. The 
 second is reckoned from the town of Pagae, on 
 the Corinthian gulf, to Nisaea, the haven of 
 Megara; the distance of this isthmus is one 
 hundred and twenty stadia. The third is en- 
 closed within a line drawn from the extremity 
 of the Crissaean bay to Thermop5'loe, across 
 Bceotia, Phocis, and the territory of the Locri 
 Epicnemidii, a space of five hundred and eight 
 stadia. The fourth is defined by the gulf of 
 Ambracia and the Melian bay, separated from 
 each other by an isthmus of eight hundred sta- 
 dia. The fifth is terminated by a line traced 
 also from the Ambracian gulf across Thessaly, 
 and part of Macedonia, to the Thermaicus Si- 
 nus. No part of Europe, if we except Swit- 
 zerland, is so moimtainous throughout the whole 
 of its extent as Greece, being traversed in al- 
 most every direction by numerous ridges, the 
 summits of which, though not so lofty as the 
 central range of the Alps, attain, in many in- 
 stances, to the elevation of perpetual snow^ 
 The most considerable chain is that which has 
 been described as forming the northern belt of 
 Greece, and which divides the waters that mix 
 with the Danube from those that fall into the 
 Adriatic and JEgean. It extends its ramifica- 
 tions in various directions throughout the an- 
 cient countries of the Dalmatians, Illyrians, 
 Paeonians, Macedonians, and Thracians, imder 
 different names, which will hereafter be more 
 particularly specified. Of these the Scardus 
 and Candavii montes are the most import- 
 ant and extensiA'e. Striking off nearly at right 
 angles from the central chain, on the borders of 
 ancient Dalmatia and Dardania,, the}^ served to 
 mark the boundaries of Illyria and Macedonia ; 
 thence continuing in the same direction, under 
 the still more celebrated name of Pindus, they 
 nearly divided the Greciari continent from north 
 to south, thus separating Epirus from Thessaly, 
 and the waters of the Ionian Sea from those of 
 the iEgean. and uniting at length with the 
 mountains of iEtolia, Dolopia, and Trachinia. 
 From Pindus the elevated ridges of Lingon, Po- 
 lyanus, and Tomarus, spread to the west over 
 ever}'- part of Epirus, and finally terminate in 
 the Acroceraunian mountains on the Chaonian 
 coast. The Cambunii montes branch off in the 
 opposite or eastern direction, and form the natu- 
 ral separation between Macedonia and Thessa- 
 ly, blending afterwards, near the mouth of the 
 Haliacmon, on the Thermaic gulf, with the lofty 
 summits of Olympus. The latter runs parallel 
 to the sea, as far as the course of the Peneus, 
 and is succeeded by the chain of mount Ossa, 
 and this again by mount Pelion, along the Mag- 
 nesian coast. At a lower point in the great 
 Pindian range, where it assumes the appellation 
 of Tymphrestus, mount Othrys stretches east- 
 ward, thus forming the southern enclositre of 
 the great basin of Thessaly, and terminating on 
 the shores of the Pagaseean bay. Mount CEta 
 is situated still further to the south. After form- 
 ing near the mouth of the Sperchius the nar- 
 row defiles of Thermopylae, it encloses the 
 course of that river in conjunction with the paral- 
 lel ridge of Othrj-^s, and after traversing the 
 whole of the Grecian continent from east to wesl, 
 129 
 
GR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GR 
 
 unites, on the shores of the Ambracian gulf, 
 with the mountains of the Athamanes and Am- 
 philochians. Connected with mount CEta, in a 
 south-westerly direction,are Coraxand Aracyn- 
 ihus, mountains of jEtolia and Acarnania; 
 while more immediately to the south are the 
 celebrated peaks of Parnassus, Helicon, and 
 Cithaeron, which belong to Phocis and Boeotia. 
 A continuation of the latter mountain, under the 
 names of CEnean and Geranean, forms the con- 
 necting link between the great chains of north- 
 ern Greece with those of the Peloponnesus. 
 The principal rivers of Greece are furnished, as 
 might naturally be expected, by the extensive 
 provinces of Thrace, Macedonia, and lUyria. 
 In Thrace we find the Hebrus, Maritza, and 
 Strymon, Stroumona ; in Macedonia, the Axi- 
 us, Vardai\ the Erigonus, Kutchuk, the Lydias, 
 Caraismak, and the Haliacmon, Indje Mauro. 
 In Illyria, ihe Drilo, Drino, the Genusus, Scom- 
 bi, and the Apsus, Ergent. Some considerable 
 streams flow also into the Ionian Sea from the 
 mountains of Epirus; such as the Aous, now 
 Voioussa, the Aracthus, or river of Arta ; and 
 still further south, the rapid but troubled Ache- 
 lous, now Aspropotamo. In Thessaly, the Pe- 
 neus, named by the modem Greeks Salembria, 
 takes its rise from Pindus, and, after collecting 
 numberless tributary streams, traverses the fa- 
 mous gorge of Tempe, and falls into the gulf of 
 Therme. The Sperchius, now Hellada, a river 
 of southern Thessaly, coming from mountTym- 
 phrestus, is received into the Maliac gulf a lit- 
 tle tothenorthofThermopylee. The Cephissus, 
 now Mauro, rises in the Phocian mountains, 
 and, after flowing through part of that province 
 and of Bceotia, empties itself into the Copaic 
 lake. The Asopus, Asopo, passes through the 
 southern plains of Boeotia, and is lost in the nar- 
 row sea which separates the continent from Eu- 
 boea. Lastly, we may mention the Evenus, now 
 Fidari, a river of ancient iEtolia, which falls in- 
 to the Corinthian gulf a few miles to the east of 
 the Achelous. The most considerable lakes of 
 Greece are those of Scutari and Ochrida in Il- 
 lyria, the Labeatis Palus and Lychnitis Palus of 
 ancient geography. In Macedonia, those of 
 Takinos and Betchik, near the Strymon, an- 
 swer to the Cercinitis and Bolbe. In Epirus, 
 the lake of loannina is perhaps the Pambotis 
 Palus of Eustathius. Frequent mention is made 
 by classical writers of the Lacus Boebias, now 
 Cartas, of Thessaly. Ancient historians have 
 also noticed some lakes in Acarnania and ^to- 
 lia, the most considerable of which was that of 
 Trichonium, now Vrachori, in the latter pro- 
 vince. In Boeotia, the lake of Copee has ex- 
 changed its name for that of Topolias. An 
 inquiry into the origin of the earliest settlers 
 in ancient Greece seemsto be one of those ques- 
 tions from which no satisfactory result is to be 
 expected, all that has hitherto been written on the 
 subject having only served to furnish addition- 
 al proof of the doubt and obscurity in which it is 
 enveloped. Strabo represents Greece, on the au- 
 thority of Hecataeus the Milesian, as inhabited, 
 in remote ages, by several barbarian tribes, such 
 as the Leleges, Dryopes, Caucones, and Pelas- 
 gi, with the Aones, Temmices, and Hyantes. 
 These apparently overspread the whole conti- 
 nent of Greece, as well as the Peloponnesus, and 
 were in possession of that country when the mi- 
 130 
 
 grations of Pelops and Danaus, of Cadmus and 
 the Phcenicians, and of the Thracians headed 
 by Eumolpus, produced important changes in 
 the population, and probably in the language, of 
 every portion of the territory which they occu- 
 pied. The tribes here enumerated by Strabo 
 must therefore be considered as the most ancient 
 inhabitants of the Hellenic continent which are 
 known to us ; but to attempt lo discriminate be- 
 tween their respective eras with the scanty ma- 
 terials which have reached us, would probably 
 be a task surpassing the abilities of the most in- 
 defatigable antiquary. If it be necessary, how- 
 ever, to adopt some decided opinion on the sub- 
 ject (and in such obscure and complicated ques- 
 tions, it seems difficult to avoid falling into some 
 system,) we should be inclined to follow the no- 
 tions of the learned Mannert. With respect to 
 the Leleges, and the other tribes above enume- 
 rated, he regards them as the original inhabit- 
 ants of the Grecian continent, and prior to the 
 Pelasgi, though, on account of their wandering 
 habits, they were not unfrequently classed with 
 that more celebrated race. He grounds his 
 opinion on a passage" of Hesiod, which speaks of 
 the Leleges as coeval with Deucalion, -together 
 With other citations adduced from Strabo, in the 
 place already referred to. Aristotle assigns to 
 them Acarnania, Locris, and Boeotia. Pausa- 
 nias leads us to suppose they were established 
 at a very early period in Laconia, for he speaks 
 of Lelex as the oldest indigenous prince of that 
 country. It appears that they were not confin- 
 ed to the continent of Greece, since we find 
 them occupying the islands of the Archipelago 
 in conjunction with the Carians, an ancient 
 race, with whom they were so much intermixed 
 as to become identified with them. We know 
 also from Homer, that a portion of this widely 
 diffused tribe had found its way to the shores of 
 Asia Minor. Belonging to the same stock were 
 the ancient Curetes of ^tolia and the Teleboje 
 and Taphii, pirates of Acarnania and the isl- 
 ands situated near its shores. We may also 
 consider the Acarnanians and the ^Etolians 
 themselves as descended from this primitive race 
 though the latter were associated with a colony 
 from Peloponnesus, of which the leader's name 
 prevailed over that of the indigenous Curetes. 
 Little seems to be known of the Caucones, who, 
 together with the Leleges, are ranked by the 
 historian Hecataeus among the earliest nations 
 of Greece. We collect from Homer that they 
 inhabited the western part of Peloponnesus, 
 which account is confirmedby Herodotus. Ho- 
 mer, however, in another place enumerates them 
 among the allies of Priam, which leads to the 
 conclusion that they had formed settlements in 
 Asia Minor, as well as the Leleges. In sup- 
 port of this supposition, Strabo affirms that 
 many writers assigned to the Caucones a por- 
 tion of Asia Minor near the river Parthenius ; 
 and he adds, that some believed them to be Scy- 
 thians, or Macedonians, while others classed 
 them generally with other tribes, under the 
 name of Pelasgi. In his own time, all trace of 
 the existence of this ancient race had disappear- 
 ed. The Dryopes seem to have first settled in 
 the mountainous regions of CEta, where they 
 transmitted their name to a small tract of coun- 
 try on the borders of Doris and Phocis. Dicfc- 
 archus, however, extends their territory as far 
 
GR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GR 
 
 as the Ambracian gulf. We know from Hero- 
 dotus that they afterwards passed into Euboea, 
 and from thence into Peloponnesus and Asia 
 Minor. It is worthy of remark, that Strabo 
 ranks the Dry opes among those tribes chiefly of 
 Thracian origin, who had from the earliest pe- 
 riod established themselves in the latter country 
 towards the southern shores of the Euxine. 
 To the same primeval times must be referred 
 the Aones, who are said to have occupied Boeo- 
 tia before the invasion of Cadmus, and the reign 
 of Cecrops in Attica ; we hear also of the Ec- 
 tenes, Hyantes, and Temmices, which probably 
 belonged to the same family, from the circum- 
 stance of their having all held possessions of that 
 fertile portion of Greece. We are now to speak 
 of the Pelasgi, a numerous and important peo- 
 ple, and, as such, entitled to a greater share of 
 our notice than any of the primitive Grecian 
 tribes hitherto enumerated. To examme, how- 
 ever, all the ancient traditions which have been 
 preserved relative to this remarkable race, and 
 still further to discuss the various opinions which 
 have been upheld respecting its origin in mod em 
 times, would ofitself occupy a volume, and con- 
 sequently far exceed the limits of a work de- 
 signed for more general purposes. We shall 
 therefore endeavour to present the reader with 
 a summary account of what has been transmit- 
 ted to us by the ancients, as well as of the con- 
 clusions to which modern critics have arrived, on 
 this subject. We ma)-- observe that almost all 
 the historians, poets, and mythologists of anti- 
 quity, derive their appellation from a hero nam- 
 ed Pelasgus, though they differ in their account 
 of his origin. Some supposing him to have 
 sprung from the earth, others representing him 
 to be the son of Jupiter and Niobe. They con- 
 cur also in attributing to the Pelasgi the first 
 improvements in civilization and in the arts and 
 comforts of life. They were not confined to one 
 particular portion of Greece, for we find them 
 spread over the whole country ; but they are 
 stated to have occupied, more especially, Epirus 
 and Thessaly, parts of Macedonia and Thrace, 
 the shores of the Hellespont and the Troad, to- 
 gether with the Cyclades and Crete, BoBotiaand 
 Attica; in the Peloponnesus, Achaia, Arcadia, 
 and Argolis. We have already had occasion to 
 notice their numerous and extensive settlements 
 in Italy; such were, in fact, the migratory ha- 
 bits of this people, that they obtained in conse- 
 quence the nickname of ffsXapyoi or storks, from 
 the Athenians ; and we have reasons for behev- 
 ing that the term of Pelasgi was afterwards ap- 
 plied to tribes which resembled them in regard 
 to the frequency of their migrations, although 
 of a different origin. We cannot doubt, how- 
 ever, the existence of a nation specifically so 
 designated, since Ave find it mentioned by "Ho- 
 mer in his account of the allies of Priam. Great 
 and universal, however, as was the ascendency 
 usurped by the Pelasgic body in the earliest ages 
 of Greece, its decline is allowed to have been 
 equally rapid and complete. In proportion as 
 the Hellenic confederacy obtained a preponde- 
 rating power and influence, the Pelasgic name 
 and language lost ground, and at length fell into 
 such total disuse, that in the time of Herodotus 
 and Thucydides scarcely a vestige remained, to 
 which those historians could refer, in proof of 
 Iheir former existence. Such are the general 
 
 facts relative to the history of the Pelasgi,which 
 are founded on the universal testimony of anti- 
 quity ; but the origin of this once celebrated 
 people is far from being equally well attested ; 
 and, as it is a point which seems materially con- 
 nected with the history of the first population 
 of Greece, we may perhaps be permitted to take 
 this opportunty of investigating the subject 
 somewhat more in detail than we have hitherto 
 ventured to do. With regard, then, to the ori- 
 gin of the Pelasgi, two conflicting systems, 
 principally, are presented to our notice, each of 
 which, however, seems to obtain support from 
 antiquity, and has been upheld by modern cri- 
 tics with much learning and ingenuity. The 
 one considers the Pelasgi as coming from the 
 northern parts of the Grecian continent, while 
 the other derives their origin from Peloponne- 
 sus, and thus regards that peninsula as the cen- 
 tre from which all their migrations proceeded. 
 The latter opinion, it must be confessed, rests 
 on the positive statement of several authors of 
 no inconsiderable name in antiquity ; such as 
 Pherecydes, Ephorus, Dionysiusof Halicarnas- 
 sus, and Pausanias, who all concur in fixing 
 upon Arcadia as the mother country and first 
 seat of the Pelasgi ; while the former notion is 
 not, webelie ve,positively maintained by any an- 
 cient author. But this silence cannot be deemed 
 conclusive ; and, on the examination of facts 
 and probabilities, we shall find a much greater 
 weight of evidence in its favour. To this con- 
 clusion Salmasius long since arrived, and after 
 him the abbe Geinoz ; and the opinion has been, 
 we conceive, materially strengthened by the re- 
 searches of the learned author of the Horse Pe- 
 lasgicae. Larcher, however, and the French 
 critics of the present school, appear still to ad- 
 here to the authority of Dionysius, or rather to 
 that of the genealogists whose accounts he prin- 
 cipally follows. Were we to look to probabili- 
 ties alone, we should at once discredit a theor}'' 
 which attributed the origin of so numerous a 
 people, as the Pelasgi undoubtedly were, to Pe- 
 loponnesus generally ; but still more so, when 
 they are referred to a small mountainous district 
 in the centre of that peninsula. Without pre- 
 tending to deny that the Arcadians were among 
 the first settlers in the Peloponnesus, it must 
 be urged, that it seems utterly incredible they 
 should have ever had the means of extending 
 their colonies throughout Greece, and even to 
 Italy, in the manner ascribed to them ; or, if 
 there is any truth in these accounts, we must 
 presume that the Arcadia of that early age was 
 much more extensive than the small Pelopon- 
 nesian tract to which the Grecian historians so 
 often allude. If we concede to Arcadia, proper- 
 ly so called, the honour of having given birth to 
 the Pelasgic race, we must allow also that La- 
 conia was the mother country of the Leleges, 
 according to the tradition mentioned by Pausa- 
 nias ; and thence it must follow, that the whole 
 of Greece derived its population from the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, a fact not only improbable in itself, 
 but also in contradiction to history, which, with 
 little exception, represents the stream of Gre- 
 cian migration as flowing from north to south. 
 It will not surely be asserted that those vast 
 countries which lie to the north of Hellas were 
 yet unpeopled, while the island of Pelops was 
 sending forth such swarms of warriors to occu- 
 131 
 
QR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GR 
 
 py distant and unknown regions, or that the 
 hordes of Illyria, Paeonia, Macedonia, and 
 Thrace, were less adventurous than the barba- 
 rians of Arcadia. If these suppositions cannot 
 be admitted, we shall be led to conclude that the 
 above-named extensive countries not only fur- 
 nished the primitive population of Greece, but 
 also from time to time supplied those numerous 
 bands of adventurers, who, under the name of 
 Pelasgi, first paved the way for the introduction 
 of civilization and commerce amongst her savage 
 clans. That Asia Minor also contributed to the 
 peopling of Greece can scarcely be doubted, 
 when we notice the remarkable fact, that all the 
 earliest Grecian tribes were known to have pos- 
 sessed settlements on the former continent be- 
 fore the siege of Troy. But the constant inter- 
 change which seems to have subsisted from the 
 earliest period between the inhabitants of Thrace 
 and Macedonia, and their neighbours on the 
 opposite shores of the Bosphorus and the Hel- 
 lespont, rather prevents our arriving at any de- 
 terminate conclusion on this part of the inquiry. 
 Let us now examine what confirmation can be 
 derived from antiquity in support of a theory 
 which has been hitherto defended on the score 
 of probability alone. In the first place then we 
 may collect from Herodotus, that, at the remot- 
 est epoch to which his historical researches could 
 attain, Epirus and the western regions of north- 
 ern Greece were largely peopled by the Pelasgi, 
 whence it received the name of Pelasgia, which 
 it continued to bear till it was superseded by 
 that of Hellas. The existence of this people in 
 the mountains and plains of northern Thessaly, 
 in very distant times, is abundantly proved by 
 the names of Pelasgiotis, and Pelasgic Argos, 
 which were applied to the particular districts 
 which they had occupied. Still further north, 
 we follow them with Justin into Macedonia, and 
 their possession of that country is also confirm- 
 ed by jEschylus, as he extends Pelasgia to the 
 banks of the Strymon. We have also numerous 
 authorities to prove the establishment of the 
 same people, at a period of uncertain, but doubt- 
 less very early date, in the isles of Samothrace, 
 Lemnos, and Imbros. It has been asserted, in- 
 deed, by some writers, that these islands were 
 the seat of the first Pelasgi, and it may be ob- 
 served by the way, that this maritime situation 
 might lead to a connexion between the people 
 whose origin we are now discussing and the 
 Phcenicians, who had formed similar settle- 
 ments, and in times equally remote, in the Cy- 
 clades. Of all the Pelasgic tribes, the most ce- 
 lebrated, as well as most important, was that of 
 the Tyrrheni. Assuming, then, that the Tyr- 
 rheni formed one of the most ancient and nu- 
 merous branches of the Pelasgic body, we are 
 induced to fix their principal Grecian settle- 
 ments in Epirus, because, according to Herodo- 
 tus and other writers, that province was their 
 earliest and most extensive abode; and it was 
 from thence that they crossed over, as we are 
 told, to the opposite shores of Italy. We 
 shall thus also be able to account for a curious 
 tradition preserved by one of the scholiasts to 
 Homer, who tells us in a note to II. IT. 235. 
 
 -dufl 61 SeXXoi 
 
 Eot vaiova' vTrocprjrai nviiTTSiroSei 'y^ajiaisvvai, 
 
 that, according to Alexander of Plenron, the 
 132 
 
 Selli were descended from the Tyrrheni, and 
 worshipped Jupiter, according to their native 
 custom, in the manner described by the poet. 
 These Selli, as is well known, were possessed of 
 the temple and oracle of Dodona, and were ac- 
 counted one of the most ancient tribes of Greece 
 according to Aristotle ; so that, if the Tyrrhe- 
 ni were their progenitors, these must have been 
 dp^aioraroi. The Tpaiwi, from whose name the 
 Latin word Greed is doubtless derived, were 
 probably another branch of the same Pelasgic 
 stock, as Aristotle names them in conjunction 
 with the Selli, and places them in the same part 
 of Greece, that is, about Dodona and the Ache- 
 lous. He adds, that the FpaiVoi were afterwards 
 called Hellenes, which is confirmed by the Pari- 
 an Chronicle and Apollodorus, who quotes the 
 word from many ancient writers. It is certainly 
 remarkable that the Latins should have constant- 
 ly employed an obsolete appellation to designate 
 a people, with whom they were afterwards so 
 much better acquainted under that of Hellenes ; 
 and the fact can only be satisfactorily explained 
 by admitting that a frequent intercourse existed 
 between Epirus and Italy before thB name of 
 Hellenes had been generally substituted for that 
 of Graeci ; and this surmise is in perfect harmo- 
 ny with the well-authenticated accounts of the 
 Pelasgic migrations into the latter country. As 
 Strabo expressly remarks that the Epirotic na- 
 tions were descended from the Pelasgi, we can 
 have little doubt that this statenient applies to 
 the Chaones, Molossi, and Thesproti, who at a 
 subsequent period constituted the main popula- 
 tion of that part of Greece. The latter are in- 
 deed positively classed with the Pelasgi by He- 
 rodotus, when he states that Thesprotia was 
 once called Pelasgia. If we now pass into Thes- 
 saly, we shall find another considerable part of 
 the Pelasgic race settled in that rich province 
 under the name of ^olians. Herodotus is we 
 believe the only writer who positively ascribes 
 the conquest of this country to the Thesprotian 
 Pelasgi, at which period he says it bore the 
 name of tEoUs. Strabo, however, seems to have 
 been aware of such a tradition. But what- 
 ever opinion we adopt as lo this particular fact, 
 we can have no hesitation in admittmg the Pe- 
 lasgic origin of the a.ncient Cohans, as it is 
 clearly acknowledged by Strabo, and is also far- 
 ther confirmed by the affinity which has been 
 traced between the language of the Pelasgi and 
 the JEolic dialect. If we concede this point, it 
 is clear that we must regard the Hellenes and 
 the Achaei as springing from the same stock, al- 
 though, in the first instance, they were certainly 
 confined within the limits of Thessaly, and are 
 always alluded to by Homer in that restricted 
 sense. It will, perhaps, be objected to this clas- 
 sification, that we generally find the Hellenic 
 name opposed to that of the Pelasgic, but it does 
 not follow that they are thereby distinguished 
 as being of a different race ; it would rather 
 seem that they are compared together in a poli- 
 cal point of view, from each in its turn having 
 become widely diffused, and having exercised 
 the greatest influence over those countries in 
 which it had taken root. According to Herodo- 
 tus, the Athenians were also originally Pelasgi : 
 this fact he has twice asserted in different parts 
 of his work ; nor has he ever, we believe, been 
 contradicted by any ancient author. Larcher, 
 
GR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GR 
 
 however, in his examination of the Chronology 
 of Herodotus, has entered into a long disserta- 
 tion to prove that that writer was misinformed on 
 this point. The real truth seems to be, that the 
 learned Frenchman, in his endeavour to derive 
 all the Pelasgic migrations from the Peloponne- 
 sus, found this assertion of Herodotus incom- 
 patible with his system, and therefore attempted 
 to set it aside. Until more solid reasons therefore 
 can be adduced against the testimony of so ac- 
 credited an historian, we must allow his autho- 
 rity to remain unshaken, and admit that the 
 Athenians, in the earliest period of their histo- 
 ry, were Pelasgi, and bore the specific appella- 
 tion of Cranai before they assumed that of Ce- 
 cropidoe. It is well known that they, with many 
 other tribes under similar circumstances, after- 
 wards became incorporated with the Hellenes. 
 "We shall now conclude this section with a short 
 account of the dialects of Greece, as it is fur- 
 nished by Strabo. ' Greece,' says that accurate 
 geographer, ' contains many nations, but the 
 principal ones are equal in number to the dia- 
 lects spoken by the Greeks, which consist of 
 four. Of these, the Ionic may be said to be the 
 same as the ancient Attic, since the inhabitants 
 of Attica were once called lonians, and from 
 these were descended the lonians, who founded 
 colonies in Asia Minor, and used the dialect 
 which we call Ionic. The Doric is the same 
 with the .^olic, as all the Greeks without the 
 Isthmus, if we except the Athenians and Me- 
 gareans, and those Dorians who dwell in the 
 vicinity of Parnassus, are even now called JEo- 
 lians. It is also probable that the Dorians, be- 
 ing few in number, and inhabiting a most rug- 
 ged soil, long retained their primitive language, 
 as they had but little intercourse with their 
 neighbours, and adopted different customs from 
 those of the ^olians, with whom they formerly 
 were united by ties of consanguinity. This 
 was also the case with the Athenians, who 
 occupied a poor and barren country, and conse- 
 quently were less exposed to invasion ; hence 
 they were accounted indigenous, as Thucydi- 
 des reports, since none were induced to covet 
 their territory, and to seek to wrest it from them. 
 This therefore was the reason why so small a 
 people remained always unconnected with the 
 other nations of Greece, and used a dialect pe- 
 culiar to itself The ^olians were not confined 
 to the countries without the Isthmus, but occu- 
 pied also those which were situated within ; 
 these, however,became subsequently intermixed 
 with the lonians who came from Attica, and 
 who had established themselves in the JEgialus ; 
 and likewise with the Dorians, who, in con- 
 junction with the Heraclidse, founded Megara, 
 and several other cities in the Poloponnesus. 
 The lonians were afterwards expelled by the 
 Acheeans, who were iEolians, so that only two 
 nations remained within the Peloponnesus, the 
 iEolians and the Dorians. Those states which 
 had but little intercourse with the latter, pre- 
 served the jfEolic dialect ; this was the case with 
 the Arcadians and the Eleans.as the former were 
 altogether a people of mountaineers, and never 
 had been included in the division of Peloponne- 
 sus made by the Heraclidse ; and the latter,from 
 being dedicated to the service of the Olympian 
 Jupiter, had long remained in the peaceable en- 
 joyment of their country : they were moreover of 
 
 jEolian origin, and had received the forces sent 
 by Oxylus lo assist the Heraclidae in recovering 
 possession of Peloponnesus. The other nations 
 of that peninsula speak a mixed dialect, more or 
 less approximating to the ^olic ; and, though 
 they are called Dorians, the idiom of no one ci- 
 ty is now the same as that of any other.' " Cram. 
 In the first periods of their history, the Greeks 
 were governed by monarchs ; and there were as 
 many kings as there were cities. The monar- 
 chical power gradually decreased ; the love of 
 liberty established the republican government ; 
 and no part of' Greece, except Macedonia, re- 
 mained in the hands of an absolute sovereign. 
 The expedition of the Argonauts first rendered 
 the Greeks respectable among their neighbours, 
 and in the succeeding age the wars of Thebes 
 and Troy gave opportunity to their heroes and 
 demi-gods to display their valour in the field of 
 battle. The simplicity of the ancient Greeks 
 rendered them virtuous ; and the establishment 
 of the Olympic games in particular, where the 
 noble reward of the conqueror was a laurel 
 crown, contributed to their aggrandizement, and 
 made them ambitious of fame and not the slaves 
 of riches. The austerity of their laws, and the 
 education of their youth, particularly at Lace- 
 dffimon, rendered them brave and active, insen- 
 sible to bodily pain, fearless and intrepid in the 
 time of danger. The celebrated battles, of Ma- 
 rathon, Thermopylce, Salamis, Plateea, and My- 
 cale, sufficiently show what superiority the cou- 
 rage of a little army can obtain over millions of 
 undisciplined barbarians. After many signal 
 victories over the Persians, they became elated 
 with their success ; and when they found no 
 one able to dispute their power abroad, they 
 turned their arms one against the other, and 
 leagued with foreign states to destroy the most 
 flourishing of their cities. The Messenian and 
 Peloponnesian wars are examples of the dread- 
 ful calamities which arise from civil discord and 
 long prosperity ; and the success with which the 
 gold and the sword of Philip and of his son 
 corrupted and enslaved Greece, fatally proved 
 that when a nation becomes indolent and dissi- 
 pated at home, it ceases to be respectable in the 
 eyes of the neighbouring states. The annals of 
 Greece, however, abound with singular proofs 
 of heroism and resolution. The bold retreat 
 of the ten thousand, who had assisted Cyrus 
 against his brother Artaxerxes, reminded their 
 countrymen of their superiority over all other 
 nations; and taught Alexander that the con- 
 quest of the east might be effected with a hand- 
 ful of Grecian soldiers. While the Greeks ren- 
 dered themselves so illustrious by their military 
 exploits, the arts and sciences were assisted by 
 conquests, and received fresh lustre from the ap- 
 plication and industry of their professors. The 
 labours of the learned were received with admi- 
 ration, and the merit of a composition was de- 
 termined by the applause or disapprobation of 
 a multitude. Their generals were orators; and 
 eloquence seemed to be so nearly connected with 
 the military profession, that he was despised by 
 his soldiers who could not address them upon 
 any emergency with a spirited and well deliver- 
 ed oration. The learning, as well as the virtues 
 of Socrates, procured him a name ; and the 
 writings of Aristotle have, perhaps, gained him 
 a more lasting fame than all the conquests and 
 133 
 
GR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Gft 
 
 trophies of his royal pupil. Such were the oc- 
 cupations and accomplishments of the Greeks ; 
 their language became alm.ost universal, and 
 their country was the receptacle of the youths 
 of the neighbouring states, where they imbibed 
 the principles of liberty and moral virtue. The 
 Greeks planted several colonies, and totally peo- 
 pled the western coasts of Asia Minor. In the 
 eastern parts of Italy, there were also many set- 
 tlements made ; and the country received from 
 its Greek inhabitants the name oi Magna Grce- 
 cia. For some time Greece submitted to the 
 yoke of Alexander and his successors ; and, at 
 last, after a spirited though ineffecmal struggle 
 in the Achaean league, it fell under the power 
 of Rome, and became one of its dependant pro- 
 vinces, governed by a proconsul. 
 
 Grjecia Magna, a name by which a part of 
 Italy, and sometimes the island of Sicity, were 
 designated, from the number of Greek colonies 
 established in them. Magna Graecia in the pe- 
 ninsula extended over the south of Italy, as far 
 as the borders of Campania, and the country of 
 the Frentani, including Apulia, Messapia or la- 
 pygia, Lucania, and. the district possessed by 
 the Brutii. The Greeks endeavoured to establish 
 a claim to the earliest settlement of this part 
 of Italy, which they would gladly have repre- 
 sented as the first in all Italy which received a 
 Population and a name ; but, however early may 
 ave been the Achjean emigration, it does not 
 appear to have taken place till all Italy, from the 
 Alps to the straits of Messina, had been popu- 
 lated by tribes as worthy of the name of indi- 
 genous as the Greeks who prided themselves in 
 their own country in that vain epithet. The 
 CEnotri will then be the last production of the 
 great aboriginal Italian stock, which, instead of 
 spreading gradually from the south, arrived at it 
 by slow degrees, by propagation and extension 
 from the north. But though the last of all the 
 native tribes of Italy, the CEnotri could yet boast 
 that one of their princes communicated to the 
 whole country between the Alps and the Tuscan 
 and Ionian seas, the appellation which to this 
 day it retains, if we be willing to recognise any 
 truth in the traditions of so remote and unau- 
 thentic an era. The vicissitudes and conflicts 
 of the CEnotri, the lapyges, the Messapii, and 
 all the many inhabitants of this extensive and 
 fertile country belonging to the same obscure 
 epoch, afford little instruction for the investiga- 
 tion of antiquity ; and their wars with the Si- 
 culi may likewise be dismissed with equal bre- 
 vity. All the real interest which attaches to the 
 name of Graecia Magna is derived from its colo- 
 nization by the Acheeans, Spartans, Phocasans 
 of Ionia, &c. at a period much posterior to the 
 pretended migration of the Arcadians. With- 
 out denying that settlements may have been 
 effected from Greece at an earlier date upon this 
 coast, we may refer the general introduction of 
 Grecian manners, opinions, and language, to the 
 era of 730 years, or thereabout, before the birth 
 of Christ, and very little more than twenty years 
 after that to which the founding of Rome is 
 conventionally assigned. Sybaris, Metopon- 
 tum. Caul on, and/Crotona, owed their origin 
 to the Ach8eans,'^ivho, driving the CEnotri and 
 Chaones from the eastern coast,established there 
 the language, the improvement, and the arts of 
 Greece. The Partheniae of Sparta soon after 
 134 
 
 laid the foundation of the Tarentine rule ; and 
 the PhocEeans, disappointed in their attempts 
 upon the island of Corsica, bending their course 
 towards the south, erected the city of Velia. 
 Of all these cities Sybaris first rose to power 
 and eminence ; and many wars were the result of 
 the attempts of other important places to extend 
 their territories within the limits of her autho- 
 rity, or within that of other principal towns. 
 Second in importance only to the colonization 
 of this coast by the Greeks, was the arrival of 
 Pythagoras, and the introduction of his sublime 
 philosophy. Not only Crotona, which he chose 
 as his residence, but all the other cities of Mag- 
 na Graecia, and even the barbarous inhabitants 
 of the surrounding country, were softened and 
 instructed by his virtues and his doctrines ; and 
 his disciples very soon attained an influence 
 that the political body could not counterpoise, 
 and that nothing but a revolution, bloody, gene- 
 ral, and exterminating, could eradicate. The 
 arrival of this first of the ancient philosophers 
 may be referred to the year B. C. 540. It may 
 occasion some wonder that the Italian colonies 
 should have been selected by Pythagoras as a 
 place for the dissemination of his lofty truths m. 
 preference to their parent country, whose lan- 
 guage he spoke, and of which he might almost 
 be considered a native ; but the same cause that 
 had tended to the prodigiously early and rapid 
 increase of the Achaean cities in Italy, had, no 
 doubt a strongly operative effect in determining 
 the choice of this early apostle of truth. The 
 Achcean cities of Magna Graecia, more especial- 
 ly adopting the liberal principles .of the Republic 
 to which they owed their origin, accorded freely 
 to strangers the rights and privileges of native 
 citizens ; and Pythagoras could there, without 
 the odium and reproach of foreign birth, impart 
 the wisdom which with years of labour he had 
 gained. For thirty years the disciples of this 
 illustrious benefactor continued to moderate the 
 cotmcils of Crotona, and, in a less degree, of the 
 neighbouring cities ; but on the destruction of 
 Sybaris, the enemies of the sect, availing them- 
 selves of the dissatisfaction which it had given 
 by its moderation in regard to the distribution 
 of the spoil, resolved and conspired its ruin. At 
 Crotona commenced the proscription and the 
 massacre which terminated with the murder of 
 the greater part of the body, and a decree of 
 perpetual banishment against the rest. The 
 immediate and lasting consequence of this bar- 
 barity were a series of factions, civil wars, and 
 mutual jealousies, which diminished the power 
 of the Italiot cities ; and while it obstructed their 
 progress towards a condition of concentrated 
 vigour, left upon the south no obstacle to the 
 Roman ambition, which otherwise might not 
 have extended over those regions, and whose 
 dominion, if checked at first in Italy, might ne- 
 ver have extended itself over the earth. In the 
 Persian war, while yet the cities of Italy ac- 
 knowledged the parental rights of the Grecian 
 states, one single vessel, equipped at the expense 
 of an individual, appeared to sustain the liber- 
 ties of Greece, in the name of her children, 
 against the usurpations of Persia, and the free 
 institutions and principles of Europe and the 
 western world, against the oppressive and de- 
 basing system of Asia and the east. In the 
 Peloponnesian Avar Magna Grascia took but an 
 
GY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 GY 
 
 inactive part, and the diminution of her power 
 was still more strikingly and sensibly perceived 
 when the tyrant of Syracuse was, after an in- 
 effectual resistance, permitted to raze the walls 
 of Caulon and to pillage Rhegium ; and when 
 all the cities of Magna Graecia together were 
 unable to contend with the pretensions of a pet- 
 ty tyrant from Sicily. Thus worn out by their 
 enemies, the people of Magna Graecia were yet 
 to meet another and more resolutely persevering 
 enemy ; and the country, which had long before 
 been wrested from the aboriginal Italians, was 
 to fall again into their hands before the occupa- 
 tion of their territory by the now" resistless forces 
 of the Roman republic. In the last weakness 
 of the Greek colonies, the Brutii and Lucani, 
 derived from the Saimiite race, appeared in nu- 
 merous hordes and with irresistible fury on the 
 borders of the Grecian states ; Thurii, Mela- 
 pontum, and Heraclea, fell in succession be- 
 neath the attacks of these determined invaders, 
 and very little remained to justify the ostenta- 
 tious name of Graecia Magna. A very short 
 time afterwards, that is to say, about the year 
 U. C. 480, B. C. 270, the Romans effected the 
 reduction of the whole country, and formed 
 from it the provinces of Lucania and the Brut- 
 lian territory. The most striking geographical 
 features of Magna Graecia were its deep and 
 spacious bays. The principal of these were the 
 Tarentine gulf, between the Bruttian and la- 
 pygian peninsulas, the Scylacius Sinus in the 
 country of the Brutii, the Sinus Urias in Dau- 
 nia on the Hadriaticum Mare, and the Laius 
 Sinus, belonging to Lucania on the Tyrrhene 
 sea. The language of this country was the 
 Doric Greek, with a few idiomatic forms pecu- 
 liar to the Italian provinces. Micali, Italia. — 
 Niehbuhr. 
 
 Grampius mons, a long range of hills in 
 Scotland, rising in Aberdeenshire between the 
 Dee and the Don, running almost parallel with 
 the chain of northern lakes, and dividing Scot- 
 land into two nearly equal parts. It terminates 
 upon the west in Argyleshire, It was here that 
 Galgacus, the Caledonian hero, made his last 
 stand (described Tac. Vit. Agric.) against the 
 arms of the Romans, and that 10,000 of the na- 
 tives being left upon the field, the imperial con- 
 quest of Britain was effectually complete. 
 
 Granicus, a river of Mysia, now the tor- 
 rent Ouwola. It is famous for the battle 
 fought there between the armies of Alexander 
 and Darius, 22d of May, B. C. 334, when 
 600,000 Persians were defeated by 30,000 Ma- 
 cedonians. Diod. 17. — Plut. in Alex. — Justin. 
 — Curt. 4, c. 1. 
 
 Gravisce, now Eremo de St. Augustino, a 
 maritime town of Etruria. The air was un- 
 wholesome on account of the marshes and stag- 
 nant waters in its neighbourhood. Virg. ^En. 
 10, V. ISi.—Liv. 40, c. 29, 1. 41, c. 16. 
 
 Grudii, a people tributary to the Nervii, sup- 
 posed to have inhabited the country near Tottr- 
 nay or Bruges in Flanders. Cces. G. 5, c. 38. 
 
 Gryneum, and Grynium, a town near Cla- 
 zomenae, where Apollo had a temple with an 
 oracle, on account of which he is called Grynccus. 
 Strab. 13.— Virg. Ed. 6, v. 72. ^n. 4, v. 345. 
 
 Gyarus, and Gyaros. " The last of the Cy- 
 clades enumerated by Ariemidorus, is probably 
 the islet which Homer calls Gyrae or Gyraea. 
 
 So wretched and poor was this barren rock, in- 
 habited only by a few fishermen, that they de- 
 puted one of their number to Augustus, who 
 was at Corinth, after the battle of Actium, to 
 petition that their taxes, which amounted to 150 
 drachmae, might be diminished, as they were 
 unable to raise more than 100. It became sub- 
 sequently notorious as the spot to which crimi- 
 nals or suspected persons were banished by or- 
 der of the Roman emperors. 
 
 Aude aliquid brevibus Gyaris, et car cere dig- 
 num. — Juven. Sat. 1, 73. 
 
 Pliny estimates its circumference at 12 miles. 
 The modern name is G/iiooxra." Cramer. — 
 Horn. Od. 4, 500 and bOTl.— Strab. IQ.— Tacit. 
 3, 68, 69 ; 4, 30.— PZm. 4, 12. 
 
 Gymnasium, a place among the Greeks, where 
 all the public exercises were performed, and 
 where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, 
 but also philosophers, poets, and rhetoricians re- 
 peated their compositions. The room was high 
 and spacious, and could contain many thousands 
 of spectators. The laborious exercises of the 
 Gymnasium were running, leaping, throwing 
 the quoit, wrestling, and boxing, which was 
 called by the Greeks TT£VTaQ\ov, and by the Ro- 
 mans quinqiterlia. In wrestling and boxing 
 the athletes were often naked ; whence the word 
 Gymnasium, yvuvos, nudus. They anointed 
 themselves with oil to brace their limbs, and to 
 render their bodies slippery and more difficult to 
 be grasped. Plhi. 2, Ep. 17. — C. Ncp. 20, c. 5. 
 
 GYMNEsi.a3, a name given by the Greeks to 
 the Baleares Insula. Vid. Baleares. 
 
 Gymnias, a town of Armenia, now Ginnis, 
 situated on that branch of the Euphrates which 
 was called Frat. It is mentioned in the retreat 
 of the ten thousand. D'Anville. 
 
 Gyndes, a river which empties into the Ti- 
 gris below Ctesiphon. " It descends, according 
 to Herodotus, from the mountains of Mantiene 
 or Matiane, in the northern part of Media. 
 Cyrus finding it on his passage, divided it into 
 360 channels. This name of Gyndes, or, as 
 Tacitus expresses it, Gindes, in describing a 
 river of Aria, is the same as Zeindeh, in the 
 Persian language denoting a river which re- 
 vives after having disappeared. The Gyndes, of 
 which Herodotus speaks, reduced to nothing by 
 the number of drains which it suffered from Cy- 
 rus, has at length re-assumed its course to the 
 Tigris ; and its entrance into the river is called 
 Foum-el-Saleh, or the ' Mouth of Peace,' in 
 the Arabic language. The name given it by 
 the Turks in the place whence it issues, is Ka- 
 ra-sou, or the Black River." D^Anville. 
 
 Gyrtone, or Gyrton, a town of Thessaly, 
 " situated not far from the junction of the Pe- 
 neusand Titaresius. Many commentators have 
 imagined that this city was formerly named 
 Phlegya, and that Homer alluded to it when 
 speaking of the wars of the Ephyri and Phle- 
 gyae. It is termed an opulent city by Apollo- 
 nius. The Gyrtonians favoured the Athenians 
 during the Peloponnesian war. In the Mace- 
 donian wars frequent mention is made of their 
 town." Cram. — Horn. II. n. 301. Apoll. Ar- 
 gon. 1, bl.— Thuc. 2, 22.—Liv. 36, 10; 42, 54. 
 —Polyb. 18 ; 5, 2.—Plin. 4, 8. 
 
 GvTmuM, a town of Laconia, " the port of 
 Sparta, was 40 stadia from Las and 240 from 
 135 
 
HA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HA 
 
 the capital. The Gylheaiee pretended that 
 their town had been built by Hercules and 
 Apollo, whose statues were placed in the forum. 
 The principal buildings noticed here by Pausa- 
 nias are the temples of Ammon, jEsculapius, 
 and Ceres. He mentions also the statues of 
 Neptune named Gaiuchus, Apollo Carneius, 
 and Bacchus, the gates of Castor, and, in the 
 citadel, the temple and statue of Minerva. Po- 
 lybius states that the port, distant thirty stadia 
 from the town, was both commodious and se- 
 cure. Strabo remarks that it was an artificial 
 haven. Gythium stood a little to the north of 
 the present town of Marathonisi. The site is 
 now called Palceopoli, but no habitation is left 
 upon it." Cramer. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hadria, or Hatria, I. in Venetia. " This 
 ancient city, which must have been once power- 
 ful and great, since it was enabled to transmit 
 its name to the sea on which it stood, is known 
 to have been possessed by the Tuscans at the 
 time of their greatest prosperity, and when their 
 dominion in Italy had been extended from sea 
 to sea. Some traditions, coupled with what we 
 know touching the origin of the neighbouring 
 cities of Spina and Revenna, lead to the con- 
 clusion that these three towns were at a remote 
 period founded by the people who are sometimes 
 called Thessalians, and at other times Pelasgi, 
 but whose real name was that of Tyrrhenians. 
 When the Tuscan nation had extended its 
 conquests into the north of Italy, it is most 
 probable that Hadria and Spina fell into their 
 hands ; Ravenna, as we learn from Strabo, was 
 occupied by the Umbri. The oldest writer who 
 has recorded Hadria, is Hecatoeus, quoted by 
 Steph, Byz. According to this ancient histo- 
 rian, it was situated near a river and bay of the 
 same name. The river is the Tartaro^ but the 
 bay into which it discharges itself has been long 
 since filled up. Hadria still existed when Strabo 
 wrote, but as an insignificant place. Few re- 
 mains of any moment have hitherto been disco- 
 vered on the site of Hadria, and of these a very 
 small number can be referred to the Tuscans 
 prior to the Roman dominion. It may be re- 
 marked, however, that it is a matter of great 
 dispute among numismatic writers, whether the 
 coins with the retrograde legend TAH ought 
 to be ascribed to the Venetian Hadria, or to the 
 Hadria in Picenum, supposed to be its colony. 
 From these and other coins it appears that the 
 real name of this city was Hatri, which the 
 
 Greeks changed to AJoia." Cram. II. " A 
 
 city of Picenum, of considerable note,and which 
 appears to have formed with its territory, known 
 anciently by the name of Hadrianus Ager, a 
 little independent state, before it became a Ro- 
 man colony and was included in the province 
 of Picenum. It is of importance to state here 
 that the Tuscans, having extended themselves 
 first north of the Apennines, and afterwards 
 about the Po and its mouths, obtained posses- 
 sion of the settlements originally formed by the 
 Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, among which Hadria is to 
 be numbered. From this part of Italy we know 
 that they were driven in process of time by the 
 Gauls ; but as they were still masters of the 
 sea, it is probable that they retired to other 
 136 
 
 settlements which they might have formed ta 
 the south. This city was situated at some dis- 
 tance from the sea, between the rivers Vomanus 
 and Matrinus ; but nearer to the latter, at the 
 mouth of which was its emporium, which now 
 takes the name of the modern city as the Porto 
 d'Atri. It seems generally allowed, that the 
 emperor Hadrian was descended from a family 
 originally of this city." Cram. 
 
 Hadrianopolis, I. a town of Thrace, situated 
 at the place where the Hebrus first changes its 
 course from east to south. It originally bore 
 " the name of Orestias, which the Byzantine 
 authors frequently employ in speaking of this S 
 city. The three rivers, by whica it is pretended '!! 
 that Orestes, polluted by the murder of his mo- 
 ther, purified himself, had their confluence here : 
 for at Adrianopie the Hebrus received the 
 Ardiscus on one side and the Tonzuz on the j 
 other, now the Arda and Tonza. This city m 
 served as a residence for the Ottoman sultans " 
 before the taking of Constantinople, and is now 
 the second in the empire. " The numerous mi- 
 narets of Adrianopie, or Ednneh, rise above 
 groves of cypress and gardens of roses ; the 
 Hebrus, increased by many tributary streams, 
 descends from the central ridge, turns south- 
 wards, and flows past the town, of which the 
 population is not less than 100,000 souls." Malte- 
 Bruii. — -II. A city of Epirus, "apparently 
 built in the reign of Hadrian, is said by Proco- 
 pius to have borne subsequently the appellation 
 of Justinianopolis, but we find it noticed under 
 the former name by Hierocles, and in the Table 
 Itinerary, which places it fifty-five miles from 
 Amantia to the south-east, and twenty-four from 
 a place beyond named Ilio, on the road to Nico- 
 polis. It is clear from the description here given 
 of its situation, that we must look for Hadria- 
 nopolis somewhat to the south of Ar gyro Castro 
 or Antigonea ; and this opinion is confirmed . 
 by what Mr. Hughes observed in his Travels 
 through Epirus. ' On the western side of the 
 valley, (of Argyro Castro,) nearly opposite Li- 
 bochovo^ and at no great distance from the river 
 Drino, the ruins of a small Roman theatre, with 
 a few vestiges of other ancient foundations, were 
 pointed out upon a spot designated by the name 
 of DrinopoUs, an evident corruption of Hadria- 
 nopolis.' " Cram. 
 
 Hadriaticum, or Hadria cum mare, the sea 
 which bounds the eastern coast of Italy, other- 
 wise called Mare Superum, in reference to its 
 position as regards the Italian peninsula. It 
 derived its name from the Venetian Hadria. 
 ( Vid. Hadria.) " It was known to the Greeks 
 by the name of 'ASpiag, or 'lovios KoXnos • but 
 they seem to have understood by the name loni- 
 cum Mare that portion of it which lies between 
 the south of Italy, taken from the lapygian pro- 
 montory and Peloponnesus." Cram. " Its 
 bed appears to be composed of marble and 
 lime mixed with shells." Malte-Brun. 
 
 Hadrumetum, a city of the Roman pro- 
 vince in Africa, situated on the coast north of 
 Leptis. According to D'Anville, its present 
 condition is unknown; but a neighbouring 
 place, mentioned in a subsequent age under the 
 name of Cabar Susis, is existent in Susa. 
 Shaw says that it still remains under the name , 
 of Hdmamet, and is a place of importance. 
 Sallust. Jug. p. 179, ed. Burnouf. 
 
HA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HA 
 
 H^MONiA. Vid. jEmonia. 
 
 H-EMUs, a branch of the great European 
 chain of mountains, of which the Alps form 
 the principal range. It stretches its great belt 
 round the north of Thrace and Macedonia, in 
 a direction nearly parallel with the course of the 
 ^gean ; on the east terminating in the promon- 
 tory of Hsemi extrema, now Ertivneh-Borun ; 
 and on the west joining mount Scardus, the 
 connecting link between the Hsemus and the 
 Illyrian range of mons Albius. " The modem 
 name is Emineh Dagh, or Balkan. The an- 
 cients regarded this reinge of mountains as one 
 of the highest with which they were acquainted. 
 Polybius, however, thought it inferior in eleva- 
 tion to the Alps, in which he was doubtless cor- 
 rect. It was reported, that from its summit 
 could be seen at once the Euxine, the Adriatic, 
 the Danube, and the Alps ; and it was m hopes 
 of beholding this extensive prospect, that Philip, 
 the last Macedonian king of that name, under- 
 took the expedition which is described in Livy. 
 Having set out from Stobi, and traversed the 
 country of the Maedi, and the desert tract which 
 lies beyond, he arrived on the seventh day at the 
 foot of the mountain. He was three days in 
 reaching the summit, after a difficult and toil- 
 some march. The weather, however, appears 
 to have been very unfavourable for the view, 
 and. after sacrificing on the mountain, Philip 
 and has retinue descended into the plain." 
 Cram. 
 
 Hal.e, the last town of Boeotia, situated at 
 the mouth of the river Platanius, which appears 
 to have separated Boeotia from the Opuntians. 
 " Plutarch informs us it was destroyed by Sylla 
 in the war with Mithridates. Its site is now oc- 
 cupied by the large village of Alachi, about four 
 -miles to the south-east of Talanti." Cram. 
 
 Hales, or Halesus, a river of Lydia, which 
 empties into the -^gean Sea near Colophon. It 
 was remarkable for the coldness of its waters. 
 Plin. — Paus. 
 
 Haliacmon, a river of Macedonia, which 
 empties into the Thermaicus Sinus 10 or 12 
 miles from Methone. It is " a large and rapid 
 stream, descending from the chain of mountains 
 to which Ptolemy gives the name of Canalovii. 
 Scylax places it after Methone. The modern 
 name of this river is Jnidje-Carasou. or Jeni- 
 cora, according to Dr. Brown, who must have 
 crossed it in its course through Elimea. Dr. 
 Clarke calls it Inje-Mauro. Caesar, in describing 
 some military operations in the vicinity of this 
 river, between a part of his army under Domi- 
 tius and some troops of Pompey commanded by 
 Scipio, states that it formed the line of demarca- 
 tion between Macedonia and Thessaly." Cram. 
 
 Haliartus, a towTi of Boeotia, " situated, as 
 Strabo reports, on the shore of the Copaic lake, 
 and near the mouth of the Permessus, which 
 flows from Helicon. The epithet ofiroimvTa is 
 attached to this city by Homer, from the nume- 
 rous meadows and marshes in its vicinity on the 
 side of Orchomenus. Pausanias affirms that 
 Haliartus was the only Boeotian city which did 
 not favour the Persians ; for which reason its 
 territory was ravaged with fire and sword by 
 their army. In the war carried on against the 
 Thebans by the Lacedaemonians, Lysander, 
 who commanded a body of the latter, was slain 
 in an engagement which took place under the 
 
 Part I.— S 
 
 [Walls of Haliartus, and was interred there, as 
 we learn from Pausanias. Haliartus, having 
 favoured the cause of Perseus, king of Macedon, 
 was besieged by the Romans under the com- 
 mand of the praetor Lucretius, and, though ob- 
 stinately defended, was taken b}'- assault, sack- 
 ed, and entirely destroyed, the inhabitants being 
 sold, and their territory given up to the Athe- 
 nians. ' The remains of Haliartus,' according 
 to Dodwell, ' are situated about fifteen miles 
 from Libadea, and at nearly an equal distance 
 from Thebes. The place is now^ called ikZt/tro- 
 koura. The acropolis occupies a low and ob- 
 long hill, one side of which rises from a fine 
 pastural plain , the other from tb e marshes where 
 the canes grew with which the ancients made 
 darts and musical pipes. Most of the walls 
 which remain are probably posterior to the time 
 of Homer,'but prior to its capture by the Ro- 
 mans. There are also a few remains of the se- 
 cond and third styles of masonry. At the foot 
 of the acropolis are some sepulchral kryptae cut 
 in the rock, similar to those at Delphi.' Sir. W. 
 Gell says, ' The ruins of Haliartus lie just be- 
 low the village of Mazi, on the road from 
 Thebes to Lebadia. It stood on a rocky emi- 
 nence be^R'een the foot of mount Libethrius, a 
 branch of Helicon, and the lake, and in fact 
 defended a narrow pass.' " Cram. 
 
 H^LiCARNAssus, a towTi of Dotis in Caria, 
 situated on the southern side of the peninsula 
 which lay between the lasius and Ceramicus 
 Sinus. " It was of Greek foundation^ and be- 
 came the residence of the kings of Caria; and 
 was ornamented v/ith a superb tomb, erected by 
 Artemisia to king Mausolus, her husband. The 
 birth of Herodotus, the most ancient of the 
 Greek historians, and also of Dionysius of Ha- 
 licamassus, and the defence made by this city 
 when besieged by Alexander, are circumstances 
 which contribute to its fame. On the spot that 
 it occupied is a castle, named Bodroun, which 
 appears to have been erected by the knights of 
 Malta, whose possessions extended on the coasts 
 of the continent as well as to the adjacent isles." 
 D'Anville. 
 
 Halmydessus, a town of Thrace, on the 
 Euxine Sea south of Thjmias. Mela, 2, c. 2. 
 
 Halone, an island of Propontis, opposite 
 Cyzictis, now Aloni. 
 
 Halonnesus, an island at the bottom of the 
 Sinus Thermaicus. 
 
 Halts, now the Kizil-Ermak, or Red River. 
 In regard to length, this may be considered one 
 of the principal rivers of the lesser Asia, while 
 the circumstances with which it is connected 
 in history render it among the most celebrated. 
 It formed the western boundary of the Lydian 
 territory when, under Croesus, the kingdom of 
 Lydia was erected into one of the powerful na- 
 tions of the earth. The Halys arose at its most 
 distant source towards the borders of Armenia 
 Minor, and flowed through the whole length of 
 Cappadocia from east to west. On the borders 
 of Phrygia it received the waters of its southern 
 branch, which came from the Taurus mountains 
 on the confines of Cilicia, betv\^een Lycaonia 
 and Cataonia. Here was formed the great bend 
 from which it inclines for the remainder of its 
 course to the north-east, and passing through 
 Galatia between the Tectosages and the Troc- 
 mi, and afterwards dividing Paphlagonia from 
 137 
 
HA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HE 
 
 Pontus, discharges itself into the Euxine by the 
 Amisenus Sinus north of the town of Amisus. 
 The passage of this river was fatal to Croesus 
 and the empire of the Lydians, as predicted in 
 ambiguous terms by the oracle, 
 
 ^poKTog ' A.\vv Sict^as jxeya'^rjv ap^r/v SiaXvast. 
 If Cr(ESUs passes over the Halys, he shall destroy 
 a great empire. 
 
 That empire was his own. Cic. de Div. 2, c. 
 56. — Ciirt. 4, c. 11. — Strab. 12. — Diican. 3, v, 
 212.—Herodot. 1, c. 28. 
 
 Halyzia, a town of Epirus, near the Ache- 
 lous, where the Athenians obtained a naval 
 victory over the Lacedasmonians. 
 
 Ham^, a town of Campania, near Cumse. 
 Liv. 23, c. 25. 
 
 Hammon. The temple of the Libyan Jove was 
 called, together with the surrounding tract of 
 habitable country, Hammonia, and the temple 
 was known to antiquity as the temple of Jupiter 
 Hammon. This sacred edifice, hardly less vene- 
 rable now than revered in the ages in which its 
 deity received a universal worship, was situated 
 in one of the smaller Oases of the Libyan desert. 
 This Oasis, called the Oasis of Siwah, the most 
 northern of the four, is situate in lat. 29° 12' N. 
 and in long 26° 6 E. and still bears the ruins of 
 the oracle and shrine to which it owes its fame. 
 This location will bring it within the district 
 called Marmarica, between the Nobatae and Ga- 
 ramantes on the south, the Egyptians on the 
 east, and having on the west the extensive re- 
 gion of Libya interior. The antiquity of this 
 famous oracle remounts to an impenetrable ob- 
 scurity ; and we rather conclude from the fables 
 relating and referred to it, that, even in the time 
 of its earliest chroniclers, its origin was wrapt 
 in fable and in fiction, than attempt to deduce 
 from them a history of its foundation and pro- 
 gress in notoriety and importance. Not only 
 the surrounding countries of Africa, but the Ita- 
 lians and Greeks paid also to this oracle a defe- 
 rence and a respect unsurpassed by the venera- 
 tion with which they consulted the oracular 
 deities of Delphi and Dodona; and though, 
 when the Romans, masters of the world, began 
 to neglect all foreign auguries and prophecies 
 ,for those of their Sybils and Etruscan diviners, 
 the respect of this oracle diminished sensibly ; 
 yet even in the 5th century of our era it was not 
 unusual to anticipate the fates by consultation 
 of the Libyan Jupiter. In connexion with the 
 temple of Hammon, the ancients also mentioned 
 a fountain, beside which was a smaller temple 
 or sanctuary. The peculiar properties of the 
 waters of this fountain, or marsh as it is now 
 represented, form likewise in their writings a 
 matter of long disquisition, and the particular 
 account of Herodotus has been confirmed by the 
 discoveries of modern travellers. This was the 
 Fons Soils, which at night was warrrier than 
 during the day, and which sent forth in the 
 morning a vapour or steam, that, appearing to 
 the ancients miraculous, is now understood to be 
 but an indication and effect of the diminished 
 temperature of the atmosphere. The extent of 
 this little sheet of Avater is now about ninety 
 b)'' sixty feet, and its waters are remarkably 
 transparent and pure, but its properties, peculiar 
 as they were considered in antiquity, have ceeised 
 to be an object of admiration siiice philosophy 
 138 
 
 has ascertained their cause, and observation has 
 found them in numberless other wells or pools of 
 the same or similar regions. It must be under- 
 stood, that though the best authorities concur in 
 fixing here the temple of Jupiter Hammon, there 
 are many who assign it to some of the other 
 Oases which lie scattered m the yqsI deserts of 
 this barren continent. 
 
 Harma, a place near Phyle, in the vicinity 
 of Athens. Some superstition was connected 
 with this place, and it was usual, without any 
 specific occasion, to despatch an embassy to the 
 Delphic oracle, and to consult the Pythia when- 
 ever it was observed to lighten in the direction 
 of this spot. 
 
 Harudes, a people of Germany. They 
 have been assigned by modern writers to a va- 
 riety of regions in the vicinity of the sources of 
 the Rhine and the Danube; they seem, how- 
 ever, to have belonged to that district which lay 
 between the countries of the Marcomanni and 
 the Narisci, in the circle of Swabia. Cces. G. 
 
 I, c. 31. 
 
 Hebrus, now Maritza, so called from the 
 marshy ground through which it flows before 
 precipitating itself into the ^gean Sea. This 
 river, among the secondary streams of Europe 
 one of the most considerable, takes- its origm 
 among the mountains that separated Thrace 
 from the Danubian countries, a part of the Hae- 
 mus range, and after draining the greater por- 
 tion of the ancient Thrace, Roumelia^ it escapes 
 through the only outlet by which the waters of 
 this region are enabled to pass into the reser- 
 voir of the tribute paid by the eastern countries 
 of Greece to the Mediterranean. The mouth 
 of the Hebrus was near the city of JEnos. One 
 great bend distinguishes the course of this river, 
 which, from being directly south-east, abruptly 
 turns to the south with a western inclination, 
 and pierces the hills of Rhodope in its way to 
 the .-^gean. Exactly at this bend is situate 
 the town of Adrian ople. From the north the 
 Tonzus, from the east the Agrianes, and from 
 the west the Ardiscus, constitute the main 
 branches of this important stream. The He- 
 brus was supposed to roll its waters upon golden 
 sands. It received its name from Hebrus, son 
 of Cassander, a king of Thrace, who was said 
 to have drowned himself there. Mela, 2, c. 2. 
 —Strah. l.— Virg. JEn. 4, v. A%^.— Ovid. Met. 
 
 II, V. 50. 
 
 HecatjE Fanum, a celebrated temple, sacred 
 to Hecate, at Stratonice in Caria. Strab. 14. 
 
 Hecatompolis, an epithet given to Crete, 
 from the hundred cities which it once contained. 
 
 Hecatompylos, an epithet applied to Thebes 
 in Egypt on account of its hundred gates. Am- 
 
 mian. 22, c. 16. Also the capital of Parthia 
 
 in the reign of the Arsacides. Ptol. 6, c. 5. — 
 Strab. n.—Plin. 6, c. 15 and 25. " Demegan," 
 says D'Anville, " the principal city of a country 
 named now Comis, and heretofore Comisene, is 
 cited under the name of Hecaton-pylos, which, 
 referring to the time of the Greek domination 
 in these provinces, signifies the Hundred Gates; 
 a figurative expression alluding to the numerous 
 routes which diverge from it to the circumja- 
 cent country. And when it is found in Ptolemy 
 that this extremity of Media was that called 
 Parthia, having Hecatonpylos for its capital, it 
 must be understood of the time when a people 
 
HE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HE 
 
 hitherto but inconsiderable had extended their 
 limits far and wide by the prevailiag fortune of 
 their arms. 
 
 HECATONNEsi, now Musco Nisi, or the Isles 
 of Mice, a group of small islands lying between 
 Lesbos and the coast of ^olia. 
 
 HficuBiG Sepulchrum, a promontory of 
 Thrace. 
 
 Hedui, a people of Gaul, among the richest 
 and most powerful of that nation. They were 
 surrounded by the Lingones on the north, the 
 Sequani on the east, the Arverniand Allobroges 
 on the south, and the Senones and Bituriges 
 upon the west, leaving to them a great part of 
 the old dukedom of Burgundy and a portion of 
 the provinces of Nivernois, Bourbonois, and 
 Franche Compte. The Hedui or ^Edui were 
 always in the interests of Rome, and called by 
 the senate, among the earliest of the Gallic peo- 
 ple who received that protecting distinction, the 
 friend of the Roman people. Their country, 
 which is now planted with the vine, was once 
 extremely fertile in gram, and served the Roman 
 armies in their Gallic wars as an inexhaustible 
 granary. So populous was this part of Gaul, 
 that in the war excited by Vircingetorix against 
 the Romans, the ^dui furnished to the former 
 upwards of 35,000 fighting men. Their prin- 
 cipal cities were Bibracte, Cabillonum, Matisco, 
 Decetia, and Noviodunum ad Ligerim. On a 
 later division of the Gallic provinces, the coun- 
 try of the jEdui was formed into the minor 
 province of Lugdunensis Prima, or the First 
 lAonois. 
 
 Hedyliom, a place near mount Hedylius in 
 Boeotia, not farfromChasronea, onthe confines 
 of Phocis. Near this spot the Bosotians, in the 
 Social War, were defeated by the Phocians. 
 • Helice. " In the vicinity of Bura formerly 
 stood Helice, one of the chief cities of Achaia, 
 and celebrated for the temple and worship of 
 Neptune, thence surnamed Heliconius. It was 
 here that the general meeting of the lonians was 
 convened, whilst yet in the possession of iEgi- 
 alus ; and the festival which then took place, is 
 supposed to have resembled that of the Panio- 
 nia, which they instituted afterwards in Asia 
 Minor. A prodigious influx of the sea, caused 
 by a violent earthquake, overwhelmed and com- 
 pletely destroyed Helice, two years before the 
 battle of Leuctra, in the fourth year of the 101st 
 Olympiad, or 373 B. C. The details of this 
 catastrophe will be found in Pausanias and 
 jElian. It was said that some vestiges of the 
 submerged city were to be seen long after the 
 terrible event had taken place. Eratosthenes, 
 as Strabo reports, beheld the site of this ancient 
 town, and he was assured by mariners that the 
 bronze statute of Neptune was still visible be- 
 neath the waters, holding an hippocampe or sea- 
 horse in his hand, and that it formed a dangerous 
 shoal for their vessels. Heraclides of Pontus 
 related, that this disaster, which took place in 
 his time, occurred during the night ; the town, 
 and all that lay between it and the sea, a dis- 
 tance of twelve stadia, being inundated in an 
 instant; 2000 workmen were afterwards sent 
 by the Achaeans to recover the dead bodies, but 
 without success. The same writer affirmed, 
 that this inundation was commonly attributed to 
 divine venereance, in consequence of the inha- 
 bitants of Helice having obstinatelv refused to 
 
 deliver up the statue of Neptune and a model of 
 the temple to the lonians at the request of the 
 latter, after they had seuled in Asia Minor. Se- 
 neca affirms, that Callisthenes the philosopher, 
 who Avas put to death by order of Alexander, 
 wrote a voluminous work on the destruction of 
 Bura and Helice. Pausanias informs us, that 
 there was still a small village of the same name 
 close to the sea, and forty stadia from MgrniaP 
 Cram. 
 
 Helicon mons. '• Above Thisbe, in Boeotia, 
 rises Helicon, now Palceovouni or Zagora, so 
 famed in antiquity as the seat of Apollo and the 
 Muses, and sung by poets of every age from the 
 days of Orpheus to the present time. Pausa- 
 nias ascribes the worship of the Muses to the 
 Thracian Pieres, and in this respect his testi- 
 mony is in unison with that of Strabo, who con- 
 ceives that these were a tribe of the same people 
 who once occupied Macedonian Pieria, and who 
 transferred from thence the names of Libethra, 
 Pimplea, and the Pierides, to the dells of Heli- 
 con. Strabo affirms that Helicon nearly equals in 
 height mount Parnassus, and retains its snows 
 during a great part of the year. Pausanias ob- 
 serves, that no mountain in Greece produces 
 such a variety of plants and shrubs, though 
 none of a poisonous nature; on the contrary, 
 several have the property of counteracting the 
 effects produced by the sting or bite of venomous 
 reptiles. On the summit was the grove of the 
 Muses, adorned with several statues, described 
 by Pausanias, and a little below was the foun- 
 tain of Aganippe. The source Hippocrene 
 was about twenty stadia above the grove ; it is 
 said to have burst forth when Pegasus struck 
 his hoof into the ground. These two springs 
 supplied the small rivers named Olmius and 
 Permessus, which, after uniting their waters, 
 flowed into the Copaic lake near Haliartus. 
 Pausanias calls the former Lemnus. Hesiod 
 makes mention of these his favourite haunts in 
 the opening of his Theogonia. The valleys of 
 Helicon are described by Wheler as green and 
 flowery in the spring ; and enlivened by pleas- 
 ing cascades and streams, and by fountains and 
 wells of clear water." Cram. 
 
 Heliopolis, I. a city of Egypt, with a temple 
 sacred to the sun. This place, which was ce- 
 lebrated as well for the worship of the ox Mne- 
 vis as of the sun, no longer existed in the time 
 of Strabo. Its name, as given above, is a trans- 
 lation of the Coptic denomination of On, which 
 signifies the sun. The site of this ancient city 
 has given rise to a difference of opinion between 
 able geographers. D'Anville says, " it was af- 
 terwards called by the Arabs Ain-shems, or the 
 Fountain of the Sun ; and it still preserves ves- 
 tiges in a place called Matarea, or Cool Wa- 
 ter." Matared is not far removed from the po- 
 sition of the Persian station, Babylon, now 
 forming a quarter of Old Cairo, and was there- 
 fore, according to D'Anville's account, without 
 the Delta. Chanssard, on the other hand, 
 places an inconsiderable city of the sun near 
 Matarea, and fixes the greater Heliopolis with- 
 in the Delta, near the apex, between the Se- 
 bennytic and Canopic branches of the Nile. In 
 the city were large houses appropriated to the 
 priests, who at first devoted themselves to as- 
 tronomy, but afterwards abandoned this pur- 
 suit in favour of sacrificial worship. Apart- 
 139 
 
HE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HE 
 
 ments were shown in these houses which had 
 been occupied by Plato and Eudoxus. The 
 observatory of Eudoxus was in the vicinity of 
 
 the town. II. A town of Ceelosyria, in the 
 
 valley called Anion, between the parallel ridges 
 of Libanus and Anti-Libanus. This city still 
 preserves, under the name of Baalbek or Bal- 
 dec, a magnificent temple, dedicated to the divi- 
 nity, to which it owed its denomination both in 
 the Syriac and Greek." D'Anville. 
 
 Helisson, I. " a small but rapid river, which 
 rises in the eastern part of Arcadia, and after 
 traversing Megalopolis falls into the Alpheus a 
 little below the city." 11. A town of Arca- 
 dia, situated in the Msenalian plains, near the 
 source of the Helisson. It was, at length, in- 
 cluded in the Megalopolitan territory, and was 
 taken by the Lacedaemonians in one of their 
 wars with the Arcadians. Cram. 
 
 Hellas. Vid. Grcecia. 
 
 Hellenes, the inhabitants of Greece. Vid. 
 Grcecia. 
 
 Hellespontds, now the Dardanelles, a nar- 
 row strait between Asia and Europe, near the 
 Propontis, which received its name from Helle, 
 who was drowned there in her voyage to Col- 
 chis. [ Vid. Helle.] It is about sixty miles long, 
 and, in the broadest parts, the Asiatic coast is 
 about three miles distant from the European, 
 and only half a mile in the narrowest, accord- 
 ing to modern investigation ; so that people can 
 converse one with the other from the opposite 
 shores. It is celebrated for the love and death 
 of Leander, [ Vid. Hero,] and for the bridge of 
 boats which Xerxes built over it when he inva- 
 ded Greece. Strab. 13. — Plin. 8, c. 32. — Hero- 
 dot. 7, c. M.—Polyb.—Mela, 1, c. l.—Ptol. 5, 
 c.'a.— Ovid. Met. 13, V. Wl.—Liv. 31, c. 15, 1. 
 33, c. 33. 
 
 Hellopia Regio, a rich plain of Epirus, in 
 which Dodona was situated, as Hesiod tells us 
 in a beautiful passage of his poem called 'Horai, 
 transmitted to us by the scholiast of Sophocles. 
 " This champaign country," according to Cra- 
 mer, " would be that which surrounds Delvina- 
 kir and Deropuli, which modern travellers re- 
 present as extremely fertile and well cultivated. 
 Dr. Holland says, ' the vale of Deropuli is lux- 
 uriantly fertile in every part of its extent ; and 
 the industry of a numerous population has been 
 exerted in bringing it to a high state of cu'lture.' 
 A little below, he adds, ' this great vale is, per- 
 haps, the most populous district in Albania.' " 
 Cram. 
 
 Helorum, and Helorus, now Muri Ucci, a 
 town and river of Sicily, whose swollen waters 
 generally inundate the neighbouring country. 
 Virg. Mn. 3, v. mS.—Ital. 11, v. 270. 
 
 Helos, a place of Laconia. " It was eighty 
 stadia from Trinasus, on the left bank of the Eu- 
 rotas, and not far from the mouth of that river. 
 It was said to owe its origin to Helius the son of 
 Perseus. The inhabitants of this town, having 
 revolted against the Dorians and Heraclidse, 
 were reduced to slavery,and called Helots,which 
 name was afterwards extended to the various 
 people who were held in bondage by the Spar- 
 tans." Not only the servile offices in which 
 they were employed denoted their misery and 
 slavery, but they were obliged to wear peculiar 
 garments, which exposed them to greater con- 
 tempt and ridicule. Thev never were instruct- 
 140 
 
 ed in the liberal arts, and their cruel masters 
 often obliged them to drink to excess, to show 
 the free-born citizens of Sparta the beastliness 
 and disgrace of intoxication. They once every 
 year received a number of stripes, that by this 
 wanton flagellation they might recollect that 
 they were born and died slaves. In the Pelopon- 
 nesian war these miserable slaves behaved with 
 uncommon bravery, and were rewarded with 
 their liberty by the Lacedaemonians, and appear- 
 ed in the temples and at public shows with gar- 
 lands, and with every mark of festivity and tri- 
 umph. This exultation did not continue long, 
 and the sudden disappearance of the two thou- 
 sand manumitted slaves was attributed to the 
 inhumanity of the Lacedaemonians. Thucyd. 4. 
 — Pollux. 3, c. 8. — Strab. 8. — Plut. in L/yc. &c. 
 — Arist. Polit. 2. — Paus. Lacon. &c. " Po- 
 lybius says the district of Helos was the most 
 extensive and fertile part of Laconia. But the 
 coast was marshy, from which circumstance it 
 probably derived its name. In Strabo's time it 
 was only a village, and some years later Pau- 
 sanias informs us it was in ruins. In Lapie's 
 map the vestiges of Helos are placed at Tsyli, 
 about five miles from the Eurotas ; and Sir W. 
 Gell observes that" the marsh of Helos is to the 
 east of the mouth of that river." Cram. 
 
 Helots, the inhabitants of Helos. Vid. 
 Helos. 
 
 Helvetia, the eastern part of Celtica, sur- 
 rounded in the time of Coesar by the Rauraci, 
 Tulingi, and Latobrigi upon the north, the Sa- 
 runetes on the east, the Lepontii, Seduni, and 
 Nantuates on the south, and by the Sequani, 
 who were separated from them by mount Jura 
 on the west. Helvetia was at this period cir- 
 cumscribed within a narrow sphere between the 
 Alps, the Jura mountains, the Lacus Lemanus, 
 and the Lacus Brigantinus. Of the subdivi- 
 sions of Helvetia very little remains to be ob- 
 served, nor is it possible distinctly to define the 
 limits and extent of the four principal cantons 
 into which it is understood to have been divided. 
 The Tigurinus, however, is received as the 
 greatest, and the first, together with the Aven- 
 ticus, whose principal city of Aventicum may 
 pass for the capital of Helvetia. The Helvetii 
 were among the most warlike of the Gallic 
 tribes, and though there is little recorded history 
 of their achievements, we know that they were 
 long refractory, and that they with difficulty 
 submitted to receive the yoke of their Roman 
 conquerors. Cas. Bell. G. 1, &c. — Tacit. Hist. 
 1, c. 67 and 69. 
 
 Helvh, a people of Gallia Provincia, sepa- 
 rated by the mons Cebenna from the Velauni, 
 and having on the south the Arecomaci. Thus 
 situated, the Helvii must have occupied a por- 
 tion of the department of Arverche, in which 
 some vestiges are still to be found of their an- 
 cient capital. Alba Augusta, at a spot which, 
 in the name of Alps, still shows some traces of 
 its origin. This spot is in the immediate vicinity 
 of Viviers. Plin. 3, c. 4. 
 
 Heneti, a people of Paphlagonia, who are 
 said to have settled in Italy near the Adriatic 
 where they gave the name of Vemtia to their 
 habitations. Liv. 1, c. 1. — Eurip. 
 
 HENiocm, a people of Asiatic Sarmatia, near 
 Colchis, descended from Amphytus and Tele- 
 chius, the charioteers (jV'oxo') of Castor and 
 
HE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HE 
 
 Pollux, and thence called Lacedaemonii. Mela^ 
 1, c. 21.— Pater c. 2, c. ^O.—Flacc. 3, v. 270, 1. 
 6, V. 42. 
 
 Keptapylos, a surname of Thebes in Boeo- 
 tia, from its seven gates. 
 
 Heraclea, I. " situated between the Aciris 
 and Liris, was founded by the Tarentini after 
 the destruction of the ancient city of Siris, ^A■hich 
 stood at the mouth of the latter river, A. C. 428. 
 This city is rendered remarkable in history as 
 being the seat of the general council of the 
 Greek states. Alexander of Epirus is said to 
 have attempted to remove the assembly from the 
 territory of the Tarentines, who had given him 
 cause for displesLsure, to that of Thurii. Anti- 
 quaries seem agreed in fixing the site of this 
 town at Policoro, about three miles from the 
 mouth of the river Aciris, now Agri, where con- 
 siderable remains are yet visible." II. A city 
 
 in the territory of the L}Ticestae in Macedonia, 
 " surnamed L5^ncestis by Ptolemy, and which 
 we know stood on the Egnatian Way, both from 
 Polybius, as cited by Strabo, and also from the 
 Itineraries. The editor of the French Strabo 
 says, its ruins still retain the name of Erekli. 
 Stephanus speaks of a town called Lyncus ; 
 which is probably the same as Heraclea, unless 
 he has mistaken the name of the district for that 
 
 of a town." Cram. III. " The principal 
 
 town of the Sinti was Heraclea, surnamed Sin- 
 tice, by way of distinction, or Heraclea ex Sin- 
 tiis. The same historian states, that Demetrius, 
 the son of Philip, was here imprisoned and 
 murdered. Heraclea is also mentioned by Pliny 
 and Ptolemy. Mannert thinks it is the same 
 as the Heraclea built by Amyntas, brother of 
 Philip, according to Steph. Byz. The Table 
 Itinerary assigns a distance offifty miles between 
 Philippi and Heraclea Sintica : we know also 
 from Hierocles that it was situated near the 
 Strymon, as he terms it Heraclea Strymonis." 
 
 Cram. IV. A town in the territory of Tra- 
 
 chis in Thessaly, built by a colony of Lacedae- 
 monians, aided by the Trachinians. It was 
 " distant about sixty stadia from Thermopylae 
 and twenty from the sea. Its distance from 
 Trachin was only six stadia. The jealousy of 
 ihe neighbouring Thessalian tribes led them fre- 
 quently to take up arms against the rising colo- 
 ny, by which its prosperity was so much im- 
 paired, that the Lacedaemonians were more than 
 once compelled lo send reinforcements to its 
 support. On one occasion the Heracleans were 
 assisted by the Boeotians. A sedition having 
 arisen within the cit}--, it was quelled by Eripi- 
 das, a Lacedaemonian commander, who made 
 war upon and expelled the CEtseans, who were 
 the constant enemies of the Heracleans. These 
 retired into Bceotia ; and at their instigation the 
 Boeotians seized upon Heraclea, and restored 
 the CEtaeans and Trachinians, who had also 
 been ejected by the Lacedaemonians. Xenophon 
 reports that the inhabitants of Heraclea were 
 again defeated in a severe engagement with the 
 CEtaeans, in consequence of their having been 
 deserted by their allies, the Achaeans of Phthia. 
 Several years after, the same historian relates, 
 that this city was occupied by Jason of Pherae, 
 "who caused the walls to be pulled down. He- 
 raclea, however, again rose from its ruins, and 
 became a flourishing city under the jEtolians, 
 who sometimes held their general council within 
 
 its walls. According to Livy, the city stood 
 in a plain, but the Acropolis was on a hill of 
 very difhcult access. After the defeat of Anti- 
 ochus at Thermop)dce it was besieged by the 
 Roman consul, Acilius Glabrio, who took it by 
 assault. Sir W. Gell observed ' the vestiges of 
 the cit5r of Heraclea on a high flat, on the roots 
 of mount CEta. Left of these, on a lofty rock, 
 the citadel of Trachis, of which some of the 
 walls are destroyed by the fall of the rock on 
 which they were placed. Hence the views of 
 the pass of Thermopyte and the vale of the 
 
 Sperchius are most magnificent.' " Cram. 
 
 V. A towTi in Thrace, situated on the Propon- 
 tis, near the extremity of the Macrontichos. 
 Its first name was Perinthus, which was changed 
 to Heraclea, whence is derived the name ^r^/rZi, 
 applied to the ruins that now occupy the site of 
 the ancient city. " Byzantium, become Con- 
 stantinople, caused the decay of Heraclea,whose 
 see, notwithstanding, enjoys the pre-eminence 
 of metropolitan in the province distinguished in 
 Thrace by the title of Europa." D'Anville. 
 ■VI. PoNTiCA, a city of Bithynia, situated 
 
 on the bend, which forms a gulf terminated on 
 the north by the Acherusian Chersonese. Ac- 
 cording to Mela this city was founded by the 
 Argive Hercules, who was said to have dragged 
 Cerberus from hell through a cavern in the pro- 
 montory^ at the extremity of the peninsula above- 
 mentioned. Strabo, on the other hand, says 
 that the Milesians first founded Heraclea, while 
 Xenophon makes it a colony of Megara." 3Jela, 
 
 1, 19.— Strab. 12. VIT. Another in Syria. 
 
 VIII. Another in Chersonesus Taurica. 
 
 -IX. Another in Thrace, and three in 
 
 Egypt, &c. There were no less than forty cities 
 of that name in different parts of the world, all 
 built in honour of Hercules, whence the name 
 is derived. 
 
 Heracleum, or Heraclea, a town of Ma- 
 cedonia, situated " five males beyond Phila, and 
 half way between Dium ana Tempe. It pro- 
 bably stood on the site of Litochori, midway 
 between the mouth of the Peneus and Standia, 
 which occupies the site of Dium, and five miles 
 from Platamona or Phila. Li\y informs us it 
 was built on a rock which overhung a river. 
 Scylax describes Heracleum as the first town of 
 Macedonia after crossing the Peneus ; but we 
 must remember that at this period Phila did not 
 exist. Heracleum was taken in a remarkable 
 manner by the Romans in the war with Perseus, 
 as related by Liv}^ Having assailed the walls 
 under cover of the manoeuvre called testudo, they 
 succeeded so well with the lower fortifications, 
 that they were induced to employ the same 
 means against the loftier and more difficult 
 works ; raising, therefore, the testudo to an ele- 
 vation which overtopped the walls, the Romans 
 drove the garrison from the ramparts and cap- 
 tured the town." Cram. 
 
 Her^a, a towTi of Arcadia, " was placed on 
 the slope of a hill rising gently above the right 
 bank of the Alpheus, and near the frontier of 
 Elis, which frequently disputed its possession 
 with Arcadia. Before the Cleomenic war, this 
 town had joined the Achaean league, but was 
 then taken by the ^tolians and recaptured by 
 Antigonus Doson, who restored it to the Achae- 
 ans. In Sirabo's time, Hei'aea was greatly re- 
 duced ; but when Pausanias visited Arcadia it 
 141 
 
HE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HE 
 
 appears to have recovered from this state of 
 decay, since he speaks of baths, and of planta- 
 tions of myrtles and other trees along the Al- 
 pheus; he also mentions several temples, of 
 which two were sacred to Bacchus and one to 
 Pan, That of Juno was in ruins. Stephanus 
 remarks that this town was also known by the 
 name of Sologorgus. ' Its site is now occupied 
 by the village of Agiani^ which stands on a 
 
 Eretty eminence projecting from the hills which 
 ound the vale of the Alpheus on the north. 
 The city appears to have been very respectable, 
 though from the soil being cultivated its remains 
 are few; buildings have here existed of the 
 Doric order, but the columns now on the spot 
 do not exceed a diameter of eighteen inches.' " 
 Cram. 
 
 Her^um, a temple and grove of Juno, situate 
 between Argos and Mycenae. 
 
 Herculaneum, a town of Campania, swal- 
 lowed up with Pompeii, by an earthquake pro- 
 duced from an eruption of mount Vesuvius, 
 August 24th, A. D. 79, in the reign of Titus, 
 After being buried under the lava for more than 
 1600 years, these famous cities were discovered 
 in the beginning of the present century ; Her- 
 culaneum in 1713, about 24 feet under ground, 
 by labourers digging for a well, and Pompeii, 
 40 years after, about 12 feet below the surface, 
 and from the houses and the streets, which in 
 a great measure remain still perfect, have been 
 draAvn busts, statues, manuscripts, paintings, 
 and utensils, which do not a little contribute to 
 enlarge our notions concerning the ancients, 
 and develope many classical obscurities. The 
 valuable antiquities, so miraculously recovered. 
 are preserved in the museum of Portici, a small 
 town in the neighbourhood, and the engravings, 
 «&c. ably taken from them, have been munifi- 
 cently presented to the different learned bodies 
 of Europe. " Cluverius was right in his cor- 
 rection of the Tabula Theodosiana, which 
 reckoned twelve miles between this place and 
 Neapolis, instead of six, though he removed it 
 too far from Portici when he assigned to it the 
 position of Torre del Greco. Nothing is kno\ATi 
 respecting the origin of Herculaneum, except 
 that fabulous accounts ascribed its foundation 
 to Hercules on his return from Spain. It may 
 be inferred, however, from a passage in Strabo, 
 that this town was of great antiquity. At first 
 it was only a fortress, which was successively 
 occupied by the Osci, Tyrrheni, Pelasgi, Sam- 
 nites, and lastly by the Romans. Being situated 
 close to the sea, on elevated ground, it was ex- 
 posed to the south-west wind, and from that 
 circumstance was reckoned particularly heal- 
 thy. We learn from Velleius Paterculus, that 
 Herculaneum suffered considerably during the 
 civil wars. This town is mentioned also by 
 Mela and by Sisenna, a more ancient writer 
 than any of the former ; he is quoted by Nonius 
 Marcellus. Ovid likewise notices it under the 
 name of ' Urbem Herculeam.' It is probable 
 that the subversion of this town was not sudden, 
 but progressive, since Seneca mentions a par- 
 tial demolition which it sustained from an 
 earthquake." Cramer. — Seneca. Nat. Q. 6, c. 
 1 and 26.— Cic. Att. 7, ep. Z.—Mela, 2, c. 4.— 
 Paterc. 2, c. 16. 
 
 Hercui.eum promontorium, now Capo Spar- 
 tivento. the most southern angle of Italy to 
 142 
 
 the east. Freitjm, the straits of Gibraltar. 
 
 Herculis columns. Vid. Columnce Hercu- 
 
 lis. Monaeci Portus, now Monaco, a port 
 
 town of Genoa. Tacit. H. 3, c. 42. — iMcan. 1, 
 
 V. 405. — Virg. uEn. 6, v. 830. Labronis vel 
 
 Liburni Portus, a sea-port town of Etruria, now 
 
 Leghorn. Insulae, two islands near Sardinia. 
 
 Plin. 3, c. 7. Portus, a sea-port of the Brutii, 
 
 on the western coast. A small island on the 
 
 coast of Spain, called also Scombraria, from the 
 tunny fish {Scomoros) caught there. Strab. 3. 
 
 Hercyne, a river of Boeotia, which " took 
 its rise near the town of Lebadea, in a cave, 
 from whence issued two springs, called Lethe 
 and Mnemosyne, which, uniting, formed the 
 stream in question. It is now called the river 
 of Libadia. ' The sacred fountain,' says Dod- 
 well, ' issues from the rock by ten small spouts ; 
 the water is extremely cold and clear. On the 
 opposite side of the channel is the source of the 
 other fount, the water of which, though not 
 warm, is of a much higher temperature than 
 that of the other spring ; it flows copiously from 
 the rock. The two springs, blending their wa- 
 ters, pass under a modern bridge, and immedi- 
 ately form a rapid stream, the ancient Hercyne. 
 In its way through the town it turns several 
 mills ; and, after a course of a few miles, enters 
 the Copaic lake.' " Cram 
 
 Hercynia siLVA, a forest of Germany, call- 
 ed by Ptolemy, Eratosthenes, and other Greek 
 writers, Orcynium, " so vast, that it seemed to 
 cover the whole country, whose ancient condi- 
 tion might well have merited the description 
 that Tacitus has given of it, however inapplic- 
 able to its present state. We must add that 
 Hercynia is a generic term, there being several 
 places in Germany named der Hartz : and if 
 there be found other names of forests, as that of 
 Gabreta Silva, they are proper only to parts of 
 this immense continuity of wood, which extend- 
 ed from the banks of the Rhine to the limits of 
 Sarmatia and Dacia." {D'Anville.) Caesar, in 
 his description of this celebrated forest, says 
 that its breadth was such that it was nine days' 
 march across it ; while its length had not yet 
 been ascertained even by those who had travel- 
 led through it uninterruptedly for 60 days. He 
 mentions that report assigned to it several spe- 
 cies of animals no where else to be found. B. 
 G. 6, 25. 
 
 Hercynh montes. These mountains re- 
 ceived their name from the immense forest 
 which is described in the article above, and 
 which covered the sides and summits of that 
 range of mountains which may be distinguished 
 from the Alpine chain by the name of Hercy- 
 nio-Ca^pathian mountains. We extract from 
 Malte-Brun the following account of this range: 
 " The great plain of the Danube, or the boun- 
 dary of the Alpine range, is in several places so 
 much confined, that the Alps appear to be con- 
 nected with the Hercynio-Carpathian moun- 
 tains in many parts of Austria. Although se- 
 parated by the higher plains of Bavaria, the 
 mountains of the Black Forest, near the sources 
 of the Danube, connect the two ranges, and a 
 junction is also marked b)'- the falls of the 
 Rhine. The Hercynio-Carpathian mountains 
 are bounded on the west by the course of the 
 Rhine, by the valley of the Danube on the south, 
 and the 'Dniester on the east. From their 
 
HE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HE 
 
 northern declivities descend all the rivers which 
 water the plains of Poland, Prussia, and north- 
 ern Germany. The Hercynian and Carpathian 
 mountaiDS rise above the Sarmatian and Teu- 
 tonic plains, but their summits cannot be com- 
 pared with the majestic heights of the Alps. 
 Considered in this point of view, they appear 
 to be the appendage of a greater range, and to 
 form the northern extremity of the Alps and 
 the counterpart of the Appenines. But the great 
 difference between the Herc)Tiio-Carpathian 
 chain and the Appenines, consists m the latter 
 being very distinctly separated from the Alps 
 by the deep valley of the Po, and the Adriatic, 
 while the valley of the Danube is less excavated, 
 and confined in its upper part, as has been al- 
 ready remarked, by the branches of the eastern 
 Alps and the mountains of Bohemia. The 
 mountains connected with the Alps on the west, 
 are united with the Hercynian chain, not only 
 by the Black Forest, but by the continuation 
 of the Vosges in the neighbourhood of Bingen. 
 There is a more obvious difference between 
 the Appenines and the Hercynio-Carpathian 
 range ; the first are a continuous and regular 
 chain, and the others, if correctly observed, seem 
 to form a series of lofty plains, on which several 
 small chains rise, and although their summits 
 are evidently separated , all of them are supported 
 on a common base. This table land, crowned 
 with mountains, inclines to the north and the 
 north-east. That fact cannot be disputed, it is 
 proved by the course of the Vistula, the Oder, 
 and the Elbe ; but local irregularities are occa- 
 sioned by several chains which rest on these 
 elevated plains. Thus the Erze-Gebirge in Sax- 
 ony terminated in rapid declivities towards Bo- 
 hemia, and appear to interrupt the general in- 
 clination." 
 
 Herdonia, a town of Apulia, " now Ordo- 
 na, stood on a branch of the Appian "Way, and 
 about twelve miles to the east of JEca. hivj 
 states that this town witnessed the defeat of the 
 Roman forces in two successive years, when 
 they were commanded on both occasions by 
 two prsetors named Fulvius. After the last en- 
 gagement, Hannibal is said to have removed the 
 inhabitants of Herdonia from that place, and 
 to have destroyed it by fire. It must, however, 
 have risen afterwards from this state of ruin, 
 since we find it mentioned as a colony by Fron- 
 tinus, under the corrupt name of Ardona. Stra- 
 bo calls it Cerdonia, and places it on the conti- 
 nuation of the Via Egnatia, between Canusium 
 and Beneventum. It is also named by Ptolemy 
 and Silius Italicus." Cram. 
 
 HERI.E, a gate of Athens. Vid. Athence . 
 
 Hermjeum, a promontory of Lemnos, noticed 
 by JEschylus in the Agamemnon, and by So- 
 phocles in the Philoctetes. 
 
 Hermione, a town of Argolis, on its south- 
 ern coast, nearly opposite the island Hydrea. 
 " According to. Herodotus it was founded by 
 the Dryopes, wliom Hercules and the Melians 
 had expelled from the banks of the Sperchius 
 and the valleys of GEta. It sent three ships 
 to Salamis and 300 soldiers to Platcea. The 
 Athenians ravaged the Hermionian territory' 
 during the Peloponnesian war. Xeno, tyrant 
 of Hermione, after the capture of Acrocorinthus 
 by Aratus, voluntarily relinquished his power, 
 and joined the Achaean league. Pausanias 
 
 I describes this city as situated on a hill of mo- 
 derate height, and surrounded by walls. It 
 was embellished by numerous buildings, several 
 of which contained statues worthy of notice. 
 The temple of Venus Pontia is first mentioned 
 by that ancient writer. The statue was of 
 white marble, and colossal in its proportions. 
 He also points out the temple of Bacchus Mela- 
 neegis, in whose honour contests were yearly 
 held in music, diving, and rowing ; the temples 
 of Diana, Iphigenia, and Vesta ; and those of 
 Apollo and Fortune. The statue of the latter 
 was colossal, and of Parian marble. Two 
 aqueducts supplied the town with water ; one 
 was of considerable antiquity, the other modem. 
 The temple of Ceres, situated on the hill named 
 Pron, was said to have been erected by Clyme- 
 nus, son of Phoroneus, and his sister Chthonia, 
 Its sanctuaiy afforded an inviolable refuge to 
 suppliants, whence arose the proverb dib' Ep- 
 /((dv'jf, ' as safe an asylum as that of Hermione.' 
 The vestibule was adorned with the effigies of 
 the priestesses of the goddess. Opposite to this 
 edifice was a temple of Clymenus, by which 
 name Pausanias conceives Pluto to have been 
 designated. Not far from thence was a cave 
 supposed to communicate with the infernal re- 
 gions. It vras probably owing to this speedy 
 descent to Orcus that the Hermionians, as Stra- 
 bo informs us. omitted to put a piece of money 
 in the mouths of their dead. This ancient city 
 is noticed by Homer in the Catalogue. ^Lasus, 
 an early poet of some note, said to have been 
 the instructor of Pindar, was a native of Her- 
 mione. We are informed by Sir W. Gell, that 
 the ruins of Hermione are to be seen on the 
 promontory below Kastri, a toAvn inhabited by 
 Albanians nearly opposite to the island of Hy- 
 dra. The walls remain, and many foundations 
 of the temples. Pausanias affirms that Hermi- 
 one originally stood at a distance of four stadia 
 from the site it occupied in his day, and though 
 the inhabitants had long removed to the new 
 city, there yet remained several edifices to mark 
 the spot. The temple of Neptune was close to 
 the beach, and above it was that of Minerva, 
 with the stadium of the Tyndaridag. The grove 
 of the Graces, the temples of Minerva, of the 
 Sun, and of Isis and Serapis, also subsisted, 
 and were still frequented by the Hermionians. 
 The temple of Ceres Thermasia was placed at 
 the extremity of the territory^ of the city towards 
 Troezene." Cram. 
 
 HsRivnoNEs, a people of Germany, whom 
 Mela places in the remotest parts of that coun- 
 tiy, that is to say, along the Vistula, on the bor- 
 ders of Sarmatia. In Tacitus Herrainones is 
 generally read, for which Cluverius incorrectly 
 substitutes Helleviones. The Helleviones and 
 Hermiones were both distinct tribes of the Sue- 
 vie family; although Pliny makes Hermiones, 
 and not Suevi, the generic term. (For the po- 
 sition of the Hermiones according to the geo- 
 graphy of Pliny, see Germayna.) Tacitus dis- 
 tinguishes theHelleviones, under the name of 
 Helvecones, from the Hermiones. Great con- 
 fusion arises in relation to the barbarian nations, 
 from the various forms under which their 
 names are presented by different authors. Thus 
 the same people are stvled Hermiones, Herme- 
 chiones, Hermechii. Hormechii, and Hermi- 
 nones. Mela, 3, 3, 46. and Vosa. ad loc 
 143 
 
HE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HE 
 
 Hermionicus sinus, a bay on the southern 
 coast of Argolis, which took its name from the 
 city Hermione. 
 
 Hbrmon, a part of the range of mount Li- 
 banus, at the foot of which the Jordan takes its 
 ris e. The name itself means ' ' the highest part 
 of a mountain," and this ridge Avas the loftiest 
 of the range to which it belonged. The Sido- 
 nians called it Sirion, while the Amoriles styled 
 it Shenir ; both which names answer to the La- 
 tin lorica, " a breast-plate," referring, no doubt, 
 to the natural defence which the mountain af- 
 forded to the country. In like manner we find 
 a mountain in Magnesia called Gwpa^, which 
 means " a breast-plate ;" and a part of the Alps, 
 which received the name of Brennus, derived 
 from Bren or Bryn, the old German for " a hel- 
 met." Deuteronomy, 3, 9. — Rosenmuller, ad loc. 
 — Heylin. 
 
 Hermopolis, a town of the Delta in Egypt, 
 " with the qualification of Parva to distinguish 
 it from one in the Heptanomis. It accords with 
 
 the position of Demenhury " The position 
 
 of Hermopolis Magna, or the Great City of 
 Mercury, is well known to be that retained by 
 Ashmunein ; which, if a tradition of the coun- 
 try may be credited, owes this name to Ishmim, 
 son of Mizraim, the ancestor of the ^Egyptian 
 nation." This city was in the Heptanomis, on 
 the western bank of the Nile. D'Anville. 
 
 Hkrmunduri, a people of Germany, subdued 
 by Aurelius. They were at the north of the 
 Danube, and were considered by Tacitus as a 
 tribe of the Suevi, but called, together with the 
 Suevi, Hermiones by Pliny. The Hermun- 
 duri, as a reward for their fidelity to their Ro- 
 man conquerors, were allowed peculiar commer- 
 cial privileges, being permitted to cross the Da- 
 nube, and trade in the Rhaetian province. The 
 Albis takes its rise in their territories. Tac. 
 Germ. 41. — Plin. 4, c. 14. — Tacit. Ann. 13, 
 extra.— Veil. 2, c. 106. 
 
 Hermus, a river of Asia Minor, whose sands, 
 according to the poets, were covered with gold. 
 It flows near Sardis, and receives the waters of 
 the Pactolus and Hyllus, after which it falls into 
 the Smyrnaeus Sinus, to the south of Smyrna. 
 It gives the name of Hermi-Campi to the plains 
 through which it flows between Smyrna and 
 Sardis. It is now called Kedous or Sarabat. 
 Virg. G. 2, v. yi.—Uican. 3, v. ^IQ.— Martial. 
 8, ep. IS.—Sil 1, V. 159.— Plin. 5, c. 29. 
 
 Hernici, a people of Italy, who possessed 
 that portion of New Latium which bordered on 
 the Mqui and Marsi before it was included 
 within the Latin limits. " No description of 
 the character of this small tract of country is 
 equal to that which is conveyed by one line of 
 Virgil : 
 
 Quique altum Prceneste viri,quique arva Gahince. 
 Junonis, gelidumque Anienem, et roscida rivis 
 Hernica saza colunt. JEn. vii. 682. 
 
 It was maintained by some authors, that the 
 Hernici derived their name from the rocky na- 
 ture of their country, he ma, in the Sabine dia- 
 lect signifying a rock. Others were of opinion 
 that they were so called from Hernicus, a Pe- 
 lasgic chief; and Macrobius thinks Virgil al- 
 luded to that origin when he describes this peo- 
 ple as going to battle with one leg bare. The 
 former etymology, however, is more probable, 
 144 
 
 and would lead us also to infer, that the Herni- 
 ci, as well as the Mqui and Marsi, were de- 
 scended from the Sabines, or generally from the 
 Oscan race. There is nothing in the history of 
 this petty nation which possesses any peculiar 
 interest, or distinguishes them from their equally 
 hardy and warlike neighbours. It is merely an 
 account of the same ineffectual struggle to re- 
 sist the systematic and overwhelming prepon- 
 derance of Rome, and of the same final submis- 
 sion to her transcendent genius and fortune. It 
 may be remarked, that it was upon the occasion 
 of a debate on the division of some lands con- 
 quered from the Hernici that the celebrated 
 Agrarian law was first brought forward, A. U. 
 C. 268. The last effort made by this people to 
 assert their independence was about the year 
 447 U. C. ; but it was neither long nor vigo- 
 rous, though resolved upon unanimously by a 
 general council of all their cities." Cram. 
 
 Heroopolis, " from which one of the creeks 
 of the Arabic gulf was called Heroopolites, is 
 the Pithom mentioned in the Hebrew Scrip- 
 tures as a city constructed by the Israelites, and 
 the Patumos of the Arabic country of Egypt in 
 Herodotus. And it may be added from concur- 
 rent circumstances, that the place of arms of 
 vast extent, called Anaris by Josephus, where 
 the shepherd kings held Egypt in subjection, 
 was the site of Heroopolis." {D'Anville.) It 
 is probably now the village of Heron, of which 
 Baudrand speaks. Cha^issard. 
 
 Herth^ Insula, an island of the Northern 
 ocean, according to Tacitus ; although it has 
 been proposed to alter the reading in the passage 
 of the Germany where this island is mentioned, 
 by substituting in silva Baceni for the words in 
 insula Oceani. This island was" consecrated 
 to a religious ceremony in honour of Hertha, or 
 the mother Earth. Though it be the opinion ^J 
 of many that this island is the same with Ru- M 
 gen, there is greater probability of recognising 
 it in the name of Heilig-land, which signifies 
 the Holy Isle. It is situated in the distance off 
 the mouth of the Elbe, and of it only, an emi- 
 nence now remains, the sea having covered a 
 shore much more spacious." D'Anville. — Tac. 
 de mor. Germ. 40. 
 
 Heruli, a savage nation in the northern parts 
 of Europe, who attacked the Roman power in 
 its decline. " It is difficult in the dark forests ^ 
 of Germany and Poland to pursue the emi- 9 
 grations of the Heruli, a fierce people, who dis- 
 dained the use of armour, and who condemn- 
 ed their widows and aged parents not to sur- 
 vive the loss of their husbands or the decay of 
 their strength." {Gibbon.) " The Heruli, un- 
 der the conduct of Odoacer, conquered Italy, 
 whereof he was proclaimed king by the Romans J| 
 themselves ; but Odoacer being vanquished near ^ 
 Verona by Theodoric, king of the Goths, the 
 Heruli had Piedmont allotted to them by the 
 conqueror for their habitation. They had not 
 held it long when it was subdued by the Lom- 
 bards, of whose kingdom it remained a part till 
 given by Aripert, the seventeenth king of the 
 Lombards, to the church of Rome ; affirmed by 
 some to be the first temporal estate that ever 
 the popes of Rome had possession of" Heyl. 
 Cosm. 
 
 Hesperia, a large island of Africa, once the 
 residence of the Amazons. Diod. 3. A 
 
HE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HE 
 
 name common both to Italy and Spain. It is 
 derived from Hesper or Vesper, the setting sun, 
 or the evening, whence the Greeks called Italy 
 Hesperia, because it was situate at the setting 
 sun or in the west. The same name, for similar 
 reasons, was applied to Spain by the Latins. 
 Vir^ jEn. 1, V. 634, &c.—Horat. 1, od. 34, v. 
 4, 1. 1, od. 27, V. ^.-Sil. 7, V. Id.-Ovid. Met. 
 
 ' Hespekidum iNSULiE. The authors of the 
 several ingenious attempts to define with accu- 
 racy the Hesperidum InsulaB, do not appear to 
 have borne sufficiently in mind the nature of 
 the investigation in which they were engaged, 
 and an eager search for the real Hespendes 
 would frequently induce the reader to forget that 
 they were, after all, but a fabulous creation. 
 The only inquiry ought to be as to the place 
 or places contemplated by the various authors 
 who have mentioned and referred to the Hes- 
 pendes. Some have placed them m Magnesia, 
 and some among the Hyperboreans. More fre- 
 quently, however, they are assigned to Africa, 
 but the query still remains as to the particular 
 site The Cyrenaica and Marmarica have also 
 been considered the abode of these mythologi- 
 cal personages, while many situate them in isl- 
 ands by the Straits of Gibraltar, or in some of 
 the African islands in the Atlantic. Plmy and 
 Pomponius Mela mention two, which do, mdeed, 
 appear to have borne this name, and are believed 
 by modern writers to have been either the For- 
 tunate Islands, or those called Cape de Verd. 
 We may observe, that they were most frequent- 
 ly referred to as being in the vicinity of Mount 
 Atlas, itself no less a subject of poetic embellish- 
 ment. Vid/Hesperides, Part III. 
 
 Hesperis, a town of Cyrenaica, now Beroiic 
 or Bengazi, where most authors have placed 
 the garden of the Hesperides. This town was 
 afterwards called Berenice by the Greeks. Voss. 
 ad Mel. 
 
 Hesti^a. Vid. Histiaa. 
 Hesti^otis, " according to Strabo, was that 
 portion of Thessaly which lies near Pmdus, and 
 between that mountain and upper Macedonia. 
 This description applies to the upper valley of 
 the Peneus, and the lateral valleys which de- 
 scend into it from the north and the west. The 
 same writer elsewhere informs us, that, accord- 
 ing to some authorities, this district was origm- 
 ally the countiy of the Dorians, who certainly 
 are stated by Herodotus and others to have once 
 occupied the regions of Pindus, but that after- 
 wards it took the name of Hestiseotis from a 
 district in Euboea so called, whose inhabitants 
 were transplanted into Thessaly by the Perrhae- 
 bi. The most northern part of Hestiasotis was 
 possessed by the ^thices, a tribe of uncertain, 
 but ancient origin, since they are mentioned by 
 Homer, who states, that the Centaurs, expelled 
 by Pirithous from mount Pelion, withdrew to 
 the ^thices, . 
 "HiiarL To5 ore <pripai IriaaTO >.axvfievTai' 
 
 11. B. 744. 
 
 Strabo says they inhabited the Thessalian side 
 of Pindus, near the source of the Peneus, but 
 that their possession of the latter was disputed 
 by the Tympheei, who were contiguous to them 
 ontheEpirotic side of the mountain. Marsyas, 
 Part L— T 
 
 a writer cited by Stephanus Byz. described the 
 iEthices as a most daring race of barbarians, 
 whose sole object was robbery and plunder." 
 
 Hetruria. " Of all the ancient nations of 
 Italy, none appear to have such claims upon 
 our notice as that of the Tuscans. Their ce- 
 lebrity at a time when Rome as yet had no ex- 
 istence ; the superiority of their political insti- 
 tutions ; their progress in navigation, commerce, 
 and many other arts of civilized life, when the 
 surrounding nations were to all appearance en- 
 veloped in ignorance and barbarism ; are cir- 
 cumstances which, even in the present day, must 
 arrest inquiry, and command alike the attention 
 of the historian and philosopher. But so evi- 
 dent has the insufficiency of the historical infor- 
 mation on the origin of the Tuscans appeared, 
 that many antiquaries of celebrity in the last 
 century, despairing of obtaining any clue to this 
 search from the conflicting testimony of ancient 
 writers, have not hesitated to quit altogether the 
 beaten track of history, and to venture amidst 
 the untrodden and alluring mazes of conjecture. 
 The consequence of this mode of investigation 
 was easy to be foreseen •, system followed sys- 
 tem, till there scarcely remained any nation of 
 acknowledged antiquity, to which the honour of 
 having colonized Etruria was not attributed. 
 Thus it was supposed that the Tuscans might 
 be descended from the Egyptians, the Canaan- 
 ites, or the Ph^nicians. Others again contend- 
 ed for their Celtic origin. Freret ascribed it to 
 the Rheeti, Hervas to the ancient Cantabri ; 
 while some again gave up all hope of arriving 
 at any certain conclusion in this puzzling ques- 
 tion, and seemed to consider it as one of those 
 historical problems which must for ever remain 
 without a solution. The multiplicity of the 
 opinions which have just been noticed, is the 
 best proof of the little dependance that is to be 
 placed on systems which trust for support to 
 conjecture alone. There are three sources from 
 which we may expect to derive information re- 
 specting the origin of the ancient Tuscans. 1st, 
 The accounts of Greek writers. 2d, Those of 
 the Romans. 3d, The existing national monu- 
 ments discovered in Etruria. With respect to 
 ihe Romans, it is well known that they concern- 
 ed themselves but little about inquiries into the 
 origin of nations, and received without much 
 examination all the accounts even of the early 
 population of Italy, which were transmitted to 
 them by the Greeks, their masters m every spe- 
 cies of literature ; so that little original infor- 
 mation can be derived from them m an inquiry 
 which is to be traced considerably higher than 
 the foundation of their city. The evidence 
 which is supplied by the inscriptions and coins 
 of Etruria, respecting the origin of its inhabit- 
 ants has hitherto done little towards settling 
 the question ; and since the age of these monu- 
 ments, which had been greatly overrated, has 
 been proved by able judges to be posterior to the 
 commencement even of the Roman republic, we 
 are obliged to seek among the historians and 
 poets of Greece for the earliest records of Etrus- 
 can history. It is well known that the inhabit- 
 ants of that country are always spoken of by 
 the Greeks under the name of Tyrseni, or Tyr- 
 rheni, while the Romans designate them by that 
 of Etrusci, or Tusci. This difference of no- 
 145 
 
HE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HE 
 
 menclature will be considered more fully here- 
 after ; but it may be observed at present, that it 
 seems too decided to allow of the supposition 
 that either is a corruption of the other ; whence 
 we should be led to infer, that the Tyrrheni and 
 Tusci were not originally the same people, even 
 ii history did not farther establish the fact. 
 Who then were the Tyrrheni of the Greeks, 
 and whence did that name originate 1 This is 
 in fact the problem, on the solution of which the 
 whole difficulty of the present question seems 
 to hang. If we are to credit the famous Lydian 
 tradition recorded by Herodotus, that ancient 
 people ought to be considered as the parent 
 stock of the Tyrrhenians. It is to be observed, 
 that Herodotus simply delivers this account as 
 he received it from the Lydians, without vouch- 
 ing for the truth of the remarkable event it 
 was intended to record. But it would not be 
 difficult to show that he himself gave credit to 
 the legend, or at least saw no improbability in 
 the facts which it related. He was well ac- 
 quainted with the Tyrrheni and Umbri of Ita- 
 ly, and was therefore a competent judge of the 
 truth or probability of the Lydian tale. But 
 even allowing its improbability, it ought not for 
 that reason merely to be rejected, since we should 
 be led, a priori, to except in this matter some- 
 thing out of the common course, in order to ac- 
 count for the marked difference which original- 
 ly existed between the Tuscans and the other 
 ancient nations of Italy. But the greatest ar- 
 gument in its favour, after all, must be allowed 
 to consist in the weight of testimony which can 
 be collected in support of it from the writers of 
 antiquity, especially those of Rome, who, with 
 few exceptions, seem to concur in admitting the 
 fact of the Lydian colony. In short, the pre- 
 sumption would appear so strong in favour of 
 this popular account of the origin of the Tyr- 
 rheni, that we might consider the question to 
 be decided, were not our attention called to the 
 opposite side by some weighty objections, ad- 
 vanced long since by Dionysius of Halicarnas- 
 sus, and farther strongly urged by some modern 
 critics of great learning and reputation. Dio- 
 nysius seems to stand alone among the writers 
 of antiquity, as invalidating the facts recorded 
 by Herodotus ; and though his own explana- 
 tion of the origin of the Tyrrhenians is evident- 
 ly inconsistent and unsatisfactory, still it must 
 be owned that his arguments tend greatly to 
 discredit the colony of the Lydian Tyrrhenus. 
 But the objection which, after all, must be reck- 
 oned as most conclusive against the Lydian ori- 
 gin of the Tyrrheni, is the absence of all con- 
 formity in the important relations of customs, re- 
 ligion, and language, between the mother coun- 
 try and its pretended colony, which certainly 
 would not have been the case, if a migration to 
 such an extent as Herodotus reports had really 
 taken place from one country to the other. 
 There are, it is true, some exceptions to this ge- 
 neral assertion of Dionysius, and some features 
 of resemblance have been traced between the 
 two nations; but they seem too faint and imper- 
 fect to throw much weight into the scale. It is 
 remarked, that, divination and augury, which 
 form so leading a distinction in the religion of 
 Etruria, took their rise in Caria, acccording to 
 Pliny ; and w^e hear frequently in Herodotus of 
 the diviners of Telmissus as having exercised 
 146 
 
 their art at a very remote period. The super- 
 stitions of Phrygia are also frequently observa- 
 ble in the monuments of Etruria. The insignia 
 of royalty, such as the curule chair and the pur- 
 ple robe, which the Romans borrowed from the 
 Tuscans, are recognised by Dionysius of Hali- 
 carnassus himself, as Lydian badges of honour ; 
 and the eagle standards of Rome,also originally 
 Tuscan, appear to have been common to the ar- 
 mies of Persia. The comic dancers of Etru- 
 ria, called Ludii, were celebrated for their agili- 
 ty and grace, and according to Val. Maximus, 
 who mentions their introduction at Rome, they 
 derived this talent from the Curetes and Lydi- 
 ans. Lastly, it is singular enough that two cus- 
 toms peculiar to the Etruscans, as we discover 
 from their monuments, should have been noticed 
 by Herodotus as characteristic of the Lycians 
 and Caunians in Asia Minor. The first is, that 
 the Etruscans invariably describe their paren- 
 tage and family with reference to the mother, 
 and not the father. The other, that they ad- 
 mitted their wives to their feasts and banquets. 
 These are all the points of similarity between 
 the two nations which we have been able to 
 trace or collect from the observations of others ; 
 and though they "tend perhaps to establish a 
 notion of a communication between Asia Minor 
 and Etruria, we are far from thinking that they 
 make out a case in favour of Lydia ; for if they 
 prove any thing, it is that the Carians, Lycians, 
 and Phrygians, have as good a claim to the 
 honour of colonizing Italy, as their neighbours 
 the Lydians. It is a fact sufficiently established 
 on good authority, that the Greeks were ac- 
 quainted with a people whom they called Tyr- 
 rhenians, but whose geographical position was 
 very different from that of their Italian name- 
 sakes. According to Herodotus, they occupied 
 a district contiguous to that of the city of Cres- 
 thona on the Thracian border of Macedonia ; 
 and Stephanus Byz. mentions .^ane and Elym- 
 nea as two of their towns in Macedonia. Thu- 
 cydides has also noticed them in the Chalcidic 
 region near Mount Athos, and describes them 
 as the Tyrrheni, who once dwelt at Athens 
 and in the island of Lemnos. From other 
 sources w^e learn, that these Tyrrheni, or Pelas- 
 gi, as they are often called, had built for the 
 Athenians the wall which surrounded their 
 acropolis; but being afterwards driven out of 
 Attica, are said to have retired to the islands of 
 Lemnos and Imbros, after having expelled the 
 descendants of the Argonauts. The father of 
 Pythagoras is said to have been one of these 
 Tyrrhenians. We hear, too, of the Tyrrhe- 
 nians in the island of Lesbos; also about the 
 Hellespont in the neighbourhood of Cyzicas, 
 and on the shores of the Chersonese. Here 
 then is sufficient evidence of the existence of 
 the Tyrrheni as a people known to the Greeks 
 under that specific appellation, though they are 
 frequently designated by the generic name of 
 Pelasgi ; and if w^e admit that it was this 
 people which at an early period migrated from 
 Thrace and the north of Greece into Italy, 
 there will be found, we apprehend, no better 
 system for reconciling the various and contra- 
 dictory opinions, which have been entertained 
 on this point of history by many writers both in. 
 ancient and modern times. We are aware, 
 , however, that it will here be necessary toprovo 
 
HE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HE 
 
 one important particular; namely, that the 
 Tyrrheni spoken of in the passages just cited 
 were an original people, and not, as Dionysius 
 of Halicarnassus imagined, apparently on the 
 authority of Hellanicus of Lesbos, a remnant of 
 the Pelasgi ; who, after leaving Italy, brought 
 back with them into Greece the name of Tyr- 
 rhenians, as commemorative of their residence 
 in the former country. But whatever may be 
 the origin of that name used specifically, we 
 cannot doubt that it was afterwards applied to 
 tribes of different origins, as indicative of their 
 wandering and unsettled habits. There can be 
 no better argument for disproving the system of 
 Dionysius, with regard to the Tyrrheni Pelas- 
 gi, than that which establishes the existence of 
 this nation in the most distant period of the 
 history of Greece, and much prior to the siege 
 of Troy, about which time it is pretended they 
 returned from Italy. Lastly, in proof of the 
 antiquity of the Tyrrhenian name in Greece, 
 we would cite the passage which Dionysius 
 quotes from the Inachus of Sophocles, wherein 
 the poet makes them contemporary with that 
 prince. We must now hasten to the historical 
 evidence, which establishes the fact of a migra- 
 tion of these Tyrrheni at a remote period into 
 Italy. Dionysius has only acquainted us with 
 the name of one of those many writers from 
 whom he dissented on this point; but it is 
 curious that this is the very author from whom 
 he has taken most of his account of the adven- 
 tures of the Pelasgi during their residence in 
 Italy, that is, Myrsilus of Lesbos, an ancient 
 historian, of whom little is otherwise known, 
 and of whose sources of information no correct 
 estimate can -now be formed. From him we 
 learn, that the people who colonized Italy were 
 called Tyrrheni; that they were the same who 
 built the Pelasgic wall at Athens ; and that the 
 Athenians gave them the nickname of TLE'Xapyol, 
 or storks, on account of their propensity to 
 migrate from their country, which, as we have 
 seen, was originally Thrace, Samothrace, Lem- 
 nos, and Imbros. There is, indeed, an obscurity 
 in Dionysius's accotmt of the Tyrrheni, which 
 hardly admits of explanation ; for he goes on to 
 tell us, that the Pelasgi, after a long series of 
 misfortunes, lost all their possessions in Italy, 
 most of their towns falling into the hands of the 
 Tyrrheni, who were their neighbours; and 
 elsewhere we are informed, in order to account 
 for the skill and practice in naval afiairs for 
 which the Pelasgi were distinguished, that they 
 had acquired their experience from their resi- 
 dence among the Tyrrheni. But whence or how 
 this people obtained their knowledge we are 
 left to guess, since their position is so undeter- 
 mined ; and besides, Dionysius has never told 
 us that the Pelasgi had resided with the Tyr- 
 rheni, but with the Aborigines. It is therefore 
 pretty evident that Dionysius's system is un- 
 tenable ; his error must be attributed chiefly to 
 his supposition that the Pelasgi and Tyrrheni 
 were a different people. The name of Rasena, 
 which he gives to the latter, appears to us to be 
 corrupted from that of Tyrseni or Tyraseni. 
 Another source of confusion in this part of 
 Dionysius's antiquities, is his notion with re- 
 spect to the Aborigines, whom he supposes to 
 be the descendants of a pretended colony of 
 Arcadians, afterwards called (Enotrians. All 
 
 judicious critics and antiquaries seem agreed 
 in rejecting this hypothesis; and that being 
 the case, the Aborigmes, who, according to 
 Dionysius's own account, and the concurrent 
 testimony of many ancient writers, lived in the 
 same country with the Pelasgi, survived their 
 disasters, and rose on the ruins of their power, 
 must be the Etrusci, or Tusci of the Romans, 
 a branch doubtless either of the Umbrian or 
 Oscan race, if indeed these do not belong to 
 the same primitive Italian stock. The analogy 
 Which subsists betr^'een the forms Tusci, Osci, 
 and Volsci, would furnish a presumption in 
 favour of the indigenous origin of the former ; 
 but that point seems abundantly established 
 by the fundamental similarity of language which 
 has been discovered to exist between the Etrus- 
 can and the other native dialects of Italy. Hav- 
 ing thus far tried to explain the origin of the 
 Tuscan people, it remains for us to see how 
 far their improved civilization and political su- 
 periority can be traced to the settlements form- 
 ed by the Tyrrhenians amongst them. The 
 easiest and most obvious way by which the 
 Tyrrheni, coming from Thrace and the north 
 of Greece, maybe supposed to have reached Ita- 
 ly, would be by the Danube, and then by the 
 Save up to the Julian Alps and the head of the 
 Adriatic. It is on this sea, doubtless, that his- 
 tory, however faint in its records of these trans- 
 actions, places their first settlements, whether 
 they reached it by land or in a fleet. Diony- 
 sius, on the authority of Plellanicus, says, that 
 they arrived by sea at the mouth of the Spine- 
 tic branch of the Po. But Freret is of opinion 
 that the Pelasgi reached Italy by land ; this is a 
 point however we would by no means insist up- 
 on : they were unquestionably a maritime peo- 
 ple; and their first settlements, Hadria, Spina, 
 and Ravenna, were sea-port towns. If we fol- 
 low the plain thread of history, divested of the 
 romantic circumstances which Dionysius has in- 
 terwoven in his narrative of the transactions of 
 the Pelasgi with the Aborigines, it will appear 
 that the former gradually advanced from the Po 
 into the country of the Umbri, who, being then 
 at war with the Siculi, gladly received their as- 
 sistance, and after the expulsion of the enemy, 
 gave them settlements and lands in the newly 
 acquired territory, which was Etruria Proper. 
 According to the same historian, the migration 
 of the Siculi took place about eighty years be- 
 fore the siege of Troy , which agrees nearly with 
 the date assigned to the same event by Hellani- 
 cus. So that we shall not be very far from the 
 mark, in assigning the date of about one hun- 
 dred years before the Trojan war to the settle- 
 ment of the Tyrrheni Pelasgi in Etruria. Here 
 then they founded, with the assistance of the 
 natives, their first twelve cities ; and if we con- 
 ceive this people bringing with them all the im- 
 provements in war, navigation, and general ci- 
 vilization, which Greece was then beginning to 
 derive from her proximity to the east and to 
 Egypt, into a country only inhabited , and that 
 partially, by rude and savage clans, we shall ea- 
 sily form an idea of the great and rapid influ- 
 ence which they would exercise over the moral 
 and political state of Italy. The Tyrrhenian 
 pirates, who had hitherto infested the JEgean, 
 would naturally retire, when that sea was pro- 
 tected by the navy of Minos, to the seas of Ita- 
 147 
 
HE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HI 
 
 . y, to exercise there the habits which they had 
 acquired from the Phoenicians, and which re- 
 mained so long a characteristic of their nation. 
 We learn from Strabo, that the Greeks did not 
 venture to send colonies into Sicily till long af- 
 ter the fall of Troy, owing to the dread inspir- 
 ed by those formidable depredators. From the 
 traditions preserved by Lycophron, it would ap- 
 pear that they formed settlements on almost ev- 
 ery part of the coast washed by the Tyrrhenian 
 sea. But it was in Etruria, properly so called, 
 that the Tyrrheni laid the first foundation of 
 this power, and established, under Tarchon their 
 leader, a confederacy of twelve cities. The m- 
 formation which Strabo likewise supplies on this 
 head is curious and important. He represents 
 the Tuscans as being perpetually engaged in 
 hostilities with the Umbri, from whom they 
 were only separated by the Tiber ; and we are 
 led to infer, that the advantage rested decidedly 
 with the former people, since he goes on to 
 state that they gradually extended the confines 
 of their territory, and finally possessed them- 
 selves of the plains watered by the Po. It is 
 to this acquisition of dominion that Pliny pro- 
 bably refers, when he reports that the Tuscans 
 wrested no less than three hundred cities from 
 their Umbrian antagonists. In the prosecution 
 of their successful career, the Tuscans, having 
 arrived on the shores of the Adriatic, obtained 
 possession also of the original Tyrrhenian set- 
 tlements of Hadria and Spina, which the Tyr- 
 rheni, being too weak to defend them,abandoned, 
 as Strabo relates, to the invaders, while Raven- 
 na fell into the hands of the Umbri. It is in 
 Etruria that we can best trace the influence of 
 the Tyrrhenian colony, in changing the habits 
 and improving the condition of its natives. It 
 is to the Tyrrheni that we would ascribe that 
 mixture of the religions of Greece and Italy 
 which is known to have obtained in the Etrus- 
 can rites. Thus, with the deities peculiar to the 
 country, such as Voltumna, Norcia, and the Dii 
 Consentes, we find they worshipped Aplu, or the 
 Pelasgic Apollo, Thurms, or Hermes, Juno, 
 Minerva, and other divinities common to the 
 Greeks. Of the influence of the Pelasgi on the 
 language of Italy there seems no question, the 
 fact being admitted by ancient as well as modern 
 writers. We are inclined to think that the 
 Tyrrheni introduced the Pelasgic characters in 
 Etruria andUmbria, and likewise communicat- 
 ed them to the Oscans, whose characters are 
 somewhat more rude and uncouth. Tacitus 
 however seems to say, that letters were brought 
 by Damaratus of Corinth, but Gori and Lanzi 
 think, and it seems more natural so to interpret 
 Tacitus, that Damaratus only improved the 
 Etruscan alphabet by the addition of some let- 
 ters. These are the principal points in which 
 the effects of the Tyrrhenian colony are visible 
 in improving and civilizing Etruria. With re- 
 spect to particular customs, we are too little ac- 
 quainted with the history of that country to 
 distinguish what was indigenous and what 
 borrowed ; but it seems sufficient to know that 
 they infused a spirit of enterprise and conquest 
 in the nation into which they had been adopted ; 
 a spirit which long prevailed, and increased 
 after the original Tyrrheni had removed or 
 disappeared, as they are said to have done 
 towards the period of the Trojan war. Com- 
 M8 
 
 merce and the cultivation of the fine arts, for 
 which this inventive people appear to have had 
 a natural turn, would add to their refinement, 
 and complete their superiority over the other 
 comparatively barbarous tribes of Italy ; circum- 
 stances which will account for their having 
 been distinguished by the Greeks, from the 
 days of Hesiod to those of Thucydides and 
 Aristotle, when Rome was unknown, or was 
 thought to be a Tyrrhenian city. Whether 
 it was really so may be a matter of speculation, 
 in which it will not be forgotten how much 
 she borrowed from Etruria in the formation 
 of her religious and political institutions, and 
 in the detail of her civil and military economy. 
 Had the Tuscans formed a regular and effective "M 
 plan for securing their conquests and strength- ^ 
 enmg their confederacies, they would have been 
 the masters of Italy, and perhaps of the world, 
 instead of the Romans. But their enterprises 
 after a certain period, seem to have been desul- 
 toiy, and their measures ill combined and in- 
 effectual. A fatal want of internal union, which 
 prevailed amongst their states, as Strabo judi- 
 ciously observes, rendered them an easy con- m 
 quest to their Gallic invaders in the north of J| 
 Italy, and to the hardy Samnites in Campania ; 
 while Rome was aiming at the very centre oi 
 their power and existence those persevering and 
 systematic attacks, which with her were never 
 known to fail. The history of the Tuscans 
 subsequently to the foundation of Rome is to be 
 gleaned from Livy, and, at intervals, from short 
 detached notices in the Greek historians and 
 poets ; but a rich field is left open to the anti- 
 quary, who would illtistrate the annals of this 
 interesting people from the monuments that are 
 daily discovered in their country, which seems 
 destined to be the seat of the arts and of good 
 taste through a perpetuity of ages. If the books 
 of Aristotle and Theophrastus on the civil in- - 
 stitutions of the Tyrrheni, or even the history 
 of the emperor Claudius, had been preserved to 
 us, we should doubtless have been better ac- 
 quainted with the causes of that ascendency 
 which they are said to have once exercised over 
 the whole of Italy. Etruria, considered as a 
 Roman province, was separated from Liguria 
 by the river Macra; from Cisalpine Gaul and 
 IJmbria, to the north and north-east, by the 
 Appenines ; from Umbria again, from the Sa- 
 bines, and Latium, by the Tiber to the south- 
 east and south." Cram, 
 
 HiBERNTA, and Hybernia, the ancient name 
 of Ireland, situated to the west of Britain, from 
 which it was separated by the Verginium Mare, 
 in modern geography, the Irish Sea. Of its 
 interior little was known to the ancients, as 
 it was never subjected to the Roman rule. Its 
 situation and size were, however, with tolerable 
 accuracy, defined by Caesar and Tacitus ; but, 
 with the exception of these, and of the appear- 
 ance of its coast, very little was to be obtained 
 from these writers, and much less from the other 
 authors who pretended to treat of it. An ac- 
 count of the vicissitudes of this island, though 
 we have reason to believe that it was early 
 civilized, would not belong at least to the classic 
 ages of antiquity ; for only on the fall of the 
 empire do its people begin to make their appear- 
 ance in history. Still something may be con- 
 jectured of its early state, of the era at which it 
 
EI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HI 
 
 T^'as first inhabited, and of the people by whom 
 the first settlements were made. There is 
 abundan. reason to presume, that the early- 
 population of Hibernia, like that of Britannia, 
 was of Celtic origin ; and among the few re- 
 mains ofthat once extensively circulated tongue, 
 the language of the Irish is still the most re- 
 markable relic. But if this people were of the 
 common Celtic stock, it is not easy to fix the 
 era of their arrival in Hibernia, nor that of their 
 subsequent expulsion from those parts in which 
 The Scoti were found afterwards. When the 
 Romans became sufliciently acquainted with 
 this island to observe the divisions of the inhabit- 
 ants, to mark their boundaries, and to assign 
 them names, they entitled Lagenia that part 
 which was afterwards denominated Leinster ; 
 to Meath they gave the name of Midia ; that of 
 Ultonia to tjlster : to Connaught that of Con- 
 naccia ; and that of Momonia to Munster. The 
 various appellations of this island were, accord- 
 ing to the ancients, Hibernia, by which title it 
 continues to be designated ; lerne, whence some 
 deduce the name of Erin by which the natives 
 denoted it ; Iverna, a modification perhaps of 
 lerna, and Iris, the latter name being derived 
 from the authority of Diodorus Siculus. In the 
 language of the Britons, Ireland was called 
 Yverdon. Referring to the Carthaginian settle- 
 ment, the curious Bochart deduces the name 
 from the" Punic Ibem^, signifying the most 
 remote habitation; Ireland being for a long 
 time considered the most western region, of the 
 world. We have not pretended to give an 
 account of all the theories which have been 
 founded and raised upon the origin, name, and 
 history of the. Hibernians. They belong to a 
 period of histoiy which is not embraced within 
 the limits of a dictionary that professes to treat 
 of the classic ages of antiquity. Camb. Brit. 
 
 HiERA, one of the Lipari Islands, called also 
 Theresia, now Vulcano. Paus. 10, c. 11. 
 
 HiERAPOLis, I. a town of Syria, on the west 
 of the Euphrates and south of Zeugma. The 
 name by which it was known to the natives in 
 antiquity was Bambyce ; and that of Hierapo- 
 lis was conferred upon it by the Macedonians, 
 after their conquest of the east, from the pecu- 
 liar reverence which was there paid to the 
 Syrian goddess Atargatis, as well by foreigners 
 as by the inhabitants. Heylin gives the follow- 
 ing description of her fanious temple, from the 
 great resort to which the name of Hierapolis 
 was derived : " The temple was built by Stra- 
 tonice, the wife of Seleucus, in the midst of the 
 city, encompassed with a double wall about the 
 height of 300 fathoms ; the roof thereof was in- 
 laid with gold, and made of such a fragrant 
 wood, that the clothes of those who came thither 
 retained the scent thereof for a long time after. 
 Without the temple there were places enclosed 
 for oxen and beasts of sacrifice ; and not far off" 
 a lake, of 200 fathoms in depth, wherein they 
 kept their sacred fishes, (Vid. Astarte and 
 Derceto.) The priests attending here amount- 
 ed in number to 300, besides many more sub- 
 servient ministers." In eastern geography the 
 name of the ancient Hierapolis is Menbis[z. 
 
 II. A city of Phrvgia, on the Meander, 
 
 near the mouth of the Lycus and towards the 
 borders of Lydia. According to D'Anville, the 
 Lycus passed between this city and another 
 
 at no great distance, called Laodicea. Hie-' 
 
 rapolis and its vicinity are called by the Turks 
 " Bamhuk-kalasi, or the castle of cotton, be- * 
 cause the neighbouring rocks resembled 'that 
 substance in their whiteness." D'Anville. 
 
 HiERAPYTNA, a toMTi iu the island of Crete, 
 on the coast of the Libyan Sea. It was almost 
 directly south of Minoa, between which place 
 and Hierapytna was the narrowest part of 
 Crete, The antiquity of this town was very 
 great, being referred to the early Corybantes, 
 who, if not a fabulous race or caste, have their 
 histoiy at least obscured and enveloped in fable. 
 
 HiERicHUs, {untis,) the name of Jericho in 
 the Holy Land, called the city of Palm-trees 
 from its abounding in dates. Plin. 5, c. 14. — 
 Tacit. H. 5, c. 6. 
 
 HiEROsoLYMA. " As wc approach the cen- 
 tre of Judsea," says a celebrated writer, " the 
 sides of the mountain enlarge, and assume an 
 aspect at once more grand and more barren ; by 
 little and little the vegetation languishes and 
 dies ; even mosses disappear ; and a red and 
 burning hue succeeds to the whiteness of the 
 rocks. In the centre of the mountains there is 
 an arid basin, enclosed on all sides with yellow 
 pebble-covered summits, which afford a single 
 opening to the east, through which the surface 
 of the Dead Sea and the distant hills of Arabia 
 present themselves to the eye. In the midst of 
 this country of stones, encircled by a wall, we 
 perceive extensive ruins, scanty cypresses, bush- 
 es of the aloe and the prickly pear ;^ some 
 Arabian huts, resembling white-washed sepul- 
 chres, are spread over this heap of ruins. This 
 spot is Jerusalem." This touching description 
 of the holy city, as it existed in the third cen- 
 tury, has applied too nearly to its. modern con- 
 dition. Though peopled with 20 or 30,000 in- 
 habitants, according to the varying estimates 
 of travellers, this city is described by many 
 who have visited it, as presenting to our view 
 nothing but cabins resembling prisons rather 
 than houses. Few cities have undergone so 
 many revolutions as Jerusalem. Once the 
 metropolis of the powerful kingdom of David 
 and of Solomon, it had its temples built of the 
 cedar of Lebanon, and ornamented with the 
 gold of Ophir. After being laid waste by the 
 Babylonian army, it was rebuilt in more than 
 its original beauty under the Maccabees and the 
 Herods, The Grecian architecture was now 
 introduced, as is shown by the royal tombs 
 on the north of the city. It then contained 
 oome hundred thousands of inhabitants ; but in 
 the year 70 of the Christian era it was visited by 
 the signal vengeance of heaven, being razed to 
 the foundation by the Roman Titus. Adrian 
 built in its stead the city of JElia Capitolina ; 
 but in the time of Constantine, the name of 
 Jerusalem was restored, and has ever since 
 been retained. Helen, this emperor's mother, 
 adorned the holy city with several monuments. 
 In the seventh century it fell under the power 
 of the Persians and Arabians. The latter 
 called it El-Kods, ' the holv,' and sometimes 
 El-Sherif, ' the noble.' In 1098, the chevaliers 
 of Christian Europe came to deliver it from 
 the hands of the Mahometans. The throne 
 of the Godfreys and of Baldwin imparted to it 
 a momentary lustre, which was soon effaced by 
 . intestine discord. In 1187 Saladin replaced the 
 149 
 
HI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HI 
 
 crescent on the hills of Zion, Since that pe- 
 riod, conquered at different times by the sul- 
 tans of Damascus, of Bagdat, and of Egypt, it 
 finally changed its masters, for the seventeenth 
 time, by submitting in 1517 to the Turkish 
 arms." 
 
 HiLLEVioNES, The only inhabitants of Scan- 
 dinavia really known to the Romans were 
 called Hilleviones, according to the relation of 
 Pliny; and the later authority of Jornandes 
 makes known the country of the same people, 
 which he denominates Hallin, " That which 
 is contiguous to the particular province of Skane 
 is still called HallandV D'Anville. 
 
 HiMERA, I. now Fiume Salso, a considerable 
 river of Sicily, rising in the mountains that run 
 almost across the island from west to east. The 
 source of the Himera was not far from that of 
 the Monalus, which, running north, discharged 
 itself into the Mare Inferum ; while the Himera 
 emptied into the Africum Mare. The two 
 formed thus very nearly a division of the island 
 
 into two. II. Another river of the same 
 
 name rose on the northern side of the moun- 
 tains further towards the east, and emptied 
 into the sea between the city of Himera and the 
 
 Thermae Himerenses, III. A city of Sicily, 
 
 built by the people of Zancle, and destroyed by 
 the Carthaginians 240 years after. Strab. 6. 
 It retains the name of Termini, derived from 
 that of Thermae, which it received from the 
 
 baths in its vicinity. The ancient name of 
 
 the Eurotas. 
 
 Hippo Zarytas, I, a tovm of Africa Propria, 
 to the east of Utica, and north-west of another 
 Hippo, called, for the sake of distinction, Re- 
 gius, The surname of Zarytas referred to its 
 situation among a number of artificial canals, 
 excavated in order to connect the waters of the 
 sea with those of a large lake in the vicinity. 
 Its modern name of Biserte is a corruption of 
 that of Benzert, by which it is known in an- 
 cient geography. II. The Hippo, surnamed 
 
 Regius, belonged to Numidia, and, standing 
 on the coast towards the borders of the Car- 
 thaginian territory, occupied the site on which 
 the more modern Bona was built. The parti- 
 cular appellation, Regius, denotes the residence 
 of the sovereign ; and, in fact, we know that 
 Hippo was a principal city, and perhaps a royal 
 residence of the Numidian kings. 
 
 HiPPocENTAURi, a race of monsters who dwelt 
 in Thessaly. Vid. Centauri, Part III. 
 
 HiPPocRENE. Vid. Aganippe and Helicon. 
 
 HiPPONiuM, a town of Magna Graecia, be- 
 longing to the country of the Brutii. It is said 
 to have been founded by the Epizephyrian 
 Locri, and underwent the vicissitudes to which 
 the other towns of Magna Grascia were also 
 too frequently subject. In the time of Dionysius 
 it fell into the hands of the Sicilians, by whose 
 oppression it was greatly reduced ; the Cartha- 
 ginians, however, rebuilt it, from enmity to the 
 islanders, by whom it had been subdued. It 
 was again greatly harassed by Agathocles ; 
 but on the approach of the Brutii, by whose 
 occupation all the country in which the Greeks 
 had established themselves on the expulsion 
 of the Aborigines, was again restored to the 
 Italians, Hipponium became a part of their 
 possessions. Receiving a Roman colony in 
 the year of the city 560, it changed its name 
 150 
 
 to that of Vibo Valentia, and rose to opulence 
 and celebrity, " In the vicinity of Hipponium 
 was a grove and meadow of singular beauty ; 
 also a building said to have been constructed 
 by Gelon of Syracuse, called Amalthaea's horn. 
 It was here probably that the women of the 
 city and its vicinity assembled, as Strabo af- 
 firms, on certain festivals, to gather flowers, 
 and twine garlands for their hair in honour of 
 Proserpine, who had herself, as it was said, 
 frequented this spot for the same purpose, and 
 to whom a magnificent temple was here erected. 
 Antiquaries and topographers are generally of 
 opinion that the modern town of Monte Leone 
 represents the ancient Hipponium, and they re- 
 cognise its haven in the present harbour of 
 Bivona.'' Cram. 
 
 HipPOMOLGi, a people of Scythia, who, as the 
 name implies, lived upon the milk of horses. 
 Hippocrates has given an account of their man- 
 ner of living. De aqua et aer. 44, — Dionys. 
 Perieg. 
 
 HippoNiATEs, a bay in the country of the 
 Brutii, so called from the city of Hipponium, 
 which stood upon its southern shore. It was 
 directly opposite to the Scyllacius Sinus, and 
 between these two bays was the narrowest part 
 of Italy. Terina, which stood at about the 
 same distance from the northern shore, commu- 
 nicated also its name to this bay, which was 
 sometimes called also Terinseus Sinus ; in 
 modern geography the Golfo di Santa Eu- 
 femia. 
 
 Hippop5des, a people of Scythia, who had 
 horses^ feet. Dionys. Perieg. 
 
 HiRA. Vid. Alexandria. 
 
 HiRpn, a people of Hetruria, in the vicinity 
 of the mons Soracte. On the summit of this 
 hill the Hirpii Avere accustomed to offer sacri- 
 fice to Apollo, and were on, that account re- 
 spected with a kind of sacred veneration, and 
 exonerated from all the burthensome duties of 
 other commimities, such as the performance of 
 military services, &c. 
 
 HiRPiNi, a people of Samnium, in the south- 
 ern part. They are generally considered, though 
 confessedly of Samnitic origin, to have formed 
 an independent division of that race. 
 
 HisPALis, now Seville, an ancient and fa- 
 mous city of Hispania, in Baeturia, on the left 
 bank of the Baetis, below Italica, and between 
 that place and the Libystinus lacus. It was a 
 town of Punic origin, as the name sufliciently 
 denotes, and was twice colonized from Italy. 
 On the arrival of the second colony in the time 
 of Caesar, Hispalis assumed the name of Julia 
 Romulea or Romulensis, and was afterwards, 
 though with its former name, invested with 
 the dignity of a juridical Conventus upon the 
 subdivision of the Farther Spain. The fortunes 
 of thi-s city were more remarkable in the years 
 of the lower empire, and its commerce, on the 
 discovery of America, was long the greatest 
 source of revenue to the crown of Spain. When 
 wrested from the Moors by the Spanish monarch 
 Ferdinand the 2d of Castile, A. D. 1248, it 
 was annexed to the dominions of that prince, 
 and formed a separate realm in his dominions ; 
 so that to the title of king of Spain, was added 
 that too of king of Seville. The reason of this 
 was, that before the expulsion of the Moors, 
 Seville had formed a kingdom by itself, and, as 
 
HI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HI 
 
 an independent state, had resisted the power of 
 the CathoJic arms, 
 
 HisPANiA, the most western country of En- 
 rope, lying between the Atlantic ocean and the 
 Mediterranean. It forms, with Porragal, a pe- 
 ninsula of about 630 leagues in circumference. 
 Various names were assigned to this country 
 in antiquity ; the Greeks denominated it Iberia, 
 and knew but the portion which afterwards 
 retained that name ; the Latins called it Hespe- 
 ria, from its situation towards the west ; and 
 the name of Hispania, which outlasted all, has 
 reached the present day in that of Spain, Es- 
 pagtie, Spagna, &c. This title it probably re- 
 ceived from its Carthaginian inhabitants. The 
 whole country was divided between the Iberi 
 and the Celtiberi, from whence the regions 
 inhabited by those people were designated re- 
 spectively Iberia and Celtiberia. After the se- 
 cond Punic war, the Durius, from its mouth to 
 the borders of Leon, and thence a line to meet 
 the Orospeda mons, together with that range, 
 were taken as a dividing line, and formed the 
 separatioB between Hispania Citerior and His- 
 pania Ulterior. It was not till the time of 
 Augustus that the provinces Tarraconensis, 
 Baetica, and Lusitania, were definitively marked 
 as divisions of the whole peninsula. Hispania 
 is separated from Africa by the narrow straits 
 of Gibraltar, which, it is conjectured, did not 
 always connect the waters of the inland sea 
 with the vast expanse of the Atlantic. Of the 
 geography of Hispania before the extension of 
 the Roman dominion beyond the Pyrenees, or, 
 at least, before the introduction of the Roman 
 armies and arms, it is not possible to speak 
 with any degree of certainty ; but the accounts 
 of Roman geographers, and perhaps also the 
 geographical distribution of its Roman masters, 
 refer in a great measure to the divisions of ter- 
 ritory and the distinctions of races which they 
 found on succeeding to the possessions of the 
 Carthaginians in Spain. We look, therefore, 
 on the Iberians as the first and proper inhabit- 
 ants of the Spanish peninsula, and on the 
 Celtiberi as a mixture of the Iberi and the 
 Celts. Of the former we might treat theore- 
 tically at some length, but the authority of his- 
 tory is wanting to give them place in a work 
 like this. For the early settlements of the Cel- 
 ta3 themselves we depend too much on conjec- 
 ture ; yet some authority, founded upon fads, 
 there is to justify a brief inquiry as to the pe- 
 riod, manner, and cause of their passage into 
 the possessions of the people of Iberia. It is 
 by no means a settled point that the Celtag of 
 Iberia were of the same line as those of Gaul ; 
 yet the best authorities of antiquity support that 
 opinion. On the other hand, they are supposed 
 by some to have been lUyrians, who, passing 
 into Italy and along the coasts of the Mediter- 
 ranean, were only so far connected with Gaul 
 as they may have become, in passing along its 
 sea-board fpom the Alps to the Pyrenees, The 
 period of the Celtic establishment in Gaul may 
 be, with some degree of plausibility, referred to 
 a very celebrated era of antiquity; to that, 
 namely, in which Sesac flourished in Egypt 
 and Charilaus in Lacedsemonia, B. C. about 
 860 years, and near the time in which the 
 affairs of Greece and Asia were receiving their 
 first historical importance in the rhapsodies of 
 
 Homer. The same calculation which fixes this 
 epoch in the accounts of the Celtae, supposes 
 them to have entered from Aquitaine in Gaul, 
 not long after their occupation of that country, 
 and to have migrated slowly along the shores 
 of the Atlantic, settling first the regions of 
 Gallicia and Lusitania, and passing at a later 
 period into Bastica. Firmly established in this 
 part of the peninsula, and giviQg their name to 
 the inhabitants, who were thence called Celti- 
 beri, by the time that the Phoenicians arrived 
 upon the southern coast the Celtse had spread 
 themselves over the whole country from the 
 Mediterranean to the Atlantic, and from beyond 
 the Iberus to the Herculeum Fretum. The 
 adventurous merchants of Phcenicia were long 
 acquainted with that part of Hispania which 
 lay nearest to their continent, before the extent 
 of their knowledge was made known to the 
 nations which might have emulated them in 
 commercial enterprise : and for a long time after 
 it became notorious that they had communica- 
 tion with the western parts of Europe, it was but 
 vaguely conjectured that their intercourse was 
 carried on with some distant region in the re- 
 motest west, or, as they expressed it, the limits 
 of the world. The first settlement of this Asia- 
 tic people in Europe beyond the pillars of Her- 
 cules, appears to have been effected in the little 
 island of Erythia, from whence they extended 
 themselves, building their first great city, and 
 foimding their first great colony, at Gades, 
 B. C. perhaps about 1000. This, to be sure, 
 would make their arrival anterior to that of the 
 Celts, and perhaps, though the Phoenicians 
 certainly did not extend themselves over the 
 peninsula so early as the former people, they 
 may have efiected this first colonization. It is 
 more probable, however, that the account of 
 Veil. Paterculus, on whose authority this date 
 is principally assumed, may be erroneous. The 
 dominion of these bold navigators and indefati- 
 gable traders was not established by conquest in 
 any part of Spain, but introducing their arts, 
 and in some measure their civilization, among 
 the Celtiberians, and bartering with them on 
 the most friendly terms, they contrived to gain 
 an influence and to settle colonies without mo- 
 lestation through the greater part of what was 
 afterwards called Bsetica. While the Phoeni- 
 cians were thus quietly founding colonies upon 
 the Spanish coasts, the Carthaginians, them- 
 selves a Tyrian people and inheriting the com- 
 mercial spirit of their fathers, with a more war- 
 like character, appeared to dispute the posses- 
 sion of this rich territory. In a short time the 
 Phoenicians lost their principal cities, and the 
 Carthaginians established themselves in their 
 stead, not as the tenants, but as the masters 
 of the soil which they occupied. In the mean 
 time these were not the only people who intro- 
 duced, in this western corner of Europe, the 
 manners and character of more eastern coun- 
 tries. The Rhodians, Samians, and Phocaeans, 
 founded also colonies in these distant regions, 
 and mingled with the Iberian, Celtic, and Phoe- 
 nician, the character and language of the Asia- 
 tic Greeks. The islanders of Zante at the 
 same time laid the foundation of Saguntum, 
 and the Phocjeans of Marseilles erected the 
 city of Ampurias, the Emporiae of the Romans. 
 These cities, beholding with jealousy the ad- 
 151 
 
HI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HI 
 
 vances of the Carthaginians, had recourse to 
 the alliance of Rome, and, as the allies of the 
 Ampuritans, the Romans first displayed iheir 
 ensigns beyond the Pyrenees. The various 
 incidents of the war that followed belong to 
 history, and we have here only to observe, that 
 with this began the Roman dominion in His- 
 pania. The natives did not, indeed, immedi- 
 ately submit to the rule of the friends whose 
 assistance they had unadvisedly sought ; but 
 the Romans did not the less proceed to divide 
 the whole peninsula into the Nearer and the 
 Farther Spain, Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, 
 the former extending from the Pyrenees to the 
 head waters of the Tagus and the Anas, now 
 the Guadiana and the Batis, along the Oros- 
 peda mons to the Mediterranean. Under their 
 native Lusitanian leader Viriatus, the inhabit- 
 ants made an effort to regain their indepen- 
 dence ; but the destiny of Rome prevailed, and 
 the valour and conduct of this unblemished 
 patriot were exercised in vain. The magni- 
 ficent attempt of Sertorius to re-establish the 
 ancient liberty now perishing at Rome, in this 
 far distant province, was frustrated by the 
 treachery of one of his officers ; three years of 
 glorious resistance under the younger Pompey, 
 were terminated by the victory of the Roman 
 legions, whose numbers had overwhelmed the 
 young warriors of Lusitania; and Spain had 
 made her last stand for liberty. A partial 
 rising in the north-west was easily but not 
 cheaply quelled by the imperial forces, and 
 nothing remained for the people of Hispania 
 but submission wad a hopeless peace. " Under 
 Augustus, the ulterior province was again part- 
 ed into two, Bcetica and Lusitania ; at the 
 same time that the citerior assumed the name 
 of Tarraconensis, from Tarraco, its metropolis. 
 This Tarraconois occupied all the northern 
 part from the foot of the Pyrenees to the mouth 
 of the Durius, where Lusitania terminated; 
 and the eastern, almost entire, to the confines 
 of Bsetica, which, deriving this name from the 
 river Batis, that traversed it during its whole 
 course, extended from the north to the west 
 along the bank of the river Anas, by which it 
 was separated from Lusitania ; whilst this last- 
 mentioned province was continued thence to 
 the ocean, between the mouths of the Anas 
 and Durius. This division of Spain must be 
 regarded as properly belonging to the principal 
 and dominant state of ancient geography. It 
 was not till about the age of Dioclesian and 
 Constantine, when the number of provinces 
 was multiplied by subdivisions, that the Tarra- 
 conois was dismembered into two new pro- 
 vinces ; one towards the limits of Bsetica, and 
 adjacent to the Mediterranean, to which the 
 city of Carthago nova communicated the name 
 of CartTiaginensis ; the other on the ocean to 
 the north of Lusitania, and to which the na- 
 tion of Callaici or Callczci, in the angle of Spain 
 which advances towards the north-east, has 
 given the name CallcBcia, still subsisting in that 
 of Gallicia. Independently of this distinction 
 of provinces, Spain under the Roman govern- 
 ment was divided into jurisdictions, called Con- 
 'uentus, of which there are counted fourteen; 
 each one formed of the union of several cities, 
 who held their assizes in the principal city of 
 the district. We proceed now to a particular 
 152 
 
 description of each province." (D^Anville.) It 
 is probable that Bsetica was among the earliest 
 inhabited, or at least among the first that re- 
 ceived a foreign colony. The principal people 
 by which it was inhabited were the following : 
 1st. The Turdetani, the most powerful of all, 
 and so extensively spread throughout the pro- 
 vince, that the name of Turdetania was some- 
 times applied to it instead of that of Baetica. 
 Near to these in Baetica, and also in Lusitania. 
 were the Turduli, confounded often with their 
 more powerful neighbours. The southern 
 coast of this province, the earliest that bent to 
 the' fortune of Rome, was occupied by the 
 Bastuli, who, from their surname of Paeni, are 
 thought to have been of Carthaginian origin, 
 and later, therefore, in the peninsula than the 
 other people mentioned above. The people 
 who after the dissemination of the race of Celts 
 throughout the country, still retained the name 
 of Celtici in contradistinction to all the rest, 
 resided near the Anas, between that river and 
 the Tagus, on the coast. In Lusitania, the 
 people from whom that province took its name, 
 extended from the Tagus, also on the coast, to 
 the Durius, and inland as far as the country of 
 the Vettones, on the borders of Tarraconensis. 
 In the western part of the latter dwelt the Cal- 
 laici, a people, or perhaps a number of people, 
 remarkable for their valour and unyielding love 
 of liberty. The Artabri, who may have be- 
 longed to this confederacy, were, however, sep- 
 arately, a considerable nation inhabiting the 
 district terminating in the promontory Artabro, 
 Cape Finisterre. Eastward of these, between 
 the Pyrenees and the coast, were the Astures, 
 in the modern Asturias ; and still farther in 
 the same direction, and within the same moun- 
 tains and the sea, were the Cantabri, composed 
 of many smaller families, and all partaking of 
 the character of the Celts, who first, upon their 
 march from Gaul, pursued the line of coast 
 which their posterity retained. Eastward of 
 these people, and on the Spanish side of the 
 Pyrenees, were settled the Vascones, who at a 
 later period entered Gaul, and gave their name, 
 then slightly modified, to Gascony. They ex- 
 tended to tiie banks of the Iberus or Ebro, in 
 the country named in modern times Navarre. 
 Still father east, between the mountains, the 
 river, and the coast, were the Illergetes, the 
 Ceretani, the Indigetes, the Ausetani, the Lale- 
 tani, the Cosetani, &c. in that country, the 
 present inhabitants of which are designated Ca- 
 talans. The Bastitani, Contestani, Edetani, 
 and Oretani, with many other nations, occupied 
 the rest of Tarraconensis as far as the borders 
 of the province of Bsetica. Among these de- 
 serving of peculiar notice, are the Carpentani 
 and the Celtiberi, masters, according to Polyb j us, 
 of 300 flourishing cities. A long repose suc- 
 ceeded the final extension of the imperial power 
 over all the territories possessed by all these 
 people ; the wars of Rome with the barbarians, 
 and the occupation of the provinces of the 
 empire by the northern warriors, were the first 
 interruption of the long tranquillity enjoyed by 
 the subdued but not oppressed peninsula. The 
 policy of the emperors used the ambition and 
 rapacity of one barbarian horde as a defence 
 against another ; and the fierce people from the 
 borders of the Baltic, and th? forests of northern 
 
HI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HI 
 
 Germany, who, under the name of Vandals, 
 Sueves, and Alans, in the reign of Honorius 
 endeavoured to force the farthest barriers of the 
 provinces, were for a time repelled by the arms 
 of the stipendiary Goths, who, about the same 
 time, partly as tributaries and partly as con- 
 querors, had established themselves in Catalo- 
 nia. About the year 419, the Gothic leader 
 having died, the Vandals rose again, and pass- 
 ing into Spain, affixed their name in that of 
 Vandalusia, now Andalusia, to that part of 
 BaBtica which lay between the Marianus and 
 Orospeda montes and the littoral of the Medi- 
 terranean. The wars that succeeded were 
 almost without intermission, and left at last in 
 possession of the Goths the whole of Spain 
 except Galicia, which remained in the hands 
 of the Suevi, together with the part of Lusitania 
 between the Minius and theDutrius, Asturia 
 and a portion of the Tarraconensis forming 
 afterwards a part of the kingdoms of L€o7i and 
 of Old Castile. Till 712 the Goths retained 
 possession of this country, engrafting on the 
 various manners, customs, and languages of the 
 different people by which it was populated, their 
 own peculiar characteristics, when a new people, 
 crossing over from Africa, put an end to their 
 rule, and fixed a Moorish monarchy in Spain. 
 The fall of this empire, and the expulsion of the 
 Moors from Granada by the Catholic king Fer- 
 dinand, may be considered as the final establish- 
 ment of the Spanish monarchy. The manner 
 in "which the country was first colonized, the 
 numberless changes which it underwent, affect- 
 ing radically the character of its various popula- 
 tions, have deprived the Spaniards of all nation- 
 al characteristics, and made the people as various 
 as the climate and the soil. Galicia and the 
 north bear yet the evidence of having entertain- 
 ed the bold and hardy children of the wild forests 
 and frozen seas of Germany ; while the sea- 
 coast of the Mediterranean is covered with a 
 population that yet betrays its Moorish origin. 
 The following account of the rivers and moun- 
 tains of Spain is taken from D'Anville : "On 
 the side where it is not environed by the sea, it 
 is enclosed by the Pyrenees, which separate it 
 from Gaul. Iberus, the Ebro, is the most north- 
 ern of its rivers. Durius, the Dmro, (or, ac- 
 cording to the Portuguese, Douro,) and the 
 Tagus, or the Tajo which traverse the middle 
 of this continent, shape their courses almost in 
 a parallel direction towards the west. In the 
 southern part Anas, or Guadi-Ana and Balis, 
 which, under the domination of the Maures in 
 Spain, assumed the appellation of Guadi-al-Ki- 
 bir, or the Great River, run more obliquely from 
 the east towards the south. Sucro, or the Xu- 
 car, which empties itself into the Mediterra- 
 nean ; and Minius, or the Minho (which should 
 be pronounced Migno,) having its mouth in the 
 ocean northward of the Durius, may also be 
 cited here ; omitting at present the mention of 
 other rivers, which will more properly be found 
 in the detail of particular provinces. Among 
 the mountains described by the ancients, that of 
 Idubeda extends its name to a long chain, 
 which, from the country of the Cantabrians 
 towards the north, continues southward to that 
 of the Celtiberians. Orospeda, is a circle of 
 mountains enveloping the sources of the Bce- 
 tis: and what is now called Sierra Morena 
 P.4RT I.— U 
 
 derives its name from Marianus mons, between 
 Castile and Andalusia. This continent forms 
 many promontories, of which three are suffi- 
 ciently eminent to be distinguished here: Cha- 
 ridemum on the Mediterranean, now Cape Ga- 
 la; Sacrum, and Artabrum or Nerium, on the 
 ocean ; the first of which has taken the name of 
 St. Vincent, and the other that of Finisterre. 
 And these are the features of nature most pro- 
 minent and remarkable in this country." The 
 precious metals, which, in the early ages the 
 mountain regions of this peninsula so abundant- 
 ly produced, have long disappeared ; the mines 
 have been exhausted, and nothing but the au- 
 thority of the historian remains to give ciedi- 
 bility to the relations of antiquity concerning the 
 prodigious supplies of gold, &c. which not only 
 the Phoenicians, but in much later days the 
 Romans, drew from this affluent soil. Yet 
 concurrent testimonies prove, that, on the first 
 arrival of the Phoenicians, so abundant was the 
 return of this first of all the metals which they 
 obtained for their trifling wares, that their 
 ships being insufficient for its transportation in 
 freight, they were obliged to cast it into the 
 form of anchors, and other necessary imple- 
 ments, to convey it across the waters. Bossi 
 St. Spagn. 
 
 HisTi^A, " one of the most considerable of 
 the Euboean cities, founded, as it is said, by an 
 Athenian colony, in the district of Ellopia, 
 which once communicated its name to the 
 whole country. Scymnus of Chios, hoVever, 
 ascribes a Thessalian origin to this town. It 
 fell into the hands of the Persians after the 
 retreat of the Grecian fleet from Artemisium. 
 But it did not remain long in their possession, 
 and on the termination of the Persian w^ar it 
 became, with the rest of Euboea, subject to 
 Athens. In the attempt afterwards made to 
 skake off the galling yoke of this power, Histiasa 
 probably took a prominent part, if we may 
 judge from the severity displayed towards its 
 unfortunate inhabitants by Pericles, who ex- 
 pelled them from their possessions, and sent 
 Athenian colonists to occupy the lands which 
 they had evacuated. Strabo, on the authority 
 of Theopompus, informs us, that the HistJaeans 
 withdrew on this occasion to Macedonia. From 
 henceforth we find the name of their town 
 changed to Oreus, which at first was that of a 
 small place dependent on Histiaea, at the foot of 
 mount Telethrius, and near the spot called Dry- 
 mos on the banks of the river Callas. This 
 city no longer existed in Pliny's time. Its ruins 
 are still to be seen near the coast opposite to 
 the cape Volo of Thessaly." Cram. Gr. 
 
 HisTONroM, " once the haunt of savage pi- 
 rates, who, as Strabo reports, formed their 
 dwellings from the wrecks of ships, and in other 
 respects lived more like beasts of prey than 
 civilized beings. This town is, however, after- 
 wards enumerated by Frontinus among the 
 colonies of Rome ; and its ruins, which are still 
 visible, attest that it was not wanting in splen- 
 dour and extent." This place was in the coun- 
 try of the Frentani, north of the mouth of the 
 Trinius. It is now called Vasta d^Ammom. 
 Cram. It. 
 
 HisTRiA, that part of Venetia which lay 
 below the river Formio in the shape of a penm- 
 sula, between the waters of the Tergesticus 
 153 
 
HO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HO 
 
 Sinus, the Adriatic, and the Flanaticus Sinus, 
 or rather the river Arsia. Before the time of 
 Augustus, Histria formed no part of Italy, 
 which was terminated on the north-east by the 
 Formio ; but that emperor having extended the 
 limits of Cisalpine Gaul, one of his Italian 
 provinces, as far as the Arsia, of course included 
 Histria in Italy. The Histrians were originally 
 an Illyrian people, and like the other lUyrians, 
 probably of Thracian origin. Ancient fable 
 has rendered Histria more famous than it would 
 have become from its political or historical im- 
 portance ; and the fiction of the Argonauts, with 
 the tragic story that gave name to the Absyr- 
 tides, according to mythological traditions, has 
 given it a frequent place in the pages of the first 
 poets of antiquity. 
 
 HoMOLE. " Mount Homole, the extreme 
 point of Magnesia to the north, was probably a 
 portion of the chain of Ossa ; and celebrated 
 by the poets as the abode of the ancient Cen- 
 taurs and Lapithae, and a favourite haunt of 
 Pan. 
 
 Ceu^ duo nubigencB quum vertice montis ah alto 
 De&cendunt Centauri, Homolen Othrymque ni- 
 
 valem 
 Linquentes cursu rapido. JEtW. 7, 674. 
 
 From Pausanias we learn that it was extremely 
 fertile, and well supplied with springs and foun- 
 tains. One of these were apparently the Libe- 
 thrian fountain. Sirabo says that mount Ho- 
 mole was near the mouth of the Peneus, and 
 Apollonius describes it as close to the sea." 
 Cram. 
 
 HoMOLOiDES, one of the seven gates of 
 Thebes. Stat. Theb.l,Y.'ii>b2. 
 
 HoMONADA, now Ermenak, on the Caly- 
 cadnus, among the Taurus mountains, and 
 towards the borders of Isauria. This town of 
 Cilicia Trachaeawas situated in such a manner 
 as to be almost impregnable ; and the inhabit- 
 ants, like all the other people of those regions, 
 ( Vid. Cilicia,) being greatly addicted to a pre- 
 datory life, were enabled in these fastnesses to 
 carry on in the surrounding country an harass- 
 ing war of depredation with the greatest secu- 
 rity. 
 
 HoREST^, a Caledonian people inhabitmg 
 the northern margin of the Frith of Tay, and 
 extending perhaps to the southern bank of the 
 Esk. D^Anville. 
 
 HoRTA, or HoRTiNUM, a town of the Sabines, 
 on the confluence of the Nar and the Tiber. 
 Virg. Mn. 7, v. 716. 
 
 HoRTi, I. (Agripp^.) Near to the Pantheon 
 were the gardens and baths of Agrippa, be- 
 queathed by that proprietary to the people of 
 Rome. In these gardens was the collection of 
 water upon which the emperor Nero entertained 
 himself with sea-fights and aquatic sports. A 
 part of this piece of water was called the Eu- 
 ripus. II. C^saris. The celebrated gar- 
 dens of Ceesar, bequeathed also by that destroy- 
 er of the people's rights to the people he had 
 destroyed, were situate in the region called 
 Transtyberina. 
 
 " Moreover he hath left you all his walka 
 His private arbours and new planted orchards 
 On this side TWer ; he hath left them yon 
 To walk abroad and recreate yourselves^ 
 
 134 
 
 III. DoMiTi.^.. The gardens of Domitia, 
 
 the aunt of Nero, were also in this region, in 
 the Campus Vaticanus. Long afterwards the 
 emperor Hadrian erected there a mausoleum 
 for himself, which, the principal defence of mo- 
 dern Rome, has gained still more celebrity as 
 the Castle of St. Angelo, the last resort of the 
 Roman pontiffs in cases of sedition and attack, 
 than as the proud structure intended to enno- 
 ble the worthless remains of a vain Roman 
 emperor. IV. Lamije. The gardens of La- 
 mia, in which were deposited the last remains 
 of Caligula, adjoined those of Maecenas in the 
 
 region called Esquilina. V. Julh Martia- 
 
 Lis. These retreats, commemorated by the 
 poet Martial, the nephew of the person to whom 
 they belonged and whose name they bore, were 
 situated on the side of the hill now known as 
 the Monte Mario, in the region Transtyberina, 
 among the ancient Romans the Clivus Cinnae, 
 
 VI. Neronis. a little farther from the 
 
 banks of the river were the gardens of Nero, 
 and here the imperial executioner stood to de- 
 light in the torments inflicted by his orders on 
 the persecuted disciples of the new religion of 
 the Galilaeans. VII. Sallustii. In ihe re- 
 gion called Alta Semita, near the baths of Dio- 
 clesian and the circus of Flora, were-the famous 
 gardens of Sallust. The brief remarks of 
 Eustace on the gardens of Sallust, and on 
 those of the Romans in general, will serve to 
 give some notion of those elegant retreats of 
 the ancient poet, philosopher, or sensualist. 
 "The various villas that encircle modern Rome 
 form one of its characteristic beauties, as well 
 as one of the principal features of its resem- 
 blance to the ancient city, which seems to have 
 been environed with gardens, and almost stud- 
 ded with groves and shady retirements. Thus 
 Julius Cassar had a spacious garden on the 
 banks of the Tiber, at the foot of the Janiculum, 
 which he bequeathed to the Roman people: 
 Maecenas enclosed, and converted into a plea- 
 sure-ground, a considerable part of the Esqui- 
 line hill, which before had been the common 
 burial-place of the lower classes and the resort 
 of thieves and vagabonds; an alteration which 
 Horace mentions with complacency in his 
 eighth satire. To these we may add the Horti 
 L/iLcullani and ^S'er^'^Z^am, incident ly mentioned 
 by Tacitus, and particularly the celebrated re- 
 treat of the historian Sallust, adorned with so 
 much magnificence and luxury that it became 
 the favourite resort of successive emperors. 
 This garden occupied the extremities of the 
 Viminal and Pincian hills, and enclosed in its 
 precincts a palace, a temple, and a circus. The 
 palace v/as consumed by fire on the fatal night 
 when Alaric entered the city. The gardens of 
 Lucullus are supposed to have bordered on 
 those of Sallust, and with several other deli- 
 cious retreats, which covered the summit and 
 brow of the Pincian mount, gave it its ancient 
 appellation of Collis Hortulorum. To the in- 
 termingled graces of town and country that 
 adorned these fashionable mansions of the rich 
 and luxurious Romans, Horace alludes, when, 
 addressing Fuscus Aristius, he says 
 
 Nempe inter varias nutritur sylva columnas — 
 as in the verse immediately following 
 
HU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HU 
 
 LaudaHroue domus longos qua prospicit agros. 
 ^ Hor. Ep. 1, 10. 
 
 he evidently hints at the extensive views which 
 might be enjoyed from the lofty apartments, 
 erected expressly for the purpose of command- 
 ing a wide range of country." 
 
 HosTiLiA, a town on the Po. Tacit. Ann. 
 2, c. 40.— Plin. 21, c. 12. 
 
 HuNNi, a people of Sarmatia, who invaded 
 the empire of Rome in the fifth century, and 
 settled in Pannonia, to which they gave the 
 name of Hungary. Of all the barbarian in- 
 vaders of the Roman empire, there are none 
 whose immediate origin is more obscure, or 
 whose early progress is more unsatisfactorily 
 traced, than that of the Huns. Two modes 
 may be adopted in the investigation of their 
 rise, which, leading at first to apparently diffe- 
 rent results, may yet perhaps be reconciled. 
 The former of these observes the analogy, in 
 customs, language, habits, and traditions, be- 
 tween the Hunni and other northern and north- 
 eastern tribes; the latter argues from the re- 
 ports, imsatisfactory and insufficient, that clas- 
 sic authors, or rather authors living after the 
 classic ages, have handed down to us. The 
 argument deduced from affinities of language 
 join the population of Hungary to the Finnish 
 tribes that dwelt about the Uralian countries ; 
 but this refers rather to the people who occu- 
 pied the countries within which the later Huns, 
 on their first arrival, fixed themselves, than to 
 those Huns or Magiars themselves. The Huns 
 of Asia, however, long before their passage 
 towards Europe, had extended from the Chi- 
 nese wall over a large portion of the northern 
 parts of Asia, when the increase of the impe- 
 rial power on the south, and the hostility of 
 innumerable smaller nations that had swelled 
 the Hunnish power within the first century of 
 our era, reduced that haughty race to the alter- 
 native of servitude or emigration. While sub- 
 mission and subjection seemed to many prefer- 
 able to the abandonment of their homes, large 
 nimibers resolved to follow their fortunes in the 
 wide regions, both cultivated and uncultivated, 
 that lay before them. One body, pushing their 
 march towards the borders of the Persian em- 
 pire, possessed themselves of the province of 
 Sogdiana ; while another, proceeding still fur- 
 ther in the direction of Europe, established a 
 temporary abode on the banks of the Volga, in 
 the country named from them Great Hungary. 
 " The Ouni," says Malte-Brun, " inhabited the 
 northern shores of the Caspian Sea in the first 
 century of the Christian era, and a hundred 
 years afterwards they were settled on the banks 
 of the Borysthenes. These people were in all 
 probability the Huns who rendered themselves 
 illustrious in the fourth and fifth centuries ; they 
 occupied the same countries, they were distin- 
 guished by the same names." To the same ef- 
 fect writes that soundest geographer, D' An ville, 
 who adds that they were also still masters of 
 their seats beside the Caspian as late as the 
 close of the 5th century. " In the description," 
 he continues, " that wehave of the person of At- 
 tila, we recognize the features of the Cal mucks 
 who wander over the immense plains of Tarta- 
 ry, which extend from the north of the Caspian 
 Sea to the frontier of China. For he was short 
 
 of stature, with high shoulders, broad head, lit- 
 tle eyes, flat nose, of swarthy tint, and almost 
 without beard. Sabiri was a particular name 
 to those Huns established at the foot of Cauca- 
 The crossing of the Volga by this peo 
 
 sus. ._, w . 
 
 pie was the beginning of new contests, in which 
 it was again to be engaged for many years, but 
 always as a conqueror. The Alani were the 
 first subdued by them, and the Hunnish ranks 
 were swelled by immense numbers of the va- 
 liant Alani, who were suffered to unite with 
 their conquerors. The Gothic empire of Her- 
 manric, extending from the Baltic to the Eux- 
 ine, next yielded to the Hunnish power ; and 
 these victorious tribes pursued the dying hordes, 
 less valiant and less dreaded only than them- 
 selves, to beg protection within the still shelter- 
 ing power of the Roman dominions. ( Vid. Got- 
 thi.) This was the first appearance of the 
 Turkish race in Europe, for it is evident that, 
 though in their Finnish relations they are con- 
 nected with the people of the north, in their 
 Asiatic origin they belong to the Tartar race of 
 the Altai, as do also the Turks, whose migra- 
 tions are only of a later date. The Huns now 
 spread themselves from the Volga to the Da- 
 nube, committing depredations, and still the 
 terror as well of the less savage barbarians as 
 of the empire, but yet without a settled govern- 
 ment. About the year 433 this government 
 was established, the kingdom of Attila was 
 spread over Germany, and Scylhia, and a large 
 division of the eastern empire was delached^from 
 the dominion of the emperor and added to the 
 Hunnish monarch's throne, while his power was 
 felt, if his authority and right were not acknow- 
 ledged, by tribute, over all the region through 
 which the earlier Huns had passed to the walls 
 of the distant Chinese territory. But this ex- 
 tensive empire lasted only while its foundei: 
 lived to rule and animate, and add to it ; and 
 the revival of the thrones of the GepidiE and 
 the Ostrogoths betokened the dissolution of the 
 Hunnish dominion. The remains of this peo- 
 ple, who had retreated to the narrow country of 
 the Lesser Scythia, were soon after overwhelm- 
 ed by new comers from the inexhaustible north. 
 Thus were extinguished for a time the name 
 and power of the Huns who had ventured with- 
 in the pale of the empire ; but an immense num- 
 ber had remained, or had since been born, of 
 those that had been left in the forests of Sar- 
 matia, and still continued, under the name of 
 Bulgarians, to threaten the civilized inhabitants 
 of the west. Meanwhile new revolutions in the 
 centre of Asia were preparing new enemies for 
 Europe ; and the Avars, another horde of sava- 
 ges, descended from the same stock as the Huns, 
 being driven by the oppressive power of the Tar- 
 tars, who had now received the name of Turks, 
 appeared to dispute with the Bulgarians and 
 Slavonians the possessions of extensive coim- 
 tries in the European Sarmatia. In the wars of 
 the Lombards and Gepidse, these Avars com- 
 bined with the former, and on the extermination 
 of their enemies they transferred themselves to 
 the milder seats which had thus been rendered 
 destitute, and spread themselves in the pro- 
 vinces of Moesia and Dacia, in the modern coun- 
 tries of Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, 
 and Hungary, on the farther side of the Danube. 
 When Alboin, the Lombard king, evacuating 
 155 
 
HU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HU 
 
 Pannonia, passed to the invasion and conquest 
 of Italy, the Huns or Avars, transporting them- 
 selves over the Danube, effected the settlement 
 of the province thus abandoned by their allies 
 and friends. Here, for upwards of 200 years, 
 they remained without any considerable inter- 
 ruption of their rule, when, after that lapse of 
 time, the authority of the new empire of the 
 west, revived in Charlemagne, was extended 
 over this province of ihe former emperors. Such 
 is a brief outline of the progress and settlement 
 of the Huns and Avars in Europe, the later in- 
 cursions of the Hungarians are yet to be traced 
 and elucidated. It does not appear that the first 
 invaders of Europe from the Tartar countries 
 at any time forgot their distant homes and Asia- 
 tic origin, and the borders of Persia were inha- 
 bited by a race which, as well as the shepherds 
 of the Volga, acknowledged an affinity with the 
 descendants of the Huns of Attila. We have 
 already seen a later branch of the same people, 
 with the name of Turks, pursuing the march 
 of their brethren from the confines of China, 
 and driving before them the weaker but uncon- 
 querable Avars. The eastern name of these 
 people seem to have been Magiars, and this 
 also is the name of a portion of that people by 
 whom the last barbarian conquests were effect- 
 ed in Hungary, and who still form apart, though 
 not a large one, of the population of that coun- 
 try. The following is the Hungarian account 
 of this migration and incursion, in which the 
 scattered bodies of the former tribe, collecting 
 from all parts of uncivilized Europe, united 
 with the Magiars, forming what is called the 
 Hungarian horde, to establish the kingdom of 
 Hungary. " We learn from the old national 
 songs of the Magiars that three countries are 
 situated in the heart of Scythia, Dens or Dentu, 
 Moger or Magar, and Bastard. The inhabit- 
 ants of these regions are clothed in ermine ; gold 
 and silver are as common as iron, the channels 
 of the rivers are covered with precious stones. 
 Magog, the eastern neighbour of Gog, was a 
 grandson of Japheth, and the first king of Scy- 
 thia. According to a different tradition, Ma- 
 gor and Hunor, the first Scythian monarchs, 
 left a hundred and eight descendants, the found- 
 ers of as many tribes. Ethele or Attila was 
 sprung from Japheth, and Ugek from Attila. 
 The second migration of the Hungarians from 
 Scythia took place under the son of Ugek or 
 Almus, whose birth was foretold in a dream ; 
 the first happened in the time of Attila. A re- 
 dundant population was the cause of these mi- 
 grations. Two thousand men departed from 
 every one of the 108 tribes, and the total num- 
 ber amounted to 216,000, who were divided into 
 seven armies, each of which was made up of 
 30,857, warriors, commanded by seven princes 
 or dukes, the Hetou Moger or the seven Ma- 
 giars. The names of the leaders, which are 
 still preserved, were Almus, Eleud, Kundu, 
 Ound, Tosu, Thiba, and T\ihuhim. The Hun- 
 garians passed the Wolga near the town of 
 Tiilbora, and marched on Sousdal, which might 
 have been the same as Susat, the ancient 
 capital of Attila's empire. They removed from 
 that place and settled in Lebedias, probably in 
 the neighbourhood of Lebedian, a town in the 
 government of Varonez (Woronesch.) They 
 were invited from their new territory by king 
 156 
 
 Arnolphus of Germany to combat Sviatopolk, 
 king of Great Moravia. Duke Almus put him- 
 self at the head of an army, passed through the 
 country of the Slavonians in Kiovia (Kiow,) 
 defeated the troops that opposed him, and reach- 
 ed the confines of Hungary by the Russian 
 principality of Lodomiria or Wladimir. Arpad, 
 his son, crossed the Carpathian mountains, 
 and invaded the country on the Upper Theiss, 
 which is now protected by the fortress of Ungh- 
 Var that was built in 884. But according to 
 another account the Hungarians entered Tran- 
 sylvania in 862, and were driven from it in 889 
 by the Patzinakites or Petchenegues. These 
 tribes, however, were not perhaps under the do- 
 minions of Arpad. Such is the history of the 
 Hungarian migrations according to their own 
 traditions, which unfortunately are disregarded 
 and rejected by the monks, the only persons who 
 could have preserved them entire. The three 
 regions, Dentu, Mager, and Bosto.rd, were Tev^ 
 duck or Turf an, Great Hungary or the country 
 of the Magiars, and Baschirs or Bushkurst, the 
 Pascatir of Rubruquis. The first was ruled 
 by kings of the Unghs, and the second was the 
 earliest known country of the Magiars. It fol- 
 lows from these- statements that the Hrmga- 
 rians must have occupied at one time a very 
 extensive country, but the details are not for that 
 reason incorrect ; on the contrary, other facts, 
 independently of the seven princes and the se- 
 ven tribes, appear to corroborate them. When 
 compared with the statements of different histo- 
 rians, and combined with our hypothesis con- 
 cerning the Huns and Fins, the migrations of 
 the Hungarians across Russia, then peopled by 
 hordes of the same race, and their settlements 
 in the Hunni-Var, cannot be thought improba- 
 ble or fabulous. The epoch of the migration, 
 which is said to have taken place before the j'^ear 
 800, may not be accurately known ; but it may 
 be maintained, without inquiring whether the 
 early exploits of the Huns under Attila were 
 confounded with the achievements of the Ma- 
 giars, that the latter possessed Lebedias longer 
 than is generally believed. The passages in 
 Constanline Porphyrogenetes concerning the 
 respective countries of the Mazares, Chazares, 
 and Russians, in the early part of the tenth cen- 
 tury, are very obscure; still, according to the 
 text, and exclusive of every arbitrary correc- 
 tion, they prove, in our opinion, that the Ma- 
 giars inhabited the banks of the Upper Don af- 
 ter the Ougres, whom the Byzantines confound- 
 ed with the Turks, were settled in the Hunni- 
 Var. As we cannot enter into the long discus- 
 sions to which the subject might lead, it only re- 
 mains for us to state briefly the causes or events 
 by which the limits of Hungary have at differ- 
 ent times been altered. The irruptions of the 
 Hungarians into Germany and Italy were final- 
 ly checked by the victories of Henry the 1st at 
 Merseburg in 933, and of^Otho the 1st at Augs- 
 burg in 955. The Hungarians were then a 
 barbarous people, addicted to superstition and 
 magic, like the Finns ; eating horse-flesh at their 
 religious feasts like the Scandinavians. The 
 names of their divinities are now unknown." 
 A summary of this latter invasion is given by 
 the same writer in the following words : " The 
 Hungarians entered the basin of the Theiss 
 and the Danube by the plain now protected oy 
 
HY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HY 
 
 the forts of Ungh^Var and MunJcatsch ; they 
 invaded all the low country, and left the moun- 
 tainous districts on the north and north-west to 
 the Slovacks, once the subjects of the Moravian 
 or Maravanian monarchy. They advanced on 
 the south-west to the base of the Styrian and 
 Croatian mountains, and met in these regions 
 Slavonic tribes, the Wends and Croatians. The 
 Hungarians were accustomed to a pastoral life, 
 and possessed numerous flocks and herds, for 
 which the large plains were well adapted. The 
 same country had been successively subdued 
 by the Pannonians, Sarmatians, Huns, and 
 Awares ; but several Hungarian tribes inhabit- 
 ed, probably at an early period, the mountains 
 in the north-west of Transylvania, or the basin 
 of the two Szamos, which was called Black 
 Hungary in the year 1002, or at the time of its 
 imion with Hungary Proper. It has been seen 
 that the Szecklers in the eastern part of Tran- 
 sylvania are a Hungarian or semi-Hungarian 
 tribe, that have existed in their present country 
 since the ninth century. The population of 
 the whole nation, including the Cumanians and 
 Jazyges, amounts to four millions, of whom 
 nearly 500,000 are settled in Transylvania." 
 Malte-Brun. 
 
 Hyampeia, one of the rocks, which, rising 
 above the city of Delphi, belonged to Parnassus, 
 and caused the mountain to receive the epithet 
 of AiKopvcpos. Between this summit and that 
 called Naupleia was precipitated the fountain 
 of Castaly; and from them also the criminals 
 convicted of sacrilege were precipitated. The 
 name of Phsedriades was given to these sum- 
 mits when spoken of in connexion. Herodotus^ 
 8, 29.—Diodor. Sic. 16, 523.— >So^A. Ant. 1126. 
 
 Hyampolis, a city of Phocis, on the Cephi- 
 sus, founded by the Hyanthes. Herodot. 8. 
 
 Hyanthes, the ancient name of the inhabit- 
 ants of Boeotia, from king Hyas. Cadmus is 
 sometimes called Hyanthius, because he is king 
 of Boeotia. Ovid Met. 3, v. 147. 
 
 Hyantis, an ancient name of Boeotia. 
 
 Hybla, a mountain in Sicil)'', where thyme 
 and odoriferous flowers of all sorts grew in 
 abundance. It is famous for its honey. There 
 is, at the foot of the mountain, a town, called, 
 to distinguish it from others of the same name 
 
 in the island. Magna. Another Hybla, south 
 
 of the former, and not far to the north of Syra- 
 cuse, was called also Megaris. Paus. 5, c. 23. — 
 Slrab. 6.— Mela, 2, c. l.—Cic. Verr. 3, c. 43, 1. 
 
 5, c. 25.— SiZ. 14, V. 26.— Stat. 14, v. 201. 
 
 A city of Attica bears also the name of Hj^bla. 
 
 Hydaspes. This river, celebrated for the 
 passage of Alexander before engaging with 
 Porus, was known to the ancients by a variety 
 of names ; nor do the moderns recognise it by 
 fewer designating appellations. Like many 
 other of the head waters of the Indus, this ri- 
 ver, a principal tributary of that famous stream, 
 is created by the springs of the vast Himalah, 
 and, flowing through the district of Cashmire, 
 it is navigable for vessels of a great tonnage 
 from the capital of that province to its conflu- 
 ence with the Acesines, with which it sends its 
 waters to the Indus and the Arabian Sea. The 
 modern name is Behut, but D'Anville calls it 
 the Shantrou. 
 
 Hydraotes, a river of India, whose course is 
 not accurately known, according to the jarring 
 
 accounts of antiquity. If it be the same as the 
 Persian Ravee or Rawi, it rose like the Hy- 
 daspes, in the Himalah mountains to the east of 
 the sources of that river and of the Acesines, 
 and running through that part of the anciently 
 ill-deiuied India, or the modem Cashmire, La- 
 hore, and Mooltar, discharged itself at some dis- 
 tance below the junction of those rivers above 
 their confluence with the great river which ab- 
 sorbed them all. Chaussard. 
 
 Hydruntum, and Hydrus, a city of Cala- 
 bria, 50 miles south of Brundusium. As the 
 distance from thence to Greece was only GO 
 miles, Pyrrhus, and afterwardsVarro, Pompey's 
 lieutenant, meditated the building here a bridge 
 across the Adriatic. Though so favourably si- 
 tuated, Hydrus, now called Otranto, is but an 
 insignificant towTi, scarce containing 3000 in- 
 habitants. Plin. 3, c. 11.— Czc. 15, Att. 21, 1. 
 16, ep. 5. — Lucan. 5, v. 375. 
 
 Hylas, a river of Bithynia. This river was 
 connected with the fable of Hylas. Vid. Part 
 III. 
 
 Hyle, a town of Boeotia, on the Hylice Pa- 
 ins, which derived its name from that of the 
 town. This little spot, though inconsiderable 
 in size and population, was of great antiquity, 
 and is twice mentioned by Homer. The waters 
 of the lake on which it stood were derived from 
 the Copaic lake b)'- one of its numerous subter- 
 ranean passages ; and on their banks, extending 
 perhaps a distance of about five miles, the ruins 
 of Hyle are still discernible. 
 
 Hylias, a river of Magna Greecia. " The 
 river Hylias, which formed, as may be collected 
 from Thucydides, the line of separation be- 
 tween the territories of Thurii and Crotona, 
 answers according to Romanelli, to a rivulet 
 named Calonato. The Greek historian informs 
 us, that the Athenian troops which were sent 
 to reinforce their army in Sicily, having landed 
 at Thurii, marched along the coast till they ar- 
 rived on the banks of the Hylias, where they 
 were met by a deputation sent from Crotona to 
 interdict their progress through the territory of 
 that city." 
 
 Hylice Palus. Vid. Hyle. 
 
 Hyllus, a river of Lydia, flowing into the 
 Hermus. It is called also Phryx and Phrygius. 
 Liv. 37, c. 'i'$,.— Herodot. 1, c. 180. 
 
 Hymettus, a mountain of Attica, about 22 
 miles in circumference, and about two miles 
 from Athens. " This celebrated mountain forms 
 the southern portion of the considerable chain 
 which, under the several names of Parnes, Pen- 
 telicus, and Brilessus, traverses nearly the whole 
 of Attica from north-east to south-west. It was 
 divided into two summits, one of which was 
 Hymettus properly so called, the other, Anydros, 
 or the dry Hymettus. The former is now Tre- 
 lovouni, the latter, Lampro vouni. Hymettus 
 was especially famous for its fragrant flowers 
 and excellent honey. It produced also marbles 
 much esteemed by the Romans, and, according 
 to some accounts, contained silver mines. He- 
 rodotus affirms that the Pelasgi, who, in the 
 course of their wanderings, had settled in Atti- 
 ca, occupied a district situated under mount Hy- 
 mettus : from this, however, they were expelled, 
 in consequence, as Hecateus aflSrmed, of the 
 jealousy entertained by the Athenians on ac- 
 count of the superior skill exhibited by these 
 157 
 
HY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 HY 
 
 strangers in the culture of land. Some ruins, 
 indicative of the site of an ancient lown, near 
 the monastery of Syriani, at the foot of moimt 
 Trelo vou7ii, have been thought to correspond 
 •with this old settlement of the Pelasgi, appa- 
 rently called Larissa. On the crest of the moun- 
 tain stood a statue of Jupiter Hymettius, and 
 the altars of Jupiter Pluviusand Apollo Provi- 
 dus. ' Hymettus,' says Dodwell, ' rises gently 
 from the northern and southern extremities to 
 its summit ; its eastern and western sides are 
 abrupt and rocky; its outline, as seen from 
 Athens, is even and regular, but its sides are 
 furrowed by the winter torrents, and its base is 
 broken into many small insular hills of a conical 
 shape. When viewed from Pentelikon, where 
 its breadth only is seen, it resembles mount 
 Vesuvius in its form. The rock of this moun- 
 tain is in general composed of a calcareous 
 yellow stone. On the western side, near the 
 monastery of Kareas, is an ancient quarry of 
 grey marble, which contains some line masses 
 of white marble ; but it is so much mixed with 
 strata of green mica, that it is not comparable 
 to the Pentelic' The honey of mount Hy- 
 mettus is still in great estimation ; the best is 
 procured at the monasteries of Sirgiani and 
 Kareas. Dodwell remarks that the Athenians 
 use it in most of their dishes, and conceive 
 that it renders them long-lived and healthy. 
 The modern name of Hymettus is Trelo-vouni, 
 or the Mad mountain. This singular appellation 
 is accounted for from the circumstance of its 
 having been translated from the Italian Monte 
 Matto, which is nothing else than an unmean- 
 ing corruption of mons Hymettus. It appears 
 from Horace's account to have been once cover- 
 ed with forests, if he is not rather alluding to 
 the marble blocks cut from the mountain. 
 
 Non traces HymetticB 
 PremvMt recisas ultima colwnnas 
 Africa. Od. IL 17, 3. 
 
 It is now no longer sheltered by woods, but is 
 exposed to the winds, and has a sun-burnt ap- 
 pearance." Cram. 
 
 HYP.EPA, or Ipep^, now Berki, a town of 
 Lydia, sacred to Venus, between mount Tmo- 
 lusandthe Caystrus. Strab. 13. — Ovid. Met. 
 11, V. 152. 
 
 Hypanis, a river of European Scythia, now 
 called Bog, which falls into the Borysthenes, 
 and with it into the Euxine. Herodot. 4, c. 52, 
 &c.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 285. 
 
 Hypates, a river of Sicily, near Camarina. 
 Ital. 14, V. 231. 
 
 Hypata, a town of Thessaly on the Sper- 
 chius, the chief city of the CEniones, The na- 
 tional councils of the iEtolianswere frequently 
 held in this place, which is said to have fallen 
 into the possession of that people ; and the ma- 
 gic art was thought to be practised there to a 
 very great extent and with the greatest success. 
 In the geography of the lower empire, this place 
 was designated by the name of Neae Patrae, and 
 its ruins are even yet discoverable near the 
 present I'atragicJc. Liv. 41, c. 25. 
 
 Hyperborei, a nation in the northern parts 
 of Europe and Asia, who were said to live to 
 an incredible age, even to a thousand years, and 
 in the enjoyment of all possible felicity. The 
 sun was said to rise and set to them but once 
 158 
 
 a year, and therefore perhaps they are placed 
 by Virgil under the north pole. The word signi- 
 fies people who inhabit beyond the wind Boreas. 
 Thrace was the residence of Boreas, according 
 to the ancients. Whenever the Hyperboreans 
 made offerings, they always sent them towards 
 the south, and the people of Dodona were the 
 first of the Greeks who received them. The 
 word Hyperboreans is applied, in general, to all 
 those who inhabit any cold climate. Plin. 4, c. 
 12, 1. 6, c. 11.— Mela, 3, c. 5.— Virg. G. 1, v. 
 240, 1. 3, V. 169 and ^Ql.— Herodot. 4, c. 13, 
 &c.— Cic. N. D. 3, c. 23, 1. 4, c. 12. 
 
 Hyperea, and Hyperia, I. a fountain of 
 Thessaly, with a town of the same name. Strab. 
 9. II. Another in Messenia, in Peloponne- 
 sus. Flacc. 1, V. 375. 
 
 Hyphasis, called also Hypanis, according to 
 the oriental geographers Beah or Biah, a river 
 of India. To the south-east of the sources of 
 the Hydaspes, Acesines, and Hydraotis, this ri- 
 ver rose in the high mountains of Asia, between 
 India and Scythia, and, after flowing through 
 that ill-explored country which Alexander's 
 conquests only reached, it fell into the Acesines, 
 or, as some believed, into the Indus itself. The 
 modern Lahore is watered on the east by this 
 river, after it comes from Cashmire ; and its 
 waters on the south-eastern confines of the for- 
 mer district, taking a western bend, divide the 
 provinces oi Mooltan, Beerkanair, ajidDaopotra. 
 This is generally considered to have marked the 
 limit of the conquests of the mad Macedonian. 
 
 Hypsa, now Belici, a river of Sicily, falling 
 into the Crinisus, and then into the Mediterra- 
 nean near Selinus. Hal. 14, v. 228. 
 
 Hyrcania, I. a country of Asia, bounded on 
 the north by the Hyrcanian or Caspian Sea, on 
 the east by Margiana, on the south by Parthia, 
 and on the west by Atropatia or Atropatene, 
 the northern part of Media. " Divided from 
 Parthia by the interposition of Coronus, part 
 of the main body of mount Taurus ; the way 
 through which, said by the Persians to be cut 
 at one blow by the scymitar of Mortis Hali, 
 their second Mahomet, is not above forty yards 
 in breadth in the broadest parts of it ; the hills 
 on both sides towering to the very clouds ; with 
 small strength easily defended against mighty 
 armies. It took the name of Hyrcania from 
 Hyrcana, a large and spacious forest between it 
 and Scythia : sometimes called Caspia also, from 
 the Caspii, a chief people of it; of whom it is 
 reported, that when their parents came to the 
 age of 70 years, they used to shut them up and 
 starve them, as being then no longer useful to 
 the commonwealth. But both these names 
 growing out of use, it is by Mercator called Di- 
 argument, by some late travellers Mezendram, 
 and by some others CorcamP The ancient ca- 
 pital of the country was Hyrcania, now Jorjan 
 
 or Corcan. Heyl. Cosm. II. A town of 
 
 Lydia, destroyed by a violent earthquake in the 
 time of Tiberius. It was situated in the plain 
 to the north of the Hermus, and received its 
 name from a body of Hyrcanians, transported 
 thither under the kings of Persia from the bor- 
 ders of the Caspian. Marmora probably occu- 
 pies its site. D'Anville. 
 
 Hyrcanum mare, a large sea, called also 
 Caspian. Vid. Caspium Mare. 
 
 Hyreicm, or Uria, a town of Apulia, which 
 
HY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 lA 
 
 gave name to the Sinus Urias. Its " position 
 has not yet been clearly ascertained, partly from 
 the circumstance of there being another town 
 of the same name in Messapia, and partly from 
 the situation assigned to it by Pliny, to the 
 south of the promontory of Garganus, not agree- 
 ing with the topography of Strabo. Hence 
 Cluverius and Cellarius were led to imagine 
 that there were two distinct towns named Uria 
 and Hyrium ; the former situated to the south, 
 the latter to the north of the Garganus. It 
 must be observed, however, that Dionysius Pe- 
 riegetes, and Ptolemy mention only Hyrium, 
 and therefore it is probable that the error has 
 originated with Pliny. At any rate, we may 
 safely place the Hyreium of Strabo at Rodi. 
 Catullus probably alludes to this town in his 
 address to Venus." Cram. 
 
 Hyria, I. a borough of BcEotia, near Aulis, 
 with a lake, river, and town, of the same name. 
 
 II. or Uria, a town in the northern part 
 
 of the lapygian peninsula, " betw^een Brindisi 
 and Tarento, apparently of great antiquity, 
 since its foundation is ascribed by Herodotus to 
 some Cretans, who formed part of an expedition 
 to avenge the death of Minos, who perished in 
 Sicily, whither he went in pursuit of Dsedalus. 
 After the failure of this second enterprise, the 
 remaining Cretans, as Herodotus relates, being 
 wrecked on their return home near the shores 
 of lapygia, settled there, and founded the city 
 of Hyria, together with other colonies ; and 
 from their intermixing with the natives of the 
 country, these Cretans were henceforth called 
 lapygian Messapians. It was this circumstance 
 probably which gave rise to the notion that the 
 lapygians were a colony of Crete. The same 
 historian relates, that the Tarentines made se- 
 veral attempts to destroy these Cretan settle- 
 ments, but that on one occasion, they, with their 
 allies, the people of Rhegium, met with so sig- 
 nal an overthrow, that their loss in the field was 
 greater than had ever before been experienced 
 by any Grecian city. Strabo, in his description 
 of lapygia, does not fail to cite this passage of 
 Herodotus, but he seems undetermined whether 
 to recognise the town founded by the Cretans 
 in that of Thyrsei, or in that of Veretum. By 
 the first, which he mentions as placed in the 
 centre of the isthmus, and formerly the capital 
 of the country, he seems to designate Oria ; 
 Veretum, it is well known, being situated near 
 the sea, towards the extreme point of the pe- 
 ninsula. It is probable the word Thyraei is cor- 
 rupt; for elsewhere Strabo calls it Uria, and de- 
 scribes it as standing on the Appian Way, be- 
 tween Brundusium and Tarentum. Reference 
 is also made to Uria by Appian, and by Fron- 
 tinus, who speaks of the Urianus ager'; and it 
 is likewise marked in the Table Itinerary." 
 Cram. 
 
 Hyrmine, a town and promontory of Elis, 
 the former ofwhich had disappeared in Strabo's 
 time, while the latter remained. It was near 
 the port of Cyllene, and now bears the name of 
 Cape Chiarenza. Cram. 
 
 Hysi^, a town of BcEotia, " at the foot of 
 Cithffiron, and to the east of Plataea, which ap- 
 pears at one time to have been included within 
 the limits of Attica, since Herodotus terms it 
 one of the border demi belonging to that pro- 
 vince ; elsewhere he leads us to infer that it was 
 
 assigned to the Piatseans bv a special arrange- 
 ment of the Athenians. Stjabo affirms that it 
 was founded by Nycteus, father of Antiope, in 
 the Parasopian district. Pausanias expressly 
 states that Hysise was a Boeotian town, but in 
 his time it w^as in ruins. The vestiges of Hy- 
 sia3 should be looked for near the village of 
 Platania, said to be one mile from Plataea, ac- 
 cording to Sir W. Gell." Cram. 
 
 I. 
 
 Ialysus, a town of Rhodes, built by lalysus, 
 of whom Protogenes was making a beautiful 
 painting when Demetrius Poliorcetes took 
 Rhodes. Ovid. Met. 7, fab. 9.—Plin. 35, c. 6. 
 — Cic. 2, ad Attic, ep. 21. — Plut. in Dem. — 
 jElian. 12, c. 5. 
 
 Janiculum, and Janicularius mons, one of 
 the seven hills at Rome, joined to the city by 
 Ancus Martins, and made a kind of citadel to 
 protect the place against an invasion. This 
 hill, which w^as on the opposite shore of the 
 Tiber, was joined to the city by the bridge 
 Sublicius, the first ever built across that river, 
 and perhaps in Italy. It was less inhabited 
 than the other parts of the city, on account of 
 the grossness of the air, though from its top the 
 eye could have a commanding view of the whole 
 city. It is famous for the burial of king Numa 
 and the poet Italicus. Porsenna, king of Etru- 
 ria, pitched his camp on mount Janiculum, and 
 the senators took refuge there in the civil wars, 
 to avoid the resentment of Octavius. Liv. 1, c. 
 33, &.c.—Dio. 41.— Ovid. 1, Fast. v. 246.— 
 Virg. 8, V. 3bS.—Mart. 4, ep. 64, 1. 7, ep. 16. 
 
 Iapydes, or Iapodes, a people who occupied 
 that part of the lllyrian coast to the south of 
 Histria which intervened betw^een Greece and 
 Italy. Their territory extended from Histria 
 on the north, along the shore of the Flanaticus 
 Sinus and the Hadriatic to the south, a distance 
 of 1000 stadia ; although, from Virgil's expres- 
 sion, lapydis arva Timavi, we would infer that 
 it once reached as far north at least as the Ti- 
 mavus. The Iapydes w^ere reduced by Augus- 
 tus. Cram. — Strab. 7, 315. — Appian. Illyr. 18. 
 
 Iapyges, Vid. lapygia. 
 
 Iapygia, a name given by the Greeks to the 
 peninsula, which may be termed the heel of the 
 boot, to which Italy has been likened. The 
 lapygian peninsula was w^ashed on the east and 
 south by the Ionian Sea, and on the west by the 
 gulf of Tarentum. It included within its limits 
 the territories of the Sallentines, Calabrians, 
 Tarentines, and Messapians. The Iapyges un- 
 questionably deserve to be classed among the 
 earliest tribes of Italy, and settled in the coun- 
 try before the date of the first Grecian colony 
 that migrated to the Italian peninsula. The 
 language of this people, if we may place confi- 
 dence in an old inscription found near Otranto, 
 seems to be compounded of Greek and Oscan. 
 Herod. 7, 170. — Thvcyd. 7, 33. — Pausan. 10, 
 10. — Lanzi, t. 3, p. 620. — Cram. 
 
 Iapygium. or Sai.lentinum promontorium, 
 the promontory in which the lapj^gian peninsu- 
 la terminates towards the south. " When the 
 art of navigation was yet in its infancy, this 
 great headland presented a conspicuous land- 
 mark to mariners bound from the ports of Greece 
 to Sicily, of which thev always availed them' 
 159 
 
IB 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IC 
 
 selves. The fleets of Athens, after having cir- 
 cumnavigated the Peloponnese, are represent- 
 ed on this passage as usually making for Cor- 
 cyra, from whence they steered straight across 
 to the promontory, and then coasted along the 
 south of Italy for the remainder of their voyage. 
 There seems indeed to Jiave been a sort of ha- 
 ven here, capable of affording shelter to vessels 
 in tempestuous weather. Strabo describes this 
 celebrated point of land, now called Capo di 
 Leuca, as defining, together with the Ceraunian 
 mountains, the line of separation between the 
 Adriatic and the Ionian seas, whilst it formed, 
 with the opposite cape of Lacinium, the en- 
 trance to the Tarentine gulf; the distance in 
 both cases being 700 stadia." Cram. 
 
 Iapygum Tria Promontoria, three capes in 
 the Brutian territory, south of the Lacinian 
 promontory, now called Capo delle Castella, 
 Capo Rizzuto, and Capo delta Nave. Cramer. 
 
 Iasus, an island with a town of the same 
 name, on the coast of Caria, now Assem Cala- 
 si. The bay adjoining was called lasius Si- 
 nus. Plin. 5, c. 2S.—Liv. 32, c. 33, 1. 37, c. 17. 
 
 Iaxartes, now Dar-Syria, a river of Asia, 
 confounded by the historians of Alexander with 
 the Tanais. According to the ancient geo- 
 graphers the Iaxartes and Oxus both emptied 
 into the Caspian Sea. The sea of Aral was 
 not known by them to be distinct from the Cas- 
 pian ; and the latter was extended to the east 
 so as to enclose within its waters those of the 
 former. Malte-Brun. 
 
 Iaziges, " a Sarmatic nation, who were sur- 
 named Metanastse, which denotes them to have 
 been removed or driven from their native seats. 
 We find other Iaziges also on the Palus Meeo- 
 tis. Of the Iaziges it is remarkable that, not- 
 withstanding the revolutions which Hungary 
 has sustained, they are still known in the envi- 
 rons of a place about the height of Budo,, whose 
 name of laz-Berin signifies the Fountain of the 
 Iaziges." D'Anville.— Tacit. A. 12, c. 29.— 
 Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 191.— Pont. 4, el. 7, v. 9. 
 
 Iberia, a country situated on the Caucasian 
 isthmus, midway between the Euxine and Cas- 
 pian seas. On the v/est it was separated from 
 Colchis by a ridge of mountains which branch 
 ofi" from the chain of Caucasus in a southerly 
 direction; to the north the Caucasian range 
 formed a natural barrier against the incursions 
 of the barbarian hordes of Scythia and Sarma- 
 tia ; on the east Albania intervened between 
 Iberia and the Caspian; and a common boun- 
 dary marked the limits of Iberia on the south, 
 and of Armenia on the north. The Caucasian 
 isthmus is at present occupied by innumerable 
 tribes, partly indigenous, and partly remnants of 
 the numerous migrating bodies that have passed 
 through this region at different periods in their 
 progress towards the Avest, or perhaps roving 
 parties from the country north of Caucasus, 
 which have forced their way through the pas- 
 sages of that range. Of the native races the 
 Georgians are peculiarly deserving of notice, 
 since they occupy the whole extent of country 
 included within the boundaries of the ancient 
 Colchis and Iberia. The Georgians may be 
 divided into, 1. Georgians, properly so called. 
 2. Imeritians. 3. Gurians. 4. Mingrelians. 
 5. Suanes. Ancient Iberia answers to the 
 territory now occupied by the Imeritians and 
 160 
 
 Georgians, properly so called. Imeritia is de- 
 rived from Iberia or Iweria, a term under which 
 the native writers comprehend the four king- 
 doms of Hartueli, Imeritia, Mingrelia, and Gu- 
 ria ; and therefore more extensive than the Ibe- 
 ria of antiquity, as above described. The Ime- 
 ritians occupy that part of Iberia which was 
 contiguous to Colchis. They join the Geor- 
 gians on the north-west, and speak the Geor- 
 gian dialect. " The indolence of the inhabit- 
 ants allows the rich gifts of the soil to perish in 
 a most useless manner. It was here that, in 
 old times, the Rione or Phasis had 600 bridges 
 over it ; and where there was a continual trans- 
 fer of merchandise, that united this river in some 
 measure to the Cyrus, and consequently the 
 Caspian to the Black Sea ; it is now only cross- 
 ed in boats of the hollowed trunks of trees. 
 Georgia, properly so called, which the Russians 
 call Grusia and the Persians Gurgistan, is 
 south-east of Imeritia. It probably derived its 
 name from that of the river Cyrus, which wa- 
 ters the great valley of Georgia, and is now 
 known as the Kur or Kor. Hence the more 
 correct form of the name of the province would 
 be Kurgia or Korgia,. The Georgians, or ra- 
 ther the IberianSj'a native people of Caucasus, 
 speak a language radically different from all 
 other known languages, and in which, in the 
 twelfth century, a great many historical and 
 poetical works were composed. They imagine, 
 however, that they are descended from a com- 
 mon stock with the Armenians." Malte- 
 Brun. " Iberia was not subjected to the Medes 
 or Persians ; nor could it have been well known 
 in the west, before the Roman arms, under the 
 conduct of Pompey, penetrated through Albania 
 to the Caspian Sea, or till the affairs of Armenia 
 occasioned discord with the kings of Iberia." 
 D'Anville. — Plut. in Luc. Acton, &c. — Dio. 
 36. — Fior. 3. — Flacc. 5, v. 166. — Appian. Parth. 
 c— — An ancient name of Spain. Vid. His- 
 pania. L/ncan. 6, v. 258. — Horat. 4, od. 14, 
 V.50. 
 
 Iberus, I. a river of Spain, now called Ebro, 
 which, after the conclusion of the Punic war, 
 separated the Roman from the Carthaginian 
 possessions in that country. It takes its rise 
 in the territories of the Cantabri, above Julio- 
 briga, and near the apex of the triangle whose 
 sides are formed by the Pyrenees and the range 
 of mount Idubeda, while its base is represented 
 by the line of the coast from the mouth of the 
 Turia to the Pyrensean promontory. The 
 course of the river divides the country within 
 these limits into two nearly equal sections. 
 iMcan. 4, V. 335. — Plin. 3, c. 3. Horat. 4, od. 
 
 14, V. 50. II. A river of Iberia in Asia, 
 
 flowing from mount Caucasus into the Cyrus. 
 Strab. 3. 
 
 IcARiA, I. a small island in the ^gean Sea, 
 between Chio, Samos, and Myconus, where the 
 body of Icarus was thrown by the waves, and 
 buried by Hercules. Ptol. 5, c. 2.— Mela, 2, c. 7. 
 
 —Strabo, 10&14. II. A demus of Athens, 
 
 probably in the vicinity of mount Icarius, which 
 was situated to the north-west of Athens. 
 Here, according to Athenseus, tragedies, or ra- 
 ther farces, were first performed in the time of 
 vintage. Icaria belonged to the tribes of iEgeus. 
 Cram. — Plin. 4, 7. — Steph. Byz. 
 
 IcARiUM MARE, a part of the ^gean Sea, 
 
ID 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 JE 
 
 near the islands of M3'cone and Gyaros. Vid. 
 Icarus. 
 
 IcENi, an ancient people of Britannia, who 
 occupied that part of the island which, under 
 the Saxon heptarchy, was included within East 
 Anglia, answering in the present time to Suf- 
 folk, Norfolk, Camdridgeshire, and Huntingdon- 
 shire, Ptolemy gives this people the name of 
 Simeni, and Caesar that of Cenimagni. The 
 Greek translator of Caesar uses the form Ceni- 
 mani, from which Vossius thinks that the pro- 
 per reading is Cenomani, and that the British 
 nation was of the same family as the Gallic 
 tribe of that name. Their chief city, or rather 
 fortified place, was Venta Icenoram, now Cas- 
 ter, near Norivich in Norfolk. In the reign of 
 Claudius the Iceni rebelled against the Romans, 
 but were defeated in a decisive engagement by 
 Ostorius Scapula. Afterwards Prasutagus, 
 their king, in the vain hope of conciliating the 
 favour of the Romans, made the emperor Nero 
 his heir. The characteristic selfishness of the 
 Roman provincial ofiicers exhibited itself with 
 more than usual atrocity in their treatment of 
 Boadicea and her daughters. This heroic queen 
 exacted ample atonement from her enemies, but 
 was at last obliged to yield to the skill of Sue- 
 tonis Paulinus. Camden. — Cccsar. Lem. ed. 
 
 IcHNtJSA, an ancient name of Sardinia, which 
 it received from its likeness to a human foot. 
 Paiis. 10, c. ll.—Ital. 12, v. 358.— Plin. 8, c. 7. 
 
 IcHTHYOPHAGi, a people of ^Ethiopia, who 
 received this name from their eating fishes. — 
 There was also an Indian nation of the same 
 name, who made their houses with the bones of 
 fishes. Diod. 3. — Strab. 2. and 15. — Plin. 6, c. 
 23, 1. 15, c. 7. 
 
 IcoNiuM, now Konieh, "the metropolis of 
 X.ycaonia when a Roman province ; a place of 
 great strength and consequence, situated advan- 
 tageously in the mountains for defence and safe- 
 ty, and therefore chosen for the seat of the 
 Turkish kings of Lesser Asia, at such time as 
 they were most distressed by the western Chris- 
 tians ; who, under the command and presence 
 of the emperor Conrade, did in vain besiege it ; 
 forced to depart thence with great loss, both of 
 men and honour. Afterwards made the seat 
 royal of the Aladine kings, the former race be- 
 ing extinguished by the Tarta.rs ; and finally, 
 of the kings of the house of Caram,an, whose 
 kingdom, called the kingdom of Caramania, 
 contained all the south parts of the Lesser Asia, 
 that is to say, part of the province of Caria, all 
 Lycia, Pamphylia, Isauria, Cilicia, Pisidia, and 
 this Lycaonia." Heyl. Cosm. 
 
 Ida, I. a celebrated mountain, or more pro- 
 perly a ridge of mountains in Troas, chiefly in 
 the neighbourhood of Troy. The abundance of 
 its waters became the source of many rivers, and 
 particularly of the Simois, Scamander, ^sepus, 
 Granicus, &c. It was on mount Ida. that the 
 shepherd Paris adjudged the prize of beauty to 
 the goddess Venus. It was covered with green 
 wood, and the elevation of its top opened a fine 
 extensive view of the Hellespont and the adja- 
 cent countries, from which reason the poets say 
 that it was frequented by the gods during the 
 Trojan war. Sfrab. 13.— Mela, 1, c. 18.— i^o- 
 mer. II. 14, v. 283.— Fir^. JEn. 3, 5, &c.— 
 
 Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 19.—Horat. 3, od. 11. II. 
 
 A mountain of Crete, the highest in the island, 
 
 Paet I.— X 
 
 where it is reported that Jupiter was educated 
 by the Corybantes, who on that account were 
 called Idaei. Strab. 10. 
 
 Idalium, a town of the island Cyprus, " near 
 a mount of the same name, so called by acci- 
 dent. For Chalcenor, the founder of it, being 
 told by oracle that he should seat himself and 
 build a city where he first saw the rising sun : 
 one of his followers, seeing the sun begin to 
 rise, cried out iSe R'Xiov, that is to say, ' behold 
 the sun,' which omen taken by Chalcenor, he 
 here built this city. But whether this were so 
 or not, (as for my part I build not much upon 
 it,) certain it is that Venus had here another 
 temple, neighboured by the Idalian groves, so 
 memorized and chanted by the ancient poets. 
 Heyl. Cosm. 
 
 Idalus, a mountain of Cyprus, at the foot of 
 which is Idalium. Virg. JEn. 1, v. 685. — Ca- 
 tull. 37 and 62.—Propert. 2, el. 13. 
 
 Idessa, a town of Iberia, on the confines of 
 Colchis. " It had borne the name of Phrixus. 
 which, according to Greek fables, was antece- 
 dent to the arrival of the Argonauts in the 
 country." D'Anville. — Strab. 11. 
 
 Idistavisus, a plain, now Hastenbach, where 
 Germ aniens defeated Arminius, near Oldendorp 
 on the Weser in Westphalia. Tacit. A.2,c. 16, 
 
 Idubeda, a mountain in Spain, which branch- 
 es off from the Cantabrian range, holds a south- 
 easterly course towards that part of the Medi- 
 terranean coast where stood the city of Sagun- 
 tum, north of the mouth of the Turia. The 
 Iberus, which rises near the junction of the Idu- 
 beda and the Cantabrian branch of the Pyrenees, 
 waters the country intervening between the 
 tM^o ranges. 
 
 Idumea, or the Land of Edom, was a country 
 of Palestine, bounded on the east and south by 
 Arabia Petraa, on the north by Judsea, and on 
 the west by the Mediterranean. It derived its 
 name, according to some writers, from the Idu- 
 msei, a people of Arabia, but more probably from 
 Edom, or Esau, who, having left Canaan to his 
 brother Jacob, migrated to mount Seir, or the 
 land of Seir, and thence expelled the Horites, 
 its first inhabitants. " The country toward the 
 sea-side very fat and fruitful ; but where it bend- 
 ethtov/ards Arabia, exceeding mountainous and 
 barren. Heretofore it afforded balm, not now ; 
 but still it hath some store of palm-trees, for 
 which it was much celebrated by some writers 
 of ancient times ; as Arbusto palmarum dives 
 Idume, in the poet Lucan. Sandy, and full of 
 vast deserts, for which, and for the want of wa- 
 ter, it is thought unconquerable. The people 
 anciently rude and barbarous, and in love with 
 tumults. Professed enemies of the Jews, till 
 conquered by them: and Avhen compelled by 
 Hyrcanus to the Jewish religion, they were at 
 best but false friends ; and in the siege of Jeru- 
 salem by Titus, did them more mischief than 
 the Romans. At this time subject to the Turk, 
 and differ not much in life and custom from the 
 wild Arabians." Heyl. Cosm. 
 
 Jericho, a city oi Palestine, besieged and ta- 
 ken by the Romans under Vespasian and Ti- 
 tus. Jericho was in the tribe of Benjamin; it 
 was levelled to the ground by Joshua, by the 
 sound of horns, and a curse pronounced on him 
 who should rel)uild it. Notwithstanding the 
 penalty to be inflicted on the builder, HIel of 
 161 
 
IG 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IL 
 
 Bethel afterwards restored it. Plin. 5, c. 14. 
 —Strab. 
 
 Jerne. Vid. Hibernia. 
 
 Jerusalem. Vid. Hierosolyma. 
 
 Igilium, now Giglio, an island of the Medi- 
 terranean, on the coast of Tuscany. Mela, 2, 
 c. l.—CcBs. B. C. I, c. 34. 
 
 Iguvium, a town of Umbria. on the Via Fla- 
 minia, " to the south of Tifernum, and at the 
 foot of the main chain of the Appenines. It is 
 now Eugtibbio, or more commonly Gubio, and 
 was a municipal town ; and, as it would seem, 
 from the importance attached to its possession 
 by Caesar when he invaded Italy, of some con- 
 sequence. {Civ. Bell. 1, 12.) Some critics have 
 supposed that the mons Gyngynus of Strabo 
 was to be referred to Iguvium. But this city 
 has acquired greater celebrity in modern times 
 from the discovery of some interesting monu- 
 ments in its vicinity in the year 1440. These 
 consist of several bronze tables covered with 
 inscriptions, some of which are in Umbrian, 
 others in Latin, characters. They have been 
 the subject of many a learned dissertation and 
 comment nearly from the time of their first ap- 
 pearance ; but it was not till Lanzi had made 
 his able and successful researches into the an- 
 cient dialects of Italy, that any clear notion 
 could be formed of their contents. Bourguet, 
 and after him, Gori and Bardetti, considered 
 them as prayers offered up by the Pelasgi du- 
 ring those distresses into which they are said to 
 have fallen on the decline of their power in Ita- 
 ly. Buonarotti, in his supplement to Dempster, 
 thought they were articles of treaty agreed upon 
 by some of the confederate states of Uimbria ; 
 while Maffei and Passeri conceived them to be 
 statutes, or private acts of donations. But Lan- 
 zi has satisfactorily proved, I think, that they 
 relate entirely to the sacrificial and augural rites 
 of certain Umbrian communities. Their names 
 are mentioned in the Tables, which thus serve 
 to illustrate the ancient topography of a district 
 otherwise very little known. They are Claver- 
 nia, Curiatis, Pieratis, Talenatis, Museiatis, 
 Juviscana, Casilatis, Perasnania. The first of 
 these answers to Chiaserna, a village near Gib- 
 bio. The second refers to the Curiati of Pliny. 
 Museiatis to Museia, Casilatis to Casilo, both 
 hamlets in the vicinity of Gubio. Juviscana 
 relates probably to that town. The Tarsinates 
 Tuscom and Tarsinates Trifor are two other 
 tribes, which have not been hitherto satisfac- 
 torily accounted for. There is little doubt that 
 these different tribes formed a confederacy ; a 
 fact which is confirmed by Cicero, who talks of 
 the Iguvinates as having made a league, and 
 mentions them as being allied to the Romans. 
 It appears also that they resorted to the temple 
 of Jupiter Apenninus, to sacrifice, as the Etrus- 
 cans did to the temple of Voltumna and the 
 Latins to the Alban mount. The priests are 
 called Frates Aterii, and the ceremonies de- 
 scribed indicate a powerful and wealthy nation ; 
 since in one of the Tables a sacrifice is speci- 
 fied which amounts to a hecatomb. The tem- 
 ple here alluded to is marked in the Table of 
 Peutinger under the name of Jupiter Penninus. 
 We know that it possessed an oracle, from the 
 fact of its having being consulted by the empe- 
 ror Claudius. It is also noticed by Claudian. 
 D'Anville tells us that some vestiges of this 
 162 
 
 ancient edifice are still to be seen on Monte 
 Sanf Vbaldo. The Eugubian Tables are par- 
 ticularly important to the philologist, as they 
 are calculated to throw great light on the for- 
 mation of the Latin language, and may enable 
 us to connect it with perhaps the oldest of the 
 ancient dialects of Italy. According to Lanzi, 
 the language in which these Tables are written 
 is full of archaisms and ^olic forms, and bears 
 great afiinity to the Etruscan dialect." Cram. 
 
 Ilea. Vid. uEthalia. 
 
 Ilercaones, and Ilercaonenses, a people 
 of Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on the coast 
 of the Mediterranean Sea at the mouth of the 
 Jberus, between the Edetani and Tarraco. Pto- 
 lemy calls them Ilercaoties, Livy Ilercaonenses, 
 and Caesar Illurgavonenses or Illergavonenses, 
 which some manuscripts, dropping the first syl- 
 lable, have converted into Lurgavonenses. Pto- 
 lemy assigns to them the city of Dertosa; 
 and an inscription on a coin of Tiberius seems 
 to confirm Ptolemy's account, although it is 
 true that different interpretations have been 
 given to this inscription, which is as follows; 
 M. H. I. Illergavonia Dertosa, that is, Mu- 
 nicipium, Hibera, Julia, Illergavonia, Dertosa. 
 Vaillant reads Illergavonia Dertosanortmi, and 
 supposes that, besides Dertosa, there was a 
 city named Illergavonia, which belonged to the 
 people of Dertosa. This supposition, however, 
 is not justified by fact. Dertosa is nowhere 
 mentioned as possessing an adjacent territory, 
 and Ptolemy expressly declares that it belonged 
 to the Ilercaones. Consequently it seems more 
 consistent to make Illergavonia a gentilitious 
 adjective, and to consider Illergavonia Dertosa 
 as equivalent to Dertosa lllergavonensium. It 
 has been objected to this, that Dortosa is known 
 to have been a colony ; but M. may represent 
 Magna ; or we may suppose that Dertosa was 
 at first a Municipium, and that when it received 
 a colony it was indifferently styled Colonia and 
 Municipium. The H. in the inscription refers 
 to its situation on the Iberus, and the I. to its 
 having received a colony from Julius Ceesar. 
 Cces. B. C. 1, 60, Lem. ed.—Liv. 22, 21. 
 
 Ilerda, now Lerida, a town of Spain, the 
 capital of the Ilergetes, on an eminence on the 
 right banks of the river Sicoris in Catalonia. 
 Liv. 21, c. 23, 1. 22, c. 2l.—Lucan, 4, v. 13. 
 
 Ilergetes, a people of Hispania Tarraco- 
 nensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees. The Sico- 
 ris, Legre, separated them from the Lacetani. 
 
 Ilion. Vid. lliiLm. 
 
 Iltssus. " The Missus, from which Athens 
 was principally supplied with water, is a small 
 brook rising to the north-east of the town, and 
 losing itself, after a course of a few miles, in 
 the marshes to the south of the city. Every 
 one is acquainted with the beautiful passage in 
 which Plato alludes to it in the Phaedrus, from 
 which it appears then to have been a perennial 
 stream ; whereas now it is almost always dry, 
 its waters being either drawn off to irrigate the 
 neighbouring gardens, or to supply the artificial 
 fountains of Athens." Cram. 
 
 iLnjM, or Ilion. Vid. Troja. 
 
 Illice, a town of Spain, on the Mediterra- 
 nean, and in the south-eastern part of Hispania 
 Tarraconensis, with a harbour and bay. Sinus 
 and Portnis lllicitamts, now Alicant. Phn. 3, 
 C.3. 
 
IL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IM 
 
 Iluturgis, Iliturgis, or Ilirgia, a city of 
 Spain, near the modern Andujar on the river 
 Batis, destroyed by Scipio for having revolted 
 to the Carthaginians. Liv. 23, c. 9, 1. 24, c. 
 41, 1. 26, c. 17. 
 
 Illyricum, Illyris, and Illyria. " The 
 name of IllyricLns appears to have been common 
 to the numerous tribes which were Einciently in 
 possession of the countries situated to the west 
 of Macedonia, and which extended along the 
 coast of the Adriatic from the confines of Istria 
 and Italy to the borders of Epirus. Still further 
 north, and more inland, we find them occupy- 
 ing the great valleys of the Save and Drave. 
 which were only terminated by the junction of 
 those streams with the Danube. This large 
 tract of country, under the Roman emperors, 
 constituted the provinces of lUyricmn and Pan- 
 nonia. Antiquity has thrown but little light 
 on the origin of the Illyrians ; nor are we ac- 
 quainted with the language and customs of the 
 barbarous hordes of which the great body of 
 the nation was composed. It appears evident 
 that they were a totally different race from the 
 Celts, as Strabo carefully distinguishes them 
 from the Gallic tribes which were incorporated 
 with them. It ma)^ not be amiss to observe in 
 this place, that the'lllyrians are not unlikely to 
 have contributed to the early population of Italy. 
 The Liburni, who are undoubtedly a part of 
 this nation, had formed settlements on the Ita- 
 lian shore of the Adriatic at a very remote pe- 
 riod. It may be here also remarked, that the 
 Veneti, according to the most probable account, 
 were Illyrians. But, though so widely dispers- 
 ed, this great nation is but little noticed in his- 
 tory until the Romans made war upon it, in 
 consequence of some acts of piracy committed 
 on their traders. Previous to that time we 
 hear occasionally of the Illyrians as connected 
 tt^ith the affairs of Macedonia ; for instance, in 
 the expedition undertaken by Perdiccas in con- 
 junction with Brasidas against the Lyncestcs, 
 which failed principally from the support afford- 
 ed to the latter by a powerful body of Illyrian 
 troops. They were frequently engaged in hos- 
 tilities with the princes of Macedon, to whom 
 their Avarlike spirii rendered them formidable 
 neighbours. This was more especially the case 
 whilst under the government of Bardylis, who 
 is known to have been a powerful and reno\\Tied 
 chief, though we are not precisely acquainted 
 with the extent of his dominions, nor over what 
 tribes he presided. Philip at length gained a 
 decisive victory over this king, who lost his life 
 in the action, and thus a decided check was 
 given to the rising power of the Illyrians. Alex- 
 ander was likewise successful in a war waged 
 against Clytus the son of Bardylis, and Glau- 
 cias king of the Taulantii. The'lllyrians, how- 
 ever, still asserted their independence against 
 the kings of Macedon, and were not subdued 
 till they were involved in the common fate of 
 nations by the victorious arms of the Romans. 
 The conquest of Illyria led the way to the first 
 interference of Rome in the affairs of Greece ; 
 and Polybius, from that circumstance, has en- 
 tered at some length into the account of the 
 events which then took place. He informs us, 
 that about this period, 520 U. C. the Illyrians 
 on the coast had become formidable, from their 
 maritime power and the extent of their expe- 
 
 ditions and depredations. They were govenved 
 by Agron, son of Pleuratus, whose forces had 
 obtained several victories over the jEtolvtns 
 Epirots, and Achaans. On his death the emp. re 
 devolved upon his queen Teuta, a woman of 
 an active and daring mind, who openly sanc- 
 tioned, and even encouraged, the acts of vio- 
 lence committed by her subjects. Among those 
 who suffered from these lawless pirates were 
 some traders of Italy, on whose account satis- 
 faction was demanded by the Roman senate. 
 So far, however, from making any concession, 
 Teuta proceeded to a still greater outrage, by 
 causing one of the Roman deputies to be put 
 to death. The senate was not slow in aveng- 
 ing these injuries ; a powerful armament was 
 fitted out under the command of two consuls, 
 who speedily reduced the principal fortresses 
 held by Teuta, and compelled that haught\' 
 queen to sue for peace. At a still later period, 
 the Illyrians, under their king Gentius, vrere 
 again engaged in a war with the Romans, if 
 the act of taking possession of an unresisting 
 country may be so termed. Gentius had been 
 accused of favouring the cause of Perseus of 
 Macedon, and of being secretly in league with 
 him ; his territory was therefore invaded by the 
 praetor Anicius, and in thirty days it was sub- 
 jugated by the Roman army. Illyria then be- 
 came a Roman province, and was divided into 
 three portions. So widely were the frontiers of 
 Illyricum extended under the Roman emperors, 
 that they were made to comprise the gr^at dis- 
 tricts of Noricmn, Pannonia, and Moesia." 
 Cram. 
 
 Ilva. Vid. Mthalia. 
 
 Iluro, now Oleron^ a town of Gascony in 
 France, 
 
 Ilyrgis, a town of Hispania Bsetica, now 
 llora. Polyb. 
 
 Lmaus, a large mountain of Scythia, which 
 is a part of mount Taurus. It divides Scythia, 
 which is generally called Intra Imaum and Ex- 
 tra Imaum. It extends, according to some, as 
 far as the boundaries of the eastern ocean. 
 The Imaus is now called Altai in that part 
 which divided Scythia into two parts. In a 
 part of its course it answered to the Himalah 
 mountains. This range is described by a cele- 
 brated geographer as follows : " That part which 
 forms the northern boundary of India, is a con- 
 tinuation of the same range with that to the 
 west of the Indus, known among the Afghans 
 under the name oi Hindoo Coosh. To the east 
 of that river, it increases in height, and assumes 
 a character of additional grandeur, both from 
 that circumstance and from its great extent in 
 every direction. It forms, in fact, one of the 
 sublimest features in the structure of the old 
 continent and of the globe. Here a long range 
 of summits, covered with perpetual snow, pre- 
 sents itself to the Hindoo, who has in all ages 
 raised towards it an eye of religious veneration. 
 All the names by which it is distinguished are 
 derived from the Sanscrit term Hem, signifying 
 .snow. Hence have arisen the names Imaus 
 and Emodus among the ancients, and the Hi- 
 malah, Himadri, HiTnachal, and Himalaya, of 
 the moderns. This old Indian root also brings 
 to mind the Hemus of Thrace, the Hymettus 
 of Attica, the Mons Imceus of Italy, and the 
 different mountains called Himmel in Saxonv, 
 163 
 
m 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IN 
 
 Jutland, and other countries. The river Indus 
 passed through a series of narrow defiles in 
 lat. 55°, which scarcely offer any interruption 
 to the mountain chain. The direction of the 
 mountain is eastward, as far as the north-east 
 point of the valley of Cashviere ; from this point, 
 its direction is to the somh-east, extending 
 along the sources of all the rivers which run 
 across the Punjab to fall into the Indus, with 
 the exception of the StUkdge, which, like the 
 Indus itself, rises on the north side of the range, 
 and takes its passage across its breadth. Pur- 
 suing the same direction, the Himalah moun- 
 tains cross the heads of the Jumna, the Ganges, 
 and their numerous tributary rivers. Farther 
 east they seem to be penetrated by several rivers 
 as the Gimduk, the Arum, ihe Teesta, the Cosi, 
 and the Brahmapootra. It is only of late that 
 the height of the Himalah mountains on the 
 north of India has been appreciated. In 1802 
 Col. Crawford made some measurements, which 
 gave a much greater altitude to these mountains 
 than had been ever before suspected ; and Col. 
 Colebrooke, from the plains of Eohilcund, made 
 a series of observations, which gave a height 
 of 22,000 feet. Lieut. Webb, in his journey 
 to the source of the Ganges, executed measure- 
 ments on the peak of Jamunav atari, which gave 
 upwards of 25,000 feet. The same officer, in 
 a subsequent journey, confirms his former ob- 
 servations. The line of perpetual snow does 
 not begin till at least 17,000 feet above the level 
 of the sea. The banks of the Sutledge, at an ele- 
 vation of 15,000 feet, afforded pasturage for cat- 
 tle, and yielded excellent crops of Ooa or moun- 
 tain wheat. This mild temperature, at so great 
 an elevation, is confined to the northern side of 
 the Himalah. At Kedar-nath and other points 
 on the southern side, perpetual snow commences 
 not much higher than 12,000 feet. The fol- 
 lowing are the heights of some of the peaks 
 which have been ascertained ; Dhawalagivri, or 
 the White Mountain, near the sources of the 
 Gunduk river, above the level of the sea, 26,862 ; 
 Jamootri, 25,.500; Dhaiboon, seen from Cat- 
 mandoo, 24,768. Through this stupendous 
 chain there are different passes, but all of them 
 laborious to travel, and some highly dangerous. 
 One of the most practicable is that which, in 
 its upper part, follows the bed of the river Sut- 
 ledge:' Malte-Brun.—Plin. 6, c. ll.—Strab. 1. 
 
 Imbarus, a part of mount Taurus in Armenia. 
 
 Imbrasus, or Parthenius, a river of Samos. 
 Juno, who was worshipped on the banks, re- 
 ceived the surname of Imhrasia. Pans. 7, c. 4. 
 
 Imbros, now Embro, an island of the JEgean 
 sea, near Thrace, 32 miles from Samothrace, 
 with a small river and town of the same name. 
 Imbros was governed for some time by its own 
 laws, but afterwards subjected to the power of 
 Persia, Athens, Macedonia, and the kings of 
 Pergamus. It afterwards became a' Roman 
 province. The divinities particularly wor- 
 shipped there were Ceres and Mercury. Thu- 
 cyd. S.—Plin. 4, c. 12.— Homer. 11. 13.— Strab. 
 2.— Mela, 2, c. l.—Ovid. Trist. 10, v. 18. 
 
 Inachia, a name given to Peloponnesus, from 
 the river Inachus. 
 
 Inachus, I. " The river Inachus flowed at 
 
 ihe foot of the acropolis of Argos, and emptied 
 
 itself into the bay of Nauplia. Its real source 
 
 was in mount Lyrceius. on the confines of Ar- 
 
 164 
 
 cadia ; but the poets, who delighted in fiction, 
 imagined it to be a branch of the Lmchus of 
 Amphilochia, which, after mingling with the 
 Acfielous, passed under ground, and re-appeared 
 in Argolis. Pausanias states that the Inachus 
 derived its source from mount Artemisium. 
 Dodwell says, ' that the bed of this river is a 
 short way to the north-east of Argos. It is 
 usually dry, but supplied with casual floods af- 
 ter hard rains, and the melting of snow on the 
 surrounding mountains.' It rises about ten 
 miles from Argos, at a place called Mushi, in 
 the way to Tripoli in Arcadia. In the winter 
 it sometimes descends from the mountains in a 
 rolling mass, when it does considerable damage 
 to the town. It is now called Xeria, which 
 
 means dry." Cram. II. Another river in 
 
 the Amphilocian district of Acarnania. Cra- 
 mer gives the following account of it : " There 
 were phenomena connected with the description 
 given by ancient geographers of its course, 
 which have led to a doubt of its real existence. 
 It is from Strabo more especially that we collect 
 this information. Speaking of the sub-marine 
 passage of the Alpheus, and its pretended junc- 
 tions with the waters of Arethusa, he says a 
 similar fable was "related of the Inachus, which, 
 flowing from mount Lacmon in the chain of 
 Pindus, united its waters with the Achelous, 
 and passing mider the sea, finally reached Ar- 
 gos in Peloponnesus. Such was the account of 
 Sophocles. Strabo, however, regards this as 
 an invention of the poets, and says that Heca- 
 taeus was better informed on the subject when 
 he affirmed that the Inachus of the Amphilo- 
 chians was a different river from that of the 
 Peloponnesian Argos. According to this an- 
 cient geographical writer the former stream 
 flowed from mount Lacmus ; whence also the 
 ^Eas, or Aous, derived its source, and fell into 
 the Achelous, having, like the Amphilochian 
 Argos, received its appellation from Amphilo- 
 chus. This account is sufliciently intelligible : 
 and in order to identify the Inachus of Heca- 
 taeus with the modern river which corresponds 
 with it, we have only to search in modern maps 
 for a stream which rises close to the Aous or 
 Voioussa, and, flowing south, joins the Ache- 
 lous in the territory of the ancient Amphilochi. 
 Now this description answers precisely to that 
 of a river which is commonly looked upon as 
 the Achelous itself, but which we are persuaded 
 is in fact the Inachus, since it agrees so well 
 with the account given by Hecataeus ; and it 
 should be observed, that Thucydides places the 
 source of the Achelous in that part of Pindus 
 which belonged to the Dolopes, a Thessalian 
 people, who occupied, as we have seen, the 
 south-eastern portion of the chain. Modern 
 maps, indeed, point out a river coming from 
 this direction, and uniting with the Inachus, 
 which, though a more considerable stream, was 
 not regarded as the main branch of the river. 
 Strabo elsewhere repeats what he has said of 
 the junction of the Inachus and Achelous. But 
 in another passage he quotes a writer whose 
 report of the Inachus differed materially, since 
 he represented it as traversing the district of 
 Amphilochia, and falling into the gulf This 
 was the staternent made by Ephorus; and it 
 has led some modern geographers and critics, 
 in order to reconcile these two contradictory 
 
IN 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IN 
 
 accounts, to suppose that there was a stream 
 which, branching off from the Achelous, fell 
 into the Ambracian gulf near Argos ; which is 
 more particularly the hypothesis of D'Anville ; 
 but modern travellers assures us that there is no 
 such river near the ruins of Argos, and in fact 
 it is impossible that any stream should there 
 separate from the Achelous, on account of the 
 Aviphilochian mountains which divide the val- 
 ley of that river from the gulf of Arta. Man- 
 ner! considers the small river Krikeli to be the 
 representative of the Inachus; but this is a 
 mere torrent, which descends from the moun- 
 tains above the gulf, and can have no connex- 
 ion with mount Lacmus or the Achelous. All 
 ancient authorities agree in deriving the Ina- 
 chus from the chain of Pindus. Aristotle said 
 that the Inachus and Achelous both flowed 
 from that ridge of mountains. So persuaded 
 am I, on the authority of Hecatseus, that the 
 Inachus ought to be considered as a branch of 
 the Achelous, that I would venture to alter the 
 
 words "IvaT^ov 61, rov 6ia rrii ^wpa? ptovra -rrora^ov 
 
 elg Tov Ko'Sirav, in the passage which Strabo cites 
 from Ephorus, into "Ivaxov 61, tov 6ia r^j x^P"-^ 
 
 jtiovra norajidv-eii tov 'A;)^£Xwaj/." CrdTfl. 
 Inarime. Vid. yEnaria. 
 Inarus, a town of Egypt, in whose neigh- 
 bourhood the town of Naucratis was built by 
 the Milesians. 
 
 India, the most celebrated and opulent of all 
 the countries of Asia, bounded on one side by 
 the Indus, from which it derives its name. Bac- 
 chus was the first who conquered it. In more 
 recent ages, part of it was tributary to the power 
 of Persia. Alexander invaded it ; but his con- 
 quest was checked by the valour of Porus, one 
 of the kings of the country, and the Macedo- 
 nian warrior was unwilling, or afraid, to engage 
 another. Semiramis also extended her empire 
 far in India. The Romans knew little of the 
 country,, yet their power was so universally 
 dreaded, that the Indians paid homage by their 
 ambassadors to the emperors Antoninus, Tra- 
 jan, &c. India is divided into several provinces. 
 There is an India extra Gangem, an India in- 
 tra Gang em, and an India, propria ; but these 
 divisions are not particularly noticed by the an- 
 cients, who, even in the age of Augustus, gave 
 the name of Indians to the Ethiopian nations. 
 " In riches, population, and importance, India 
 exceeds one of the great divisions of the world. 
 Here a nation, a language, and a religion, dis- 
 tinguished for the most venerable antiquity, 
 permanently maintain their ground amidst the 
 fall of many successive empires. Under the 
 classical appellation of India, the ancients, and 
 most of the moderns, have comprised three 
 great regions of southern Asia. The first is 
 that which is watered by the Indus, the Ganges, 
 and their tributaries, called at present Lidostan, 
 in the strictest acceptation of this terra. On 
 the south of the. river Nerbuddah begins that 
 large triangular region sometimes called by Eu- 
 ropeans the peninsula on this side of the Gan- 
 ges, and by the Indians the Deccan, or ' c'^un- 
 try of the south. ' To this the island of Ceylon, 
 and the Maldives, though separated by anarm 
 of the sea, form natural appendages. The 
 other peninsular projection, which comprehends 
 the Birman empire, the kingdoms of Tonquin, 
 Cochiti-China, Carnbodia, Laos, Siam, and Ma- 
 
 lacca, has at present no general name in uni- 
 versal use. Sometimes it is vaguely denominat- 
 ed ' the peninsula beyond the Ganges.' Seve- 
 ral geographers have called it ' external India.' 
 It is to these countries that the Sanscrit names 
 of Djamboo-Dwyp, or the ' peninsula of the tree 
 of life,' has been applied : also that of Medhiavii 
 or Media-bhumi, ' the middle dwelling,' and 
 Bharatkand, or the ' kingdom of the Bharat 
 dynasty.' The countrj' is too extensive to have 
 received one general name in the indigenous 
 languages. But from the river which waters 
 its western boundary having the name of Sind 
 or Hind, which, like the name Nyl-Ab, is de- 
 rived from its blue colour, the adjoining country 
 received among the Persians the name of Hin- 
 doostan, and the inhabitants were called Hin- 
 doos. From the Persian language these names 
 passed into the Syrian, Chaldee, and Hebrew: 
 they were imitated in the appellations given by 
 the Greeks and Romans ; but in the writings 
 of the Indians, the name Sindhoostan denotes 
 exclusively the countries on the river Sind. 
 The oriental writers subsequent to the Maho- 
 metan era have admitted a distinction between 
 the name Sindh, taken in the acceptation now 
 mentioned, and Hind, which they apply to the 
 countries situated on the Ganges. This appli- 
 cation of terms is equally foreign to the national 
 geography of the Indians, with the appellation 
 of Gentoos, which the English apply to the 
 Hindoos, and which comes from the Portuguese 
 term Gentios, signifying Gentiles or Pagans. 
 The natural boundaries of India, on the north, 
 are the Himalah mountains, (the Imaus and 
 Eomdus of the ancients,) which separate Ben- 
 gal, Oude, Delhi Lahore, and Cashmere from 
 Thibet. On the Indian side of the loftiest range, 
 a stripe of mountainous but inhabited country 
 intervenes between TJiibet and the respective 
 countries now mentioned, but these are consi- 
 dered as belonging to Indostan. On the east 
 the river Brahmapootra seems to be the natural 
 boundary. On the south, Indostan is bounded 
 by the ocean. On the west, the river Indus is, 
 in the opinion of some learned men, its proper 
 limit, although the oriental geographers, finding 
 that many Indians live in Baloochistan and 
 Mekran, often include these countries in their 
 Sinde or Sindistan. The former is that which 
 we shall adopt, and which seems to be con- 
 formable to the nomenclature of the natives on 
 both sides of the river. We are not yet in pos- 
 session of exact data for determining the super- 
 ficial extent of all India. The Indian, Ara- 
 bian, and Persian authors, differ considerably 
 in their calculations on this point ; a circum- 
 stance which partly depends on the uncertainty 
 of the lineal road, measures, especially the coss 
 or mile, which is subject to great variations in 
 the different provinces. The European travel- 
 lers are also discordant in their estimates. Tie- 
 fenthaler rates the whole superficial extent of 
 India at 155,250 square geographical miles, 
 although he supposes the peninsula to be of 
 equal breadth through its whole extent. Pen- 
 nant is guilty of the same error: but he thinks 
 that India does not extend so far to the north as 
 geographers have believed, and he rates the 
 whole surface of that country at nearly 173,800 
 square French leagues. Major Rennel con- 
 tent^ himself with saving that Indostan Proper 
 165 
 
Us 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IN 
 
 is equal to France, Germany, Bohemia, Hun- 
 gary, Switzerland, Italy, and the ISetherlands : 
 and he compares the size of the Deccan to that 
 of the British isles, Spain, and European Tur- 
 key, united, which would amount to 120,000 
 square leagues ; 66,780 for upper Indostan, and 
 53,076 for the Deccan. Mr. Hamilton makes it 
 1,280,000 British square miles. All the moun- 
 tains of these regions, and the mass of elevated 
 land included by them, are called in Hindoo 
 mythology by the names, Meroo, Soomeroo, and 
 Kailassam; names so renowned in the east, 
 that their fame reached the Greek and Roman 
 authors. These names designate the Indian 
 Olympus, the native dwelling of gods and of 
 men. These mountains and elevated plains, 
 rich in the precious metals, furnished, in the 
 time of Herodotus and of Ctesias, that quantity 
 of native gold and of auriferous sand which 
 gave rise to the fables concerning pismires which 
 industriously amassed stores of this precious 
 metal, and fountains from which it bubbled up. 
 These golden mountains of the Indians bear 
 an equivalent name among the Mongols and 
 the Chinese." Malte-Brun. — Diod. 1. — Strab. 
 1, &c.—Mela, 3, c. l.—Plin. 5, c. 28.— Curt. 
 8, c. 10. — Justin. 1, c. 2, 1. 12, c. 7. 
 
 Indus. " The sources of this river have not 
 yet been fully explored. But our information 
 extends higher in its course than it did a few 
 years ago. We have been enabled, at least, to 
 correct the error of mistaking this river or some 
 of its eastern tributaries, for the source of the 
 Ganges, an error which we find adopted in the 
 construction of maps till a very recent period. 
 The commencement of this river is fixed, by the 
 most probable conjecture, in the northern de- 
 clivity of the Cailas branch of the Hhnalah 
 mountains, about lat. 31° 30 N. and long, 80° 
 30' E. not far from the town of Gortop in the 
 Undes, a territory now under the dominion of 
 China, and within a few miles of the lake Ra- 
 wanshead and the sources of the river Sutledge. 
 It is supposed to flow for 400 miles in a north 
 north-west direction, then assuming a south- 
 west course, comes to Brass, a town of Little 
 Thihet ; here it is seventy yards broad, and ex- 
 cessively rapid, and ii receives another large 
 branch, called the Ladak river, which flows past 
 the town of Ladak. It is only below Drass that 
 its course is known with certainty, the diflicult 
 and desolate nature of the country having check- 
 ed inquiries in its higher parts. From Drass, 
 the Indus pursues its solitary course for above 
 200 miles, through a rude and mountainous 
 country to Midlai, where it receives the Abas- 
 seen, penetrates the highest Hindoo Coosh 
 range, passes for fifty miles through the lower 
 parallel ranges, to Torbaila, where it enters the 
 valley of Chuch, spreading and forming innu- 
 merable islands. About forty miles lower down, 
 it receives the Caubul river from the west, and 
 soon after rushes through a narrow opening in- 
 to the midst of the Soliman range of mountains. 
 Its stream is extremely turbulent, and sounds 
 like a stormy sea. When its volume is increas- 
 ed by the melting of the snow, a tremendous 
 whirlpool is created, and the noise is heard to a 
 great distance. Here boats are frequently sunk 
 or dashed to pieces. There are two black rocks 
 in this part of the river, named Jellalia and Ke- 
 Ttialia, which are pointed out bv the inhabitants 
 166 
 
 as the transformed bodies of the two sons of 
 Peeree Taruk, (the Apostle of Darkness) found- 
 er of the Rooshenia sect, who were thrown in- 
 to the river by Akhoond, the oppenent of their 
 father. At the town of Attock, the river, after 
 having been widely spread over a plain, be- 
 comes contracted to 260 yards, but is much more 
 deep and rapid. When its floods are highest it 
 rises to the top of a bastion about thirty-seven 
 feet high. At Neelab, fifteen miles below Attock, 
 it becomes still narrower. From this it winds 
 among the hills to Calabag, passes through the 
 salt range in a clear, deep, and placid stream, 
 and then pursues a southerly course to the ocean, 
 withou-t any interruption, or confinement from 
 hills. It expands into various channels, which 
 separate and meet again. Below Attock it re- 
 ceives the Toe and other brooks from the west. 
 At Kaggaioala, the Koorwni, a stream of con- 
 siderable magnitude from the Soliman moun- 
 tains, falls into it. The only one to the south 
 of this point which it receives, is the Arul, 
 which supplies very little water, being mostly 
 drawn ofl'for irrigation in the north of Damaun. 
 At Kaheree, the Indus, when at its lowest, is 
 1000 yards in breadth, and rather shallow, being 
 diminished by the separation of some branches 
 from it. At Mittenda it receives the Pimjnud, 
 formed by the union of five large tributaries. 
 This immense stream previously flows parallel 
 to the Indus for seventy miles ; at Ooch, which 
 is fifty miles up, the distance across, from the 
 Indus to the Punjnud, is not more more than ten 
 miles. In July and August, this whole space 
 is completely flooded. The most of the villages 
 contained in it are temporary erections, a few 
 only bemg situated on spots artificially elevat- 
 ed. The whole country which it traverses is Ji 
 of the same description, all the way to Hyder- " 
 flhad, the capital of Sinde. On the left bank - 
 are some considerable towns and villages, with 
 canals for agricultural purposes. Though the 
 Indus gives ofl" lateral streams as it approaches 
 the sea, it does not form a Delta exactly analo- 
 gous to that of Egypt. Its waters enter the 
 sea in one volume, the lateral streams being ab- 
 sorbed by the sand without reaching the ocean. 
 It gives off an easterly branch called the Ful- 
 lalee, but this returns its waters to the Indus at 
 a lower point, forming in its circuit the island 
 on which Hyderabad stands. From the sea to 
 Hyderabad, the breadth of the Indus is gene- 
 rally about a mile, varying in depth from two to 
 five fathoms. The tides are not perceptible in 
 this river higher up than sixty or sixty-five 
 miles from the sea. The land near the mouth 
 does not possess the fertility of the Delta of the 
 Nile or the Ganges. The dry parts exhibit on- 
 ly short underwood, and the remainder arid 
 sands, putrid salt swamps, or shallow lakes. 
 From the sea to Lahore, a distance of 760 geo- 
 graphical miles, the Indus and its tributary the 
 Ravey are navigable for vessels of 200 tons. In 
 the time of Aurengzebe, a considerable trade 
 was carried on by means of this navigation, 
 but from the political state of the country it has 
 long ceased. From Attock to Mooltan, this river 
 is called by the natives the Attock, and further 
 down it has the name of Soor, or Shoor ; but - 
 among the Asiatics, it is generally known 
 by the name of Sirvde. Though one of the 
 largest rivers in the world, the Indus has never 
 
IN 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 m 
 
 obtained such a reputation for sanctity as many 
 inferior streams in Indostan, a circumstance 
 which may proceed from the barren and unin- 
 teresting character of the country through which 
 it flows. The live eastern tributaries which by 
 their union form the Punjnud, are celebrated 
 for having been the scene of some events con- 
 spicuous m history. The most northerly is the 
 Jylum, or Hydaspes, the Bahut of Abul Fazel, 
 which takes its rise in the mountains on the 
 south-east side of the valley of Cashmere, where 
 it is called the Vedusta. The Chenab, or Ace- 
 sines, the second tributary, and the largest oi 
 the five, arises in the Himalah mountains, near 
 the south-east corner of Cashmere, in the Al- 
 pine district of Kishtewar. The Ravey, or H}^- 
 draotes is the third of the Punjab rivers. It 
 issues from the mountainous district of Lahore, 
 but its sources have not been explored. This 
 and the fifth, or Sutledge, meet before either 
 has proceeded more than a fifth part of the dia- 
 meter of the Punjab country ; and their united 
 stream flows the rest of the distance to com- 
 plete the conflux called the Punjnud. The 
 Sutledge rises in the Undes to the north of the 
 great Himalah range,within the territory claim- 
 ed by the Chinese ; proceeds almost due west ; 
 then gradually bends to the south in crossing 
 the subordinate mountains. Ii is the Hesudrus 
 of Pliny, the Zaradrus of Ptolemy, and the 
 Serangese of Arrian. The union of all the five 
 rivers into one before they reach the Indus, was 
 a point in geography maintained by Ptolemy ; 
 but, owing to the obscurity of modern accounts, 
 prompted by the splittings of the Indus, and 
 the frequent approximation of streams running 
 in parallel courses, we had been taught to cor- 
 rect this as a specimen of that author's defi- 
 ciency of in formation, till very recent and more 
 minute inquiries have re-established that ques- 
 tioned point, and along with it the merited cre- 
 dit of the ancient geographer." Malte-Brun. 
 
 Industru, a town of Liguria, situated on 
 the right bank of the Po, above Forum Fulvii, 
 Valenza. Its " position was for a long time a 
 matter of conjecture to geographers and anti- 
 quaries ; Cluverius and many others fixing it at 
 Casal, till the discovery of its ruins at Monteu 
 di Po, near the fortress of Verma, put an end 
 to this uncertainty. We are informed by Pliny, 
 that the Ligurian name of this city was Bodin- 
 comagus, Bodencus being the appellation of the 
 Po in that language, and signifying ' something 
 which is unfathomable.' Here, in fact, that 
 river becomes sufficiently deep to be navigable." 
 Cram. 
 
 Inferum Mare. Vid. Tyrrhenum Mare. 
 
 Inopus, a river of Delos, which the inhabit- 
 ants suppose to be the Nile, coming from Egypt 
 under the sea. It was near its banks that 
 Apollo and Diana were bom. Plut. 2, c. 103. 
 —Place. 5, V. 105..— Strab. Q.—Paus. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Insubres. " Next in order to the Lsevi and 
 Libicii, are the Insubres, in Greek" lo-o/u^poi, the 
 most numerous as well as most powerful tribe 
 of the Cisalpine Gauls, according to Polybius. 
 It would appear indeed from Ptolemy, that their 
 dominion extended at one time over the Libicii ; 
 but their territory, properly speaking, seems to 
 have been defined by the rivers Ticinus and 
 Addua. The Insubres took a very active part 
 in the Gallic wars against the Romans, and zeal- 
 
 ously co-operated with Hannibal in his invasion 
 of Italy. They are stated by Livy to have 
 founded their capital Mediolanum, now Milano, 
 on their first arrival in Italy, and to have given 
 it that name from a place so called in the terri- 
 tory of the ^dui in Gaul." Cram. 
 
 Intemelium Vid. Albiurn Intemelium, or 
 Albintemelium. 
 
 Interamna, I. a town of Umbria, on the Fla- 
 m;inian Way, in the valley of the Nar, " so called 
 from its being situated between two branches of 
 that river. Hence also the inhabitants of this 
 city were known as the Interamnates Nartes, to 
 distinguish them from those of Interamna on 
 the Liris, a city of New Latium. If an ancient 
 inscription cited by Cluverius be genuine, In- 
 teramna, now represented by the well-known 
 town of Terni, was founded in the reign of 
 Numa, or about eighty years after Rome. It is 
 noted afterwards as one of the most distinguish- 
 ed cities of municipal rank in Italy. This cir- 
 cumstance, however, did not save it from the 
 calamities of civil war, during the disastrous 
 struggle between Sylla and Marius. The 
 plains around Interamna, which were watered 
 by the Nar, are represented as the most pro- 
 ductive in Italy; and Pliny assures us, that 
 the meadows were cut four times in the year. 
 We also find this city mentioned by Strabo." 
 Cram. Eustace, in his " Classical Tour," thus 
 speaks of the present condition of Interamna : 
 " This ancient town retains no traces of its 
 former splendour, if it ever was splendid, though 
 it may boast of some tolerable palaces, and, what 
 is superior to all palaces, a charming situation. 
 The ruins of the amphitheatre in the episcopal 
 garden consist of one deep dark vault, and 
 scarcely merit a visit. Over the gate is an in- 
 scription, informing the traveller that this colony 
 gave birth to Tacitus the historian, and to the 
 emperors Tacitus and Florian: few country 
 
 towns can boast of three such natives." II. 
 
 PRiETUTiANA, a city of Picenum, which 
 
 Ptolemy assigns to the Praetutii, " which in 
 consequence was usually called Praetutiana, to 
 distinguish it from three other cities of the same 
 name in other parts of Italy. From a passage 
 in Frontinus it may be collected, that this city 
 was first a municipium, and afterwards a Ro- 
 man colony. Its modern name is Teramo, si- 
 tuated between the small rivers Viziola and 
 Turdino. The remains of antiquity which have 
 been discovered here, prove the importance Oi 
 
 this ancient city." Cram. III. A town 
 
 of Latium on the Liris, " distinguished by the 
 addition of ad Lirim from two other cities of the 
 same name, one in Umbria and the other in 
 Picenum. According to Livy, it was colonized 
 A. U. C. 440, and defended "itself successfully 
 against the Samnites, who made an attack up- 
 on it soon after. Interamna is mentioned again 
 by the same historian, when describing Hanni- 
 bal's march from Capua towards Rome. We 
 find its name subsequently among those of the 
 refractory colonies of that war. Pliny informs 
 us, that the Interamnates were surnamed Liri- 
 nates and Succasini. In the following pas- 
 sage of Silius Italicus, 
 
 ArpitMS, accila pube Venafro 
 
 Ac Larinatwra deztris, socia hispidus arma 
 Commovel. 
 
 167 
 
10 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 10 
 
 I would propose reading, * Ac Lirinatum dex- 
 tris.' Cluverius imagined that Ponte Corvo 
 occupied the site of Interamna j but its situation 
 agrees more nearly with that of a place called 
 Terame Castrum, in old recoi'ds, and the name 
 of which is evidently a corruption of Interamna. 
 Antiquaries assert that considerable ruins are 
 still visible on this spot." Cram. 
 
 loLCHOs. " lolcos was a city of great anti- 
 quity, and celebrated in the heroic age as the 
 birth-place of Jason and his ancestors. It was 
 situated at the foot of mount Pelion, according 
 to Pindar, and near the small river Anaurus, 
 in which Jason is said to have lost his sandal. 
 Strabo affirms that civil dissensions and tyran- 
 nical government hastened the downfall of lol- 
 cos, which was once a powerful city ; but its 
 ruin was finally completed by the foundation of 
 Demetrias in its immediate vicinity. In his 
 time the town no longer existed, but the neigh- 
 bouring shore still retained the name of lol- 
 cos." Cram. 
 
 loNEs. Less is known with certainty of the 
 lonians than of any other Grecian nation. This 
 is owing to their great antiquity, and to their 
 having ceased to exist in Greece as a distinct 
 people, before the period at which fable gave 
 place to history. They were, as is generally 
 believed, ofthe Hellenic family. The Hellenes, 
 who, according to Malte-Brun, formed part of 
 the Pelasgo-Hellenic branch of the Pelasgian 
 race, were divided into four nations : 1. The 
 Achssi or Achivi, in other words, the inhabit- 
 ants of the banks of rivers. 2. The lones or 
 laones, archers, or shooters of darts. 3, Dores 
 or Dorians, men armed with spears. 4. ^(Eoli 
 or ^olians, wanderers. The account generally 
 given of the origin of these nations is as fol- 
 lows : Hellen, son of Deucalion, had three sons, 
 Dorus, ^olus, and Xuthus ; of whom Dorus 
 and iEolus gave their names respectively to the 
 Dorians and ^olians. Xuthus, having mi- 
 grated to Attica, married the daughter of Erech- 
 theus, by whom he had two sons, Achseus and 
 Ion, who led colonies to the Peloponnesus. 
 Achseus settled in Laconia, and gave his name 
 to the Achseans, who were afterwards dispos- 
 sessed by the Heraclidse, and removed to ^gia- 
 lea, from them called Achaia. Ion established 
 himself on the shore of the Corinthian gulf, be- 
 tween Sicyonia and Elis, and from him the 
 people were called lones. Whether ^gialea 
 was called Ionia or not, is uncertain. Upon the 
 return of the Heraclidse, the Achaeans either 
 expelled the lonians from their possessions, or 
 else the latter were incorporated with the former 
 under the name of Achasans. Ion returned to 
 Athens, and opposed Eumolpus and the Thra- 
 cians. He gave his name to the Athenians, but 
 did not succeed to the throne. In the reign of 
 Melanthus, the lonians returned to Attica, and 
 were afterwards led by Neleus and Androclus, 
 sons of Codrus, to Asia Minor, where they 
 seized the central and most beautiful portion of 
 the Asiatic coast. The above is the account of 
 the Grecians themselves ; we subjoin another, 
 tracing the lones to Javan. It is in the words of 
 Archbishop Potter. " The primitive Athenians 
 were named lones and laones, and hence it 
 came to pass that there was a very near affinity 
 between the Attic and old Ionic dialect, as 
 Eustathius observes. And though the Athe- 
 168 
 
 nians thought fit to lay aside their ancient name, 
 yet it was not altogether out of use in Theseus's 
 reign, as appears from the pillar erected by him 
 in the isthmus, to show the bounds of the Athe- 
 nians on the one side, and the Peloponnesians 
 on the other ; on the esist side of which was 
 this inscription : 
 
 This is not Peloponnesus, but Ionia. 
 
 And on the south side this : 
 
 Tkis is not Ionia, but Peloponnesus. 
 
 This name is thought to have been given them 
 from Javan, which bears a near resemblance to 
 law,v and much nearer, if (as grammarians tell 
 us) the ancient Greeks pronounced the letter a 
 broad, like the diphthong av, as in our English 
 word all ; and so Sir George "Wheeler reports 
 the modern Greeks do at this day. This Javan 
 was the fourth son of Japheth,'and is said to 
 have come into Greece after the confusion of 
 Babel, and seated himself in Attica. And this 
 report receiveth no small confirmation from the 
 divine writings, where the name of Javan is in 
 several places put for Greece. Two instances 
 we have in Daniel ; ' And when I am gone 
 forth, behold the Prince of Grcecia shall come,' 
 And again, ' He shall stir up all against the 
 realms of Grascia.' Where, though the vulgar 
 translations render it not Javan, yet that is the 
 v/ord in the original. And again in Isaiah, 
 ' And I will send those that escape of them to 
 the nations in the sea in Italy, and in Greece ;' 
 where the Tigurine version, with that of Ge- 
 neva, retains the Hebrew words, and uses the 
 names of Tubal and Javan, instead of Italy and 
 Greece, But the Grecians themselves having 
 no knowledge of their true ancestors, make this 
 name to be of much later date, and derive it 
 from Ion the son of Xuthus." The Ionic dia- 
 lect is divided by Malte-Brun into, " 1. Ancient 
 Ionian, or the Hellenic, polished by commercial 
 nations, (language of JBomer, classical in epic 
 poetry.) 2. Asiatic Ionian, still more polished ; 
 (language of Herodotus.) 3. European Ionian, 
 more energetic than the others. The Attic 
 dialect forms its principal branch, (the language 
 of orators and tragedians.") 
 
 Ionia, a country of Asia Minor, bounded on 
 the north by ^Eolia, on the west by the ^Egean 
 and Icarian seas, on the south by Caria, and on 
 the east by Lydia and part of Caria. It was 
 founded by colonies from Greece, and particu- 
 larly Attica, by the lonians, or subjects of Ion. 
 Ionia was divided into 12 small states, which 
 formed a celebrated confederacy, often mention- 
 ed by the ancients. These twelve states were, 
 Priene, Miletus, Colophon, Clazomenag, Ephe- 
 sus, Lebedos, Teos, Phoceea, Erythrae, Smyrna, 
 and the capitals of Samos and Chios. The in- 
 habitants of Ionia built a temple about the cen- 
 tre of their territory on the coast, in a sacred 
 grove of mount Mycale, dedicated to Neptune, 
 called Pan Ionium^ from the concourse of peo- 
 ple that flock there from every part of Ionia. 
 After they had enjoyed for some time their free- 
 dom and independence, they were made tribu- 
 tarv to the power of Lydia by Crcesus. The 
 Athenians assisted them to shake off the slavery 
 of the Asiatic monarchs ; but they soon forgot 
 their duty and relation to their mother country, 
 and joined Xerxes when he invaded Greece. 
 
JO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IS 
 
 They were delivered from the Persian yoke by 
 Alexander, and restored to their original inde- 
 pendence. They were reduced by the Romans 
 under the dictator Sylla. Ionia has been always 
 celebrated for the salubrity of the climate, the 
 fruitfulness of the ground, and the genius of its 
 inhabitants. Herodot. 1, c. 6 and 28. — Strab. 
 
 li.— Mela, 1, c. 2, &c. Pans. 7, c. 1. An 
 
 ancient name given to Hellas, or Achaia, be- 
 cause it was for some time the residence of the 
 lonians. 
 
 loNroM MARE, a part of ihe Mediterranean 
 Sea, at the bottom of the Adriatic, lying between 
 Sicily and Greece. The more northern por- 
 tion, corresponding to the Adriatic, was deno- 
 minated Ionium Sinus. That part of the Mge- 
 an Sea which lies on the coasts of Ionia in Asia, 
 is called the Sea of Ionia, and not the Ionian 
 Sea. Strab. 7, &c. — Diomjs. Perieg. 
 
 loPE, and JoppA, now Jafa, a famous town of 
 Palestine, about forty miles from the capital of 
 Judeea, and remarkable for a sea-port much fre- 
 quented, though very dangerous, on account of 
 the great rocks that lie before it. Strab. 16, &c. 
 —Propert. 2, el. 28, v. 51. "This," says 
 D'Anville, " was the ordinary place of debark- 
 ation for Jerusalem," but it is now an absolute 
 ruin. In sacred history Joppa is even more ce- 
 lebrated-than in profane, and if the bones of the 
 sea-monster which, but for the intervention of 
 Perseus, would have destroyed Andromeda, 
 were shown in ancient times to the travellers of 
 Greece and Rome, the verses of whose poets 
 had made that fable illustrious, we can find no 
 less interest and satisfaction in contemplating 
 the spot frohi which Jonas embarked for Tar- 
 $hish, where the miracles of Simon Peter were 
 performed, and where he was instructed in a 
 vision to extend the benefit of the gospel to the 
 Gentile world. Before this city the fleet of the 
 Syrians was destroyed by Judas Maccabasus, 
 while that hero presided over the affairs of 
 Judaea ; and two other conflicts, in the last of 
 which it was destroyed by the Romans, have 
 given to this place an inauspicious celebrity. 
 
 JoRDANEs, now called Jordan, a river of Pa- 
 lestine. It rose in Upper Galilee, on the borders 
 of Coelo-Syria, and emptied into the Dead Sea 
 at its northern extremity. The mountain in 
 which it had its springs was the celebrated Her- 
 mon, but the exact spot is considered still ex- 
 ceedingly doubtful. The rise of this river from 
 the fountains Jor and Dan, near the city of Cse- 
 sarea Philippi on the south of the Paneas mons, 
 admits of no question but these fountains were 
 themselves pretended to come from the other 
 side of this natural bulwark by a subterranean 
 passage from mount Phiala. A curious de- 
 scription of this river, justified by collation with 
 ancient authorities, and corroborated by recent 
 investigation, is given by Heylin in the follow- 
 ing words : " A river of more fame than length, 
 breadth, or depth, running from north to south 
 almost in a straight line to the Dead Sea, where 
 it endelh its course, not navigably deep, nor 
 above ten yards in breadth where broadest. 
 Passing along it maketh two lakes, the one in 
 Upper Galilee, by the ancients called Sama- 
 chonitis, dry for the most part in summer, and 
 then covered with shrubs and sedge, not men- 
 tioned in Scripture; the other in the Loioer 
 Galilee, about a hundred furlongs in length, 
 
 Part I.— Y 
 
 and forty in breadth, called the sea of Galilee 
 from the country, the Lake of Tiberias from a 
 city of that name on the bank thereof, and for 
 the like cause called also the Lake of Geneza- 
 reth. Through this lake the river passes with 
 so swift a course that it preserves its waters dis- 
 tinct both in colour and in taste." After leav- 
 ing the lake Tiberias, the Jordan flows along 
 the western side of the Campus Magnus, hav- 
 ing on the opposite side as it approaches the 
 lake Asphaltites the plains of Jericho. It is 
 now, according to D'Anville, the Nahr-el-Ar- 
 den, and is the only stream in those regions de- 
 serving the appellation of a river. 
 
 los, now Nio, an island in the Myrtoan Sea, 
 at the south of Naxos, celebrated, as some say, 
 for the tomb of Homer and the birth of his mo- 
 ther. Plin. 4, c. 12. 
 
 Ipsus, a place of Phrygia, celebrated for a 
 battle which was fought there about 301 years 
 before the Christian era, between Antigon us and 
 his son, and Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, 
 and Cassander. The former led into the field 
 an army of above 70,000 foot and 10,000 horse, 
 with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consist- 
 ed of 64,000 infantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 
 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Antigonus 
 and his son were defeated. Plut. in Demetr. 
 
 Ira, a city of Messenia, which Agamemnon 
 promised to Achilles if he would resume his 
 arms to fight against the Trojans. This place 
 is famous in history as having supported a siege 
 of eleven years against the Lacedasmonians. Its 
 capture, B. C. 671, put an end to the second 
 Messenian war. Hamer. II. 9, v, 150 and 292. 
 — Strab. 7. Vid. Abia. 
 
 Iresus, a delightful spot in Libya, near Gy- 
 rene, near which Battus fixed his residence. 
 The Egyptians were once defeated there by the 
 inhabitants of Cyrene. Herodot. 4, c. 158, &c. 
 
 Iris, a river of Pontus, rising in the moun- 
 tains on the borders of Armenia Minor. From 
 the centre of the province to which it belongs, 
 after having flowed north-west till it receives the 
 branch called the Scylax, it runs almost directly 
 north, and empties into the Amisenus Sinus on 
 the side opposite the mouths of the Halys. Not 
 far from the coast it is joined by the Lycus, 
 whose waters it conveys to the Euxinus Pontus. 
 D'Anville gives the Jekil-Ermark for its mo- 
 dern name. 
 
 Is, and ^iopolis, now Hit. This was a 
 town on the borders of Mesopotamia, on a river 
 of the same name, falling into the Euphrates to 
 the north of Babylon, and at the western extre- 
 mity of the Murus Semiramidis. We find it 
 related by Herodotus, that the walls of Babylon 
 were cemented with bitumen furnished from 
 this town, and the concurrent accounts of the 
 quantity of that material furnished by this river 
 would seem to justify the relation. 
 
 Isar, and Isara, I. the Isore, a river of Gaul, 
 where Fabius routed the Allobroges. It rises 
 at the east of Savoy, and falls into the Rhone 
 near Valence. Plin. 3, c. 4. — Lncan. 1, v. 
 
 399. II. Another, called the Oyse, which 
 
 falls into the Seine below Paris. 
 
 IsAURA, («, or oruvi,^ the chief town of Isau- 
 ria, destroyed in the war undertaken by the 
 Romans against the robbers and pirates of Isau- 
 ria and of Cilicia Aspera. Plin. 5, c. 27. 
 
 IsAURiA, a country of Asia Minor, near mount 
 169 
 
IS 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IT 
 
 Taurus, whose inhabitants were bold and war- 
 like. The Romans made war again st them and 
 conquered them. Flor. 3, c. 6. — Strah. — Cic. 
 15. Fam. 2. It is not easy to distinguish pre- 
 cisely between the territories of Pisidia and Isau- 
 ria, but it may be said, that so far as a distinc- 
 tion can be made, Isauria lay upon the north 
 and bordered upon Phrygia. As it lay exactly 
 among the hills of the Taurus chain of moun- 
 tains, it could not be watered by any streams of 
 consequence ; and, indeed,, all its waters must 
 have been mere fountains and springs. The 
 same elevated range divided it from Pamphylia 
 on the south. Another branch of this great 
 Asiatic mountain ridge separated Isauria from 
 Cilicia, though, as has been observed in the arti- 
 cle Cilicia, the rugged district of that country 
 adjoioing Isauria assumed its name in the geo- 
 graphy of the eastern empire. 
 
 IsMARUs, (IsMARA, pluT.) a luggcd mountaiu 
 of Thrace, covered with vines and olives, near 
 the Hebrus, with a town of the same name. Its 
 wines are excellent. The word Ismarius is in- 
 discriminately used for Thracian. Homer. Od. 
 9.— Virg. G. 2, v. 37. ^n. 10, v. 351. 
 
 IsMENiAs, a river of Boeotia, falling into the 
 Euripus, where Apollo had a temple, from which 
 he was called Ismenius. A youth was yearly 
 chosen by the Boeotians to be the priest of the 
 god, an office to which Hercules was once ap- 
 pointed. Pans. 9, c. 10. — Ovid. Met. 2.— 
 Strab. 9. 
 
 IssEDONEs, a people of Asia, extending over 
 the region called Serica. Their history is con- 
 nected with that of China, and consequently 
 very slightly with that of classic times and clas- 
 sic countries. As they dwelt beyond the Imaus, 
 and were known therefore even by name but im- 
 perfectly, we can say but little of them, except 
 that one of their principal towns, named Issedon, 
 was surnamed Serica, and the other Sc5rthia; 
 the former being now called Lop, and the latter 
 Hara Shar, in English the Black Town. 
 
 Issus, now Aisse, a town of Cilicia, on the 
 confines of Syria, famous for a battle fought 
 there between Alexander the Great and the 
 Persians under Darius their king, in October, 
 B. C. 333, in consequence of which it was cal- 
 led NicopoUs. In this battle the Persians lost, 
 in the field of battle, 100,000 foot and 10,000 
 horse ; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 
 150 horse, according to Diodorus Siculus. The 
 Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 
 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse ; and 61,000 of 
 the former and 10,000 of the latter were left 
 dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken pri- 
 soners. The loss of the Macedonians, as he 
 farther adds, was no more than 130 foot and 150 
 horse. According to Curtius, the Persians slain 
 amounted to 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse; 
 and those of Alexander to 32 foot and 150 horse 
 killed, and 504 wounded. This spot is like- 
 wise famous for the defeat of Niger by Severus, 
 A. D. 194. Plut. in Alex. — Justin. 11, c. 9. 
 Curt. 3, c. 7. — Arrian. — Diod. 17. — Cic. 5, Att. 
 20. Fam. 2, ep. 10. 
 
 IsTER, a river of Europe. Vid. Daniobius. 
 Isthmus, a small neck of land which joins 
 one country to another, and prevents the sea 
 from making them separate, such as that of Co- 
 rinth, called often the Isthmus by way of emi- 
 nence, which joins Peloponnesus to Greece. 
 170 
 
 Nero attempted to cut it across, and make a 
 communication between the two seas, but in 
 vain. It is now called Hezamili. Strab. I. — 
 Mela, 2, c. 2.—Plin. 4, c. i.—Luca7i. 1, v. 101. 
 IsTRiA, same as Histria. Strab. 1. — Mela, 2, c. 
 3. — Liv. 10, &c. — Plin. 3, c. 19. — Justi7i,. 9, c. 2. 
 Italia. " Without entering minutely into 
 the examination of the several appellations 
 which Italy appears to have borne in distant ages, 
 it may be stated generally, that the name of Hes- 
 peria was first given to it by the Greeks on ac- 
 count of its relative position to their country, 
 and that with those of Ausonia and Saturnia it 
 is more commonly met with in the poets. The 
 name of CEnotria, derived from the ancient race 
 of the CEnotri, seems also to have been early in 
 use among the Greeks, but it was applied by them 
 to that southern portion of Italy only with which 
 they were then acquainted. That of Italia is 
 thought to have been deduced from Italus, a 
 chief of the CEnotri, or Siculi. Others again 
 sought the origin of the name in the Greek word 
 ha'kds, or the Latin vitulus, which corresponds 
 with it. But whatever circumstance may have 
 given rise to it, we are told that this also was 
 only at first a partial denomination, applied ori- 
 ginally to that southern extremity of the boot 
 which is confined between the gulfs of St. Evy 
 phemia and Squillace, anciently Lameticus, and 
 Scylleticus Sinus. It is well known, however, 
 that in process of time it superseded every other 
 appellation, and finally extended itself over the 
 whole peninsula. This is generally allowed 
 to have taken place in the reign of Augustus, 
 and we may therefore fix upon that period as 
 the most convenient for defining the ancient 
 boundaries of Italy. At that time it appears 
 that the Maritime Alps, or that part of the 
 chain which dips into the Gulf of Genoa, the 
 ancient Mare Ligusticum, formed its extreme 
 boundary to the north-west. The same great 
 chain sweeping round to the head of the Adri- 
 atic, was considered as constituting, as it does 
 now, its northern termination. The city of 
 Tergeste, now Trieste, had been reckoned the 
 farthest point to the north-east, till the province 
 ofHistria was included by Augustus within the 
 limits of Italy, which were then removed in that 
 direction to the little river Arsa, VArsa,. The 
 sea that bounded the western coast of Italy bore 
 the se ver al names of Mar e Inf erum , Ty rrhenum, 
 and Etruscum ; while those of Mare Superum, 
 Hadriaticum or Hadriacum, were attached to 
 the eastern or Adriatic sea. Ancient geographers 
 appear to have entertained different ideas of the 
 figure of Italy. Polybius considered it in its 
 general form as being like a triangle, of which 
 the two seas meeting at the promontory of Co- 
 cynthus, Capo di Stilo, as the vertex, formed 
 the sides, and the Alps the base. But Strabo 
 is more exact in his delineation, and observes, 
 that its shape bears more resemblance to a quad- 
 rilateral than a triangular figure, with its out- 
 line rather irregular than rectilineal. Pliny 
 describes it in shape as similar to an elongated 
 oak leaf, and terminating in a crescent, the 
 horns of which would be the promontories of 
 Leucopetra, Capo delV Armi, and Lacinium, 
 Capo delle Colonne. According to Pliny, the 
 length of Italy from Augusta Prastoria, Aosta, 
 at the foot of the Alps, to Rhegium, the other 
 extremity, was 1020 miles; but this distance 
 
IT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IT 
 
 was to be estimated not in a direct line, but by - 
 the great road which passed through Rome and 
 Capua. The real geographical distance, ac- 
 cording to the best maps, would scarcely furnish 
 600 modem Italian miles, of sixty to the de- 
 gree ; which are equal to about 700 ancient R-o- 
 man miles. The same writer estimates its 
 breadth from the Varus to the Arsia at 410 
 miles ; between the mouths of the Tiber and 
 Aternus at 136 miles ; in the narrowest part, be- 
 tween the StQUS Scylacius, Golfo dl Squillace, 
 and Sinus Terinaeus, Golfo di S. Eufeniia, at 
 20 miles. The little lake of Cutilise, near Re- 
 ate, Rieti^ in the Sabine country, was consider- 
 ed as the umbilicus or centre of Italy. Iso 
 writer is so eloquent and enthusiastic in the 
 praises of Italy as Dionysius of Halicamassus : 
 and we regret bemg obliged to give only a sum- 
 mary of the passage, instead of presenting it to 
 the reader in the historian's o^m warm and ani- 
 mated language. ' Comparing Italy with other 
 countries, he finds none which unite so many 
 important advantages. The fertile fields of 
 Campania bear three crops in the year. The 
 wines of Tuscany, Alba, and Falemus are ex- 
 cellent, and require little trouble to grow them. 
 The olives of the Sabines, of Daunia, and Mes- 
 sapia, are inferior to none. Rich pastures feed 
 innumerable herds and flocks, of oxen and 
 horses, of sheep and goats. Its mountains are 
 clothed with the finest timber, and contain quar- 
 ries of the choicest marbles and other kinds of 
 stone, together with metallic veins of every sort. 
 Navigable rivers afford a constant communica- 
 tion between all its parts. Its forests swarm 
 with game of -every description. Warm springs 
 abound throughout ; and besides all these ad- 
 vantELges, the climate is the most mild and tem- 
 perate, in every season of the year, that can be 
 imagined.' The origin of the first inhabitants 
 of Italy, is a question on which it is proper to 
 state that we kiiow but little. The information 
 we derive on this point from the writers of anti- 
 quity is so scanty, and withal so confused, that 
 it can scarcely be expected we should, in the 
 present day, arrive at any clear notions on the 
 subject ; even though it is allowed that in some 
 respects we are better qualified than the an- 
 cients for investigating the matter, from being 
 acquainted with the manner in which the earth 
 ■was first divided and peopled ; a knowledge 
 which we derive from the earliest as well as 
 most authentic records in existence. Ryckius, 
 in an elaborate dissertation, has been diligent 
 in collecting all that antiquity has transmitted 
 to us on the subject ; but there is too little dis- 
 crimination of what is fabulous from what is 
 historical in his work, to allow of its being con- 
 sidered in any other light than as useful for re- 
 ference only. Freret, a learned French acade- 
 mician, who seems to have directed his research- 
 es more particularly to remote and obscure points 
 of histoiy and chronology, has been at much 
 pains to elucidate the question now before us ; 
 the result of his investigation, or rather say his 
 system, is given in the Memoires de I'Acade- 
 mie. He conceives that Italy was altogether 
 peopled by land, and therefore rejects all the 
 early colonies which, according to Dionysius of 
 Halicamassus, came by sea. He distinguishes 
 three migrations of three separate nations ; the 
 Ulyrians, Iberians, and Celts. There are some 
 
 ingenious ideas in his scheme, but it is generally 
 too bold and conjectural, and wants the support 
 of histor}- in so many points, that his opinions 
 cannot be allowed to have much weight in de- 
 ciding the question. Pelloutier, Bardetti, and 
 Durandi, have endeavoured to deduce the ori- 
 gin of all the earliest nations of Italy from a 
 Celtic stock. Other writers again, such as 
 MaiFei, Mazzochi, and Guarnacci, have ima- 
 gined that the first settlements were immediate- 
 1}'' formed from the east. Where historical re- 
 cords fail, the analysis of language is the only 
 clue, it must be allowed, which can enable us to 
 trace the origin of ancient nations with any 
 probability of success ; but when the results are 
 so much at variance with each other, as in the 
 case of the writers above mentioned, much doubt 
 must of necessit}'- attach to the process by which 
 those results have been obtained. The know- 
 ledge of the ancient languages of Italy, of which 
 the Latin must be considered as a dialect only, 
 though it became the prevailing one, is compa- 
 ratively of recent date. , The Etruscan alpha- 
 bet, the characters of which are the same as 
 that of the Umbrian and Oscan dialects, had not 
 been identified and made out with certainty till 
 within the last fifty years ; for the inscribed mo- 
 numents of these people being rare and scanty, 
 it has been a work of time as well as of great 
 industry and sagacit}^, to draw any well-esta- 
 blished conclusion from them. These two last 
 qualities are eminently displayed in the learned 
 work of Lanzi on the Etruscan and other an- 
 cient dialects of Italy; and it is but a small part 
 of the praise due to him to say, that in his es- 
 say he has done more towards making us ac- 
 quainted with this curious branch of ancient 
 philolog}', than all the writers who had preceded 
 him taken collectively. Though Lanzi himself 
 declines entering into the discussion immedi- 
 ately under our consideration, it may be inferred 
 from his researches, that as the Greek language 
 in its most ancient form appears to enter largely 
 not only into the composition of the Latin lan- 
 guage, this being a fact which has always been 
 acknowledged, but also into that of the other 
 Italian dialects, the first settlers of Italy and 
 those of Greece were the same race ; that as 
 the latter country became more populous, its 
 numerous tribes extended themselves along the 
 shores of Epirus and Illyrium, till they reached 
 the head of the Adriatic, and poured into Italv. 
 We must however admit, that other nations of 
 a different race soon penetrated into Italy from 
 other quarters, and, by intermixing with its first 
 inhabitants, communicated to the ancient lan- 
 guage of that country that heterogeneous cha- 
 racter by which it is essentially distinguished 
 from the vernacular tongue of Greece. It is 
 chiefly on these two principles, supported how- 
 ever by the testimony of antiquity, that we ven- 
 ture to ground the following system respecting 
 the origin of the early population of Italy. The 
 Umbri appear to have the best claim to'the title 
 of its aboriginal inhabitants. They probably 
 came from the eastern parts of Europe, and hav- 
 ing reached Italy, gradually extended them- 
 selves along the ridge of the Appenines to its 
 southern extremitv. Considering the Umbri as 
 the aborigines of Italy, we are inclined to derive 
 from them the Opici, or Osci, andOEnotri, who 
 are kno^^Ti to have existed with them in that 
 171 
 
IT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 IT 
 
 country before ihe siege of Troy. Nearly con- 
 temporary with the Umbri were the Sicani, Si- 
 culi, and Ligures, who all came from the west, 
 and along the coast of the Mediterranean in the 
 order in which they are here placed. The in- 
 terval of time which intervened between these 
 three colonies is unknown, but there is this dis- 
 tinction to be made between them : — the Sica- 
 ni were supposed to be Iberians; the Siculi 
 were probably Celto-Ligurians ; the Ligures, 
 properly so called, were certainly Celts. The 
 Sicani having been gradually propelled towards 
 the south of Italy by the nations which follow- 
 ed, are known to have passed at a very remote 
 period into Sicily, which from them obtained the 
 name of Sicania. That a small part of their 
 race remained in Italy is however probable ; and 
 it is not impossible that the ancient Aurunci 
 and Ausones, who are otherwise unaccounted 
 for, may have been a remnant of this very early 
 migration. The Siculi are known to have oc- 
 cupied Tuscany and part of Latium for a long 
 time, but being also driven south first by the 
 Umbri aided by the Tyrrheni Pelasgi, and suc- 
 cessively by the Opici and CEnotri, they also 
 crossed over into Sicily, to which they commu- 
 nicated their name. This event is said to have 
 happened about eighty years before the siege of 
 Troy. The Ligures occupied the shores of the 
 Gulf of Genoa as far as the Arno, and peopled 
 a great part of Piedmont, where they remained 
 undisturbed till they were subjugated by the 
 Romans. After the departure of the Siculi, 
 considerable changes appear to have taken place. 
 The Tyrrheni Pelasgi, who came probably from 
 the north of Greece, and assisted the Umbri in 
 their wars with the Siculi, occupied the country 
 from which this latter people had been expelled, 
 in conjunction with the Umbri, and together 
 with them formed the nation of the Etrusci or 
 Tusci. About the same period the Opici, or 
 Osci, who seem to have occupied the central re- 
 gion of Italy, extended themselves largely both 
 west and east. In the first direction they form- 
 ed the several communities distinguished by the 
 name of Latins, Rutuli, Volsci, Campani, and 
 Sidicini. In the central districts they consti- 
 tuted the Sabine nation, from whom were de- 
 scended the Picentes, as well as the ^qui, 
 Marsi, Hernici, Peligni, Vestini, and Marruci- 
 ni. From the Opici again, in conjunction with 
 the Liburni, an Illyrian nation who had very 
 early formed settlements on the eastern coast of 
 Italy, we must derive ihe Apuli and Daunii, 
 Peucetii and Poediculi, Calabri, lapyges, and 
 Messapii. The Greeks, who formed numerous 
 settlements in the south of Italy after the siege 
 of Troy, found these several people and the 
 CEnotri, still further south, in possession of the 
 country. But the CEnotrian name disappeared, 
 together with its subdivisions into the Leutar- 
 nii, Chones, and Itali; when the Samnite na- 
 tion, which derived its origin from the Sabines, 
 had propagated the Oscan stock to the extre- 
 mity of the peninsula, under the various deno- 
 minations of Hirpini, Pentri, Caraceni, Pren- 
 tani, and subsequently of the Leucani and Bru- 
 tii. In the north of Italy the following settle- 
 ments are considered as posterior to the siee^e of 
 Troy. 1st, That of the Veneti, an Illyrian na- 
 tion who fixed themselves between the river 
 Adige and the Adriatic. 2d, That of the Gauls, 
 172 
 
 a Celtic race, who crossed the Alps ; and, hav- 
 ing expelled the Tuscans from the plains of 
 Lombardy, gave to the country which they oc- 
 cupied the name of Cisalpine Gaul. These, 
 with several Alpine tribes of uncertain origin, 
 are all the inhabitants of ancient Italy to whom 
 distinct denominations are assigned in history. 
 We are informed by Pliny, that after Augustus 
 had extended the frontiers of Italy to the Mari- 
 time Alps and the river Arsia, he divided that 
 country into eleven regions : viz. 1. Campania, 
 including also Latium. 2. Apulia, to which 
 was annexed part of Samnium. 3. Lucania 
 and Brutium. 4. Samnium, together with the 
 country of the Sabines, Marsi, iEqui, &c. 5. 
 Picenum. 6. Umbria. 7. Etruria. 8. Flami- 
 nia, extending from the Appenines to the Po. 
 9. Liguria. 10. Venetia containing Hislria 
 and the country of the Carni. 11. Transpa- 
 dana, comprehending what remained between 
 Venetia and the Alps. This division, though 
 not to be overlooked, is too seldom noticed to 
 be of much utility. The following distribution 
 has been adopted, we believe, by most geogra- 
 phical writers, and will be found much more 
 convenient for the purposes of history. 1. Li- 
 guria. 2. Gallia Cisalpina. 3. Venetia, in- 
 cluding the Carni and Histria. 4. Etruria. 5. 
 Umbria and Picenum. 6. the Sabini, ^qui, 
 Marsi, Peligni, Vestini, Marrucini. 7. Roma. 
 8. Latium. 9. Campania. 10. Samnium and 
 the Frentani. 11. Apulia, including Daunia 
 and Messapia, or lapygia. 12. Lucania. 13. 
 Brutii." Cram. It. . 
 
 Italica, a town of Baetica, belonging to the 
 Turdetani, on the Bsetis, between Hispalis and 
 llerda, the birth-place of Trajan and Hadrian, 
 now Sevilla la Vrieja, in Andalusia. Italica 
 was founded by Scipio, aboUt A. U. C. 654, 
 and Augustus afterwards conferred on it the 
 honours and privileges of a municipium. 
 
 Ithaca, a celebrated island in the Ionian 
 Sea, on the western parts of Greece, with a 
 city of the same name, famous for being part of 
 the kingdom of Ulysses. It is very rocky and 
 mountainous, measures about 25 miles in cir- 
 cumference, and is known by the name of Isola 
 del Compare, or Theachi. Homer. II. 2, v. 139. 
 — Od. 1, V. 186, 1. 4, V. 601, 1. 9, v. 20.—StraI>. 
 1 and 8.— Mela, 2, c. 7. " Ithaca, now Tke- 
 aki, lies directly south of Leucadia, from which 
 it is distant about six miles. The extent of this 
 celebrated island, as given by ancient authori- 
 ties, does not correspond with modern compu- 
 tation. Dicsearchus describes it as narrow, and 
 measuring 80 stadia, meaning probably in 
 length, but Strabo affirms, in circumference; 
 which is very wide of the truth, since it is not 
 less than 30 miles in circuit, and, according to 
 Pliny, only twenty-five. Its length is nearly 
 17 miles, but its breadth not more than 4. The 
 highest and most remarkable mountain in the 
 island is that so often alluded to under the name 
 of Neritus. According to Mr. Dodwell the 
 modern name is Anoi, which means lofty ; he 
 observes also, that the forests spoken of by Ho- 
 mer have disappeared ; it is at present bare and 
 barren, producing nothing but stunted ever- 
 greens and aromatic plants. It is e-vident from 
 several passages in the Odyssey, that there was 
 a city named Ithaca, probably the capital of the 
 island, and the residence of Ulysses, which was 
 
JU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 XA 
 
 apparently placed on a rugged height. Its ruins 
 are generally identified with those crowning the 
 summit of the hill of Aiio ; ' Part of the walls 
 which surrounded the acropolis are said to re- 
 main ; and two long walls on the north and 
 south sides are carried down the hill towards 
 the bay of Aitos. In this intermediate space 
 was the city. These walls are in the second 
 style of early military architecture, composed 
 of well-joined irregular polygons, like the walls 
 of the Cyclopian cities of Argos and Mycenae. 
 The whole was built upon terraces, owing to 
 the rapid declivity of the hill.' The port called 
 by Homer Phorcys, and which he describes so 
 accurately, is now known by the name of Port 
 Molo. The present population of the island 
 amounts to about 8000 souls. It produces only 
 corn sufficient to maintain the inhabitants half 
 the year." Cram. 
 
 Ithacesije, three islands opposite Vibo, on 
 
 the coast of the Brutii. Baise was called also 
 
 Ithacesia, because built by Bajus, the pilot of 
 Ulysses. Sil. 8, v. 540, 1. 12, v. 113. 
 
 Ithome, a town of Messenia, which surren- 
 dered, after ten years' siege, to Lacedaemon, 724 
 years before the Christian era. Jupiter was 
 called Ithomates, from a temple which he had 
 there, where games were also celebrated, and 
 the conqueror rewarded with an oaken crown. 
 Pans. 4, c. 32.— Stat. Tkeb. 4, v. 179.— 
 Strab.%. 
 
 Itius Portus, a town of Gaul, now Wit- 
 sand, or Boulogne in Picardy. Caesar set sail 
 thence on his passage into Britain, Ccbs. G. 4, 
 c. 101, 1. 5, c. 2 and 5. 
 
 Ituna, a river of Britain, -now Eden in Cum- 
 berland. -This name belonged also to the 
 
 Sohoay Frith, into which the Eden discharges 
 itself. Camb. 
 
 Itur/ea, a province of Syria on the confines 
 of Arabia. It lay between the Trachonitis and 
 • Auranitis, which constituted the border region 
 between these countries, and had on the east 
 the mountain of Hermon, which separated it, 
 in part from Batanea and Palestine. 
 
 JuDiEA, a part of Palestine, extending from 
 the borders of the stony Arabia along the Dead 
 Sea upon the east, and the country of the Phil- 
 istines, which lay on the coast of the Mediter- 
 ranean, on the west. On the north it had Sa- 
 maria, and it contained within these limits the 
 early tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Dan, and Si- 
 meon. After the return from Babylon the name 
 of Judffia was first given to this country, ex- 
 tending for the most part over the former king- 
 doms of Judah and Israel. The ruins of its 
 former distinguished cities still appear ; the ci- 
 ties themselves have for the greater part perish- 
 ed. Joppa, Gaza, and Jerusalem, however, re- 
 main, and the natural richness of the soil yet 
 marks the Promised Land. Judaea constituted 
 the kingdom of Herod under the protection of 
 Rome, and was at last absorbed in one of the 
 three Palestines into which all the surrounding 
 country was divided, about the beginning of the 
 fifth centurj' of our era. Even before, though 
 the limits as given above were recognised in the 
 authority secured to Herod, the friend of the 
 Romans, it was not acknowledged, apart from 
 Palestine, in the provincial distribution of the 
 empire. 
 
 JuLioMAGUs, a city of Gaul, now Angers in 
 
 Anjou. Its modern name is derived from the 
 name of the people whose capital it was in an- 
 cient times. Those people were the Andes or 
 Andecavi, who dwelt about the confluence of 
 the Liger and the Meduana, the Loire and the 
 Maienne. 
 
 JuLiopoLis. Vid. Gordium. 
 
 JiJLis, a town of the island of Cos, which 
 gave birth to Simonides, &c. The walls of this 
 city were all marble, and there are now some 
 pieces remaining entire, above 12 feet in height, 
 as the monuments of its ancient splendour. 
 Plin. 4, c. 12. 
 
 JuNoNis Promontorium, now Cape Trafal- 
 gar. It is on the Atlantic side of the Straits 
 of Gibraltar, which may be considered to com- 
 mence from this point. Voss. ad Mel. 
 
 Jura, a high ridge of mountains separating 
 the Helvetii from the Sequani, or Switzerland 
 from Burgundy. Cces. G. 1, c. 2. 
 
 Labeatts Palus, a lake in Dalmatia, to- 
 wards the borders of Illyria. It received the 
 waters of the Oriundus and the Clausula from 
 the north and east, and discharged its own 
 through the Barbana into the Hadriaticum Mare 
 west of the mouth of the Drinus. At its south- 
 ern extremity was Scodra, Scutari, the name 
 of which is sometimes given to the lake. ^ The 
 people living in its vicinity were called tabea- 
 tes. Liv. 44, c. 31, 1. 45, c. 26. 
 
 Labi CUM, now Colonna, a town of Italy, called 
 also, Lavicum, between Gabii and Tusculum, 
 which became a Roman colony about four cen- 
 turies B. C. Virg. jEn. 7, v. 196.-^Liv. 2, c. 39. 
 1. 4, c. 47. 
 
 Labotas, a river near Antioch in Syria. 
 Strab. 16. 
 
 Labron, a part of Italy on the Mediterra- 
 nean, supposed to be Leghorn, Cic. 2, adfra 6. 
 
 Laced^mon, a noble city of Peloponnesus, 
 the capital of Laconia, called also Sparta, and 
 now known by the name of Misitra. It has 
 been severally known by the name of Lelegia, 
 from the Leleges, the first inhabitants of the 
 country, or from Lelex, one of their kings ; and 
 (Ebalia, from CEbalus, the sixth king from Eu- 
 rotas. It was also called Hecatompolis, from 
 the hundred cities which the whole province 
 once contained. Lelex is supposed to have 
 been the first king. His descendants, thirteen 
 in number, reigned successively after him, till 
 the reign of the sons of Orestes, when the He- 
 raclidse recovered the Peloponnesus, about 80 
 years after the Trojan war. Procles and Eurys- 
 thenes, the descendants of the Heraclidae, en- 
 joyed the crown together, and after them it was 
 decreed that the two families should always sit 
 on the throne together. Vid. Eurysthenes. These 
 two brothers began to reign B.C. 1102 ; their 
 successors in the family of Procles were called 
 ProclidcB, and afterwards Eurypontida, and 
 those of Eurysthenes, Eurysthenidce, and after- 
 wards Agida. The successors of Procles on 
 the throne began to reign in the following order : 
 Sous, 1060 B. C. after his father had reigned 
 42 years: Eurypon, 1028: Prytanis, 1021: 
 Euiioraus, 986 : Polydectes, 907 : Lycurg-us, 
 898: Charilaus, 873: Nicander, 809: Theo- 
 pompus, 770; Zeuxidamus, 723 : Anaxidamus, 
 173 
 
LA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LA 
 
 690 : Archidamus, 651 : Agasicles, 605 : Aris- 
 ton, 564 ; Demaratus, 526 : Leotychides, 491 : 
 Achidamus, 469 : Agis, 427 : Agesilaus, 397 : 
 Archidamus, 361 : Agis 2d, 338 : Eudamidas, 
 330: Archidamus, 295: Ecdamidas 2d, 268: 
 Agis, 244 : Archidamus, 230 : Euclidas, 225 : 
 Lycurgus, 219 : — The successors of Eurys- 
 thenes were Agis, 1059 : Echestratus, 1058 : 
 Labotas, 1023: Doryssus, 986: Agesilaus, 957: 
 Archelaus, 913 : Teleclus, 853 : Alcamenes, 
 813: Polydorus, 776 : Eurycrates, 724 : Anax- 
 ander, 687 : Eurycrates 2d, 664 : Leon, 607 : 
 Anaxandrides, 563: Cleomenes, 530: Leoni- 
 das, 491: Plistarchus, under guardianship of 
 Pausanias, 480 : Plistoanax, 466 : Pausanias, 
 408 : Agesipolis, 397 : Cleombrotus, 380 : Age- 
 sipolis 2d, 371 : Cleomenes 2d, 370 : Aretus or 
 Areus, 309 : Acrotatus, 265 : Areus 2d, 264 : 
 Leonidas, 257 : Cleombrotus, 243 : Leonidas 
 restored, 241 : Cleomenes, 235 : Agesipolis, 219. 
 Under the two last kings, Lycurgus and Agesi- 
 polis, the monarchical power was abolished, 
 though Machanidas, the tyrant, made himself 
 absolute, B. C. 210, and Nabis, 206, for four- 
 teen years. In the year 191 B, C. Lacedaemon 
 joined the Achaean league,and about three years 
 after the walls were demolished by order of Phi- 
 lopcEmen. The territories of Laconia shared 
 the fate of the Achaean confederacy, and the 
 whole was conquered by Mummius, 147 B. C. 
 and converted into a Roman province. The 
 inhabitants of Lacedaemon have rendered them- 
 selves illustrious for their courage and intrepidi- 
 ty, for their love of honour and liberty, and for 
 their aversion to sloth and luxury. They were 
 inured from their youth to labour, and their 
 laws commanded them to make war their pro- 
 fession. They never applied themselves to any 
 trade, but their only employment was arms, and 
 they left every thing else to the care of their 
 slaves. Vid. Helotce. They hardened their 
 body by stripes and manly exercises ; and ac- 
 customed themselves to undergo hardships, and 
 even to die without fear or regret. From their 
 valour in the field, and their moderation and 
 temperance at home, they were courted and re- 
 vered by all the neighbouring princes, and their 
 assistance was severally implored to protect the 
 Sicilians, Carthaginians, Thracians, Egj^Jtians, 
 Cyreneans, &c. As to domestic manners, the 
 Lacedaemonians as widely differed from their 
 neighbours as in political concerns, and their 
 noblest women were not ashamed to appear on 
 the stage hired for money. In the affairs of 
 Greece, the interest of the Lacedaemonians was 
 often powerful, and obtained the superiority for 
 500 years. Their jealousy of the power and 
 greatness of the Athenians is well known. The 
 authority of their monarchs was checked by 
 the watchful eye of the Ephori, who had the 
 power of imprisoning the kings themselves if 
 guilty of misdemeanors; Vid. Ephori. The 
 Lacedaemonians are remarkable for the honour 
 and reverence which they pay to old age. The 
 names of Tuacedczmon and Sparta are promis- 
 cuously applied to the capital of Laconia, and 
 often confounded together. The latter was ap- 
 plied to the metropolis, and the former was re- 
 served for the suburbs, or rather the country 
 contiguous to the walls of the city. This pro- 
 priety of distinction was originally observed, 
 but in process of time it was totally lost, and 
 174 
 
 both appellatives were soon synonymous and 
 indiscriminately applied to the city and coun- 
 try. Vid. Sparta, Laconia. The place where 
 the city stood is now called Paleo CAori, {the old 
 io2on,) and the new one erected on its rums at 
 some distance on the west, is called Misatra, 
 Liv. 34, c. 33, 1. 45, c. 28.—Strab. 8.— Thucyd. 
 1. — Pans. 3. — Justin. 2, 3, &c. — Herodot. 1, 
 «&c. — Plut. in Lajc. &c. — Diod. — Mela, 2. 
 
 LACEDiEMONii, and LicEDiEMONES, the in- 
 habitants of Lacedaemon. Vid. Lacedamon. 
 
 Lacides, a village near Athens, which de- 
 rived its name from Lacius, an Athenian hero, 
 whose exploits are unknown. Here Zephyrus 
 had an altar sacred to him, and likewise Ceres 
 and Proserpine a temple. Paus. 1, c. 37. 
 
 Lacinium, a promontory of Magna Graecia, 
 now cape Colonna, the southern boundary of 
 Tarentum in Italy, where Juno Lacinia had a 
 temple held in great veneration. It received 
 its name from Lacinius, a famous robber killed 
 there by Hercules. Liv. 24, c, 3, 1, 27, c, 5, 1, 
 30, c, '20.— Virg. ^n. 3, v. 522, 
 
 Lacobriga, now Lagos, on the bay of La- 
 gos, near the Sacrum Promontorium, now Cape 
 St. Vincent. It was in this city of Lusitania 
 that Metellus besieged the rebel hero Sertorius, 
 
 Laconia, Laconica, and Lacedjemon. " The 
 little river Pamisus, and the chain of Taygetus, 
 formed the Laconian limits on the side of Mes- 
 senia. Towards Arcadia the boundaries were 
 marked by the chain of mountains which gave 
 rise on the northern side to the Alpheus, and on 
 the southern to the Eurotas. A continuation 
 of the same ridge served to separate the Spartan 
 territory from the small district of Cynuria, 
 which originally belonged to the Argives, but 
 became afterwards a constant cause of conten- 
 tion between the two states. From the tradi- 
 tion collected by Pausanias, it appears that the 
 Leleges were generally regarded as the first in- 
 habitants of Laconia. It is to this ancient race 
 that he traces the foundation of Sparta, and the 
 origin of its earliest sovereigns ; but he has not 
 informed us by what revolution the Tyndaridse, 
 who were the last princes of the first Laconian 
 dynasty, made way for the house of Pelops in 
 the person of Menelaus, son-in-law, it is true, 
 of Tyndareus, but who could not have succeed- 
 ed to the crown in right of his wife. We must 
 probably seek for an explanation of this fact in 
 the power and influence obtained by Pelops and 
 Atreus at this early period over nearly the whole 
 peninsula. Thus, while Agamemnon reigned 
 over Argos and Mycene, the domination of his 
 brother Menelaus extended over the whole of 
 Laconia and a great portion of Messenia. Ho- 
 mer, as Strabo observes, employs the name of 
 Lacedaemon to denote both the city and the 
 country of which it was the capital ; but when 
 the word Sparta is used, it is always with refe- 
 rence to the town. Menelaus was succeeded 
 by Orestes, and Orestes by his son Tisaraenus. 
 It was during the reign of the latter that the 
 Dorians and Heraclidae invaded Peloponnesus, 
 and introduced great and permanent political 
 changes throughout the whole peninsula. La- 
 conia being conquered by the invading army, 
 Tisamenus, with the Achaeans, withdrew to the 
 TEgialus, then occupied by the lonia.ns. In the 
 division which took place of the conquered ter- 
 ritory, Argos was assigned to Temenus, Mes- 
 
LA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LA 
 
 senia to Cresphontes, and Laconia to Aristode- 
 mus ; but the latter dying before the partition 
 had been carried into effect, it was adjudged thai 
 liis two sons Eurysthenes and Procles should be 
 joint heirs of the possessions allotted to their fa- 
 ther; and they thus became the progenitors of 
 a double line of kings, who reigned at Sparta 
 for several generations with equal power and 
 authority. According to Ephorus, as cited by 
 Strabo, Eurysthenes and Procles divided Laco- 
 nia into six portions, which were governed by 
 deputies, they themselves residing at Sparta. 
 The inhabitants of this city, called Spartiatas, 
 enjoyed peculiar rights and privileges. Next 
 to these were the Perioeci, or inhabitants of the 
 country, who, though in some respects subject 
 to the Spartan citizens, were yet governed by 
 the same laws, and were equally eligible to the 
 different offices of the state. The third class 
 consisted of slaves named Helots, who, having 
 been at first tributary, were, in consequence of 
 their revolt, reduced to slavery, after an obsti- 
 nate contest, called the war of the Helots. This 
 name was said to be derived from Helos, a La- 
 conian town, which was foremost in the rebel- 
 lion. The Helots being considered as public 
 slaves, their places of abode were regulated by 
 the state, and certain duties imposed upon them. 
 The laws relative to this unfortunate class of 
 men are ascribed to Agis son of Eurysthenes. 
 The first important change introduced by Ly- 
 curgus in the Spartan constitution was the crea- 
 tion of a senate,consisting of twenty-eight mem- 
 bers, who, being in all matters of deliberation 
 possessed of equal authority with the kings, 
 proved an effectual check against any infringe- 
 ment of the laws on their part, and preserved a 
 just balance in the state, by supporting the crown 
 against the encroachments of the people, and 
 protecting the latter against any undue influ- 
 ence of the regal power. It was also enacted 
 that the people should be occasionally summon- 
 ed, and have the power of deciding upon any 
 question proposed to them. No measure, how- 
 ever could originate with them ; they had only 
 the right of approving or rejecting what was 
 submitted to them by the senate and two kings. 
 But, as danger was to be apprehended from va- 
 rious attempts subsequently made by the people 
 to extend their rights in these meetings, it was 
 at length ordained, that, if the latter endeavour- 
 ed to alter any law, the kings and senate should 
 dissolve the assembly, and annul the amend- 
 ment. With a view of counterbalancing the 
 great power thus committed to the legislative as- 
 sembly, and which might degenerate into oli- 
 garchy, five annual magistrates were appointed, 
 named Ephori, whose office it was, like that of 
 the tribunes at Rome, to watch over the inte- 
 rests of the people, and protect them against the 
 influence of the aristocracy. Lycurgus, in or- 
 der to banish wealth and luxury from the state, 
 made a new division of lands, by which the in- 
 come and possessions of all were rendered equal. 
 He divided the territory of Sparta into 9000 
 portions, and the remainder of Laconia into 
 30,000, of which one lot was assigned to each 
 citizen and inhabitant. These parcels of land 
 "Were supposed to produce seventy medimni of 
 grain for a man and twelve for a woman, besides 
 a sufficient quantity of wine and oil. The more 
 effectually to banish the love of riches, the Spar- 
 
 tan lawgiver prohibited the use of gold and sil- 
 ver, and allowed only iron money, afhxing even 
 to this the lowest value. He also instituted pub- 
 lic repasts termed Phiditia, where all the citizens 
 partook in common of such frugal fare as the 
 law directed. The kings even were not exempt- 
 ed from this regulation, but eat with the other 
 citizens ; the only distinction observed with re- 
 spect to them being that of having a double por- 
 tion of food. The Spartan custom of eating in 
 public appears to have been borrowed from the 
 Cretans, who called these repasts Andria. At 
 the age of seven all the Spartan children, by the 
 laws of Lycurgus, were enrolled in companies, 
 and educated agreeably to his rules of discipline 
 and exercise, which were strictly enforced. 
 These varied according to the ages of the boys, 
 but were not entirely remitted even after they 
 had attained to manhood. For it was a maxim 
 with Lycurgus that no man should live for him- 
 self, but for his country. Every Spartan there- 
 fore was regarded as a soldier, and the city itself 
 resembled a great camp, where every one had a 
 fixed allowance, and was required to perform re- 
 gular service. In order that they might have 
 moreleisuj'eto devote themselvesto martial pur- 
 suits, they were forbidden to exercise any me- 
 chanical arts or trades, which, together with the 
 labours of agriculture, devolved on the Helots. 
 The condition of these ill-fated men cannot even 
 now be considered without feelings of commise- 
 ration for their sufferings, and execration and 
 horror at the conduct of their oppressors. Aris- 
 totle has recorded, that when the Ephori enter- 
 ed upon their office they began by declaring war 
 against the Helots, who were then liable to be 
 attacked and murdered without any form of jus- 
 tice whatsoever. Sometimes indeed the Spartan 
 youths armed with daggers were ordered to place 
 themselves in ambuscade, to surprise and put to 
 death any of these unfortunate wretches whom 
 they might chance to meet. These criptia, as 
 they were called, took place most commonly at 
 night ; but the unhappy objects of this barba- 
 rous exercise were frequently assailed by day. 
 and butchered whilst working in the fields. The 
 two reigning houses of Lacedeemon took the 
 name of Agidse and EuripontidaB from Agis 
 and Eurypon, sons of Eurysthenes and Procles, 
 the first Heraclid sovereigns; since, as Ephorus 
 asserted, these were looked upon as having suc- 
 ceeded to the throne in their own right, whilst 
 their fathers obtained the crown by foreign aid. 
 Sparta was already the first power of Greece, 
 when Croesus was induced by the counsels of an 
 oracle to court its alliance ; but the succours, 
 which were to have been sent to the Lydian 
 monarch, were stopped by the news of the siege 
 and capture of Sardis. But for the unexam- 
 pled instance of devotion in their country's 
 cause, displayed by Leonidas and his 300 com- 
 panions, the Lacedaemonian character would 
 not have been distinguished in history for its 
 energy or patriotic zeal during the Persian con- 
 flict ; since tardiness and superstition prevented 
 their sharing in the glories of the field of Mara- 
 thon : the want also of energy and talent in their 
 commander Eurybiades would no doubt have 
 brought Greece to the verge of destruction, had 
 not the wisdom and vigour of Themistocles in- 
 terposed, to counteract the effects of his weak 
 and vacillating disposition. The battle of Pla- 
 175 
 
LA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LA 
 
 tasa, it is true, was won by a Spartan general, 
 audit cannot be denied that the valour and firm- 
 ness of the Lacedaemonian troops contributed 
 mainly to the success of that memorable day ; 
 but yet how mean and contemptible appears the 
 procrastination of the Spartan government in 
 taking the field, when compared with the heroic 
 zeal and devotion of the Athenians ; notwith- 
 standing the strength and resources of the former 
 were as yet unimpaired, whilst the latter were 
 without a country, and destitute of every thing 
 but their arms, and courage to employ them 
 against the common enemy. After the battle of 
 Mycale, which freed the island and colonies 
 from the Persian yoke,and the capture of Sestos, 
 whereby the Hellespont was opened to the Gre- 
 cian fleet, the Lacedaemonians abandoned the 
 conduct of the war to the Athenians. The 
 rapid advance of the Athenians towards uni- 
 versal domination proved too late the error they 
 had been guilty of in withdrawing from the com- 
 mand of the Persian war before its termination ; 
 and the Spartan government gladly made the 
 wrongs sustained by the Corinthians in the af- 
 fairs of Corcyra and Potidaea a pretext for a rup- 
 ture with Athens." With this began the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, which terminated in the ruin 
 of Athens, and which was hardly less pernicious 
 to Laconia herself and to the rest of Greece. 
 War followed war with varying success for 
 many years, and terminated only in the loss of 
 liberty to all, and the extension of the Macedo- 
 nian name and power over the free states of 
 Greece. To this succeeded the Roman autho- 
 rity, and the passage of empire across the Ionian 
 and Adriatic seas from Macedon to Rome. 
 " Under the domination of Rome, the inhabit- 
 ants of Laconia enjoyed a greater degree of 
 freedom than was allowed to the other provinces 
 of Greece, being, says Strabo, rather regarded as 
 allies than as subjects. A considerable part of 
 the nation, consisting of several maritime towns 
 around Sparta, was dignified with the title of 
 Eleutherolacones, conferred upon it by Augus- 
 tus, together with other privileges, for the zeal 
 which its inhabitants had early testified in fa- 
 vour of the Romans, Laconia, from its rugged 
 and mountainous character, was naturally bar- 
 ren and difficult of culture ; such, in short, as 
 Euripides described in one of his lost plays. The 
 epithet of Kriroiijaa, applied by Homer to this 
 country, has been supposed by some to refer to 
 its great extent compared with the other states 
 of Peloponnesus, but by others to the number 
 of its valleys. Laconia could boast at one time 
 of possessing one hundred cities, but the great- 
 er part of these were probably like the demi of 
 Attica, not larger than villages. The whole po- 
 pulation of the country, including the Helots, 
 who constituted by far the most numerous class, 
 being in the proportion of 5 to 1, may be esti- 
 mated at 270,000 souls." Cram. 
 
 Lade, an island of the iEgean Sea, on the 
 coast of Asia Minor, where was a naval battle 
 between the Persians and lonians. Herodot. 6, 
 c. l.—Paus. 1, c. Sb.—Strab. 17. 
 
 Ladon, 1. a river of Arcadia, falling into the 
 Alpheus. The metamorphosis of Daphne into 
 a laurel, and of Syrinx into a reed, happened 
 near its banks. Strab. 1. — Mela, 2, c. 3. — 
 
 Pans. 8, c. 25.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 659.- II. 
 
 Another in Elis. This little stream, now call- 
 176 
 
 ed the Derviche, after flowing near the city of 
 Pylos, discharges itself into the Peneus. 
 
 LiESTRYGONEs, the most ancient inhabitants 
 of Sicily. Some suppose them to be the same 
 as the people of Leontium, and to have been 
 neighbours to the Cyclops. They fed on human 
 flesh, and when Ulysses came on their coasts, 
 they sunk his ships and devoured his compa- 
 nions. {Vid. Antiphetes.) They were of a 
 gigantic stature, according to Homer, who, how- 
 ever, does not mention their country, but only 
 speaks of Lamus as their capital. A colony of 
 them, as some suppose, passed over into Italy, 
 with Lamus at their head, where they built the 
 town of Formiee, whence the epithet of Lastry- 
 gonia is often used for that of Formiana. Plin. 
 3, c. b.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 233, &c. Fast. 4. 
 ex Pont. 4, ep. 10. — Tzetz. in lAjcophr. v. 662. 
 and Q\Q.— Homer. Od. 10, v. S\.—Sil. 7, v. 276. 
 
 Lagyra, a city of Taurica Chersonesus. 
 
 Lambrani, a people of Italy, near the Lam- 
 brus. Sv£t. in Cces. 
 
 Lamber, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, falling 
 into the Po. 
 
 Lamia, a town of Thessaly, at the bottom of 
 the Sinus Maliacus or Lamiacus, and north of 
 the river Sperchius, famous for a siege it sup- 
 ported after Alexander's death. Vid. Lamia- 
 cum. Died. 16, &c. — Paus. 7, c. 6. 
 
 Lami.e, small islands of the .iEgean, opposite 
 Troas. Plin. 5, c. 31, 
 
 Lampsacus, and Lampsacum, now LamsaM, 
 a town of Asia Minor, on the borders of the 
 Propontis at the north of Abydos. Priapus was 
 the chief deity of the place, of which he was 
 reckoned by some the founder. His temple 
 there was the asylum of lewdness and debauch- 
 ery, and exhibited scenes of the most unnatural 
 lust ; and hence the epithet Lampsacius is used 
 to express immodesty and wantonness. Alex- 
 ander resolved to destroy the city on account of 
 the vices of its inhabitants, or, more properly, 
 for its firm adherence to the interest of Persia. 
 It was, however, saved from ruin by the artifice 
 of Anaximenes. Vid. Anaximenes. It was 
 formerly called Pityusa, and received the name 
 of Lampsacus from Lampsace, a daughter of 
 Mandron, a king of Phrygia, who gave informa- 
 tion to some Phoceans who dwelt there, that the 
 rest of the inhabitants had conspired against 
 their lives. This timely information saved them 
 from destruction. The city afterwards bore the 
 name of their preserver. The wine of Lamp- 
 sacus was famous, and therefore a tribute of 
 wine was granted from the city by Xerxes to 
 maintain the table of Themistocles. Mela, 1. 
 c. l^.— Strab. I'i.—Paus. 9, c. 'il.— Herodot. 5, 
 c. 117. — C. Ne'p. in Themist. c. 10. — Ovid. 1. 
 Trist. 9, V. 26. Fast. 8, v. 345.— Liv. 33, c. 38, 
 1. 35, c. A2.— Martial. 22, ep. 17, 52. 
 
 Lamus, a river of Cilicia Campestris, flow- 
 ing from mount Taurus, the whole width of 
 the country, into the Aulon Cilicius. From 
 this river, which is still called the Lamuzo, the 
 district to which it belonged was called Lamo- 
 tis. — D'Anville. 
 
 Lancia. Three towns of ancient Hispania 
 were kno"v^Ti by the name of Lancia. One of 
 these was a principal city of the Astures in 
 Tarraconensis, between the Durius and the 
 coast. The other places of this name belonged 
 to Lusitania. Of these, the one called Oppi- 
 
LA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LA 
 
 dana was situate between the western bank of 
 the Cuda and the springs of the Mrnida, {Mon- 
 dego^) and is supposed to be the modern a- 
 Guarda; and that called Transcuda, from its 
 position also on the Cuda, may be Ciudad 
 Rodrigo. D'A7iville. 
 
 Langobardi, by corruption Lombards, one 
 of the most celebrated of the northern barbarian 
 hordes by which the Roman empire was over- 
 thrown. The original seats of this people it is 
 difficult to describe, from the lateness of the pe- 
 riod at which they became known, and from 
 their various migrations during the eraat which 
 they first present themselves to history. Their 
 Scandinavian origin has been supported and 
 denied, and authorities of the highest character 
 reject on the one hand, and adv^ocate on the 
 other, their connexion with the Germanic race. 
 However the truth may be in relation to their 
 earliest settlements, the Langobardi were settled 
 ■in Germany when their relation to Roman his- 
 tory begins, and whatever differences charac- 
 terized them, may be considered as distinctions 
 of a tribe rather than of a race. In the reign 
 of Augustus we find this people between the 
 Oder and the Elbe ; and by the year 500 of our 
 era, they had approached the Danube and the 
 provinces of the empire, or, in other words, the 
 confines of civilization. Their particular pro- 
 vince appears to have been at this period, and 
 for some time afterwards, a part of the modern 
 duchy of Brandenburgh. Few in number, 
 they made up in courage and ferocity for their 
 numer4u|l inferiority ; and in all the wars and 
 ■changefOT'the barbarians, they maintained their 
 fierce independence. Even when migrating be- 
 fore the new and potent multitude of those who, 
 continually pressing on the confines of Europe, 
 impelled the north upon the centre and the cen- 
 tre upon the south, they appear rather to have 
 left their seats for more auspicious countries, 
 and not to have felt the pressure of a foreign 
 force. In their wars with the larger tribes they 
 were invariably successful, and, though scarcely 
 known until the time of Trajan, and then biit 
 merely named, by the time of Justinian they 
 were sufiiciently known and respected to be in- 
 vited within the pale of the empire. At the 
 sugg-estion of this emperor they crossed the 
 Danube, and prepared for the reduction of the 
 provinces of Noricum and Pannonia. With 
 the Avars they conquered the Gepidi, and after 
 occupying Pannonia for some time, they formal- 
 ly determined the conquest of Italy, Other 
 barbarians had broken the barriers which the 
 vanity of the Romans had placed as the limits 
 of their empire, and as a bulwark, with the au- 
 thority of their name, against hostile encroach- 
 ment; but the desire of booty had been with 
 them the governing principle. Alboinus, king 
 of the Lombards, aspired to the crown of Italy, 
 and passing, on the invitation of Narses, the 
 resistance of the Alps, he appeared at the head 
 of a vast and heterogeneous collection of barba- 
 rous tribes between the mountains and the Po. 
 The conquests of this savage hero changed 
 again the name of all the north of Italy; and 
 as its Gallic invaders had imparted to it their 
 name, which during all the ages of the Roman 
 rule it bore, so from this successful aUempt of 
 the Longobardi, the name of Lombardy, assign- 
 ed to the con quests of Alboinus, has remained 
 
 Part I.— Z 
 
 to them through all the changes of twelve hun- 
 dred years, and marks the limits of his victories. 
 The Lombards from the north spread quickly 
 over Italy ; and the tributary, or, as we perhaps 
 should say, the feudal dukes, established even in 
 Campania the name and pov\-er of the Lombard 
 race. In the middle ages three powers arose to 
 claim supremacy in Italy ; the pope, as guardian 
 of the ecclesiastical interest ; the exarch of Ra- 
 venna, to whom were intrusted the interests of 
 the eastern emperors ; and the Lombard kings, 
 who boldly claimed to be considered kings of 
 Italy. The conflict between these powers was 
 long and warm ; the Lombards for a time ap- 
 peared to prevail, but the entreaties of the church 
 obtained an ally in the once redoubted Franks, 
 and raised up a new claimant to dominion in 
 Italy. The arms of Charlemagne were match- 
 ed against those of Desiderius, the last king of 
 the Lombards, and the new empire of the west, 
 established by the Frank monarch, was founded 
 on the subjugation of the Lombards and the 
 subversion of the Lombard throne. Thus end- 
 ed, 774, the history of this people, who, after 
 having lived the wild life of a Nomadic tribe, 
 and causing terror even to the savage inhabit- 
 ants of thenorthern forests, succeeded in giving 
 a new throne and a new name to Italy. From 
 this time the name of Lombard implies merely 
 that the people bearing.it belong to Upper Ita- 
 l}'', and conveys no longer the notion of a bar- 
 barous character or a peculiar race; and this 
 corrupt appellation becomes less objectionable 
 than that original name of Longobardi, which 
 denoted the bearded ferocity' of the German 
 foresters. Sacchi Origine de' Longobard. 
 
 Lanijvium, a to"UTi of Latium, about 16 miles 
 from Rome on the Appian road. Juno had 
 there a celebrated temple, which was frequent- 
 ed by the inhabitants of Italy, and particularly 
 b}'' the Romans, whose consuls, on first entering 
 upon office, offered sacrifices to the goddess. 
 The statue of the goddess was covered with a 
 goat's skin, and armed with a buckler and spear, 
 and wore shoes which were turned upwards in 
 the form of a cone. Cic. po-o Mur. de Nat. D. 
 1, c, 29. pro Milon. 10.— Liv. 8, c. U.—Ital. 13, 
 V. 364. 
 
 La5dicea, I. a city of Asia, on the borders of 
 Caria, Phrygia, and Lydia, celebrated for its 
 commerce, and the fine soft and black wool of 
 its sheep. It was originally called Diospolis, 
 and afterwards Rhoas. Plin. 5, c. 29. — Strab. 
 12. — Mela., 1, c. 15. — Cic. 5, Att. 15. pro Flacc. 
 According to the Roman distribution of the 
 Asiatic provinces under Constantine, this was 
 a town of Phrygia, but attributed by Ptolemy 
 to Lydia. It stood on the Lycus, at its confluence 
 with the Azopus, and but a short distance from 
 the place at which it emptied into the Mcean- 
 der, and might with almost equal propriety be 
 assigned to Lydia or Phrygia. The due ob- 
 servance of the distribution of the provinces into 
 Juridical Conventus, &c. in the order of time, 
 will avoid a great part of the ambiguity arising 
 from the circumstance of one town's being va- 
 riously assigned to different provinces. As the 
 seat of the imperial court for its district, Laodi- 
 cea superseded Hierapolis as the capital. Its 
 ancient name is still partly preserved in that of 
 Ladik, though the Turks denominate it EsU. 
 
 Hisar, or the Old Castle. II. Another of 
 
 177 
 
LA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LA 
 
 Lycaonia, surnamed Combusta, now Jurekiam 
 
 Ladik, to the north-west of Iconium. III. 
 
 Another, surnamed Libani, from its situation 
 among the mountains of that name. It stood 
 between the rivers Orontes and Eleutherus, 
 
 west of Emessa. IV. A city of the same 
 
 name upon the coast lay opposite the eastern 
 extremity of the island of Cyprus, and from its 
 situation was entitled ad Mare. The name is 
 still extant, though slightly changed, in Ladi- 
 kieh. There were other towns upon which this 
 appellation was bestowed, in honour, generally, 
 of the mothers, wives, and daughters of the 
 Syrian kings, 
 
 Laodicene, a province of Syria, which re- 
 ceives its name from Laodicea, its capital. 
 
 Laphystium, a mountain in Bceotia, where 
 Jupiter li^d a temple, whence he was called La- 
 fkystius. It was here that Athamas prepared 
 to immolate Phryxus and Helle, whom Jupiter 
 saved by sending them a golden ram, whence 
 the surname and the homage paid to the god. 
 Pans. 9, c. 34. 
 
 Larinum, or Larina, now Larino, a town of 
 the. Frentani, near the Tifernus before it falls 
 into the Adriatic. The inhabitants were called 
 Larinates. Ital. 15, v. 565. — Cic. Clu. 63, 4. 
 Att. 12, 1. 7, ep. \2.—Liv. 22, c. 18, 1. 27, c. 40. 
 —CcBS. C. 1, c. 23. 
 
 Larissa, I. " Larissa, which still retains its 
 name and position, was one of the most ancient 
 and flourishing towns of Thessaly, though it is 
 not mentioned by Homer, unless indeed the 
 Argos Pelasgicum of that poet is to be identi- 
 fied with it, and this notion would not be en- 
 tirely groundless, if, as Strabo informs us, there 
 was once a city named Argos close to Larissa. 
 The same geographer has enumerated all the 
 ancient towms of the latter name ; and we may 
 collect from his researches that it was peculiar 
 to the Pelasgi, since all the countries in which 
 it was found had been at different periods occu- 
 pied by that people. Steph. Byz. says that La- 
 rissa of Thessaly , situated on the Peneus, owed 
 its origin to Acrisius. This town was placed 
 in that most fertile part of the province which 
 had formerly been occupied by the Perrhoebi, 
 who were partly expelled by the Larissasans, 
 while the remainder were kept in close subjec- 
 tion, and rendered tributary. This state of 
 things is said by Strabo to have continued till 
 the time of Philip, who seems to have taken the 
 government of Thessaly into his own hands. 
 According to Aristotle the constitution of this 
 city was democratical. Its magistrates were 
 elected by the people, and considered themselves 
 as dependant on their favour. This fact will 
 account for the support which the Athenians 
 derived from the republic of Larissa during the 
 Peloponnesian war. The Aleuadae, mentioned 
 by Herodotas as princes of Thessaly at the 
 time of the Persian invasion, were natives of 
 this city. Larissa was occupied by the Romans 
 soon after the battle of Cynoscephalae, Philip 
 having abandoned the place, and destroyed all 
 the royal papers which were kept there. La- 
 rissa was attacked by Antiochus in the first 
 war he waged against the Romans; but the 
 siege was raised on the approach of some troops 
 despatched by the latter for the relief of the 
 place. Diodorus informs us that its citadel was 
 a place of great strength. Though the territo- 
 ^178 
 
 ry of this city was extremely rich and fertile, it 
 was subject to great losses, caused by the inun- 
 dations of the Peneus. Dr. Clarke slates that 
 he could discover no ruins at Larissa ; but that 
 the inhabitants give the name of Old Larissa 
 to a Palaeo-Castro, which is situated upon some 
 very high rocks at four hours distance towards 
 the east. Dr. Holland and Mr. Dodwell are 
 however of opinion that the modern Larissa 
 stands .upon the remains of the ancient city." 
 ■II. Another, surnamed Cremaste, " so 
 
 called from the steepness of its situation was 
 also named Pelasgia, as we are assured by 
 Strabo. The latter appellation might indeed 
 lead to the supposition that it was the Pelasgic 
 Argos of Homer. 
 
 Atque olim Larissa potens : ubi nobile quondam 
 Nunc super Argos arant. 
 
 Larissa Cremaste was in the dominion of Achil- 
 les ; and it is probable from that circumstance 
 that Virgil gives him the title of Larissseus. At 
 a much later period we find this town occupied 
 by Demetrius Poliorcetes when at war with 
 Cassander. It was taken by Apustius, a Ro- 
 man commander in the Macedonian war, and 
 was again besieged by the Romans in the war 
 with Perseus, when it was entered by the con- 
 sul Licinius Crassus on being deserted by the 
 inhabitants. Its ruins are thus described by 
 Mr. Dodwell : ' In three quarters of an hour' 
 (from the village of Gradista) ' we arrived at 
 the remains of an ancient city, at the foot of a 
 steep hill, covered with bushes. The walls are 
 built up the side of the hill, to the summit of 
 which we arrived in twenty mmutes ; the con- 
 struction is of the third style, and finelj'- built 
 with large masses. There is reason to suppose 
 that these are the remains of Larissa Cremaste, 
 the capital of the kingdom of Achilles ; and I 
 conceive there is an error in the text of Strabo 
 respecting its distance from Echinus ; for twen- 
 ty stadia I should propose to substitute one hun- 
 dred and twenty ; which, calculating something 
 less than thirty stadia an hour, corresponds with 
 four hours and a half, which it took us to per- 
 form the journey. Its situation is remarkably 
 strong; and its lofty and impending aspect me- 
 rits the name of Cremaste.' Sir W. Gell says, 
 ' the form of Larissa was like that of many 
 very ancient Grecian cities, a triangle with a 
 citadel at its highest point. The acropolis, in 
 which are the fragments of a Doric temple, is 
 connected with a branch of Othrys by a narrow 
 isthmus, over which water was conducted to 
 the city. It is accessible on horseback on the 
 side nearest Makalla ; and from it is seen the 
 magnificent prospect of the Maliac gulf, the 
 whole range of (Eta, and over it Parnassus.' 
 Beyond is Alope, ascribed by Homer to Achil- 
 les, and which according to Steph. Byz. stood 
 between Larissa Cremaste and Echinus. It is 
 probably the same as the Alitrope noticed by 
 Scylax, and retains its name on the shore of the 
 
 Melian gulf below Makalla." Cram. III. 
 
 A town of Syria on the Orontes between Epi- 
 phania and Apamea. Its modern name, accord- 
 ing to D'Anville, is Shizar. IV. The ruins 
 
 of a city in Assyria, on the Tigris, above the 
 mouth of the Zabus, indicated to the ten thou- 
 sand the site of an ancient city named Larissa, 
 supposed to have been destrdf ed by the Medes. 
 
LA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LA 
 
 Larissus, a river of Peloponnesus, flowing 
 from mount ScoUis, and forming the boundary 
 of Achaia and Elis. 
 
 Larius lacus, a celebrated piece of water 
 in Cisalpine Gaul, now Lago di Como. On 
 the borders of this division of Italia and of Rhae- 
 tia the river Addua spread itself into a lake 
 which, receiving at the same lime tributary 
 streams from the Alps, became one of the most 
 beautiful and celebrated sheets of water in an- 
 cient Italy, and has lost none of its celebrity in 
 modern times and with its modern name. Here 
 Pliny had two villas, and the fountain of which 
 he speaks yet bears the name of the naturalist. 
 The lake and its surrounding country are thus 
 described in the Classical Tour . '• The lake 
 of Como, or the Larian (for so it is still called, 
 not unfrequently even by the common people) 
 retains its ancient dimensions unaltered, and is 
 fifty miles in length, from three to six in breadth, 
 and from forty to six hundred feet in depth. Its 
 form is serpentine, and its banks are indented 
 with frequent creeks and harbours ; it is subject 
 to sudden squalls, and sometimes, even when 
 calm, to swells violent and unexpected ; both are 
 equally dangerous. The latter are more fre- 
 quently experienced in the branch of the lake 
 that terminates at Como than in the other parts, 
 because it has no emissary or outlet, such as the 
 Adda forms at Lecco. The mountains that bor- 
 der the lake are by no means either barren or 
 naked; their lower regions are generally cover- 
 ed with olives, vines, and orchards ; the middle 
 is encircled "with groves of chesnut of great 
 height and expansion, and the upper regions are 
 either downs, or forests of pine and fir, with the 
 exception of certain very elevated ridges, which 
 are necessarily either naked or covered with 
 snow. Their sides are seldom formed of one 
 continued steep, bat usually interrupted by fields 
 and levels extending in some places into wide 
 plains, which supply abundant space for every 
 kind of cultivation. These fertile plains are 
 generally at one third, and sometimes at two 
 thirds, of the total elevation. On or near these 
 levels are most of the towns and villages that 
 so beautifully diversify the sides of the moun- 
 tains. But cultivation is not the only source of 
 the riches of the L«ria?i territory : various mines 
 of iron, lead, and copper, are now, as they were 
 anciently, spread over its surface, and daily 
 opened in the bowels of its mountains ; besides 
 quarries of marbles, which supply Milan, and 
 all the neighbouring cities with the materials 
 and the ornaments of their most magnificent 
 churches." Eustace. 
 
 Larnos, a sm.all desolate island on the coast 
 of Thrace. 
 
 Laterium, the villa of Q,. Cicero at Arpinum, 
 near the Liris." Cic. ad Attic. 10, ep. 1. el. 4, 
 ep. 7, ad fr. 3, ep. 1. — Plin. 15, c. 15. 
 Latini, the inhabitants of Latium. Vid. Latium. 
 LATiaM. " The name of Latium was at 
 first given to that portion of Italy only which 
 extends from the mouth of the Tiber to the Cir- 
 caean promontory, a distance of about fifty miles 
 along the coast : but subsequently this last boun- 
 dary was removed to the river Liris, now Gari- 
 gliano, whence arose the distinction of Latium 
 Antiquum and Novinn. At a still later period, 
 the southern boundary of Latium was extend- 
 ed from the Liris to the mouth of the river Vul- 
 
 turnus and the Massic hills. Latium Antiquum 
 may be considered as bounded to the north by 
 the Anio and the Tiber, the Latins being sepa- 
 rated from the Sabines by the former river, and 
 from the Tuscans by the latter ; to the east and 
 south-east by the river Ufens and the Volscian 
 mountains, and to the west by the Tyrrhenian 
 §ea. Even in this narrow territory it will be 
 observed that many tribes are included which 
 were not originally incorporated into the Latin 
 confederacy, and consequently did not offier sa- 
 crifice in common on the Alban momit, nor 
 meet in the general assembly held at the source 
 of the Aqua Ferentina. The earliest records 
 of Italian history, as we are assured by Diony- 
 sius of Halicamassus, represented the plains of 
 Latium as first inhabited by the Siculi, a people 
 of obscure origin, but who would be entitled to 
 our notice from the circumstance above men- 
 tioned, even had they not acquired additional 
 historical importance from their subsequent mi- 
 gration to the celebrated island Irom thence nam- 
 ed Sicily. It has been questioned, however, and 
 apparently on sufiicient grounds, whether the 
 statement of Dionysius, in regard to the first 
 possession of Latium by the Siculi, be correct ; 
 for on their arrival in Sicily they are said to have 
 found that island already occupied by the Sica- 
 ni, who, as Thucydides relates, came originally 
 from the banks of the river Sicanus in Spain, 
 having been driven from their country by the 
 Ligurians ; and as it is not probable that this 
 people crossed over directly from Spain to Sici- 
 ly, Ave must admit, with Freret, that they like- 
 wise traversed Italy, and having gradually ad- 
 vanced towards the extremity of that country, 
 finally passed into the adjacent island. It is 
 plain, however, from several passages in ancient 
 writers, that the occupation of Italy by the Si- 
 can i was something more than a transient pas- 
 sage through that country. Respecting the Si- 
 culi, it is not easy to ascertain what was their 
 origin, or the country which they occupied prior 
 to their settlement in Italy. So remote indeed 
 was the period of this event, that Dionysius 
 appears to have considered them as settled there 
 from time immemorial. But this opinion is too 
 unsatisfactory to allow the modern antiquary 
 to acquiesce in it ; accordingly we find many 
 systems advanced by writers of that class re- 
 specting the origin of this ancient people. Oli- 
 vieri concluded that they came from Greece, 
 because Ancona is said by Pliny to have been 
 founded by the Siculi, while other writers ex- 
 pressly call it a Greek city. But it is much 
 more probable that by the Siculi of Pliny we 
 are to understand a Syracusan colony, of which 
 Strabo makes mention, and to which Juvenal 
 alludes when he calls the city in question the 
 Doric Ancona. Freret, on the other hand, con- 
 tended, that the Siculi were an Illyrian nation, 
 who settled in Italy not long after the Liburni, 
 a people of the same race, had established them- 
 selves in that country. This learned writer has 
 not made us acquainted on what authority he 
 grounded this assertion, but it is probable that 
 he relied chiefly on a passage in Pliny, in which 
 the Siculi are mentioned in conjunction with the 
 Liburni, as having anciently possessed a consi- 
 derable tract of country in the province which 
 was afterwards called Picenum : he might also 
 be induced to think that his opinion derived 
 179 
 
LA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LA 
 
 some support from Ptolemy, who mentions the 
 Siculiotae as a people of Dalmatia. It would 
 hardly be advisable, however, to adopt this opi- 
 nion of Freret without further evidence, espe- 
 cially as it is found to be at variance with the 
 express testimony of a writer whose authority, 
 on matters connected with the history of Sicily, 
 ought not to be hastily rejected, we mean that of 
 Philistus of Syracuse, who, as Dionysius re- 
 ports, asserted that the Siculi were Ligurians, 
 and that having been driven from Italy by the 
 Umbri and Pelasgi, they crossed over into Sici- 
 ly, This is also the account which Silius Ita- 
 licus has followed. There is no point so clear- 
 ly established with respect to the Siculi as that 
 of their having occupied, at a very early period, 
 the Latin plains and part of Etruria. Placed 
 therefore on the western coast of Italy, their 
 connexion with Liguria may readily be con- 
 ceived, while their Illyrian origin becomes pro- 
 portionably improbable. On the same supposi- 
 tion likewise we can well understand how this 
 people may have been driven south along the 
 western coast by the combined forces of the Pe- 
 lasgi and the Aborigines ; but if we allow with 
 Pliny that they had formed settlements on the 
 Adriatic also, it will not be easy to conceive how 
 a nation so largely disseminated and so firmly 
 settled could have been expelled from Italy. It 
 is evident also that the Siculi did not extend 
 from sea to sea, as the Aborigines, their con- 
 stant enemies, were placed between them and 
 the Adriatic. Lastly, we may adduce, in confir- 
 mation of the Ligurian origin of the Siculi, a 
 tradition recorded by Festus, which stated that 
 the Sacrani, who are the same people as the 
 Aborigines, expelled the Ligurians and the Si- 
 culi from the Septimontium, or Rome. Diony- 
 sius likewise mentions the Ligurians among the 
 heterogeneous population of which the Roman 
 nation was first composed. Ancient writers do 
 not seem agreed as to the name of the people 
 who compelled the Siculi to abandon Latium. 
 Dionysius informs us, that Philistus ascribed 
 their expulsion to the Umbri and Pelasgi. Thu- 
 cydides refers the same event to the Opici ; while 
 Antiochus of Syracuse, a still more ancient 
 writer, represents the Siculi as flying from the 
 CEnotri. Notwithstanding this apparent dis- 
 crepance, it is pretty evident, that under these 
 different names of Umbri, Opici, and QEnotri, 
 the same people are designated whom Diony- 
 sius and the Roman historians usually term 
 Aborigines. Having already sufficiently treat- 
 ed of this ancient race under the head of Um- 
 bria, we shall content ourselves with referring 
 the reader to the section which relates to that 
 province, and pass on to trace rapidly the sequel 
 of the history of Latium. The Aborigines, in- 
 termixing with several Pelasgic colonies, occu- 
 pied Latium, and soon formed themselves into 
 the several communities of Latini, Rutuli, Her- 
 nici, and Volsci, even prior to the Trojan war 
 and the supposed arrival of iEneas, Of that 
 event it is scarce necessary for us to speak at 
 length, since it has been already discussed by 
 others as fully as the subject admits of The 
 question indeed seems to resolve itself into this 
 narrow compass. Are we to form our notions 
 of the Trojan prince by what we read concern- 
 ing him in the Iliad *? If so, we are there told 
 plainly that -^neas and his descendants remain- 
 ISO 
 
 ed in possession of the Troad for many genera- 
 tions. (II. Y. 307.) Consequently Homer him- 
 self furnishes the best argument against the co- 
 lony of ^neas in Latium. If we are not to 
 form our judgment from what is related of the 
 son of Anchises in the Iliad, then he becomes a 
 mere fictitious character, the reality of whose ad- 
 ventures cannot afford ground for historical dis- 
 cussion. Notwithstanding that Dionysius la- 
 bours anxiously to prove the fact of the arrival of 
 iEneas in Latium, he is obliged to confess that 
 by the accounts of all the older historians, such 
 as Hellanicus, Cephalo of Gergithus, and He- 
 gesippus, the Trojan prince did not advance be- 
 yond Thrace, or the peninsula of Pallene. We 
 would not, however, go so far as some modern 
 writers, who consider the story of the Trojan 
 colony as an invention of the Romans to please 
 Augustus: it is evident, from Dionysius's ac- 
 count, that there were some traditions to this 
 effect among the Greeks long before they knew 
 any thing of Rome. There seems no objection, 
 therefore, to our admitting the arrival of a chief 
 called ^neas on the Latin coast, though he 
 might neither be the son of Anchises, nor in 
 any respect connected -with Troy. If he came 
 from the Thracian jEnea, as most accounts im- 
 ply, the name of that city might have occasion- 
 ed the error. Various etymologies of the names 
 of Latium and the Latins are to be met with in 
 ancient writers ; but we see no reason why they 
 should not be derived from a chief called Lati- 
 nus, of whom the Greeks seem to have heard, 
 since he is mentioned by Hesiod in a passage 
 already cited, though they were not acquainted 
 with the Latins as a distinct ■ people of Italy. 
 The name of Prisci Latini was first given to 
 certain cities of Latium, supposed to have been 
 colonized by Latinus Silvius, one of the kings 
 of Alba, but most of which were afterwards 
 conquered and destroyed by Ancus Martins and 
 Tarquinius Priscus. In the reign of Tarqui- 
 nius Superbus, we find the Latin nation unit- 
 ed under the form of a confederate republic, and 
 acknowledging that ambitious prince as the pro- 
 tector of their league. After the expulsion of 
 the tyrant from Rome, we are told that the La- 
 tins, who favoured his cause, experienced a to- 
 tal defeat near the lake Regillus, and were 
 obliged to sue for peace. According to this his- 
 torian, the Latins received the thanks of the Ro- 
 man senate, some years afterwards, for having 
 taken no advantage of the disturbances at Rome, 
 which finally led to the secession of the people 
 to the mons Sacer, and for having, on the con- 
 trary, offered every assistance in their power on 
 that occasion ; he adds also, that a perpetual 
 league was formed at that time between the Ro- 
 mans and Latins. However, about 143 years 
 afterwards, we find the latter openly rebelling, 
 and refusing to supply the usual quota of troops 
 which they had agreed to furnish as allies of 
 Rome. Their bold demand, which was urged 
 through L. Annius Setmus in the Roman se- 
 nate, that one of the consuls at least should be 
 chosen out of their nation, led to an open rup- 
 ture. A war followed, which was rendered re- 
 markable from the event of the execution of 
 young Manlius by order of his father, and the 
 devotion of Decius. After having been defeat- 
 ed in several encounters, the Latins were finally 
 reduced to subjection, with the exception of a 
 
LA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LA 
 
 few towns, which experienced greater lenity, 
 and Latium thenceforth ceased to be an inde- 
 pendent state. At that time the rights of Ro- 
 man citizens had been granted to a few only of 
 the Latin cities ; but, at a later period, the Grac- 
 chi sought to level all such distinctions between 
 the Latins and Romans. This measure, how- 
 ever, was not carried. The Social war follow- 
 ed; and though the confederates were finally 
 conquered, after a long and desperate contest, 
 the senate thought it advisable to decree that all 
 the Latin cities which had not taken part with 
 the allies should enjoy the rights of Roman citi- 
 zens. Many of these towns were, however, de- 
 prived of their privileges by Sylla ; and it was 
 not till the close of the republic that the Latins 
 were admitted generally to participate in all the 
 rights and immunities enjoyed by the Gluirites." 
 Cra/m. 
 
 Latmus, a mountain of Caria, near Miletus. 
 It is famous for the residence of Endymion, 
 whom the Moon regularly visited in the night, 
 whence he is often called Latmius Heros. Vid. 
 Endymion. Mela, 1, c. 17. — Ovid. Trist. 2, 
 V. 299. Art. Am. 3, v. SZ.—Plin. 5, c. 29.— 
 Strab. U.—Cic. 1, Tus. 28. 
 
 Latobrigi, a people of Belgic Gaul, of whom 
 we know but little. According to Caesar they 
 were in the vicinity of the Helvetii, Rauraci, 
 and Tulingi. C(bs. B. G.l, 5. 
 
 Latopolis, a city of Egypt, in the Thebaid, 
 " so called from a fish that was there adored, 
 bears now the name of Asna, which signifies 
 illustrious." D'Anville. 
 ■ Lavinium, or Lavinum, a town of Italy, the 
 capital of Latiam during the reign of iEneas, 
 " said to have been founded by that prince on 
 his marriage with the daughter of Latinus : this 
 story, however, would go but little towards pro- 
 ving the existence of such a town, if it were not 
 actually enumerated among the cities of Latium, 
 by Strabo and other authors as well as by the 
 Itineraries. Plutarch notices it as the place in 
 which Tatius, the colleague of Romulus, was 
 assassinated. Strabo mentions that Lavinium 
 had a temple consecrated to Venus, which was 
 common to all the Latins. The inhabitants are 
 terined by Pliny, Laviniates Ilionenses, La- 
 vinium and Laurentium were latterly united 
 Tinder the name of Lauro-Lavinium. Various 
 opinions have been entertained by antiquaries 
 relative to the site which ought to be assigned 
 to Lavinium. Cluverius placed it near the 
 church of 5'. Petronella ; Holstenius on the hill 
 called Monte di Levano ; but more recent topo- 
 graphers concur in fixing it at a place called 
 Pratica, about three miles from the coast." 
 Cram.— Virg. ^En. 1, v. ^e^.—Strah. b.—Dio- 
 nys. Hal. \. — Liv. 1, c. 2. — Justin. 43, c. 2. 
 
 Laureacum, atown atthe confluence of the Ens 
 and the Danube, now Lorch. It was the place of 
 rendezvous of a Roman fleet on the Danube. 
 
 Laurentini, a name belonging properly to 
 the inhabitants of Laurentum, but applied also 
 to the subjects of king Latinus in general. 
 
 Laurentum, " the capital of Latinus, accord- 
 ing to the opinion of the best topographers, 
 must have stood about sixteen miles from Ostia, 
 and near the spot now called Paterno. Of the 
 existence of this city, whatever may be thought 
 of iEneas and the Trojan colony, there can be 
 no doubt ; without going so far back as to Sa- 
 
 turn and Picus, it may be asserted that the ori- 
 gin of Laurentum is most ancient, since it is 
 mentioned among the maritime cities of Latium 
 in the first treaties between Rome and Carthage 
 recorded by Polybius. Though Laurentum 
 joined the Latin league in behalf of Tarquin, 
 and shared in the defeat of the lake Regillus, it 
 seems afterwards to have been firmly attached 
 to the Roman interests. Of its subsequent his- 
 tory we know but little, Lucan represents it as 
 having fallen into ruins, and become deserted 
 in consequence of the civil wars. At a later 
 period, however, Laurentum appears to have 
 been restored under the name of Lauro-Lavi- 
 nium ; a new city having been formed, as it is 
 supposed, by the miion of Laurentum and La- 
 vinium. This is proved by a passage in Fron- 
 tinus and Symmachus, and numerous inscrip- 
 tions collected by Vulpius. The district of Lau- 
 rentum must have been of a very woody and 
 marshy nature. The Silva Laurentina is no- 
 ticed by Julius Obsequens ; and Herodian re- 
 ports, that the emperor Commodus was ordered 
 to this part of the country by his physicians, on 
 account of the laurel groves which grew there ; 
 the shade of which was considered as particular- 
 ly salutary. It was from this tree that Lauren- 
 tum is supposed to derive its name. (^n. 7, 59.) 
 The marshes of Laurentum were famous for the 
 number and size of the wild boars which they 
 bred in their reedy pastures. We are told that 
 Scipio and Loelius, when released from the cares 
 of business, often resorted to this neighbourhood, 
 and amused themselves by gathering shells on 
 the shore. Pliny the Younger says Laurentum 
 was m-uch frequented by the Roman nobles in 
 winter ; and so numerous were their villas, that 
 they presented more the appearance of a city 
 than detached dwellings. Every lover of an- 
 tiquity is acquainted with the elegant and mi- 
 nute description he gives of his own retreat. 
 The precise spot which should be assigned to 
 this villa has been a subject of much dispute 
 among topographers. Holstenius places it at 
 Paterno, but in this respect he was probably 
 mistaken, as the generality of antiquaries con- 
 sider the remains, which exist on that site, as 
 those of Laurentum ; besides, Paterno is at 
 some distance from the sea, whereas Pliny's re- 
 treat was close to it. We would rather follow 
 the opinion of Fabretti, Lancisi, and Vulpius, 
 who fix the site of the villa at la Piastra, a 
 hamlet nearly midway betw^een Laurentum and 
 Ostia. Hortensius, the celebrated orator, and 
 the rival of Cicero, had also a farm in this neigh- 
 bourhood." Cram. 
 
 Laurium, " celebrated for its silver mines, 
 was a range of hills extending from the Asty- 
 palsean promontory to the promontory of Su- 
 nium, and from thence to the neighbourhood of 
 Port Eafti,\\ie ancient Prasiae, on the eastern 
 coast. Herodotus informs us that the produce 
 of these mines was shared among the Athenians, 
 each of whom received ten drachmas ; but we 
 are not informed whether this division took 
 place annually. Themistocles, however, during 
 a war with ^gina, advised them to apply this 
 money to the construction of 200 galleys ; a 
 measure which contributed in a great degree to 
 the naval ascendency of the Athenians. Thu- 
 cydides reports, that the Lacedaemonian army, 
 in their second invasion of Attica, advanced in 
 181 
 
LE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LE 
 
 this direction as far as Laurium. The produce 
 of the mines had already much diminished in 
 the time of Xenophon. We collect from his 
 accomit that they were then farmed by private 
 persons, who paid a certain sum to the republic 
 in proportion to the quantity of ore they extract- 
 ed ; but he strongly urged the government to 
 take the works into their own hands, conceiving 
 that they would bring a great accession of re- 
 venue to the state. These private establish- 
 ments were called cpyaarrripia iv toIs dpyvpeiotg. 
 Nicias is said to have employed at one time 1000 
 slaves in the mines. Strabo informs us that the 
 metallic veins were nearly exhausted when he 
 wrote ; a considerable quantity of silver, how- 
 ever, was extracted from the old scorias, as the 
 ancient miners were not much skilled in the art 
 of smelting the ore. ' Mr. Hawkins, in his sur- 
 vey of this part of the Attic coast, discovered 
 many veins of the argentiferous lead ore, with 
 which the country seems to abound ; he observ- 
 ed traces of the silver mines not far beyond Ke- 
 ratia. The site of the smelting furnaces may 
 be traced to the southward of Thorico for some 
 miles, immense quantities of scoriae occurring 
 there.' These were probably placed near the 
 sea-coast for the convenience of fuel, which it 
 became necessary to import. The mines were 
 situated much higher along the central range of 
 hills." Cram. 
 
 ■ Lauron, a town of Spain, whose situation 
 is uncertain. According to a learned geogra- 
 pher, " it is now Laurigi in Valentia, a small 
 \'illage, once a town of great strength, which 
 Sertorius besieged, took, and burned ; even then 
 when Pompey, whose confederates the Lauro- 
 nites were, stood with his whole army nigh 
 enough unto the flame to warm his hands, and 
 yet durst not succour it." Heyl. Cosm. 
 
 Laus, now Laino, a town on a river of the 
 same name, which forms the southern boundary 
 of Lucania. Strab. 6. 
 
 Laus Pompeia, a town of Italy, founded by a 
 colony sent thither by Pompey. 
 
 LAUTUMiiB, or Latomije, a prison at Syra- 
 cuse, cut out of the solid rock by Dionysius, and 
 now converted into a subterraneous garden, 
 filled with numerous shrubs, flourishing in lux- 
 uriant variety, Cic. Vir. 5, c. 27. — Liv. 26, v, 27. 
 
 Lebadea, a town of Bceotia, on the borders 
 of Phocis, west of Coronea, more anciently call- 
 ed Midea. " This city was celebrated in anti- 
 quity for the oracle of Trophonius, situated in 
 a cave above the town, into which those who 
 consulted the Fates were obliged to descend, 
 after performing various ceremonies, which are 
 accurately detailed by Pausanias, who also 
 gives a minute description of the sacred cavern. 
 The oracle was already in considerable repute 
 in the time of Croesus, who consulted it, as well 
 as Mardonius. The victory of Leuctra was said 
 to have been predicted by Trophonius, and a so- 
 lemn assembly was in consequence held at Le- 
 badea, after the action to return thanks. This 
 was known, however, to have been an artifice of 
 Epaminondas. Strabo calls the presiding deity 
 Jupiter Trophonius. The geographer Dicaear- 
 chus, as we are informed by Athenseus, wrote a 
 full account of the oracle. He briefly alludes 
 to it in his description of Greece. 
 
 II(5Xjs AeBaSia Koi hpov Tpocpovlov 
 'Ojtov Td navruov 'Ktyovai ysyovevai. 
 
 183 
 
 Below the cave were the grove and temple of 
 Trophonius, the fountains of Lethe and Mne- 
 mosyne, and the temples of Proserpine, Ceres, 
 Jupiter, and Apollo ; a chapel dedicated to Bona 
 Fortuna ; all of which were filled with statues 
 by the first artists ; whence Pausanias observes 
 that Lebadea was as richly ornamented with 
 works of art as any city of Greece. It is how- 
 ever said to have been plundered by the troops 
 of Mithridates." Cram. 
 
 Lebedus, or Lebedos, a town of Ionia, at the 
 north of Colophon, where festivals were yearly 
 observed in honour of Bacchus. Lysimachus 
 destroyed it, and carried part of the inhabitants 
 to Ephesus. It had been founded by an Athe- 
 nian colony, under one of the sons of Codrus. 
 Strab.l4. — Horat. 1. ep. 11, v. 7. — Herodot. 1, 
 c. 142.— Cic. 1, Div. 33. 
 
 Lech^um, now Pelago, a port of Corinth in 
 the bay of Corinth. Stat. Theb. 2, v. 381.— 
 Liv. 32, c. 23. Sir William Gell observes, 
 " Lechseum is thirty-five minutes distant from 
 Corinth, and consists of about six houses, ma- 
 gazines, and a custom-house. East of it. the 
 remains of the port are yet visible at a place 
 where the sea runs up a channel into the fields. 
 Near it are the remains of a modern Venetian 
 fort." 
 
 Lectum, a promontory, now Cape Baba, se- 
 parating Troas from ^olia. This constituting 
 the northern limit of Phrygia Minor under the 
 Roman government, formed consequently the 
 farthest northern point of Asia, properly so call- 
 ed by the Romans. Liv. 37, c. 37. 
 
 Ledus, now Lez, a river of Gaul near the 
 modern Montpelier. Mela, 2,,c. 5. 
 
 Leleges, (a Asyw, to gather,) a wandering 
 people, composed of different unconnected na- 
 tions inhabiting the Troad at the time of the 
 Trojan war, and driven towards Caria on the 
 termination of that contest and the destruction 
 of Troy. Such is one account of this obscure 
 and very ancient race, We are at liberty, how- 
 ever, from the very weak authority on which 
 this notion rests, and from the vagueness of the 
 account, to inquire further into the origin of this 
 people, and we shall find them settling, in the 
 earliest ages of European population, the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, Acarnania, iEtolia, Locris, and Boe- 
 otia. Though we do not deny the early mix- 
 ture of the Carians and Leleges, it seems pro- 
 bable that the early residence of the latter, if 
 the temporary occupation of a place by so migra- 
 tory a people can be called a residence, was in 
 the western continent, and probably in Thrace 
 or Macedonia. Their appearance, nevertheless 
 in the southern peninsula, must have been be- 
 fore the period of authentic history, because 
 Lelegia, (the earliest name of Laconia, accord- 
 ing to the traditions relied on by Pausanias) 
 came from them, or from Lelex their prince, who 
 flourished at an era purely mythological. The 
 same geographer believed them to have had their 
 first seats in this part of the Peloponnesus ; an 
 opinion which cannot stand, because it is op- 
 posed by reason and analogy, but which mani- 
 festly proves the earlv settlement of the Leleges 
 in those regions. When from this place and 
 from the other parts of Greece, they passed over 
 to the islands, in the sea that separated the 
 coasts of Europe and Asia, they assumed the 
 name of Carians, if Herodotus may be relied on ; 
 
LE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LE 
 
 but it is certainly more consonant with proba- 
 bility, that this occurred upon their emigration 
 from the islands to the eastern shore. We may 
 still further observe, that it is not always pos- 
 sible to distinguish the Leleges from the other 
 primitive tribes of Greece, who were frequently 
 blended in part, and who were still more fre- 
 quently confused by the ignorance of historians 
 and the obscurity of the period to which they 
 belonged. Strab. 7 and 8. — Homer. II. 21, v. 
 S5.—Plin. 4, c. 7, 1. 5, c. 30.— Virg. JEn. 8, v. 
 725. — Paus. 3, c. 1. 
 
 Lelegeis, a name applied to Miletus, because 
 once possessed by the Leleges. Plin. 5, c. 29. 
 
 Lemanis, a place in Britain, where Ceesar is 
 supposed to have first landed, and therefore 
 placed by some at Limne in Ke7tt. 
 
 Lemannus, a lake in the country of the Al- 
 lobroges, through which the Rhone flows by 
 Geneva. It is now called the lake of Geneva or 
 Lausanne. Lucan. 1, v. 396. — iWfeZa, 2, c. 5. 
 
 Lemnos, an island in the northern part of 
 the ./Egean Sea, south-east of the promontory of 
 Athos 87 miles, towards the islands of Imbros 
 and Tenedos, and the coast of Asia minor. It 
 was sacred to Vulcan, called Lemnius pater ^ 
 who fell' there when thrown from heaven by Ju- 
 piter. ( Vid. Vulcanus.) It was celebrated for 
 two horrible massacres, that of the Lemnian 
 women murdering their husbands ( Vid. Hip- 
 sipyle,) and that of the Lemnians, or Pelasgi, 
 in killing all the children they had had by some 
 Athenian women, whom they had carried away 
 to become their wives. These two acts of cruelty 
 have given rise to the proverb of Lemnian ac- 
 tions, which is applied to all barbarous and in- 
 human deeds. The first inhabitants of Lemnos 
 were the Pelasgi, or rather the Thracians, who 
 were murdered by their wives. After them 
 came the children of the Lemnian widows by 
 the Argonauts, whose descendants were at last 
 expelled by the Pelasgi about 1 100 years before 
 the Christian era. It is famous for a certain 
 kind of earth or chalk, called terra Lemnia and 
 terra sigillata ; and for a labyrinth, which, ac- 
 cording to some traditions, surpassed those of 
 Crete and Egjrpt. Some remains of it were 
 still visible in the age of Pliny. The island of 
 Lemnos, now called Stalimene, was reduced 
 under the power of Athens by Miltiades, and 
 the Carians, who then inhabited it, obliged to 
 emigrate. Virg. ^n. 8. v. 454. — Homer. 11. 
 1, V. 593.— C. Nep. in Milt.— Strab. 1, 2 and 
 l.—Herodot. 6, c. UO.—Mela, 2, c. l.—Apol- 
 lo7i. 1, arg.— Flacc.% v. 78. — Ovid. Art. Am. 
 3, V. 612.—Stat. 3, Theb. 274. The principal 
 cities were Hephaistia and Myrina. The latter 
 stood upon the point or cape that looked towards 
 mount Athos, whose shadow, it was said, was 
 seen in the market-place of this city at a parti- 
 cular season Hephaistia may be supposed 
 from its name to have been peculiarly dedicated 
 to the worship of Vulcan, the tutelar deity of 
 the island ; but its wars with the soldiers of 
 Mahomet, and its resistance under the conduct 
 of the daughter of its Venetian governor, have 
 rendered iis modern fame superior to any that 
 it derives from antiquity. It was well provided 
 with bays and creeks, which in some measure 
 atoned for the want of rivers, and the soil was 
 for the most part fruitful and productive. There 
 still remains one harbour, sufficient for the di- 
 
 minished trade of the island, which now, in a 
 circumference of upwards of 100 miles, contains 
 but a population of about 8000 souls. The re- 
 mains of an extinct volcano have been discov- 
 ered here, and the eruptions, which are sup- 
 posed to have overwhelmed a part of the coun- 
 try, may account for the fable by which the god 
 of fire is represented to have dwelt in this 
 island. 
 
 Lemovices, a people of Gallia Celtica, in 
 that part which was afterwards attached to 
 Aquitania. Their capital was Angusturitum, 
 Limoges, though Ptolemy makes it Ratiastum. 
 The province of Limousin, or that region which 
 forms the department de la Haute Vienne, cor- 
 responds to their territory, about the sources of 
 the Vienne. The Lemovices are again men- 
 tioned by Cgesar in the same passage as that in 
 which they are assigned to the position given 
 above ; in the second instance they would seem 
 to belong to Armorica, but it is possible that the 
 text is here corrupt. Cces. Bell. Gal. 7, 75, 
 
 Leocorion. Vid. Athena. 
 
 Leontium, and LeontIni, I. a town of Sici- 
 ly, about five miles distant from the sea-shore. 
 It was built by a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 
 and was, according to some accounts, once the 
 habitation of the Lsestrigones ; for which reason 
 the neighbouring fields are often called Lcestri- 
 gonii campi. The country was extremely fruit- 
 ful, whence Cicero calls it the grand magazine 
 of Sicily. The wine which it produced was the 
 best of the island. The people of Leontium im- 
 plored the assistance of the Athenians against 
 the Syracusans, B. C. 427, and the eloquence 
 ofGorgias, the Leontine rhetorician, was chosen 
 as the persuasive intercessor with the republi- 
 cans of Greece. The result of this embassy, 
 and of the war which ensued on the adoption of 
 the quarrels of the Leontmes by Athens, are 
 well known in the appointment of Alcibiades 
 and others to take command of the Athenian 
 forces, his recall, the defeat of the other generals, 
 the destruction of the Greeks in Sicily, and 
 shortly afterwards in the disastrous subversion 
 of the Athenian democracy. The modern 
 Lentini corresponds to the ancient Leontium. 
 II. A town of the same name in Achaia, 
 
 one of the twelve original cities of that division 
 of the Peloponneseus. It was near mount 
 Scollis, and is mentioned by Polybius. Thuci/d. 
 G.—Polyb. l.—Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 467.— /teZ. 14, 
 V. 126. — Cic. in Verr. 5. 
 
 Leontos, a river of Coelo Syria, called at its 
 mouth, in modern times Casemieh, but through 
 the rest of its course Leitoni or Lante. Vid. 
 Libamis. 
 
 Lepontii. " The Lepontii inhabited the 
 high Alps, whence flow the Rhine, the Rhone, 
 and the Tesin; and the name of Leventina, 
 which distinguishes among many valleys that 
 through which the Tesin runs, is formed of the 
 name of this nation, who on the other side ex- 
 tended in the Pennine valley, where they pos- 
 sessed Oscela, noM'- Domo d' Osula. DWnville. 
 Communicating their name to the mountains 
 among which they dwelt, and which separated 
 Italy from Helvetia, they were surrounded by 
 the innumerable Alpine tribes of Rhoetia, Hel- 
 vetia, and Gallia Cisalpina. 
 
 Leptis, I. the name of a large city of the 
 Tripolitana in Africa. It was situated near the 
 183 
 
LE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LE 
 
 Syrtis Major, a little to the west, and the ruins 
 that now bear the name of Lebida indicate the 
 site of this ancient place. Leptis Magna was 
 the principal of the three cities from which that 
 part of the African coast on which it stood has 
 
 been denominated Tripolis.- II. Another, 
 
 now Lemta, west of the Syrtis Minor, in the 
 fertile country of Byzacium, and of course be- 
 yond the Tripolitana. Though a place of much 
 importance, it was called Minor to distinguish 
 it from the former. This Leptis stood about 
 eighteen Roman miles from Adrumetum. It 
 paid every day a talent to the republic of Car- 
 thage, by way of tribute. LMcan. 2, v. 251. — 
 Plin. 5, c. 19. — Sallust. in Jug. 77. — Mela, 1, c. 
 S.—Strab. 3, v. 256.— Cess. C. 2, c. 38.— Ctc. 5. 
 Verr. 59. 
 
 Leria, an island in the ^gean Sea, on the 
 coast of Caria, about eighteen miles in circum- 
 ference, peopled by a Milesian colony. Its in- 
 habitants were very dishonest. Strab. 10. — 
 Herodot. 5, c. 125. 
 
 Lerina, or Planasia, a small island in the 
 Mediterranean, now Leria, on the coast of Gaul, 
 at the east of the Rhone. Tacit. Ann. 1, c. 3. 
 
 Lerna, a country of Argolis, celebrated for 
 a grove and a lake, where, according to the po- 
 ets, the Danaides threw the heads of their mur- 
 dered husbands. It was there also that Hercu- 
 les killed the famous hydra. The fountain 
 Amymone, the Halcyonian pool, the torrent 
 Chimarrus, and the river Erasinus, famous in 
 themselves, contributed to form this still more 
 celebrated pool or marsh. A modern traveller 
 relates, that, overgrown with grass and reeds, 
 an incurious passenger might not observe this 
 famed and ancient lake, which still retains in 
 the minds of the surrounding inhabitants its 
 former properties and peculiarities. Its small 
 channel affording, as it discharges itself by a 
 little stream into the Argolic gulf, abundance 
 of water for a few mills that are seated on its 
 banks, the surrounding people are for the most 
 part millers ; they inform the inquirer that the 
 pool is bottomless, and no doubt the tradition to 
 that effect has come down to them uninterrupt- 
 ed since the fabulous exploit of Hercules beside 
 its bank. Virg. Mn. 6, v. 803, 1. 12, v. 517.— 
 Strab. 8.— Mela, 2, c. 3.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 597. 
 — iMcret. 5. — Stat. Theb. 4, v, 638. — Apollod. 
 
 2, c. 15. There was a festival called Ler- 
 
 ncBa, celebrated there in honour of Bacchus, 
 Proserpine, and Ceres. The Argives used to 
 carry fire to this solemnity from a temple upon 
 mount Crathis, dedicated to Diana. Pans. 
 
 Lero, the same as Lerina. 
 
 Lesbos, one of the largest islands in the 
 iEgean Sea, and the seventh in the Mediterra- 
 nean, distant from the coast of ^Eolia a few 
 miles, and itself in circumference about 168. 
 The island, to which a mythological origin, 
 serving only to show its antiquity, is assigned 
 by ancient authorities, seems to have received 
 its name in the obscurest ages. Long before 
 the Trojan war, according to their account, the 
 Pelasgi migrated to this place ; and the story of 
 the Ionic settlement of Macareus and his family 
 is still sufficiently remote from that first land- 
 mark of classical history to become doubtful, 
 even without the embellishments which would 
 make it so if otherwise entitled to credit. The 
 later population seemed, however, descended 
 184 
 
 from the iEolians, who, at a later period, and 
 probably within the historic ages, or very nearly 
 so, passed over to this inviting spot. " The 
 happy temperature of the climate of Lesbos con- 
 spired with the rich fertility of the soil to pro- 
 duce those delicious fruits, and those exquisite 
 wines, which are still acknowledged by modern 
 travellers to deserve the encomiums so liberally 
 bestowed on them by ancient writers. The 
 convenience of its harbours furnished another 
 source of wealth and advantage to this delight- 
 ful island, which, as early as the age of Homer, 
 was reckoned populous and powerful, and, like 
 the rest of Greece at that time, governed by the 
 moderate jurisdiction of hereditary princes. 
 The abuse of royal power occasioned the disso- 
 lution of monarchy in Lesbos, as well as in the 
 neighbouring isles. The rival cities of Mity- 
 lene and Methymna contended for republican 
 pre-eminence. The former prevailed ; and 
 having reduced Methymna, as well as six cities 
 of inferior note, began to extend its dominion 
 beyond the narrow" bounds of the island, and 
 conquered a considerable part.of Troas. The 
 Lesbians afterwards underwent those general 
 revolutions, to which both the islands and the 
 continent of Asia Minor were exposed from the 
 Lydian and Persian power. Delivered from 
 the yoke of Persia by the successful valour of 
 Athens and Sparta, the Lesbians, as well as all 
 the Greek settlements around them, spurned the 
 tyrannical authority of Sparta and Pausanias, 
 and ranged themselves under the honourable 
 colours of Athens, which they thenceforth con- 
 tinued to respect in peace and to follow in war." 
 Gill. Hist. Greece. The name of the island is 
 now Mytilin, from that of the principal city, 
 which still retains its old appellation in the 
 altered form of Mytilini. Among the other 
 names by which Lesbos was known to the an- 
 cients, the most common were Macaria, Lasia, 
 and Pelasgia. 
 
 Lethe, I. one of the rivers of hell, whose 
 waters the souls of the dead drank after they 
 had been confined for a certain space of time in 
 Tartarus. It had the power of making them 
 forget whatever they had done, seen, or heard, 
 
 before, as the name implies, M^ri, oblivion, 
 
 II. Lethe is a river of Africa, near the Syrtes, 
 which runs under the ground, and some time 
 after rises again ; whence the origin of the fable 
 of the Lethean streams of oblivion, " Divers 
 canals derived from the Nile, separating Mem- 
 phis from the ancient sepulchres and pyramids, 
 furnished the Greeks with the idea of their in- 
 fernal rivers Acheron, Cocytus, and Lethe." 
 
 III. There is also a river of that name in 
 
 Spain. IV. Another in Boeotia, whose wa- 
 ters were drunk by those who consulted the ora- 
 cle of Trophonius. Dwcan. 9, v. 355. — Ovid. 
 Trist. 4, el. 1, v. il.— Virg. G. 4, v. 545. JEn. 
 6, V. lU.—Ital. I, V. 235,' 1. 10, v. bbd.—Paus. 
 9, c, 39.—Horat. 3, od. 7, v. 27. 
 
 Leuca, a town of Messapia, almost upon the 
 point of the Ia.pygian promontory. Some ves- 
 tiges of the ancient place and name are extant 
 in that of a church, which bears the title of 
 Santa Maria di Leuca. The name of this 
 whole region, according to Strabo, was derived 
 from a gigantic race of men called Leucterni, 
 who once inhabited it, having escaped from the 
 fight upon the Pheegrean plains. It was after- 
 
LE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LE 
 
 wards included in the country of the Salentini, 
 though the Leuterni may (without recourse to 
 fable) be supposed at one time to have dwelt 
 thereabout, and to have caused that region to be 
 called Leuteria. 
 
 Leucas, or Leucadia, an island of the Io- 
 nian Sea, on the coast of Acarnania. It once 
 formed " part of the continent, but was after- 
 wards separated from the mainland by a narrow 
 cut, and became, as it now is, an island, known 
 by the name of Santa Maura. In Homer's 
 time it was still joined to the mainland, since he 
 calls it 'A.KTr,v 'hlTTsipuio, in opposition to Ithaca 
 and Cephallenia. Scylax also affirms, 'that it 
 had been connected formerly with the continent 
 of Acarnania. It was first called Epileucadii, 
 and extends towards the Leucadian promonto- 
 ry. The Acarnanians being in a state of fac- 
 tion, received a thousand colonists from Corinth. 
 The Acarnanians were urgent with Demosthe- 
 nes to undertake the siege of Leucas, which 
 had always been hostile to them, but that offi- 
 cer, having other designs in view, did not ac- 
 cede to their request. It appears, however, that 
 many years after, they became masters of the 
 place, though at what precise period is not men- 
 tioned, I believe, by any ancient writer. We 
 learn from Livy that it was considered as the 
 principal town of Acarnania, and that the gene- 
 ral assembly of the nation was usually convened 
 there at the time of the Macedonian war. It 
 was then besieged by the Romans under L. 
 duintius Flamininus, and defended by the 
 Acarnanians with great intrepidity and perse- 
 verance ; but at length through the treachery 
 of some Italian exiles, the enemy was admitted 
 into the town, and the place taken by storm, an 
 event which was followed by the subjugation of 
 all Acarnania. After the conquest of Macedo- 
 nia, Leucas was by a special decree separated 
 from the A carnanian confederacy. The same 
 historian describes the town of ' Leucas as situ- 
 ated on the narrow strait which divides the isl- 
 and from Acarnania, and is not more than 120 
 steps wide. It rests on a hill, looking towards 
 Acarnania and the east. The lower parts of 
 the city are flat, and close to the shore ; hence 
 it is easily assailed by land and sea.' Thucy- 
 dides. likewise states that the town was situated 
 within the Isthmus, as also Strabo, who adds, 
 that the Corinthians removed it to its present 
 situation from Nericum. Dr. Holland speaks 
 of the ruins of an ' ancient city about two miles 
 to the south of the modern town. The spot ex- 
 hibits the remains of massive walls of the old 
 Greek structure, ascending and surrounding the 
 summit of a narrow ridge of hill near the sea ; 
 and of numerous sepulchres, which appear 
 among the vineyards that cover its declivity.' 
 As the passage through the Dioryctus was 
 somewhat intricate on account of the shallows, 
 we learn that these were marked out by stakes 
 fixed in the sea at certain intervals. In a small 
 island between the Dior^'^ctus and Leucas was 
 an ancient temple consecrated to Venus. Some 
 other passages relative to Leucas will be found 
 in Polybius. Aristotle in his Politics speaks of 
 a law in force there by which landed proprietors 
 were forbidden to part with their estates, except 
 in cases of great necessity; he adds, that ihe 
 abolition of this law proved a very popular mea- 
 sure. Nericum was probably tlie oldest town 
 
 Part I.— 2 A 
 
 in the Leucadian peninsula, as we learn from 
 Homer that it existed before the siege of Troy. 
 It was taken by Laertes, father of Ulysses, at 
 the head of his Cephallenians. 
 
 OlOS ISfjpiKOV £l\0V, ivKTllJLEVOV TTToXlcdpoV 
 
 ^A-kt}]!/ 'iiTreipoio, J^e<paW^vEG(xiv dvaaffiov — 
 
 Od. fl. 376. 
 
 Strabo, as I have already noticed, reports that 
 the Corinthians removed their town to the Isth- 
 mus ; but Nericum seems still to have subsisted 
 after this, as Thucydides relates that the Athe- 
 nians landed some forces here in the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, which were, however, defeated by 
 the inhabitants, and compelled to retire. It was 
 probably situated in a bay not far from the Leu- 
 cadian promontory, where, according to modern 
 maps, there are some vestiges of an ancient 
 town. Thucydides mentions also a port called 
 Ellomenus, which is considered to be Porto 
 Vlico, a few miles south of Santa Maura. The 
 Leucadian promontory, so celebrated in anti- 
 quity for the lover's leap, is said by Strabo to 
 have derived its name from the colour of the 
 rock. On its summit was a temple of Apollo ; 
 and every year on the festival of the god, it was 
 customary to hurl from the cliff" some condemn- 
 ed criminal, as an expiatory victim. Feathers, 
 and even birds were fastened to each^ side of 
 his person, in order to break his fall; a number 
 of boatmen were also stationed below ready to 
 receive him in their skiffs, and if they succeeded 
 in saving him, he was conveyed out of the Leu- 
 cadian territory. Sappho is said to have been 
 the first to try the remedy of the leap, when 
 enamoured of Phaon. Artemisia, queen of 
 Caria, so celebrated by Herodotus, perished, ac- 
 cording to some accounts, in this fatal trial. 
 Virgil represents this cape as dangerous to ma- 
 riners." — Cram. 
 
 Leuce, a small island in the Euxine Sea, of a 
 triangular form, between the mouths of the Da- 
 nube and the Borysthenes. According to the 
 poets, the souls of the ancient heroes were plac- 
 ed there as in the Elysian fields, where they en- 
 joyed perpetual felicity, and reaped the repose 
 to which their benevolence to mankind, and 
 their exploits during life, seemed to entitle them. 
 From that circumstance it has often been called 
 the island of the blessed, &c. According to 
 some accounts Achilles celebrated there his nup- 
 tials with Iphigenia, or rather Helen, and shared 
 the pleasures of the place with the manes of 
 Ajax, &c. Strab. 2. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — Ammian. 
 32.— Q. Calab. 3, v. 773. It was probably a 
 portion of theDromos Achilles, which the read- 
 er may see under its proper name. 
 
 Leuci, a people of Belgic Gaul. They 
 dwelt in that part which lay upon the borders 
 of the provinces called afterwards Chavipagne 
 and Lorraine, the present departments de la, 
 Meuse andde la Meurthe. Upon their north 
 were the Mediomatrices, the mountains Vosges 
 covered them upon the east, on the south were 
 the Lingones, and on the west the Tricasses 
 and Catelauni. They were among those Gal- 
 lic people, who, with the name of friends of the 
 Romans, were permitted to enjoy a moderate 
 and precarious liberty at the discretion of their 
 too powerful protectors. Among their towns 
 were Tullum, Toul, and Nasiura; of the latter 
 the site is not known with equal certainty, 
 185 
 
LE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LI 
 
 Mountains on the west of Crete appear at a dis- 
 tance like white clouds, whence the name. 
 
 Leucopetra, I. a place on the isthmus of 
 Corinth, where the Achaeans were defeated by 
 
 the consul Mummius. 11. A promontory 
 
 six miles east from Rhegium in Italy, where 
 the Appenines terminate and sink into the sea. 
 
 Leucophrys, a temple of Diana, with a city 
 of the same name, near the Mseander, The 
 goddess was represented under the figure of a 
 woman with many breasts, and crowned with 
 
 victory. An ancient name of Tenedos. 
 
 Pans. 10, c. U.—Strab. 13 and 14. 
 
 Leucos, a river of Macedonia near Pydna. 
 
 Leucosia, a little island towards the south- 
 ern limit of the Paestanus Sinus, north of the 
 Posidium promontorium. It was said " to de- 
 rive its name from one of the Sirens, as we 
 learn from Lycophron and from Strabo. Diony- 
 sius calls it Leucasia. It is now known by the 
 name of Licosa, and sometimes by that of Isola 
 plana. It was once probably inhabited, as seve- 
 ral vestiges of buildings were discovered there 
 in 1696." Cram. 
 
 Leucosyki, a name applied to the inhabit- 
 ants of Cappadocia on the borders of Pontus, 
 and to those of Pontus on the borders of Cap- 
 padocia. These people were supposed to be of 
 Syrian origin, and the superior fairness of their 
 complexions caused the epithet of Leuco {white) 
 to be prefixed to the name of Syri, by which 
 they were designated in common with others of 
 that race. The term Leuco Syri was not the 
 less applied to the people dwelling in these re- 
 gions after the whole country had become thick- 
 ly interspersed with colonies and settlements 
 from Greece. 
 
 Leucothoe, or Leucothea, an island in the 
 
 Tyrrhene Sea, near Capreae. A fountain of 
 
 Samos. A town of Egjrpt. of Arabia. 
 
 Mela, 2, c. 7. A part of Asia which pro- 
 duces frankincense. 
 
 Leuctra, a village of Boeotia, between Pla- 
 taea and Thespiae, belonging to the territory of 
 the latter. It is famous for the victory which 
 Epaminondas, the Theban general, obtained 
 over the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of 
 Sparta, on the 8th of July, B. C. 371. In this 
 famous battle 4000 Spartans were killed, with 
 their king Cleombtotus, and no more than 300 
 Thebans. Prom that time the Spartans lost the 
 empire of Greece. The place retains its an- 
 cient name, though the modern Greek pronun- 
 ciation in some measure obscures it to the En- 
 glish ear and eye when written according to the 
 present mode of pronouncing it. Plut. in Pe- 
 lop. ^Ages. — C. Nep. in. Epam. — Justin. 6, c. 6. 
 — Xenophon. Hist. Grcec. — Diod. 15. — '-Pans. 
 Lacon. — Cic. de offic. 1, c. 18. T\isc. 1, c. 46. 
 Alt. 6, ep. l.—Strab. 9. 
 
 Leuctrum, a town of Messenia, on the east- 
 ern side of the Messenian gulf. The antiquity 
 of this town ascended to the ages of fable, and 
 the inhabitants boasted that their founder had 
 given his name to southern Greece or the Pelo- 
 ponnesus. Thucydides call this place Leuc- 
 tra. SPrab. 8. 
 
 Leucyanias, a river of Peloponnesus, flow- 
 ing into the Alpheus. Pans. 6, c. 21. 
 
 Lexovii, a people of Gaul, at the mouth of 
 the Seine, conquered with great slaughter by a 
 lieutenant of J. Caesar. Cces. Bell. G. 
 186 
 
 LiBANUs, a chain of mountains extending 
 parallel with the coast from north to south, be- 
 tween Phoenicia and Syria. Towards Tyre 
 this range of hills inclines to the coast in double 
 ridges ; the more southern of which assumes the 
 name of Anti-Libanus. Between these, the 
 valley is called Coelo Syria, and the river Leon- 
 tos, now Lante, runs in the line of these moun- 
 tains through the whole length of the valley till 
 it falls into the Mediterranean at Tyre. The 
 southern extremity of this chain, or the Anti- 
 Libanus, reaches south for some distance, run- 
 ning into Palestine. " Next to the country of 
 the Ansiareh, mount Libanus raises its summits 
 to the clouds, still shaded with some cedars and 
 beautified with thousands of rare plants. Here 
 the Astragalus tragacanthoides displays its clus- 
 ters of purple flowers. The primrose of Liba- 
 nus, the mountain amaryllis, the white and the 
 orange lily, mingle their brilliant hues with 
 the verdure of the birch-leaved cherry. The 
 snow ot the mountain is skirted by the Xeran- 
 themum frigidum. -The deep ravines of these 
 mountains are watered by numerous ^streams, 
 which arise on all sides in great abundance. 
 The highest of the valleys are covered with per- 
 petual snow. Arvieux and Pococke found the 
 snow lying here in the month of June ; Rau- 
 wolf and Kort in August. But it does not ap- 
 pear that any of the exposed peaks are covered 
 with snow. The coolness, the humidity, and 
 the good quality of the soil, maintain a perpetu- 
 al verdure. These bounties of nature are pro- 
 tected by the spirit of liberty. It is to an indus- 
 try less harassed by predatory encroachments 
 than that of the other districts of Syria, that 
 the hills of Lebanon owe those fine terraces in 
 long succession, which preserve the fertile 
 earth; those well planted vineyards; those 
 fields of wheat, reared by the industrious hand 
 of the husbandman ; those plantations of cot- 
 ton, of olives, and of mulberries, which present 
 themselves every where in the midst of the 
 rocky steeps, and give a pleasing example of 
 the effects of human activity. The clusters of 
 grapes are enormous, and the grapes themselves 
 as large as cherries. Goats, squirrels, partridges, 
 and turtle-doves are the most numerous animal 
 species. All of them become a frequent prey to 
 the pouncings of the eagle and the prowlings 
 of the panther. This last is the animal which 
 is here called the tiger. These retreats, secured 
 from warlike invasion, but unfortunately ac- 
 cessible to the intrigues of Turkish pashas, are 
 inhabited by two races, different in religion and 
 in manners, but similar in their love of inde- 
 pendence, the Maronites and the Druses." 
 Malte-Brun. 
 
 Libethra, '' a city, the name of which is as- 
 sociated with Orpheus, the Muses, and all that 
 is poetical in Greece. ' Libethra/ says Pausa- 
 nias, * was situated on mount Olympus, on the 
 side of Macedonia ; at no great distance from it 
 stood the tomb of Orpheus, respecting which an 
 oracle had declared, that when the sun ,.beheld 
 the bones of the poet the city should be destroy- 
 ed by a boar {vrrd o-wds.) The inhabitants of Li- 
 bethra ridiculed the prophecy as a thing impos- 
 sible ; but the column of Orpheus's monument 
 having been accidentally broken, a gasp was 
 made by which light broke in upon the tomb, 
 when the same night the torrent named Sus 
 
LI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LI 
 
 being prodigiously swollen, rushed down with 
 violence from mount Olympus upon Libethra, 
 overflowing the walls and all the public and 
 private edifices, and destroying every living 
 creature in its furious course. After this cala- 
 mity, the remains of Orpheus were removed to 
 Dium; and Dr. Clarke observed near Katerina 
 a remarkable tumulus, which he conceives to 
 have been the tomb of Orpheus. This tumu- 
 lus is of immense magnitude, of a perfectly co- 
 nical form, and upon its vertex grow trees of 
 great size. Pausanias says the tomb of Orphe- 
 us was twenty stadia from Dium. Whether 
 Libethra recovered from the devastation occa- 
 sioned by this inundation is not stated, but its 
 name occurs in Livy, as a town in the vicinity 
 of Dium before the battle of Pydna. After de- 
 scribing the perilous march of the Roman army 
 under Q,. Marcius through a pass in the chain 
 of Olympus, he says, they reached, on the fourth 
 day, the plains between Libethrum and Hera- 
 cleum. Strabo also alludes to Libethra when 
 speaking of mount Helicon, and remarks, that 
 several places around that mountain attested the 
 former existence of the Thracians of Pieriain 
 the Boeotian districts. From these passages it 
 would seem that the name of Libethrus was 
 given to the summit of Olympus, which stood 
 above the Xovm. Hence the Muses were sur- 
 named Libethrides as well as Pierides." Cram. 
 — Virg. Eel. 7, V. 21.— Plin. 4, c. 9.— Mela, 2, 
 c. S.—Slrai. 9 and 10. 
 
 LiBOPHCENicEs, the inhabitants of the coun- 
 try near Carthage. 
 
 LiBURNiA, an Illyrian province of the Roman 
 empire, lying between the river Arsia, which 
 separated it from Histria, the Albius mons 
 which lay towards the side of Illyricum, the 
 Titius which flowed between it and Dalmatia, 
 and the Adriatic Sea which lay along its coast 
 in bays which were formed by the innumerable 
 islands called Liburnides and Absyrtides, that 
 studded its bosom. Two people, the Japydes 
 and Liburni, occupied this tract of country ; the 
 former dwelling in the more northern parts in 
 the mountains and upon the coast around their 
 capitals Senia and Metullum in the modem 
 Morlachia : and the latter towards the borders 
 of Dalmatia. " The Liburni appear to have 
 been a maritime people from the earliest times, 
 as they communicated their name to the vessels 
 called Libumine by the Romans. And the 
 Greeks, who colonized Corcyra, are said, on 
 their arrival in that island, to have found it in 
 their possession. Scylax seems to distinguish 
 the Liburni from the lUyrians, restricting pro- 
 bably the latter appellation to that part of the 
 nation which was situated more to the south, 
 and was better known to the Greeks. The 
 same writer alludes to the sovereignty of the 
 Liburni, as not excluding females ; a fact which 
 appears to have some reference to the history of 
 Teuta, and might serve to prove that this geo- 
 graphical compilation is not so ancient as many 
 have supposed. Strabo states that the Liburni 
 extended along the coast for upwards of one 
 thousand five hundred stadia. To them be- 
 longed ladera, a city of some note, and a Ro- 
 man colony, the rums of which are still to be 
 seen near the modern town of Zara, on the 
 spot called Zara Vecchia. Beyond is the mouth 
 of the river Kerka, perhaps the same as the Ca- 
 
 tarbates of Scylax and the Titius of Ptolemy. 
 Strabo, who does not mention its name, says it 
 it is navigable for small vessels up to Scardona. 
 This town appears to have been the capital of 
 the Liburni since Pliny says the national coun- 
 cil met here. The present town retains its 
 name, and is situated on a lake formed by the 
 Kerka, a few miles above its entrance into the 
 sea. Under the Romans this river served as 
 the boundar)'- between Liburnia and Dalmatia." 
 Cram. Gr. There were at Rome a number of 
 men whom the magistrates employed as public 
 heralds, who were called Liburni, probably from 
 being originally of Liburnian extraction. 
 
 Liburnides. A great number of islands, 
 amounting to upwards of 40 of the larger kind, 
 on the coast of Liburnia, were called among 
 the Greeks Liburnides. Some of them were 
 comparatively large, and have been famous in 
 history, as Pharos, Scardona, and Issa. They 
 were also called the Dalmatian islands. 
 
 LiBURNUM RURE, the sca which borders on 
 the coasts of Liburnia. 
 
 LiBURNUs, a moimtain of Campania. 
 
 Libya, I. In its widest sense the name of 
 Libya was used to signify the whole of Africa. 
 There was, however, a particular district to 
 which this name belonged geographically, whOe 
 it was rather poetically used in the maimer 
 mentioned above. This proper Libya lay upon 
 the coast of the Mare Internum, from Egypt to 
 the greater Syrtis, comprising the countries of 
 Marmarica and CjTcnaica, and extending in- 
 land indefinitely. II. Deserta, or Libya In- 
 terior, was that part of Africa which lies be- 
 tween the Niger and the inhabited part of the 
 coast on the Mediterranean, corresponding in a 
 great measure to the desert of Sahara, which 
 modern travellers have so frequently partially 
 described. From the word Libya are derived 
 the epithets of Lihys, Libyssa, Libysis, Libys- 
 tis, Libycus, Libysticus, Libysiinus, Lihystaus. 
 Virg. jEn. 4, v. 106, 1. 5, v. 31.—lAican. 4.— 
 Sallust. &c. 
 
 LiBYcuM MARE, that part of the Mediterrane- 
 an which lies on the coast of Cyrene. Strab. 2. 
 
 Libyssa, now Gebisse, a towm of Bithynia, 
 in which was the tomb of Hannibal. It was 
 situated near the shores of the Propontis, or 
 rather the Astacenus Sinus, west of Nicome- 
 dia. 
 
 LicHARDEs, small islands near Ceeneum, a 
 promontory of Euboea, called fromLichas. 
 Vid. Lichas. Ovid. Met. 9, v. 155, 218.— 
 Strab. 9. 
 
 LiGER, or LiGERis, uow La Loire, a large ri- 
 ver of Gaul falling into the ocean near Nantes. 
 Strab. i.—Plin. 4, c. IS.— Cas. G. 7, c. 55 and 
 75. Vid. Aquitania and Celtica. 
 
 LiGURES, the inhabitants of Liguria. Vid. 
 Liguria. 
 
 LiGURu, a country at the west of Italy, 
 bounded on the east by the river Macra, on the 
 south by part of the Mediterranean, called the 
 Ligustic Sea; on the west by the Varus, and 
 on the north by the Po. The commercial to^Ti 
 of Genoa was anciently and is now the capital 
 of the country. The origin of the inhabitants 
 is not known, though in their character they 
 are represented as vain, unpolished, and addict- 
 ed to falsehood. According to some they were 
 descended from the ancient Gauls or Germans, 
 187 
 
u 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LI 
 
 or, as others support, they were of Greek origin, 
 perhaps the posterity of the Ligyes mentioned 
 by Herodotus. Liguria was subdued by the 
 Romans, and its chief harbour now bears the 
 name of Leghorn. LAican. 1, v. 442. — Mela^ 
 2, c. l.—Strab. 4, &c.— Tacit. Hist. 2, c. 15.— 
 Plin. 2, c. 5, &c.—Liv. 5, c. 35, 1. 22, c. 33, 1. 
 29, c. 6, &C.—C. Nep. in Ann.—Flor. 2, c. 8. 
 The Ligures were a more unmixed population 
 than almost any other of the Italians, and may 
 be considered as having descended from the first 
 northern inhabitants of Italy. 
 
 LiGUSTicE Alpes. Vid. Alpes. 
 
 LiGUSTicuM MARE, the uorth part of the 
 Tyrrhene Sea, now the Gulf of Genoa. Plin. 
 2, c. 47. 
 
 Ligyes, a people of Asia, who inhabited the 
 country between Caucasus and the river Pha- 
 sis. Some suppose them to be a colony of the 
 Ligyes of Europe, more commonly called Li- 
 gures. Herodot. 7, c. 72. — Dionys. Hal. 1, c. 
 IQ.—Strab. i.—Diod. 4. 
 
 LiLYB^EUM, I. a promontory of the island of 
 Sicily, extending into the sea, and forming the 
 nearest point towards Africa Propria from Eu- 
 rope. The promontory is now Boeo. II. A 
 
 town of the same name, now Marsalla, stood 
 on this projection, and is noted both as a princi- 
 pal possession of the Carthaginians, and for its 
 resistance to the Romans during the Punic 
 wars. It had a port large and capacious, 
 which the Romans, in the wars with Carthage, 
 endeavoured in vain to stop and fill up with 
 stones, on account of its convenience and vici- 
 nity to the coast of Africa. Nothing now re- 
 mains of this once powerful city but the ruins 
 of temples and aqueducts. Virg. JEn. 3, v. 
 lOQ.—Mela, 2, c. l.—Strab. 6.—Cic. in Verr. 
 b.—Cces. de Bell. Afric.—Diod. 22. 
 
 LiMNJE, I. a fortified place on the borders of 
 
 Laconia and Messenia. Pans. 3, c. 14. II. 
 
 A town of the Thracian Chersonesus. 
 
 LiMN^A, I. a lake in the interior of Acarna- 
 nia, about six miles in length, now called lake 
 
 Nizero. II. A district of country, called also 
 
 Limnasa, surrounded this piece of water, which 
 likewise gave name to its principal town. This 
 small state or region extended to the Ambra- 
 cian gulf, on which it had its port, now called, 
 as well as the bay on which it stands, LMtraki. 
 Xen. Hell. 4, 6. 
 
 LiMNiEUM, a temple of Diana at Limnae, 
 from which the goddess was called Limnaea, 
 and worshipped under that appellation at Spar- 
 ta and in Achaia. The Spartans wished to 
 seize the temple in the age of Tiberius, but the 
 emperor interfered, and gave it to its lawful 
 possessors, the Messenians. Pans. 3, c. 14, 1. 
 7, c. 2Q.— Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 43, 
 
 LiMONtJM, a town of Gaul, afterwards Pic- 
 tavi, Poictiers. Cas. G. 8, c. 26. 
 
 LiNDUM, a colony of Britain, now Lincoln. 
 This city belonged to the Coretani, who were 
 extended widely over several counties in that 
 part of Britain. 
 
 LiNDus, now Lindo, a city at the south-east 
 part of Rhodes, built by Cercaphus, son of Sol 
 and Cydippe. The Danaides built there a tem- 
 ple to Minerva, and one of its colonies founded 
 Gela in Sicily. It gave birth to Cleobulus, one 
 of the seven wise men, and to Chares and La- 
 ches, who were employed in making and finish- 
 •188 
 
 ing the famous Colossus of Rhodes, Strab. 
 U.— Homer. 11. 2.— Mela, 2, c. 7, Plin. 34.— 
 Herodot. 7, c. 153. 
 
 LiNGONEs, a people of Celtic Gaul, on the 
 borders of Belgica, to which they are said at an 
 early period to have belonged. Their country, 
 when residing in Lugdunensis Prima, in the 
 former province, was about the springs of the 
 Mosa, the Sequana, and the Matrona, corres- 
 ponding to the department de la HoMte Marne^ 
 a part of the province of Champagne. Their cap- 
 ital, once Andomatunum, assumed their name, 
 with which, under the modification of Langres, 
 it has reached the present time. The Lingones 
 passed into Italy, where they made some settle- 
 ment near the Alps, at the head of the Adriatic. 
 Tacit. H. 4, c. bb.— Martial. 11, ep. 57, v. 9, 1, 
 14, ep. lbd.—Lnj.can. 1, v. 398.— C«5. Bell. G. 
 1, c. 26. 
 
 LiPARA, I. the largest of the iEolian islands 
 on the coast of Sicily, now called from this one, 
 Lipari. It had a city of the same name, which, 
 according toDiodorois, it received from Liparus, 
 the son of Auson, king of these islands, whose 
 daughter Cyane was married by his successor 
 iEolus, according to Pliny, The inhabitants of 
 this island were powerful by sea, and from the 
 great tributes which they paid to Dionysius, the 
 tyrant of Syracuse, they may be called very 
 opulent. The island was celebrated for the va- 
 riety of its fruits, and its raisins are still in ge- 
 neral repute. It had some convenient harbours, 
 and a fountain whose waters were much fre- 
 quented on account of their medicinal powers. 
 According to Diodorus, jEoIus reigned at Li- 
 para before Liparus. Liv. 5, c. 28. — Plin. 3, 
 c. 9.—Ital. 14, V. bl.— Virg. j^n. 1, v. 56, 1. 8, 
 
 V. 417. Mela, 2, c. l.—Strab. 6. II. A town 
 
 of Etruria, 
 
 LiQUENTiA, now Livenza, a river of Cisal- 
 pine Gaul, falling into the Adriatic Sea. Plin. 
 3, c. 18. 
 
 LiRis, now Garigliano, a river of Campania, 
 which it separates from Latium. It rose among 
 the Appenines, and flowing through a part of 
 Latium, and between that country and Cam- 
 pania with a sluggish course, discharged itself 
 into the Tyrrhene Sea among the marshes of 
 Minturnge. This river was more anciently call- 
 ed the Clanis, according to Strabo. 
 
 Lissas, I. a town of Illyria, near the mouth 
 of the Drilo, on the borders of Macedonia. It 
 was colonized by the Syracusans, from whom it 
 was taken by the Illyrians. From these it was 
 wrested for a time by Philip of Macedon. Pliny 
 styles it Oppidum civium Romanorum. The 
 modern Alessio corresponds to the site of Acro- 
 
 lissus, the citadel of Lissus. Polyb. 8, 15. 
 
 II. A river of Thrace, falling into the ^gean 
 Sea between Thasos and Samothracia. It was 
 dried up by the army of Xerxes when he inva- 
 ded Greece. Strobe 7. — Herodot. 7, c. 109. 
 
 LisTA, a town of the Sabines, whose inhabit- 
 ants are called Listini. This town was taken 
 by the Sabines from the Aborigines, whose ca- 
 pital it was supposed to have been. 
 
 LiTANA, a wood in Cisalpine Gaul, extending 
 at the foot of the Appenines, from the sources 
 of the Parma and the Nicia to those of the Se- 
 cia, occupying a part of the modern duchies of 
 Parma and Modena. Here the Roman army 
 was beaten bv the Gauls. Liv. 23, c. 24. 
 
LO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LO 
 
 LiTERNUMj a town of Campania. " Its situ- 
 ation has been disputed ; but antiquaries seem 
 now agreed in fixing the site of the town at a 
 place called Torre di Patria. The difficulty- 
 arose chiefly from the mention of a river of the 
 same name by some of the ancient writers. This 
 stream is apt to stagnate near its entrance into 
 the sea, and to form marshes anciently known 
 as the Palus Literna, now Lago di Patria. 
 Liternum became a Roman colony in the same 
 year with Vulturnum. It was recolonized un- 
 Ser Augustus, and ranked among the praefec- 
 turse. That Scipio retired here in disgust at the 
 injustice of his countrymen, seems a fact too 
 well attested to be called in question ; but whe- 
 ther he really closed his existence there, as far 
 as we can collect from Livy's account, may be 
 deemed uncertain : his tomb and statue were to 
 be seen both at Liternum and in the family vault 
 of the Scipios, which was discovered some years 
 ago outside the Porta Capena. According to 
 Valerius Maximus, Scipio himself had caused 
 to be engraved on it this inscription : 
 
 INGRATA . PATRIA . NE . OSSA . QUIDEM . MEA 
 HABES. 
 
 which would be decisive of the question. It is 
 not improbable that the little hamlet of Patria, 
 which is supposed to stand on the site of Scipio's 
 villa, is indebted for its name to this circum- 
 stance. Pliny asserts, that there were to be seen 
 in his day, near Liternum, some olive-trees 
 and myrtles, said to have been planted by the 
 illustrious exile." Cram. 
 
 Lixus, a river of Mauretania, with a city of 
 the same name. Antaeus had a palace there, 
 and according to some accounts it was in the 
 neighbourhood that Hercules conquered him. 
 Ital. 3, V. 258.— MeZa, 3, c. lO.—Strab. 2. 
 
 LocRi, I. a town of Magna Grsecia in Italy, 
 on the Adriatic, not far from Rhegium. It was 
 founded by a Grecian colony about 757 years 
 before the Christian era, as some suppose. The 
 inhabitants were called Locri or Locrenses. 
 Virg. JEn. 3, v. 399. —Strab.—Plin.—Liv. 22, 
 
 c. 6, 1. 23, c. 30. II. A town of Locris in 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Locris. " The Greeks comprehended under 
 the name of Locrians three tribes of the same 
 people, which, though distinct from each other 
 m territory as well as in nominal designation, 
 doubtless were derived from a common stock. 
 These were the Locri Ozolse, the Epicnemidii, 
 and Opuntii. A colony of the latter, who at an 
 early period had settled on the shores of Mag- 
 na Grsecia, were distinguished by the name of 
 Epizephyrii, or "Western Locri. The Epicne- 
 midian and Opuntian Locri alone appear to have 
 been known to Homer, as he makes no mention 
 of the Ozolae ; whence we might conclude that 
 they were not so ancient as the rest of the nation. 
 The earliest and most authentic accounts concur 
 in ascribing the origin of this people to the Lele- 
 ges. The Locri Ozolse occupied a narrow tract 
 of country, situated on the northern shore of the 
 Corinthian gulf, commencing at the ^Etolian 
 Rhium, and terminating near Crissa, the first 
 town of Phocis, on the bay to which it gave its 
 name. To the west and north they adjoined 
 the iEtolians, and partly also, in the latter di- 
 rection, the Dorians, while to the east they bor- 
 
 dered on the district of Delphi belonging to 
 Phocis. They are said to have been a colony 
 from the more celebrated Locrians of the east, 
 and their name, according to fabulous accounts, 
 was derived from some fetid springs near the 
 hill of Taphius, or Taphiassus, situated on their 
 coast, and beneath which it was reported the 
 centaur Nessus had been entombed. Thucy- 
 'dides represents them as a wild uncivilized race, 
 and addicted from the earliest period to theft and 
 rapine. In the Peloponnesian war they appear 
 to have sided with the Athenians, as the latter 
 held possession of Naupactus, their principal 
 town and harbour, and also probably from en- 
 mity to the jEtolians, who had espoused the 
 cause of the Peioponnesians. The Epicnemi- 
 dian Locri occupied a small district immediately 
 adjoining Thermopylae, and confined between 
 mount Cnemis, a branch of CEta, whence they 
 derived their name, and the sea of Euboea. Ho- 
 mer classes them with the Opuntii under the 
 general name of Locri. The Opuntian Locri 
 follow after the Epicnemidii ; they occupied a 
 line of coast of about fifteen miles, beginning a 
 little south of Cnemides, and extending to the 
 town of Halae, on the frontier of Boeotia. In- 
 land their territory reached to the Phocian 
 towns of Hyampolis and Abae. This people 
 derived its name from the city of Opus, their 
 metropolis." The Locri who established them- 
 selves in Italy were of the Opuntii and Ozolae 
 tribes, but the period of their migration it is 
 hardly possible to define. The name of Epi- 
 zephyrii they obtained from their settlement 
 about the Cape Zephyrium, and by this appella- 
 tion they were distinguished from the Locrians 
 of Greece. The chief city founded by them 
 bore their name, and became famous not only as 
 one of the most flourishing towns of Graecia 
 Magna, but also for the institutions of Zaleucus, 
 one of the most admired lawgivers of antiquity. 
 For 200 years these institutions continued in 
 force, and for all that length of time the city of 
 Locri enjoyed the greatest prosperity and the 
 highest character for the Mdsdom and virtue of 
 its citizens. Locri early took part in the poli- 
 tics and resolutionsof Sicily, and suffered great- 
 ly from the cruelty of Dionysius the Younger. It 
 suffered still further from the anger of Pyrrhus, 
 on his second invasion of Italy, and still more 
 from the licentiousness of the Roman CI. Plemi- 
 nius, who was stationed there with a garrison, 
 to keep it in the interest of Rome during the 
 Punic war. " The situation of ancient Locri 
 has not been hitherto determined with accuracy, 
 though the most judicious antiquaries and tra- 
 vellers agree in fixing it in the vicinity of Ge- 
 race. This modern town stands on a hill, which 
 is probably the mons Esopis of Strabo, and 
 where the citadel was doubtless placed ; the ele- 
 vated position of Locri is also to be inferred from 
 a fragment of Pindar. But the name of Pag- 
 liapolA, which is attached to some considerable 
 ruins beloM^ Gerace. naturally leads to the sup- 
 position that this was the site of the Epizephy- 
 rian Locri. D' Anville removed it too far to the 
 south, when he supposed it to accord with the 
 Motta di Bruzzano." Cram. 
 
 LoNDiNDM, the capital of Britain, founded, as 
 
 some suppose, between the age of Julius Caesar 
 
 and Nero. It has been severally called Londi.ni- 
 
 um, Londinum, &c. Am mi anus calls it.vetnir 
 
 189 
 
LU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LtJ 
 
 turn oppidum. It is represented as a consider- 
 able, opulent, and commercial town in the age 
 of Nero. Tacit. Ann. 14, c. 33. — Ammian. 
 The various modes of writing the name of this 
 place are given by Cambden, and show a striking 
 analogy, in the greater number, to that of Lon- 
 dinum. Ammianus calls it Augusta, to which 
 the surname Trinobantum is to be added, from 
 the people whose capital it is known to have 
 been. Its mythological names, however, are en- 
 tirely different, and refer to the fabulous origin 
 assigned to it by the obscure writers of the dark- 
 est ages. Thus Tro}r Novant, or Troia Nova, 
 in allusion to its colonization by the grandson of 
 .^neas, the renow-ned Brute, and Caer Lud, 
 from Lud, another fictitious person, who found- 
 ed, or at least exalted it to the high state which 
 it early held among the cities of Britain. 
 
 LoNGOBARDi. Vid. Langobardi. 
 
 LoNGULA, a town of Latium, on the borders 
 of the Volsci. Liv. 2, c. 33 and 39, 1. 9, c. 39. 
 
 LoTOPHAGi, a people on the coast of Africa, 
 near the Syrtes. They received this name from 
 their living upon the lotus. Ulysses visited 
 their country at his return from the Trojan war. 
 Herodot. 4, c. \ll.~Strab. 11.— Mela, 1, c. 7. 
 —Plin. 5, c. 7, 1. 13, c. 17. 
 
 LucA, now LMcca, a city of Etruria, on the 
 river Arnus. lAv. 21, c. 5, 1, 41, c. 13. — Cic. 
 XZ^fam. 13. 
 
 LtJCANi, a people of Italy, descended from the 
 Samnites or from the Brutii. 
 
 LucANiA, a country of Italy, between the 
 Tyrrhene and Sicilian seas. Without pretend- 
 ing to explain the exact limits or extent of coun- 
 try over which the Lucani may have spread 
 themselves, we may define the boundaries of Lu- 
 cania, as it formed a part of the Roman domi- 
 nion, with considerable exactness. To the 
 south-west, beyond the little river Laos, and to 
 the south-east beyond the Crathis, lay the Bru- 
 tiorum Ager, or country of the Brutii. On the 
 side of Campania the Silarus bounded it from 
 the mountains to the sea ; and the Bradanus, in 
 the same manner, from the mountains to the 
 Tarentine Gulf, divided it from Apulia. A line 
 from the sources of these rivers, along the high- 
 lands in which they rise, describes its limits on 
 the side of Samnium. The country was fa- 
 mous for its grapes. Strab. 6. — Plin. 3, c. 5. — 
 Mela, 2, c. ^.—Liv, 8. c. 17, 1. 9, c. 20, 1. 10, c. 
 II.— Horat. 2, ep. 2, v. 178. 
 
 LucERiA, now Lnicera, a town of Apulia, in 
 that part which was distinguished by the name 
 of Daunia. This was a place of great antiqui- 
 ty ; its origin was referred by the poets to the 
 time of Diomed, who was said to have founded 
 it. It was one of the first places over which 
 the Romans extended their dominion in Apu- 
 lia, and continued faithful to them during their 
 wars with Carthage. Like the rest of Apulia, 
 it was remarkable for the fineness of the wool 
 which was there prepared. 
 
 LucRETiLis, now Libretti, a mountain in the 
 country of the Sabines, hanging over a plea- 
 sant valley, near which the house and farm of 
 Horace was situate. Horat. 1, od. 17, v. 1. — 
 Cic. 7, Att. 11. 
 
 LucRiNus, a small lake in Campania, oppo- 
 site Puteoli. It abounded with excellent oys- 
 ters, and was united by Augustus to the Aver- 
 nus, and a corammiication formed with the 
 190 
 
 sea near the harbour called Julius PorUis. The 
 Lucrine lake disappeared on the 30th of Sep- 
 tember, 1538, in a violent earthquake, which 
 raised on the spot a mountain 4 miles in circum- 
 ference, and about 1000 feet high, with a crater 
 in the middle. The present slate of this cele- 
 brated lake is described as follows by Eustace : 
 " Of the Lucrine lake a small part only re- 
 mains, now a muddy pool, half covered with 
 reeds, and bulrushes. The centre, though re- 
 markable for its depth, wels in one short night 
 changed into a conical mountain. The moun- 
 tain is a vast mass of cinders, black and barren, 
 and is called Monte Nuovo. The pool, however, 
 diminished in its size and appearance, still re- 
 tains the name and honours of the Lucrine 
 lake." Classical Tour. — Cic. 4. Att. 10. — Strad. 
 5 and 6. — Mela, 2, c. 4. — Propert. 1, el. 11, v. 
 10.— Virg. G. 2, V. 1%1.— Horat. 2, od. 15. 
 
 LucuLLi HoRTi. I. Vid. Horti. -11. Vil- 
 la, one of those villas which were so numerous 
 in the immediate neighbourhood of Misenus. 
 That of Lucullus was the chief one, and was 
 afterwards occupied by Tiberius. " Pheedrus 
 informs us that it was situated on the very pin- 
 nacle of the hill, as it not only commanded the 
 adjacent coasts, but extended its view to the 
 scELS of Sicily. This villa, with its gardens 
 and porticoes, must have occupied a considera- 
 ble space, and left but little room for the town, 
 which of course must have been situated lower 
 down, and probably on the sea-shore." Eus- 
 tace. 
 
 LuGDUNENsis Gallia, a part of Gaul, which 
 received its name from Lugdunum, the capital 
 city of the province. It was anciently called 
 Celtica. Vid. Gallia. 
 
 Lugdunum, a town of Gallia Celtica, built at 
 the confluence of the Rhone and the Arar, or 
 Saone. '* It was anciently a Roman colony, 
 (testified by many old inscriptions,) and ho- 
 noured with a magnificent temple, dedicated 
 by the cities of France to Augustus Cassar: 
 now the most famous mart of France, and a 
 university. These marts, in former times, were 
 holden at Geneva, from thence removed hither 
 by king Lewis the 11th, for the enriching of 
 his own kingdom. When Julio the 2d had ex- 
 communicated Lewis the 12th, he commanded, 
 by his apostolical authority, that they should 
 be returned to Geneva again ; but therein his 
 pleasure was never obeyed. As for the uni- 
 versity, questionless it is very ancient, being a 
 seat of learning in the time of Caius Caligula. 
 For in those times, before an altar consecrated 
 to Augustus in the temple above-named, this 
 Caligula did institute some exercises of the 
 Greek and Roman eloquence : the victor to be 
 honoured according to his merit; the vanquish- 
 ed, either to be ferulated, or with their own 
 tongues to blot and expunge their writings; or 
 to be drowned in the river adjoining. Hence 
 that of Juvenal, 
 
 lit L/ugdunensem Rhetor dictdirus at aram, 
 
 applied to dangerous undertakings. In the 
 time of the Romans' first coming into Gaul, it 
 was the chief city of the Hedui and Sequani ; 
 afterwards the metropolis of Lugdunensis, 
 Prima. The archbishop hereof is the metro- 
 politan of all France, and was so in the time of 
 St. Irenseus, one of the renowned Fathers in the 
 
LY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 LY 
 
 primitive times, who was bishop here," Heyl. 
 Cosm. 
 
 LupiAS, or LupiA, now Lippe, a town of Ger- 
 many, with a small river of the same name, 
 falling into the Rhine. Tacit. Ann. 1, &c. 
 
 LusiTANiA, a part of Hispania, answering 
 nearly to the modern Portugal. In the time of 
 Caesar its limits were uncertain : he, however, 
 tells us, that to the north were the Callaici; 
 to the east, the Vettones ; to the south, Baetu- 
 ria, and the sea from the mouth of the Anas ; 
 and to the west, the ocean. Ptolemy makes it 
 the third part of Spain, and ranks with the 
 Lusitani, the Vettones, and part of the Celtici 
 and Turdetani. The chief cities of Lusitania 
 were Olisipo, Lisbon ; Conimbriga, Coimbra; 
 Pax Julia, Beja ; Augusta Emerita, Merida ; 
 Norba Caesarea, Alcantara. The Tagus divided 
 the country into two parts ; in the north was 
 the Durius, on the south the Anas. The Lu- 
 sitanians inhabited a remarkably fertile country, 
 but neglected to avail themselves of it until 
 they had been instructed by their Roman con- 
 querors. Vid. Hispania. Cas. B.C. 1, 38 and 
 U.—B. Hisp. 35, 40.— 5. Al. 48, &c. Lem. ed. 
 
 LusoNEs, a people of Spain, near the Iberus. 
 
 LuTETiA, a town of Belgic Gaul, at the con- 
 fluence of the rivers Sequana and Matrona, 
 which received its name, as some suppose, from 
 the quantity of clay, lutvMfWhicla. is in its neigh- 
 bourhood. J. Caesar fortified and embellished 
 it, from which circumstance some authors call 
 it Julii Civitas. Julian the apostate resided 
 there some time. It is now Paris, and is the 
 capital of France. C(^s. de Bell. G. 6 and 7. 
 — Strab. 4. — Ammian. 20. 
 
 LvcABETAs, a mountain of Attica, near 
 Athens. Stat. 
 
 Lyc^us, a mountain of Arcadia, sacred to 
 Jupiter, where a temple was built in honour of 
 the god by Lycaon, the son of Pelasgus. It 
 was also sacred to Pan, whose festivals, called 
 I/i/caa, were celebrated there. Pausanias af- 
 firms that the whole Peloponnesus might be 
 seen from its summit, where are yet visible the 
 remains of the altar of Jupiter. Virg. G. 1, v. 
 16. jE7i. 8, V. 3i3.— Strab. 8.—Hor. 1, od. 17, 
 V.2.— Ovid. Met. I, Y. 698. 
 
 Lycaonia, a province of Asia Minor, bounded 
 on the north by Cappadocia, on the east by Ar- 
 menia Minor, on the south by Pisidia, and on 
 the west by the Greater Phrygia; "so called 
 from the Lycaones, a people of Lycia, or from 
 .he inhabitants of Lycaonia, a town of Phry- 
 gia Major, who, enlargingthemselves into these 
 parts, gave this name unto it; either of which 
 I should prefer before their conceit who derive 
 it from Lycaon, king of ilrcadia, dispossessed 
 by Jupiter of that kingdom ; or think that Ly- 
 caon was king of this country and not of ihat." 
 Its chief towns were Iconiura, the metropolis 
 of it when a Roman province, and Lystra. 
 " Nor, indeed, were the Lycaonians themselves, 
 from whomsoever thev were descended, of any 
 great note or observation in former times : sub- 
 ject to Cappadocia when it was a kingdom, and 
 reckoned a part of it in the time of Ptolemy, 
 when first made a province of the empire. 
 Torn from the empire by the Turks, it was at 
 first a member of the Selzuccian kingdom, as 
 afterwards of the Caramanian ; which last, 
 founded by Caraman, a great prince of the 
 
 Turks, on the death of Aladine the 2d, the last 
 king of the Selzuccian family, was a great eye- 
 sore to those of the house of Ottoman, from 
 the time of Amurath the 1st, who first warred 
 upon it, to the reign of Bajazet the 2d, who in 
 fine subverted it, An. 1486." Heyl. Cosm. 
 
 Lycaste, an ancient town of Crete, whose 
 inhabitants accompanied Idomeneus to the Tro- 
 jan war. Horn. II. 2. 
 
 Lyceium. Vid. AthencB. 
 
 Lychnidus, or Lychnidium, " a city of Illy- 
 ria, the chief town of the Dassaretii, situated 
 on the great lake of the same name. Its foun- 
 dation is ascribed by a writer in the Greek An- 
 thology to Cadmus. We hear of its being con- 
 stantly in the occupation of the Romans during 
 their war with Perseus, king of Macedon, and, 
 from its position on the frontier, it must have 
 always been deemed a place of importance. 
 This was more especially the case after the con- 
 struction of the great Egnatian way, which 
 passed through it. It appears to have been still 
 a large and populous tavm under the Greek em- 
 perors. Procopius relates that it was nearly 
 destroyed by an earthquake, which overthrew 
 Corinth and several other cities during the reign 
 of Justinian. In the Synecdemus of Hierocles 
 it is probable that we ought to read Avxvi^idg ixrj- 
 ToSirnXig for AvXvvidog fi-nTpono'Xig. It is the Opi- 
 nion of Palmerius, who has treated most fully 
 of the history of Lychnidus in his Description 
 of Ancient Greece, that this town was replaced 
 by Achrida, once the capital of the Bulgarians ; 
 and, according to some writers of the Byzantine 
 empire, also the native place of Justinian, and 
 erected by him into an archbishopric under the 
 name of Justiniana Prima. The opinion of 
 this learned critic has been adopted, we believe, 
 by the generality of writers on comparative geo- 
 graphy. But we are induced by various con- 
 siderations to dissent from the commonly re- 
 ceived notion on this point. We may observe, 
 in the first place, that none of the historians 
 quoted by Palmerius assert that Achrida was 
 built on the site of Lychnidus. Nicephorus 
 Callistus states that Achrida was placed on a 
 lofty hill, very near a great lake called Lychni- 
 dus, and more anciently Dassarite; but there 
 is no reference to the town of that name. Had 
 Lychnidus been replaced by the new iovnx of 
 Justinian, or the Achrida of the Bulgarians, 
 the fact would certainly have been distinctly 
 mentioned, since it was a celebrated city, and 
 still existing in the reign of Justinian, as Wes- 
 seling, we think, has satisfactorily proved. But 
 even granting to Palmerius that Justiniana Pri- 
 ma and Achrida are the same town, he has not 
 at all shown that they are to be identified with 
 Lychnidus. The improbability of this suppo- 
 sition will, we think, be evident from a compa- 
 rison of the Roman Itineraries, which describe 
 the Via Egnatia, on which Lychnidus was 
 placed, with the best modern maps of the Turk- 
 ish dominions in Europe. Now all the Itinera- 
 ries agree in fixing Lychnidus at a distance of 
 twenty-seven or twenty-eight miles from the 
 station in the Candavian mountains, a well- 
 known ridge which separated the valley of the 
 Germans from the lake of Lychnidus ; while 
 Achrida, as it is now called, stands at the north- 
 ern extremity of the lake, and not more than 
 twelve miles'from the foot of the chain above 
 191 
 
LY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 LY 
 
 mentioned ; so that it ought to be removed at 
 least fifteen miles further down the lake to an- 
 swer to Lychnidus. In the Table, the first 
 station after the Candavian mountains is the 
 Pons Servilii, a distance of nine miles. This 
 bridge can be no other than that which crosses 
 the river Drino on its issuing from the lake of 
 Achrida ; and Lyclmidus, in the same Itinera- 
 ry, is nineteen miles distant thence, whereas 
 Achrida is not removed more than five miles 
 from the point in quesiion, where a bridge is 
 still foand at the present day. We are assured 
 by Pouqueviile that the ruins of Lychnidus are 
 still apparent near the monastery of St. Naum, 
 on the eastern shore of the lake, and about four- 
 teen miles south of Achrida. We have dwelt 
 at some length on this point, because the site of 
 Lychnidus is important, from its connexion 
 with the course of the Egnatian way through 
 Macedonia, a country of which we at present 
 know so little." Cram. 
 
 Lycia, a province of Asia Minor, invested 
 on every side, either by the sea or the moun- 
 tains. The chain of mountains which was ce- 
 lebrated for the volcanic Chimsera, converted 
 into a monster by poetic fiction, commenced at a 
 promontory where stood the city of Telmissus, 
 on the common boundary of Lycia and Caria. 
 This range, holding a north-easterly course, and 
 separating Lycia from Caria and Phrygia, joins 
 mount Taurus at the north-east corner of the 
 first-named province. Mount Taurus, descend- 
 ing from this point towards the south, divides 
 Lycia and Pamphylia ; its most easterly ex- 
 tremity on this common boundary bore in an- 
 cient days the name of Climax, or the ladder, 
 and is mentioned in the history of Alexander, 
 whose army had to wade through the sea in 
 order to get round the promontory. The range 
 of Taurus continues hence along the shore of 
 the gulf which washes the eastern coast of Ly- 
 cia, and the Pamphylian coast, until it termi- 
 nates in the Sacrum Promontorium. The south- 
 western coast of Lycia is deeply indented, form- 
 ing the Glancus Sinus. The chief towns of 
 Lycia were Patara and Myra; its principal ri- 
 vers Xanthus and Giaucus. In ancient times 
 the name of Lycia was applied also to the coast 
 of Pamphylia ; whence Stephanus makes two 
 Lycias, distinguishing one as situated towards 
 Pamphylia : this he calls the kingdom of Sar- 
 pedon. The name of Lycia is commonly re- 
 ferred to Lycus, son of Pandion, who is said to 
 have been expelled from Athens by his brother, 
 and to have repaired to Lycia to Sarpedon. But 
 it may be remarked that Sarpedon, the brother 
 of the first Minos, and Rhadamanthus, could 
 not have been contemporary with Lycus the 
 brother of ^geus, who carried on a war with 
 the second Minos. In accounts that relate to 
 periods, whose history is, to say the least, inter- 
 mixed with fable, we cannot look for consisten- 
 cy. The Solymi, an ancient people of Lycia, 
 driven to the north by Sarpedon, changed their 
 name for that of Milya?, and occupied a terri- 
 tory from them called Milyas. This region is 
 near the common boundaries of I^ycia, Phrygia, 
 and Pisidia. " The Lycians were, in former 
 times, a puissant people, extending their power 
 upon the seas as far as Italy. Subjected to the 
 Persian not without great difficulty, the people 
 with great obstinacy defending their liberty: 
 192 
 
 that some of them being besieged by Harpagus, 
 lieutenant unto Cyrus, the first Persian mo- 
 narch, they burnt their wives, children, servants, 
 and riches, in a common fire, and then made a 
 furious sally upon the enemy, by whom they all 
 were put to the sword. To Alexander in his 
 march this way towards Persia, they submitted 
 witliout any resistance ; after whose death they 
 fell with the rest of these parts into the hand of 
 Seleucus. On the defeat of Antiochus at the 
 battle of Magnesia, it was given to the Rho- 
 dians for their assistance in that war ; but go- 
 verned as a free estate by a common council of 
 fourteen senators, elected out of their principal 
 cities, over whom was one chief president, or 
 prince of the senate, whom they called by the 
 name Lyciarchus. In these remained the whole 
 power of imposing taxes, making war and peace, 
 appointing justiciaries an-d inferior magistrates, 
 and all things appertaining to the public go- 
 vernment; a shadow of which power they re- 
 tained when brought under the Romans, and a 
 shadow only ; the supreme power being no 
 longer in the senate of Lycia, but in that of 
 Rome. When made a province of the empire, 
 it had the same fortune as the others had, till it 
 fell into the power of the Turks : after the death 
 of the second Aladine made a part of the king- 
 dom of CaramaniaP {Beyl. Cosm.). Under 
 the still later Turkish division, "the pasha of 
 Kidaieh reigns over the Tekieh, on the coasts 
 of the ancient Pamphylia and Lycia. Upon 
 the picturesque shores of Lycia, the magnificent 
 ruins of Myra, now Cacamo, attest the opu- 
 lence of the age of Adrian and of Trajan ; the 
 Necropolis, or place of interment; has of itself 
 the appearance of a city." Malte-Brun.— 
 Pomp. Mel. 1, l^.—WAnville. 
 
 Lycopolis, now Siut, a town of Egypt, in 
 the Thebaid, situated a little distance from the 
 Nile, beyond Cusa. It received this name on 
 account of the immense number of wolves, X-u- 
 Koi which repelled an army of Ethiopians who 
 had invaded Egypt. Diod.l. — Slrab. 17, 
 
 Lycorea. " Lycorea, which, according to 
 Strabo, stood above Cyparissus in Phocis, was 
 a place of the highest antiquity, since it is sta- 
 ted by the Arundelian Marbles to have been 
 once the residence of Deucalion. Strabo also 
 affirms that it was more ancient than Delphi. 
 Dodwell reports, that it still retains the name of 
 Lyakoura ; and he was informed that it possess- 
 ed considerable traces of antiquity." Cram. 
 
 Lycormas, a river of JEtolia, whose sands 
 were of a golden colour. It was afterwards call- 
 ed Evenus from king Evenus, who threw him- 
 self into it. Ovid. Met. 2, v. 245. 
 
 Lycosura, a city of Arcadia, situated on the 
 slope of mons Lycaeus, now, according to Dod- 
 well, Agios Giorgios, near Stala. Pausanias 
 considered this the most ancient city in the 
 world. Paus. Arc. 38. — Cram. 
 
 Lyctus, a town of Crete, the country of Ido- 
 meneus, whence he is often called Lyctius. 
 Virg. jEn. 3, v. 401. 
 
 Lycus, I. now the Lech, one of the head 
 branches of the Danube in Vindelicia. It be- 
 longs to Bavaria, through which it runs during 
 its whole course, and passing by Augsbnrgh, 
 discharges itself into the Danube between Ingol- 
 
 sfadt and Ratishon. II. Another of Asia 
 
 Minor, which, rismg in the mountams that line 
 
LY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MA 
 
 the borders of Phrj'giaand Pamphylia, and run- 
 ning through the former of these provinces, 
 unites with the Maeander below Colossas, on the 
 
 borders of Lydia. III. A considerable river 
 
 of Pontus, which rising in the mountains of 
 Armenia Minor, passes through the eastern part 
 of Pontus in a north-westerly course, and emp- 
 ties into the Iris some distance from its mouth. 
 The Lycus, indeed, may perhaps be considered 
 
 the principal stream. IV. One of the small 
 
 streams which constitute the head waters of the 
 Euphrates. It belongs to Armenia, and is one 
 of the two rivers or rivulets, which unite beneath 
 the walls of Erzr 00771, to form the smaller branch 
 of Euphrates before its junction with the Murad 
 or other branch, which, coming from the east, 
 was considered by Xenophon to be the proper 
 Euphrates. V. The Zabus was called Ly- 
 cus by the Greeks, and was a tributary of the 
 Tigris. It was an Assyrian river, and rose in 
 the region called Corduene, apart of Curdistan. 
 Its course is extremely sinuous, flowing first 
 north-west, then west, then inclining towards 
 the south-west, and lastly almost south, till it 
 falls into the Tigris. 
 
 Lydia, The limits of this province and 
 kingdom of Asia Minor must be differently giv- 
 en in reference to different eras. Lydia proper 
 was bounded north by Mysia, east by Phrygia, 
 south by Caria, and west by the waters of the 
 JEgean. Such were the limits of Lydia after 
 the kiiigs of Sardis, its capita], had extended 
 their authority over the Mffiones, who occupied 
 the region north of that celebrated city. The 
 Lydii and Masones are not to be considered dif- 
 ferent people united into one nation, but as the 
 same, assuming different names from a change 
 of circumstances at different eras. The lonians, 
 however, were a different race ; who, coming 
 from Europe, established themselves in the isl- 
 ands and on the coast, to which they imparted 
 the name of Ionia. Under the empire of Croe- 
 sus, Lydia included Maeonia and lonis, extend- 
 ing westward to the Halys, the limit of his em- 
 pire. This, however, was a political and not a 
 geographical distribution of the peninsula. As 
 Sardis was the capital of Lydia proper, so we 
 may look upon Ephesus as that of Ionia ; though 
 indeed the nature of the Ionic confederacy hard- 
 ly allows the application of such a term even to 
 its principal city. It was governed by monarchs, 
 who after the fabulous ages reigned for 249 
 years in the following order : Ardysus began to 
 reign 797 B. C. ; Alyattes, 761; Meles, 747; 
 Candaules, 735; Gyges, 718; Ardysus 2d, 680 ; 
 Sadyattes, 631 ; Alyattes 2d, 619 ; and Croesus, 
 562, who was conquered by Cyrus, B. C. 548, 
 when the kingdom became a province of the 
 Persian empire. There were three different 
 races that reigned in Lydia, the Atyadae, Hera- 
 clidae, and Merranadae. The history of the first 
 is obscure and fabulous ; the Heraclidse began 
 to reign about the Trojan war, and the crown 
 remained in their family for about 505 years, 
 and was always transmitted from father to son. 
 Candaules was the last of the Heraclidae ; and 
 Gyges the first, and Croesus the last of the 
 Mermnadae. All the distinctions of territory 
 in the peninsula may be considered as changed 
 or abrogated while the empire of the Persian 
 kmgs extended over it ; at least they bore no an- 
 alogy to those of the earlier times. Under the 
 Part I.— 2 B 
 
 Romans again, new changes and new divisions 
 were introduced. At one time with Mysia, 
 Phrygia, and Lycaonia, Lydia formed the king- 
 dom of Pergamus : converted afterwards into a 
 praetorian province, it was given, with Mysia, 
 Phrygia, and Caria, into the hands of a prefect. 
 Under Constantine, who divided his empire into 
 diocesses, Lydia fell with Caria, Lycia, the isl- 
 ands Pamphylia, Pisidia, &c. into the diocess 
 called that of Asia, of which Ephesus was the 
 capital. The Lydians were an enterprising 
 people ; and it has never yet been disproved that 
 Heiruria owed her early population and civili- 
 zation to a Lydian colony. Vid. Hetruria. They 
 were no less remarkable, however, for their 
 luxury and effeminacy after their empire had 
 become somewhat extended. Sipylusand Tmo- 
 lus were the principal mountains, and the 
 Hermus, the Pactolus, the Caystrus, and the 
 Maeander, the principal rivers of Lydia. 
 
 Lyncest^. Vid. Lyncus. 
 
 Lyncus, " was situated east of the Dassareiii 
 of Illyria, from whose territory it was parted by 
 the chain of mount Bernas, or Bora ; while on 
 the north it adjoined Pelagonia and Deuriopus, 
 districts of Paeonia. It was watered by the Eri- 
 gonus and its tributary streams, and was tra- 
 versed by the great Egnatian way. The Lyn- 
 cestae were at first an independent people, go- 
 verned by their own princes, who were said to 
 be descended from the illustrious family of the 
 Bacchiadae at Corinth. Arrhibaeus. one of these, 
 occupied the throne when Brasidas undertook 
 his expedition into Thrace. At the solicitation 
 of Perdiccas, who was anxious to add the terri- 
 tory of Arrhibaeus to his dominions, Brasidas, 
 in conjunction with a Macedonian force, in- 
 vaded Lyncus. but was soon compelled to retire 
 by the arrival of a large body of Illyrians, who 
 joined the troops of the Lyncestian prince, and 
 had some difficulty in securing his retreat. Stra- 
 bo informs us, that Irrha, the daughter of Ar- 
 rhabaeus, (as he writes the name,) was mother 
 of Eurydice, who married Amyntas, the father 
 of Philip. By this marriage it is probable that 
 the principality of Lyncus became annexed to 
 the crown of Macedon." Cram. 
 
 Lyrnessus, a city of Cilicia, the native coun- 
 try of Briseis, called thence L/ijrnesseis. It 
 was taken and plundered by Achilles and the 
 Greeks, at the time of the Trojan war, and the 
 booty divided among the conquerors. Homer. 11. 
 2, V. Vdl.—Ovid. Met. 12, v. lOS.—Heroid. 3, 
 V. 5. Trist. 4, el. 1, v. 15. 
 
 Lysimachia, now Hexamili, I. a city on the 
 Thracian Chersonesus. Paus. 1, c. 9. This 
 city was founded bv Lysimachus, who trans- 
 ferred to it the population of the then declining 
 Cardia, near which it was built. Its modern 
 name is in allusion to the width of the isthmus 
 on which it stood. Hexamili, however, can 
 
 hardly be considered a town. II. Another 
 
 in ^tolia. 
 
 M. 
 
 Macje, a people of Arabia Felix. Mela, 3. c, 
 8. They are placed in Africa, near the larger 
 Syrtis, by Herodot. 4, v. 115.— Sil. 3, v. 275, 1. 
 5, V. 194. 
 
 Macaris, an ancient name of Crete. 
 
 Macedonia. "Much uncertainty exists as to^ 
 193 
 
MA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MA 
 
 the origin of the name of Macedon, but it seems 
 generally agreed among the writers of antiquity 
 that its more ancient appellation was Emathia. 
 According to Hesiod, Macedo, the founder of 
 this nation, was the son of Jupiter, or of Osiris 
 according to Diodorus, while many of the mo- 
 derns have derived the name from that of Kit- 
 tim, by which it has been supposed that the 
 kings of Macedon are designated in the Old 
 Testament. In support of this opinion it is ob- 
 served, that the country is not unfrequently 
 called Macetia, and the inhabitants Macetae. 
 It appears from Herodotus, that the name serv- 
 ed originally to designate the small place or dis- 
 trict of Macednon, in the vicinity of mount 
 Pindus. And, according to the same ancient 
 historian, it would seem that this was the pri- 
 mary appellation of the Dorians. The origin 
 of the Macedonian dynasty is a subject of some 
 intricacy and dispute. There is one point, 
 however, on which all the ancient authorities 
 agree ; namely, that the royal family of that 
 country was of the race of the Temenidae of 
 Argos, and descended from Hercules. The 
 difference of opinion principally regards the in- 
 dividual of that family to whom the honour of 
 founding this illustrious monarchy is to be as- 
 cribed. Thucydides gives an accurate account 
 of the extent of territory possessed by the Ma- 
 cedonian monarch. ' Alexander, father of Per- 
 diccas, and his ancestors the Temenidae, who 
 came from Argos,' says the historian, ' were 
 the first occupiers of Macedonia after they had 
 vanquished and expelled the Pierians, who re- 
 tired to Phagres across the Strymon, and the 
 country under mount Pangaeus, and other 
 places; from which circumstance, the coast 
 situated undei* mount Pangaeus is called the 
 Pierian gulf They also dispossessed of their 
 territory the Bottiaei, who are now contiguous 
 to the Chalcidians. They likewise occupied a 
 narrow strip of Poeonia, along the river Axius, 
 from Pella to the sea ; and beyond the Axius, 
 as far as the Strymon, the district called Myg- 
 donia, after driving out the Edones, the original 
 inhabitants. They also expelled the Eordi 
 from Eordaea, (the greater part of whom were 
 destroyed, but a few remain near Physca,) as 
 well as the Almopes from Almopia. Besides 
 these, there were other districts of which the 
 Ma cedonians were masters at the time of Sital- 
 ces' invasion; such as Anthemus, Grestonia, 
 and Bisaltia. Their authority extended also 
 over the Lyncestae and Elimiotae, and other in- 
 land tribes, which, though governed by their 
 own princes, were considered as dependants and 
 allies.' On the conquest of Macedonia by the 
 Romans the following decree was issued by the 
 Roman senate and people respecting that coun- 
 try. It was ordered that the Macedonians 
 should be considered as free, living under their 
 own laws, and electing their own magistrates ; 
 and that they should pay to the Romans bne 
 half only of the annual contributions heretofore 
 levied by their kings. It was also enacted, that 
 from henceforth Macedonia should be divided 
 into four distinct regions. The first of these was 
 to comprise all the country between the rivers 
 Strymon and Nessus, and whatever Perseus 
 held on the left bank of the latter, with the ex- 
 ception of Enos, Maronea, and Abdera. On 
 the right bank of the Strymon the districts of 
 194 
 
 Bisaltia and Heraclea Sintica were included in 
 this division. The second was formed of the 
 country situated between the Strymon and the 
 Axius, with the addition of ancient Paeonia. 
 The third extended from the latter river to the 
 Peneus. The fourth region reached, from 
 mount Bermius to the confines of Illyria and 
 Epirus. It was decided that Amphipolis should 
 be the capital of the first division, Thessalonica 
 of the second, Pella of the third, and Pelagonia 
 of the fourth." — Cram. These it will be under- 
 stood, were the limits of Macedonia, reduced to 
 a province ; as the kingdom of Philip, its limits 
 may be defined nearly as follows. On the north, 
 the ridge of mount Haemus divided it from 
 Moesia ; and the Cambunii monies separated it 
 from Thessaly on the opposite side. The coun- 
 try of the Macedonian Illyrians lay upon its 
 west, beyond the Scardus mountains and the 
 hills called Bernus ; while on the east the Stry- 
 mon distinguished its borders from the farther 
 limits of Thrace. Before the conquests of 
 Philip extended the empire of his kingdom over 
 all of Greece, the inhabitants of the southern 
 parts were accustomed to consider the Macedo- 
 nians like the Thracians, &c. as barbarians; 
 nor were they looked upon as Greeks till that 
 prince converted Greece into Macedonia. They 
 were, in all probability, of the same origin as 
 the Thracians, from whom there is little doubt 
 they derived their descent. The kingdom of 
 Macedonia, first founded B. C. 814, by Caranus, 
 a descendant of Hercules, and a native of Ar- 
 gos, continued in existence 646 years, till the 
 battle of Pydna. The family of Caranus re- 
 mained in possession of the crown until the 
 death of Alexander the Great, and began to 
 reign in the following order : Caranus, after a 
 reign of 28 years, was succeeded by Coenus, who 
 ascended the throne 786 B. C. Thurimus 774, 
 Perdiccas 729, Argaeus 678, Philip- 640, ^Eropas 
 602, Alcetas or Alectas 576, Amyntas 547, Alex- 
 ander 497, Perdiccas 454, Archelaus413, Amyn- 
 tas 399, Pausanias 398, Amyntas 2d 397, Argaeus 
 the tyrant 390, Amyntas restored 390, Alexan- 
 der 2d 371, Ptolemy Alorites 370, Perdiccas 3d 
 366, Philip son of Amyntas 360, Alexander the 
 Great 336, Philip Aridaeus 323, Cassander 316. 
 Aniipater and Alexander 298, Demetrius king 
 of Asia 294, Pyrrhus 287, Lysimachus 286, 
 Ptolemy Ceraunus 280, Meleager tM'^o months, 
 Antipater the Etesian 45 days, Antigonus Gon- 
 atas 277, Demetrius 243, Antigonus Doson 232, 
 Philip 221, Perseus 179, conquered by the Ro- 
 mans 168 B. C. at Pydna. 
 
 Macri, a river flowing from the Appenines, 
 and dividing Liguria from Etruria. Ducan. 2. 
 V. 426.— Z.W. 39, c. S^.—Plin. 3, c. 5. 
 
 Macrobh, a people of Ethiopia, celebrated 
 for their justice and the innocence of their man- 
 ners. They generally lived to their 120th year, 
 some say to a thousand; and, indeed from that 
 longevity they have obtained their name(f(aKjOoj 
 /Siog, long life) to distinguish them more parti- 
 cularly from the other inhabitants of ^Ethiopia. 
 After so long a period spent in virtuous actions, 
 and freed from the indulgences of vice, and from 
 maladies, they dropped into the grave as to 
 sleep, without poin and without terror. Orph. 
 Argon. 1105.— Herodot. 3, c. 11.— Mela, 3, c 
 9.—Plin. 7, c. i8.— Val. Max. 8, c. 3. 
 
 Macrontichos. Vid Dercotu 
 
MA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MA 
 
 Madaura, a town on the borders of Numidia 
 and Gaetulia, of which the inhabitants were 
 called Madaurenses. It was the native place of 
 Apuleius. Aful. Met. 11, 
 
 MiEANDER, a celebrated river of Asia Minor, 
 rising near Celsense, and flowing through Caria 
 and Ionia into the jiEgean Sea betw'^een Miletus 
 and Priene, after it has been increased by the 
 waters of the Marsyas, Lycus, Eudon, Lethae- 
 us, &c. It is celebrated among the poets, for its 
 windings, which amount to no less than 600, 
 and from which all obliquities have received the 
 name of Mceanders. It forms in its course, ac- 
 cording to the observations of some travellers, 
 the Greek letters £ ^|j & w, and from its wind- 
 ings Dsedalus had the first idea of his famous 
 labyrinth. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 145, &LC.— Virg. 
 ^n. 5, V. 2M.—lMcan. 5, v. 208, 1. 6, v. 471. 
 —Homer. 11. %—Herodot. 2, c. 29,— Czc. Pis. 
 22.—Strab. 12, &c.—Mela, 1, c. 17. This ri- 
 ver is called by the Turks the Meinder; hut 
 because they give the same name to the Cays- 
 ter, they prefix to this the epithet Boiuc or 
 Great, as to the smaller stream a name indica- 
 tive of its inferiority. 
 
 M.EAT^, a people at the south of Scotland. 
 r)io. 76, c. 12. 
 
 MiEDi, a people of Madica, a district of 
 Thrace near Rhodope. Liv. 26, c. 25, 1. 40, c. 
 21. 
 
 MjENALU.s, {plur. Msenala,) I. a mountain of 
 Arcadia, sacred to the god Pan, and greatly fre- 
 quented by shepherds. It received its name from 
 Maenalus, a son of Lycaon. It was. covered 
 with pine trees, whose echo and shade have 
 been greatly celebrated by all the ancient poets. 
 Ovid. Met. 1, v. 216.— Fw-^. G. 1, v. 17. Ed. 
 8, V. ^.—Paus. 8, c. 2.—Strai. 8.— Mela, 2, 
 c, 3. " The modern name of this mountain is 
 Roino. Dodwell says its height is considerable, 
 and that it is characterized by the glens and 
 valleys which intersect it, and are watered with 
 numerous rivulets. It is connected on the east 
 with mount Parthenius, and to the north with 
 the hills of Orchomenus and Stymphalus." 
 Cram. II. A town of Arcadia, 
 
 MffiNUs, a river of Germany, now called the 
 Mayne, falling into the Rhine at Mayence, 
 
 M^EONiA. Vid. Lydia. The Etrurians, as 
 being descended from a Lydian colony, are often 
 called McEonidcB, {Virg. yEw. 11, v. 759.) and 
 even the lake Thrasymenus in their country is 
 called Maonius lacus. Sil. Ital. 15, v. 35. 
 
 M.aE6T.E, a people of Asiatic Sarmatia. 
 
 M.EOTIS Palus, a large lake, or part of the 
 sea between Europe and Asia, at the north of 
 the Euxine, to which it communicates by the 
 Cimmerian Bosphorus, now called the Sea of 
 Azofh or Zahack. It was worshipped as a deiiy 
 by the Massagetse. It extends about 390 miles 
 from south-west to north-east, and is about 600 
 miles in circumference. The Amazons are 
 called McBoiides, as living in the neighbourhood. 
 Strab. — Mela, 1, c. 1, &c. — Justin. 2, c. 1. — 
 Curt. 5, c. 4. — Lucan. 2, &c. — Ovid. Fast. 3, 
 el. 12. ep. Sab. 2, v. 9.— Virg. .^n. 6, v. 739. 
 
 M^siA sYLVA, a wood in Etruria, near the 
 mouth of the Tiber. Liv. 1, c. 33. 
 
 Magna Gr.ecia. — Vid Grcecia Magna. 
 
 Magnesia, I. a city of Lydia, surnamed from 
 the Maeander, upon which it stood. This was 
 a Grecian colony. It is now Guzel-Hizar^ or 
 
 the Handsome Castle. II. Another in the 
 
 same country, called Sypilia from its situation 
 beneath mount Sypilus, on the Hermus, oppo- 
 site the mouth of the Hyllus. In this city died 
 Themistocles, an exile from his country, and 
 dependant on the magnanimity and bounty of 
 the Persian king. It is celebrated for his 
 death, and for a battle which was fought there 
 187 years before the Christian era, between the 
 Romans and Antiochus king of Syria. The 
 forces of Antiochus amounted to 70,000 men 
 according to Appian, or 70,000 foot and 12,000 
 horse according to Livy, which have been ex- 
 aggerated by Florus to 300,000 men ; the Ro- 
 man army consisted of about 28 or 30,000 men, 
 2000 of which were employed in guarding the 
 camp. The Syrians lost 50,000 foot and 4000 
 horse, and the Romans only 300 killed with 25 
 horse. It was founded by a colony from Mag- 
 nesia in Thessaly. III. A country on the 
 
 eastern parts of Thessaly, at the south of Ossa. 
 It was sometimes called .ZEmonia and Magnes 
 Campus. The capital, was also called Magne- 
 sia. " The Greeks gave the name of Magne- 
 sia to that narrow portion of Thessaly which is 
 confined between the mouth of the Peneus and 
 the Pagasasan bay to the north and south, and 
 between the chain of Ossa and the sea on the 
 west and east. The people of this district were 
 called Magnetes, and appear to have been in 
 possession of it from the most remote period. 
 They are also universally allowed to have form- 
 ed part of the Amphictyonic body. The Mag- 
 nesians submitted to Xerxes, giving earth and 
 water in token of subjection. Thucydides leads 
 us to suppose they were in his time dependant 
 on the Thessalians ; for he says, Mdyvrireg kqI 
 olaWoi v-rfjKooi QitraaXCov. They passcd, with the 
 rest of that nation, under the dominion of the 
 kings of Macedon, who succeeded Alexander, 
 and were declared free by the Romans after the 
 battle of Cynoscephalae. Their government was 
 then republican, affairs being directed by a ge- 
 neral council, and a chief magistrate called 
 Magnetarch. Mount Homole, the extreme 
 point of Magnesia to the north, was probably a 
 portion of the chain of Ossa; and celebrated 
 by the poets as the abode of the ancient Cen- 
 taurs and Lapith8e,and a favourite haunt of Pan. 
 
 Ceu, duo nuhigencB qimm vertice montis ah alto 
 Descendunt Centauri, Homolen Othrymque niva- 
 
 lem 
 Linquentes cursu rapido. jEn. VII. 674. 
 
 From Pausanias we learn that it was extremely 
 fertile, and well supplied with springs and foun- 
 tains. One of these was apparently the Li- 
 bethrian fountain. Strabo says that mount 
 Homole was near the mouth of the Peneus, 
 and Apollonius describes it as close to the sea." 
 
 Cram. IV; a promontory of Magnesia in 
 
 Thessaly. Liv. 37. — Flor. 3. — Appian. 
 
 Magon, a river of India falling into the Gan- 
 ges. Arrian. 
 
 Majorca. Vid. Baleares. 
 
 Malea, I. a promontory of Lesbos. II. 
 
 Another in Peloponnesus, at the south of La- 
 conia. The sea is so rough and boisterous 
 there, that the dangers which attended a voyage 
 round it gave rise to the proverb of Cum ad 
 Maleam dejkxeris obliviscere quce sunt domi. It 
 is now Cape St. Angela or Malic ; according 
 ^195 
 
MA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MA 
 
 to Strabo there were 670 stadia from hence to 
 Taenarum, including the sinuosities of the coast. 
 Cram. — Strab. 8 and 9. — LMcan. 6, v. 58. — 
 Plut. in Arat.— Virg. jEn. 5, v. 1^2.— Mela, 2, 
 c. 3. — Liv. 21, c. 44. — Ovid. Am. 2, el. 16, v, 
 24, el. 11, V. 20.— Pans. 3, c. 23. 
 
 Maleventum, the ancient name of Beneven- 
 tum. Liv. 9, c. 27. 
 
 Malia, a city of Phthiotis, near mount CEta 
 and Thermopylse. There were in its neigh- 
 bourhood some hot mineral waters which the 
 poet Catullus has mentioned. From Malia, a 
 gulf or small bay in the neighbourhood, at the 
 western extremities of the island of Euboea, has 
 received the name of the gulf of Malia, Malia- 
 cum Fretum or Maliacus Sinus. Some call it 
 the gulf of Lamia from its vicinity to Lamia. 
 It is often taken for the Sinus Pelasgicus of the 
 ancients. Pans. 1, c. 4. — Herodot. 
 
 Mamertina, a town of Campania, famous 
 
 for its wines. A name of Messana in Sicily. 
 
 Martial. 13, ep. 111.— Strab. 7. 
 
 Mamertini. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Mandela, a village in the country of the Sa- 
 bines, near Horace's country-seat. Horat. 1, 
 ep. 18, V. 105. 
 
 Mandubii, a people of Celtic Gaul, depend- 
 ants of the ^dui. Their chief city was Ale- 
 sia, and they occupied a part of the ancient 
 dukedom of Burgundy, called V Auxois, now 
 Departement de la Cote d'Or. Strabo is incor- 
 rect in representing them as adjacent to the Ar- 
 verni, since they were separated from that peo- 
 ple by a large portion of the ^Eduan territory. 
 CcBS. Bell. G. 7, c. 78. 
 
 Manduria, a city of Calabria, near Taren- 
 tum, whose inhabitants were famous for eating 
 dog's flesh. Plin. 2, c. 103.— iw. 27, c. 15. 
 
 Mantinea, a town of Arcadia, at the foot of 
 mount Artemisius, on the borders of Argolis. 
 The little river Ophis flowed beneath its walls. 
 Mantinea consisted of a few small villages, 
 which at an early period uniting, formed this 
 city, for a long time the chief town of Arca- 
 dia. In history the Mantineans hold a con- 
 spicuous place for the wisdom of their institu- 
 tions, and for the battles fought in their territory. 
 After the Peloponnesian war, in which they 
 had taken part with the Lacedaemonians, they 
 fell into the displeasure of Sparta; and two 
 wars, with an interval of some years between 
 them, were the consequence. In the latter, the 
 walls of the town were demolished, and the 
 city, resolved into its primitive elements, formed 
 again, instead of one united town, four smaller 
 villages. At the same time it was compelled to 
 change its republican institutions for others 
 more consistent with the views of the Laco- 
 nians. When Thebes began to assume, in the 
 time of her generals Pelopidas and Epaminon- 
 das, an important attitude in the affairs of 
 Greece, the Mantinseans, under the protection 
 of that city, reunited their population and re- 
 built their walls; another battle between the 
 Thebans and the Spartans succeeded, in which 
 Epaminondaslost his life, and which, taking its 
 name from Mantingea, has given to that city 
 an immortal fame. From this time forward the 
 policy of the people was indirect and timid in 
 the convulsions which were preparing the way 
 for the destruction of Greece ; and the barba- 
 rous massacre of the Achaeans who were garri- 
 196 
 
 soned in their city, exciting the anger of An- 
 tigonus and the league, a chastisement was in- 
 flicted upon them equal to their perfidy. The 
 city was taken, and the inhabitants were sold as 
 slaves ; and the name of Antigonea was assign- 
 ed to it instead of its ancient title, to obliterate 
 all memory of the guilty place. Under the Ro- 
 mans the place recovered a part of its splendour, 
 enjoying the favour of the emperor Augustus, 
 and afterwards of Hadrian, who restored the 
 name of Mantinea. " The tomb of Areas, who 
 gave his name to all the country, was erected 
 close to the temple of Juno, on a site called the 
 altar of the Sun. The equestrian statue of 
 Gryllus, the son of Xenophon, who eminently 
 distinguished himself in the battle of Mantinea, 
 was placed not far from the theatre. In the 
 same quarter were situated the temples of Vesta 
 and Venus Symmachia, the latter having been 
 erected by the Mantineans in commemoration 
 of the battle of Actium. There was also in 
 this city a temple raised to Antinous, the fa- 
 vourite of Hadrian, by order of that emperor; 
 it being pretended that the Bithynians, among 
 whom Antinous was born, were descended from 
 the Mantineans. A yearly festival and quin- 
 quennial games were also solemnized in honour 
 of Hadrian's minion ; and in a building near 
 the gymnasium were deposited his statue, and 
 several paintings, in which he was represented 
 under the form of Bacchus." Cram. 
 
 Mantinorum Oppidum, a town of Corsica, 
 now supposed to be Bastia. 
 
 Mantua, a town of Italy beyond the Po, 
 founded about 300 years before Rome, by Bla- 
 nor or Ocnus, the son of Manto. It was the 
 ancient capital of Etruria. When Cremona, 
 which had followed the interest of Brutus, was 
 given to the soldiers of Octavius, Mantua also, 
 which was in the neighbourhood, shared the 
 common calamity, though it had favoured the 
 party of Augustus, and many of the inhabitants 
 were tyrannically deprived of their possessions. 
 Virgil, who was among them, applied for re- 
 dress to Augustus, and obtained it. Strab. 5. 
 — Virg. Ed. 1, &c. G. 3, v. 12. ^n. 10, v. 
 180. — Ovid. Amor. 3, el. 15. It is now Man- 
 tova., in English Mantua. This place is one of 
 the greatest antiquity, not being, like other towns 
 in that part of Italy, of Gallic origin. By Vir- 
 gil, its founding is ascribed to the Tuscans, and 
 though we are not called upon to acknowledge 
 its debt to Manto, the daughter of Tiresias, ac- 
 cording to the fancy of that poet and of the ear- 
 ly Florentine who followed his tradition, we can 
 have no hesitation in assigning to Mantua a 
 Tuscan origin. It was situated on an island, 
 or rather in a marsh occasioned by the waters 
 of the Mincius, and was in antiquity by no 
 means distinguished, being among the smaller 
 towns of Gallia Cisalpina. The birth of Vir- 
 gil alone ennobled it, however, in the eyes of 
 the Romans of the empire; and in modern 
 times, amid all the power and comparative splen- 
 dour to which it arose, the name of Virgil ap- 
 pears to rank among the first of its glories. He 
 was not born, however, within the city, but at 
 Andes, a small village in the vicinity. 
 
 Marathon, a village of Attica, 10 miles from 
 Athens, celebrated for the victory which the 
 10,000 Athenians and 1000 Plataeans, under the 
 command of Miltiades, gained over the Persian 
 
MA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MA 
 
 army, consisting of 100,000 foot and 10,000 
 horse, or, according toVal. Maximus, of 300,000, 
 or as Justin says, of 600,000, under the com- 
 mand of Datis and Artaphernes, on the 28th of 
 Sept. 490 B. C. In this battle, according to 
 Herodotus, the Athenians lost only 192 men, 
 and the Persians 6,300. Justin has raised the 
 loss of the Persians in this expedition, and in the 
 battle, to 200,000 men. To commemorate this im- 
 mortal victory of their countrymen, the Greeks 
 raised small columns, with the names inscribed 
 on the tombs of the fallen heroes. It was also 
 in the plains of Marathon that Theseus over- 
 came a celebrated bull, which plundered the 
 neighbouring country. Erigone is called Mara- 
 ihonia virgo, as being born at Marathon. Stat. 
 
 5, Sylv. 3, V. 74.— C. Nep. in Milt.—Herodot. 
 
 6, &c. — Justin. 2, c. 9. — Val. Max. 5, c. 3. — 
 Plut. in Parol. — Pans. 2, c. 1. 
 
 Marcianopolis, the capital of Lower Moesia. 
 It received its name in honour of the empress 
 Marciana, and is now called by the inhabit- 
 ants Prebislaw, or the Illustrious City. D'An- 
 ville. 
 
 Marcomanni, a German people, dwelling, 
 when first known to the Romans, between the 
 Rhine and the Mayne, in a part of that which 
 now constitutes the Duchy of Baden. When 
 the Roman arms began to threaten the extinc- 
 tion, or at least the subjugation, of all the border 
 nations, the Marcomanni resolved to quit their 
 dangerous seats, and crossing the Maenus and 
 the vast Herc5'-nian forests, they drove the Boii 
 from their possessions about the sources of the 
 Albis {EU?e), and fixed their residence in that 
 country. It however retained, and still retains, 
 in the name of Bohemia^ the appellation of the 
 people thus expelled by the Marcomans. They 
 proved powerful enemies to the Roman empe- 
 rOrs. Augustus granted them peace, but they 
 were afterwards subdued by Antoninus and 
 Trajan, &c. Paterc. 2, c. 109. — Tacit. Ann. 2, 
 c. 46 and 62, G. 42. 
 
 Mardi, a people of Persia, on the confines of 
 Media. They were very poor, and generally 
 lived upon the flesh of wild beasts. Their coun- 
 try in later times, became the residence of the 
 famous assassins destroyed by Hulakou, the 
 grandson of Zingis Khan. Herodot. 1 and 3, 
 — Plin. 6, c. 16. 
 
 Mardia, a place of Thrace, famous for a bat- 
 tle between Constantine and Licinius. A. D, 
 315. 
 
 Mardus, a river of Media, falling into the 
 Caspian Sea. 
 
 Mare Mortuum, called also, from the bitu- 
 men it throws up, the lake Asphaltites, is situate 
 in Jud^a, and near 100 miles long and 25 broad. 
 Its waters are salter than those of the sea, but 
 the vapours exhaled from them are not so pesti- 
 lential as have been generally represented. It 
 is supposed that the 13 cities, of which Sodom 
 and Gomorrah, as mentioned in the Scriptures, 
 were the capital, were destroyed by a volcano, 
 and on the site a lake formed. Volcanic appear- 
 ances now mark the face of the country, and 
 earthquakes are frequent. Plin. 5, c. 6. — Jo- 
 seph. J. Bell. 4, c. 21.—Strab. 16, p. IGi.— Jus- 
 tin. 36, c. 3. " To the east of JudnBa,two rude 
 and arid chains of hills encompass, with their 
 dark steeps, a long basin, formed in a clay soil, 
 mixed with bitumen and rock salt. The water 
 
 contained in this hollow is impregnated with a 
 mixture of different saline matters, having lime, 
 magnesia, and soda, for their base, partially 
 neutralized with muriatic and sulphuric acid. 
 The salt which they yield by evaporation is 
 about one fourth of their weight. The asphalta, 
 or bitumen of Judsea, rises from time to time 
 from the bottom, floats on the surface of the 
 lake, and is thrown out on the shores, where it 
 is gathered for use. Formerly the inhabitants 
 were in the practice of going out in boats or rafts 
 to collect it in the middle of the lake. None of 
 oUr travellers have thought of sailing on this 
 lake, which would undoubtedly contribute to 
 render their acquaintance with its phenomena 
 more complete. We are told by the greater part 
 of those who have visited it, that neither fish nor 
 shells are to be found in it, that an unwholesome 
 vapour is sometimes emitted by it, and that its 
 shores, frightfully barren, are never cheered by 
 the note of any bird. The inhabitants however, 
 are not sensible of any noxious quality in its 
 vapours ; and the accounts of birds falling down 
 dead in attempting to fly over it are entirely 
 fabulous. We are taught to believe that the 
 site of the Dead Sea was once a fertile valley, 
 partly resting on a mass of subterranean water, 
 and partly composed of a stratum of bitumen ; 
 that a fire from heaven kindled these combusti- 
 ble materials, the fertile soil sunk into the abyss 
 beneath, and that Sodom and Gomorrah, and 
 other cities of the plain, probably built of bitumi- 
 nous stones, were consumed in the tremendous 
 conflagration. In this manner the amatfeurs of 
 physical geography contrive a scientific explana- 
 tion of those awful changes of which, according 
 to the Scriptures, this place was once the scene." 
 Malte-Brun. 
 
 Mareotis lacus, a bay of the Mediterra- 
 nean, through which the Nile, at one of its 
 mouths, discharged itself into that great inland 
 sea. " To the south of Alexandria is lake Ma- 
 reotis. For many ages this lake was dried up ; 
 for though the bed is lower than the surface of 
 the ocean, there is not sufficient rain to keep up 
 any lake in that coimtry in opposition to the 
 force of perpetual evaporation. But in 1801, the 
 English, in order to circumscribe more effectual- 
 ly the communications which the French army 
 in the city of Alexandria maintained with the 
 surrounding country, cut across the walls of the 
 old canal which had formed a dyke, separating 
 this low ground from lake Maadie. or the lake 
 of Aboukiron the east. In consequence of this 
 easy operation, the water had a sudden fall of 
 six feet, and the lake of Mareotis, which had so 
 long disappeared, and the site of which had been 
 occupied partly by salt marshes, partly by cul- 
 tivated lands, and even villages, resumed its 
 ancient extent. This modern inundation from 
 the sea, indeed, is much more extensive than 
 the ancient lake Mareotis, occupying, probably, 
 four times its extent." Malte-Brun. 
 
 Margiana, a part of the empire of the Per- 
 sian kings, belonging to Media, and afterwards 
 attached to the kingdom of Parthia. On its bor- 
 ders were the countries of Bactriania, Aria, Par- 
 thia, and Hyrcania, with Sogdiana beyond its 
 northern boundary, which was formed by the 
 Oxus. The Margus, which flowed from the 
 borders of Bactriana through the whole extent 
 of this province, imparted to it the name of Mar 
 197 
 
MA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MA 
 
 giana. All this country forms at present but a 
 part of the district of Khorason. It was un- 
 commonly fertile, and produced the most excel- 
 lent wiues, the grapes being of the finest quality 
 and of the largest size. The vines are so un- 
 commonly large, that two men can scarcely 
 grasp the trunk of one of them. Curt. 7, c. 10. 
 —Ptol. 5. 
 
 Margus, I, a river of Mcesia, falling into the 
 Danube, with a town of the same name, now 
 
 Kastolatz. 11. Another in Asia, now the 
 
 Marg-ab. Rising in the mountains of Bactria- 
 na, this river flows through the greater part of 
 Margiana towards the Ochus, but before it 
 reaches that river, after having passed the capi- 
 tal, it is said to be absorbed in the sands that 
 overspread those parts of Asia. 
 
 Marians Foss^e, a town of Gaul Narbo- 
 nensis, which received its name from the dyke 
 (Jossa) which Marius opened thence to the sea. 
 Plin. 3, c. 4. — Strab. 4. 
 
 Mariandynum, a place in Bithynia, where 
 the poets feigned that Hercules dragged Cerbe- 
 rus out of hell. Dionys. — Ftol. 5, c. 1. — Mela, 
 I, c. 2 and 19, 1. 2, c. 7. 
 
 Marianus mons, now Sierra Morena, a ridge 
 of mountains in Spain, dividing Bsetica from 
 Lusitania and Tarraconensis. It joins the Oros- 
 peda mons at the springs of the Anas ; Caput- 
 Anse and the Batis also rise in that part in which 
 those mountain ranges join one another. The 
 Marianus now separates Castile from Andalu- 
 sia. 
 
 Marisus, a river of Dacia, emptying into the 
 Tibiscus. In modern geography it belongs, for 
 the former part of its course, to Transylvania, 
 and for the latter forms the boundary line be- 
 tween the Bannot on the south and Hungary 
 on the north. It is now the Maros. 
 
 Marmarica. Vid. Marmarida. 
 
 MARMARiDiE, the inhabitants of that part of 
 Libya called Marmarica, between Cyrene and 
 Egypt. They were swift in running, and pre- 
 tended to possess some drugs or secret power to 
 destroy the poisonous effects of the bite of ser- 
 pents. Sil. It. 3, V. 300, 1. 11, V. 182.— lAican. 
 4, V. 680, 1.9, V. 894. 
 
 Marmarion, a town of Euboea, whence 
 Apollo is called Marmarinus. Strab. 10. 
 
 Maronea, a city of the Cicones, in Thrace, 
 near the Hebrus, of which Bacchus was the 
 chief deity. The wine was always reckoned 
 excellent, and with it, it was supposed, Ulysses 
 intoxicated the Cyclops Polyphemus. Plin. 14, 
 c. L—Herodot.—Mela, 2, c. A.— Tibull. 4, el. 1, 
 V.57. 
 
 Marpesus, a mountain of Paros, abounding 
 in white marble. The quarries are still seen 
 by modern travellers. Virg. jEn. 6, v. 471. — 
 Plin. 4, c. 12, 1. 36, c. 5. 
 
 Marrucini. " The Marrucini occupied a 
 narrow slip of territory on the right bank of the 
 river Aternus, between the Vestini to the north, 
 and the Frentani to the south, and between the 
 Peligni and the sea towards the west and east. 
 Cato derived their origin from the Marsi. Like 
 that people, they were accounted a hardy and 
 warlike race, and with them they made common 
 cause against the tyranny of Rome. An idea 
 maybe formed of the population and force of the 
 several petty nations which may be classed to- 
 gether in this part of Italy, from a statement of 
 198 
 
 Polybius, where that historian, when enumerat- 
 ing the different contingents which the allies of 
 the Romans were able to furnish about the time 
 of the second Punic war, estimates that of the 
 Marsi, Marrucini, Vestini. and Frentani, at 
 20,000 foot and 4000 horse."' Cram. 
 
 Marruvium, the chief town of the Marsi, in 
 the country of the Sabines. It stood upon the 
 shore of the celebrated Fucine lake. 
 
 Marsi, a nation of Germany, who afterwards 
 came to settle near the lake Fucinus in Italy, in 
 a country checkered with forests abounding with 
 wild boars and other ferocious animals. They 
 at first proved very inimical to the Romans, but, 
 in process of time, they became their firmest 
 supporters. They are particularly celebrated 
 for the civil war in which they were engaged, 
 and which from them has received the name of 
 the Marsic war. The large contributions they 
 made to support the interest of Rome, and the 
 number of men which they continually supplied 
 to the republic, rendered them bold and aspir- 
 ing; and they claimed, with the rest of the 
 Italian states, a share of the honour and pri- 
 vileges which were enjoyed by the citizens of 
 Rome, B. C. 91. The petition, though sup- 
 ported by the interest, the eloquence, and the in- 
 tegrity of the tribune Drusus, was received with 
 contempt by the Roman senate ; and the Marsi, 
 with their allies, showed their dissatisfaction by 
 taking up arms. Their resentment was in- 
 creased, when Drusus, their friend at Rome, 
 was murdered by the means of the nobles ; and 
 they erected themselves into a republic, and 
 Corfinium was made the capital of their new 
 empire. A regular war was now begun, and the 
 Romans led into the field an army of 100,000 
 men, and were opposed by a superior force. 
 Some battles were fought, in which the Roman 
 generals were defeated, and the allies reaped no 
 inconsiderable advantages f^om their victories. 
 A battle, however, near Asculum. proved fatal 
 to their cause, 4000 of them were left dead on 
 the spot, their general, Francus, a man of un- 
 common experience and abilities, was slain, and 
 such as escaped from the field perished by hun- 
 ger in the Appenines, where they had sought a 
 shelter. After many defeats and the loss of 
 Asculum, one of their principal cities, the allies, 
 grown dejected, and tired of hostilities which 
 had already continued for three years, sued for 
 peace one by one, and tranquillity was at last 
 re-established in fhe republic, and all the states 
 of Italy were made citizens of Rome. The ar- 
 mies of the allies consisted of the Marsi, the 
 Peligni, the Vestini, the Hermini, Pompeiani, 
 Marcini, Picentese, Venusini, Frentani, Apuli, 
 Lucani, and Samnites. The Marsi were great- 
 ly addicted to magic. The German Marsi, from 
 whom these people were descended according to 
 common report, after emigrating from the mar- 
 gin of the Lupia, inhabited the banks of the 
 Weser in the vicinity of the Cherusci, and were 
 altogether undistinguished in history. Horat. 
 ep. 5, V. 76, ep. 27, v. 29. — Appian.-^Val. Max. 
 8. — Paterc. 2. — Pint, in Sert. Mario, &c. — 
 Cic. pro Balb. — Strah. — Tacit. Ann. 1, c. 50 
 and 55. G. 2. 
 
 Marsigni, a barbarous people, between the 
 sources of the Oder and the JElbe, in that part 
 of Germany which is now Silesia, north of the 
 Q,uadi and the Marcomanni. 
 
MA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MA 
 
 Marsyas, I. a river of Phrygia emptying 
 into the Mgeander. The confluence of these 
 rivers v/as a little below the town of Celaence. 
 Liv. 38, c. 13.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 265.—Luca7i. 
 
 3, V. 208. II. Another in Syria, rising in the 
 
 east of the mountains which form the chain of 
 Libanus, and falling into the Orontes opposite 
 to Apamea. 
 
 Martia aqua, water at Rome, celebrated for 
 its clearness and salubrity. It was conveyed to 
 Rome, at the distance of above 30 miles, from 
 the lake Fucinus, by Ancus Martins, whence it 
 received its name. Tihull. 3, el. 7, v, 26. — 
 Plin. 31, c. 3, 1. 36, c. 15. 
 
 Marus, {the Morava,) a river of Germany, 
 which separates modern Hungary and Mora- 
 via. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 63. 
 
 Mas^sylh, a people of Numidia, on the side 
 of Mauretania. It was this part of Numidia 
 that Syphax ruled over, and which was united 
 on his death to the other portion over which 
 Massinissa had authority. The promontory 
 Tretum, now Sebdaruz, or the Seven Capes, 
 divided these two districts,which afterwards con- 
 stituted the kingdom of Numidia. Vid. Massyla. 
 
 Masca, a river of Mesopotamia, emptying 
 into the Euphrates between the mouth of the 
 Chaboras and the borders of Arabia, near the 
 town of Corsote. It might be possible to dis- 
 play a great deal of learning in fixing the pre- 
 cise situation of the mouth of this river ; but as 
 it is of very little importance in the history of 
 ancient times, and as the difference of a mile or 
 two in the description of its course affects in 
 no degree the accuracy of our conclusions in 
 regard to any fact in ancient history, we shall 
 not enter into an examination of its various 
 bendings, nor attempt to prove with Mannert, 
 that its confluence with the Euphrates was 
 within a mile less to the west of Anatho than 
 D'Anville has placed it, (See Lemp. Class. 
 Diet. 6th Am. ed. in which all these points are 
 learnedly discussed.) The name of Masca is 
 applied to this river by Xenophon, but Ptolemy 
 calls it the Saocoras. It is now designated as 
 the Wadal Geboa. 
 
 Massagetje. " We find no name more 
 considerable in Scythia than that of Massage- 
 tee, which may be interpreted the Great Getes, 
 by the signification of the initial syllables. The 
 primitive and principal dwelling of the Massa- 
 getes was beyond the laxartes, or Araxes, ac- 
 cording to Herodotus ; and in ihe vicinity of 
 the moor which the same river forms, accord- 
 ing to Strabo. And if we find this name in 
 other countries, as in those of the Alans, and 
 the Huns, of a different race, the diffusion of it 
 was owing to the celebrity that it acquired in 
 Scythia." D^Anville. The name of Massage- 
 tse disappears in the first centuries of Christian- 
 ity. They hard no temples, but worshipped the 
 sun, to whom they offered horses, on account of 
 their swiftness. When their parents had come 
 to a certain age., they generally put them to 
 death, and eat their flesh mixed with that of 
 cattle. Horat. 1, od. 35, v. 40. — Dionys. Per. 
 138.—Herodot. 1, c. ^L—Strab. I.— Mela, 1, c. 
 2. — Lucan. 2, v. 50. — Justin. 1, c. 8. 
 
 Massicus, a mountain of Campania, near 
 Minturnae, famous for its wine, which even 
 now preserves its ancient character. Plin. 14, 
 c &.— Horat. 1, od. 1, v. Id.— Virg. G. 2, v. 143. 
 
 Massilia, a maritime town of Gallia Narbo- 
 nensis, now called Marseilles. It is celebrated 
 for its laws, its fidelity to the Romans, and for 
 its being long the seat of literature. It acquired 
 great consequence by its commercial pursuits 
 during its infancy, and even Waged war against 
 Carthage. By becoming the ally of Rome, its 
 power was established ; but in warmly espous- 
 ing the cause of Pompey against Cassar, its 
 views were frustrated, and it was so much re- 
 duced by the insolence and resentment of the 
 conqueror, that it never after recovered its in- 
 dependence and warlike spirit. Herodot. 1, c. 
 164.— PZiw. 3, c. 4:.— Justin. 37, &c.—Strab. 1.— 
 Liv. 5, c. 3. — Horat. ep. 16. — Flor. 4, c. 2. — Cic. 
 Flac. 26. Off. 2, 8.— Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 44. Agr. 
 4. This city, almost equally celebrated in an- 
 tiquity and by the moderns, owed its origin to 
 the Asiatic Greeks of Phoc^a, who, fleeing 
 from the threatening power and oppression of 
 the Persians, brought among the savage Gauls 
 the civilization and enterprise of Greece. Five 
 hundred years before the Christian era, and 
 about the period of the Gallic invasion of Italy, 
 while Rome yet acknowledged the rule of the 
 Tarquins, these bold and adventurous colonists 
 fixed themselves among the Salyes, the fiercest 
 people of the Gauls, as yet unattempted in the 
 strength and independence of their native land. 
 The natural harbour of Massilia was not calcu- 
 ted to afford convenient moorings to all the 
 vessels which the great trade of the place in- 
 vited to its port. The Massilians were^early 
 celebrated for their arts and letters, and not less 
 so for the excellence of their laws and the just- 
 ness with which they were executed. As their 
 soil was not fertile, they very soon directed their 
 attention therefore rather to commerce than to 
 agricultural pursuits ; and a nuniber of colo- 
 nies in Hispania and elsewhere, which owed 
 their origin to the Phocseans of Marseilles, at^ 
 tested the spirit and prosperous enterprise of 
 the Massilians. 
 
 Massyli, a people of Numidia, on the east 
 of the Masaesyli, and west of Africa properly so 
 called. When Massinissa, their king, upon the 
 death of Syphax possessed himself of the coun- 
 try of the Masssesyli lying on the west, the 
 united region constituted one kingdom under the 
 name of Numidia. Thus joined they formed 
 the territory of Jugurtha, so celebrated for the 
 war which he waged with the Romans. Vid. 
 Mascesylii. When the Massyli went on horse- 
 back, they never used saddles or bridles, but 
 only sticks. Their character was warlike, their 
 manners simple, and their love of liberty un- 
 conquerable. Liv. 24, c. 48, 1. 28, c. 17, 1. 29, c, 
 32.— SzZ. 3, V. 282, 1. 16, v. 111.— Ducan. 4, v, 
 682.— Hr^. ^En. 4, v. 132. 
 
 Mastramela, a. lake near Marseilles, mer d* 
 Martegues. Plin. 3, c. 4. 
 
 Matisco, a town of the ^dui in Gaul, now 
 called Macon. 
 
 Matrona, a river of Gaul, now called the 
 Marnc, falling into the Seine. This river, 
 which, in modem geography, belongs for the 
 most part to Champaigne, the departments of 
 Marne and Seine et Margie, in the time of the 
 Gauls divided many tribes, and rising on the 
 confines of the territory that belonged to the 
 Linsfones, separated the Belg'ic population from 
 the Celtic through the whole of its course, tiL 
 199 
 
MA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 its confluence with the Seine near Lutetia Pa- 
 risioriira, the city of Paris. 
 
 Mattiaci, a German people on the borders 
 of the Rhine, belonging to the Catti, but early 
 in alliance with Rome. Their southern limit 
 may be generally described by the course of the 
 Mayne towards its mouth, and the Mattiaci 
 Fontes, above the confluence of the two rivers 
 along which their possessions extended, may be 
 considered as one of their principal places. This 
 town is now called Wisbaden in Hesse, as were 
 the greater part of the lands of the Mattiaci. 
 Mattium, supposed to be the same as Marpurg, 
 appears to have been their capital, and is some- 
 times called the capital of all the Cattian peo- 
 ple. Tacit, de Germ. 29. An. I, c. 56. 
 
 Mauretania, an extensive region of Africa, 
 upon the sea coast of the north. The Mediter- 
 ranean bounded it upon this side; upon the east 
 was Numidia; the vast Getulian deserts lay 
 upon its borders on the south; and the open 
 ocean washed it on the west. These bounda- 
 ries enclose the modern kingdoms of Morocco 
 and Fez. To this was added a part of Numi- 
 dia, when all the coast of Africa was reduced 
 into the form of a province or provinces of the 
 empire. In the reign of Claudius, Mauretania 
 was divided into two parts ; the western, ex- 
 tending from the ocean to the river Molochath, 
 and formed of what might be considered the 
 proper and original Mauretania, was denomi- 
 nated Tingitana, from Tingis, its capital ; and 
 the eastern portion, reaching from the same 
 river to the Ampsagas on the borders of the di- 
 minished Numidia, received the surname of Cse- 
 sariensis, from the city of Caesaria, which, until 
 it received this name from Juba in honour of 
 Augustus, had been called lol. At a still later 
 period, the interior of Mauretania Csesariensis 
 was erected into a separate province under the 
 title of Sitifensis, from the capital city of Sitifi. 
 On the division of the empire into east and west 
 Mauretania, Tingitana constituted a part of 
 one of the Spanish provinces. *' The expul- 
 sion of thg^ Vandals from Spain put the Goths 
 also in possession of the province of Tingitana ; 
 the commandant of which, under the last king 
 of the Visigoths, in vengeance of a private in- 
 jury, introduced the Maures into that kingdom 
 about the beginning of the eighth century. The 
 western situation of this extremity of Africa, 
 procured it from the Arabs the name of Garb, 
 from an appellative in their language ; the pro- 
 vince of Tingitana corresponding nearly with 
 the kingdom of JF^ez." D'Anville'. In the time 
 of the Romans, the whole of this coast was 
 thickly lined with populous cities, the inhabit- 
 ants of which, though partly civilized, lived not 
 according to the usages of Roman society. It 
 is now inhabited by the African Moors, who 
 retain no vestiges of even the partial civiliza- 
 tion of the former occupants of their country, 
 Mauretania was also called Maurusia. 
 
 Mauri, the inhabitants of Mauretania. Eve- 
 ry thing among them grew in greater abundance 
 and greater perfection than in other countries. 
 Strab. VI.— Martial. 5, ep. 29, 1. 12, ep. 67.— 
 Sil. Ital. 4, V. 569, 1. 10, v. 402.— MeZa, 1, c. 5, 
 1. 3, c. 10. — Justin. 19, c. 2. — Sallust. Jug. — 
 Virg. Mn. 4, v. 206. 
 
 Maurusii, the people of Maurusia, a country 
 near the columns of Hercules. It is also called 
 200 
 
 Mauretania. Vid. Mauretania. Virg. JEn. 4, 
 V. 206. 
 
 Mazaca. Vid. CcBsarea. 
 
 Mazaxes, (sing. Mazaz,) a people of Africa, 
 famous for shooting arrows. Lntcan. 4, v. 681. 
 
 Mazeras, a river of Hyrcania, falling into 
 the Caspian Sea. Plut. 
 
 Mazices, and Mazyges, a people of Libya, 
 inhabiting the country in the vicinity of the 
 Oases. 
 
 Media, a country of Asia. Media, properly 
 so called, was separated from Armenia by the 
 Araxes on the north, the province of Asia ex- 
 tended from its eastern boundary, Assyria lay 
 upon its west, and Persis and Susiana bordered 
 on it towards the south. On the north, the 
 mountain regions of this country west of Ar- 
 menia, were washed by the waters of the Cas- 
 pian Sea. The modern Irak, distinguished, 
 according to D'Anville, by the surname of Aja- 
 mi or the Persian Irak, corresponds to the 
 country contained within these limits. " The 
 vast province of Irak- Adjemi, which nearly cor- 
 responds to the Great Media of the ancients, 
 takes its name from the first founder of the Per- 
 sian monarchy ; the Djemshid of the Oriental- 
 ists, and the Achsemenes of the Greeks. \i shid 
 and menes are considered terminations, these 
 two words may be reduced to one root, Adjem 
 or Acheni. With the Arabians Irak signifies 
 Babylonia, and Adjemi is their name for the 
 Persians. The name of the province, therefore, 
 means Persian Babylonia. This province oc- 
 cupies the greater part of the central plateau of 
 Persia," (Malte-Brun,) and its description is 
 comprehended in its name of the great salt 
 desert. But Media, in the widest extent of its 
 empire, was not so circumscribed, and extend- 
 ing on the west almost to the Halys, and on 
 the south over Persia, it formed one of the dis- 
 tinguished monarchies of the early ages of an- 
 tiquity. It should be observed that the history 
 of Media, with which we are acquainted, refers 
 but to the later period of her people, who, at a 
 much earlier period, and probably in regions 
 farther to the east, had exercised a controlling 
 power over the afiairsof Asia. In effect, the 
 two series of Median kings, preserved by He- 
 rodotus and Xenophon on one hand, and by 
 Ctesias on the other, offer little in common, and 
 seem to refer to different dynasties or different 
 empires. For a long time, however, the Medes 
 were subject to the Assyrians, and their coun- 
 try formed a small portion of the wide empire 
 of the Assyrian kings. The principal division 
 of Media was into Atropatena contiguous to Ar- 
 menia and Media proper, consisting of the mi- 
 nor districts of Choromethrene, Artacene, &c. 
 on the more southern boundaries. " Atropate- 
 na," says Heylin, " is that part of Media which 
 lieth between mount Taurus and the Caspian 
 Sea." This represents the mountainous and 
 barren parts of Media, and its capital Gasa or 
 Gazaca still bears among the Armenians the - 
 name of Gauzak. This region, in the language M 
 of the old English antiquarian so often cited, ^ 
 was a "barren, cold inhospitable country; and 
 for that reason allotted for the dwelling of so 
 many of the captive Israelites, brought hither by 
 Salmanassar when he conquered that country," 
 South of the mountains commences the fertile 
 tract ; and here, in the capital city of Ecbatana, 
 
ME 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 the kings of Persia, when in their turn they be- 
 came lords of Media, were accustomed to take 
 up their summer residence. The name of Me- 
 dia is of great antiquity, and modern writers, 
 who please themselves in finding the origin of 
 nations among the immediate posterity of Noah, 
 refer it to Madai, the son of Japhet and grand- 
 son of the first great patriarch. In comparative- 
 ly recent times, that is to say, wiihin a a century 
 or two of our era, the countries of Hyrcania and 
 Parthia were cut off from the north-eastern 
 parts of Media, and formed, long after she had 
 ceased to exist as a nation, a powerful and inde- 
 pendent state. The principal mountains of this 
 country were the Orontes, theCoronus, theZa- 
 gros which bounded it towards Assyria, and 
 the Bagoas which lay on the borders of Aria. 
 These were all but ramifications of the great 
 Taurus range, which are here disjointed, and 
 point in every direction, intersecting the country 
 with great irregularity. From these mountains 
 flow the chief rivers which water the whole face 
 of Media ; the Mardus or Amardus, which falls 
 into the Caspian Sea ; the Euteus or Choas- 
 pes, which belongs to Persia and falls into the 
 Tigris near Apamea, with many smaller streams 
 that irrigate the parts of Media not covered by 
 the salt deserts which lay waste so many tracts 
 of Asia. The province of Media was first 
 raised into a kingdom by its revolt from the Assy- 
 rian monarchy, B. C. 820; and, after it had for 
 some time enjoyed a kind of republican govern- 
 ment, Deioces, by his artifice, procured himself 
 to be called king, 700 B. C. After a reign of 
 53 years he was succeeded by Phraortes, B. C. 
 6-47; who was succeeded by Cyaxares, B. C. 
 625. His successor was Astyages, B. C. 585, 
 in whose reign Cyrus became master of Media, 
 .B. C. 551 ; and ever after the empire was trans- 
 ferred to the Persians. The Medes were war- 
 like in the primitive ages of their power, they 
 encouraged polygamy, and were remarkable for 
 the homage which they paid to their sovereigns, 
 who were styled king"^of kings. This title M^as 
 afterwards adopted by their conquerors, the Per- 
 sians, and was still in use in the age of the Ro- 
 man emperors. Justin. 1, c. 5. — Herodot. 1, 
 Sic.—Polyb. 5 and 10.— Curt. 5, &c.—Diod. 
 Sic. 13. — Ctesias. 
 
 Mediolancm, I. now Milan, a city of the In- 
 subres in Gallia Cisalpina. It was situated on 
 the Lambrus, near its source, in the valley of 
 the Ticinus and the Addua, in a country abun- 
 dantly fertile and conveniently situated on the 
 Po, the medium of communication and com- 
 merce for the north of Italy with all the people 
 of the southern coast. But, though supposed to 
 have been early a capital city of those Gauls by 
 whom it had been built, and though thus advan- 
 tageously situated, Mediolanum is scarcely men- 
 tioned in history during the early ages of Rome. 
 " This city is named for the first time in history 
 by Polybius, in his account of the Gallic wars. 
 The capture of it by Cn. Scipio and Marcellus 
 was followed by the submission of the Insubres. 
 In Strabo's time it was considered as a most 
 flourishing city. But its splendour seems to 
 have been the greatest in the time of Ausonius, 
 who assigns to it the rank of the sixth town in 
 the Roman empire. Procopius, who wrote a 
 century and a half later, speaks of Mediolanum 
 as one of the first cities of the west, and as in- 
 Part I.— 2 C 
 
 ferior only to Rome in population and extent." 
 Cram. With the fall, however, of the empire, 
 commence the fortunes of Milan. For a long 
 time, when the name of Italy became to signify 
 more particularly the northern parts, as it was in 
 a great measure confined to the territories of the 
 LoTiilard king, the bishop of Milaib was digni- 
 fied by the title of Metropolitan of the diocess 
 of Ital)' ; and as the first city of the Lombard 
 kingdom, in proportion to the diminution of the 
 imperial poAver and of the Exarch's authority, 
 this city became to hold the place and honours 
 
 of the first town in Italy. II. Aulercorum, 
 
 a town of Gaul, now Evereux in Normandy. 
 III. Santonum, another, now Saintes, in 
 
 Guienne. 
 
 Mediomatrici, a powerful and widely ex- 
 tended people of Gallia Belgica. Their country 
 corresponded nearly to the province of. Lorraine, 
 in that part which constitutes the department 
 de la Moselle. They were surrounded on the 
 north by the Treviri, on the east by the Ne- 
 metes and Triboci, and on the south by the 
 Leuci, reaching to the division of Belgica 2d on 
 the west. The chief town of this people was 
 Divodurum, Metz. 
 
 Mediterraneum mare, the great inland sea 
 that lies between Europe and Africa, having 
 the former on the north and the latter on the 
 south, and washing the western shores of Asia 
 on the east. It receives its names from its situ- 
 ation medio terrce, situate in the middle of the 
 land. The word Mediterranean does not occur 
 in the classics ; but it is sometimes called inter- 
 num, nostrum, or medius liquor, and is frequent- 
 ly denominated in Scripture the Ch-eat Sea. 
 The first naval power that ever obtained the 
 command of it, as recorded in the fabulous 
 epochs of the writer Castor, is "Crete under Mi- 
 nos. Afterwards it passed into the hands of the 
 Lydians, B. C. 1179; of the Pelasgi, 1058; of 
 the Thracians, 1000; of the Rhodians, 916 ; of 
 the Phrygians, 893 ; of the Cyprians 868 ; of 
 the Phoenicians, 826 ; of the Egyptians, 787 ; of 
 the Milesians, 753 ; of the Carians, 734 ; and 
 of the Lesbians, 676, which they retained for 69 
 years. Horat. 3, od. 3, v. 46. — Plin. 2, c. 68. — 
 Sallust. Jug. n.—Ctes. B. G. 5, c. l.—Liv. 26, 
 c. 42. " The Strait of Gibraltar leads into the 
 Mediterranean, that series of inland seas equally 
 interesting from their situation, their physical 
 character, and historical celebrity. The first 
 basin of the Mediterranean terminates at Cape 
 Buono and the Strait of Messina. It is divided 
 into two unequal parts by Corsica and Sardinia ; 
 but the gulfs of Genoa and Lyons are the only 
 places that are at present generally designated. 
 The depth of the basin is about a thousand or 
 fifteen hundred fathoms near the shores where 
 the sea washes the base of the Pyrenees, the 
 Alps, and the Appenines. The eastern part 
 may be denominated the Italian Sea : numerous 
 volcanic islands, such as the Lipari, Pontia, and 
 many others are scattered over it ; and all of them 
 are connected with the same subterraneous fires 
 that rise from Etna and Vesuvius. The second 
 basin is nearly twice as large, but very few isl- 
 ands or rocks have been rbserved on it. It ex- 
 tends from the coasts of Sicily and Tunis to the 
 shores of Syria and Egypt, and forms in the 
 north two separate basins renoMTied in history 
 and well adapted to excite the attention of the 
 201 
 
ME 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 physical geographer. The first is the Adriatic ; 
 its bed, if carefully examined, appears to be com- 
 posed of marble and lime mixed with shells. 
 The second is the Archipelago or White Sea of 
 the Turks, its numerous and picturesque islands 
 are all of volcanic origin. The gulf the Great 
 Syrtes on the south penetrates into Africa j its 
 sandy coasts are lower than most others in the 
 Mediterranean ; its vast marshes in the midst of 
 moving sands are of variable extent, and seem to 
 confound the limits of the land and sea. But the 
 most remarkable basin in the Mediterranean is 
 without doubt that of the Black Sea. Its en- 
 trance is formed by the strait of the Dardanelles^ 
 the Propontis or the sea of Marmora, and the 
 Bosphorus or the narrow channel of Constanti- 
 nople. It is fed by the greatest rivers in central 
 Europe, and receives, by the strait of Caffa or the 
 Cimmerian Bosphorus, the turbid waters of the 
 Palus-Maeotis, which the moderns have so inac- 
 curately denominated the Sea of Azoph. Such 
 are at present the limits of those inland seas 
 which separate Europe from Asia and Africa, 
 and facilitate the communication between the 
 ancient continents. It is not perhaps improba- 
 ble that a former strait, gradually obstructed in 
 the course of ages by the gravel and alluvial de- 
 posits from the torrents of Caucasus, connected, 
 long after the last physical revolutions that hap- 
 pened in our globe, the Sea of Azof, and conse- 
 quently the Black Sea, with the Caspian. The 
 deep waters in the Mediterranean arrive chiefly 
 from the Nile, the Danube, the Dnieper, and 
 other rivers that enter the Black Sea; and also 
 from the Po, the Rhone, and the Ebro. Thus it 
 receives the torrents formed by the melting of the 
 snow in Abyssinia, Switzerland, Caucasus, and 
 mount Atlas. But although its feeders are so 
 abundant, it has been generally believed that the 
 quantity of water which enters the Mediterra- 
 nean from the Atlantic is greater than that dis- 
 charged from it into the same ocean. It has been 
 alleged, in support of this supposition, that a 
 constant and large current flows into the middle, 
 of the strait at Gibraltar, whilst only two feeble 
 and lateral currents issue from it. But that ap- 
 parent influx of the ocean is to be attributed to 
 the pressure of a greater fluid mass on a smaller 
 body of water ; a pressure, which, from the force 
 of its impulsion, must necessarily displace the 
 upper strata in the lesser mass. If an anchor 
 be cast in the strait, a lower current may be 
 discovered, which carries to the ocean the su- 
 perfluous water of the interior sea. The prin- 
 cipal motion of the Mediterranean is from east 
 to west, but the reaction of its water against the 
 coast occasions several lateral and adverse cur- 
 rents. The straits too, from their position, give 
 rise to many very variable currents. Those near 
 Cape Pharo in Messina or the Charybdis of the 
 ancients and the Euripus between the continent 
 and the island of Negropont, are the most re- 
 markable. The tides are in most places hardly 
 perceptible, but they may be observed in the 
 Adriatic and in the gulf of the Syrtes." Malte- 
 Brun. 
 
 " Medma, or Mesma, a town in the country 
 of the Brulii on the coast, situated by the right 
 bank of the river Mesima. It was a city of some 
 importance and of Greek origin ; having been 
 colonized by the Locrians, together with Hippo- 
 nium. According to Strabo, it derived its name 
 202 
 
 from a great fountain in its vicinity. In Pliny 
 it is written corruptly Medua. Antiquaries re- 
 port that the ruins of this city are to be seen be- 
 tween Nicotera and the river Medama, but 
 nearer to the latter." Cram. 
 
 Medoacus. Vid. Meduacus. 
 
 Meduacus, two rivers of Venetia, {Major, 
 now Brenta, and Minor, nov/ Bachiglione,)isi[l- 
 ing near Venice into the Adriatic Sea. Plin. 
 3, c. 16.—Liv. 10, c. 2. 
 
 Meduana, a river of Gaul, flowing into the 
 Ligeris, now the Mayne. Lmcan. 1, v. 438. 
 
 Megalia, a small island of Campania, near 
 Neapolis. Stat. 2, Sylv. v. 80. 
 
 Megalopolis. " Megalopolis, the most re- 
 cent of all the Arcadian cities, and also the 
 most extensive, was situated in a wide and fer- 
 tile plain watered by the Helisson, which flow- 
 ed from the central parts of Arcadia, and nearly 
 divided the town into two equal parts. Pausa- 
 nias informs us that the Arcadians, having, by 
 the advice of Epaminondas, resolved on laying 
 the foundations of a city which was to be the 
 capital of the nation, they deputed ten commis- 
 sioners, selected from the principal states, to 
 make the necessary arrangements for conduct- 
 ing the new colony. .This event took place in 
 the 102d Olympiad, or 370-1 B. C. The ter- 
 ritory assigned to Megalopolis was extensive, 
 since it reached as far as the little states of Or- 
 chomenus and Caphyee on the north-east, while 
 to the south and south-west it adjoined Laconia 
 and Messenia. Diodorus affirms that the city 
 contained about 15,000 men capable of bearing 
 arms, according to which calculation we may 
 compute the whole population at 65,000. The 
 Megalopolitans experienced no molestation 
 from the Lacedaemonians as long as Thebes 
 was powerful enough to protect them ; but on 
 the decline of that city, and when also it became 
 engaged in the Sacred war against the Pho- ' 
 cians, they were assailed by the Spartans, who 
 endeavoured to obtain possession of their town ; 
 these attacks were however easily repulsed by 
 the aid of the Argives and Messenians. To the 
 Athenians the Megalopolitans were likewise 
 indebted for their protection against the at- 
 tempts of Sparta, as well as their assistance in 
 settling some dissensions in their republic, 
 which had led to the secession of several town- 
 ships that originally contributed to the founda- 
 tion of the city. In order to strengthen them- 
 selves still further against the Lacedasmonians, 
 they formed an alliance with Philip, son of 
 Amyntas, who conciliated the favour of the 
 Arcadians not only towards himself, but to- 
 wards all his successors. On the death of Alex- 
 ander, Megalopolis had to defend itself against 
 the army of Polysperchon, who was engaged in 
 war with Cassander. This general vigorously 
 assaulted the city ; but, owing to the bravery of 
 the inhabitants headed by Damis, who had 
 served under Alexander, his attacks were con- 
 stantly repulsed. Subsequently we find Megal- 
 opolis governed by tyrants, the first of whom was 
 Aristodemus of Phigalea, whose excellent cha- 
 racter obtained for him the surname of Xjorjo-ro?, 
 Under his reign the Spartans again invaded 
 Megalopolis, but were defeated after an obsti- 
 nate conflict, Acrotatus, the son of Cleomenes, 
 who commanded their army, being among the 
 slain. Sometime after the death of Aristodemus, 
 
ME 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 the sovereignty was again usurped by Lydiades, 
 a man of ignoble birth, but of worthy character, 
 since he vohmtarily abdicated his authority for 
 the benefit of his countrymen, in order that he 
 might unite them with the Achaean confederacy. 
 At this time Megalopolis was assailed for the 
 third time by the Spartans ; who, having defeat- 
 ed the inhabitants, laid siege to the town, of 
 which they would have made themselves mas- 
 ters but for a violent wind which overthrew and 
 demolished their engines. Not long, however, 
 after this failure, Cleomenes the son of Leoni- 
 das, in violation of the existing treaty, surprised 
 the Megalopolitans by night, and putting to the 
 sword all who offered any resistance, destroyed 
 the city. Philipcemen, with a considerable part 
 of the population, escaped into Messenia. Me- 
 galopolis was restored by the Achaeans after the 
 battle of Sellasia ; but it never again rose to its 
 former flourishing condition. The virtues and 
 talents of its great general Philopoemen added 
 materially to its celebrity and influence in the 
 Achsean councils, and after his death its fame 
 was upheld by the abilities of Lycortas and Po- 
 lybius, who trod in the steps of their gifted 
 countryman, and were worthy of sharing in the 
 lustre which he had reflected on his native city. 
 In the time of Polybius, Megalopolis was fifty 
 stadia in circumference, but its population was 
 only equal to half that of Sparta, and when 
 Strabo wrote it was so reduced, that a comic 
 poet was justified in saying, 
 
 'EjOy/iia y^tsyaX)) Idrlv h MfyaXdTroXtfi 
 
 Pausanias informs us, that it was divided into 
 two parts by the river Helisson. The village 
 of Sinano has been built on the site and amidst 
 the ruins of Megalopolis. Mr. Dodwell informs 
 us, ' that part of the theatre still remains, but 
 the seats are covered with earth, and overgrown 
 with bushes.' " Cram. 
 
 Megara, I. the capital of Megaris. •' Tradi- 
 tion, as Pausanias affirms, represented Megara 
 as already existing under that name in the time 
 of Car the son of Phoroneus, while others have 
 derived it from Megarus. a Boeotian chief, and 
 son of Apollo or Neptune. Car was succeeded 
 by Lelex, who, as it was reported, came from 
 jEgypt, and transmitted his name to the ancient 
 race of the Leleges, whom we thus trace from 
 the Achelous to the shores of the Saronic gulf. 
 Lelex was followed by Cleson and Pylas, who 
 abdicated his crown in favour of Pandion, the 
 son of Cecrops king of Athens, by which event 
 Megaris became annexed to the latter state. Ni- 
 sus, the son of Pandion, received Megaris? as his 
 share of his father's dominions. The history of 
 this prince and his daughter Scylla, as also the 
 capture of Megara by Minos, are found in all 
 the mythological writers of Greece ; but Pausa- 
 nias observes that these accounts were disowned 
 by the Megareans. Nisus is said to have found- 
 ed Nisaea, the port of Megara; whence the in- 
 habitants of that city were surnamed Nisaei, to 
 distinguish them from the Megareans of Sicily, 
 their colonists. Hyperion, the son of Agamem- 
 non, according to Pausanias, was the last sove- 
 reign of Megara; after his death, the govern- 
 ment, by the advice of an oracle, became demo- 
 cratical. As a republic, however, it remained 
 still subject to Athens; Strabo indeed affirms 
 that, till the reign of Codrus, Megaris had al- 
 
 ways been included within the limits of Attica; 
 and he thus accounts for Homer's making no 
 special mention of its inhabitants from his com- 
 prehending them with the Athenians under the 
 general denomination of lonians. In the reign 
 of Codrus, Megara was wrested from the Athe- 
 nians by a Peloponnesian force ; and a colony 
 having been established there by the Corinthians 
 and Messenians, it ceased to be considered as of 
 Ionian origin, but thenceforth became a Dorian 
 city, both in its language and political institu- 
 tions. The pillar also which marked the boun- 
 daries of Ionia and Peloponnesus was on that 
 occasion destroyed. The Scholiast of Pindar 
 informs us that the Corinthians at this early 
 period, considering Megara as their colony, ex- 
 ercised a sort of jurisdiction over the city. Not 
 long after, however, Theagenes, one of its citi- 
 zens, usurped the sovereign power by the same 
 method apparently which v/as afterwards adopt- 
 ed by Pisistratus at Athens. Plutarch informs 
 us that he was finally expelled by his country- 
 men ; after which event a moderate republican 
 form of government was established, though af- 
 terwards it degenerated into a violent democracy. 
 This should probably be considered as the period 
 of Megara's greatest prosperity, since it then 
 founded the cities of Selymbria, Mesembria, and 
 Byzantium on the shores of the Euxine, and 
 Megara Hyblaea in Sicily. It was at this time 
 also that its inhabitants were engaged in war 
 with the Athenians on the subject of Salamis, 
 which, after an obstinate contest, finally r^emain- 
 ed in the hands of the latter. The Megareans 
 fought at Artemisium with twenty ships, and 
 at Salamis with the same number. They also 
 gained some advantage over the Persians, under 
 Mardonius, in an inroad which he made into 
 their territory, and lastly, they sent 3000 soldiers 
 to Plataea,who deserved well of their country 
 in the memorable battle fought in its plains. 
 After the Persian war, we find Megara engaged 
 in hostilities with Corinth, and renouncing the 
 Peloponnesian confederacy, to ally itself with 
 Athens. This state of things was not, however, 
 of long duration, for the Corinthians, after effect- 
 ing a reconciliation with the oligarchical party 
 in Megara, persuaded the inhabitants to declare 
 against the Athenians, who garrisoned their 
 city. These were presently attacked and put 
 to the sword, with the exception of a small num- 
 ber who escaped to Nisaea. The Athenians, 
 justly incensed at this treacherous conduct, re- 
 nounced all intercourse with the Megareans, 
 and issued a decree excluding them from their 
 ports and markets ; a measure which appears 
 to have been severely felt by the latter, and was 
 made a pretence for war on the part of their 
 Peloponnesian allies. Megara was, during the 
 Peloponnesian war, exposed, with the other ci- 
 ties of Greece, to the tumults and factions en- 
 gendered by violent party spirit. The partisans 
 of the democracy favoured, it is true, the Pelo- 
 ponnesian cause, but, dreading the efforts of the 
 adverse faction, which might naturally look for 
 support from the Lacedaemonians in restoring 
 the government to the form of an oligarchy, they 
 formed a plan for giving up the city to the Athe- 
 nians in the seventh year of the war. An Athe- 
 nian force was accordingly despatched, which 
 appeared suddenly before Nissea, the port ot 
 Megara, and having cut off the Peloponnesian 
 203 
 
ME 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 troops which garrisoned the place, compelled 
 them to surrender. Megara itself would also 
 have fallen into their hands, if Brasidas had not 
 at this juncture arrived with a Spartan army 
 before the w^alLs of that city, where he was pre- 
 sently joined by the BcEotians and other allies. 
 On his arrival, the Athenians, not feeling suf- 
 ficiently strong to hazard an action, withdrew to 
 Nisasa, and, after leaving a garrison in that port, 
 returned to Athens. The leaders of the demo- 
 cratical party in Megara now fearing that a re- 
 action would ensue, voluntarily quitted the city, 
 which then returned to an oligarchical form of 
 government. From this period we hear but little 
 of Megara in the Grecian history ; but we are 
 told that its citizens remamed undisturbed by 
 the contest in which their more powerful neigh- 
 bours were engaged, and in the tranquil enjoy- 
 ment of iheir independence. Philosophy also 
 flourished in this city ; Euclid, a disciple of So- 
 crates, having founded there a school of some 
 celebrity, known by the name of the Megaric 
 sect. Plutarch reports that the Megareans of- 
 fered to make Alexander the Great a citizen of 
 their town, an honour which that prince was in- 
 clined to ridicule, though they asserted it had 
 never been granted to any foreigner except Her- 
 cales. After the death of that monarch, Megara 
 fell successively into the hands of Demetrius Po- 
 liorcetes, Ptolemy Soter, and Demetrius, son of 
 Antigonus Gonatas, by whom, according to Plu- 
 tarch, the city was destroyed ; but as Pausanias 
 mentions a war waged by the Megareans against 
 Thebes, in which they were assisted by the 
 Achasans, we may infer that it was subsequent- 
 ly restored, and we know that it was taken by 
 the Romans under Metellus and F. Calenus. 
 Strabo also affirms that Megara still existed in 
 his time, though much reduced, as we are assur- 
 ed by Sulpicius in a well-known passage of his 
 letter to Cicero. Pausanias affirms that Mega- 
 ra was the only city of Greece which was not 
 restored by Hadrian, in consequence of its in- 
 habitants having murdered Anthemocritus the 
 Athenian herald. Alaric completed the destruc- 
 tion of this once flourishing town. Megara was 
 situated at the foot of two hills, on each of which 
 a citadel had been built ; these were named Ca- 
 ria and Alcathous. It was connected with the 
 port of Nissea by two walls, the length of which 
 was about eight stadia, or eighteen according to 
 Strabo. They were erected by the Athenians 
 at the time that the Megareans placed themselves 
 under their protection. The distance from 
 Athens was 210 stadia, as we learn from Proco- 
 pius. Dio Chrysostom call it a day's journey. 
 Modern travellers reckon eight hours." Cram. 
 
 II. A town of Sicily, founded by a colonj'' 
 
 from Megara in Attica, about 728 years before 
 the Christian era. It was destroyed by Gelon, 
 king of Syracuse ; and before the arrival of the 
 Megarean colonv it was called Hybla. Strai. 
 26, ^c.— Virg. jEn. 3, v. 689. 
 
 M EGARis, the name given to the territory of 
 Megara. It " was confined on the west by the 
 Corinthian gulf, on the south by the chain of 
 mountains which separated it from the Corin- 
 thian district, and also by the waters of the Sa- 
 ronic gulf. On the east and north-east it bor- 
 dered on Attica, and to the north on Boeotia, 
 the chain of Cithseron being the common boun- 
 dary of the two states in that direction. With 
 •204 
 
 the exception of the plain, in which Megara it- 
 self was situated, the country was rugged and 
 mountainous, and, from the poverty of its soil, 
 inadequate to the wants of the inhabitants, who 
 must have derived their supplies from Attica 
 and Corinth. The extent of the Megarean 
 coast, along the Saronic gulf, from the ridge of 
 Kerata, on the Attic frontier, to the vicinity of 
 Crommyon, on that of Corinth, was 140 stadia 
 according to Scylax. The same geographer 
 reckons 100 stadia from Pagae, the first Mega- 
 rean port on the Crisscean gulf towards Boeotia, 
 to the Corinthian frontier. The extreme breadth 
 of the territory of Megara from Nisasa to Pagas 
 is estimated by Strabo at 120 stadia. Accord- 
 ing to Plutarch, Megaris was once divided into 
 five districts or townships, named Heraea, Pi- 
 rasa, Megara, Cynosuria, Tripodiscus." Cram. 
 
 Megista, an island of Lycia, with a har- 
 bour of the same name. Liv. 37, c, 22. 
 
 MELANCHL.ENI, a people near the Cimmerian 
 Bosphorus. 
 
 Melas sinus, I. " a deep gulf formed by 
 the Thracian coast on the north-west, and the 
 shore of the Chersonese on the south-east; its 
 appellation in modern geography is the Gulf of 
 Saros. A river named Melas, now Cavatcha, 
 empties itself into this bay at its north-eastern 
 
 extremity." Cram. II. A river of Thessa- 
 
 ly, about 20 stadia from the river Dyras, and 5 
 
 from the city of Trachis. III. A river of 
 
 Boeotia, " near Orchomenus, which empties it- 
 self in the Copaic or Cephissian lake. Plu- 
 tarch says it rose close to the city, and very soon 
 became navigable, but that part of it was lost in 
 the marshes, the remainder joined the Cephis- 
 sus. Pliny remarks of its waters that they had 
 the property of dying the fleece of sheep black. 
 In the marshes formed near the junction of this 
 river v/ith the Cephissus grew the reeds so much 
 esteemed by the ancient Greeks for the purpose 
 of making flutes and other wind instruments." 
 
 Cram. IV. A river of Cappadocia, which 
 
 issued from mount Argaeus, now Argeh-dag. 
 The Melas, now Koremoz, is " also called by 
 the Turks Karasou^ ' the Black water,' in 
 conformity to its Greek denomination of Melas." 
 D^Anvilk. V. A river of Pamphylia. 
 
 Meld.e, or Meldonnn nrbs, a city of Gaul, 
 now Meaux in Champagne. 
 
 Meles (etis,) a river of Asia Minor, in Io- 
 nia near Smyrna. Some of the ancients sup- 
 posed that Homer was born on the banks of 
 that river, from which circumstance they call 
 him Melesigenes, and his compositions Meletcca 
 charta. It is even supported that he composed 
 his poems in a cave near the source of that ri- 
 ver. Strab. 12.-Stat. 2. Sijlv. 7, v. 3A.— Tib^dl. 
 4, el. 1, V. 201. — Paus. 7, c. 5. j| 
 
 Meubcea, I. a town of Thessaly,"ascribed ^ 
 by Homer to Philoctetes. This town accord- 
 ing to Livy, stood at the base of mount Ossa, in 
 that part which stretches towards the plains of 
 Thessaly above Demetrias. It was attacked in 
 the Macedonian war by M. Popilius, a Roman 
 commander, at the head of five thousand men; 
 but the garrison being reinforced by a detach- 
 ment from the army of Perseus, the enterprise 
 was abandoned. We know from ApoUonius 
 
 that it was a maritime town." Cram. II. 
 
 Also an island at the mouth of the Orontes in 
 Syria, whence Melibcea purpura. Mel. 2, c. 3. 
 
ME 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 MeliguniSj one of the ^olian islands near 
 Sicily. 
 
 Melita, I. an island in the Libyan Sea, be- 
 tween Sicily and Africa, now called Malta. 
 The soil was fertile, and the country famous for 
 its wool. It was first peopled by the Phoeni- 
 cians. St. Paul was shipwrecked there, and 
 cursed all venomous creatures, which now are 
 not to be found in the whole island. Some, 
 however, suppose that the island on which the 
 Apostle was shipwrecked, was another island 
 of the same name in the Adriatic, on the coast 
 of lUyricum, now called Melede. Malta is now 
 remarkable as being the residence of the knights 
 of Malta, formerly of St. John of Jerusalem, 
 settled there A. D. 1530, by the concession of 
 Charles V. after their expulsion from Rhodes 
 by the Turks. Strab. 6.— Mela, 2, c. l.—Cic. 
 
 in Verr. 4, c. 46. II. Another on the coast 
 
 of Illyricum in the Adriatic, now Melede. Plin. 
 3, c. 26. 
 
 Melitene, a part of Armenia Minor, one 
 of the greatest prefectures of the country. " The 
 principal Rom.an camp in Melitene took the 
 form of a city under Trajan, with the same 
 name ; and in the division of the less Armenia 
 into two provinces, Melitene became the metro- 
 polis of the second. Situated between the ri- 
 vers Euphrates and Melas, which last may have 
 thus denominated the country, it subsists in the 
 name of- Malaria ; and, in its jurisdiction, a city 
 called Area is known under the same name." 
 D'Anville. 
 
 Mella, or Mela, a small river of Cisalpine 
 Gaul, falling into the Allius, and with it into 
 the Po. Catull. 68, v. 33.— Virg. G. 4, v. 278. 
 
 Melos, now Milo, an island between Crete 
 and Peloponnesus, about 24 miles from Schyl- 
 leeum, about 60 miles in circumference. It en- 
 joyed its independence for above 700 years be- 
 fore the time of the Peloponnesian war. This 
 island was originally peopled by a Lacedaemo- 
 nian colony, 1116 years before the Christian 
 era. From this reason the inhabitants refused 
 to join the rest of the islands and the Athenians 
 against the Peloponnesians. This refusal was 
 severely punished. The Athenians took Me- 
 los, and put to the sword all such as were able 
 to bear arms. The women and children were 
 made slaves and the island left desolate. An 
 Athenian colony re-peopled it, till Lysander re- 
 conquered it, and re-established the original in- 
 habitants in their possessions. The island pro- 
 duced a kind of earth successfully employed in 
 painting and medicine. Strab. 1-Mela, 2, c. 
 l.—Plin. 4, c. 12, 1. 35, c. 9.— Tkucyd. 2, &c. 
 
 Melpes, now Melpa, a river of Lucania, 
 falling into the Tyrrhene Sea. Plin. 3, c. 5. 
 
 Memphis, " which owed its foundation to a 
 king in the first ages of Mgyipt named Ucho- 
 reus, was a city predominant over all in ^g\'pt 
 before Alexandria was elevated to this advan- 
 tage, and was situated on the western shore of 
 the Nile, three schenes, or fifteen mftes, above 
 the Delta. These indications are the only 
 means afforded us of ascertaining its position. 
 A considerable lapse of time had so impaired 
 this great city when Strabo wrote, that he saw 
 its palaces in ruins. It existed nevertheless 
 about six hundred years after ; for, on the inva- 
 sion of iEgypt by the Arabs, it appears under 
 the name of the country itself, or Mesr. But 
 
 vestiges of it, which, according to Abulfeda, 
 were apparent in the fifteenth century, are no 
 longer in being. Divers canals derived from 
 the Nile, separating Memphis from the ancient 
 sepulchres and pyramids, furnished the Greeks 
 with the idea of their infernal rivers Acheron, 
 Cocytus, and Lethe. On the bank of the Nile, 
 opposite to Memphis, a place which it is pre- 
 tended was named Troja by the Trojans who 
 followed Menelaus into Egypt, is now indicat- 
 ed by the analogous name of Tora." {D'An- 
 ville.) We extract the following from Russell's 
 History of Eg}T3t, " We should willingly de- 
 tain the reader at Memphis, did any relics of its 
 magnificence occupy the ground on which it 
 once stood, to gratify the rational curiosity its 
 name caimot fail to excite. But we shall only 
 quote from an old writer a description of that 
 capital as it appeared in the twelfth century. 
 ' Among the monuments of the power and ge- 
 nius of the ancients,' says Edrisi, ' are the re- 
 mains still extant in old Misr or Memphis. 
 That city, a little above Fostat, in the province 
 of Djizeh, was inhabited by the Pharoahs, and 
 is the ancient capital of the kingdom of Egypt. 
 Such it continued to be till ruined by Bokht- 
 nasr (Nebuchadnezzar) ; but many years after- 
 ward, when Alexander had built Iskanderiyeh 
 (Alexandria), this latter place was made the 
 metropolis of Egypt, and retained that pre-emi- 
 nence till the Moslems conquered the country 
 under Amru ebn el Aasi, who transferred the 
 seat of government to Fostat. At last El Moezz 
 came from the west and built El ''Cahirah 
 ( Cairo), which has ever since been the royal 
 place of residence. But let us return to the 
 description of Memf, also called old Misr. Not 
 withstanding the vast extent of this cit)'-, the re- 
 mote period at which it was built, the change of 
 the dynasties to which it has been subjected, the 
 attempts made by various nations to destroy 
 even the vestiges, and to obliterate every trace 
 of it by removing the stones and materials of 
 which it was formed, — ruining its houses, and 
 defacing its sculptures ; notwithstanding all this, 
 combined with what more than four thousand 
 years must have done towards its destruction, 
 there are yet found in it works so wonderful 
 that they confound even a reflecting mind, and 
 are such as the most eloquent would not be able 
 to describe. The more you consider them, the 
 more does your astonishment increase ; and the 
 more you look at them the more pleasure you 
 experience. Every idea which they suggest 
 immediately gives birth to some other still more 
 novel and unexpected ; and as soon as you ima- 
 gine that you have traced out their full scope, 
 you discover that there is something still greater 
 behind.' Among the works here alluded to, he 
 specifies a monolithic temple, similar to the one 
 mentioned by Herodotus, adorned with curious 
 sculptures. He next expatiates upon the idols 
 found among the ruins, not less remarkable for 
 the beaut}'- of their forms, the exactness of their 
 proportions, and perfect resemblance to nature, 
 than for their truly astonishing dimensions. 
 We measured one of them, he sa5^s, which, 
 without including the pedestal, was forty-five 
 feet in height, fifteen feet from side to side, and 
 from back to front in the same proportion. It 
 was of one block of red granite, covered with a 
 coating of red varnish, the antiquity of which 
 205 
 
ME 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 seemed only to increase its lustre. The ruins 
 of Memphis, in his time, extended to the dis- 
 tance of half a day's journey in every direction. 
 But so rapidly has the work of destruction pro- 
 ceeded since the twelfth century, that few points 
 have been more debated by modern travellers 
 than the site of this celebrated metropolis. Dr. 
 Pocoke and Mr. Bruce, with every show of rea- 
 son, fixed npon Metrahenny, an opinion which 
 was opposed by Dr. Shaw, who argued in favour 
 of Djizeh. But the investigations of the French 
 appear lo have decided the question. At Me- 
 trhaine, one league from Sakhara, we found, 
 says General Dugna, so many blocks of granite 
 covered v/ith hieroglyphics and sculptures 
 around and within an esplanade three leagues 
 in circumference, enclosed by heaps of rubbish, 
 that we were convinced that these must be the 
 ruins of Memphis. The sight of some frag- 
 ments of one of those colossuses, which Hero- 
 dotus says were erected by Sesostris at the en- 
 trance of the temple of Vulcan, would, indeed, 
 have been sufficient to dispel our doubts had 
 any remained. The wrist of this colossus, 
 which Citizen Conielle caused to be removed, 
 shows that it must h ave been forty-five feet high." 
 
 Menapii, a people of Belgic Gaul, partly 
 Belgic, partly German, In regard to their ter- 
 ritory, some difficulty has arisen in consequence 
 of the apparently conflicting statements of an- 
 cient writers. Caesar tells us " that the Usi- 
 petes and Tenctheri came to the Rhine, where 
 he Menapii dwelt, and where they possessed 
 ands, houses, and villages, on either side of the 
 river." Strabo agrees with Caesar, saying that 
 he Menapii inhabited woods and marshes on 
 either side of the mouths of the Rhine ; and 
 that upon the borders of the sea they were ad- 
 joining the Morini. But Tacitus removes the 
 Menapii from the Rhine, and places them this 
 side the Mosa. Ptolemy too fixes the Menapii 
 at the mouth of the Mosa ; and Pliny classes 
 them, not with the nations that bordered upon 
 the Rhine, but with the Belgae, and places them 
 between the Mosa and the Scaldis. Perhaps 
 Caesar, in giving to the Menapii such an exten- 
 sive territory, included under the same name 
 several tribes of common origin and of the same 
 habits of life. The Menapii, accordingly, were 
 bounded on the north by the Mosa and the 
 Rhine ; on the east by the Rhine and various 
 German nations ; on the south by the Eburones 
 and Ambivareti ; and on the west by the sea 
 and the marshes between the moutlis of the 
 Scaldis and ihe Mosa. They were very rude, 
 and were Germans rather than Gauls. The 
 city, or rather strong hold of the Menapii, is 
 now Kessel, on the Mosa. If we follow Caesar 
 and Strabo, the Menapii occupied that part of 
 Belgica which is now la Gueldre, le duche de 
 Cleves et le Brabant Hollandais. Cces. Lem. ed. 
 
 Mendes, a city of Egypt, near Lycopolis, on 
 one of the mouths of the Nile called the Men- 
 desian mouth. Pan, under the form of a goat, 
 was worshipped there. 
 
 Menelai Portus, a harbour on the coast 
 of Africa, between Cyrene and Egypt. C. Nep. 
 
 in Ages. 8. — Strab. 1. Mons, a hill near 
 
 Sparta, with a fortication, called Menelaium. 
 Liv. 34, c. 28. 
 
 Menesthei portus, a town of Hispania 
 Bsetica. 
 
 206 
 
 Meninx, Lotophagitis insula, afterwards 
 Girba, now Zerbi, an island on the coast of 
 Africa, near the Syrtis Minor. It was peo- 
 pled by the people of Neritos, and thence called 
 Neritia. The tree, called Lotus, gave this isl- 
 and one of its names. Plirt. 5, c. 7. — Strab. 17. 
 —Sil. It. 3, V. 318. 
 
 Mennis, a town of Assyria, abounding in 
 bitumen. Curt. 5, c. 1. 
 
 Mercurh promontorium, a cape of Africa, 
 near Clypea. Liv. 26, c. 44, 1. 29, c. 21.— Plin. 
 5, c. 4. 
 
 Meroe, a country of ^Ethiopia, which the 
 ancients believed to be an island. " Two rivers, 
 which the Nile received successively on the 
 eastern side, Astapus and Astaboras, would in- 
 deed insulate Meroe, if these rivers had commu- 
 nication above. The latter is named in Abys- 
 sinia, Tacazze. At its confluence with the 
 Nile, a city indicated by the Arabian geogra- 
 phers in the name of lalac, should represent 
 Meroe, according to the position which Ptole- 
 my assigns to it. But we iind a distance given 
 from lalac to ascend by the Nile to this city ; 
 whose name, in the Arabian geography of Ed- 
 risi, is Nuabia, and common also to the country, 
 as Meroe was in antiquity." D'Anville. We 
 subjoin the opinion of Malte-B run in reference 
 to this ancient empire, " Ascending to the con- 
 fluence of the great Nile with the Nile of Abys- 
 sinia, we enter the territories of the kingdom of 
 Sennaar, which occupy the space assigned by 
 the ancients to the famous empire of Meroe, the 
 origin of which is lost amidst the darkness of 
 antiquity. Many writers, both ancient and mo- 
 dern, have considered it as the cradle of all the 
 religious and political institutions of Egypt, and 
 it must at least be admitted to have been a very 
 civilized and a very powerful state, Bruce 
 thought that he saw the ruins of its capital un- . 
 der the village of Shandy, opposite to the isle of 
 Kurgos. The distances given by Herodotus and 
 Eratosthenes coincide very well with that posi- 
 tion ; and the island which, according to Pliny, 
 formed the port of Meroe, is found to corre- 
 spond with equal probability." Malte-Brun. 
 
 Meros, a mountain of India sacred to Jupiter. 
 It is called by Pliny, 6, c. 21, Nysa. Bacchus 
 was educated upon it ; whence arose the fable 
 that Bacchus was confined in the thigh (/i/joos) 
 of his father. This mountain, now called Me- 
 rou, is said to correspond with the ancient Me- 
 ros. If the position of the latter was as uncer- 
 tain as that of the former is, D'Anville has rest- 
 ed his decision in regard to the position of Nysa 
 on a very unsafe foundation. The Baga vedarn, 
 one of the canonical books of the Indians, tells 
 us, that in the middle of the earth is a great isle, 
 named Jam-bam or Jambou, in the midst of 
 which is mount Merou. Again, he says that 
 Merou is for six months perpetually illumined 
 by the sun, and again for the same period in- 
 volved in darkness. The Ezour-Vedam, an 
 ancient commentary on the Vedam, written in 
 Sanscrit, and translated by a Brahmin of Be- 
 nares, places mount Merou at the mouth of the 
 Ganges, and makes the latter flow from the for- 
 mer. The mountain is said to be in the centre 
 of the earth, and to be of a prodigious height. 
 Bayer observes, that in the Indian geography en- 
 titled Puwana-Saccarain, mount Merou is de- 
 scribed in a fabulous manner 5 on the whole, 
 
ME 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 there is little doubt that it exists only in the 
 imaginations of the Indians. Chaussard. — 
 Mela, 2, c. l.—Plin. 8, c. Vi—Curt. 8, c. 10.— 
 Diod. 
 
 Messapius. " Above Anthedon, towards the 
 interior of BcEOiia, rises mount Ktypia, the an- 
 cient Messapus, so called, as it was reported, 
 from Messapius, who afterwards headed a colo- 
 ny which established itself in lapygia. Ste- 
 phanus improperly assigns it to Euboea." Cram. 
 
 Mesembru, now Meseuria, a maritime city 
 of Thrace. Hence Mesembriacus. Ovid. 1, 
 Trist. 6, V. 37. 
 
 Mesopotamia. " The name of Mesopota- 
 mia is known to denote a country between ri- 
 vers ; and in the books of the Pentateuch this 
 is called Aram-Naharaim, or Syria of the Ri- 
 vers. It is also known that these rivers are the 
 Euphrates and the Tigris, which embrace this 
 country' in its whole length, and contract it by 
 their approximation ia the lower or southern 
 part, which is contiguous to Babylon. From 
 this situation it has acquired the name of al- 
 Gezira among the Arabs, who have no specific 
 term to distinguish a peninsula from an island. 
 We cannot forbear remarking here, ihat it is 
 through ignorance that this country is called 
 Diarbek in the maps. For not only should this 
 name be written Diar-Bekr, but it should also 
 De restrained to the northern extremity, which 
 Annenia claims in antiquity. This part cor- 
 responds with what the oriental geographers call 
 Diar Modzar on the side of the Euphrates, and 
 Diar-Rabiah on the banks of the Tigris. On 
 the north there reigns a mountainous chain, 
 which from the passage of the Euphrates through 
 mount Taurus extends to the borders of the Ti- 
 gris. This is the mount Masius of antiquity, 
 and now known among the Turks by the plu- 
 ral appellation of Karadgia Daglar, or the Black 
 Mountains. A river, called Chaboras, which 
 preserves the name of al Kabour, and augment- 
 ed by another river, to which the Macedonians 
 of Syria have given the name of Mygdonius, 
 proceeds to join the Euphrates at Circesium, a 
 frontier fortress of the Roman empire. The low- 
 er part of the country, distant from the rivers, 
 being less cultivated and more sterile than the 
 upper, could be only occupied by Arabs called 
 Scenites, or inhabiting tents. The district of 
 Mesopotamia, which is only separated from 
 Syria by the course of the Euphrates, bore the 
 name of Osroene, which it owed to Osroes, or, 
 according to the chronicles of the country, Or- 
 rhoes ; who, profiting by the feebleness of the 
 Seleucides, caused by their divisions, acquired a 
 principality, about a hundred and twenty years 
 before the "Christian era." (D^Anville.) It is 
 worthy of notice, that Mesopotamia, though 
 again and again the scene of hostile action be- 
 tween contending nations, has never been dis- 
 tinguished by a display of independence on the 
 part of its inhabitants, who are of no import- 
 ance in history. They were successively sub- 
 jected to the Babylonians, Assyrians, Medes, 
 and Persians. Afterwards they were conquer- 
 ed by the Romans under Pompey, but the coun- 
 try was not reduced to the form of a province 
 till the reign of Trajan. From the hands of 
 the Romans, it passed again into the possession 
 of the Persians; and, havingbeen subsequently 
 conquered by the Saracens, is now under the 
 
 dominion of the Turks. ( Vid. Heyl. Cosm.) 
 "Armenia,Mesopotamia,and Babylonia, though 
 greatly neglected by modern geographers, have 
 a good claim to our careful attention. It was 
 in this country that the first towns known in 
 history were built, and the first kingdoms form- 
 ed. It was here that Alexander gave the mor- 
 tal blow to the colossal monarchy of Persia. At 
 a later period, the banks of the Tigris and Eu- 
 phrates became the bloody theatre where Tra- 
 jan, Julian, and Heraclius conducted the Ro- 
 man legions against the squadrons of invincible 
 Parthia. In modern times, the Osmanlis and 
 the Sophis, the sect of Omar and that of Ali, 
 are still two great powers who dispute the mas- 
 tery of these countries. Nature has here pre- 
 sented us with a sufficient number of objects 
 both of interest and study, independently of the 
 transactions of men and their transient power. 
 There are few countries of the globe where, in 
 so small a space, so many striking contrasts are 
 found united. Within an extent of ten degrees 
 of latitude, we have at Bagdad a heat equal to 
 that of Senegambia, and on the summit of Ara- 
 rat, eternal snows. The forests of firs and oaks 
 in Mesopotamia join those of palms and orange 
 trees. The roaring of the lions of Arabia echoes 
 to the howling of the bears of mount Taurus. 
 We might indeed say, that Africa and Siberia 
 had here given each other a meeting. This near 
 approach of climates so opposite, principally 
 arises from the great differences which are found 
 in elevation. Armenia, which is a very ele- 
 vated plain, is encompassed on all sides by lofty 
 mountains." Malte-Brun. 
 
 Messana, an ancient and celebrated town of 
 Sicily, on the straits which separate Italy from 
 Sicily. It was anciently called Zancle^ and was 
 founded 1600 years before the Christian era. 
 The inhabitants, being continually exposed to 
 the depredations of the people of Cuma, im- 
 plored the assistance of the Messenians of Pe- 
 loponnesus, and with them repelled the enemy. 
 After this victorious campaign, the Messenians 
 entered Zancle, and lived in such intimacy with 
 the inhabitants, that they changed their name, 
 and assumed that of the Messenians, and called 
 their city Messana. Another account says, that 
 Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium ,made war against 
 the Zancleans with the assistance of the Mes- 
 senians of Peloponnessus ; and that after he had 
 obtained a decisive victory, he called the con- 
 quered city Messana in compliment to his allies, 
 about 494 years before the Christian era. After 
 this revolution at Zancle, the Mamertini took 
 possession of it, and made it the capital of the 
 neighbouring countrv'- Vid. Mamertini. It 
 afterwards fell into the hands of the Romans, 
 and was for some time the chief of their pos- 
 sessions in Sicily. The inhabitants were called 
 Messenii, Messanienses, and Mamertini. The 
 straits of Messana have always been looked upon 
 as very dangerous, especially by the ancients, 
 on account of the rapidity of the currents and 
 the irregular and violent flowing and ebbing of 
 the sea. Strab. 6. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — Pavs. 4, c. 
 2^.— Diod, A.— Thucyd. 1, &c.—Herodot. 6, c. 
 23, 1. 7, c. 28. 
 
 Messapia, a country of Italy forming part 
 of lapygia. Vid. lapygia. 
 
 Messene or Messena, a city of Messenia, 
 in " the Stenyclerian plain, at the foot of mount 
 207 
 
ME 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 Ithome, now Vourkano, the ruins of Messene, 
 founded by Epaminondas. Pausanias informs 
 us that the walls of this city were the strongest 
 he had ever seen, being entirely of stone, and 
 well supplied with towers and buttresses. He 
 commences his description of the interior with 
 the agora, which was adorned with a statue of 
 Jupiter Servator and a fountain: a statue of 
 Cybele in Parian marble by Damophon, a Mes- 
 senian sculptor of some celebrity, and the tem- 
 ples of Neptune and Venus : beyond were those 
 of Ilithya and Ceres, the hall of the Curetes, 
 and the statues of Castor and Pollux bearing 
 away the daughters of Leucippus. But none 
 of the sacred edifices were so richly adorned 
 with works of sculpture as the temple of ^s- 
 culapius, which contained statues of the Muses 
 and Apollo, Hercules, the city of Thebes, Epa- 
 minondas, Fortune, and Diana Lucifera. The 
 temple of Messene, daughter of Triopas, was 
 embellished with the portraits of the ancient 
 Messenian kings and heroes by Omphalion, a 
 pupil of Nicias. The Hierothysion contained 
 images of all the gods worshipped by the Greeks, 
 and a brazen statue of Epaminondas. Those 
 of Mercury, Hercules, and Theseus, which 
 adorned the gymnasium, were by Egyptian ar- 
 tists. Within this building was to be seen the 
 tomb of Aristomenes, whose remains were, by 
 the advice of the Pythian oracle, conveyed 
 thither from Rhodes, where he died. The sta- 
 tue of this Messenian hero was erected in the 
 stadium. Near the theatre was a temple of Se- 
 rapis and Isis. The citadel was situated on 
 mount Ithome, celebrated in history for the long 
 and obstinate defence which the Messenians 
 there made against the Spartans in their last re- 
 volt. Another summit, called Evan, separated 
 Messene towards the east from the valley of the 
 Pamisus. Its modern name is not mentioned 
 by sir W. Gell, who makes use of the ancient 
 appellation of Evan. The ruins of Messene 
 are visible as we learn from the same antiqua- 
 ry, at Maurommati, a small village, with a beau- 
 tiful source under Ithome in the centre of the 
 ancient city. There are considerable vestiges 
 of the walls and gates. The architrave of one 
 of these is nineteen feet long. It was placed 
 between two towers, thirty-three feet distant 
 from each other. These remains, as well as 
 the walls, are composed of magnificent blocks. 
 The latter are in fine preservation, running up 
 mount Ithome, and enclosing a vast extent of 
 ground. The inner gates were divided so as to 
 afford a separate passage for persons on foot, 
 and a road for carriages." Cram. 
 
 Messenia, a larsfe country of the Pelopon- 
 nesus ; "the river Neda formed its boundary to- 
 wards Elis and Arcadia. From the latter coun- 
 try it was further divided by an irregular line 
 of mountains, extending in a south-easterly di- 
 rection to the chain of Taygetus on the Laco- 
 nian border. This celebrated range marked 
 the limits of the province to the east, as far as 
 the source of the little river Pamisus, which 
 completed the line of separation from the Spar- 
 tan territory to the south. We learn from Pau- 
 sanias that Messenia derived its appellation 
 from Messene, wife of Polycaon, one of" the ear- 
 liest sovereigns of the country. He also ob- 
 serves, that whenever this name occurs in Ho- 
 mer it denotes the province rather than the city 
 208 
 
 of Messene, which he conceives did not exist 
 till the time of Epaminondas. At the period 
 of the Trojan war, it appears from the poet that 
 Messenia was partly under the domination of 
 Menelaus, and partly under that of Nestor, 
 In the division of Peloponnesus, made after the 
 return of the Heraclidae, Messenia fell to the 
 share of Cresphontes, son of Aristodemus, with 
 whom commenced the Dorian line, which con- 
 tinued without interruption for several genera- 
 tions. In the reign of Phinlias an event oc- 
 curred which interrupted the harmony that till 
 then had subsisted between the Messenians and 
 Spartans. During the festival of Diana, which 
 was celebrated at Limngea, on the confines of 
 the two countries, the Messenians are said to 
 have offered violence to some Spartan maids, 
 and to have also slain Teleclus king of Lace- 
 daemon, who attempted to punish the authors of 
 this flagrant outrage. On the other hand, the 
 Messenians denied the charge preferred against 
 them, and accused the Spartans of having dis- 
 guised armed youths in female attire with the 
 intention of attacking their territory whilst un- 
 prepared to resist such an aggression. These 
 differences in the following reign led to an open 
 rupture, and war was commenced on the part 
 of the Lacedaemonians by the surprise and cap- 
 ture of Amphea, a border town of Messenia in 
 the second year of the ninth Olympiad." Cram. 
 The result of this war, in which the Messenians 
 were greatly worsted,and of another which broke 
 out some years afterwards, reduced Messenia to 
 the condition of a dependancy, and Sparta ex- 
 tended her law over the conquered territory. 
 " The Messenians, who inhabited the western 
 coast, embarked on board their ships, and with- 
 drew to Cyllene ; whence they afterwards cross- 
 ed over to Sicily, at the instigation of Anaxilas, 
 tyrant of Rhegium, and occupied Zancle,thence- 
 forth called Messene. Aristomenes retired to 
 Rhodes, where he continued during the rest of 
 his life. The Messenians who remained in 
 their country were treated with the greatest se- 
 verity by the Spartans, and reduced to the con- 
 dition of Helots or slaves. This cruel oppres- 
 sion induced them once more to take up arms, 
 in the seventy-ninth Olympiad, and fortify 
 mount Ithome, where they defended themselves 
 for ten years. The Lacedaemonians being at 
 this time so greatly reduced in numbers by an 
 earthquake, which destroyed several of their 
 towns, that they were compelled to have re- 
 course to their allies for assistance. At length 
 the Messenians, worn out by this protracted 
 siege, agreed to surrender the place on condi- 
 tion that they should be allowed to retire from 
 the Peloponnesus. The Athenians were at this 
 time on no friendly terms with the Spartans, 
 and gladly received the refugees of Ithome, al- 
 lowing them to settle at Naupactus, which they 
 had lately taken from the Locri Ozolae, Grate- 
 ful for the protection thus afforded to them, the 
 Messenians displayed great zeal in the cause of 
 Athens during the Peloponnesian war. Thu- 
 cydides has recorded several instances in which 
 they rendered important services to that power, 
 not only at Naupactus, but in iEtolia and Am- 
 philochia, at Pylos, and in the island of Sphac- 
 teria, as well as in the Sicilian expedition. 
 When, however, the disaster of ^gospotamoi 
 I placed Athens at the mercy of her rival, the 
 
ME 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 Spartans obtained posssession of Naupactus, and 
 compelled the Messenians to quit a town which 
 had so long afforded them refuge. Many of 
 these on this occasion crossed over into Sicily to 
 join their countrymen, who were established 
 there, and others sailed to Africa, where they 
 procured settlements among the Evesperitas, a 
 Libyan people. After the battle of Leuctra, 
 however, which humbled the pride of Sparta, 
 and paved the way for the ascendency of 
 Thebes, Epaminondas, who directed the coun- 
 sels of the latter republic, wdth masterly policy 
 determined to restore the Messenian nation, by 
 collecting the scattered remnants of this brave 
 and warlike people. He accordingly despatch- 
 ed emissaries to Sicily, Italy, and Africa, whi- 
 ther the Messenians had migrated, to recall 
 fhem to their ancient homes, there to enjoy the 
 blessings of peace and liberty, under the pow- 
 erful protection of Thebes, Argos, and Arcadia. 
 Gladly did they obey the summons of the The- 
 ban general, and hastened to return to that 
 country, the recollection of which they had ever 
 fondly cherished. Epaminondas meanwhile 
 had made every preparation for the erection of 
 a city under mount Ithome, which w^as to be the 
 metropolis of Messenia ; and such was the zeal 
 and activity displayed by the Thebans and their 
 allies in this great undertaking, that the town, 
 which they named Messene, was completed and 
 fortified in eighty-five days. The entrance of 
 the Messenians, which took place in the fourth 
 year of the 102d Olympiad, was attended with 
 great pomp, and ihe celebration of solemn sacri- 
 fices, and devout invocations to their gods and 
 heroes : the lapse of 287 years from the capture 
 of Ira, and the termination of the second war, 
 having, as Pausanias affirms, made no change 
 in their religion, their national customs, or their 
 language, which, says that historian, they speak 
 even now more correctly than the rest of the 
 Peloponnesians. During the wars and revolu- 
 tions which agitated Greece, upon the death of 
 Alexander they still preserved their independ- 
 ence, and having, not long after that event, join- 
 ed the Achaean confederacy, they were present 
 at the battle of Sellasia, and the capture of 
 Sparta by Antigonus Doson. Nabis, tyrant of 
 Lacedsemon, made another attack on the city 
 by night some years afterwards, and had alrea- 
 dy penetrated within the walls, when succours 
 arriving from Megalopolis under the command 
 of Phiiopoemen, he was forced to evacuate the 
 place. Subsequently to this event, dissensions 
 appear to have arisen, which ultimately led to a 
 rupture between the Achaeans and Messenians. 
 Pausanias was not able to ascertain the imme- 
 diate provocation, which induced the Achaeans 
 to declare war against the Messenians. But 
 Polybiusdoes not scruple to blame his country- 
 men, and more especially Phiiopoemen, for their 
 conduct to a people with whom they were unit- 
 ed by federal ties. Hostilities commenced unfa- 
 vourably for the Achaeans, as their advanced 
 guard fell into an ambuscade of the enemy, and 
 was defeated with great loss ; Phiiopoemen him- 
 self remaining in the hands of the victors. So 
 exasperated were the Messenians at the con- 
 duct of this celebrated general, that he was 
 thrown into a dungeon, and soon after put to 
 death by poison. His destro5''ers, however, did 
 not escape the vengeance of the Achaeans ; for 
 Part I.— 2 D 
 
 Lycortas, who succeeded to the coiimiand, ha- 
 ving defeated the Messenian forces, captured 
 their city, and caused all those who had been 
 concerned in the death of Phiiopoemen to be 
 immediately executed. Peace was then restor- 
 ed, and Messenia once more joined the Achaean 
 confederacy, and remained attached to that re- 
 public till the period of its dissolution. Messe- 
 nia, though in some parts a mountainous coun- 
 try, abounded in rich and well-watered plains, 
 which furnished pasturage for numerous herds 
 and flocks." Cram. 
 
 Mesula, a town of Italy, in the countiy of 
 the Sabines. 
 
 Metapontum, a town of Lucania, to the 
 south of the river Bradanus, " one of the most 
 distinguished and celebrated of the Grecian co- 
 lonies. The original name of this city appears 
 to have been Metabum, w^hich it is said was 
 derived from Metabus, a hero to whom divine 
 honours were paid. Some reports ascribed its 
 foundation to a party of Pylians, on their re- 
 turn from Troy ; and as a proof of this fact it 
 was remarked, that the Metaponlini formerly 
 made an annual sacrifice to the Neleidae. The 
 prosperity of this ancient colony, the result of 
 its attention to agriculture, was evinced by the 
 offering of a harvest of gold to the oracle of 
 Delphi. It may be remarked also, that the 
 Scholiasts of Homer identify Metapontum with 
 the city which that poet calls Alyba in the 
 Odyssey. 
 
 Et//i yap l| 'AXi)/?oi'TOf, oQi kXvto. icHixaTa vaLW. 
 
 Other traditions are recorded relative to the 
 foundation of Metapontum by Strabo, which 
 confirm at least its great antiquity. But his ac- 
 count of the destruction of the first town by the 
 Samnites is obscure, and not to be clearly un- 
 derstood. It appears, however, that Metabum, 
 if such was its name, was in a deserted state 
 when a number of Achaeans, invited for that 
 purpose by the Sybarites, landed on the coast, 
 and took possession of the town, which thence- 
 forth was called Metapontum. The Achaeans, 
 soon after their arrival, seem to have been en- 
 gaged in a war with the Tarentini, and this led 
 to a treaiy by which the Bradanus was recog- 
 nised as forming the separation of thetw^o terri- 
 tories. Pythagoras was held in particular esti- 
 mation by the Metapontini, in whose city he is 
 reported to have resided for many years. After 
 his death, the house which he had inhabited 
 was converted into a temple of Ceres. In the 
 Peloponnesian war, we find an alliance formed 
 between Metapontum and Athens to which 
 power it furnished some light troops and two 
 galleys for the Sicilian expedition. This city 
 still retained its independence when Alexander 
 of Epirus passed over into Italy. Livy, who 
 notices that fact, states, that the remains of this 
 unfortunate prince were conveyed here previous 
 to their being carried over into Greece. It fell, 
 however, ultimately, into the hands of the Ro- 
 mans, together with the other colonies of Mag- 
 na Graecia, on the retreat of Pyrrhus, and with 
 them revolted in favour of Hannibal, after his 
 victory at Cannae. In the time of Pausanias 
 this city was a heap of ruins ; as he states that 
 nothing remained standing bu t the walls and 
 theatre." Cram. 
 Metaurds, I. now Metauro, a river of Um- 
 209 
 
MB 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ME 
 
 t)ria, which rises in the Appenines and empties 
 into the Hadriatic Dear Fanum Fortunse, Fano. 
 It is rendered memorable by the defeat of As- 
 
 drubal, A. U. C. 545. II. Another in the 
 
 Brutian territory, now called Mano, and some- 
 times Fetrace, with a port of the same name. 
 It was famed for the thunny fish taken at its 
 mouth. Cram. 
 
 Methone, I. a city of Macedonia, " about 
 forty stadia north of Pydna, according to the 
 Epitomist of Strabo, celebrated in history from 
 the circumstance of Philip's having lost an eye 
 in besieging the place. That it was a Greek 
 colony, we learn from Scylax, Peripl. and also 
 Plutarch, who reports, that a party of Eretrians 
 settled there, naming the place Methone, from 
 Methon, an ancestor of Orpheus : he adds, that 
 these Greek colonists were termed Aposphen- 
 doneli by the natives. It appears from Athe- 
 nseus, that Aristotle wrote an account of the 
 Methonaean commonweahh. This town was 
 occupied by the Athenians, towards the latter 
 end of the Peloponnesian war, with a view of 
 annoying Perdiccas by ravaging his territory, 
 and affording a refuge to his discontented sub- 
 jects. When Philip, the son of Amyntas, suc- 
 ceeded to the crown, the Athenians, who still 
 held Methone, landed there three thousand men, 
 in order to establish Argaeus on the throne of 
 Macedon : they were however defeated by the 
 young prince, and driven back to Methone. 
 Several years after, Philip, laid siege to this 
 place, which at the end of twelve months ca- 
 pitulated. The inhabitants having evacuated 
 the town, the walls were razed to the ground. 
 The«re was another Methone in Thessaly, no- 
 ticed by Homer, and which must not be con- 
 founded with the Macedonian city, an error into 
 which Stephanus Byz. seems to have fallen. 
 Dr. Clarke and Dr. Holland concur in suppos- 
 ing that the site of Methone answers to that of 
 Leuterochori, the distance from that place to 
 Kitros, or Pydna, agreeing with the forty stadia 
 
 reckoned by Strabo." Cram. II. A city of 
 
 Messenia, on the coast to the south of Cory- 
 phasium and Pylos. It was otherwise styled Mo- 
 thone, according to Pausanias. Tradition re- 
 ported that it was so called from Mothone the 
 daughter of ^Eneas, but it more probably derived 
 its name from the rock Mothon, which formed 
 the break-water of its harbour. Strabo infomtis 
 us, that in the opinion of many writers Methone 
 should be identified with Pedasus, ranked by Ho- 
 mer among the seven towns which Agamemnon 
 offered to Achilles. Pausanias makes the same 
 observation. In the Peloponnesian war, Me- 
 thone was attacked by some Athenian troops, 
 who were conveyed thither in a fleet sent to ra- 
 vage the coast of Peloponnesus ; but Brasidas, 
 who was quartered in the neighbourhood, hav- 
 ing forced his way through the enemy's line, 
 threw himself into the town with 100 men : 
 which timely succour obliged the Athenians to 
 re-embark their troops. Methone subsequently 
 received a colony of TSTauplians : these, being ex- 
 pelled their native city by the Argives, were es- 
 tablished here by the Lacedaemonians. Many 
 years after, it sustained great loss from the sud- 
 den attack of some Illyrian pirates, who carried 
 off a number of the inhabitants, both men and 
 women. Methone was afterwards besieged and 
 taken by Agrippa, who had the command of a 
 210 
 
 Roman fleet : that general having found there 
 Bogus, king of Mauretania, caused him to be 
 put to death as a partisan of Marc Antony. 
 We learn from Pausanias that Trajan especial- 
 ly favoured this town, and bestowed several pri- 
 vileges on its inhabitants. The same writer 
 notices here a temple of Minerva Anemotis, and 
 another sacred to Diana, containing a well, 
 whose water, mingled with pitch, resembled in 
 scent and colour the ointment of Cyzicus. Sir 
 W. Gell states that at about 2700 paces to the 
 east of Modon, is a place called Palaio Mothone, 
 where are the vestiges of a city, with a citadel, 
 and a few marbles. Modon is a Greek town of 
 some size, with a fortress built by the Veni- 
 
 tians." Cram. III. " Methone, or Methana, 
 
 which retains its ancient name, was a penin- 
 sula in Argolis, within the Troezenian district, 
 formed by the harbour or bay of Pogon on one 
 side, and the curvature of the Epidaurian gulf 
 on the other. It was connected with the main- 
 land by a narrow isthmus, which the Athenians 
 occupied and fortified in the seventh year of 
 the Peloponnesian war. Diodorus Siculus says 
 it was taken by the same people under Tol- 
 mides in the interval between the Persian and 
 Peloponnesian wars': and this is perhaps the 
 meaning of Thucydides when he says, that on 
 peace being made, or rather a truce for thirty 
 years, Troezen, among other, towns, was re- 
 stored to the Peloponnesians. Within the pen- 
 insula was a small town, also called Methone, 
 which possessed a temple of Isis ; the forum was 
 decorated with statues of Mercury and Hercules, 
 About thirty stadia from the town were to be 
 seen some hot springs, produced by the erup- 
 tion of a volcano in the reign of Antigonus Go- 
 patas. Strabo writes, that on this occasion ' a 
 mountain was raised by the action of this sub- 
 terraneous fire to the height of seven stadia; in 
 the day-time the spot cannot be approached from 
 the heat and sulphureous stench ; but at night 
 there is no unpleasant smell, the light is then 
 reflected very far, and the heat thrown out is so 
 great, that the sea boils at the distance of five 
 stadia from the land, and its waters are troubled 
 for twenty stadia ; great fragments of rock have 
 also been raised from its bed to a height equal- 
 ling that of towers.' Ovid, who alludes to the 
 same phenomenon in his Metamorphoses, seems 
 to attribute it to the force of subterraneous 
 winds ; Dodwell says, ' that the mountainous 
 promontory of Methana consists chiefly of a 
 volcanic rock of a dark colour. The outline is 
 grand and picturesque, and the principal moun- 
 tain, which was thrown up by the volcano, is of 
 a conical form. Its apparent height is about equal 
 to that of Vesuvius. The ancient city of Meth- 
 one,' according to the same learned antiquary, 
 ' was situated in the plain at the foot of its acro- 
 polis, near which are a few remains of two edi- 
 fices, one of the Doric, the other of the Ionic 
 order, composed of white marble, and of small 
 proportions. The walls of the acropolis are regu- 
 larly constructed and well preserved, extending 
 round the edge of the rock, which in some pla- 
 ces rises about thirty feet above the plain.' " 
 Cram. 
 
 Methymna, (now Porto Peiera), a town of 
 the island of Lesbos, which receives its name 
 from a daughter of Macareus. It is the second 
 . city of the island in greatness, population, and 
 
Ml 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MI 
 
 opulence, and its territory is fruitful, and the 
 wines it produces, excellent. It was the native 
 place of Arion. When the whole island of Les- 
 bos revolted from the power of the Athenians, 
 Methymna alone remained firm to its ancient 
 allies. Diod. b.— Thuc7jd.3.—IIorat.2,SaL8, 
 c. bO.— Virg. G. 3, v. 90. 
 
 Metdldm, a town of Liburnia, in besieging 
 of which Augustus was wounded. Diog. 49. 
 
 Mevania, a town of Umbria. " Strabo men- 
 tions Mavania as one of the most considerable 
 places of that district. Here Vitellius took post, 
 as if determined to make a last stand for the 
 empire against Vespasian, but soon after with- 
 drew his forces. If its walls, as Pliny says, were 
 of brick, it could not be capable of much resist- 
 ance. This city is farther memorable as the 
 birth-place of Propertius, a fact of which he 
 himself informs us. It is now an obscure vil- 
 lage, which still however retains some traces 
 of the original name in that of Bevagna I''' Cram. 
 MiDEA, I. a to\\Ti of Argolis. Paits. 6, c. 
 20. II. Of Bceotia, drowned by the inunda- 
 tion of the lake Copais. Strab. 8. 
 
 MiLEsii, tlie inhabitants of Miletus. Vid 
 Miletus. 
 
 MiLESioRUM MuRUS, a place of Egypt, at the 
 entrance of one of the mouths of the Nile. 
 MiLETiDM, I. a town of Calabria, built by 
 
 tbe people of Miletus of Asia. II. A town 
 
 of Crete. ■ Homer. II. 2, v. 154. 
 
 MiLETDs, a celebrated town of Asia Minor, 
 ihe capital of all Ionia, situate about ten stadia 
 . south of the mouth of the river Meeander, near 
 the sea-coast on the confines of Ionia and Caria. 
 " Doubts are entertained as to the situation 
 of ancient Miletus. Spon, the traveller, having 
 found at Palatsha certain inscriptions bearing 
 the name of the Milesians, imagined that he 
 had discovered the ruins of the ancient city. 
 Chandler, setting out upon such data, sought in 
 vain for the Latmian Gulf, with the cities of 
 . Myus, Heraclea, and others situated upon its 
 shores. He supposed that this gulf was repre- 
 sented by the lake Ufa-Bassi, and that the low 
 grounds which separate ihat lake from the sea 
 owed their formation to the accumulated depo- 
 sites of the Meander. This hypothesis, which 
 is not very intelligibly stated by its author, has 
 found a formidable opponent in an ingenious 
 German, who considers the ruins of Palatsha 
 as those of Myus, a small toum incorporated 
 with Miletus, the inhabitants of which, on that 
 account were called Milesians. This learned 
 man thinks that Ufa-Bassi is the lake which, 
 according to Pausanias, was formed by the sink- 
 ing do\^Ti of the soil near Myus. The ruins of 
 Miletus and the Latmian gulf should be sought 
 for more to the south and the west. But the 
 modifications which askilful French geographer 
 has recently introduced into the plans of Chan- 
 dler, and the very accurate maps of M. de Choi- 
 seul-Gouffier, seem to establish the fact that 
 alluvial additions have been made to the land 
 posterior to those mentioned by Strabo and Pau- 
 sanias. The lake of Ufa-Bassi appears, from 
 decided marks, to be the ancient Latmian Gull ; 
 the ruins of Miletus, however, must lie farther 
 to the west than Palatsha. This interesting 
 question does not seem to us to have yet received 
 an exact and perfect solution. Malte-Brun. 
 It was founded by a Cretan colony under Mile- 
 
 tus, or, according to others, by Neleus, the son of 
 Codrus, or by Sarpedon, Jupiter's son. It has 
 successively been called Lelegeis, Pithyusa, 
 and Anactoria. The inhabitants, called Milesii, 
 were very powerful, and long maintained an 
 obstinate war against the kings of Lydia. They 
 early applied themselves to navigation, and 
 planted no less than 80 colonies, or, according 
 to Seneca, 380, in different parts of the world, 
 Miletus gave birth to Thales, Anaximenes, 
 Anaximander, Hecatseus, Timotheus the musi- 
 cian, Pittacus, one of the seven wise men, &c. 
 Miletus was also famous for a temple and an 
 oracle of Apollo Didymaeus, and for its excel- 
 lent wool,M''ith which were made stuffs and gar- 
 ments, held in the highest reputation, both for 
 softness, elegance, and beauty. The words 
 MilesicB fahulcB, or Milesiaca, were used to ex- 
 press wanton and ludicrous plays. Ovid. Trist. 
 2. V. 413.—Ca'pitolin. in Alb. ll.~ Ftr^-. G. 3, 
 V. 306.—Strab. lb.— Pans. 7, c. 2.— Mela, 1, c. 
 17. — Plin. 5, c. 29. — Herodot. 1, &c. — Senec. 
 de. Consol. ad Alb, 
 
 MiLvius. " About two miles from Rome, 
 we find on the Tiber a bridge, called Pons Mil- 
 vius, or Mulvius, a name which has been cor- 
 rupted into that of Ponte Molle. Its construc- 
 tion is ascribed to M. ^milius Scaurus, who 
 was censor A. U. C. 644. We learn from Ci- 
 cero, that the" Pons Milvius existed at the time 
 of Catiline's conspiracy, since the deputies of 
 the Allobroges were here seized by his orders. 
 In later times it witnessed the defeat of Maxen- 
 tius by Constantine. About a mile from the 
 bridge, at the point where the Flaminian and 
 Clodian Ways branched off, were the gardens 
 of Ovid." Cram. 
 MiLYAS. Vid. Lajcia. 
 
 M1N.EI, a people of Arabia Felix, contiguous 
 to the Sabaei. " They were sufficiently conspi- 
 cuous to give to their country the name of Mi- 
 ncBa, and had for their capital Carana, whose 
 name is preserved in that of Almakarama, 
 which is a strong fortress." D'Anville. 
 
 MiNcius, now Mincio, a river of Venetia, 
 flowing from the lake Benacus, and falling into 
 the Po. Virgil was born on its banks. Virg. 
 Ed. 7, V. 13, G. 3, V. 15. Mn. 10, v. 206. 
 
 Minerva: promontorium, the south-v/estem 
 point of land surrounding the basin of the bay 
 of Naples. It was sometimes called, from the 
 town of that name, Surrentum, and is now 
 Punta della Canvpanella. 
 
 Minio, now Mignone, a river of Etruria, fall- 
 ing into the Tyrrhene Sea. Virg. Mn. 10, v. 183. 
 MiNTURN.aE, a town of Latium, on the banks 
 of the Liris, three or four miles from its mouth, 
 the situation of which is sufficiently indicated 
 by the extensive ruins that remain. It was ori- 
 ginally a town of the Ausones, and fell, about 
 the year of the city 456, into the hards of the 
 Romans, who sent thither a colony. It was in 
 the marshes near this place that Marius con- 
 cealed himself in the mud to avoid the parti- 
 sans of Sylla. The people condemned him to 
 death, but when his voice alone had terrified the 
 executioner, they showed themselves compas- 
 sionate and favoured his escape. Marica was* 
 worshipped there ; \\er\ce viaricce regna applied 
 to the place. Strab. 2.— Mela, 2, c. 4.—Liv. 8 
 c. 10, 1. 10, c. 21, 1. 27, c. 38.—Paterc. 2, c. 14, 
 — Lucan. 2, v. 424. 
 
 211 
 
MCE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MCE 
 
 MiNYJE, a name given to the inhabitants of 
 Orchomenos in Boeotia, from Minyas, king of 
 the country. Orchomenos, the son of Minyas, 
 gave his name to the capital of the country, and 
 the inhabitants still retained their original ap- 
 pellation in contradistinction to the Orchome- 
 nians of Arcadia. A colony of Orchomenians 
 passed into Thessaly, and settled in lolchos ; 
 from which circumstance the people of the place, 
 and particularly the Argonauts, were called 
 Minyae. This name they received, according 
 to the opinion of some, not because a number of 
 Orchomenians had settled among them, but be- 
 cause the chief and noblest of them were de- 
 scended from the daughters of Minyas. Part 
 of the Orchomenians accompanied the sons of 
 Codrus when they migrated to Ionia. The de- 
 scendants of the Argonauts, as well as ihe 
 Argonauts themselves, received the name of 
 Minyae. They first inhabited Lemnos, where 
 they had been born from the Lemnian women 
 who had murdered their husbands. They were 
 driven from Lemnos by the Pelasgi about 1160 
 years before the Christian era, and came to set- 
 tle in Laconia, from whence they passed into 
 Calliste with a colony of Lacedaemonians. Hij- 
 gin. fab. 14. — Paus. 9, c. 6. — Apollon. 1, arg. 
 — Herodot. 4, c. 145. 
 
 MiTYLENE, and Mitylen.e, the capital city 
 of the island of Lesbos, which receives its 
 name from Mitylene, the daughter of Maca- 
 reus, a king of the country. It was greatly 
 commended by the ancients for the stateliness 
 of its buildings and the fruitfulness of its soil, 
 but more particularly for the great men it pro- 
 duced. Pittacus, Alcaeus, Sappho, Terpander, 
 Theophanes, Hellenicus, &c. were all natives 
 of Mitylene. It was long a seat of learning, 
 and, with Rhodes and Athens, it had the honour 
 of having educated many of the great men of 
 Rome and Greece. In the Peloponnesian war 
 the Mityleneans suffered greatly for their revolt 
 from th power of Athens ; and in the Mithri- 
 datic wars, they had the boldness to resist the 
 Romans, and disdain the treaties which had 
 been made between Mithridates and Sylla. 
 Cic. de leg. ag. — Strah. 13. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — 
 Diod. 3 and 12. — Pater c. 1, c. 4. — Horat. 1, od. 
 7, &c. — Thucyd. 3, &c. — Plut. in Pomp. &c. 
 McBciA, one of the tribes at Rome. Liv. 8,c. 17. 
 McEDi, a people of Thrace, conquered by 
 Philip of Macedonia. 
 
 McENUs, now May7ie, a river of Gennany, 
 which falls into the Rhine by Mentz. Tacit, 
 de Germ. 28. 
 
 McERis, a celebrated lake in Egypt, on the 
 Libyan side of the Nile, south-west of Memphis 
 and the region of the pyramids. " Herodotus 
 informs us that the circumference of this vast 
 sheet of water was three thousand six hundred 
 stadia, or four hundred and fifty miles ; that it 
 stretched from north to south ; and that its great- 
 est depth was about three hundred feet. He 
 adds that it was entirely the product of human 
 industry ; as a proof of which, he states that in 
 its centre were seen two pyramids, each of which 
 was two hundred cubits above, and as many be- 
 neath, the water ; and that upon the summit of 
 both was a colossal statue, placed in a sitting 
 attitude. The precise height of these pyramids, 
 he concludes, is therefore four hundred cubits, 
 or six hundred Egyptian feet. The waters of 
 212 
 
 the lake, he continues, are not supplied by 
 springs ; on the contrary, the ground which it 
 occupies is of itself remarkably dry ; but it com- 
 municates by an artificial channel with the Nile, 
 receiving during six months the excess of the 
 inundation, and during the other half of the 
 year emptying itself back into the river. Every 
 day during the latter period the fishery yields 
 to the royal treasury a talent of silver ; whereas, 
 as soon as the ebb has ceased, the produce falls 
 to a mere trifle. ' The inhabitants affirm of 
 this lake, that it has a subterraneous passage 
 westward into the Libyan Desert, in the line 
 of the mountain which rises above Memphis.' 
 Last century, according to Dr. Pococke, lake 
 Moeris was about fifty miles long and ten broad. 
 The older French writers estimated its circum- 
 ference at a hundred and fifty leagues ; a re- 
 sult not materially different from that of the 
 English traveller. Mr. Browne, who was more 
 lately in Egypt, thought that the length did not 
 exceed thirty or forty miles, and that the great- 
 est breadth was not more than six. It ii hence 
 manifest that the limits of this inland sea have 
 been much contracted ; and, moreover, that the 
 process of diminution is still going on at a rate 
 which is distinctly perceptible. In its present 
 contracted dimensions, the lake of- Moeris is 
 called by the Arabs the Birket-el-Karoun, and is 
 recognised at once as a basin formed by nature, 
 and not by art. The details collected by He- 
 rodotus, and the other waiters of Greece and 
 Rome, must therefore have applied to the works 
 which were necessary not only to connect the 
 Nile with the lake, but also to regulate the ebb 
 and flow of the inundation. The canal, called 
 Joseph's River, is about a hundred and twenty 
 miles in length ; which, when it enters the 
 valley of Fayoum, is further divided into a num- 
 ber of subordinate branches, and supplied with 
 a variety of locks and dams. There were two 
 other canals communicating between the lake 
 and the stream, with sluices at their mouths, 
 which were alternately shut and opened as the 
 Nile rose or fell. These, we may presume, 
 were the achievements of Moeris ; which, when 
 they are regarded as the work of an individual, 
 having for their object the advantage and com- 
 fort of a numerous people, may justly be esteem- 
 ed a far more glorious undertaking than either 
 the Pyramids or the Labyrinth." Russel's 
 Egypt. " We shall thus," says Malte-Brun, 
 " reconcile the different positions assigned to 
 lake Moeris by Herodotus, Diodorus, and Strabo, 
 and give a reason why the ancients say that 
 the lake was of artificial formation, while the 
 Birket-el-Karoun gives no evidence of any such 
 operation." 
 
 McEsiA, an extensive tract of country in Eu- 
 rope, reaching east and west from the Euxine 
 along the south bank of the Danube to the con- 
 fluence of that river and the Savus, which, with 
 its branches separates it from Pannonia and Tl- 
 lyricum. On the south, the Haemus mountains 
 form its common boundary whh Thrace and 
 Macedon. All the greater rivers of this coun- 
 try pour their waters into the Danube, which 
 goes, swollen with their tribute, to the sea ; of 
 these the principal are the Margus, the OSscus, 
 the Utus, and the latrus. " It must be remarked, 
 that the name of the country and of the nation 
 is also writen Mysia, and Mysi, as the name 
 
MO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MO 
 
 of the province south of the Propontis in Asia 
 and of its people, who are thought to have 
 issued from the country now under consider- 
 ation. This country corresponds in general 
 with those which we call Servia and Bulgaria. 
 Moesia was in great part more anciently occu- 
 pied hy\he Scordisci^ a Celtic nation ; and when 
 we read that Alexander, in the first expedition 
 towards the Ister, encountered the Celts, or 
 Gauls, these are the people alluded to. And 
 although the Scordiscians were almost annihi- 
 lated at the time when the Roman power ex- 
 tended in this country, it is remarked that many 
 names of places on the Ister are purely Celtic. 
 Darius, son of Hystaspes, marching against the 
 Scythians, e;aLCOimtered the Getes, who were 
 reputed Thracians, on his passage, before arriv- 
 ing at the Ister ; and we shall see that this ex- 
 tremity of the country on the Euxine bore the 
 name of Scythia. Moesia appears to have been 
 subjected to the empire under Augustus and 
 Tiberius. Its extent along the river, which 
 separated it from Dacia on the north, was di- 
 vided into Superior and Inferior ; and a little 
 river named Ciabrus or Cebrus, now Zibriz, 
 between the Timacus and the (Escus, makes, 
 according to Ptolemy, the separation of these 
 two Moesias. But Moesia suffered encroach- 
 ment upon its centre in the admission of a new 
 province, under the name of Dacia. Aurelian, 
 fearing that he could not maintain the conquest 
 . of Trajan beyond the Ister, called Dacia, aban- 
 doned it, and retired with the troops and people, 
 . which he placed on the hither side of the river, 
 affecting to call his new province the Dacia of 
 Aurelian. That which Mcesia preserved of the 
 superior division, was called the First Moesia ;^ 
 and there is reason to believe that the name of 
 Masua, which remains to a canton south of the 
 Save, near its confluence with the Ister, comes 
 from this Moesia. The Inferior was the Second 
 Moesia. There was afterwards distinguished 
 . in Dacia the part bordering on the river under 
 the name of Ripensis ; and that which was se- 
 questered in the interior country under the name 
 of Mediterranea, occupied probably a country 
 contiguous to Macedonia, and known more an- 
 ciently by the name of Dardania. ( Vid. Dar- 
 dania.) To finish what concerns Moesia, there 
 remains a division of it adjacent to the Euxine ; 
 in which the part nearest to the mouths of the 
 Ister was formed, under Constantine, into a 
 particular province named Scythia. The city 
 of Tomi, which the banishment of Ovid has 
 illustrated, assumed in this province the rank 
 of metropolis : and is still known in the name 
 of Tomeswar, although otherwise called Baba." 
 D'Anville. 
 MoLOEis, a river of Boeotia, near Platasa. 
 MoLOssi, a people of Epirus, who inhabited 
 that part of the country which was called Mo- 
 lossia or Molossis from king Molossus. " It 
 must, therefore, have comprehended the terri- 
 tory of Jannind, the present capital of Albania, 
 together with its lake and mountains, including 
 the country of the Tymphoei, which bordered 
 on that part of Thessaly near the source of the 
 Peneus. Its limits to the west cannot precisely 
 be determined, as we are equally ignorant of 
 those of Thesprotia." Cram. This country 
 had the bay of Ambracia on the south, and the 
 country of the Perrhsebeans on the east. The 
 
 dogs of the place were famous, and received the 
 name of Molossi among the Romans. Dodona 
 was the capital of the country according to 
 some writers. Others, however, reckon it as 
 the chief city of Thesprotia. Ducret. 5, v, 10, 
 62. — LMcan. 4, v. 440. — Strab. 7. — Liv. — Justin. 
 7^ c. &.—C. Nep. 2, c. S.— Virg. G. 3, v. 495.— 
 Horat.% Sat.6,v. 114. 
 MoLOSsiA, or Molossis. Vid. Molossi. 
 MoLYCRiON, a town of ^olia, between the 
 Evenus and Naupactum. Paus. 5, c. 3. 
 
 'MoNA, I. sometimes called Monabia, now 
 the Isle of Man. This is the Mona described 
 by Csesar. and is to be distinguished from the 
 Mona of Tacitus. Cambd. Brit. II. Ano- 
 ther island, now Anglesey, off the coast of Caer- 
 narvonshire in Wales. This is the Mona de- 
 scribed by Tacitus, the seat of the Druids, and 
 the scene of their massacre. It was reduced 
 by the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus and 
 Agricola. The narrow strait which separated 
 this island from Wales was called Menai. From 
 the early British name of Mon, the Latins 
 formed that of Mona ; nor was it till the early- 
 English took possession of this island that it 
 exchanged its ancient designation for that of 
 Anglesey, or Island of the English. 
 
 MoNDA, a river between the Durius and Ta- 
 gus in Portugal. Plin. 4, c. 22. It rose near 
 the source of the Cuda, and flowing west, emp- 
 tied into the Atlantic below the city of Conim- 
 briga, now Coimbra. Its modern name is the 
 Mondego. 
 
 MoNfficus, now Monaco, a town and port oi 
 Liguria, where Hercules had a temple, whence 
 he is called Monoecius, and the harbour Hercu- 
 lis Partus. Strab. i.— Virg. JSw. 6, v. 830. 
 
 MoNs Sager, a mountain about three miles, 
 from Rome, accompanying the line of the course 
 of the Anio. It presents itself in alow range 
 of sandstone hills, on the right bank, and is 
 celebrated from the earliest days of the repub- 
 lic for the secession of the populace, who there 
 made that stand agamst the nobles which re- 
 sulted in their admission to power, by the crea- 
 tion of the new oflice of popular Tribunes or 
 Tribunes of the people. 
 
 MopsiaM, a hill and town of Thessaly, be- 
 tween Tempe and Larissa. Liv. 42. 
 
 MopsopiA, an ancient name of Athens, from 
 Mopsus one' of its kings, and from thence the 
 epithet of Mopsapius is often applied to an 
 Athenian. 
 
 MopsuHESTiA, or Mopsos, now Messis, a 
 town of Cilicia Campestris, near the mouth of 
 the Pyramus. Cic. Fam. 3, c. 8. 
 
 MoRGANTiuM, (or ia), a town of Sicily, near 
 the mouth of the Simethus. Cic. in Ver. 3, c. 
 18. 
 
 MoRiNi, a people of Belgic Gaul, on the 
 shores of the British ocean. The shortest pas- 
 sage in Britain was from their territories ; and 
 from the Itius Portus, one of their ports, it was 
 that Csesar embarked for that till then unex- 
 plored and almost undiscovered country. They 
 were called extremi hominum by the Romans, 
 because situate on the extremities of Gaul. 
 Their city, called Morinorum castellum, is now 
 Mount Cassel, in Artois ; and Morinorum civi- 
 tas is Terouenne, on the Lis. Virg. jEn. 8, v. 
 726.— Cr^s. 4, Bell. G. 21. Their territory is 
 comprehended for the most part in the depart- 
 
MU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MY 
 
 ments Pas-de-Calais and Le Nord ; and, like 
 the Armoricans, they derived their name from 
 their proximity to the sea. 
 
 MoRTUUM MARE. Vid. Mare Mortuum. 
 
 MosA,a river of Belgic Gaul, falling into the 
 German ocean, and now called the Maese or 
 Meuse. The place at which it was crossed by 
 a bridge, the ancient Trajectus ad Mosam, is 
 now supposed to be Maestricht. It rose in the 
 country of the Lingones, and flowing irregular- 
 ly north-north-west, it fell into the ocean at no 
 great distance from the mouths of the Rhine. 
 Tacit. H. 4, c. m. 
 
 MoscHA, now Muscat, a port of Arabia on 
 the Red Sea. 
 
 MoscHi, a people of Asia, at the west of the 
 Caspian Sea. Mela, 1, c. 2, 1. 3, c. 5. — Ducan. 
 3, V. 270. 
 
 MosELLA, a river of Belgic Gaul, falling into 
 the Rhine at Coblentz, and now called the Mo- 
 selle. Flor. 3, c. 10.-T<zc^^. Ann. 13, c. 53. 
 
 MosYCHLUs, a mountain of Lemnos, " from 
 which fire was seen to blaze forth, according to 
 a fragment of the poet Antimachus, preserved 
 by the Scholiast of Nicander. 
 
 .... 'tl^atOTOV (p'Xoyl e'ikeXov, rjv pa riTvaKEi 
 AaijjLWv aKporaraii vpeog Kopviprjai Moo-w^^Xod. 
 
 This volcanic appearance will account for all 
 the mythological fictions which allude to this 
 island as the smithy of the god of fire, and also 
 for the ancient name of iEthalea, which it is 
 said to have borne in distant ages. ' The whole 
 island,' says Dr. Hunt 'bears the strongest 
 marks of the appearance of volcanic fire ; the 
 rocks in many parts are like burnt and vitrified 
 scoria of furnaces.' " Cram. —Nicand. 
 
 MosYNffici, a nation on the Euxine Sea, in 
 whose territories the 10,000 Greeks staid on 
 their return from Cunaxa. Xenoph. " The 
 name of Mosynascia is derived from the wooden 
 habitations in which the people in this part of 
 Pontus towards the eastern corner, were accus- 
 tomed to reside." D'Anville. 
 
 MoTHoNE, a town of Magnesia, where Philip 
 lost one of his eyes. Justin. 7, c. 6. The word 
 is often spelt Methone. 
 
 MuLiJCHA, a river of Africa, dividing Numi- 
 dia from Mauretania. Plin. 5, c. 2. 
 
 MuLVius Pons. Vid. Milvnis Pons. 
 
 MuNDA, a small toAvn of Hispania Beetica. 
 The village of Munda, near the modern town 
 of Ronda in Granada, corresponds nearly to 
 the site of the ancient town. It was celebrated 
 for a battle fought there on the 17th of March, 
 B. C. 45, between Caesar and the republican 
 forces of Rome, under Labienus and the sons 
 of Pompey. Caesar obtained the victo)y after 
 an obstinate and bloody battle, and by this blow 
 put an end to the Roman republic. Pompey 
 lost 30,000 men, and Caesar only 1000, and 500 
 wounded. Sil. Ital. 3, c. iOO.—Hirt. Bell. 
 Hisp. 27. — lAican. 1. 
 
 MuNYCHiA, (and je,) a port of Attica, be- 
 tween the Piraeus and the promontory of Suni- 
 um, called after king Munychus, who built there 
 a temple to Diana, and in whose honour he in- 
 stituted festivals called Mnnychia. The temple 
 was held so sacred, that whatever criminals fled 
 there for refuge were pardoned. Durmg the 
 festivals they offered small cakes, which they 
 called amphi phonies, '^to rov afKbicpartv, from 
 214 
 
 shining all around, because there were lighted 
 torches hung round when they were carried to 
 the temple, or because they were otfered at the 
 full moon, at which time the solemnity was ob- 
 served. It was particularly in honour of Diana, 
 who is the same as the moon, because it was full 
 moon when Themistocles conquered the Per- 
 sian fleet at Salamis. The port of Munychia 
 was well fortified, and of great consequence ; 
 therefore the Lacedaemonians, when sovereigns 
 of Greece, always kept a regular garrison there. 
 Plut.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. lOd.—Strab. 'Z.—Paus. 
 I, c. 1. 
 
 MuRGANTiA, a town of Samnium. Liv. 25, 
 c.27. 
 
 MuRSA, now Essek, a town of Hungary, 
 where the Drave falls into the Danube. 
 
 MusEiUM. Vid. AthencB. 
 
 MuTiCA, or MuTYCE, a town of Sicily, west 
 of the cape Pachynus. Cic. in Ver. 3, c. 43. 
 
 MuTiNA, a Roman colony of Cisalpine Gaul, 
 where M. Anthony besieged D. Brutus, whom 
 the consuls Pansa and Hirtius delivered. Two 
 battles on the 15th of April. B. C. 43, were 
 fought, in which Antony was defeated and at 
 last obliged to retire. Mutina is now called Mo- 
 dena. L/iican. 1, v 41, 1. 7, v. 872 — Sil. 8, v. 
 592.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 822.— Cic. Fam. 10, 
 ep. 14. Brut. ep. 5. 
 
 MuziRis, a town of India, now Vizindruk. 
 Plin. 6, c. 23. 
 
 Mycale, a city and promontory of Asia Mi- 
 nor, opposite Samos. This celebrated promon- 
 tory was long sacred to the meetings of the lo- 
 nians, who there assembled in the temple of 
 Neptune, and in the council, Panionium, in 
 which all the Ionic cities were represented, in- 
 vestigated, and provided for the concerns of the 
 confederation. In the Persian war this spot be- 
 came still more noted as the scene of the total 
 destruction of the fleet of the Persian king, on 
 the morning of the same day that his land forces, 
 under Mardonius, were roated by Pausanias 
 and his Spartans before Plataea. The Per- 
 sians were about 100,000 men, that had just 
 returned from the unsuccessful expedition of 
 Xerxes in Greece. They had drawn their ships 
 to the shore and fortified themselves, as if de- 
 termined to support a siege. They suffered the 
 Greeks to disembark from their fleet without the 
 least molestation, and were soon obliged to give 
 way before the cool and resolute intrepidity of 
 an inferior number of men. The Greeks obtain- 
 ed a complete victory, slaughtered some thou- 
 sands of the enemy, burned their camp, and 
 sailed back to Samos with an immense booty, in 
 which were seventy chests of money among 
 other very valuable things. Herodot. — Justin. 
 2, c. U.—Diod. 
 
 Mycalessus, an inland town of Boeotia, 
 where Ceres had a temple. Paiis. 9, c. 19. 
 
 Mycen^, a town of Argolis, in Peloponne- 
 sus, built by Perseus, son of Danae. It was 
 situate on a small river at the east of the Ina- 
 chus, and 50 stadia from Argos. " Mycenae is 
 said to have been founded by Perseus after the 
 death of his grandfather Ac'risius. 
 
 .... iToXicrna ITfjJcrsw?, 
 
 KtiKXwrrttwi/ novov ycpcov. 
 
 EuRip. Iph. Aul. 1500. 
 The name was supposed by some to be derived 
 
MY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MY 
 
 from Mycene, daughter of Inachus ; but others 
 assigned a different origin to the word, as may- 
 be seen from Pausanias. Perseus was succeed- 
 ed by Sthenelus, married to a daughter of Pe- 
 lops named i\.stydameia : after wliom followed 
 EurysLheus, Atreus, and Agamemnon; under 
 the latter monarch, the empire of Mycenae 
 reached its highest degree of opulence and pow- 
 er, since his authority was acknowledged by the 
 whole of Greece. Mycense, which had been 
 superior even to Argos during the Trojan wa:r, 
 declined after the return of the Heraclidee : and 
 in the 78th Olympiad, or 468 B. C. the Argives, 
 having attacked and captured the city, levelled 
 it to the ground, and enslaved its inhabitants. 
 Sirabo states that so complete was the destruc- 
 tion of this celebrated capital, that not a vestige 
 remained of its existence. This assertion, how- 
 ever, is not correct, since Pausanias informs us 
 that several parts of the walls were yet stand- 
 ing, as also one of the gates, surmounted by 
 lions, when he visited the ruins. Modern tra- 
 vellers have given us a full and interesting ac- 
 count of these vestiges ; among which the most 
 remarkable is a subterraneous chamber, called 
 by Pausanias the treasury of Atreus, and usually 
 mentioned under that name by antiquaries of 
 the present day. It served also as the burial 
 vault of Atreus and his descendants- The gate 
 of ihe lions still remains in the same state as it 
 was when seen by Pausanias, who ascribes it, 
 as well as the treasury, to the Cyclopes, who 
 also raised the fortifications of Tiryns. ' This 
 gate forms the principal entrance to the acropo- 
 lis, and a magnificent wall, composed of irregu- 
 larpolygpns,closely united and carefully smooth- 
 ed, supports the terrace on which it is situated. 
 The acropolis is a long irregular triangle stand- 
 ing nearly east and west. The walls follow the 
 sinuosities of the rock, and are mostly compos- 
 ed of the second style of well-joined polygons, 
 although the rough construction is occasionally 
 seen. The traces within are few and imper- 
 fect.' Pausanias also mentions the monuments 
 of Agamemnon and Electra. Clytemnestra and 
 ^gistheus were interred without the walls. 
 The fountain of Perseus, which he likewise 
 notices, ' rises,' as Dodwell informs us, ' a few 
 hundred yards to the north-east of the acropolis, 
 and immediately after issuing from the rock 
 forms a small clear stream of excellent water, 
 with which Mycenae was anciently supplied.' 
 The extent of the town itself has not been as- 
 certained. Thucydides, however, leads us to 
 suppose it was but small, notwithstanding the 
 epithets of evpvdyvta and evKri^evov applied to it 
 by Homer. Mr. Dodwell is of opinion * that 
 the walls of the city extended considerably be- 
 yond the subterraneous chambers to the plain ;' 
 and he adds, ' that the foundations of some edi- 
 fices, as well as the remains of houses, may be 
 traced in many places.' The ruins are close to 
 the village of Krabata. The temple of Juno, 
 which, according to Strabo, was common to the 
 Argives and Mycenseans, stood on the slope of 
 mount Euboea, at a distance of fifteen stadia 
 from the city of the latter. That part of the 
 mountain which rose above the edifice was 
 named Acraa, and the lowerportion Prosymna. 
 A rivulet, called Asterion, had its source near 
 the temple, but presently after disappeared 
 among the rocks. Eupolemus was said to be 
 
 the architect of this celebrated building, which 
 was enriched with numerous bass-reliels repre- 
 senting the birth of Jove, the battle of the gods 
 and giants, as well as various events which oc- 
 curred during the siege, and after the capture 
 of Troy. In the vestibule were ranged the 
 statues of the priestesses of Juno, and different 
 heroes ; that which bore the name of Augus- 
 tus, as Pausanias was informed, was originally 
 intended for Orestes, The image of the god- 
 dess was of a colossal size, and represented seat- 
 ed on a throne. A crown, adorned with figures 
 of the Hours and Graces, encircled the head ; 
 in one hand she held a sceptre, in the other a 
 pomegranate. This admirable statue was 
 wrought in gold and ivory by Polycletus. The 
 figure of Hebe, which once stood near the Juno, 
 was the work of Naucydes. Among the vari- 
 ous offerings with which the temple was en- 
 riched, the most remarkable were an altar of 
 silver, on which was represented the marriage 
 of Hercules and Hebe, a peacock of gold stud- 
 ded with jewels, presented by the emperor 
 Hadrian, and a golden crown and robe of pur- 
 ple by Nero. The first temple was accidental- 
 ly burnt, the curtains having caught fire through 
 the negligence of the priestess Chryseis, who 
 had fallen asleep ; she in consequence fled to 
 Tegea, and took refuge in the sanctuary of 
 Minerva Alea. The Argives nevertheles did 
 not remove her statue from the temple, where 
 it still remained in the time of Pausanias. This 
 fire happened in the ninth year of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war. The site of this ancient edifice has 
 not yet be^n ascertained. Sir W. Gell suppo- 
 ses it might have stood at Phiti, or Phytai, to 
 the west of Krabata, where there are some ves- 
 tiges. Mount Euboea, below which, according 
 to Pausanias, the temple was situated, answers 
 apparently to the ridge now called Tricorpko, 
 or three heads." Cram. — Pans. 2, c. 16. — Strab. 
 S.— Virg. vEn. 6, v. 839.— Mela, 2, c. 3. The 
 word MycencEus is used for Agamemnon, as he 
 was one of the kings of Mycenae. 
 
 Myconos, {or E,) one of the Cyclades, be- 
 tween Delosandlcaria, which received its name 
 from Myconus, an unknown person. It is about 
 three miles at the east ofDelos, and is thirty-six 
 miles in circumference. It remained long unin- 
 habited on account of the frequent earthquakes 
 to which it was subject. Some suppose that the 
 giants whom Hercules killed were buried under 
 that island whence arose the proverb of every 
 thing is under Mycone, applied to those who 
 treat of different subjects under one and the same 
 title, as if none of the defeated giants had been 
 buried under no other island or mountain about 
 Mycone. Strabo observes, and his testimony is 
 supported by that of modern travellers, that the 
 inhabitants of Mycone became bald very early, 
 even at the age of 20 or 25 ; from which circum- 
 stance they were called, by way of contempt, the 
 bald heads of Mycone. Pliny says that the 
 children of the place were always born without 
 hair. The island was poor, and the inhabitants 
 very avaricious; whence Archilochus reproach- 
 ed a certain Pericles, that he came to a feast like 
 a Myconian, that is, without previous invita- 
 tion. Virg. .En. 3, v. 16.— Strab. \0.—Plin. 
 11, c. 37, 1. 12, c. 7, 1. 14, c. l.—Athen. l.— Thn- 
 cyd. 3, c. 29.— Mela, 2, c. l.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 
 463. 
 
 215 
 
MY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 MY 
 
 Myecphoris, a town in Egypt, in a small 
 island near Bubastis. 
 
 Myenus, a mountain of ^tolia. Plut. de 
 Flum. 
 
 Mygdonia, a small province of Macedonia, 
 near Thrace, between the rivers Axius and 
 Strymon. The inhabitants, called Mygdories, 
 migrated into Asia, and settled near Troas, 
 where the country received the name of their an- 
 cient habitation. Cybele was called Mygdonia, 
 from the worship she received in Mygdonia in 
 Phrygia. fforat. 2, od. 12, v. 22, 1. 3, od. 16, v. 
 
 41. — Ovid. Met. 6, v. 45. A small province 
 
 of Mesopotamia bears also the name of Mygdo- 
 nia, and was probably peopled by a Macedo- 
 nian colony. Flacc. 3, &c. — Plin. 4, c. 10. — 
 Ovid. Heroid. 20.—Horat. 2, od. 12. 
 
 Mygdonus, or Mygdon, a small river run- 
 ning through Mesopotamia. 
 
 Mylassa {orum), Si town of Caria, on a small 
 stream emptying west of the Doridis Sinus. It 
 still remains, though with an altered name ; the 
 quantity ot marble in its vicinity causing it, eis 
 D'Anville concludes, to be called Marmora. 
 Liv. 38, c. 39. 
 
 Mylje, nov/ Melazzo, a to"\:^Ti upon a narrow 
 cape, that, stretching from the northern coast of 
 Sicily west of Pelorum, assists to foim a bay 
 upon this part of the shore. Near this place the 
 fleet of the younger Pompey was destroyed by 
 that of Octavius Csesar, then triumvir, under 
 the conduct of his favourite leader Agrippa. 
 
 Myndus, a maritime town of Caria, near Ha- 
 licarnassus. Cic. Fam. 3, ep. 8. — Mela, 1, c. 
 16.— Plin. 5, c. 29. 
 
 Myonnesus, a town and promontory of Ionia, 
 now Jalanghi-Liman. Liv. 37, c. 13 and 27. 
 
 Myos-hormos, a commercial town of Egypt, 
 on the Sinus Arabicus, below the Heropolites 
 Sinus. This place was frequently called also 
 Aphrodites, and its harbour was crowded by a 
 number of little islands bearing the same name. 
 Their modern name among the surrounding 
 people is Sufangeul-barhi, or the Sponge of the 
 Sea. From this place all the inland country, 
 and all the cities on the upper portion of the 
 Nile, were supplied with the commodities of the 
 east; and till the founding of Berenice, and the 
 formation of a road from Coptus to that city 
 through the desert that lay between, Myos-hor- 
 mos flourished almost as much as any city of 
 Egypt. The better fortune, however, of Bere- 
 nice, in engrossing all the intercourse of Coptus 
 and the Indies, soon reduced Myos-hormos to 
 a very subordinate rank. 
 
 Myra, {orum or ce), a town of Lycia, on a 
 high hill two miles from the sea. Plin. 5, c. 
 21.—Strab. 14. 
 
 Myrcinus, a town of the Edones in Thrace, 
 on the left bank of the Strymon. " Myrcinus 
 is often mentioned by Herodotus as the place 
 chosen by Histiseus of Miletus for his settle- 
 ment, which was granted to him by Darius, in 
 consideration of the important services he had 
 rendered that sovereign in the Scythian expedi- 
 tion. The advantages which this situation pre- 
 sented to the enterprising Ionian, consisted in 
 an abundant supply of timber for ship-building, 
 Ihe number of mariners and soldiers which the 
 country could readily furnish, the richness of 
 the mines it contained, and its proximity to the 
 Greek colonies. His designs, however, did not 
 216 
 
 escape the vigilant observation of Megabyzus, 
 who commanded the Persian army in Thrace : 
 and on his representation to Darius, Histiaeus 
 WELS recalled in the manner related by Herodo- 
 tus. Aristagoras also subsequently retired to 
 Myrcinus on the failure of his enterprise in 
 Ionia, and was slain before some Thraciantown 
 which he was besieging. At the time of the 
 Peloponnesian war, Myrcinus had fallen again 
 into the hands of the Edoni ; but on the death 
 of Pittacus, sovereign of that people, it opened 
 its gates to BreisidEis, who was then in the pos- 
 session of Amphipolis. Cleon, the Athenian 
 commander was killed in the battle which took 
 place before that city by a targeteer of Myrci- 
 nus. The situation of Myrcinus probably cor- 
 responds with that of Orphano." Cram. 
 
 Myriandros, a town of Seleucia in Syria, 
 on the bay of Issus, which is sometimes called 
 Sinus Myriandricus. Liv. 2, c. 108. 
 
 Myrina, I. a maritime town of iEolia, called 
 also Sebastopolis, and now Sanderlic. Tacit. 
 
 Ann. 2, c. il.—Liv. 33, c. SO.-Strab. 13. 
 
 II. A town of Lemnos, now Palio Castro, built 
 on the point of a promontory looking towards 
 
 Athos. Vid. Lemnos. Plin. 4, c. 12. III. 
 
 A town of Asia, destroyed by an earthquake in 
 Trajan's reign. 
 
 Maricb, a town of Arcadia, called also Me- 
 galopolis. 
 
 Myrl5:.e, same as Apamea of Bithynia. 
 Plin. 5, c. 32. 
 
 Myrmidones, a people on the southern bor- 
 ders of Thessaly, who accompanied Achilles to 
 the Trojan war. They received their name 
 from Myrmidon, a son of Jupiter and Eury me- 
 dusa, who married one of the daughters of ^Eo- 
 lus, son of Helen. His son Actor married 
 JEgina, the daughter, of the Asopus. He gave 
 his name to his subjects who dwelt near the 
 river Peneus in Thessaly. According to some 
 the Myrmidons received their name from their 
 having been originally ants, ftvpur/Kei. Vid. 
 Macus. According to Strabo, they received 
 it from their industry, because they imitated 
 the diligence of the ants, and like them, were 
 indefatigable, and were continually employed 
 in cultivating the earth. Ovid, Met. 7, v. 654. 
 — Strab. — Hygin. fab. 52. 
 
 Myrtoum mare, a part of the JEgean Sea 
 which lies between Euboea, Attica, and Pelo- 
 ponnesus, as far as cape Malea. It receives 
 this name from Myrto, a woman, or from Myr- 
 tos, a small island opposite to Carystos in Eu- 
 boea ; or from Myrtilus, the son of Mercury, 
 who was drowned there, &c. Paus. 8, c. 14. 
 — Hygin. fab. 84. — Plin. 4, c. 11. 
 
 Myrtuntium, a name given to that part of 
 the sea which lies on the coast of Epirus be- 
 tween the bay of Ambracia and Leucas. 
 
 Myst, a barbarous people according to He- 
 rodotus, who, crossing with the Teucri into 
 Thrace from the eastern shores of the Euxine 
 and the Propontis, effected important changes 
 in the settlements of that country, extending 
 themselves as far as the Adriatic on the west 
 and the Peneus on the south. The revolutions 
 occasioned by this migration occurred at an era 
 more remote than that to which the Trojan 
 war can be referred. 
 
 Mysia, a country of Asia, bounded in its 
 greatest extent by the Propontis on the north, 
 
MY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NA 
 
 the iEgaean and the Hellespont upon the west, 
 by Lydia on the south, and by Bithynia on the 
 east. Besides the country lying within these 
 boundaries, the ancients usually assigned to 
 Mysia the island of Lesbos, and the smaller isl- 
 ands that clustered round the shore. In some 
 respects this is the most remarkable of all the 
 Asiatic provinces ; here, before the historic ages, 
 were performed those exploits, which, them- 
 selves, beyond its pale, have served for a land- 
 mark in all history ; and half the poetry of the 
 ancient world, or more than half perhaps, is in 
 some way connected with the name of Troy. 
 The first division which we may mark in My- 
 sia is that which distinguishes two provinces, 
 the Greater and the Less. In the former we 
 may include all the region lying along the coast 
 as far as the commencement of the Hellespont, 
 and inland to the borders of Bithynia, a part of 
 which, as far as mount Olympus, may have once 
 belonged to it ; the Lesser Mysia was contained 
 therefore within the line of the coast along the 
 Hellespont and Propontis eastward as far as the 
 river Rhindacus; but all the early fame of My- 
 sia is connected with this part. Here, upon the 
 straits, or, as it was anciently called, the river, 
 was the plain of Troy, with the consecrated Ida 
 in its rear; and here the streams of Xanthus 
 and of Simois are seen to bear their feeble but 
 still classic waters to the ^^ broad Hellespont." 
 If poetry has not done as much for the more 
 southern part, history has done much more; 
 and about 80 years after the events which give 
 such lasting interest to the section just described, 
 a body of JEolic Greeks passed over to rebuild 
 and repopulate the country that their ancestors 
 had spent ten years in laying waste. The 
 name of .^olis belongs to this part of Mysia 
 from the period of the return of the Heraclidae 
 to the Peloponnesus. {Vid. ^olis.') Many dif- 
 ferent aspects present themselves, under which 
 we must consider the geographical and political 
 divisions of this part of peninsular Asia. Thus, 
 after the establishment of the jEolians, we maj'- 
 consider almost every town as an independent 
 state, or at least as striving for independence. 
 After some time the Lydian empire of Croesus 
 affected a change in its political but without in- 
 terfering with its geographical situation, and 
 without affecting the relative position of the 
 towns. In the same manner it passed into and 
 probably remained in the hands of the Persians. 
 On the erection of the kingdom of Pergamus, 
 Mysia entered into the distribution of Asia, 
 which constituted that state, and was afterwards 
 a part of" Asia," a praetorian province. With- 
 out regard to these differences, however, we 
 may observe that the subdivisions of Mysia were 
 generally understood to be as follows among 
 the Greeks. 1st. Great Mysia, of which the 
 capital was Pergamus, upon the Caicus ; 2d. 
 the coast of the Pelasgi, Leleges, &c. and the 
 island of Lesbos ; 3d. Troas and Little Mysia, 
 forming what was sometimes designated little 
 Phrygia. Of these the ancient Tmy, once mis- 
 tress of the east, was the capital of the former ; 
 while Cyzicus and Lampsacus were the prin- 
 cipal towns of the latter district in the 3d sub- 
 division. Under Constantine, when Asia was 
 divided into diocesses, Mysia, in the diocess of 
 Asia, assumed the name i"f Hellespontus, the 
 principal town being still Pergamus. The whole 
 Part I.-2 E 
 
 of this country is now comprised, with the great- 
 er part of Bithynia, in the Turkish divisions of 
 Khudavenkiar, Karassi, and Bigah. The Mysi 
 are supposed to be the descendants of the Moesi, 
 a Thracian people, who early crossed over from 
 Europe ; but though we may safely grant the 
 analogy, which is presumed or ascertained, be- 
 tween the Thracian and the Phrygian dialects 
 and though we cannot for a moment dispute 
 the antiquity of both, it requires a very deep re- 
 search to enable us to say that one, and still 
 more to declare which one, is the parent tongue. 
 The Mysians were once very warlike, but they 
 greatly degenerated ; and the words Mysorum 
 ultimus were emphatically used to signify a 
 person of no merit. The ancients generally 
 hired them to attend their funerals as mourners, 
 because they were naturally melancholy and 
 inclined to shed tears. 
 
 Myus, (Myuntis,) a town of Ionia on the 
 confines of Caria, founded by a Grecian colony. 
 It is one of the 12 capital cities of Ionia, situ- 
 ate at the distance of about 30 stadia from the 
 mouth of the Maeander. Artaxerxes, king of 
 Persia, gave it to Tbemistocles to maintain him 
 in meat. Magnesia was to support him in 
 bread, and Lampsacus in wine. The sea hav- 
 ing retired and left much of the shore bare, 
 Myus was so infested by insects in consequence, 
 that the inhabitants removed to Miletus; and 
 in the time of Pausanias the city e:?:isted only 
 in name. Heyl. Cosm. — C. Nep. in Themis. 
 Strab. U.—Herodot. l,c. U2.—Diod. 11. 
 
 N. 
 
 NABATH.EA, a couutry of" Arabia, of which 
 the capital was called Petra. The word is 
 often applied to any of the eastern countries of 
 the world by the poets, and seems to be derived 
 from Nabath the son of Ishmael. Ovid. Met. 
 1, V. 61, 1. 5, V, 163. — Strab. 16. — Lnican. 4, v. 
 63. — Juv. 11. V. 126. — Seneca, in Her. (Et. 
 160, &c. 
 
 Naharvali, a people of Germany. Tacit. 
 Germ. 43. 
 
 Naissus, or NiEssus, now Nissa, a tovni of 
 Moesia, the birth-place of Constantine, ascribed 
 by some to lUyricum or Thrace. 
 
 Namnetes, an Armoric people of Celtic 
 Gaul, whom Strabo calls Namnitae, and Ptole- 
 my Namnetffi. On the north they were bound- 
 ed by the Rhedones ; on the east by the Andes; 
 on the south by the Ligeris ; and on the west 
 by the Veneti. Their towns, according to Pto- 
 lemy, was Condevicnum, which seems to be 
 formed from the Celtic Condate, meaning " a 
 confluence ;" for the town was situated at the 
 confluence of the Ardra and the Ligeris. It 
 afterwards took the name of the people, whence 
 the modern name Nantes {dep. de la Loire-Infe- 
 rieure.) Cess. B. G. 3, 9. Lem. ed. 
 
 Nantuates, a people of Gallia Celtica, 
 whose territory is not easily defined. For Cae- 
 sar speaks of the Nantuates, Veragri, and Se- 
 duni in conjunction, and does not mark out their 
 separate limits. On the whole it is most likely 
 that their territory is now the part of the Alps 
 called Le Chablais, and le bas de la Vallee. 
 Cces.B. G.3,l,l; 4, 10. 
 
 NAPmLUs, a river of Peloponnesus falling 
 into the Alpheus. Paus. 1. 
 217 
 
NA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NA 
 
 Nar, now Nera, a river of Umbria, whose 
 waters, famous for their sulphureous properties, 
 pass through the lake Velinus, and issuing from 
 thence with great rapidity, fall into the Tiber. 
 It rises at the foot of mount Fiscellus, on that 
 part of the chain of the Appenines which se- 
 parates the Sabines from Picenum, and falls 
 into the Tiber near Ocriculum. Oram. — Ovid. 
 Met. 14, V. 330.— Virg. jEn. 7, v. 517.— Cic. ad 
 Attic. 4, ep. 15. — Tacit. Ann. 1, c. 79, 1. 3, c. 9. 
 
 Narbo Martius, now Narbonne, dep de V 
 Ande, the first Roman colony established in 
 Gaul. It was a very ancient city of the Volcae 
 Tectosages ; having been colonized by Porcius 
 and Marcius the consuls, A. U. C. 635, it be- 
 came the chief city of the province, which 
 hence derived the name of Narbonensis. Its 
 epithet of Martius it received, not from the 
 consul Marcius, but from Mars, because, as 
 Cicero says in the oration for Fonteius, it was 
 specula populi Romani ac propugnaculum, istis 
 nationihus ( Gallorurri) oppositum et objectum. C. 
 J. Caesar sent a second colony to this city, con- 
 sisting of the veterans of the 10th legion. It 
 was led by Tib. Claudius Nero, the father of 
 the emperor. Its inhabitants were called Ati- 
 cini from the river Atacinus, and Decumani, 
 from the 10th legion {a decima legione.) Cces. 
 B. G. 3, 20 ; 7, 7 ; 8, 46. Lem. ed. 
 
 Narbonensis Gallia, one of the four great 
 divisions of ancient Gaul, was bounded by the 
 Alps, the Pyrenean mountains; Aquitania, 
 Belgica, and the Mediterranean, and contained 
 the modern provinces of Languedoc^ Provence^ 
 DaupMne, and Savoy. Vid. Gallia. 
 
 Narisci, a nation of Germany, in the Upper 
 Palatinate. Tacit, de Germ. 42. 
 
 Narnia, or Narna, anciently Nequinum, 
 now Narni, a town of Umbria, washed by the 
 river Nar, from which it received its name. In 
 its neighbourhood are still visible the remains 
 of an aqueduct and of a bridge erected by Au- 
 gustus. Liv. 10, c. 9. 
 
 Naro, a river of Dalmatia, " now Narenta, 
 a considerable stream, which rises in the moun- 
 tains of Bosnia, and falls into the sea opposite 
 to the island of Lesina. Scylax speaks of a 
 great lake in the interior of the country, from 
 which this river flows, containing an island of 
 about one hundred and twenty stadia in extent. 
 Modern maps only lay down some extensive 
 marshes in this direction. The Emporium, to 
 which the same ancient geographer alludes, as 
 being situated eighty stadia above the mouth of 
 the Naro, may apply to the Narona of Pliny 
 and Mela, a Roman colony of some note. Its 
 ruins should be sought for in the vicinity of 
 Castel Norin." Cram. 
 
 Narycia, or DM, or Naryx, a town of Mag- 
 na Grsecia, built by a colony of Locrians after 
 the fall of Troy. The place in Greece from 
 which they came, bore the same name, and was 
 the country of Ajax Oileus. The word Nary- 
 cian is more universally understood, as apply- 
 ing to the Italian colony, near which pines and 
 other trees grew in abundance. Virg. G. 2, v. 
 438. Mn. 3, v. 3^^.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 705. 
 
 Nasamones, a savage people of Libya, near 
 the Syrtes, who generally lived upon plunder. 
 Curt. 4, c. 7. — Ducan. 9, v. 439. — Herodot. 2, c. 
 \Qb.~Sil. It. 2, V. 116, 1. 11, V. 180. 
 
 NassuSj or Nasus, a town of Acarnania, near 
 218 
 
 the mouth of the Achelous. Liv. 26, c. 24. 
 Also a part of the town of Syracuse. 
 
 Natiso, now Natiso7ie, a river rising in the 
 Alps, and fallmg into the Adriatic east of Aqui- 
 leia. Pli7i. 3, c. 18. 
 
 Nava, now Nake, a river of Germany fall- 
 ing into the Rhine at Bingen, below Mentz. 
 Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 70. 
 
 Naucratis, a city of Egypt, on the left side 
 of the Canopic mouth of the Nile. It was cele- 
 brated for its commerce, and no ship was 
 permitted to land at any other place, but was 
 obliged to sail directly to the city, there to de- 
 posite its cargo. It gave birth to Athenaeus. 
 The inhabitants were called Naucratitos, or 
 Naucratiotce. Herodot. 2, c. 97 and 179. — 
 Plin. 5, c. 9. 
 
 Naulochus, I. a maritime town of Sicily 
 
 near Pelorum. II. A town of Thrace, on 
 
 the Euxine Sea. Plin. 4, c. 11. III. A pro- 
 montory of the island of Imbros. IV. A town 
 
 of the Locri. Plin. 4, c. 3. 
 
 Naupactus, or Naupactum, " situated at the 
 western extremity of the Locrian territory, and 
 close to Rhium of iEtolia, wels said to have 
 derived its name from the circumstance of the 
 Heraclidge having there constructed the fleet in 
 which they crossed over into Peloponnesus. 
 After the Persian war this city was occupied by 
 the Athenians, who there established the Mes- 
 senian Helots, after they had evacuated Ithome, 
 The acquisition of Naupactus was of great im- 
 portance to the Athenians during the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, as it was an excellent station for 
 their fleet in the Corinthian gulf, and not only 
 afforded them the means of keeping up a com- 
 munication with Corcyra and Acarnania, but 
 enabled them also to watch the motions of the 
 enemy on the opposite coast,, and to guard 
 against any designs they might form against 
 their allies. Some important naval operations, 
 which took place off" this city in the third year 
 of the war, will be found detailed in Thucy- 
 dides. After the failure of the expedition un- 
 dertaken by Demosthenes the Athenian general 
 against the ^tolians, the latter, supported by a 
 Peloponnesian force, endeavoured to seize Nau- 
 pactus by a coup de main ; but such were the 
 able arrangements made by Demosthenes, Avho 
 threw himself into the place with a reinforce- 
 ment of Acarnanian auxiliaries, that the enemy 
 did not think proper to prosecute the attempt. 
 On the termination of the Peloponnesian war, 
 however, Naupactus surrendered to the Spar- 
 tans, who expelled the Messenians from the 
 place. Demosthenes acquaints us that it had 
 afterwards been occupied by the Achaeans, but 
 was ceded by Philip of Macedon to the ^to- 
 lians, in whose possession it remained till they 
 were engaged in a war with the Romans. The 
 latter, after having defeated Antiochus at Ther- 
 mopylae, suddenly crossed over from the Maliac 
 gulf to that of Corinth, and invested Naupac- 
 tus, which would probably have been taken, 
 notwithstanding the obstinate defence made by 
 the ^tolians, had they not obtained a truce by 
 the intervention of T. Plaminius. Pausanias 
 speaks of a temple of Neptune in this city, and 
 also of one dedicated to Diana. Naupactus was 
 still a city of some importance in the time of 
 Hierocles, but it was nearly destroyed by an 
 earthquake under the reign of Justinian. The 
 
NA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NE 
 
 modern town is called EnebacIUi by the Turks, 
 Nepacto by the Greeks and Lepanto by the 
 Franks. ' Kepacto^ says Sir W. Gell, ' is a 
 miserable pashalic and a ruinous town ; but it 
 is worth visiLing, because it gives a very exact 
 idea of the ancient Greek ciiy, with its citadel 
 on mount RhegoMi, whence two walls, coming 
 down to the coast and the plain, form a trian- 
 gle. The port absolutely runs into the city, 
 and is shut within the walls, which are erected 
 on the ancient foundations,'" Cram. 
 
 Nauplia, " the port of Argos, derived its 
 name and origin from Nauplius, the son of 
 Neptune and Am)rmone. Nauplia was deserted 
 and in ruins when visited by Pausanias. The 
 inhabitants had been ezpelled several centuries 
 before by the Argives, upon suspicion of their 
 favouring the Spartans. The latter people in 
 consequence received them into their territory, 
 and established them at Methone of Messenik. 
 He noticed the vestiges of its wall and harbour, 
 the temple of Neptune, and a fountain named 
 Canathus. It has been succeeded by the modern 
 town of No.poli di Romania^ as it is called by 
 the Greeks, which possesses a fortress of some 
 strength. Dodwell observed there some remains 
 of the walls, which were constructed in the po- 
 lygonal style. ' The site of the temple of Nep- 
 tune is not known; but the fountain Canathos 
 still exhibits a copious flow of water.' Sir W. 
 Gell remains, that ' Nauplia is the best built 
 city of the Morea. It is situated on a rocky 
 point, on which are many remains of the ancient 
 wall. The port is excellent and very defensi- 
 ble.' Nauplia, according to Pausanias, was 
 fifty stadia from Temenium." Cram. 
 
 Nauportus, a town of Pannonia, on a river 
 of the same name, now called Ober or Upper 
 Laybach. Veil. Pat. 2, c, \\Q.—Plin. 3, c. 18. 
 — Tacit. Ann. 1, c. 20. 
 
 Naura, I. a country of Scythia in Asia. 
 Curt. 8, — II, Of India withm the Ganges. 
 Arrian. 
 
 Naustathmus, I. a port of Phocaea in Ionia. 
 
 Liv. 37, c. 31. II. Also a port of Cyrenaica, 
 
 now Bondaria. Strah. 17. 
 
 Naxos, I. now Naxia., a celebrated island in 
 the jEgean Sea, the largest and most fertile of 
 all the Cyclades. It was formerly called Stron- 
 gyle, Dia, Dionysias. and Callipolis ; and re- 
 ceived the name of Naxos from Naxus, who 
 was at the head of a Carian colony which set- 
 tled in the island. Naxos abounds with all sorts 
 of fruits, and its wines are still in the same re- 
 pute as formerly. The Naxians were anciently 
 governed by kings, but they afterwards ex- 
 changed this form of government for a republic, 
 and enjoyed their liberty, till the age of Pisis- 
 tratus, who appointed a tyrant over them. They 
 were reduced by the Persians ; but in the ex- 
 pedition of Darius and Xerxes against Greece, 
 they revolted and fought on the side of the 
 Greeks. During the Peloponnesian war they 
 supported the interest of Athens. Bacchus 
 was the chief deity of the island. The capital 
 was also called Naxos ; and near it, on the 20th 
 Sept. B. C. 377, the Lacedaemonians were de- 
 feated by Chabrias. Thucyd. 1, &c. — Hero- 
 dot.— Diod. 5, Sac— Ovid. 'Met. 3, v. 636.— 
 Virg. Mn. 3, v. V2h.—Paus. 6, c. 16.— Pindar. 
 
 II, An ancient town on the eastern side 
 
 of Sicily, founded 759 years before the Chris- 
 
 tian era. There was also another town at the 
 distance of five miles from Naxos, which bore 
 the same name, and was often called by con- 
 tradistinction Taurominium. Plin. 3. — Diod. 
 
 13. III. A town of Crete, noted for hones. 
 
 Plin. 36, c, 7. IV. A Carian, who gave his 
 
 name to the greatest of the Cyclades. 
 
 Nazianzus, a town of Cappadocia where St. 
 Gregory was born, and hence he is caUed Nazi- 
 a7izenus. 
 
 Nea, or Nova insula, b. small island between 
 Lemnos and the Hellespont, which rose out of 
 the sea during an earthquake. Pli7i. 2, c. 87. 
 
 Ne^ethts, now Neio, a river of Magna Gree- 
 cia near Crotona. Ovid. Met. 15, v 51, 
 
 Neandros, (or ia,) a town of Troas, Plin. 
 5, c. 30. 
 
 Neapolis, " in Italian Napoli, and with us 
 Naples. Innumerable accounts exist relative 
 to the foundation of this celebrated city; but 
 the fiction most prevalent seems to be that which 
 attributed it to the siren Parthenope, who was 
 cast upon its shores, and from whom it derived 
 the name by which it is usually designated in 
 the poets of antiquity. According to Strabo, 
 the tomb of this pretended foundress was showTi 
 there in his time. Hercules is also mentioned 
 as founder of Neapolis by Oppian and Diodorus 
 Siculus, We find also considerable variations 
 in what may be regarded as the historical ac- 
 count of the origin of Neapolis. S^cymnus of 
 Chios mentions both the Phocaeans and Cu- 
 meeans as its founders, while Stephanus of By- 
 zantium names the Rhodians. But by far the 
 most numerous and most respectable authorities 
 attribute its foundation to the Cumasans ; a cir- 
 cumstance which their proximity renders highly 
 probable. Hence the connexion of this city 
 with Euboea, so frequently alluded to by the 
 poets, and especially by Statius, who was bom 
 here. — A Greek inscription mentions a hero of 
 the name of Eumelus as having had divine ho- 
 nours paid to him, probably as founder of the 
 city. The date of the foundation of this colony 
 is not recorded. Velleius Paterculus observes 
 only that it was much posterior to that of the 
 parent city. Strabo seems to recognise another 
 colony subsequent to that of the Cumaeans, com- 
 posed of Chalcidians, Pithacusans, and Athe- 
 nians. The latter were probably the same who 
 are mentioned in a fragment of Timseus, quoted 
 by Tzetzes, as having migrated to Italy under 
 the command of Diotimus, who also instituted 
 the XajxTraSv^'opia, still observed at Neapolis in the 
 lime of Statius. The passage of Strabo above 
 cited will account also for the important change 
 in the condition of the city now under conside- 
 ration, which, is marked by the terms Palaepolis 
 and Neapolis, both of which are applied to it by 
 ancient writers. It is to be noticed that Palae- 
 polis is the name under which Livy mentions it 
 when describing the first transactions which 
 connect its history with that of Rome A. U. C. 
 429 ; while Polybius, speaking of events which 
 occurred in the beginning of the first Punic war, 
 that is about sixty years afterwards, employs 
 only that of Neapolis. Livy, however, clearly 
 alludes to the two cities as existing at the same 
 time : but we hear no more of Palaepolis after it 
 had undergone a siege, and surrendered to the 
 Roman arms. According to the same historian, 
 this town stood at no great distance from the 
 219 
 
tiE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NE 
 
 site of Neapolis, certainly nearer to Vesuvius, 
 and in the plain. It was betrayed by two of its 
 chief citizens to the Roman consul A. U. C. 
 429. Respecting the position of Neapolis, it 
 may be seen from Pliny, that it was placed be- 
 tween the river Sebelhus, now il Fiume Mad- 
 dalona^ and the small island Megaris, or Me- 
 galia, as Statius calls it, on which the Casteldel 
 Ovo now stands. It is probable that Neapolis 
 sought the alliance of the Romans not long after 
 the fall of the neighbouring city • for we find 
 that they were supplied with ships by that town 
 in the first Punic war, for the purpose of cross- 
 ing over into Sicily. At that time we may sup- 
 pose the inhabitants of Neapolis, like those of 
 Cumae, to have lost much of their Greek cha- 
 racter from being compelled to admit the Cam- 
 panians into their commonwealth; a circum- 
 stance which has been noticed by Strabo. In 
 that geographer's time, however, there still re- 
 mained abundant traces of their first origin. 
 Their gymnasia, clubs, and societies were 
 formed after the Greek manner. Public games 
 were celebrated every five years, which might 
 rival in celebrity the most famous institutions 
 of that nature established in Greece ; while the 
 indolence and luxury of Grecian manners were 
 also very prevalent, and allured to Neapolis 
 many a Roman whose age and temperament in- 
 clined them to a life of ease. Claudius and Nero 
 seem to have shown a like predilection for Nea- 
 polis as a residence. The epithet of docta, ap- 
 plied to this city by Martial, proves that litera- 
 ture continued to flourish here in his time. 
 Among other superstitions, we learn from Ma- 
 crobius, that the Neapolitans w^orshipped the 
 sun under the appearance of a bull with a hu- 
 man face, which they called Hebon. This fact 
 is confirmed by numerous corns, and by a re- 
 markable Greek inscription." Cram. 
 
 Nebo, a high mountain near Palestine, be- 
 yond Jordan, from the top of which Moses was 
 permitted to view the promised land. 
 
 Nebrissa, a town of Spain, now Lebrixa. 
 
 Nebrodes, a mountain of Sicily, where the 
 Himera rises, Sil. 14, v. 237. 
 
 Nem^a, I. a town of Argolis, between Cleona 
 and Phlius, with a wood, where Hercules, in 
 the 16th year of his age, killed the celebrated 
 Nemaean lion. This animal, born of the hun- 
 dred-headed Typhcn infested the neighbour- 
 hood of Nemaea, and kept the inhabitants under 
 continual alarms. It was the first labour of 
 Hercules to destroy it ; and the hero, when he 
 found that his arrows and his club were useless 
 against an animal whose skin was hard and im- 
 penetrable, seized him in his arms and squeezed 
 nim to death. The conqueror clothed himself 
 in the skin, and games were instituted to com- 
 memorate so great an event. The Nemsean 
 games were originally instituted by the Argives 
 in honour of Archemorus, who died by the bite 
 of a serpent, ( Vid. Archemorus,^ and Hercules 
 some time after renewed them. They were one 
 of the four great and solemn games which were 
 observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, 
 and the inhabitants of Cleonse, generally pre- 
 sided by turns at the celebration, in which were 
 exhibited foot and horse races, chariot races, 
 boxing, and wrestling, and contests of every 
 kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The con- 
 queror was rewarded with a crown of olive, af- 
 230 
 
 terwards of green parsley, in memory of the 
 adventure of Archemorus, whom his nurse laid 
 down on a sprig of that plant. They were cele- 
 brated every third, or according to others, every 
 fifth year, or more properly on the 1st and 3d 
 year of every Olympiad, on the 12th day of the 
 Corinthian month Panemos, which corresponds 
 to our August. They served as an era to the 
 Argives, and to the inhabitants of the neigh- 
 bouring country. It was always usual for an 
 orator to pronounce a funeral oration in memory 
 of the death of Archemorus, and those who dis- 
 tributed the prizes were always dressed in 
 mourning. Liv. 27, c. 30 and 31, 1. 34, c. 41. — 
 Ovid. Met. 9, v. 97, ep. 9, v. 61. — Paus. in Co- 
 rinth. — Clem. Alexand.—^-Athen. — PolycBn.— 
 Strab. 8. — Hygin. fab. 30 and 273. — ApoUod. 3, 
 
 c. 6. II. A river of Peloponnesus, falling into 
 
 the bay of Corinth. Liv. 33, c. 15. 
 
 Nemausus, a town of Gaul in Languedoc^ 
 near the mouth of the Rhone, now Nismes. 
 
 Nemetacum, a town of Gaul, now Arras. 
 
 Nemetes, a German people, whom Ceesar 
 places on the other side of the Rhine, and at 
 the commencement of the Hercynia Silva. 
 They, in fact, dwelt upon both sides of the 
 Rhine, where are now the duche de Bade, and 
 Spire. Cces. B. G. 1, 31. Lem. Ed. 
 
 Nemossus, (or um,) the capital of the Arverni 
 in Gaul, now Clermont. Lucan. 1, v, 419. — 
 Strab. 4. 
 
 Neo-Cerarea, a town of Pontus, which 
 Pliny places on the Lycus. It is now Niksar. 
 D'Anville. 
 
 Neon, a town of Phocis. There was also 
 
 another of the same name in the same country, 
 on the top of Parnassus. It was afterwards 
 called Tithorea. Pint, in Syll. — Paus.—Phoc. 
 —Herodot. 8, c. 32. 
 
 Neontichos, a town of jEolia, near the Her- 
 mus. Herodot. — Plin. 
 
 Nephelis, a cape of Cilicia. Liv. 33, c. 20. 
 
 Neptuni Fanum, I. a place near Cenchreae, 
 
 Mela, 1, c. 19. II. Another in the island of 
 
 Calauria. III. Another near Mantinea. 
 
 Neptunia, a town and colony of Magna 
 Grsecia. 
 
 Neptunium, a promontory of Arabia, at the 
 entrance of the gulf 
 
 Neriphus, a desert island near the Thracian 
 Chersonesus. 
 
 Neritos, a mountain in the island of Ithaca, 
 as also a small island in the Ionian Sea, accord- 
 ing to Mela. The word Neritos is often appli- 
 ed to the whole island of Ithaca ; and Ulysses, 
 the king of it, is called Neritius dux, and his 
 ship Neritia navis. The people of Saguntum, as 
 descended from a Neritian colony, are called 
 Neritia proles. Sil. It. 2, v. 311. — Virg. Mn. 
 3, V. 211.— Plin. A.— Mela, 2, c. l.— Ovid. Met. 
 13, V. 712. Rem. A. 263. 
 
 Neritum, a town of Calabria, now called 
 Nardo. 
 
 Nerium, or Artabrum, a promontory of 
 Spain, now Cape Finisterre. Strab. 3. 
 
 Neronian^ ThermjE, baths at Rome, made 
 by the emperor Nero. 
 
 Nerulum, an inland town of Lucania, now 
 Lagonegro. Liv. 9, c. 20. 
 
 Nervu, a people of Gaul, in the second Belgi- 
 ca, among the boldest and most warlike of that 
 nation. Dwelling in the northern regions that 
 
NI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 NI 
 
 bordered upon Germany, they claimed to be of 
 German origin, and refused to acknowledge, as 
 the other GalLc people had done, the supremacy 
 of Rome. They were surrounded, particularly 
 on the north, by other warlike tribes ; and it was 
 among the great achievements of Csesar to break 
 the spirit of ihis fierce, unyielding tribe. They 
 were among those who dwelt in the most north- 
 ern parts of Gaul comprised in France, and had 
 beyond the people of Germania Secunda, the 
 Merapiiand Batavi of the Netherlands. A por- 
 tion of the department du Nord now represents 
 their settlements, and Baxai is their capital cal- 
 led Bagaxum. 
 
 Nesactum, a town of Istria, at the mouth of 
 the Arsia, now CasteL Nuovo. 
 
 Nesis, {is or idis,^ now Nisita, an island on 
 the coast of Campania, famous for asparagus. 
 Lucan and Statins speak of its air as unwhole- 
 some and dangerous. Pli7i. 19, c. 8. — Ducan. 
 6, V. 90.— Czc. adAtt. 16, ep. 1 and ^.—Stat. 3, 
 Sylv. 1, V. 148. 
 
 Nessds, a river. Vid. Nestus. 
 
 Nestus, or Nessus, now Nesto, a small river 
 of Thrace, rising in mount Rhodope, and falling 
 into the jEgean Sea above the island of Thasos. 
 It was for some time the boundary of Macedonia 
 on the east, in the more extensive power of that 
 kingdom, 
 
 NfiTUM, a town of Sicily, now called Noto, on 
 the eastern coast. Sil. 14, v. 269. — Cic. in Ver. 
 4, c. 26, 1. 5, c. 51. 
 
 Neuri, a people of Sarmatia. Mela, 2, c. 1. 
 
 NiCEA, I. a to'v^m of Achaia, near Thermo- 
 pylae, on the bay of Malia. II. A town of II- 
 
 lyricum.i III- Another in Corsica. IV. 
 
 Another in Thrace. V. In Bceotia. VI. 
 
 now Nice, a city of.Liguria in the countr}'' of 
 the Intemelia, near the mouth of the Var. It 
 w^as founded by the Massilians, and was long 
 considered to belong rather to Gallia Provincia 
 than to Italy. It is now in English called Nice. 
 
 VII. A town of Bithynia, now Is-nik and 
 
 Nice, west of the Sangarius, on the lake Asca- 
 nius. Its earlier name was Antigonia, but Ly- 
 simachus, in honour of his wife, changed it to 
 INicsea. The general council of bishops, called 
 by Constantine A. D. 325, was held in this 
 place ; and here the doctrines of Arius were for- 
 mally examined and discussed. No council is 
 considered of greater authority than this, at 
 which the creed, known as the Nicene, was part- 
 ly drawn up and adopted. The empress Irene, 
 to give the council greater authority, which she 
 wished should declare in favour of the worship 
 of images, ordered that also to convene at Nicaea; 
 and here that superstition was formally reinstat- 
 ed which h ad been partially abolished by the vig= 
 orous efforts of the Isaurian Leo, the Iconoclast. 
 
 VIll. A place of some repute in India. 
 
 This town was built by Alexander on the east 
 bank of the Hydaspes, opposite Bucephalia. 
 The building of this city was in commemoration 
 of the victory of the IVEacedonians over Porus 
 and the Indians. Chaussard. 
 
 NicEPHORiuM, a town of Mesopotamia, on 
 the Billicha, immediately above its confluence 
 with the Euphrates, above the Fossa Semirami- 
 dis. It was built by Alexander during his east- 
 ern expedition, and on the accession of Seleucus 
 Callinicusto the throne of Syria, it was repaired 
 and fortified ; and the name of Callinicum was 
 
 assigned to it instead of that which it had borne 
 before. It is probable, however, that the new 
 town was built upon the opposite or south side 
 of the Billicha. Under the emperor Leo, the 
 fifth who bore that name, Callinicum, was des- 
 tined to another change of title, and Leontopo- 
 lis succeeded to the former appellation. I'he 
 eastern writers designate it by the name of 
 Racca, and here the Caliph Haroun Alrashid 
 established his favourite residence, 
 
 NicEPHORius, now KAabour. Vid. Centntis. 
 
 Nicer, now the Neckar, a river of Germany. 
 It rises in the Abnoba mons. Black Mountain, 
 and flowing for the greater part of its course to- 
 wards the north-west in Wirtemberg, on the 
 northern boundary of Baden, the country of the 
 Marcomanni before they crossed the Mayne, it 
 turns towards the west, and falls into the Rhine 
 near Manheim. Auson. Mos. 423. 
 
 NiciA, I. a city. Vid. Nicaa. II. A river 
 
 falling into the Po at Brixellum. It is now call- 
 ed Lenza, and separates the duchy of Modena, 
 from Parma. 
 
 NicoMEDiA, now Is-nikmid, a town of Bi- 
 thynia founded by Nicomedes 1st. at the head 
 of the Astacenus Sinus on the north, and oppo- 
 site the town of Astacus. It was the capital of 
 the country, and it has been compared, for its 
 beauty and greatness, to Rome, Antioch, or 
 Alexandria. It became celebrated for being, for 
 some time, the residence of the emperor Con- 
 stantine and most of his imperial ^successors. 
 Some suppose that it was originally called Asta- 
 cus, and Olbia, though it was generally believed 
 that they were all different cities. Ammian. 17. 
 —Pans. 5, c. V2.—Plin. 5, &c.—Sirab. 12, &c, 
 
 NicopoLis, I. a cit}^ of Lower Egypt. 11. 
 
 A town of Armenia Minor, built by Pompey the 
 Great in memory of a victory which he had 
 there obtained over the forces of Mithridates. 
 According to D'Anville it is now called Divri- 
 
 ki. Strah. 12. III. Another in Thrace, built 
 
 on the banks of the Nestus by Trajan, in me- 
 mory of a victor}^ which he obtained there over 
 
 the Barbarians. IV. Another, of Epirus, on 
 
 the Ambracian gulf, west of the river Chara- 
 drus, and nearly opposite to Actium. It was 
 founded by Augustus, in honour of his victory 
 obtained over Antony before the last-named 
 place, and " may be said to have risen out of the 
 ruins of all the surrounding cities in Epirus and 
 Acarnania, and even as far as vEtolia, which 
 were compelled to contribute to its prosperity. 
 So anxious was Augustus to raise his new co- 
 lony to the highest rank among the cities of 
 Greece, that he caused it to be admitted among 
 those states which sent deputies to the Am- 
 phictyonic assembly. He also ordered games to 
 be celebrated with great pomp every five years. 
 Suetonius states that he enlarged a temple of 
 Apollo ; and consecrated to Mars and Neptune 
 the site on which his army had encamped before 
 the battle of Actium, adorning it with naval 
 trophies. Having afterwards fallen into decay, 
 it was restored by the em-peror Julian. Hierocles 
 terms it the metropolis of Old Epirus. Mo- 
 dern travellers describe the remains of Nicopo- 
 lis as very extensive ; the site which they occupy 
 is now Irnown by the name of Preresa Vecchia. 
 Mr, Hughes observes, that ' the first view of 
 the isthmus on which it stood, covered with 
 immense ruins of ancient edifices, is parti cular- 
 221 
 
NI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NI 
 
 ly curious and striking. The most prominent 
 object is the ruin of a large theatre, cresting the 
 top of a rising eminence.' The same traveller 
 noticed also ' an aqueduct, which brought wa- 
 ter from the distance of thirty miles ; a large en- 
 closure, supposed to have been that of the Acro- 
 polis mentioned by Dio Cassius ; within the 
 city itself a beautiful little theatre, and a temple 
 of Ceres. Near the city are to be seen the ruins 
 of the suburb, mentioned by Strabo, where the 
 
 Actian games were celebrated.' " Cram. 
 
 V. Two towns in Moesia : that which has pre- 
 served the ancient name in Nicopoli, was erected 
 by Trajan, in memory of his victories on the 
 Danube, opposite the mouth of the Aluta, or 
 Olt. The victory of Bajazet obtained against the 
 flower of the chivalry of France in the year 1393, 
 renewed its fame, and seemed again to justify 
 its distinguished title. The other Mcesian city 
 of the same name was situated in the southern 
 part of the province, towards the Heemus moun- 
 tains and the borders of Thrace. It is now 
 Nicop on the lantia^ the latrusof antiquity, and 
 its situation on this stream caused it to be sur- 
 named ad latrum. VI. Another, near Je- 
 rusalem, founded by the emperor Vespasian. 
 
 VII. Another, in Dacia, built by Trajan 
 
 to perpetuate the memory of a celebrated battle. 
 
 VIII. Another near the bay of Issus, built 
 
 by Alexander, in Cilicia. 
 
 Niger, or Nigris, {itis,) a river of Africa, 
 which rises in Ethiopia, and falls by three 
 mouths into the Atlantic, little known to the 
 ancients, and not yei satisfactorily explored by 
 the moderns. Plin^ 5, c. 1 and 8. — Mela, 1, c. 
 4, 1. 3, c. \Q.—Ptol. 4, c. 6. " Ptolemy, the 
 best informed of the ancient geographers, and 
 commented on by the most learned of the mo- 
 derns, M. D'Anville,makes mention of two great 
 rivers, the Ghir, which runs from south-east to 
 north-west, nearly like the Misselad, or Bahr- 
 el-Gazel in our modern maps; the other, the 
 Niger, runs nearly in the direction of the Jolila, 
 from east to west. But in following the literal 
 meaning of Ptolemy, we are not certain that this 
 author thought all that his commentator makes 
 him say. He seems to give the Niger two 
 courses; one westerly to the lake Nigrites, the 
 other easterly to the Libyan lake, besides differ- 
 ent canals of derivation, by one of the most am- 
 biguous words in the Greek language (cki^ov,) 
 a word which may signify the mouth of a river, 
 or a place where two roads separate, or a canal, 
 or a simple bending. Taking advantage of these 
 uncertainties, and applying to the interior the 
 system of M. Gosselin, which contracts Ptole- 
 my's map to two thirds, some have attempted 
 to prove that the GMr and the Niger of Ptolemy 
 do not belong at all to Nigritia, but were only 
 small rivers on the southern declivity of mount 
 Atlas. The great characteristic mark, given by 
 Pliny, to wit, the position of the Niger between 
 the Libyans and the Ethiopians, i. e. between 
 the Negroes and the Moors, appears to us con- 
 clusive against these recent hypotheses. Apply- 
 ing the name of the Nile of the Negroes to the 
 Misselad, and supposing that both this river and 
 the Niger lose themselves in lakes or in the 
 sands, D'Anville, and long after him, Rennel, 
 have constructed maps, half traditional and half 
 hypothetical, which are usually followed with 
 more or less modification. But a very able geo- 
 222 
 
 grapher has proposed an important alteration, 
 which amounts to more than a mere modifica- 
 tion. Allowing the Niger and the other rivers 
 the general direction assigned to them by D'- 
 Anville and Rennel, he adds an outlet connect- 
 ed with the Gulf of Guhiea. ' To the west of 
 Wangara,' says this author, ' the Nile has a 
 southerly course; and the Misselad, after hav- 
 ing crossed the lake of Fittree, then that of Se- 
 megonda, leaves this last in two leading branch- 
 es, which encircle Wangara and fall into the 
 Niger, then this last river continues in a south- 
 westerly course, till it terminates in the Gtdf of 
 Guinea, where it forms a delta between its west- 
 ern branch, the Rio-Formosa, and the eastern 
 one, RiO'del-Rey .^ At the very time when this 
 hypothesis appeared to be established, an opinion 
 diametrically opposed to it, and the least proba- 
 ble of all that had been advanced, has been again 
 brought forward. It is nearly that which was 
 given by Pliny the naturalist, who considered 
 the Niger as the principal branch of the Nile, 
 allowing, however, that it frequently disappear- 
 ed under ground. Some of the contradictor}' 
 testimonies of the ancients and of the Arabians 
 may be ingeniously combined in favour of this 
 opinion, but the only powerful argunient is de- 
 rived from a recent account of a journey per- 
 formed by water from Tombuctoo to Cairo. 
 The journal has come to us in an indirect chan- 
 nel. Mr. Jackson, British consul at Mogadore, 
 collected from the oral declaration oidu Moroc- 
 can, who had visited Tombuctoo, various par- 
 ticulars, by means of which he wishes to de- 
 monstrate the identity of the Niger Avith the 
 Nile. ' The Nil-el-Abeed, or Nile of the Ne- 
 groes,' says this writer, ' is also called JSil-el- 
 Kebir, or the Great Nile ; that of Egypt is call- 
 ed Nil-el-Masr, or Nil-el-Scham, from the Ara- 
 bic terms for Egypt and Syria. The inhabitants 
 of Tombuctoo and the whole of central Africa 
 maintain that these two rivers communicate to- 
 gether, and even that they are the same river. 
 The Africans are surprised when they hear that 
 the Europeans make them two distinct rivers, 
 experience having taught them otherwise.'" 
 Malte-Brun. Vid. Nilus. 
 
 NiLUs, anciently called Egyptus, one of the 
 most celebrated rivers in the world. Its sources 
 were unknown to the ancients, and the mo- 
 derns are equally ignorant of their situation ; 
 whence an impossibility is generally meant by 
 the proverb of Nili caput quarere. " The 
 Nile, the largest river of the old world, still con- 
 ceals its true sources from the research of sci- 
 ence. At least, scarcely any thing more of them 
 is known to us now than was known in the time 
 of Eratosthenes. That learned librarian of Al- 
 exandria distinguished three principal branches 
 of the Nile. The most easterly was the Tacaze 
 of the moderns, which flowed' down the north 
 side of the table land of Abyssinia. The second 
 knowTi branch, or the Bkie River, first makes a 
 circuit on the table land of Abyssinia, and then 
 flows dowTi through the plains of Senna.ar, or of 
 Fungi. The sources of this Blue River were 
 found and described by the Jesuits, Paez and 
 Tellez, two centuries before the pretended dis- 
 covery of Bruce. These two rivers are tributa- 
 ries to the JVhite River, the Bahr-el-Abiad, 
 which is the true Nile, and the sources of which 
 must lie in the countries to the south of Darfocr. 
 
NI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NI 
 
 These countries are, according to the report of a 
 Negro, named Dar-el-Abiad. The mountains 
 from which it issues are called Dyre and Tegla ; 
 and probably form part of the Ai-Quamar moxm- 
 tains, or the mountains of the Moon. As it 
 seems proved that travellers have passed by wa- 
 ter from ToTiihudoo to Cairo, the Niger must 
 fall into the Nile, and be really the Nile itself; 
 or there must be intermediate rivers, forming be- 
 tween the Nile and Niger a communication re- 
 sembling that which was found by HumbolSt 
 between the Orinoco and the Aviazons. The 
 first hypothesis might seem to be supported by a 
 vague romantic passage of Pliny the naturalist. 
 The other hypothesis is the only one which can 
 reconcile the accounts of persons who have 
 travelled by the way of Tombuctoo, with the 
 positive testimony of Mr. Browne, according to 
 which the rivers Misselad and Bar-Koolla, run 
 from south to north. This fact, which is gene- 
 rally admitted, does not allow us to suppose 
 any other communication between the Nile and 
 the Niger, than one which may be formed by 
 canals, which, like those of Casiquiari in Guiana, 
 might wind along a table land where the sources 
 of the Misselad and Bar-Koolla are at a short 
 distance from each other, and from those of the 
 Nile. The true Nile, whatever maybe its ori- 
 gin, receives two large rivers from Abyssinia, 
 and then forms an extensive circuit in the coun- 
 try of Dongola by turning to the south-west. At 
 three different places a barrier of mountains 
 threatens to interrupt its course, and at each 
 place the barrier is surmounted. The second 
 cataract in Turkish Nubia is the most violent 
 and most unnavigable. The third is at Sijene 
 or Assooan, and introduces the Nile into Upper 
 Egypt. The height of this cataract, singularly 
 exaggerated by some travellers, varies according 
 to the season, and is generally about four or five 
 feet. At the place called Batu-el-Bahara, the 
 river divides into two branches ; the one of which 
 flowing to Rosetta, and the other to Damietta, 
 contain between them the present Delta; but 
 this triangular piece of insulated land was in for- 
 mer times larger, being bounded on the east by 
 the Pelusian branch, which is now choked up 
 with sand or converted into marshy pools. On 
 the west it was bounded by the C an opic branch, 
 which is now partly confounded with the canal 
 of Alexandria, and partly lost in lake Etko. 
 But the correspondence of the level of the sur- 
 face with that of the present Delta, and its de- 
 pression as compared with that of the adjoining 
 desert, together with its great verdure and fer- 
 tility, still mark the limits of the ancient Delta, 
 although irregular encroachments are made by 
 shifting banks of drifting sand, which are at 
 present on the increase. The different bogaz, 
 or mouths of this great river, have often changed 
 their position, and are still changing it; a cir- 
 cumstance which has occasioned long discus- 
 sions among geographers. The following are 
 the most established results. The seven mouths 
 of the Nile, known to the ancients, were, 1. The 
 Canopic mouth, corresponding to the present 
 mouth of lake Etko ; or, according to others, that 
 of the lake of Aboukir, or Maadee ; but it is 
 probable, that at one time it had communications 
 with the sea at both of these places. In that 
 case it is probable that these lakes existed near- 
 ly in their present state, except that the Nile 
 
 flowed through them, and gave them a large 
 proportion of fresh water, instead of the sea wa- 
 ter with which they are now filled. We can- 
 not believe that the bottoms of these lakes were 
 formerly higher, as we know of no natural pro- 
 cess by which surfaces of such breadth could 
 have been subsequently excavated. 2. The 
 Bolbiiine mouth at Rosetta. 3. The &ebenitic 
 mouth, probably the opening into the present 
 lake Bitrlos. 4. The Phatnitic, or Bucolic at 
 Damietta. 5. The Mendesia7i, which is lost 
 in the lake Menzaleli, the mouth of which is 
 represented by that of Dibeh. G. The Tanitic, 
 or Saitic, Vviiich seems to leave some traces of 
 its termination to the east of lake Menzaleh, un- 
 der the modern appellation of Omm-Faredje. 
 The branch of the Nile which conveyed its wa- 
 ters to the sea corresponds to the canal of Moez, 
 which now loses itself in the lake, 7. The Pe- 
 lusiac mouth seems to be represented by what is 
 now the most easterly mouth of lake Menzaleh, 
 where the ruins of Pelusium are still visible. 
 The depth and rapidity of the Nile differ in dif- 
 ferent places, and at different seasons of the 
 year. In its ordinary state, this river carries no 
 vessels exceeding sixty tons burden, from its 
 mouth to the cataracts. The bogaz of Damietta 
 is seven or eight feet deep when the waters are 
 low. That of Pcosetta does not exceed four or 
 five. When the waters are high, each of them 
 has forty-one feet more, and caravels of twenty- 
 four guns can sail up to Cairo. The navigation 
 is facilitated in a singular degree during the 
 floods : for while the stream carries the vessels 
 from the cataract to the bogaz with great rapidi- 
 ty, the strong northerly winds allow them to as- 
 cend the river, by means of set sails, with equal 
 rapidity. The celebrated plains of Egypt would 
 not be the abode of perpetual fertility were it 
 not for the swellings of the river, which both 
 impart to them the requisite moisture, and cover 
 them with fertilizing mud. We now know for 
 certain what the ancients obscurely concluded, 
 and what was asserted by Agatharcides, Diodo- 
 rus, Abdolatif, and the Abyssinian envoy, Had- 
 gi Michael, that the heavy annual rains between 
 the tropics are the sole cause of these floods, 
 common to all the rivers of the torrid zone, and 
 which, in low situations such as Egypt, occasion 
 inundations. The rise of the Nile commences 
 with the summer solstice. The river attains its 
 greatest height at the autumnal equinox, con- 
 tinues stationary for some days, then diminishes 
 at a less rapid rate than it rose. At the winter 
 solstice it is very low, but some water still re- 
 mains in the large canals. At this period the 
 lands are put under culture. The soil is cover- 
 ed with a fresh layer of slime of greater or less 
 thickness. The fertility and general prosperity 
 of Egypt depend much on a certain medium in 
 the height to which the Nile rises in its inunda- 
 tions ; too little rise or too much is nearly equally 
 hurtful. In September, 1818, M. Belzoni wit- 
 nessed a deplorable scene, from the Nile having 
 risen three feet and a half above the highest 
 mark left by the former inundation. It was 
 productive of one of the greatest calamities that 
 had occurred in the memory of any one living. 
 Rising with uncommon rapidity, it carried off 
 several villages, and some hundreds of their in- 
 habitants. During the increase of the Nile, it 
 first acquires a green colour, sometimes pretty 
 223 
 
NI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NO 
 
 deep. After thirty or forty days, this is succeed- 
 ed by a brownish red. These changes are pro- 
 bably owing to the augmentations which it re- 
 ceives from different temporary lakes in succes- 
 sion, or from liie waters formed by a succession 
 of rains on the different table lands of the inte- 
 rior of Africa." Malte-Brun. 
 
 NiNUS, a celebrated city, now Nino, the capi- 
 tal of Assyria, built on the banks of the Tigris 
 by Ninus, and called Klneoeh in Scripture. It 
 was, according to the relation of Diodorus Sicu- 
 lus, fifteen miles long, nine broad, and forty- 
 eight in circumference. It was surrounded by 
 large walls 100 feet high, on the top of which 
 three chariots could pass together abreast, and 
 was defended by 1500 towers each 200 feet high. 
 Ninus was taken by the united armies of Cyax- 
 ares and Nabopolassar king of Babylon, B. C. 
 606. Strab. l.—Diod. ^.—Herodot. 1, c. 185, 
 &c. — Pans. 8, c. 33. — iMician. " The village 
 of Nunia on the banks of the Tigris, opposite to 
 Mosul, is ascertained to be the site of the an- 
 cient Nineveh. Here are found a rampart and 
 fosse, four miles in circumference ; but Mr. 
 Kinnear believes these to belong to a city found- 
 ed subsequently to the time of Adrian, so that 
 Nineveh has left no trace now in existence." 
 Malte-Brun. 
 
 NiPHATEs, I. a mountain of Asia, which di- 
 vides Armenia from Assyria, and from which 
 the Tigris takes its rise. It is not the part 
 which was called Niphates that formed this na- 
 tural boundary, but rather a prolongation of the 
 chain which, running somewhat south and 
 stretching east, unite the Niphates of Armenia 
 to the Zagrus on the boundaries of Media. 
 " The chains of Taurus," says Malte-Brun, 
 " enter Armenia near the cataracts of the Eu- 
 phrates; they rise considerably in advancing to 
 the east: the Niphates of the ancients, to the 
 south-east of the lake Van, derive their name 
 from the snows which cover their summits all 
 the year." Virg. G. 3, v. "^O.— Strab. U.—Mela, 
 1, c. 15. — II. A river of Armenia, falling into the 
 Tigris. H'o>at.2, od. 9, v. 20. — lAican, 3, v. 245, 
 NiSA, a celebrated plain of Media, near the 
 Caspian Sea, famous for its horses. Herodot. 
 3, c. 106. Vid. Nysa, 
 
 Nis^A, a naval station on the coasts of Me- 
 garis. Strab. 8. 
 
 NisiBis, a strong and famous military post 
 of Mesopotamia, towards the banks of the Ti- 
 gris, between that river and the Masius mons. 
 The country to which it belonged was called 
 Mygdonia, and Nisibis was sometimes known 
 as Antiochia Mygdoniae. " This place is seen 
 afterwards serving as a barrier to the Roman 
 empire against the enterprises of the Parthians. 
 But it was at length ceded to Sapor, king of 
 Persia, by one of the conditions of the treaty 
 which succeeded the disgrace of the Roman ar- 
 my in the expedition of Julian. Nisibis is now 
 a place entirelv open, and reduced to a hamlet." 
 P'Anville. " The north-west part of the pasha- 
 lic of Or/a, or the ancient Mygdonia, presents 
 us with luxuriant pastures and flowery hills. 
 Hence the Greeks called it Anthemusia, from 
 avSo?, ' a flower.' Here the famous fortress of 
 Nisibis stood so long out against the arms of the 
 Parthians. It has only left some feeble traces in 
 the town of Nisiiin, a place which is remarked 
 for white roses." Malte-Brun. 
 224 
 
 NisYROs, an island in the JEgean Sea, at the 
 west of Rhodes, with a town of the same name. 
 It was originally joined to the island of Cos, ac- 
 cording to Pliny, and it bore the name of Por- 
 pfiyris. Neptune, who was supposed to have 
 separated them with a blow of his trident, and 
 to have then overwhelmed the giant Polybotes, 
 was worshipped there, and called Misyreus. 
 Apollod. 1, c 6. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — Strab. 10. 
 
 NiTioBRiGEs, a people of Gaul. Their coun- 
 try corresponds to the present department de 
 Lot et Garonne, and their ancient capital of 
 Agennum retains the ancient name in the 
 French Agen, instead of assuming, as do the 
 greater number of the Gallic towns, the name 
 of the population to which it belonged. 
 
 NiTRiA, a city, and, as D'Anville observes, 
 a country, of Egypt, west of the Nile. This re- 
 gion, which was but a desert, is called Scithiaca 
 in Ptolemy, and produced as an article of trade 
 an abundance of nitre. " The mountain of 
 Natron skirts the whole length of the valley of 
 that name. That mountain contains none of 
 the rocks which are found scattered about in the 
 valley, such as quartz, jasper, and petrosilex. 
 There is a series of six lakes in the direction of 
 the valley. Their banks and their waters are 
 covered with crystallizations, both of muriate of 
 soda or sea-salt, and of natron or carbonate of 
 soda. When a volume of water contains both 
 of these salts, the muriate of soda is the first to 
 crystallize ; and the carbonate of soda is then 
 deposited in a separate layer. Sometimes the 
 two crystallizations seem to choose separate lo- 
 calities in insulated parts of the same lake. 
 This curious valley is only inhabited by Greek 
 monks. Their four convents are at once their 
 fortresses and their prisons. They subsist on a 
 small quantity of leguminous seeds. The ve- 
 getation in these valleys has a wild and dreary 
 aspect. The palms are mere bushes, and bear 
 no fruit. Caravans come to this place in quest 
 of natron." Malte-Brun. 
 
 NiVARiA, an island at the west of Africa, 
 supposed to be Teneriffe, one of the Canaries, 
 Plin. 6, c. 32. Vid. Insula Fortunata. 
 
 NoLA, an ancient town of Campania, which 
 became a Roman colony before the first Punic 
 war. It was founded by a Tuscan, or, accord- 
 ing to others, by an Euboean colony. It is said 
 that Virgil had introduced the name of Nola 
 in his Georgics, but that when he was refused 
 a glass of water by the inhabitants as he passed 
 through the city, he totally blotted it out of his 
 poem, and substituted the word ora, in the 
 225th line of the 2d book of his Georgics. Nola 
 was besieged by Annibal, and bravely defended 
 by Marcellus. Augustus died there on his re- 
 turn from Neapolis to Rome. Bells were first 
 invented there, in the beginning of the fifth cen- 
 tury, from which reason they have been called 
 Nolo, or Campance, in Latin. The inventor 
 was St. Paulinus, the bishop of the place, who 
 died A. D. 431, though many imagine that bells 
 were knoMm long before, and only introduced 
 into churches by that prelate. Before his time, 
 congregations were called to the church by the 
 noise of wooden rattles {sacra ligna.) Paterc. 
 1, c. l.—SmL in Aug.—Sil. 8, v. 517, 1. 12, v. 
 161.—^. Gellius, 7, c. 20.— L^v. 23, c, 14 and 
 39, 1. 24, c. 13. 
 NoMADEs. Vid. Part II. 
 
NO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NU 
 
 NoMENTCTM, a town of the Sabines in Italy, 
 famous for wine, and now called Lamento.na. 
 The dictator, Q,. Servilius Priscus, gave the 
 Veientes and Fidenates battle there, A. U. C. 
 312, and totally defeated them. Ovid. Fast. 4. 
 V. d05.—Liv. 1, c. 38, 1. 4, c. 22.— Hr^. jE7i. 
 6, V. 773. 
 
 NoNACRis, a town of Arcadia, which received 
 its name from a wife of Lycaon. There was a 
 mountain of the same name in the neighbour- 
 hood, Evander is sometimes called Nonacrius 
 ?ieroSy as being an A rcadian by birth, and Ata- 
 lanta Nonacria, as being a native of the place. 
 Curt. 10, c. 10.— Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 97. Met. 8, 
 fab. 10. — Pans. 8, c. 17, &c. 
 
 NoRBA, I. a town of Latium near the centre, 
 m the territory of the Volsci. " It is mentioned 
 among the early Latin cities by Pliny ; and 
 Dion. Hal. speaks of it as no obscure city of 
 that nation. It was early colonized by the Ro- 
 mans as an advantageous station to check the 
 inroads of the Volsci. This, however, rendered 
 Norba particularly subject to their devastations, 
 especially on the part of the Privernates. who 
 lay in the immediate neighbourhood ; but neither 
 these repeated attacks, nor even the distresses 
 of the second Punic war, had power to shake its 
 fidelity to Rome. The disastrous end of this 
 city .gave further proof of its devotion to the 
 cause which it had espoused ; for the zeal which 
 it displayed on the behalf of Marius and his 
 party drew upon it the vengeance of the adverse 
 faction. Besieged by Lepidus, one of Sylla's 
 generals, it was opened to him by treachery ; 
 but the undaunted inhabitants chose rather to 
 perish by their own hands than become the vic- 
 tims of a bloody conqueror. The name of C. 
 Norbanus, who was descended from a distin- 
 guished family of this city, occurs frequently in 
 the history of those disastrous times, as a con- 
 spicuous leader on the side of Marius." Cram. 
 
 II. There was another town of the same 
 
 name in Apulia. The inhabitants of Norba 
 Latina were called Norbani, while those of 
 Norba Apula were designated as the Norba- 
 
 nenses. III. Caesarea, a town of Spain on 
 
 the Tagus now Alcantara. 
 
 NoREiA, " a town belonging to the Norici. 
 Cluverius places it on the left bank of the Ta- 
 gliamento, near Venzone. Strabo speaks of its 
 gold mines, and further mentions that On. Car- 
 bo had an unsuccessful action with the Cimbri 
 in its vicinity. Pliny informs us that Noreia 
 no longer existed in his time." Cram. To 
 this it may be added from D'Anville, that " it 
 is said to have been occupied by a body of 
 Boiens, who are to be distinguished from those 
 established in Bohemia, and from a time ante- 
 rior to the invasion of the Marcomans, who 
 diove this nation into Noricum." 
 
 NoRicuM, a province of the Roman empire 
 among the Alps. The Danube on the north, 
 a portion of the CEnus (Inn) upon the west, 
 the Carnic Alps and sources of the Savus on 
 the south, and the Cetius mons upon the east, 
 describe the boundaries of Noricum. These 
 limits correspond generally with those of Ca- 
 rinthia, Stiria, the country contiguous to Salts- 
 burgk and Lintz, and Austria Proper. " This 
 country," says D'Anville, " which is first spok- 
 en of as having a king, followed the fate of Pan- 
 nonia ; for, when it was reduced, Noricum also 
 
 Part L— 'i F 
 
 became a province under the reign of Augustus- 
 Afterwards, and by the multiplication of pro- 
 vinces, there is distinguished a Noricum Ri- 
 pense, adjacent to the Danube, from a Noricum 
 Mediterraneum, distant from that river in the 
 bosom of the Alps." The Nerici, from whom 
 the country seems to have been named, possess- 
 ed, at the time at which it became a province, a 
 small portion only of the soil in the north-west ; 
 the Sevaces, the Alauni, and the Ambidiani oc- 
 cupying the other portions near to Vindelicia 
 and Cisalpine Gaul. The iron that was drawn 
 from Noricum was esteemed excellent, and 
 thence JVoricus ensis was used to express the 
 goodness of a sword. Dio7iVS. Perieg. — Strab. 
 A.—Plin. 34, c. \L— Tacit.' Hist. 3, c. ^.—Ho- 
 rat. 1, od. 16, v. 9.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 712. 
 
 NoTiuM, a town of iEolia, near the Cayster. 
 It was peopled by the inhabitants of Colophon, 
 who left their ancient habitations because Noti- 
 um was more conveniently situated, it being on 
 the sea-shore. Liv. 37, c. 26, 38, 39. 
 
 Nov^E, {tai)ernce), the new shops built in the 
 forum at Rome, and adorned with the shields of 
 
 the Cimbri. Cic. Orat. 2, c. m. The Ve- 
 
 teres taherna were adorned with those of the 
 Samnites, Liv. 9, c. 40. 
 
 NovARLA, a town of Cisalpine Gaul, now 
 Novara in Milan. Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 70. 
 
 NovEsiuM, a town of the Ubii, on the west 
 of the Rhine, now called Nuys, near Cologne, 
 Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 26, &c. 
 
 NovioDtJNUM, a town of the ./Eduii or Hedui 
 in Gaul, taken by J. Csesar. It is pleasantly si- 
 tuated on the Ligeris, and now called Noyon, or, 
 as others suppose, Nevers. Cces. Bell. G. 2, c. 12. 
 
 NovioiyIagus, or Neomagus, I. a town of 
 Gaul, now Nizeux in Normandy. II. Ano- 
 ther, called also Nemetes, now Spire.— — III. 
 Another in Batavia, now Nimeguen, on the 
 south side of the Waal. 
 
 NoviuM, a town of Spain, now Noya. 
 
 Novum Comum, a town of Insubria, on the 
 lake Larius, of which the inhabitants were 
 called Novocomenses. Cic. ad Div. 13, c. 35. 
 
 NucERiA Alfaterna, I. a town of Campa- 
 nia on the Samus, " of the highest antiquity, 
 but remarkable only for its unshaken attach- 
 ment to the Romans at all times, and for the 
 sad disasters to which it has been exposed in 
 consequence of that attachment. Its fidelity to 
 the republic during the second Punic war drew 
 down upon it the vengeance of Hannibal, who, 
 after some vain attempts to seduce its inhabit- 
 ants into his party, plundered and destroyed 
 their city. Its adherence to the cause of a Ro- 
 man pontifi" during the great schism, roused the 
 fury of a still more irritable enemy, Riiggiero, 
 king of Naples, who again razed its walls and 
 dispersed its citizens. They, instead of rebuild- 
 ing the town when the storm was over, as their 
 ancestors had done before, continued to occupy 
 the neighbouring villages. Hence the appear- 
 ance of the modern Nocera, which, instead of 
 being enclosed within ramparts, spreads in a 
 long line over a considerable extent of ground, 
 and displays some handsome edifices intermin- 
 gled with rural scenery. It is still a bishopric, 
 and derives the additional appellation dei Pa- 
 gani, from the circumstance of its having been 
 for some time in possession of the Saracens." 
 
 Eustace. II, Another, in Umbria, on the 
 
 ,225 
 
NU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 NY 
 
 Flaminiaii Way, surnamed Camallaria, now 
 Nocera. III. A third, now Jjazzara in Gal- 
 lia Cisalpina, south of the P<?, between the 
 mouths of the Nicia and the Secia. 
 
 NuMANTiA, a town of Spain, near the sources 
 of the river Durius, celebrated for the war of 
 fourteen years, which, though unprotected by 
 walls or towers, it bravely maintained against 
 the Romans. The inhabitants obtained some 
 advantages over the Roman forces, till Scipio 
 Africanus was empowered to finish the war, 
 and to see the destruction of Numantia. He 
 began the siege with an army of sixty thousand 
 men, and was bravely opposed by the besieged, 
 who were no more than 4000 men able to bear 
 arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon 
 valour, and the courage of the Numantines was 
 soon changed into despair and fury. Their pro- 
 visions began to fail, and they fed upon the flesh 
 of their horses, and afterwards of that of their 
 dead companions, and at last were necessitated 
 to draw lots to kill and devour one another. 
 The melancholy situation of their affairs obliged 
 some to surrender to the Roman general. Scipio 
 demanded them to deliver themselves up on 
 the morrow ; they refused, and when a longer 
 time had been granted to their petitions, they 
 retired and set fire to their houses, and all de- 
 stroyed themselves, B. C. 133, so that not even 
 one remained to adorn the triumph of the con- 
 queror. Some historians, hoM'-ever, deny that, 
 and support that a number of Numantines de- 
 livered themselves into Scipio's hands, and 
 that fifty of them were drawn in triumph at 
 Rome, and the rest sold as slaves. The con- 
 queror obtained the surname of J^umantinus. 
 Flor. 2, c. 18. — Appian. Iber. — Paterc. 2, e. 3. — 
 —Cic. 1, off.—Strab. 3.—Mela,2, c. 6.—Plut.— 
 Horat. 2, od. 12, v. 1. 
 
 NuMENTANA VIA, a road at Rome, which led 
 to mount Sacer, through the gate Viminalis. 
 Liv. 3, c. 52. 
 
 NuMiciA VIA, one of the great Roman roads 
 which led from the capital to the town of Brun- 
 dusium. 
 
 NuMicius, a small river of Latium, near La- 
 vinium, where the dead body of ^neas was 
 found, and where Anna, Dido's sister, drowned 
 herself. Virg. Mn. 7, v. 150, &c.~Sil. 1, v. 
 359.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 358, &c. Fast. 3, v. 
 643. 
 
 NiJMiDiA, an inland country of Africa, which 
 now forms the kingdom of Algiers and Bildul- 
 gerid. It was bounded on the north by the 
 Mediterranean Sea, south by GsBtulia, west by 
 Mauretania, and east by a part of Libya which 
 was called Africa Propria. The inhabitants 
 were called Nomades^ and afterwards Kumida. 
 It was the kingdom of Massinissa, who was the 
 occasion of the third Punic war, on account of 
 the offence he had received from the Cartha- 
 ginians. Jugurtha reigned there, as also Juba 
 the father and son. It was conquered, and be- 
 came a Roman province, of which Sallust was 
 the first governor. The Numidians were ex- 
 cellent warriors, and in their expeditions they 
 always endeavoured to engage with the enemy 
 in the night time. They rode without saddles 
 or bridles, whence they have been called in- 
 frani. They had their wives in common as 
 the rest of the barbarian nations of antiquity. 
 Sallust. m Jug. — Flor. 2, c. 15. — Strab. 2 and 
 226 
 
 11.— Mela, 1, 0. 4, &c.—Ovid. Met. 15, v. 754. 
 For the divisions of Numidia, Vid. Massyli, 
 Massasyli, and Mauretania. 
 
 NuRsiA, now JVorza, a town of Picenum, 
 whose inhabitants are called Nursina. Its situa- 
 tion was exposed, and the air considered as un- 
 wholesome. Sil. It. 8, V. 416. — Virg. JErc. 7, 
 V. Il6.—31artial. 13, ep. )2J0.—Liv. 28, c. 45. 
 
 NymphjEum, I. a place near the walls of Apol- 
 lonia, sacred to the nymphs, where Apollo had 
 also an oracle. The place was also celebrated 
 for the continual flames of fire which seemed to 
 rise at a distance from the plains. " Strabo 
 supposes it to have arisen from a mine of bitu- 
 men liquified, there being a hill in the vicinity 
 whence this substance was dug out, the earth 
 which was removed being in process of time 
 converted into pitch, as it had been stated by 
 Posidonius. Pliny says this spot was consi- 
 dered as oracular, which is confirmed by Dio 
 Cassius, who describes at length the mode of 
 consulting the oracle. The phenomenon no- 
 ticed by the writers here mentioned has been 
 verified by modern travellers as existing near 
 the village of Selenitza, on the left bank of the 
 Aous, and near the junction of that river with 
 the SutcMtza." Cram. It was there that a 
 sleeping satyr was once caught and brought to 
 Sylla as he returned from the Mithndatic war. 
 This monster had the same features as the 
 poets ascribe to the satyr. He was interrogated 
 by Sylla, and by his interpreters, but his articu- 
 lations were unintelligible, and the Roman 
 spurned from him a creature which seemed to 
 partake of the nature of a beast more than that 
 of a man. Plut. in Sylla. — Dio. 41. — Plin. 5, 
 
 c. 29.— Strab. l.—Liv. 42, c. 36 and 49. II. 
 
 A city of Taurica Chersonesus. The build- 
 ing at Rome where the nymphs were worship- 
 ped, bore also this name, being adorned Avith 
 their statues, and with fountains and waterfalls, 
 which afforded an 
 coolness. 
 
 Nysa, or Nyssa, I. a town of Ethiopia, at 
 the south of Egypt, or, according to others, of 
 Arabia. This city, with another of the same 
 name in India, was sacred to the god Bacchus, 
 who was educated there by the nymphs of the 
 place, and who received the name of Dionysius, 
 which seems to be compounded of Ato? and Nvo-a. 
 the name of his father and that of the place of 
 his education. The god made this place the 
 seat of his empire and the capital of the con- 
 quered nations of the east, Diodorus, in his 
 third and fourth books, has given a prolix ac- 
 count of the birth of the god at Nysa, and of his 
 education and heroic actions. It is this Indian 
 Nysa that is properly called JVagar. This 
 term, which signifies among the natives any 
 town, was bestowed particularly, and we may 
 suppose as a mark of pre-eminence, upon this. 
 It was also called Dionvsopolis. Chaussard. — 
 Mela, 3, c. l.—Ovid. Met. 4, v. 13, &c.—ItaL 
 7, V. 198.— Curt. 8, c. 10.— Fir^. .^n. 6, v. 
 
 805. According to so'ne geographers there 
 
 were no less than ten places of the name of 
 Nysa. One of these was on the coast of Eubcea, 
 famous for its vines, which grew in such an un- 
 common manner, that if a twig was planted in 
 the ground in the morning, it immediately pro- 
 duced grapes, which were full ripe in the even- 
 ing. II. A city of Thrace. — --III. Another, 
 
 agreeable and refreshing 
 
OA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 OA 
 
 seated on the top of mount Parnassus, and sa- 
 cred to Bacchus. Juv. 7, v. 63. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oasis, " certain fertile spots in the Libyan 
 desert, which, from the peculiarity of their situa- 
 tion, amid an ocean of sand, have been denomi- 
 nated islands. The term Oasis, in the ancient 
 language of the country, signifies an inhabited 
 place, a distinction sufficiently intelligible when 
 contrasted with the vast wilderness around, in 
 which even the most savage tribes have not ven- 
 tured to take up their abode. Like Eg}'pt itself, 
 these isolated dependancies have been described 
 in very opposite colours by different writers. 
 The Greeks called them the islands of the bless- 
 ed ; and without doubt they appear delightful in 
 the eyes of the traveller, who has during many 
 painfulweeks suffered the privations and fatigue 
 of the desert. But it is well knoiAH that they 
 were generally regarded in a less favourable as- 
 pect by the Greeks and Romans, who not un- 
 frequently assigned them as places of banish- 
 ment. The state malefactor and the ministers 
 of the Christian church, who were sometimes 
 comprehended in the same class, were, in the 
 second and third centuries, condemned to waste 
 their days as exiles in the remote solitude of the 
 Libyan Oasis. They were usually reckoned 
 three in number ; the Great Oasis, of which the 
 principal town is El Kargeh; the little Oasjs, 
 or that of El Kassar ; and the Northern Oasis, 
 more frequently called Siwah. To these is now 
 added the Western Oasis, which does not ap- 
 pear to have been mentioned by any ancient ge- 
 ographer" except Olympiodorus, and which was 
 never seen by any European until Sir Archibald 
 Edmonstone visited it about ten years ago. The 
 Great Oasis, the most southern of the whole, 
 consists of a number of insulated spots, which 
 extend in a line parallel to the course of the 
 Nile, separated from one another by considera- 
 ble intervals of sandy waste, and stretching not 
 less than a hundred miles in latitude. M. Pon- 
 cet, who examined it in 1698, says that it con- 
 tains many gardens watered with rivulets, and 
 that its palm groves exhibit a perpetual verdure. 
 It is the first stage of the Darfur caravan, which 
 assembles at Siovi, being about four days jour- 
 ney from that toT^oi, and nearly the same dis- 
 tance from Far shout. Sir F. Henniker speaks 
 rather contemptuously of the ecclesiastical ar- 
 chitecture which happened to fall imder his 
 notice in this Oasis. There is a temple which 
 he describes as a small building composed of 
 petty blocks of stone, the pillars of which are 
 only two feet six inches in diameter, and ' even 
 these, instead of being formed of one solid block, 
 are constructed of mill-stones.' He adds, that 
 the surface of the earth in the vicinity of the 
 temple is very remarkable ; it is covered with a 
 lamina of saltand sand mixed, and has the same 
 appearance as if a ploughed field had been 
 flooded over, then frozen, and the water drawn 
 off from under the ice. This remark suggests 
 a question relative to the orisfin of these grassy 
 islands in the desert. Major Rennel thinks that 
 they may be attributed to the vegetation which 
 "Would necessarily be occasioned by springs of 
 water; the decay of the plants producing soil 
 until it gradually increased to the extent of seve- 
 
 ral leagues. They are universally surrounded 
 by higher ground, — a circumstance which ac- 
 counts for the abundance of moisture. The 
 climate, however, is extremely variable, espe- 
 cially in winter. Sometimes the rains in the 
 Western Oasis are very abundant, and fall in 
 torrents, as appears from the furrows in the 
 rocks ; but the season Sir A. Edmonstone made 
 his visit there was none at all, and the total want 
 of dew in the hot months sufficiently proves the 
 general dryness of the atmosphere. The springs 
 are all strongly impregnated with iron and sul- 
 phur, and hot at their sources; but, as they 
 continue the same throughout the whole year, 
 they supply to the inhabitants one of the pfinci- 
 cipal means of life. The water, notwithstand- 
 ing, cannot be used until it has been cooled in 
 an earthen jar. The Western Oasis is called 
 Bellata. El Cazar, however, appears to be the 
 principal town. The situation of the place, we 
 are told, is perfectly lovely, being on an eminence 
 at the foot of a line of rock which rises abruptly 
 behind it, and encircled by extensive gardens 
 filled with palm, acacia, citron, and various other 
 kind of trees, some of which are rarely seen 
 even in those regions. The principal edifice is 
 an old temple or convent called Daer el Hadjur, 
 about fifty feet long by twenty-five wide, but 
 presenting nothing either very magnificent or 
 curious. The first chamber is 24 feet by 20, 
 supported by four pillars five feet in diameter at 
 the shaft, the walls, as far as they a^re visible, 
 being traced with figures and hieroglyphics. 
 The winged globe, encompassed by the serpent, 
 the emblem of eternity, is carved over one of the 
 doors. This Oasis is composed of twelve vil- 
 lages, of which ten are within five or six miles 
 of each other ; the remaining two being much 
 farther off at the entrance of the plain, and 
 scarcely looked upon as belonging to this divi- 
 sion. The sheiks express their belief that there 
 is inhabited land to the westward, — adding that 
 some Arabs, who had lately attempted to ex- 
 plore the country in that direction, met at the 
 end of three days such a terrible whirlwind as 
 compelled them to return. The Little Oasis, 
 or that of El Kassar, has been less visited than 
 either of the two others which have been longest 
 known to European travellers. We owe the 
 latest and most distinct account to Belzoni, 
 who, proceeding in search of it westward from 
 the valley of Fayoum, arrived, at the close of 
 the fourth day, on the brink of what he calls the 
 Elloah, — that is, the El Woh, or El Oicah, 
 from which th e Greeks formed the more common 
 term oasis. He describes it as a valley sur- 
 rounded with high rocks, forming a spacious 
 plain of twelve or fourteen miles in length, and 
 about six in breadth. There is only a small 
 portion cultivated at present, but there are many 
 proofs remaining that it must at one time have 
 been all under crop, and that with proper ma- 
 nagement it might again be rendered fertile. 
 We have still to mention the Oasis of Siwah, in 
 some respects the most interesting of the whole, 
 and more especially as connected with the tra- 
 dition of Jupiter Ammon, whose temple it is 
 generallv understood to contain. It is situated 
 m lat. 29° 12' N., and in long. 26° 6' E. ; be- 
 ing about six miles loner, and between four and 
 five in wndth, the nearest distance from the river 
 of Egypt not exceeding one hundred and twenty 
 227 
 
(EB 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 <EN 
 
 miles. A large proportion of the land is occu- 
 pied by date-trees ; but the palm, the pomegra- 
 nate, tne fig, the olive, the vme, the apricot, the 
 plum, and even the apple, are said to fiourish in 
 the gardens. No soil can be more fertile. Tepid 
 springs, too, holding salts in solution, are nume- 
 rous tnrougtiout the district ; and it is imagined 
 that the frequency of earthquakes is connected 
 with the geological structure of the surrounding 
 country." RwsseVs Egypt. " Towards the 
 isthmus of Suez there is an Oasis called Korayn 
 by the inhabitants of the country. It contains 
 eight or ten hamlets with their gardens, and 
 about 4000 inhabitants. In the same direction 
 is Saleheyd^ another Oasis, shaded by a wood 
 six miles long. It contains ten villages and 
 about 6000 inhabitants." Malte-Brun. 
 
 Oaxes, a river of Crete, which received its 
 name from Oaxus the son of Apollo. Virg. 
 Ed. 1, v. m. 
 
 Obringa, now Ahr, a river of Germany, fall- 
 ing into the Rhine above Rimmagen. 
 
 OcELLUM, a town of Gallia Cisalpina, in the 
 Cottian Alps. It stood near the source of the 
 Cluso, one of the principal springs of the Po, 
 and is now Uxeau in Piedmont. 
 
 OcHA, a mountain of EubcEa, and the name 
 of Euboea itself 
 
 OcHus, a river of Asia, belonging in antiqui- 
 ty to the kingdom of Parthia, rising on the bor- 
 ders of that country and of the province of 
 Margiana. In the latter part of its course it 
 separated the Dahse from the Derbicse, bound- 
 ing on the north Hyrcania, in which the first- 
 named people dwelt. " The largest river," says 
 Malte-Brun, " of Khorazan, the Tedzen of the 
 moderns, and the Ockus of the ancients, loses 
 itself in a marshy lake, according to Wahl, but 
 it is more probable that it passes through the 
 marshes which it forms to communicate with 
 the gulf of Balkan." Malte-Brun. 
 
 Oriculum, now Otricoli, a town of Umbria 
 near Rome. Cic. pro Mil. — Liv. 19, c. 41. 
 
 OcTODURus, a principal town of the Veragri, 
 between Gallia and Rhaetia, in the Vallis Pen- 
 nina, now Le Valais. It was situated within 
 the confluence of the Drance and the Rhone. 
 The modern town is called Martigny. 
 
 OcTOGESA, a town in the province of Hispa- 
 nia Citerior, situated on the Iberus, in the coun- 
 ty of the Ilercaones, near the mouth of the Sico- 
 ris. It is now Mequinenza in Arragon. Cces. 
 B. G.l, c. 61. 
 
 Odressus, a sea-port town at the west of the 
 Euxine Sea, in Lower Moesia, below the mouths 
 of the Danube, supposed to be Varna. Ovid. 
 1, Trist. 9, V. 37. 
 
 Odeium, a musical theatre at Athens, erect- 
 ed by Pericles. Vid. Athena. 
 
 OdrysjE, an ancient people of Thrace, be- 
 tween Abdera and the river Ister, The epithet 
 of Odn/sius is often applied to a Thracian. 
 Ovid. Met. 6, v. 490, 1, 13, v. 55i.—Stat. Ach. 
 1, V. 184.— Lw. 39, c. 53. 
 
 Odysseum, a promontory of Sicily, at the west 
 of Pachynus. 
 
 CEa, a city of Africa. Vid. Tripoli. 
 
 QEbalia, the ancient name of Laconia, which 
 it received from king CEbalus, and thence (Eba- 
 lidcs puer is applied to Hyacinthus as a native 
 of the country, and (Ebalius sanguis is used 
 to denominate his blood. Paus. 3, c. 1. — I 
 228 
 
 Apollod. 3, c. 10. The same name is given 
 
 to Tarentum, because built by a Lacedaemonian 
 colony, whose ancestors were governed by (JBba- 
 lus. Virg. G. 4, v. 125.— SiL 12, v. 451. 
 
 CEcHALiA, 1. acountry of Peloponnesus in La- 
 conia, with a small town of lue same name. 
 This town was destroyed by Hercules, while 
 Eurytus was king over it, from which circum- 
 stance it is often called Eurytopolis. II. A 
 
 small town of Euboea, where, according to some, 
 Eurytas reigned, and not m Peloponnesus. 
 Strad. 8, 9, and 10.— Virg. ^n. 8, v. 291.— 
 Ooid. Herald. 9, Met. 9, v. 136. — Sophoc. in 
 Thrac. 74, and iSckol. 
 
 CEne, a small town of Argolis. The people 
 are called (Eneadce. 
 
 QENIAD.E, a town of Acarnania, " on the 
 Achelous, a little above the sea, and surrounded 
 by marshes, caused by the overflowings of the 
 river, which rendered it a place of great strength, 
 and deterred the Athenians from undertaking 
 its siege ; when, unlike the other cities of Acar- 
 nania, it embraced the cause of the Peloponne- 
 sians, and became hostile to Athens. At a later 
 period of the war, it was however compelled by 
 the Acarnanian confederacy to enter into an al- 
 liance with that power. The same writer gives 
 us to understand that CEniadse was first found- 
 ed by Alcmaeon, according to an oracle which 
 he consulted after the murder of his mother, 
 and that the province was named after his son 
 Acarnan. The ^Etolians, having in process of 
 time conquered that part of Acarnania which 
 lay on the left bank of the Achelous, became 
 also possessed of CEniadse, when they expelled 
 the inhabitants under circumstances apparently 
 of great hardship and cruelty, for which it is 
 said they were threatened with the vengeance 
 of Alexander the Great. By the advice of Cas- 
 sander the CEniadse settled in Sauria, (probably 
 Thyria,) another Acarnanian town. Many years 
 afterwards the ^tolians were compelled to eva- 
 cuate CEniadse by Philip the son of Demetrius, 
 king of Macedon, in an expedition related by 
 Polybius. This monarch, aware of the advan- 
 tage to be derived from the occupation of a place 
 so favourably situated with respect to the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, fortified the citadel, and enclosed 
 within a wall both the port and arsenal. In the 
 second Punic war this town was again taken 
 by the Romans, under Val. Lasvinus, and given 
 up to the jEtolians, their allies. But, on a rup- 
 ture taking place with that people, it was final- 
 ly restored to the Acarnanians. We must 
 search for the remains of CEniadse to the east of 
 the present mouth of the Achelous. The ruins 
 which Sir W. Gell describes as situated above 
 Missilonghi and the lake of Anatolico, on the 
 spot named Kuria Irene^ seem to possess many 
 of the characteristic features appertaining to 
 CEniadse. It may however be doubted whether 
 that town was so far from the Achelous, unless 
 indeed the river once fell into the lake of Anato- 
 lico, which is possible: and a tradition to that 
 effect is alluded toby Sir W. Gell, who strong- 
 ly argues for the identity of the two places. It 
 should, however, be observed, that the remains 
 visible at Kuria Irene are hardly considerable 
 enough for so important a city as OEniads. Mr. 
 Dodwell, who describes them very minutely, 
 says, that the walls seem not to be above two 
 miles in circuit : and the ruins of the theatre on 
 
(EN 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CET 
 
 the south side of the city show it to have been 
 the smallest building of the kind ia Greece ; he 
 is therefore of opinion that Kuria Irene cpinot 
 be CEniadee, wnich he places at Trigardon. 
 This question, however, cannot be decided un- 
 til the whole of the Paraciieloitis has been well 
 examined. Sir W. Gell states that there are 
 several appearances of rained cities in the vicin- 
 ity of Kuria Irene ; one in particular at Garda- 
 Ico, which might be CEniadae." Cram. 
 
 CEnoe, I. a city of Argolis, where CEneus- 
 fled when driven from Calydon. Pans. 2, c. 
 
 25. 11. A town of Elis in the Peloponnesus. 
 
 Strab. — Appllod. 1, c. 8. — Pans. 1, &c. 
 
 CEnon, a part of Locris on the bay of Corinth. 
 
 CEnona, I. an ancient name of the island 
 JEgma.. It is also called (Enopia. Herodot. 8. 
 
 c. 46. II. A town of Troas, the birth-place 
 
 of the nymph CEnone. Strab. 13. 
 
 CEnopia, one of the ancient names of the 
 island ^gina. Ovid. Met. 7, v. 473. 
 
 QiInotri, the inhabitants of CEnotria. " It 
 appears, from the earliest period of which we 
 have any records, that the southern portion of 
 Italy, which was afterwards so much frequented 
 by the Greeks as to derive from them the name 
 of Magna Grsecia, was occupied by the CEnotri, 
 a people concerning whose origin it would be 
 scarce worth our while to inquire, had not the 
 opmion of some ancient writers attached greater 
 importance to the subject than it would other- 
 wise have appeared to deserve. We allude to 
 the well-known hypothesis of Dionysius of Ha- 
 licarnassus, who regarded this primitive race as 
 descended from a most ancient Arcadian colony, 
 and further identified them with the Aborigines 
 of the Latin writers. Antiochus of Syracuse, 
 who is the earliest ancient author who is said to 
 have studied the antiquities of Italy, evidently 
 seems to have regarded the (Enotri, Itali, Cho- 
 nes, andMorgetes, as indigenous tribes, who had 
 
 E copied the southern part of that country long 
 efore the Greeks formed any settlements there ; 
 a statement which could hardly be reconciled 
 with the Arcadian descent of the CEnotri. The 
 best informed writers among the moderns cer- 
 tainly look upon the population of Italy as hav- 
 ing been disseminated from north to south ; and 
 this opinion seems so much more agreeable to 
 reason and to history, that a contrary notion 
 will scarcely gain credit at the present day. On 
 this great principle, we should not be led to con- 
 sider the CEnotri as a very early branch of the 
 primitive Italian stock, but rather as the last 
 scion propagated in a southerly direction. They 
 were not so ancient apparently as the Ausones, 
 whom tradition represented as being in posses- 
 sion of the country before the arrival of CEno- 
 trus. It may be more worth our while to re- 
 mark, that it was from Italus, a prince of the 
 CEnotri, that the name of Italia was stated to 
 have been derived ; to him also is ascribed the 
 merit of having first introduced agriculture, le- 
 gislation, and other institutions tending to civi- 
 lize his rude and barbarous subjects." Cram. 
 
 CEnotria, a part of Italy, which was after- 
 wards called iMcania. It received this name 
 from CEnotrus the son of Lycaon, who settled 
 there with a colony of Arcadians. The CEqo- 
 trians afterwards spread themselves into Um- 
 bria, and as far as Latium and the country of 
 the Sabines, according to some writers. The 
 
 name of CEnotria is sometimes applied to Italy. 
 
 That part of Italy where CEnotrus settled, was 
 before inhabited by the Ausones. Dionys. Hal. 
 1, c. \\.—Paus. 1, c. Z.— Virg. JEn. 1, v. 536, 
 1. 7, V. 8b.—Ital. 8, V. 220. " The name of 
 QEnotria, deri/ed from the ancient race of the 
 CEnotri, seems also to have been early m use 
 among the Greeks, but it was applied by them 
 to that southern portion of Italy only with which 
 they were then acquainted." Cram. 
 
 (Enotrides, two small islands on the coast of 
 Lucania, where some of the Romans were ban- 
 ished by the emperors. They were called Iscia 
 and Pontia. 
 
 GEnxjs^, small islands near Chios. Plin. 5, 
 
 c. 31. — lyiucyd. 8. Others on the coast of the 
 
 Peloponnesus, near Messenia. Mela, 2, c. 17. 
 —Plin. 4, c. 12. 
 
 CEoNUs, a small river of Laconia. Liv. 34, 
 c. 28. 
 
 GEroe, an island of Bceotia, formed by the 
 Asopus. Herodot. 9, c. 50. 
 
 CEta, I. now Banina, a celebrated mountain 
 between Thessaly and Macedonia, upon which 
 Hercules burnt himself. Its height has given 
 occasion to the poets to feign that the sun, moon, 
 and stars rose behind it. Mount CEta, properly 
 speaking, is a long chain of mountains which 
 runs from the straits of Thermopylae and the 
 gulf of Malia, in a western direction, to mount 
 Pindus, and from thence to the bay of Ambra- 
 cia. The straits or passes of mount CEta are 
 called the straits of Thermopylse from the hot 
 baths and mineral waters which are in the 
 neighbourhood. These passes are not more than 
 25 feet in breadth. Mela, 2, c. Z.—Caiull. &Q, v. 
 54.—Apollod.2. C.I.— Pans. .10, c. 20, &c.— 
 Ovid. Heroid. 9, Met. 2, v. 216, 1. 9, v. 204, 
 &c. — Virg. Ed. 8. — Plin. 25, c. 5. — Seneca in 
 Met. — Lucan. 3, &c. " Mount CEta extends 
 its ramifications westward into the country of 
 the Dorians, and still further, into ^tolia, while 
 to the south it is connected with the mountains 
 of Locris and those of Boeotia. Its modern 
 name is Kataiwthra. Sophocles represents Jove 
 as thundering on the lofty crags of CEta. The 
 highest summit, according to Livy, was named 
 Callidromus : it was occupied by Cato with a 
 body of troops in the battle fought at the pass of 
 Thermopylae, between the Romans under Aci- 
 lius Glabrio, and the army of Antiochus : and 
 owing to this manoeuvre, the latter was entirely 
 routed. Herodotus describes the path by which 
 the Persian army turned the position of the 
 Greeks, as beginning at the Asopus. Its name, 
 as well as that of the mountain, is Anopaea. It 
 leads along this ridge as far as Alponus, the first 
 Locrian town. On the summit of mount CEta 
 were two castles, named Tichius and Rhodun- 
 lia, which were successfully defended by the 
 iEtolians against the Romans. The inhabit- 
 ants of the chain of CEta, thence named CEtsei, 
 constituted a tribe sufficiently numerous and 
 warlike toprove a serious annoyance to the La- 
 cedaemonian colony of Heraclea. On account 
 of these depredations, their country was on one 
 occasion ravaged and laid under contribution by 
 
 Agis king of Sparta." Cram. II. A small 
 
 town at the foot of mount CEta, near Thermo- 
 pylae. 
 
 CEtjei, the mountaineers of CEta. Vid. (Eta. 
 
 CEtylus, or CEtylum, a town of Laconia, 
 229 
 
OL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 OL 
 
 which received its name from QEtylus, one of 
 the heroes of Argos. Serapis had a temple 
 there. Paus. 3, c. 25. 
 
 Oglosa, an island in the Tyrrhene Sea, east 
 of Corsica, famous for wine, and now called 
 Monte Christo. Plin. 3, c. 6. 
 
 Ogygia, a name of one o^ the gates of Thebes 
 
 in Bceotia. Lucan. 1, v. 675. An ancient 
 
 name of Boeotia, from Ogyges, who reigned 
 there. — The island of Calypso, opposite the 
 promontory of Lacinium in Magna Gra^cia, 
 where Ulysses was shipwrecked. The situation, 
 and even the existence of Calypso's island, is 
 disputed by some writers. Plin. 3, c. 10. — 
 Ho-nier. Od. 1, v. 52 and 85, 1. 5, v. 254. 
 
 Olbia, I. a town of Sarmatia, at the conflu- 
 ence of the Hypanis and the Borysthenes, about 
 15 miles from the sea according to Pliny. It 
 was afterwards called Borystheiies and Mileto- 
 polis, because peopled by a Milesian colony, and 
 is now supposed to be Oczakow. Stroh. 7. — 
 
 Plin. 4, c. 12. II. A town of Bithynia. 
 
 Mela, 1, c. 19. III. A town of Gallia Nar- 
 
 bonensis. Mela., 2, c. 5. IV. The capital 
 
 of Sardinia. Claudian. 
 
 Olchinium, or Olcinium, now Dulcigno, a 
 town of Dalmatia, on the Adriatic, Liv. 45, 
 C.26. 
 
 Oliaros, or Oliros, one of the Cyclades, 
 about 16 miles in circumference, separated from 
 Paros by a strait of seven miles. Virg. Mn. 3, 
 V. l2Q.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 469.— PZm. 4, c. 12. 
 The situation of this island in regard to Paros, 
 caused it to be designated by the name of An- 
 tiparos, which still remains to it in the slightly 
 altered form of Antiparo. It is not included by 
 Strabo among the Cyclades. 
 
 Olenus, or Olenum, I. a iGwn of Pelopon- 
 nesus, between Patrse and Cyllene. The goat 
 Amalthaea, which was made a constellation by 
 Jupiter, is called Olenia, from its residence 
 there. Paus. 7, c. 22.— Ovid. Met. 3.—Strab. 
 8. — Apollod. 1, c. 8. 11. Another in jEtolia. 
 
 Olisipo, now Lisbon, a town of ancient 
 Spain on the Tagus, surnamed Felicitas Julia, 
 {Plin. 4, c. 22.) called by some Ulyssippo, and 
 said to be founded by Ulysses. Mela, 3, c. 1. — 
 Solinus, 23. The fable of the founding of 
 Olisipo was not by any means ancient, as the 
 town itself was probably not older than the time 
 of the Roman dominion in Lusitania. 
 
 Olitingi, a town of Lusitania. Mela, 3, c. 1. 
 
 Ollius, a river rising in the Alps and fall- 
 ing into the Po, now called the Oglio. Plin. 
 2, c. 103. 
 
 Olmius, a river of Boeotia, near Helicon, sa- 
 cred to the Muses. Vid. Helicon. Stat. Theb. 
 7, V. 284. 
 
 Olp.e, " a fortress situated, as appears from 
 Thucydides, on a height close to the shore of 
 the Arabracian gulf, and not more than twenty- 
 five stadia from Argos. The historian adds, 
 that the Acarnanians held here a court of jus- 
 tice. A decisive victory was gained hereby the 
 Acarnanians and Amphilochians, under the 
 command of Demosthenes, over the Ambraciots 
 and Peloponnesians. Had it not been for this 
 event, Olpae would have remained unknown, as 
 no other writer has ever mentioned it, with the 
 exception of Stephanus Byz., who quotes from 
 Thucydides. Modern mapspoint out some ruins 
 on the site probably occupied by Olpse." Cram." 
 230 
 
 Olympia, a town of Eiis, on the left or 
 southern bank of the Alpheus, opposite Pisa. 
 The Eleans and Pisatae long disputed the pos- 
 session of this town, and of the temple, from 
 which, together with the games there celebrated, 
 it derived its sacred character. "The final 
 struggle took place in the forty-eighth Olympiad, 
 when the people of Pisa, as Pausanias affirms, 
 supported by the Triphylians, and other neigh- 
 bouring towns, which had revolted from Elis, 
 made war upon that state. The Eleans, how- 
 ever, aided by Sparta, proved victorious, and 
 put an end for ever to this contest by the des- 
 truction of Pisa and the other confederate 
 towns. According to the Scholiast of Pindar, 
 the city of Pisa was distant only six stadia from 
 Olympia, in which case we might fix its site 
 near that of Miracca, a little to the east of the 
 celebrated spot called now Antila.la ; but Pau- 
 sanias evidently leads us to suppose it stood on 
 the opposite bank of the river. The Olympic 
 games, as poets sung, were first instituted and 
 solemnized by Hercules, who also planted the 
 sacred grove called Altis, which he dedicated 
 to Jupiter. The site was already celebrated as 
 the seat of an oracle ; but it was not until the 
 Eleans had conquered the Pisatse, and destroy- 
 ed their city, that a temple was erected to the 
 god with the spoils of the vanquished. This 
 edifice was of Doric architecture, with a peri- 
 style. It was sixty-eight feet in height from the 
 ground to the pediment, ninety-five in width, 
 and two hundred and thirty in length. Its roof, 
 at each extremity of which was placed a gilt 
 urn, was covered with slabs of Pentelic marble. 
 The architect was a native of the country, 
 named Libo. In the centre of one of the pedi- 
 ments, stood a figure of Victory with a golden 
 shield, on which was sculptured a Medusa's 
 head. Twenty-one gilt bucklers, the offering 
 of the Roman general Mummius on the termi- 
 nation of the Achaean war, were also affixed to 
 the outside frieze. The sculptures of the front 
 pediments represented the race of Pelops and 
 (Enomaus, with Myrtilus and Hippodaraia ; 
 also Jupiter and the rivers Alpheus and Cla- 
 deus : these were all by Paonius, an artist of 
 Mende in Chalcide Thrace. In the posterior 
 pediment Alcamenes had sculptured the battle 
 of the Centaurs and Lapithse. The other parts 
 of the building were enriched with subjects 
 taken from the labours of Hercules. On en- 
 tering the gates, which were of brass, the spec- 
 tator passed the statue of Iphitus crowned by 
 Ecechiria on the right; and advancing through 
 a double row of columns supporting porticoes, 
 reached the statue of Jupiter, the chef d'oettvre 
 of Phidias. The god v/as represented as seat- 
 ed on his throne, composed of gold, ebony, and 
 ivory, studded with precious stones, and further 
 embellished with paintings and the finest carved 
 work. The Olympian deity was pourtrayed 
 by the great Athenian artist in the sublime atti- 
 tude and action conceived by Homer. The 
 figure was of ivory and gold, and of such vast 
 proportions, that, though seated, it almost reach- 
 ed the ceiling, which suggested the idea that in 
 rising it would bear away the roof The head 
 was crowned with olive. In the right hand it 
 grasped an image of Victory, and in the left a 
 sceptre, curiously wrought of different metals, 
 on which was perched an eagle. Both the san- 
 
OL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 OL 
 
 dais and vesture were of gold ; the latter was 
 also enriched with paintings of beasts and flow- 
 ers by Panaenus, the brother, or as some say, the 
 nephew of Phidias. An enclosure surrounded 
 the whole, by which spectators were prevented 
 from approaching too near ; this was also de- 
 corated with paintings by the same artist, which 
 are minutely described, together with the other 
 ornamental appendages to the throne and its 
 supporters, by Pausanias. Within the Altis, 
 or sacred grove, was the temenus of Pelops, ' 
 whom the Eleans venerated among heroes, as 
 much as Jupiter among other gods. This con- 
 secrated precinct, situated to the right of the 
 northern approach to the temple, was adorned 
 with plantations and statues. The hero him- 
 self, as we learn from Pindar, reposed on the 
 banks of the Alpheus, and near the altar of 
 Jupiter. Olympia now presents scarcely any 
 vestiges of the numerous buildings, statues, and 
 monuments, so elaborately detailed by Pausa- 
 nias. Chandler could only trace ' the walls of 
 the cell of a very large temple, standing many 
 feet high, and well built, the stones all injured, 
 and manifesting the labour of persons who have 
 endeavoured by boring to get at the metal with 
 which they Avere cemented. From a massive 
 capital remaining, it was collected that the edi- 
 fice had been of the Doric order.' Mr. Revett 
 adds, ^that this temple appears to be rather 
 smaller than that of Theseus at Athens, and in 
 no manner agrees with the temple of the Olym- 
 pian Jove.'" The ruins of this latter edifice, as 
 Sir W. Gell reports, ' are to be seen toward the 
 Alpheus, and fifty-five geographic paces distant 
 trom the hiH of Saturn. There are several 
 bushes which mark the spot, and the Turks of 
 hallo, are often employed in excavating the 
 stones. Between the temple and the river, in 
 the descent of the bank, are vestiges of the hip- 
 podrome, or buildings serving for the celebra- 
 tion of the Olympic games. These accompany 
 the road to Miracca on the right to some dis- 
 tance. The whole valley is very beautiful.' " 
 Cram. 
 
 Olympus, a fountain of Arcadia, near the 
 ruins of Trapezus, on the left bank of the river 
 Alpheus. Speaking of a place called Bathos, 
 Pausanias remarks, "there is a fountain here 
 which is denominated Olympias, the water of 
 which flows only every other year : and fire 
 ascends near the fountain. The Arcadians re- 
 port, that the battle between the giants and the 
 gods was fought here, and not at Pellene in 
 Thrace : in consequence of which they sacri- 
 fice here to lightning, storms, and thunder." 
 Paus. 
 
 Olympus, now Lacha^ a mountain of Greece, 
 on the borders of Thessaly and Macedonia. 
 The ancients supposed that it touched tlie hea- 
 vens with its top ; and, from that circumstance, 
 they have placed the residence of the s:ods there, 
 and have made it the court of Jupiter. It is 
 about one mile and a half in perpendicular 
 height, and is covered with pleasant woods, 
 caves, and grottoes. On the top of the mountain, 
 according to the notions of the poets, there was 
 neither wind nor rain, nor clouds, but an eter- 
 nal spring. Homer. II. 1, &c. — Vir^. JEn. 2, 
 6, &c.—Ovid. Met.—lAican. b.—Mela, 2, c. 3. 
 —Strab. 8, " Dr. Holland, who beheld it from 
 lAtochori at its foot, observes, • We had not be- 
 
 fore been aware of the extreme vicinity of the 
 town to the base of Olympus, from the thick 
 fogs which hung over us for three successive 
 days, while traversing the country ; but on leav- 
 ing it, and accidentally looking back, we saw 
 through an opening in the fog a faint outline of 
 vast precipices, seeming almost to overhang the 
 place, and so aerial in their aspect, that for a 
 few minutes we doubted whether it might not 
 be a delusion to the eye. The fog, however, 
 dispersed yet more on this side, and partial 
 openings were made, through which, as through 
 arches, we saw the sun-beams resting on the 
 snovy summits of Olympus, which rose into a 
 dark blue sky far above the belt of clouds and 
 mist that hung upon the sides of the mountain. 
 The transient view we had of the mountain 
 from this point showed us a line of precipices of 
 vast height, forming its eastern front toward the 
 sea, and broken at intervals by deep hollows or 
 ravines, which were richly clothed with forest 
 trees. The oak, chesnut, beech, plane-tree, 
 &c. are seen in great abundance along the base 
 and skirts of the mountain ;. and towards the 
 summit of the first ridge large forests of pine 
 spread themselves along the acclivities, giving 
 that character to the face of the mountain, 
 which is so often alluded to by the ancient 
 poets.' " Cram. 
 
 Olynthus, a celebrated town of Macedo- 
 nia. It stood " at the head of the gulf which 
 separates the peninsula of Pallene from that of 
 Sithonia, and was founded probably by the 
 Chalcidians and Eretrians of Euboea. Hero- 
 dotus relates, that it was afterwards held by the 
 Bottiffii, who had been expelled from the Ther- 
 maean gulf by ihe Macedonians; but on the re- 
 volt of Potidcea, and other towns on this coast, 
 from the Persians, it Avas besieged and taken by 
 Artabazus, a commander of Xerxes, who put 
 all the inhabitants to the sword, and delivered 
 the town to Critobulus of Torone and the Chal- 
 cidians. Perdiccas, some years after, persuaded 
 the Bottiaei and Chalcidians to abandon their 
 other towns, and make 01)'nthus their principal 
 city, previous to their engaging in hostilities 
 with the Athenians. In this war the Olynthi- 
 ans obtained some decisive advantages over thai 
 republic ; and the expedition of Brasidas ena- 
 bled them effectually to preserve their freedom 
 and independence, which was distinctly recog- 
 nised by treaty. From this time the republic 
 of Olynthus gradually acquired so much power 
 and importance among the northern states of 
 Greece, that it roused the jealousy and excited 
 the alarm of the more powerful of the southern 
 republics, Athens and Lacedaemon. The Olyn- 
 thians, apparently proceeding on the federal sys- 
 tem, afterwards so successfully adopted by the 
 Achaeans, incorporated into their alliance all the 
 smaller towns in their immediate vicinity ; and 
 by degrees succeeded in detaching several im- 
 portant places from the dominions of Amyntas 
 king of Macedon, who had not the power of 
 protecting himself from these encroachments. 
 At length, however, a deputation from the Chal- 
 cidic cities of Apollonia and Acanthus, whose 
 independence was at that time immediately 
 threatened by Olynthus, having directed the at- 
 tention of Sparta, then at the height of its po- 
 litical importance, to this rising- power, it was 
 determined in a general assembly of the Pelo- 
 23] 
 
OP 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 OR 
 
 ponnesian states to despatch an army of ten 
 thousand men into Thrace. The Olynthians 
 found themselves unable to cope with their 
 powerful and persevering antagonists, and were 
 at length forced to sue for peace ; which was 
 granted on condition that they should acknow- 
 ledge their dependance on Sparta, and take part 
 in all its wars. We afterwards find Philip and 
 the Olynthians in league against Athens, with 
 the view of expelling that power from Thrace. 
 Of the circumstances which induced this repub- 
 lic to abandon the interest of Macedon in fa- 
 vour of Athens, we are not well informed ; hut 
 the machinations of the party hostile to Philip 
 led to a declaration of war against that monarch ; 
 and the Athenians were easily prevailed upon 
 by the eloquence of Demosthenes to send forces 
 to the support of Olynthus. under the command 
 of Chares. On obtaining possession of this im- 
 portant city, Philip gave it up to plunder, re- 
 duced the inhabitants to slavery, and razed the 
 walls to the ground. Olynthus was sixty sta- 
 dia from Potidoea, and within sight of that 
 town, as we learn from Thucydides. Xeno- 
 phon mentions a river that flowed near it, but 
 of which he does not give us the name. The 
 ruins of Olynthus are now called Agios Ma- 
 mas.^' Cram. 
 
 Olyras, a river near Thermopylce, which, as 
 the mythologists report, attempted to extinguish 
 the funeral pile on which Hercules was con- 
 sumed. Strab. 9. 
 
 Omole. Vid. Homole. 
 
 Omphalos, a place of Crete, sacred to Jupi- 
 ter, on the border of the river Triton. 
 
 Onchestus, a town of Boeotia. In the time 
 of Pausanias this place was in ruins. It is thus 
 described by that author. " The ruins of the 
 city Onchestus are about fifteen stadia distant 
 from this mountain ; and they say that Onches- 
 tus the son of Neptune once dwelt in this city. 
 At present, indeed, a temple and statue of On- 
 chestian Neptnne remain : and there is likewise 
 a grove here which is celebrated by Homer. On 
 turning from the temple of the Cabiri to the 
 left hand, and proceeding to the distance of 
 about fifty stadia, you will arrive at the city 
 Thespise." Pans. 9, c. 26. 
 
 Oneium. " Oneium was a fortress situat- 
 ed in the chain of the Oneian mountains, and 
 commanding the pass which led through them. 
 This place must be sought for in the mountains 
 above Mertese, and near the village of Hexami- 
 li AfanoP Cram. 
 
 Onugnathos, a promontory of Laconia, now 
 separated from the main land, and forming the 
 hola de Send, in the Sinus Laconicus, towards 
 the island of Cythera. " This promontory, 
 which is distant from Asopus about two hun- 
 dred stadia, extends itself into the sea, and is 
 called the jav>bone of an ass. It contains a 
 temple of Minerva, which is without a statue 
 and a roof, and is said to have been made by 
 Agamemnon. There is also a monument here of 
 Cinadus, who was the pilot of Menelaus." Pans. 
 
 Ophiades, an island on the coast of Arabia, 
 so called from the great number of serpents 
 found there. It belonged to the Egyptian kings, 
 and was considered valuable for the topaz it 
 produced. Diod.3. 
 
 Ophis, a small river of Arcadia, which falls 
 into the Alpheus. 
 
 232 
 
 Ophiesa, the ancient name of Rhodes. 
 
 A small island near Crete. A town of Bar 
 
 matia. An island near the Baleares so call- 
 ed from the number of serpents which it pro- 
 duced {oj)Ls serpens.) It is now called Por- 
 mentera. 
 
 Opici, a people of the south of Italy. " The 
 Opici, or Osci, who seem to have occupied the 
 central region of Italy, extended themselves 
 largely both west and east. In the first direc- 
 tion they formed the several communities dis- 
 tinguished by the name of Latins, Rutuli, Vol- 
 sci, Campani, and Sidicmi. In the central dis- 
 tricts they constituted the Sabine nation, from 
 whom were descended the Picentes, as well as 
 the iEqui, Marsi, Hernici, Peligni, Vestini, 
 and Marrucini. From the Opici again, in con- 
 junction with the Liburni, an Illyrian nation 
 who had very early formed settlements on the 
 eastern coast of Italy, we must derive the Apuli 
 and Daunii, Peucetii and Poediculi, Calabri, 
 lapyges, and Messapii." Cram. 
 
 Opis, a town on the Tigris, afterwards called 
 Antiochia. Xenoph. Anab. 2. 
 
 Opitergini, a people near Aquileia, on the 
 Adriatic. Their chief city is called Opitergum, 
 now Oderzo. Lnican. 4, v. 416. 
 
 Opus, {opuntis,) " one of the most ancient 
 cities of Greece, celebrated by Pindar as the do- 
 main of Deucalion and Pyrrha. Strabo says 
 that Opus was fifteen stadia from the sea, and 
 that the distance between it and Cynus, its em- 
 porium, was sixty stadia. Li vy places Opus one 
 mile only from the sea. The position of this 
 tov/n has not been precisely determined by the 
 researches of modern travellers ; but its ruins 
 are laid down in Lapie's map a little to the 
 south-west of AlacM, and east of Talanta. The 
 bay, which the sea forms on this part of the 
 coast, Vv^as known by the name of Opuntius Si- 
 nus. The form of government adopted by the 
 Opuntians was peculiar, since as we learn from 
 Aristotle, they intrusted the sole administra- 
 tion to one magistrate. Plutarch commends 
 their piety and observance of religious rites. 
 Herodotus informs us that they furnished seven 
 ships to the Greek fleet at Artemisium. They 
 were subsequently conquered by Myronides the 
 Athenian general." Cram,. 
 
 Orates, a river of European Scythia, Ovid, 
 ex Pont. 4, el. 10, v. 47. As this river is not 
 now known, Vossius reads Crates, a river which 
 is found in Scythia. Val. Flacc. 4, v. 719. — 
 Thucyd. 4. 
 
 Orbelus, a mountain of Thrace or Macedo- 
 nia, which formed part of the great chain se- 
 parating Pffionia from Dardania and Moesia. It 
 will be seen, however, that this appellation was 
 sometimes applied also to the ridge more usually 
 called Haemus and Rhodope. Diodorus states 
 that Cassander established , in the district around 
 mount Orbelus, now Egrisou Dagh, a body of 
 Illyrian Autariatse, who had wandered from 
 their country and infested Paeon i a." Cram,. 
 
 Orcades, islands on the northern coasts of 
 Britain, now called the Orkneys. They were 
 unknown till Britain was discovered to be an 
 island by Agricola, who presided there as go- 
 vernor. Tacit, in As^ric. — Juv. 2, v. 161. 
 
 Orchomenus, or Orchomenum, I. a town of 
 Boeotia, at the west of the lake Copais. It was 
 anciently called Minyeia, and from that circum- 
 
OR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 OR 
 
 stance the inhabitants were often called Miny- 
 ans of Orchomenus. There was at Orchome- 
 nus a celebrated temple, built by Eteocles, son 
 of Cephisus, sacred to the Graces, who were 
 from thence called the Orchomenian goddesses. 
 The inhabitants founded Teos in conjunction 
 with the lonians, under the sons of Codrus, 
 Plin. 4, c. 8. — Herodot. 1, c. 146. — Paus. 9, c. 
 
 37. — Strab. 9. II. A town of Arcadia, at 
 
 the north of Mantinea. Homer. II. 2. III. 
 
 A town of Thessaly, with a river of the same 
 name. Strab. 
 
 Ordovices, the people of North Wales in 
 Britain, mentioned by Tacit. A^m. 12, c. 53. 
 
 ORESTiE, a people of Epirus. Vid. Orestis. 
 
 Oresteas. Vid. HadrianopoUs. 
 
 Oresteum, a town of Arcadia, about 18 miles 
 from Sparta. It was founded by Orestheus, a 
 son of Lycaon, and originally called Oresthe- 
 sium, and afterwards Oresteum, from Orestes, 
 the son of Agamemnon, who resided there for 
 some time after the murder of Clytemnestra. 
 Paus. 8, c. 8. — Euripid. 
 
 Orestis, or Orestida, a part of Macedonia. 
 " The Orestse were situated apparently to the 
 south-east of the Lyncestas, and, like them, ori- 
 ginally independent of the Macedonian kings, 
 though afterwards annexed to their dominions. 
 From their vicinity to Epirus, we find them fre- 
 quently connected with that portion of northern 
 Greece ; indeed, Steph. Byz. terms them a Mo- 
 lossian tribe. At a later period the Orestge be- 
 came subject to the last Philip of Macedon ; but, 
 having revolted under the protection of a Ro- 
 man force, they were declared free on the con- 
 clusion of peace between Plilip and the Ro- 
 mans. The country of the Orestee was appa- 
 rently of small extent, and contained but few 
 towns. Among these Oreslia is named by Ste- 
 phanus, who states it to have been the birth- 
 place of Ptolemy the son of Lagus. Its founda- 
 tion was ascribed by tradition to Orestes. This 
 is probably the same city called by Strabo Ar- 
 gos Oresticum, built, as he affirms, by Orestes. 
 The country of the Orestse corresponds in many 
 points with the territory of Castoria, a town of 
 some extent, situated near the lake of Celetrum, 
 to which it now gives its name. Celetrum is 
 perhaps the Yit\avi6iov of Hierocles." Cram. 
 
 Orbtani, a people of Spain ; their country 
 was in Tarraconensis, on the borders of Bsetica, 
 north of the Marianus mons. This region an- 
 swers in a great measure to those parts of Es- 
 tramadura and Castile which lie upon the Guu- 
 diana, between the Sierra Morena and the 
 mountains of Toledo, the ancient capital Ore- 
 tum being now denominated Oreto. Liv. 21, 
 c. 11, 1. 35, c. 7. 
 
 Oreus. Vid. Histicea. 
 
 Orga, or Orgas, a river of Phrygia, falling 
 into the Masander. Strab. — Plin. 
 
 Oricum, or Oricus, a town of Epirus, on the 
 Ionian Sea, founded by a colony from Colchis, 
 according to Pliny. It was called Dardknia, 
 because Helenus and Andromache, natives of 
 Troy or Dardania, reigned over the country 
 after the Trojan war. It had a celebrated har- 
 bour, and was greatly esteemed by the Romans 
 on account of its situation, but it was not well 
 defended. The tree which produces the tur- 
 pentine grew there in abundance. Virg. Mn. 
 10, V. 136.— Lw. 24, c. 40— PZm. 2, c. 89.— 
 
 Part I. -2 G 
 
 C(B$. Bell. Civ. 3, c. 1, &c. — Lmcan. 3, v. 187. 
 
 Oriens, in ancient geography, is taken for 
 all the most eastern parts of the world, such as 
 Parthia, India, Assyria, &c. 
 
 ORiT.E, a people of India, who submitted to 
 Alexander, &c. Strai>. 15. 
 
 Oriundus, a river of Illyricum. Liv. 44. c. 31. 
 
 Ornea, a town of Argolis, famous for a bat- 
 tle fought there between the Lacedaemonians 
 and Argives. Diod. 
 
 Ornithon, a town of Phoenicia, between 
 Tyre and Sidon, 
 
 Orobh, a people o\ Cisalpine Gaul, north of 
 the Insubres. " We are surprised at first to 
 find a people with a Greek name in this part of 
 Italy, but it is accounted for by the fact of a 
 Greek colony having been settled in this district 
 by Pompeius Strabo and Cornelius Scipio, and 
 subsequently by J. Csesar. The chief seat of 
 this colony was Comum, as we learn from Stra- 
 bo. It had been hitherto an inconsiderable 
 place, but from that time it rose to a great de- 
 gree of prosperity under the name of Novum 
 Comum." Cram. 
 
 Oromedon, a lofty mountain in the island of 
 Cos. Theocrit. 7. 
 
 Orontes, a river of Syria, rising on the 
 boundaries of Coelosyria, and running along the 
 base of mount Libanus upon the eastern side. 
 At Antioch, the defiles of the mountains give it 
 a passage to the sea, into which, turrwng almost 
 directly south after a course of a few miles, it 
 discharges itself Its banks were formerly lined 
 with flourishing towns, among which were 
 Emessa, Epiph ania, Apamea, Antioch, and the 
 far-famed and beautiful Daphne. " The Oron- 
 tes is undoubtedly the first of the Syrian rivers ; 
 yet were it not for the numerous bars which 
 dam up its waters, it would be completely dry 
 in summer. The water thus retained requires 
 the aid of machinery to raise it for the supply of 
 the adjoining plains. Hence it has received the 
 modern name of Aasi, or the Obstinate." Malte- 
 Brun. D'Anville supposes that its modern 
 name alludes to its course, which, flowing north, 
 is unlike that of almost all the eastern rivers of 
 those parts, which, like the Euphrates, Tigris, 
 &c. incline to the south. In Greek authors this 
 river is sometimes called the Typhon, as in 
 Pausanias and Strabo ; and this name, connect- 
 ed with the mythology of the east, is said to have 
 given place to that of Orontes the architect, by 
 whom the first bridge was erected over its tu- 
 multuous and rapid stream. Pomp. Mel. Ed. 
 Gron. According to Strabo, who mentions 
 some fabulous accounts concerning it, the Oron- 
 tes disappeared under ground for the space of 
 five miles. The word Oronteus is often used 
 as Syrius. Dionys. Perieg. — Ovid. Met. 2, v. 
 ^S.— Strab. \Q.—Paus. 8, c. 20. 
 
 Oropus, I. a town of Bceotia, on the borders 
 of Attica, near the Euripus, which received its 
 name from Oropus, a son of Macedon. It was 
 the frequent cause of quarrels between the 
 Boeotians and the Athenians, whence some have 
 called it one of the cities of Attica, a,nd was at 
 last confirmed in the possession of the Athe- 
 nians, by Philip, king of Macedon, Amphiaraus 
 had a temple there. Paus. 1, c. 34. — Strab. 9. 
 II. A small town of Euboea. III. An- 
 other in Macedonia. 
 
 Orospeda mons, a range of mountains in 
 233 
 
OS 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 OX 
 
 Hispania, accompanying the line of the coast 
 from Calpe to the Portus Magnus, at which the 
 shore diverges towards the north. Here, turn- 
 ing in the same direction, the mountains envi- 
 ron the springs of the Baetis. In antiquity, this 
 ridge of hills divided the Bastuli Pseni from the 
 Turduli and Turdetani, formmg, in modern 
 geography, the line of separation between Gra- 
 nada and Andalusia. 
 
 Ortygia, a small island of Sicily, within the 
 bay of Syracuse, which formed once one of the 
 four quarters of that great city. It was in this 
 island that the celebrated fountain Arethusa 
 arose. Ortygia is now the only part remaining 
 of the once famed Syracuse, about two miles in 
 circumference, and inhabited by 18,000 souls. 
 It has suffered, like the towns on the eastern 
 coast, by the eruptions of Mtna. Virg. ^En. 3, 
 
 V. 69i.—Hom. Od. 15, v. 403. An ancient 
 
 name of the island of Delos. Some suppose 
 that it received this name from Latona, who fled 
 thither when changed into a quail (opruQ by 
 Jupiter, to avoid the pursuits of Juno. Diana 
 was called OHygia, as being born there ; as 
 also Apollo. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 651. Fast. 5, v. 
 692.— Virg. uEn. 3, v. 124. 
 
 OscA, a town of Spain, now Huesca in Ar- 
 rdgon. Liv. 34, c. 10. 
 
 Osci, a people between Campania and the 
 country of the Volsci, who assisted Turnus 
 against ./Eneas. Some suppose that they are the 
 same as the Opici, the word Osci being a dimi- 
 nutive or abbreviation of the other. The lan- 
 guage, the plays, are ludicrous expressions of 
 this nation, are often mentioned by the ancients, 
 and from their indecent tendency some suppose 
 the word obsccenum {quasi oscenum) is deriv- 
 ed. Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 14. — Cic. Fam. 7, ep. 1. 
 —Lin). 10, c. 20.—Stra.b. b.—Plin. 3, c. 5.— 
 Virg. JEn. 7, v. 730. " It is universally agreed 
 that the iirst settlers in Campania with whom 
 history makes us acquainted are the Oscans. 
 Of this most ancient Italian tribe we have alrea- 
 dy spoken in the account of Italy, and in other 
 articles referring to that country. It will be seen 
 from thence how widely diffused was the Os- 
 can name, so much so, that the term Opici was 
 at one time synonymous with that of Itali in the 
 minds of the Greeks. It has also been observ- 
 ed, that the dissemination of this vast Italian 
 family was commensurate with that of its lan- 
 guage, of which we yet possess some few re- 
 mains, and which is known to have been a dia- 
 lect still in use in the best days of Roman lite- 
 rature : even when the Oscan name had disap- 
 peared from the rest of Italy, this language was 
 retained by the inhabitants of Campania, though 
 mingled with the dialects of the various tribes 
 which successively obtained possession of that 
 much prized country." Cram. 
 
 OsisMii, a people of Gaul, in the western 
 extremity of the country. They occupied the 
 region north of the Corisopoti, the northern por- 
 tion of Bretagne in the modern department of 
 JfHnisterre. 
 
 OsRHOENE, a country of Mesopotamia, which 
 received this name from one of its kings called 
 Osrhoes. It was included principally between 
 the Euphrates and the Chaboras. 
 
 OssA, I. a lofty mountain of Thessaly, once 
 the residence of the Centaurs. It was formerly 
 joined to mount Olympus, but Hercules, as some 
 234 
 
 report, separated them, and made between them 
 the celebrated valley of Tempe. This separa- 
 tion of the two mountains was more probably 
 effected by an earthquake, which happened, £is 
 fabulous accounts represent, about 1885 years 
 before the Christian era. Ossa was one of those 
 mountains which the giants, in their wars against 
 the gods, heaped up one on the other to scale 
 the heavens with more facility. Mela, 2, c. 3 
 — Ovid. Met. 1, V. 155, 1. 2, v. 225, 1. 7, v. 244. 
 Fast. 1, V. 307, 1. 3, v. Ul.—Strab. 9.—Im- 
 
 can. 1 and 6.- Virg. G. 1, v. 281. II. A 
 
 town of Macedonia. 
 
 OsTiA, a town built at the mouth of the river 
 Tiber by Ancus Martins, king of Rome, about 
 16 miles distant from Rome, ll had a celebrat- 
 ed harbour, and was so pleasantly situated ihat 
 the Romans generally spent a part of the year 
 there as in a country-seat. There was a small 
 tower in the port, like the Pharos of Alexandria, 
 built upon the wreck of a large ship which had 
 been sunk there, and which contained the obe- 
 lisks of Egypt with which the Roman emperors 
 intended to adorn the capital of Italy. In the 
 age of Strabo the sand and mud deposited by 
 the Tiber had choked the harbour, and added 
 much to the size of the small islands, which 
 sheltered the ships at the entrance of the river. 
 Ostia, and her harbour called Partus, became 
 gradually separated, and are now at a consider- 
 able distance from the sea. Flor. 1, c. 4, 1. 3, c. 21. 
 — Liv. 1, c. 33. — Mela, 2, c. 4. — Sueton. — Plin. 
 
 Othrys, a mountain, or rather a chain of 
 mountains, in Thessaly, the residence of the 
 Centaurs. Strab. 9. — Herodot. 7, c. 129.- 
 Virg. Mn. 7, v. 675. This mountain, " which, 
 branching out of Tymphrestus, one of the high- 
 est points in the Pindian chain, closed the great 
 basin of Thessaly to the south, and served at 
 the same time to divide the waters which flow- 
 ed northwards into the Peneus from those re- 
 ceived by the Sperchius. This mountain is 
 often celebrated by the poets of antiquity. At 
 present it is known by the different names ot 
 Hellovo, Varibovo and Goura." Cram. 
 
 OxejE, the most western of the Echinades. 
 By some this little group is supposed to be the 
 same as those denominated Thoee by Homer ; 
 and Dulichium is supposed by others to be the 
 principal one in size and importance. They 
 are now called Curzolari, the chief or largest 
 among ihem retaining still the name of Oxia. 
 
 Oxus, a river of Asia towards the most 
 northern parts which the ancients pretended to 
 know, and which indeed they Iniewbut inaccu- 
 rately. In antiquity it rose in the mountains 
 called Imaus, and, flowing almost west to the 
 confines of Parthia, formed the boundary be- 
 tween Bactriana and Margiana on the south, 
 and Sogdiana on the north. So far the notions 
 of the ancients appear to have been generally 
 accurate and uniform. Dionysius Periegetes, 
 however, places it in Sogidiana, and Polybius 
 seems to infer that its current was farther south 
 than the borders of that country, and belonged to 
 Bactriana, Arrived at the north-eastern limit of 
 Margiana, the Oxus turns, with an inclination 
 to the north, through the country of the Choras- 
 mii, the modern Kharasm. Here the notions of 
 the most authentic of the Greek and Roman 
 geographers become confused in relation to the 
 course and mouth of this river. The greater 
 
PA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 P^ 
 
 number describing its line as east and west, de- 
 clare that it falls into the Caspian Sea ; but Mela, 
 and even Dionysius Periegetes, appear to have 
 been aware ol" its northern bend, though they do 
 not express a different opinion from the others 
 in regard to the sea which receives the tribute of 
 its waters. Many moderns have been disposed, 
 from these varying accounts, to suppose that the 
 Ox us, Avhich, with the name of Gihon, now 
 flows into the sea of Aral, must have altered its 
 course among the changes of ages ; but the cal- 
 culations of Malte-Brun evince the identity of 
 the course of this river from the accounts of the 
 ancients themselves, at the present time and in 
 the times to which those authorities relate. He- 
 rodotus, according to D'Anville, seems to have 
 referred to this river under the name of Araxes. 
 In the geography of modern Asia the Gihonhe- 
 longs, for the former part of its course, to Bok- 
 kara, and for the latter to Kharasm, both in Tar- 
 tary. In treating Kharasm, Malte-Brun has the 
 following remarks on this river: " The large 
 river Gihon, or Amoo, which crosses this coun- 
 try, is, according to the historians of Alexander, 
 six or seven stadia broad. It is too deep to be 
 forded. A similar description of it is given by 
 the Arabian geographers ; the latter speak of 
 inundations occasioned by it. When it arrives 
 at the base of the Weisluka mountains, in K^io- 
 waresm, the Gihon is separated into several 
 canals of irrigation, preserving two principal 
 branches. The small arm of the Gihon is the 
 only one which contains water. The other, 
 when the water is high, spreads over a marshy 
 flat, through which it passes; and, like all ri- 
 vers which have indifferent banks, it is some- 
 times left dry at several parts of its course." 
 
 OxYDRACE, a nation of India. They occu- 
 pied the country now Outche, a part of Mool- 
 tan, between the Acesines and the Indus, and 
 furnished large contributions, both in men and 
 chariots, to Alexander in his eastern expedition. 
 Curt. 9, c. 4. 
 
 OxYRYNCHUs, a towu of Egypt, now Behnese, 
 some distance west of the Nile on the canal of 
 Joseph. Its name was derived from the pecu- 
 liar worship which the inhabitants were accus- 
 tomed to pay to a certain species of fish with a 
 pointed nose. D'Anville. 
 
 OzoLiE. Vid. Locri. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pachinus, or Pachynus, now Passaro, a pro- 
 montory of Sicily, projecting about two miles 
 into the sea, in the form of a peninsula, at the 
 south-east corner of the island, with a small 
 harbour of the same name. Strab. 6. — Mela, 
 2, c. 7. -Virg. JEn. 3, v. 699.— Pans. 5, c. 25. 
 
 Pactolus, a celebrated river of Lydia, rising 
 in mount Tmolus, and falling into the Hermus, 
 after it has watered the city of Sardes. It was 
 in this river that Midas washed himself when 
 he turned into gold whatever he touched; and 
 from that circumstance it ever after rolled golden 
 sands, and received the name of Chrysorrhoas. 
 It is called Tmolus by Pliny. Strabo observes, 
 that it had no golden sands in his age. Virg. 
 uEn. 10, V. U^.—Strab. 18.— Ovid. Met. 11, v. 
 S6.—Herodot. 5, c. 110.— Plin. 33, c. 8. 
 
 Padinum, now Bondeno, a town on the Po, 
 where it begins to branch into different chan- 
 nels. Plin. 3, c. 15. 
 
 Padus, (now called the Po,) a river in Italy. 
 
 Vid. Eridanus. 
 
 Padusa, the most southern mouth of the Po. 
 Vid. Eridanus. 
 
 PiEMANi, a people of Belgic Gaul, supposed 
 to dwell in the present country at the west of 
 lAixemburg. Ccis. G. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Pjeones. " The Paeonians were a numerous 
 and ancient nation, that once occupied the great- 
 est part of Macedonia, and even a considerable 
 portion of what is more properly called Thrace, 
 extending along the coast of the iEgean as far 
 as the Euxine. This we collect from Herodo- 
 tus's account of the wars of that people with the 
 Perinthians, a Greek colony settled on the shores 
 of the Propontis, at no great distance from By- 
 zantium. Homer, who was apparently well ac- 
 quainted with the Paeonians, represents them as 
 following their leader Asteropseus to the siege 
 of Troy in behalf of Priam, and places them in 
 Macedonia, on the banks of the Axius. We 
 know also from Livy that Emathia once bore 
 the name of Paeon ia, though at what period we 
 cannot well ascertain. From another passage in 
 the same historian, it would seem that the Dar- 
 dani of Illyria had once exercised dominion over 
 the whole of Macedonian Paeonia. This pas- 
 sage seems to agree with what Herodotus states, 
 that the Paeonians were a colony of the Teucri, 
 who came from Troy, that is, if we suppose the 
 Dardani to be the same as the Teucri, or at 
 least a branch of them. But these transactions 
 are too remote and obscure for examination, 
 Herodotus, who dwells principally on the histo- 
 ry of the Paeonians around the Strymon, informs 
 us, that they were divided into numerous small 
 tribes, most of which were transplanted into 
 Asia by Megabyzus, a Persian general, who 
 had made the conquest of their country by order 
 of Darius. The circumstances of this event, 
 which are given in detail by Herodotus, will be 
 found in his fourth book, c. 12. It appears, how- 
 ever, from that historian, that these Paeonians 
 afterwards effected their escape from the Per- 
 sian dominions, and returned to their country. 
 Those who were found on the line of march pur- 
 sued by Xerxes were compelled to follow that 
 monarch in his expedition. Herodotus seems to 
 place the main body of the Paeonian nation near 
 the Strymon, but Thucydides with Homer ex- 
 tends their territory to the river Axius. But if 
 we follow Strabo and Livy, we shall be disposed 
 to remove the western limits of the nation as 
 far as the great chain of mount Scardus and the 
 borders of Illyria. In general terms then we 
 may affirm, that the whole of northern Mace- 
 donia, from the source of the river Erigonus, 
 which has been stated to rise in the chain above 
 mentioned, to the Strymon was once named 
 Paeonia. This large tract of country was divid- 
 ed into two parts by the Romans, and formed 
 the second and third regions of Macedonia. 
 The Paaonians, though constituting but one na- 
 tion, were divided into several tribes, each pro- 
 bably governed by a separate chief" Cram. 
 
 P^ONiA. Vid. P (Zones. 
 
 P.s:sos, a town of the Hellespont, called also 
 Apcesos, situated at the north of Lampsacus. 
 When it was destroyed, the inhabitants migrat- 
 ed to Lampsacus, where they settled. They 
 were of Milesian origin. Strab. 13. — Homen 
 E.2. 
 
 235 
 
PJi 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PA 
 
 Pjestdm, a town of Lucania, called also Nep- 
 tunia and Posidonia by the Greeks, where the 
 soil produced roses which blossomed twice a 
 year. " Pastum stands in a fertile plain, 
 boiinded on the west by the Tyrrhene Sea, and 
 about a mile distant on the south by fine hills, 
 in the midst of which Acropolis sits embosomed ; 
 on the north, by the bay of Salenio and its 
 rugged border ; while to the east the country 
 swells into two mountains, which still retain 
 their ancient names Calli'tnari and CantcTia ; 
 and behind them towers Mont Alburnus itself 
 with its pointed summits. A stream called the 
 Solo fone {which may probably be its ancient ap- 
 pellation) flows under the walls, and by spread- 
 ing iis waters over its lower borders, and thus 
 producing pools that corrupt in hot weather, 
 continues, as in ancient times, to infect the air, 
 and render Ptjestum a dangerous residence in 
 summer. Obscurity hangs over, not the origin 
 only but the general history of the city, though 
 it has left such magnificent monuments of its 
 existence. The mere outlines have been sketch- 
 ed perhaps with accuracy ; the details are pro- 
 bably obliterated for ever. According to the 
 learned Mazzochi, Pcestum was founded by a 
 colony of Dorenses or Dorians, from Dora, a 
 city of Phenicia, the parent of that race and 
 name, whether established in Greece or in Italy. 
 It was first called Posetan or Postan, which in 
 Phenician signifies Neptune, to whom it was 
 dedicated. It was afterwards invaded, and its 
 primitive inhabitants expelled by the Sybarites. 
 This event is supposed to have taken place 
 about five hundred years before the Christian 
 era. Under its new masters Pastum assumed 
 the Greek appellation Posidonia, of the same 
 import as its Phenician name, because a place 
 of great opulence and magnitude, and is sup- 
 posed to have extended from the present ruin 
 southward to the hill, on which stands the little 
 town still called from its ancient destination 
 Acropoli. The Lucanians afterwards expelled 
 the Sybarites, and checked the prosperity of 
 Posidonia, which was in turn deserted, and left 
 to moulder away imperceptibly ; vestiges of it 
 are still visible all over the plain of Spinazzo 
 or Saracino. The original city then recovered 
 its first name, and not long after was taken, and 
 at length colonized by the Romans. From this 
 period Pcestum is mentioned almost solely by 
 the poets, who, from Virgil to Claudian, seem 
 all to expatiate with delight amid its gardens, 
 and grace their composition with the bloom, the 
 sweetness, and the fertility of its roses. But 
 unfortunately the flowery retreats, 
 
 Victura rosaria Pasti, 
 
 seem to have had few charms in the eyes of the 
 Saracens, and if possible, still fewer in those of 
 the Normans, who, each in their turn, plunder- 
 ed Pastum, and at length compelled its remain- 
 ing inhabitants to abandon their ancient seat, 
 and to take shelter in the mountains. To them 
 Capaccio Vecchio and Novo are supposed to 
 owe their origin; both these towns are situate 
 on the hills : the latter is the residence of the 
 bishop and chapter of Pasiurn. It will natural- 
 ly be asked to which of the nations that were 
 successively in possession of Pastum the edi- 
 fices which still subsist are to be ascribed ; not 
 to the Romans, who never seem to have adopted 
 236 
 
 the genuine Doric style : the Sybarites are said 
 to have occupied the neighbouring plain ; the 
 Dorians therefore appear to have the fairest 
 claim to these majestic and everlasting monu- 
 ments. But at what period were they erected 1 
 to judge from their form we must conclude that 
 they are the oldest specimens of Grecian archi- 
 tecture now in existence. In beholding them 
 and contemplating their solidity bordering upon 
 heaviness, we are tempted to consider ihem as 
 an intermediate link between the Egyptian and 
 Grecian manner, and the first attempt to pass 
 from the immense masses of the former to the 
 graceful proportions of the latter. In fact the 
 temples of Pcestum, Agrigentum, and Athens, 
 seem instances of the commencement, the im- 
 provement, and the perfection of the Doric or- 
 der." Eustace. 
 
 Pagas.e, or Pagasa, a town of Magnesia in 
 Thessaly, on the Pagasseus Sinus, with an 
 harbour and promontory of the same name. 
 The ship Argo was built there, as some suppose, 
 and, according to Propertius, the Argonauts set 
 sail from that harbour. From that circumstance, 
 not only the ship Argo, but also the Argonauts 
 themselves, were ever after distinguished by the 
 epithet of Pagasceus. Pliny confounds Pagasas 
 with Demetrias, but they are diflerent, and the 
 latter was peopled by the inhabitants of the for- 
 mer, who preferred the situation of Demeirias 
 for its conveniences. Ovid. Met. 7, v, 1, 1, 8, 
 V. 34:9.— lAtcan. 2, v. 715, 1. 6, v. 400.— Mela, 
 2, c. 3 and l.—Strab. 9.—Propert. 1, el. 20, v. 
 ll.—Plin. 4, c. %.—Apollon. Rhod: 1, v. 238, &c. 
 Pagaseticus, and Pagasites sinus, sometimes 
 called likewise Pagasoeus Sinus, the bay upon 
 which the town of Pagasoe was situated. It is 
 now the Gidf of Volo. 
 
 Palje, a town at the south of Corsica, now 
 St. Bonifacio. 
 
 Paljeapolis, a ^nall island on the coast ot 
 Spain. Strab. 
 
 PALJEPAPHOs,the ancient town of Paphos, in 
 Cyprus, adjoining to the new. Strab. 14. 
 
 PAL.EPHARSALUS, the aucient name of Phar- 
 salus in Thessaly. Cccs. B. A. 48. 
 
 PALiEPOLis, a town of Campania, built by a 
 Greek colony, where Naples afterwards was 
 erected. Liv. 8, c. 22. 
 
 Pal^ste, a village of Epirus, near Oricus 
 where Caesar first landed with his fleet. L/ucan 
 5, V. 460. 
 
 Pal^estina, a country of Asia, south of 
 CcElosyria, and having on the west that part of 
 the Mediterranean called in the sacred writings 
 the Great Sea, which extended between Asia 
 Minor and the coast of Africa. On the south 
 was Arabia Petrasa, on the east the spacious 
 barrens of Arabia Deserta. " It is agreed that 
 the name of Palcestinais derived from the Phi- 
 listines. For notwithstanding that the Hebrew 
 people established themselves in Canaan, the 
 Philistines maintained possession of a maritime 
 country, which extended to the limits of Egypt. 
 And there is reason to believe that it was the 
 Syrians who, by a greater attachment to this 
 people than to a nation originally foreign m the 
 country, have given occasion to the extension of 
 the name of Palaestine, which is found in his- 
 tory at the time of Herodotus, and which the 
 Jewisl writers have since adopted in the same 
 extent In the first years of the fifth century, 
 
PA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PA 
 
 this name was communicated to three provin- 
 ces ; first, second, and third. And the last oc- 
 cupied Arabia Petrea." D'Anville. The first 
 occupations to be noticed, in the consideration 
 of this country, are those called the Jewish and 
 Canaanitish, neither of which belong in strict- 
 ness to classical geography. According to the 
 former, a number of people, for the greater part 
 of unknown origin and race, possessed in vari- 
 ous apportionments the whole of Palestine; and 
 according to the other, the 12 tribes, so distia-' 
 guished in Scripture, distributed among them- 
 selves the same extent of territory'. On the 
 west, however, the Philistines disputed with 
 them the possession of the coast from Joppa to 
 the borders of Arabia, Over all the tribes the 
 power and dominion were vested in the first 
 anointed king, and from him transferred to the 
 unambitious father of the Jewish race of mo- 
 narchs, the lowly and virtuous David. " The 
 despotism exercised by Solomon created a strong 
 re-action, which was immediately felt on the ac- 
 cession of his son Rehoboam. This prince, re- 
 jecting the advice of his aged counsellors, and 
 following that of the younger and more violent, 
 soon had the misfortune to see the greater part 
 of his kingdom wrested from him. In reply to 
 the address of his people, who entreated an 
 alleviation of their burdens, he declared, that 
 instead of requiring less at their hands he should 
 demand more. ' My father made yoar yoke 
 hea'vy, I will add to your yoke ; my father chas- 
 tised you with whips, but I will chastise you with 
 scorpions.' Such a resolution, expressed in 
 language at once so contemptuous and severe, 
 alienated from his government ten tribes, who 
 sought a more indulgent master in Jeroboam, a 
 declared enemy of the house of David. Hence 
 the origin of the kingdom of Israel, as distin- 
 guished from that of Judah; and hence, too, 
 the disgraceful contentions between these kin- 
 dred states, which acknowledged one religion, 
 and professed to be guided by the same law. 
 Arms and negotiation proved equally unavail- 
 ing, in repeated attempts which were made to re- 
 unite the Hebrews under one sceptre: till at 
 length, about two hundred and seventy years 
 after the death of Solomon, the younger people 
 were subdued by Shalmaneser, the powerful 
 monarch of Assyria, who carried them away 
 captive into the remoterprovincesof his vast em- 
 pire. Jeroboam had erected in his kingdom the 
 emblems of a lesspure faith, to which he confined 
 the attention of his subjects ; while the frequent 
 wars that ensued, and the treaties formed on 
 either side with the Gentile nations on their re- 
 spective borders, soon completed the estrange- 
 ment which ambition had begun. Little attached 
 to the native line of princes, the Israelites placed 
 on the throne of Samaria a number of adventu- 
 rers, who had no qualities to recommend them 
 besides military courage and an irreconcilable 
 hatred towards the more legitimate claimants of 
 the house of David. The kingdom of Judah, less 
 distracted by the pretensions of usurpers, and 
 being confirmed in the principles of patriotism 
 by a more rigid adherence to the laws of Moses, 
 continued, during one hundred and thirty years. 
 to resist the encroachments of the two rival 
 powers, Egypt and Assyria, which now began 
 to contend in earnest for the possession of Pa- 
 lestine, Several endeavours were made even 
 
 after the destruction of Samaria, to unite the 
 energies of the Twelve Tribes, and thereby to 
 secure the independence of the sacred territory 
 a little longer. But a pitiful jealousy had suc- 
 ceeded to the aversion generated by a long 
 course of hostile aggression ; while the over- 
 whelming hosts, which incessantly issued from 
 the Euphrates and the Nile to select a field of 
 battle within the borders of Canaan, soon left 
 to the feeble councils of Jerusalem no other 
 choice than that of an Egyptian or an Assyrian 
 master. A siege, which appears to have con- 
 tinued fifteen or sixteen months, terminated in 
 the final reduction of the holy city, and in the 
 captivity of Zedekiah, who was treated with 
 the utmost severity. His two sons were execu- 
 ted in his presence, after which his eyes were 
 put out; when, being loaded with fetters, he 
 was carried to Babylon and thrown into prison. 
 The event now alluded to took place exactly six 
 centuries before the Christian era ; and hence 
 the return of the Jews to the Holy Land must 
 have occurred about the year 530 prior to the 
 same great epoch. Under the Persian satraps, 
 who directed the civil and military government 
 of Syria, the Jews were permitted to acknow- 
 ledge the authority of their own high-priest, to 
 whom, in all things pertaining to the law of 
 Moses, they rendered the obedience which was 
 due to the head of their nation. Their pros- 
 perity, it is true, was occasionally diminished or 
 increased by the personal character of the sove- 
 reigns who successively occupied the throne of 
 Cyrus ; but no material change in their circum- 
 stances took place until the victories of Alex- 
 ander the Great had laid the foundation of the 
 Syro-Macedonian kingdom in' Western Asia, 
 and given a new dynasty to the crown of 
 Eg}'pt. The struggles which ensued between 
 these powerful states frequently involved the 
 interests of the Jews, and made new demands 
 upon their allegiance ; although it is admitted, 
 that as each was desirous to conciliate a people 
 Avho claimed Palestine for their unalienable 
 heritage, the Hebrews at large were, during two 
 centuries, treated with much liberality and fa- 
 vour. But this generosity or forbearance was 
 interrupted in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, 
 who, alarmed by the report of insurrections, and 
 harassed by the events of an unsuccessful war 
 in Eg)'pt, directed his angry passions against 
 the Jews. The severities of Antiochus, which 
 had inflamed the resentment of the whole Jew- 
 ish people, called forth in a hostile attitude the 
 brave family of the Maccabees, whose valour 
 and perseverance enabled them to dispute with 
 the powerful monarch of Syria the sovereignty 
 of Palestine. , But the victorious Maccabees, 
 who had delivered their country from the op- 
 pression of foreigners, encountered a more for- 
 midable enemy in the factious spirit of their own 
 people. Alcimus, a tool of the Syrians, assum- 
 ed the title of high-priest, and in virtue of his 
 office claimed the obedience of all who acknow- 
 ledged the institutions of Moses. In this emer- 
 gency Judas courted the alliance of the Romans, 
 who willirglv extended their protection to con- 
 federates so likely to aid their ambitious views 
 in the east ; but before the republic could inter- 
 pose her arms in his behalf, the Hebrew general 
 had fallen in the field of battle." Russell's Pa- 
 lestine 
 
 ' 237 
 
 After a long series of wars and domes- 
 
PA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PA 
 
 tic disasters, Palestine received from the Ro- 
 mans a monarch, in the person of Herod the 
 Great, who, acknowledging allegiance to Rome, 
 was permitted to exercise the functions of royal- 
 ty in this land, now fast falling from its faith. 
 In the reign of Augustus, with the deposition 
 of Archelaus, the son of Herod, ended the Is- 
 raelitish rule in Jerusalem, which then became 
 in form, as it had long been in fact, a province 
 of the empire, and Pontius Pilate succeeded as 
 second governor of this dependancy. But thus 
 shorn of even the show of independence, Pales- 
 tine was not suffered to enjoy domestic peace in 
 slavery ; and the commotions and tumults which 
 mark her history as a province, till the destruc- 
 tion of the city by Titus, are in no degree an 
 illustration of the superiority of dependant to 
 republican government in securing order and 
 tranquillity. Under the Romans the distribu- 
 tion of Palestine was into Galilsea Superior and 
 Galilaea Inferior, Samaria, Judaea, subdivided 
 into Judsea Propria and Pentapolisand Idumsea, 
 and Peraea beyond the Hermon mons, belong- 
 ing to Arabia, and comprising the districts of 
 Trachonitis, Gaulonitis, Batanaea, Auranitis, 
 Ituraea, Decapolis, Peraea Propria, Ammonitis 
 and Moabitis. Under Constanline, as all his 
 empire had been subjected to a novel division ; 
 so also was a new distribution effected m the 
 counties of Palestine, viewed perhaps with some 
 favour by that emperor ; though many authors, 
 and among them Malte-Brun, refer these divi- 
 sions to a much earlier period. Palestine was 
 then divided into Palaestina Prima, including 
 Samaria, Judaea Propria, and the country of the 
 Philistines ; Secunda, comprising Galilaea, Gau- 
 lonitis, and Decapolis ; and Tertia, comprehend- 
 ing the countries of Idumeea and Arabia Petrsea. 
 The most remarkable geographical features of 
 Palestine are treated of under the particular di- 
 visions to which they belong ; the mountains of 
 Libanus upon the northern frontier, the Hermon 
 upon the east, with the Dead Sea and its tribu- 
 tary the sacred Jordan, as they belong to differ- 
 ent parts, and indeed, in some measure, to the 
 whole, may be separately particularized. The 
 interest that attaches to the name of the Pro- 
 mised Land, by which we recognise this coun- 
 try in the inspired writings as the country of 
 the chosen people, of their glory, their suffer- 
 ings, and their destruction, after having ceased 
 in a great measure during the period of its bon- 
 dage, revives when we contemplate it as the 
 country of the Crusades, of the enlightened and 
 generous empire of Saladin, of the daring ex- 
 ploits of Richard of England, and as the bril- 
 liant field of glory for the chivalr}'- of France ; 
 but the empire of the Turks has again deprived 
 it of all consideration, and the civilized world 
 has ceased to regard the population of that 
 country in connexion with its former inhabit- 
 ants and its earlier fortunes. 
 
 Paljetyrus, the ancient town of Tyre, on 
 the continent. Strab. 16. 
 
 PalatTnus mons, a celebrated hill, the larg- 
 est of the seven hills on which Rome was built. 
 It was upon it that Romulus laid the first foun- 
 dation of the capital of Italy, in a quadrangular 
 form, and there also he kept his court, as well 
 as Tullus Hostilius, and Augustus, and all the 
 succeeding emperors; from which circumstance 
 the word Palatium, has ever since been applied 
 238 
 
 to the residence of a monarch or prince. The 
 Palatine h ill received its name from the goddess 
 Pales, or from the word Palatini, who original- 
 ly inhabited the place, or from balare or palare^ 
 the bleatings of sheep, which were frequent 
 there, or perhaps from the palantes, wanderings 
 because Evander, when he came to settle in 
 Italy, gathered all the inhabitants, and made 
 them all one society. There were some games 
 celebrated in honour of Augustus, and called 
 Palatine, because kept on the hill. Dio. Cass. 
 53.—Ital. 12, V. 109.— Liv. 1, c. 7 and 33.— 
 Ovid, Met. 14, v. 822.— Juv. 9, v. 23.— Mar- 
 tial, i, ep. 71. — Varro. de L. L. 4, c. 3. — Cic. 
 in Catil. 1. 
 
 Palantium, a town of Arcadia. 
 
 Palibothra, a city of India, supposed now to 
 be Patna, or according to others. Allahabad. 
 Strab. 15. 
 
 Paliscorum, or Palicorum Stagnum, a sul- 
 phureous pool in Sicily. 
 
 PALroRus, now Nahil, a river of Africa, with a 
 town of the same name at its mouth, at the west 
 of Egypt, on the Mediterranean. Strah. 17. 
 
 Pallanteum, a town of Italy, or perhaps 
 more properly a citadel, built by Evander, on 
 mount Palatine, from whence its name origi- 
 nates. Virgil says it was called after Pallas, the 
 grandfather of Evander ; butDionysius derives 
 its nam^ from Palantium, a town of Arcadia. 
 Dionys. 1, c. 31. — Virg. jEn. 8, v. 54 and 341. 
 
 Pallantu, a town of Spain, now Palencia, 
 on the river Cea. Mela, 2, c. 6. 
 
 Pallene, a peninsula of Macedonia, between 
 the Toronaic and the Thermaic gulfs. "It is said 
 to have anciently borne the name of Phlegra, 
 and to have witnessed the conflict between the 
 gods and the earth-born Titans. This peninsula 
 is connected with the main land by a narrow 
 isthmus of little more than two miles in breadth, 
 on which formerly stood the rich and flourish- 
 ing city of Potidgea, founded by the Corinthians, 
 though at what period is not apparent ; it must, 
 however, have existed some time before the 
 Persian war, as we know from Herodotus that 
 it sent troops to Plataea, having already surren- 
 dered to the Persians on their march into 
 Greece." Cram. 
 
 Palmaria, a small island opposite Tarracina, 
 in Latium. Plin. 3, c. 6. 
 
 Palmyra, the capital of a district of country, 
 called from this place the Palmyrene, in Syria, 
 between Arabia Deserta, the Euphrates, and 
 mount Libanus. " From Hamath, or rather from 
 Farnieh, an ancient Roman road leads to Pal- 
 myra, the Tadmor of Solomon, and the resi- 
 dence of the immortal Zenobia and the elegant 
 Longinus. This ancient city is 180 miles to the 
 south-east of Aleppo, and an equal distance 
 from Damascus, in a small district surrounded 
 with deserts. The eye of the traveller is all at 
 once arrested by a vast assemblage of ruins; 
 arches, vaults, temples, and porticos, appear on 
 every hand : one colonnade, 4000 feet long, is 
 terminated by a beautiful mausoleum. Time 
 has partially preserved the peristyles, the in- 
 tercolumnations, and tablatures; the elegance 
 of the design equals throughout the richness of 
 the materials. These magnificent ruins present 
 a sad contrast with the hovels of wild Arabs, 
 now the only inhabitants of a city which in for- 
 mer times emulated Rome. Ever>' spot of ground. 
 
PA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PA 
 
 intervening between the walls and columns is 
 laid out in plantations of corn and olives, enclos- 
 ed by mud walls. There are two rivers, the 
 waters of which, when judiciously distributed, 
 must have conduced greatly to the subsistence 
 and comfort of the ancient inhabitants, but are 
 now allowed to lose themselves in the sand." 
 Malte-Brun. 
 
 Pamisos, I. a river of Thessaly, falling into 
 the Peneus. Herodot. 7, c. 129.—Plin. 4, c. 8. 
 
 II. Another of Messenia in Peloponnesus'. 
 
 Pamphylia, a province of Asia Minor, an- 
 ciently called Mopsopia. It was bounded by 
 Phrygia on the north, by a part of the same 
 country and by Lycia on the west, by the sea 
 upon the south, and by Cilicia on the east. The 
 principal river of this district was the Catarac- 
 tes, and in the northern parts the Taurus moun- 
 tains separated from Pamphylia proper that part 
 of Pisidia which was called Isauria. The parts 
 on the sea-coast were bounded on the north by a 
 district called Pisidia, which is sometimes con- 
 sidered a separate country. It abounded with 
 pastures, vines, and olives, and was peopled by a 
 Grecian colony. Strab. 14. — Mela, 1. — Paus. 
 7, c. 2.—Plin. 5, c. 26.—Liv. 37, c. 23 and 40. 
 Panch^a, Panchea, I. or Pa,nchaia, an isl- 
 and of Arabia Felix, where Jupiter Triphylius 
 
 had a magnificent temple. II. A part of 
 
 Arabia Felix, celebrated for the myrrh, frank- 
 incense, and perfumes which it produced. Virg. 
 G. 2, V. 139, 1. 4, V. S19.—Culex. SI.— Ovid. 
 Met. 1, V. 309.—Diod. b.—lAtcret. 2, v. 417. 
 
 Pandataria, an island on the coast of Lu- 
 cania, now called Santa Maria. 
 
 Pandosia, I. a town of Laconia, on the right 
 bank of the Aciris, near the ruins of Heraclea. 
 " Plutarch, in his life of Pyrrhus, states that the 
 first battle in which that monarch defeated the 
 Romans was fought between Heraclea and 
 Pandosia, and other writers afiirm that the ac- 
 tion took place near the former town. The 
 bronze tables of Heraclea also distinctly men- 
 tion Pandosia as being in its neighbourhood ; a 
 great question, however, has arisen among to- 
 pographers relative to this place, which remains 
 still undecided. Are we to identify this city 
 with the well-known Pandosia, which Strabo 
 and Livy allude to in speaking of Alexander, 
 king of Epirus, who met his death in its vicinity 1 
 We apprehend we ought to decide in the nega- 
 tive. And this is likewise the opinion of Maz- 
 zocchi, Holstenius, and other modern antiqua- 
 ries. Romanelli, however, endeavours to adapt 
 all the citations of ancient writers to one and 
 the same city, which he places at Anglona." 
 
 Cram. II. Another, in the country of the 
 
 Brutii, near Cosentia, well known " in history 
 as having witnessed the defeat and death of 
 Alexander, king of Epirus. Cluverius disco- 
 vered, with his usual penetration, that this 
 Pandosia must have belonged to the Brutii; 
 but he was not aware of the existence of the 
 Lucanian town of the same name, as the Hera- 
 claean Tables, which principally attest that fact, 
 had not yet been discovered. The precise po- 
 sition, however, which ought to be assigned to 
 the Brutian Pandosia, remains yet uncertain. 
 The early Calabrian antiquaries placed it at 
 Castel Franco, about five miles from Cosenza. 
 D'Anville lays it down, in his map of ancient 
 Italy, near Lao and Cirella, on the confines of 
 
 Lucania. Cluverius supposes that it may have 
 stood between Consentia and Thurii ; but more 
 modern critics have, with greater probability, 
 sought its ruins in a more westerly direction, 
 near the village of Mendocino, between Con- 
 sentia and the sea, a hill with three summits 
 having been remarked there, which answers to 
 the fatal height pointed out by the oracle, 
 
 together with the rivulet Mwresanto, or Ar- 
 conti." Cram. 
 
 Pang^eus, a mountain of Thrace, anciently 
 called Mons Caraminus, and joined to mount 
 Rhodope near the sources of the river Nestus. 
 It was inhabited by four different nations. It 
 was on this mountain that Lycurgus,the Thra- 
 cian king, was torn to pieces, and that Orpheus 
 called the attention of the wild beasts, and of 
 the mountains and woods, to listen to his song. 
 It abounded in gold and silver mines. Herodot. 
 5, c. 16, &c. 1. 7, c. 113.— Fir^. G. 4, v. 462. 
 — Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 739. — Thucyd. 2. — Lucan. 
 1, V. 679, 1. 7, V. 482. 
 
 PANiONnjM, a place at the foot of mount My- 
 cale, near the toAvn of Ephesus in Asia Minor, 
 sacred to Neptune of Helice. It was in this 
 place that all the states of Ionia assembled, 
 either to consult for their own safety and pros- 
 perity, or to celebrate festivals, or to ofier a sa- 
 crifice for the good of all the nation ; whence the 
 name ^:avl(^3Vlov, all Ionia. The deputies of the 
 twelve Ionian cities which assembled there were 
 those of Miletus, Myus, Priene, Ephesus, Le- 
 bedos, Colophon, Clazomenae, Phorcsea, Teos, 
 Chios, Samos, and Erythras. If the bull offered 
 in sacrifice bellowed, it was accounted an omen 
 of the highest favour, as the sound was particu- 
 larly acceptable to the god of the sea, as in some 
 manner it resembled the roaring of the waves of 
 the ocean. Herodot. 1, c. 148, &c. — Strab. 14. 
 — Mela, 1, c. 17. 
 
 Panics, or Paneus, a mountain belonging to 
 
 the ridge called Anti-Libanus. 
 
 It gave rise to 
 
 the head-springs of the Jordan ( Firf. Jordanes)^ 
 and on it between these fountains, stood the city 
 of Paneas. " On the partition of the states of 
 Herod among his children, Philip, who had the 
 Trachonitis, gave to the city of Paneas the name 
 of Ccesarea, to which was annexed by distinc- 
 tion the surname of Philippi. It did not, how- 
 ever, prevent the resumption of its primitive de- 
 nomination, pronounced Banias, more purely 
 than Belines, as it is written by the historians 
 of thecrnsades." D^Anville. 
 
 Pannonia, a large country of Europe, bound- 
 ed on the east by the country of the .Tazyiges 
 Metanastae, on the north by the Upper Danube, 
 on the west by Noricum, and by Illyricum on 
 the south, corresponding in modern geography 
 to Hungary west of the Danube, Slavonia, and 
 Croatia. " In the war which Augustus, then 
 called Octavius, waged with the lapydes and 
 the Dalmatians of Illyricum, the Roman arms 
 had penetrated to the Pannonians. But it was 
 reserved for Tiberius, who commanded in these 
 countries, to reduce Pannonia into a province. 
 It was divided in the time ofthe Ant onines into 
 Superior and Inferior ; and the mouth of the 
 river Arrobo, or Raab, in the Danube, formed 
 the separation of it, according to Ptolemy. Af- 
 terwards we find employed the terms first and 
 239 
 
PA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PA 
 
 second, as in the other provinces of the empire ; 
 and in a later age a third, under the name of 
 Valeria, between the former two. This second, 
 occupying the banks of the Drave and Save, ob- 
 tained the name of Savia, which now gives to a 
 canton of this couniry the name of Po-Savia ; 
 expressing, in the Slavonic language, a situa- 
 tion adjacent to the Save. Among the several 
 people which are named in the extent of Pan- 
 nonia, the Scor disci and the Taurisci are par- 
 ticularly noted. Gauls by origin, and far re- 
 moved from their ancient dwelling as the Boii, 
 they were separated by Mons Claudius, which 
 appears to extend between the Drave and the 
 Save." D^Anville. In the latter days of the 
 Empire, Pannonia became successively the pos- 
 session of almost every barbarous nation that 
 now tumultuously thronged within the limits of 
 the Danube, The Goths and Vandals were 
 in turn dislodged, and the Lombards, on their 
 invasion of Italy under Alboin, left to an equal- 
 ly barbarous race, the Hungarians, this coun- 
 try, no longer the subject of imperial protection, 
 or the object of imperial care ; and no nation in 
 Europe at the present day consists of a more 
 heterogeneous population. " Different nations 
 are united in Hungary round the ancient cross 
 of St. Stephen ; the Magiars came thither on 
 their swift horses from the banks of the Wolga ; 
 the Slowak descended from the Carpathian 
 mountains or Norican Alps ; the Germans and 
 Wallachian shepherds advanced along the Da- 
 nube ; all of European origin, although distin- 
 guished by their national and picturesque cos- 
 tumes; all Christians, although differing from 
 each other in their rites and observances." 
 Malte-Brun. The same author elsewhere re- 
 marks, " the MagiarsoY Hungarians form three 
 fourths of the population in the Trans-Danubian 
 circle, and the western frontiers are chiefly in- 
 habited by Germans. The Vandals are most 
 numerous in the counties of Szalad and Szu- 
 meg, some of them are scattered over different 
 parts of Oedenburg and Eisevhurg. Their 
 name has excited attention from the fact that 
 the ancient Vandals, who fled for refuge to 
 Pannonia, continued during forty years citizens 
 of Rome ; they committed afterwards dreadful 
 devastations, but according to the general opi- 
 nion they were of Gothic origin. The Vandals 
 of Hungary call themselves Slovenes, their dia- 
 lect is almost the same as that of other Slavo- 
 nic tribes, they appear to have been a colony of 
 the Windes or Wendes in Styria, and differ at 
 present from them only by their adherence to 
 protestantism." The principal rivers of Pan- 
 nonia, besides the Danube, were the Savus, the 
 Dravus, and the Arrabona; while the Claudius 
 mons and the mons Pannonius constituted ano- 
 ther geographical feature. The chief towns 
 were Carnuntum in the north, and Sirmiumon 
 the Savus in the south. 
 
 P.4nop6lts, the city of Pan, a town of Egypt, 
 called also Chemmis. Pan had there a temple, 
 where he was worshipped with great solemnity, 
 and represented in a statute, fascino longissimo 
 etrerecto. Diod. 5. — Stro.b. 17. 
 
 Panormus, I. now called Palermo, a town of 
 Sicily, built by the Phoenicians, on the north- 
 west part of the island, with a good and capa- 
 cious harbour. It was the strongest hold of the 
 Cartnaginians in Sicily, and it was at last taken 
 ^0 
 
 ■with difficulty by the Romans. Mela, 2, c. 1.— 
 
 Ital. 14, V. 262. II. A town of the Thracian 
 
 Chersonesus. III. A town of Ionia, near 
 
 Ephesus. IV. Another in Crete. V. In 
 
 Macedonia. 
 
 -VI. Achaia. VII. Samos. 
 
 Pantagyas, a small river on the eastern coast 
 of Sicily, which falls into the sea, after running 
 a short space in rough cascades over rugged 
 stones and precipices. Virg. Mn. 3, v. 689. — 
 Ital. 14, V, 232.— Ot;irf. Fast. 4, v. 471. 
 
 Pantanus lacus, the lake of Lesina, is situ- 
 ated in Apulia, at the mouth of the Frento. 
 Plin: 3, c. 12. 
 
 Pantheon, a celebrated temple at Rome, 
 built by Agrippain the reign of Augustus, and 
 dedicated to all the gods, whence the name n-a? 
 Ocos. It was struck with lightning some time 
 after, and partly destroyed. Adrian repaired it, 
 and it still remains at Rome, converted into a 
 Christian temple, the admiration of the curious. 
 Plin. 36, c. 15.—Marcell. 16, c. 10. " The 
 Pantheon is supposed by many antiquaries to be 
 of republican architecture, and of course more 
 ancient than the portico, which, as its inscription 
 imports, was erected by Agrippa about thirty 
 years before the Christian era. But whether 
 the temple was built at the same time, or per- 
 haps one hundred years before its portico, is a 
 matter of little consequence, as it is on the whole 
 the most ancient edifice that now remains in a 
 state of full and almost perfect preservation. 
 The square of the Pantheon, or Piazza della 
 Rotonda, is adorned with a fountain and an ob- 
 elisk, and terminated by the portico of Agrippa. 
 This noble colonnade consists of a double range 
 of Corinthian pillars of red granite. Between 
 the middle columns, which are a little further re- 
 moved from each other than the others, a pas- 
 sage opens to the brazen portals, which, as they 
 unfold, expose to view a circular hall of immense 
 extent, crowned with a lofty dome, and lighted 
 solely from above. It is paved and lined with 
 marble. Its cornice of while marble is support- 
 ed by sixteen columns and as many pilasters of 
 Giallo antico ; in the circumference there are 
 eight niches, and between these niches are eight 
 altars adorned each with two pillars of less size 
 but of the same materials. The niches were 
 anciently occupied by statues of the great deities; 
 the intermediate altars served as pedestals for 
 the inferior powers. The proportions of this 
 temple are admirable for the efl!ect intended to be 
 produced ; its height being equal to its diameter, 
 and its dome not an oval but an exact hemi- 
 sphere. The Pantheon was converted into a 
 church by Pope Boniface IV. about the year 
 609, and has since that period attracted the at- 
 tention and enjoyed the patronage of various 
 pontiflJs." Eustace. 
 
 Panticap^um, now Kerche, a town of Tau- 
 rica Chersonesus, built by the Milesians, and 
 governed some time by its own laws, and after- 
 wards subdued by the kings of Bosphorus. It 
 was, according to Strabo, the capital of the Eu- 
 ropean Bosphorus. Mithridates the great died 
 there. Pliyi. — Strab. 
 
 Panticapes, a river of European Scythia, 
 which falls into the Borysthenes, supposed to be 
 the Samara of the moderns. Herodot. 4, c. 54. 
 Paphlagonia, a country of Asia Minor. It 
 was separated by the Parthenius from Bithynia 
 on the west ; the mountains of Galatia lay upon 
 
PA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PA 
 
 its south ; on the south-east the river Halys form- 
 edits dividing line towards Pontus ; and the wa- 
 ters of the Euxine washed it on the north and 
 north-east, from the mouth of the Parthenius to 
 that of the Halys. " Till the time of the Trojan 
 war this countrj'- was occupied by the Heneti, 
 who are pretended to have afterwards passed in- 
 to Italy, in confounding their name with that of 
 the Ve-neti. There is an ambiguity concerning 
 the limits of Paphlagonia and Galatia. Gangra 
 was the metropolis of the former province under 
 the lower empire ; yet the local position of this 
 city, and the circumstance of its having been 
 the residence of a Galatian prince, as king De- 
 jotarus, seem to favour the claim of Galatia 
 during the ages of antiquity." D^Anville. 
 
 Paphos, a famous city of the island of Cy- 
 prus, founded, as some suppose, about 1184 years 
 before Christ, by Agapenor, at the head of a co- 
 lony from Arcadia. The goddess of beauty was 
 particularly worshipped there, and all male ani- 
 mals were offered on her altars, which, though 
 100 in nmnber, daily smoked with the profusion 
 of Arabian frankincense. The inhabitants were 
 very effeminate and lascivious, and the young 
 virgins were permitted by the laws of the place, 
 to get a dowry by prostitution. Strab. 8, &c. — 
 Plin. 2, c. 96.— Mda, 2, c. 1.— Homer. Od. 8. 
 
 — Virg. JEn. 1, v. 419, &c. 1. 10, v. 51, &c.— 
 Horat. 1, od. 30, v. 1.— Tacit. A. 3, c. 62, H. 2, 
 c. 2. " There were two cities of the name of 
 Paphos : the more ancient, which had received 
 Venus when issuing from the foam of the sea ; 
 and anew one which has prevailed, preserving 
 its name under the form of Bafo, or Bafa." 
 D'Anville. 
 
 Paradisus, a town of Syria or Phoenicia. 
 
 Plin. 5, c. 23. — Strd). 16. In the plains of 
 
 Jericho there was a large palace, with a gar- 
 den beautifully planted with trees, and called 
 Balsami Paradisus. 
 
 PAR.ETACiE, or Taceni, a people between 
 Media and Persia, where Antigonus was de- 
 feated bv Eumenes. C. Nep. in Eum. 8. — Strab. 
 11 and \&.-Plin 6, c. 26. 
 
 PAR.aBTONiuM, a town of Egypt, at the west of 
 Alexandria, where Isis was worshipped. The 
 word ParcEtonius is used to signify Egy^tmn, 
 and is sometimes applied to Alexandria, which 
 was situate in the neighbourhood. Strab. 17. 
 —Flor. 4, c. U.—Iyucan. 3, v. 295, 1. 10, v. 9. 
 
 — Ovid. Met. 9, v. 712. A. 2, el. 13, v. 7. 
 Parish, a people of Gaul. In the distribu- 
 tion of this country, according to the Commen- 
 taries, the Parisii belong to Celtica and Belgica, 
 their possessions occupying either bank of the 
 Seine. Their capital was Lutetia, called from 
 them Parisiorum, the city of Paris. Vid. Lmte- 
 tia. CcES. Bell. G. 6, c. 3. 
 
 Parsius, a river of Pannonia, falling into the 
 Danube. Strai. 
 
 Paritjm, now Camanar, a town of Asia Mi- 
 nor, on the Propontis, where Archilochus was 
 born, as some say. Strab. 10. — Plin. 7, c. 2, 1. 
 36, c. 5. 
 
 Parma, a toMm of Gallia Cisalpina, belong- 
 ing in the early ages to the Boii. It stood on the 
 Via ^raylia, by a little river of the same name, 
 and which, like itself, has retained its old appel- 
 lation. This town was of great antiquity, being 
 founded by the Gauls, or perhaps, even before 
 their invasion, by the Tuscans. In the civil 
 
 Part I.— 2 H 
 
 wars Parma espoused the cause of Antony, 
 and suffered greatly on the final success of his 
 worthless competitor. The poet Cassius and 
 the critic Macrobius were born there. It was 
 made a Roman colony A. U. C. 569. Cic. 
 Philip. 14. — Liv. 39, c. 55. 
 
 Parnassus, a mountain of PhocLs, anciently 
 called Lamossos, from the boat of Deucalion 
 {Xaova^) which was carried there in the univer- 
 sal deluge. It received the name of Parnassus 
 from Parnassus the son of Neptune, by Cleobu- 
 la, and was sacred to the Muses, and to Apollo 
 and Bacchus. The soil was barren, but the val- 
 leys and the greenwoods that cover its sides, 
 rendered it agreeable, and fit for solitude and 
 meditation. " Above Delphi rises this moun- 
 tain, which extends from the country of the Lo- 
 cri Ozolce to the extremity of Phocis, in a north- 
 easterly direction, where it joins the chain of 
 QEta. Towards the south-east it is connected 
 with those of Helicon and the other Boeotian 
 ridges. Parnassus is the highest mountain of 
 central Greece, and retains its snows for the 
 greater part of the year ; hence the epithets so 
 universally applied to it by the poets. The 
 name of Parnassus does not occur in the Iliad, 
 but it is frequently mentioned in the Odyssey, 
 where Ulysses recounts his adventure in himt- 
 ing a bore with Autolycus, and his sons. Its 
 summit was especially sacred to Bacchus. Two 
 lofty rocks rise perpendicularly from Delphi, 
 and obtained for the mountain the* epithet of 
 SiKopwpoc, or the two-headed. The celebrated 
 Castalian fount pours down the cleft or chasm 
 between these two summits, being fed by the 
 perpetual snows of Parnassus." Cram. 
 
 Parnes, (etis,) " now Nozea, the highest 
 mountain of Attica, rises on the northern fron- 
 tier of that province, being connected with Pen- 
 telicus to the south, and towards Bcpotia with 
 Cithasron. ' It is intermingled,' says Dodwell, 
 ' with a multiplicity of glens, crags, and well 
 wooded rocks and precipices, and richly diver- 
 sified with scenery^, which is at once grand and 
 picturesque ; its summit commands a view over 
 a vast extent of country.' Pausanias says that 
 on mount Parnes there was a statue of Jupiter 
 Parnethius, and an altar of Jupiter Semaleus. 
 It abounded with wild boars and bears." Cram. 
 
 Paropamisus, a ridge of mountains at the 
 north of India, called the Stonv Girdle, or In- 
 dian Caucasus. Strab. 15. This extensive 
 chain belonged, for a great part of its course, to 
 Aria, which it separated from Bactriana, and, 
 running east into Scjthia, covered all the north 
 of India, as far as the sources of the river from 
 which that countn,'- takes its name. This will 
 make it correspond to the Hindoo Coosh moun- 
 tains of Afghanistan, on the northern borders 
 of Cabul, from which the Himalah mountains 
 diverge towards the south; the Indus making 
 its ways through the defiles which separate these 
 lofty chains. 
 
 Paroreia, I. a toAvn of Thrace, near mount 
 
 Haeraus. Liv. 39, c. 27. II. A town of 
 
 Peloponnesus. III. A district of Phr)^gia 
 
 Magna. Strab. 12. 
 
 Paros, a celebrated island among the Cy- 
 clades, about seven and a half miles distant 
 from Naxos, and twenty-eight from Delos. Ac- 
 cording to Pliny, it is half as large as Naxos, 
 that is, about ihirty-six or thirty-seven miles m 
 241 
 
PA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PA 
 
 circumference, a measure which some of the 
 moderns have extended to fifty and even eighty- 
 miles. It has borne the different names of Pac- 
 tia, Minoa, Hiria, Demetrias, Zacynthus, Ca- 
 barnis, and Hyleassa. It received the name of 
 Paros, which it still bears, from Paros, a son 
 of Jason, or, as some maintain, of Parrhasius. 
 The island of Paros was rich and powerful, and 
 well known for its famous marble, which was 
 always used by the best statuaries. The best 
 quarries were those of Marpesus, a mountain 
 where still caverns, of the most extraordinary 
 depth, are seen by modern travellers, and admir- 
 ed as the source from whence the labyrinth of 
 Egypt and the porticos of Greece received their 
 splendour. According to Pliny, the quarries 
 were so uncommonly deep, that, in the clearest 
 weather, the workmen were obliged to use lamps ; 
 from which circumstance the Greeks have called 
 the marble Ln/chnites, worked by the light of 
 lamps. Paros is also famous for the fine cattle 
 which it produces, and for its partridges and 
 wild pigeons. The capital city was called Pa- 
 roa. It was first peopled by the Phoenicians, 
 and afterwards a colony of Cretans settled in it. 
 The Athenians made war against it, because 
 it had assisted the Persians in the invasion of 
 Greece, and took it, and it became a Roman 
 province in the age of Pompey. Archilochus 
 was born there. The Parian marbles, perhaps 
 better known by the appellation of Arundelian^ 
 were engraved in this island in capital letters, 
 B. C. 264, and, as a valuable chronicle, preserv- 
 ed the most celebrated epochas of Greece from 
 the year 1582 B. C. These valuable pieces of 
 antiquity were procured originally by M. de Pei- 
 risc, a Frenchman, and afterwards purchased by 
 the earl of Arundel, by whom they were given 
 to the university of Oxford, where they are still 
 to be seen. Prideaux published an account of all 
 the inscriptions in 1676. Mela^ 2, c. 7. — Strab. 
 b.—C. JVep. in Milt. & Alc.— Virg. ^n. 1, v. 
 593. G. 3, V. 3i.— Ovid. Met. 3, v. 419, 1. 7, v. 
 466.— PZm. 3, c. 14, 1. 36, c. 11.— Diod. 5, and 
 Thucyd. 1. — Herodot. 5, &c. — Horat. 1, od. 19, 
 v. 6. 
 
 Parrhasii. " The Parrhasii were an Arca- 
 dian people, apparently on the Laconian fron- 
 tier ; but the extent and position of their terri- 
 tory is not precisely determined. Thucydides 
 says their district was under the subjection of 
 Mantinea, and near Sciritis of Laconia. But 
 Pausanias seems rather to assign to the Parrha- 
 si a more western situation ; for he names as 
 their towns, Lycosura, Thocnia, Trapezus, Aca- 
 cesium, Macaria, and Dasea, all which were 
 to the west and north-west of Megalopolis." 
 Cram. 
 
 Parthenius, I. a river of Paphlagonia, which, 
 after separating Bithynia, falls into the Euxine 
 Sea near Sesamum ; it received its name either 
 because the virgin Diana {napQcvoi) bathed her- 
 self there, or perhaps it received it from the pu- 
 rity and mildness of its waters. Herodot. 2, c. 
 
 104. — Plin. 6, c. 2. II. A mountain which 
 
 formed the boundary between the territories of 
 Argolis and Arcadia. Upon this mountain it 
 was that Philippides, the Athenian courier, was 
 said to have been met by the god Pan, while 
 on his way to solicit the aid of Sparta against 
 
 the Persians. TIL A river of European 
 
 Sarmatia. Ovid, ex Pont. 4, el. 10, v. 49. 
 242 
 
 Parthenon, a temple of Athens, sacred to 
 Minerva. Vid. Athence. 
 Parthenope. Vid. JYeapolis. 
 Parthia, a country of Asia, bounded on the 
 east by Margiana, on the north by the country 
 of the Derbicae, west by Hyrcania, and south 
 by Aria. This was the proper country of the 
 Parthi, while subjects of ihe Persian kings ; 
 nor was it till about the year of Rome 504 that 
 they established an independent empire, destin- 
 ed to make head against the Romans themselves, 
 oppressors of the world. Under Arsaces this 
 new state commenced, that leader rejecting the 
 claim of the Syrian king, and establishing the 
 independence of this, then inconsiderable pro- 
 vince. The ninth in succession from Arsa ces 
 engaged in war with the Romans, and had the 
 honour of capturing the Roman standards,which 
 the ambition of Rome and of Crassus had car- 
 ried in the hope of planting them among these 
 independent tribes. Nor did the usurping em- 
 pire of Europe ever succeed in reducmg this 
 people, whose government existed from the pe- 
 riod mentioned above, till the year of our era 
 224, when it was destroyed by the Persians, and 
 Parthia became again a province of the Persian 
 monarchy. In the greatest stretch of tlieir em- 
 pire, the Parthi possessed an extensive territo- 
 ry, to which they never imparted their name; 
 and the greatest surface of country which bore 
 the appellation of Parthia, may perhaps be de- 
 scribed within the following boundaries: Aria 
 on the east, Hyrcania on the north, the country 
 of the Median Parsetaceni on the west, and the 
 Carmanian deserts on the south. Some sup- 
 pose that the present capital of the country is 
 built on the ruins of Hecatompylos. Accord- 
 ing to some authors, the Parthians were Scy- 
 thians by origin, who made an invasion on the 
 more southern provinces of Asia, and at last 
 fixed their residence near Hyrcania. The Par- 
 thians were naturally strong and warlike, and 
 were esteemed the most expert horsemen and 
 archers in the world. The peculiar custom of 
 discharging their arrows while they were retir- 
 ing full speed, has been greatly celebrated by the 
 ancients, particularly by the poets, who all ob- 
 serve that their flight was more formidable than 
 their attacks. This manner of fighting, and 
 the wonderful address and dexterity with wnich 
 it was performed, gained them many victories. 
 The following extract from Malte-Brun con- 
 tains the opinion of that learned writer in re- 
 gard to the origin of the Parthi. " The Par- 
 thians. who, two centuries after the death of 
 Alexander, re-established in great glory the in- 
 dependence of Persia, were Scythians or Sacae, 
 according to some authors of middling autho- 
 rity. Herodotus and other writers of greater 
 weight, mention them simply as inhabitants of 
 a province of eastern Persia. Nothing in their 
 habits nor in the names of their kings gives any 
 indication of a Scythian origin. In short, we 
 may consider it as clear, that up to the great re- 
 volution effected by the Arabians, and the Ma- 
 hometan religion, Iran, or Persia, has, in gene- 
 ral, been peopled by the same indigenous race, 
 divided into different nations, and speaking the 
 same language, though with differences of dia- 
 lect." Strab. 2, c. 6, &c.—Cnrt. 6, c. 11.— 
 Plor. 3, c. 5.— Virg. G. 3, v. 31, &c. ^n. 7, 
 V. 606.— Ovid. art. am. 1, &c. Fast. 5, v. 580, 
 
PA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PE 
 
 ^Dio. Cass. AO.—Ptol. 6, c. b.—Plin. 6, c. 25. 
 — Polyb. 5, &c. — Marcellin. — Herodian. 3, &c. 
 —Lucan. 1, v. 230, 1. 6, v. 50, 1. 10, v. 53.— 
 Justin. 41, c. 1. — Horat. 1, od. 19, v. 11, 1. 2, od. 
 13, V. 17. 
 
 Parthini, a people of Illyricum. Liv. 29, c. 
 12, 1. 33, c. 34, 1. 44, c. 2Q.—Suet. Aug. 19.— 
 Cic. in Pis. 40 
 
 Parthyene, a province of Parthia, according 
 to Ptolemy, though some authors support that 
 it is the name of Parthia itself. 
 
 Pargadres, now lldiz Dagi, a part of the 
 mountain range that separates the territories of 
 Pontus and Cappadocia. 
 
 Pasargada, a town of Persia, near Carma- 
 nia, founded by Cyrus on the very spot where 
 he had conquered Astyages. The kings of Per- 
 sia were always crowned there, and the Pasar- 
 gadfe were the noblest families of Persia, in the 
 number of which were the Achaemenides. 
 " Cyrus had there his tomb ; and a city which 
 preserves the name of Pasa, or Fasa, with the 
 surname of Kuri, according to the Persians, 
 shows us the position of Pasargades, or Pasa- 
 gardes ; for the name is also thus written : and 
 the modern termination of Gherd^ to the names 
 of many places in Persia, may authorize this 
 diversity." D'Anville.—Strab. 15.—Plin. 8, 
 c. 26.—Herodot. 1, c. 125.— Mela, 3, c. 8, 
 
 Passaron, a town of Epirus, where, after 
 sacrificing to Jupiter, the kings swore to govern 
 according to law, and the people to obey and 
 to defend the country. Plut. in Pyrrh. — Liv. 
 45, c. 26 and 33. 
 
 Patala, a harbour at the mouth of the In- 
 dus, in an' island called Patale. The river here 
 begins to form a Delta like the Nile. Pliny 
 places this island within the torrid zone. Plin. 
 2, c. 73. — Curt. 9, c. 7. — Strab. 15. — Arrian. 6, 
 c. 17. 
 
 Patara, {orum,) now Patera, a toT^m of Ly- 
 cia, situate on the eastern side of the mouth of 
 the river Xanthus, with a capacious harbour, a 
 temple, and an oracle of Apollo, surnamed Pa- 
 tareus, where was preserved and shown in the 
 age of Pausanias, a brazen cap which had been 
 made by the hands of Vulcan, and presented by 
 the god to Telephus. The god was supposed 
 by some to reside for the six winter months at 
 Patara, and the rest of the year at Delphi. The 
 city was greatly embellished by Ptolemy Phi- 
 ladelphus, who attempted in vain to change its 
 original name into that of his wife Arsinoe. 
 Liv. 37, c. 15. — Strab. 14. — Paus. 9, c. 41. — 
 Horat. 3, od. 14, v. 64:.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 516.— 
 Mela, 1, c. 15, 
 
 Patavium, a city of Italy, at the north of the 
 Po, on the shores of the Adriatic, now called 
 Padua, and once said to be capable of sending 
 20,000 men into the field. Vid. Padua. It 
 is the birth-place of Livy, from which reason 
 some writers have denominditediPatavinity those 
 peculiar expressions and provincial dialect, 
 which they seem to discover in the historian's 
 style, not strictly agreeable to the purity and 
 refined language of the Roman authors who 
 flourished in or near the Augustan age. Mar- 
 tial. 11, ep. 17, V. 8. — Quintil. 1, c. 5, 56, 1. 8, 
 c. n.—Liv. 10, c. 2, 1. 41, c. 21.— Strab. 5.— 
 Mela, 2, c. 4. 
 
 Patmos, an island in the Icarian Sea, south 
 of Samos and Icaria, with a small town of the 
 
 same name, situate at the south of Icaria, and 
 measuring 30 miles in circumference according 
 to Pliny, or only 18 according lo modern tra- 
 vellers. It has a large harbour, near which are 
 some broken columns, the most ancient in that 
 part of Greece. The Romans generally ba- 
 nished their culprits there, and here St. John, 
 an exile, delivered the sublime inspirations of 
 the Apocalypse. It is now called Palmosa. 
 Strab.— Plin. 4, c. 12. 
 
 Patr.e, a town of Achaia, on that part of 
 the Sinus Corinthiacus which lay between 
 Achaia and ^Etolia, outside of the promontories 
 Rhium and Antirrhium. This town, " which 
 still retains its ancient appellation, is said to 
 have been built on the site of three towns, called 
 Aroe, Anthea, and Messatis, which had been 
 founded by the lonians when they were in pos- 
 session of the country. On their expulsion by 
 the Achgeans, the small towns above mentioned 
 fell into the hands of Patreus, an illustrious 
 chief of that people ; who, uniting them into 
 one city, called it by his name. Patras is enu- 
 merated by Herodotus among the twelve towns 
 of Achaia. This was one of the first towns 
 which renewed the federal system after the in- 
 terval occasioned by the Macedonian domina- 
 tion throughout Greece. Its maritime situa- 
 tion, opposite to the coast of ^tolia and Acar- 
 nania, rendered it a very advantageous port for 
 communicating with these countries ; and in 
 the Social War Philip of Macedon frequently 
 landed his troops there in his expeditions into 
 Peloponnesus. The Patraeans sustained such 
 severe losses in the different engagements fought 
 against the Romans during the Achaean war, 
 that the few men who remained in the city de- 
 termined to abandon it, and to reside in the 
 surroimding villages and boroughs. Patrse was 
 however raised to its former flourishing condi- 
 tion after the battle of Aclium by Augustus, 
 who, in addition to its dispersed inhabitants, 
 sent thither a large body of colonists chosen 
 from his veteran soldiers, and granted to the ci- 
 ty, thus restored under his auspices, all the pri- 
 vileges usually conceded by the Romans to their 
 colonies. Strabo affirms, that in his day it was 
 a large and populous town, withagood harbour. 
 Chandler describes Patras ' as a considerable 
 town at a distance from the sea, situated on 
 the side of a hill, which has its summit crowned 
 with a ruinous castle ; a dry flat before it was 
 once the port, which has been choked with mud. 
 It has now, as in the time of Strabo, only an 
 indifferent road for vessels.' According to Sir 
 W. Gell, ' the remains of antiquity are few and 
 insignificant, part of a Doric frieze, and a few 
 small capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian or- 
 ders are foimd in the streets.' At the church 
 of St. Andrea is the well mentioned by Pausa- 
 nias as the oracular fountain of Ceres." Cram. 
 
 Patrocli, a small island on the coast of At- 
 tica. Paus. 4, c. 5. 
 
 Paxos, a small island in the Ionian Sea. 
 The modem name of this island is Po.xo, and 
 another in its immediate vicinity is called Anti- 
 paxo. They lie south-east of Corcyra. 
 
 Pedum, a town of Latium, about ten miles 
 from Rome, conquered by Camillus. The inha- 
 bitants were called Pedani. Liv. 2, c. 39, 1. 8, 
 c. 13 and 14. — Horat. 1, ep. 4, v. 2. 
 
 Peg.e, I. a fountain at the foot of mount Ar- 
 243 
 
PE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PE 
 
 ganthus in Bitliynia, into which Hylas fell. 
 Propert. 1, el. 20, v. 33. II. A place be- 
 longing to Megaris, on that part of the Crissaan 
 gulf which was called the Halcyonian Sea. " It 
 was occupied by the Athenians before the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, and used by them as a naval 
 station, but was afterwards restored to the Me- 
 gareans. Pausanias notices in this place the 
 monument of ^gialeus, son of Adiastus, and 
 a statue of Diana Sospita. The modern site of 
 Psato. not far from Livadostro, in a gulf formed 
 by a projection of Ciihsron, is generally sup- 
 posed to answer to the ancient Paga." Cram. 
 
 Pegasium Stagnum, a lake near Ephesus, 
 which arose from the earth when Pegasus struck 
 it with his foot. 
 
 Pelagonta, one of the divisions of Macedo- 
 nia at the north. " The Pelagones, though not 
 mentioned by Homer as a distinct people, were 
 probably known to him, from his naming Pele- 
 gon, the father of Asteropseus, a Paeonian war- 
 rior. They must at one period have been widely 
 spread over the north of Greece, since a district 
 of upper Thessaly bore the name of Pelagonia 
 Tripoliiis, and it is ingeniously conjectured by 
 Gatterer, in his learned commentary on ancient 
 Thrace, that these were a remnant of the remote 
 expedition of the Teucri and Mysi, the proge- 
 nitors of the Paeonians, who came from Asia 
 Minor, and conquered the whole of the country 
 between the Strymon and Peneus. Frequent 
 allusion is made of Pelagonia by Livy in his ac- 
 count of the wars between the Romans and the 
 kings of Macedon. It was exposed to invasions 
 from the Dardani, who bordered on its northern 
 frontiers ; for which reason the communication 
 between the two countries was carefully guard- 
 ed by the Macedonian monarchs. This pass 
 led over the chain of mount Scardus. A curious 
 account of the modern route is given in Dr. 
 Browne's Travels : ' From Kuprulih in Servia 
 we came by hbar to Pyrlipe, first passing the 
 high mountains of Pyrlipe, in Macedonia, 
 which shine like silver as those of Clissura, and 
 beside Moscovia glass, may contain good mine- 
 rals in their bowels ; the rocks of this mountain 
 are the most craggy that I have seen, and massy 
 stones lie upon stones without any earth about 
 them; and upon a ridge of mountains, many 
 steeples high, stands the strong castle of Ma,rco 
 Callowitz, a man formerly famous in these 
 parts.' From thence the traveller journeyed 
 through a plain country to Monastir or Toll, 
 a well-peopled and pleasantly situated town, 
 which, I conceive, represents the ancient city of 
 Pelagonia, the capital of the fourth division of 
 Roman Macedonia. Although it must from this 
 circumstance have been a considerable place, 
 little else is known beyond the fact of its exist- 
 ence at a late period, as we find it noticed in 
 the Synecdemus of Hierocles and the Byzan- 
 tioe historian Malchus, who speaks of the 
 strength of its citadel." Cram. 
 
 Pelasgi, a people of Greece, supposed to be 
 one of the most ancient in the world. Vid. 
 Gracia. 
 
 Pelasgia, or PELAsoicns, a country of 
 Greece, whose inhabitants are called Pelasgi, 
 or Pelasgiot(s. The name should be more par- 
 ticularly confined to a part of Thessaly, on the 
 south bank of the Peneus and the coast of the 
 ./Es^ean Sea, The maritime borders of this 
 ^44 
 
 part of Thessaly were afterwards called Magtie^ 
 sia, though the sea, or its shore, still retained 
 the name of Pelasgicus Sinus, now ttie gulf oi 
 Volo. Pelasgia is also one of the ancient names 
 of Epirus, as also of Peloponnesus. Vid. Gra- 
 cia. 
 
 Pelasgicum, the most ancient part of the 
 fortifications of the Athenian acropolis. Vid. 
 Athena. 
 
 Pelethronh, an epithet given to the Lapi- 
 thae, because they inhabited the town of Peie- 
 thronium, at the foot of mount Pelion in Thes- 
 saly -, or because one of their number bore the 
 name of Pelethronius. It is to them that man- 
 kind is indebted for the invention of the bit 
 with which they tamed their horses with so 
 much dexterity. Virg. G. 3, v. 115. — Ovid. 
 Met. 12, V. Ab%—Ijiican. 6, v. 387. 
 
 Peligni, a people of Italy, who dwelt near 
 the Sabines and Marsi, and had Corfinium and 
 Sulmo for their chief towns. The most expert 
 magicians were among the Peligni, accordingto 
 Horace. Liv. 8, c. 6 and 29, 1. 9, c. 41. — Ovid. 
 ex Pont. 1, el. 8, v. 42. — Strab. 5. — Horat. 3, 
 od. 19, V. 8. 
 
 Peuon, and Pelios, a mountain of Thessa- 
 lia, " whose principal summit rises behind lolcos 
 and Ormenium, and which forms a chain of 
 some extent, from the south-eastern extremity 
 of the lake Boebeis, where it unites with one of 
 the ramifications of Ossa, to the extreme pro- 
 montory of Magnesia. Homer alludes to this 
 mountain as the ancient abode of the Centaurs, 
 who were ejected by the Lapirhae. It was, 
 however, more especially ihe haunt of Chiron, 
 whose cave, as Dicaearchus relates, occupied the 
 highest point of the mountain. In a fragment 
 of Dicaearchus, which has been preserved to us, 
 we have a detailed description of Pelion, and its 
 botanical productions," which appear to have 
 been very numerous, both as to the forest trees 
 and plants of various kinds. According to the 
 same writer, it gave rise to two rivulets named 
 Crausindon and Brychon; the source of the 
 former was towards its base, while the latter, 
 after passing what he terms the Pelian wood, 
 discharged its waters into the sea. On the most 
 elevated part of the mountain was a temple de- 
 dicated to Jupiter Actseus ; to which a troop of 
 the noblest youths of the city of Demetrias as- 
 cended every year by appointment of the priest; 
 and such was the cold experienced on the sum- 
 mit, that they wore the thickest woollen fleeces 
 to protect themselves from the inclemency of 
 the weather. It is with propriety therefore that 
 Pindar applies to Pelicon the epithet of stormy." 
 Cram. 
 
 Pella, a celebrated town of Macedonia, on 
 the Ludias, not far from the Sinus Thermaicus. 
 which became the capital of the country after 
 the ruin of Edessa. Philip, king of Macedonia, 
 was educated there, and Alexander the Great 
 was born there, whence he is often called Pel- 
 Iceus Juvenis. The tomb of the poet Euripides 
 was in the neighbourhood. The epithet Pel- 
 laus is often applied to Egypt or Alexandria, 
 because the Ptolemies, kings of the country, 
 were of Macedonian origin. Martial. 13, ep. 
 m.—lAican. 5, V. 60, 1. 8, v. 475 and 607, 1. 9, 
 V. 1016 and 1073. 1. 10, v. bb.—Mela, 2, c. 3. - 
 Strah. l.—Liv. 42, c. 41. 
 
 Pellene, I, a town of Achaia, in the Pelo- 
 
PE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PE 
 
 ponnesus, at the west of Sicyon, It was built 
 by the giant Pallas, or, according to others, by 
 Pellen of Argos, son of Phorbas, and was the 
 country of Proteus the sea-god. Strab. 8. — 
 Pans. 7, c. 26.— Lw. 33, c. 14. " Pellene was 
 situated on a lofty and precipitous hill about 
 sixty stadia from the sea. From the nature of 
 its situation the town was divided into two dis- 
 tinct parts. Its name was derived either from 
 the Titan Pallas, or Pellen, an Argive, who was 
 son of Phorbas. It was celebrated for its manu- 
 facture of woollen cloaks, which were given as 
 prizes to the riders at the gymnastic games held 
 
 there in honour of Mercury." Cram. II. 
 
 Another in Laconia, between the Eurotas and 
 the borders of Messenia, north-west of Sparta. 
 It was the residence of " Tyndareus during his 
 exile from Sparta. Polybius states that Pellene 
 was in the district called Tripolis, which Livy 
 places on the confines of Megalopolis. Pellene 
 contained a temple of >Slsculapius, and two 
 fountains named Pellanis and Lancea. The 
 ruins of this town probably correspond with 
 those observed by Sir W. Gell, north of Peribo- 
 lia, and near a beautiful source called Cepkalo- 
 brisso, with the foundations of a temple, and 
 fragments of white marble ; further on, another 
 fount and walls, and a gate in the walls which 
 run up to a citadel rising in terraces." Cram. 
 
 Peloponnesus, a celebrated peninsula, which 
 comprehends the most southern parts of Greece. 
 It received its name from Pelops, who settled 
 there, as the name indicates (tt/hAotto? vtaog, the 
 island of Pelops). It had been called before Ar- 
 gia, Pelasgia, and Argolis, and in its form, it 
 has been observed by the moderns highly to re- 
 semble the leaf of the plane tree. Its present 
 ■ name is Morea, which seems to be derived either 
 from the Greek word fxopea, or the Latin morus, 
 which signifies a mulberry-tree, which is found 
 there in great abundance. " It was bounded on 
 the north by the Ionian Sea, on the west by that 
 of Sicily, to the south and south-east by that of 
 Libya and Crete, and to the north-east by the 
 Myrtoan and the ^g^an. These several seas 
 form in succession five extensive gulfs along its 
 shores ; the Corinthiacus Sinus, which separates 
 the northern coast from ^Etolia, Locris, and 
 Phocis; the Messeniacus, now Gulf of Coron, 
 on the coast of Messenia ; the Laconicus, Gulf 
 of Colokythia, on that of Laconia ; the Argoli- 
 cus. Gulf of Napoli ; and lastly, the Saronicus, 
 a name derived from Saron, which in ancient 
 Greek signified an oak leaf, now called Gulf of 
 Engia. ' The narrow stem from which it ex- 
 pands,' says Pliny, ' is called the isthmus. At 
 this point the iEgaean and Ionian seas, breaking 
 in from opposite quarters, north and east, eat 
 away all its breadth, till a narrow neck of five 
 miles in breadth is all that connects Peloponne- 
 sus with Greece. On one side is the Corin- 
 thian, on the other the Saronic gulf Lecha- 
 um and Cenchrese are situated on opposite ex- 
 tremities of the isthmus, a long and hazardous 
 circumnavigation for ships, the size of which 
 prevents their being carried over-land in wag- 
 ons. For this reason various attempts have been 
 made to cut a canal across the isthmus by king 
 Demetrius, Julius Csesar, Caligula, and Nero, 
 but in every instance without success.' The 
 principal mountains of Peloponnesus are those 
 of Cyllene, Zyria^ and Erymanthus, Olenos, in 
 
 Arcadia, and Taygetus, St. Elias, in Laconia. 
 Its rivers are the Alpheus, now Rouphia, which 
 rises in the south of Arcadia, and after travers- 
 ing that province from south-east to north-west, 
 enters ancient Elis, and discharges itself into 
 the Sicilian Sea ; the Eurotas, now called Ere, 
 which takes its course in the mountains that 
 separate Arcadia from Laconia, and, confining 
 its cdurse within the latter province, falls into 
 the Laconicus Sinus : and the Pamisus, Pirnat- 
 za, a river of Messenia, which rises on the con- 
 fines of Arcadia, and flows into the gulf of Co- 
 ron, the ancient Messeniacus Sinus. The Pe- 
 lopponnesus contains but one small lake, which 
 is that of Stymphalus, Zaracca, in Arcadia. 
 According to the best modern maps, the area of 
 the whole peninsula may be estimated at 7800 
 square mile ; and, in the more flourishing pe- 
 riod of Grecian history, an approximate com- 
 putation of the population of its different states 
 furnishes upwards of a million as the aggregate 
 number of its inhabitants. Peloponnesus was 
 inhabited in the time of Herodotus by seven 
 distinct people, all of whom he regards of dif- 
 ferent origin. These were the Arcadians, 
 Cynurians, Achseans, Dorians, iEtolians, Dry- 
 opes, and Lemnians. The two first only are 
 considered by him as indigenous, the others 
 being known to have migrated from other 
 countries. The Arcadians are universally ac- 
 knowledged by ancient writers to havq^been the 
 oldest nation of the Peloponnese, a fact which 
 is confirmed by the testimony of Herodotus ; 
 but allowing their priority of existence in the 
 peninsula, we have yet to discover the primeval 
 stock from whence they sprang, since they must 
 have migrated thither from some other country, 
 Vid. Grmcia. From the mountainous and 
 secluded nature of their country, they appear to 
 have preserved to the latest period their race un- 
 mixed with the surrounding nations. The Cy- 
 nurians occupied a small tract of country on the 
 borders of Argolis and Laconia, and became, 
 from their situation, a constant object of con- 
 tention to these two states. Herodotus ob- 
 serves, that this really indigenous people was 
 for some time supposed to be of Ionian origin, 
 though, from their long subjection to Argos, 
 they were afterwards considered as Dorians. 
 The Achaeans never quitted the Peloponnese, 
 but often changed their abode, till they finally 
 settled in the province which from them took 
 the name of Achaia. Under the Dorians, who 
 came, as we have already ascertained, from Do- 
 ris, near Parnassus, with the Heraclidae, must 
 be ranged the Corinthians, Argives, Laconians 
 and Messenians, which include the most pow- 
 erful and celebrated states of the peninsula. ' 
 The -fitolians occupied Elis, after having ex- 
 pelled the Epeans, the original inhabitants of 
 the country. The Dryopes, who were an- 
 ciently settled in northern Greece, formed at an 
 uncertain period some few settlements on the 
 coast of Argolis and Laconia. The Lemnians 
 are stated by Herodotus to have occupied the 
 Parorea, better known in Grecian history by 
 the name of Triphylia. These were the Min- 
 yre, who had been expelled from Lemnos by 
 the Tyrrheni Pelasgi, and part of whom colo- 
 nized the island of Thera. To this list of Pe- 
 loponnesian nations we must add the Caucones, 
 who were looked upon bv many as of Pelasgic 
 245 
 
PE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ?E 
 
 origin. Nor is it improbable that we should as- 
 sign to the Leleges a place among these primi- 
 tive tribes of the Peloponnesus, since the Lace- 
 daemonians, according to Pausanias, regarded 
 them as the first possessors of Laconia. Thus 
 it appears that the Peloponnesus, like the rest 
 of Greece, was originally inhabited by various 
 barbarous tribes, under the names of Caucones, 
 Leleges, and Pelasgi, who became gradually 
 blended with the foreign population introduced 
 by successive migrations from the time of Pe- 
 Jops to the invasion of the Dorians and Heracli- 
 dae. From this period these may be said to 
 have totally disappeared, with the exception of 
 the Arcadians, who alone could fairly boast of 
 being the autochthones of the peninsula. In 
 the time of Thucydides the Peloponnesus ap- 
 pears to have been divided into five portions, for, 
 speaking of the Lacedaemonians, the historian 
 ODserves, of the five parts of the Peloponnesus 
 they occupy two, and are also at the head of its 
 whole confederacy. But this division would 
 compel us, as Pausanias justly remarks, to con- 
 sider Elis as part of Arcadia, or Achaia ; where- 
 as, both historically and geographically, it is 
 entitled to a separate place in the description of 
 Greece." Cram. 
 
 Pelopea Mcenia, is applied to the cities of 
 Greece, but more particularly to Mycenae and 
 Argos, where the descendants of Pelops reign- 
 ed. Virg. JEn. 2, v. 193. 
 
 Pelorum, {v. is-dis, v. ias-iados,) now Cape 
 Faro, one of the three great promontories of 
 Sicily, on whose top was erected a tower to di- 
 rect the sailor on his voyage. It lies near the 
 coast of Italy, and received its name from Pelo- 
 rus, the pilot of the ship which carried away 
 Annibal from Italy. This celebrated general, 
 as it is reported, was carried by the tides into 
 the straits of Charybdis, and as Ke was ignorant 
 of the coast, he asked the pilot of the ship the 
 name of the promontory which appeared at a 
 distance. The pilot told him it was one of the 
 capes of Sicily, but Annibal gave no credit to 
 his information, and murdered him on the spot, 
 on the apprehension that he would betray him. 
 into the hands of the Romans. He was, how- 
 ever, soon convinced of his error, and found that 
 the pilot had spoken with great fidelity ; and, 
 therefore, to pay honour to his memory, and to 
 atone for his cruelty, he gave him a magnificent 
 fmieral, and ordered that the promontory should 
 bear his name, and from that time it was called 
 Pelorum. Some suppose that this account is 
 false, and they observe that it bore that name 
 before the age of Annibal. Val. Max. 9, c. 8. 
 —Mela, 2, c. l.—Strab. 5.— Virg. jEn.3, v. 
 411 and 681.— Ovid. Met 5, v. 350, 1. 13, v. 
 727, 1. 15, V. 706. 
 
 Pelt^, a town of Phrygia, south-east of 
 Cotyaeium. According to D'Anville, " Peltae 
 and an adjacent plain may be the same with 
 what is now called Uschak." 
 
 Pelustom, now Tineh, a town of Egypt, 
 situate at the entrance of one of the mouths of 
 the Nile, called from it Pelusian. It is about 
 20 stadia from the sea, and it has received the 
 name of Pelusium from the lakes and marshes 
 (tdtXo?) which are in its neighbourhood. It was 
 the key of Egypt on the side of Phoenicia, as it 
 was impossible to enter the Egyptian territories 
 without passmg by Pelnsium, and on that ac-, 
 246 
 
 I count it was always well fortified and garrison-' 
 ed. It produced lentils, and was celebrated for 
 the linen stuffs made there. It is now in ruins. 
 Pelusium was said " by Ammianus to be the 
 work of Peleus, father of Achilles, commanded 
 by the gods to purge himself in the lake adjoin- 
 ing for the murder of his brother Phocus. Ac- 
 counted the chief door of Egypt towards the 
 land, as Pharos was to those that came by sea ; 
 the metropolis oftlie province of Augustamnica, 
 the birth-place of Ptolemy the geographer, and 
 the episcopal see of St. Isidore, surnamed Pelu- 
 siotes. Out of the ruins hereof, (if not the same 
 under another title,) rose Damiata, memorable 
 for the often sieges laid to it by the Christian 
 armies." Heyl. Cosm. — Mela, 2, c. 9. — Colum. 
 5, c. 10.— >S'i^. //. 3, V. 2b.—Iyucan. 8, v. 466, 1. 9, 
 V. 83, 1. 10, V. b3.—Liv. 44, c. 19, 1. 45, c. 11.— 
 Strab. 11.— Virg. G. 1, c. 228. 
 
 Peneus, I. a river of Thessaly, rising on 
 mount Pindus, and falling into the Thermean 
 gulf, after a wandering course between mount 
 Ossa and Olympus, through the plains of 
 Tempe. It received its name from Peneus, a 
 son of Oceanus and Tethys. The Peneus an- 
 ciently inundated the plains of Thessaly, till an 
 earthquake separated the mountains Ossa and 
 Olympus, and formed the beautiful vale of 
 Tempe, where the waters formerly stagnated. 
 From this circumstance, therefore, it obtained 
 the name of Araxes, ab apauaw scindo. Daphne, 
 the daughter of the Peneus, according to the 
 fables of the mythologists, was changed into a 
 laurel on the banks of this river. This tradi- 
 tion arises from the quantity of laurels which 
 grow near the Peneus. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 452, 
 &LC.— Strab. 9.— Mela, 2, c. ^.— Viig. G. 4, 
 
 V. 317. — Diod. 4. II. Also a small river of 
 
 Elis in Peloponnesus, better known under the 
 name of Araxes. It is now Igliaco, and is, ac- 
 cording to modern travellers, a broad and rapid 
 stream. Cram. — Paus. 6, c. 24. — Strah. QdJidiW. 
 
 Pennin^e Alpes. Vid. Alpes. 
 
 Pentapolis, I. a town of India. II. A 
 
 part of Africa near Gyrene. It received this 
 name on accovint of the Jive cities which it con- 
 tained; Gyrene, Arsinoe, Berenice, Ptolemais 
 
 or Barce, and Apollonia. Plin. 5, c. 5. III. 
 
 Also part of Palestine, containing the five cities 
 of Gaza, Gath, Ascalon, Azotus, and Ekron. 
 
 Pentelicus, a mountain of Attica. " Mount 
 Pentelicus, celebrated in antiquity for the beau- 
 tiful marble which its quarries yielded, still re- 
 tains its name. It surpasses in elevation the 
 chain of Hymettus, with which it is connected. 
 Pausanias reports that a statue of Minerva was 
 placed on its summit. ' Pentelikon,' says Dod- 
 well, ' is separated from the northern foot of 
 Hymettus, which in the narrowest part is about 
 three miles broad. It shoots up into a pointed 
 summit ; but the outline is beautifully varied, 
 and the greater part is either mantled with 
 woods or variegated with shrubs. Several vil- 
 lages, and some monasteries and churches, are 
 seen near its base.' The same traveller gives 
 a very interesting account of the Penfelic quar- 
 ries, which he visited and examined with atten- 
 tion. According to Sir W. Gell, the great 
 quarry is 41 minutes distant from the monaste- 
 ry of Penteli, and affords a most extensive 
 prospect from Cithseron to Sunium." Cram. 
 
 Peparethos, a small island of the .^gean 
 
PE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PE 
 
 Sea, on the coast of Macedonia, about 20 miles 
 in circumference. It abounded in olives, and 
 its wines have always been reckoned excel- 
 lent. They were not, however palatable before 
 they were seven years old, Flin. 4, c. 12. — 
 OrM. Met. 7, v. AIQ.—Liv. 28, c. 5, 1. SI, c. 28. 
 Per.ea, I. a part of Caria. opposite to Rhodes, 
 
 Liv. 32, c. 33. II. " That part of Palestine 
 
 which lies between the river Jordan and the 
 mountains of Arnon, east and west ; and reach- 
 eih from Pella in the north, to Petra, the chief 
 town of Arabia Petraea, in the south. By Pliny 
 it is made to bend more towards Eg}^t Pe- 
 trsea, (says he.) is the furthest part of Judea, 
 neighbouring Arabia and Egypt, interspersed 
 wiih rough and cragg}' mountains, and parted 
 from the rest of the Jews by the river Jordan. 
 So called from the Greek word -epav. in regard 
 to the situation of it on the other side of that 
 river ; and not improperly might be rendered by 
 Trans- Jordana. Blessed with a rich soil, and 
 large fields beset with divers trees, especially of 
 olives, vines, and palms. The habitation in 
 times past of the Midianites, Moabites, Ammo- 
 nites, as also of the two tribes of Gad and 
 Reuben." Heyl. Cosm. 
 Per COPE. Vid. Per cote. 
 Percote, a town on the Hellespont, between 
 Abydos and Lampsacus, near the sea-shore. 
 Artaxerxes gave it to Themistocles, to maintain 
 his wardrobe. It is sometimes called Percope. 
 Herodot. 1, c. 117. — Horn. 
 
 Perga, a town of Pamphylia. Vid. Perge. 
 Liv. 38, c. 57. 
 
 Pergamus, Pergama, (Plur.) the citadel of 
 the city of Troy. The word is often used for 
 Troy. It was situated in the most elevated pan 
 of the town, on the shores of the river Scaman- 
 der. Xerxes mounted to the top of this citadel 
 when he reviewed his troops as he marched to 
 invade Greece. Herodot. 7, c. 13. — Virg. jEn. 
 1, v. 466, &c. 
 
 Pergaisius, now Bergamo, a town of Mysia, 
 on the banks of the Caycus. It was the capital 
 of a celebrated empire called the kingdom of 
 Pergamus, which was founded by Philaeterus. 
 a eunuch, whom Lysimachus, after the battle 
 of Ipsus, had intrusted with the treasures which 
 he had obtained in the war. Philseterus made 
 himself master of the treasures, and of Perga- 
 mus in which they were deposited, B. C. 283, 
 and laid the foundations of an empire, over 
 which he himself presided for 20 years. His 
 successors began to reign in the following order : 
 his nephew Eumenes ascended the throne 263 
 B. C. ; Attains, 241; Eumenes the second, 197; 
 Attains Philadelphus, 159; Attains Philomator, 
 138, who, B. C. 133, left the Roman people 
 heirs to his kingdom, as he had no children. 
 The right of the Romans, however, was dis- 
 puted by an usurper, who claimed the empire 
 as his own, and Aquilius, the Roman general, 
 was obliged to conquer the different cities one 
 by one, and to gain their submission by poison- 
 ing the waters which were conveyed to their 
 houses, till the whole was reduced into the form 
 of a dependant province. The capital of the 
 kingdom of Pergamus was famous for a librarv 
 of 200,000 volumes, which had been collected 
 by the difierent monarchs who had reigned 
 there. This noble collection was afterwards 
 transported to Egypt by Cleopatra, with the per- 
 
 mission of Antony, and it adorned and enriched 
 the Alexandrian library, till it was most fatally 
 destroyed by the Saracens, A. D. 642. Parch- 
 ment was first invented and made use of at Per- 
 gamus, to transcribe books, as Ptolemy king of 
 Eg}^pt had forbidden the exportation of papyrus 
 from his kingdom, in order to prevent Eumenes 
 from making a library as valuable and as choice 
 as that of Alexandria. From this circumstance 
 parchment has been called charta pergamena. 
 Galenus the physician, and Apollodorus the my- 
 thologist, were born there. iEsculapius was the 
 chief deit}^ of the country. Plin. 5 and 15. — 
 hid. 6, c. W.—Strab. 13.— Liv. 29, c. 11, 1. 
 31, c. 46.— PZm. 10, c. 21, 1. 13, c. 11. 
 
 Perga, a town of Pamphylia, where Diana 
 had a magnificent temple, whence her surname 
 of Pergsea. Apollonius the geometrician was 
 born there. Mela, 1, c. 14. — Strab. 14. 
 
 Pergus, a lake of Sicily near Enna, where 
 Proserpine was carried away by Pluto. Ovid. 
 5, V. 386. 
 
 Perinthus, Vid. Heraclea, V. 
 
 Permessus, a river of Boeotia, which received 
 its name from Permessus, the father of Aganip- 
 pe. Vid. Helicon. 
 
 Peroe, a fountain of Boeotia, called after Pe- 
 roe, a daughter of the Asopus. Paus. 9, c. 4. 
 
 Perperene, a place of Phrygia, where, as 
 some suppose, Paris adjudged the prize of beau- 
 ty to Venus. Strab. 5, 
 
 PERRH.EBIA, a part of Thessaly situate on 
 the borders of the Peneus, extending between 
 the town of Atrax and the vale of Tempe. The 
 inhabitants were driven from their possessions 
 by the Lapithse, and retired into iEtolia, where 
 part of the country received the name of Per- 
 rhcebia. Propert. 2, el. 5, v, 33. — Strab. 9. — 
 Liv. 33, c. 34, 1. 39, c. 34. 
 
 Pers£, the inhabitants of Persia. Vid. Per- 
 sia. 
 
 Persepolis, a celebrated city, the capital of 
 the Persian empire. It was laid in ruins by 
 Alexander after the conquest of Darius. The 
 reason of this is unknown. Diodorus says that 
 the sight of about 800 Greeks, whom the Per- 
 sians had shamefully mutilated, so irritated 
 Alexander, that he resolved to punish the bar- 
 barity of the inhabitants of Persepolis, and of 
 the neighbouring country, by pennitting his 
 soldiers to plunder their capital. Others sup- 
 pose that Alexander set it on fire at the instiga- 
 tion of Thais, one of his courtezans, when he 
 had passed the day in drinking, and in riot and 
 debauchery. The ruins of Persepolis, now Es- 
 taker, or Tchel-Minar, still astonish the mo- 
 dem traveller by their grandeur and magnifi- 
 cence. " Thirty miles north-west of )S'AirG2^ and 
 about ten to the east of the town of Mayn, are 
 the famous ruins of Istakhar, or Persepolis, the 
 ancient capital of Persia, in which Alexander 
 triumphed, and in a moment of mad festivity 
 gave way to the suggestions of a spirit of wan- 
 ton destruction of which he almost instantly re- 
 pented. This city was destroyed ultimately by 
 the fanatic Arabs, as is showT) in a memoir by 
 M. Langles, contained in his Collection of 
 Travels. We have no satisfactory means of 
 ascertaining the period at which Persepolis was 
 founded. The iDest are perhaps those suggest- 
 ed by the appearance of the most conspicuous 
 remains found on the spot. Accordingly, Sir 
 247 
 
PE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PE 
 
 Robert Ker Porter, in applying to this subject 
 the exertions of an inquiring mind, aided by- 
 extensive erudition and correct taste, observed 
 that the most remarkable objects contained in it, 
 viz. the S/iehel-minar, of ' Forty Columns,' 
 produced in him the impression, that both as a 
 whole, and in their details, they bore a strong 
 resemblance to the architectural taste of Egypt ; 
 a resemblance sufficiently accounted for by the 
 early hostile intercourse between the two coun- 
 tries and their interchanges of inhabitants by 
 captivity. About forty years before the conquest 
 of Babylon by Cyrus, Nebuchadnezzar overran 
 the whole of Egypt, and returned with the rich 
 spoils of the country and a multitude of cap- 
 tives. Cambyses, king of Persia, the friend and 
 kinsman of the conqueror, was likely to share 
 in the ingenuity and talents of the ingenious 
 among the captives of the former; and when 
 Cyrus afterwards added Babylon to his empire, 
 he would then transfer them to his own coun- 
 try, and employ them in the superb edifices of 
 Persepolis. Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, in his 
 expeditions against Amasis and Psammeticus, 
 kings of Egypt, carried off the richest ornaments 
 of Its edifices to decorate his palaces of Susa and 
 Persepolis, and took along with him Egyptian 
 workmen to place them properly in their new 
 stations. Other princes followed the example, 
 and Persepolis became the most splendid city 
 in the east. The remains of the Shehel-minar 
 continue to bear testimony to this fact. To de- 
 scribe them fully in this place would far exceed 
 our bounds, and we must refer the reader to the 
 account given by the traveller now mentioned, 
 which, in graphic description, ingenious re- 
 search, and irresistible interest, is not exceeded 
 by any writing in existence. From his ample de- 
 tails we can only select a few lines as a specimen. 
 The royal palace of forty pillars, or Skehel-vd- 
 nar^ consists of a number of buildings, forming 
 both a palace of ample magnitude, and a cita- 
 del, or bulwark for the capital, on a situation of 
 a most commanding character. This situation 
 consists of an artificial plain or platform, cut 
 out of a mountain, and having a higher part of 
 the same mountain connected with its eastern 
 side, being on the other three sides at a great 
 elevation in a perpendicular precipice from the 
 plain beneath. On the royal mountain to the 
 east are the ancient sepulchres of the kings, 
 consisting of artificial excavations. The extent, 
 of the faces of the square are 1425 feet in length 
 on the west side, 802 on the south, and 926 on 
 the north ; part of the steep is faced up with 
 gigantic square blocks of dark gray marble, 
 without mortar, but fitted with such precision 
 as to appear part of the solid mountain. The 
 general height seems to have been about fifty 
 feet, though now much lowered by the accumu- 
 lation of ruins beneath. The only road to the 
 summit is by an ascent of steps on the western 
 side, forming a double flight. The steps are 
 broad and shallow, and ten or fourteen of them 
 are cut out of one block of marble. The ascent 
 is so beautiful and easy, that they may be as- 
 cended and descended on horseback with the 
 utmost facility. On ascending the platform, the 
 first objects that meet the eye are the remains of 
 two colossal bulls, of a noble form and attitude, 
 indicated that thev were intended as symbolical 
 representations of power. These are sculptur- 
 248 
 
 ed on the lofty sides of the enormous portal. 
 Other symbolical representations in basso-relievo 
 are found in different places of huge size, and 
 rather strange mixtures of the forms of differ- 
 ent animals. From the great platform, differ- 
 ent others rise, distinguished by ruins, difiering 
 somewhat in their character and the apparent 
 destination of the buildings. On one of these 
 are the striking ruins of the magnificent palace 
 of Forty Pillars. Only a few of the pillars are 
 standing entire, at different places, but the bases 
 and other remains of the rest still exhibit some- 
 thing of the original arrangement. The former 
 capitals and decorations of those which stand, 
 and of many of the fragments, lying on the sur- 
 face of the heap of rubbish, are beautiful and 
 elegant, the taste different from the Grecian, yet 
 correct and commanding in the highest degree, 
 and executed with a delicacy which cannot be 
 excelled ; ' I gazed at them,' says this traveller, 
 ' with wonder and delight. Besides the admi- 
 ration which the general elegance of their form, 
 and the exquisite workmanship of their parts 
 excited, I never was made so sensible of the im- 
 pression of perfect symmetry, comprising also 
 in itself that of perfect beauty.' " Malte-Brun. 
 — Curt. 5, c. 7. — Died. 17, &c, — Arrian. — Plut. 
 in Alex. — Justin. 11, c. 14. 
 
 Persia, a celebrated kingdom of Asia, which 
 in its ancient state extended from the Helles- 
 pont to the Indus, above 2800 miles, and from 
 Pontus to the shores of Arabia, above 2000 miles. 
 As a province, Persia was but small, and, ac- 
 cording to the description of Ptolemy, it w£is 
 bounded on the north by Media, west by Susi- 
 ana, south by the Persian gulf, and east by Car- 
 mania. " The whole of Persia is a highly ele- 
 vated country, as is proved by the great abun- 
 dance of snow. This plateau joins that of Ar- 
 menia and Asia Minor on the west, and becomes 
 confounded with that of central Asia on the 
 east. This is the chain of high lands which the 
 ancients called Taurus, a general term which 
 they applied to any thing gigantic. Taurus 
 divided Asia into two, or rather, according to 
 Strabo, into three parts. The first lies on the 
 north of the mountains. The second is on the 
 top of the Taurus, lying between the different 
 chains of mountains of which it consists, and 
 the third is that which is situated to the south. 
 This mode of division is founded on an accurate 
 observation of the leading differences of climate 
 and of produce. But the ancients knew that 
 the numerous chains of mountains comprehend- 
 ed under the general name of Taurus were ' di- 
 vided by many valleys and elevated plains.' 
 Strab. They also knew that several of the 
 mountains of Persia, after rising abruptly from 
 the middle of the plain, gradually became flat 
 at the summit, and presented an absolute plain. 
 These observations are confirmed by modern 
 travellers. The mountains of Persia, accord- 
 ing to M, Olivier, do not seem to form any con- 
 tinued chain, nor to have any leading direction. 
 But the plateau itself on which this hepp of 
 mountains is reared, must have two declivities, 
 one towards the Euphrates and the Persian 
 Gulf, and the other towards the Caspian Sea. 
 It is on the south side of the basin of the river 
 Kur that we must look for the northern con- 
 tinuation of mount Taurus. The Ararat, and 
 the chain to which it belongs, join the high 
 
PE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PE 
 
 mountains which separate the lake Van from 
 the lake Oormia. I'bese Isist are a part of the 
 Niphates of the ancients. But to the south of 
 the river Ara^es there is a chain of very cold 
 mountains, the south side of which embraces 
 Adjerbidjan, the ancient Atrapatene. These 
 mountains defied the arms of Alexander the 
 Great ; from their sides the Alpons go ofl^ to- 
 wards the east, a belt of high limestone moun- 
 tains which runs parallel to the southern shore 
 of the Caspian Sea. In the ancient Hyrcania,' 
 the sides of these mountains are described as 
 not only steep towards the sea, but projecting 
 ' in such a manner, that the rivers throw them- 
 selves iQto the sea, forming a liquid arch, under 
 which men could pass on dry ground.' Strab. 
 The political revolutions to which this country 
 has constantly been a prey, have most frequent- 
 ly ended in a union of it under one sceptre. In 
 the earliest dawn of history, we find it possess- 
 ed by several independent nations ; the Per- 
 sians in the south, the Arians in the east, and 
 the Medes in the centre; different barbarian 
 hordes — as the Hyrcanians, Parthians, and Ca- 
 dusians, on the north. It is a matter of doubt 
 whether the ancient empires of Nineveh and 
 Babylon ever included ancient Persia, that is, 
 the ancient Fars, with Kerman and Larislan. 
 History hangs in suspense about the truth of 
 the marvellous expeditions of Semiramis ; but 
 we know that every momentary inroad figures 
 as a conquest in the chaos of primitive history. 
 The Medes, however, really subjugated the Per- 
 sians. That people seem to have first carried 
 their arms against the Scythians of Asia, in 
 Tooran or the present Tartary, and against the 
 Indians. Five centuries before the Christian 
 era, Cyrus delivered his nation from the yoke, 
 and gave it the sovereignty over the whole of 
 western Asia. But on entering Europe, the 
 little nation of the Greeks arrested the progress 
 of the numberless armies of Asia. Soon after, 
 united under Alexander, they overthrew the 
 feeble colossus of the Persian power. After his 
 death, when the discord of the victors gave rise 
 to a multitude of separate kingdoms, the war- 
 like tribe of the Parthians, about the year 248 
 before Christ, took possession of the provinces 
 which form the modern Persia. The Greeks 
 still maintained their ground in Bactriana. De- 
 metrius, their king, subjugated and civilized 
 Indostan. Eucratides, the first, reigned over a 
 thousand cities. But the Scythians, or rather 
 the new nations which succeeded to the Scy- 
 thians, uniting with the Parthians, overthrew 
 the Bactrian throne. The Parthians, under 
 their king of the Ashkanian dynasty, the Arsa- 
 cides of the Greek historians, successfully re- 
 sisted the progress of the Roman power. To- 
 wards the year 220 of the Christian era, a pri- 
 vate man in Persia, according to the Greek 
 authorities, wrested the power out of the hands 
 of the Parthians, and founded the dynasty of 
 the Sassanides. But the oriental writers do 
 not consider the modern Persians as distinct 
 from the Parthians ; and, according to them, 
 Artaxerxes, or Ardshir, is descended from the 
 royal blood of the Parthians. Whatever be 
 the fact on this dark point, the Persian empire 
 often struggled against that of Constantinople ; 
 and having a brilliant appearance under the 
 sway of the wise Nooshervan, submitted to the 
 Part L— 2 I 
 
 Arabians, and to the Mahometan religion, about 
 the year 636. Two centuries after this the 
 kingdom of Persia was re-established in Kho- 
 rasan ; and, after several revolutions, recovered 
 its original extent of territory. In the year 934 
 the house of Bouiah ascended the throne, Shi- 
 raz being the seat of government, Persia was 
 included in the conquests of Gengis-Khan in 
 1220, and Tamerlane in 1392, and recovered 
 its freedom again under the Sophis, who ascend- 
 ed the throne in 1506. Shah- Abbas, surnamed 
 the Great, began in 1586 a reign of half a cen- 
 tury, which was brilliant but tyrannical. In 
 1722 Persia was conquered by the Afghans. 
 This event was followed in 1736 by the extinc- 
 tion of the family of the Sophis, and the eleva- 
 tion of Nadir, surnamed Thamas-Khouli-Khan, 
 to the imperial throne. This ferocious, but 
 able and fortunate prince, was a native of Kho- 
 rasan. On the 20th of June 1747 he was kill- 
 ed, after a reign of eleven years, which was 
 chiefly signalized by the rapid conquest of In- 
 dostan. This was the commencement of a pe- 
 riod entirely new, by which the modern geogra- 
 phical division of the country was fixed. The 
 weakness of Nadir-Shah's successors, and the 
 dreadful war which devastated western Persia, 
 gave to the Afghans an opportunity of consoli- 
 dating a new empire, which embraced the whole 
 of eastern Persia, and of which the city of Kau- 
 but is the capital. Western Persia enjoyed 
 some repose under the government of Kerim- 
 Khan, who did not assume the title of Shah, 
 contenting himself with that ofvekil or regent. 
 This good prince had served under Nadir, with 
 whom he was a particular favourite. When 
 the tyrant died he was at Skiraz. He took on 
 him the reins of government, and was support- 
 ed by the inhabitants of that city, who were 
 charmed by his beneficence, and placed unboun- 
 ded confidence in his justice. In return for this 
 attachment, Kerim embellished their city wiih 
 beautiful palaces, mosques, and elegant gar- 
 dens; he repaired the high roads, and built 
 the caravanseras. His reign was not soiled 
 by any act of cruelty. His charity to the poor, 
 and the efforts which he made for the re-esta- 
 blishment of trade, met with universal praise. 
 He died about the year 1779, after a reign of 
 sixteen years. The death of Kerim was fol- 
 lowed by new disturbances and misfortunes, as 
 his brothers attempted to take possession of the 
 sovereignty to the exclusion of his children. 
 At last, in 1784, Ali-Murat, a prince of the 
 blood, obtained peaceful possession of the throne 
 of Persia. In the meantime, a eunuch of the 
 name Aga-Mohammed took independent pos- 
 session of Mazanderan. Ali-Murat, in march- 
 ing against this usurper, was killed by a fall 
 from his horse. His son Jaafar succeeded to 
 the sceptre, but he was defeated by Aga-Mo- 
 hammed at Yezde-Kast, and withdrew to Shi- 
 raz. In 1792, Aga-Mohammed attacked that 
 city, and Jaafar htst his life in an insurrection. 
 The victor defaced the tomb of Kerim, and in- 
 sulted his ashes. The heroic valour of Louthf- 
 Ali, son of Jaafar, was opposed in several des- 
 perate engagements to the fortunes of the eu- 
 nuch, but without success; and the latter be- 
 came final master of the whole of western Per- 
 sia. He named as his successor his own nephew, 
 Baba-Khan J who, since 1796, has reigned peace- 
 249 
 
PE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PE 
 
 ably under the name of Futte-Ali-Shah. This 
 prince has been engaged in several wars against 
 the Russians, and, that he might the more ad- 
 vantageously defend the northern provinces 
 from that power, he established his residence at 
 Tehran. The provinces which in 1810 were 
 subject to him, were Erivan, Adzerbidjan, Ghi- 
 lan, Mazanderan, western Khorazan, Irak-Ad- 
 jemi, Persian Kuordisian^ Farsistan, and Ker- 
 man. The Arabian sheiks on the Persian Gulf 
 were tributary to him, and respectful presents 
 were sent to him by the ooali ox prince of Mek- 
 ran. Malie-Brun. 
 
 Persicum auRE, or Persicus sinus, a part 
 of the Indian ocean, on the coast of Persia and 
 Arabia now called the Gulf of Balgora. 
 
 Persis, a province of Persia, bounded by 
 Media, Carmania, Susiaua, and the Persian 
 gulf It is often taken for Persia itself " Its 
 name in Scripture is Paras, which is nearly the 
 same with that of Fars, according to the mo- 
 dern form, as the permutation in the initial of 
 P to F is frequent in this country, where Ispa- 
 han, for example, is pronounced Isfahan. Elam, 
 son of Shem, is the parent of this nation, ac- 
 cording to the holy text." D'Anville. 
 
 Perusia, now Perugia, a city of Etruria, 
 to the south-east of the Thrasimenelake. " From 
 Justin we collect that Perusia was of Achaean, 
 that is, of Pelasgic origin." Cram. It was 
 " one of the most ancient and most distinguish- 
 ed cities of Etruria ; the era of its foundation 
 long preceded that of Rome, and, like the origin 
 of Clusium, Cortona, &c. is almost lost in dis- 
 tance of time. In conjunction with all the 
 other Etrurian states, it long resistedthe Ro- 
 mans, and when subjected, or rather reconciled 
 to them, it became a faithful and a courageous 
 ally ; it defied the power of Annibal, and flou- 
 rished in peace and opulence till the reign of 
 Augustus •, when unfortunately it engaged in 
 the rebellion of Lucius Antonius, uncle of the 
 Triumvir, and, under his command, shut its 
 gates against Augustus, who took it, and, as it is 
 reported, wished to spare it; but one of its prin- 
 cipal citizens setting fire to his own house,which 
 he intended as a funeral pile for himself and 
 his family, the flames communicated to the 
 neighbouring buildings, and, spreading rapidly 
 around, reduced the city to ashes. Perugia, 
 however, rose immediately from its ruins ; and 
 on its restoration, by a strange inconsistency, 
 chose for its patron Vulcan, a divinity to whom 
 it seems to have had very few obligations, as 
 the god had spared his own temple only in the 
 general conflagration. In the Gothic war it 
 displayed much spirit, and stood a siege of seven 
 years against these barbarians. It afterwards, 
 with the whole Roman state, submitted to the 
 Pope, and with some intervals of turbulent in- 
 dependence has remained ever since attached to 
 the Roman See. Perugia is now a large, clean, 
 well-built, and well-inhabited city. Seated on 
 the summit of a mountain, it commands from 
 its ramparts, and particularly from its citadel, 
 an extensive view over a vast range of country, 
 fertile, varied with hill and dale, and enlivened 
 with villages and towns. There are many 
 churches, convents, and palaces in this city, 
 most of which were adorned with the paintings 
 of Pietro Perugino, the master of Raffaello. 
 Perugia has an university supplied with able , 
 250 ' 
 
 professors, and several academies, all of which 
 can boast of illustrious names ; and it is upon 
 the whole an interesting city, capable of enter- 
 taining the curious and inquisitive traveller for 
 several days." Eustace. 
 
 Pessinus {untis), a town of Phrygia, where 
 Atys, as some suppose, was buried. " It ap- 
 pears to have been the Sango/r, in the country 
 occupied by the Tolistoboians^'' (D'Anville,) 
 and was particularly famous for a temple and 
 a statue of the goddess Cybele, who was from 
 thence called Pessinuntia. StraJ). 12. — Paus. 
 7, c. \1.—Liv. 29, c. 10 and 11. 
 
 Petelinus lacus, a lake near one of the 
 gates of Rome, Liv. 6, c. 20. 
 
 Petilia, a town in the Brutian territory, 
 one of the settlements of Philoctetes, " which, 
 in the opinion of the most judicious and best 
 informed topographers, occupiied the situation 
 of the modern Strongoli. This small town, of 
 whose earlier history we have no particulars, 
 gave a striking proof of its fidelity to the Ro- 
 mans in the second Punic war, when it refused 
 to follow the example of the other Brutian cities 
 in joining the Carthaginians, In consequence 
 of this resolution it was besieged by Hannibal, 
 and, though imassisted by the Romans, it held 
 out until reduced to the last extremity by fa- 
 mine ; nor was it till all the leather in the town, 
 and the grass in the streets, had been consumed 
 for subsistence, that they at length surrendered. 
 Ptolemy incorrectly classes it with the inland 
 towns of Magna Grsecia. It may be here ob- 
 served, that Strabo has confounded this town 
 with the Lucanian Petilia," although he " is the 
 only author who seems to have given any hint 
 of the existence of such a place. Strabo, in his 
 general description of the inland towns of the 
 Lucani, remarks, that the chief towTi of this 
 people was Petelia, which could at that time 
 boast of a considerable population ; he adds, that 
 it was built by Philoctetes, who had been forced 
 by an adverse faction to quit Thessaly, his na- 
 tive country; and that on account of the strength 
 of its position, the Samnites had been obliged to 
 construct forts around it for the defence of their 
 territory. It is observed by Antonini, the writer 
 above alluded to, that Strabo here contradicts 
 himself, by ascribing to Philoctetes the origin 
 of a town of Lucania ; whilst that hero is said 
 in a few lines further on, to have occupied a part 
 of the coast near Crotona, which was certainly 
 in the territory of the Brutii. It will be seen, 
 in fact, that all the ancient authors agree in the 
 maritime situation of the colonies founded by 
 the Grecian chieftain. This error of Strabo 
 does not, however, affect the truth of his ac- 
 count with reference to to the Lucanian Petilia; 
 and Antonini has adduced, in confirmation of 
 the authority of that writer, so many inscrip- 
 tions of early date, together with more recent 
 documents, that it seems impossible to entertain 
 further doubts on the subject. He has recog- 
 nised the ruins of this ancient town precisely 
 on the Monte della Stella.'" Cram. 
 Petra, I. the capital town of Arabia Petraea. 
 
 St,rai. 16. II. a town of Sicily, near Hybla, 
 
 Avhose inhabitants are called Petrini and Pe- 
 
 trenses. III. A town of Thrace. Liv. 40, 
 
 c. 22. IV. Another of Pieria in Macedonia. 
 
 Liv. 39, c. 26.— ac. in Verr. 1, c. 39. V. 
 
 An elevated place near Dyrrhachium. Lucan. 
 
PE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PH 
 
 6, V. 16 and 70.— C^5. Civ. 3, c. 42. VI. 
 
 Another in Elis. VII.Another near Corinth. 
 
 PETRiEA, one of the divisions of Arabia, 
 bounded on the north by Palestine, on the east 
 by Arabia Deserta and part of the Sinus Per- 
 sicus, on the south by a long ridge of mountains, 
 which separate it from Arabia Felix, on the 
 west by the isthmus which joins Africa to Asia, 
 and part of the Red Sea. " It had this name 
 from the rockiness of the soil hereof, or more 
 properly from Petra, the chief city of it, called 
 also by Ethicus, Sicaria, by the Hebrews Chus, 
 generally translated Ethiopia ; by William of 
 Tyre, Arabia Secunda, Felix being reckoned 
 for the first. By Strabo, Ptolemy, and Plmy, 
 it is called Nabathaea, which name it had from 
 Nabaioth, the eldest of the twelve sons of Is- 
 mael, though properly that name belonged only 
 to those parts of it that lay next Judea. The 
 people, for the most part were descended of the 
 sons of Chus and Ismael, intermixed with the 
 Midianites descended from Abraham by Ketu- 
 rah, and the Amalekites, descended probably 
 from Amalek, the grandson of Esau, but all 
 united at last in the name of Saracens. This 
 name, derived, as some think from Sarra, sig- 
 nifying ' a desert,' and Saken, which signifieth 
 * to inhabit,' because they live for the most part 
 in these desert places ; as others say, from Sa- 
 rak, signifying ' a robber.' This last is most 
 suitable to their nature, and best liked by Sca- 
 liger." Hey I. Cosm. 
 
 Petrinum, a town of Campania, Horat. 1, 
 ep. 5, V. 5. 
 
 PETROCORn, a people of Celtic Gaul, ac- 
 cording to- the divisions of that country as re- 
 corded by Caesar. At a later period their ter- 
 ritory formed part of Aquitania Secunda, 
 " From the appellation of Petrocorii are formed 
 the names of Peris;ord and Perigueux, though 
 Vesuna, the primitive name of the capital, is 
 still retained in the quarter of the city called la 
 Visone." D^Anville, 
 
 Peuce, an island between the arms which 
 form the mouth of the Danube, and whose mo- 
 dern name, Piczini, preserves an evident ana- 
 logy to that of the Peucini, whom it is remark- 
 able to find re-appear in the Lower Empire un- 
 der the names of Picziniges and Patzinacites." 
 D'Anville. — Strab. 7. — iMcan. 3, v, 202. — 
 Plin. 4, c. 12. 
 
 Peucetia, a part of Apulia, forming the ter- 
 ritory of " the Peucetii, who, if the opinion of 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus is to be adopted, de- 
 rived their name from Peucetius, son of Lycaon, 
 king of Arcadia, who, with his brother "(Eno- 
 trus migrated to Italy seventeen generations be- 
 fore the siege of Troy. But modern critics have 
 felt little disposed to give credit to a story, the 
 improbability of which is so very apparent, whe- 
 ther we look to the country from whence these 
 pretended settlers are said to have come, or the 
 state of navigation at so remote a period. Had 
 the Peucetii and (Enotri really been of Grecian 
 origin, Dionysius might have adduced better 
 evidence of the fact than the genealogies of the 
 Arcadian chiefs, cited from Pherecydes. The 
 most respectable authority he could havebrought 
 forward on this point would unquestionably 
 have been that of Antiochus the Syracusan ; 
 but this historian is only quoted by him in proof 
 of the Eintiquity of the CEnotrij not of their 
 
 Grecian descent. The Peucetii are always 
 spoken of in history, even by the Greeks them- 
 selves, as barbarians, who differed in no essen- 
 tial respect from Daunii, lapyges, and other 
 neighbouring nations. The name of Poediculi 
 was given to the inhabitants of that portion of 
 Peucetia which was more particularly situated 
 on the coast between the Aufidus and the con- 
 fines of the Calabri. It is stated by Pliny, that 
 this particular tribe derived their origin from 
 lUyria. The Peucetii appear then to have ex- 
 tended along the cosist of the Adriatic, from the 
 Aufidus to the neighbourhood of Brundusium, 
 which belonged to lapygia; and in the inte- 
 rior, their territory reached as far as Silvium in 
 the Appenines, constituting principally what in 
 modern geography is called Terra di Bari." 
 Cram. 
 
 Peucini. Vid. Peuce. 
 
 Phacusa, a town of Egypt, on the eastern 
 mouth of the Nile. 
 
 PH.aEACiA, an island of the Ionian Sea, near 
 the coast of Epirus, anciently called Scheria, 
 and afterwards Corcyra. The iahabitants, call- 
 ed Phceaces, were a luxurious and dissolute 
 people, for which reason a glutton was generally 
 stigmatized by the epithet of Phaax. When 
 Ulysses was shipwrecked on the coast of Phas- 
 acia, Alcinous was then king of the island, 
 whose gardens have been greatly celebrated. 
 Horat. 1, ep. 15, v. "HA.— Ovid. Met. 1^, v. 719. 
 —StroJ). 6 and l.—Propert. 3, el. 2, v. 13. 
 
 Phalacrine, a village of the Sabines, where 
 Vespasian was born. Sv£t. Vesp. 2. 
 
 Phalarium, a citadel of Syracuse, where 
 Phalaris's bull was placed. 
 
 Phalarus, a river of Boeotia;, falling into the 
 Cephisus. Paus. 9, c. 34. 
 
 Phalerum, the most ancient of the Athe- 
 nian ports. Vid. Athence. 
 
 Phan^us, a promontory of the island of Chi- 
 os, famous for its wines. It was called after a 
 king of the same name, who reigned there, 
 Liv. 36, c, A3.— Virg. G. 2, v, 98, 
 
 PHARiE, I. "one of the twelve cities of 
 Achaia, was situated on the bank of the river 
 Pirus, about 70 stadia from the sea, and 120 
 from Patras, Pharae, whose territory was ex- 
 posed during the Social war to the frequent ra- 
 vages of the ^tolians, on receiving no succour 
 from the Achaean prsetor, determined, as we 
 learn from Polybius, no longer to furnish sup- 
 plies for the service of the confederation. This 
 city, which was afterwards annexed by Augus- 
 tus to the colony of Patrae, possessed an exten- 
 sive forum, where was placed an image of Mer- 
 cury, and near it an oracle of the god ; also a 
 fountain named Hama, consecrated to the same 
 divinity. On the banks of the Pirus, called Pie- 
 rus by the Pharseans and sometimes Achelous, 
 Pausanias observed a number of plane trees re- 
 markable from their age and size, many of their 
 trunks were hollow, and so capacious that per- 
 sons might feast and recline within them. The 
 inhabitants of this city were named Pharaei, 
 while those of the Messenian Pharae were call- 
 ed Pharatae or Phariatae. The ruins of Pharse 
 in Achaia were observed by Dodwell on the lefl 
 bank of the Camenitza." Cram II. Ano- 
 ther in Messenia. Vid. Pherce. 
 
 Pharis, a town of Laconia, whose inhabitants 
 are called Pharita. Paus. 3, c. 30. 
 251 
 
PH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PH 
 
 Pharmecusa, I. an island of the iEgean Sea, 
 where Julius Caesar was seized by some pirates. 
 
 Suet. CcBS. 4. II. Another, where was shown 
 
 Circe's tomb. Strab. 
 
 Pharnacia, a town of Pontus, probably the 
 same as Cerasus. 
 
 Pharos, I. a small island in the bay of Alex- 
 andria, about seven furlongs distant from the 
 continent. It was joined to the Egyptian shore 
 with a causeway, by Dexiphanes, B. C. 284, 
 and upon it was built a celebrated tower, in the 
 reign of Ptolemy Soter and Philadelphus, by 
 Sostratus, the son of Dexiphanes. This tower, 
 which was called the tower of Pharos, and which 
 passed for one of the seven wonders of the 
 world, was built with white marble, and could 
 be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the 
 lop, fires were constantly kept, to direct sailors 
 in the bay, which was dangerous and difficult 
 of access. The building of this tower cost the 
 Egyptian monarch 800 talents, which are equi- 
 valent to above 165,000Z. English, if Attic ; or 
 if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was 
 this inscription upon it, King Ptolemy to the 
 Gods the saviours^ for the benefit of sailors ; but 
 Sostratus, the architect, wishing to claim all the 
 glory, engraved his own name upon the stones, 
 and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, 
 and wrote the above-mentioned inscription. 
 When the mortar had decayed by time, Pto- 
 lemy's name disappeared, and the following 
 inscription then became visible ; Sostratus the 
 Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the Gods the 
 saviours, for the benefit of sailors. The word 
 Pharias is often used as Egyptian. Lucan. 2, 
 V. 636, 1. 3, V. 260, 1. 6, v. 308, 1. 9, v. 1005, &c. 
 — Ovid. A. A. 3, V. 635.— P^w. 4, c. 31 and 
 85, 1. 36, c. n.— Strab. 11.— Mela, 2, c. 7.— 
 Plin. 13, c. \\.— Homer, od. 4.— Mac. 2.— Stat. 
 
 3. Sylv. 2, V. 102. II. A watch-tower near 
 
 Capreae. III. An island on the coast of II- 
 
 lyricum, now called Lesina. Mela, 2, c. 7. 
 
 The emperor Claudius ordered a tower to be 
 built at the entrance of the port of Ostia, for 
 the benefit of sailors, and it likewise bore the 
 name of Pharos, an appellation afterwards giv- 
 en to every other edifice which was raised to 
 direct the course of sailors, either with lights or 
 by signals. Juv. 11, v. 76. — Su£t. 
 
 Pharsalus, " a city of Thessaly, so celebra- 
 ted for the battle fought in its plains between 
 the armies of Caesar and Pompey, appears to 
 have been situated in that part of the province 
 which Strabo designates by the name of Thes- 
 saliotis. Although a city of considerable size 
 and importance, we find no mention of it prior 
 to the Persian invasion, Thucydides reports 
 that it was besieged by the Athenian general 
 Myronides after his success in Boeotia, but with- 
 out avail. The same historian speaks of the 
 services rendered to the Athenian people by 
 Thucydides the Pharsalian, who performed the 
 duties of proxenos to his countrymen at Athens ; 
 and he also states that the Pharsalians general- 
 ly favoured that republic during the Peloponne- 
 sian war. Diodorus reports, that on one occa- 
 sion Pharsalus was taken by Medius, tyrant of 
 Larissa. Xenophon notices it as an indepen- 
 dent republic, though it afterwards fell into the 
 hands of Jason, lyiaiit of Pherae. Several years 
 aflerwards it was occupied by Antiochus, king 
 of Syria, but on his retreat from Thessalv it , 
 252 
 
 surrendered to the consul Acilius Glabrio. Livy 
 seems to make a distinction between the old and 
 new town, as he speaks of Palaeo Pharsalus. 
 Dr. Clarke in his Travels remarks there are 
 but few antiquities at Pharsalus. The name 
 of Phersale alone remains to show what it 
 once was. South-west of the town there is a 
 hill surrounded with ancient walls, formed of 
 large masses of a coarse kind of marble. Upon 
 a lofty rock above the town, towards the south, 
 are other ruins of greater magnitude, shewing 
 a considerable portion of the walls of the Acro- 
 polis and remains of the Propylaea. According 
 to Strabo, Pharsalus was situated near the river 
 Enipeus, and not far from its junction with the 
 Apidanus, which afterwards enters the Peneus." 
 Oram. 
 
 Pharusii, or Phaurusii, a people of Africa, 
 beyond Mauretania. According to Pliny, the 
 Pharusii were said to have been Persians, who 
 accompanied Hercules to Africa. Probably this 
 same people are alluded to by Sallust, when he 
 describes the Persian followers of Hercules. 
 Mela, 1, c. 4. 
 
 Pharybus, a river of Macedonia, more pro- 
 perly styled Baphyrus. 
 
 Phaselis, a city in the vicinity of the pass 
 which mount Climax, in Lycia, forms with the 
 sea. According to D'Anville, Fionda occupies 
 the site of the ancient city. Some have assign- 
 ed this city to Lycia, others to Pamphylia, and 
 others to the Cilicians. This has perplexed 
 geographers, as well as the fact that Lucan de- 
 scribes Phaselis as a small place, although Stra- 
 bo calls it a city of note. Phaselis was origin- 
 ally inhabited by Lycians, and was therefore as- 
 signed to Lycia. But subsequently, as the Pam- 
 phylians extended their dominion over the sea- 
 coast, it was attributed to Pamphylia, although 
 occupied by Lycians. At a still later period, in- 
 duced by the convenience of their harbour, they 
 devoted themselves to piracy, or else were pre- 
 vailed on by the Cilicians to give protection to 
 the pirates. Hence, having deserted the Ly- 
 cians, or having been cast off by them, their 
 city was called Cilician. After the reduction 
 of this ciiy by Publius Servilius, the population 
 became very trifling; and hence the epithet 
 parva bestowed upon it by Lucan, Mela, 1, 14, 
 ed. Voss. 
 
 Phasiana, a canton which was traversed by 
 the Aras at its entrance in Armenia. It is now 
 Pasiani,orPas7ii, as the Turks call it. D'Anville. 
 
 Phasis, I. a river of Colchis, rising in the 
 mountains of Armenia, now called Faoz, and 
 falling into the Euxine on the east. It is famous 
 for the expedition of the Argonauts, who en- 
 tered it after a long and perilous voyage, from 
 which reason all dangerous voyages have been 
 proverbially intimated by the words of sailing 
 to the Phasis. There were on the banks of 
 the Phasis a great number of large birds, of 
 which, according to some of the ancients, the 
 Argonauts brought some to Greece, and which 
 were called, on that account, pheasants. The 
 Phasis was reckoned by the ancients one of the 
 largest rivers of Asia. Plin. 10, c. 48. — Mar- 
 tial. 13, ep. e2.—Strab. U.—Mela, 1, c. 19.— 
 Apollod. 1, &c. — Pans. 4, c. 44. — Orpheus. 
 
 II. or Araxes, now the Aras. III. A 
 
 city of Colchis, at the mouth of the Phasis. It 
 was of Greek foundation. D'Anville, 
 
PH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PH 
 
 Phelloe, " a fortress of Achaia, distant for- 
 ty stadia from -^gira, in the mountains. Its 
 territory produced wine, and the oak forests 
 around abounded with stags and wild boars. It 
 was remarkable also for the number of its 
 springs and fountains ; the town contained a 
 temple of Bacchus, and another of Diana. Sir 
 W. Gell is inclined to place Phelloe near the 
 village of Zakoula^ ' where there is a pass 
 through a chasm in the mountain, and at the 
 top of the pass on the right is a precipitous 
 rock, on which the castle may have been situa- 
 ted. " Cram. 
 
 Pheneus, " a town of Arcadia, of some note 
 and of great antiquity, since Hercules is said to 
 have resided there after his departure from Ti- 
 ryns, and Homer has mentioned it amongst the 
 principal Arcadian cities. The citadel was plac- 
 ed on a lofty and steep rock, which was further 
 strengthened by artificialworks; it contained a 
 temple of Minerva Tritonia, the vestiges only 
 of which were apparent when Pausanias tra- 
 velled in Arcadia. Below the citadel were the 
 stadium and tomb of Iphiclus, and the temples 
 of Mercury and the Eleusinian Ceres. Phe- 
 neum was surrounded by some extensive marsh- 
 es, which are said to have once inundated the 
 whole country, and to have destroyed the an- 
 cient town. These were principally formed by 
 the river Aroanius, or Olbius, which descends 
 from the mountains to the north of Pheneus, 
 and usually finds a vent in some natural caverns 
 or katabathra at the extremity of the plain ; but 
 when by accident these happened to be blocked 
 up, the waters filled the whole valley, and, com- 
 municating with the Ladon and Alpheus, over- 
 flowed the beds of those rivers as far as Olym- 
 pia. Pausanias reports, that vestiges of some 
 great works undertaken to drain the Phenean 
 marshes, and ascribed by the natives to Hercu- 
 les, were to be seen near the city. There was 
 a foss fifty stadia long, and in some places thirty 
 feet deep. Pheneus is noticed by Polybius. 
 The vestiges of this town according to Dodweil, 
 are to be seen near the village of Phonia upon 
 an insulated rock. The foundations of the 
 walls only remain ; the rest of the ruins consist 
 of masses of rubbish and scattered blocks. The 
 same antiquary informs us, that the katabath- 
 ron of the Aroanius is at the foot of a steep and 
 rocky mountain called Kokino-bouno. The lake 
 is very small, and varies according to the sea- 
 son of the year." Cram. 
 
 Pher^, I. " one of the most ancient and im- 
 portant cities of Thessaly, the capital of Adme- 
 tus and Eumetus. Subsequently to the heroic 
 age we find the Pherseans assisting the Athe- 
 nians in the Peloponnesian war, at which time 
 they probably enjoyed a republican form of go- 
 vernment. Some years after, Jason, a native of 
 Pherae, having raised himself to the head of af- 
 fairs by his talents and ability, bepame master, 
 not only of his own city, but of nearly the whole 
 of Thessaly, and, having caused himself to be 
 proclaimed generalissimo of its forces, formed 
 the most ambitious projects for extendmg his in- 
 fluence and aggrandizing his power. These 
 were however frustrated by his sudden death, 
 which occurred by assassination, whilst celebra- 
 ting some public games at Pherae, in the third 
 year of the 102d Olympiad. The independence 
 of Pherae was not, however, secured by this 
 
 event, as Jason was succeeded by his brothers 
 Polydorus andPolyphron. The former of these 
 died soon after; not wdthoutsome suspicion at- 
 taching to Polyphron, who now became the sove- 
 reign of Pherse ; but after the lapse of a year, 
 he in his turn was put to death by Alexander, 
 who continued for eleven years the scourge of 
 his native city and the whole of Thessaly. His 
 evil designs were for a time checked by the brave 
 Pelopidas, who entered that province at the head 
 of a BcEotian force, and occupied the citadel of 
 Larissa ; but on his falling into the hands of the 
 tyrant, the Boeotian army was placed in a most 
 perilous situation, and was only saved by the 
 presence of mind and ability of Epaminondas, 
 then serving as a volunteer. The Thebans 
 subsequently rescued Pelopidas, and under his 
 command made war upon Alexander of Pherae, 
 whom they defeated, but at the expense of the 
 life of their gallant leader, who fell in the ac- 
 tion. Alexander was not long after assassinat- 
 ed by his wife and her brothers, who continued 
 to tyrannize over this country until it was libe- 
 rated by Philip of Macedon. Tisiphonus, the 
 eldest of these princes, did not reign long, and 
 was succeeded by Lycophron, who, being at- 
 tacked by the young king of Macedon, sought 
 the aid of Onomarchus the Phocian leader. 
 Philip was at first defeated in two severe en- 
 gagements, but having recruited his forces, he 
 once more attacked Onomarchus, and .succeed- 
 ed in totally routing the. Phocians, their general 
 himself falling into the hands of the victors. 
 The consequence of this victory was the capture 
 of Pherse and the expulsion of Lycophron. Pi- 
 tholaus, his brother, not long after, again usurp- 
 ed the throne, but was likewise quickly expel- 
 led on the return of the king of Macedonia. Ma- 
 ny years after, Cassander, as we are informed 
 by Diodorus, fortified Pherae, but Demetrius Po- 
 liorcetes contrived by secret negotiations to ob- 
 tain possession both of the town and the cita- 
 del. In the invasion of Thessaly by Antio- 
 chus,Pherae was forced to surrender to the troops 
 of that monarch after some resistance. Ix af- 
 terwards fell into the hands of the Roman con- 
 sul Acilius. Strabo observes that the constant 
 tyranny under which this city laboured had has- 
 tened its decay. Its territory was most fertile, 
 and the suburbs, as we collect from Polybius, 
 were surrounded by gardens and walled enclo- 
 sures. Stephanus Byz. speaks of an old and 
 new town of Pherae, distant about eight stadia 
 from each other. Pherae, according to Strabo, 
 was ninety stadia from Pagasae its emporium." 
 
 Cram. II. A city of Messenia, to the east 
 
 of the river Pamisus, " where Telemachus and 
 the son of Nestor were entertained by Diodes 
 on their way from Pylos to Sparta. Pherae was 
 one of the seven towns offered by Agamemnon 
 to Achilles. It was annexed by Augustus to 
 Laconia after the battle of Actium." Cram. 
 
 Phigalea, " a city of Arcadia, situated to the 
 west of Lycosura, and beyond the river Plata- 
 nistus, on the brow of a lofty and precipitous 
 rock which overhung the bed of the Neda. It 
 had been founded by Phigakis, son of Lycaon, 
 or, as others affirmed, by Phialus,sonof Buco- 
 lion, whence it was called Phialea. A curious 
 account of the Phigalean repasts is extracted by 
 Athenaeus from the work of Harmodius of Le- 
 preum. w^ho wrote on the customs and institu- 
 253 
 
PH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PH 
 
 tions of the place. According to the same au- 
 thor the Phigaleans had the character of being 
 drunkards. In the time of Pausanias the city- 
 was still in a flourishing state, and contained a 
 forum and several public edifices ; the temple of 
 Bacchus Acratophorus stood near the gymna- 
 sium, that of Diana Sospita was placed on the 
 ascent leading up to the lown : Paulizza now 
 occupies the site of the ancient Phigaleia. Sir 
 W. Gell informs us that the entire and exten- 
 sive circuit of the walls may still be observed ; 
 they were defended by numerous towers, some 
 of which are circular, situated on rocky hills 
 and tremendous precipices. The village of 
 Paulizza contains some columns, and other 
 fragments of temples. The Neda flowed below 
 the town, and was joined, not far from thence, 
 by the little river Lymax, near the source of 
 which were some warm springs." Cram. 
 
 Phila, the first town in Macedonia, begin- 
 ning from the mouth of the Peneus, " situated 
 apparently near the sea, at no great distance 
 from Tempe. It was occupied by the Romans 
 when their army had penetrated into Pieriaby 
 the passes of Olympus from Thessaly ; and was 
 built, as Stephanus informs us, by Demetrius, 
 sonof Antigonus Gonatas, and father of Philip, 
 who named it after his mother Phila. The ru- 
 ins of this fortress are probably those which Dr. 
 Clarke observed near Platamona, which he re- 
 garded as the remains of Heracleum." Cram. 
 
 Philadelphia, I. a city of Lydia, " which 
 owed this name to a brother of Eumenes, king 
 of Pergamus, was situated immediately under 
 the extremity of a branch of Tmolus ; but was 
 constructed with little solidity in its edifices, as 
 being extremely subject to earthquakes. These 
 phenomena were most dreadful in their effects 
 in the seventeenth year of the Christian era ; for 
 then twelve of the principal cities of Asia, par- 
 ticularly this and Sardes, were nearly destroyed. 
 A great tract of country, which from Mysia ex- 
 tended in Phrygia, being at all times most ex- 
 posed to these disasters, was called Catdkecau- 
 mene^ or the Burnt Country. It must be said, to 
 the honour of Philadelphia, that when all the 
 country had sunk under the Ottoman yoke, it 
 still resisted, and yielded only to the efforts of 
 Bajazet I., orllderim. The Turks call it Alah- 
 Shehr, or the Beautiful City ; probably by rea- 
 son of its situation." D'Anville. II. The 
 
 chief city of Ammonitis, the country of the Am- 
 monites. It was more anciently called Ammon 
 and Rabbath- Ammon, or the Great Ammon, un- 
 til the name of Philadelphia was given to it, pro- 
 bably from Philadelph us, king of Egypt. It has 
 resumed its primitive name in the form of Am- 
 Ttian. D'Anville. III. Another in Cilicia. 
 
 Phil«, I. a town and island of Egypt, above 
 the smaller cataract, but placed opposite Syene 
 by Plin. 5, c. 9. Isis was worshipped there. 
 Lnican. 10, v. Z13.— Seneca. 2, Nat. 4, c. 2. 
 II. One of the Sporades. Plin. 4, c. 12. 
 
 Phil^norum ar^. Vid. Ara PhilcBnorum. 
 
 Philene, a town of Attica, between Athens 
 and Tanagra. Stat. Tkeh. 4, v. 102. 
 
 Philippi, a town of Macedonia, anciently 
 called Datos, and situate at the east of the Stry- 
 mon, on a rising ground which abounds with 
 springs and water. Mount Pangaeum, which 
 was in the vicinity of this city, contained gold 
 and silver mines. " These valuable mines na- 
 354 
 
 turally attracted the attention of the Thasians, 
 who were the first settlers on this coast ; and 
 they accordingly formed an establishment in this 
 vicinity at a place named Crenides, from the 
 circumstance of its being surrounded by nume- 
 rous sources which descended from the neigh- 
 bouring mountain. Philip of Macedon havmg 
 turned his attention to the affairs of Thrace, the 
 possession of Crenidae and mount Pangaeum na- 
 turally entered into his views ; accordingly he 
 invaded this country, expelled the feeble Cotys 
 from his throne, and then proceeded to found a 
 new .city on the site of the old Thasian colony, 
 which he named after himself Philippi. When 
 Macedonia became subject to the Romans, the 
 advantages attending the peculiar situation of 
 Philippi induced that people to settle a colony 
 there ; and we know from the Acts of the Apos- 
 tles that it was already at that period one of the 
 most flourishing cities of this part of their em- 
 pire. It is moreover celebrated in history, from 
 the great victory gained here by Mark Antony 
 and Octavian over the forces of Brutus and Cas- 
 sius, by which the republican party was com- 
 pletely subdued. Philippi, however, is rendered 
 more interesting from the circumstance of its 
 being the first place in Europe where the Gos- 
 pel was preached by St. Paul, (A. D. 51.) as 
 we know from the 16th of the Acts of the Apos- 
 tles, and also from the Epistle he has addressed 
 to his Philippian converts where the zeal and 
 charity of the Philippians towards their Apostle 
 received a just commendation. We hear fre- 
 quently of bishops of Philippi in the ecclesiasti- 
 cal historians ; and the town is also often men- 
 tioned by the Byzantine writers. Its ruins still 
 retain the name of Filibah. Theophrastus 
 speaks of the rosa centifolia, which grew in 
 great beauty near Philippi, being indigenous on 
 mount Pangaeum." Cram. 
 
 Phintia, a town of Sicily, at the mouth of 
 the Himera. Cic. in Verr. 3, c. 83. 
 
 Phinto, a small island between Sardinia and 
 Corsica, now Figo. 
 
 Phlegra, or Phlegr^eus campus, a place of 
 Macedonia, afterwards called Pallene, where 
 the giants attacked the gods and were defeated 
 by Hercules. The combat was afterwards re- 
 newed in Italy, in a place of the same name 
 near Cumae. Sil. 8, v. 538, 1. 9, v. 305.— 
 Strab. 5. — DiodA and 5. — Ovid. Met. 10, v. 
 351, 1. 12, V. 378, I. 15, v. b2,2.—Stat. 5, Sylv. 
 3, V. 196. 
 
 PHLEGY.E, a people of Thessaly. Some au- 
 thors place them in BoBotia. They received 
 their name from Phlegyas the son of Mars, with 
 whom they plundered and burned the temple 
 of Apollo at Delphi. Few of them escaped to 
 Phocis, where he settled. Pans. 9, c. 36. — 
 Hovier. II. 13, v. 301.— S^rai. 9. 
 
 Phltasia. Vid. Phlius. 
 
 Phlius. " The little state of Phlius, though 
 an independent republic, may with propriety be 
 referred to Argolis, since Homer represents ic 
 under the early name of Araethyreaas depend- 
 ent on the kingdom of Mycenae. Pausanias de- 
 rives this appellation of the city from Araethy- 
 rea, daughter of Arus, its earliest sovereign ; 
 and states that it afterwards took that of Philius 
 from a son of Asopus, who was one of the Ar- 
 gonauts. The Phliasian territoiy adjoined Co- 
 rinth and Sicyon on the north, Arcadia on the 
 
PH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PH 
 
 west, and tlie Nemean and CleonBean districts 
 on the south and south-east. After the arival of 
 the Heraclidffi and Dorians, the Phliasians were 
 invaded by a parly of their forces under the 
 command of Rhegnidas, a grandson of Teme- 
 nus, and compelled to admit these new colonists 
 into their city, which thus became annexed to 
 the Dorian race. Phlius sent 200 soldiers to 
 Thermopylae, and 1000 to Platsea, In the Pe- 
 loponnesian war it espoused the Lacedcemonian 
 cause, together with the Corinthians and Sic)^- 
 onians ; and at a time when those states formed 
 a coalition against that power, it still adhered to 
 the Spartan alliance. The Phiiasians having 
 on this occasion sustained a severe loss in an 
 engagement with the Athenian general Iphi- 
 crates, they were under the necessity of receiv- 
 ing a Lacedaemonian force within their town to 
 protect it against the enemy. In gratitude for 
 which assistance they readily contributed to the 
 expedition subsequently undertaken by the Spar- 
 tans against Olynthus, and received the thanks 
 of Agesipolis for their zeal on this occasion. 
 3S"ot long after, however, they became mvolved 
 in war with that powerful state, from their re- 
 fusing to make good the agreement they had 
 entered into with Sparta, to restore to the ex- 
 iles, who had been reinstated by its interference, 
 the possession of their property. Agesilaus was 
 in consequence deputed by the Spartan govern- 
 ment to reduce the refractory city ; and after 
 an obstinate siege and blockade, which lasted 
 nearly two years, it was compelled to surren- 
 der : Delphion, wLo was the principal leader 
 of the besieged, and had given great proofs of 
 courage and talent, escaped by night during the 
 negotiations. It appears from Xenophon that 
 at this period Phlius contained more than 5000 
 citizens, which supposes a population of 20,000 
 souls. Sometime after the capture of the town 
 it was again attacked, as the ally of Sparta, by 
 the Argives, Boeotians, and other confederates ; 
 and would have been taken by assault, but for 
 the courage and intrepidity of the inhabitants. 
 These being also successful against the Sicy- 
 onians and Pellenians, who had invaded their 
 territory, and having obtained the assistance of 
 some Athenian troops under the command of 
 Chares, were finally enabled to maintain their 
 independence against all their enemies. In the 
 revolutionary period which succeeded the death 
 of Alexander, Phlius became subject to despotic 
 rule; but on the organization of the Achsean 
 league by Aratus, Cleonymus, tyrant of that 
 city, voluntarily abdicated, and persuaded his 
 countrymen to join the confederacy. The fo- 
 rum was decorated with a bronze gilt statue of 
 a goat, representing the constellation of that 
 name, which the people were desirous of propi- 
 tiating, that it might not injure their vines. 
 Here was also the tomb of Aristias, an excellent 
 writer of satiric plays. Beyond might be seen 
 a building called the house of prophecy, and the 
 spot said to be the centre of Peloponnesus, near 
 which were ranged the temples of Bacchus, 
 Apollo, and Isis. The remains of Phlius are 
 to be seen not far from the town of Agios Gior- 
 gios, on the road to the lake of Stymphalus in 
 Arcadia. Sir W. Gell affirms, that the ruins 
 extended for some distance across the plain, and 
 Pouqueville discovered on the height above the 
 Asopus, where the citadel was nlaced, the ves- 
 
 tiges of several temples. This river, as we learn 
 from Strabo, had its source on mount Carneates. 
 The Arantinus was a hill adjoining that of the 
 acropolis. It is now called Agios Basili. These 
 mountains separated the Phliasian territorj' 
 from the Nemean plain." Cram. 
 
 PnociEA, now Fochia, a maritime town of 
 Ionia, in Asia Minor, with two harbours, be- 
 tween Cumae and Smyrna, founded by an Athe- 
 nian colony. It received its name from Pho- 
 'cus, the leader of the colony, or from (jphoccc) 
 sea calves^ which are found in great abundance 
 in the neighbourhood. The inhabitants, called 
 Phocai and Phocaenses, were expert mariners, 
 and founded many cities in diflerent parts of 
 Europe. They lell Ionia, when Cyrus attempt- 
 ed to reduce them under his power, and they 
 came, after many adventures, into Gaul, where 
 they founded Massilia, now Marseilles. The 
 town oi Marseilles is often distinguished by the 
 epithet of Phocaica, and its inhabitants called 
 Phocceenses. Phocsea was declared independent 
 by Pompey, and under the first emperors of 
 Rome it became one of the most flourishing 
 cities of Asia Minor. Liv. 5, c. 34, 1. 37, c. 31. 
 1. 38, c. 2,^.— Mela, 1, c. \1.—Paus. 7, c. 3.— 
 Herodot. 1, v. 165. — Strai). 14. — Herat, efod. 
 16.— Ovid. Met. 6, v. d.—Plin. 3, c. 4. 
 
 Phocenses, and Phocici, the inhabitants of 
 Phocis in Greece. 
 
 Phocicum, a place in Phocis, where "the 
 general assembly of the Phocian states was 
 usually convened, in a large building erected 
 for that purpose." Cram. 
 
 Phocis. " The Greeks designated by the 
 name of Phocis that small tract of country which 
 bordered on the Locri Ozolae and Doris to the 
 west and north-west, and the Opuntian Locri to 
 the north ; while to the east it was botmded by 
 the Boeotian territory, and to the south by the 
 Corinthian gulf Its appellation was said to be 
 derived from Phocus the son of .^acus. The 
 more ancient inhabitants of the countiy were 
 probably of the race of the Leleges ; but tne 
 name of Phocians already prevailed at the lime 
 of the siege of Troy, since we find them enu- 
 merated in Homer's catalogue of Grecian war- 
 riors. From Herodotus we learn, that prior to 
 the Persian invasion the Phocians had been 
 much engaged in war with the Thessalians, and 
 had often successfully resisted the incursions of 
 that people. But when the defile of Thermopylae 
 was forced by the army of Xerxes, the Thes- 
 salians, who had espoused the cause of that 
 monarch, are said to have urged him, out of 
 enmity to the Phocians, to ravage and lay waste 
 with fire and sword the territory of that people. 
 Delphi and Parnassus on this occasion served 
 as places of reftige for many of the unfortunate 
 inhabitants, but numbers fell into the hands of 
 the victorious Persians, and were compelled to 
 serve in their ranks under the command of Mar- 
 donius. They seized, however, the earliest op- 
 portunity of joining their fellow-countrymen in 
 arms; and many of the Persians, who were dis- 
 persed after the rout of Platoea, are said to have 
 fallen victims to their revengeful fury. A lit- 
 tle prior to the Peloponnesian war, a dispute 
 arose respecting the temple of Delphi, which 
 threatened to involve in hostilities the princi- 
 pal states of Greece. This edifice was claimed 
 apparentlv by the Phocians as the common 
 255 
 
PH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PH 
 
 property of the whole nation, whereas the Del- 
 phians asserted it to be their own exclusive 
 possession. The Lacedaemonians are said by 
 Thucydides to have declared in favour of the 
 latter, whose cause they maintained by force of 
 arms. The Athenians, on the other hand, were 
 no less favourable to the Phocians, and, on the 
 retreat of the Spartan forces, sent a body of 
 troops to occupy the temple, and deliver it into 
 their hands. The service thus rendered by the 
 Athenians seems greatly to have cemented the 
 ties of friendly union which already subsisted 
 between the two republics. After the battle of 
 Leuctra, Phocis, as we learn from Xenophon, 
 became subject for a time to Boeotia, until a 
 change of circumstances gave a new impulse 
 to the character of this small republic, and call- 
 ed forth all the energies of the people in de- 
 fence of their country. A fine had been im- 
 posed on them by an edict of the Amphictyons 
 for some reason which Pausanias professes not 
 to have been able to ascertain, and which they 
 themselves conceived to be wholly unmerited. 
 Diodorus asserts, that it was in consequence of 
 their having cultivated a part of the Cirrhean 
 territory which had been declared sacred. By 
 the advice of Philomelus, a Phocian high in 
 rank and estimation, it was determined to op- 
 pose the execution of the hostile decree ; and, 
 m order more eifectually to secure the means of 
 resistance, to seize upon the temple of Delphi 
 and its treasures. This measure having been 
 carried into immediate execution, they were thus 
 furnished with abundant supplies for raising 
 troops to defend their country. These events 
 led to what the Greek historians have termed 
 the Sacred war, which broke out in the second 
 year of the 106th Olympiad. The Thebans 
 were the first to take up arms in the cause of 
 religion, which had been thus openly violated by 
 the Phocians ; and, in a battle that took place 
 soon after the commencement of hostilities, the 
 latter were defeated with considerable loss, and 
 their leader Philomelus killed in the rout which 
 ensued. The Phocians, however, were not in- 
 timidated by this ill success, and, having raised 
 a fresh army, headed by Onomarchus, they ob- 
 tained several important advantages against the 
 Amphictyonic army, notwithstanding the acces- 
 sion of Philip king of Macedon to the confe- 
 deracy. Onomarchus having united his forces 
 with those of Lycophron, tyrant of Pherae, then 
 at war with Philip, he was enabled to vanquish 
 the latter in two successive engagements, and 
 compel him to evacuate Thessaly. Philip, how- 
 ever, was soon in a state to resume hostilities 
 and re-enter Thessaly, when a third battle was 
 fought, which terminated in the discomfiture 
 and death of Onomarchus. Diodorus asserts, 
 that he was taken prisoner, and put to death by 
 order of Philip; Pausanias, that he perished by 
 the hands of his own soldiers. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother Phayllus, who at first 
 appears to have been successful, but was at 
 length overthrown in several engagements with 
 the Boeotian troops ; and was soon after seized 
 with a disorder, which terminated fatally. On 
 his death the command devolved on Phalaecus, 
 who, according to Pausanias, was his son ; but 
 Diodorus aflSirms that he was the son of Ono- 
 marchus. This leader being not long after de- 
 posed, the army was intrusted to a commission, 
 ^ 256 
 
 at the head of which was Philo ; whose totai 
 want of probity soon became evident by the 
 disappearance of large sums from the sacred 
 treasury. He was in consequence brought to 
 trial, condemned, and put to death. Diodorus 
 estimates the whole amount of what was taken 
 from Delphi during the war at 10,000 talents, 
 Phalascus was now restored to the command, 
 but, finding the resources of the state nearly ex- 
 hausted, and Philip being placed by the Am- 
 phictyonic council at the head of their forces, 
 he deemed all further resistance hopeless, and 
 submitted to the king of Macedon, on condition 
 of being allowed to retire with his troops to the 
 Peloponnesus. This convention put an end at 
 once to the Sacred war, after a duration of ten 
 years, when a decree was passed in the Amphic- 
 tyonic council, by which it was adjudged that 
 the walls of all the Phocian towns should be 
 razed to the ground, and their right of voting in 
 the council transferred to those of Macedonia, 
 Phocis, however, soon after recovered from this 
 state of degradation and subjection by the assist- 
 ance of Athens and Thebes, who united in 
 restoring its cities in a great measure to their 
 former condition.- In return for these benefits 
 the Phocians joined the confederacy, that had 
 been formed by the two republics against Philip ; 
 they also took part in the Lamiac war after the 
 death of Alexander ; and when the Gauls made 
 their unsuccessful attempt on the temple of 
 Delphi, they are said by Pausanias to have dis- 
 played the greatest zeal and alacrity in the pur- 
 suit of the common enemy, as if anxious to 
 efface the recollection of the disgrace they had 
 formerly incurred. The maritime part of this 
 province occupied an extent of coast of nearly 
 one day's sail, as Dicsearchus reports, from the 
 border of the Locri Ozolse to the confines of 
 Boeotia." Cram. 
 
 Phcbnice, a province of Syria, bounded on 
 the north by Syria proper, on the east and south 
 by Palestine, and on the west by the Mediterra- 
 nean. Although this country was very incon- 
 siderable in extent, being a narrow strip of land 
 between the coast of the Mediterranean and the 
 Syrian mountains, its inhabitants, notwith- 
 standing, hold a high rank among the most re- 
 markable nations of Asia. We have not, how- 
 ever, a " complete, or even continuous history of 
 them ; but only separate accounts, from which, 
 however, a picture of them in its great features 
 may be traced. It did not form one state, or at 
 least not one kingdom ; but contained several 
 cities with their territory. But among these 
 leagues were formed, and by this means a sort of 
 supremacy of the more powerful established, 
 especially of Tyre. Yet notwithstanding Tyre 
 stood at the head, and perhaps also usurped a 
 supremacy in the confederacy, each individual 
 state still preserved its constitution within itself. 
 In each of them we find kings ; who seem, how- 
 ever, to have been limited princes, in as much as 
 there were magistrates at their side. Strict des- 
 potism could not long subsist in a nation which 
 carried on commerce and founded colonies. Of 
 the several cities, Tyre is the only one of which 
 we have a series of kings, and even this series 
 is not altogether unbroken. The flourishing 
 period of Phoenicia in general, and especially of 
 Tyre, was between 1000—332. In this period 
 the Phoenician nation was extended bv sending 
 
PH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PH 
 
 out colonies 5 of which some, especially Car- 
 thage, became as powerful as the mother cities. 
 At a very early period they were possessed of 
 most of the 'islands of the Archipelago, from 
 which, however, they were again driven by the 
 Greeks. Their chief countries for colonization 
 were partly southern Spain, (Tartessus, Gades, 
 Carteja,) partly the northern coast of Africa to 
 the left of the lesser Syrtis, (Utica, Carthage, 
 Adrumetum,) partly also the north-west coast 
 of Sicily, (Panormus, Lilybseum.) It is v^ery' 
 highly probable that they also had settlements to 
 the east, in the Persian gulf, on the islands Ty- 
 los and Aradus (the Bahhrein islands.) The view 
 of the PhcEnician colonies serves as a foundation 
 for the view of their commerce and navigation ; 
 which, however, was extended still further than 
 their settlements. It began among them, as 
 many other nations, with plundering by sea ; and 
 in Homer they still appear as pirates. Their 
 chief objects were, their colonial countries, north- 
 ern Africa and Spain, especially the latter, on 
 account of its productive silver mines. Beyond 
 the Pillars of Hercules, the western coast of 
 Africa ; Britain and the Scilly islands for tin, 
 and probably for amber. From the harbours 
 on the northern extremity of the Arabian gulf, 
 Elath and Ezion-Geber,they, in connexion with 
 the Jews traded Vvdth Ophir, i. e. the rich south- 
 ern countries, especially Arabia Felix and 
 Ethiopia. From the Persian gulf to the nearer 
 Indian peninsula and Ceylon. Andthey also 
 undertook several great voyages of discovery, 
 among which the sailing round Africa is the 
 most important. But their traffic by land, con- 
 sisting for the most part of the traffic done in 
 the caravans, was of not inferior importance. 
 ' The chief branches of it were, the African traf- 
 fic by caravans for spices and incense ; directed 
 as well to Arabia Felix, as to Gerra near the 
 Persian gulf. The traffic with Babylon by way 
 of Palmyra ; and from there, yet only through 
 a medium, across Persia, as far as \\il\e Bucharia 
 and little Thibet, perhaps even as far as China. 
 The traffic with Armenia and the neighbouring 
 countries for slaves, horses, vessels of copper, 
 &c. To finish the sketch, we must add their 
 own fabrics and manufactures ; especially their 
 establishments for weaving and dyeing; the 
 purple dye with a liquor extracted from shell- 
 fish ; and manufactures of glass and play-things, 
 which were disposed of to advantage in their 
 trade with rude nations, which commonly con- 
 sisted in barter. Several other important in- 
 ventions, among which that of letters deserves 
 to be first named, are to be attributed to them." 
 {Heereri's History of the States of Antiquity ; 
 Bancroft's translation.') After Alexander had 
 deposed the Sidonian king, and overthrown the 
 city of Tyre, Phoenicia followed the common 
 fortune of Syria, and was subject to the house 
 of Seleucus until made a Roman province. Un- 
 der Constantine and his successors a division of 
 the country was made, forming the two pro- 
 vinces of Phoenicia Prima and Phoenicia Liba- 
 nica, from the mount Libanus. The origin of 
 the name Phoenicia has given rise to much con- 
 jecture. Thus some trace it to Phoenix, the 
 son of Agenor, who is said to have succeeded 
 his father. But this etymology is too closely al- 
 lied to fiction to be entitled to credence. Much 
 less rational is the fanciful derivation of Bo- 
 PartI.~2 K 
 
 chart, who considers Phoenices a corruption cf 
 Ben-Anak, the "sons of Anak." The most 
 probable on the whole is that which supposed 
 the name Phoenicia to have been applied by the 
 Greeks in reference to the palm-trees which 
 abound in the country, (poivi^ signifying " a 
 palm." " And for a further proof hereof, the 
 palm was anciently the special cognizance or 
 ensign of this country ; as the olive-branch and 
 cony of Spain, the elephant of Africa, the ca- 
 mel of Arabia, and the crocodile of Egypt, being 
 peculiar to those countries. Bui thus first called 
 by the Grecians only ; for, by themselves and 
 the people of Israel, their next neighbours, they 
 are called Canaanites, or the posterity of Ca- 
 naan, five of whose sons were planted here; 
 the other six inhabiting more towards the south 
 and east, in the land of Palestine." Heyl. 
 Cosm. 
 Phcbnicia. Vid. Phcenice. 
 PHCBNictJsA, now Felicudi, one of the JEolian 
 islands. 
 
 Pholoe, a mountain of Arcadia, near Pisa. 
 It received its name from Pholus, the friend of 
 Hercules, who was buried there. It is often 
 confounded with another of the same name in 
 Thessaly, near mount Othrys. Plin. 4, c. 6. — 
 lAican. 3, V. 198, 1. 6, v. 318, 1. 7, v. Md.— Ovid. 
 2. Fast. 2, V. 273. 
 
 Phrixus, a river of Argolis. There is also 
 a small town of that name in Elis, built by the 
 Minyae. Herodot. 4, c. 148. 
 
 Phrygia, a country of Asia Minor, having 
 Lydiaon the west, Cappadocia on the east, and 
 Cicilia and Pisidia on the south, with the ex- 
 ception of a narrow neck, that, passing the bor- 
 ders of these countries, reached south to the 
 confines of Lycia, and had Pisidia and Pam- 
 phylia on the east. The northern boundaries 
 were more uncertain and variable, extending at 
 one lime to the borders of Paphlagonia, all 
 along that country and Bithynia. This part, 
 indeed, was the first habitation of the Phry- 
 gians, and yet in the established geography of 
 Asia Minor it is not known by this name ; the 
 Gallic occupation having caused it to be called 
 Galatia. From the western limits ofGalatia, 
 however, as far as Lydia, Phrygia still confined 
 upon Bith)mia on the north. " The Phryges 
 were of Thracian origin, according to Strabo; 
 and their first establishments, from the time that 
 Gordius and Midas reigned over this nation, 
 were towards the sources of the Sangar, which 
 divided their territory from Bithynia, according 
 to the report of the same author. It is to this part, 
 although at first but of small extent compared 
 with its subsequent expansion, that the name of 
 the greater Phrygia is given by distinction from 
 a Phrygia Minor, which encroached on Mysia 
 towards the Hellespont, and was thus denomi- 
 nated from Phrygians who occupied this coun- 
 try after the destruction of Troy. The testi- 
 mony of Strabo is explicit; and if the Trojans 
 are called Phrygians by Virgil, they became so 
 by usurpation ; and that accidental event will not 
 justify us in obliterating the distinction between 
 Mysia and Phrygia as provinces. But by a 
 dismemberment which the kingdom of Bithynia 
 suffered on the part of the Romans, and to the 
 advantage of the kings of Pergamus, this part of 
 the territory, which was Phrygian, assumed 
 under these kings the name of Epictetus, or 
 257 
 
PH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PI 
 
 Phrygia, by acquisition. The territory which 
 Phrygia possessed towards the south, and con- 
 tiguous to Pisidia and Lycia, appears to have 
 been called Paroreias ; denoting it in the Greek 
 to be in the vicinity of mountains. In the sub- 
 division of provinces that took place in the time 
 of Constantine, we distinguish two Phrygias : 
 one surnamed Pacatiana ; the other Salutaris ; 
 and Laodicea appears to have been metropolis 
 in the first, and S3^nnada in the second." D'An- 
 ville. Lycaonia was also considered to be but 
 a subdivision of this extensive province. This 
 country was at different times a separate state, 
 and successively a constituent part of the king- 
 dom ofPergamus and of the praetorian province 
 of Asia. Of Phrygia Proper the capital cities 
 are Synnada, Apamea, and Cotygeum ; of Phry- 
 gia Epictetos, Cibyria; and those of Lycaonia 
 and Galatia may be seen under those articles. 
 In its geographical features this country was 
 not distinguished for its rivers, though the Ly- 
 ons had in it the greater part of its course ; the 
 Halys formed in part its eastern boundary ; and 
 the Masander with the Marsyas rose on its 
 western confines. The Taurus mountains, 
 however, constituted a striking object on the 
 southern limits, w^hich they defined along the 
 borders of Pamphylia. Cybele was the chief 
 deity of the country, and her festivals were ob- 
 served with the greatest solemnity. The most 
 remarkable towns, besides Troy, were Laodice, 
 Hierapolis, and Synnada. The invention of 
 the pipe of reeds, and of all sorts of needle- work, 
 is attributed to the inhabitants, who are repre- 
 sented by some authors as stubborn, but yielding 
 to correction, (hence Phryx verberatus melior,) 
 as imprudent, effeminate, servile, and voluptu- 
 ous ; and to this Virgil seems to allude, JSn. 
 9, V. 617. The Phrygians, like all other na- 
 tions, were called Barbarians by the Greeks ; 
 their music {Phrygii canius) was of a grave 
 and solemn nature, when opposed to the brisker 
 and more cheerful Lydian airs, Mela, 1, c. 19. 
 —Strab. 2, &.c..—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 429, &c.— 
 Cic. 7, ad fam. ep, 16. — Place. 27. — Dio. 1, c. 
 
 50.— Plin. 8, c. m.—Horat. 2, od. 9, v. 16. 
 
 II. A city of Thrace. 
 
 PHTmA, a town of Phthiotis, at the east of 
 mount Othrys in Thessaly, where Achilles was 
 born, and from which he is often called Pkthius 
 Her OS. Horat. 4, Od. 6, v. 4:.— Ovid. Met. 13, 
 V. 156.— MeZa, 2, c. 3. 
 
 Phthiotis, a small province of Thessaly, be- 
 tween the Pelasgicus Sinus and the Maliacus 
 Sinus, Magnesia, and mount ffita. It was also 
 called Achaia. Pans. 10, c. 8. " Phthiotis, 
 according to Strabo, included all the southern 
 portion of Thessaly as far as mount CEla and 
 the Maliac gulf. To the west it bordered on 
 Dolopia, and on the east reached the confines of 
 Magnesia. Referring to the geographical ar- 
 rangement adopted by Homer, we shall find 
 that he comprised within this extent of territory 
 the districts of Phthia and Hellas properly so 
 called, and, generally speaking, the dominions 
 of Achilles, together with those of Protesilaus 
 and Eurypylus. Many of his commentators 
 have imagined that Phthia was not to be dis- 
 tinguished from the divisions of Hellas and 
 Achaia, also mentioned by him ; but other cri- 
 tics, as Strabo observes, were of a different opi- 
 nion, and the expressions of the poet certainly 
 258 
 
 lead us to adopt that notion in preference to 
 the other. 
 
 Oi r' sX')(ov (pdir}Vj fid' 'EXAdJa KaWiyvvaiKu. 
 
 Jl. B.6S3. 
 
 ^evyov iiTsiT dnavevde 6s' 'EWiiSog evpvyopoiOj 
 
 11. 1. 478. 
 
 Again, it has been doubted, v/hether under the 
 name of Hellas he meant to designate a tract of 
 country or a city. Those who mclined to the 
 former interpretation, applied the term to that 
 portion of Thessaly which lay between Pharsa- 
 lus and Thebese Phthiotiae; whilst those who 
 contended for the latter, identified it with the 
 ruins of Hellas, in the vicinity of Pharsalus, 
 close to the river Enipeus and the town of Me- 
 litaea." Cram. 
 
 Phycus, {v,7ilis,) a promontory near Gyrene, 
 now called Ras-al-sern. Lucan. 9. 
 
 Phylace, I. a town of Thessaly, built by 
 Phylacus. Protesilaus reigned there, from 
 whence he is often called Phylacides. Jjucan. 
 6, V. 252. — -II. Atov/n of Arcadia. Pans. 1, 
 
 c. 54. III. A town of Epirus. Liv. 45, 
 
 c. 26. 
 
 Phyle, a. well-fortified village of Attica, at a 
 little distance from Athens. C. Nep. in Thras. 
 " It was celebrated in the history of Athens as 
 the scene of Thrasybulus^ first exploits in behalf 
 of his oppressed country, and was situated about 
 100 stadia from Athens, according to Diodorus, 
 but Demosthenes estimates the distance at more 
 than 120 stadia. It belonged to the tribe CEneis. 
 The fortress of Phyle, according to Sir W. 
 Gell, is now Bigla Castro. ' It is situated on a 
 lofty precipice, and, though small, must have 
 been almost impregnable, as it can only be ap- 
 proached by an isthmus on the east. Hence is 
 a most magnificent view of the plain of Athens, 
 with the acropolis and Hymettus, and the sea in 
 the distance.' Dodwell maintains that its modern 
 name is Argiro Castro. He describes at length 
 the ruins of the fortress. The town was placed 
 near the foot of the castle or acropolis ; some 
 traces of it yet remain, which consist of the 
 foundations of a square tower, and a transverse 
 wall to guard the pass, and several large blocks 
 scattered about." Cram. 
 
 Physcos, a town of Caria, opposite Rhodes. 
 Strab. 14. 
 
 PicENi, the inhabitants of Picenum, called 
 also Picentes. They received their name from 
 Picus, a bird by whose auspices they had set- 
 tled in that part of Italy. Ital. 8, v. 425. — 
 Strah. b.—Mela, 2, c. 4. 
 
 PiCENTiA, the capital of the Picentini. 
 
 PicentIni, a people of Italy, between Luca- 
 nia and Campania, on the Tuscan Sea. They 
 " occupied an inconsiderable extent of territory 
 from the promontory of Minerva to the mouth 
 of the river Silarus. We are informed by Stra- 
 bo that they were a portion of !he inhabitants of 
 Picenum, whom the Romans transplanted thi- 
 ther to people the shores of the gulf of Posidonia 
 or Paestum. It is probable that their removal 
 took place after the conquest of Picenum, and 
 the complete subjugation of this portion of an- 
 cient Campania, then occupied by the Samnites. 
 According to the same writer, the Picentini 
 were at a subsequent period compelled by the 
 
PI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PI 
 
 Romans to abandon the few towns which they 
 possessed, and to reside in villages and hamlets, 
 in consequence of having sided with Hannibal 
 in the second Punic war. As a further punish- 
 ment, they were excluded from military service, 
 and allowed only to perform the duties of cou- 
 riers and messengers." Cravi. — Sil. It, 8, v. 
 450.-Tacit.H. 4, c. 62. 
 
 PicENCjM, or PicENUs, AGER, a couulry of Italy, 
 near the Umbrians and Sabines, on the borders 
 of the Adriatic. ''It may be considered as li- 
 mited to the north by the river Msis. To the 
 west it was separated from Umbria and the Sa- 
 bine country by the central chain of the Appe- 
 nines. Its boundary to the south was the river 
 Matrinus, if we include in this division the Prse- 
 lulii, a small tribe confined between the Matri- 
 nus and Helvinus. Little has been ascertained 
 respecting the Picentes, except the fact that they 
 were a colony of the Sabines, established under 
 the auspices of the ancient Picus, a well-known 
 character in the Latin mytholog}'-, who trans- 
 mitted his name to his colonists. But the Sa- 
 bines were not apparently the first or sole pos- 
 sessors of the country. The Siculi, Liburni, 
 and Umbri, according to Pliny, the Pelasgi, as 
 Silius ItalicuG reports, and the Tyrrheni, ac- 
 cording to Strabo, all at different periods formed 
 settlements in that part of Italy. The conquest 
 of Picenum cost the Romans but little trouble : 
 it was effected about 484 U. C. not long after 
 the expedition of Pyrrhus into Italy ; when 
 360,000 men, as Pliny assures us, submitted to 
 the Roman authorities. From the same writer 
 we learn, that Picenum constituted the fifth re- 
 gion in the division of Augustus. This province 
 was considered as one of the most fertile parts 
 of Italy. The produce of its fruit trees was par- 
 ticularly esteemed." Cram. — Liv. 21, c. 6, 1, 
 22, c. 9, 1. 27, c. 43. Sil. 10, v. 3\3.—Horat. 2, 
 sat. 3, V. 122.— Mart. 1, ep. 44. 
 
 PicTiE, or PicTi, a people of Scythia, called 
 also Agathyrsa. They received this name from 
 their paintingtheir bodies with different colours, 
 10 appear more terrible in the eyes of their ene- 
 mies. A colony of these, according to Servius, 
 Virgil's commentator, emigrated to the northern 
 parts of Britain, where they still preserved their 
 name and savage manners, but they are men- 
 tioned only by later writers. Of course this is 
 to be viewed but as a theory, and that but ill 
 sustained. The opinions in regard to these peo- 
 ple are numerous, without leading, or promis- 
 ing to lead, to any satisfactory, not to say, use- 
 ful result. Vid. Caledonia. Marcell. 27, c. 18. 
 — Claudian. de Hon. cons. v. 54. — Plin. 4, c. 
 \2.—Mela, 2, c. 1. 
 
 PicTAVi, or PiCTONES, a people of Gaul, in 
 the modern country of Poictou. Cas. 7, Bell. 
 G. c. 4. 
 
 PiERES, a people of Thrace, on the east bank 
 of the Strymon-. Vid. Pieria. 
 
 PiERiA, a region of Macedonia. " The na- 
 tural boundary of Pieria toward Perrhsebia, the 
 contiguous district of Thessaly to the west, was 
 the great chain of Olympus, which, beginning 
 from the Peneus, closely follows the coast of 
 Pieria till beyond Dium, where it strikes off in 
 a north-west direction towards the interior of 
 Macedonia. This was one of the most interest- 
 ing parts of Macedonia ; both in consideration 
 of the traditions to which it has given birth, as 
 
 being the first seat of the Muses, and the birth- 
 place of Orpheus ; and also of the important 
 events which occurred there at a later period, 
 involving the destiny of the Macedonian em- 
 pire, and many other parts of Greece. The 
 name of Pieria, which was known to Homer, 
 
 Yiiepiriv <5' tiri^aua koX ^Hnadiriv ipareivfiv. 
 
 II. S. 226. 
 
 was derived apparently from the Pieres, a Thra- 
 cian people, who were subsequently expelled by 
 the Temenidae, the conquerors of Macedonia, 
 and driven north beyond the Strymon and 
 mount Pangaeus, where they formed a new set- 
 tlement. The boundaries which historians and 
 geographers have assigned to this province 
 vary ; for Strabo, or rather his epitomizer, in- 
 cludes it between the Haliacmon and Axius. 
 Livy also seems to place it north of Dium, while 
 most authors ascribe that town to Pieria. Pto- 
 lemy gives the name of Pieria to ail the coun- 
 try between the mouth of the Peneus and that 
 of the Lydias ; and, in fact, if it was not to be 
 so defined, we should not know under what 
 division to class this extent of coast, which cer- 
 tainly appertains to Macedonia. Herodotus and 
 Thuc3^dides have not determined the limits of 
 Pieria ; but the former rather leads us to sup- 
 pose he extends it to the Peneus. Upon the 
 whole, therefore, it will be safer to adhere to 
 the arrangement of Ptolemy." Cram.^ 
 
 PiERUs, I. a mountain of Thessaly, sacred to 
 the Muses, who were from thence, as some 
 
 imagine, called Pierides. II. A river of 
 
 Achaia, in Peloponnesus. III. A town of 
 
 Thessaly. Paus. 7, c. 21. — r-IV. A moun- 
 tain, with a lake of the same name, in Mace- 
 donia. 
 
 PiGRUM MARE, a name applied to the North- 
 ern Sea, from its being frozen. The word Pi- 
 gra is applied to the Palus Maeotis. Ovid. 4, 
 Pont. 10, V. &\.—Plin. 4, c. \Z.— Tacit. G. 45. 
 
 PiMPLA, a mountain of Macedonia, with a 
 fountain of the same name, on the confines of 
 Thessaly, near Olympus, sacred to the Muses, 
 who on that account are often called Pimplece 
 and PimpleadSs. Horat. 1, od. 26, v. 9. — Strab. 
 10.— Martial. 12, ep. 11, v. 3.— Stat. I, Sylv. 4, 
 V. 26, Sylv. 2, v. 36. 
 
 PiNARUs, or PiNDUs, now Deliso2i, a river fall- 
 ing into the sea near Issus, after flowing be- 
 tween Cilicia and Syria. Dionys. Per. 
 
 PiNcuM, a town of Moesia Superior, now 
 Gradisca. 
 
 PiNDENissus, a town of Comagene, near the 
 base of the Amanus Mons. Cicero, when pro- 
 consul in Asia, besieged it for 25 days, and took 
 it. Cic. ad. M: Ccslium. ad Fam. 2, ep. 10. 
 
 PiNDUs, I. a mountain, or rather a chain of 
 mountains, in Greece. " The Greeks applied 
 this name to the elevated chain which separates 
 Thessaly from Epirus, and the waters falling 
 into the Ionian Sea and Ambracian gulf, from 
 those streams which discharge themselves into 
 the jEgean. Towards the north, it joined the 
 great Illyrian and Macedonian ridges of Bora 
 and Scardus, while to the south it was con- 
 nected with the ramifications of (Eta, and the 
 jEtolian and Acarnanian mountains. The most 
 frequented passage from northern Epirus into 
 Thessaly appears to have led over that part of 
 the chain of Pindusto which the name oi mons 
 S59 
 
PI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PI 
 
 Cercetius was attached. And if, as is very like- 
 ly, Livy again refers to it under the corrupt 
 name of mons Citius, it must have aiforded a 
 passage over one of its summits from Macedo- 
 nia into Epirus. From Pouqueville's account 
 this passage appears to be slill frequented by 
 those who cross from Epirus into Macedonia ; 
 and he himself proceeded by that route on his 
 way to Greuno, which is to be considered as re- 
 presenting the ancient Elimea. In the map 
 which accompanies his work the mountain 
 bears the name of Zygos, or Ian Cantara." 
 
 Cram. II. a town of Doris in Greece, called 
 
 also Cyphas. It was watered by a small river 
 of the same name, which falls into the Cephi- 
 sus near Lilaea. Herodot. 1, c. 56. 
 
 PiR^us, or Piraeus, a celebrated harbour 
 at Athens. Vid. Athence. 
 
 Pisa, a town of Elis, on the Alpheus, at the 
 west of the Peloponnesus, founded by Pisus the 
 son of Perieres and grandson of iEolus. Its 
 inhabitants accompanied Nestor to the Trojan 
 war, and they enjoyed long the privilege of pre- 
 siding at the Olympic games which were cele- 
 brated near their city. This honourable ap- 
 pointment was envied by the people of Elis, 
 who made war against the Piseans, and, after 
 many bloody battles, took their city and totally 
 demolished it. It was at Pisa that CEnomaus 
 murdered the suitors of his daughter, and that 
 he himself was conquered by Pelops. The in- 
 habitants were called Pisai. Some have doubt- 
 ed the existence of such a place as Pisa, but 
 this doubt originates from Pisa's having been 
 destroyed in so remote an age. The horses of 
 Pisa were famous. The year on which the 
 Olympic games were celebrated was often 
 called Pisaus annus, and the victory which 
 was obtained there was called Pisecs ramus 
 olives. Vid. Olympia. Strab. 8. — Ovid. Trist. 
 2, V. 386, 1. 4, el. 10, v. 95.— MeZa, 'H.— Virg. 
 G. 3. V. \%Q.—Stat. Theb. 7, v. 417.— Paws. 
 6, c. '22. 
 
 Pis^, a town of Etruria, built by a colony 
 from Pisa in the Peloponnesus. The inhabit- 
 ants were called Pisani. " The origin of Pisa 
 is lost amidst the fables to which the Trojan 
 war give rise, and which are common to so ma- 
 ny Italian cities. If we are to believe a tradition 
 recorded by Strabo,it owed its foundation to some 
 of the followers of Nestor, in their wanderings 
 after the fall of Troy. The poets have not failed 
 to adopt this idea. Servius reports, that Cato 
 had not been able to discover who occupied Pisa 
 before the Tyrrheni under Tarcho, with the ex- 
 ception of the Teutones. From which account 
 it might be inferred, that the most ancient pos- 
 sessors of Pisa were of Celtic origin. Dionysius 
 of Halicarnassus names it among the towns oc- 
 cupied by thePelasgi in the territory of the Sicu- 
 li. The earliest mention we have of this city in 
 the Roman history is in Polybius, from whom 
 we collect, as well as from Livy, that its harbour 
 was much frequented by the Romans in their 
 communication with Sardinia, Gaul, and Spain. 
 It was here that Scipio landed his army when 
 returning from the mouths of the Rhone to op- 
 pose Hannibal in Italy. It became a colony 572 
 A. U. C. Strabo speaks of it as having been 
 formerly an important naval station : in his day 
 it was still a very flourishingcommercialtown, 
 from the supplies of limber which it furnished 
 260 
 
 to the fleets, and the costly marbles which the 
 neighbouring quarries afforded for the splendid 
 palaces and villas of Rome. Its territory pro- 
 duced wine, and the species of wheat called 
 siligo. The Portus Pisanus was ar the mouth 
 of the Arno. We learn from Strabo, that for- 
 merly it stood at the junction of the Ausar and 
 Arnus, the Serchio and Ar7io, but now they 
 both flow into the sea by separate channels. 
 Some indication of the junction of these rivery 
 seems preserved by the name ot'Osari, attached 
 to a little stream or ditch which lies between 
 theni." Cram. In the middle ages the Pisani 
 became a great people among the small but in- 
 dependent and illustrious republics of Italy. 
 Their fleets, which covered the mosi distant 
 seas then known, bore equally the fame of their 
 prowess and the benefits of their commercial 
 enterprize and skill ; and the expulsion of the 
 Saracens from the islands of the Mediterra- 
 nean, was the work of their valour and their 
 strength. Having embraced the Ghibeline par- 
 ty in Florence, and being continually engaged 
 in wars with the republic of Florence principal- 
 ly for this cause, and with the Genoese from 
 motives of commercial jealousy, the Pisani lo.st 
 at last their state in Italy, and Pisa now remains 
 deserted amid her palaces, ennobled by a thou- 
 sand recollections of early power and splendour, 
 a magnificent solitude. 
 
 PisATA, or PisiEi, the inhabitants of Pisa in 
 the Peloponnesus. 
 
 PisADRUs, now Foglia, a river of Picenum, 
 with a town called Pisaurum, now Pesaro, 
 which became a Roman colony in the consul- 
 ship of Claudius Pulcher. The town was des- 
 troyed by an earthquake in the beginning of 
 the reign of Augustus. Mela, 2, c. 4. — Catull. 
 82.— Plin. 3.—Liv. 39, c. 44, 1. 41, c. 27. 
 
 PisiDiA, an inland country of Asia Minor, 
 between Phrygia, Pamphylia, Galatia, and 
 Isauria. It was rich and fertile. The inhabit- 
 ants were called PisidcE. Cic. de Div. 1, c. 1. 
 —Mela, 1, c. 2.— Strab. 12.— Liv. 37, c. 54 
 and 56. 
 
 PisoNis Villa, a place near Baiae in Cam- 
 pania which the emperor Nero often frequent- 
 ed. Tacit. Ann. 1. 
 
 PisTORiA, now Pistoja, a town of Etruria, at 
 the foot of the Appenines, north-east of Pisa 
 and Luca, and north-w^est of Florentia, where 
 Catiline was defeated. Sallust. Cat. 57. — Plin. 
 3, c. 4. 
 
 PiTANE, I. a town of ^olia in Asia Minor, 
 between the Evenus and the Caicus, at the 
 mouth of the former river opposite Lesbos. 
 LMcan. 3, v. 305.— Strab. 13.— Vitruv. 2, c. 3. 
 
 -~Mela,l, C.18.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 357. II. 
 
 A town of Laconia. Pindar, ol. 6, v. 46. 
 
 PiTHRCusA. Vid. ^naria. 
 
 PiTTHEA, a town near Troezene. Hence the 
 epithet of Pittheus in Ovid. Met. 14, v. 296. 
 
 PiTULANi, a people of Umbria. Their chiel 
 town was called Pitulum. 
 
 PiTYONEsus, a small island on the coast ot 
 Peloponnesus, near Epidaurus. Plin. 
 
 PiTYUs, (untis,) now Pitchinda, a town ot 
 Colchis, at the mouth of a small stream, which, 
 rising in the Corax mons, fell into the Euxine. 
 Plin. 6, c. 5. 
 
 PiTYiJSA, a small island on the coast of Ar- 
 golis. Plin. 4, c. 12. Two small islands in 
 
PL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PL 
 
 the Mediterranean, near the coast of Spain, 
 of which the larger was called Ebusus, and 
 the smaller Ophiusa, now Yvica and Formen- 
 tara, to the soulh-west of the Balearic isles. 
 Mela, 2, c. 7. — SLrab. — Plin, 3, c. 5. 
 
 Placentia, now called Piacenza, an ancient 
 town and colony of Italy, at the confluence of 
 the Trebia and Po. " It was colonized by the 
 Romans v/ith Cremona 535 U. C. to serve as a 
 bulwark against the Gauls, and to oppose the 
 threatened approach of Hannibal, lis utility 
 in this latter respect was fully proved, by afford- 
 ing a secure retreat to the Roman general after 
 the battle of the Ticinus, and more especially 
 after the disaster of the Trebia. Placentia 
 withstood all the efforts of the victorious Han- 
 nibal, and, eleven years after, the attempts which 
 his brother Asdrubal made to obtain possession 
 of it. The resistance which it offered to the lat- 
 ter caused a delay which led to his overthrow, 
 and thus eventually perhaps saved the empire." 
 Cram. 
 
 Planasia, I. a small island on the Tyrrhene 
 
 Sea. II. Another on the coast of Gaul, where 
 
 Tiberius ordered Agrippa, the grandson of Au- 
 gustus, to be put to death. Tacit. Ann. 1. c. 3. 
 III. A town on the Rhone. 
 
 PLAT.EA, and E, (arum,) a town of BoBotia, 
 near mount Citheeron, on the confines of Mega- 
 ris and Attica. " The Plataans, animated by a 
 spirit of independence, had early separated them- 
 selves from the Boeotian confederacy , conceiving 
 the objects of this political union to be hostile to 
 their real interests; and had, in consequence of 
 the enmity of the latter city, been induced to 
 place themselves under the protection of Athens. 
 Grateful for the services which they received on 
 this occasion from that power, they testified their 
 zeal in its behalf, by sending a thousand soldiers 
 to Marathon, who thus shared the glory of that 
 memorable day. The Plataeans also manned 
 some of the Athenian vessels at Artemisium, 
 and fought in several battles which took place 
 off that promontory ; though not at Salamis, as 
 they had returned to their homes after the 
 Greeks withdrew from the Euripus, in order to 
 place their families and valuables in safety, and 
 could not therefore arrive in time. They also 
 fought most bravely in the great battle which 
 took place near their city against Mardonius, 
 the Persian general, and earned the thanks of 
 Pausanias and the confederate Greek command- 
 ers, for their gallant conduct on this as well as 
 other occasions. The Persian army consisted 
 of 300,000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped 
 with their lives by flight. The Grecian army, 
 which v/as greatly inferior, lost but few men, and 
 among these 91 Spartans, 52 Athenians, and 
 16 Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the 
 number of the slain. The plunder which the 
 Greeks obtained in the Persian camp was im- 
 mense. Pausanias received the tenth of all the 
 spoils, on account of his uncommon valour dur- 
 ing the engagement, and the rest were reward- 
 ed each according to their respective meiit. This 
 battle was fought on the 22d of September, the 
 same day, as the battle of Mycale, 479 B. C. 
 and by it Greece was totally delivered for ever 
 from the continual alarms to which she was ex- 
 posed on account of the Persian invasions, and 
 from that time none of the princes of Persia 
 dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the 
 
 Hellespont. Plataea, which was burnt by the 
 army of Xerxes, was soon restored, with the 
 assistance of Athens, and the alliance between 
 the two cities was cemented more closely than 
 before. In the third year of the war, a large 
 Peloponnesian force, under Archidamus king of 
 Sparta, arrived under the walls of Platasa, and 
 having summoned the inhabitants to abandon 
 their alliance with Athens, proceeded, on their 
 refusal, to lay siege to the town. Worn out at 
 length by hunger and fatigue, those Plataeans 
 who remained in the town were compelled to 
 yield to their persevering and relentless foes, 
 who instigated by the implacable resentment of 
 the Thebans. caused all who surrendered to be 
 put to death, and razed the town to the ground, 
 with the exception of one building, constructed 
 out of the ruins of the city, which they con- 
 secrated to Juno, and employed as a house of re- 
 ception for travellers. Though it seems to have 
 been the intention of Philip, and also of Alex- 
 ander, to restore Plataea, this was not carried 
 into effect till the reign of Cassander, who is 
 said to have rebuilt both Thebes and Plataea at 
 the same time. Dicaearchus, who lived about 
 that period, represents the town as still existing, 
 when he says, ' The inhabitants of Plataea have 
 nothing to say for themselves, except that they 
 are colonists of Athens, and that the battle be- 
 tween the Persians and the Greeks took place 
 near their town.' ' The ruins of Plataea,' ac- 
 cording to Dr. Clarke, ' are situated upon a pro- 
 montory projecting from the base of Citha^ron. 
 The place has now the usual appellation bes- 
 towed upon the ruins of Grecian citadels ; it is 
 called PalcBo Castro. The walls are of the 
 earliest kind of military structure, consisting of 
 very considerable masses, evenly hewn, and well 
 built.' ' The walls of Plateea,' says Sir W. 
 Gell, ' may be traced near the little village of 
 Kockla, in their circuit. The whole forms a 
 triangle, having a citadel of the same form in the 
 southern angle, with a gate towards the moun- 
 tain at the point. The north-western angle 
 seems to have been the portion which was re- 
 stored after the destruction of the city. The 
 north side is about 1025 yards in length, the 
 west 1154, and the east 1120. It is about six 
 geographical miles from the Cadmeia of The- 
 bes. There were two gates on the west side, 
 and as many on the east." Cram. 
 
 Plavis, a river of Venetia, in Italy. For the 
 northern half of its course it formed the boun- 
 dary between Rhaetia and Venetia. crossing the 
 line and belonging wholly to the latter country, 
 some distance south of Feltria. After entering 
 Venetia, its course was south-east to the Adri- 
 atic, into which it discharged itself north of the 
 Portus Venetus. It is now the Piava. 
 
 PLEMRryRiDM, uow Massa Oliveri, a pro- 
 montory with a small castle of that name, in 
 the bay of Syracuse. Virs[. ^n. 3, v. 693. 
 
 Pleumosii, a people of Belgium, the inhabit- 
 ants of modern Tournay. Cas. G. 5, c. 38. 
 
 Plinthine, a to\^ni of Eg}'pt on the coast, 
 west of Alexandria and the Mareotis Lacus. 
 It gave its name to that part of the Mediterra- 
 nean on the coast of which it stood. 
 
 Plinthenetes sinus, that part of the Me- 
 diterranean which extended along the coast of 
 Africa, from the bay of Alexandria and the 
 Avestern mouths of the Nile, as far as the limits 
 261 
 
PO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PO 
 
 of Egypt towards the west, and the borders of 
 Marmarica. 
 
 Plotinopolis, L a town of Thrace, built by 
 the emperor Trajan, and called after Plotina, 
 the founder's wife. It stood on the Hebrus, 
 about midway between Adrianopolis,which w^as 
 on the other or eastern side of rhe river, and 
 Tiajanopolis. II. Another in Dacia. 
 
 Pnyx, a place of Athens, set apart by Solon 
 for holding assemblies. Vid. AUiencB. 
 
 PcBcij.E, a celebrated portico at Athens. Vid. 
 AlMna. 
 
 PcENi, a name given to the Carthaginians. 
 It seems to be a corruption of the word Phmii, 
 or Phcenices, as the Carthaginians were of PhcE- 
 nician origin. Serv. ad Virg. 1, v. 302. 
 
 PoGON, a harbour of the Troezeneans on the 
 coast of the Peloponnesus. It received this 
 name on account of its appearing to come for- 
 ward before the town of Trcezene, as the beard 
 (ffwyw)/) does from the chin. Strab. 8. — Mela, 2. 
 
 Pol A, a city of Istria, founded by the Col- 
 chians, and afterwards made a Roman colony, 
 and called Pietas Julia. The Colchian ori- 
 gin of this place belongs to the fable by which 
 the Absyrlides are supposed to have'derived 
 their name from the unfortunate brother of Me- 
 dea. It was by far the most important place in 
 Histria. Plin. 3, c. 2.— Mela, 2, c. S.^Strab. 1 
 and 5, 
 
 PoLEMONiuM, now Vatija^ a town of Pon- 
 tus, at the east of the mouth of the Thermo- 
 don. 
 
 PoLicHNA, I. a town of Troas, on the Ida. 
 
 Herodot. 6, c. 28. II. Another at Crete. 
 
 Thucyd. 2, c, 85. 
 
 PoLLENTiA, 1. now Poleuza, a town of Ligu- 
 ria in Italy, famous for wool. There was a cele- 
 brated battle fought there between the Romans 
 and Alaric king of the Goths, about the 403d 
 year of the Christian era, in which the former, 
 according to some, obtained the victory, Mela^ 
 2, c. 7.— Plin. 8, c. 48.— Suet. Tib. Sl.—Sil. 8, 
 
 V. 598.— Cic. 11, Fam. 13. II. A town of 
 
 Majorca. Plin. & Mela. III. of Picenum. 
 
 Liv. 39, c. 44, 1. 41, c. 27. 
 
 PoLUscA, a town of Latium, formerly the ca- 
 pital of the Volsci. The inhabitants were called 
 Pollustini. Liv. 2, c. 39. 
 
 PoLYANUs, a mountain of Macedonia, near 
 Pindus. Strab. 
 
 POMETIA, POMETII, and POMETIA SUESSA. Vid. 
 
 Suessa. 
 
 PoMPEH, or, according to the Greek form, 
 Pompeia, a city of Cainpania. " Tradition as- 
 cribed the origin of Pompeii, as well as that of 
 Herculaneum, to Hercules; and like that city, 
 it was in turn occupied by the Oscans, Etrus- 
 cans, Samnites, and Romans. At the instiga- 
 tion of the Samnites, Pompeii and Herculaneum 
 took an active part in the Social war, but were 
 finally reduced by Sylla. In the general peace 
 which followed, Pompeii obtamed the rights of 
 a municipal town, and became also a military 
 colony, at the head of which was Publius Sj^lla 
 nephew of the dictator. Other colonies appear 
 to nave been subsequently sent here under Au- 
 gustus and Nero. In tl;e reign of the latter, a 
 bloody affray occurred at Pompeii during the 
 exhibition of a fight of gladiators, between the 
 inhabitants of that town and those of Nuceria, 
 in which many lives were lost. The Pompeiani 
 Q62 
 
 were in consequence deprived of these shows 
 for ten years, and several individuals were ba- 
 nished. Shortly after we hear of the destruction 
 of a considerable portion of the city by an earth- 
 quake. Of the more complete catastrophe,which 
 buried Pompeii under the ashes of Vesuvius, 
 we have no positive account ; but it is reason- 
 ably conjectured that iiwascaused by the famous 
 eruption under the reign of Titus. The ruins of 
 Pompeii were accidentally discovered in 1748 ; 
 consequently long after the time of Cluverius." 
 Cram. " In other times," says Eustace, " and 
 in other places, one single edifice, a temple, a 
 theatre, a tomb, that had escaped the wreck of 
 ages, would have enchanted us : nay, an arch, 
 the remnant of a wall, even one solitary column, 
 was beheld with veneration ; but to discover a 
 single ancient house, the abode of a Roman in 
 his privacy, the scene of his domestic hours,was 
 an object of fond, but hopeless longing. Here, 
 not a temple, nor a theatre, nor a column, nor a 
 house but a whole city rises before us, untouch- 
 ed, unaltered, the very same as it was eighteen 
 hundred years ago, when inhabited by Romans. 
 We range through the same streets, tread the 
 very same pavement, behold the same walls, en- 
 ter the same doors, and repose in the same 
 apartments. We are surrounded by the same 
 objects, and out of the same windows we con- 
 template the same scenery. While you are 
 wandering through the abandoned rooms, you 
 may, without any great effort of imagination, 
 expect to meet some of the former inhabitants, 
 or perhaps the master of the house himself, and 
 almost feel like intruders who dread the appear- 
 ance of any of the family. In the streets you 
 are afraid of turning a corner, lest you should 
 jostle a passenger ; and on entering a house, 
 the least sound startles, as if the proprietor was 
 coming out of the back apartments. The tra- 
 veller may long indulge the illusion, for not a 
 voice is heard, not even the sound of a foot to 
 disturb the loneliness of the place, or to inter- 
 rupt his reflections." 
 
 PoMPEiopoLis, I. a to-uTi of Cilicia, formerly 
 called Soli. This city received its second name 
 from Pompey, who established there such of the 
 pirates of Cilicia as had been admitted to a ca- 
 pitulation in the war carried on against them 
 by that general. D^Anville. It was situated 
 on the river Lamus, near the mouth. Mela, 1, 
 c. 13 II. Another in Paphlagonia, origi- 
 nally called Eupatoria, which name was ex- 
 changed when Pompey conquered Mithridates. 
 
 PoMPELO, a town of Spain, now Pompelwm, 
 the capital of Navarre. Plin. 1, c. 3. 
 
 Pons ^lius, I. was built by the emperor 
 Adrian at Rome. It was the second bridge of 
 Rome in following the current of ihe Tiber. It 
 is still to be seen, the largest and most beautiful 
 
 in Rome. II. iEmylius, an ancient bridge 
 
 at Rome, originally called SiMiciu:^, because 
 built with wood {subliccB). It was raised by 
 Ancus Martins, and dedicated with great pomjj 
 and solemnity by the Roman priests. It was 
 rebuilt with stones by JEmylius Lepidus, whose 
 name it assumed. It was much injured by the 
 overflowing of the river, and the emperor Anto- 
 ninus, who repaired it, made it all with white 
 marble. It was the last of all the bridges of 
 Rome, in following the course of the river, and 
 some vestiges of it mav still be seen. III. 
 
PO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PO 
 
 Aniensis,was built across the river Anio, about 
 three miles from Rome. It was built by the 
 eunuch Narses, and called after him when des- 
 troyed by the Goths. IV. Cestus, was re- 
 built in the reign of Tiberius by a Roman called 
 Cestius Gallus, from whom it received its name, 
 and carried back from an island of the Tiber, to 
 
 which the Fabricius conducted. V. Aure- 
 
 lianus, was built with marble by the emperor 
 
 Antoninus. VI. Armoniensis, was built by 
 
 Augustus, to join the Flaminian to the ^my- ' 
 
 lian road. VII. Bajanus, was built at Baiae 
 
 in the sea by Caligula. It was supported by 
 boats, and measured about six miles in length. 
 
 VIII. Janicularis, received its name from 
 
 its vicinity to mount Janiculum. It is still 
 
 standing. IX. Milvius, was about one mile 
 
 from Rome. Ii was built by the censor ^lius 
 Scaurus. It was near it that Constantine de- 
 feated Maxentius. X. Fabricius, was built 
 
 by Fabricius, and carried to an island of the Ti- 
 ber. XL Gardius, was built by Agrippa. 
 
 XII. Palatinus near mount Palatine, was also 
 called Se/uitorius, because the senators walked 
 over it in procession when they went to consult 
 the Sybillme books. It was begun by M. Fal- 
 vius, and finished in the censorship of L. Mum- 
 mius, and some remains of it are still visible. 
 
 XIII. Trajani, was built by Trajan across the 
 Danube, celebrated for its bigness and magni- 
 ficence. — The emperor built it to assist more ex- 
 peditiously the provinces against the barbarians, 
 bat his successor destroyed it, as he supposed 
 that it would be rather an inducement for the 
 barbarians to invade the empire. It was raised 
 on 20 piers of hewn stones, 150 feet from the 
 foundation, 60 feet broad, and 170 feet distant 
 ■one from the other, extending in length above 
 
 a mile. Some of the pillars are still standing. 
 
 XIV. Another was built by Trajan over 
 
 the Tagus. part of which still remains. Of 
 temporary bridges, that of Caesar over the Rhine 
 
 w-as the most famous. XV. The largest 
 
 single arched bridge known is over the river 
 Elaver in France, called Pons Veteris Brivatis. 
 The pillars stand on two rocks at the distance 
 of 195 feet. The arch is 84 feet high above the 
 
 water. XVI. Suffragiorum, was built in the 
 
 Campus Martins, and received its name be- 
 cause the populace were obliged to pass over 
 it whenever they delivered their suffragCo at the 
 elections of magistrates and officers of the state. 
 XVII. Tirensis, a bridge of Latium, be- 
 tween Arpinum and Mintumae. XVIII. 
 
 Triumphalis, was on the way to the capital, 
 and passed over by those who triumphed. 
 
 XIX. Narniensis joined two mountains near 
 Narnia, built by Augustus, of stupendous 
 height, 60 miles from Rome ; one arch of it re- 
 mains, about 100 feet high. 
 
 PoNTiA, now Ponza, an island ofi" the coast 
 of Latium. "From Li\7- we learn that it re- 
 ceived a Roman colony A. U. C. 441, and that 
 it obtained the thanks of the Roman senate for 
 its zeal and fidelity in the second Punic war. 
 It became afterwards the spot to which the vic- 
 tims of Tiberius and Caligula were secretly 
 conveyed, to be afteru^ards despatched or doom- 
 ed to a perpetual exile : among these might be 
 numbered many Christian martyrs." Cram. 
 _ Pontine, or Pomptin.s; Paludes, an exten- 
 sive piece of marshy land in the country of the 
 
 Volsci, extending south towards Minturnse, 
 " They derive their appellation from Pametmni, 
 a considerable to\\m of the Volsci. Though this 
 city was so opulent as to enable Tarquin to 
 build the Capitol with its plunder, yet it had 
 totally disappeared even before the time of Piiny. 
 It is difficulL to discover the precise date of the 
 origin of these marshes. Homer, and after him 
 Virgil, represent the abode of Circe as an isl- 
 and, and Pliny, alluding to Homer, quotes this 
 opinion, and confirms it b}' the testunony of 
 Theophrastus, who, in the year of Rome 440, 
 gives this island a circumference of eighty stadia 
 or about ten miles. It is not improbable that 
 this vast plain, even now so little raised above 
 the level of the sea, may, like the territory of 
 Ravenna on the eastern coast, have once been 
 covered by the waves. Whatever may have 
 been its state in fabulous times, the same Pliny, 
 relates, on the authority of a more ancient Latin 
 writer, that at an early period of the Roman re- 
 public, the tract of country afterwards included 
 in the marshes contained thirty-three cities, all 
 of which gradually disappeared before the rava- 
 ges of war, or the still more destructive influence 
 of the increasing fens. These fens are occasion- 
 ed by the quantity of water carried into the 
 plain by numberless streams that rise at the foot 
 of the neighbouring moimtains, and for want of 
 suSicient declivity creep sluggishly over the 
 level space, and sometimes stagnate ki pools, or 
 lose themselves in the sands. Appius Claudius, 
 about three hundred years before the Christian 
 era, when employed in carrying his celebrated 
 road across these marshes, made the first attempt 
 to drain them ; and his example was, at long 
 intervals, followed by various consuls, emperors, 
 and kings, do^^•n to the Gothic Theodoric in- 
 clusively. Of the methods employed by Ap- 
 pius, and afterwards by the consul Cethegus, 
 we know little ; though not the road only, but 
 the traces of certain channels dug to draw the 
 water from it, and mounds raised to protect it 
 from sudden swells of water, are traditionally 
 ascribed to the former. Julius Caesar is said to 
 have resolved in his might)' mind a design wor- 
 thy of himself; of turning the course of the Ti- 
 ber from Ostia, and carrying it through the 
 Pomptine territory and marshes to the sea at 
 Terracina, This grand project, which existed 
 only in the mind of the Dictator, perished vrith 
 him, and gave way to the more moderate but 
 more practicable plan of Augustus, who endea- 
 voured to carry off the superfluous waters by 
 opening a canal all along the Via Appia from 
 Forum Appii to the grove of Feronia. It was 
 customary to embark on this canal at night-time, 
 as Strabo relates and Horace practised ; because 
 the vapours that arise from the swamps are less 
 noxious during the coolness of the night than 
 in the heat of Ihe day. The canal opened by 
 Augustus still remains, and is called the Cavata. 
 Nerva resumed the task ; and his glorious suc- 
 cessor Trajan, carried it on during ten years, and 
 with so much activity that the whole extent of 
 country from Trepovti to Tc/racz??r/ was drain- 
 ed, and the Via Appia completely restored, in 
 the third consulate of that emperor. Of the 
 different popes who have revived this useful en- 
 terprise, Boniface II., Martin V., and Sixtus 
 Gluintus, carried it on with a vigour adequate to 
 its importance, and with a magnificence worthy 
 •263 
 
PO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PO 
 
 of the ancient Romans. The glory of finally 
 terminating this grand undertaking, so often at- 
 tempted and so often frustrated, was reserved for 
 the late pontiff Pius VI. who immediately on 
 his elevation to the papal throne turned his at- 
 tention to the Pompline marshes. His success 
 was complete ; this, however, must be under- 
 stood upon the supposition that the canals of 
 communication be kept open, and the beds of 
 the streams be cleared. It is reported that since 
 the last French invasion these necessary pre- 
 cautions have been neglected, and that the wa- 
 ters begin to stagnate again. But it is not to be 
 understood that these marshes presented in eve- 
 ry direction a dreary and forbidding aspect to 
 the traveller or the sportsman who ranged over 
 them. On the side towards the sea they are 
 covered with extensive forests, that ench)se and 
 shade the lakes which border the coasts. These 
 forests extend with little interruption from Os- 
 tia to the promontory of Circe, and consist of 
 oak, ilex, bay, and numberless flowering 
 shrubs." Eustace. 
 
 PoNTUs, I. a country of Asia Minor, bound- 
 ed north by the Euxine Sea ; east by Armenia ; 
 south by Armenia Minor and Cappadocia ; and 
 west by Galatia and Paphlagonia ; from which 
 it was separated by the river Halys. " Pontus 
 was a dismemberment from Cappadocia, as a 
 separate satrapy under the kings of Persia, till 
 it was erected into a kingdom about 300 years 
 before the Christian era. The name of Leuco- 
 Syri, or White Syrians, which was given to the 
 Cappadocians, extended to a people who inha- 
 bited Pontus : and it is plainly seen that the 
 term Pontus distinguished the maritime people 
 from those who dwelt in the Mediterranean 
 country. This great space, extending to Col- 
 chis, formed, under the Roman empire, two pro- 
 vinces : the one, encroaching on Paphlagonia 
 on the side of Sinope, was distinguished by the 
 term Prima, and afterwards by the name of 
 Helenopontus, from Helen, mother of Constan- 
 tine. The other was called Pontus Polemoni- 
 acus, from the name of Polemon, which had 
 been that of a race of kings; the last of which 
 made a formal cession of his state to Nero." 
 D'Anville. It was divided into three parts ac- 
 cording to Ptolemy, Pontus Galaticus, of which 
 Amasia was the capital; Pontus Polemoniacus, 
 from its chief town Polemonium; and Pontus 
 Cappadocius, of which Tapezus was the capi- 
 tal. Continuing for a long time a mere satra- 
 py of the Persian empire, from the accession of 
 Darius Hystaspes to the Persian throne, when 
 its government was bestowed upon Artabazes, 
 one of the conspirators against Smerdis, it be- 
 came at last an independent monarchy; and, 
 under the rule of Mithridates, proved an enemy 
 to Rome as formidable almost as Carthage had 
 been in the better days of the republic. The 
 kingdom of Pontus was in its most flourishing 
 state under Mithridates the Great. When J. 
 Caesar had conquered it, it became a Roman 
 province, though it was often governed by mo- 
 narchs who were tributary to the power of 
 Rome. Under the emperors a res:ular governor 
 was always appointed over it. Pontus produc- 
 ed castors, highly valued among the ancients. 
 Amasea may be considered the capital of the 
 Helenopontus, and was the most considerable 
 of the cities of Pontus. The rivers of this coun- 
 264 
 
 try deserving to be specially enumerated, were 
 the Iris, flowing nearly north through the whole 
 width of the widest part ; the Lycus and the 
 Scylax, its principal branches ; the Halys on 
 the western boundary; and the Thermodon, 
 east of the Iris, remarkable not so much for its 
 length as for its connexion with the traditionary 
 abode of the Amazons. Towards Cappadocia, 
 a range of high mountains skirt the whole ex- 
 tent of Pontus, and distinguish the southern re- 
 gion as a rugged country from the districts on 
 the coast, which was a level region and called 
 Phanarea. A great number of different tribes 
 made up the Pontic population. " There is 
 mention in Xenophon's retreat, of the Drylceas 
 adjacent to Trebisond. These nations received 
 the general name of Chalybes, from being occu- 
 pied in the forging of iron. They are mention- 
 ed by Strabo under the name of Chaldai; and 
 all this country, distributed into deep valleys and 
 precipitate mountains, is still called Keldir. 
 The character of the people corresponded with 
 the face of the country as above described ; 
 which was composed of Hepta-cometce, or seven 
 communities." D'Anville. Pontus as a diocese 
 under the distribution of Constantine, included 
 Bithynia, Galatia, and the Armenias; the capi- 
 tal being Neo-Caesarea, towards the mountains 
 and the country of the Chalybes or Chaldaei. 
 Virg. G. 1, V. b8.—Mela, 1, c. 1 and 19.— 
 Strab. 12. — Cic. pro Leg.— Man. — Appian. — 
 
 Ptol. 5, c. 6. n. A partof Moesia in Europe, 
 
 on the borders of the Euxine Sea, where Ovid 
 was banished, and from whence he wrote his 
 four books of epistles <:/e Ponlo, and his six books 
 de Tristibus. Ovid, de Pont. 
 
 Pontus EuxiNUs. Vid.Euxiniis. 
 
 PopuLONiA, or PopuLONiuM, a town of Etru- 
 ria, near Pisae, destroyed in the civil wars of 
 Sylla. Strd). 5.— Virg. Mn. 10, v. 172.— 
 Mela, 2, c. b.—Plin. 3, c. 5. 
 
 Porta Capena, I. a gate at Rome, which 
 leads to the Appian road. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 
 192. II. Aurelia, a gate at Rome, which re- 
 ceived its name from Aurelius, a consul who 
 made a road which led to Pisa, all along the 
 
 coast of Etruria. III. Asinaria, led to mount 
 
 Coelius. It received its name from the family 
 
 of the Asinii. IV. Carraentalis, was at the 
 
 foot of the capitol, built by Romulus. It was 
 afterwards called Scelerata, because the 300 
 Fabii marched through when they went to fight 
 an enemy, and were killed near the river Cre- 
 
 mera. V. Janualis, was near the temple of 
 
 Janus. VI. Esquilina, was also called Melia, 
 
 Taurica, or Libitinensis, and all criminals who 
 were going to be executed generally passed 
 through, as also dead bodies which were carried 
 
 to be burnt on mount Esquilinus. VII. Fla- 
 
 minia, called also Flumentana, was situate be- 
 tween the capitol and mount durrinalis, and 
 
 through it the Flaminian road passed. -VIII. 
 
 Fontinalis, led to the Campus Martins. It re- 
 ceived its name from the great number of foun- 
 tains that were near it. IX. Navalis, was 
 
 situate near the place where the ships came 
 
 from Ostia. X. Viminalis, was near mount 
 
 Viminalis. XI. Trigemina, called also Os- 
 
 tiensis, led to the town of Ostia. XII. Ca- 
 
 tularia,was near the Carmentalis Porta, at the 
 
 foot of mount Viminalis. XIII. Collatina, 
 
 received its name from its leading to CoUatia. 
 
PR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PS 
 
 -XIV. Collina, called also Quirinalis, 
 
 Agonensis, and Salaria, was near duirinalis 
 Mons. Annibal rode up to this gate and threw 
 a spear into the city. It is to be observed, that 
 at the death of Romulus there were only three 
 or four gates at Rome, but the number was in- 
 creased, and in the time of Pliny there were 
 37, when the circumference of the walls was 
 13 miles and 200 paces. 
 
 PosiDEUM, I. a promontory and town of Ionia, 
 
 where Neptune had a temple. Strab. 14. 
 
 II. A town of Syria, below Libanus. Plm. 5, 
 
 c. 20. III. A town near the Strymon, on 
 
 the borders of Macedonia. Pli7i. 4, c. 10. 
 
 PosiDONiA. Vid. Pastum. 
 
 PosiDONroM, a town or temple of Neptune, 
 near Caenis in Italy, where the straits of Sicily 
 are narrowest, and scarce a mile distant from 
 the opposite shore. 
 
 PoTAMos, a town of Attica, near Sunium. 
 Strai. 9. 
 
 PoTiDSA, a town of Macedonia, situate in 
 the peninsula of Pallene. It was founded by a 
 Corinthian colony, and became tributary to the 
 Athenians, from whom Philip of Macedonia 
 took it. The conqueror gave it to the Olyn- 
 thians to render them more attached to his in- 
 terest. Gassander repaired and enlarged it, and 
 called it Cassandria^ a name which it still pre- 
 serves, and which has given occasion to Livy to 
 say, that Gassander was the original founder of 
 that city, Liv. 44, c. 11. — Demosth. Olijnth. — 
 Strab. I.—Paus. 5, c. ^^.—Mela, 2, c. 2. 
 
 PoTNi-E, I. a town of Boeotia. where Bacchus 
 had a temple. The Potnians having once mur- 
 dered the priest of the god, were ordered by the 
 oracle, to appease his resentment, yearly to offer 
 on his altars a young man. This unnatural 
 sacrifice was continued for some years, till Bac- 
 chus himself substituted a goat, from which cir- 
 cumstance he received the appellation of jE go- 
 bolus and jEgophagus. There was here a 
 fountain, whose waters made horses run mad as 
 soon as they were touched. There were also 
 here certain goddesses called Potniades, on 
 whose altars, in a grove sacred to Geres and 
 Proserpine, victims were sacrificed. It was also 
 usual, at a certain season of the year, to con- 
 duct into the grove young pigs, which were 
 found the following year in the groves of Do- 
 dona. The mares of PotniiK destroyed their 
 master Glaucus, son of Sisyphus. ( Vid. Glau- 
 cus.) Pans. 9, c. 8.— Virg. G. 3, v. 267.— 
 JEHan. V. H. 15, c. 25. II. A town of Mag- 
 nesia, whose pastures gave madness to asses, 
 according to Pliny. 
 
 Pr^neste, a town of Latium, about 21 miles 
 from Rome, built by Telegonus, son of Ulysses 
 and Circe, or, according to others, by Caeculus 
 the son of Vulcan. There was a celebrated 
 temple of Fortune there with two famous ima- 
 ges, as also an oracle, which was long in great 
 repute. Cic. de Div. 2, c. 41. — Virg. JEn. 7, v. 
 Q^Q.—Horat. 3, od. A.— Stat. 1, Sylv. 3. v. 80. 
 
 Pr^etoria, I. a town of Dacia, now Cron- 
 stadt. II. Another. Vid. Augusta. 
 
 Prasias, a lake between Macedonia and 
 Thrace, where were silver mines. Herodot. 5, 
 c.17. 
 
 Prelius, a lake in Tuscany, now Castiglione. 
 Cic. Mil. Tl.—Plin. 3, c. 5. 
 
 Priapus, I. a iowrci of Asia Minor, near ^ 
 
 Part I.— 2 L 
 
 iLampsacus, now Caraboa. Priapus was the 
 
 I chief deity of the place, and from him the town 
 
 received its name, because he had taken refuge 
 
 there when banished from Lampsacus. Strab. 
 
 12.—Plin. 5, c. 32.— Mela, 1, c. 9. 11, An 
 
 island near Ephesus. Plin. 5, c. 31, 
 
 Priene, a maritime town of Asia Minor, at 
 the foot of mount Mycale, one of the twelve in- 
 dependent cities of Ionia, It gave birth to Bias, 
 one of the seven wise men of Greece. It had 
 been built by an Athenian colony. Paus. 7, c. 
 2, 1. 8, c. 24..— Strab. 12, 
 
 Privernum, now Piperno Vecchio, a town of 
 the Volsci in Italy, whose inhabitants were call- 
 ed Privernaies. It became a Roman colony. 
 Liv. 8, c. \Q.— Virg. jEn. 11, v. 540.— Cic. 1, 
 Div. 43. 
 
 PpncHYTA, an island of Campania, in the bay 
 of Puteoli, now Procita. It was situated near 
 Inarima, from which it was said that it had 
 been separated by an earthquake. It received 
 its name, according to Dionysius, from the 
 nurse of JEneas. Virg. JEn. 2, v. 715, — Mela, 
 2, c. 7. — Dionys. Hal. 1. 
 
 Proconnesus, now Marmora, an island of 
 the Propontis, at the north-east of Gyzicus ; also 
 called Elaphonnesus and Neuris. It was fa- 
 mous for its fine marble. Plin. 5, c. 32. — Sirai. 
 13.— Mela, 2, c. 7. 
 
 Promethei Jugum and Antrum, a place on 
 the top of mount Caucasus, in Albania. 
 
 Propontis, a sea which has a coihmunica- 
 tion with the Euxine,by the Thracian Bospho- 
 rus, and with ihe ^gean by the Hellespont. 
 The name designates its position in relation to 
 that of the Ponius Euxinus, being compounded 
 of Trpo and IIoi/Toj, "An isle which it includes, 
 but nearer to Asia than Europe, and of which 
 the modern name is Marmora, communicates 
 this name to the Propontis, which is also called 
 the White Sea, in contradistinction to the name 
 of Black Sea, which is given to the Euxine." 
 D'Anville. 
 
 Prosymna, " a town of Argolis, which Stra- 
 bo places near Midea, and which contained a 
 temple of Juno. The vestiges of this town are 
 to be seen on a hill near the sea, and above the 
 port of Tolone, which it overlooks; those of 
 Midea are more inland ; near the monastery of 
 Agios Adrianos, where there is a Palao Cas- 
 tro on a bold rock, the walls are of ancient 
 masonry." Cram. 
 
 Protei Column^:, a place in the remotest 
 parts of Egypt. Virg. jEn. 11, v. 262. 
 
 Protesilai turris, the monument of Pro- 
 tesilaus, on the Hellespont. Plin. 4, c. 11. — 
 Mela, 2, c. 2. 
 
 Prusa, one of the principal cities of Bithy- 
 nia, situated at the foot of mount Olympus, on 
 the northern side. " This city, afterwards sig- 
 nalized by the residence of the Ottoman sultans 
 before the taking of Constantinople, still pre- 
 serves its name, although the Turks, by their 
 pronunciation, change the P into B, and, re- 
 fusing to begin a word with two consonants, 
 call it Bursa.^' lyAnville. 
 
 Psamathos, a town on the Laconian gulf, 
 also called Araathus. Strabo uses the latter 
 appellation, Pausaniasthe former. Porto Quag- 
 lio probably occupies the site of the ancient 
 town. Cram. 
 
 PsAPffls, " a demus belonging to the tribe 
 265 
 
PT 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PU 
 
 -Mantis, as we learn from an inscription cited by 
 Spon, to the north of Rhamnus. Strabo also 
 states that it was situated near Oropus. The 
 vestiges of Psaphis remain midiscovered, but it 
 is probable they would be found near the pre- 
 sent town of Marcopuli." Cram. 
 
 PsoPHis, " placed by Pausanias at the foot of 
 the chain of mount Erymanthus, from whence 
 descended a river of the same name which 
 flowed near the town, and, after receiving ano- 
 ther small stream called Aroanius, joined the 
 Alpheus on the borders of Elis. Psophis was 
 apparently a city of great antiquity, having pre- 
 viously borne the names of Erymanthus and 
 Phegea. At the time of the Social war it was 
 ill the possession of the Eleans, on whose terri- 
 tory it bordered, as well as on that of the Achae- 
 ans; and, as it was a place of considerable 
 strength, proved a source of great annoyance 
 to the latter people. Philip, king of Macedon, 
 then in alliance with the Achaians, after de- 
 feating the Eleans near Orchomenus, advanced 
 against Psophis, and reaching it in three days 
 from Caphyae, proceeded to assault the town, 
 notwithstanding the great strength of its posi- 
 tion and the presence of a numerous garrison. 
 Such was the suddenness and vigour of the at- 
 tack, that after a short resistance the Eleans 
 fled to the citadel, leaving the assailants in pos- 
 session of the town. The acropolis also not 
 long after capitulated. After this success, Phi- 
 lip made over the conquered town to the Achae- 
 ans, who garrisoned it with their own troops. 
 In the time of Pausanias, Psophis presented no- 
 thing worthy of notice, but the temple of Ery- 
 manthus, the tomb of Alcmaeon, and the ruins 
 of a teniple once sacred to Venus Erycina. The 
 territory of this city extended as far as a spot 
 named Seirse, near the Ladon, where that of 
 Clitor commenced. The remains of Psophis 
 are to be seen near the khan of Tripotamio., so 
 called from the junction of three rivers. Pou- 
 queville observed there several vestiges of the 
 ancient fortifications, the foundations of two 
 temples, a theatre, and the site of the acropolis." 
 Cram. 
 
 PsYCHRUs, a river of Thrace. When sheep 
 drank of its waters they were said always to 
 bring forth black lambs. Aristot. 
 
 PsYLLi, a people of Libya, near the Syrtes, 
 very expert in curing the venomous bite of ser- 
 pents, which had no fatal effect upon them. 
 Strab. n-Dio. 51, c. li.-lAican. 9, v. 894, 
 m.—Herodot. 4, c. 173.— Paws. 9, c. 28. 
 
 Pteleum, " a town of Thessaly, distant, ac- 
 cording to Artemidorus, one hundred and ten 
 stadia from Alos. Homer ascribes it to Prote- 
 silaus, together with the neighbouring town of 
 Atron. Diodorus notices the fact of this city 
 having been declared free by Demetrius Polior- 
 cetes when at war with Cassander. In Livy, 
 it is nearly certain that for Pylleon we should 
 read Pteleon, as this place is mentioned in con- 
 nexion with Antron. Antiochus landed here 
 with the intention of carrying on the war 
 against the Romans in Greece. Elsewhere 
 the same historian informs us that Pteleon, hav- 
 ing been deserted by its inhabitants, was com- 
 pletelv destroyed by the Roman consul Licini- 
 us. Pliny speaks of a forest named Pteleon, 
 without noticing the town. The ruins of Pte- 
 leum probably exist near the present village of 
 366 
 
 Ptelio, though none were observed by Mr. 
 Dodwell on that site." Cram. 
 
 Pteria, a well-fortified town of Cappadocia, 
 It was in this neighbourhood, according to some, 
 that Croesus was defeated by Cyrus. Herodot. 
 1, c. 76. 
 
 Ptolem5:um, a certain place at Athens, dedi- 
 cated to exercise and study. Cic. 5, dejin. 
 
 Ptolemais, a town of Thebais in Egypt, 
 called after the Ptolemies, who beautified it. 
 There was also another city of the same name 
 in the territories of Cyrene. It was situate on 
 the sea-coast, and, according to some, it was 
 
 the same as Barce. Vid. Barce. II. A 
 
 city of Palestine, called also Aeon. Mela, 1, c. 
 8, 1. 3, c. Q.—Plin. 2, c. 13.— Strab. 14, &c. 
 
 PuLCHRUM, apromontoiy near Carthage, now 
 Rasafran. Liv. 29, c. 27. 
 
 PuRPURARiiE. Vid. FortunatcB Insula;. 
 
 PuTEOLi, " a town of Greek origin, and first 
 called Dicccarchia. It was erected by the in- 
 habitants of Cumae as a sea-port, and is by some 
 supposed to have derived its original appellation 
 from the excellence of its government, an ad- 
 vantage which few colonies have ever enjoyed. 
 However, it owes its present name, and indeed 
 its fame and prosperity, to the Romans, who, 
 about two centuries before the Christian era, 
 fortified it, and made it the emporium of the 
 commerce of the east. Its situation as a sea- 
 port is indeed unrivalled. It stands on a point 
 that juts out a little into the sea, nearly in the 
 centre of a fine bay, called from it Puleolano 
 or Puzzolano. Its prominence forms a natural 
 port, if a port can be wanting in a bay so well 
 covered by the surrounding coasts, and divided 
 into so many creeks and harbours. It is easy 
 to guess what the animation and splendour of 
 Puteoli must have been at the time when the 
 riches of the east were poured into its bosom, 
 and when its climate, baths, and beauty, allured 
 the most opulent Romans to its vicinity. Com- 
 merce has long since forsaken it; the attraction 
 of its climate and its situation still remain, but 
 operate very feebly on the feelings of a people 
 little given to rural enjoyments. Its population, 
 which formerly spread over the neighbouring 
 hills, and covered them with public and private 
 edifices, is now confined to the little prominent 
 point which formed ihe ancient port ; and all 
 the magnificence of antiquity has either been 
 undermined by time, demolished by barbarism, 
 or levelled in the dust by earthquakes. Ves- 
 tiges however remain, shapeless indeed and de- 
 formed, but numerous and vast enough to give 
 some idea of its former extent and grandeur. 
 In the square stands a beautiful marble pedestal, 
 with basso relievos on its pannels, representing 
 the fourteen cities of Asia Minor, which had 
 been destroyed by an earthquake and rebuilt by 
 Tiberius. It supported a statue of thai emperor, 
 erected by the same cities as a monument of 
 their gratitude. Each city is represented by a 
 figure bearing in its hand some characteristic 
 emblem. The cathedral is supposed to stand on 
 the ruins of a temple, and is undoubtedly built 
 in a great degree of ancient materials, as ap- 
 pears by the blocks of marble which in many 
 places form its walls." Eustace. 
 
 PuTicuLi, pits dug in the Campus Esquili- 
 nus, in which the dead bodies of the lower or- 
 ders were buried in the early days of Rome. 
 
PY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PY 
 
 " These holes were called puticuli, from their 
 resembiance to wells, or more probably from the 
 stench which issued from them in consequence 
 of this practice." {Cram.) Vid. Campus Es- 
 quilinus. 
 
 Pydna, a city of Macedonia, " celebrated for 
 the decisive victory gained by P. jEmilius over 
 the Macedonian army under Perseus, which put 
 an end to that ancient empire. The earliest 
 mention of this town is in Scylax, who styles it 
 a Greek city, from which it appears to have been 
 at that time independent of the Macedonian 
 princes. Thucydides speaks of an attack made 
 upon it by the Athenians before the Peloponne- 
 sian war. It was afterwards taken by Arche- 
 laus king of Macedon, who removed its site 
 twenty stadia from the sea, as Diodorus Siculus 
 asserts ; bat Thucydides states, that it had been 
 long before that period in the possession of Alex- 
 ander the son of Amyntas, and that Themisto- 
 cles sailed from thence on his way to Persia. 
 After the death of Archelaus, Pydna again fell 
 into the hands of the Athenians, but the circum- 
 stances of this change are not known to us; 
 Mr. Mitford is inclined to think it occurred du- 
 ring the reign of Philip, and makes the first jup- 
 ture between that sovereign and the Athenians 
 the consequence of that event ; but this I be- 
 lieve is unsupported by any direct testimony ; 
 all that we know is, that Athens was at some 
 time or other in possession of Pydna and the ad- 
 joining towns, but that it was afterwards taken 
 from them by Philip, and given to Olynthus. 
 The next fact relative to Pydna, which is re- 
 corded in history, is posterior to the reign of 
 Alexander the Great, whose mother Olympias 
 was here besieged by Cassander ; and all hopes 
 of relief being cut off, by an entrenchment hav- 
 ing been made round the town from sea to sea, 
 famine at length compelled Olympias to surren- 
 der, when she was thrown into prison, and soon 
 after put to death. Livy speaks of two small 
 rivers which fall into the sea near Pydna, the 
 JEson and Leucus, and a mountain named Olo- 
 crus; their modern appellations are unknown 
 to us. The Epitomizer of Strabo says, that in 
 his time it was called Kitros, as likewise the 
 Scholiast to Demosthenes; and this name is 
 still attached to the spot at the present day. Dr. 
 Clarke observed at Kitros 3. Yast tumulus, which 
 he considered with much probability, as mark- 
 ing the site of the great battle fought in these 
 plains." Cram. 
 
 PvGMiEi, a nation of dwarfs, in the extremest 
 parts of India, or, according to others, in jEthio- 
 pia. Some authors affirm, that they were no 
 more than one foot high, and that they built 
 their houses with e^g^ shells. Aristotle says 
 that they lived in holes under the earth, and 
 that they came cut in the harvest time with 
 hatchets to cut down the corn as if to fell a fo- 
 rest. They went on goats and lambs of pro- 
 portionable stature to themselves, to make war 
 against certain birds whom some call cranes, 
 which came there yearly from Scythi a to plun- 
 der them. They were originally governed by 
 Gerana, a princess, who was changed into a 
 crane for boasting herself fairer than Juno. 
 Ovid. Met. 6, V. "dO.— Homer. U. 3.—Strab. 7.— 
 Arist.Anim. 8, c. 12.—Juv. 13, v. 186.— Plin. 4, 
 Sec—Mela, 3, c. Q.—Suet. in Aug. 83. 
 
 Pyls. The word PyZ«, which signifies ^ai^s. 
 
 was often applied by the Greeks to any straits 
 or passages which opened a communication be- 
 tween one country and another, such as the 
 straits of Thermopylae, of Persia, Hyrcania, &c. 
 
 Caspi^. Vid. CaspicB Pyla. Cilicije. 
 
 Vid. Cilicia. 
 
 Pylos, I. a town of the province of Elis, 
 about 80 stadia to the east of the city of that 
 name. It " disputed with two other towns of 
 the same name the honour of being the capital 
 of Nestor's dominions ; these were Pylos of Tri- 
 phylia and the Messenian Pylus, of which we 
 have yet to speak. Pausanias writes that the 
 Elean city was originally founded by Pylus, son 
 of Cleson, king of Megara ; but that having 
 been destroyed by Hercules, it was afterwards 
 restored by the Eleans. Diodorus says that in 
 the expedition of the Lacedaemonians against 
 Elis, under their king Pausanias, they encamp- 
 ed close to Pylos, of which they made them- 
 selves masters. He also states that it was sev- 
 enty stadia from Elis ; but Pausanias reckons 
 eighty. Pliny places it at a distance of twelve 
 miles from Olympia. This town was deserted 
 and in ruins when Pausanias made the tour of 
 Elis. We collect from Strabo that Pylos was 
 at the foot of mount Pholoe, and between the 
 heads of the rivers Peneus and Selleis. This 
 site agrees sufficiently with a spot name Par- 
 tes^ where there are vestiges of antiquity under 
 mount Maura bouni, which must be the" Pholoe 
 of the ancients. Near Pylos flowed the Ladon, 
 a small stream that discharged itself into the 
 Peneus. In modern maps it is called Derviche 
 
 or Tcheliber.^' Cram. II. Tryphiliagus, 
 
 another town of the same province, " regarded 
 by Sirabo with great probability as the city of 
 Nesios, is placed by that geographer at a dis- 
 tance of thirty stadia from the coast, and near a 
 small river once called Amathus and Pamisus, 
 but subsequently Mamaus and Arcadicus. The 
 epithet rjnaddeis, applied by Homer to the Py- 
 lian territory, was referred to the first of these 
 names. Notwithstanding its ancient celebrity, 
 this city is scarcely mentioned in later times. 
 Pausanias even does not appear to have been 
 aware of its existence. Strabo, affirms, that, on 
 the conquest of Triphylia by the Eleans, they 
 annexed its territory to the neighbouring town 
 of Lepreum. The vestiges of Pylos are thought 
 by Sir W. Gell to correspond with a Palaio 
 Castro situated at Piskini, or Pischioii, about 
 two miles from the coast. Near this is a village 
 called Sarene, perhaps a corruption of Arene." 
 
 Cram. III. Messeniacus, a city on the 
 
 Messenian coast, at the foot of mount .^galeus, 
 " regarded by many as the capital of Nestor's 
 dominions, and at a later period celebrated for 
 the brilliant successes obtained there by the 
 Athenians in the Peloponnesian war. It is ne- 
 cessary, however, to distinguish between the an- 
 cient city of Pylos and the fortress which the 
 Athenian troops, under Demosthenes, erected 
 on the spot termed Coryphasium by the Lace- 
 daemonians. Strabo affirms, that when the town 
 of Pylos was destroyed, part of the inhabitants 
 retired to Coryphasium : but Pausanias makes 
 no distinction between the old and new town, 
 simply stating that Pylos, founded by Pylus son 
 of Cleson, was situated on the promontory of 
 Coryphasium. To Pylus he has also attributed 
 , the foundation of Pylos in Elis, whither that 
 267 
 
PY 
 
 QSOGRAPHV. 
 
 PY 
 
 chief retired on his expulsion from Messenia by 
 Neleus and the Thessalian Pelasgi. He adds, 
 that a temple of Minerva Coryphasia was to be 
 seen near the town, as well as the house of Nes- 
 tor, whose monument was likewise shewn there. 
 Strabo, on the contrary, has been at considerable 
 pains to prove that the Pylos of Homer was not 
 in Messenia, but in Triphyjia. From Homer's 
 description he observes, it is evident that Nes- 
 tor's dominions were traversed by the Alpheus; 
 and from his account of Telemachus's voyage, 
 when returning to Ithaca, it is also clear that 
 the Pylos of the Odyssey could neither be the 
 Messenian nor the Elean city ; since the son of 
 Ulysses is made to pass Cruni, Chalcis, Phea, 
 and the coast of Elis, which he could not have 
 done, if he h-ad set out from the last-mentioned 
 place ; if from the former, the navigation would 
 have been much longer than from the descrip- 
 tion we are led to suppose, since we must reck- 
 on 400 stadia from the Messenian to the Tri- 
 phylian Pylos only, besides which, we may pre- 
 sume the poet would in that case have named 
 the Neda, the Acidon, and other intervening 
 rivers and places. Again ; from Nesior's ac- 
 count of his battle with the Epeans, he must 
 have been separated from that people by the 
 Alpheus, a statement which cannot be recon- 
 ciled with the position of the Elean Pylos. If, 
 on the other hand, we suppose him to allude to 
 the Messenian city, it will appear very improba- 
 ble, that Nestor should make an incursion into 
 the country of the Epei, and return from thence 
 with a vast quantity of cattle which he had to 
 convey such a distance. His pursuit of the 
 enemy as far as Buprasium and the Olenian 
 rock, after their defeat, is equally incompatible 
 with the supposition that he marched from Mes- 
 senia. In fact, it is not easy to understand how 
 there could have been any communication be- 
 tween the Epeans and the subjects of Nestor, if 
 they had been so far removed from each other. 
 But as all the circumstances mentioned by Ho- 
 mer agree satisfactorily with the situation of the 
 Triphylian city, we are necessarily induced to 
 regard it as the Pylos of Nestor. Such are the 
 chief arguments advanced by Strabo in support 
 of his opinion ; and they must, we imagine, be 
 deemed conclusive in deciding the question. At 
 the same time it must be confessed, that there 
 are still some obscure points in the Homeric 
 geography relative to Nestor's dominions which 
 require elucidation, notwithstanding the atten- 
 tion bestowed upon the subject by Strabo. The 
 sites of Arene and Thryoessa in particular are 
 very dubious ; and thus the whole account of 
 Nestor's operations against the Epeans is in- 
 volved in uncertainty. We must now endea- 
 vour to identify the positions of Pylos and Co- 
 ryphasium with those places which are known 
 to us from maps and the information conveyed 
 by travellers in modern Greece. We learn from 
 Pausanias's history of the Messenians that Py- 
 los was a sea-port town, and Thucydides affirms 
 that it was the most frequented haven of that 
 people. It was nearly closed by the island of 
 Sphacteria, which, like the islet Rhenea with 
 respect to Delos, stood in front of the port. Ac- 
 cording to Thucydides, it had two entrances, 
 one on each side of the island, but of unequal 
 breadth ; the narrowest being capable of admit- 
 'ing only two vessels abreast. The harbour it- 
 268 
 
 self must have been very capacious for two sucn 
 considerable fleets as those of Athens and Spar- 
 ta to engage within it. These characteristics 
 sufficiently indicate the port or bay of Navarino 
 and the scene of those most interesting events 
 of the Peloponnesian war, which are detailed in 
 the fourth book of Thucydides^; but antiquaries 
 are not agreed as to the exact position which 
 should be assigned to Coryphasium ; D'An- 
 ville fixes it at New JSavarino^ on the south side 
 of the harbour, but Barbie du Bocage at Old 
 Navarino on the opposite or north side of the 
 bay. Now we learn from Pausanias, that Py- 
 los or Coryphasium was at least 100 stadia from 
 Methone, or Modon, but from the best maps it 
 appears not more than fifty stadia from the lat- 
 ter to New Navarino, while the distance to Old 
 Navarino, is nearly the same as that stated by 
 the Greek writer; which seems conclusive in 
 favour of Barbie du Bocage. The point of land 
 on which Old Navarino is situated, answers 
 also better to the Coryphasium Promontorium 
 of Pausanias. Sir W. Gell, in his Itinerary 
 does not seem to have noticed any antiquities 
 at Navarino, but he calls the old town Pylos. 
 Some vestiges are laid down in Lapie's map 
 above the coast, and nearly in the centre of the 
 bay, on a spot named Pila, which probably 
 answers to the ancient Pylos. The fort erected 
 by the Athenians could not have been Cory- 
 phasium itself, since Thucydides represents it 
 as a deserted place, but it must have stood on 
 the promontory facing the open sea, a circum- 
 stance which is likewise applicalale to Old Na- 
 varino. It is well known that the Athenians 
 maintained this position against all the effiarts 
 of the Spartans ; and by placing there a Mes- 
 senian garrison, occasioned a serious annoyance 
 to that people during the fifteen years it remain- 
 ed in their possession." Cram. 
 
 Pyra, part of mount (Eta, on which the body 
 of Hercules was burnt. Liv. 36, c. 30. 
 
 Pyramides. " On the west bank of the 
 Nile, we find the city of Djizeh, pleasantly 
 shaded by sycamores, date trees, and olives. 
 To the west of this city stand the three pyra- 
 mids, which, by their unequalled size and cele- 
 brity, have eclipsed all those numerous struc- 
 tures of the same form, which are scattered 
 over Egypt. The height of the first, which is 
 ascribed to Cheops, is 447 feet, that is, forty 
 feet higher than St. Peter's at Rome, and 133 
 higher than St. Paul's in London. The length 
 of the base is 720 feet. The antiquity of these 
 erections, and the purpose for which they were 
 formed, have furnished matter of much inge- 
 nious conjecture and dispute, in the absence of 
 certain information. It has been supposed that 
 they were intended for scientific purposes, such 
 as that of establishing the proper length of the 
 cubit, of which they contain in breadth and 
 height a certain number of multiples. They 
 were, at all events, constructed on scientific 
 principles, and give evidence of a certain pro- 
 gress in astronomy ; for their sides are accurate- 
 ly adapted to the four cardinal points. Whe- 
 ther they were applied to sepulchral uses, and 
 intended as sepulchral monuments, had been 
 doubted; but the doubts have been dispelled by 
 the recent discoveries made by means of labo- 
 rious excavations. The drifting sand had, in 
 the course of ages, collected round their base to 
 
PY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PY 
 
 a considerable height, and had raised the surface 
 of the country above the level which it had 
 when they were constructed. The entrance to 
 the chambers had also been, in the finishing, 
 shut up with large stones, and built round so as 
 to be uniform with the rest of the exterior. The 
 largest, called the pyramid of Cheops, had been 
 opened, and some chambers discovered in it, but 
 not so low as the base, till Mr. Davison, British 
 consul at Algiers, explored it in 1763, when ac- 
 companying Mr. Wortley Montague to Egypt. 
 He discovered a room before unknown, and de- 
 scended the three successive wells to a depth of 
 155 feet. Captain Caviglia, master of a mer- 
 chant vessel, has lately pursued the principal 
 oblique passage 200 feet farther down than any 
 former explorer, and found it communicating 
 with the bottom of the well. This circumstance 
 creating a circulation of air, he proceeded twen- 
 ty-eight feet farther, and found a spacious room 
 sixty-six feet by twenty-seven, but of unequal 
 height, under the centre of the pyramid, sup- 
 posed by Mr. Salt to have been the place for 
 containing the theca^ or sarcophagus, though 
 now none is found in it. The room is thirty 
 feet above the level of the Nile. The upper 
 chamber, 35 1-2 feet by 17 1-4, and 18 4-5 high, 
 still contains a sarcophagus. JBerodotus erred in 
 supposing that the water of the Nile could ever 
 surround the tomb of Cheops. In six pyramids 
 which have been opened, the principal passage 
 preserves the same inclination of 26° to the 
 horizon, being directed to the polar star. M. 
 Belzoni, after some acute observations on the 
 appearances connected with the second pyramid, 
 or that of Cephrenes, succeeded in opening it. 
 The stones, which had constituted the coating, 
 (by which the sides of most of the pyramids 
 which now rise in steps had been formed into 
 plain and smooth surfaces,) lay in a state of 
 compact and ponderous rubbish, presenting a 
 formidable obstruction ; but somewhat looser in 
 the centre of the front, showing traces of ope- 
 rations for exploring it, in an age posterior to 
 the erection. On the east side of the pyramid 
 he discovered the foundation of a large temple, 
 connected with a portico appearing above 
 ground, which had induced him to explore that 
 part. Between this and the pyramid, from 
 which it was fifty feet distant, a way was clear- 
 ed through rubbish forty feet in height, and a 
 pavement was found at the bottom, which is 
 supposed to extend quite round the pyramid ; 
 but there was no appearance of any entrance. 
 On the north side, though the same general ap- 
 pearance presented itself after the rubbish was 
 cleared away, one of the stones, though nicely 
 adapted to its place, was discovered to be loose ; 
 and when it was removed, a hollow passage was 
 found, evidently forced by some former enter- 
 prising explorer, and rendered dangerous by the 
 rubbish whichfell from the roof, it was therefore 
 abandoned. Reasoning by analogy from the 
 entrance of the first pyramid, which is to the 
 east of the centre on the north side, he explored 
 in that situation, and found at a distance of 
 thirty feet the true entrance. After incredible 
 perseverance and labour, he found numerous 
 passages all cut out of the solid rock, and a 
 chamber forty-six feet three inches by sixteen 
 feet three, and twenty-three feet six inches high, 
 containing a sarcophagus in a comer surround- 
 
 ed by large blocks of granite. When opened, 
 after great labour, this was found to contain 
 bones, which mouldeied down when touched, 
 and from specimens afterwards examined, turn- 
 ed out to be the bones of an ox. Human bones 
 were also found in the same place. An Arabic 
 inscription, made with charcoal, was on the wall, 
 signiiying that " the place had been opened by 
 Mohammed Ahmed, lapicide, attended by the 
 ^Master Othman, and the king Alij Mohammed." 
 supposed to be the Ottoman emperor, Mahomet 
 I. in the beginning of the fifteenth century. It 
 was observed, that the rock surrounding the 
 pyramid on the north and west sides, was on a 
 level with the upper part of the chamber. It is 
 evidently cut away all round, and the stones 
 taken from it were most probably applied to 
 the erection of the pyramid. There are many 
 places in the neighbourhood where the rock has 
 been evidently quarried, so that there is no 
 foundation for the opinion formerly common, 
 and given by Herodotus, that the stones had 
 been brought from the east side of the Nile, 
 which is only probable as applied to the granite 
 brought from Syene. The operations of Bel- 
 zoni have throum light on the manner in which 
 the pyramids were constructed, as well as the 
 purpose for which they were intended. That 
 they were meant for sepulchres cannot admit 
 of a doubt. Their obliquity is so adjusted as 
 to make the north side coincide witl^the obli- 
 quity of the sun's ra)^s at the summer solstice. 
 The Egyptians connected astronomy with their 
 religious ceremonies, and their funerals ; for 
 zodiacs are found even in their tombs. It is 
 remarkable that no hieroglyphical inscriptions 
 are found in or about the pyramids, as in the 
 other tombs, a circumstance which is supposed 
 to indicate the period of their construction to 
 have been prior to the invention of that mode 
 of writing, though some think that the diffe- 
 rence may be accounted for by a difference in 
 the usages of different places and ages. Bel- 
 zoni, however, says that he found some hiero- 
 glyphics in one of the blocks forming a mauso- 
 leum to the west of the first pyramid. The first 
 pyramid seems never to have been coated, and 
 there is not the slightest mark of any coating. 
 The second pyramid showed that the coating 
 had been executed from the summit downward, 
 as it appeared that it had not in this instance 
 been finished to the bottom. The following are 
 the dimensions of the second pyram^id: the ba- 
 sis, 684 feet; the central line down the front 
 from the apex to the basis, 568 ; the perpendicu- 
 lar, 456 ; coating from the top to where it ends, 
 140. These dimensions being considerably 
 greater than those usually assigned even to the 
 first or largest pyramid, are to be accounted for 
 by those of Belzoni being taken from the base 
 as cleared from sand and rubbish, while the 
 measurements of the first pyramid given by 
 others, only applied to it as measured from the 
 level of the surrounding sand." MaUe-Brun. 
 PYREN.EI, a mountain, or a long rid^e of high 
 mountains, which separate Gaul from Spain, 
 and extend from the Atlantic to the Mediterra- 
 nean Sea. They receive their name from Py- 
 rene the daughter of Bebrycius, ( Vid. Pyrene,') 
 or from the fire {rrvp) which once raged there for 
 several days. This fire was originally kindled 
 by shepherds, and so intense was the heat which 
 269 
 
RA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RE 
 
 it occasioned, that all the silver mines of the 
 mountains were melted, and ran down in large 
 rivulets. This account is justly deemed fabu- 
 lous by Strabo. Diod. 5. — StraJ). 3. Mela^ 2, 
 c. 6.—Ital. 3, V. 415— Lir. 21, c. GO.—Plui. 4, 
 c. 20. 
 
 PvTHo, the ancient name of the town of 
 Delphi, which it received ano tov Tradecrdai, be- 
 cause the serpent which Apollo killed rotted 
 there. It was also called Parnassia Nape. Vid. 
 Delfhi. 
 
 a. 
 
 duADi, an ancient nation of Germany, near 
 the couniry of the Marcomanni, on the borders 
 of the Danube, in modern Moravia. They 
 rendered themselves celebrated by their opposi- 
 tion to the Romans, by whom they were often 
 defeated, though not totally subdued. Tacit, in 
 Germ. 42 and 43. An. 2, c. 63. 
 
 duERauETULANUs, a name given to mount 
 Coelius at Rome, from the oaks which grew 
 there. Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 65. 
 
 duiETis Fanum, a temple without the walls 
 of the city of Rome, duies was the goddess 
 of rest. Her temple was situate near the Col- 
 line gate. Liv. 4, c. 4. — August, de Civ. D. 4, 
 c. 16. 
 
 duiNTiA Prata, a place on the borders of 
 the Tiber near Rome, which had been culti- 
 vated by the great Cincinnatus. Liv. 3, c. 26. 
 
 dcriRiNALis, I. a hill at Rome, originally called 
 Agonius, and afterwards Collinus. The name 
 of duirinalis is obtained from the inhabitants 
 of Cures, who settled there under their king 
 Tatius. It was also called Cabalinus, from 
 two marble statues of a horse, one of which was 
 the work of Phidias and the other of Praxiteles. 
 Liv. 1, c. U.—Ovid. Fast. 375. Met. 14, v. 845. 
 
 II. One of the gates of Rome near mount 
 
 duirinalis. 
 
 R. 
 
 Ravenna, an important city of Cisalpine 
 Gaul, on the Utis, not far from the place at which 
 that river discharged iiself into the Hadriaticum 
 Mare. " Strabo informs us, that Ravenna was 
 situated in the midst of marshes, and built en- 
 tirely on wooden piles. A communication was 
 established between the different parts of the 
 town by means of bridges and boats. But the 
 noxious air arising from the stagnant waters 
 was so purified by the tide, that Ravenna was 
 considered by the Romans as a very healthy 
 place, in proof of which they sent ??ladiators 
 there to be trained and exercised. We are not 
 informed at what period Ravenna received a 
 Roman colony, but it is not improbable, from a 
 passage in Cicero, that this event took place un- 
 der the consulship of Cn. Pompeius Strabo. Ra- 
 venna became the great naval station of the Ro- 
 mans on the Adriatic in the latter limes of the 
 republic, a measure which seems to have origi- 
 nated with Pompey the Great. It was from this 
 place that Coesar set forward on that march 
 which brought him to the Rubicon, and involv- 
 ed his country and the world in civil war. The 
 old port of Ravenna was situated at the mouth 
 of the river Bedesis, il Ronco. But Augustus 
 caused a new one to be constructed at the en- 
 270 
 
 trance of the little river Candianus into the sea, 
 and about three miles from Ravenna. He es- 
 tablished a communication between this har- 
 bour and a branch of the Po, by means of a 
 canal which was called Fossa Augusti; and he 
 also made a causeway to connect the port and 
 city, which obtained the name of Via Caesaris. 
 As the new harbour from thenceforth became 
 the usual station for the fleet, it received the 
 distinguishing appellation of Portus Classis, a 
 name which still subsists in that of a well-known 
 monastery near the modern town of Ravenna. 
 Ravenna continued to flourishes a naval station 
 long after the reign of Augustus ; and after the 
 fall of the western empire, it became the seat of a 
 separate government, known by the name of the 
 exarchate of Ravenna." Cram. With this dig- 
 nity Ravenna played a conspicuous part in the 
 ages of the Lombard rule, when the fate of Ita- 
 ly, as yet undecided, seemed to wait the issue of 
 the contest between the barbarian power in the 
 north, the papal pretensions in the south, and 
 the claims of the imperial master of the east. 
 It was founded by a colony of Thessalians, or, 
 according to others^ of Sabines. It is now fallen 
 from its former grandeur, and is a wretched 
 town situate at the distance of about four miles 
 from the sea, and surrounded with swamps and 
 marshes. Strab. 5. — Suet, in Aug. 49. — Plin. 
 36, c. \%—Mela, 2, c. 4:.— -Martial. 3, ep. 93, v. 
 8, «&c. 
 
 Rauraci, a people of Gaul, whose chief town 
 is now Augst on the Rhine. Cces. G. 1, c. 5. 
 
 Reate, a town of the Sabines, between the 
 rivers Velinus and Telonius, just above their 
 confluence. Having scarcely undergone any 
 change, it " holds a distinguished place among 
 the Sabine towns, and in the antiquity of its 
 origin is equalled by few of the cities of Italy, 
 since, at the most remote period to which the 
 records of that country extend, it is reported to 
 have been the first seat of the Umbri, who have, 
 it appears to us, the best claim to be considered 
 as the Aborigines of Italy. It was here like- 
 wise that the Arcadian Pelasgi probably fixed 
 their abode, and by intermixing with the earlier 
 natives, gave rise to those numerous tribes, 
 known to the Greeks by the name of Opici, and 
 subsequently to the Romans under the various 
 appellations of Latins, Oscans, and Campa- 
 nians ; these subsequently drove the Siculi from 
 the plains, and occupied in their stead the shores 
 of the Tyrrhenian Sea. If we may credit Si- 
 lius Italicus, Reate derived its name from Rhea, 
 the Latin Cybele. From Cicero we learn that 
 it was only a prafectura in his time : from Sue- 
 tonius we collect that it was a municipal town. 
 Reate was particularly celebrated for its excel- 
 lent breed of mules, and still more so for that 
 of its asses, which sometimes fetched the enor- 
 mous price of 60,000 sestertii, about 484L of our 
 money. The valley of the Velinus, in which 
 this city was situated, was so deli2:htful as to 
 merit the appellation of Tempe; and from their 
 de^vy freshness, its meadows obtained the name 
 of Rosei Campi. It was however subject to in- 
 undations from the Velinus, Velino, which river 
 forms some small lakes before it joins the Nar 
 above Terni ; the chief of these was called the 
 Lacus Velinus, now Lago di Pie di Liigo. 
 The drainage of the stagnant waters produced 
 by the occasional overflow of these lakes, and of 
 
RH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RH 
 
 the river, was first attempted by Curius Denta- 
 tus, the conqueror of the Sabines : he caused a 
 channel to be made for the Velinus, through 
 which the waters of that river were carried into 
 the Nar, over a precipice of several hundred 
 feet. This is the celebrated fall of Terni, 
 known in Italy by the name of Caduta delle 
 MarmoreP Cram. 
 
 Redones, a nation among the Armorici, now 
 the people of Rennes and St. Maloes, in Bri- 
 tany. Cces. B. G. 2, c. 41. 
 
 Regill^, or Regillum, a town in the coun- 
 try of the Sabines in Italy, about 20 miles from 
 Rome, celebrated for a battle which was fought 
 there, A. U. C. 258, between 24,000 Romans, 
 and 40,000 Etrurians, who were headed by the 
 Tarquins. The Romans obtained the victory, 
 and scarce 10,000 of the enemy escaped from 
 the field of battle. Castor and Pollux, accord- 
 ing to some accounts, were seen mounted on 
 white horses, and fighting at the head of the 
 Roman army. Liv. 2, 16. — Dionijs. Hal. 2. — 
 Plut. in Cor. — Val. Max. 1. — Flor. I.— Suet. 
 Tib. 1. 
 
 Regillus, a small lake of Latium, whose 
 waters fall into the Anio at the east of Rome. 
 The dictator Posthumius defeated the Latin ar- 
 my near it. Liv. 2. c. 19. 
 
 Regium Lepidum, a town of Modena, now 
 Regio, at the south of the Po. Plin. 3, c, 15, 
 —Cic. 12, f am. 5, 1. 13, ep. 7. 
 
 Remi, a nation of Gaul, whose principal town, 
 Durjcortorium, is now Rheims, in the north of 
 Champagne. Plin. 4, c. 17. — Ccbs. B. G. 2, c 5. 
 
 Res^na, a town of Mesopotamia, famous for 
 the defeat of Sapor by Gordian. The name of 
 Theodosiopolis was afterwards conferred upon 
 Ressena, either in honourof that emperor, or 
 as a mark of his favour ; but the original name, 
 derived in the language of the people from the 
 nature of the surrounding district, watered by 
 numberless springs, has been retained in the 
 present appellation of Ros-Ain. It stood on the 
 Chaboras. between the mountain regions of 
 Mygdonia and Osroene. 
 
 Rha, the greatest river of Europe, but little 
 known to the ancients, whose acquaintance 
 with the country through which it flowed was 
 founded on the erroneous opinion of a few geo- 
 graphers, and not by intercourse with the inha- 
 bitants. Of the knowledge which the ancients 
 actually possessed, some notion maybe collected 
 from D'Anville, who also presents an etymolo- 
 gy of the ancient name. " It is after Ptolemy 
 alone that we can mention the Rha, great as it 
 is. Antiquity may be supposed to have been 
 very little informed of these countries, when we 
 see Strabo, and Pliny who is still later, taking 
 the Caspian Sea for a gulf formed by the North- 
 ern Ocean : but it must be admitted that Hero- 
 dotus, in a remoter age, had a more correct idea 
 of it. As to the name of Rha, it appears to be 
 an appellative term, having affinity with Rhea, 
 or Reka ; which, in the Sarmatian or Sclavo- 
 nian language, signifies a river : and from the 
 Russian denomination of Velika Reka, or the 
 Great River, appears to be formed the name of 
 Volga. In the Byzantine and other writers of 
 the middle age, this is called Atel, or Etel ; a 
 term, in many northern languages, signifying 
 the quality great or illustrious. The approxi- 
 mation of the Tanais to this river, before it 
 
 changes its course to the Palus, is the occasion 
 of the erroneous opinion of some authors that 
 it is only an emanation of the Rha taking a dif- 
 ferent route," The actual course of the river, and 
 the signification of its modern name are thus gi v- 
 en by Malte-Brun, " The Wolga, or the largest 
 river in Europe, flows through that country into 
 the Caspian Sea. A rivulet rises in the forests of 
 theWaldaic chain, in the neighbourhood of WoU 
 chino- Werchovia, crosses the lakes Oselok,Pia- 
 Tia, and Wolga, receives the waters of the lake 
 Seliger, and becomes navigable near Rjev- Wo- 
 lodomirow, at which place its breadth is not less 
 than 95 feet. It then flows eastward to Ka~ 
 san, where it is enlarged by the Kama, a very 
 great river, turns to the south, and makes appa- 
 rently for the sea of Azof ; but unfortunately 
 for the commerce of the Russians, its course is 
 determined by the position of the Wolgaic hills, 
 and it discharges itself into the Caspian Sea. 
 Before it receives the Kama, its breadth is up- 
 wards of 600 feet, and it is more than 1200 after 
 its junction with that river. It encompasses ma- 
 ny islands in the vicinity of Astrakan, and its 
 width there is about 14 English miles. The 
 depth of its current varies from seven to eigh- 
 teen feet. Its water, though not good, is drink- 
 able, and it abounds with several varieties of the 
 sturgeon and different kinds offish. The course 
 of the Wolga is regular and calm, but the river 
 has made a passage for itself near Nischnei- 
 Novgorod, and by the sinking of th^ ground 
 thus occasioned, several large buildings in the 
 town have been overturned. The Wolga is 
 speedily swollen by excessive rains and by the 
 melting of snow, so that the streams are divert- 
 ed into the channels of the feeders, and the flux 
 of their waters is thus impeded. The river, dur- 
 ing part of the winter, is covered with ice, but 
 there are always many apertures in the south, 
 from which currents of air escape ; hence they 
 are termed the lungs of the Wolga. The po- 
 lumna often change their position, and travel- 
 lers are thus exposed to imminent danger. The 
 Wolga en closes the central ridge of Russia, and 
 receives the streams of the Oka, the principal 
 river in that fertile region ; it communicates in 
 the upper parts of its course by the canal of 
 Wyschnei-Wolotchok with the lakes Ladoga and 
 Newa ; lastly, the Kama conveys to it all the 
 waters of eastern Russia. The word Wolga, 
 says M. Georgi, signifies great in the Sarma- 
 tian, it might have been as well had the writer 
 explained what is meant by the Sarmatian lan- 
 guage. If the old Slavonic, or rather the Proto- 
 Slavonic, which was spoken by the vassal tribes 
 of the ancient Scythians, be understood by that 
 incorrect term, we think the etymology not un- 
 likely, although its accuracy cannot now be as- 
 certained. The Finnic tongues furnish us with 
 a more easy explanation ; Volgi signifies a val- 
 ley, now the bed of the Wolga extends in the 
 g^reat valley of Russia. The Tartars called the 
 Wolga the Ethele or Itel, which, according to 
 some philologists, means liberal or profuse; ac- 
 cording to others, merely the river. The last 
 name is still retained by the Tartars under the 
 form of Ichtil-gad. The most ancient desig- 
 nation is that of the Rha or Rhas, which has 
 been thought a corruption of the Araxes, a 
 river in Armenia, although the two words are 
 radically different m the Armenian language, 
 271 
 
RH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RH 
 
 The Morduates, a Finnic tribe, still term it the 
 Rhaou, a name which in their dialect was pro- 
 bably expressive of rain water. All the etymo- 
 logies are involved in the darkness of a remote 
 antiquity." 
 
 Rhacotis, an ancient name of Alexandria 
 in Egypt. Strab. — Paus. 5, c. 21. 
 
 Rh^ti, or RiBTi, an ancient and warlike na- 
 tion of Etruria. They were driven from their 
 native country by the Gauls, and went to settle 
 on the other side of the Alps. Vid. RhcBtia. 
 Plin. 3, c. 10. — Justin. 20. c. 5. 
 
 RhjEtia, a country of ancient Europe, and 
 province of the Roman empire. It was bound- 
 ed by the country of the Helvetii on the west, 
 by Vindelicia on the north, by Noricum on the 
 east, and on the south and south-east by Cisal- 
 pine Gaul. On no side were the limits of this 
 province marked by any natural line of separa- 
 tion, except that a small portion of the northern 
 boundary was indicated by the course of the 
 (Enus. Within those limits are now compre- 
 hended, the Tyrol, the league of the Grisons, 
 and the parts of Switzerland south-east of the 
 Simplon, St. Gothard, &c. among which moun- 
 tains the ancient Rhaeti were scattered. " The 
 sources and the course of the Rhine to its en- 
 trance into the lake to which the city of Con- 
 stance communicates its name, the course of the 
 (Enus, or the Itm, from its source to the point 
 where it bounded Noricum, belonged to Rhaetia ; 
 as did also the declivity of the Alps which re- 
 gards the south, where Ticinus or the Tesin, 
 Addica or the Add.a, Athesis or the Adige, be- 
 gin their courses. The Rhcetia were a colony 
 of the 7^usci, or Tuscans, a civilized nation, es- 
 tablished in this country when the Gauls came 
 to invade Italy, This colony, becoming savage, 
 and infesting Cisalpine Gaul, were subjugated 
 under the reign of Augustus by Drusus. And 
 because the Vindelici armed in favour of their 
 neighbours, Tiberius sent a force that reduced 
 them also to obedience. This double conquest 
 formed a province called Rhcetia, comprehend- 
 ing Vindelicia, without obliterating altogether 
 the distinction. But in the multiplication that 
 Dioclesian, and some emperors after him made 
 of the provinces, Rhsetia was divided into two, 
 under the distinction of the first and second: a 
 circumstance that caused Rhaetia Proper and 
 Vindelicia to reassume their primitive distinc- 
 tions. The Lepontii inhabited the high Alps, 
 whence flow the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Te- 
 sin ; and the name of Leventina, which distin- 
 guishes amongmany valleys thatthrough which 
 the Tesin runs, is formed of the name of this 
 nation, who on the other side extended in the 
 Pennine valley, where they possessed Oscela, 
 now Domo d' Usula." D'Anville. Besides the 
 sources of the numerous rivers that rose in Rhae- 
 tia, that province was distinguished geographi- 
 cally by its mountainous character, the Rhae- 
 tian Alps forming no small portion, or rather, 
 with the adjacent valleys, constituting the 
 whole ; and by the Alpine lakes, which in mo- 
 dern times are remarked and visited for their 
 beauty. The country was occupied by number- 
 less barbarous tribes, till reduced, and in some 
 degree civilized, by the Romans. Among these 
 the Lepontii, the Sarunetes, the Brigantii, the 
 Vennones, and the Tridentini, may be special- 
 ly noticed 
 
 272 
 
 Rhamnus, a town of Attica, famous for a 
 temple of Amphiaraus, and a statue of the god- 
 dess Nemesis, who was from thence called 
 Rhamnusia. This statue was made by Phidias, 
 out of a block of Parian marble which the 
 Persians intended as a pillar to be erected to 
 commemorate their expected victory over 
 Greece. Paus. 1. — Plin. 36. 
 
 Rharos, or Rharium, a plain of Attica, 
 where corn was first sown by Triptolemus. It 
 received its name from the sower's father 
 who was called Rharos. Paus. 1, c. 14 and 
 38. . 
 
 Rhegium, now Rheggio, a town of Italy, in 
 the country of theBrutii, opposite Messana in 
 Sicily, where a colony of Messenians under 
 Alcidamidas settled, B. C. 723. It was origi- 
 nally called Rhegium, and afterwards Rhegium 
 Julium, to distinguish it from Rhegium Lepidi, 
 a town of Cisalpine Gaul. Some suppose that 
 it received its name from the Greek word priy- 
 vvjji to break, because it is situate on the straits 
 of Charybdis, which were formed when the isl- 
 and of Sicily, as it were, was broken and sepa- 
 rated from the continent of Italy. This town 
 has always been 'subject to great earthquakes, 
 by which it has often been destroyed. The 
 neighbourhood is remarkable for its great fertili- 
 ty, and for its delightful views. Sil. 13, v. 94. 
 — Cic. pro Arch. 3. — Ovid. Met. 14, v. 5 and 
 iS.— Justin. 4, c. l.—Mela, 2, c. i.— Strab. 6. 
 
 Rhemi. Vid. Remi. 
 
 Rhene, a small island of the ^gean, about 
 200 yards from Delos, 18 miles in circumfe- 
 rence. The inhabitants of Delos always buried 
 their dead there and their women also retired 
 there during their labour, as their own island 
 was consecrated to Apollo, where Latona had 
 brought forth, and where no dead bodies were 
 to be inhumed. Strabo says that it was unin- 
 habited, though it was once as populous and 
 flourishing as the rest of the Cyclades. Poly- 
 crates conquered it, and consecrated it to Apollo, 
 after he had tied it to Delos by means of a long 
 chain. Rhene was sometimes called the Small 
 Delos, and the island of Delos the Great Delos. 
 Thucyd. 3.— Strab. 10.— Mela, 2, c. 7. 
 
 Rheni, a people on the borders of the Rhine. 
 
 Retenus, I. one of the largest rivers in Europe. 
 It formed for a long time the limit of the Roman 
 dominion, separating the Gallic provinces from 
 Germany, till Cassar carried the arms of the re- 
 public beyond that ancient and formidable bar- 
 rier which opened the passage for the Roman 
 eagles to the distant Elbe. " It rises in the 
 south-west part of the canton of the Grisons, a 
 country in which all the streams are denomi- 
 nated Currents or Rheinen, a word that appears 
 to be of Celtic or ancient Germanic origin. It 
 is thus difficult and vain to determme whether 
 the Eore Rhine ( Vorder-Rhein) is formed by 
 several springs on the sides of mount Nixena" 
 dun near the base of mount Crirpali, a branch 
 of Saint Gothard, or \\\e Hind Rhine {Hinter- 
 Rhein) issuing majestically below a vault of ice, 
 attached to the great glacier oiRheinwald, ought 
 to be considered the principal branch. But at 
 all events the central Rhein is onXy on insignifi- 
 cant branch, of which the distinctive name is the 
 Froda ; although the inhabitants of the neigh- 
 bouring village of Medel called it by the generic 
 term Rhein. Descending from these snowy 
 
RH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RH 
 
 heights, which are more than 6000 feet above 
 the ocean, the Rhine leaves the couniry of the 
 Orisons^ and throws itself into the lake of Bo- 
 den or Constance^ at the level of 1250 feet. M. 
 Hoffman, a distinguished German geographer, 
 supposes that the course of the Rhine was once 
 very different ; that as soon as it passed the ter- 
 ritory of the Grisons it flowed down the moun- 
 tains of Sargans, entered the lake of WalleTi- 
 stadtj from thence into that of Zurich, and, fol- 
 lowing the present channel of the Limath, united 
 with the Aar opposite the small town of Rein. 
 That hypothesis, founded on some local obser- 
 vations, is indeed worthy of attention, but it re- 
 quires to be corroborated by additional facts be- 
 fore it can be admitted. Following its present 
 course, the Rhine after leavingthe lakes of Con- 
 stance^ and Zell, arrives at a lower branch of the 
 Alps, a little below Schaffhousen; it crosses 
 them, and forms the celebrated fall near Lauffen, 
 which has been often admired, although its ele- 
 vation is little more than fifty feet, an elevation 
 inferior to that of the secondary falls in Scandi- 
 navia. After its fall at Lauffen, it is about 11 73 
 feet above the level of the sea, but when it reach- 
 es Basle it is not more than 765. That part of 
 its course, which is very rapid, is broken by a 
 faHnear Laufenburg, and. the dangerous eddy of 
 RJveinfelden. The Rhine unites there with the 
 Aar, a river almost equal to it in size, and one 
 which, after being enlarged by the streams and 
 lakes of Switzerland, brings a greater body of 
 water to the Rhine than that which it receives 
 from the lake of Constance. After it passes 
 Basle, the Rhine turns to the north, and waters 
 the rich and beautiful valley, in which are situ- 
 ated Alsace, part of the territory of Baden, the 
 ancient Palatinate, and Mayence. Its course on- 
 wards to Kehl is very impeiuous ; but flowing 
 afterwards in a broad channel, studded with 
 agreeable and well-wooded islands, it assumes a 
 very different character, its banks have been in 
 several places gradually undermined, and its wa- 
 ters are covered with boats. The breadth of the 
 river at Mayence is about 700 yards ; as it pro- 
 ceeds in its course, it waters a romantic, though 
 fertile country ; and a line of hills, covered with 
 vineyards, extends at no great distance from its 
 banks. It receives in that part of its course the 
 Neckar, which conveys to it the waters of Low- 
 er Swabia, and the Maine, which in its nume- 
 rous windings collects the streams of the ancient 
 Franconia. The Rhine is confined by moun- 
 tains from Bingen to the country above Cob- 
 lentz ; small islands and headlands are formed 
 by the rocks, and, according to a supposition, 
 which is by no means confirmed, its course was 
 in ancient times broken by a cataract between 
 these two towns. In its picturesque passage 
 through that high country, at the base of many 
 old castles, suspended on rugged rocks, the 
 Rhine receives among other feeders, the Lahn, 
 that is concealed under mountains, and the Mo- 
 selle, which, free from shallows, marshes, and 
 every incumbrance, resembles in the mazes of 
 its meandering course, a canal fashioned by the 
 hand of man, and conducted through vineyards 
 and fertile meadows. The confluence of these 
 two rivers maybe considered the boundary of the 
 romantic course of the Rhine. It then flows in 
 an open and plain country, and receives, among 
 other feeders, the Ruhr and the Lippe. Having 
 Pjirt 1.-^2 M 
 
 reached Holland, its three artificial branches, 
 the Waal, the Leek, and the Yssel, form the 
 great delta in which are situated the wealthiest 
 towns in that industrious country. But its wa- 
 ters are divided into numerous canals, its an- 
 cient channel is left dry, and a small brook, all 
 that remains of the majestic river, passes into 
 the sea. According to every principle of phy- 
 sical geography, the Leek and the Yssel, if not 
 the Waal, must be considered the present 
 mouths of the Rhine. The Meuse hos obtained 
 at Rotterdam and Dordrecht a distinction which 
 
 it does not deserve." Malte-Brun. II. A 
 
 small river of Cisalpine Gaul, flowing from the 
 Appenines northwards towards the Po. This 
 river is celebrated " in history for the meeting of 
 the second triumvirate, which took place U. C. 
 709, in an island formed by its stream. The 
 spot which witnessed this famous meeting is 
 probably that which is now known by the name 
 of Crocetta del Trebbo, where there is an island 
 in the Rheno about half a mile long, and one 
 third broad, and about two miles to the west of 
 Bologna.^^ Cram. 
 
 RmNocoLURA, a town on the borders of Pa- 
 lestine and Egypt, now El-Arish. Liv. 45, c. 11. 
 
 Rhion Vid. Rhium. 
 
 RmPH^i, large mountains at the north of 
 Scythia, where, as some suppose, the Gorgons 
 had fixed their residence. The name of Ri- 
 phcean was applied to any cold mountain in a 
 northern country, and indeed these mountains 
 seem to have existed only in the imagination of 
 the poets, though some make the Tanais rise 
 there. Plin. 4, c. I'^.—Dwcan. 3, v. 272, 1. 3, v. 
 282, 1. 4, V. ^\S.— Virg. G. 1, v. 240, 1. 4, v. 
 518. 
 
 RmuM, a promontory of Achaia, opposite to 
 Antirrhium in iEtolia, at the mouth of the Co- 
 rinthian gulf, called also the Dardanelles of Le- 
 panto. The strait between Naupactum and 
 Patrae bore also the same name. The tomb of 
 Hesiod was at the top of the promontory. Liv. 
 27, c. 30, 1. 38, c, l.—Plin. 4, c. ^.—Paus. 7, 
 c. 22. 
 
 Rh5da, now Roses, a sea-port town of Spain. 
 Liv. 34, c. 8. 
 
 Rhodanus, one of the principal rivers of 
 Gaul. It rises in the Lepontine Alps, and flows 
 through the Vallis Pennina, till it enters the Le- 
 manus Lacus at the eastern extremity of that 
 sheet of water. In this part of its course it re- 
 ceives the tribute of no considerable stream. Is- 
 suing again from the lake, it resumes its course 
 south-east, till it receives the Arar, from the 
 mouth of which, precipitating itself almost di- 
 rectly south, it terminated its course in several 
 mouths, by \vhich it discharged itself into the 
 Sinus Gallicus. This river belonged for the 
 greater part of its course to the province of Nar- 
 bonensis. Towards its mouth it received the 
 waters of the Durentia, which flowed into it 
 from the east. It is one of the most rapid rivers 
 of Europe, now known by the name of the 
 Rhone. Mela, 2, c. 5, 1. 3, c. 3.— Ovid. Met. 2, 
 V. 258.— S-i^. 3, V. ni.^Marcell. 15, &c.— 
 Ccesar. Bell. G. 1, c. 1. 
 
 Rhodope, a high mountain of Thrace,, ex- 
 tending as far as the Euxine Sea, all across the 
 country nearly in an eastern direction. "The 
 summits of Rhodope and Scomius belong to the 
 same great central chain. The Rhodope also 
 273 
 
RO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RO 
 
 of Herodotus is evidently the Scomius of Thu- 
 cydides, since he asserts, that the Thracian 
 river Escius, now Isker^ rises in the former 
 mountain, while Thucydides makes it flow from 
 the latter." Cram.— Ovid. Met.6, v. 87, &.C.— 
 Virg. Ed. 8, G. 3, v. 351.— Mela, 2, c. 2.— 
 Strab. 7. — Ital. 2, v, 73. — Setiec. in Here. Oct. 
 
 Rhodqs, a celebrated island in the Carpa- 
 thian Sea, 120 miles in circumference, at the 
 south of Caria, from which it is distant about 20 
 miles. " The isle of Rhodes has a well-earned 
 celebrity : the Rhodians signalized themselves 
 particularly in the marine ; and the services ren- 
 dered by them to the Romans, in the war against 
 the last king of Syria, procured them extensive 
 possessions on the continent. Lindus, Cami- 
 rus, and lalysus, had preceded in this isle the 
 foundation of a city named Rhodus, which re- 
 mounts no higher than the Peloponnesian war, 
 or about four hundred years before the Christian 
 era. It was in vain that Demetrius, surnamed 
 Poliorcetes, or the Taker of Cities, held it be- 
 sieged for a year. Having successfully resisted 
 Mohammed .11. it yielded at length to the efforts 
 ofSoliman II. in 1522." D'Anville. The island 
 of Rhodes has been known by the several names 
 of Ophiusa, Stadia, Telchinis, Corymbia, Trin- 
 acria, JEthrea, Asteria,Poessa, Atabyria, Olo- 
 essa, Marcia, and Pelagia. It received the 
 name of Rhodes, either on account of Rhode, a 
 beautiful nymph who dwelt there, and who was 
 one of the favourites of Apollo, or because roses, 
 {po5ov), grew in great abundance all over the 
 island. Strab. 14. — Homer. 11. 2. — Mela, 2, c. 
 l.—Diod. b.—Plin. 2, c. 62 and 87, 1. 5, c. 31. 
 —Flor. 2, c. 7. — Pindar. Olymp. 7. — Lnican. 
 8, V. 248. — etc. pro Man. leg. in Brut. 13, — 
 Liv.2'l,c. 30, 1. 31,c. 2. 
 
 Rhceteum, or Rhcetus, a promontory of 
 Troas, on the Hellespont, on which the body 
 of Ajax was buried. Ovid. Met. 11, v. 197, 4. 
 Fast. V. 219.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. 505, 1. 12, v. 456. 
 
 Rhosus, a town of Syria, on the gulf of 
 Issus, celebrated for its earthern ware. Cic. 6, 
 Alt. 1. 
 
 Rhoxalani, a people at the north of the Pa- 
 lus Maeotis. Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 79. 
 
 Rhuteni, and Rqtheni, a people of Gaul, 
 
 Rhyndacus, a large river of Mysia, in Asia 
 Minor, separating Mysia from Bithynia, and 
 emptying into the Euxine considerably east of 
 the mouth of the Granicus, for which, accord- 
 ing to D'Anville, it is often mistaken. Plin. 5, 
 c.32. 
 
 RiGODULUM, a village of Germany,now Rigol, 
 near Cologne. Tacit. H. 4, c. 71. 
 
 RoDUMNA, now Roanne, a town of the jEdui, 
 on the Loire. 
 
 Roma, the ancient capital of Italy. " In 
 treating of the topography of ancient Rome, it 
 is usual with antiquaries to consider that city 
 at three distinct periods of its existence ; under 
 Romulus, Servius Tullius, and Aurelian, as 
 comprehending every addition or change which 
 is known to have taken place in its extent and 
 the circuit of its walls. The extent of Rome 
 tinder the first of these periods cannot now be 
 ascertained, though we may meet with topo- 
 graphers who define its limits with as much 
 confidence and precision as those of any modern 
 capital in Europe. We must perhaps rest sa- 
 tisfied with knowing generally, that the city of 
 274 
 
 Romulus is said to have occupied at first only 
 the Palatine hill. That its figure was square is 
 affirmed by Festus, who quotes a verse of En- 
 nius to that effect. If we may believe Tacitus, 
 the Capitol was taken in by I'atius. According 
 to Dionysius, the Coelian and Gluirinal hills 
 were added at the same time. Pliny tells us, 
 that the city had at this time three, or at most 
 four gates. According to Nardini these were 
 Porta Romanula, Porta Mugonia, so called 
 from the lowing of cattle, and Porta Trigonia. 
 The former of these faced the Capitol and Fo- 
 rum-; the second led to the Esquiline hill; the 
 third looked towards the Aventine. The Ca- 
 pitol had also two gates; Porta Carmentalis, 
 near the foot of the Tarpeian rock towards the 
 Tiber, and Porta Janualls, which afterwards 
 was converted into a temple of Janus. From 
 the time of Romulus to the reign of Servius 
 Tullius, Rome received all the aggrandizement 
 which the nature of its situation and the in- 
 crease of its population seemed to render de- 
 sirable. Under the latter king the seven hills 
 were included, and even the Janiculum on the 
 right bank of the Tiber. Such was the extent 
 of Rome under Servius, and this was preserved 
 with but little alteration till the time- of Aure- 
 lian. Antiquaries are not precisely agreed as 
 to the increase made in the circuit of the walls 
 of Rome by Aurelian. If we are to believe Vo- 
 piscus, it must have been very considerable, as 
 he estimates the new circumference at fifty 
 miles. We know too that the circuit of the 
 walls by actual measurement, in the time of 
 Honorius, was computed at twenty-one miles. 
 But even this account is supposed to be exag- 
 gerated. Rome under Servius had been divided 
 into four regions, as we learn from Varro, who 
 has also specified their names. ' They were the 
 Suburana, Esquilina, Collina, and Palaiina. 
 The Suburana comprised chiefly the Coelian 
 mount ; the Collina, both the Cluirinal and Vi- 
 minal ; the situation of the other two evidently 
 coincided with that of the hills from which they 
 derived their names. This division is thought 
 to have been in use until the reign of Augustus, 
 when a new arrangement was rendered neces- 
 sary by the vast increase of the city during so 
 long an interval. He now divided Rome into 
 fourteen regions, and those were again subdi- 
 vided into vici, which may be considered as pa- 
 rishes ; of these SQetonius says there were above 
 a thousand. In the time of Vespasian the num- 
 ber of the regions remained the same, but they 
 were further divided into compita, or wards, 
 which amounted, according to Pliny, to 265. 
 There is every reason for believing that the 
 same division prevailed till the decline of the 
 Roman empire, and the fall of Rome itself, with- 
 out any variation as to the limits of the regions 
 themselves, whatever change may have taken 
 place in the buildings they contained, or in the 
 names and arrangement of parishes, streets, &c. 
 Porta Capena. This region, of whose limits 
 little else is known, except the fact that it was 
 entirely without the walls of Servius, took its 
 name from the Porta Capena, the most cele- 
 brated of the gates of Rome. The origin of the 
 name is unknown, as it cannot be supposed to 
 have any reference to the Etruscan town so 
 called, since it was situated in a very opposite 
 direction. The position of this gate has been 
 
RO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RO 
 
 fixed by modern discoveries posterior to Nardi- 
 ni, close to the church of S. Nereo and the Villa 
 Mattel. CcELiMONTANA. The second region, 
 as the name by which it was distinguished suf- 
 ficiently implies, was almost wholly situated on 
 the Coelian hill, and consequently was included 
 within the walls of Servius. It is chiefly to be 
 noticed as containing the Suburra, one of the 
 most populous and busy parts of ancient Rome. 
 Varro gives various etymologies of that name, 
 but I confess that they all appear equally unsatis- 
 factory, and, with many other appellations be- 
 longing to Rome, I would refer it to an early 
 state of things in that city with which we are 
 wholly unacquainted. The origin of the name 
 of Coelius Mons is not much better determined, 
 though it seems agreed that it was so called 
 from Coelius Vibenna, an Etruscan chief, who 
 once resided there. If the Suburra was one of 
 the most frequented parts of Rome, it was also 
 the most profligate, Isis et Serapis. The 
 third region comprised nearly all the space 
 which lies between the Coelian and Esquiline 
 hills, and also a considerable portion of the lat- 
 ter, especially on that side which faces the south. 
 It derived its name from a temple dedicated to 
 Isis and Serapis ; probably the same which Au- 
 gustus is said to have consecrated with Marc 
 Antony. It is also sometimes designated by the 
 appellation of Moneta. Templum Pacis. The 
 fourth region, which derived its name from the 
 temple of Peace, built by Vespasian after the 
 overthrow of Jerusalem, seems to have been 
 contiguous to the third, and to have occupied in 
 breadth nearly all the space which lies between 
 the Palatine on one side, and the south-western 
 extremity of the Esquiline on the other. In 
 length it reached from the vicinity of the Colos- 
 seum to the beginning of the Forum, and the 
 southern angle of the Gtuirinal. EsauiLiNA. 
 Though the fifth region took its name from the 
 Esquiline, it occupied, in fact, but a small part 
 of that hill ; it however comprised nearly the 
 whole of the Viminal, and extended beyond the 
 rampart of Servius to the Castrum Prsetorium 
 and the wallof Aurelian. We are informed by 
 Varro that the Esquiline derived its name from 
 the Latin word ezcultus ; in proof of which he 
 mentions that Servius had planted on its sum- 
 mit several sacred groves, such as the Lucus 
 Cluerquetulanus, Fagutalis, and Esquilinus. It 
 was the most extensive of all the seven hills, 
 and was divided into principal heights, which 
 were called Cispius and Oppius. Alta Semi- 
 TA, The sixth region was contiguous to the 
 fifth; it occupied the whole of the CLuirinal, a 
 great portion of the Pincian, and part of the 
 ground which lies at the base of these two hills. 
 Via Lata. The seventh region was conti- 
 guous tothe sixth, and extended from the base 
 of the Pincian hill round that of the Cluirinal, 
 to the angle which that hill forms with the Ca- 
 pitol. FoRDM RoMANUM. The eighth region, 
 which was in the centre of Rome, comprised the 
 Forum and Capitol, and consequently the most 
 celebrated and conspicuous buildings of that 
 city. Circus Flaminius. The ninth region 
 seems to have stood almost entirely without the 
 walls of Servius, being confined principally by 
 the Tiber on the west and north, the Capital on 
 the south, and the Pincian hill on the east. It 
 was by much the most extensive of the fourteen \ 
 
 regions, being upwards of 30,000 feet in circuit. 
 It comprised the celebrated Campus Martius, 
 which in the reign of Augustus already con- 
 tained several splendid edifices. Palatium. 
 The tenth region, as its name suflniciently indi- 
 cates, occupied the Palatine hill, and conse- 
 quently was the most ancient part of the city. 
 Although of little extent, it was remarkable as 
 the favourite residence of the Caesars, from the 
 time of Augustus to the decline of the empire. 
 It contained also several spots, venerable from 
 their antiquity, and to which the Romans at- 
 tached a feeling of superstition, from being con- 
 nected with the earliest traditions of their infant 
 city. Among these were the Lupercal, a cave 
 supposed to have been consecrated to Pan by 
 Evander. Circus Maximus. The eleventh 
 region was situated, together with the Circus 
 from which it derived its name, in the valley 
 between the Aventine and Palatine hills, the 
 proper name of which was Martia or Murtia. 
 Piscina Publica. The twelfth region was a 
 continuation of the last, between the Palatine 
 and Aventine, as far as the baths of Caracalla 
 inclusively. The Piscina Publica, which gave 
 its name to this section of ancient Rome, con- 
 sisted of several basins filled with water, to 
 which people resorted for the purpose of learn- 
 ing to swim. 
 
 In Thermas fugio : sonas ad aurem. 
 Piscinam feto : non licet natare. * 
 
 Mart. III. Ep. 44. 
 
 It appears from Livy that public business was 
 sometimes carried on in this part of the city. 
 AvENTiNUs. This region included not only 
 the Aventine, but also the space which lies be- 
 tween that hill and the Tiber. Transtybe- 
 rina. The fourteenth and last region of an- 
 cient Rome, as its name signified, was situated 
 on the right bank of the Tiber; and contained, 
 besides the space enclosed within the walls ot 
 Aurelian, the Janiculum, the Mons and Cam- 
 pus Vaticanus, and all the ground occupied by 
 the modern city as far as the castle of S. Angela. 
 This part of Rome was at first peopled by the 
 inhabitants of certain Latin cities, removed 
 thither by Ancus Martius. Subsequently we 
 find it assigned as a place of security as well as 
 punishment to the turbulent Volsci of Velitrae. 
 Though it seems to have been chiefly frequented 
 by the poorer classes, we hear of some distin- 
 guished characters in the Roman history as 
 having gardens and pleasure-grounds within its 
 precincts. We shall now conclude this descrip- 
 tion of ancient Rome, with the summary cata- 
 logue of its diflTerent buildings, monuments, and 
 principal curiosities, as contained in the notice 
 of Publius Victor. Senatula urbis quatuor. 
 Bibliothecffi Publicae xxvin. Obelisci Magni 
 VI. Obelisci Parvi xlii. Pontes viii. Campi 
 viii. Fora xviii. Basilicae xi. Thermae xii. 
 Jani XXXVI. Aquae xx. Vise xxix. Capitolia 
 11. Amphitheatra ni. Colossi ii. Columnse 
 Coclides n, Macella n. Theatra in. Ludi v. 
 Naumachise v. Nymphaea xi. Equi aenei inau- 
 rati XXIV. Equi ebumei xciv. Tabulae et signa 
 sine numero. Arcus marmorei xxxvi. Portae 
 xxxvii. Vici ccccxxiiii. ^Edes ccccxxiin. 
 Vicomagistri dclxxii. Curatores xxiiii. In- 
 sulae XLViMDcn. Domus mdcclxxx. Balnea 
 DcccLVi. Lacus mccclh. Pristrina ccliiil 
 275 
 
RO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RO 
 
 Lupanaria xlv. Latrinse publicae xliiii. Co- 
 hortes Praetoriae x. Urbanae iv. Vigilum vii. 
 Excubitoria xiiii. Vexilla communia n. Cas- 
 tra equitum ii." Cram. Romulus is univer- 
 sally supposed to have laid the foundations of 
 this celebrated city, on the 20th of April, ac- 
 cording to Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian 
 period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 
 753 before the birth of Christ, and 431 years af- 
 ter the Trojan war, and in the 4th year of the 
 fifth Olympiad. In its original state Rome was 
 but a small castle on the summit of mount Pa- 
 latine ; and the founder, to give his followers 
 the appearance of a nation, or a barbarian horde, 
 was obliged to erect a standard as a common 
 asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, 
 who fled from their native country to avoid the 
 punishment which attended them. After many 
 successful wars against the neighbouring states, | 
 the views of Romulus were directed to regulate j 
 a nation naturally fierce, warlike, and unciviliz- 
 ed. The people were divided into classes, the 
 interests of the whole were linked in a common I 
 chain, and the labours of the subject, as well as 
 those of his patron, tended to the same end, the 
 aggrandizement of the state. Under the suc- 
 cessors of Romulus, the power of Rome was in- 
 creased, and the boundaries of her dominions 
 extended. During 244 years the Romans were 
 governed by kings, but the tyranny, the op- 
 pression, and the violence of the last of these 
 monarchs and of his family, became so atrocious, 
 that a revolution was effected in the state, and 
 the democratical government was established. 
 The monarchical government existed under 
 seven princes, who began to reign in the follow- 
 ing order : Romulus. B. C. 753; and after one 
 year's interregnum, Numa, 715 ; TuUus Hosti- 
 lius, 673; Ancus Martius, 640 ; Tarquin Pris- 
 cus, 616 ; Servius Tullius, 578; and Tarquin 
 the Proud, 534 ; expelled 25 years after, B. C. 
 509; and this regal administration has been 
 properly denominated the infancy of the Roman 
 empire. After the expulsion of the Tarquins 
 from the throne, the Romans became more sen- 
 sible of their consequence ; with their liberty 
 they acquired a spirit of faction, and they be- 
 came so jealous of their independence, that the 
 first of their consuls, who had been the most 
 zealous and animated in the assertion of their 
 freedom, was banished from the city because he 
 bore the name, and was of the family of the ty- 
 rants. They knew more effectually their pow- 
 er when they had fought with success against 
 Porsenna, the king of Etruria, and some of the 
 neighbouring states, who supported the claim of 
 the tyrant, and attempted to replace him on his 
 throne by the force of arms. Though the Ro- 
 mans could once boast that every individual in 
 their armies could discharge with fidelity and 
 honour the superior offices of magistrate and 
 consul, there are to be found in their annals ma- 
 ny years marked by overthrows, or disgraced by 
 the ill conduct, the oppression, and the wanton- 
 ness of their generals. ( Vid. Consul.) To the 
 fame which their conquest and daily successes 
 had gained abroad, the Romans were not a little 
 indebted for their gradual rise to superiority; 
 and to this maybe added the policy of the cen- 
 sus, which every fifth year told them their actual 
 strength, and how many citizens were able to 
 bear arras. When Rome had flourished under 
 276 
 
 the consular government for about 120 years, 
 and had beheld with pleasure the conquests of 
 her citizens over the neighbouring states and 
 cities, which, according to a Roman historian, 
 she was ashamed to recollect in the summit of 
 her power, an irruption of the barbarians of 
 Gaul rendered her very existence precarious, 
 and her name was nearly extinguished. The 
 valour of an injured individual, {Vid. CamiU 
 lus) saved it from destruction, yet not before its 
 buildings and temples were reduced to ashes. 
 This celebrated event, which gave the appella- 
 tion of another founder of Rome to Camillus, 
 has been looked upon as a glorious era to the 
 Romans. No sooner were they freed from the 
 fears of their barbarian invaders, than they turn- 
 ed their arms against those states which refused 
 to acknowledge their superiority or yield their 
 independence. Their wars with Pyrrhus and 
 the Tarentines displayed their character in a dif- 
 ferent view; if they before had fought for freedom 
 and independence, they now drew their sword 
 for glory ; and here we may see them conquer- 
 ed in the field, and yet refusing to grant that 
 peace for which their conqueror himself had 
 sued. The advantages they gained from their 
 battles with Pyrrhus were many. The Roman 
 name became known in Greece, Sicily, and 
 Africa, and in losing or gaining a victory, the 
 Romans were enabled to examine the manoeu- 
 vres, observe the discipline, and contemplate 
 the order and the encampments of those soldiers 
 whose friends and ancestors had accompanied 
 Alexander the Great in the conquest of Asia. 
 Italy became subjected to the Romans at the 
 end of the war with tlie Tarentines, and that 
 period of time has been called the second age, 
 of the adolescence of the Roman empire. Af- 
 ter this memorable era they tried their strength 
 not only with distant nations, but also upon a 
 new element ; and in the long wars which they 
 waged against Carthage, they acquired terri- 
 tory and obtained the sovereignty of the sea ; 
 and though Annibal for sixteen years kept them 
 in continual alarms, hovered round their gates 
 and destroyed their armies almost before their 
 walls, yet they were doomed to conquer, ( Vid. 
 Punicv/m Betlum) and soon to add the kingdom 
 of Macedonia, ( Vid. Macedonicum Bellum) and 
 the provinces of Asia, ( Vid. Mithridaticum Bel- 
 lum) to their empire. But while we consider 
 the Romans as a nation subduing their neigh- 
 bours by war, their manners, their counsels, 
 and their pursuits at home are not to be forgot- 
 ten. The senators and nobles were ambitious 
 of power, and endeavoured to retain in their 
 hands that influence which had been exercised 
 with so much success, and such cruelty, by 
 their monarchs. This was the continual occa- 
 sion of tumults and sedition. The plebeians, 
 though originally the poorest and most con- 
 temptible citizens of an indigent nation, whose 
 food in the first ages of the empire was only 
 bread and salt, and whose drink was water, 
 soon gained rights and privileges by their oppo- 
 sition. Though really slaves, they became 
 powerful in the state; one concession from the 
 patricians produced another. The laws which 
 forbade the intermarriage of plebeian and patri- 
 cian families were repealed, and the meanest 
 peasant could, by valour and fortitude, be raised 
 to the dignity of dictator and consul. But su- 
 
RO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RO 
 
 preme power, lodged in the hands of a factious 
 and am oitious citizen, becomes too often danger- 
 ous. The greatest oppression and tyranny took 
 place of subordination and obedience ; and from 
 those causes proceeded the unparalleled slaugh- 
 ter and effusion of blood under a Sylla or a Ma- 
 rius. It has been justly observed, that the first 
 Romans conquered their enemies by valour, 
 temperance, and fortitude; their moderation 
 also, and their justice, were well known among 
 their neighbours ; and not only private posses- 
 sions, but even mighty kingdoms and empires, 
 were left in their power, to be distributed among 
 a family, or to be ensured in the hands of a suc- 
 cessor. They were also chosen umpires to de- 
 cide quarrels ; but in this honourable ofiice they 
 consulted their own interest ; they artfully sup- 
 ported the weaker side, that the more powerful 
 might be reduced, and gradually become their 
 prey. Under J. Cassar and Pompey, the rage of 
 civil war was carried to unprecedented excess. 
 What Julius began, his adopted son achieved ; 
 the ancient spirit of national independence was 
 extinguished at Rome, and after the battle of 
 Actium, the Romans seemed unable to govern 
 themselves without the assistance of a chief, 
 who, under the title of imperator, an appellation 
 given to every commander by his army after 
 some signal victory, reigned with as much pow- 
 er and as much sovereignty as another Tarquin. 
 Under their emperors the" Romans lived a lux- 
 urious and indolent life. After they had been 
 governed by a race of princes remarkable for the 
 variety of their characters, the Roman posses- 
 sions were divided into two distinct empires by 
 the enterprising Constantine, A. D. 328. Con- 
 stantinople became the seat of the eastern em- 
 pire, and Rome remained in the possession of 
 the western emperors, and continued to be the 
 capital of their dominions. In the year 800 of 
 the Christian era, Rome, with Italy, was deli- 
 vered by Charlemagne, the then emperor of the 
 west, into the hands of the Pope, who still con- 
 tinues to hold the sovereignty, and to maintain 
 his independence under the name of the Eccle- 
 siastical States. The original poverty of the 
 Romans has often been disguised by their poets 
 and historians, who wished it to appear, that a 
 nation who were masters of the world, had had 
 better beginning than to be a race of shepherds 
 and robbers. Yet it was to this simplicity they 
 were indebted for their success. Their houses 
 were originally destitute of every ornament ; 
 they were made with unequal boards and cover- 
 ed with mud, and these served them rather as a 
 shelter against the inclemency of the seasons, 
 than for relaxation and ease. Till the age of 
 Pyrrhus they despised riches, and many saluta- 
 ry laws were enacted to restrain luxury and to 
 punish indolence. They observed great tem- 
 perance in their meals : young men were not 
 permitted to drink wine till they had attained 
 their 30th year, and it was totally forbidden to 
 women. Their national spirit was supported 
 by policy ; the triumphal procession of a con- 
 queror along the streets, amidst the applause of 
 thousands, was well calculated to promote emu- 
 lation ; and the number of gladiators which 
 were regularly int'-oduced, not only in public 
 games and spectacles, but also at private meet- 
 ings, served to cherish their fondness for war, 
 whilst it steeled their hearts against the calls of 
 
 compassion; and when they could gaze with 
 pleasure upon wretches whom they forcibly 
 obliged to murder one another, they were not 
 inactive in the destruction of those whom they 
 considered as inveterate foes or formidable ri- 
 vals in the field. In their punishments, civil as 
 well as military, the Romans were strict and 
 rigorous ; a deserter wels severely whipped, and 
 sold as a slave; and the degradation from the 
 rank of a soldier and dignity of a citizen, was 
 the most ignominious stigma which could be 
 affixed upon a seditious mutineer. Marcellus 
 was the first who introduced a taste for the fine 
 arts among his countrjTnen. The spoils and 
 treasures that were obtained in the plunder of 
 Syracuse and Corinih, rendered the Romans 
 partial to elegant refinement and ornamental 
 equipage. Of the little that remains to celebrate 
 the early victories of Rome, nothing can be com- 
 pared to the noble effusions of the Augustan 
 age. Virgil has done so much for the Latin 
 name, that the splendour and the triumphs of 
 his country are forgotten for a while, when we 
 are transported in the admiration of the majesty 
 of his numbers, the elegant delicacy of his ex- 
 pressions, and the fire of his muse ; and the ap- 
 plauses given to the lyric powers of Horace, the 
 softness of Tibullus, the vivacity of Ovid, and 
 to the superior compositions of ether respectable 
 poets, shall be unceasing as long as the name of 
 Rome excites our reverence and our praises, 
 and so long as genius, virtue, and abilities are 
 honoured amongst mankind. Though they 
 originally rejected with horror a law which pro- 
 posed the building of a public theatre, and the 
 exhibition of plays, like the Greeks, yet the Ro- 
 mans soon proved favourable to the compositions 
 of their countrymen. Livius was the first dra- 
 matic writer of consequence at Rome, whose 
 plays began to be exhibited A. U. C. 514. Af- 
 ter himNasvius and Ennius wrote for the stage; 
 and in a more polished period Plautus, Terence, 
 Ca?cilius, and Afranius, claimed the public at- 
 tention, and gained the most unbounded ap- 
 plause. Satire did not make its appearance at 
 Rome till 100 years after the introduction of 
 comedy, and so celebrated was Lucilius in this 
 kind of writing, that he was called the inventor 
 of it. In historical writing the progress of the 
 Romans was slow and inconsiderable, and for 
 many years they employed the pen of foreigners 
 to compile their annals, till the superior abilities 
 of a Livy were made known. In their worship 
 and sacrifices the Romans were uncommonlj/- 
 superstitious, the will of the gods was consulted 
 on every occasion, and no general marched to 
 an expedition without the previous assurance 
 from the augurs that the omens were propitious 
 and his success almost indubitable. The pow- 
 er of fathers over their children was very ex- 
 tensive and indeed unlimited; they could sell 
 them or put them to death at pleasure, without 
 the forms of trial or the interference of the civil 
 magistrates. When Rome was become power- 
 ful, she was distinguished from other cities by 
 the flattery of her neiglibours and citizens ; a 
 form of worship was established to her as a 
 deity, and temples were raised in her honour, 
 not only in the city, but in the provinces. The 
 goddess Roma was represented like Minerva, 
 all armed and sitting on a rock, holding a pike 
 in her hand, with her head covered with a 
 277 
 
RO 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 RU 
 
 helmet, and a trophy at her feet. Such is an 
 outline of the rise, progress, and decline of Rome, 
 according to the writings of her historians and 
 poets ; and, as an abstract of their relations, it 
 is entitled to a place in an account of antiquity, 
 although we give to a very small portion of it 
 that credit which the ancients, without inquiry, 
 thought proper to yield to the whole. The 
 Trojan settlement in Italy we are not called on 
 to disturb, and its little bearing on the import- 
 ant points of Roman history permits us, with 
 the indulgence of a reasonable scepticism, to 
 leave, without too close an investigation, the 
 grounds on which repose the pleasing tradition. 
 Indeed, the minutest examination of this point 
 can lead to nothing but the comparison of au- 
 thorities, deriving their own information from 
 the most questionable sources ; and the writers 
 from whom the historians of antiquity deduced 
 their proofs, unsatisfactory to them, have no ex- 
 istence for us. But as we approach the era of 
 the first appearance of the Roman people among 
 the nations of Italy, that period to which we 
 must look for the origin of laws and institutions, 
 which spread one vast and inexorable empire 
 over the earth, if the research be no less diffi- 
 cult, the necessity of conducting it with care 
 becomes imperative. With little and very in- 
 sufficient light to guide us, either to receive or 
 reject, we may hesitate before we deny to the 
 reputed founder of the Roman state and nation 
 any real existence ; but we have no room for 
 doubt when called upon to reconcile the story of 
 the birth of Rome, as related by Livy, the as- 
 sembling merely of an outlawed band under the 
 command of the twin-brothers, and the regal 
 stale of one of these, but the next moment, with 
 an army to make front against the confederated 
 people around, to cope with, and little less than 
 to conquer, the warlike Sabines of the Apen- 
 nines. "We reject therefore, at once, the ac- 
 count of the foundation of the city, as compiled 
 from the legendary traditions of the earliest days 
 by the first historians, and concede at most, that, 
 on the first emerging of the Roman scale from 
 obscurity, and perhaps from dependence, we 
 may believe a Remus or a Romulus to have as- 
 sisted in the organization of a state that had 
 been gradually gaining strength, and preparing 
 itself for independent government. Till then 
 we may not have been able to distinguish it 
 among the many cities over which the Tuscan 
 rule had extended itself in the progress of its 
 ascendency. The first institutions ascribed to 
 the fabled founder are distinctly of Etruscan 
 origin. The affairs of Rome, then, before her 
 history, are connected with the wanderings and 
 the settlements of the Pelasgic tribes ; and it is 
 well observed, therefore, by Niebuhr, that the 
 founding of Rome may indeed be referred to as 
 a chronological era, but it mu.st at the same time 
 be distinguished from an historical fact. The 
 origin of the name of Rome, no less than that 
 of her institutions, was early wrapped in mys- 
 tery ; and while a real ignorance concealed the 
 latter, a superstitious or a political fanaticism 
 shrouded the former. To utter the mysteries 
 connected with this name, confessedly not of 
 Latin origin, and perhaps involving secrets of 
 the early history of the republic, was punisha- 
 ble by death. No inquiry is more interesting 
 than that which proposes for investigation the I 
 
 nature of the Roman policy, and the causes of 
 the Roman greatness, apart from the fictions of 
 poetrj'' and the exaggerations of national vanity. 
 Bui while to the philosopher it offers a wide and 
 interesting, and instructive field, it throws but 
 little light upon the works that remain to us from 
 antiquity, as it receives from them but little elu- 
 cidation. Liv. 1, &c. — Cato de R. R. — Virg. 
 jEn. G. & Ecl.—Horat. 2, sat. 6, Scc—Flor. 
 1, c. 1, &c. — Palerc. — Tacit. Ann. & Hist. — 
 Tidull. 4. — Lmcan. — Plut. in Rom. Num. &c. 
 — Cic. de Nat. D. &c. — Plin. 7, &c. — Justin. 
 43. — Varro de L. L. 5. — Val. Max. 1, &c.— 
 Martial. 12, ep. 8. 
 
 RoMiJLiD.E, a patronymic given to the Roman 
 people from Romulus their first king, and the 
 founder of their city. Virg. yEn. 8, v. 638. 
 RosciANUM, the port of Thurii, now Rossano. 
 RosiiE Campus, or Rosia, a beautiful plain 
 in the country of the Sabines, near the lake 
 Velinum. Varro. R. R. 1, c. 7. — Virg. jEn. 
 7, V. 112.— Cic. 4, Att. 15. 
 RoTOMAGUs, a town of Gaul, now Rouen. 
 RoxoLANi, a people of European Sarmatia, 
 who proved very active and rebellious in the 
 reign of the Roman emperors. 
 
 RuBEAs PROMONToanjM, the north cape at the 
 north of Scandinavia. 
 
 RuBi, now Ruvo, a town of Apulia, from 
 which the epithet Rubeus is derived, applied to 
 bramble bushes which grew there. The inha- 
 bitants were called Rvhitini. Horat. 1, Sat. 5, 
 V. 94. Virg. G.l,v. 266. 
 
 Rubicon, now Rugone, a small river of Italy, 
 which it separates from Cisalpine Gaul. It 
 rises in the Apennine mountains, and falls into 
 the Adriatic Sea. By crossing it, and thus 
 transgressing the boundaries of his province, J. 
 Csesar declared war against .the senate and 
 Pompey, and began the civil wars. " To iden- 
 tify this celebrated stream is a question which 
 has long puzzled writers on comparative geo- 
 graphy, and does not even now seem perfer'tly 
 settled. Without entering into the details of 
 this inquiry, we may safely say, that the Rubicon 
 is formed from several small streams, which 
 unite about a mile from the sea, and then as- 
 sume the name of Fiumicino. Cassar coming 
 from Ravenna along the coast, would cross the 
 Rubicon near its mouth, where it is one stream : 
 had he proceeded by the Via Emilia, he would 
 have had to cross the three rivulets, called Riv- 
 gone, Pisatello, and Savignano, which by their 
 junction constitute the Fiumicino. It is to Lu- 
 can that we are indebted for the most interest- 
 ing description of this famous event." Cram. 
 — iMcan. 1, V. 185 and 213. — Strab. 5. — Suet. 
 in C(BS. 32. — Plin. 3, c. 15. 
 
 RuBo, the Dwina, which falls into the Baltic 
 at Riga. 
 
 RuBRUM MARE. Vid. Arohicvts Sinus and 
 Erythrceum Mare. 
 
 RuDi^, a touTi of Calabria, near Brundusium, 
 built by a Greek colony, and famous for giving 
 birth to the poet Ennius. Cic. pro Arch. 10. — 
 Ital. 12, V. 396.— M^Zfl., 2, c. 4. 
 
 RuPRiE, a town of Samnium, which Cluve- 
 rius, D'Anville, and Cramer, identify with the 
 little to^m of Ruvo near Conza. Cic. 10. 
 Fam. ll.—Sil. 8, v. 568.— Virg. JEn. 7. v. 739. 
 RuFFRiuM, a town of Samnium, probably now 
 S". Angela Raviscanino south of Venafri, thou^^h 
 
SA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SA 
 
 Romanelli fixes there the site of Rufrae. Cram. 
 —Liv. 8, c. 25. 
 
 RuGiA,now Rugen, an island of the Baltic. 
 
 RuGii, a nation of Germany. Tacit, de 
 Germ. 43. 
 
 RusELLJE. " Two or three miles to the 
 north-east of the Lago di Castiglione, some re- 
 markable ruins, with the name of Roselle at- 
 tached to them, point out the site of the ancient 
 Rusellae, one of the twelve Etruscan cities. It 
 is mentioned more than once by Iayj in the 
 course of the wars with Etruria. It was taken 
 by assault in the year 454 U. C. by the consul 
 L. Posth. Megillus. In the second Punic war, 
 we hear of its furnishing timber, especially fir, 
 for the Roman fleets. From Pliny we learn 
 that it subsequently became a colony, which is 
 confirmed by an inscription cited by Holste- 
 nius." Cram. 
 
 RuTENi, a people of Celtic Gaul. They oc- 
 cupied the region which is now called le Roiu- 
 ergue ; their city Segodunum afterwards took 
 the name Rhodez from that of the people. 
 But a part of the Ruteni were in the Province, 
 and another without, in Celtic Gaul. Csesar 
 calls the former Provincials, and they occupied 
 that part of Gaul which is now styled VAlbige- 
 ois, whose city was Albiga, Albi. Cas. B.^ G. 
 ed. Lem. 
 
 RuTULi, a people of Latium, known as well 
 as the Latins, by the name of AborigiTies. 
 When ^neas came into Italy, Turnus was 
 their king, and they supported him in the war 
 which he waged against this foreign prince. 
 The capital of their dominions was called Ar- 
 dea. Ovtd. Fast. 4, v. 883. Met. 14, v. 455, 
 &iC.— Virg. Mn. 7, &.c.—Plin. 3, c. 5. 
 
 RtJTUPJE, a sea-port town on the southern 
 coast of Britain, abounding in excellent oysters, 
 whence the epithet of Rutupinus. Some sup- 
 pose that it is the modem town of Dover, hut 
 others Richborough or Sandwich. L/ucan. 6, v. 
 67. — Juv. 4, V. 141. 
 
 Saba, a town of Arabia, famous for frankin- 
 cense, myrrh, and aromatic plants. The mha- 
 bitants were called SoJxd. Strab. 16. — Diod. 
 3.— Virg. G. 1, V. 57. ^n. 1, v. 420. 
 
 Sab^i, a people of Arabia Felix. " Among 
 the several inhabitants of this country, the Sa- 
 ted are the most distinguished and sometimes 
 comprise others under their name. Another 
 name, that of the HcnneritcB, thought to be de- 
 rived from Himiar, the name of a sovereign, 
 and which signifies the Red King appears 
 latterly confounded with that of the Sabeans." 
 D'Anville. 
 
 Sabata, I. a town of Liguria, with a safe and 
 beautiful harbour, supposed to be the modem 
 
 Savona. Sil. 8, v. 461. — Strab. 4. 11, A town 
 
 of Assyria. 
 
 Sabatha, a town of Arabia, now Sanaa. 
 
 Saba TINT, a people of Samnium, living on 
 the banks of the Sabatus, a river which falls 
 into the Vulturnus. Liv. 26, c. 33. 
 
 Sabelli, a people of Italy, descended from 
 the Sabines, or according to some, from the 
 Samnites. They inhabited that part of the 
 country which lies between the Sabines and 
 the Marsi. Hence the epithet of Sabellicus, 
 Horat. 3, od. 6.— Virg. G. 3, v. 255. 
 
 Sabini. " The Sabines appear to be gene- 
 rally considered one of the most ancient indige- 
 nous tribes of Italy, and one of the few who 
 preserved their race pure and unmixed. We 
 are not to expect, however, that fiction should 
 have been more sparing of its ornaments in set- 
 ting forth their origin, than in the case of other 
 nations far less interesting and less celebrated: 
 Dionysius of Halicamassus, among other tra- 
 ditions respecting the Sabines, mentions one 
 "U'hich supposes them to have been a colony ot 
 the Lacedaemonians about the time of Lycur- 
 gus, a fable which has been eagerly caught up 
 by the Latin poets and mythologists. Their 
 name, according to Cato, was derived from the 
 god Sabus, an aboriginal deity, supposed to be 
 the same as the Medius Fidius of the Latins. 
 His son Sancus was the Sabine Hercules. 
 They were, in all probability, a branch of the 
 aboriginal Umbri. How inconsiderable a com- 
 munity they constituted at first may be seen 
 from the accounts of Cato ; who, as quoted by 
 Dionysius in his Antiquities of Rome, reported, 
 that the first Sabines settled in an obscure place, 
 named Testrina, in the vicinity of Amitemum. 
 As their numbers increased, however, they ra- 
 pidly extended themselves in every direction : 
 expelling the aborigines from the district of Ri- 
 eii, and from thence sending numerous colonies 
 into Picenum, Samnium, and the several petty 
 nations who are named at the head of this sec- 
 tion. The early connexion of the Sabines with 
 Rome, which was yet in its infancy, naturally 
 forms Lhe most interesting epoch in their histo- 
 ry. The event which brought the two states 
 into contact, as related by the Roman histori- 
 ans, is too well known to require further notice 
 here. But whatever truth may be attached to 
 the rape of the Sabine women, we cannot but 
 look upon the accession of Tatius to the regal 
 power, and the incorporation of the Cluirites 
 with the citizens of Rome, as well attested 
 proofs of the control once exercised by the Sab- 
 ine nation over that city. With the reign of 
 Numa, however, this influence ceased, for at 
 that time we find the Sabines engaged in war 
 with his successor Hostilius, and experiencing 
 defeats which were only the prelude to a series 
 of successful aggressions on the one hand, and 
 of losses and humiliations on the other. It was 
 reserved for the consul Curius Dentatus, A. U. 
 C. 462, to achieve the entire subjugation of the 
 Sabines,by carrying fire and desolation beyond 
 the sources of the Nar and Velinus, to the very 
 shores of the Adriatic. Though the conquered 
 country was apparently poor and void of re- 
 source, the rapacity of the victors is said to have 
 been amply gratified in this expedition by plun- 
 der, such as they had never obtained in any or 
 their former conquests. A fact from which it 
 may be inferred, that the Sabines of that day 
 were no longer that austere and hardy race, to 
 whose simplicity and purity of manners such 
 ample testimony is paid by the ancient writers; 
 whose piety and pristine worth were the model 
 of the royal legislator, and an example of all 
 that was noble and upright to the early patriots 
 of Rome. In fixing the limits of the Sabine 
 territory, we must not attend so much to those 
 remote times when they reached nearly to the 
 gates of Rome, as to that period in which the 
 boundaries of the different people of Italy were 
 279 
 
SA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SA 
 
 marked out with greater clearness and preci- 
 sion, we mean the reign of Augustas. We shall 
 then find the Sabines separated from Latium 
 by the river Anio ; from Etruria by the Tiber, 
 beginning from the point where it receives the 
 former stream, to within a short distance of 
 Otricoli. The Nar will form their boundary 
 on the side of Umbria, and the central ridge of 
 the Apennines will be their limit on that of Pi- 
 cenum. To the south and south-east it may be 
 stated generally, that they bordered on the iEqui 
 and Vestini. From the Tiber to the frontier 
 of the latter people, the length of the Sabine 
 country, which was its greatest dimension, 
 might be estimated at 1000 stadia, or 120 miles, 
 its breadth being much less considerable." 
 Cram. 
 
 Sabis, now Sa'mhre, a river of Belgic Gaul, 
 falling into the Maese at Nwmar. Cess. 2, c. 16 
 and 18. 
 
 Sabrata, a maritime town of Africa, near 
 the Syrtes. It was a Roman colony, about 70 
 miles from the modern Tripoli. Ital. 3, v. 
 256.— PZiri. 5, c. 4. 
 
 Sabrina, the Severn in England. 
 
 Sac^, a people of Scythia, who inhabited 
 the country that lies at the east of Bactriana 
 and Sogdiana, and towards the north of mount 
 Imaus. The name of Saca was given in gene- 
 ral to all the Scythians by the Persians. They 
 had no towns according to some writers, but 
 lived in tents. Ptol. 6, c. 13. — Herodot. 3, c. 
 93, I. 7, c. m.—Plin. 6, c. ll.—Solin. 62. 
 
 Sacer mons, a mountain near Rome. Vid. 
 Mons Sacer. 
 
 Sacer portus, or Sacri portus, a place of 
 Italy, near Pr^neste, famous for a battle that 
 was fought there between Sylla and Marius, in 
 which the former obtained the victory. Paterc. 
 % c. 26.— Lwca7i. 2, v. 134. 
 
 Sacrani. Vid. Latium. 
 
 Sacra via, a celebrated street of Rome, 
 where a treaty of peace and alliance was made 
 between Romulus and Tatius. It led from the 
 amphitheatre to the capitol, by the temple of 
 the goddess of peace, and the temple of Caesar. 
 The triumphal processions passed through it to 
 go to the capitol. Horat. 4, od. 2, 1. 1, sat. 9. — 
 Liv. 2, c. 13.— Cic, Plane. l.—Att. 4. ep. 3. 
 
 Sacrum promontorium, a promontory of 
 Spain, now Caps St. Vincent, called by Strabo 
 the most westerly part of the earth. 
 
 SffiTABts, a town of Spain, now Xativa, on a 
 little river which falls into the Xucar, (D^An- 
 ville,) famous for its fine linen. Sil. 3, v. 373. 
 
 Sagaris. Vid. Sangaris. 
 
 Sagra, a small river of Italy, in the country 
 of the Brutii. Cic. JVat. D. 2, c. 2.—Strab. 6. 
 
 Saguntum, or Saguntus, a town of Hispa- 
 nia Tarraconensis, at the west of the Iberus, 
 about one mile from the sea-shore, now called 
 Morviedro. It had been founded by a colony of 
 Zacynthians, and by some of the Rutuli of Ar- 
 dea. Saguntum is celebrated for the clay in its 
 neighbourhood, with which cups, pocula Sa- 
 guntina, were made ; but more particularlvit is 
 famous as being the cause of the second Punic 
 war, and for the attachment of its inhabitants 
 to the interests of Rome. Hannibal took it after 
 a siege of about eight months ; and the inhabit- 
 ants, not to fall into the enemy's hands, burnt 
 themselves with their houses, and with all their 
 280 
 
 effects. The conqueror afterwards rebuilt it, 
 and placed a garrison there, with all the noble- 
 men whom he detained as hostages from the 
 several neighbouring nations of Spain. Some 
 suppose that he called it Spariagene. Sagun- 
 tum " preserves its vestiges in a place, of which 
 the modern name of Morviedro is formed of 
 the Latin muri veteres, " old walls." D'Anville. 
 —FloT. 2, c. 6.—Liv. 21, c. 2, 7, 2.— Sil. 1, v. 
 Til.—LMcan. 3, v. 250.— ^^ra^. Z.—Mela, 2, 
 c. 6. 
 
 Sais, now SVi, a town in the Delta of Egypt, 
 situate between the Canopic and Sebennyiican 
 mouths of the Nile, and anciently the capital 
 of Lower Egypt. There was there a celebrat- 
 ed temple dedicated to Minerva, with a room 
 cut out of one stone, which had been conveyed 
 by water from Elephantis by the labours of 
 2000 men in three years. The stone measured 
 on the outside 21 cubits long, 14 broad, and 8 
 high. Osiris was also buried near the town of 
 Sais. The inhabitants were called Saita. One 
 of the mouths of the Nile, which is adjoining 
 to the town, has received the name of Saiticum. 
 Strab. 11.— Herodot. 2, c. 17, &c. 
 
 Salamis. " Opposite the Eleusinian coast 
 was the island of Salamis, said to have derived 
 its name from Salamis, mother of the Asopus. 
 It was also anciently called Sciras and Cychrea, 
 from the heroes Scirus and Cychreus, and Pity- 
 ussa, from its abounding in firs. It had been 
 already celebrated in the earliest period of Gre- 
 cian history from the colony of the jEacidas, 
 who settled there before the siege of Troy. The 
 possession of Salamis, as we learn from Strabo> 
 was once obstinately contested by the Athenians 
 and Megareans : and he affirms that both par- 
 ties interpolated Homer, in order to prove from 
 his poems that it had belonged to them. Hav- 
 ing been occupied by Athens, it revolted to 
 Megara, but was again conquered by Solon, or, 
 according to some, by Pisistratus. From this 
 period it appears to have been always subject to 
 the Athenians. On the invasion of Xerxes they 
 were induced to remove thither with their fami- 
 lies, in consequence of a prediction of the ora- 
 cle, which pointed out this island as the scene 
 of the defeat of their enemies, and soon after, 
 by the advice of Themistocles, the whole of the 
 naval force of Greece was assembled in the bay 
 of Salamis. Meanwhile the Persian fleet sta- 
 tioned at Phalerum held a council, in which it 
 was determined to attack the Greeks, who were 
 said to be planning their flight to the Isthmus. 
 The Persian ships accordingly were ordered to 
 surround the island during the night, with a 
 view of preventing their escape. In the morn- 
 ing the Grecian galleys moved on to the attack, 
 the vEginetans leading the van, seconded by the 
 Athenians, who were opposed to the Phoenician 
 ships, while the Peloponnesian squadron was 
 engaged with the lonians. The Persians were 
 completely defeated, and retired in the greatest 
 disorder to Phalerum. The following night the 
 whole fleet abandoned the coast of Attica, and 
 withdrew to the Hellespont. A trophy was erect- 
 ed to commemorate this splendid victory on the 
 isle of Salamis, near the temple of Diana, and 
 opposite to Cynosura, where the strait is nar- 
 rowest. Here it was seen by Pausanias, and 
 some of its vestiges were observed by Sir W. 
 Gell, who reports that it consisted of a column 
 
SA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SA 
 
 on a circular base. Many of the marbles are in 
 the sea. Stephanus Byz. mentions a village of 
 Salamis named Cychreus. Strabo informs us 
 that the island contained two cities; the more 
 ancient of the h\-o, which was situated on the 
 southern side, and opposite to ^gina, was de- 
 serted in his time. The other stood in a bay, 
 formed by a neck of land which advanced to- 
 wards Attica. Pausanias remarks that the city 
 of Salamis was destroyed by the Athenians, in 
 consequence of its having surrendered to the 
 Macedonians when the former people were at 
 war with Cassander ; there still remained, how- 
 ever, some ruins of the agora, and a temple de- 
 dicated to Ajax. Chandler states that the walls 
 may still be traced, and appear to have been 
 about four miles in circumference." Cram. 
 
 Salams, or Salamina, a town at the east 
 of the island of Cyprus. It was built by Teu- 
 cer, who gave it the name of the island of Sala- 
 mis, from which he had been banished about 
 1270 years before the Christian era ; and from 
 this circumstance the epithets of ambigua and 
 altera were applied to it, as the mother countr}' 
 was also called vera, for the sake of distinction. 
 His descendants continued masters of the toT\Ti 
 for above 800 years. It was destroyed by an 
 earthquake, and rebuilt in the 4th century, and 
 called Constantia. Strab. 9. — Herodot. 8, c. 
 94, &,c.—Horat. 1, od. 7, v. 21. — Paterc. 1, c. 1. 
 — Lucan. 3, v. 183. 
 
 Salapia, " a town of Apulia, situated be- 
 tween a lake thence called Salapina Palus and 
 the Aufidus, is stated by Strabo to have been the 
 emporium of Arpi. Without such authority we 
 should have fixed upon Sipontum as answering 
 that purpose better from its greater proximity. 
 This town laid claims to a Grecian origin, though 
 not of so remote a date as the Trojan war. We 
 do not hear of Salapia in the Roman history till 
 the second Punic war, when it is represented as 
 falling into the hands of the Carthaginians, after 
 the battle of Cannag; but not long after, it was 
 delivered up to Marcellus by the party which 
 favoured the Roman interest, together with the 
 garrison which Hannibal had placed there. The 
 Carthaginian general seems to have felt the loss 
 of this town severely; and it was probably the 
 desire of revenge which prompted him, after the 
 death and defeat of Marcellus, to adopt the stra- 
 tagem ofaddressing letters, sealed wath that com- 
 mander's ring, to the magistrates of the town, 
 in order to obtain admission with his troops. 
 The Salapitani, however, being warned of his 
 design, the attempt proved abortive. The prox- 
 imity of Salapia to the lake or marsh already 
 mentioned, is said to have proved so injurious 
 to the health of the inhabitants, that some years 
 after these events they removed nearer the coast, 
 where they built a new town, with the assist- 
 ance of M. Hostilius, a Roman praetor, who 
 caused a communication to be opened between 
 the lake and the sea. Considerable remains of 
 both to"WTis, are still standing at some distance 
 from each other, under the name of Saljri, which 
 confirm this account of Vitruvius. The Palus 
 Salapina, now Lago diSalpi, is noticed by Ly- 
 cophron and Lucan." Cram. 
 
 Salarfa, I. a street and gate at Rome, which 
 led towards the country of the Sabines. It re- 
 ceived the name of Salo.ria, because salt (sal) 
 w^as generallv conveyed to Rome that way. 
 
 P4RtT.^2N 
 
 Mart. 4. ep 64. II. A bridge, called SaUi- 
 
 rius, was built four miles from Rome through 
 the Salarian gate on the river Anio. 
 
 Salassi, a people of Gallia Cisalpina, " situ- 
 ated to the north of the Libicii, and at the foot 
 of the Alps. The main part of their territory 
 lay chiefly, however, in a long valley, which 
 reached to the summits of theGraian and Pen- 
 nine Alps, the Little and Great St. Bernard. 
 The passages over these mountains into Gaul 
 were too important an object for the Romans, 
 not to make them anxious to secure them by the 
 conquest of the Salassi ; but these hardy moun- 
 taineers, though attacked as early as 609 U. C. 
 held out for a long time, and were not finally 
 subdued till the reign of Augustus. Such 
 was the difficult nature of their country, that 
 they could easily intercept all communication 
 through the valleys by occupying the heights. 
 Strabo represents them as carrying on a sort of 
 predatory warfare, during which they seized 
 and ransomed some distinguished Romans, and 
 even ventured to plunder the baggage and mili- 
 tary chest of Julius Caesar. Augustus caused 
 their country at last to be occupied permanentlv 
 by a large force under Terentius Varro. A 
 great many of the Salassi perished in this last 
 war, and the rest to the number of 36,000, were 
 sold and reduced to slavery." {Vid. Augusta 
 Prcetoria.) Cram. 
 
 Salentini, a people of Italy, near Apulia, 
 on the southern coast of Calabria. Their chief 
 towns were Brundusium, Tarentum, and Hy- 
 druntnm. Hal. 8, v. 579. — Virg. Mn. 3, v. 
 AQO.— Varro de R. R. 1, c. ^.—Strab. 6.— 
 Mela, 2, c. 4. 
 
 Salernum, now Salerno, a town of the Pi- 
 centini, on the shores of the' Tyrrhene Sea, 
 south of Campania, and famous for a medical 
 school in the lower ages. Plin. 13, c. 3. — Liv. 
 34, c. 45. — lAtcan. 2, v. 425. — Paterc. 1, c. 15. 
 — Herat. 1, ep. 15. 
 
 Salmacis, a fountain of Caria, near Hali- 
 carnassus, which rendered effeminate all those 
 who drank of its waters. Ovid. Met. 4, v. 285, 
 1. 15, V. Sl9.—Hygin. fab. 211.— Fesl/us. de V. 
 
 fig- 
 
 Salmantica, a town of Spain, now Sala- 
 manca. 
 
 Salmone, I. a town of Elis in Peloponnesus, 
 with a fountain, from which the Enipeus takes 
 its source, and falls into the Alpheus, about 40 
 stadia from Olympia, which, on account of 
 that, is called Salmonis. Ovid. 3, Amor. el. 6, 
 
 V. 43. II. A promontory at the east of Crete. 
 
 Dionys. 5. 
 
 Salo, now Xalon, a river in Spain, falling 
 into the Ibems. Mart. 10, ep. 20. 
 
 Salodtjrum,. now Soleure, a town of the 
 Helvetii. 
 
 Salona, Salons, and Salon, a town of 
 Dalmatia, about ten miles distant from the 
 coast of the Adriatic, conquered by Pollio, who 
 on that account called his son Saloninus, in ho- 
 nour of the victory. It was the native place of 
 the emperor Dioclesian, and he retired there to 
 enjoy peace and tranquillity, after he had abdi- 
 cated the imperial purple, and built a stately 
 palace, the ruins of which were still seen in 
 the I6th century at Spalatro, about three miles 
 from Salona. L/ucan. 4, v. 404. — Cas. BeL 
 Civ. 9.— Mela, 2, c. 3. 
 
 281 
 
SA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SA 
 
 Salyes, or Saluvii, a powerful nation of Gaul, 
 " who extended from the Rhone along the 
 southern bank of the Durance, almost to the 
 Alps ; and with whom the Massilians had to 
 contend." D'Anville. — Liv. 5, c. 34 and 35, 
 1. 21, c. 26. 
 
 Samara, a river of Gaul, now called the Som- 
 me, which falls into the British channel near 
 Abbeville. 
 
 Samaria, a city and country of Palestine, 
 famous in sacred history. The inhabitants, 
 called Samaritans, were composed of Heathens 
 and rebellious Jews, and on having a temple 
 built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, 
 a lasting enmity arose between the people of 
 Judasa and of Samaria, so that no intercourse 
 took place between the countries, and the name 
 of Samaritan became a word of reproach, and 
 as if it were a curse. 
 
 Samarobriva, a town of Gaul, now Amiens^ 
 in Picardy. 
 
 Same. Vid. Cephallenia. 
 
 Samnites, a people of Italy, who inhabited 
 the country situate between Campania, Apulia, 
 and Latium, T hey distinguished themselves by 
 their implacable hatred against the Romans in 
 the first ages of that empire, till they were at 
 last totally extirpated, B. C. 272, after a war of 
 71 years. Their chief town was called Sam- 
 nium or Samnis. Liv. 7, &c. — Flor. 1, c. 16, 
 &c. 1. 3, c. 18. — Strab. 5. — LMcan. 2. — Eutrop. 2. 
 
 Samosata, a town of Syria, in Commagene, 
 near the Euphrates, below mount Taurus, 
 where Lucian was born. 
 
 Samothrace, or Samothracia, an island in 
 the iEgean Sea, opposite the mouth of the He- 
 brus, on the coast of Thrace, from which it is 
 distant about 32 miles. It was known by the 
 ancient names of Leucosia, Melitis, Electria, 
 Leucania, and Dardania. " Though insigni- 
 ficant in itself, considerable celebrity attaches to 
 it from the mysteries of Cybele and her Cory- 
 bantes, which are said to have originated there, 
 and to have been disseminated from thence 
 over Asia Minor and difierent parts of Greece. 
 We shall not here attempt to investigate the ori- 
 gin either of the mysteries above alluded to, or 
 of the Cabiric worship, with which they were 
 intimately connected, the subject, although in- 
 teresting, being too obscure to be elucidated but 
 in an elaborate dissertation. Herodotus is posi- 
 tive in affirming that the Samothracians prac- 
 tised the Cabiric orgies, and states that they de- 
 rived them from the Pelasgi, who once occupied 
 that island, but afterwards obtained a settlement 
 in Attica, The Samothracians joined the Per- 
 sian fleet in the expedition of Xerxes : and one 
 of their vessels distinguished itself in the battle 
 of Salamis." Cram. It enjoyed all its rights 
 and immunities under the Romans till the reign 
 of Vespasian, who reduced it, with ihe rest of 
 the islands in the ^Egean, into the form of a 
 province. Plin. 4, c. 12. — Strab. 10. — Herod. 
 7, c. 108, &c.— Virg. JEn. 7, v. ^%.—Mela, 2, 
 c. 7 -Pans. 7, c. 4:.— Flor. 2, c. 12. 
 
 Sana, a town of mount Athos, near which 
 Xerxes began to make a channel to convey the 
 sea. 
 
 Sandaliotis, a name given to Sardinia, from 
 its resemblance to a sandal. Plin. 3, c. 7. 
 
 Sangarius, or Sangaris, a river of Asia Mi- 
 nor, rising in the mountains that separate Phry- 
 282 
 
 gia from Galatia. It belongs, however, to the 
 latter country and to Bithynia, and empties inio 
 the Euxine Sea, between the possessions of the 
 Thyni and the Mariandyni. It is still called 
 the Sakaria. 
 
 Santones, and Santon^e, now Saintonge, a 
 people with a town of the same name in Gaul. 
 Lucan. 1, v, 422. — Martial. 3, ep. 96. 
 
 Sapis, now Savio, a river of Gaul Cispadana, 
 falling into the Adriatic. LMcan. 2, v. 406. 
 
 Saracene, part of Arabia Petraea, the coun- 
 try of the Saracens who embraced the religion 
 of Mahomet, 
 
 Sarasa, a fortified place of Mesopotamia, on 
 the Tigris. Strab. 
 
 Saravus, now the Save, a river of Belgium, 
 falling into the Moselle. 
 
 Sardi, the inhabitants of Sardinia. Vid. Sar- 
 dinia. 
 
 Sardinia, the greatest island in the Mediter- 
 ranean after Sicily, is situate between Italy and 
 Africa, at the south of Corsica. It was origi- 
 nally called Sandaliotis or Ichnusa, from its re- 
 sembling the human foot, {L')(yos) and it received 
 the name of Sardinia from Sardus, a son of Her- 
 cules, who settled'here with a colony which he 
 had brought with him from Libya. Other colo- 
 nies, under Aristoeus, Norax, and lolas, also set- 
 tled there. The Carthaginians were long mas- 
 ters of it, and were dispossessed by the Romans 
 in the Punic wars, B. C. 231. Some call it with 
 Sicily, one of the granaries of Rome. The 
 air was very unwholesome, though the soU was 
 fertile in corn, in wine, and oil. Neither 
 wolves nor serpents are found in Sardinia, nor 
 any poisonous herb, except one, which, when 
 eaten, contracts the nerves, and is attended with 
 a paroxysm of laughter, the forerunner of 
 death; hence risus Sardonicus, or Sardous. 
 Cic. Fam. 7, c. 25. — Servius ad Virg. 7, eel. 41. 
 
 — Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 8b.— Mela, 3, c. 1.— Strab. 
 2 and 5. — Cic. pro Manil. ad Q. frat. 2, ep. 3. — 
 Plin. 3, c, l.—Paus. 10, c. ll.— Varro de R.R. 
 
 — Val. Max. 7, c, 6. 
 
 Sardis, or Sardes, now Sart, a town of Asia 
 Minor, the capital of the kingdom of Lydia, 
 situate at the foot of mount Tmolus, on the 
 banks of the Paclolus. It is celebrated for the 
 many sieges it sustained against the Cimme- 
 rians, Persians, Medes, Macedonians, lonians, 
 and Athenians, and for the battle in which, B. 
 C. 262, Antiochus Soter was defeated by Eu- 
 menes, king of Pergamus. It was destroyed 
 by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, who 
 ordered it to be rebuilt. It fell into the hands 
 of Cyrus, B. C. 548, and was burnt by the 
 Athenians, B. C. 504, which became the cause 
 of the invasion of Attica by Darius. Pint, in 
 Alex.— Ovid. Met. 11, v. 137, 152, &.Q.— Strab. 
 n.— Herod. 1, c. 7, &c. 
 
 Sardones, the people of Roussilon in France, 
 at the foot of the Pyrenees. Plin. 3, c. 4. 
 
 Sarephta, a town of Phoenicia, between 
 Tyre and Sydon, now Sarfand. 
 
 Sarmat^}, or Sauromat^, the inhabitants of 
 Sarmatia. Vid. Sarmatia. 
 
 Sarmatia, an extensive country at the north 
 of Europe and Asia, divided into JEuropean and 
 Asiatic, The European was bounded by the 
 ocean on the north of Germany, and the Vistii^ 
 la on the west, the Jazygae on the south, and 
 Tanais on the east. The Asiatic was bounded 
 
SA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SC 
 
 by Hyrcania, the Tanais, and the Euxine Sea. 
 The lormer contained the modern kingdoms of 
 Russia., Poland, Lithuania, and Little Tartary ; 
 and the latter, Great Tartary, Circassia, and 
 the neighboaring country. The Sarmatians 
 were a savage, uncivilized nation, often con- 
 foimded with the Scythians, naturally warlike, 
 and famous for painting their bodies to appear 
 more terrible in the field of battle. In the time 
 of the emperors they became very powerful, 
 they disturbed the peace of Rome by their fre- 
 quent incursions ; till at last, increased by the 
 savage hordes of Scythia, under the barbarous 
 names of Huns, Vandals, Goths, Alans, &c. 
 they successfully invaded and ruined the em- 
 pire in the 3d and 4th centuries of the Chris- 
 tian era. They generally lived on the moun- 
 tains without any habitation, except their char- 
 iots, whence they have been called Hamaxobii; 
 they lived upon plunder, and fed upon milk 
 mixed with the blood of horses. Strab. 7, &c. 
 —Mela, 2, c. i.—Diod. ^.—Flor. 4, c. 12.—Lni- 
 can. 1, &C.—JUV. 2.— Ovid. Trist. 3, &c. The 
 ancients did attach to the name of Sarmatia a 
 meaning sufficiently definite, as the boundaries 
 given above may explain ; but it was very dif- 
 ferent as regarded the Sarmatas, or people in- 
 habiting the region thus indicated ; and modern 
 investigations for a long time only added to the 
 obscurity that prevailed upon this point. Vid. 
 Europa. 
 
 Sarmaticum mare, a name given to the 
 Euxine Sea, because on the coast of Sarmatia. 
 Ovid. 4, ex Pont. ep. 10, v. 38. 
 
 Sarnus, a river of Picenum, dividing it from 
 Campania,- and falling into the Tuscan Sea. 
 Stat. 1, Sylv. 2, v. 265.— Fir^. ^n. 7, v. 738. 
 —Strab. 5. 
 
 Saroniccjs sinus, now the gulf of Engia, a 
 bay of the ^Egean Sea, lying at the south of 
 Attica, and on the north of the Peloponnesus. 
 The entrance into it is between the promontory 
 of Sunium and that of Scyllaeum. Some sup- 
 pose that this part of the sea received its name 
 from Saron, who was drowned there, or from a 
 small river which discharged itself on the coast, 
 or from a small harbour of the same name. The 
 Saronic bay is about 62 miles in circumference, 
 23 miles in its broadest, and 25 in its longest 
 part, according to modern calculation. 
 
 Sarpedon, I. a town of Cilicia, famous for a 
 
 temple sacred to Apollo and Diana. II. Also 
 
 a promontory of the same name in Cilicia, be- 
 yond which Andochus was not permitted to sail 
 by a treaty of peace which he had made with 
 the Romans. Liv. 38, c. 38. — Mela, 1, c, 13. 
 III. A promontory of Thrace. 
 
 Sarra, a town of Phoenicia, the same as 
 Tyre. It receives this name from a small shell- 
 fish of the same name, which was found in the 
 neighbourhood, and with whose blood garments 
 were dyed. Hence came the epithet of sarra- 
 nus, so often applied to Tyrian colours, as well 
 as to the inhabitants of the colonies of the 
 Tyrians, particularly Carthage, Sil. 6, v. 
 662, 1. 15, V. ^b.— Virg. G. 2, v. ^m.—Festnis 
 de V. sig. 
 
 Sarrastes, a people of Campania, on the 
 Sarnus, who assisted Tumus against .ffineas. 
 Virg. JEn. 7, v. 738. 
 
 Sarsina, an ancient town of Umbria, where 
 the poet Plautus was bom. The inhabitants 
 
 I are called Sarsiimtes. Martial. 9 ep. 59. — 
 Plin. 3, c. U.—Ital. 8, v. 462. 
 
 Sason, an island at the entrance of the Adri- 
 atic Sea, lying between Brundusium and Aulon 
 on the coast of Greece. It is barren and inhos- 
 pitable. Strab. 6. — Lucan. 2, v. 627, and 5, v. 
 650.— S-zZ It. 7, v. 480. 
 
 Saticula, and Saticulus, a town near Ca- 
 pua. Virg. ^n. 7, v. 12Q.—Liv. 9, c. 21, 1. 23, 
 c. 39. 
 
 ' Satura, a lake of Latium, forming part of 
 the Pontine lakes. Sil. 8, v. 382.— Virg. JEn. 
 7, V. 801. 
 
 Satdreium, or Satureum, a town of Cala- 
 bria, near Tarentum, with famous pastures 
 and horses, whence the epithet of satureianus 
 in Horat. 1, Sat. 6. 
 
 Saturnia, a name poetically applied to Italy. 
 It was an early appellation of Rome, the latter 
 being, as it is supposed, a later name, and not 
 of Latin origin. 
 
 Saturum, a town of Calabria, where stuffs of 
 all kinds were dyed in different colours with 
 great success. Virg. G. 2, v. 197, 1. 4, v. 335. 
 
 Savo, or Savona, I. a town with a small river 
 of the same name in Campania. Sto.t. 4. — 
 Plin. 3, c. 5. II. A town of I^guria. 
 
 Sauromat^. Vid. Sarmatia. 
 
 Savus, a river of Pannonia, rising in Nori- 
 cum, at the north of Aquileia, and falling into 
 the Danube, after flowing through Pannonia in 
 an eastern direction. Claudius de StiV2. 
 
 Saxones, a people of Germany, near the 
 Chersonesus Cimbrica. They were probably 
 of a race between the Teutones and Scandina- 
 vians, and though from their first appearance in 
 history they bore the character of a bold and 
 warlike people, yet they do not appear with 
 that resistless power till the people of the north, 
 embracing a new life, embarked upon the seas 
 to carry beyond their continent the devastating 
 influence of their arms. The conquest of Eng- 
 land was their first great achievement; and their 
 establishment in that country extended the ter- 
 ror of the Saxon name throughout all the states 
 just rising out of the ruins of the dismembered 
 empire. Ptol. 3, \l.— Claud. 1, Eutr. v. 392. 
 
 Sc5:a, one of the gates of Troy, where the 
 tomb of Laomedon was seen. The name is de- 
 rived by some from o-^ato? {sinister.^ Homer. 
 n.—Sil. 13, v. 73. 
 
 ScALABis, now St. Irene, a town of ancient 
 Spain. 
 
 ScALDis, or ScALDirM, I. a river of Belgium, 
 now called the Scheld, and dividing the modern 
 country of the Netherlands from Holland. Cces. 
 
 G. 6, V. 33. II. Pons, a to-wTi on the same 
 
 river, now called CoTzrfg. Cces. 
 
 ScAMANDER, or ScAMANDRos, a Celebrated 
 river of Troas, rising at the east of mount Ida, 
 and falling into the sea below Sigaeum. It re- 
 ceives the Simois in its course, and towards its 
 mouih it is very muddy, and flows through 
 marshes. This river, according to Homer, was 
 called Xanthus by the gods, and Scamander by 
 men. It was usual among all the virgins of 
 Troas to bathe in the Scamander when they 
 were arrived to nubile years. jElian. Anim. 8, 
 c. 21.— ^ra*. 1 and 13.— Plin. 5, c. 30.~Mela, 1, 
 c. 18. — Homer. 11. 5. — Plut. — JEschin. ep. 10. 
 
 ScAMANDRiA, a town on the Scamander. 
 Plin. 4, c. 30. 
 
 283 
 
sc 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SE 
 
 Scandinavia, a name given by the ancients 
 to that tract of territory which contains the 
 modern kingdoms of JS'orwaij, Sweden, Deu- 
 mark, Lapland^ Finland, &c. supposedly them 
 to be an island. Plin. 4, c. 13. 
 
 ScANTiA SYLVA, a wood of Campania, the 
 property of the Roman people. Cic. 
 
 ScAPTESYLE, a town of Thrace, near Abdera, 
 abounding in silver and gold mines, belonging 
 to Thucydides, who is supposed there to have 
 written his history of the Peloponnesian war. 
 Lucret. 6, v. 810. — Pkd. in Cim. 
 
 ScARDii, a ridge of mountains of Macedonia, 
 which separate it from Illy ricum. Liv. 43, c. 20. 
 
 ScENA, a river of Ireland, now the Shannon. 
 Orosius. 1, c. 2. 
 
 Scepsis, a town of Troas, where the works of 
 Theophrastus and Aristotle were long conceal- 
 ed under ground, and damaged by the wet, &c. 
 Strab. 10. 
 
 ScHEDiA, a small village of Egypt, with a 
 dock-yard, between the western mouths of the 
 Nile and Alexandria. Strab. 
 
 SciATHos, an island in the iEgean Sea, op- 
 posite mount Pelion, on the coast of Thessaly. 
 Val. Flacc. 2. 
 
 SciRADiuM, a promontory of Attica, on the 
 Saronicus Sinus. 
 
 ScoMBRUs, a mountain of Thrace, near Rho- 
 ilope. 
 
 ScoRDisci, and Scordisce, a people of Pan- 
 nonia and Thrace, well known during the reign 
 of the Roman emperors for their barbarity and 
 uncivilized manners. They were fond of drink- 
 ing human blood, and they generally sacrificed 
 their captive enemies to their gods. Liv. 41, c. 
 \^.— Strab. l.—Flor. 3, c. 4. 
 
 ScoTi, the ancient inhabitanis of Scotland, 
 mentioned as different from the Picts. Clau- 
 dian de Hon. 3, cons. v. 54. Vid. Caledonia. 
 
 ScuLTENNA, a river of Gaul Cispadana, fall- 
 ing into the Po, now called Panaro. Liv. 41, 
 c. 12 and 18.— PZm. 3, c. 16. 
 
 ScYLACEUM, a town of the Brutii, built by 
 Mnestheus at the head of an Athenian colony. 
 
 ScYLLiEUM, a promontory of Peloponnesus, 
 on the coast of Argolis. 
 
 ScYROs, a rocky and barren island in the 
 ^gean, at ihe distance of about 28 miles north- 
 east from Euboea, sixty miles in circumference. 
 It was originally in the possession of the Pelas- 
 gians and Carians. Achilles retired there not 
 to go to the Trojan war, and became father of 
 Neoptolemus bybeidamia, the daughter of king 
 Lycomedes. Scyros was conquered by the 
 Athenians under Cimon. Homer. Od. 10, v. 
 508.— Oyi<^. Met. 7, v. 464, 1. 13, v. 156.— 
 Vans. 1, c. 7. — Strab. 9. 
 
 SuythjE, the inhabitants of Scythia. Vid. 
 Scythia. 
 
 Scythia, a large country situate on the most 
 northern parts of Europe and Asia, from which 
 circum^itance it is generally denominated Eu- 
 ropean and Asiatic. The most northern parts 
 of Scythia were uninhabited on account of the 
 extreme coldness of the climate. The more 
 southern in Asia that were inhabited, were dis- 
 tinguished by the name of Scythia intra ^ extra 
 Tmaum, &c. The boundaries of Scythia were 
 unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had 
 penetrated beyond the vast tracts of land which 
 lay at the north, east, and west. Scythia com- 
 284 
 
 prehended the modern kingdoms ol Tarlary, 
 Russia in Asia, Siberia, Muscovy, the Crimea, 
 Poland, part of Hungary, Lithuania, the north- 
 ern parts of Germany, Sweden, Norway, &c. 
 The Scythians were divided into several nations 
 or tribes ; they had no cities, but continually 
 changed their habitations. They inured them- 
 selves to bear labour and fatigue, they despised 
 money, and lived upon milk, and covered them- 
 selves with the skins of their cattle. The vir- 
 tues seemed to flourish among them ; and that 
 philosophy and moderation which other nations 
 wished to acquire by study, seemed natural to 
 them. Some authors, however, represent them 
 as a savage and barbarous people, who fed upon 
 human flesh, who drank the blood of their ene- 
 mies, and used the sculls of travellers as vessels 
 in their sacrifices to their gods. The Scythians 
 made several irruptions upon the more southern 
 provinces of Asia, especially B. C. 624, when 
 they remained in possession of Asia Minor for 
 28 years, and we find them at diflferent periods 
 extending their conquests in Europe, and pene- 
 trating as far as Egypt. Their government was 
 monarchical, and the deference which they paid 
 to their sovereigns was unparalleled. When 
 the king died, his body was carried through 
 every province, where it was received in solemn 
 procession, and afterwards buried. In the first 
 centuries after Christ they invaded the Roman 
 empire with the Sarmatians. Vid. Sarmatia 
 and MassagetcB. Herodot. I, c. 4, &c. — St/rab. 
 7. — Diod. 2. — Val. Max. 5, c. 4. — Justin. 2, c. 
 1, &.c.— Ovid. Met. 1, V. 64, 1. 2, v. 224. 
 
 Sebennytus, a town of the Delta in Egypt. 
 That branch of the Nile which flows near it 
 has been called the Sebennytic. Plin. 5, c. 10, 
 
 Sebetus, a small river of Campania, falling 
 into the bay of Naples ; wlierice the epithet Se- 
 bethis, given to one of the nymphs who fre- 
 quented its borders and became mother of CEba- 
 lus by Telon. Virg. jE7i. 7, v. 734. 
 
 Seduni, an ancient nation of Gaul. Their 
 country was in the upper part of the Vallis 
 Pennina, and their principal town, Civitas Se- 
 dunorum, is now Sion. Cas. Bell. G. 3. 
 
 Segesta, a town of Sicily, founded by JEne- 
 as, or, according to some, by Crinisus. Vid. 
 JEgesta. 
 
 Segobrica, a town of Spain, near Saguntum. 
 Plin. 3, c. 3. 
 
 Segovia, a town of Spain, of great power in 
 the age of the Ccesars. It stood at the head of 
 one of the small streams that formed the Du- 
 rius, and still retains its ancient name, being 
 one of the principal towns of Old Castile. 
 
 Seguntfum, a town of Britain, supposed to be 
 Carnarvon in Wales. Cas. G. 5, c. 21. 
 
 Segusiani, a people of Gaul on the Loire. 
 Coes. G.l,c. 10.— Plin. 4, c. 18. 
 
 Seleucia, I, a town of Babylonia. This place 
 owed its origin to Seleucus Nicator, and was 
 erected avowedly as a rival to Babylon. It stood 
 upon the right bank of the Tigris, opposite the 
 Parthian city of Ctesiphon. The bishop of this 
 see was in process of time, when the Christian 
 religion superseded the old superstition, invested 
 with the dignity of Primate of all the churches 
 
 east of Syria. II. Another of Syria, on the 
 
 seashore, generally called Pleria, to distinguish 
 it from others of the same name. There were 
 no less than six other cities which were called 
 
SE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SE 
 
 Seleucia, and which had all received their name 
 from Seleucus Nicaton They were all situate 
 in the kingdom of Syria, in Cilicia, and near the 
 Euphrates. Flor. 3, c. 11. — Plut. in Dem. — Me- 
 la, 1, c. V2,.—Strab. 11 and Ib.—Plin. 6, c. 26. 
 
 Seleucis, a division of Syria, which received 
 its name from Seleucus, the founder of the Sy- 
 rian empire after the death of Alexander the 
 Great. It was also called Tetrapolis from the 
 four cities it contained, called also sister cities ; 
 Seleucia called after Seleucus, Antioch called 
 after his father, Laodicea after his mother, and 
 Apamea after his wife. Sirab. 16. 
 
 Selga, a town of Pamphylia, made a colony 
 by the Lacedsemonians. Liv. 35, c. 13. — 
 Strabo. 
 
 Selinuns, or SelInus, (uniis,) I. a town on 
 the southern parts of Sicily, founded A, U. C. 
 127. It received its name from aeXivov, parsley, 
 which grew there in abundance. The marks of 
 its ancient consequence are visible in the vene- 
 rable ruins now found in its neighbourhood. 
 
 Virg. jEn. 3, v. 105.— Pans. 6, c. 19 II. 
 
 A river of Elis in Peloponnesus, which watered 
 the town of Scillus. Pans. 5, c. 6. III. An- 
 other in Achaia. IV. Another in Sicily. 
 
 V. A river and town of Cilicia, where Tra- 
 jan died. Liv. 33, c. QO.—Strab. 14. VI. 
 
 Two small rivers near Diana's temple at Ephe- 
 
 sus. PZm. 5, c. 29. VII. A lake at the 
 
 entrance of the Cayster. Stra-b. 14. 
 
 Sellasia, a town of Laconia, " situated near 
 the confluence of the CEnus and Gongylus, in a 
 valley confined between two mountains named 
 Evas and Olympus. It commanded the only 
 road by which an army could enter Laconia 
 from the north, and was therefore a position of 
 great importance for the defence of the capital. 
 Thus when Epaminondas made his attack upon 
 Sparta, his first object, after forcing the passes 
 which led from Arcadia into the enemy's coun- 
 try, was to march directly upon Sellasia with 
 all his troops. Cleomenes, tyrant of Sparta, was 
 attacked in this strong position by Antigonus 
 Doson, and totally defeated, after an obstinate 
 conflict. When Pausanias visited Laconia, 
 Sellasia was in ruins." Cram. 
 
 Selleis, a river of Peloponnesus, falling into 
 the Ionian Sea. Homer. 11. 
 
 Selymbria, a town of Thrace, on the Pro- 
 pontis. Liv. 39, c. 39. 
 
 Semnones, a people of Germany, belonging 
 to the Suevic family. They occupied the re- 
 gion lying between the Oder and the Elbe, to- 
 wards their sources, and were surrounded by 
 the most warlike of the German tribes. 
 
 Sena, I. a town of Hetruria, east of Vola- 
 terra and south of Florentia. It was surnam- 
 ed Julia, to distinguish it from the Umbrian 
 town of the same name. As Sienna, among 
 the republican cities of the middle ages, it be- 
 came illustrious for the part which it bore in 
 the differences of the Guelphs and Ghibelines, 
 and is now most remarkable for the purity of 
 
 the idiom in use among its inhabitants. II. 
 
 Another, surnamed Gallica, now Sinigaglia in 
 Umbria. " It was colonized by the Romans 
 after they had expelled, or rather exterminated, 
 the Senones, A. U. C. 471 ; but according to 
 Livy some years before that date. During the 
 civil wars between Sylla and Marius, Sena, 
 which sided with the latter, was taken and 
 
 sacked by Pompey." Cram. There was also 
 a small river in the neighbourhood which bore 
 the name of Setia. 
 
 Senones, I, an uncivilized nation of Gallia 
 Transalpina, who left their native possessions, 
 and, under the conduct of Brennus, invaded 
 Italy and pillaged Rome. They afterwards 
 united with the Umbri, Latins, and Etrurians to 
 make war against the Romans, till they were 
 totally destroyed by Dolabella. The chief of 
 their towns in that part of Italy where they set- 
 tled near Umbria, and which from them was 
 called Senogallia, were Fanum Fortunae, Sena, 
 Pisaurura, and Ariminum. Vid. Cimbri. Im- 
 can. 1, V. ^M.—Sil. 8, v. Abi.—Liv. 5, c. 35, 
 
 &c. — Flor. II. A people of Germany near 
 
 the Suevas. 
 
 Sepias, a cape of Magnesia in Thessaly, at 
 the north of Eubcea, now >S^. George. 
 
 Septem AGIU.E, I. a portion of the lake near 
 Reate. Cic. 4, Att. 15. II. Fratres, a moun- 
 tain of Mauritania, now Gebel-Mousa. Strab. 
 
 17. III. Maria, the entrance of the seven 
 
 mouths of the Pa. 
 
 SEauANA, a river of Gaul, which separates 
 the territories of the Belgse and the Celtse, and 
 is now called la Seine. Strab. 4. — Mela, 3, c. 2. 
 — Lucan. 1, v. 425. 
 
 Sequani, a people of Gaul, near the territo- 
 ries of the iEdui, between the Soane and mount 
 Jura, famous for their wars against Rome, &c. 
 The country which they inhabited is iiow call- 
 ed Franche Compte, or Upper Burgundy. Cces. 
 Bell. G. 
 
 Serbonis, a lake between Egypt and Pales- 
 tine, " in the vicinity of mount Casius, where 
 Typhon, the murderer of Osiris, is said to have 
 perished. It has taken the name of Sebaket 
 Bardoil, from the first king of Jerusalem of 
 that name, who died on his return from an ex- 
 pedition in Egypt." D'Anville. 
 
 Seres, a nation of Asia, according to Ptole- 
 my, between the Ganges and the eastern ocean 
 in the modern Thibet. They were naturally 
 of a meek disposition. Silk, of which the fab- 
 rication was unknown to the ancients, who 
 imagined that the materials were collected from 
 the leaves of trees, was brought to Rome from 
 their country, and on that account it received 
 the name of Sericum, and thence a garment or 
 dress of silk is called serica vestis. Heliogaba- 
 lus, the Roman emperor, was the first who wore 
 a silk dress, which at that time was sold for its 
 weight in gold. It afterwards became very 
 cheap, and consequently was the common dress 
 among the Romans. Some suppose that the 
 Seres are the same as the Chinese. Ptol. 6, c. 
 \G.—Horat. 1, od. 29, v. ^.—Uican. 1, v. 19, 1. 
 10, V. 142 and ^'2.— Ovid. Am. 1, el. 14, v. 6. 
 — Virg. G!.2,v. 121. 
 
 Seriphus, an island in the iEgean Sea, about 
 35 miles in circumference, according to Pliny 
 only 12, very barren and uncultivated. The 
 Romans generally sent their criminals there in 
 banishment, and it was there that Cassius Se- 
 verus, the orator, was exiled, and there he died. 
 According to iElian the frogs of this island 
 never croaked but when they were removed 
 from the island to another place they were more 
 noisy and clamorous than others ; hence the 
 proverb of seriphia rana applied to a man who 
 never speaks nor sings. This, however, is 
 285 
 
SI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SI 
 
 found to be a mistake by modern travellers. 
 It was on the coast of Seriphus that the chest 
 was discovered in which Acrisius had exposed 
 his daughter Danae and her son Perseus. 
 Strab. 10. — Mlian. Anim. 3, c. 37. — Mela, 2, 
 c. 7. — Apollod. 1. c. 9. — Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 21. — 
 Ovid. Met. 5, V. 242, 1. 7, v. 65. 
 
 Sestos, or Sestus, a town of Thrace, on the 
 shores of the Hellespont, exactly opposite Aby- 
 dos on the Asiatic side. It is celebrated for the 
 bridge which Xerxes built there across the Hel- 
 lespont, as also for being the seat of the amours 
 of Hero and Leander. Mela, 2, c. 2. — Strab. 
 U.—Miisaus de L. & H.— Virg. G. 3, v. 258. 
 — Ovid. Heroid. IS, V. 2. 
 
 Setabis, a town of Spain, between New Car- 
 thage and Saguntum, famous for the manufac- 
 ture of linen. There was also a small river of 
 the same name in the neighbourhood. Sil. 16, 
 v. 41i.— Strab. 2.— Mela, 2, c. 6.—Plin. 3. c. 3, 
 1. 19, c. 1. 
 
 Setia, a town of Latium, above the Pontine 
 Marshes, celebrated for its wines, which Augus- 
 tus is said to have preferred to all others. Plin. 
 14. c. 6. — Tuv. 5, V. U.—Sat. 10, v. 21.— Mar- 
 tial. 13, ep. 112. 
 
 Sevo, a ridge of mountains between Norway 
 and Sweden, now called F'iell, or Dofre. Plin. 
 4, c. 15. 
 
 SEXT1.E A^uiE, now Aix, a place of Cisal- 
 pine Gaul, where the Cimbri were defeated by 
 Marius. It owed its foundation to Sextius 
 Calvinus, who subdued the Salyes, or Saluvii, 
 whence the epithet Sextiae. The term Aquae 
 is used in reference to its warm baths. It be- 
 came at length the metropolis of Narbonensis 
 Secunda. D'Anville. — Liv. 61. — Veil. Paterc. 
 1, c. 15. 
 
 SicAMBRi, or Sygambri. " The Sicaynbri 
 inhabited the south side of the course of the 
 Lippe. Pressed by the Cattians, powerful 
 neighbours, whom Caesar calls Suevi, they were 
 together with the Ubii, received inio Gaul on 
 the left bank of the Rhine, under Augustus ; 
 and there is reason to believe that the people 
 who occupied this position under the name of 
 Gugerni, were Sicambrians. It was in favour 
 of the Ubians that Cassar crossed the Rhine, at 
 the extremity of the territory of Treves, ravaged 
 that of the Sicambrians, and caused the Cattians 
 to decamp." D'Anville. 
 
 SiCAMBRiA, the country of the Sicambri, form- 
 ed the modern province of Guelderland. Claud, 
 in Eutrup. 1, v. 383. 
 
 SicANi. Vid Latium. 
 
 Sicca, a town of Numidia, at the west of 
 Carthage, which received from Venus, who 
 was worshipped there, the epithet of Venerea. 
 Remains of antiquity are still visible around the 
 modern place, which is called Urbs, and other- 
 wise Kef ; " although Shaw, an English tra- 
 veller, to whose information we owe much of 
 the topographical intelligence of this country, 
 makes a distinction between those names, as 
 appropriate to two several positions." D'An- 
 ville. — Sat. in Jug. 56. 
 
 SrciLiA, the largest and most celebrated isl- 
 and in the Mediterranean Sea, at the bottom of 
 Italy. It was anciently called Sicania, Trina- 
 cria, and Triquetra. It is of a triangular form, 
 and has three celebrated promontories, one look- 
 ing towards Africa, called Lilybseum ; Pachy- 
 386 
 
 num, looking towards Greece ; and Pelorum, to- 
 wards Italy. Sicily is about 600 miles in cir- 
 cumference, celebrated for its fertility, so much 
 so that it was called one of the granaries of Rome, 
 and Plmy says that it rewards the husbandman 
 an hundred-fold. Its most famous cities were 
 Syracuse, Messana, Leontini, Lilybseum, Agri- 
 gentum, Gela, Drepanum, Eryx, &c. The 
 highest and most famous mountain in the island 
 is iEtna, whose frequent eruptions are dange- 
 rous, and often fatal to the country and its inha- 
 bitants ; from which circumstance the ancients 
 supposed that the forges of Vulcan and the Cy- 
 clops were placed there. The poets feign that 
 the Cyclops were the original inhabitants of this 
 island, and that after them it came into the pos- 
 session of the Sicani, a people of Spain, and at 
 last of the Siculi, a nation of Italy. Vid. Si- 
 culi. The plains of Enna are well known for 
 their excellent honey, and, according to Diodo- 
 rus, the hounds lost their scent in hunting, on 
 account of the many odoriferous plants that pro- 
 fusely perfumed the air. Ceres and Proserpine 
 were the chief deities of ihat place ; and it was 
 there, according to. poetical tradition, that the 
 latter was carried away by Pluto. The Phoeni- 
 cians and Greeks settled some colonies there, 
 and at last the Carthaginians became masters 
 of the whole island, till they were dispossessed 
 of it by the Romans in the Punic wars. Some 
 authors suppose that Sicily was originally join- 
 ed to the continent, and that it was separated 
 from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits 
 of the Charybdis were thus formed. The inha- 
 bitants of Sicily were so fond of luxury, that 
 Siculce mens£B became proverbial. The rights 
 of citizens of Rome were extended to them by 
 M. Antony. Cic. 14. Att. 12. Verr. 2, c. 13.— 
 Homer. Od. 9, &c. — Justin. 4, c. 1, «Sz:c. — Virg. 
 JEn. 3, V. 414, &c.—Ital. 14, v. 11, &c.—Plin. 
 
 3, c. 8, &c. The island of Naxos, in the 
 
 iEgean, was called Little Sicily, on account of 
 its fruitfulness. 
 
 SicoRus, now Segro, a river of Hispania 
 Tarraconensis, rising in the Pyrenaean moun- 
 tains, and falling into the Iberus a little above 
 its mouth. It was near this river that J. Cssar 
 conquered Afranius and Petreius, the partisans 
 of Pompey. I/ucan. 4, v. 14, 130, &c. — Plin. 
 3, c. 3. 
 
 Siculi. Vid. Latium. 
 
 SicuLi FRETUM, the sca which separates 
 Sicily from Italy, is 15 miles long, but in some 
 places so narrow that the barking of dogs can 
 be heard from shore to shore. This strait is 
 supposed to have been formed by an earthquake, 
 which separated the island from the continent. 
 " We find the name of Mare Siculum applied 
 to the waters which washed the southwestern 
 coast of Greece." Strab. 2, 123.— Plin. 4. 5. 
 — Cram. — Plin. 3, c. 8. 
 
 SicYON, now Basilica, a town of Poloponne- 
 sus, the capital of Sicyonia. " Few cities of 
 Greece could boast of such high antiquity, since 
 it already existed under the names of ^Egialea 
 and Mecone long before the arrival of Pelops 
 in the Peninsula. Homer represents Sicyon 
 as forming part of the kingdom of Mycenoe with 
 the whole of Achaia. Pausanias and other 
 genealogists have handed down to us a long list 
 of the kings of Sicyon, from ^Egialus its found- 
 er, to the conquest of the city by the Dorians 
 
SI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SI 
 
 and Heraclidse, from which period it became 
 subject to Argos. Its population was then di- 
 vided into four tribes, named, Hyllus, Pamphyli, 
 Dymantae, and -^gialus, a clEissification intro- 
 duced by the Dorians, and adopted, as we learn 
 from Herodotus, by the Argives. How long 
 a connexion subsisted between the two states 
 we are not informed; but it appears that when 
 Cleisthenes became tyrant of Sicyon they were 
 independent of each other, since Herodotus re- 
 lates that whilst at war with Argos he changed 
 the names of the Sicyonian tribes which were 
 Dorian, that they might not be the same as those 
 of the adverse city; and in order to ridicule the 
 Sicyonians, the historian adds, that he named 
 them afresh after such animals as pigs and 
 asses; sixty years after his death the former 
 appellations were however restored. Sicyon 
 continued under the dommion of tyrants for the 
 space of one hundred years; such being the 
 mildness of their rule, and their observance of 
 the existing laws, that the people gladly beheld 
 the crown thus transmitted from one generation 
 to another. It appears, however, from Thucy- 
 dides, that at the time of the Peloponnesian war 
 the government had been changed to an aristo- 
 cracy. In that contest, the Sicyonians, from 
 their Dorian origin, naturally espoused the 
 cause of Sparta; and the maritime situation of 
 their territory not unfrequently exposed it to the 
 ravages of the naval forces of Athens. After 
 the battle of Leuctra, we learn from Xenophon 
 that Sicyon once more became subject to a des- 
 potic government, of which Euphron, one of 
 its principal citizens, had placed himself at the 
 head with the assistance of the Argives and 
 Arcadians. His reign, however, was not of 
 long duration, being waylaid at Thebes, whither 
 he went to conciliate the favour of that power, 
 by a party of Sicyonian exiles, and murdered 
 in the very citadel. On the death of Alexander 
 the Great, Sicyon fell into the hands of Alex- 
 ander, son of Polysperchon; but on his being 
 assassinated, a tumult ensued, in which the in- 
 habitants of the city endeavoured to recover 
 their liberty. Such, however, was the courage 
 and firmness displayed by Cratesipolis his wife, 
 that they were finally overpowered. Not long 
 after this event, Demetrius Poliorcetes made 
 himself master of Sicyon, and having persuaded 
 the inhabitants to retire to the Acropolis, he 
 levelled to the ground all the lower part of the 
 city which connected the citadel with the port. 
 A new town was then built, to which the name 
 of Demetrius was given. This, as Strabo re- 
 ports, was placed on a fortified hill dedicated to 
 Ceres, and distant about 12 or 20 stadia from 
 the sea. The change which was thus effected 
 in the situation of this city does not appear to 
 have produced any alteration in the character 
 and political sentiments of the people. For 
 many years they still continued to be governed 
 by a succession of tyrants, until Nicocles, the 
 last, was expelled by Aratus the son of Clinias. 
 Clinias himself had previously reigned for a 
 short period, when he wasput to death by Aban- 
 tidas, who usurped the authority and forced 
 Aratus to fly. Nicocles having succeeded Aban- 
 tidas, Aratas formed the design of freeing his 
 country in conjunction with a party of exiles 
 and some Argive mercenaries, and advanced 
 ^ith his troops to the walls of the city, which 
 
 he scaled during the night, and overpowering 
 the satellites of Nicocles, who escaped during 
 the tumult, became master of Sicyon. He then 
 proclaimed liberty, recalled all the exiles and re- 
 stored to them their lands and property. Wise- 
 ly foreseeing also the dangers to which so small 
 a republic was exposed both from foreign as well 
 as domestic enemies, he determined to unite it 
 to the Achaean league; by which measure it 
 acquired that degree of strength and security of 
 which it stood so much in need. By the great 
 abilities and talents of Aratus, Sicyon was 
 raised to a distinguished rank among the other 
 Achaean states, and being already celebrated as 
 the first school of painting in Greece, continued 
 to flourish imder his auspices in the cultivation 
 of all the finest arts ; it being said, as Plutarch 
 reports, that the beauty of the ancient style had 
 there alone been preserved pure and uncorrupt- 
 ed. Aratus died at an advanced age, after an 
 active and glorious life, not without suspicion of 
 having been poisoned by order of Philip king 
 of Macedon. He was interred at Sicyon with 
 great pomp, and a splendid monument was 
 erected to him as the foimder and deliverer of 
 the city. After the dissolution of the Achaean 
 league litttle is known of Sicyon ; it is evident, 
 however, that it existed in the time of Pausa- 
 nias, from the number of remarkable edifices 
 and monuments which he enumerates within its 
 walls, though he allows that it had greatly suf- 
 fered from various calamities, but Especially 
 from an earthquake, which nearly reduced it to 
 desolation. The ruins of this once great and 
 flourishing city are still to be seen near the small 
 village of Basilica. Dr. Clarke informs us that 
 these remains of ancient magnificence are yet 
 considerable, and in some instances exist in such 
 a state of preservation, that it is evident the 
 buildings of the city must either have survived 
 the earthquake to which Pausanias alludes, or 
 have been constructed at some later period. In 
 this number is the theatre, which that traveller 
 considered as the finest and most perfect struc- 
 ture of the kind in all Greece. Dr. Clarke iden- 
 tified also the site of the Acropolis, and observed 
 several foundations of temples and other build- 
 ings in a style as massive as the Cyclopean : 
 verj' grand walls of brick tiles ; remains of a 
 palace with many chambers ; the stadium ; ruins 
 of a temple near the theatre ; some ancient 
 caves, and traces of a paved way. Sir W. Gell 
 reports that ' Basilica is a village of fifty houses, 
 situated in the angle of a little rocky ascent, 
 along which ran the walls of Sicyon . This city 
 was in shape triangular, and placed upon a high 
 flat, overlooking the plain, about an hour from 
 the sea, where is a great tumulus on the shore. 
 On the highest angle of Sicyon was the citadel ; 
 the situation is secure, without being inconve- 
 niently lofty.' It appears from Polybius that 
 Sicyon had a port capable of containing ships of 
 war ; and we know from Herodotus that it sent 
 twelve ships to Artemisium, and the same num- 
 ber to Salamis. The territory of Sicyon was 
 separated from that of Corinth by the small 
 river Nemea." Cram. 
 
 SicYONiA, a province of Peloponnesus, on 
 the bay of Corinth, of which Sicyon was the 
 capital. The territory is said to abound with 
 corn, wine, and olives, and also with iron 
 mines.. Vid. Sicyon. 
 
 287 
 
SI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SI 
 
 SiDiciNUM, a town of Campania, called also 
 T^anum. Vid. T'eanum. Virg. ^Hin. 7, v. 727. 
 
 SiDON, " the most ancient city of Phoenicia, 
 and the most northerly of all those which were 
 assigned for the portion of the sons of Asher. 
 Beyond it the country of Phoenicia, hitherto 
 nothing but a bare seacoast begins to open to- 
 wards the east in a fine rich valley, having Li- 
 banus upon the north and the Anti-Libanus on 
 the south. It was called so from Zidon, one of 
 the sons of Canaan, who first planted here ; not, 
 as some say, from Sida, the daughter of Belus, 
 once a king hereof. It was situate in a fertile 
 and delightful soil defended with the sea on the 
 one side, and on the other by the mountains lying 
 betwixt it and Libanus. This city was at sev- 
 eral times both the mother and the daughter 
 of Tyre ; the mother of it in the times of hea- 
 thenism, Tyre being a colony of this people ; 
 and the daughter of it, when instructed in the 
 Christian faith, acknowledging the church of 
 Tyre for its mother church. The city, in those 
 times very strong, both by art and nature, hav- 
 ing on the north side a fort or citadel, mounted 
 on an inaccessible rock, and environed on all 
 sides by the sea ; which, when it was brought 
 under the command of the western Christians, 
 was held by the order of the Dutch knights ; 
 and another on the south side of the port, which 
 the templars guarded." Heyl. Cosm. " The 
 ancient Sidon, mother of the Phoenician cities, 
 is;now a town of 7000 or 8000 inhabitants, un- 
 der the name of Scyde. It is the principal port 
 of Damascus. The harbour, like all the others 
 on this coast, was formed with much art, and at 
 an immense expense, by means of long piers. 
 These works, which still subsisted under the 
 Lower Empire, and the harbour, are now fallen 
 to decay. The Enin Facardin, who dreaded 
 the visits of the Turkish fleets, completed the 
 destruction of the famous harbours of Phoeni- 
 cia." Malte-Brun. The city of Sidon was 
 taken by Ochus, king of Persia, after the in- 
 habitants had burnt themselves and the city, 
 B. C. 351 ; but it was afterwards rebuilt by its 
 inhabitants, Lucan. 3, v. 217, 1. 10, v. 141. — 
 Diod. 16. — Tustin. 11, c. 10.— Plin. 36, c. 26.— 
 HoTner. Od. 15, v. ill.—Mela, 1, c. 12. 
 
 SiDONioRUM INSULJE, islauds in the Persian 
 gulf Strad. 16. 
 
 SiDONis, is the country of which Sidon was 
 the capital, situate at the west of Syria, on the 
 coast of the Mediterranean. Ovid.Met. 2, fab. 19. 
 
 Siena julia, a town of Etruria. Cic. Brut. 
 18.— Tacit. 4. Hist. 45. 
 
 SiGA, now Ned-Roma, a town of Numidia, 
 famous as the palace of Syphax. Plin. 5, c. 11. 
 
 SiGJEUM, or SiGEUM, uow capc Iv£ihisari, a 
 town of Troas, on a promontory of the same 
 name, where the Scamander falls into the sea, 
 extending six miles along the shore. It was 
 near Sigaeum that the greatest part of the bat- 
 tles between the Greeks and Trojans were 
 fought, as Homer mentions, and there Achilles 
 was buried. Virg. Mn. 2, v. 312, 1. 7, v. 294. 
 — Ovid. Met. 12, v. H.-Lmcan. 9, v. 962.— 
 Mela, 1, c. IS.—Strab. 13.— Dictys. Cret. 5, c. 12. 
 
 SiGNiA, I. an ancient town of Latium, whose 
 inhabitants were called Signini. The wine of 
 Signia was used by the ancients for medicinal 
 purposes. Martial. 13, ep. 116. II. A moun- 
 tain of Phrygia. Plin. 5, c. 29. 
 2S8 
 
 SiLA, or Syla, a large wood in the country of 
 the Brutii, near the Apennines, abounding with 
 much pilch. Strab. 6. — Virg. JEn. 12, v. 715. 
 
 Silarus, " which divides Lucania from Cam- 
 pania, takes its rise in that part of the Apen- 
 nines which formerly belonged to the Hirpini ; 
 and after receiving the Tanager, now Negro, 
 and the Calor, Calore, empties itself into the 
 Gulf of Salerno. The waters of this river are 
 stated by ancient writers to have possessed the 
 property of incrusting, by means of a calcareous 
 deposition, any pieces of wood or twigs which 
 were thrown into them. At its mouth was a 
 haven named Portus Alburnus, as we learn 
 from a verse of Lucilius, cited by Probus the 
 grammarian." Cram. 
 
 SiLis, a river of Venetia m Italy, falling into 
 the Adriatic. Plin. 3, c. 18. 
 
 SiLviuM, a town of Apulia, now Gorgolione. 
 Plin. 3. c. 11. 
 
 SiLUREs, the people of So^dh Wales in Brit- 
 ain. They occupied the northern shore of the 
 Sabringe ^stuarium. Isea, their chief city, 
 was " the residence of a Roman legion; its site 
 is now recognized in the name of Caer-Leon, on 
 a river, whose name of Usk is evidently the 
 same as those of the city." D'Anville. 
 
 SiMBRivius, or SiMBRUvius, a lake of Latium, 
 formed by the Anio. Tacit. 14, Ann. 22. 
 
 SiMETHus, or Symethus, a town and river 
 at the east of Sicily, which served as a bound- 
 aiy between the territories of the people of Ca- 
 tana and the Leontini. Virg. JE71. 9, v. 584. 
 
 SiMois, {entis,) a river of Troas, which rises 
 in mount Ida, and falls into the Xanthus. It is 
 celebrated by Homer and most of the ancient 
 poets, as in its neighbourhood were fought many 
 battles during the Trojan war. It is found to 
 be but a small rivulet by modern travellers, and 
 even some have disputed its existence. Homer. 
 II.— Virg. uEn. 1, v. 104, 1. 3, v. 302, &c.— 
 Ovid. Met. 13, v. 324.— Mela, 1, c. 18. 
 
 SiNM, a people of India, called by Ptolemy 
 the most eastern nation of the world. " The 
 accounts of the Mahometan travellers of the 
 ninth century, published by Renaudot, give 
 southern China the name of Si7i, pronounced 
 by the Persians Tchin. The origin of this 
 name is uncertain ; and, though the Sina of 
 the ancients were situated more to the west 
 than any part of modern China, the resem- 
 blance of the names is too great to allow it to 
 be considered as unmeaning. It is highly 
 probable that it was the ancient generic name 
 for all the nations of Thibet, China, and India, 
 east of the Ganges." Malte-Brun. 
 
 Sind;e, islands in the Indian ocean, supposed 
 to be the Nicabar islands. 
 
 SiNG^i, a people on the confines of Macedo- 
 nia and Thrace. 
 
 SiNGARA, a city at the north of Mesopotamia, 
 now Sinjar. 
 
 SiNGiTicus SINUS, a gulf on the Thracian 
 coast, confined between the peninsula of Sitho- 
 nia on one side, and that of Acte on the other. 
 On the Sithonian shore stood the town of Sin- 
 gus, whence the ancient name of the gulf, 
 which receives its modern appellation from 
 Monte-Santo, the Athos of antiquity which 
 rises from the peninsula of Acte. 
 
 SiNGUS. Vid. Slngiticus Siwi.'^. 
 
 SinOpe, a seaport town of Asia Minor, in 
 
SI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SM 
 
 Pontus, nov: Sinub, founded or rebuilt by a co- 
 lony of Milesians. It was long an independent 
 state, till Pharnaces, king of Pontus, seized it. 
 It was the capital of Pontus, under Mithridates, 
 and was the birthplace of Diogenes, the cj^nic 
 philosopher. It received its name from Sinope, 
 whom Apollo married there. Ovid. Pont. 1, 
 el. 3, V. Ql.—Strab. 2, &c. \2.—Dioci. 4:.— Mela, 
 1, c. 19. 
 
 SixVTii, a nation of Thracians, who inhabited 
 Lemnos, when Vulcan fell there from heaven. 
 Homer. 11. 1, v. 594. 
 
 SixL'EssA, '• the last to"«Ti of New Latium, 
 a Roman colony of some note, situated close 
 to the sea, and founded, as it is said, on the 
 ruins of Sinope, an ancient Greek city. Strabo 
 tells us, that Sinuessa stood on the shore of the 
 Sinus Vescinus, and derived its name from that 
 circumstance. The same writer, as well as the 
 Itineraries, informs us that it was traversed by 
 the Appian Way ; Horace also confirms this. 
 Sinuessa was colonized together with Minturnae 
 A. U. C. 456, and ranked also among the mari- 
 time cities of Italy. Its territory suffered con- 
 siderable devastation from Hannibal's troops 
 when opposed to Fabius. Caesar, in his pursuit 
 of Pompey, halted for a few days at Sinuessa, 
 and from thence wrote a very conciliatory letter 
 to Cicero, which is to be found in the corres- 
 pondence with Atticus. The epithet of tepens, 
 which Silius Italicus applies to this citj^, has 
 reference to some warm sources in its neigh- 
 bourhood, now called Bagni; while Sinuessa 
 itself answers to the rock of Monte Dragone. 
 The Aquae Sinuessanae are noticed by Livy 
 and other Writers of antiquity." Co-am. 
 
 SioN, one of the hills on which Jerusalem 
 "was built. 
 
 SiPHNos, one of the Cyclades, " now Si- 
 phanto, lies to the southeast of Seriphus, and 
 northeast of Melos. Herodotus reports that it 
 was colonized by the lonians, and elsewhere 
 speaks of the Siphians as deriving considerable 
 wealth from their gold and silver mines. In the 
 age of Polycrates their revenue surpassed that 
 of all the other islands, and enabled them to 
 erect a treasury at Delphi equal to those of the 
 most opulent cities ; and their own principal 
 buildings were sumptuously decorated with Pa- 
 rian marble. Herodotus stales, however, that 
 they afterwards sustained a heavy loss from a 
 descent of the Samians, who levied upon the 
 island a contribution of 100 talents. In Strabo's 
 time it was so poor and insignificant as to give 
 rise to the proverbs, HhpvLov darpayaXuv and 
 HifpvLog appaPow. Pliny States that it is twenty- 
 eight miles in circuit." Cram. 
 
 SiPONTUM, Sipcjs, or Sepus, a maritime town 
 of Apulia in Italy, founded by Diomedes after 
 his return from the Trojan war. Strab. 6. — 
 Lmcan. 5, v. 377. — Mela, 2, c. 4. 
 
 SiPYLUM, and Sipylus, atownof Lydia, with 
 a mountain of the same name near the Mean- 
 der, formerly called the Ceraunius. The town 
 .was destroyed by an earthquake, with 12 others 
 in the neighbourhood, in the reign of Tiberius, 
 Sirab. 1. and 12.— Patis. 1, c. 20.—ApoUod. 3, 
 c. 5. — Hovier. 11. 24. — Hygin. fab. 9. — Tacit. 
 Ann. 2, c. 47. 
 
 SiRENus.aE, three small rock}' islands near the 
 coasts of Campania where the Sirens were 
 supposed to reside. 
 
 Part L— 2 O 
 
 SiRis, a town of Magna Grascia, founded by 
 a Grecian colony after the Trojan war, at the 
 mouth of a river of the same name. There was 
 a battle fought near it between Pyrrhus and 
 
 the Romans. Dionys. Perieg. v. 221. The 
 
 Ethiopians gave that name to the Nile be- 
 fore its divided streams united into one cur- 
 rent. Plin. 5, c. 9. A town of Pseonia in 
 
 Thrace. 
 
 ^ SiRAHo, now Sermione, a peninsula in the lake 
 
 Benacus, where Catullus had a villa. Cram. 29. 
 
 SiRmuM, the capital of Pannonia, at the con- 
 fluence of the Savus and Bacuntius, Yery cele- 
 brated during the reign of the Roman emperors. 
 
 SisAPo, a towTi of Spain, " which may be 
 presumed to have been comprised in the limits 
 of Beturia, and noted for its mines of minium^ 
 or vermilion. The position of this place is suf- 
 ficiently obvious in the modern name of Alma,- 
 den, which it received from the Maures ; Maad- 
 en in the Arabic language being the appellative 
 term for mines." D'Anville. 
 
 SISI^^Tm^.ffi, a fortified place of Baclriana, 
 15 stadia high, 80 in circumference, and plam 
 at the top. Alexander married Roxana there. 
 Strab. 11. 
 
 SiTHONiA. " That portion of Chalcidice con- 
 taining Ohmthus and its territory as well as 
 the adjoining peninsula, bore anciently the 
 name of Sithonia, as we are told by Herodotus. 
 The Sithonians are mentioned by mpre than 
 one writer as a people of Thrace. L}^cophron 
 alludes obscurely to a people of Italy, descend- 
 ed from the Sithonian giants." Cram. 
 
 SiTONEs, a nation of Germany, or modern 
 Norway, according to some. Tacit, de Germ. 45. 
 
 Smaragdus, I. a town of Egypt on the Ara- 
 bian gulf, where emeralds (s7/iarao-(^i) were dug. 
 11. Mons, " The Smaragdus Mons ap- 
 
 pears to be but little distant from the sea, being 
 that called by the Arabs Maaden Uzzumurud, 
 or the " Mine of Emeralds.^' D'Anville. — 
 ;itrab. 16. 
 
 Smenus, a river of Laconia, rising in mount 
 Taygetes, and falling into the sea about five 
 stadia from Las. Pans. 3, c. 24. 
 
 Smyrna, a celebrated seaport tovm of Ionia 
 m Asia Minor, built, as some suppose, by Tan- 
 talus, or, according to others, by the iEolians. 
 It has been subject to many revolutions, and 
 been severally in the possession of the MoVmios, 
 lonians, Lydians, and Macedonians. Alexan- 
 der, or, according to Strabo, Lysimachus, rebuilt 
 it 400 years after it had been destroyed by the 
 Lydians. It was one of the richest and most 
 powerful cities of Asia, and became one of the 
 twelve cities of the Ionian confederacy. The in- 
 habitants were given much to luxury and indo- 
 lence, but they were universally esteemed for 
 their valor ancl intrepidity when called to action. 
 Marcus Aurelius repaired it after it had been de- 
 stroj^ed by an earthquake, about the 180th year 
 of the Christian era. Smyrna still continues to 
 be a very commercial toAvn. The river Meles 
 flows near its walls. The inhabitants of Smyr- 
 na believe that Homer was born among them, 
 and to confirm this opinion, they not only paid 
 him divine honours, but showed a place which 
 bore the poet's name, and also had a brass coin 
 in circulation which was called Homerium. 
 Some suppose that it was called Smyrna from 
 an Amazon of the same name who tookposses- 
 289 
 
so 
 
 GEOaRAPHY, 
 
 SP 
 
 sion of it. " Smyrna, the queen of the cities of 
 Anatolia, and extolled by the ancients under 
 the title of ' the lovely, the crown of Ionia, the 
 ornament of Asia,' braves the reiterated efforts 
 of conflagrations and earthquakes. Ten times 
 destroyed, she has ten times risen from her ruins 
 with new splendour. According to a very com- 
 mon Grecian system, the principal buildings 
 were erected on the face of a hill fronting the 
 sea. The hill supplied marble, while its slope 
 afforded a place for the seats rising gradually 
 above each other in the stadium, or great theatre 
 for the exhibition of games. Almost every trace 
 of the ancient city, however, has been obliterat- 
 ed during the contests between the Greek em- 
 pire and the Ottomans, and afterwards by the 
 ravages of Timur in 1402. The foundation of 
 the stadium remains, but the area is sown with 
 grain. There are only a few vestiges of the 
 theatre, and the castle which crowns the hill is 
 chiefly a patchwork executed by John Comne- 
 nus on the ruins of the old one, the walls of 
 which, of immense strength and thickness, may 
 still be discovered. Smyrna, in the course of 
 its revolutions, has slid down, as it were, from 
 the hill to the sea. It has, under the Turks, 
 completely regained its populousness. Smyrna, 
 in short, is the greatest emporium of the Levant. 
 The city contains 120,000 inhabitants, though 
 frequently and severely visited by the plague." 
 Malte-Brun. — Herodot. 1, c. 16, &c. — Strab. 12 
 and \i.—ltal. 8, v. 565.— Pa%5. 5, c. 8.— Mela, 
 1, c. 17. 
 
 SoANES, a people of Colchis, near Caucasus, 
 in whose territories the rivers abound with gold- 
 en sands, which the inhabitants gather in wool 
 skins, whence, perhaps, arose the fable of the 
 golden fleece. Strab. 11. — Plin. 33, c. 3. 
 
 SoGDiANA, a country of Asia, bounded on the 
 north by Scythia, east by the Sacae, south by 
 Bactriana, and west by Margiana ; and now 
 known by the name of Zagaiay, or Usbec. The 
 people are called Sogdiani. The capital was 
 called Marcanda. Herodot. 3, c. 93. — Curt. 7, 
 c. 10. 
 
 SoLiciNiuM, a town of Germany, now Sultz, 
 on the JVeckar. 
 
 SoLis FONs, a celebrated fountain in Libya. 
 Vid. Ammon. 
 
 SoLOE, or Soli, I. a town of Cyprus, built on 
 the borders of the Clarius by an Athenian co- 
 lony. It was originally called JEpeia, till So- 
 lon visited Cyprus, and advised Philocyprus, 
 one of the princes of the island, to change the 
 situation of his capital. His advice was follow- 
 ed, and a new town was raised in a beautiful 
 plain, and called after the name of the Athe- 
 nian philosopher. Strab. 14. — Plut. in Sol. 
 
 II. A town of Cilicia, on the seacoast, 
 
 built by the Greeks and Rhodians. It was after- 
 wards called Pompeiopolis, from Pompey, who 
 settled a colony of pirates there. Plin. 5, c. 
 27. — Dionys. Some suppose that the Greeks 
 who settled in either of these two towns, forgot 
 the purity of their native language, and thence 
 arose the term Solecismus, applied to an inele- 
 gant or improper expression, 
 
 SoLOiis, or SoLOENTiA, I, a promontory of 
 Libya at the extremity of mount Atlas, now 
 
 Cape Cantin. II. A town of Sicily, between 
 
 Panormus and Himera, now Solanto. Cic. 
 Ver.3,c.i3.— T/iucyd.6. 
 290 
 
 Solus, (untis,) a maritime town ol Sicily.* 
 Vid. Solaris. Strab. 14. 
 
 SoLYMi, a people of Lycia, who finally occu- 
 pied the territory called Milyas. Vid. L/ycia. 
 
 SoPHENE, a country of Armenia, on the bor- 
 ders of Mesopotamia, now Zoph. The Eu- 
 phrates forms its boundary on the west and 
 northwest. It is watered by the Arsanias, now 
 Arsen. D'Anville. — Lnican. 2, v. 593. 
 
 SoRACTEs, and Soracte, a mountain of Etru 
 ria, near the Tiber, seen from Rome at the 
 distance of 26 miles. It was sacred to Apollo, 
 who is from thence surnamed Soractis ; and it 
 is said that the priests of the god could walk 
 over burning coals without hurting themselves. 
 There was, as some report, a fountain on mount 
 Soracte, whose waters boiled at sunrise and in- 
 stantly killed all such birds as drank of them. 
 StraA 5.— Plin. 2, c. 93, 1. 7, c. 2.—Horat. 1, 
 Od.9.— Virg. Mn. 11, v. 185.— Ital. 5. 
 
 SoTiATEs, a people of Aquitania, of some 
 note in the time of Caesar. Their chief town 
 Sotiacum, called in the middle ages Sotia or 
 Solium, is now Sos. D^Anville — Lemaire. — 
 Cas. Bell. G. 3, c. 2.0 and 21. 
 
 Sparta. Vid. Lacedce.mon. 
 
 Sperchius, a river of Thessaly, rising on 
 mount OEta, and falling into the sea in the bay 
 of Malia, near Anticyra. The name is sup- 
 posed to he derived from its rapidity {ampj^eiv 
 festinare). Peleus vowed to the god of this 
 river the hair of his son Achilles, if ever he re- 
 turned safe from the Trojan war. Herodot. 7, 
 c. I'd8.— Strab. 9.— Homer. II. 23, v. 144.— 
 Apollod. 3, c. Vi.—Mela, 2, c. Z.—Ovid. Met. 
 1, V. 557, 1. 2, V. 250, 1. 7, v. 230. 
 
 Spermatophagi a people who lived in the 
 extremest parts of Egypt. They fed upon the 
 fruits that fell from the trees. ■ 
 
 Sphacteria. " The island of Sphacteria, so 
 celebrated in Grecian history from the defeat 
 and capture of a Lacedaemonian detachment in 
 the seventh year of the Peloponnesian war, was 
 also known by the name of Sphagia, which it 
 still retains. Pliny says the Sphagise were 
 three in number ; Xenophen likewise speaks of 
 some islands so called on the Laconian coast, 
 meaning, doubtless, that of Messenia. Two of 
 these must have been mere rocks." Cram. 
 
 Sphagia insulje. Vid. Sphacteria. 
 
 Sphragidium, a retired cave on mount Ci- 
 thaeron in Boeotia. The nymphs of the place, 
 called S'phragitides, were early honoured with 
 a sacrifice by the Athenians, by order of the 
 oracle of Delphi, because they had lost few men 
 at the battle of Plataca. Plin. 35, c, 6. — Pans, 
 9, c. 3. — Plut. in Arist. 
 
 Spina, an ancient city of Cisalpine Gaul, of 
 Greek origin, situated on the most southern 
 branch of the Po, called from the city Spineti- 
 cum Ostium. " If we are to believe Dionysius 
 of Halicarnassus, who derives his information 
 apparently from Hellanicus of Lesbos, Spina 
 was founded by a numerous band of Pelasgi, 
 who arrived on this coast from Epirus long be- 
 fore the Trojan war. The same writer goes on 
 to state, that in process of time this colony be- 
 came very flourishing, and held for many years 
 the dominion of the sea, from the fruits of which 
 It was enabled to present to the temple of Del- 
 phi tithe-offerings more closely than those of any 
 other city. Afterwards, however, being attack- 
 
BP 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ST 
 
 ed by an overwhelming force of the surrounding 
 barbarians, the Pelasgi were forced to quit their 
 settlements, and finally to abandon Italy. It ap- 
 pears that no doubt can be entertained of the 
 existence of a Greek city of this name near one 
 of the mouths of the Po, since it is noticed in 
 the Periplus of Scylax, and by the geographers 
 Eudoxus and. Artemidorus, as cited by Steph. 
 Byz. Strabo also speaks of it as having once 
 been a celebrated city, and possessed of a trea- 
 suiy at Delphi ; the inscription recording that 
 fact being still extant in his time. The same 
 geographer adds besides, that Spina was yet in 
 existence when he wrote, though reduced to the 
 condition of a mere village. It is not easy to 
 discover when the Pelasgi abandoned Spain, 
 and who were the barbarians that forced them 
 to quit the shores of the Adriatic. By the lat- 
 ter, 1 apprehend w^e must understand the Tus- 
 cans. The Tuscans themselves were in their 
 turn dispossessed by the Gauls ; and if the cor- 
 rection of Cluverius in the text of Pliny be ad- 
 mitted, it appears from that author, that Spina 
 was taken and destroyed by the latter people the 
 same year that Camillus took Veii, that is, 393 ' 
 years B. C. : but to this it is objected, that Scy- 
 lax, who is supposed to have written in the time 
 of Philip, mentions Spina as then existing, which 
 would be about thirty or forty j'-ears laier than 
 the date above mentioned. No trace now re- 
 mains of this once flourishing city, by which its 
 ancient site may be identified. Scylax' says it 
 stood about twent)'- stadia, or between three and 
 four miles from the sea. But Strabo reports, 
 that in his time the small place which preserved 
 the name of Spina was situated upwards of ele- 
 ven miles inland. We must therefore conclude 
 that a considerable deposite of alluvialsoil must 
 have been made by the Po during the time 
 which intervened between these two periods, or 
 that the former site of the city had been re- 
 moved to a greater distance from the sea. The 
 first supposition is however the most probable, 
 nor is it unlikely that the whole of the extensive 
 marshes of Coviachio were once washed by the 
 Adriatic. I am for this reason inclined to adopt 
 the opinion of those topographers who seek for 
 the spot on which Spina stood, on the left bank 
 of the Po di Primaro, the ancient Spineticum 
 Ostium, and not far from the village of Argen- 
 ta." Cram. 
 
 Spineticum ostium. Vid. Spina. 
 Spoletium, now Spoleto, a town of Umbria, 
 " colonized A. U. C. 512. Twenty-five )'-ears 
 afterwards it withstood, according to Livy, the 
 attack of Hannibal, who was on his march 
 through Umbria, after the battle of the Trasy- 
 mene. This resistance had the effect of check- 
 ing the advance of the Carthaginian general to- 
 wards Rome, and compelled him to draw off" 
 his forces into Picenum. It should be observed, 
 however, that Polybius makes no mention of 
 this attack upon Spoleto ; but expressly states, 
 that it was not Hannibal's intention to approach 
 Rome at that time, but to lead his army to the 
 seacoast. Spoletium appears to have ranked 
 high among the municipal towns of Italy, but 
 it suffered severely from proscription in the 
 civil wars of Marius and Sylla." Cram. 
 
 Sporades, a number of islands in the iEgean 
 Sea. They received their name a (rircipw, spargo, 
 " and included the numerous islands which lie 
 
 scattered around the Cyclades, and which, in 
 fact, several of them are intermixed, and those 
 also which lay towards Crete and the coast of 
 Asia Minor." Cram. 
 
 STABiiE, a maritime town of Campania, on 
 the bay of Puteoli, destroyed by Sylla, and con- 
 verted into a villa, whither Plina endeavoured 
 to escape from the eruption of Vesuvius in 
 which he perished. Plin. 3, c. 5, ep. 6, c. 16. 
 ^ Stagira, a town on the borders of Macedo- 
 nia, on the bay into which the Strymon dis- 
 charges itself, at the south of Amphipolis, found- 
 ed 665 years before Christ. Aristotle was born 
 there, from which circumstance he is called 
 Stagirites. Thucyd. 4. — Pans. 6, c. 4. — Laert. 
 in Sol. — jElian. V. H. 3, c. 46. 
 
 Stellatis, a field remarkable for its fertility, 
 in Campania. Cic. Aug. 1, c. 70. — Suet. Cces. 20. 
 Stobi, a city of Macedonia, near the junc- 
 tion of the rivers Axius and Erigonus. It was 
 " an ancient city of some note, as we learn from 
 Liv}', who reports, that Philip wished to found 
 a new city in its vicinity, to be called Perseis, 
 after his eldest son. The same monarch ob- 
 tained a victory over the Dardani in the envi- 
 rons of Stobi, and it was from thence that he 
 set out on his expedition to mount Hamus. 
 On the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 
 it was made the depot of the salt with which the 
 Dardani were supplied from that country. Sto- 
 bi, at a later period, became not only a Roman 
 colony, but a Roman municipium, a privilege 
 rarely conferred beyond the limits of Italy. In 
 the reign of Constantine, Stobi was considered 
 as the chief town of Macedonia Secunda, or 
 Salutaris, as it was then called. Steph. Byz. 
 writes the name erroneously ErpiJ/So j. Stobi was 
 the birthplace of Jo, Stobaeus, the author of the 
 valuable Greek Florilegium which bears his 
 name." Cram. 
 
 Stcechades, five small islands in the Medi- 
 terranean, on the coast of Gaul, now the Hicre.<;, 
 near Marseilles. They were called Ligustides 
 by some, but Pliny speaks of them as only three 
 in number. Steph. Byzant. — iMcan. 3, v. 516. 
 —StroJ). 4. 
 
 Stratonis turris, a city of Judea, after- 
 wards called Caesarea by Herod in honour of 
 Augustus, 
 Stratos, I. a citv of JEolia. Liv. 36, c. 11, 
 
 1. 38, c. 4. II. Of Acarnania. 
 
 Strongyle, now Strombolo,one of the islands 
 called bolides in the Tyrrhene Sea, near the 
 coast of Sicily. It has a volcano, 10 miles in 
 circumference, which throws up flames contin- 
 ually, and of which the crater is on the side of 
 the mountain, Mela, 2, c, 7. — Strab. 6. — Patis. 
 10, c. U. 
 
 Strophades, two islands in the Ionian Sea, 
 on the western coast of the Peloponnesus. They 
 were anciently called Plotce, and received the 
 name of Strophades from rp^^w, verto, because 
 Zethes and Calais, the sons of Boreas, returned 
 from thence by order of Jupiter, after they had 
 driven the Harpies there from the tables of 
 Phineus. The fleet of Mneas stopped near the 
 Strophades. The largest of these two islands 
 is not above five miles in circumference. Hy- 
 sin. fab. \^.—Mela, 2, c. l.—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 
 im.— Virg. JEn. 3, v. 'illO.— Strab. 8. 
 
 Stryma, a town of Thrace, founded by a 
 Theban colony, Herodot. 7, c, 109. 
 291 
 
su 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SU 
 
 Strymon, a river which separates Thrace 
 from Macedonia, and falls inio a part of the 
 ^gean Sea, which has been called Strynionicus 
 sinus. A number of cranes, as the poets say, 
 resorted on its banks in the summer lime. Its 
 eels were excellent, Mela, 2, c. 2. — Apollod. 
 2, c. b.— Virg. G. 1, v. 120, 1. 4, v. 508. Mn. 
 10, V. '2Qb.— 0vid. Met. 2, v. 251. 
 
 Stymphalus, a town, river, lake, and foun- 
 tain of Arcadia, which receives its name from 
 king Stymphalus. The neighbourhood of the 
 lake Stymphalus was infested with a number of 
 voracious birds, like cranes or storks, which fed 
 upon human flesh, and which were called Stym- 
 fhalides. They were at last destroyed by Her- 
 cules, with the assistance of Minerva. Some 
 have confounded them with the Harpies, while 
 others pretend that they never existed but in the 
 imagination of the poets. Pausanias, however, 
 supports, that there were carnivorous birds like 
 the Stymphalides, in Arabia. Paus. 8, c. 4. — 
 Stat. Theb. 4, v. 298. 
 
 Styx, a celebrated river of hell, round which 
 it flows nine times. According to some writers 
 the Styx was a small river of Nonacris in Arca- 
 dia, whose waters Avere so cold and venomous, 
 that they proved fatal to such as tasted them. 
 Among others Alexander the Great is mention- 
 ed as a victim to their fatal poison, in conse- 
 quence of drinking them. They even consum- 
 ed iron, and broke all vessels. The wonderful 
 properties of this water suggested the idea that 
 it was a river of hell, especially when it disap- 
 peared in the earth a little below its fountain 
 head. The gods held the waters of the Styx in 
 such veneration, that they always swore by 
 them; an oath which was inviolable. If any 
 of the gods had perjured themselves, Jupiter 
 obliged them to drink the waters of the Styx, 
 which lulled them for one whole year into a 
 senseless stupidity ; for the nine following years 
 they were deprived of the ambrosia and the nec- 
 tar of the gods, and after the expiration of tfee 
 years of their punishment, they were restored to 
 the assembly of the deities, and to all their ori- 
 ginal privileges. It is said that this veneration 
 was shown to the Styx, because it received its 
 name from the nymph Styx, who, with her three 
 daughters, assisted Jupiter in his war against the 
 Titans. Hesiod. Theog. v. 384, 775. — Homer. 
 Od. 10, V. bVi.—Herodot. 6, c. ^.— Virg. Mn. 
 6, V. 323, 439, &,c.—Afollod. 1, c. 2.— Ovid. 
 Met. 3, V. 29, &c.—LMcan. 6, v. 378, &c.— 
 Paus. 8, c. 17 and 18.— Ctirt. 10, c. 10. 
 
 SuBLicius, the first bridge erected at Rome 
 over the Tiber. Vid. Pons. 
 
 SuBURRA, a street in Rome, where all the li- 
 centious, dissolute, and lascivious Romans and 
 courtesans resorted. It Avas situate beiween 
 mount Viminalis and Quirinalis, and was re- 
 markable as having been the residence of the 
 obscurer years of J. Csesar. Suet, in Cccs. — 
 Varro. de. L. L. 4, c. 8. — Martial. 6, ep. &Q. — 
 Juv. 3, V. 5. 
 
 SucRO, now Xucar, a river of Hispania Tar- 
 raconensis, celebrated for a battle fought there 
 between Sertorius and Pompey, in which the 
 former obtained the victory. Plut. 
 
 SuEssA, a town of Campania, called also 
 
 Aurunca, to distinguish it from Suessa Po- 
 
 metia, the capital of the Volsci. Strab. 5. — 
 
 Plin, 3, c. 5, — Dionys. Hal. 4. — Liv. 1 and 2. 
 
 292 
 
 -Virg. JEn. 6, v. 775. Cic Phil 3, c. 4, 1. 
 4, c, 2. 
 
 SuEssoNEs, a people of Belgic Gaul, whose 
 territory was enclosed by those of the Veroman- 
 dui, Remi, Senones, Parisii, and Bellovaci. 
 Their capital was Noviodunum, now Soissons, 
 dip. de VAisne ; although it has been identified 
 by some geographers with Noyon, dep. de I'Oise. 
 Cess. B. G. Lem. ed. 
 
 SuEvi, a people of Germany, between the 
 Elbe and the Vistula, who made frequent ex- 
 cursions upon the territories of Rome under the 
 emperors. D'Anville thus speaks of this peo- 
 ple. " A nation superior in power were the 
 Catti, whom Caesar, as before observed, calls 
 Suevi. They occupied Hesse to the Sala in 
 Tkuringia,3.nd Weteravia to the Maine. Among 
 other circumstances which enhanced the merit 
 of this people, was that of their skill in the mili- 
 tary art; which, according to Tacitus, the Cat- 
 tians superadded to the quality of bravery com- 
 mon to the Germanic nations. A place which is 
 mentioned under the name of Castellum con- 
 tinues this name in that of Cassel. Mattiuvi 
 is spoken of as the capital of the Cattians, and 
 it is believed that this city is Marpurg. The 
 internal part of this continent may be con- 
 sidered under the general name of Suevia ; 
 whence many Germanic nations have borrowed 
 ihe denomination under which they appear. 
 Suevia was divided among a number of distinct 
 people. The Semnones, who were reputed the 
 noblest and most ancient of the Suevian nations, 
 extended from the Elbe beyond the Oder.'' 
 Ptolemy represents the Suevi as consisting of 
 three nations, the Angli, Longobardi, and Sem- 
 nones : to these Pliny adds the Hermiones, whom 
 Strabo calls Hermanduri. Lucan. 2, v. 51. 
 
 SmoNEs, a nation of Germany, supposed the 
 modern Sioedes. Tacit, de Germ. c. 44. 
 
 SuLGA, now Sorgue, a small river of Gaul, 
 falling into the Rhone. Strab. 4. 
 
 SuLMo, now Sulmona, an ancient town of the 
 Peligni, at the distance of about 90 miles from 
 Rome, founded by Solymus, one of the follow- 
 ers of ^neas. Ovid was born there. Ovid, 
 passim. — Ital. 8, v. 511. — Strab. 5. 
 
 SuNiuM, " one of the most celebrated sites in 
 Attica, forms the extreme point of that province 
 towards the south. Near the promontory stood 
 the town of the same name with a harbour, 
 Sunium was held especially sacred to Minerva 
 as early as the time of Homer. Neptune was 
 also worshipped there, as we learn from Aristo- 
 phanes. Regattas were held here in the minor 
 Panathenaic festivals. The promontory of Su- 
 nium is frequently mentioned in Grecian histo- 
 ry. Herodotus in one place calls it the Suniac 
 angle. Thucydides reports that it was fortified 
 by the Athenians after the Sicilian expedition, 
 to protect their vessels which conveyed corn 
 from Euboea, and were consequently obliged to 
 double the promontory. It is now called Capo 
 Colonna, from the ruins of the temple of Mi- 
 nerva, which are still to be seen on its summit. 
 Travellers who have visited Snnium inform us, 
 that this edifice was originally decorated with 
 six columns in front, and probably thirteen on 
 each side. Spon reports that in his time nine- 
 teen columns were still standing. At present 
 there are only fourteen. Sir "W. Gell observes 
 ' that nothing can exceed the beauty of this spot, 
 
BY 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SY 
 
 commanding from a portico of while marble, 
 erected in the happiest period of Grecian art, 
 and elevated 300 feet above the sea. a prospect 
 of the gulf of iEgina on one side, and of the 
 JSgeean on the other.' Dodwell states, ' that 
 the temple is supported on its northern side by 
 a regularly constructed terrace wall, of which 
 seventeen layers of stone still remain. The 
 fallen columns are scattered about below the 
 temple, to which they form the richest fore- 
 ground. The walls of the town, of which there 
 are few remains, may be traced nearly down to 
 the port on the southern side ; but the greater 
 part of the opposite side, upon the edge of the 
 precipice, was undefended, except by the natural 
 strength of the place and the steepness of the 
 rock; the walls were fortified with square 
 towers." Cram. 
 
 SuPERUM MARE, a name of the Adriatic Sea, 
 because it was situate above Italy. The name 
 of Ma.re Inferuvi was applied for the opposite 
 reasons to the sea below Italy. Cic. pro Cluent., 
 &c. 
 
 SuRRENTUM, a towu of Campania, on the bay 
 of Naples, famous for the wine which was made 
 in the neighbourhood. Mela, 2, c. 4. — Strab. 5. 
 —Horat. 1, ep. 17, v. b2 — 0vid. Met. 15, v. 
 IIQ.—Mart. 13, ep. 110. 
 
 SusA, {orum,) now Suster, a celebrated city 
 of Asia,' the chief town of Susiana, and the 
 capital of the Persian empire, built by Tithonus 
 the father of Memnon. Cyrus took it. The 
 walls of Susa were above 120 stadia in circmn- 
 ference. The treasures of the kin2:s of Persia 
 were generally kept there, and the royal palace 
 was built with white marble, and its pillars 
 were covered with gold and precious stones. It 
 was usual with the kings of Persia to spend the 
 summer at Ecbatana and the winter at Susa, 
 because the climate was more warm there than 
 at any other royal residence. It had been called 
 Memnonia, or the palace of Memnon, because 
 that prince reigned there. Plin. 6, c. 26, &c. 
 — Lucan. 2, v. 49. — Strab. 15. — Xenoph. Cyr. — 
 Propert. 2, el. 13. — Claudian. 
 
 Susiana, or Susis, a country of Asia, of which 
 the capital was called Susa, situate at the east 
 of Assyria. Lilies grow in great abundance in 
 Susiana, and it is from that plant that the pro- 
 vince received its name, according to some, as 
 Susan is the name of a lily in Hebrew. 
 
 SUSID.E PYLffi, narrow passes over mountains 
 from Susiana into Persia. Curt. 5, c. 3. 
 
 SuTHUL, a town of Numidia, where the king's 
 treasures were kept. Sail. Jug. 37. 
 
 SuTRnjM, a town of Etruria, about twenty- 
 four miles northwest of Rome, Some suppose 
 that the phrase Ire Sutrium, to act with despatch, 
 arises from the celerity with which Camillus 
 recovered the place ; but Festus explains it dif- 
 ferently. Plaut. Cas. 3, 1, v. 10.— Liv. 26, c. 
 M.—Paterc. 1, c. U.—Liv. 9, c. 32. 
 
 Sybaris, a river of Lucania in Italy, whose 
 waters were said to render men more strong 
 and robust. Strab. 6. Plin. 3, c. 11, 1. 31, c. 
 2. — There was a town of the same name on its 
 banks, on the bay of Tarentum, which had been 
 founded by a colony of Achaeans. Sybaris be- 
 came very powerful, and in its most flourishing 
 situation it had the command of four neighbour- 
 ing nations of 25 towns, and could send an ar- 
 my of 300,000 men into the field. The walls of 
 
 the city were said to extend six miles and a half 
 in circumference, and the suburbs covered the 
 banks of the Crathis for the space of seven miles. 
 It made a long and vigorous resistance against 
 the neighbouring town of Crotona, till it was at 
 last totally reduced by the disciples of Pythago- 
 ras, B. C. 508. Sybaris was destroyed no less 
 than five times, and always repaired. In a more 
 recent age the inhabitants became so elfeminate, 
 that the word Sybarite became proverbial to in- 
 timate a man devoted to pleasure. There was 
 a small town built in the neighbourhood about 
 444 years before the Christian era, and called 
 Thurium, from a small fountain called Thuria, 
 where it was built. Diod. 12. — Strab. 6. — 
 jElian, V. H. 9, c. ^A.— Martial. 12, ep. 96.— 
 Plut. in Pelop. &c. — Plin. 3, c. 10, &c. 
 
 Syene, now Assuan, a town of Thebais, on 
 the extremities of Eg}^t. Juvenal the poet 
 was banished there on pretence of commanding 
 a prsetorian cohort stationed in the neighbour- 
 hood. " Near Assooan are found the remains 
 of the ancient Syene, consisting of some granite 
 columns, and an old square building, with open- 
 ings at top. The researches made here have 
 not confirmed the conjecture of Savary, who 
 conceived it to be the ancient observatory of the 
 Ee:}^iians, where, with some digging, the an- 
 cient well may be formd, at the bottom of which 
 the image of the sun was reflected entire on the 
 day of the summer solstice. The observations 
 of the French astronomers place Assooan inlat. 
 24° 5' 23" of north latitude. If this place was 
 formerly situated under the tropic, the position 
 of the earth must be a little altered, and the ob- 
 liquity of the ecliptic diminished. But we should 
 be aware of the vagueness of the observations 
 made by the ancients, which have conferred so 
 much celebrity on these places. The phenome- 
 non of the extinction of the shadow, whether 
 within a deep pit, or round a perpendicular gno- 
 mon, is not confined to one exact mathematical 
 position of the sun, but is common to a certain 
 extent of latitude corresponding to the visible 
 diameter of that luminary, which is more than 
 half a degree. It would be sufficient, therefore, 
 that the northern margin of the sun's disk should 
 reach the zenith of Syene on the day of the sum* 
 mer solstice, to abolish all lateral shadow of a 
 perpendicular object. Now, in the second cen- 
 tury, the obliquity of the ecliptic, reckoned from 
 the observations of Hipparchus, was 23° 49' 25''. 
 If we add the semi-diameter of the sun, which 
 is 15' 57", we find for the northern margin 24° 
 5' 22", which is within a second of the actual 
 latitude of Syene. At present, when the obli- 
 quity of the ecliptic is 23° 28' the'northern limb 
 of the Sim comes no nearer the latitude of 
 Syene than 21' 3", yet the shadow is scarcely 
 perceptible. We have, therefore, no imperious 
 reason for admitting a greater diminution in the 
 obliquity of the ecliptic than that which is shown 
 by real astronomical observations of the most 
 exact and authentic kind. That of the well of 
 Syene is not among the number of these last, 
 and can give us no assistance in ascertaining 
 the position of the tropic thirty centuries ago, as 
 some respectable men of science seem to have 
 believed. Syene, which, under so many different 
 masters has been the southern frontier of Egypt, 
 presents in a greater degree than any other 
 spot on the surface of the globe, that confused 
 ^93 
 
sir 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 BY 
 
 mixture of monuments which, even in the des- 
 tinies of the most potent nations, remind us of 
 human instability. Here the Pharaohs and the 
 Ptolemies raised the temples and the palaces 
 ■which are found half buried under the drifting 
 sand. Here are forts and walls built by the 
 Romans and the Arabians, and on the remains 
 of all these buildings French inscriptions are 
 found, attesting that the warriors and the learn- 
 ed men of modern Europe pitched their tents, 
 and erected their observatories on this spot. 
 But the eternal power of nature presents a still 
 more magnificent spectacle. Here are the ter- 
 races of reddish granite of a particular charac- 
 ter, hence called Syenite, a term applied to 
 those rocks which differ from granite in con- 
 taining particles of hornblende. These mighty 
 terraces, shaped like peaks, cross the bed of the 
 Nile ; and over them the river rolls majestically 
 his impetuous foaming waves. Here are the 
 quarries from which the obelisks and colossal 
 statues of the Egyptian temples were dug. An 
 obelisk, partially formed and still remaining 
 attached to the native rock, bears testimony to 
 the laborious and patient efforts of human art. 
 On the polished surfaces of these rocks hiero- 
 glyphic sculptures represent the Egyptian dei- 
 ties, together with the sacrifices and offerings 
 of this nation, which, more than any other, has 
 identified iiself with the country which it in- 
 habited, and has in the most literal sense en- 
 graved the records of its glory on the terrestrial 
 globe. In the midst of this valley, generally 
 skirted with arid rocks, a series of sweet deli- 
 cious islands, covered with palms, date-trees, 
 mulberries, acacias, and napecas, has merited 
 the appellation of the ' Tropical Gardens.' " 
 Mdlte-Brun. 
 
 Symplegades, Vid. Cyanea. 
 
 Synnas, {adis,) or Synnada, {plur.) a town 
 of Phrygia, famous for its marble quarries. 
 Strab. 12. — Claudian. in Eutr. 2. — Martial. 9. 
 ep. 11.— Stat. 1, Sylv. 5, v. 41. 
 
 Syracuse, a celebrated city of Sicily, found- 
 ed about 732 years before the Christian era, by 
 Archias, a Corinthian, and one of the Heracli- 
 das. In its flourishing state it extended 22 1-2 
 English miles in circumference, and was divi- 
 ded into 4 districts, Ortygia, Acradina, Tycha, 
 and Neapolis, to which some add a fifth divi- 
 sion, Epipote, a district little inhabited. These 
 were of themselves separate cities, and were 
 fortified with three citadels, and three-folded 
 walls. Syracuse had two capacious harbours, 
 separated from one another by the island of 
 Ortygia. The greatest harbour was above 5000 
 paces in circumference, and its entrance 500 
 paces wide. The people of Sj^acuse were very 
 opulent and powerful ; and, though subject to 
 tyrants, they were masters of vast possessions 
 and dependant states. The city of Syracuse 
 was well built, its houses were stately and mag- 
 nificent ; and it has been said that it produced 
 the best and most excellent of men when they 
 were virtuous, but the most wicked and de- 
 praved when addicted to vicious pursuits. The 
 women of Syracuse were not permitted to adorn 
 themselves with gold, or wear costly garments, 
 except such as prostituted themselves. Syra- 
 cuse gave birth to Theocritus and Archimedes. 
 It was under different governments, and, after 
 being freed from the tyranny of Thrasybulus, 
 294 
 
 B. C. 446, it enjoyed security for 61 years, till 
 the usurpation of the Dionysii, who were ex- 
 pelled by Timoleon, B. C. 343. In the age of 
 the elder Dionysius, an army of 100,000 foot 
 and 10,000 horse, and 400 ships, were kept in 
 constant pay. It fell into the hands of the Ro- 
 mans, under the consul Marcellus, after a siege 
 of three years, B. C. 212. Cic. in Verr. 4, c. 
 52 and b3.—Strab. 1 and 8.— C. Nep.—Mela, 
 2, c. l.—Liv. 23, &LC.—Plut. in Marcell., &c. 
 —Flor. 2, c. &.—ltal. 14, v. 278. 
 
 Syria, a large country of Asia, whose boun- 
 daries are not accurately ascertained by the an- 
 cients. Syria, generally speaking, was bound- 
 ed on the east by the Euphrates, north by 
 mount Taurus, west by the Mediterranean, and 
 south by Arabia. It was divided into several 
 districts and provinces, among which were PhcE- 
 nicia, Seleucis, Judea or Palestine, Mesopota- 
 mia, Babylon, and Assyria. It was also called 
 Assyria ; and the words Syria and Assyria, 
 though distinguished and defined by some au- 
 thors, were often used indifferently. Syria was 
 subjected to the monarchs of Persia ; but after 
 the death of Alexander the Great, Seleucus, 
 surnamed Nicator, who had received this pro- 
 vince as his lot in the division of the Macedo- 
 nian dominions, raised it into an empire, known 
 in history by the name of the kingdom of Sy- 
 ria or Babylon, B. C. 312. Seleucus died after 
 a reign of 32 years, and his successors, surnamed 
 the ScleucidcB, ascended the throne in the fol- 
 lowing order: Antiochus, surnamed Soter, 280 
 B. C ; Antiochus Theos, 261 ; Seleucus Cal- 
 linicus, 246 ; Seleucus Ceraunus, 226 ; Antio- 
 chus the Great, 223 ; Seleucus Philopator, 187; 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, 175; Antiochus Eupa- 
 tor, 164 ; Demetrius Soter, 162 ; Alex. Balas, 
 150; Demetrius Nicator, 146; Antiochus the 
 Sixth, 144; Diodotus Tryphon, 143 ; Antio- 
 chus Sidetes, 139 ; Demetrius Nicator restored, 
 130; Alexander Zebina, 127, who was dethron- 
 ed by Antiochus Grypus, 123 ; Antiochus Cy- 
 zicenus, 142, who takes part of Syria, which 
 he calls Coelesyria ; Philip and Demetrius Eu- 
 cerus 93, and in Coelesyria, Antiochus Pius; 
 Aretas was king of Coelesyria, 85; Tigranes, 
 king of Armenia, 83 ; and Antiochus Asiaticus, 
 69, who was dethroned by Pompey, B. C. 65 ; 
 in consequence of which Syria became a Ro- 
 man province. " A situation bordering upon 
 the Parthian empire, and also upon the second 
 empire of the Persians, must have made the 
 defence of this province an object of the great- 
 est importance. Syria constituted by much the 
 greatest part of that Dicecese (for so the great 
 departments established before the end of the 
 fourth century were named) called Oriens ; 
 comprising Palestine, a district of Mesopotamia, 
 the province of Cilicia, and the isle of Cyprus. 
 By a division of primitive provinces, there ap- 
 pear five in the limits of Syria: two Syrias, 
 Prima and Secunda or Salutaris; two Phoe- 
 nicias, one properly so called, and the other 
 surnamed Libani, by the extension of the ante- 
 rior limits of PhcRfiice ; and finally, the Eupkra- 
 tensis. In the sacred writings Syria is called 
 Aram. The Arabs now give it the name of 
 Sham, which in their language signifies the left, 
 its situation being such on facing the east." 
 D'Anville.—Herodot. 2, 3, and l.—ApoUod. 1, 
 Arg.— Strab. 12 and 16.— C. Ncp. in Dat.— 
 
TA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TA 
 
 Mela, 1, c. 2. — Ptol. 5, c. 6. — Curt. 6. — Dionys. 
 
 Perieg, 
 
 Syriacum mare, that part of the Mediterra- 
 nean Sea which is on the coast of Phcenicia 
 and Syria. 
 
 Syros, I. one of the Cyclades in the iEgean 
 Sea, about 20 miles in circumference, " situated 
 between Cythnos and Rhenea, was celebrated 
 for having given birth to Pherecydes the philo- 
 sopher, a disciple of Pittacus. It is singular 
 that Strabo should affirm that the first syllable 
 of the word Syros is pronounced long, whereas 
 Homer, in the passage which he quotes, has 
 made it short." Cram. — Homer. Od. 15, v. 
 
 bOi.—Strah. 10— Mela, 2, c. 7. 11. A town 
 
 of Caria. Paus. 3, c. 26. 
 
 Syrtis. " Among the ancients the name of 
 Syrtis, (from avpoj, traJio,) was common to two 
 gulfs on the coast of Africa, distinguished into 
 Major and Minor ; which, from the rocks and 
 quicksands, and a remarkable inequality in 
 the motion of the waters, were deemed of peril- 
 ous navigation. Mariners, corrupting the name, 
 have called the great Syrtis the Gulf of Sidra. 
 A promontory named heretofore Cephalas, or 
 The Heads, and now Canan, or Cape Mesrata, 
 terminates the Syrtis. The little Syrtis is now 
 called the Gulf of Gabes, from the ancient city 
 of Tacape, situated at its head, and preserving 
 its name in this altered form." D'Anville. 
 From the dangers attending the navigation of 
 the Syrtis, the word has been used to- denote 
 any part of the sea of which the navigation was 
 attended with danger either from whirlpools or 
 hidden rocks. Mela, 1, c. 7, 1. 2, c. l.— Virg. 
 JEn. 4, V. 41. — LMcan. 9, 303. — Sallust. in J. 
 
 T. 
 
 TABERN.E NovjE, 1. a Street in Rome, where 
 
 shops were built. Liv. 3, c. 48. II. Rhena- 
 
 nse, a town of Germany, on the confluence of 
 the Felbach and the Rhine, now Rhin-Zabern. 
 III. Rigu«, now Bem-Castel, on the Mo- 
 selle. IV. Triboccorum, a town of Alsace in 
 
 France, now Saverne. 
 
 Tabor, a mountain of Palestine. It is thus 
 described by Russell : " In pursuing this route 
 (from Tiberias to Nazareth) we have Mount 
 Tor, or Tabor, on the left hand, rising in soli- 
 tary majesty from the plain of Esdraelon. Its 
 appearance has been described by some authors 
 as that of a half-sphere, while to others it sug- 
 gests the idea of a cone with its point struck off. 
 According to Mr. Maundrell, the height is such 
 as to require the labour of an hour to reach the 
 summit ; where is seen a level area of an oval 
 figure, extending abouc two furlongs in length 
 and one in breadth. It is enclosed with trees 
 on all sides except the south, and is most fertile 
 and delicious. Having been anciently sur- 
 rounded with walls and trenches, there are re- 
 mains of considerable fortifications at the pre- 
 sent day. Burckhardt says, a thick wall con- 
 structed of large stones, may be traced quite 
 round the summit close to the edge of the preci- 
 pice ; on several parts of which are relics of bas- 
 tions. The area too is overspread with the ruins 
 of private dwellings, built of stone with great 
 solidity. Pococke assures us that it is one of the 
 finest hills he ever beheld, being a rich soil that 
 produces excellent herbage, and most beauti- 
 
 fully adorned with groves and clumps of trees. 
 The height he calculates to be about two miles, 
 making allowance for the winding ascent ; but 
 he adds, that others have imagined the same 
 path to be not less than four miles. Hasselquist 
 conjectures that it is a league to the top, the 
 whole of which may be accomplished without 
 dismounting, — a statement amply confirmed by 
 the experience of Van Egmoni and Heyman. 
 But this mountain derives the largest share of 
 its celebrity from the opinion entertained among 
 Christians since the days of Jerome, that it was 
 the scene of a memorable event in the history 
 of our Lord. .On the eastern part of the hill 
 are the remains of a strong castle ; and within 
 the precincts of it is the grotto in which are three 
 altars in memory of the three tabernacles that 
 St. Peter proposed to baild, and where the Latin 
 friars always perform mass on the anniversary 
 of the Transfiguration. It is said there was a 
 magnificent church built there byHelena,which 
 was a cathedral when this town was made a 
 bishop's see. On the side of the hill they show 
 a church in the grot, where they say Christ 
 charged his disciples not to tell what things they 
 had seen till he should be glorified. It is very 
 doubtful , however, wheth er this tradition be well 
 founded, or whether it has not as Mr.MaundreU 
 and other writers suspect, originated in the mis- 
 interpretation of a very common Greek phrase. 
 Our Saviour is said to have taken with Jiim Pe- 
 ter, James, and John, and brought them into a 
 high mountain ' apart;' from which it has been 
 rather hastily inferred that the description must 
 apply to Tabor, the only insulated and solitary 
 hill in the neighbourhood. We may remark, 
 with the traveller just named, that the conclu- 
 sion may possibly be true, but that the argument 
 used to prove it seems incompetent; because 
 the term 'apart' most likely relates to the with- 
 drawing and retirement of the persons here 
 spoken of, and not to the situation of the moun- 
 tain. In fact, it means nothing more than that 
 our Lord and his three disciples betook them- 
 selves to a private place for the purpose of devo- 
 tion. The view from Mount Tabor is extolled 
 by every traveller. 'It is impossible,' says Maun- 
 drell, ' for man's eyes to behold a higher grati- 
 fication of this nature.' On the northwest you 
 discern in the distance the noble expanse of the 
 Mediterranean, while all around you see the spa- 
 cious and beautiful plains of Esdraelon and 
 Galilee. Turning a little southward, you have 
 in view the high mountains of Gilboa, so fatal 
 to Saul and his sons. Due east you discover 
 the sea of Tiberias, distant about one day's 
 journey, A few points to the north appears 
 the mount of .Beatitudes, the place where 
 Christ delivered his sermon to his disciples 
 and the multitude. Not far from this little hill 
 is the city of Saphet, or Szaffad, standing upon 
 elevated and very conspicuous ground. Still 
 farther in the same direction, is seen a lofty 
 peak covered with snow, a part of the chain of 
 Anti-Libanus, To the southwest is Carmel, 
 and in the south the hills of Samaria." 
 
 Tabraca, a maritime town of Africa, near 
 Hippo, made a Roman colony. The neigh- 
 bouring forests abounded with monkeys. Juv. 
 40, V. 194.— PZw. 5, c. 2.— Mela, \, c. l.—ltal. 
 3, V. 256. 
 
 Taburnus, a mountain of Campania, which 
 295 
 
TA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TA 
 
 aooimded with olives. Virg. G. 2, v. 38. jEn. 
 12, V. 715. 
 
 Tacape, a town of Africa, now GaOes, situ- 
 ated at the head of the Syrtis Minor. It gave 
 its name to the Aquae Tacapinse, now called El- 
 Hainma, which in the language of the couniry 
 signifies " medicinal waters." D'Anville. 
 
 Tader, a river of Spain, near New Carthage. 
 
 T.ENARUM, " the southernmost promontory 
 of Peloponnesus. Ancient geographers reck- 
 oned from thence to C. Phycas in Africa 3000 
 stadia, 4600 or 4000 to C. Pachynus in Sicily, 
 and 670 to the promontory of Malea. Here was 
 a famous temple to Neptune, the sanctuary of 
 which was accounted an inviolable asylum. 
 
 ''\ep65 T adpavcTTOs Taivdpov jievei Xijirju 
 
 Ma\eas t ah-poi Kevdixwvcs — EURIP. CyclO. 291. 
 
 Near it was a cave said to be the entrance to 
 Orcus, by which Hercules dragged Cerberus to 
 the upper regions. It was here that Arion was 
 landed by the dolphin, as Herodotus relates, and 
 the statue which he dedicated on that occasion 
 still existed in the temple when it was visited by 
 Pausanias. Tsenarus became latterly celebrated 
 for the beautiful marble of its quarries, which 
 the Romans held in the highest esteem. The 
 Tsenarian promontory, now called C Matapan, 
 serves to divide the Messenian from the Laco- 
 nian gulf." Cram. About five miles from the 
 extreme point of this cape stood the town of the 
 same name. 
 
 Tagus, a river of Hispania, belonging prin- 
 cipally to Lusitania. It rose in the Idubeda 
 mons in Tarraconensis, and emptied into the 
 Atlantic at Olisipo, now Lisbon. 
 
 Tamasea, a beautiful plain of C3^prus, sacred 
 to the goddess of beauty. It was in this place 
 that Venus gathered the golden apples with 
 which Hippomanes was enabled to overtake 
 . Atalanta. Ovid. Met. 10, v. 6ii.—Plin. 5.— 
 Strab. 14. 
 
 Tamesis, a river of Britain, now the Thames. 
 Cas. G. 5, c. 11. 
 
 Tamos, a promontory of India, near the 
 Ganges. 
 
 Tanagra, " a considerable town, situated in 
 a rich and fertile country on the left bank of the 
 Asopus. Its most ancient appellation was said 
 to be Graea, though Stephanus asserts that 
 some writers considered them as two distinct 
 cities, and Strabo also appears to be of this 
 opinion. Aristotle affirmed that Oropus ought 
 to be identified with Graea. Herodotus informs 
 ns, that at an early period the district of Tana- 
 gra was occupied by the Gephyraei, Phoenicians 
 who had followed Cadmns, and from thence af- 
 terwards migrated to Athens. The following 
 description of this city is to be found in Dicasar- 
 chus. ' The town itself is situated on a lofty 
 and rugged eminence; it is white and chalky 
 in appearance, but the houses are beautifully 
 adorned with handsome porticoes, painted in the 
 encaustic style. The surrounding country does 
 not produce much corn, but it grows the best 
 wine in Boeotia. The inhabitants are wealthy, 
 but frugal, being for the most part landholders, 
 not manufacturers ; they are observers of jus- 
 tice, good faith, and hospitality, giving freely to 
 such of their fellow-citizens as are in want, and 
 also to necessitous travellers; in short, they 
 seem to shun every thing which looks like 
 296 
 
 meanness and avarice. There is no city in all 
 BcEotia where strangers can reside so securely ; 
 for there is no exclusive and over-rigid pride ex- 
 hibited towards those who have been unfortu- 
 nate, owing to the independent and industrious 
 habits of the citizens. I never saw in any town 
 so little appearance of any inclination to profli- 
 gacy, which is the most frequent source of crime 
 amongst men. For where there is a sufiiciency, 
 the love of gain is not harboured^ and vice is 
 consequently excluded.' Tanagra, as Pausa- 
 nias further reports, was famed for its breed of 
 fighting cocks. The ruins of this town were 
 at first discovered, I believe, by Mr. Cockerell, 
 at Gramada, or Grimathi, near the village of 
 SkoimoAidari ; he found there vestiges of its 
 walls and theatre. Mr. Hawkins, in a letter 
 to Dr. Clarke, gives the following accurate ac- 
 count of its topography. ' The Asopus is in 
 winter a muddy torrent, and for eight months 
 of the year wholly dry. Journeying from Parne.<5 
 towards Thebes, soon after leaving the banks 
 of this river the plain ceases, and you reach a 
 gently undulating territory, in which is situ- 
 ated the Albanian village of Skoimatari, in- 
 habited by forty families. The ruins of Tana- 
 gra are at a spot called Grimatka, about three 
 miles to the southwest, at the end of a ridge of 
 hills which extend from thence several miles 
 towards Thebes. The ground too has a gra- 
 dual ascent from these ruins towards the Aso- 
 pus, and the great plain beyond it, which it 
 proudly overlooks, and which I have no doubt it 
 formerly commanded. There are no well pre- 
 served remains of public edifices or walls at 
 Gramathi.' Tanagra possessed a considerable 
 extent of territory, and had several smaller 
 towns in its dependance." Cram. 
 
 Tanagrus, or Tanager, now Negro, a river 
 of Lucaniain Italy, remarkable for its cascades, 
 and the beautiful meanders of its streams, 
 through a fine picturesque country. Virg. G. 
 3, V. 151. 
 
 Tanais, a river of Scythia, now the Don, 
 which divides Europe from Asia, and falls into 
 the Palus Maeotis, after a rapid course, and after 
 it has received the additional streams of many 
 small rivulets. A town at its mouth bore the 
 same name. Mela, 1, c. 19. — Strab. 11 and 
 16.— Curt. 6, c. 2.—lAtcan. 3, 8, &c. " The 
 Don issues from the lake hoanow, and waters a 
 hilly and fruitful country until it reaches Woro- 
 nesch. It is enclosed on the left, from that town 
 to the confluence of the Donetz, by steep banks 
 of chalk, but as it proceeds in its course, it en- 
 ters an immense and unvaried plain, its streams 
 are not confined by rocks, nor broken by cata- 
 racts. Its depth even in these plains is not less 
 in winter than six or seven feet, but the water 
 does not rise in summer to the height of two 
 feet above its sandy bed. Navigation is thus 
 prevented, and the water of the Don, like that of 
 its feeders, is so bad, that the inhabitants them- 
 selves can hardly drink it. Much advantage, it 
 is thought, might result if the river were united 
 to the Wolga iDy means of the Medweditza, or 
 rather the ^Jlawla, but few boats could sail by 
 such a passage from the want of water in the 
 Don, and from the ditferencein the level, which 
 is fifty feet higher on the side of the same river 
 than on that of the Wolga. The former re- 
 ceives from the Caspian steppes the ManytscA 
 
TA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TA 
 
 of which the almost stagnant waters seem to 
 mark the position of an ancient strait between 
 the Caspian and the sea oiAzof." Malte-Brun. 
 Vid. laxartes. 
 
 Tanis, a city of Egypt, on one of the east- 
 em mouths of the Nile, called thence the 
 Tanitic. 
 
 Taphiassus, a mountain of jEtolia, near the 
 sea, " where Nessus was said to have died, and 
 to have thus communicated a fetid odour to the 
 waters which issued from it. Sir W. Gell, de- 
 scribing the route from the Evenus to Naupac- 
 tus, says, ' After ihe valley of Halicyrna the 
 road mounts a dangerous precipice, now called 
 Kakucala, the ancient mount Taphiassus, 
 where there is at the base a number of springs 
 of fetid water.' " Cram. 
 
 TAPHn, ihe inhabitants of the islands called 
 TaphiusBB and Echinades. 
 
 TAPHR.E, a iovm on the Isthmus of the Tau- 
 rica Chersonesus, now Precop. Mela, 2, c. 1. — 
 Pli7i. 4, c. 12. 
 
 Taphros, the strait between Corsica and Sar- 
 dinia, now Bonifacio. 
 
 Taprobana, an island in the Indian ocean, 
 now called Ceylon. The Greeks only became 
 acquainted with these distant regions after the 
 arms of the Macedonians had established a 
 Greek empire on the ruins of the Persian. This 
 place was then " deemed the commencement of 
 another world, inhabited by Antichthones, or 
 men in a position opposite to those in the known 
 hemisphere. The name of Salicc, which we 
 learn from Ptolemy to be the native denomina- 
 tion for this island, is preserved in that of Selen- 
 dive, compounded of the proper name Selen, 
 and the appellative for an island in the Indian 
 language ; and it is apparent that the name of 
 Ceilan, or Ceylon, according to the European 
 usage, is only an alteration in orthography. The 
 islands which Ptolemy places off Taprobana to 
 the number of thirteen hundred and seventy, 
 can be no other than the Mal-dives, although 
 known to be much more numerous." D'An- 
 ville. 
 
 Tapsds, I. a maritime town of Africa. Sil. 
 It. 3. II. A small and lowly situated penin- 
 sula on the eastern coast of Sicilv. Virg. jEn. 
 3, V. 689. 
 
 Tarasco, a tovim of Gaul, now Taras,con in 
 Provence. 
 
 Tarbelli, a people of Gaul, at the foot of the 
 Pyrenees, which from thence are sometimes 
 called Tarbellce. Tibull. 1, el. 7, v. 13.— Im- 
 can. 4, V. 121.— Cces. G. 3, c. 27. 
 
 Tarentum, Tarentus, or Taras, a town of 
 Apulia, situate on a bay of the same name, near 
 the mouth of the river Galesus. " The Spar- 
 tans, it is said, being engaged in a long and ar- 
 duous war with the Messenians, whose territory 
 they had invaded, began to apprehend lest their 
 protracted absence should be attended with the 
 failure of that increase in their population at 
 home, which was so necessary to supply the 
 losses produced by the lapse of time and the 
 sword of the enemy. To remedy this evil, it 
 was determined therefore to send to Laconia a 
 select body of youths, from whom in due time 
 would arise a supply of recruits for the war. 
 The children, who were the fruit of the inter- 
 course between these warriors and the Spartan 
 maids, received the name of Parthenii ; but on 
 Part L— 2 P 
 
 their arriving at the age of manhood they found 
 the Messenian war concluded, and being re- 
 garded as the offspring of illicit love, and in 
 other respects treated with indignity, they form- 
 ed the design of subvejting the government, in 
 conjimction with the Helots. The plot how- 
 ever, was discovered ; but so dangerous did the 
 conspiracy appear, and so formidable was their 
 number, that it was thought more prudent to 
 remove them out of the country by persuasion 
 than to use severity or to employ force. A 
 treaty was therefore agreed upon, by which the 
 Parthenians bound themselves to quit Sparta 
 forever, provid-ed they could acquire possessions 
 in a foreign land. They accordingly sailed to 
 Italy, under the conomand of Phalanthus ; and 
 finding the Cretans, and, as Ephorus states, the 
 Achseans, already settled in that countr)', and 
 engaged in a war with the natives, they joined 
 their forces to those of the Greeks, and possess- 
 ed themselves of Tarentum, which Pausanias 
 affirms to have been already a very considerable 
 and opulent town. According to the best chro- 
 nologists, these events may be supposed to have 
 happened about 700 years A. C. when Numa 
 Pompilius was king of Rome. Possessed of a 
 noble haven place in the centre of its widely 
 extended bay, and having at command those 
 resources which the salubrity of climate and 
 fertility of soil in every variety of production 
 afforded, it seemed destined to become Jhe seat 
 of commerce and wealth, if not that of empire. 
 The prozimity of the ports of Istria and Illyria, 
 of Greece and Sicily,favoured commercial inter- 
 course, while the vessels of these several states 
 were naturally induced to profit by the only 
 spacious and secure haven which the eastern 
 coast of Italy presented. It is probable that the 
 constitution of the Tarentines, in the first in- 
 stance, was modelled after that of the parent 
 state ; at least Herodotus has certified^ that in 
 his time they were governed by a king. Ac- 
 cording to Strabo, however, that constitution 
 afterwards assumed the form of a democracy, in 
 consequence of a revolution which seems to have 
 taken place. It was then, as Strabo adds, that 
 this cit)'- reached its highest point of elevation. 
 At this most prosperous period of the republic, 
 which may be supposed to date about 400 XTars 
 before Christ, when Rome was engaged in the 
 siege of Veii, and Greece enjoyed some tran- 
 quillity after the long struggle of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war terminated by the fall of Athens, 
 Archytas, a distinguished philosopher of the 
 school of Pythagoras, and an able statesman, 
 presided over her councils as strategos. Her 
 navy was far superior to that of any other Ita- 
 lian colony. Nor were her military establish- 
 ments less formidable and efficient ; since she 
 could bring into the field a force of 30.000 foot 
 and 5,000 horse, exclusive of a select body of 
 cavalry, called Hipparchi. The Tarentines 
 were long held in great estimation as auxiliary 
 troops, and were frequently emploj^ed In the 
 armies of foreign princes and states. Nor was 
 the cultivation of the arts and of literature for- 
 gotten in this advancement of political strength 
 and civilization. The Pythagorean sect, which 
 in other parts of Magna Graecia had been so 
 barbarously oppressed, here found encourage- 
 ment and refuge through the influence of Ar- 
 chytas, who was said to have entertained Plato 
 297 
 
TA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TA 
 
 during his residence in this city. But this 
 grandeur weis not of long duration ; for wealth 
 and abundance soon engendered a love of ease 
 and luxury, the consequences of which proved 
 fatal to the interests of Tarentuin, by sapping 
 the vigour of her institutions, enervating the 
 minds and corrupting the morals of her inha- 
 bitants. Enfeebled and degraded by this sys- 
 tem of demoralization and corruption, the Ta- 
 rentines soon found themselves unable as here- 
 tofore to overawe and keep in subjection the 
 neighbouring barbarians of lapygia, who had 
 always hated and feared, but now learned to de- 
 spise them. These, leagued with the still more 
 warlike Lucanians, who had already become 
 the terror of Magna Graecia, now made constant 
 inroads on their territory, and even threatened 
 the safely of their city. But a more formidable 
 enemy now appeared in the lists, to cope with 
 whom singly appeared out of the question : and 
 the Tarentines again had recourse in this emer- 
 gency to foreign aid and counsels. The valour 
 and forces of Pyrrhus for a time averted the 
 storm, and checked the victorious progress of 
 the Roman armies ; but when that prince with- 
 drew from Italy, Tarentum could no longer 
 resist her powerful enemies, and soon after fell 
 into their hands ; the surrender of the town be- 
 ing hastened by the treachery of the Epirot 
 force which Pyrrhus had left there. The in- 
 dependence of Tarentum may be said to termi- 
 nate here, though the conquerors pretended 
 still to recognise the liberty of her citizens. 
 From this period the prosperity and political ex- 
 istence of Tarentum may date its decline, which 
 was further accelerated by the preference shown 
 by the Romans to the port of Brundusium for 
 the fitting out of their naval armaments, as well 
 as for commercial purposes. The salubrity of 
 its climate, the singular fertility of its territory, 
 and its advantageous situation on the sea, as 
 well as on the Appian Way, still rendered it, 
 however, a city of consequence in the Augus- 
 tan age. Strabo reports, that though a great 
 portion of its extent was deserted in his time, 
 the inhabited part still constituted a large town. 
 That geographer describes the ' inner harbour, 
 as being 100 stadia, or twelve miles and a half, 
 in circuit. This port, in the part of its basin 
 which recedes the furthest inland, forms, with 
 the exterior sea, an isthmus connecting the 
 peninsula on which the town is built with the 
 land. This isthmus is so completely level, that 
 it is easy to carry vessels over it from one side 
 to the other. The site of the town is very 
 low ; the ground rises, however, a little towards 
 the citadel. The circumference of the old 
 walls is great ; but a considerable portion of the 
 town, seated on the isthmus, is now deserted. 
 That part of it, however, situated near the mouth 
 of the harbour, where the citadel stands, is yet 
 occupied. It possesses a noble gymnasium, and 
 a spacious forum, in which is placed a colossal 
 image of Jove, yielding only in size to that of 
 Rhodes. The citadel is situated between the 
 forum and the entrance of the harbour.' It is 
 remarked as an unusual circumstance by Poly- 
 bius, that in this city the dead were buried with- 
 in the walls, which custom he ascribed to a su- 
 perstitious motive." Cram. Tarentum, now 
 called Tarento, is inhabited by about 18,000 
 souls, who still maintain the character of their 
 298 
 
 forefathers, and live chiefly by fishing. Flor. L 
 c. 18.— FaZ. Max. 2, c.^ir—Plut. in Pyr.— 
 Plin. 8, c. 6, 1. 15, c. 10, 1. 34, c. l.—Liv. 12, 
 c. 13, &c.— MeZa, 2, c. 4.—Strad. 6.—Hprat. 1, 
 ep, 7, V. ¥o.—JElian. V. H. 5, c. 20. 
 
 TARICH.EUM, a fortified town of Judaea. Cic. 
 
 ad Div. 12, c. 11. Several towns also on 
 
 the coast of Egypt bore this name from their 
 pickling fish. Herodot. 2, c, 15, &c. 
 
 Tarpeius mons, a hill at Rome, about 80 feet 
 in perpendicular height, from whence the Ro- 
 mans threw down their condemned criminals. 
 It received its name from Tarpeia, who was 
 buried there, and is the same as the Capitoline 
 hill. Liv. 6, c. 20. — iMcan. 7, v. 758. — Virg. 
 Mn. 8, V. 347 and 652. 
 
 TARauiNH, now Turchina, a town of Etru- 
 ria, built by Tarchon, who assisted ^neas 
 against Turnus. Tarquinius Priscus was born 
 or educated there, and he made it a Roman 
 colony when he ascended the throne. Strab. 5. 
 —Plin. 2, c. 95.— Liv. 1, c. 34, 1. 27, c. 4. 
 
 Tarracina, a town of Latium, in the court- 
 try of the Volsci and the vicinity of the Pontiue 
 marshes. Its early name, perhaps, when it was 
 yet a Volscian town, was Anxur, and "we learn 
 from Horace that this city stood on the lofty 
 rock at the foot of which the modern Terra- 
 cina is situated. According lo Strabo, it was 
 first named Trachina, a Greek appellation in- 
 dicative of the ruggedness of its situation. Ovid 
 calls it Trachas. The first intimation we have 
 of the existence of this city is from Polybius ; 
 who, in his account of the first treaty which was 
 concluded between the Romans and Carthagin- 
 ians, enumerates Tarracina among the Latin 
 cities in the alliance of the former. Tarracina 
 subsequently became of consequence as a naval 
 station ; its port is noticed by Livy, and it is 
 classed by that historian with those colonies 
 which were required to furnish sailors and 
 stores for the Roman fleet. The garrison of 
 Tarracina joined Csssar in his march to Brun- 
 dusium. From Tacitus we learn that it was a 
 municipium; and the efforts made by theparties 
 of Vitellius and Vespasian to obtain possession 
 of this town, sufficiently prove that it was then 
 looked upon as a very important post. The 
 poets invariably call it Anxur." Cram. 
 
 Tarraco, now Tarragona^ a city of Spain, 
 situate on the shores of the Mediterranean, 
 founded by the two Scipios, who planted a Ro- 
 man colony there. The province of which it 
 was the capital was called Tarraconensis, and 
 was famous for its wines. Hispania Tarra- 
 conensis^ which was also called by the Romans 
 Hispania Citerior, was bounded on the east by 
 the Mediterranean, the ocean on the west, the 
 Pyrenean mountains and the sea of thcCantabra 
 on the north, and Lusitania and Bsetica on the 
 south. Martial. 10, ep. 104, 1. 13, ep. 118.— 
 Mela, 2, c. 6. Sil. 3, v. 369, 1. 15, v. 177. 
 
 Tarraconensis, a principal provincial divi- 
 sion of Hispania, after its subjugation to Rome. 
 Vid. Hispania. 
 
 Tarsids, a river of Troas. Strab. 
 
 Tarsus, now Tarasso, a town of Cilicia, on 
 the Cydnus, founded by Triptolemus and a colo- 
 ny of Argives, or, as others say, by Sardanapa- 
 lus, or by Perseus. Tarsus was celebrated for 
 the great men it produced. It was once the rival 
 of Alexandria and Athens in literature and the 
 
TA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TA 
 
 study of the polite arts. The people of Tarsus 
 wished to ingratiate themselves into the favour 
 of J. Caesar by giving the name of Juliopolis to 
 their city, but it was soon lost. Lnican. 3, v. 
 2^0.— Mela, 1, c. Vi.StroJ). 14. 
 
 Tartessus, a place in Hispania, the site of 
 which is a matter of so much dispute, that it is 
 not clearly known whether it was a town or a 
 district. It is probable that the ports to which 
 the Phoenicians first were accustomed to trade 
 upon the southern coast received this name, and 
 the jealous care with which they concealed the 
 sources of their commercial profit, encouraged 
 the discordant conjectures of those who repre- 
 sented it now as an island m the farthest west, 
 and now as a river, a town, and a province. Ac- 
 cording to the opinion of Bossi and Depping, 
 which we embrace, and which assigns to all the 
 Phoenician colonies in Spain the epithet of Tar- 
 tessus, we may suppose that the whole extent of 
 coast from Calpe, perhaps to the mouth of the 
 Anas, and each of the principal towns by which 
 it was distingaished for a time, were known by 
 this name so long as they were known by name 
 alone. This w^ould reconcile all difierence of 
 opinion, and conciliate the reasons which are 
 brought to prove that the appellation of Tartes- 
 sus belonged to Carteia, with those, equally 
 strong, which make it clear that the island of 
 Gadir and the city of Gades were frequently 
 designated by that term. The Romans like- 
 wise mistook it for the island of Erythea ; and 
 many supposed, which is not improbable, that 
 a town to which this name peculiarly belonged 
 was situate upon the mouth of the Bastis, oppo- 
 site the more famous city of Gades. In the time 
 of Strabo it was found impossible to determine 
 this point; and, if there had been once a town, 
 that bore this title, to indicate its site. Mannert 
 supposes that it was the same as Hispalis, the 
 modern Seville. Bossi. St. Spagna. 
 
 Taruana, a town of Gaul, now Terromn in 
 Artois. 
 
 Tarvisium, a town of Italy, now Treviso in 
 the Venetian states. 
 
 Tatta, a large lake of Phrygia, on the con- 
 fines of Galatia. 
 
 Taunus, a mountain in Germany, now Hey- 
 rich or Hoche, opposite Mentz. Tacit. 1, Ann. 
 c. 56. 
 
 Taurt, a people of European Sarmatia, who 
 inhabited Taurica Chersonesus, and sacrificed 
 all strangers to Diana. The statue of this god- 
 dess, which they believed to have fallen down 
 from heaven, was carried away to Sparta by 
 Iphigenia and Orestes. Strab. 12. — Herodot. 
 4, c. 99. (kG.—Mela, 2, c. I.— Pans. 3, c. 16.— 
 Eurip. Iphig. — Ovid, ex Pont. 1, el, 2, v. 80. 
 ~Sil. 14, V. 260.— Jwr. 15, v. 116. 
 
 Taurica chersonesus. Vid. Tauri and 
 Chersonesus. 
 
 Taurini, ihe inhabitants of Taurinum, a 
 town of Cisalpine Gaul, now called Turin, in 
 Piedmont. Sil. 3, v. 646. " The Taurini prob- 
 ably occupied both banks of the Po, but espe- 
 cially the country situated bet^veen that river 
 and the Alps, as far as the river Orcus, Orca, 
 to the east, while the position of Fines, Avilia- 
 na, given by the Itineraries, fixed their limit to 
 the west. The Taurini are first mentioned in 
 history as having opposed Hannibal soon after 
 his descent from the Alps j and their capital, 
 
 which Appian calls Taurasia, was taken and 
 plundered by that general, after an ineffectual 
 resistance of three days. As a Roman colony, 
 it subsequently received the name of Augusta 
 Taurinorum, which is easily recognised in that 
 of Torino, the present capital of Piedmont.'" 
 Cram. 
 
 Taurominium, a town of Sicily, between. 
 Messana and Catania, built by the Zancleans, 
 Sicilians, and Hybleans, in the age of Diony- 
 sius the tyrant of Syracuse. The hills in the 
 neighbourhood were famous for the fine grapes 
 which they produced, and they surpassed almost 
 the whole world for the extent and beauty of 
 their prospects. There is a small river near 
 it called Taurominius. Diod. 16. 
 
 Taurus, the largest mountain of Asia, as to 
 extent. " The mountains of Taurus, accord- 
 ing to all the descriptions of the ancients, ex- 
 tended from the frontiers of India to the Mgean 
 Sea. Their principal chain, as it shot out from 
 mount Imaus towards the soarces of the Indus, 
 winded, like an immense serpent, between the 
 Caspian Sea, and the Pontus Euxinus on one 
 side, and the sources of the Euphrates on the 
 other. Caucasus seems to have formed part of 
 this line according to Pliny ; but Strabo, who 
 was better informed, traced the principal chain 
 of Taurus between the basins of the Euphra- 
 tes and the Auraxes, observing that a detached 
 chain of Caucasus, that of the MoscUn moun- 
 tains, runs in a southern direction and joins 
 the Taurus. Modern accounts represent this 
 junction as not very marked. Strabo, who was 
 born on the spot, and who had travelled as far 
 as Armenia, considers the entire centre of Asia 
 Minor, together with all Armenia, Media, and 
 Gordvene, or Koordistan, as a very elevated 
 country, croAvned with several chains of moun- 
 tains, all of which are so closely joined together 
 that they may be regarded a? one. ' Armenia 
 and Media,' says he, ' are situated upon Tau- 
 rus.' This plateau seems also to comprehend 
 Koordistan, and the branches which it sends out 
 extend into Persia, as far as the great desert of 
 Kerman on one side, and towards the sources 
 of the GiAoTiandthe Indus on the other. By 
 thus considering the vast Taurus of the ancients 
 as an upland plain, and not as a chain, the tes- 
 timonies of Strabo and Pliny may be reconcil- 
 ed with the accounts of modern travellers. Two 
 chains of mountains are detached from the pla- 
 teau of Armenia to enter the peninsula of Asia; 
 the one first confines and then crosses the chan- 
 nel of the Euphrates near Samosata ; the other 
 borders the Pontus Euxinus, leaving only nar- 
 row plains between it and that sea. These two 
 chains, one of which is in part the Anti-Tau- 
 rus, and the other the Paryades of the ancients, 
 or the mountain Tcheldir or Keldir of the mo- 
 derns, are united to the west of the Euphrates, 
 between the towns of Siioas, Tocat, and Kai- 
 saria, by means of the chain of the Argasus, 
 now named Argis-Dag, whose summit is cover- 
 ed with perpetual snows, a circumstance which, 
 under so low a latitude, shows an elevation of 
 from 9 to 10,000 feet. The centre of Asia re- 
 sembles a terrace supported on all sides by chains 
 of mountains. Here we find salt marshes, and 
 rivers which have no outlets. It contains a 
 number of small plateaus, one of which Strabo 
 has described under the name of the plam of 
 
TA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TE 
 
 Bagaudcne. ' The cold there,' says he, ' pre- 
 vents the fruit trees from thriving, whilst olive- 
 trees grow near Sinope, which is 3000 stadia 
 more to the north.' Modern travellers have also 
 found very extensive elevated plains through- 
 out the interior of Asia Minor, either in the 
 south, towards Konieh^ or in the north, towards 
 Angora. But all the borders of this plateau 
 constitute so many chains of mountains, which 
 sometimes encircle the plateau, and sometimes 
 extend across the lower plains. The chain 
 which, breaking off at once from mount Argse- 
 us and from Anti-Taurus, bounds the ancient 
 Cilicia to the north, is more particularly known 
 by the name of Taurus, a name which in seve- 
 ral languages appears to have one common root, 
 and simply signilies mountain. The elevation 
 of this chain must be considerable, since Cicero 
 affirms that it was impassable to armies before 
 the month of June on account of the snow. 
 Diodorus details the frightful ravines and preci- 
 pices which it is necessary to cross in going from 
 Cilicia into Cappadocia. Modern travellers, 
 who have crossed more to the west of the chain 
 now called Ala-Dagh, represent it as similar to 
 that of the Apennines and mount Hemus. It 
 sends off to the west several branches, some of 
 which terminate on the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean, as the Cragus, and the Masicysies of 
 the ancients, in Lycia ; the others, greatly in- 
 ferior in elevation, extend to the coast of the 
 Archipelago, opposite the islands of Cos and 
 Rhodes. To the east, mount Amanus, now 
 the Almadagh, a detached branch of the Tau- 
 rus, separates Cilicia from Syria, having only 
 two narrow passes, the one towards the Eu- 
 phrates, the other close by the sea ; the first an- 
 swers to the Amanian defiles (Pylae Amanias) 
 of the ancients, the other to the defiles of Sy- 
 ria. The latter, with their perpendicular and 
 peaked rocks, are the only ones that have been 
 visited by modern travellers. Two other chains 
 of mountains are sent off from the western part 
 of the central plateau. The one is the Baba- 
 Dagh of the moderns, which formed the T'mo- 
 lus, the Messogis, and the Sipylus of the an- 
 cients, and which terminates towards the isl- 
 ands of Samos and Chios ; the other, extending 
 in a northwest direction, presents more elevat- 
 ed summits, among which are the celebrated 
 Ida and Olympus (of Mysia). Lastly, the north- 
 ern side of the plateau is propelled towards the 
 Black Sea, and gives rise to the chain of the 
 Olgassijs, now Elkas-Dagh, a chain which fills 
 with its branches all the space between the San- 
 garius and the Halys. The summits retain 
 their snow until August. The ancients highly 
 extol the marbles of Asia Minor, but from the 
 Sangarins to the Halys we meet with nothing 
 but granite rocks." Malte-Brun. 
 
 Taxila, (plur.) a large country in ][ndia, be- 
 tween the Indus and the Hydaspes. Strab. 15. 
 
 Taygetus, or Taygeta, (orum,) a mountain 
 of Laconia, in Peloponnesus. " It forms part 
 of a lofty ridge, which traversing the whole of 
 Laconia from the Arcadian frontier terminates 
 in the sea at Cape Taenarum. Its elevation 
 was said to be so great as to command a view 
 of the whole of Peloponnesus, as may be seen 
 from a fragment of the Cyprian verses preserv- 
 ed by the scholiast of Pindar. This great 
 mountain abounded with various kinds of beasts 
 300 
 
 for the chase, and supplied also the celebrated 
 race of hounds, so much valued by the ancients 
 on account of their sagacity and keenness of 
 scent. It also furnished a beautiful green mar- 
 ble, much esteemed by the Romans. In the 
 terrible earthquake which desolated Laconia, 
 before the Peloponnesian war, it is related thai 
 immense masses of rock, detaching themselves 
 from the mountain, caused dreadful devasta- 
 tion in their fall, which is said to have been 
 foretold by Anaximander of Miletus. The 
 principal summit of Taygetus, named Tale- 
 tum,- rose above Bryseae. It was dedicated to 
 the sun, and sacrifices of horses were there of- 
 fered to that planet. This point is probably the 
 same now called St. Ellas. Two other parts of 
 the mountain were called Evoras and Theras. 
 Mr. Dodwell says, ' Taygetus runs in a direc- 
 tion nearly north and south, uniting to the north 
 with the chain of Lycaeum, and terminating 
 its opposite point at the Tsenarian promontory. 
 Its western side rises from the Messenian gulf, 
 and its eastern foot bounds the level plain of 
 Amyclae, from which it rises abruptly, add- 
 ing considerably to its apparent height, which 
 is probably inferior only to Pindus and Olym- 
 pus. It is visible from Zacynthus, which, in a 
 straight line, is distant from it at least eighty- 
 four miles. The northern crevices are cover- 
 ed with snow during the whole year. Its out- 
 line, particularly as seen from the north, is of a 
 more serrated form than the other Grecian 
 mountains. It has five principal summits, 
 whence it derives the modern name of Pente- 
 dactylos.^'\ Cram. 
 
 Teanum, a town of Campania, on the Appian 
 road, at the east of the Liris, called also Sldici- 
 oium, to be distinguished from another town of 
 the same name at the west of Apulia, at a small 
 distance from the coast of the Adriatic. The 
 rights of citizenship were extended to it under 
 Augustus. Cic. Cluent. 9 and 69, PJiil. 12, c. 
 l\.—Horat. 1, ep. l.—Plin. 31, c. '2.—Liv. 22, 
 C.27. 
 
 Tearus, a river of Thrace, rising in the same 
 rock from 38 different sources, some of which 
 are hot and others cold. " At the head of this 
 river, Darius, in his Scythian expedition, erect- 
 ed a pillar, with an inscription pronouncing 
 the waters of the Tearus to be the purest and 
 best in the universe, as he himself was the fair- 
 est of men." Cram. 
 
 Teches, a mountain of Pontus, from which 
 the 10,000 Greeks had first a view of the sea. 
 Xenoph. Anab. 4. 
 
 Tectosages, or Tectosag^, a people of 
 Gallia Narbonensis, whose capital Avas the mo- 
 dern Toulouse. They received the name of 
 Tectosag33 quod sagis tegerentur. Some of them 
 passed into Germany, where they settled near 
 the Hercynian forest, and another colony pass- 
 ed into Asia. ( Vid. Galatia.) The Tectosa- 
 gse were among those Gauls who pillaged Rome 
 under Brennus, and who attempted some time 
 after, to plunder the temple of Apollo at Delphi. 
 At their return home from Greece they were 
 visited by a pestilence, and ordered, to stop it, 
 to throw "into the river all the riches and plun- 
 der they had obtained in their distant excur- 
 sions. Cas. Bell. G. 6. c. 23.— Strab. 4.— Cic. 
 de Nat. D. 3.—Liv. 38, c. l6.—Flor. 2, c. 11.— 
 Justin. 32. 
 
TE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TE 
 
 Tegea, or Tegjea, now Moklia, a town of 
 Arcadia in the Peloponnesus, founded by Te- 
 geates, a son of Lycaon, or, according to 
 others, by Altus. The gigantic bones of Ores- 
 tes were found buried there, and removed to 
 Sparta. Apollo and Pan were worshipped there ; 
 and there also Ceres, Proserpine, and Venus, 
 had each a temple. The inhabitants were call- 
 ed Tegeates; and the epithet Teg<£a is given to 
 Atalanta, as a native of the place. Ovid. Met. 
 8, fab. l.—Fast. -6, v. b?>\.— Virg. jEn. 5, v. 
 2'J'3.—Strab. 8.— Pans. 8, c. 45, &c. 
 
 Telchines, a people of Rhodes, said to have 
 been originally from Crete. They were the 
 inventors of many useful arts, and, accord- 
 ing to Diodorus, passed for the sons of the sea. 
 They were the fii'st who raised statues to the 
 gods. The Telchinians insulted Venus, for 
 which the goddess inspired them with a sudden 
 fury, and Jupiter destroyed them all by a del- 
 uge. Diod.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 365, &c. 
 
 TELEBOiE, or Teleboes, a people of Greece. 
 " The Teleboae, or Taphii, as they are likewise 
 called, are more particularly spoken of as in- 
 habiting the western coast of Acarnania, the 
 islands called Taphiusse, and the Echinades. 
 They are generally mentioned as a maritime 
 people, addicted to piracy. They were con- 
 quered by Amphitryon, as the inscription re- 
 corded by Herodotus attests : — 
 
 'AjJ(piTpvo}v [X dviOriKe vewv di:d TrfKe^oauiv.^ Cram. 
 
 Telmessus, or Telmissds, a town of Lycia, 
 whose inhabitants were skilled in augury and 
 the interpretation of dreams. Cic. de div. 1. — 
 Strab. U.-rLiv. 37, c. 16. — -Another in Ca- 
 
 ria. A third in Pisidia. 
 
 Telo martius, a town at the south of Gaul, 
 now Toulon. 
 
 Temenium, a place in Argolis, where Teme- 
 nus was buried. 
 
 Temenos, a place of Syracuse, where Apollo, 
 . called Temenites, had a statue. Cic. in Verr. 
 4, c.53.—Suet. Tib. 74. 
 
 Temesa, I. a town of Cyprus.-^ — II. Ano- 
 ther in Calabria in Italy, famous for its mines 
 of copper, which were exhausted in the age of 
 Strabo. Cic. Verr. 5, c. Ib.—Liv. 34, c. 35.— 
 HoTner. Od. 1, v. 184.— Ow^. Fast. 5, v. 441. 
 Met. 7. V. 201.— Mela, 2, c. A.—Stra^. 6. 
 
 Temnos, a towTi of iEolia, at the mouth of 
 the Hermus. Herodot. 1, c. 49.— Cic. Flacc. 18. 
 Tempe, (plur.) a valley in Thessaly, between 
 mount Olympus at the north, and Ossa at the 
 south, through which the river Peneus flows 
 into the ^gean. " ' It is a defile,' says Livy, 
 ' of difficult access, even though not guarded by 
 an enemy ; for, besides the narrowness of the 
 pass for five miles, where there is scarcely room 
 for a beast of burden, the rocks on both sides 
 are so perpendicular as to cause giddiness both 
 in the mind and eyes of those who look down 
 the precipice. Their terror is also increased by 
 the depth and roar of the Peneus rushing through 
 the midst of the gorge.' ' The vale of Tempe,' 
 says Mr. Hawkins, 'is generally known in Thes- 
 saly by the name of Bogaz. In the middle 
 ages it was called Ln/costomo. The Turkish 
 word Bogaz, which signifies a pass or strait, 
 is limited to that part of the course of the 
 Peneus where the vale is reduced to very nar- 
 row dmaensions. This part answers to our idea 
 
 of a rocky dell, and is in length about two miles. 
 The breadth of the Peneus is generally about 
 fifty yards. The road through the Bogaz is 
 chiefly the work of art, nature having left only 
 sufficient room for the channel of the river. 
 This scenery, of which every reader of classical 
 literature has formed so lively a picture in his 
 imagination, consists of a dell or deep glen, the 
 opposite sides of which rise very steeply from 
 the bed of the river. The towering height of 
 these rocky and well-wooded acclivities above 
 the spectator, the contrast of lines exhibited by 
 their folding successively over one another, and 
 the winding of the Peneus between them, pro- 
 duce a very striking effect. The scenery itselt 
 by no means corresponds with the idea which 
 has been generally conceived of it ; and the 
 eloquence of iElian has given rise to expecta- 
 tions which the traveller will not find realized. 
 In the fine description which that writer has 
 given us of Tempe, he seems to have failed 
 chiefly in the general character of its scenery, 
 which is distinguished by an air of savage gran- 
 deur, rather than by its beauty and amenity.' 
 It may be doubted, however, whether we should 
 not consider the vale of Tempe as distinct from 
 the narrow defile which the Peneus traverses be- 
 tween mount Olympus and mount Ossa, near its 
 entrance into the sea. ' After riding nearly an 
 hour close to the bay in which the Peneus dis- 
 charges itself, we turned,' says Professor Palm- 
 er, ' south, through a delightful plain, which after 
 a quarter of an hour brought us to an opening, 
 between Ossa and Olympus ; the entrance to a 
 vale, which, in situation, extent, and beauty, 
 amply satisfies whatever the poets have said of 
 Tempe. The country being serene, we were able 
 to view the scene from various situations. The 
 best view is from a small hill, about one mile 
 south from the chasm. Looking east, you have 
 then Ossa on your right hand : on your left, a 
 circling ridge of Olympus, clothed with wood 
 and rich herbage, terminates in several eleva- 
 tions, which diminish as they approach the 
 opening before mentioned. In the front is the 
 vale, intersected by the Peneus, and adorned 
 with a profusion of beauties, so concentrated as 
 to present under one view a scene of incompa- 
 rable effect. The length of the vale, measured 
 from the station to the opening by which we 
 entered, I estimate at three miles ; its greatest 
 breadth at two miles and a half It appears 
 to have been a generally received notion among 
 the ancients, that the gorge of Tempe was 
 caused by some great convulsion in nature, 
 which, bursting asunder the great mountain- 
 barrier by which the waters of Thessaly were 
 pent up, afforded them an egress to the sea ; 
 ' This important pass,' says the historian, ' was 
 guarded by four different fortresses. The first 
 was Gonnus, placed at the very entrance of the 
 defile. The next Condylon, which was deemed 
 impregnable. The third, named Charax, stood 
 near the town of Lapathus. The fourth was 
 in the midst of the route, where the gorge is 
 narrowest, and could easily be defended by ten 
 armed men.' These strong posts were unac- 
 countably abandoned by Perseus, after the Ro- 
 mans had penetrated into Pieriaby a pass ui the 
 chain of Olympus." Cram. 
 
 Tenedos, a small and fertile island of the 
 ^gean Sea, opposite Troy, at the distance of 
 301 
 
TE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TH 
 
 about 12 miles from Sigasum, and 56 miles north 
 from Lesbos. It was anciently called Leuco- 
 phrys. It became famous during the Trojan 
 war, as it was there that the Greeks concealed 
 themselves the more effectually to make the 
 Trojans believe that they were returned home 
 without finishing the siege. Homer. Od. 3, v. 
 b^.—Diod. b.—Strab. li.— Virg. ^n. 2, v. 21. 
 — Ovid. Met. 1, v. 540, 1. 12, v. 109.— Mela, 2, 
 C.7. 
 
 Tenos, a small island in the JEgean, near 
 Andros, called OpMussa, and also Hydrussa, 
 from the number of its fountains. It was very 
 mountainous, but it produced excellent wines, 
 universally esteemed by the ancients. Tenos 
 was about 15 miles in extent. The capital was 
 also called Tenos. Strab. 10. — Mela, 2, c. 7. 
 -Ovid. Met. 7, v. 469. 
 
 Tbntyra, (plur.) and Tentyris, a town of 
 Egypt, on the Nile, considerably south of 
 Thebes. " It is a place of little consequence in 
 itself, but travellers visit it with great interest on 
 account of a great quantity of magnificent ruins 
 found three miles to the west of it. Bruce, 
 Norden, and Savary, agree in identifying it with 
 the modern Bender ah. The remains of three 
 temples still exist. The largest is in a singu- 
 larly good state of preservation, and the enor- 
 mous masses of stone employed in it, are so dis- 
 posed as to exhibit every where the most just 
 proportions. It is the first and most magni- 
 ficent Egyptian temple to be seen in ascending 
 the Nile, and is considered by Mr. Belzoni as of 
 a much later date than any of the others. From 
 the superiority of the workmanship, he inclines 
 to attribute it to the first Ptolemy, the same 
 who laid the foundation of the Alexandrian 
 library, and instituted the philosophical so- 
 ciety of the Museum. As for the 2odiacs or ce- 
 lestial planispheres found here, and their high 
 antiquity so much boasted, an able antiquary 
 has shown that they could not have been 
 prior to the conquest of Alexander," Malte- 
 Brun. '-' ' 
 
 ,Tentyra, {melius Tempyra), a place of 
 Thrace, opposite Samothrace. Ovid. Trist. I, 
 el. 9, V. 21. 
 
 Teos, or Teios, now Sigagik, a maritime 
 town on the coast of Ionia in Asia Minor, oppo- 
 site Samos. It was one of the 12 cities of the 
 Ionian confederacy, and gave birth to Anacreon 
 and Hecatgeus, who is by some deemed a native 
 of Miletus. According to Pliny, Teos was an 
 island. Stral). H.—Mela, 1, c. ll.—Paus. 7, 
 c. 3.—JElian. V. H. 8, c. b.-Horat. 1. Od. 17, 
 V. 18. 
 
 Tarentus, a place in the Campus Martius, 
 near the capitol, where the infernal deities had 
 an altar. Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 504. 
 
 Tergeste, and Tergestum, now Ti-ieste, 
 a town of Venetia, belonging to the Carni, on 
 the bay called from this town the Sinus Terges- 
 ticus. Paterc. 2, c. 110.— PZm. 3, c. 18. 
 
 Terioli, a small town of Rhoetia, in the 
 valley of Venosca, towards the springs of the 
 Adige in Tyrol, which derives its name from 
 this inconsiderable place. 
 
 Terracina. Vid. Tarracina. 
 
 Tetrapolis, a name given to the city of 
 Antioch, the capital of Syria, because it was di- 
 vided into four separate districts, each of which 
 resembled a city. Some apply the word to 
 3p2 
 
 Seleucis, which contained the four large cities 
 of Antioch near Daphne, Laodicea, Apamea, 
 
 and Seleucia in Pieria.- The name of four 
 
 towns in the north of Attica. Strab. Vid. Do- 
 ris. 
 
 Tetrica, a mountain of the Sabines, near the 
 river Fabaris, It was very rugged and diflicult 
 of access, whence the epithet Tetricus was ap- 
 plied to persons of a morose and melancholy 
 disposition. Virg. Mn. 7, v. 713. 
 
 Teucri, a name given to the Trojans, from 
 Teucer their king. The Teucri appear to 
 have been of the earliest race of Phrygians, who 
 were all, as is most probable, of Thracian origin; 
 nor was the connexion perhaps entirely lost at 
 the era of the Trojan war. But if the Asiatics 
 received from Thrace an early colony, we have 
 reason to believe that they soon repaid the debt, 
 and that the Teucri from the Troad extended 
 themselves widely over the countries of Thrace, 
 occasioning the most radical changes, and es- 
 tablishing the most enduring characteristics 
 among the people with whom they were iden- 
 tified. Virg. JSn. I, v. 42 and 239. 
 
 Teucteri, a people of Germany, at the east 
 of the Rhine. To.cit. de Germ. c. 22. 
 
 Teumessus, a mountain of Boeotia, with a 
 village of the same name, where Hercules, 
 when young, killed an enormous lion. Stat. 
 Theb. 1. V. 331. 
 
 Teutoburgiensis saltus, a forest of Ger- 
 many, between the Ems and Li'ppa,yfh&xe Va- 
 rus and his legions were cut to pieces. Tacit. 
 An. 1, c. 60. 
 
 Teutoni, and Teutones, a people of Ger- 
 many, who with the Cimbri made incursions 
 upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. 
 They were at last defeated by the consul Ma- 
 rius, aud an infinite number, made prisoners. 
 Vid. Cimbri. Cic. pro Manil. Flor. 3, c. 3. — • 
 Phut, in Mar. — Martial. 14, ep. 26. Plin. 4, c, 
 14. In the limited sense of a tribe or a nation, 
 the Teutones may be described as above ; but 
 as one of the great original stocks from which 
 springs the population of Europe, they claim an 
 extent of country overspreading a large portion 
 of Germany in the widest extent to which that 
 name has ever been applied, while they stretch 
 beyond the era of history in their influence 
 on the formation of nations and of languages. 
 Vid. Europa. 
 
 Thalame, a town of Messenia, famous for a 
 temple and oracle of Pasiphae. Plut. in Agid. 
 
 Thapsacus, a city on the Euphrates. 
 
 Thapsus, I. a town of Africa Propria, where 
 Scipio and Juba were defeated by Csesar. Sil. 
 
 3, V. 2&\.—Liv. 29, c. 30, 1, 33, c. 48. II. A 
 
 town at the north of Syracuse in Sicily. 
 
 Thasos, or Thasus, a small island in the 
 jEgean, on the coast of Thrace, opposite the 
 mouth of the Nestus, anciently known by the 
 name of JEria, Odonis, JEthria, Acte, Ogygia, 
 Ch'-yse, and Cerms. It received that of Tha- 
 sos from Thasus the son of Agenor, who settled 
 there when he despaired of finding his sister 
 Europa. It was about 40 miles in circumfer- 
 ence, and so uncommonly fruitful, that the fer- 
 tility of Thasos became proverbial. Its wine 
 was universally esteemed, and its marble quar- 
 ries were also in great repute, as well as its 
 mines of gold and silver. The capital of the 
 island was also called Thasos. Liv. 33, c. 30. 
 
TH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TH 
 
 and 55. — Herodot. % c. 44. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — 
 Pans. 5, c. 25.— JElian. V. H. 4, &c.— Virg. 
 G. 2, V. 91.— C. iVei?. Cm. 2. 
 
 Thauauci, a town of Thessaly, on the Ma- 
 liac gulf. Liv. 32, c. 4. 
 
 Theb^, {arum,) I. a celebrated city, the capi- 
 tal of Boeotia, situate on the banks of the river 
 Ismenus. " It was one of the most ancient 
 and celebrated of the Grecian cities, and capital 
 of Boeotia, and it is said to have been originally 
 founded by Cadmus, who gave it the name of 
 Cadmeia, which in aftertimes was confined to 
 the citadel only. L3''cophron, however, who 
 terms it the city of Calydnus, from one of its an- 
 cient kings, lead us to suppose that it already 
 existed before the time of Cadmus. Nonnus 
 affirms that Cadmus called his city Thebes af- 
 ter the Egj^ptian town of the same name. He 
 also reports that it was at first destitute of walls 
 and ramparts, and this is in unison with the 
 account transmitted to us by Homer and other 
 writers, who all agree in ascribmg the erection 
 of the walls of the city to Amphion and Zethus. 
 Besieged by the Argive chiefs, the allies of Po- 
 lynices, the Thebans successfully resisted their 
 attacks, and finally obtained a signal victory; 
 but the Epigoni, or descendants of the seven 
 warriors, having raised an army to avenge the 
 defeat and death of their fathers, the city was 
 on this occasion taken by assault, and sacked. 
 It was invested a third time by the Grecian 
 army under Pausanias after the battle of Platsea ; 
 but on the surrender of those w-ho had proved 
 themselves most zealous partisans of the Per- 
 sians, the siege was raised, and the confederates 
 withdrew from the Theban territory. Many 
 years after, the Cadmeia was surprised, and 
 held by a division of Lacedaemonian troops, 
 until they were compelled to evacuate the place 
 by Pelopidas and his associates. Philip, hav- 
 ing defeated the Thebans at Chsronea, placed 
 a garrison in their citadel ; but on the accession 
 of Alexander they revolted against that prince, 
 who stormed their city, and razed it to the 
 ground, in the second year of the 111th Olym- 
 piad, or 335 B. C. Twenty years afterwards 
 it was restored by Cassander, when the Athe- 
 nians are said to have generously contributed 
 their aid in rebuilding the walls, an example 
 which was followed by other towns. Dicsear- 
 chus hgLS given us a very detailed and interest- 
 ing account of the flourishing state of this great 
 city about this period. ' Thebes,' says he, ' is 
 situated in the centre of Boeotia, and is about 
 seventy stadia in circuit ; its shape is nearly cir- 
 cular, and its appearance somewhat gloomy. 
 This city is of great antiquity ; but it has been 
 lately reconstructed, and the streets laid out 
 afresh, having been three times overthrown, as 
 history relates, on account of the pride and stub- 
 bornness of its inhabitants. It possesses great 
 advantages for the breeding of horses, since it is 
 plentifully provided with water, and abounds in 
 green pastures and hills; it contains also better 
 gardens than any other city of Greece. Two 
 rivers flow through the town, and irrie^ate the 
 "whole surrounding plain. Water is also con- 
 veyed by pipes, said to be the work of Cadmus, 
 from the Cadmeian citadel. Such is the city. 
 The inhabitants are noble-minded and wonder- 
 fully sanguine in all the concerns of life ; but 
 tbey are bold, insolent, proud, and hasty in com- 
 
 ing to blows, either with foreigners or their fel- 
 low-townsmen. They turn their backs upon 
 every thing which is connected with justice, and 
 never think of settling disputes, which may 
 arise in the business of lite, by argument, but 
 by audaciousness and violence. If any injury 
 has been sustained by athletes in the games, 
 they put oif any inquiry into the business until 
 the regular time of their trials, which occurs 
 only every thirty years at most. If any one was 
 tD make public mention of such a circumstance, 
 and did not immediately afterwards take his de- 
 parture, but were to remain the .shortest space 
 of time in the city, those who opposed the trial 
 would soon find means of assailing him at night, 
 and despatching him by violent means. As- 
 sassinations indeed take place amongst them on 
 the least pretence. Such is the general charac- 
 ter of the Theban people. There are, however, 
 amongst them worthy and high-minded men, 
 who deserve the warmest regard. The women 
 are the handsomest and most elegant of all 
 Greece, from the stateliness of their forms and 
 the graceful air with whieh they move. That 
 part of their apparel which covers the head ap- 
 pears to hide the face as a mask, for the eyes on- 
 ly are visible, and the rest of the countenance is 
 entirely concealed by the veil, which is always 
 white. Their hair is fair, and tied on the top of 
 the head. They wear a sandal, called by the 
 natives lampadium ; it is a light shoe, not deep, 
 but low, and of a purple colour, and fastened 
 with thongs, so that the feet appear almost na- 
 ked. In society they resemble more the women 
 of Sicyon than what you would expect of those 
 of Boeotia. The sound of their voice is extreme- 
 ly soft and pleasing to the ear, whilst that of the 
 men is harsh and grating. Thebes is a most 
 agreeable city to pass the summer in, for it has 
 abundance of water, and that very cool and 
 fresh, and large gardens. It is besides well situ- 
 ated with respect to the w^inds ; has a most ver- 
 dant appearance, and abounds in summer and 
 autumnal fruits. In the winter, however, it is 
 a most disagreeable place to live in, from being 
 destitute of fuel, and constantly exposed to 
 floods and winds. It is also then much visited 
 by snow, and Yevy muddy. The population of 
 the city may have been between 50 and 60,000 
 souls. At a later period Thebes was greatly 
 reduced and empoverished by the rapacious 
 Sylla. Strabo affirms, that in his time it was 
 little more than a village. When Pausanias 
 visited Thebes, the lower part of the town was 
 destroyed, with the exception of the temples, 
 the acropolis being alone inhabited. The walls 
 however remained standing, as well as the seven 
 gates, which were the Electrides, Prostides, 
 Neitides, Crensege, Hypsistge, Ogygise, and Ho- 
 moloides. Apollodorus, instead of the Neitides, 
 names the Oncaides, but .^schylus has both 
 the Neitides and Oncaides. The latter are 
 therefore more probably the Og}'gi3e. Those 
 which he calls Boreee, or the northern gates, are 
 probably the same as the Homoloian, which led 
 towards Thessaly, and took their name from 
 mount Homole in that country. The Elec- 
 trides looked towards Platoea, the Neitides to 
 Thespiae, and the Praetides to Euboea. Near 
 the Homoloian gates was a hill and temple con- 
 secrated to Apollo Ismenius, and noticed by 
 several writers. Thebes, though n early desert- 
 303 
 
TH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TH 
 
 ed towards the decline of the Roman empire, 
 appears to have been of some note in the middle 
 ages, and it is still one of the most populous 
 towns of northern Greece. The natives call it 
 Thiva. ' It retains, however,' as Dodwell as- 
 sures us, 'scarcely any traces of its former mag- 
 nificence, for the sacred and public edifices, 
 mentioned by Pausanias and others, have disap- 
 peared. Of the walls of the Cadmeia, a few frag- 
 ments remain, which are regularly constructed. 
 These were probably erected by the Athenians 
 when Cassander restored the town.' " Cram. 
 
 II. A town at the south of Troas, built by 
 
 Hercules, and also called Placia and Hypopla- 
 cia. It fell into the hands of the Cilicians, who 
 occupied it during the Trojan war. Curt. 3, c. 
 4:.—Liv. 37, c. 19.—Strab. 11. III. An an- 
 cient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, call- 
 ed also Hecaiompylos^ on account of its hundred 
 gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. 
 In the time of its splendour it extended above 23 
 miles, and upon any emergency could send into 
 the field by each of its hundred gates 20,000 
 fighting men and 200 chariots. " The an- 
 cient city extended from the ridge of mountains 
 which skirl the Arabian desert to the similar 
 elevation which bounds the valley of the Nile on 
 the west, being in circumference not less than 
 twenty-seven miles. The grandeur of Thebes 
 must now be traced in four small towns or ham- 
 lets, — Luxor, Karnac, Medinet Abou, and Gor- 
 noo. In approaching the temple of lAixor from 
 the north, the first object is a magnificent gate- 
 way, which is two hundred feet in length, and 
 the top of it fifty-seven feet above the present 
 level of the soil. Karnac, which is about a mile 
 and a half lower down, is regarded as the prin- 
 cipal site of Diospolis, the portion of the ancient 
 capital which remained most entire in the days 
 of Sirabo. The temple at the latter place has 
 been pronounced, in respect to its magnitude 
 and the beauty of its several parts, as unique in 
 the whole world. But iMxor and Karnac rep- 
 resent only one half of ancient Thebes. On 
 the western side of the river there are several 
 structures, which, although they may be less 
 extensive, are equal, if not superior, in their 
 style of architecture. The Memnonium, the 
 ruins of which give a melancholy celebrity to 
 northern Dair, is perhaps one of the most an- 
 cient in Thebes. There is a circumstance men- 
 tioned by a recent visiter, which is too important 
 to be overlooked in detailing the unrivalled 
 grandeur of ancient Thebes. The temple at 
 Medinet Abou was so placed as to be exactly 
 opposite to that of Lmxot, on the other side of 
 the Nile; while the magnificent structure at 
 Karnac was fronted by the Memnonium or 
 temple of Dair. Julia Romilla, Cecilia Tre- 
 boulla, Pulitha Balbima, and many others, at- 
 test that they heard the voice of the Memnon, 
 when along with the emperor Hadrian and his 
 royal consort Sabina, whom they seem to have 
 accompanied in their tour throughout the coun- 
 try'. One person writes, — I hear (audio) the 
 Memnon ; and another person, — I hear the 
 Memnon sitting in Thebes opposite to Diospo- 
 lis. The neighbourhood of Thebes presents 
 another subject worthy of attention, and quite 
 characteristic of an Egyptian capital, — the Ne- 
 cropolis, or City of the Dead. The mountains 
 on the western side of Thebes have been nearly 
 304 
 
 hollowed out, in order to supply tombs for the 
 inhabitants; while an adjoining valley, re- 
 markable for its solitary and gloomy aspect, 
 appears to have been selected by persons of 
 rank, as the receptacle of their mortal remains. 
 Every traveller, from Bruce down to the latest 
 tourist who has trodden in his steps, luxuriates 
 in tlie description of Gornoo, with its excavated 
 mountains, and dwells with minute anxiety on 
 the ornaments which at once decorate the si;- 
 perb mausoleums of the Beban el Melouk, and 
 record the early progress of Egyptian science." 
 Russell's Egypt. 
 
 Thebais, a coimtry in the southern parts of 
 Egypt, of which Thebes was the capital. This 
 was one of the three great divisions of Egypt. 
 Vid. JEgyplus. 
 
 Themisgyra, a town of Cappadocia, at the 
 mouth of the Thermodon, belonging to the 
 Amazons. The territories round it bore the 
 same name. 
 
 Theodonis, a town of Germany, now Thion- 
 ville, on the Moselle. 
 
 Theodosia, now Caffa, a town in the Cim- 
 merian Bosphorus. Mela, 2, c. 1. 
 
 Theodosiopolis, I. a town of Armenia, built 
 by Theodosius, &c. II. Another in Meso- 
 potamia. Vid. Rescena. 
 
 Theopolis, a name given to Antioch, be- 
 cause Christians first received their name there. 
 
 Thera, I. one of the Sporades in the jEgean 
 Sea, anciently called Callista, now Santorin. It 
 was called Thera by Theras, the son of Aute- 
 sion, who settled there with a colony from La- 
 cedaemon. Paus. 3, c. 1. — Herodot.4. — Strab. 8. 
 •11. A town of Caria. 
 
 Therapne, or Terapnb, a town of Laconia, 
 at the west of the Eurotas, where Apollo had a 
 temple called Phoebeum. It was at a very short 
 distance from Lacedaemon, and indeed some au- 
 thors have confounded it with the capital of La- 
 conia. It received its name from Therapne, a 
 daughter of Lelex. Castor and Pollux were 
 born there, and on that account they are some- 
 times called Tkerapncaifratres. Paus. 3, c. 14. 
 — Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 223.— Sil. 6, v. 203, 1. 8, v. 
 414, 1. 13, V. i3.—Liv. 2, c. 16.—Dionys. Hal. 
 2, c. 4:9.— Stat. 7, Theb. v. 793. 
 
 Therma. Vid. Thessalonica. The bay in 
 the neighbourhood of Therma is called Ther- 
 mccus, or Thermaicus Sinus, and advances far in- 
 to the country, so much so that Pliny has named 
 it Macedonicus Sinus, by way of eminence, to 
 intimate its extent. Strab. — Tacit. Ann. 5, c. 
 10.— Herodot. 
 
 Therms, (baths,) I. a town of Sicily, where 
 
 were the baths of Selinus, now Sciacca. II. 
 
 Another, near Panormus, now Thermini. Sil. 
 14, V. 23.— Cic. Verr. 2, c. 35. 
 
 Thermodon, now Termali, a famous river of 
 Cappadocia, in the ancient country of the Ama- 
 zons, falling into the Euxine Sea near Themis- 
 
 cyra. There was also a small river of the 
 
 same name in Boeotia, near Tanagra, which 
 was afterwards called Hcemon. Strab. 11. — 
 Herodot. 9, c. 21.— Mela, 1, c. 19.— Paus. 1, c. 
 1, 1. 9, c. \9.—Plut. in Dem.— Virg. Mn. 11, v. 
 %m.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 249, &c. 
 
 Thermopyl;e, a small pass leading from 
 Thessaly into Locris and Phocis. It has a large 
 ridge of mountains on the west, and the sea on 
 the east, with deep and dangerous marshes, be- 
 
TH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TH 
 
 ing in the narrowest part only 25 feet in breadth. 
 Thermopylse receives its name from the hotbaths 
 which are in the neighbourhood. It is celebra- 
 ted for a battle which was fought there B. C. 
 480, on the 7ih of August, between Xerxes and 
 the Greeks, in which 300 Spartans resisted for 
 three successive days repeatedly the attacks of 
 the most brave and courageous of the Persian 
 army, which, according to some historians, 
 amounted to five millions. There was also an- 
 other battle fought there between the Romans 
 and Antiochus king of Syria. " To the west 
 of Thermopylae," says Herodotus, " is a lofty 
 mountain, so steep as to be inaccessible. To 
 the east are the sea and some marshes. In this 
 defile is a warm spring, called Chytri by the in- 
 habitants, where stands an altar dedicated to 
 Hercules. A wall has been constructed by the 
 Phocians to defend the pass against the Thes- 
 salians, who came from Thesprotia to take pos- 
 session of Thessaly, then named ^Eolis. Near 
 Trachis the defile is not broader than half a 
 plethrum, or fifty feet ; but it is narrower still, 
 both before and after Thermopylae, at the river 
 Phoenix, near Anthele, and at the village of 
 Alpeni." Herodot. 7, c. 176, &.c.—Strab. 9.— 
 Liv. 3G, c. 15.— Mela, 2, c. 3.—Plut. in Cat., 
 &c. — Pans. 7, c. 15. 
 
 Thermos, a town of iEtolia, the capital of 
 the country. 
 
 THESPiiE, now Neocorio, a towTi of Bceotia, 
 " forty Stadia from Ascra, and near the foot of 
 Helicon, looking towards the south and the 
 Crissaean gulf Its antiquity is attested by Ho- 
 mer, who names it in the catalogue of Boeotian 
 towns. The Thespians are worthy of a place 
 in history for their brave and generous conduct 
 during the Persian war. When the rest of 
 Boeotia basely submitted to Xerxes, they alone 
 refused to tender earth and water to his depu- 
 ties. The troops also under Leonidas, whond 
 they sent to aixi the Spartans at Thermopylae, 
 chose rather to die at their post than desert their 
 commander and his heroic followers. Their 
 city was in consequence burnt by the Persians 
 after it had been evacuated by the inhabitants, 
 who retired to the Peloponnesus. Strabo re- 
 ports that Thespiae was one of the few Boeotian 
 towns of note in his time. It is now pretty 
 well ascertained by the researches of recent 
 travellers that the ruins of Thespiae are occu- 
 pied by the modern Eremo Castro. Sir W. Gell 
 remarks, that the ' plan of the city is distinctly 
 visible. It seems a regular hexagon, and the 
 mound occasioned by the fall of the wall, is per- 
 fect. A great part of the plan might possibly 
 be discovered.' Dodwell says, ' the walls, which 
 are almost entirely ruined, enclose a small cir- 
 cular space, a little elevaied above the plain, 
 which probably comprehended the acropolis. 
 There are the remains of some temples in the 
 plain: their- site is marked by some churches 
 that are composed of ancient fragments,'" 
 Cram. 
 
 Thesprotia, a country of Epirus. It is wa- 
 tered by the rivers Acheron and Cocj^tus, 
 which the poets, after Homer, have called the 
 streams of hell. " It were needless to attempt 
 to define the limits of ancient Thesprotia ; we 
 must therefore be content with ascertaining that 
 it was mainly situated between the river Thy- 
 amis and Acheron, distinguished in modem ge- 
 Part I.— 2 Q 
 
 ography by the names of Calama and Souli ; 
 while inland it extended beyond the source of 
 the former to the banks of the Aous. Of all 
 the Epirotic nations, that of the Thesproti may 
 be considered as the most ancient. I'his is evi- 
 dent from the circumstance of their being alone 
 noticed by Homer, while he omits all mention 
 of the Molossians and Chaonians, Herodotus 
 also afiirms that they were the parent stock from 
 whence descended the Thessalians, who ex- 
 pelled the jiEolians from the country afterwards 
 known by the name of Thessaly. Thesprotia 
 indeed appears to have been, in remote times, 
 the great seat of the Pelasgic nation, whence 
 they disseminated themselves over several parts 
 of Greece, and sent colonies to Italy. Even 
 after the Pelasgic name had become extinct in 
 these two countries, the oracle and temple of 
 Dodona, which they had established in Thes- 
 protia, still remained to attest their former ex- 
 istence in that district. We must infer from the 
 passage of Homer above cited, that the govern- 
 ment of Thesprotia was at first monarchical. 
 How long this continued is not apparent. Some 
 change must have taken place prior to the time 
 of Thucydides, who assures us that neither the 
 Thesproti nor the Chaones were subject to 
 kings. Subsequently we may, however, sup- 
 pose them to have been included under the do- 
 minion of the Molossian princes." Cram. — 
 Homer. Od. 14, v. Zlb.—Strab. 7, &c.—Paus. 
 1, c. ll.—Lucan. 3, v. 179. 
 
 Thessalia, a country of Greece, whose boun- 
 daries have been different at different periods. 
 Properly speaking, " it bordered towards the 
 north on Macedonia, from which it was sepa- 
 rated by the Cambunian chain, extending from 
 Pindus to mount Olympus. This latter moun- 
 tain served to divide the northeastern angle of 
 that province from Pieria, which, as was observ- 
 ed in the former section, formed the extremity' 
 of Macedonia to the southeast, and was parted 
 from Thessaly by the mouth of the Peneus, 
 The chain of Pindus formed the great western 
 barrier of Thessaly towards Epirus, Athama- 
 nia, and Aperantia. On the south, mount (Eta 
 served to separate the Thessalian Dolopes and 
 uEnianes from the northern districts of iEtolia, 
 as far as the straits of Thermopylae and the 
 borders of Locris. The eastern side was clos- 
 ed by the JEgean Sea, from the mouth of the 
 Peneus to the southern shore of the Maliac 
 gulf Early traditions, preserved by the Greek 
 poets and other writers, ascribe to Thessaly the 
 more ancient names of Pyrrha, ^monia, and 
 tEoUs ; the latter referring to that remote pe- 
 riod when the plains of Thessaly were occupied 
 by the iEolian Pelasgi. This people originally 
 came, as Herodotus informs us, from Thespro- 
 tia, but how long they remained in possession 
 of the country, and at what precise period it 
 assumed the name of Thessaly, cannot perhaps 
 now be determined. In the poems of Homer it 
 never occurs, although the several principalities 
 and kingdoms of which it was composed are 
 there distinctly enumerated and described, to- 
 gether with the different chiefs to whom they 
 were subject : thus Hellas and Phthia are as- 
 signed to Achilles ; the Melian and Pagasaean 
 territories to Protesilaus and Eumelus ; Mag- 
 nesia to Philoctetes and Eurypylus ; Estiaeotig 
 and Pelasgia to Medon, and the sons of JEscu- 
 305 
 
TH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TH 
 
 lapius, with other petty leaders. It is from Ho- 
 mer therefore that we derive the earliest infor- 
 mation relative to the history of this fairest por- 
 tion of Greece. This state of things, however, 
 was not of long continuance ; and anew consti- 
 tution, dating probably from the period of the 
 Trojan expedition, seems to have been adopted 
 by the common consent of the Thessalian states. 
 They agreed to unite themselves into one con- 
 federate body, under the direction of a supreme 
 magistrate, or chief, distinguished by the title of 
 Tagus, {raydi) and elected by the consent of the 
 whole republic. The details of this federal sys- 
 tem are little known ; but Strabo assures us that 
 the Thessalian confederacy was the most con- 
 siderable as well as the earliest society of the 
 kind established in Greece. How far its consti- 
 tution was connected with the celebrated Am- 
 phictyonic council it seems impossible to deter- 
 mine, since we are so little acquainted with the 
 origin and history of that ancient assembly. 
 There can be little doubt, however, that this 
 singular coalition, which embraced matters of a 
 political as well as religious nature, first arose 
 among the states of Thessaly, as we find that 
 the majority of the nations who had votes in the 
 council were either actuallyThessalians, or con- 
 nected in some way with that part of Greece, 
 while Sparta was struggling to make head 
 against the formidable coalition, of which Boeo- 
 tiahad taken the lead, Thessaly was acquiring 
 a degree of importance and weight among the 
 states of Greece, which it had never possessed 
 in any former period of its history. This was 
 eifected, apparently, solely by the energy and 
 ability of Jason, who, from being chief or tyrant 
 of Pherae, had risen to the rank of Tagos, or 
 commander of the Thessalian states. By his 
 influence and talents the confederacy received 
 the accession of several important cities ; and 
 an imposing military force, amounting to eight 
 thousand cavalry, more than twenty thousand 
 heavy armed infantry, and light troops sufficient 
 to oppose the world, had been raised and fitted 
 by him for the service of the commonwealth. 
 His other resources being equally effective, 
 Thessaly seemed destined, under his direction 
 to become the leading power of Greece. This 
 brilliant period of political influence and power 
 was, however, of short duration, as Jason, not 
 long after, losr his life by the hand of an assas- 
 sin during the celebration of some games he 
 had instituted; and Thessaly, on his death, 
 relapsed into that state of weakiiess and insig- 
 nificance from which it had so lately emerged. 
 On the death of Philip, the state of Thessaly, 
 in order to testify their veneration for his me- 
 mory, issued a decree, by which they confirmed 
 to his son Alexander the supreme station which 
 he had held in their councils. Thessaly was 
 preserved to the Macedonian crown, until the 
 reign of Philip, son of Demetrius, from whom 
 it was wrested by the Romans after the victory 
 of Cynoscephalae. It was then declared free 
 by a decree of the senate and people, but from 
 that time it may be fairly considered as having 
 passed under the dominion of Rome, though its 
 possession was still disputed by Antiochus, and 
 again by Perseus the son of Philip. Thessaly 
 was already a Roman province, when the fate 
 of the empire of the universe was decided in 
 the plains of Pharsalus. With the exception, 
 306 
 
 perhaps, of Boeotia, this seems to have been the 
 most fertile and productive part of Greece, in 
 wine, oil, and corn, but more especially the lat- 
 ter, of which it exported a considerable quantity 
 to foreign countries." Cram. The mountains 
 of Pindus, Olympus, Ossa, and Pelion, and the 
 river Peneus, distinguish this part of Greece 
 no less geographically than by the poetic 
 and classic recollections connected with those 
 names." Cram. 
 
 Tessaliotis, a part of Thessaly, at the south 
 of the river Peneus. 
 
 Thessalonica, a town of Macedonia, east of 
 the mouth of the Axius, on the Thermaic gulf. 
 It was " at first an inconsiderable place under 
 the name of Therme, by which it was known in 
 the time of Herodotus, Thucydides, ^schines, 
 and Scylax. The latter speaks also of the 
 Thermaean gulf. Cassander changed the name 
 of Therme to Thessalonica in honour of his 
 wife, who was daughter of Philip. But Steph. 
 Byz. asserts that the former name of Thessa- 
 lonica was Halia. It surrendered to the Ro- 
 mans after the battle of Pydna, and was made 
 the capital of the se.cond region of Macedonia. 
 Situated on the great Egnatian Way, two hun- 
 dred and twenty-seven miles from D'yrrhachi- 
 um, and possessed of an excellent harbour well 
 placed for commercial intercourse with the Hel- 
 lespont and Asia Minor, it could not fail of be- 
 coming a very populous and flourishing city. 
 The Christian will dwell with peculiar interest 
 on the circumstances which connect the history 
 of Thessalonica with the name of St. Paul. 
 Pliny describes Thessalonica as a free city, and 
 Lucian as the largest of the Macedonian towns. 
 Later historians name it as the residence and 
 capital of the praefect of Illyricum." Cram. 
 
 Thestia, a town of iEtolia, between the 
 Evenus and Achelous. Polyb. 5. 
 
 Thirmida, a town of Numidia, where Hiemp- 
 sal was slain. Sal. Jug. 2. 
 
 Thorax, a mountain nearMagnesia in Ionia, 
 where the grammarian Daphitas was suspended 
 on a cross for his abusive language against kings 
 and absolute princes, whence the proverb cave 
 a Thorace. Strab. 14. 
 
 Thornax, a mountain of Argolis. It received 
 its name from Thornax, a nymph who became 
 mother of Buphagus, by Japetus, The moun- 
 tain was afterwards called Coccygia, because 
 Jupiter changed himself there into a cuckoo. 
 Pans. 8, c. 27. 
 
 Thraces, the inhabitants of Thrace. Vid. 
 Thracia. 
 
 Thracia. " The ancients appear to have 
 comprehended under the name of Thrace all 
 that large tract of country which lay between 
 the Strymon and the Danube from west to east, 
 and between the chain of mount Hsemus and 
 the shores of the JEgean, Propontis, and Eux- 
 ine, from north to south. That the Thracians, 
 however, were at one period much more widely 
 disseminated than the confines here assigned to 
 them would lead us to infer, is evident from the 
 facts recorded in the earliest annals of Grecian 
 history relative to their migrations to the south- 
 ern provinces of that country. We have the 
 authority of Thucydides for their establishment 
 in Phocis. Strabo certifies their occupation of 
 Boeotia. And numerous writers attest their set- 
 tlement in Eleusis of Attica under Eumolpus, 
 
TH 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TH 
 
 whose early wars with Erechtheus are related 
 by Thucydides. Nor were their colonies con- 
 fined to the European continent alone ; for, al- 
 lured by the richness and beauty of the Asiatic 
 soil and clime, they crossed in numerous bodies 
 the narrow strait which parted them from Asia 
 Minor, and occupied the shores of Bithynia, and 
 the fertile plains of Mysia, and Phrygia. On 
 the other hemd, a great revolution seems to 
 have been subsequently effected in Thrace by a 
 vast migration of the Teucri and Mysi from the 
 opposite shores of the Euxine and Propontis, 
 who, as Herodotus asserts, conquered the whole 
 of Thrace, and penetrated as far as the Adriatic 
 to the west, and to the river Peneus towards 
 the south, before the Trojan war. The state 
 of civilization to which the Thracians had at- 
 tained at a very early period is the more remark- 
 able, as all trace of it was lost in afterages. 
 Linus and Orpheus were justly held to be the 
 fathers of Grecian poetry ; and the names of 
 Libethra, Pimplea, and Pieria remained to at- 
 test the abode of the Pierian Thracians in the 
 vales of Helicon. Eumolpus is stated to have 
 founded the Mysteries of Eleusis ; the origin of 
 which is probably coeval with that of the Cory- 
 bantes of Phrygia and the Cabiric rites of Sa- 
 mothrace, countries alike occupied by colonies 
 from Thrace. Whence and at what period 
 the name of Thracians was first applied to the 
 numerous hordes which inhabited this portion 
 of the European continent, is left open to con- 
 jecture. Herodotus afiirms. that the Thracians 
 were, next to the Indians, the most numerous 
 and powerful people of the world ; and that if 
 all the tribes had been united under one monarch 
 or under the same government, they would have 
 been invincible ; but from their subdivision into 
 petty clans, distinct from each other, they were 
 rendered insignificant. They are said by the 
 same historian to have been first subjugated by 
 Sesostris, and, after the lapse of many centuries, 
 they were reduced under the subjection of the 
 Persian monarch by Megabazus, general of Da- 
 rius. But on the failure of the several expedi- 
 lions undertaken by that sovereign and his son 
 Xerxes against the Greeks, the Thracians ap- 
 parently recovered their independence, and a 
 new empire was formed in that extensive coun- 
 try under the dominion of Sitalces king of the 
 Odiysse, one of the most numerous and warlike 
 of their tribes. Thucydides, who has entered 
 into considerable detail on this subject, observes, 
 that of all the empires situated between the 
 Ionian gulf and the Euxine, this was the most 
 considerable, both in revenue and opulence : 
 its military force was however very inferior to 
 that of Scythia, both in strength and numbers. 
 The empire of Sitalces extended along the coast 
 from Abdera to the mouths of the Danube, a 
 distance of four days and nights' sail ; and in 
 the interior, from the sources of the Strymon to 
 Byzantium, a journey of thirteen days. The 
 founder of this empire appears to have been Te- 
 res. The splendour of this monarchy was how- 
 ever of short duration ; and we learn from Xe- 
 nophon, that on the arrival of the ten thousand 
 in Thrace, the power of Medocus,orAmadocus, 
 the reigning prince of the Odrysse, was very 
 inconsiderable. When Philip, the son of Amyn- 
 tas ascended the throne of Macedon, the Thra- 
 dans were governed by Cotys, a weak prince, 
 
 whose territories became an easy prey to his 
 artful and enterprising neighbour. The whole 
 of that part of Thrace situated between the Stiy- 
 mon and the Nestus was thus added to Mace- 
 donia : whence some geographical writers term 
 it Macedonia Adjecta. Cotys, having been as- 
 sassinated not long after, was succeeded by his 
 son Chersobleptes, whose possessions were 
 limited to the Thracian Chersonnese ; and even 
 of this he was eventually stripped by the Athe- 
 nians, while Philip seized on all the maritime 
 towns between the INeslus and that peninsula. 
 On Alexander's accession to the throne, the 
 Triballi were by far the most numerous and 
 powerful people of Thrace; and as they border- 
 ed on the Pseonians, and extended to the Dan- 
 ube, they were formidable neighbours on this the 
 most accessible frontier of Macedonia. Alexan- 
 der commenced his reign by an invasion of their 
 territory ; and having defeated them in a gen- 
 eral engagement, pursued them across the Dan- 
 ube, whither they had retreated, and compelled 
 them to sue for peace. After his death, Thrace 
 fell to the portion of Lysimachus, one of his 
 generals, by whom it was erected into a mon- 
 archy. On his decease, however, it revolted to 
 Macedonia, and remained under the dominion, 
 of its sovereign, until the conquest of that coun- 
 try by the Romans. Livy speaks of a Cotys, 
 chief of the Odrysse, in the reign of Perseus, 
 from whence it M^ould appear that this people 
 still restrained their ancient monarchical form 
 of government, though probably tributary to 
 the sovereigns of Macedonia. Thrace consti- 
 tutes at present the Turkish province of Rou- 
 melia." Cramer's Greece. 
 
 Thrasymenus, a lake of Italy, near Perusi- 
 um, celebrated for a battle fought there between 
 Annibal and the Romans, under Flaminius, B. 
 C. 217. No less than 15,000 Romans, were left 
 dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken 
 prisoners, or according to Livy 6,000, or Poly- 
 bius 15,000. The loss of Annibal was about 
 1,500 men. About 10,000 Romans made their 
 escape, all covered with wounds. This lake is 
 now called the lake of Perugia. Strab. 5. — 
 Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 165.—Plut. 
 
 Thronium, a town of Phocis, " noticed by 
 Homer as being near the river Boagrius, was 
 30 stadia from Scarphea, and at some distance 
 from the coast, as appears from Strabo. Thro- 
 nium was taken by the Athenians during the 
 Peloponnesian war, and several years after, it 
 fell into the hands of Onomarchus the Phocian 
 general, who enslaved the inhabitants. Dr. 
 Clarke conjectured that Thronium was situated 
 at Bondoniiza, a small town on the chain of 
 mount CEta ; but Sir W. Gell is of opinion that 
 this point is too far distant from the sea, and 
 that it accords rather with an ancient ruin above 
 LongacM ; and this is in unison also with the 
 statement of Meletias the Greek geographer, 
 who cites an inscription discovered there, in 
 which the mime of Thronium occurs." Cram. 
 
 Thule, an island in the most northern parts 
 of the German ocean, to which, on account of 
 its great distance from the continent, the an- 
 cients gave the epithet of ultima. Its situation 
 wasnever accurately ascertained, hence its pres- 
 ent name is unknox^oi to modern historians. 
 Some suppose that it is the island now called 
 Iceland, or part of Greenland, whilst others 
 307 
 
TI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TI 
 
 imagine it to be the Shetland Isles. Stat. 3, 
 Sil. 5, V. 20.—Strab. l.—Mela, 3, c. 6.— Tacit. 
 Agric. 10.— Plin. 2, c. 75, 1. 4, c. IQ.— Virg. G. 
 
 I, V. ZQ.—Jiiv. 15, V. 112. 
 
 TnuRLiE, (ii, or ium,) I. a town of Lucania in 
 Italy, built by a colony of Athenians, near the 
 ruins of Sybaris, B. C. 444. In the number of 
 this Athenian colony were Lysias and Herodo- 
 tus. Strab. 6.— Plin. 12, c. i.—Mela, 2, c. 4. 
 
 II. A town of Messenia. Paus. 4, c. 31, 
 
 —Strab. 8. 
 
 Thuscia. Vid. Etruria. 
 
 Thyamis, a river of Epirus, falling into the 
 Ionian Sea. Paus. 1, c. 11. — Cic. 7, Att. 2. 
 
 Thyatira, a town of Lydia, now Akisar. 
 Liv. 37, c. 8 and 44. 
 
 Thymbra, I. A small town in Lydia, near 
 Sardes, celebrated for a battle which was fought 
 there between Cyrus and Croesus, in which the 
 latter was defeated. The troops of Cyrus 
 amounted to 196,000 men, besides chariots, and 
 those of Croesus were twice as numerous. 
 
 II. A plain in Troas, through which a small 
 river, called Thymbrius, falls in its course to 
 the Scamander, Apollo had there a temple, and 
 from thence he is called Thymbrans,. Achil- 
 les was killed there by Paris, according to some. 
 StraJb. 13.— Stat. 4, Sylv. 7, v. 2%—Diciys Cret. 
 2, c. 52, 1. 2, c. 1. 
 
 Thyni, or BiTHYNi, a people of Bithynia ; 
 hence the word Thyna trier x applied to their 
 commodities. Horat. 3, od. 7, v. 3. — Plin. 4, 
 c. 11. 
 
 Thyre, a town of the Messenians, famous 
 for a battle fought there between the Argives 
 and the Lacedasmonians. Herodot. 1, c. 82. — 
 Stat. Theb. 4, v. 48. 
 
 Thyrea, an island on the coast of Pelopon- 
 nesus, near Hermione. Herodot. 6, c. 76. 
 
 Thyrium. " North of Medeon we must 
 place Thyrium, an Acarnanian city of some 
 strength and importance, but of which mention 
 occurs more frequently towards the close of the 
 Grecian history, where it begins to be intermix- 
 ed with the affairs of Rome. Its ruins proba- 
 bly exist to the northeast of Leucas, in the 
 district of Cechrophyla, where, according to 
 Meletius, considerable vestiges of an ancient 
 town are to be seen." Cram. 
 
 Thyrsaget^, a people of Sarmatia, who live 
 upon hunting. Pliti. 4, c. 12. 
 
 Thyrsus, a river of Sardinia, now Oristagni. 
 
 Tiberias, a town of Galilee, near a lake of 
 the same name. " Tiberias is the only place 
 on the Sea of Galilee which retains any marks 
 of its ancient importance. It is understood to 
 cover the ground formerly occupied by a town 
 of a much remoter age, and of which some tra- 
 ces can still be distinguished on the beach, a 
 little to the southward of the present walls. His- 
 tory relates that it was built by Herod the Te- 
 trarch, and dedicated to the emperor Tiberius, 
 his patron, although there prevails, at the same 
 time, an obscure tradition, that the new city 
 owed its foundation entirely to the imperial 
 pleasure, and was named by him who com- 
 manded it to be erected. Josephus notices the 
 additional circumstance, which of itself gives 
 great probability to the opinion of its being es- 
 tablished on the ruins of an old tower, that as 
 many sepulchres were removed in order to 
 make room for the Roman structures, the Jews 
 308 
 
 could hardly be induced to occupy houses which, 
 according to their notions, were legally impure. 
 Adrichomius considers Tiberias to be ihe Chin- 
 neroth of the Hebrews, and says, that it was 
 captured by Benhadad, king of Syria, who de- 
 stroyed it, and was in afterages restored by 
 HerodjWho surrounded il with walls, and adorn- 
 ed it with magnificent buildings. The old Jew- 
 ish city, whatever was its name, probably owed 
 its existence to the fame of its hot baths, — ai 
 origin to which many temples and even the 
 cities belonging to them, may be traced. The 
 present town of Tabaria^ as it is now called, is 
 in the form of an irregular crescent, and is 
 enclosed towards the land by a wall flanked 
 with circular towers. It lies nearly north and 
 south along the edges of the lake, and has its 
 eastern front so close to the water, on the brink 
 of which it stands, that some of the houses are 
 washed by the sea. The whole does not appear 
 more than a mile in circuit, and cannot, from 
 the manner in which they are placed, contain 
 above 500 separate dwellings. There are two 
 gates visible from without, one near the south- 
 ern and the other in the western wall ; there are 
 appearances also of the town having been sur- 
 rounded by a ditch, but this is now filled up 
 and used for gardens. The interior presents 
 but few subjects of interest, among which are 
 a mosque with a dome and minaret, and two 
 Jewish synagogues. There is a Christian place 
 of worship called the House of Peter, which is 
 thought by some to be the oldest building used 
 for that purpose in any part of Palestine. It is 
 a vaulted room, thirty feet long by fifteen broad, 
 and perhaps fifteen in height, standing nearly 
 east and west, with its door of entrance at the 
 western front, and its altar immediately opposite 
 in a shallow recess. Over the door is one small 
 window, and on each side four others, all arched 
 and open. The structure is of a very ordinary 
 kind, both in workmanship and material ; the 
 pavement within is similar to that used for 
 streets in this country ; and the walls are entirely 
 devoid of sculpture or any other architectural 
 ornament. But it derives no small interest from 
 the popular belief that it is the very house which 
 Peter inhabited at the time of his being called 
 from his boat to follow the Messias. It is mani- 
 fest, notwithstanding, that it must have been 
 originally constructed for a place of divine wor- 
 ship, and probably at a period much later than 
 the days of the apostle whose name it bears, al- 
 though there is no good ground for questioning 
 the tradition which places it on the very spot 
 long venerated as the site of his more humble 
 habitation. Here too it was, say the dwellers 
 in Tiberias, that he pushed off his boat into the 
 lake when about to have his faith rewarded by 
 the miraculous draught of fishes. Tiberias 
 makes a conspicuous figure in the Jewish an- 
 nals, and was the scene of some of the most re- 
 markable events which are recorded by Jose- 
 phus. After the downfall of Jerusalem, it con- 
 tinued until the fifth century to be the residence 
 of Jewish patriarchs, rabbles, and learned men. 
 A university was established within its bounda- 
 ries ; and as the patriarchate was allowed to be 
 hereditary, the remnant of the Hebrew people 
 eujoyed a certain degree of weight and conse- 
 quence during the greater part of four centuries. 
 In the sixth age, if we may confide in the ac- 
 
TI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TI 
 
 curacy of Procopius, the emperor Justinian re- 
 built the walls ; but in the following century, 
 the seventh of the Christian era, the city was 
 taken by the Saracens, under Calif Omar, who 
 stripped it of its privileges, and demolished 
 some of its finest edifices." RussclVs PalestiTie. 
 
 TiBERis, Tyberis, Tiber, or Tibris, a river 
 of Italy on whose banks the city of Rome was 
 built. It was originally called Alhula, from the 
 whiteness of its waters, and afterwards Tibe- 
 rus, when Tiberinas, king of Alba, had been 
 drowned there. It was also named Tyrrhenus, 
 because it watered Etruria, and I/ijdius, because 
 the inhabitants of the neighbourhood were sup- 
 posed to be of Lydian origin. The Tiber rises 
 in ,the Apennines, and falls into the Tyrrhene 
 Sea 16 miles below Rome, after dividing La- 
 tium from Etruria. Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 47, 329, 
 &c. 1. 5, V. 641, in lb. 514. — lAican. 1, v. 381, 
 &c. — Varro. de L. L. 4, c. 5. — Virg. Mn. 7, v. 30. 
 —Horat. 1, Od. 2, v. \Z.—Mela, 2, c. 4..—Liv. 
 1, c. 3. 
 
 TiBiscus, now Teisse, a river of Dacia, with 
 a town of the same name, now Temeswar. It 
 falls into the Danube. 
 
 TiBULA, a town of Sardinia, now Lango 
 Sardo. 
 
 TiBUR, an ancient town of the Sabines, about 
 20 miles north of Rome, built, as some say, by 
 Tibur the son of Amphiaraus. It was watered 
 by the Anio, and Hercules was the chief deity 
 of the place ; from which circumstance it has 
 been called Herculei muri. In the neighbour- 
 hood, the Romans, on account of the salubrity 
 of the air, had their several villas where they 
 retired ; and there also Horace had his favourite 
 country-seat, though some place it nine miles 
 higher. Strab. 5. — Cic. 2, Orat. 65. — Suet. 
 Cal. 21.— Virg. Mn. 7, v. mQ.— Horat. 3, od. 
 4, &c. — Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 61, &c. 
 
 TicHis, now Tech, a river of Spain, falling 
 into the Mediterranean. 
 
 TiciNUM, a town of Gallia Cisalpina, " situ- 
 ated on the river from which it took its name, 
 was founded, as Pliny reports, by the Lsevi and 
 Marici ; but being placed on the left bank of the 
 Ticinus, it would of course belong to the Insu- 
 bres ; and in fact, Ptolemy ascribes it to that 
 people. Tacitus is the first author who makes 
 mention of it. According to that historian, 
 Augustus advanced as far as Ticinum to meet 
 the corpse of Drusus, father of Germanicus, in 
 the depth of winter, and from thence escorted 
 it to Rome. It is also frequently noticed in his 
 Histories. Ancient inscriptions give it the 
 title of municipium. Under the Lombard kings, 
 Ticinum assumed the name of Papia, which in 
 process of time has been changed to PaviaP 
 Cram. 
 
 Ticinus, now Tesino, a river of Gallia Cis- 
 alpina : " it rises on the St. Gothard, and passes 
 through the Verbanus Lacus, Lago Maggiore. 
 The waters of the Ticinus are celebrated by 
 poets for their clearness and beautiful colour. 
 Great diversity of opinion seems to exist among 
 modern critics and military antiquaries, on the 
 subject of the celebrated action which was 
 fought by Scipio and Hannibal near this river, 
 from whence it is commonly called the battle of 
 the Ticinus. Some of these writers have placed 
 the field of battle on the right, and others on the 
 left bank of this stream: and of the latter again, 
 
 some fix the action in the vicinity of Pavia, 
 others as high as Soma, a little south of Sesto 
 Calende." Vid. this question fully discussed in 
 Cramer's Italy, 1, 54, et. seqq. 
 
 TiFATA, a mountain of Campania, near Ca- 
 pua. Stat. Sylv. 4. 
 
 TiFERNUM, a name common to three towns 
 of Italy. One of them, for distinction's sake, is 
 called Metaurense, near the Metaurus in Um- 
 bria ; the other Tiberinum, on the Tiber ; and 
 the third, Samniticum, in the country of the 
 Sabines. Liv. 10, c. 14. — Plin. 3, c. 14. Plin. 
 sec. 4, ep. 1, 
 
 TiFERNus, a mountain and river in the coun- 
 try of the Samnites. Plin. 3, c. 11. — Liv. 10, 
 c. iO.—Mela, 3, c. 4. 
 
 TiGRANOCERTA, now Scred, the capital of 
 Armenia, built by Tigranes, during the Mithri- 
 datic war, on a hill between the springs of the 
 Tigris and mount Taurus. Lucullus, during 
 the Mithridalic war, took it with difiiculty, and 
 found in it immense riches, and no less than 
 8000 talents in ready money. Tacit. Ann. 15, 
 c. 4. — Plin. 6, c. 9. 
 
 Tigris. "This river, the rival and com- 
 panion of the Euphrates, has its most consider- 
 able source in the mountains of the country of 
 Zoph, the ancient Zophene, apart of Armenia. 
 The Euphrates, already of great size, receives 
 all the streams of that country ; but, by a sin- 
 gular exception, this, the smallest among them, 
 escapes the destination of its neighbours. A 
 rising ground prevents it from proceeding to the 
 Euphrates. A deep ravine in the mountains 
 above Diarbekir opens a passage for it, and it 
 takes its speedy course across a territory which 
 is very unequal, and has a powerful declivity. 
 Its extreme rapidity, the natural effect of local 
 circumstances, has procured for it the name of 
 Tigr in the Median language, Diglito in Ara- 
 bic, and Hiddekol in Hebrew; all of which 
 terms denote the flight of an arrow. Besides 
 this branch, which is best known to the moderns, 
 Pliny has described to us in detail another, 
 which issues from the mountains of Koordistan 
 to the west of the lake Van. It passes by the 
 lake Arethusa. Its course being checked by a 
 part of the mountain of Taurus, it falls into the 
 subterranean cavern called Zoroander, and ap- 
 pears again at the bottom of the mountain. The 
 identity of its waters is shown by the reappear- 
 ance of light bodies at its issue that have been 
 thrown into it above the place where it enters 
 the mountain. It passes also by the lake Thos- 
 pitis, near the town of Erzin, buries itself again 
 in subterranean caverns, and reappears at a dis- 
 tance of 25 miles below, near the modern Nym- 
 phaeum. This branch joins the western Tigris 
 below the city of Diarbekir." Vid. Euphrates. 
 Malte-Brun. 
 
 TiGURiNi, a warlike people among the Hel- 
 vetii, now forming the modern cantons of Switz, 
 Zurich, Scha.ffhausen, and St. Gall. Their 
 capital was Tigurum. Cces. Bell. G. 
 
 TiLAVEMPTUs, a river of Italy, falling into 
 the Adriatic at the west of Aquileia. 
 
 TiLiuM, a town of Sardinia, now Argentara. i 
 
 TiMAcus, a river of Moesia, falling into the; 
 Danube. The-neighbouring people were call-, 
 ed Timachi. Plin. 3, c. 26. 
 
 TiMAVus, a river of Venetia. " Few streams 
 have been more celebrated in antiquity, or more. 
 309 
 
TI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TR 
 
 sung by the poets, than the Timavus, to which 
 we have now arrived. Its numerous sources, 
 its lake and subterraneous passage, which have 
 been the theme of the Latin muse from Virgil 
 to Claudian and Ausonius, are now so little 
 known, that their existence has ever been ques- 
 tioned, and ascribed to poetical invention. It 
 has been however well ascertained, that the 
 name of Timao is still preserved by some 
 springs which rise near /S. Giovanni di Car so 
 and the castle ofDuino, and form a river, which, 
 after a course of little more than a mile, falls 
 into the Adriatic. The number of these 
 sources seems to vary according to the diiferen ce 
 of seasons, which circumstance will account 
 for the various statements which ancient wri- 
 ters have made respecting them. Strabo, who 
 appears to derive his information from Polybi- 
 us, reckoned seven, all of which, with the excep- 
 tion of one, were salt. According to Posido- 
 nius, the river really rose in the mountains at 
 some distance from the sea, and disappeared 
 under ground for the space of fourteen miles, 
 when it issued forth again near the sea at the 
 springs above mentioned. This accoimt seems 
 also verified by actual observation. The Ti- 
 mavus is indebted to the poetry of Virgil for 
 the greater part of its fame. Ausonius, when ce- 
 lebrating a fountain near Bourdeaux,his native 
 city, compares its waters to the Timavus. The 
 lake of the Timavus, mentioned by Livy in his 
 account of the Histrian war, is now called 
 Lago delta Pietra Rossa. Pliny speaks of some 
 warm springs near the mouth of the river, now 
 Bagni di Monte Fdtcone. The temple and 
 grove of Diomed, noticed by Strabo under the 
 name of Timavum, may be supposed to have 
 stood on the site of S. Giov. del Carso. Cram. 
 
 TiNGis, now Tangier^ a maritime town of 
 Africa in Mauritania. " The position of the 
 ancient city was on the right, or opposite side 
 of the creek to the modern, and also more in- 
 land." Plut. in Sert.—Mela, 1, c. b.—Plin. 5, 
 c. I— Sit. 3, V. 258. 
 
 TiNiA, a river of Umbria, now Topino, fall- 
 ing into the Clitumnus. Strab: 5. — Sit. 8, v. 
 454. 
 
 TiRiDA, a town of Thrace, where Diomedes 
 lived. Plin. 4, c. 11. 
 
 TiRYNTHus, a town of Argolis in the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, founded by Tirynx, son of Argos. 
 Hercules generally resided there, whence he is 
 called Tirynthius heros. Pans. 2, c. 16, 15 and 
 49.— Hr^. jEn. 7, v. 662.— ^-zl 8, v. 217. 
 
 TissA, now Randazzo^ a town of Sicily. Sil. 
 14, V. 268.— Cic. Verr. 3, c. 38. 
 
 TiTAREsus, a river in Thessaly, called also 
 Eurotas, flowing into the Peneus, but without 
 mingling its thick and turbid waters with the 
 transparent stream. From the unwholesome- 
 ness of its water, it was considered as deriving 
 its source from the Styx. Lnican. 6, v. 376. — 
 Homer. 11. 2, en. 258.—Sirab. Q.—Paus. 8. c. 18. 
 
 TiTHOREA, one of the tops of Parnassus, on 
 which was the town of Tithorea or Neon. 
 " The ruins of Tithorea were first observed by 
 Dr. Clarke,near the modern village of Velitza. 
 'We arrived,' says that traveller,' at the walls 
 of Tithorea, extending in a surprising manner 
 up the prodigious precipice of Parnassus, which 
 rises behind the village of Velitza. These re- 
 mains are visible to a considerable height upon 
 310 
 
 the rocks. We found what we should have 
 least expected to find remaining, namely, the 
 forum mentioned by Pausanius. It is a square 
 structure, built in the Cyclopean style, with 
 large masses of stone, laid together with great 
 evenness and regularity, but without any ce- 
 ment.' " Cram. — Herodot.8, c. 32. 
 
 Tmarus, a mountain of Thesprotia, called 
 Tomarus by Pliny. 
 
 Tmolus, I. a town of Asia Minor, destroyed 
 
 by an earthquake. II. A mountain of Lydia, 
 
 now Boiczdag, on which the river Pactolus 
 rises. The air was so wholesome near Tmolus, 
 that the inhabitants generally lived to their 
 150th year. The neighbouring country was very 
 fertile, and produced plenty of vines, saffron, 
 and odoriferous flowers. Strah. 13, &c. — He- 
 rodot. 1, c. 84, &c.— Ovid. Met. 2, &.c.—Sil. 7, 
 V. 210.— Virg. G. 1, v. 56, 1. 2, v. 98. 
 
 T OGATA, an epithet applied to a certain part 
 of Gaul. Vid. Gallia. 
 
 ToLENUs, a river of Latium, now Salto, fal- 
 ling into the Velinus. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 561. 
 
 ToLETUM, now Toledo, a town of Spain, on 
 the Tagus, 
 
 ToLisTOBOii, a people of Galatia, in Asia, de- 
 scended from the Boii of Gaul. Plin. 5, c. 32. 
 — Liv. 58, c. 15 and 16. 
 
 ToLOSA, now Toulouse, the capital of Lan- 
 guedoc, a town of Gallia Narbonensis, which 
 became a Roman colony under Augustus, and 
 was afterwards celebrated for the cultivation of 
 the sciences. Minerva had there a rich temple, 
 which Csepio the consul plundered, and as he 
 was never after fortunate, the words aurum 
 Tolosanum became proverbial. Ccbs. Bell. G. 
 —Mela, 2, c. b.—Cic. de Nat. D.S, c. 20. 
 
 ToMos, or ToMis, a town situate on the west- 
 ern shores of the Euxine Sea, about 36 miles 
 from the mouth of the Danube. The word is 
 derived from rt^ivw, seco, because Medea, as it 
 is said, cut to pieces the body of her brother Ab- 
 syrtus there. It is celebrated as being the place 
 where Ovid was banished by Augustus. To- 
 mos was the capital of lower Moesia, founded 
 by a Milesian colony, B. C. 633. Strab. 7. — 
 Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Mela, 2, c. 2. — Ovid, ex Pont. 
 4, el. 14, V. 59. Trist. 3, el. 9, v. 33, &c. 
 
 ToPAZos, an island in the Arabian gulf, an- 
 ciently called Ophiodes, from the quantity of 
 serpents that were there. The valuable stone 
 called topaz is found there, Plin. 6, c. 20. 
 
 ToRoNE. " Torone which gave its name to 
 the gulf on which it stood, was situated towards 
 the southern extremity of the Sithonian penin- 
 sula. It was probably founded by the Euboe- 
 ans. From Herodotus we learn that it suppli- 
 ed both men and ships for the Persian armament 
 against Greece. When Artabazus obtained 
 possession of Olynthus, he appointed Critobu- 
 lus commander of the town. Torone was situ- 
 ated on a hill, as we learn from Thucydides, 
 and near a marsh of some extent, in which the 
 Egyptian bean grew naturally. It was famous 
 also for a particular kind of fish. The gulf of 
 Torone, Toronicus, or Toronaicus Sinus, is 
 known in modem geography as the Bay of 
 Cassandria." Cram. 
 
 Torus, a mountain of Sicily, near Agrigen- 
 tum. 
 
 Trachinia, a district of Thessaly, which 
 " is included by Thucydides in the Melian 
 
TR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TR 
 
 territory. It was so named from the town of 
 Trachin or Trechin, known to Homer, and 
 assigned by him to Achilles, together with ihe 
 whole of the Melian country. It was here 
 that Hercules retired, after having committed 
 an iavolmitary murder, as we learn from So- 
 phocles, who has made it the scene of one of his 
 deepest tragedies. Trachis,so called, according 
 to Herodotus, from the mountainous character 
 of the country, forms the approach to Thermo- 
 pyte on the side of Thessaly, Thucydides 
 states, that in the sixth year of the Peloponne- 
 sian war, 426 B. C. the Lacedaemonians, at the 
 request of the Trachinians, who were harassed 
 by the mountaineers of OEta, sent a colony into 
 their coimtrj'. These, jointly with the Trachi- 
 nians, built a town to which the name of Hera- 
 clea was given." Vid. HeracUa. Cram. 
 
 Trachonitis, a part of Judsea, on the other 
 side of the Jordan. Plin. 5, c. 14. 
 
 Tragurium, a town of Dalmatia on the sea. 
 
 Trajanopolis, I. a town of Thrace. II. 
 
 A name giventoSelinusof Cilicia, where Tra- 
 jan died. 
 
 Trajectus rheni, now Utrecht, the capital 
 of one of the provinces of Holland. 
 
 Tralles, I. a town of Lydia, now Sulian- 
 
 hisar. Juv. 3, v. 70. — Liv. 37, c. 45. II. A 
 
 people of Dlyricum. 
 
 Transtiberina, a part of the city of Rome, 
 on the side of the Tiber. Mount Vatican was 
 in that part of the city. Mart. 1, ep. 109. 
 
 Trapezus, I. a city of Pontus, built by the 
 people of Sinope, now called Trebizond. It 
 had a celebrated harbour on the Euxine sea, 
 and became famous under the emperors of the 
 eastern empire, of which it was for some time 
 the magnificent capital. T'acit. Hist. 3, c. 47. 
 
 — Plin. 6, c. 4. II. A town of Arcadia, near 
 
 the Alpheus. It received its name from a son 
 of Lycaon. A'pollod. 3, c. 8. 
 
 TRASiMENtJs. Vid. Thrasymenus. 
 
 Treba, a town of the ^qui. Plin. 3, c. 12. 
 
 Trebia, I. a river of Cisalpine Gaul, rising 
 in the Apennine, and falling into the Po at the 
 ^west of Placentia. It is celebrated for the vic- 
 tory which Annibal obtained there over the 
 forces of L. Sempronius, the Roman consul, 
 \Sil. 4, V. ^^.—iMcan. 2, v. 46.— Liv. 21, c. 54 
 
 'and 56. II. A town of Latium. Liv. 2. c. 
 
 39. III. Of Campania. Id. 23, c. 14. 
 
 ilV. Of Umbria. Plin. 3, c. 14. 
 
 Trebula, I. a town of the Sabines celebrated 
 Ifor cheese. The inhabitants were called Tre- 
 
 jbulani. Cic. in Agr. 2, c. 25. Liv. 23. — 
 
 ^Plin. 3, c. 5 and 12.— Martial. 5, ep. 72. 
 
 II. Another in Campania. Liv. 23, c. 39. 
 
 Tres TABERN.E, a place on the Appian road, 
 where travellers took refreshment, Cic. A. 1, 
 ep. 13, 1. 2, ep. 10 and 11. 
 
 Treveri, a people of Belgic Gaul, upon the 
 Rhine. " The capital of the Treveri, after 
 having borne the name of Augusta, took that 
 of the people, and became the metropolis of 
 Belgica Prima. It also became a Roman co- 
 lony, and served as the residence of several em- 
 perors, whom the care of superintending the de- 
 fence of this frontier retained in Gaul, It was 
 an object of vanity with this people to be es- 
 teemed of Germanic origin." D Anville. 
 
 TRiBALr, a people of Thrace; or, according 
 to some, of Lower Moesia. They were con- 
 
 quered by Philip, the father of Alexander j and 
 some ages after they maintained a long war 
 against the Roman emperors. Plin. 
 
 Triboci, a people of Alsace in Gaul. " Three 
 Germanic people, the Triboci, Nemetes, and 
 Vangiones, having passed the Rhine, establish- 
 ed themselves between this river and the Vosge, 
 in the lands which were believed to compose 
 part of the territory of the Leuci and Medioma- 
 i/rici. Argentoratum, Strasbourgh, was the res- 
 idence of a particular commander or prefect of 
 this frontier ; although another city, Brocoma- 
 gus, now Brumt, be mentioned as the capital of 
 the Tribocians." D'' Anville. — Tacit, in Germ. 
 28. 
 
 Tricala, a fortified place at the south of Si- 
 cily, between Selinus and Agrigentum, Sil. 
 14, V. 271. 
 
 Tricasses, a people of Champagne, in Gaul. 
 
 Tricce, a town of Thessaly, where iEscu- 
 lapius had a temple. The inhabitants went to 
 the Trojan war. Liv. 32, c. 13. — Homer. 11. 
 —Plin. 4, c. 8. 
 
 Tricoru, a people of Gaul, now Dauphine. 
 Liv. 21, c. 31. 
 
 Tricrena, a place of Arcadia, where, ac- 
 cording to some, Mercury was born. Paus. 8, 
 c. 16. 
 
 Tridentum, a town of Cisalpine Gaul, now 
 called Trent, and famous in history for the ec- 
 clesiastical council which sat there IS'yearsto 
 regulate the afiairs of the church, A. D. 1545. 
 
 Trifolinus, a mountain of Campania, fa- 
 mous for wine. Mart. 13, ep. 104. — Plin. 14, 
 c. 7. 
 
 Trigemina, one of the Roman gates, so call- 
 ed because the three Horatii went through it 
 against the Curiatii. Liv. 4, c. 16, 1. 35, c. 41, 
 1. 40, c. 51. 
 
 Trinacru, or Trinacris, one of the ancient 
 names of Sicily, from its triangular form. Virg. 
 ^n. 3, V. 384, &c. 
 
 Trinobantes, a people of Britain in modern 
 Essex and Middlesex. Tacit. Ann. 14, c. 31. 
 —CcBS. G. 5, c. 20. 
 
 Trifhylu, one of the ancient names of Elis, 
 
 Liv. 28, c. 8. A mountain where Jupiter 
 
 had a temple in the island Panchaia, whence 
 he is called Triphylius. 
 
 Triopilt^i, a town of Caria. 
 
 Tripolis, I. an ancient town of Phoenicia, 
 built by the liberal contributions of Tyre, Sidon, 
 
 and Aradus, w-hence the name. II. A town 
 
 of Pontus. III. A district of Arcadia. 
 
 IV. Of Laconia. Liv. 35, c. 27. V, Of 
 
 Thessaly, ib. 42, c. 53. VI. A town of Ly- 
 dia or Caria. VII. A district of Africa be- 
 tween the Syrtes. 
 
 Triquetra, a name given to Sicily by the 
 Latins, for its triangular form. Lnicret. 1, v. 78. 
 
 Tritonis, a lake and river of Africa, near 
 which Minerva had atemple, whence she is sur- 
 named Tritonis, or Tritonia. Herodot. 4, c. 
 riQ.—Paus. 9, c. 33.— Fir^. Mn. 2, v. 171.— 
 Mela, 1, c. 7. Athens is also called Tritonis, 
 because dedicated to Minerva. Ovid. Met. 5." 
 
 Trivia: antrum, a place in the valley oi 
 Aricia, where the nymph Egeria resided. Mart. 
 6, ep. 47. 
 
 TR1VI.E Lucus, a place of Campania, in the 
 bay of Cumas. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 13. 
 
 TRiuMviRORtiM INSULA, a place on the Rhine 
 311 
 
TR 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TR 
 
 ■which falls into the Po, where the triumvirs 
 Antony, Lepidus, and Augustus, met to divide 
 the Roman empire after the battle of Mutina. 
 Dio. 46, c. 55. — Appian. Cic. 4. 
 
 Troades, the iniiabitants of Troas. 
 
 Troas, a country of Phrygia in Asia Minor, 
 of which Troy was the capital. When Troas 
 is taken for the whole kingdom of Priam, it may 
 be said to contain Mysia and Phrygia Minor ; 
 but if only applied to that part of the country 
 where Troy was situate, its extent is confined 
 within very narrow limits. Troas was ancient- 
 ly called Dardania. Vid. Troja. 
 
 Trochois, a lake in the island of Delos, near 
 which Apollo and Diana were born. 
 
 Trogmi, a people of Galatia. Liv. 38, c. 16. 
 
 Trcezene, I. a town of Argolis, in Pelopon- 
 nesus, near the Saronicus Sinus, which receiv- 
 ed its name from TroBzen, the son of Pelops, 
 who reigned there for some time. It is often 
 called T/ieseis, because Theseus wasborn there; 
 and Posidonia, because Neptune was worship- 
 ped there. Stat. Theb. 4, v. 81. — Paus. 2, c. 
 bO.—PltU. in Thes.— Ovid. Met. 8, v. 566, 1. 
 
 15, V. 296. II. Another town at the south 
 
 of the Peloponnesus. 
 
 Trogil^s, three small islands near Samos. 
 
 Trogilium, a part of mount Mycale, project- 
 ing into the sea. Sti-ab. 14. 
 
 TROGLODYT.E, a pcoplc of Ethiopia, who 
 dwelt in caves (-pwyX>7 specus, Svjxi s,vheo). 
 They were all shepherds, and had their wives 
 in common. Strah. 1. — iVfeZa, 1, c. 4 and 8. — 
 Plin. 5, c. 8, 1. 37, c. 10. 
 
 Troja, a city, the capital of Troas, or, ac- 
 cording to others, a country of which Ilium was 
 the capital. It was built on a small eminence 
 near mount Ida, and the promontory of Sagaeum, 
 at the distance of about four miles from the sea- 
 shore. Dardanus, the first king of the country, 
 built it, and called it Dardania., and from Tros, 
 one of its successors, it was called Troja., and 
 from Ilus, llion. Neptune is also said to have 
 built, or more properly repaired, its walls, in the 
 age of king Laomedon. This city has been ce- 
 lebrated by the poems of Homer and Virgil ; and 
 of all the wars which were carried on among 
 the ancients, that of Troy is the most famous. 
 The Trojan war was undertakenby the Greeks, 
 to recover Helen, whom Paris, the son of Priam, 
 king of Troy, had carried away from the house 
 of Menelaus. All Greece united to avenge the 
 cause of Menelaus. and every prince furnished 
 a certain number of ships and soldiers. Ac- 
 cording 'to Euripides, Virgil, and Lycophron, 
 the armament of the Greeks amounted to 1000 
 ships. Homer mentions them as being 1186, and 
 Thucydides supposes that they were 1200 in 
 number. The number of men which these 
 ships carried is unknown ; yet as the largest con- 
 tained about 120 men each, and the smallest 50, 
 it may be supposed that no less than 100,000 
 men were engaged in this celebrated expedition. 
 Agamemnon was chosen general of all these 
 forces; but the princes and kings of Greece 
 were admitted among his counsellors, and by 
 them all the operations of the war were directed. 
 The most celebrated of the Grecian princes 
 that distinguished themselves in this war, were 
 Achilles, Ajax, Menelaus, Ulysses, Diomedes, 
 Protesilaus, Patroclus, Agamemnon, Nestor, 
 Neoptoleraus,&c. The Grecian army was oppos- 
 312 
 
 ed by a more numerous force. The king of Troy 
 received assistance from the neighbouring prin- 
 ces inAsiaMinor, and reckoned among his most 
 active generals. Rhesus, king of Thrace, and 
 Memnon, who entered the field with 20,000 As- 
 syrians and Ethiopians. After the siege had 
 been carried on for ten years, some of the Tro- 
 jans, among whom were Eneas and Antenor, 
 betrayed the city into the hands of the enemy, 
 and Troy was reduced to ashes. The poets, 
 however, support, that the Greeks made them- 
 selves masters of the place by artifice. They 
 secretly filled a large wooden horse with armed 
 men, and led away their army from the plains 
 as if to return home. The Trojans brought 
 the wooden horse into their city, and in the 
 night the Greeks that were confined within the 
 sides of the animal, rushed out and opened the 
 gates to their companions, who had returned 
 from the place of their concealment. The great- 
 est part of the inhabitants were put to the sword , 
 and the others carried away by the conquerors. 
 This happened, according to the Arundelian 
 marbles, about 1184 years before the Christian 
 era, in the 3530th year of the Julian period, on 
 the night between the 11th and 12th of June, 
 408 years before the first Olympiad.' Some time 
 after a new city was raised, about 30 stadia 
 from the rums of old Troy : but though it bore 
 the ancient name, and received ample donations 
 from Alexander the great, when he visited it in 
 his Asiatic expedition, yet it continued to be 
 small, and in the age of Strabo it was nearly in 
 ruins. It is said that J. Caesar, who wished to 
 pass for one of the descendants of Eneas, and 
 consequently to be related to the Trojans, in- 
 tended to make it the capital of the Roman em- 
 pire, and to transport there the senate and the 
 Roman people. The same apprehensions were 
 entertained in the reign of Augustus, and ac- 
 cording to some, an ode of Horace, Justum <^ 
 tenacem propositi virum, was written purposely 
 to dissuade the emperor from putting into exe- 
 cution so wild a project. " The little peninsula 
 which forms the ancient kingdom of Priam, has 
 been minutely explored by various learned tra- 
 vellers ; but they have not agreed in fixing the 
 localities of the individual places celebrated in 
 the immortal work of Homer. Chevalier and 
 others have supposed that Troy must have oc- 
 cupied the site of a village called Roonanbashi, 
 and there he thought he found the sources of 
 the Scamander. Dr. Clarke found in that place 
 not two fountains merely, one hot and one cold, 
 as has been said, but numerous fountains all 
 warm, raising the thermometer to 60° of Fah- 
 renheit. They do not form the source of the 
 Scamander, which lies forty miles in the inte- 
 rior. He also discovered, on entering the plain 
 of Troy, first the Mender, which its name and 
 every other circumstance clearly fixed as the 
 Scamander. He found also the Thymbrius, 
 under the modern appellation of Thymbroek, 
 though other inquirers conceive it to be the Si- 
 mois. This last he thought he recognised in 
 the Calliphat Osmak, which runs into the Sca- 
 mander by a sluggish stream across an exten- 
 sive plain, and the plain thus becomes that of 
 Simois, on which were fought the great battles 
 recorded in the Iliad. The Ilium of the age of 
 Strabo, we know was situated near the sea, 
 and he says that it was four miles in a certain 
 
TU 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 TY 
 
 direction from the original city. In this distance 
 and direction, Dr. Clarke discovered two spots 
 marked by ruins, which from diiferent circum- 
 stances, seem very likely to have been old and 
 new Troy. The grandeur of the scenery, view- 
 ed from this plain, is almost indescribable ; Sa- 
 mothrace, on one side, rearing behind Imbrus 
 its snow-clad summit, shining bright, and gene- 
 rally on a cloudless sky ; while, on the other 
 side, Garganus, the highest of the chain of Ida, 
 rises to an equal elevation. These scenes are 
 well fitted to impart the most feeling interest to 
 the descriptions of Homer, when read or re- 
 membered on the spot. Whatever difficulty 
 may exist as to the minutise, all the prominent 
 features of Homer's picture are incontestably 
 visible ; the Hellespont, the isle of Tenedos, the 
 plain, the river, still inundating its banks, and 
 the mountain whence it issues. A fertile plain, 
 and a mountain abruptly rising from it, are two 
 features which are usually combined in the sites 
 of ancient cities. From the one, the citizens 
 drew part of their subsistence, while the other 
 became the citadel to which they retired on the 
 approach of danger. The ruins of Abydos, on 
 the shore of the Hellespont, lie farther to the 
 north than the Castle of Asia, a fortress of small 
 strength. Lamsaki is only a suburb of the an- 
 cient Lampsacus, the ruins of which have been 
 lately discovered at Tchardak.''^ — Malte-Brun. 
 Vid. Paris^ ^iieas, Antenor, Agarmmnon, Ili- 
 um, Lo.oinedon, Men^laus, &c. Virg: jEn. — 
 Homer. — Ovid. — Diod, &c, 
 
 Trojani, and Trojugenje, the inhabitants of 
 Troy. 
 
 TROPiEA, I. a town of the Bnitii. II. A 
 
 stone monument on the Pyrenees, erected by 
 
 Pompey. III. Drusi, a town of Germany, 
 
 where Drusus died, and Tiberius was saluted 
 emperor by the army. 
 
 Trossulum, a town of Etruria, which gave 
 the name of Trossuli to the Roman knights 
 who had taken it without the assistance of foot- 
 soldiers. Plin. 32, c. 2. — Senec. ep. 86 and 87. 
 —Pers. 1, V. 82. 
 
 Truentum, or Truentinum, a river of Pice- 
 num, falling into the Adriatic. There is also a 
 town of the same name in the neighbourhood. 
 Sil. 8, v. 454:.— Mela, 2.— Plin. 3, c. 13. 
 
 Tueurbo, two towns of Africa, called Major 
 and Minor. 
 
 TtJLLiANUM, a subterraneous prison in Rome, 
 built by Servius Tullius, and added to the 
 other called Robur, where criminals were con- 
 fined. Sallust. in B. Catil. 
 
 TuNETA, or Tunis, a town of Africa, near 
 which Regulus was defeated and taken by 
 Xanthippus. Liv. 30, c. 9. 
 
 TuNGRi. a name given to some of the Ger- 
 mans, supposed to live on the banks of the 
 Maese, whose chief city, called Atuatuca, is 
 now Tongeren. The river of the country is 
 now the Spaio. Tacit, de Germ. 2. 
 
 TuRDETANi, or TuRDUTf, a pcoplc of Spain, 
 inhabiting both sides of the Baetis. Liv. 21, c. 
 6, 1. 28, c. 39, 1. 34, c. 17. 
 
 TuRiAs, a river of Spain, falling into the 
 Mediterranean, now Guadalaviar. 
 
 TuRicuM, a town of Gaul, now Zurich^ in 
 Switzerland. 
 
 TuRONEs, a people of Gaul, whose capital, 
 Caesarodunum. is the modern Tours. 
 
 Part L— 2 R 
 
 TuRUNTus, a river of Sarmatia, supposed to 
 be the Dwina, or Duna. 
 
 TuscANiA, and Tuscia. Vid. Hetruria. 
 
 Tusci, the inhabitants of Etruria. 
 
 TuscuLANTM, a cotmtry-house of Cicero, near 
 Tusculum, where he composed his queestiones 
 concerning the contempt of death, &c. 
 
 TuscijLUM, a town of Latium, on the declivi- 
 ty of a hill, about 12 miles from Rome, foimded 
 by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses and Circe. 
 It is now called Frescati, and is famous for the 
 magnificent villas in its neighbourhood. Cic. 
 ad Attic— Strad. b.—Horat. 3, od. 23, v. 8, &c. 
 
 Tuscus, belonging to Etruria. The Tiber 
 is called Tuscus amnis, from its situation. Virg. 
 jEn. 10, V. 199. 
 
 Tuscus vicus, a small village near Rome. 
 It received this name from the Etrurians of 
 Porsenna's army that settled there. Liv. 2, c. 14. 
 
 TuscuM MARE, a pait of the Mediterranean 
 on the coast of Etruria. Vid. Tyrrhenum. 
 
 TuTiA, a small river six miles from Rome, 
 where Annibal pitched his camp when he re- 
 treated from the city. Liv. 26, c. 11. 
 
 TuTicuM, a town of the Hirpini. 
 
 Tyana, a town at the foot of mount Taurus 
 in Cappadocia, where Apollonius was born, 
 whence he is called Tyaneus. Ovid. Met. 8, 
 V. lld.—Strab. 12. 
 
 Tyanitis, a province of Asia Minor, near 
 Cappadocia. 
 
 Tybris, Vid. Tiberis. 
 
 Tyche, a part of the town of Syracuse. Cic. 
 in Verr. 4, c. 53. 
 
 Tylos, a town of Peloponnesus, near Tsena- 
 rus, now Bahrain. 
 
 Tymph^;!, a people between Epirus and 
 Thessaly. 
 
 Tyras, or Tyra, a river of European Sar- 
 matia, falling into the Euxine Sea, between the 
 DanulDe and the Borysthenes, now called the 
 Neister. Ovid. Pont, 4. el. 10, v. 50. 
 
 Tyrrheni, the inhabitants of Etruria. Vid. 
 Etruria. 
 
 Tyrrhenum mare, that part of the Mediter- 
 ranean which lies on the coast of Etruria. It 
 is also called Inferum, as being at the bottom 
 or south of Italy. 
 
 Tyrus, or Tyros, a very ancient city of 
 Phoenicia, built by the Sidonians, on a small 
 island at the south of Sidon, about 200 stadia 
 from the shore, and now called Siir. There 
 were, properly speaking, two places of that 
 name, the old Tyros, called Palcetyros, on the 
 seashore, and the other in the island. It was 
 about 19 miles in circumference, including Pa- 
 laetyros, but without it about four miles. Tyre 
 was destroyed by the princes of Assyria, and 
 afterwards rebuilt. It maintained its indepen 
 dence till the age of Alexander, who took it with 
 much difficulty, and only after he had joined the 
 island to the continent by a mole, after a siege 
 of seven months, on the 20th of August, B. C, 
 332. The Tyrians were naturally industrious ; 
 their city was the emporium of commerce, and 
 they were deemed the inventors of scarlet and 
 purple colours. They founded many cities in 
 different parts of the world, such as Carthage, 
 Gades, Leptis, Utica, &c. which on that ac- 
 count are often distinguished by the epithet Ty- 
 ria. The buildings of Tyre were very splendid 
 and magnificent: the walls were 150 feet high, 
 313 
 
VA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 VE 
 
 with a proportionable breadth. Hercules was 
 the chief deity of the place. It had two large 
 and capacious harbours, and a powerful fleet ; 
 and was built, according to some writers, about 
 2760 years before the Christian era. " A fate 
 still more desolating has overtaken Tyre, the 
 queen of the seas, the birthplace of commerce, 
 by which early civilization was diffnsed. Her 
 palaces are supplanted by miserable hovels. 
 The poor fisherman inhabits those vaulted cel- 
 lars where the treasures of the world were in 
 ancient times stored. A column, still standing 
 in the midst of the ruins, points out the site of 
 the choir of the cathedral consecrated by Euse- 
 bius. The sea, which usually destroys artificial 
 structures, has not only spared, but has enlarg- 
 ed, and converted into a solid isthmus, the 
 mound by which Alexander joined the isle of 
 Tyre to the continent," Malte-Brun. — Strab. 
 IQ.—Herodot. 2, c. U.—Mela, 1, c. V^.—Curt. 
 4, c. 4: — Virg. jEn. 1, v. 6, 339, &c.— Ovid. 
 Fast. I, &c. — Met. 5 and 10. — iMcan. 3, &c. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vacca, I. a town of Numidia. Sallust. Jug. 
 II. A river of Spain. 
 
 Vaccjei, a people at the north of Spain. 
 Liv. 21, c. 5, 1. 35, c. 7, 1. 46, c. 47. 
 
 Vadimonis lacus, now Bassano, a lake of 
 Etruria, whose waters were sulphureous. The 
 Etrurians were defeated there by the Romans, 
 and the Gauls by Dolabella. Liv. 9, c. 39. — 
 Flor. 1, c. 13.—Plin. 8, ep. 20. 
 
 Vagedrusa, a river of Sicily, between the 
 towns of Camarina and Gela. Sil. 14, v. 229. 
 
 Vageni, or Vagibnni, a people of Ligaria, at 
 the sources of the Po, whose capital was called 
 Augusta Vagiennorum. Sil. 8, v. 606. 
 
 Vahalis, a river of modern Holland, now 
 called the Waal. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 6. 
 
 Valentia, I. one of the ancient names of 
 
 Rome. II. A town of Spain, a little below 
 
 Saguntum, founded by J. Brutus, and for some 
 
 time known by the name of Julia Colonia. 
 
 III. A town of Italy. IV. Another in Sar- 
 dinia. 
 
 Vandalii, a people of Germany. Tacit, de 
 Germ. c. 3. 
 
 Vandali, a barbarous people of the north- 
 ern parts of Germany, connected in the remo- 
 test ages with the Goths, but early separated 
 from them, and divided into the principal hordes 
 of Heruli and Burgundians. The Vandalic 
 tribes, on the invasion of the empire by the 
 Goths, reunited with those barbarians, and took 
 part in all the ravages committed by them in the 
 civilized countries of Europe. They fixed them- 
 selves, for a time in Spain, and, crossing over 
 into Africa, were among the first of the Ger- 
 mans who effected the establishment of an em- 
 pire within the limits of provinces claimed by 
 the emperors of Rome. 
 
 Vangiones, a people of Germany. Their 
 capital, Borbetomagus is now called Worms. 
 iMcan. 1, V. 431. — Cas. G. l,c. 51. 
 
 Vannia, a town of Italy, north of the Po, 
 now called Civita. 
 
 Vardanius, otherwise Hypanis, now the 
 
 Kuban. The course of this river, which rose in 
 
 the line of the Caucasus mons, and belonged to 
 
 Asiatic Sarmatia, now forms the limits of the 
 
 314 
 
 Russian empire in Asia, on the side of Asiatic 
 Turkey. On the Turkish side is the province 
 of Circassia, and on that of Russia the govern- 
 ment of Astrachan. 
 
 Varini, a people of Germany. Tacit, de Ger. 
 40. 
 
 Vasgones, a people of Spain, on the Pyre- 
 nees. They were so reduced by a famine by 
 Metellus, that they fed on human flesh. Plin. 
 3, c. 3. They occupied that part of Spain which 
 is now comprehended in the name of Navarre, 
 and were among the most powerful of the Span- 
 ish tribes. They afterwards effected settle- 
 ments in Gaul. Vid. Aquitania. 
 
 Vaticanus, a hill at Rome, near the Tiber 
 and the Janiculum, which produced wine of no 
 great esteem. It was disregarded by the Ro- 
 mans on account of the unwholesomeness of the 
 air, and the continual stench of the filth that 
 was there, and of stagnated waters. Heliogaba- 
 lus was the first who cleared it of all disagree- 
 able nuisances. It is now admired for ancient 
 monuments and pillars, for a celebrated public 
 library, and for the palace of the pope. Horat. 
 1, od. 20. 
 
 Vatienus, now Saterno, a river rising in the 
 Alps, and falling into the Po. Martial. 3, ep. 
 61.— Plin. 3, c. 16. 
 
 Ubii, a people of Germany, near the Rhine, 
 transported across the river by Agrippa, who 
 gave them the name of Agrippinenses, from his 
 daughter Agrippina, who had been born in the 
 country. Their chief town, Ubiorum Oppidum, 
 is now Cologne. Tacit. G. 28, Ann. 12, c. 27. 
 — Pli7i. 4, c. 17. — CcEs. 4, c. 30. 
 
 Udina, or Vedinum, now Udino, a town of 
 Italy. 
 
 Vectis, the Isle of Wight, south of Britain. 
 Suet. CI. 4. 
 
 Veientes, the inhabitants of Veii. They 
 were carried to Rome, where the tribes they 
 composed were called Veientina. Vid. Veii. 
 
 Veh, a powerful city of Etruria, at the dis- 
 tance of about 12 miles from Rome, It sustained 
 many long wars against the Romans, and was 
 at last taken and destroyed by Camillus after a 
 siege of ten years. At the time of its destruc- 
 tion, Veii was larger and far more magnificent 
 than the city of Rome. Its situation was so 
 eligible, that the Romans, after the burning of 
 the city by the Gauls, were long inclined to 
 migrate there, and totally abandon their native 
 home, and this would have been carried into 
 execution if not opposed by the authority and 
 eloquence of Camillus. Ovid. 2, Fast. v. 195. 
 
 — Cic. de Div. 1, c. U.— Horat. 2, Sat. 3, v. 143. 
 — Liv. 5, c. 21, &c. 
 
 Velabrum, a marshy piece of ground on the 
 side of the Tiber, between the Aventine, Pala- 
 tine, and Capitoline hills, which Augustus 
 drained, and where he built houses. The place 
 was frequented as a market, where oil, cheese, 
 and other commodities were exposed to sale, 
 Horat. 2, Sat. 3, v. 229.— Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 401. 
 
 — Tibull. 2, el. 5, v. 33.— Plant. 3, cap. 1, v. 29. 
 Velta, T. a maritime town of Lucania, found- 
 ed by a colony of Phoceans, about 600 years 
 after the coming of JEneas into Italy. The 
 port in its neighbourhood was called Vclinus 
 partus. Strab. 6.— Mela, 2, c. 4. Cic. Phil. 10, 
 
 c. 4.— Virg. .■En. 6, v. 366. II. An eminence 
 
 near the Roman forum, where Poplicola built 
 
YE 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 YE 
 
 himself a house. Liv. 2, c. 6.—Cic. 7, Att. 15. 
 
 Velina, apart of the city of Rome, adjoining 
 mount Palatine. It was also one of the Roman 
 tribes. Horat. 1, ep. 6, v. 52. — Cic. 4, ad. Attic. 
 ep. 15. 
 
 Velinus, Vid. Reate. 
 
 Veliterna, or Velitr^, an ancient town of 
 Latium on the Appian road, 20 miles at the 
 east of Rome. The inhabitants were called 
 Veliterni. It became a Roman colony. Liv. 
 8, c. 12, &c. — Sueton. in Aug. — Ital. 8, v. 378, &c. 
 
 Venedi, a people of Germany. " They ex- 
 tended along the shores of the Baltic^ to a con- 
 siderable distance in the interior country ; and 
 if their name be remarked subsisting in that of 
 Wenden, in a district of Livonia, it is only in a 
 partial manner, and holding but a small propor- 
 tion to the extent which that nation occupied. 
 Passing the Vistula, the Venedians took pos- 
 session of the lands betAveen that river and the 
 Elbe, that had been evacuated about the close 
 of the fourth century by the Vandals, whose 
 name is seen sometimes erroneously confound- 
 ed with that of the Venedians. But the differ- 
 ence is definitively marked by the language. 
 The country that the Venedians occupied in the 
 tenth century was that of the Pruzzi, whose 
 name present use has changed into Borussi. 
 We find this name indeed in Ptolemy ; but it 
 appears there very far distant, on another fron- 
 tier of Sarmatia, towards the situation which he 
 gives to the Riphean mountains." lyAnville. 
 It may be observed, that whatever affinitj'^ real- 
 ly existed between the Vandals and the Vene- 
 dians, the former being a Gothic people, can on- 
 ly be connected with the latter, either on the re- 
 turn of the Gothifrom Scandinavia, where the 
 Vandalic stem may have been detached, or at a 
 very late era, when the more northern tribes be- 
 gan their last inroads on the frontiers of the 
 empire. The purer Venedi dwelt by the Vis- 
 tula, and those which mingled more with the 
 latter Scandinavians may be called Goth o- Ve- 
 nedi. 
 
 Veneti, Vid. Venetia. 
 
 Venetia, " the northeast angle of Italy, form- 
 ed by the Alps and the head of the Adriatic 
 gulf; to which the name of Venetia, was assign- 
 ed, from the Heneti, or Veneti, an ancient 
 people respecting whose origin considerable un- 
 certainty seems to have existed even among the 
 best informed writers of antiquity. The poeti- 
 cal as well as popular opinion identified them 
 with the Heneto-Paphlagones, enumerated by 
 Homer in the catalogue of the allies of Priam. 
 This people having crossed over into Europe 
 under the command of Antenor, expelled the 
 Euganei, the original inhabitants of the coun- 
 try. Strabo was inclined to believe the Veneti 
 to be Gauls, as there was a tribe of the same 
 name in that country; but this opinion is at va- 
 riance with the testimony of Polybius. Hero- 
 dotus, who was well acquainted with the Veneti, 
 designates them by the generic appellation of 
 Illyrians. They were the last people who pene- 
 trated into Italy by that frontier. This fact is 
 sufficiently evident from the extreme position 
 which they took up, and from their having re- 
 tained possession of it undisturbed, as far as his- 
 tory informs us, till they became subject to the 
 Roman power. The history of the Veneti con- 
 tains little that is worthy of notice, if we except 
 
 the remarkable feature of their being the sole 
 people of Italy, who not only ofiered no resist- 
 ance to the ambitious projects of Rome, but even, 
 at a very early period, rendered that power an 
 essential service. According to an old geogra- 
 pher, they counted within their territory fifty 
 cities, and a population of a million and a half. 
 The soil and climate were excellent, and their 
 cattle were reported to breed twice in the year. 
 Their horses were especially noted for their fleet- 
 iiess, and are known to have often gained prizes 
 in the games of Greece. When the Gauls had 
 been subjugated, and their country had been 
 reduced to a state of dependance, the Veneti do 
 not appear to have manifested any unwilling- 
 ness to constitute part of the new province. 
 Their territory from that time was included un- 
 der the general denomination of Cisalpine 
 Gaul, and they were admitted to all the privi- 
 leges which that province successively obtained. 
 In the reign of Augustus, Venetia was consider- 
 ed as a separate district, constituting the tenth re- 
 gion in the division made by that emperor. Its 
 boundaries, if v/e include within them the Tri- 
 dentini, Meduaci, Garni, and other smaller na- 
 tions, may be considered to be the Athesis, and 
 a line drawn from that river to the Po, to the 
 west : the Alps to the north : the Adriatic as far 
 as the river Formio, Risano, to the east : and 
 the main branch of the Po to the south." Cram. 
 
 Venta (Belgarum), I. a town of Britain, now 
 
 Winchester. II. Silurum, a town of Britain, 
 
 now Caerwent in Monmouthshire. III. Ice- 
 
 norum, now Norwich. 
 
 Veragri, a Gallic people among those who 
 inhabited the Vallis Penina. Their capital was 
 Oclodurus. 
 
 Verbanus LAcas, now Mdggiore, a lake of 
 Italy, from which the Ticinus flows. It is in 
 the modern dutchy of Milan, and extends fifty 
 miles in length from south to north, and five or 
 six in breadth. Strab. 4. 
 
 Vercellje, a town on the borders of Insu- 
 bria, where Marius defeated the Cimbri. Plin. 
 3, c. 11.— Cic. Favi. 11, ep. l^.—Sil. 8, v. 598. 
 
 Veromandui, a people of Gaul, the modern 
 Vermandois. The capital is now St. Quintin. 
 C(ES. G. B. 2. 
 
 Verona, a town of Venetia, on the Athesis, 
 in Italy, founded, as some suppose, by Brennus, 
 the leader of the Gauls. C. Nepos, Catullus, 
 and Pliny the elder, were born there. It was 
 adorned with a circus and an amphitheatre by 
 the Roman emperors, which still exist, and it 
 still preserves its ancient name. Plin. 9, c. 22. 
 —Strab. 5.— Ovid. Am. 'ii, el. 15, v. 7. 
 
 Vestini, a people of Italy near the Sabines, 
 famous for the making of cheese. Plin. 3, c. 
 5. — Martial. 13. ep. 31. — Strab. 5. 
 
 Vesulus, now Monte Viso, an elevation 
 among the Alps of Liguria, where the Po fakes 
 its rise. Virg. JEn. 10, v. 108.— Plin. 3, c. 19. 
 
 Vesuvius, a mountain of Campania, about 
 six miles at the east of Naples, celebrated for iis 
 volcano. The ancients, particularly the writers 
 of the Augustan age, spoke of Vesuvius as a 
 place covered with orchards and vineyards, of 
 which the middle was dry and barren. The 
 first eruption of this volcano was in the 79th 
 year of the Christian era under Titus. It was 
 accompanied by an earthqnake,which overturn- 
 ed several cities of Campania , particularly Pom- 
 315 
 
VI 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 UL 
 
 peii and Herculaneum : and the burning ashes 
 which it threw up, were carried not only over 
 the neighbouring country, but as far as the 
 shores of Egypt, Libya, and Syria. This erup- 
 tion proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. From 
 that lime the eruptions have been frequent, and 
 there now exists an account of twenty-nine of 
 these. Vesuvius continually throws up asmoke, 
 and sometimes ashes and flames. The perpen- 
 dicular height of this mountain is 3780 feet. 
 Dio. Cass. 4G.— Varro. de R. 1, c. Q>.—Liv. 23, 
 c. 2d.— Strab.b.— Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 2.— Mela, 2, 
 c. i.—Plin. 6, ep. 16.—ltaL 12, v. 152, &c.— 
 Virg. G. 2, V. ^2^.— Mart. 4, ep. 43 and 44. 
 " It appears to have been at first known under 
 the name of Vesevus ; but the appellation of 
 Vesvius and Vesbius is no less frequently ap- 
 plied to it. Strabo describes this mountain as 
 extremely fertile at its base, but entirely barren 
 towards the summit, which Avas mostly level, 
 and full of apertures and cracks, seemingly pro- 
 duced by the action of fire ; whence Strabo was 
 led to conclude, that the volcano, though once 
 in a state of activity, had been extinguished 
 from want of fuel. The volcano was likewise 
 apparently extinct, when, as Plutarch and Flo- 
 rus relate, Spartacus with some of his followers 
 sought refuge m the cavities of the mountain 
 from the pursuit of their enemies, and succeed- 
 ed in eluding their search." Cram. 
 
 Vetera castra, a Roman encampment in 
 Germany, which became a town, now Santen, 
 near Cleves. Tacit. H. 4, c. 18. An. 1, c. 45. 
 
 Vettones, Vetones, or Vectones, an an- 
 cient nation of Spain. Sil. 3, v, 378. — Plin. 
 25, c. 8. 
 
 Vetulonia, one of the chief cities of Etruria, 
 whose hot waters were famous. The Romans 
 were said to derive the badges of their magis- 
 terial offices from thence, Plin. 2, c. 103, 1. 3, 
 c. 3.—Ital. 8, V. 484. 
 
 Ufens, I. a river of Italy, near Tarracina. 
 
 Virg. ^n. 7, v. 892, 11. Another river of 
 
 Picenum. — Liv. 5, c. 35, 
 
 Via tEmylia, I. a celebrated road made by 
 the consul M. ^mylius Lepidus, A. U. C. 567. 
 It led with the Flaminian road to Aquileia. 
 There was also another of the same name in 
 Etruria, which led from Pisas to Dertona. 
 
 II. Appia, was made by the censor Appius, and 
 led from Rome to Capua, and from Capua to 
 Brundusiura, at the distance of 350 miles, which 
 the Romans call a five days' journey. It passed 
 successively through the towns and stages of 
 Aricia, Forum Appii, Tarracina, Fundi, Min- 
 turnae, Sinuessa, Capua, Caudium, Beneven- 
 tum, Equotuticum, Herdonia, Canusium, Ba- 
 rium, Egnatia, to Brundusium. It was called, 
 by way of eminence, regina viarum, made so 
 strong, and the stones so well cemented to- 
 gether, that it remained entire for many hun- 
 dred years. Some parts of it are still to be 
 seen in the neighbourhood of Naples. Appius 
 carried it only 130 miles, as far as Capua, A. 
 U. C. 442, and it was finished as far as Brun- 
 dusium by Augustus. III. There was also 
 
 another road, called Minucia or Numicia, 
 which led to Brundusium, but by what places 
 
 is now uncertain. IV. Flnminia, was made 
 
 by the censor Flaminius, A. U. C. 533. It led 
 
 from the Campus Martins to the modern town 
 
 of Rimini on the Adriatic, through the country 
 
 316 
 
 of the Osci and Etrurians, at the distance of 
 about 360 miles. V. Lata, one of the an- 
 cient streets of Rome. VI. Valeria, led from 
 
 Rome to the country of the Marsi, through the 
 territories of the Sabines. There were, besides, 
 many streets and roads of inferior note, such as 
 the Aurelia, Cassia, Campania, Ardetina, La- 
 bicana, Domiliana. Ostiensis, Proenestina, &c. ; 
 all of which were made and constantly kept in 
 repair at the public expense. 
 
 ViADRUs, the classical name of the Oder, 
 which rises in Moravia, and falls by three 
 mouths into the Baltic. Ptol. 
 
 ViCENTiA, or ViCETiA, a town of Cisalpine 
 Gaul, at the northwest of ihe Adriatic. TaciL 
 Hist. 3. 
 
 Vienna, a town of Gallia Narbonensis, on 
 the Rhone, below Lnjons. Vid. Viemiensis. 
 Strab. l.—C(ES. Bell. G. 7, c. 9. 
 
 ViENNENsis, a district in Narbonensis, *' on 
 the left bank of the Rhone, from its issue out of 
 the lake Lcmanus, or of Geneva, to its mouth. 
 Vienna, from which it derived its name, was 
 distinguished as the capital of a great people, 
 before its elevation to the rank of a metropolis 
 of a province : the most considerable of the 
 Allobroges, quitting their villages, had formed 
 this city of Vienne, and occupied the principal 
 part of what from the dauphins of Viennois is 
 called Dauphine. They extended in Savoy as 
 far as the position of Geneva; which was one 
 of their cities." D^Anville. 
 
 ViMiNALis, one of the seven hills on which 
 Rome was built, so called from the number of 
 oziers {viniines) which grew there. Servius 
 TuUiuSj first made it part of the city. Jupiter 
 had a temple there, whence he was called Vi- 
 mmalis. Liv. 1, c. 44. — Varro. L. L. 4, c, 8. 
 
 ViNDELici, an ancient people of Germany, 
 between the heads of the Rhine and the Da- 
 nube. Their country, which was called Vindeli- 
 cia, forms now part of Swabia and Bavo.ria, 
 and their chief town, Augusta "Vmdelicorum, 
 is now Augsburg. Horat. 4, od. 4, v. 18. 
 
 ViNDiLi,"an extensive people of Germany, 
 stretching from the Vistula, to the Elbe. They 
 comprehended a great number of powerful 
 tribes, and it is probable that a great many races 
 of very different origin may have been included 
 by the Romans in the vast population which, 
 without observing their affinities or their differ- 
 ences, the Romans classed under the name of 
 Vindili. The Vandalic blood, no doubt, greatly 
 predominated among these extensive tribes. 
 
 ViNDONissA, now Wendisli, a town of the 
 Helvetii, on the Aa,r, in the territory of Berne. 
 Tacit. 4, Hist. 61 and 70. 
 
 VisuRGis, a river of Germany, now called 
 the Weser, and falling into the German ocean. 
 Varus and his legions were cut to pieces there 
 by the Germans. Veil. 2, c. \Qb.— Tacit. An. 
 1, c. 70, 1. 2, c. 9. 
 
 ViscELL^, now Weltz, a town of Noricum, 
 between the Ens, and Mure. Cic. Am. 11. 
 
 Vistula, a river falling into the Baltic, the 
 eastern boundary of ancient Germany. 
 
 Ulpia Trajana. " The capital city of all the 
 countrv, which, under the name Sarmizegethu- 
 sa, in that partof Dacia which is now Transyl- 
 vania, having served for the residence of Dece- 
 balus, vanquished by Trajan, received from this 
 prince that of Ulpia Trajana, with which the 
 
UM 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 VO 
 
 primitive name was also asspciated. Ruins pre- 
 serve the memory of its ancient magnificence 
 to the place, which is inhabited only by a few 
 herdsmen, and called Warhel, which signifies 
 the site or position of a city ; or otherwise Gra- 
 disca, denoting the same thing." D'Anville. 
 
 UlubrjE, a small town of Latium, on the ri- 
 ver Astura, where Augustus was educated. 
 Juv. 10, V. 102.— Horat. 1, ep. 11. 
 
 Umbria, a district of Italy, " considered un- , 
 der the limits which were assigned to it in the 
 reign of Augustus. It was bounded to the north 
 by the Rubicon, which separated it from Cisal- 
 pine Gaul. The Appenines and Tiber formed 
 its limits to the west ; the Adriatic to the east. 
 To the south it was divided from the Sabine 
 country by the chain of mountains in which the 
 Nar takes its rise, and by that river as far as 
 Terni ; from this point a line drawn south of 
 OiricoU, till it meets the Tiber, will complete 
 the demarcation of the two territories. The 
 river ^sis to the southeast marked the frontier 
 on the side of Picenum, The Latin writers 
 were evidently acquainted with no people of 
 Italy more ancient than the Umbri ; and Dio- 
 nysius of Halicarnassus assures us, they were 
 one of the oldest and most numerous nations. 
 The Umbri were already settled in that country 
 longbefore the arrival of the Tyrrhenian colony. 
 To the Greeks they were known under the 
 name of 'OuPpiKin, a word which they.supposed 
 to be derived from on^pog, under the idea that 
 they were people saved from a universal de- 
 luge. Dionysius has farther acquainted us with 
 some particulars respecting the Umbri, which he 
 derived from Zenodotus, a Greek of Tra?zene, 
 who had written a history of this people. This 
 author appears to have considered the Umbri as 
 an indigenous race, whose primary seat was the 
 country around Rieti, a district which, accord- 
 ing to Dionysius, was formerly occupied by the 
 Aborigines. Zenodotus was also of opinion 
 that the Sabines were descended from the Um- 
 bri ; and though it is customary to regard them 
 as belonging lo the Oscan race, we see no rea- 
 son why the latter people, who are very indis- 
 tinctly classed and defined, should not be con- 
 sidered as descended from the same indigenous 
 stock : nay rather, when we consider the ana- 
 logy which is allowed to exist between the seve- 
 ral ancient dialects of Italy, and the uniformity 
 of topographical nomenclature, which may be 
 traced througjhout a great part of the peninsula, 
 there seems to be a strong argument in favour of 
 such an hypothesis. Considering therefore the 
 Umbri as confessedly the most ancient people of 
 Italy, we may safely ascribe to them the popu- 
 lation of the central and mountainous parts of 
 that country, as also the primitive form of its 
 language, until the several communities of the 
 Etruscans, Sabines, and Latins, successively de- 
 tached themselves from the parent nation, and 
 from a combination of different elements, adopt- 
 ed also different modifications of the same pri- 
 meval tongue. Connected with the origin of 
 the ancient Umbri, there still remains a ques- 
 tion which ou2:ht not to be entirely disregaided. 
 It was confidently stated by Cornelius Boc- 
 chus, a Roman writer quoted by Solinus and 
 Isidorus, that the Umbri, were of the same race 
 with the ancient Gauls. This opinion has been 
 rejected on the one hand by Cluverius and Maf- 
 
 fei, while it has served on the other as a founda- 
 tion for the systems of Freret and Bardetti, who 
 contend for the Celtic origin of the Umbri. 
 Taken in a certain sense, we should consider 
 this ancient authority certainly as carious, and 
 not undeserving of attention; that is, if we re- 
 fer it to that most distant period, when the name 
 of Gomari, immediately derived from Gomer the 
 son of Japhet, is said to have been applied to 
 the descendants of that patriarch, and especially 
 to that numerous family which was afterwards 
 classed under the denomination of Celts. As 
 the Etruscan name began to assume the ascen- 
 dency, the Umbrian nation, on the contrary, de- 
 clined. They were forced to withdraw from the 
 right bank of the Tiber, while nearly the whole 
 of Northern Italy fell under the power of their 
 more enterprising and warlike neighbours: 
 though an ancient Greek historian makes ho- 
 nourable mention of the valour of the Umbri. 
 It was then, probably, that the Tuscans, as we 
 are told, possessed themselves of 300 towns pre- 
 viously occupied by the Umbri. A spirit of ri- 
 valry was still kept up however between the two 
 nations ; as we are assured by Strabo, that 
 when either made an expedition into a neigh- 
 bouring dis-trict, the other immediately directed 
 its efforts to the same quarter. Both people had, 
 however, soon to contend with a formidable foe 
 in the Gauls who invaded Italy ; and after van- 
 quishing and expelling the Tuscans' from the 
 Po, penetrated still farther, and drove the Um- 
 bri from the shores of the Adriatic into the 
 mountains. These were the Sen ones, who af- 
 terwards defeated the Romans on the banks of 
 Allia, and sacked their city. The Umbri, thus 
 reduced, appear to have offered but liule resist- 
 ance to the Romans ; nor is it improbable thai 
 this polite people took advantage of their dif- 
 ferences with the Etruscans to induce them at 
 least to remain neuter, while they were contend- 
 ing with the latter power. The submission of 
 southern Umbria appears to have taken place A. 
 U. C. 446. The northern and maritime parts 
 were reduced after the total extirpation of the 
 Senones, about twenty-five years afterM'ards," 
 Cram. 
 
 VoGEsus MONS, a mountain ridge in Gallia, 
 stretching from the country of the Treverito that 
 of the Lingones, branching off among the Me- 
 diomatrici, Leuci, Sequani; and giving rise to 
 the Matrona, Mosa, Mosella, and Arar. The 
 modern name is Vosges, though the whole chain 
 does not retain this appellation, which belongs 
 to the portion separating Lotharingia from Alsa- 
 tia. I/iican. 1, v. 397.— C-ss. G. 4, c. 10. 
 
 Vor-ATERRA, a town of Etruria, some dis- 
 tance inland, on the right bank of the river Cee- 
 cena. " Its Etruscan name, as it appears on 
 numerous coins, was Velathri. From the monu- 
 ments alone which have been discovered within 
 its walls and in the immediate vicinity, no small 
 idea is raised ofthe power, civilization,and taste, 
 of the ancient Etruscans. Its walls were form- 
 ed, as may yet be seen, of huge massive stones, 
 piled on each other without cement; and their 
 circuit, which is still distinctly marked, em- 
 braced a circumference of between three and 
 four miles ; and it is supposed that the Tyrrhe- 
 nian city, of which Aristotle, or the author ed 
 Mirab. (p. 1158) speaks, under the name of 
 CEnarea, is VoUerra. In the second Punic war, 
 317 
 
us 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ZA 
 
 we fmdVolaterrae among the other cities of Etru- 
 ria that were zealous in their offers of naval stores 
 to the Romans. Many years afterwards, Vola- 
 terrae sustained a siege which lasted two years 
 against Sylla ; the besieged consisting chiefly 
 of persons whom that dictator had proscribed. 
 On its surrender, Italy is said to have enjoyed 
 peace for the first time after so much bloodshed. 
 In one of his letters, Cicero expresses himself 
 in terms of the warmest regard and interest for 
 this city. Finally, we hear of Volaterrse as a 
 colony, somewhat prior to the reign of Augus- 
 tus." Cram. 
 
 VoLCJB, or VoLGiE. Two people of Gallia 
 Provincia bore this name. The one surnamed 
 Arecomici, inhabited the part of Narbonensis 
 between the Rhone and the Aude, and the other, 
 called Tectosages,extended from the latter river 
 to ihe borders of Novem Populana. The cap- 
 ital of the Arecomici was Nemausus, Nimes, 
 and that of the latter was Tolosa, Toulouse, a 
 still more famous city on the Garonne. 
 
 VoLsci, or VoLci, a people of Latium. " No 
 noti(;e appears to be taken by any Latin writer 
 of the origin of this people. According to Cato, 
 they occupied the country of the Aborigines, 
 and were at one time subject to the Etruscans. 
 The Volsci had a peculiar idiom, distinct from 
 the Oscan and Latin dialects. They used the 
 Latin characters, however, both in their inscrip- 
 tions and coins. Notwithstanding the small 
 extent of country which they occupied, reach- 
 ing only from Antium to Tarracina, a line of 
 coast of about fifty miles, and little more than 
 half that distance from the sea to the mountains, 
 it swarmed with cities filled with a hardy race, 
 destined, says the Roman historian, as it were 
 by fortune, to train the Roman soldier to arms, 
 by their perpetual hostility. The Volsci were 
 first attacked by the second Tarquin, and war 
 was carried on afterwards between the two na- 
 tions, with short intervals, for upwards of two 
 hundred years ; and though this account is no 
 doubt greatly exaggerated by Livy, and the num- 
 bers much overrated, enough will remain to 
 prove that this part of Italy was at that time far 
 more populous and better cultivated than it is at 
 present." Cram. Their chief cities were An- 
 tium, Circea, Anxur, Corioli, Fregellae, Arpi- 
 num, &c. Ancus, king of Rome, made war 
 against them, and in the time of the republic 
 they became formidable enemies, till they were 
 at last conquered with the rest of the Latins. 
 Liv. 3 and 4.— Virg. G. % v. 168. JEn. 9, v. 505, 
 I. 11, V. 546, &c.—Strab. 5.— Mela, 2, c. 4 and 5. 
 
 VoLUBiLis, a town of Africa, supposed Fez, 
 the capital of Morocco. Plin. 5, c. 1. 
 
 VoLUMN^ FANUM, a temple in Etruria, sa- 
 cred to the goddess Volumna, who presided over 
 the will and over complaisance, where the states 
 of the country used to assemble. Viterbo now 
 stands on the spot. Liv. 4, c. 23, 1. 5, c. 17, 1. 
 6, c. 2. 
 
 Urba, now Orhe, a town of the Helvetii, on 
 a river of the same name. 
 
 Urbinum, now Urbino, a town of Umbria. 
 Plin. 3, c. 14. 
 
 Urgo, now Gorgona, an island in the bay of 
 Pisa, 25 miles west of Leghorn, famous for an- 
 chovies. Plin. 3, c. 6. 
 
 UsiPETES, or Usipn, a people of Germany. 
 CcES. Bell. G. 4, c. 1, &c. 
 318 
 
 Utens, a river of Gaul, now Monione, falling 
 into the Adriatic by Ravenna. Liv. 5, c. 35. 
 
 Utica, now Satcor, a celebrated city of Af- 
 rica, on the coast of the Mediterranean, on the 
 same bay as Carthage, founded by a Tyrian col- 
 ony above 287 years before Carthage. It had 
 a large and commodious harbour, and it became 
 the metropolis of Africa after the destruction of 
 Carthage in the third Punic war, and the Ro- 
 mans granted it all the lands situate between 
 Hippo and Carthage. It is celebrated for the 
 death of Cato, who from thence is called Uti- 
 censis, or of Utica. Strab. 17. — Lucan. 6, v. 306. 
 — Justin. 18, c. 4. — Plin. 16, c. 40. — Liv. 25, c. 
 3l.—Sil. 3, V. 2i2.—Horat. 1, ep. 20, v. 513. 
 
 VuLCANi INSULA, or VuLCANiA, a name given 
 to the islands between Sicily and Italy, now 
 called Lipari. Virg. jEn. 8, v. 422. They re- 
 ceived it because there were the subterraneous 
 fires supposed to be excited by Vulcan, the god 
 of fire. 
 
 VuLTURNUM, a town of Campania, near the 
 mouth of the Vulturnus. Liv. 25, c. 20. — Plin. 
 
 3, c. 5. Also an ancient name of Capua. 
 
 Liv. 4, c. 37. 
 
 Vulturnus, a river of Campania, rising in 
 the Appenines, and falling into the "Tyrrhene 
 Sea after passing by the town of Capua. L/iicret. 
 
 5, mL—Virg. uEn. 7, v. 729. The god of 
 
 the Tiber was also known by that name. Var- 
 
 ro. de L. L. 4, c. 5. The wind which received 
 
 the name of Vulturnus when it blew from the 
 side of the Vulturnus, highly incommoded the 
 Romans ac the battle of Cannae. Liv. 22, c. 
 43 and 46. 
 
 VuLsiNUM, a town of Etruria, where Sejanus 
 was born. 
 
 UxANTis, now Ushant, an island on the coast 
 of Britany. 
 
 UxELLODUNUM, a town of Gaul, defended by 
 steep rocks, now Puech d'Issolu. Cces. B. G. 
 8, c. 33. 
 
 UxENTUM, a town of Calabria, now Ugento. 
 
 Uxii, mountains of Armenia, with a nation 
 of the same name, conquered by Alexander. 
 The Tigris rises in their country. Strab. — 
 Diod. 
 
 UziTA, an inland town of Africa, destroyed 
 by Caesar. Hist, de Afric. 41, &c. 
 
 X 
 
 XANTm, I. a people of Thrace. II, The 
 
 inhabitants of Xanthus in Asia. Vid. Xanthus. 
 
 Xera, a town of Spain, now Xerex, where 
 the Moors gained a battle over Roderic, king of 
 the Goths. 
 
 XiPHONiA, a promontory of Sicily, at the 
 
 north of Syracuse, now Cruce. Strab. 6. 
 
 Also a town near it, now Augusta. 
 
 Xois, an island formed by the mouths of the 
 Nile. Strab. 17. 
 
 XuTmA, the ancient name of the plains of 
 Leontium in Sicily. Diod. 5. 
 
 Xylenopolis, a town at the mouth of the In- 
 dus, built bv Alexander, supposed to be Laheri. 
 Plin. 6, c. 23. 
 
 Z 
 
 Zabatus, a river of Media, falling into the 
 Tigris, near which the ten thousand Greeks 
 stopped in tlieir return. Xenophon. 
 
ZA 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ZU 
 
 Zacynthus. The island of Zacynthus, now 
 called Zante, is situate at the south of Cepha- 
 lenia, and at the west of the Peloponnesus. It 
 is about 60 miles in circumference. Liv. 26, c. 
 24.— PZm. 4. c. V^.—Strab. 2 and %.—Me]u. 2, 
 c. 1— Homer. Od. 1, v. 246, 1. 9, v. 2i.— 0vid. 
 deArt. Am. 2 v. 432.— Pa^s. 4, e. 23.— Fir^. 
 ^n. 3, V. 270. 
 
 Zagrus, a mountain on the confines of Me- 
 dia and Babylonia. StroJ). 11. 
 
 Zaru, or Zagma, I, a town of Numidia, 300l 
 miles from Carthage, celebrated for the victory 
 which Scipio obtained there over the great An- 
 nibal, B. C. 202. Metellus besieged it, and 
 was obliged to retire with great loss. After 
 Juba's death it was destroyed by the Romans. 
 Hirt. Af. 91. — C. Nep. in Annib. — Liv. 30, c. 
 29.—Sallust. de Jug.—Flor. 3, c. l.—Ital. 3, 
 
 V. 261.— Strab. 17. II. A town of Cappado- 
 
 cia. III. Of Mesopotamia. 
 
 Zancle, a town of Sicily, or the straits which 
 separate that island from Italy. It received its 
 name from its appearing like a scythe which 
 was called ^avK^ov in the language of the coun- 
 try, or, as others say, because the scathe Avith 
 which Saturn mutilated his father fell there, or 
 because, as Diodorus reports, a person named 
 Zanclus had either built or exercised its sove- 
 reignt}'. Zancle fell into the hands of the Sa- 
 mians, 497 years before the Christian era, and 
 three years after it was recovered b}-- Anaxilaus, 
 the Messenian tyrant of Rhegium, who gave it 
 the name of his native country, and called it 
 Messana. It was founded, as most chronolo- 
 gists support, about 1058 years before the Chris- 
 tian era,- by the pirates of Cumse in Italy, and 
 peopled by Samians, lonians, and Chalcidians. 
 Strab. 6.—Diod. ^.—Ital 1, v. 662.— Ovi^. 
 
 Fast. 4, V. 499. Met. 14, v. 6, 1. 15, V. 290.- 
 Paus. 4, c. 23. 
 
 Zela, or Zelia, I. a town of Pontus, near 
 the river Lycus, where Csesar defeated Phama- 
 ces, son of Mithridates. In expressing this 
 victory, the general used the words f mi, vidi^ 
 
 vici. Suet. Cces. 37. — Hirt. Alex. 72. II. 
 
 A town of Troas, at the foot of Ida. III. 
 
 Another of Lycia. 
 
 Zephyrium, I. a promontory of Magna Grae- 
 cia towards the Ionian Sea, whence, according 
 to some, the Locrians are called Epizephirii. 
 
 II. A town of Cilicia. Liv. 33, c. 20. 
 
 III. A cape of Crete, now Sa.n Zumi£, 
 
 IV. Of Pontus, &c. 
 
 Zephyruj.1, a promontory in the island of Cy- 
 prus, where Venus had a temple built by Pto- 
 lemy Philadelphus, whence she was called Ze- 
 phyria. It was in this temple that Arsinoe made 
 an ofieringof her hair to the goddess of beauty, 
 
 Zerynthus, a town of Samothrace, with a 
 cave sacred to Hecate. The epithet of Zeryn- 
 thius is applied to Apollo, and also to Venus. 
 Ovid. Trist. 1, el. 9, v. 19.— Liv. 38, c. 41. 
 
 ZiRURA, a town of Armenia Minor, 12 miles 
 from the sources of the Euphrates. Plin. 5, 
 c. 24. 
 
 ZiNGis, a promontory of Ethiopia, near the 
 entrance of the Red Sea, now Cape Orfui. 
 
 Zona, a town of Thrace, on the iEgean Sea, 
 where the woods are said to have followed the 
 strains of Orpheus. Mela, 2, c. 2. — ^Herodot. 
 
 Zoroanda, a part of Taurus, between Meso- 
 potamia and Armenia, near which the Tigris 
 flows. Plin. 6, c. 27. 
 
 ZucHis, a lake to the east of the Syrtis Mi- 
 nor, with a town of the same name, famous for 
 a purple dye and salt fish. Strab. 17. 
 319 
 
PART n. 
 
 HISTORY, ANTIQUITIES, &c. 
 
 AB 
 
 Abantes, a warlike people of Peloponnesus, 
 who built a town in Phocis, called Aba, after 
 their leader Abas, whence also their name ori- 
 ginated ; they afterwards went to Euboea. Vid. 
 Abantis. Herodot. 1, c. 146. 
 
 Abantias, and Abantiades, a patronymic 
 given to the descendants of Abas, king of Argos, 
 such as Acrisius, Danae, Perseus, Atalanta, 
 &c. Ovid. 
 
 Abantidas, made himself master of Sicyon, 
 after he had murdered Clinias, the father of 
 Aratus. He was himself soon after assassinat- 
 ed, B. C. 251. Plut in Aral. 
 
 Aearis. Vid. Part III. 
 
 ABARUs,an Arabian prince, who perfidiously 
 deserted Crassus in his expedition against Par- 
 thia. Appian. in Parth. He is called Meze- 
 resby Flor. 3, c. 11, and Aiiamnes by Plut. in 
 Crass. 
 
 Abas, I. the 11th king of Argos, son of Be- 
 lus, some say of Lynceus and Hypermnestra, 
 was famous for his genius and valour. He was 
 father to Proetus and Acrisius, by Ocalea, and 
 built Abae. He reigned 23 years, B. C. 1384. 
 Pans. 2, c. 16, 1. 10, c. ^b.—Hygin. 170, &c. 
 
 Apollod. 2, c. 2. II. A soothsayer, to whom 
 
 the Spartans erected a statue in the temple of 
 Apollo for his services to Lysander. Paii^s 
 10, c. 9. III. A sophist who wrote two trea- 
 tises, one on history, the other on rhetoric: the 
 
 time in which he lived is unknown. IV. A 
 
 man who wrote an account of Troy, He is 
 quoted by Servius in Virg. jEn. 9. 
 
 Abdalonimds, one of the descendants of the 
 kings of Sidon, so poor, that to maintain him- 
 self he worked in a garden. When Alexander 
 took Sidon, he made him king in the room of 
 Strato, the deposed monarch, and enlarged his 
 possessions on account of the great disinterest- 
 edness of his conduct. Justin. 11, c. 10. — 
 Curt. 4, c. l.—Diod. 17. 
 
 Abelux, a noble of Saguntum, who favour- 
 ed the party of the Romans against Carthage. 
 Liv. 22, c. 22. 
 
 Abii, a nation between Scythia and Thrace. 
 They lived upon milk, were fond of celibacy, 
 and enemies to war. Homer. 11. 13, v. 6. Ac- 
 cording to Curt. 7, c. 6, they surrendered to 
 Alexander, after they had been independent 
 since the reign of Cyrus. 
 
 Abcecritus, a Boeotian general, killed with 
 a thousand men, in a battle at Chgeronea against 
 the jEtolians. Plut. in Arat. 
 
 Aborigines, the original inhabitants of Italy; 
 or, according to others, a nation conducted by 
 320 
 
 AC 
 
 Saturn into Latium where they taught the use 
 of letters to Evander, the king of the country. 
 Their posterity was called Latini, from Latuius, 
 one of their kings. They assisted jiEneas 
 against Turnus. Rome was built in their coun- 
 try. The word signifies without origin^ or 
 whose origin is not knoion, and is generally ap- 
 plied to the original inhabitants of any country. 
 Liv. 1, c. 1, &c. — Dionys. Hal. 1, c. 10. — Jus- 
 tin. 43, c. l.—Plin. 3, c". b.—Strab. 5.. 
 
 Abradates, a king of Susa, who, when his 
 wife Panthea had been taken prisoner by Cy- 
 rus, and humanely treated, surrendered hirnself 
 and his troops lo the conqueror. He was killed 
 in the first battle which he undertook in the 
 cause of Cyrus, and his wife stabbed herself on 
 his corpse. Cyrus raised a monument on their 
 tomb. Xenoph. Cyrop. 5, 6, &c. 
 
 Abrentiu."?, was made governor of Taren- 
 tum by Annibal. He betrayed his trust to the 
 enemy to gain the favours of a beautiful wo- 
 man, whose brother was in the Roman army. 
 Polyisn. 8. 
 
 Abrocomas, son of Darius, was in the army 
 of Xerxes when he invaded Greece. He was 
 killed at Thermopylae. Herodot. 7, c. 224.—- 
 Plut. in Cleom. 
 
 ABRODI.ETUS, a name given to Parrhasius 
 the painter, on account of the sumptuous man- 
 ner of his living. Vid. Parrhasius. 
 
 Abron, I. an Athenian, who wrote some trea- 
 tises on the religious festivals and sacrifices of 
 the Greeks. Only the titles of his works are 
 
 preserved. Suid'as. II. A grammarian of 
 
 Rhodes, who taught rhetoric at Rome. III. 
 
 Another, who wrote a treatise on Theocritus. 
 IV. A Spartan, son of Lycurgus the ora- 
 tor. Plat, in 10. Orat. V. A native of Ar- 
 gos, famous for his debauchery. 
 
 Abrontfcus, an Athenian very serviceable to 
 Themistocles in his embassy to Sparta. Thu- 
 cyd. 1, c. ^\.— Herodot. 8, c. 21. 
 
 Abronius, Silo, a Latin poet in the Augus- 
 tan age. He wrote some fables. Senec. 
 
 Abrotonum, the mother of Themistocles. 
 Plut. in Them. 
 
 Abrypolis, an allv of Rome, driven from 
 his possessions by Perseus, the last king of 
 Macedonia. Liv. 42, c. 13 and 41. 
 
 Abulites, governor of Susa, betrayed his 
 trust to Alexander, and was rewarded with a 
 province. Curt. 5, c. 2. — Diod. 17. 
 
 AcAcius, a rhetorician in the age of the em- 
 peror Julian. 
 
 ilcAMAS. Vid. Part III. 
 
AC 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AC 
 
 AccA Laurentia, I, The Romans yearly- 
 celebrated certain festivals, vid. Laurentalia in 
 honour of another prostitute of the same name, 
 which arose from this circumstance : the keep- 
 er of the temple of Hercules, one day playing at 
 dice, made the god one of the number, on con- 
 dition that if Hercules was defeated he should 
 make him a present, but if he conquered, he 
 should be entenained with an elegant feast, and 
 share his bed with a beautiful female. Her- 
 cules was victorious, and accordingly Acca was 
 conducted to the bed of Hercules, who in reality 
 came to see her, and told her in the morning to 
 go into the streets, and salute with a kiss the 
 first man she met. This was Tarrutius, an old 
 unmarried man, who, not displeased with Acca's 
 liberty, loved her, and made her the heiress of 
 all his possessions. These, at her death, she 
 gave to the Roman people, whence the honours 
 paid to her memory. Plut. Quccst. Rom. tf* 
 
 in JRomul. II. A companion of Camilla. 
 
 Virg. JSn. 11, v. 820. Vid. Part III. 
 
 AcciA, or Atia, I. a daughter of Julia and M. 
 Alius Balbus, was the mother of Augustus, and 
 died about 40 years B. C. Dio. — Stcet. in Aug. 
 
 4. II. Variola, an illustrious female, whose 
 
 cause was elegantly pleaded by PlinJ^ Plin. 
 6, ep. 33. 
 
 Accius, (L.) I. a Roman tragic poet, whose 
 roughness of style Gluintilian has imputed to the 
 unpolished age in which he lived. He trans- 
 lated some of the tragedies of Sophocles ; but of 
 his numerous pieces only some of the names are 
 known ; and among these, his Nuptiae, Merca- 
 tor, Neoptolemus, Phoenice, Medea, Atreus, 
 &c. The great marks of honour which he re- 
 ceived at Rome, may be collected from this cir- 
 cumstance, that a man was severely reprimand- 
 ed by a magistrate for mentioning his name 
 without reverence. Some few of his verses are 
 preserved in Cicero and other writers. He died 
 about 180 years B. C. Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. 56. — 
 Ovid. Am. l,el. 15, v. 19. — Quintil. 10, c. 1. — 
 
 Cic. ad Alt. d^ in Br. de Or at. 3, c. 16. II. 
 
 A famous orator of Pisaurum in Cicero's age. 
 
 III. Labeo, a foolish poet mentioned Pers. 
 
 1, V. 50. IV. Tullius, a prince of the Vol- 
 
 sci, very inimical to the Romans. Coriolanus, 
 when banished by his countrymen, fled to him, 
 and led his armies against Rome. Liv. 2, c. 
 37. — Plut. in Coriol. 
 
 Acco, a general of the Sen ones in Gaul. 
 Cccs. Bell. Gall. 6, c. 4 and 44. 
 
 AcERATus, a soothsayer, who remained alone 
 at Delphi when the approach of Xerxes fright- 
 ened away the inhabitants. Herodot. 8, c. 37. 
 
 AcERBAs, a priesL of Hercules at Tyre, who 
 married Dido. Vid. Sichmis. Justin. 18, c. 4. 
 
 AcESTES, son of Crinisus and Egesta, was 
 king of the country near Drepanum in Sicily. 
 He assisted Priam in the Trojan war, and kind- 
 ly entertained ^Eneas during his voyage, and 
 helped him to bury his father on mount Eryx. 
 In commemoration of this, .^neas built a city 
 there, called Acesta, from Acestes. Virg. jEn. 
 5, V. 746. 
 
 AcESTODORUs, a Greek historian, who men- 
 tions the review which Xerxes made of his 
 forces before the battle of Salamis. Plut. in 
 Them. 
 
 AcHJEi, I, the descendants of Achasus, at first 
 inhabited the country near Argos, but, being 
 
 Part IT.— 2 S 
 
 driven out by the Heraclidae 80 years after the 
 Trojan war, they retired among the lonians, 
 whose twelve cities they seized and kept. The 
 names of these cities are Pelena, -S^gira, .^ges, 
 Bura, Tritaea, ^gion, Rhypae, Olenos, Helice, 
 Patras, Dyme, and Pharse. The inhabitants 
 of these three last began a famous confederacy, 
 284 years B. C. which continued formidable 
 upwards of 130 years, under the name of the 
 Achcean league, and was most illustrious whilst 
 supported by the splendid virtues and abilities of 
 Aratus and Philopcemen. Their arms were di- 
 rected against the jEtolians for three years, with 
 the assistance of Philip of Macedon ; and they 
 grew powerful by the accession of neighbour- 
 ing states, and freed their country from foreign 
 slavery, till at last they were attacked by the 
 Romans, and, after one year's hostilities, the 
 Achaean league was totally destroyed, B. C. 147. 
 The Achseans extended the borders of their 
 country by conquest, and even planted colonies 
 
 in Magna Graecia. The name of Achcei is 
 
 generally applied to all the Greeks indiscrim- 
 inately by the poets. Vid.Achaia. Herodot. 1^ 
 c. 145, 1. 8, c.^&.—Stat.Theb. 2, v. lei.—Polyb. 
 — Liv. 1, 27, 32, &c. — Plut. in Philop. — Plin. 
 4, c. b.— Ovid. Met A,Y.&(ib.—Paus.l, c. 1, &c. 
 
 II. Also a people of Asia, on the borders of 
 
 the Euxine. Ovid. de. Pont. 4, el. 10, v. 27. 
 
 AcHiEMENEs, I. a king of Persia, among the 
 progenitors of Cyrus the Great, whose de- 
 scendants were called AchasmeniUes, and 
 formed a separate tribe in Persia, of which 
 the kings were members. Cambyses, son of 
 Cyrus, on his death-bed charged his nobles, 
 and particularly the Achaemenides, not to 
 suffer the Medes to recover their former power, 
 and abolish the empire of Persia. Herodot. 1, 
 c. 125, 1. 3, c. 65, 1. 7, c. W.— Horat. 2, od. 12, 
 
 V. 21. II. A Persian, made governor of 
 
 Egypt by Xerxes, B. C. 484. 
 
 AcHiETJs, I. a king of Lydia, hung by his 
 
 subjects for his extortion. Ovid, in lb. II. 
 
 A son of Xuthus of Thessaly. He fled, after 
 the accidental murder of a man, to Pelopon- 
 nesus ; where the inhabitants were called from 
 him AchsBi. He afterwards returned to Thes- 
 saly. StraJ). 8. — Pans. 7, c. 1. III. A tragic 
 
 poet of Eretria, who wrote 43 tragedies, of 
 which some of the titles are preserved, such as 
 Adrastus, Linus, Cycnus, Eumenides, Philoe- 
 tetes, Pirithous, Theseus, CEdipus, &c.; of these 
 only one obtained the prize. He lived some 
 time after Sophocles. IV. Another of Syra- 
 cuse, author often tragedies. V. A relation 
 
 of Antiochus the Great, appointed governor of 
 all the king's provinces beyond Taurus. He 
 aspired to sovereign power, which he disputed 
 for 8 years with Antiochus, and was at last be- 
 trayed by a Cretan. His limbs were cut ofi", 
 and his body, sewed in the skin of an ass, was 
 exposed on a gibbet. Polyb. 8. 
 
 AcHAicuM BELLUM. Vid. Achcd. 
 
 Achates, a friend of ^neas, whose fidelity 
 was so exemplary, that Fidus Achates became 
 a proverb. Virg. JEn. 1, v. 316; 
 
 AcmLLAS, a general of Ptolemy, who mur- 
 dered Pompey the Great. Plut. in Pomp. — 
 Lucan. 8, v. 538. 
 
 AcfflLLEDs, or AauiLEus, a Roman general 
 in Egjrpt, in the reign of Dioclesian, who re- 
 belled, and for five years maintained the impe- 
 321 
 
AC 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AC 
 
 rial dignity at Alexandria. Dioclesian at last 
 inarched against him ; and because he had sup- 
 ported a long siege, the emperor ordered him 
 to be devoured by lions. 
 
 AcHiLLEis, a poem of Statius, in which he 
 describes the education and memorable actions 
 of Achilles. This composition is imperfect. 
 The poet's immature death deprived the world 
 of a valuable history of the life and exploits of 
 this famous hero. Vid. Statius. 
 
 Achilles, L the son of Peleus and Thetis, 
 was the bravest of all the Greeks in the Trojan 
 war. During his infancy, Thetis plunged him 
 in the Styx, and made every part of his body 
 invulnerable, except the heel by which she held 
 him. His education was intrusted to the cen- 
 taur Chiron, who taught him the art of war, 
 and made him master of music ; and by feeding 
 him with the marrow of wild beasts, rendered 
 him vigorous and active. He was taught elo- 
 quence by Phoenix, whom he ever after loved 
 and respected. Thetis to prevent him from 
 going to the Trojan war, where she knew he 
 was to perish, privately sent him to the court of 
 Lycomedes, where he was disguised in a female 
 dress, and, by his familiarity with the king's 
 daughters made Deidamia mother of Neoptole- 
 mus. As Troy could not be taken without the 
 aid of Achilles, Ulysses went to the court of 
 Lycomedes in the habit of a merchant, and ex- 
 posed jewels and arms to sale. Achilles, choos- 
 ing the arms, discovered his sex and went to 
 the war. Vulcan, at the entreaties of Thetis, 
 made him a strong suit of armour, which was 
 proof against all weapons. He was deprived by 
 Agamemnon of his favourite mistress, Briseis, 
 who had fallen to his lot at the division of the 
 booty of Lyrnessus. For this affront he refus- 
 ed to appear in the field till the death of his 
 friend Patroclus recalled him to action and to 
 revenge. Vid. Patroclus. He slew Hector, 
 the bulwark of Troy, tied the corpse by the heels 
 to his chariot, and dragged it three times round 
 the walls of Troy. After thus appeasing the 
 shades of his friend, he yielded to the tears and 
 entreaties of Priam, and permitted the aged 
 father to ransom and carry away Hector's body. 
 In the 10th year of the v/ar, Achilles, was charm- 
 ed with Polyexena ; and as he solicited her hand 
 in the temple of Minerva, it is said that Paris 
 aimed an arrow at his vulnerable heel, of which 
 wound he died. His body was buried at Si- 
 gaeum, and divine honours were paid to him. and 
 temples raised to his memory. The Thessalians 
 yearly sacrificed a black and a white bull on his 
 tomb. It is reported that he married Helen af- 
 ter the siege of Troy ; but others maintain that 
 this marriage happened after his death, in the 
 island of Leuce, where many of the ancient 
 heroes lived as in a separate elysium. Vid. 
 Leuce. "When Achilles was young, his mother 
 asked him whether he preferred a long life, 
 spent in obscurity and retirement, or a few years 
 of military fame and glory: and that to his 
 honour, he made choice of the latter. Xenoph. 
 de venat. — Plut. in Alex. — De facie in Orbe 
 Law,. De music. De amic. mult. QucEst. Grac. 
 Paus. 3, c. 18, &.c.—Diod. 11.— Stat. Achil.— 
 Ovid. Met. 12, fab. 3, &c. Trist. 3, el. 5, v. 
 37, &c.— Virg. ^n. 1, v. 472, 488, 1. 2, v. 275, 
 1. 6, v. 58, &.c.—Apollod. 3, c. 13.—Hygin. fab. 
 96 and llO.—St^ab. U.—Plin. 35, c. 15.— 
 322 
 
 3Iax. Tyr. Oral. 21.--Horat. 8, 1. od. 1. 2, od. 
 4 and 16, 1. 4, od. 6, 2. ep. 2, v. 42.— Horn. 11. 
 (^ Od.—Dictys Cret. 1, 2, 3, &.C.— Dares 
 Phryg. — Juv. 7, v. 210. — Apollon. 4. — Argmt,. 
 
 V. 869. II. A man who instituted ostracism 
 
 at Athens. III. Tatius, a native of Alexan- 
 dria, in the age of the emperor Claudius, but 
 originally a Pagan converted to Christianity, 
 and made a bishop. He wrote a mixed history 
 of great men, a treatise on the sphere, tactics, a 
 romance on the loves of Clitophon and Leu- 
 cippe, &c. Some manuscripts of his works are 
 preserved in the Vatican and Palatinate libra- 
 ries. The best edition of his works is that in 
 12mo. L. Bat. 1640. 
 
 AcHivi, the name of the inhabitants of Ar- 
 gos and Lacedasmon before the return of the 
 Heraclidse, by whom they were expelled from 
 their possessions 80 years after the 1'rojan war. 
 Being without a home, they drove the lonians 
 from .^gialus, seized their twelve cities, and 
 called the country Achaia. The lonians were 
 received by the Athenians. The appellation 
 of Achivi is indiscriminately applied by the an- 
 cient poets to all the Greeks. Paus. 7, c. 1, 
 &c. Vid. Achaia.' 
 
 AcHLADiEus, a Corinthian general, -killed by 
 Aristomenes. Paus. 4, c. 19. 
 
 AcicHORius, a general with Brennus, in the 
 expedition which the Gauls undertook against 
 Paeonia. Paus. 10, c. 10. 
 
 AciLiA, I. a plebeian family at Rome, which 
 
 traced its pedigree up to the Trojans. 11. 
 
 The mother of Lucan. 
 
 AciLiA Lex, was enacted A.U.C. 556, by Acil- 
 ius the tribune for the plantation of five colonies 
 
 in Italy. Liv. 32, c. 29. Another, called also 
 
 Calpurnia, A. U. C. 684, concerning such as 
 were guilty of extortion in the provinces, 
 
 AciLius Balbus, (M.) I. was consul with 
 
 Portius Cato, A. U. C. 640. Plin. 2, c. 56. 
 
 II. Glabrio, a tribune of the people, who with a 
 legion quelled the insurgent slaves in Etruria. 
 Being consul with P. Corn. Scipio Nasica, A. 
 U. C. 563, he conquered Antiochus at Ther- 
 mopyte, for which he obtained a triumph, and 
 three days were appointed for public thanks- 
 giving. He stood for the censorship against 
 Cato, but desisted on account of the false mea- 
 sures used by his competitor. Justin. 31, c. 6. 
 —Liv. 30, c. 40, 1. 31, c. 50, 1. 35, c. 10, &c. 
 III. The son of the preceding erected a tem- 
 
 ple to Piety, which his father had vowed to this 
 goddess when fighting against Antiochus. He 
 raised a golden statue to his father, the first that 
 appeared in Italy. The temple of Piety was built 
 on the spot where once a woman had fed with 
 her milk her aged father, whom the senate had 
 imprisoned and excluded from all aliment. Val. 
 Max. 2, c. 5. IV. A man accused of extor- 
 tion, and twice defended by Cicero. He was 
 proconsul of Sicily, and lieutenant to Cassar in 
 the civil wars. Cas. Bell. Civ. 3, c. 15. — ;-^V. 
 A consul, whose son was killed by Domitian 
 because he fought with wild beasts. The true 
 cause of this murder was, that young Glabrio 
 was stronger than the emperor and therefore 
 envied. Juv. 4, v. 94. 
 
 AcoNTius. Vid. Part III. 
 
 AcRAGALLiDiE, a dishoucst nation living an- 
 ciently near Athens. jEsch. contra Ctesiph. 
 
 AcRATUs, a freedraan of Nero, sent into Asia 
 
AD 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AD 
 
 to plunder the temples of the gods. Tac. An. 
 15, c. 45, 1. 16, c. 23. 
 
 AcRiDOPHAGi, an ^Ethiopian nation, who fed 
 upon locusts, and lived not beyond their 40th 
 year. Diod. 3.—Plin. 11, c. 29.—Strab. 16. 
 
 AcRioN, a Pythagorean philosopher of Lo- 
 cris. Cic. defin. 5, c. 29. 
 
 AcRisioNEUS, a patronymic applied to the 
 Argives, from Acrisius, or from a daughter of 
 Acrisius of the same n ame. Virg. jEn. 7, v. 410. 
 
 Acrisius. Vid. Part III. 
 
 AcRON, I. a king of Cenina, killed by Rom- 
 ulus in single combat, after the rape of the Sa- 
 bines. His spoils were dedicated to Jupiter. 
 Feretrius. Plut. in Romul. II. A physi- 
 cian of Agrigentum, B. C. 439, educated at 
 Athens with Empedocles. He wrote physical 
 treatises in the Doric dialect, and cured the 
 Athenians of a plague, by lighting fire near the 
 houses of the infected. Plin. 29, c. 1. — Plut. in 
 Isid. 
 
 AcROPATos, one of Alexander's officers, who 
 obtained part of Media after the king's death. 
 Justin. 13, c. 4. 
 
 AcROTATQs, I. a son of Cleomenes, king of 
 Sparta, died before his father, leaving a son 
 
 called Areus. Pans. 1, c. 13, 1. 3, c. 6. II. 
 
 A son of Areus, who was greatly loved by Che- 
 lidonis,.wife of Cleonymus. This amour dis- 
 pleased her husband, who called Pyrrhus the 
 Epirot to avenge his wrongs. When Sparta 
 was besieged by Pyrrhus, Acrotatus was seen 
 bravely fighting in the middle of the enemy, 
 and commended by the multitude, who congrat- 
 ulated Chelidonis on being mistress to such a 
 warlike lover. Plut. in Pyrrh. 
 
 AcTiA, I. the mother of Augustus. II. 
 
 Games sacred to Apollo, in commemoration of 
 the victory of Augustus over M. Antony at Ac- 
 tium. They were celebrated every third, some- 
 times fifth year, with great pomp, and the Lace • 
 dsemonians had the care of them. Plut in An- 
 ton.— Strab. l.— Virg. Mn. 3, v. 280, 1. 8, v. 675. 
 III. A sister of Julius Caesar, Plut. in Cic. 
 
 AcTisANEs, a king of ^Ethiopia, who conquer- 
 ed Egypt and expelled king Amasis. Diod. 1. 
 
 AcTius N^vios, I. an augur, who cut a load- 
 stone in two with a razor, before Tarquin and 
 the Roman people, to convince them of his skill 
 
 as an augur. Flor. 1. c. 5. — Liv. 1, c. 36. 
 
 II. Labeo. Vid. Labeo. 
 
 AcTORius Naso, M. a Roman historian, Sue- 
 ton, in Jul. 9. 
 
 AcuLEO, C. a Roman lawyer, celebrated as 
 much for the extent of his understanding as for 
 his knowledge of law. He was uncle to Cicero, 
 Cic. in Orat. 1, c. 43. 
 
 AcusiLAUs, I. an historian of Argos, often 
 quoted by Josephus. He wrote on genealogies 
 in a style simple and destitute of all ornament. 
 Cic. de Orat. 2, c. 29. — Suidas. — II. An Athen- 
 ian who taught rhetoric at Rome under Galba. 
 
 AcuTicus, M. an ancient comic writer, whose 
 plays were known under the name of Leones, 
 Gemini, Anus, Boeotia, &c. 
 
 Ada, a sister of queen Artemisia, who mar- 
 ried Hidricus. After her husband's death she 
 succeeded to the throne of C aria ; but being ex- 
 pelled by her younger brother, she retired to 
 Alindse, which she delivered to Alexander after 
 adopting him as her son. Curt. 2, c. 8. — 
 Strab. 14, 
 
 AD.EUS, a native of Mitylene, who wrote a 
 Greek treatise on statuaries, Athen. 13. 
 
 ADELPmus, a friend of M, Antonius, whom 
 he accompanied in his expedition into Parthia, 
 of which he wrote the history, Strab. 11. 
 
 Adgandestrius, a prince of Gaul, who sent 
 to Rome for poison to destroy Arminius, and 
 was answered by the senate, that the Romans 
 fought their enemies openly, and never used 
 perfidious measures. Tac. An. 2, c. 88. 
 
 Adherbal, a son of Micipsa, and grandson 
 of Masinissa, was besieged at Cirta, and 
 put to death by Jugurtha, after vainly implor- 
 ing the aid of Rome, B. C. 112. Sallust. in 
 Jug. 
 
 Adiatorix, a governor of Galatia, who, to 
 gain Antony's favour, slaughtered, in one night, 
 all the inhabitants of the Roman colony of He- 
 raclea in Pontus. He was taken at Aciium, 
 led in triumph by Augustus, and strangled in 
 prison. Strab. 12. 
 
 Adimantus, I. a commander of the Athenian 
 fleet, taken by the Spartans. All the men of 
 the fleet were put to death, except Adimantus, 
 because he had opposed the designs of his coun- 
 trymen, who intended to mutilate all the Spar- 
 tans. Xenoph. Hist. Grac. Pausanias says, 
 4, c. 17, 1, 10, c. 9, that the Spartans had bribed 
 
 him, II. A brother of Plato. Laert. 3. 
 
 III. A Corinthian general, who reproached 
 Themistocles with his exile. 
 
 Admetus. Vid. Part, III, 
 
 Adrastus, I. son of Talaus and Lysimache, 
 was king of Argos. Polynices, being banished 
 from Thebes by his brother Eteocles, fled to Ar- 
 gos, where he married Argia, daughter of Ad- 
 rastus, The king assisted his son-in-law, and 
 marched against Thebes with an army headed 
 by seven of his most famous generals. All pe- 
 rished in the war except Adrastus, who, with a 
 few men saved from slaughter, fled to Athens, 
 and implored the aid of Theseus against the 
 Thebans, who opposed the burying of the Ar- 
 gives slain in battle. Theseus went to his as- 
 sistance, and was victorious. Adrastus, after a 
 long reign, died through grief, occasioned by the 
 death of his son iEgialeus. A Temple was rais- 
 ed to his memory at Sicyon, where a solemn 
 festival was annually celebrated. Homer. Jl. 5. 
 — Virg. JEn. 6, v. ^80.— Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, 
 c. l.—Stat. Theb. 4 and b.—Hygin. fab. 68, 69 
 and 10.— Pans. 1, c. 39, 1. 8, c. 25, 1. 10, c. 90. 
 
 — Herodot. 5, c. 67, &c. II. A peripatetic 
 
 philosopher, disciple to Aristotle. It is supposed 
 that a copy of his treatise on harmonics is pre- 
 served in the Vatican III. A Phrygian 
 
 prince, who, having inadvertently killed his 
 brother, fled to -Croesus, where he was humane- 
 ly received, and intrusted with the care of his 
 son Atys. In hunting a wild boar, Adrastus 
 slew the young prince, and in his despair kill- 
 ed himself on his grave. Herodot. 1, c. 35, 
 &c. 
 
 Adrianijs, or Hadrianus, I. the 15th empe- 
 ror of Rome. He is represented as an active, 
 learned, warlike, and austere general. He came 
 to Britain, where he built a wall between the 
 modern towns of Carlisle and Newcastle, 80 
 miles long to protect the Britons from the in- 
 cursions of the Caledonians. He killed in bat- 
 tle 500,000 Jews who had rebelled, and built a 
 city on the ruins of Jerusalem, which he called 
 333 
 
JED 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 JEG 
 
 MMd.. His memory was so retentive, that he 
 remembered every incident of his life, and 
 knew all the soldiers of his army by name. 
 He was the first emperor who wore a long 
 beard, and this he did to hide the warts on his 
 face. His successors followed his example, 
 not through necessity, but for ornament, Adri- 
 an went always bareheaded, and in long 
 marches generally travelled on foot. In the 
 beginning of his reign he followed the virtues 
 of hiis adopted father and predecessor Trajan ; 
 he remitted all arrears due to his treasury for 
 16 years, and publicly burnt the account-books, 
 that his word might not be suspected. His 
 peace with the Parthians proceeded from a 
 wish of punishing the other enemies of Rome, 
 more than from the effects of fear. The trav- 
 els of Adrian were not for the display of impe- 
 rial pride, bat to see whether justice was distri- 
 buted impartially; and public favour was court- 
 ed by condescending behaviour, and the meaner 
 familiarity of bathing with the common people. 
 It is stated that he wished to enrol Christ among 
 the gods of Rome ; but his apparent lenity to- 
 wards the Christians was disproved, by the erec- 
 tion of a statue to Jupiter on the spot where Jesus 
 rose from the dead, and one to Venus on mount 
 Calvary. The weight of diseases became in- 
 tolerable. Adrian attempted to destroy himself, 
 and when prevented, he exclaimed, that the 
 lives of others were in his hands, but not his 
 own. He wrote an account of his life, and pub- 
 lished it under the name of one of his domes- 
 tics. He died of a dysentery at Baise, July 10, 
 A. D. 138, in the 72d year of his age, after a 
 
 reign of 21 years. Dio. II. A rhetorician 
 
 of Tyre in the age of M. Antonius, who wrote 
 seven books of metamorphoses, besides other 
 treatises now lost. 
 
 ./Eacidas, a king of Epirus, son of Neoptole- 
 mus, and brother to Olympias. He was ex- 
 pelled by his subjects for his continual wars 
 with Macedonia. He left a son, Pyrrhus, only 
 two years old, whom Chaucus, king of Illyri- 
 cum, educated. Paus. 1, c. 11. 
 
 Macvs. Vid. Part III. 
 
 iEANTiDES, I. a tyrant of Lampsacus, intimate 
 with Darius. He married a daughter of Hip- 
 
 pias, tyrant of Athens. Thucyd. 6, c. 59. 
 
 II. One of the 7 poets called Pleiades. 
 
 ^ATus, son of Philip, and brother of Poly- 
 clea. was descended from Hercules. An oracle 
 having said that whoever of the two touched 
 the land after crossing the Achelous should ob- 
 tain the kingdom. Polyclea pretended to be lame, 
 and prevailed upon her brother to carry her 
 across on his shoulders. When they came near 
 the opposite side, Polyclea leaped ashore from 
 her brother's back, exclaiming that the kingdom 
 was her own. JEatus joined her in her excla- 
 mation, and afterwards married her, and reign- 
 ed conjointly with her. Their son Thessalus 
 gave his name to Thessaly. Polycsn. 8. 
 
 iEDictJLA RiDicuLi, a temple raised to the god 
 of mirth from the following circumstance: after 
 the battle ofCann8e,Hannibal marched to Rome, 
 whence he was driven back by the inclemency 
 of the weather ; which caused so much joy in 
 Rome, that the Romans raised a temple to the 
 god of mirth. This deity was worshipped at 
 Sparta. Plut. in L/ijc. Agid. <^ Cleom. Pausa- 
 nias also mentions a Jeof ytXoiroq. 
 324 
 
 iEniLEs, Roman magistrates that had the 
 care of all buildings, baths, and aqueducts, and 
 examined the weights and measures, that noth- 
 ing might be sold without its due value. There 
 were three different sorts : the -^diles Plebeii^ 
 or Minores ; the Majores ^diles, and the 
 jEdiles Cereales. The plebeian ediles were 
 two, first created with the tribunes ; they pre- 
 sided over the more minute affairs of the state, 
 good order and the reparation of the streets. 
 They procured all the provisions of the city, and 
 executed the decrees of the people. The Ma- 
 joreS andC ereales had greater privileges, though 
 they at first shared in the labour of the plebeian 
 ediles; they appeared with more pomp, and 
 were allowed to sit publicly in ivory chairs. 
 The ofi&ce of an edile was honourable, and was 
 always the primary step to greater honours in 
 the republic. The ediles were chosen from the 
 plebeians for 127 years, till A. U. C. 338. Var- 
 ro de L. L. 4, c. 14. — Cic. Legib. 3. 
 
 jEdituus, Val., a Roman poet before the age 
 of Cicero, successful in amorous poetry and 
 epigrams. 
 
 jEdui, or Hedui, a powerful nation of Celtic 
 Gaul, known for their valour in the wars of 
 Cgesar. When their country was invaded by 
 this celebrated general, ihey were at the head of 
 a faction in opposition to the Sequani and their 
 partisans, and they had established their supe- 
 riority in frequent battles. To support their 
 cause, however, the Sequani obtained the assis- 
 tance of Ariovistus, king of Germany, and soon 
 defeated their opponents. The arrival of Caesar 
 changed the face of affairs, the ^dui were re- 
 stored to the sovereignty of the country, and the 
 artful Roman, by employing one faction against 
 the other, was enabled to conquer them all, 
 though the insurrection of Ahabiorix, and that 
 more powerfully supported by Vercingetorix, 
 shook for a while the dominion of Rome in 
 Gaul, and checked the career of the conqueror. 
 C<zs. in Bell. G. 
 
 ^GEus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 jEgiale, a daughter of Adrastus and wife of 
 Diomedes, 
 
 iEoiALEUs. Vid. Part III. 
 
 ^GiALUS, I. son of Phoroneus, was intrust- 
 ed Math the kingdom of Achaia by king Apis 
 going to Egypt. Peloponnesus was called -lEgia- 
 
 lea from him. II. A man who founded the 
 
 kingdom of Sicy on, 2091 years before the Chris- 
 tian era, and reigned 52 years. 
 
 jEgineta Paulus, a physician born in iEgi- 
 na. He flourished in the 3d, or, according to 
 others, the 7th century, and first deserved to be 
 called man-midwife. He wrote De Re Medica, 
 in seven books. 
 
 ^GiNETEs, a king of Arcadia, in whose age 
 Lycurgus instituted his famous laws. Paus. 
 1, c.5. 
 
 jEgisthus, king of Argos, was son of Thy- 
 estes by his daughter Pelopea. Thyestes being 
 at variance with his brother Atreus, was told by 
 the oracle, that his wrongs could be revenged 
 only by a son born of himself and his daughter. 
 To avoid such an incest, Pelopea had been con- 
 secrated to the service of Minerva by her father, 
 who, some time after, met her in a wood, and ra- 
 vished her without knowing who she was. Pe- 
 lopea kept the sword of her ravisher, and find- 
 ing it to be her father's, exposed the child she 
 
JEL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ML 
 
 had brought forth. The child was preserved^ 
 and, when grown up, presented with the sword 
 of his mother's ravisher, Pelopea, soon after 
 this melancholy adventure, had married her un- 
 cle Atreus, who received into his house her na- 
 tural son. As Thyestes had debauched the first 
 wife of Atreus, Atreus sent ^gisthus to put 
 him to death ; but Thyestes, knowing the assas- 
 sin's sword, discovered that he was his own son, 
 and, fully to revenge his wrongs, sent him back 
 to murder Atreus. After this murder, Thyestes 
 ascended the throne, and banished Agamemnon 
 and Menelaus, the sons, or as others say, the 
 grandsons of Atreus. These children fled to 
 Polyphidus of Sicyon ; but as he dreaded the 
 power of their persecutors, he remitted the pro- 
 tection of them to CEneus, king of iEtolia. By 
 their marriage with the daughters of Tyndarus, 
 king ofSparta,they were empowered to recover 
 the kingdom of Argos, to which Agamemnon 
 succeeded , whil e Menelaus reigned in his father- 
 in-law's place, ^gisthus had been reconciled 
 to the sons of Atreus ; and when they went to 
 the Trojan war, he was left guardian of Aga- 
 memnon's kingdoms, and of his wife Clytem- 
 nestra. ^gisthus fell in love with Clytemnes- 
 tra, and lived with her. On Agamemnon's re- 
 turn, these two adulterers murdered him, and 
 by a public marriage strengthened themselves 
 on the throne of Argos. Orestes, Agamem- 
 non's son, would have shared his father's fate, 
 had not his sister Electra privately sent him to 
 his uncle Strophius, king of Phocis, where he 
 contracted the most intimate friendship with 
 his cousin Pylades. Some time after Orestes 
 came to Mycenae, the residence of ^gisthus, 
 and resolved to punish the murderers of his fa- 
 ther, in conjunction with Electra, who lived in 
 disguise in the tyrant's family, To effect this 
 more effectually, Electra publicly declared that 
 her brother Orestes was dead : upon which 
 jEgisthus and Clytemnestra went to the tem- 
 ple of Apollo to return thanks to the god for his 
 death. Orestes, who had secretly concealed 
 himself in the temple, attacked them, and put 
 them both to death, after a reign of seven years. 
 They were buried without the city walls. Vid. 
 Agamemnon, Thyestes, Orestes, Clytemnestra, 
 Pylades, and Electra. Ovid, de Rem. Am. 
 161. Trist. 2, V. 396.—Hi/gin. fab. 87 and 88. 
 —.mian. V. H. 12, c. 42.— Pa%s. 2, c. 16, &c. 
 — Sophocl. in Electra. — ^Eschyl. tf- Senec. in 
 Agam. — Homer. Od. 3 and U.—Lactant. in 
 Theb. I, V. 684. Pompey used to call J. Cae- 
 sar -^gisthus, on account of his aduUery with 
 his wife Mutia, whom he repudiated after she 
 had borne him three children. Stiet. in Cces. 50. 
 
 u(Egles, a Samian wrestler, born dumb, see- 
 ing some unlawful measures pursued in a con- 
 test, he broke the string which held his tongue, 
 through the desire of speaking, and ever after 
 spoke with ease. Val. Max. 1, c. 8. 
 
 ^LiA Lex, enacted by tEUus Tubero the 
 tribune, A. U. C. 559, to send two colonies into 
 
 the country of the Brutii. Liv. 34, c. 53. 
 
 Another, A. XJ. C. 568, ordaining, that, in pub- 
 lic affairs, the augurs should observe the appear- 
 ance of the sky, and the magistrates be empower- 
 ed to postpone the business. Another, called 
 
 MUa. Sexta, by JElius Sextos, A. U. C. 756, 
 which enacted that all slaves who bore any 
 marks of punishment received from their mas- 
 
 ters, or who had been imprisoned, should be 
 set at liberty, but not rank as Roman citizens. 
 
 ^Elia Petina, of the family of Tubero, mar- 
 ried Claudius Caesar, by whom she had a son. 
 The emperor divorced her, to marry Messalina. 
 Sueton. in Claud. 26. 
 
 tElianus Claudus, a Roman sophist of Prae- 
 neste, in the reign of Adrian. He first taught 
 rhetoric at Rome ; but being disgusted with his 
 profession, he became author, and published 
 treatises on animals in 17 books, on various his- 
 tory in 14 books, &c. in Greek, a language 
 which he preferred to Latin. In his writings 
 he shows himself very fond of the marvellous, 
 and relates many stories which are often devoid 
 of elegance and purity of style ; though Philos- 
 tratus has commended his language as superior 
 to what could be expected from a person who 
 was neither born nor educated in Greece. M\\- 
 an died in the 60th year of his age, A. D. 140. 
 The best editions of his works collected together 
 are that of Conrad Gesner, folio, printed Tiguri, 
 1556, though now seldom to be met with, and 
 that of Kuenius, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1789. Some 
 attribute the treatise on the tactics of the Greeks 
 to another iElian. 
 
 ^Lros, and ^lia, a family in Rome, so poor 
 that 16 lived in a small house, and were main- 
 tained by the produce of a little field. Their 
 poverty continued till Paulus conquered Perseus 
 king of Macedonia, and gave his son-in-law M\. 
 Tubero five pounds of gold from the booty. 
 Val. Max. 4, c. 4. 
 
 ^Lius Adrianus, I. an African, grandfather 
 to the emperor Adrian. II. Gallus, a Ro- 
 man knight, the first who invaded Arabia Fe- 
 lix. He was very intimate with Strabo the 
 geographer, Eind sailed on the Nile with him to 
 take a view of the country. Plin. 6, c. 28. 
 
 III. Publius, one of the first questors chosen 
 from the plebeians at Rome. Liv. 4, c. 54. 
 
 IV. CI. M. Psetus, son of Sextus or Publius. 
 As he sat in the senate-house, a woodpecker 
 perched upon his head ; upon which a soothsay- 
 er exclaimed, that if he preserved the bird his 
 house would flourish and Rome decay ; and if 
 he killed it, the contrary must happen. Hear- 
 ing this, ^lius, in the presence of the senate, 
 bit off the head of the bird. All the youths of 
 his family were killed at Cannae, and the Ro- 
 man arms were soon attended with success 
 
 Val. Max. 5, c. 6. V. Saturninus, a satirist, 
 
 thrown down from the Tarpeian rock for wri- 
 ting verses against Tiberius. VI. Sejanus. 
 
 ( Vid. Sejanus.) VII. Sextus Catus, censor 
 
 with M. Cethegus. He separated the senators 
 from the people in the public spectacles. Du- 
 ring his consulship the ambassadors of the ^to- 
 lians found him feasting in earthen dishes, and 
 offered him silver vessels, which he refused, sat- 
 isfied wjth the earthen cups, &c. which, for his 
 virtues, he had received from his father-in-law, 
 L. Paulus, after the conquest of Macedonia. 
 
 Plin. 33, c. 11.— Cic. de Oral. 1. VIII. 
 
 Spartianas, wrote the lives of the emperors Adri- 
 an, Antoninus Pius, and M. Aurelius. He 
 flourished A. D. 240. IX. Tubero, grand- 
 son of L. Paulus, was austere in his morals, 
 and a formidable enemy to the Gracchi. His 
 grandson was accused before Caesar, and ably 
 
 defended by Cicero. Cic. ep. ad Brut. X. 
 
 Verus Caesar, the name of L. C. Comraodus 
 
 325 
 
iEM 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ^N 
 
 Verus after Adrian had adopted him. He was 
 made praetor and consul by the emperor, who 
 wa.s soon convinced of his incapacity in the 
 discharge of public duty. He killed himself by 
 drinking an antidote, and Antoninus, surnamed 
 Pius, was adopted in his place, ^lius was 
 father to Antoninus Verus, whom Pius adopt- 
 ed. XI. A physician mentioned by Galen. 
 
 XII. L. Gallus, a lawyer, who wrote 12 
 
 books concerning the signification of all law 
 words. XIII. Sextus Psetus, a lawyer, con- 
 sul at Rome A. U. C. 566. He is greatly com- 
 mended by Cicero for his learning, and called 
 cordatus homo by Ennius for his knowledge of 
 law. Cic. de Or at. 1, c. 48, in Brut. 20. 
 
 XIV. Stilo, a native of Lanuvium, master to 
 N. Ter. Varro, and author of some treatises, 
 XV. Lamia. Vid. Lamia. 
 
 ^Emilia Lex, was enacted by the dictator 
 iEmilius, A. U. C. 309. It ordained that the 
 censorship, which was before quinquennial, 
 should be limited to one year and a half Liv. 
 
 9, c. 33. Another, in the second consulship 
 
 of -^miiius Mamercus, A. U. C. 391. It gave 
 power to the eldest praetor to drive a nail in the 
 capitol on the ides of September. Liv. 7, c, 3. 
 — The driving of a nail was a superstitious cere- 
 mony, by which the Romans supposed that a 
 pestilence could be stopped, or an impending 
 calamity averted. 
 
 jEmilianus, (C. Julius,) I. a native of Mau- 
 retania, proclaimed emperor after the death of 
 Decius. He marched against Gallus and Va- 
 lerian, but was informed they had been murder- 
 ed by their own troops. He soon after shared 
 
 their fate. II. one of the thirty tyrants who 
 
 rebelled in the reign of Gallienus. 
 
 iEMYLiA, I. a noble family in Rome, descend- 
 ed from Mamercus, son of Pythagoras, who 
 for his humanity was called AtjuvXof blandus. 
 
 II. a vestal, who rekindled the fire of Vesta, 
 
 which was extinguished by putting her veil 
 over it. Val. Max. 1, c. 1. — Dionys. Hal. 2. 
 III. The wife of Africanus the elder, fa- 
 mous for her behaviour to her husband when 
 suspected of infidelity. Val. Max. 6, c. 7. 
 
 IV. Lepida, daughter of Lepidus, married Dru- 
 sus the younger, whom she disgraced by her 
 wantonness. She killed herself when accused 
 of adultery with a slave. Tacit. 6, c. 40. 
 
 JEmylianus, a name of Africanus the 
 younger, son of P. TEmylius. In him the fa- 
 milies of the Scipios and ^Emylii were united. 
 Many of that family bore the same name. Juv. 
 8, V. 2. 
 
 ^MYLii, a noble family in Rome, descended 
 from ^mylius the son of Ascanius. Plutarch 
 says that they are descended from Mamercus, 
 the son of Pythagoras, surnamed iEmylius from 
 the sweetness of his voice, in Num. and JEmyl. 
 —The family was distinguished in the various 
 branches of the Lepidi, Mamerci, Mamercini, 
 Barbulae, Pauli, and Scauri. 
 
 ^MYLius, I. (Censor nus,) a cruel tyrant of 
 Sicily ,who liberally rewarded those who invent- 
 ed new ways of torturing. Paterculus gave him 
 a brazen horse for this purpose, and the tyrant 
 made the first experiment upon the donor. 
 
 Pint, de Fort. Rom. II. A triumvir with 
 
 Octavius. Vid. Lepidus. III. Macer, a poet 
 
 of Verona in the Augustan age. He wrote 
 
 some poems upon serpents, birds, and, as some 
 
 326 
 
 suppose, on bees. Vid. Macer. IV. Mar- 
 cus Scaurus, a Roman who flourished about 100 
 years B.C. and wrote three books concerning 
 
 his own life. Cic. in Brut. V. A poet in 
 
 the age of Tiberias, who wrote a tragedy called 
 
 Athens, and destroyed himself VI. Sura, 
 
 another writer on the Roman year. VII. 
 
 Mamercus, three times dictator, conquered the 
 Fidenates and took their city. He limited to 
 one year and a half the censorship, which be- 
 fore his time was exercised during five years. 
 
 Liv. 4, c. 17, 19, &c. VIII. Papinianus, son 
 
 of Hostilius Papinianus, was in favour with the 
 emperor Severus, and was made governor to his 
 sons Geta and Caracalla. Geta was killed by 
 his brother, and Papinianus for upbraiding 
 him, was murdered by his soldiers. From his 
 school the Romans have had many able law- 
 yers, who were called Papinianists. IX. 
 
 Pappus, a censor, who banished from the senate 
 P. Corn. Ruffinus, who had been twice consul, 
 because he had at his table ten pounds of silver 
 
 plate, A. U. C. 478. Liv. 14. X. Porcina, 
 
 an elegant orator. Cic, in Brut. XI. Re- 
 
 gillus, conquered the general of Antiochus at 
 sea, and obtained'a naval triumph. Liv. 37, c. 
 
 31. XII. Scaurus, a noble but poor citizen 
 
 of Rome. His father, to maintain himself, was 
 a coal-merchant. He was edile and afterwards 
 praetor, and fought against Jugurtha. His son 
 Marcus was son-in-law to Sylla, and in his 
 edileship he built a very magnificent theatre. 
 Plin. 36, c. 15. 
 
 ^NEAD^, a name given to the friends and 
 companions of ^Eneas, by Virg. yEn. 1, v. 161. 
 
 ^NEAS, I. a Trojan prince, son of Anchises 
 and the goddess Venus. The opinions of au- 
 thors concerning his character are diflTerent. 
 His infancy was intrusted to the care of a 
 nymph, and at the age of 5 he was recalled to 
 Troy. He afterwards improved himself in 
 Thessaly under Chiron. Soon after his return 
 home he married Creusa, Priam's daughter, by 
 whom he had a son called Ascanius. During 
 the Trojan war he behaved with great valour 
 in defence of his country, and came to an en- 
 gagement with Diomedes and Achilles. Yet 
 Strabo, Dictys of Crete, Dionysius of Halicar- 
 nassus, and Dares of Phrygia, accuse him of be- 
 traying his country to the Greeks, with Ante- 
 nor, and of preserving his life and fortune by 
 this treacherous measure. He lived at variance 
 with Priam, because he received not suflicient 
 marks of distinction from the king and his 
 family, as Homer, 11. 13 says. This might have 
 provoKed him to seek revenge by perfidy. Au- 
 thors of credit report, that when Troy was in 
 flames he carried away, upon his shoulders, his 
 father Anchises, and the statues of his house- 
 hold gods, leading in his hand his son Ascanius, 
 and leaving his wife to follow behind. Some 
 say that he retired to mount Ida, where he built 
 a fleet of 20 ships, and set sail in quest of a set- 
 tlement. Strabo and others maintain that 
 iEneas never left his country, but rebuilt Troy, 
 where he reigned, and his posterity after him. 
 Even Homer says, 11. 20, v. 30, &c. that the 
 gods destined iEneas and his posterity to reign 
 over the Trojans. This passage Dionys. Hal. 
 explained, by saying that Homer meant the 
 Trojans who had gone over to Italy with 
 .^neas,andnotthe actual inhabitants of Troy. 
 
JEN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MN 
 
 According to Virgil and other Latin authors, 
 he with his fleet first came to the Thracian 
 Chersonesus, where Polymnestor, one of his 
 allies reigned. After visiting Delos, the Stro- 
 phades, and Crete, he landed in Epirus and 
 Drepanum, the court of king Acestes in Sicily, 
 where he buried his father. From Sicily he 
 sailed for Italy, but was driven on the coasts of 
 Africa, and kindly received by Dido, queen of 
 Carthagei. Dido, being enamoured of him,wish- 
 ed to marry him ; but he left Carthage by order 
 of the gods. In his voyage he was driven to Si- 
 cily, and from thence he passed to Cumae, where 
 the Sybil conducted him to hell, that be might 
 hear from his father the fates which attended 
 him and all his posterity. After a voyage of 
 seven years, and the loss of 13 ships, he came 
 to the Tiber : Latinus, the king of the country, 
 received him with hospitality, and promised him 
 his daughter Lavinia, who had been before be- 
 trothed to king Turnus by her mother Amata. 
 To prevent this marriage, Turnus made war 
 against ^neas ; and after many battles the war 
 was decided by a combat between the two rivals, 
 in which Turnus was killed, ^neas married 
 Lavinia, in whose honour he built the town of 
 Lavinium, and succeeded his father-in-law. Af- 
 ter a short reign, ^neas was killed in a battle 
 against the Eirurians. Some say that he was 
 drowned in the Numicus, and his body weighed 
 down by his armour; upon which the Latins, 
 not finding their king, supposed that he had 
 been taken up to heaven, and therefore offered 
 him sacrifices as to a god. Dionys. Hal. fixes 
 the arrival of .^neas in Italy in the 54th olymp. 
 Some authors suppose that ./Eneas, after the 
 siege of Troy, fell to the share of Neoptole- 
 mus, together with Andromache, and that he 
 was carried to Thessaly, whence he escaped to 
 Italy. Others say that after he had come to 
 Italy, he returned to Troy, leaving Ascanius 
 king of Laiium. .^neas has been praised for 
 his piety and submission to the will of the gods. 
 Homer. II. 13 and 20. Hymn, in Vener. — Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. 12.—Diod. 3.— Pans. 2, c. 33, 2, 3, 
 c. 22, 1. 10, c. 25. — Plut. in Romul. and Corol. 
 QucBst. Rom.— Vol. Max. 1, c. 8. — Flor. 1, c. 1. 
 —Justin. 20, c. 1, 1. 31, c. 8, 1. 43, c. \.—Dic- 
 tys Cret. 5. — Dares Phry. 6. — Dionys. Hal. 1, 
 c. U.—Strab. 13.— Lw. 1, c. l.— Virg.^n.— 
 Aur. Victor.— JElian. V. H. 8, c. 22.—Propert, 
 4, el. 1, V. 42.— Ovid. Met. 14, fab. 3, &c.; 
 
 Trist. 4, V. 799. II. A son of iEneas and 
 
 Lavinia, called Sylvius, because his mother re- 
 tired with him into the woods after his father's 
 death. He succeeded Ascanius in Latium, 
 though opposed by Julius, the son of his prede- 
 cessor. Virg. Mn. 6, V. 110.— Liv. 1, c. 3.- 
 
 III. An ancient author who wrote on tactics, 
 besides other treatises, which, according to 
 .(Elian, were epitomized by Cineas, the friend 
 
 of Pyrrhus. ^IV., A native of Gaza, who, 
 
 from a platonic philosopher became a Christian, 
 A. D. 485, and wrote a dialogue, called Theo- 
 phrastus, on the immortality of the soul and 
 the resurrection. 
 
 ^NEis, a poem of Virgil, which has for its 
 subject the settlement of iEneas in Italy. The 
 great merit of this poem is well known. The 
 author has imitated Homer, and, as some say. 
 Homer is superior to him only because he is 
 more ancient, and is an original. Virgil died 
 
 before he had corrected it, and at his death de« 
 sired it might be burnt. This was happily dis- 
 obeyed, and Augustus saved from the flames a 
 poem which proved his family to be descended 
 from the kings of Troy. The vEneid had en- 
 gaged the attention of the poet for 11 years, and 
 in the first six books it seems that it was Virgil's 
 design to imitate Homer's Odyssey, and in the 
 last the Iliad, The action of the poet compre- 
 hends eight years, one of which only, the last, 
 is really taken up by action, as the seven first 
 are merely episodes, such as Juno's attempts to 
 destroy the Trojans, the loves of ^Eneas and 
 Dido, the relation of the fall of Troy, &c. In 
 the first book of the jEneid, the hero is introdu- 
 ced, in the seventh year of his expedition, sail- 
 ing in the Mediterranean, and shipwrecked on 
 the African coast, where he is received by Dido. 
 In the second, ^neas, at the desire of the Phoe- 
 nician queen, relates the fall of Troy and his 
 flight through the general conflagration to mount 
 Ida. In the third, the hero continues his narra- 
 tion, by a minute account of his voyage through 
 the Cyclades, the places where he landed, and 
 the dreadful storm, with the description of which 
 the poem opened. Dido, in the fourth book, 
 makes public her partiality to .(Eneas, which is 
 slighted by the sailing of the Trojans from Car- 
 thage, and the book closes with the suicide of the 
 disappointed queen. In the fifth book, iEneas 
 sails to Sicily, where he celebrates the anniver- 
 sary of his father's death, and thence pursues 
 his voyage to Italy, In the sixth, he visits the 
 Elysian fields, and learns from his father the 
 fate which attends him and his descendants the 
 Romans. In the seventh book, the hero reaches 
 the destined land of Latium, and concludes a 
 treaty with the king of the country, which is 
 soon broken by the interference of Juno, who 
 stimulates Turnus to war. The auxiliaries of 
 the enemy are enumerated ; and in the eighth 
 book, iEneas is assisted by Evander, and re- 
 ceives from Venus a shield wrought by Vulcan, 
 on which are represented the future glory and 
 triumphs of the Roman nation. The reader is 
 pleased in the ninth book with the account of 
 battles between the rival armies, and the immor- 
 tal friendship of Nisus and Euryalus. Jupiter, 
 in the tenth, attempts a reconciliation between 
 Venus and Juno, who patronised the opposite 
 parties ; the fight is renewed, Pallas killed, and 
 Turnus saved fromtheavenginghand of ^neas 
 by the interposition of Juno. The eleventh book 
 gives an account of the funeral of Pallas, and 
 of the meditated reconciliation between ^Eneas 
 and Latinus, which the sudden appearance of 
 the enemy defeats. Camilla is slain, and the 
 combatants separated by the night. In the last 
 book Juno prevents the single combat agreed 
 upon by Turnus and ^Eneas. The Trojans 
 are defeated in the absence of their king ; but, 
 on the return of iEneas, the battle assumes a 
 different turn, a single combat is fought by the 
 rival leaders, and the poem is concluded by the 
 death of king Turnus. Plin. 7, c. 30, &c. 
 
 iENEsiDEMus, I. a brave general of Argos. 
 
 Liv. 32, c. 25. II. A Cretan philosopher, 
 
 who wrote 8 books on the doctrine of his master 
 Pyrrho. Diog. in Pyr. 
 
 ^NOBARBUS, or Ahenobarbus, the surname 
 of Domitius. When Castor and Pollux ac- 
 quainted hira with a victory, he discredited 
 327 
 
MS 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 JES 
 
 them ; upon which they touched his chin and 
 beard, which instantly became of a brazen co- 
 lour whence the surname given to himself and 
 his descendants. 
 
 ^PULO, a general of the Istrians, who drank 
 to excess after he had stormed the camp of A. 
 Manlius, the Roman general. Being attacked 
 by a soldier, he fled to a neighbouring town 
 which the Romans took, and killed himself for 
 fear of being taken. F'lor. 2, c. 10. 
 
 ^PYTUs, I. a king of Mycenae, son of Chres- 
 phontes and Merope, was educated in Arcadia 
 with Cypseius, his mother's father. To reco- 
 ver his kingdom, he killed Polyphontes, who 
 had married his mother against her will, and 
 usurped the crown. Apollod. 2, c. 6. — Paus. 4, 
 c. 8. II. A son of Hyppothous, who forci- 
 bly entered the temple of Neptune, near Man- 
 tinea, and was struck blind by the sudden erup- 
 tion of salt water from the altar. He was kill- 
 ed by a serpent in hunting. Paus. 8, c. 4 
 and 5. 
 
 jErope, I. wife of Atreus.-^ II. A daugh- 
 ter of Cepheus. 
 
 iEscHiNEs, I. an Athenian orator, who flou- 
 rished about 342 B. C. and distinguished him- 
 self by his rivalship with Demosthenes. His 
 father's name was Atrometus, and he boasted 
 of his descent from a noble family, though De- 
 mosthenes reproached him as being the son of 
 acourtesan. The first open signs of enmity be- 
 tween the rival orators appeared at the court of 
 Philip, where they were sent as ambassadors ; 
 but the character of ^Eschines was tarnished by 
 the acceptance of a bribe from the Macedonian 
 prince, whose tyranny had hitherto been the 
 general subject of his declamation. When the 
 Athenians wished to reward the patriotic la- 
 bours of Demosthenes with a golden crown, 
 ^schines impeached Ctesiphon, who proposed 
 it : and to their subsequent dispute we are in- 
 debted for the two celebrated orations de corana. 
 JEschines was defeated by his rival's superior 
 eloquence, and banished to Rhodes ; but as he 
 retired from Athens,Demosthenes ran after him, 
 and nobly forced him to accept a present of sil- 
 ver. In his banishment the orator repeated to 
 the Rhodians what he had delivered against 
 Demosthenes ; and after receiving much ap- 
 plause, he was desired to read the answer of his 
 antagonist. It was received with great marks 
 of approbation ; but, exclaimed iEschines, how 
 much more would your admiration have been 
 raised, had you heard Demosthenes himself 
 speak it ! JEschines died in the 75th year of 
 his age, at Rhodes, or, as some suppose, at Sa- 
 mos. He wrote three orations and nine epis- 
 tles, v/hich, from their number, received the 
 name, the first of the graces, and the last of the 
 muses. The orations alone are extant, gene- 
 rally found collected with those of Lysias. An 
 oration, which bears the name of Deliaca lex, is 
 said not to be his production, but that of iEs- 
 chines, another orator of that age. Cic. de Oral. 
 1, c. 24, 1. 2, c. 53, in Brut. c. ll.—Plut. in De- 
 mosth. — Diog. 2 and 3. — Plin. 7, c. 30. Dio- 
 genes mentions seven more of the same name. 
 
 ■ II. A philosopher, disciple of Socrates, 
 
 who wrote several dialogues, some of which 
 bore the following titles : Aspasia, Phaedon, Al- 
 cibiades, Draco, Erycia, Polyoenus, Telauges, 
 &c. The dialogue entitled Axiochus, and as- 
 328 
 
 cribed to Plato, is supposed to be his composi- 
 tion. The best editions are that of Leovard, 
 1718, with the notes of Horreeus, in 8vo. and 
 that of Fischer, 8vo. Lips. 1766. 
 
 .^scHRioN, I. a Mitylenean poet, intimate 
 with Aristotle. He accompanied Alexander in 
 
 his Asiatic expedition. II. An Iambic poet 
 
 of Samos. Athen. III. A physician com- 
 mended by Galen. A treatise of his on hus- 
 bandry has been quoted by Pliny. 
 
 ^scHYLUs, I. the son of Euphorion, was born 
 qf a noble family at Eleusis in Attica, Olymp. 
 63d, 4, B; C. 525. Pausanias records a story 
 of his boyhood, professedly on the authority of 
 the poet himself, which, if true, shows that his 
 mind at a very early period had been enthusias- 
 tically struck with the exhibitions of the infant 
 drama. An impression like this, acting upon 
 his fervid imagination, would naturally produce 
 such a dream as is described. ' ^schylus,' 
 says Pausanias, ' used lo tell that, when still a 
 stripling, he was once set to watch grapes in the 
 country, and there fell asleep. In his slumbers 
 Bacchus appeared and bade him turn his atten- 
 tion to the tragic art. When day dawned and 
 he awoke, the boy, anxious to obey the vision, 
 made an attempt and found himself possessed of 
 the utmost facility in dramatic composition. At 
 the age of twenty-five he made his first public 
 essay as a tragic author, Olymp. 70, B. C. 499. 
 The next notice which we have of him is at 
 Olymp. 72d, 3, B. C. 490; when, along with 
 his two celebrated brothers, Cynsegeirus and 
 Ameinias, he was graced at Marathon with the 
 prize of pre-eminent bravery, being then in his 
 thirty-fifth year. How dearly he valued the dis- 
 tinction there acquired by his valour we learn 
 from Pausanias ; where, apparently alluding to 
 the epitaph which the exiled dramatists compos- 
 ed for himself, the topographer tells us, that .Es- 
 chylus, out of all the topics of his glory as a 
 poet and a warrior, selected his exploits at Ma- 
 rathon as his highest honour. Six years after 
 that memorable battle, iEschylus gained his 
 first tragic victory, Olymp. 74th, B. C. 484. 
 Four years after this was fought the battle of 
 Salamis, in which ^schylus took part along 
 with his brother Ameinias ; to whose extraor- 
 dinary valour the apiixTda were decreed. In the 
 following year he served with the Athenian 
 troops at Plataea. Eight years afterwards he 
 gained th6 prize with a tetralogy, composed of 
 the Persa, the Phineus, the Glaucus Polniensis, 
 and the Prometlieus Ignifer, a satiric drama. 
 The latter pan of the poet's life is involved in 
 much obscurity. That he quitted Athens and 
 died in Sicily is agreed on all hands ; but the 
 time and the cause of his departure are points 
 of doubt and conjecture. It seems that ^schy- 
 lus had laid himself open to a charge of profa- 
 nation, by too boldly introducing on the stage 
 something connected with the Mysteries. He 
 was tried and acquitted ; but the peril which 
 he had run, the dread of a multitude ever mer- 
 ciless in their superstitions, indignation at the 
 treatment which he had received, joined, in all 
 likeldhood, to feelings of vexation and jealousy 
 at witnessing the preference occasionally given 
 to young and aspiring rivals, were motives suf- 
 ficiently powerful to induce his proud spirit to 
 leave his native city, and seek a retreat in the 
 court of the munificent and literary Hiero, prince 
 
^s 
 
 HISTORY &c. 
 
 iES 
 
 of Syracuse : where he found, as fellow-guests, 
 Simonides, Epicharmus, and Pindar. This 
 must have been before Olymp. 78th, 2, B. C. 
 467, for in that year Hiero died. In Sicily he 
 composed a drama, entitled ^T^tna, to gratify his 
 royal host, who had recently founded a city of 
 that name. During the remainder of his life it 
 is doubtful whether he ever returned to Athens. 
 If he did not, those pieces of his, which were 
 composed in the interval, might be exhibited on 
 the Athenian stage under the care of some 
 friend or relation, as was not unfrequently the 
 case. Among these dramas was the Orestean 
 tetralogy, which won the prize Olymp. 80th, 2. 
 B C. 458, two years before his death. At any 
 rate, his residence in Sicil}' must have been of 
 considerable length, as it wassufficienr to affect 
 the purity of his language. We are told by 
 Athenseus that many Sicilian Avords are to be 
 found in his later plays, ^schylus died at Gela 
 in the sixty-ninth year of his age, Olymp. 81st, 
 B. C. 456. His death, if the common account be 
 true, was of a most singular nature. Sitting 
 motionless, in silence and meditation, in the 
 fields, his head, now bald from years, was mis- 
 taken for a stone by an eagle, which happened 
 to be flying over him with a tortoise in her bill. 
 The bird dropped the tortoise to break the shell; 
 and the poet w^as killed by the blow. The Ge- 
 loans, to show their respect for so illustrious a 
 sojourner, interred him with much pomp in 
 the public cemeter)'', and engraved on his tomb 
 the following epitaph, which had been com- 
 posed by himself: — 
 
 A.i(T')(i\ov ^iKpopiwvos 'A.Qrjvalov toSe KSvdeL 
 ^Ivrjjjia KaTa(pdin£voi> ■nvpo(p6poio PfAas 
 
 'A:\kt\v 6' vo'cdKifiov ^lapaddviov aXcroi av eiiroij 
 Kat 0adv^aiTfi£is MfjfJos t-marafjievos. 
 
 iEschj^'lus is said to have composed seventy 
 dramas, of which five were satiric, and to have 
 been thirteen times victor. This great drama- 
 tist was in reality the creator of tragedy. He 
 added a second actor lo the locutor of Thespis 
 and Phrynichus, and thus introduced the regu- 
 lar dialogue. He abridged the immoderate 
 length of the choral odes, making them subser- 
 vient to the main interest of the plot, and ex- 
 panded the short episodes into scenes of compe- 
 tent extent. To these improvements in the 
 economy of the drama he added the decorations 
 of art in its exhibition. A regular stage, with 
 appropriate scenery, was erected ; the perform- 
 ers were furnished with becoming dresses, and 
 raised to the stature of the heroes represented, 
 by the thick-soled cothurnus ; whilst the face 
 was brought to the heroic cast by a mask of pro- 
 portionate size and strongly marked character ; 
 which was also so contrived as to give power 
 and distinctness to the voice. And the hero of 
 Marathon and Salamis did not disdain to come 
 forward in person as an actor, like his predeces- 
 sor Thespis. He paid moreover great attention 
 to the choral dances, and invented several figure 
 dances himself: in which, declining the assist- 
 ance of the regular ballet-masters, he carefully 
 instructed his choristers : one of whom, Telestes, 
 "was such a proficient in the art, as distinctly to 
 express by dance alone the various occurrences 
 of the play. Among his other improvements is 
 mentioned the introduction of a practice, which 
 subsequently became established as a fixed and 
 Part II.— 2 T 
 
 essential rule, the removal of all deeds of blood- 
 shed and murder from public view. In short, 
 so many and so important were the alterations 
 and additions of ^Eschylus, that he was con- 
 sidered by the Athenians as the Father of tra- 
 gedy ; and, as a mark of distinguished honour 
 paid to his merits, they passed a decree after 
 his death, that a chorus should be allowed to 
 any poet who chose to re-exhibit the dramas of 
 ^schylus. In philosophical sentiments, ^s- 
 eliylus is said to have been a Pythagorean. In 
 his extant dramas the tenets of this sect may 
 occasionally be traced; as, deep veneration in 
 what concerns the gods ; high regard for the 
 sanctity of an oath and the nuptial bond ; the 
 immortality of the soul ; the origin of names 
 from imposition and not from nature ; the im- 
 portance of numbers ; the science of physiog- 
 nomy ; and the sacred character of suppliants. 
 Aristophanes, in that invaluable comedy, the 
 Frogs, has sketched a most lively character of 
 ^schylus ; and thus enabled us to ascertain the 
 light in which he Avas regarded by his imme- 
 diate posterity. His temper is there depicted 
 as proud, stern, and impatient ; his sentiments 
 pure, noble, and warlike ; his genius inventive, 
 magnificent, and towering, even to occasional 
 extravagance ; his st^^le bold, lofty, and impetu- 
 ous, full of gorgeous imagery and ponderous ex- 
 pressions ; whilst in the dramatic arrangement 
 of his pieces there remained much of ancient 
 simplicity and somewhat even of uncouth rude- 
 ness. Yet still in the estimation of the right- 
 minded and judicious, he ranked supreme in 
 tragedy. Even the majestic dignity of Sopho- 
 cles bows at once before the gigantic powers of 
 jEschylus ; and nothing save ignorance and 
 vitiated taste dare for a moment to set up a rival 
 in the philosophic Euripides. With the portrait, 
 thus drawn by Aristophanes, the opinions of 
 the ancient critics in general coincide. Diony- 
 sius lauds the splendour of his talents, the pro- 
 priety of his characters, the originality of his 
 ideas, the force, variety, and beauty of his lan- 
 guage. Longinus speaks of the bold magni- 
 ficence of his imagery; whilst he condemns 
 some of his conceptions as rude and turgid, and 
 his expressions as not unfrequently overstrain- 
 ed, (iuinctilian again, among the Pcomans, 
 assigns him the praise of dignity in sentiment, 
 sublimity of idea, and loftiness in style ; al- 
 though often overcharged in diction and irre- 
 gular in composition. Such, in the eyes of an- 
 tiquity, was the Shakspeare of the Grecian 
 drama. Besides his tragedies, it is said that 
 he wrote an account of the battle of Marathon 
 in elegiac verses. The best editions of his 
 Avorksare that of Stanley, fol. London, 1663; 
 that of Glasg. 2Vols. in 12mo. 1746, and that of 
 Schutz, 2 vols. 8vo. Halse, 1782. Horat. Art. 
 Poet. 'ZlS.—Quintil. 10, c. l.—Plin. 10, c. 3.— 
 
 Val. Max. 9, c. 12. II. The 12th perpetual 
 
 archon of Athens. III. A Corinthian bro- 
 ther-in-law to Timophanes, intimate Avith Tim- 
 
 oleon, Plut. in Tijnol. -IV. A Rhodian set 
 
 over Egypt with Peucestes of Macedonia. 
 
 Curt. 4, c. 8. V. A native of Cnidus, teacher 
 
 of rhetoric to Cicero. Cic in Brut. 
 
 Msovvs, I. a Phrygian philosopher, who, 
 
 though originally a slave, procured his liberty by 
 
 the sallies of his genius. He travelled over the 
 
 greatest part of Greece and Egj^pl, but chiefly 
 
 329 
 
AG 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AG 
 
 resided at the court of CrcEsus, king of Lydia, 
 by -whoni he was sent to consult the oracle of 
 Delphi. In this commission, JEsop behaved 
 with great severity, and satirically compared the 
 Delphians to floating sticks, which appear large 
 at a distance, but are nothing when brought 
 near. The Delphians, offended with his sarcas- 
 tic remarks, accused him of having secreted one 
 of the sacred vessels of Apollo's temple, and 
 threw him down from a rock, 561 B. C. Maxi- 
 mus Planudes has written his life in Greek ; but 
 no credit is to be given to the biographer who 
 falsely asserts that the mythologist was short 
 and deformed. jE sop dedicated his fables to his 
 patron Croesus ; but what appears now under 
 his name, is, no doubt, a compilation of all the 
 fables and apologues of wits before and after the 
 age of jEsop, conjointly with his own. Plut. 
 
 in Solon.— PhcEd. 1, fab. 2, 1. 2, fab. 9. II. 
 
 Claudus, an actor on the Roman stage, very in- 
 timate with Cicero. He amassed an immense 
 fortune. His son melted precious stones to 
 drink at his entertainments. Horat. 2, Sat. 3. 
 V. ^W.— Val. Max.—Plin. 
 
 ^THRA. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Mtia, a poem of Callimachus, in which he 
 speaks of sacrifices, and of the manner in which 
 they were offered. Mart. 10, ep, 4. 
 
 JEtion, or Eetion, a famous painter. He 
 drew a painting of Alexander going to celebrate 
 his nuptials with Roxane. This piece was 
 much valued, and was exposed to public view 
 at the Olympic games, where it gained so much 
 applause that the president of the games gave 
 the painter his daughter in marriage. Cic. Br. 
 18. 
 
 Afranius, I, (Luc.) a Latin comic poet in the 
 age of Terence, often compared to Menander, 
 whose style he imitated. He is blamed for the 
 unnatural gratifications which he mentions in 
 his writings, some fragments of which are to be 
 found in the Corpus Poetarum. Quint. 10, c. 
 1. — Sueton. Ner. 11. — Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. 57. — 
 
 Cic. de fin. 1, c. 3.—^. Gell. 13, c. 8. II. 
 
 A general of Pompey, conquered by Caesar in 
 Spain. Sueton. in Cess. 34. — Plut. in Pomp. 
 
 III. Gl. a man who wrote a severe satire 
 
 against Nero, for which h e was put to death in the 
 
 Pisonian conspiracy. Tacit. IV. Potitus, a 
 
 plebeian, who said before Caligula that he would 
 willingly die if the emperor could recover from 
 the distemper he laboured under. Caligula re- 
 covered, and Afranius was put to death that he 
 might not forfeit his word. Dio. 
 
 Agalla, a woman of Corcyra, who wrote a 
 treatise upon grammar. Athen. 1. 
 
 Agamedes and Trophonius, two architects 
 who made the entrance of the temple of Delphi, 
 for which they demanded of the god whatever 
 gift was most advantageous for a man to receive. 
 Eight days after they were found dead in their 
 bed. Plut. de cons. ad. Apol. — Cic. Tusc. 1, c. 
 147. — Pans. 9, c. 11 and 37, gives a different 
 account. 
 
 Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and Argos, 
 was brothel' to Menelaus, and son of Plisthenes 
 the son of Atreus. Homer calls them sons of 
 Atreus, which is false, upon the authority of He- 
 siod, Apollodorus, &c. Vid. Plisthenes. When 
 Atreus was dead, his brother Thyestes seized 
 the kingdom of Argos, and removed Agamem- 
 non and Menelaus, who fled to Polyphidus, king 
 330 
 
 of Sicyon, and hence to CEneus, king of JEtoiia, 
 where they were educated. Agamemnon mar- 
 ried Clytemnestra, and Menelaus Helen, both 
 daughters of Tyndarus, king of Sparta, who as- 
 sisted them to recover their father's kingdom. 
 After the banishment of the usurper to Cythera, 
 Agamemnon established himself at Mycenaj, 
 whilst Menelaus succeeded his father-in-law at 
 Sparta. When Helen was stolen by Paris, 
 Agamemnon was elected commander in chief of 
 the Grecian forces going against Troy ; and he 
 showed his zeal in the cause by furnishing 100 
 ships, and lending 60 more to the people of Ar- 
 cadia. The fleet was detained at Aulis, where 
 Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter to appease 
 Diana. Vid. Iphigenia. During the Trojan 
 war Agamemnon behaved with much valour ; 
 but his quarrel with Achilles, whose mistress he 
 took by force, was fatal to the Greeks. Vid. 
 Briseis. After the ruin of Troy, Cassandra, 
 fell to his share and foretold him that his wife 
 would put him to death. He gave no credit to 
 this, and returned to Argos with Cassandra, 
 Clytemnestra, with her adulterer iEgisthus, 
 prepared to murder him ; and as he came from 
 the bath, to embarrass him, she gave him a tunic, 
 whose sleeves were sewed together, -and while 
 he attempted to put it on, she brought him to 
 the ground with a stroke of a hatchet, and iEgis- 
 thus seconded her blows. His death was re- 
 venged by his son Orestes. Vid. Clytemnestra, 
 Menelaus, and Orestes. Homer. 11. 1, 2, &c. 
 Od. 4, &c. — Ovid, de Rem. Am. v. 777. Met. 
 12, V. SO.—Hygin. fab. 88 and dl.—Strab. 8.— 
 Thucyd. 1, c. 9.—JElian. V. H. 4, c. 26.— 
 Dictys Cret. 1, 2, &c. — Dares Phryg. — So- 
 phocl. in Elect. — Euripid. in Orest. — Senec. in 
 Agam. — Paus. 2, c. 6, 1. 9, c. 40, &c. — Virg. 
 Mn. 6, V. Sm.—Mela, 2, c. 3.- 
 
 Agapenor, I. commander of Agamemnon's 
 
 fleet. HoTTier. 11. 2. II. The son of Ancaeus, 
 
 and grandson of Lycurgus, who, after the ruin 
 of Troy, was carried by a storm into Cyprus, 
 where he built Paphos. Paus. 8, c. 5. — Horn. 
 11.2. 
 
 Agarista, a daughter of Hippocrates, who 
 married Xantippus. She dreamed that she had 
 brought forth a lion, and sometime after became 
 mother of Pericles. Plut. in Pericl. — Herodot. 
 6, c. 131. 
 
 Agasicles, king of Sparta, was son of Ar- 
 chidamus, and one of the Proclidas. He used 
 to say that a king ought to govern his subjects 
 as a father governs his children. Paus. 3, c. 7. 
 — Plut. in Apoph. 
 
 Agatharchidas, I. a general of Corinth in 
 
 the Peloponnesian war. Thucyd. 2, c 83. 
 
 II. A Samian philosopher and historian, who 
 wrote a treatise on stones, and a history of Per- 
 sia and Phoenice, besides an account of the Red 
 Sea, of Europe, and Asia. Some make him a 
 native of Cnidus, and add that he flourished 
 about 177 B. C. Joseph, cont. Ap. 
 
 AcATmAS, a Greek historian of iEolia. A 
 poet and historian in the age of Justinian, of 
 whose reign he published the history in five 
 books. Several of his epigrams are found in 
 the Anthologia. His history is a sequel to that 
 of Procopius. The best edition is that of Paris, 
 fol. 1660. 
 
 Agatho, I a Samian historian, who wrote 
 an account of Scythia. II. A poet, who 
 
AG 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AG 
 
 -III. A learned and me- 
 
 fiourished 406 B. C. 
 lodious musician, who first introduced songs in 
 tragedy. Aristot. in Poet. He was the con- 
 temporary and friend of Euripides. At his 
 house Plato lays the scene of his Symposium, 
 given in honour of a tragic victory won by the 
 poet, Agathon was no mean dramatist. Plato 
 represents him as abounding in the most exqui- 
 site ornaments and the most dazzling antitheses. 
 Aristophanes pays a handsome tribute to his 
 memory as a poet and a man, in the Bancs, 
 where Bacchus calls him dyaOds Tzonirris Kal 
 TToOcLvds Toig (piXots. In the ThesmophoriazuscB, 
 v/hich was exhibited six years before the Ranee, 
 Agathon, then alive, is introduced as the friend 
 of Euripides, and ridiculed for his effeminacy. 
 He is there brought on the stage in female at- 
 tire, and described as 
 
 VvvaiKofoivos, anaXds, EVTrpEnrjs iSeiv — 191. 
 
 His poetry seems to have corresponded with his 
 personal appearance: profuse in trope, inflection, 
 and metaphor ; glittering with sparkling ideas, 
 and flowing softly along, with harmonious words 
 and nice construction, but deficient in manly 
 thought and vigour. Agathon may, in some 
 degree, be charged with having begun the de- 
 cline of true tragedy. It was he who first com- 
 menced the practice of inserting choruses be- 
 twixt the acts of the drama, which had no ref- 
 erence whatever to the circumstances of the 
 piece : thus infringing the law by which the 
 chorus was made one of the actors. Aristotle 
 blames him also for want of judgment in select- 
 ing too ex!tensive subjects. He ' occasionally 
 wrote pieces with fictitious names, (a transition 
 towards the New Comedy) one of which was 
 called the Flower; and was probably, therefore, 
 neither seriously affecting nor terrible, but in 
 the style of the Idyl.' One of his tragic victo- 
 ries is recorded, Olymp. 91st, 2, B. C. 416. He 
 too, like Euripides, left Athens for the court of 
 the Macedonian Archelaus. He died before 
 the representation of the RancB.^' — Diog. LMert. 
 3, c. 32. 
 
 Agathocles, I. a youth, son of a potter, who 
 made himself master of Syracuse. He reduced 
 Sicily ; but, being defeated at Himera by the 
 Carthaginians, he carried the war into Africa. 
 He afterwards passed into Italy, and made him- 
 self master of Crotona. He died in his 72d 
 year, B. C. 289, after a reign of 28 years of 
 mingled prosperity and adversity. Pint, in 
 Apopth. — Justin. 23 and 23. — Polyb. 15. — Diod. 
 
 18, &c. II. A son of Lysimachus, taken 
 
 prisoner by the Getse. He w^as ransomed, and 
 married Lysandra, daughter of Ptolemy Lagus. 
 Agesander, a sculptor of Rhodes under Ves- 
 pasian, who made a representation of Laocoon's 
 . history, which now passes for the best relic of 
 all ancient sculpture. 
 
 Agesias, a Platonic philosopher, who taught 
 the immortality of the soul. One of the Ptole- 
 mies forbade him to continue his lectures, be- 
 cause his doctrine was so prevalent that many 
 of his auditors committed suicide. 
 
 Agesilaus, I. king of Sparta, of the family 
 of the Agidae, was son of Doryssus and father 
 of Archelaus. During his reign Lycurgus in- 
 stituted his famous laws. Herodot. 7, c. 204. — 
 Pans. 3, c. 2. — -II. A son of Archidamus, of 
 
 the family of the ProclidcE, made king in prefer- 
 ence to his nephew Leotychides. He made 
 war against Artaxerxes, king of Persia, with 
 success ; but in the midst of his conquests in 
 Asia, he v/as recalled home to oppose the Athe- 
 nians and Boeotians, who desolated his country; 
 and his return was so expeditious that he pass- 
 ed, in thirty days, over that tract of country 
 which had taken up a whole year of Xerxes' 
 expedition. He defeated his enemies at Coro- 
 nea ; but sickness prevented the progress of his 
 conquests, and the Spartans were beat in every 
 engagement, especially at Leuctra, till he ap- 
 peared at their head. . Though deformed, small 
 of stature, and lame, he w^as brave ; and a great- 
 ness of soul compensated all the imperfections 
 of nature. He was as fond of sobriety as of 
 military discipline ; and when he went, in his 
 80th year, to assist Tachus, king of Egypt, the 
 servants of the monarch could hardly be per- 
 suaded that the Lacedaemonian general was eat- 
 ing with his soldiers on the ground barehead- 
 ed, and without any covering to repose upon. 
 Agesilaus died on his return from Egypt, after 
 a reign of 36 years, 362 B. C, and his remains 
 were embalmed and brought to Lacedsemon. 
 Justin. 6, c. 1. — Plut. and C. Nep. in vit. — 
 
 Pans. 3, c. 9. — Zenoph. Or at. pro Ages. 
 
 III. A brother of Themistocles, who was sent 
 as a spy into the Persian camp, where he stab- 
 bed Mardonius instead of Xerxes. Plut. in 
 Parall. 
 
 Agesipolis, I. king of Lacedssmon, son of 
 Pausanias, obtained a great victory over the 
 Mantineans, He reigned 14 years, and was 
 succeeded by his brother Cleombrotus, B. C. 
 380. Pans. 3, c. 5, I. 8, c. ^.—Xenoph. 3, Hist. 
 GfcEc. II. son of Cleombrotus, king of Spar- 
 ta, was succeeded by Cleomenes 2d, B. C. 370. 
 Pans. 1, c. 13, 1. 3, c. 5. 
 
 Aggrammes, a cruel king of the Ganga- 
 rides. His father was a hairdresser, of whom 
 the queen became enamoured, and whom she 
 made governor to the king's children, to gratify 
 her passion. He killed them to raise Aggram- 
 mes, his son by the queen, to the throne. Curt. 
 9, c. 2. 
 
 AgidjE, the descendants of Eurysthenes, who 
 shared the throne of Sparta with the Proclidae ; 
 the name is derived from Agis, son of Eurys- 
 thenes. The family became extinct in the per- 
 son of Cleomenes, son of Leonidas, Virg. 
 Mn. 8, V. 682. 
 
 Agis, I. king of Sparta, succeeded his father, 
 Eurysthenes, and, after a reign of one year, was 
 succeeded by his son Echestratus, B. C. 1058. 
 
 Paus. 3, c. 2. II. Another king of Sparta, 
 
 who waged bloody wars against Athens, and 
 restored liberty to many Greek cities. He at- 
 tempted to restore the laws of Lycurgus at 
 Sparta, but in vain ; the perfidy of friends, who 
 pretended to second his views, brought him to 
 difficulties, and he was at last dragged from a 
 temple, where he had taken refuge, to a prison, 
 where he was strangled by order of the Ephori. 
 Plut. in Agid. III. Another, son of Archi- 
 damus, who signalized himself in the war which 
 the Spartans waged against Epidaurus. He 
 obtained a victory at Mantinea, and was suc- 
 cessful in the Peloponnesian war. He reigned 
 27 years. Thucyd. 3 and 4. — Paus. 3, c. 8 and 
 
 10. IV. Another, son of Archidamus, king^ 
 
 331 
 
AG 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AG 
 
 of Sparta, who endeavoured to deliver Greece 
 from the empire of Macedonia, with the assist- 
 ance of the Persians. He was conquered in 
 the attempt, and slain by Antipater, Alexan- 
 der's general, and 5300 Lacedsemonians perish- 
 ed with him. Curt. 6, c. 1. — Diod. 17. — Jus- 
 tin. 12, c. 1, &c. V. An Arcadian in the 
 
 expedition of Cyrus against his brother Arta- 
 
 xerxes. Polycsn. 7, c. 18. VI. A poet of 
 
 Argos, who accompanied Alexander into Asia, 
 and said that Bacchus and the sons of Leda 
 would give way to his hero when a god. Curt. 
 8, c. 5. 
 
 Aglaophon, an excellent Greek painter. 
 Plin. 35, c. 8. 
 
 Aglaus, the poorest man of Arcadia, pro- 
 nounced by the oracle more happy than Gyges, 
 king of Lydia. Plin. 7, c. 46. — Val. Max. 7, c. 1. 
 
 Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, who disguised 
 her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by 
 Hierophilus the art of midwifery, and when 
 employed, always discovered her sex to her pa- 
 tients. This brought her into so much prac- 
 tice, that the males of hei profession, who were 
 now out of employment, accused her before the 
 Areopagus of corruption. She confessed her 
 sex to the judges, and a law was immediately 
 made to empower all freeborn women to learn 
 midwifery. Hygin. fab, 274. 
 
 Agnon, son of Nicias, was present at the 
 taking of Samos by Pericles, In the Peloponne- 
 sian war he went against Potidaea, but aban- 
 doned his expedition through disease. He built 
 Amphipolis, whose inhabitants rebelled to Bra- 
 sidas, whom they regarded as their founder, for- 
 getful of Agnon. Thucyd. 2, 3, &c. 
 
 Agnonides, a rhetorician of Athens, who 
 accused Phocion of betraying the Piraeus to Ni- 
 canor. When the people recollected what ser- 
 vices Phocion had rendered them, they raised 
 him statues, and put to death his accuser. 
 Plut. and Nep. in Phocion. 
 
 Agonalia, and Agonia, festivals in Rome, 
 celebrated three times a year, in honour of Ja- 
 nus or Agonius. They were instituted by Nu- 
 ma, and on the festive days the chief priest used 
 to offer a ram, Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 317. — Varro. 
 de L. L. 5. 
 
 Agones Capitolini, games celebrated every 
 fifth year upon the Capitoline hill. Prizes were 
 proposed for agility and strength, as well as for 
 poetical and literary compositions. The poet 
 Statins publicly recited there hisThebaid, which 
 was not received with much applause, 
 
 Agoragritus, a sculptor of Pharos, who made 
 a statue of Venus for the people of Athens, B. 
 C. 150. 
 
 Agoranoni, ten magistrates at Athens, who 
 watched over the city and port, and inspected 
 whatever was exposed to sale. 
 
 Agraria Lex, was enacted to distribute 
 among the Roman people all the lands which 
 they had gained b}'- conqaest. It was first pro- 
 posed A. U. C. 268, by the consul Sp. Cassius 
 Vicellinus, and rejected by the senate. This 
 produced dissensions between the senate and 
 the people, and Cassius, upon seeing the ill 
 success of the new regulations he pronosed, of- 
 fered to distribute among the people the money 
 which was produced from the corn of Sicily, 
 after it had been brought and sold in Rome. 
 This act of liberality the people refused, and 
 332 
 
 tranquillity was soon after re-established in the 
 state. It was proposed a second time, A. U. 
 C. 269, by the tribune Licinius Stolo; but with 
 no better success : and so great were the tumults 
 which followed, that one of the tribunes of the 
 people was killed, and many of the senators 
 fined for their opposition. Mutius Scsevola, A. 
 U, C, 620, persuaded the tribune Tiberius Grac- 
 chus to propose it a third time ; and although 
 Octavius, his colleague in the tribuneship, op- 
 posed it, yet Tiberius made it pass into a law 
 after much altercation, and commissioners were 
 authorized to make a division of the lands. 
 This law at last proved fatal to the freedom of 
 Rome under J. Caesar. Flor. 3, c. -3 and 13. — 
 Cic. pro Leg. Agr. — Liv. 2, c. 41. 
 
 Agricola, the father-in-law of the historian 
 Tacitus, who wrote his life. He we^s eminent 
 for his public and private virtues. He was gov- 
 ernor of Britain, and first discovered it to be 
 an island. Domitian envied his virtues ; he re- 
 called him from the province he had governed 
 with equity and moderation, and ordered him to 
 enter Rome in the night, that no triumph might 
 be granted to him.. Agricola obeyed, and with- 
 out betraying any resentment, he retired to a 
 peaceful solitude, and the enjoymeM of the so- 
 ciety of a few friends. He died in his 56th 
 year, A. D, 93. Tacit, in Agric. 
 
 M, Agrippa Vipsanius, I. a celebrated Ro- 
 man, who obtained a victory over S, Pompey, 
 and favoured the cause of Augustus at the bat- 
 tle of Actium and Philippi, where he behaved 
 with great valour. He advised his imperial 
 friend to re-establish the republican government 
 at Rome, but he was overruled by Mecasnas, 
 In his expeditions in Gaul and Germany be ob- 
 tained several victories, but refused the honours 
 of a triumph, and turned his liberality towards 
 the embellishing of Rome, and the raising of 
 magnificent buildings, one of which, the Pan- 
 theon, still exists. After he had retired for two 
 years to Mitylene, in consequence of a quarrel 
 with Marcellus, Augustus recalled him, and, as 
 aproofofhis regard, gave him his daughter Julia 
 in marriage, and left him the care of the empire, 
 during an absence of two years employed in 
 visiting the Roman provinces of Greece and 
 Asia, He died, universally lamented, at Rome, 
 in the 51st year of his age, 12 B, C. and his 
 body was placed in the tomb which Augustus 
 had prepared for himself He had been married 
 three times ; to Pomponia, daughter of Atticus, 
 to Marcella, daughter of Octavia, and to Julia, 
 by whom he had five children, Caius, and Lu- 
 cius Caesares, Posthumus Agrippa, Agrippina, 
 and Julia. His son, C. Cassar Agrippa, was 
 adopted by Augustus, and made consul, by the 
 flattery of the Roman people, at the age of four- 
 teen or fifteen. This promising youth went to 
 Armenia on an expedition against the Persians, 
 where he received a fatal blow from the treach- 
 erous hand of Lollius, the governor of one of 
 the neighbouring cities. He languished for a 
 little time, and died in Lycia. His younger 
 brother, L. Caesar Agrippa, was likewise adopt- 
 ed by nis grandfather Augustus; but he was 
 soon after banished to Campania, for using se- 
 ditious language against his benefactor. In the 
 7th year of his exile, he would have been recall- 
 ed, had not Livia and Tiberius, jealous of the 
 partiality of Augustus for him, ordered him to 
 
AG 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AL 
 
 be assassinated in his 26th year. He has been 
 called ferocious and savage ; and he gave him- 
 self the name of Neptune, because he was fond 
 of fishing. Virg. JEn. 8, v. 682. — Horat. 1, od. 
 
 6. II. Sylvius, a son of Tiberinus Sylvius, 
 
 king of Latium. He reigned 33 years, and was 
 succeeded by his son Romalus Sylvius. Dionys. 
 
 Hal. 1, c. 8. III. One of the servants of the 
 
 murdered prince assumed his name, and raised 
 
 commotions. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 37. IV, A 
 
 consul, who conquered the jEqui. V. A 
 
 philosopher. Diog. VI. Herodes, a son of 
 
 Aristobulus. grandson of the great Herod, who 
 became tutor to the grandchild of Tiberius, and 
 was soon after imprisoned by the suspicious ty- 
 rant. When Caligula ascended the throne, his 
 favourite was released, presented with a chain 
 of gold as heav}' as that which had lately con- 
 fined him, and made king of Judea. He was 
 a popular character with the Jews ; and it is 
 said, that while they were flattering him with 
 the appellation of god, an angel of God struck 
 him with the lousy disease of which he died, A. 
 D. 43. His son of the same name, was the last 
 king of the Jews, deprived of his kingdom by 
 Claudius, in exchange for other provinces. He 
 was with Titus at the celebrated siege of Jeru- 
 salem, and died A. D. 94. It was before him 
 that St. Paul pleaded, and made mention of his 
 incestuous commerce with his sister Berenice. 
 
 Juv. 6, V. \bQ.~Tacit. 2, Hist. c. 81. VII. 
 
 Menenius, a Roman general, who obtained a 
 triumph over the Sabines, appeased the popu- 
 lace of Rome by the well-known fable of the 
 belly and the limbs, and erected the new office 
 of tribunes -of the people, A. U. C. 261. He 
 died poor, but universally regretted ; his fune- 
 ral was at the expense of the public, from which 
 also his daughters received dowries. Liv. 2, c. 
 
 32. Flor. 1, c. 23. VIII. A mathematician 
 
 in the reign of Domitian ; he was a native of 
 Bithynia. 
 
 Agrippina, I. a wife of Tiberius. The empe- 
 ror repudiated her to marry Julia. Sueton. in 
 
 Tib. 7. 11. a daughter of M. Agrippa, and 
 
 grand-daughter to Augustus. She married Ger- 
 manicus, whom she accompanied in Syria ; and 
 when Piso poison~ed him, she carried his ashes 
 to Italy, and accused his murderer, who stab- 
 bed himself She fell under the displeasure of 
 Tiberius, who exiled her in an island, where 
 she died, A. D. 26, for want of bread. She left 
 nine children, and was universally distinguish- 
 ed for intrepidity and conjugal affection. Tacit. 
 
 1, Ann. c. 2, &c. — Sueton. in Tib. 52. III. 
 
 Julia, daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina, 
 married Domitius^nobarbus, by w^homshehad 
 Nero. After her husband's death, she married 
 her uncle, the emperor Claudius, whom she de- 
 stroyed to make Nero succeed to the throne. 
 After many cruelties and much licentiousness, 
 she was assassinated by order of her son, A. D. 
 59. She left memoirs which assisted Tacitus in 
 the composition of his annals. The town, which 
 she built, where she was born, on the borders of 
 the Rhine, and called Agrippina. Colonia, is 
 the modern Cologne. Tacit. Ann. 4, c. 75, 1, 
 12, c. 7, 22. 
 
 Agrotera, L an anniversary sacrifice of 
 goats, offered to Diana at Athens. It was in- 
 stituted by Callimachus the Polemarch, who 
 vowed to sacrifice to the goddess so many goats 
 
 as there might be enemies killed in a battle 
 which he w^as going to fight against the troops 
 of Darius, who had invaded Attica. The quan- 
 tity ofythe slain was so great, that a sufficient 
 nimiber of goats could not be procured ; there- 
 fore they were limited to five hundred every 
 year, till they equalled the number of Persians 
 
 slain in battle. 11. A temple of ^gira in 
 
 Peloponnesus, erected to the goddess under this 
 name. Pans. 7, c. 26. 
 " Ahala, the surname of the Servilii at Rome. 
 
 Ajax, I. son of Telamon by Peribcea or Eri- 
 boea, daughter of Alcathous, was, next to Achil- 
 les, the bravest of all the Greeks in the Trojan 
 war. He engaged Hector, with whom, at part- 
 ing, he exchanged arms. After the death of 
 Achilles, Ajax and Ulysses disputed iheir claim 
 to the arms of the dead hero. When they were 
 given to the latter, Ajax was so enraged that 
 he slaughtered a whole flock of sheep, suppos- 
 ing them to be the sons of Atreus, who had 
 given the preference to Ulysses, and stabbed 
 himself with his sword. The blood which ran 
 to the ground from the wound was changed 
 into the flower hyacinth. Some say that he 
 was killed by Paris in battle ; others, that he was 
 murde^red by Ulysses, His body was buried at 
 Sigaeum, some say on mount Rhcetus, and his 
 tomb was visited and honoured by Alexander. 
 Hercules, according to some authors, prayed 
 to the gods that his friend Telamon, who was 
 childless, might have a son with a skid as im- 
 penetrable as the skin of the Nemsean lion , which 
 tie then wore. His prayers were heard. Jupiter, 
 under the form of an eagle, promised to grant 
 the petition ; and when Ajax was bom, Hercules 
 wrapped him up in the lion's skin, which ren- 
 dered his body invulnerable, except that part 
 which was left uncovered by a hole m the skin, 
 through which Hercules hung his quiver. This 
 vulnerable part was in his breast, or, as some 
 say, behind the neck. Q. Calab. 1 and 4. — 
 Apollod. 3, c. 10 and 13. — Philostr. in Heroic, 
 c. 12. — Pindar. Isthm. 6. — Homer. 11. 1, &c. 
 Od. II.— Dictys Cret. 5.— Dares Phry. 9.— 
 Ovid. Met. n.— Horat. 2, Sat. 3, v. l9Z—Hy- 
 gin. fab. 107 and 242. — Pavs. 1, c. 35, 1. 5, c. 
 
 19. II. The son of Oileus, king of Locris, 
 
 was surnamed Locrian, in contradistinction to 
 the son of Telamon. He went with forty ships 
 to the Trojan war, as being one of Helen's suit- 
 ors. The night that Troy was taken he offered 
 violence to Cassandra, who fled into Minerva's 
 temple; and for this offence, as he returned 
 home, the goddess, who had okained the thun- 
 ders of Jupiter and the power of tempests from 
 Neptune, destroyed his ship in a storm. Ajax 
 swam to a rock,, and said that he was safe, in 
 spite of all the gods. Such impiety offended 
 Neptune, who struck the rock with his trident, 
 and Ajax tumbled into the sea wath part of the 
 rock, and was drowned. His body was after- 
 wards found by the Greeks, and black sheep 
 offered on his tomb. Virg. ^n. 1, v. 43, &c. — 
 Homer. II. 2, 13. &c. Od.i.—Hygin. fab. 116 
 and 213.—Philo!itr. Ico. 2, c. \2.—Senec. in 
 Agam. — Horat. epod. 10, v. 13. — Pans. 10, c. 26 
 and 31. — The two Ajaces were, as some sup- 
 pose, placed after death in the island of Leuce, 
 a separate place, reserved only for the bravest 
 heroes of antiquity. 
 
 Alaricus, a famous king of the Goths, who 
 333 
 
AL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AL 
 
 plundered Rome in the reign of Honorius, He 
 was greatly respected for his military valour, 
 and during his reign he kept the Roman empire 
 in continual alarms. He died, after a reign of 
 13 years, A, D. 410. 
 
 Alarodh, a nation near Pontus. Herodot. 
 3, c. 94. 
 
 Alba Sylvius, son of Latinus Sylvius, suc- 
 ceeded his father in the kingdom of Latium, and 
 reigned 36 years. 
 
 Albia Terentia, the mother of Otho. Sv£t. 
 
 Albici, a people of Gallia Aquitania. Cas. 
 Bell. Civ. 1, c. 34. 
 
 Albini, two Roman orators, of great merit, 
 mentioned by Cicero in Brut. This name is 
 common to many tribunes of the people. Liv. 
 2, c. 33, 1. 6, c. 30.—Sallust. de Jug. Bell. 
 
 Albinovanus Celsus, I. Vid. Celsus. 
 
 II. Pedo, a poet, contemporary with Ovid. He 
 wrote elegies, epigrams, and heroic poetry in a 
 style so elegant that he merited the epithet of 
 divine. Ovid. ex. Pont. 4, ep. 10.— Quintil. 10, 
 C.5. 
 
 Albinus, I. was born at Adrumetum in Afri- 
 ca, and made governor of Britain by Commo- 
 dus. After the murder of Pertinax, he was 
 elected emperor by the soldiers in Britain. Se- 
 verus had also been invested with the imperial 
 dignity by his own army ; and these two rivals, 
 with about 50,000 men each, came into Gaul to 
 decide the fate of the empire. Severus was con- 
 queror, and he ordered the head of Albinus to 
 be cut off, and his body to be thrown into the 
 Rhone, A. D. 198. Albinus, according to the 
 exaggerated account of a certain writer, called 
 Codrus, was famous for his voracious appetite, 
 and sometimes eat for breakfast no less than 500 
 figs, 100 peaches, 20 pounds of dry raisins, 10 
 
 melons, and 400 oysters. II. A pretorian, 
 
 sent to Sylla as ambassador from the senate 
 during the civil wars. He was put to death by 
 Sylla's soldiers. Plut. in Syll. III. A Ro- 
 man plebeian, who received the vestals into his 
 chariot in preference to his family, when they 
 fled from Rome, which the Gauls had sacked. 
 Val. Max. 1, c. 1. — Liv. 5, c. 40. — Flor. 1, c. 
 
 13. IV. A. Posthumus, consul with Lucul- 
 
 lus, A. U, C. 603, wrote a history of Rome in 
 Greek. 
 
 AlbutiuSj I. a prince of Celtiberia, to whom 
 
 Scipio restored his wife. Arrian.- II. An 
 
 ancient satirist. Cic. in Brut. III. Titus, 
 
 an epicurean philosopher, born at Rome; so 
 fond of Greece, and Grecian manners, that he 
 wished not to pass for a Roman. He was m.ade 
 governor of Sardinia ; but he grew offensive to 
 the senate, and was banished. It is supposed 
 that he died at Athens. 
 
 Algous, I. a celebrated lyric poet of Mity- 
 iene in Lesbos, about 600 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. He fled from a battle, and his enemies 
 hung up, in the temple of Minerva, the armour 
 which he left in the field, as a monument of his 
 disgrace. He is the inventor of Alcaic verses. 
 He was contemporary with the famous Sappho, 
 to whom he paid his addresses. Of all his 
 works nothing but a few fragments remain, 
 found m Athenagus. Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Hero- 
 dot. 5, c. 95.— flbr. 4,od. 9.— Ctc. A.Tusc. c.33. 
 
 II. A poet of Athens, said by Suidas to be 
 
 the inventor of tragedy. III, A writer of 
 
 epigrams. IV. A comic poet. 
 
 334 
 
 Algamenes, I. one of the Agidse, king of 
 Sparta, known by his apophthegms. He suc- 
 ceeded his father Teleclus, and reigned 37years. 
 The Helots rebelled in his reign. Paus. 3, c. 
 
 2, 1. 4, c. 4 and 5. II. A general of the Achse- 
 
 ans, Paus. 7, c. 15. III. A statuary, who 
 
 lived 448 B. C. and was distinguished for his 
 statues of Venus and Vulcan. Paus. 5, c. 10. 
 
 IV. The commander of a Spartan fleet, put 
 
 to death by the Athenians. Thucyd. 4, c. 5, &c. 
 
 Algander, I. a Lacedaemonian youth, who 
 accidentally put out one of the eyes of Lycurgus, 
 and was generously forgiven by the sage. Plut. 
 in Lye. — Paus. 3, c. 18.- — II. "A Trojan, killed 
 by Turnus. Virg. JEn. 9, v. 767. 
 
 Algenor. Vid. Othryades. 
 
 Algeste, or Algestis. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Algetas, I. a king of the Molossi, descended 
 from Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. Paus. 1, c. 
 
 11. II. A general of Alexander's army, 
 
 brother to Perdiccas. III. The eighth king 
 
 of Macedonia, who reigned 29 years. IV. 
 
 An historian, who wrote an account of every 
 thing that had been dedicated in the temple of 
 Delphi. Athen. 
 
 ALcmMACHUs, a celebrated painter. Plin, 
 35, c. 11. 
 
 Algibiades, an Athenian general, famous 
 for his enterprising spirit, versatile genius, and 
 natural foibles. He was disciple to Socrates. 
 In the Peloponnesian war he encouraged the 
 Athenians to make an expedition against Syra- 
 cuse. He was chosen general in that war, and, 
 in his absence, his enemies accused him of im- 
 piety, and confiscated his goods. Upon this he 
 fled, and stirred up the Spartans to make war 
 against Athens ; and when this did not succeed, 
 he retired to Tissaphernes, the Persian general. 
 Being recalled by the Athenians, he obliged the 
 Lacedaemonians to sue for peace, made several 
 conquests in Asia, and was received in triumph 
 at Athens. His popularity was of short dura- 
 tion ; the failure of an expedition against Cyme 
 exposed him again to the resentment of the peo- 
 ple, and he fled to Pharnabazus, whom he al- 
 most induced to make war upon Lacedsemon. 
 This was lold to Lysander, the Spartan gene- 
 ral, who prevailed upon Pharnabazus to murder 
 Alcibiades. Two servants were sent for that 
 purpose, and they set on fire the cottage where 
 he was, and killed him with darts as he attempt- 
 ed to make his escape. He died in the 46th 
 year of his age, 404 B. C. after a life of per- 
 petual difficulties. If the fickleness of his coun- 
 trymen had known how to retain among them 
 the talents of a man who distinguished himself, 
 and was admired wherever he went, they might 
 have risen to greater splendour, and to the sove- 
 reignty of Greece. His character has been 
 cleared from the aspersions of malevolence hy 
 the writings of Thucydides,Tim8eus, and Theo- 
 pompus ; and he is known to us as a hero, who, 
 to the principles of the debauchee added the in- 
 telligence and sagacity of a statesman, the cool 
 intrepidity of the general, and the humanity of 
 the philosopher. Plut. <^ C. Nep. in Alctb. — 
 Thucyd. 5, 6 and 7. — Xenoph. Hist. Grac. 1, 
 Sic.—Diod. 12. 
 
 ALGiDAMiDAS, a general of the Messenians, 
 who retired to Rhegium, after the taking of 
 Ithome by the Spartans, B. C. 723. Strab. 6. 
 
 Alcidamus, a philosopher and orator, who 
 
AL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AL 
 
 wrote a treatise on death. He was pupil to 
 GorgiaSj and flourished B. C. 424. Quint. 3, c. 1. 
 
 Alcidas, a Lacedsemonian, sent with 23 gal- 
 leys against Corcyra, in the Peloponnesian war, 
 Tkucijd. 4, c. 16, &c. 
 
 Alcimenes, I. a tragic poet of Megara. 
 
 II. A comic writer of Athens, 
 
 Alcinous, I. a man of Elis. Paus. II. A 
 
 philosopher in the second century, who wrote a 
 book, Jje doctrina Platonis, the best edition of 
 which is the 12mo. printed Oxon. 1667. Vid. 
 Part III. 
 
 Alciphron, a philosopher of Magnesia in 
 the age of Alexander. There are some epistles 
 m Greek that bear his name, and contain a very 
 perfect picture of the customs and manners of 
 the Greeks. They are by some supposed to be 
 the production of a writer of the 4th century. 
 
 ALCMiEON, I. a philosopher, disciple to Py- 
 thagoras, born in Crotona, He wrote on physic, 
 and he was the first who dissected animals to 
 examine into the structure of the haman frame. 
 
 Cic. de Nat. D. 6, c. 27. II. A son of the 
 
 poet jiEschylus, the 13th archon of Athens.- 
 
 III. A son of Syllus, driven from Messenia,with 
 the rest of Nestor's family, by the Heraclidee. 
 He came to Athens, and from him the Alcmae- 
 onidae are descended, Vid. Part III, Paus, 
 1, c. 18. . 
 
 ALCM^6NiD.E, a noble family of Athens, de- 
 scended from Alcmseon. They undertook for 
 300 talents to rebuild the temple of Delphi, 
 which had been burnt, and they finished the 
 work in a more splendid manner than was re- 
 quired; in conseqaence of which they gained 
 popularity, -and by their influence the Pythia 
 prevailed upon the Lacedaemonians to deliver 
 their country from the tyranny of the Pisistra- 
 tidse. Herodot. 5 and 6, — Thucyd. 6, c. 59. — 
 Pint, in Solon. 
 
 Alcman, a very ancient lyric poet, born in 
 Sardinia, and not at Lacedaemon, as some sup- 
 pose. He wrote, in the Doric dialect, 6 books 
 of verses, besides a play called Colymbosas. 
 He flourished B. C. 670, and died of the lousy 
 disease. Some of his verses are preserved by 
 Athenaeus and others. Plin. 11, c. 33. — Paus. 
 1, c. 41, 1. 3, c. 15. — Aristot. Hist. Anim. 5, c. 31. 
 
 Algyoneus, a youth of exemplary virtue, son 
 to Antigonus. Plut. in Pyrrh. — Diog. 4, Vid. 
 Part III. 
 
 Alemanni, certain tribes, originally of the 
 Suevi, the most warlike of the Germans, Ap- 
 proaching the banks of the Rhine they mingled 
 with other people, among which were probably 
 many Gallic families ; and then from their hete- 
 rogeneous composition it is supposed they first 
 assumed or received the designation of AUmans 
 or Alemanni. The country which bore their 
 name, from their having effecied in it a resi- 
 dence, was that tract which, including the Ty- 
 rol, the country of the Grisons, parts of Switzer- 
 land, and all the western borders of the Rhine, 
 extended also on the east as far as the Maine. 
 After many conflicts with the Romans and the 
 Franks, and various changes in their territorial 
 limits, the Alemanni were overcome by Clovis, 
 and obliged to retreat to their own country be- 
 yond the river Rhine. From the narrow region 
 to which they were then obliged to confine them- 
 selves, they were subsequently enabled to give 
 their name to modern Germany. 
 
 Alemon, the father of Myscellus. He built 
 Crotona in Magna GrjEcia, Myscellus is often 
 called Alemonides, Ovid. Met. 15, v. 19 and 26. 
 
 Alethes, the first of the Heraclidas, who was 
 king of Corinth. He was son of Hippotas. 
 Pa^is. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Aletidas, (from oKao^ai, to ivander,) certain 
 sacrifices at Athens, in remembrance of Eri- 
 gone, who wandered with a dog after her father 
 Icarus. 
 
 ' Aleuad^, a royal family of Larissa inThes- 
 saly, descended from Aleuas, king of that coun- 
 try. They betrayed their country to Xerxes. 
 The name is often applied to the Thessalians 
 without distinction, Diod. 16, — Herodot. 7, c. 
 6, 112.— Paus. 3, c, 8, 1. 7, c, 10.— jElian. 
 Anim. 8, c. 11. 
 
 Alexamenus, an ^tolian, who killed Nabis, 
 tyrant of Lacedaemon, and was soon after mur- 
 dered by the people. Liv. 35, c. 34. 
 
 Alexander 1st, son of Amyntas was the 
 tenth king of Macedonia. He killed the Per- 
 sian ambassadors for their immodest behaviour 
 to the women of his father's court, and was the 
 first who raised the reputation of the Macedo- 
 nians. He reigned 43 years, and died 451 B. 
 C. Justin. 7, c. 3. — Herodot. 5, 7, 8 and 9. 
 
 Alexander 2d, son of Amyntas 2d, king of 
 Macedonia, was treacherously murdered, B. C. 
 370, by his younger brother Ptolemy, who held 
 the kingdom for four years, and made way for 
 Perdiccas and Philip. Justin. 7, c. 5, says, 
 Eurydice, the wife of Amyntas, was the cause 
 of his murder. 
 
 Alexander 3d, surnamed the Great, was 
 son of Philip and Olympias. He was born B. 
 C. 355, that night on which the famous tTemple 
 of Diana at Ephesus was burnt by Erostratus. 
 Two eagles perched for some time on the house 
 of Philip, as if foretelling that his son would 
 become master of Europe and Asia. He was 
 pupil to Aristotle during five years, and received 
 his learned preceptor's instructions with becom- 
 ing deference and pleasure, and ever respected 
 his abilities. When Philip went to war, Alex- 
 ander in his 15th year, was left governor of 
 Macedonia, where he quelled a dangerous sedi- 
 tion, and soon after followed his father to the 
 field, and saved his life in a battle. He was 
 highly offended when Philip divorced Olympias 
 to marry Cleopatra ; and he even caused the 
 death of Attains, the new queen's brother. Af- 
 ter this he retired from court to his mother 
 Olympias, but was recalled ; and when Philip 
 was assassinated, he punished his murderers ; 
 and by his prudence and moderation gained the 
 affection of his subjects. He conquered Thrace 
 and Illyricum, and destroyed Thebes ; and after 
 he had been chosen chief commander of all the 
 forces of Greece, he declared war against the 
 Persians. With 32,000 foot and 5,000 horse 
 he invaded Asia, and after the defeat of Darius 
 at the Granicus, he conquered all the provinces 
 of Asia Minor. He obtained two other cele- 
 brated victories over Darius at Issus and Ar- 
 bela, took Tyre, after an obstinate siege of seven 
 months and the slaughter of 2000 of the inha- 
 bitants in cool blood, and made himself master 
 of Egypt, Media, Syria, and Persia. From 
 Eg>T3t he visited the temple of Jupiter Amraon, 
 and bribed the priests, who saluted him as the 
 son of their god. and enjoined his army to pay 
 335 
 
AL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AL 
 
 him divine honours. He built a town, which he 
 called Alexandria, on the western side of the 
 Nile, near the coast of the Mediterranean, to 
 become the future capital of his dominions, and 
 to extend the commerce of his subjects from the 
 Mediterranean to the Ganges. His conquests 
 were spread over India, where he fought with 
 Porus, a powerful king of the country ; and 
 after he had invaded Scythia, and visited the 
 Indian ocean, he retired to Babylon, loaded with 
 the spoils of the east. He died at Babylon, the 
 21st of April, in the 32d year of his age, after a 
 reign of 12 years and 8 months of brilliant and 
 continued success, 323 B. C, His death was 
 so premature that some have attributed it to the 
 effects of poison and excess of drinking. An- 
 tipater has been accused of causing the fatal poi- 
 son to be given him at a feast ; and perhaps the 
 resentment of the Macedonians, whose services 
 he seemed to forget by intrusting the guard of 
 his body to the Persians, was the cause of his 
 death. He was so universally regretted, that 
 Babylon was filled with tears and lamentations ; 
 and the Medes and Macedonians declared that 
 no one was able or worthy to succeed him. 
 Many conspiracies were formed against him by 
 the othcers of his army, but they were all sea- 
 sonably suppressed. His tender treatment of 
 the wife and mother of king Darius, who were 
 taken prisoners, has been greatly praised ; and 
 the latter who survived the death of her son, 
 killed herself when she heard that Alexander 
 was dead. His great intrepidity more than once 
 endangered his life ; he always fought as if sure 
 of victory, and the terror of his name was often 
 more powerfully effectual than his arms. He 
 was always forward in every engagement, and 
 bore the labours of the field as well as the mean- 
 est of his soldiers. During his conquest in 
 Asia, he founded many cities, which he called 
 Alexandria after his own name. When he 
 had conquered Darius, he ordered himself to be 
 worshipped as a god ; and Callisthenes, who 
 refused to do it, was put to death. He murder- 
 ed, at a banquet, his friend Clitus, who had once 
 saved his life in a battle, because he enlarged 
 upon the virtues and exploits of Philip, and pre- 
 ferred them to those of his son. His victories 
 and success increased his pride ; he dressed him- 
 self in the Persian manner, and gave himself up 
 to pleasure and dissipation. He set on fire the 
 town of Persepolis, in a fit of madness and in- 
 toxication, encouraged by the courtesan Thais. 
 Yet, among all his extravagances, he was fond 
 of candour and of truth; and when one of his 
 officers read to him, as he sailed on the Hydas- 
 pes, a history which he had composed of the 
 wars with Porus, and in which he had too li- 
 berally panegyrized him, Alexander snatched 
 the book from his hand, and threw it into the 
 river, saying, " What need is there of such flat- 
 tery 1 are not the exploits of Alexander suffi- 
 ciently meritorious in themselves without the 
 colouring of falsehood 1" He, in like manner, 
 rejected a statuary, who offered to cut mount 
 Athos like him, and represent him as holding a 
 town in one hand and pouring a river from the 
 other. He forbade any statuary to make his sta- 
 tue except Lysippus, and any painter to draw 
 his picture except Apelles. On his death-bed 
 he gave his ring to Perdiccas, and it was sup- 
 posed that by this singular present he wished to 
 336 
 
 make him his successor. Some time before his 
 death, his officers asked him whom he appoint- 
 ed to succeed him on the throne ^ and he an- 
 swered. The worthiest among you ; but I am 
 afraid, (added he,) my best friends will perform 
 my funeral obsequies with bloody hands. Alex- 
 ander, with all his pride, was humane and libe- 
 ral, easy and familiar with his friends, a great 
 patron of learning, as may be collected from his 
 assisting Aristotle with a purse of money to ef- 
 fect the completion of his natural history. He 
 was brave often to rashness ; he frequently la- 
 mented that his father conquered every thing, 
 and left him nothing to do ; and exclaimed, in 
 all the pride of regal dignity, Give me kings for 
 competitors, and I will enter the lists at Olym- 
 pia. All his family and infant children were 
 put to death by Cassander. The first delibera- 
 tion that was made after his decease, among his 
 generals, was to appoint his brother Philip Ari- 
 dasus successor, until Roxane, who was then 
 pregnant by him, brought into the world a legi- 
 timate heir. His empire was subsequently di- 
 vided among his generals. Vid. Ptolemy, An- 
 tigonus, &c. Curt. Arrian. and Plut. have 
 written an account of Alexander's life. Diod. 
 17 and 18. — Paus. 1, 7, 8, 9. — Justin.-ll and 12. 
 
 — Val Max.—Strab. 1, &c. II. A son of 
 
 Alexander the Great, by Roxane, put to death, 
 with his mother, by Cassander. Justin. 15, c. 
 
 2. III. A man, who, after the expulsion of 
 
 Telestes, reigned m Corinth. Twenty-five 
 years after, Telestes dispossessed him, and put 
 
 him to death. IV. A son of Cassander, king 
 
 of Macedonia, who reigned two years conjointly 
 with his brother Antipater, and was prevented 
 byLysimachus from revenging his motherThes- 
 salonica, whom his brother had murdered. De- 
 metrius, the son of Antigonus; put him to death. 
 Justin. 16, c. 1. — Paus. 9, c. 7. — — V. A king 
 of Epirus, brother to Ol5rmLpias, and successor to 
 Arybas. He banished Timolaus to Peloponne- 
 sus, and made war in Italy against the Romans, 
 and observed that he fought with men, while his 
 nephew, Alexander the Great, was fighting 
 with an army of women (meaning the Persians). 
 He was surnamed Molossus. Justin. 17, c. 3. 
 —Diod. 16.—Liv. 8, c. 17 and ^l.—Strab. 16. 
 VI. A son of Pyrrhus, was king of Epirus. 
 
 He conquered Macedonia, from which he was 
 expelled by Demetrius. He recovered it by the 
 assistance of the Acarnanians. Justin. 26, c. 
 
 3. — Plut. in Pijrrh. VII. A king of Syria, 
 
 driven from his kingdom by Nicanor, son of De- 
 metrius Soter, and his father-in-law Ptolemy 
 Philometor. Justin. 35, c. 1 and 2. — Joseph. 13. 
 Ant. Jud.—Strah. 17. VIII. A king of Sy- 
 ria, first called Bala, was a merchant and suc- 
 ceeded Demetrius. He conquered Nicanor by 
 means of Ptolemy Physcon, and was afterwards 
 killed by Antiochus Gryphus, son of Nicanor. 
 
 Joseph. Ant. Jud. 13, c. 18. IX. Ptolemy 
 
 was one of the Ptolemean kings in Egypt. His 
 mother Cleopatra raised him to the throne, in 
 preference to his brother Ptolemy Lathurus, and 
 reigned conjointly Avith him. Cleopatra, how- 
 ever, expelled him, and soon after recalled him ; 
 and Alexander, to prevent being expelled a se- 
 cond time, put her to death, and for this unna- 
 tural action was himself murdered by one of his 
 subjects. Joseph. 13, Ant. Jud. c. 20, &c.— 
 Justin. ^9, c. 3 and 4.— Pa7is. I, c. 9. X. 
 
AL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AL 
 
 Ptolemy 2d, king of Egypt, was son of the pre- 
 ceding. He w£LS educated in the island of 
 Cos, and falling into the hands of Mithridates, 
 escaped to Sylla, who restored him to his king- 
 dom. He was murdered by his subjects a few 
 days after his restoration. Appian. 1. — Bell. 
 
 Civ. XL Ptolemy 3d, was king of Egypt, 
 
 after his brother Alexander the last mentioned. 
 After a peaceful reign he was banished by his 
 subjects, and died at Tyre, B. C. 65, leaving 
 his kingdom to the Roman people. Vid. Egyp- 
 
 ius d^ Ptolemceus. Cic. pro Hull. XII. A 
 
 youth ordered by Alexander the Great to climb 
 the rock Aornus, with 30 other youths. He 
 was killed in the attempt. Curt. 8, c. 11. 
 
 XIII, A name given to Paris, son of Priam. 
 
 Vid. Paris. XIV. Jannseus, a king of Ju- 
 
 dea, son of Hyrcanus, and brother of Aristobu- 
 lus, who reigned as a tyrant, and died through 
 excess of drinking, B. C. 79, after massacring 
 800 of his subjects for the entertainment of 
 
 his concubines. XV. A Paphlagonian, who 
 
 gained divine honours by his magical tricks and 
 impositions, and likewise procured the friend- 
 ship of Marcus Aurelius. He died 70 years old. 
 
 XVI. A native of Caria,inthe 3d century, 
 
 who wrote a commentary on the writings of 
 
 Aristotle, part of which is still extant. XVII. 
 
 Trallianus, a physician and philosopher of the 
 4th century, some of whose works in Greek 
 
 are still extant. XVITI. A poet of ^itolia, 
 
 in the age of Ptolemy Philadelphus.^ — XIX. 
 A peripatetic philosopher, said to have been 
 
 preceptor to Nero. XX. An historian, called 
 
 also Polyhistor, who wrote five books on the 
 Roman republic, in which he said that the Jews 
 had received their laws, not from God, but from 
 a woman he called Moso. He also wrote trea- 
 tises on the Pythagorean philosophy, B. C. 88. 
 
 XXI. A poet of Ephesus, who wrote a 
 
 poem on astronomy and geography. XXII. 
 
 A sophist of Seleucia, in the age of Antoninus. 
 
 XXIII. A Thessalian, who, as he was 
 
 going to engage in a naval battle, gave to his 
 soldiers a great number of missile weapons, and 
 ordered them to dart them continually upon the 
 enemy, to render their numbers useless. Po- 
 
 lyan. 6, c. 27. XXIV. A son of Lysima- 
 
 chus. Poly an. 6, c. 12. XXV. A governor 
 
 of Lycia, whobrought a reinforcement of troops 
 
 to Alexander the Great. Curt. 7, c. 10. 
 
 XXVI. A son of Polysperchon, killed in Asia 
 
 by the Dymaeans. Diod. 18 and 19. XXVII. 
 
 A poei of Pleuron, son of Satyrus and Strato- 
 clea, who said that Theseus had a daughter 
 called Iphigenia, by Helen. Paus. 2, c. 22. — — 
 XXVIII. A Spartan, killed wdth two hundred 
 of his soldiers by the Argives, when he endea- 
 voured to prevent their passing through the coun- 
 
 iry of Tegea. Diod. 15. XXIX. A cruel 
 
 tyrant of Phara, in Thessaly, who made war 
 against the Macedonians, and took Pelopidas 
 prisoner. He was murdered, B. C. 357, by his 
 wife called Thebe, whose room he carefully 
 guarded by a Thracian sentinel, and searched 
 every night, fearful of some dagger that might 
 be concealed to take away his life. Cic. de Inv. 
 2, c. 49, de Of. 2, c. 9.— Val. Max. 9, c. 13.— 
 Plut. 4" C. Nep. in Pelop. — Paus. 6, c. 5. — 
 
 Diod. 15 and 16.— Ovid, in lb. v. 321. XXX. 
 
 Severus, a Roman emperor. Vid. Severus. 
 
 Alexandra, I. the name of some queens of 
 
 Part II.— 2 U 
 
 Judaea, mentioned by Joseph. II. A nurse 
 
 of Nero. Suet, hi Nero^ 50. 
 
 Alexas, of Laodicea, was recommended to 
 M. Antony by Timagenes. He was the cause 
 that Antony repudiated Octavia to marry Cleo- 
 patra. Augustus punished him severely after 
 the defeat of Antony. Plut. in Anton. 
 
 Alexinus, a disciple of Eubulides the Mile- 
 sian, famous for the acuteness of his genius and 
 judgment, and for his fondness for contention 
 and argumentation. He died of a wound he had 
 received from a sharp-pointed reed as he swam 
 across the river Alplieus. Diog. m Euclid. 
 
 Alexion, a physician intimate with Cicero. 
 Cic. ad Att. 13, ep. 25. 
 
 Alexis, I. a man of Samos, who endeavour- 
 ed to ascertain, by his writings, the borders of 
 
 his country. II. A comic poet, 336 B. C. of 
 
 Thurium. He was either uncle or patron to 
 Menander. Like Antiphanes, he was a very 
 voluminous composer. Suidas siates the num- 
 ber of his plays at 245 ; the titles of 113 are 
 still upon record. Plato was occasionally the 
 object of his satire also, as he was a mark for 
 
 the wit of Anaxandrides. III. A statuary, 
 
 disciple to Polycletes, 87th Olympiad. Plin. 
 34, c. 8. 
 
 P. Alfenijs Varus, a native of Cremona, 
 who, by the force of his genius and his applica- 
 tion, raised himself from his original profession 
 of a cobbler, to ofiices of trust at Rome, and at 
 last became consul. Horat. 1, Sat. 3,»v. 130. 
 
 Alienus CiEciNA, a questor in Boeotia ap- 
 pointed, for his services, commander of a legion 
 in Germany, by Galba. The emperor dis- 
 graced him for his bad conduct, for which he 
 raised commotions in the empire. Tacit. 1, 
 Hist. c. 52. 
 
 Alimentus, C. an historian in the second 
 Punic war, w^ho wrote in Greek an account of 
 Annibal, besides a treatise on military affairs. 
 Liv. 21 and 30. 
 
 ALLUTros, or Albutius, a prince of the Cel- 
 tiberi, to whom Scipio restored the beautiful 
 princess whom he had taken in battle. 
 
 Aloa, festivals at Athens in honour of Bac- 
 chus and Ceres, by whose beneficence the hus- 
 bandmen received the recompense of their la- 
 bours. The oblations were the fruits of the 
 earth. Ceres has been called, from this, Aloas 
 and Alois. 
 
 Alotia, festivals in Arcadia, in commemora- 
 tion of a victory gained over Lacedaemonby the 
 Arcadians, 
 
 Alphius Avitus, a writer m the age of Se- 
 verus, who gave an account of illustrious men, 
 and a history of the Carthaginian war. 
 
 Alpinus, I. (Cornelius,) a contemptible 
 poet, whom Horace ridicules for an epic poem 
 on the wars in Germany. Horat. 1, Sat. 10, v. 
 36. II. Julius, one of the chiefs of the Hel- 
 vetia Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 68. 
 
 Alth^menes. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Alyattes, I. a king of Lydia, descended from 
 
 the Heraclidas. He reigned 57 years. II. 
 
 King of Lydia, of the family of the Mermnadae, 
 was father of Croesus. He drove the Cimme- 
 rians from Asia, and made war against the 
 Medes. He died when engaged in a war 
 against Miletus, after a reign of 35 years. A 
 monument was raised on his grave with the 
 money which the women of Lydia had obtain- 
 337 
 
AM 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AM 
 
 ed by prostitution. An eclipse of the sun ter- 
 minated a battle between him and Cyaxares. 
 Herodot. 1, e. 16, 17, &c.—Strab. 13. 
 
 ALYCiBus, a son of Sciron, was killed by 
 Theseus. A place in Megara received its name 
 from him. Plut. in Thes. 
 
 Amadocus, a king of Thrace, defeated by his 
 antagonist Seuthes. Aristot. 5. Polit. 10. 
 
 Amage, a queen of Sarmatia, remarkable for 
 her justice and fortitude. Polyan. 8, c. 56. 
 
 Amandus, Cn. Sal. a rebel general under 
 Dioclesian, who assumed imperial honours, and 
 was at last conquered by Dioclesian's colleague. 
 
 Amarynceus, a king of the Epeans, buried 
 at Buprasium. Strab. 8. — Pans. 8, c. 1. 
 
 Amasis, I. a man who, from a common sol- 
 dier, became king of Egypt. He made war 
 against Arabia, and died before the invasion of 
 his country by Cambyses king of Persia. He 
 made a law, that every one of his subjects should 
 yearly give an account to the public magistrates 
 of the manner in which he supported himself. 
 He refused to continue in alliance with Poly- 
 crates the tyrant of Samos, on account of his 
 uncommon prosperity. When Cambyses came 
 into Egypt, he ordered the body of Amasis to 
 be dug up, and to be insulted and burnt ; an ac- 
 tion which was Yexj offensive to the religious 
 notions of the Egyptians. Herodot. 1, 2, 3. 
 
 II. A man who led the Persians against the 
 inhabitants of Barce. Herodot. 4, c. 201, &c. 
 
 Amastris, I. the wife of Dionysius the tyrant 
 of Sicily, was sister to Darius whom Alexan- 
 der conquered. Strab. II. Also the wife of 
 
 Xerxes, king of Persia. Vid. Amestris. 
 
 Amata, the wife of king Latinus. She had 
 betrothed her daughter Lavinia to Turnus be- 
 fore the arrival of jEneas in Italy. She zeal- 
 ously favoured the interest of Turnus; and 
 when her daughter was given in marriage to 
 JEneas, she hung herself to avoid the sight of 
 her son-in-law. Virg. jEn. 7, &c. 
 
 Amazenes, or Mazenes, a prince of the isl- 
 and Oaractus, who sailed for some time with 
 the Macedonians and Nearchus in Alexander's 
 expedition to the East. Arrian. m Indie. 
 
 Ambarvalia, a joyful procession round the 
 ploughed fields, in honour of Ceres, the goddess 
 of corn. There were two festivals of that name 
 celebrated by the Romans ; one about the month 
 of April, the other in July. They went three 
 times round their fields,crowned with oak leaves, 
 singing hymns to Ceres, and entreating her to 
 preserve their corn. The word is derived ah 
 arwbiendis is arvis, going round the fields. A 
 sow, a sheep, and a bull, called ambarvalitz 
 kosticB^ were afterwards immolated, and the 
 sacrifice has sometimes been called suovetauri- 
 lia, from sus, ovis, and taurus. Virg. G. 1, v. 
 339 and 345.— TiJ. 2, el. 1, v. l^.— Cato de R. R. 
 c. 141. 
 
 Ambigatus, a king of the Celtse in the time 
 of Tarquinius Priscus. Seeing the great popu- 
 lation of his country, he sent his two nephews, 
 Sigovesus and Bellovesus, with two colonies, in 
 quest of new settlements ; the former towards 
 Italy. Liv. 5, c. 34, &c. 
 
 Ambiorix, a king of a portion of the Ebu- 
 rones, in Gaul. He was a great enemy to 
 Rome, and was killed in a battle with J. Caesar, 
 in which 60,000 of his countrymen were slain. 
 Cas. Bell. G. 5, c. 11, 26, 1. 6,c. 30. 
 338 
 
 Ambrosia, I. festivals observed in honour of 
 Bacchus in some cities of Greece. They were 
 
 the same as the Brum alia of the Romans. 
 
 II. The food of the gods was called ambrosia, 
 and their drink nectar. The word signifies 
 immortal. It had the power of giving immor- 
 tality to all those who ate it ; and it is said that 
 Berenice, the wife of Ptolemy Soter, was saved 
 from death by eating ambrosia given her by Ve- 
 nus. Homer. 11. 1, 14, 16, and 24. — LAician. de 
 dea Syria. — Catull. ep. 100. — Theocrit. Id. 15. — 
 Virg. Mn. 1, v. 407, 1. 12, v. 4:19.— Ovid. Met. 
 2. — Pindar. 1, Olymp. 
 
 Ambrosius, bishop of Milan, obliged the em- 
 peror Theodosius to make penance for the mur- 
 der of the people of Thessalonica, and distin- 
 guished himself by his writings, especially 
 against the Arrians. His three books de officiis 
 are still extant, besides eight hymns on the crea- 
 tion. His style is not inelegant, but his diction 
 is sententious, his opinions eccentric, though 
 his subject is diversified by copiousness of 
 thought. He died A. D. 397. The best edition 
 of his works is that of the Benedictines, 2 vols, 
 fol. Paris, 1686. 
 
 AMBUBAJiE, Syrian women of immoral lives, 
 who, in the dissolute period of Rome,- attended 
 festivals and assemblies as minstrels. The name 
 is derived by some from Syrian words, which 
 signify a flute. Horat. 1, Sat. 2. — Suet, in 
 Ner. 27. 
 
 Amenides, a secretary of Darius, the last 
 king of Persia. Alexander set him over the 
 Arimaspi. Curt. 7, c. 3. 
 
 Amenocles, a Corinthian, said to be the first 
 Grecian who built a three-oared galley at Sa- 
 mos and Corinth. TJiucyd. 1, c. 13. 
 
 Amestris, queen of Persia, was wife to Xer- 
 xes. She cruelly treated the mother of Ar- 
 tiante, her husband's mistress, and cut off her 
 nose, ears, lips, breast, tongue, and eye-brows. 
 She also buried alive fourteen noble Persian 
 youths, to appease the deities under the earth. 
 Herodot. 7, c. 61, 1. 9, c. 111. 
 
 Amilcar, I. a Carthaginian general of great 
 eloquence and cunning, surnamed Rhodanus. 
 When the Athenians were afraid of Alexand er, 
 Amilcar went to his camp, gained his confi- 
 dence, and secretly transmitted an account of 
 all his schemes to Athens. Tragus. 21, c. 6. 
 II. A Carthaginian, whom the Syracusans 
 
 called to their assistance against the tyrant 
 Agathocles, who besieged their city. Amilcar 
 soon after favoured the interest of Agathocles, 
 for which he was accused at Carthage. He died 
 in Syracuse, B. C. 309. Diod. 20.— Justi7i. 22, 
 
 c. 2 and 3. III. A Carthaginian, surnamed 
 
 Barcas, father to the celebrated Annibal. He 
 was general in Sicily during the first Punic 
 war ; and after a peace had been made with the 
 Romans, he quelled a rebellion of slaves who 
 had besieged Carthage, and taken many towns 
 of Africa, and rendered themselves so formida- 
 ble to the Carthaginians, that they begged and 
 obtained assistance from Rome. After this, he 
 passed into Spain, with his son Annibal, who 
 was but nine vears of age, and laid the founda- 
 tion of the town of Barcelona. He was killed 
 in a battle against the Vettones, B. C. 237. He 
 had formed the plan of an invasion of Italy, by 
 crossing the Alps, which his son afterwards 
 ca rried into execution. His great enmity to the 
 
AM 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AM 
 
 Romans was the cause of the second Punic war. 
 He used to say of his three sons, that he kept 
 three lions to devour the Roman power. Nep. 
 in Vit.—Liv. 21, c. l.—Polyb. 2.—Plut. in 
 
 Annib. IV. A Carthaginian general, who 
 
 assisted the Insubres against Rome, and was 
 taken by Cn. Cornelius. Liv. 32, c. 30, 1. 33, 
 
 c. 8. V. A son of Hanno, defeated in Sicily 
 
 by Gelon, the same day that Xerxes was de- 
 feated at Salamis by Themistocles. He burnt 
 himself that his body might not be found among 
 the slain. Sacrifices were offered to him. He- 
 rodot. 7, c. 165, &c. 
 
 Amisias, a comic poet, whom Aristophanes 
 ridiculed for his insipid verses. 
 
 Ammianus. Vid. Marcellinus. 
 
 Ammonkts, I. a Christian philosopher, who 
 opened a school of Platonic philosophy at Alex- 
 andria, 232, A. D. and had among his pupils 
 Origen and Plotinus. His treatise lit^i O^oicov 
 was published in 4to. by Valckenaer, L. Bat. 
 
 1739. II. A writer who gave an account of 
 
 sacrifices, as also a treatise on the harlots of 
 Athens, Athen. 13. III. An Athenian gene- 
 ral, surnamed Barcas. Polyb. 3. 
 
 Amphiaraides, a patronymic of Alcmseon, as 
 being son of Amphiaraus. Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 43. 
 
 Amphigtyon, the son of Hellen, who first 
 established the celebrated council of the Am- 
 phictyons, composed of the wisest and most vir- 
 tuous men of some of the cities of Greece. This 
 assembly was at first but inconsiderable ; nor 
 did it arrive to its full strength and lustre but 
 by gradual advances, and in a long series of 
 years. Its first origin we are to ascribe to Am- 
 phictyon, the son of Deucalion, an ancient king 
 of Thessaly, as the authority of the Arundelian 
 Marbles warrants us to determine. Their tes- 
 timony is full and explicit, and, on account of 
 the high antiquity of this monument, deserves 
 particular attention. * Amphictyon, the son of 
 Deucalion, reigned at Thermopyls, and collect- 
 ed the people bordering on his territory, and 
 called them Amphictyons, and the assembly Py- 
 Isea, in the place where the Amphictyons sa- 
 crifice to this day.' Androtion asserts, that the 
 convention was at first held at Delphi, and com- 
 posed only of those who lived in the neighbour- 
 hood of this city, and who were called not from 
 Amphictyon, but AuL(piKTiwveg, the neighbouring 
 inhabitants ; but to this again we must oppose 
 the high authority of the Marbles. The assem- 
 bly, thus formed, was at first but small, being 
 wholly composed of those people whom Deuca- 
 lion had commanded, and who, from his son 
 Hellen, where called 'EAAHES. As Greece 
 improved, and the Hellenes increased in num- 
 ber, new regulations became necessary; and 
 accordingly we find, that, in some time after the 
 original institution, Acrisius, king of Argos, 
 when, through fear of Perseus, (who, as the 
 oracle declared, was to kill him,) he retired into 
 Thessaly, observed the defects of the Amphic- 
 tyonic council, and undertook to new-model 
 and regulate it; extended its privileges; aug- 
 mented the number of its members ; enacted 
 new laws, by which the collective body was to 
 be governed; and assigned to each state one 
 single deputy, and one single voice, to be en- 
 joyed by some, in their own sole right : by oth- 
 ers, in conjunction with one or more inferior 
 states; and thus came to be considered as the 
 
 foimder of this famous representative of the 
 Hellenic body. From the time of Acrisius, the 
 Amphictyons still continued to hold one of their 
 annual councils at Thermopylae, that of autumn. 
 But it was now made a part of their function 
 to guard and protect the national region. The 
 vernal assembly therefore was held at Delphi, 
 the great seat of the Grecian religion ; the ob- 
 ject of universal veneration ; whither all peo- 
 ple, Greeks and Barbarians, resorted, to seek 
 the advice and direction of the famous Pythian 
 oracle. The time of assembling we have said 
 were two in each year. The following history 
 however afibrds an instance of the Amphictyons 
 assuming a power of assembling oftener, on 
 some extraordinary emergencies. But this 
 seems to have been a corruption introduced by 
 time, or the power of particular parties ; and, 
 as such, was condemned and discountenanced. 
 The alterations, made in the council of Am- 
 phictyons at different times, seem to have oc- 
 casioned the difference in historians as to the 
 number and names of the people who had a 
 right to send representatives to that assembly. 
 Agreeably to the dispositions made by Acrisius, 
 twelve cities only were invested with this right, 
 according to Strabo. .^schines and Theo- 
 pompus also confine it to twelve people, whom 
 the orator calls, not no'Keis, cities, but edvri, a word 
 denoting a collection of several particular com- 
 munities. Pausanius also calls them yevrj, a 
 term of like signification. The Amphictyonic 
 people were, according to -S^schines, Thessali- 
 ans, Bceotians, Dorians, lonians, Perrhcebeans, 
 Magnetes, Locrians, (Eteans, Phthiotes, Male- 
 ans, Phocians ; — to Theopompus : lonians, Do- 
 rians, Perrhcebeans, Bceotians, Magnetes, Achcs- 
 ans, Phthiotes, Maleans, Dolopes, ^nians, Del- 
 phians, Phocians ; — to Pausanias : lonians^ 
 Dolopes, Thessalians, Mnians, Magnetes, Ma- 
 leans, Phthiotes, Dorians, Phocians, Locri Epic- 
 nemides. .ffischines, we see, enumerates but 
 eleven ; yet he asserts the number to be twelve. 
 We see, then, how this famous council was 
 formed. The whole nation of Greece was 
 divided into twelve districts or provinces : each 
 of these contained a certain number of Am- 
 phictyonic states, or cities, each of which en- 
 joyed an equal right in voting and determin- 
 ing in all affairs relative to the general inte- 
 rest. Other inferior cities were dependant on 
 some of these, and, as members of their com- 
 munity, were also represented by the same de- 
 puties ; and thus the assembly of the Amphic- 
 t^'-ons became really and properly the represen- 
 tative of the whole Hellenic body : to koivovtwv 
 'EXXrji/wi^ HvveSpiov. Each of those cities, which 
 had a right to assist in the Amphictyonic coun- 
 cil, was obliged to send its deputies to every 
 meeting; and the number of these deputies was 
 usually and regularly two: the one entitled 
 hieromnemon, to whom was particularly in- 
 trusted the care of religion and its rites. His 
 office was annual, as appears from several de- 
 crees, in which his name is joined with that of 
 the Athenian archon cnoiwuoi ; and he was ap- 
 pointed by lot. The other deputy was called 
 by the general name pylagoras, and was chosen 
 by election for each particular meeting. Each 
 of these deputies, however differing in their 
 functions, enjoyed an equal power of determin- 
 ing all affairs relative to the general interest. 
 339 
 
AIM 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AM 
 
 And thus the cities which they represented, 
 without any distinction or subordination, each 
 gave two voices in the council of the Amphic- 
 tyons, a privilege known by the name of the 
 double suffrage. When the deputies, thus ap- 
 pointed, appeared to execute their commission, 
 they in the first place offered up their solemn 
 sacrifices to the gods ; to Ceres, when they as- 
 sembled at Thermopylae ; when at Delphi, to 
 Apollo, Diana, Latona, and Minerva : and be- 
 fore they entered on their function, each deputy 
 was obliged to take an oath, which ^schines 
 hath preserved, or at least some part of it ; and 
 which was conceived in these terms : ' I swear 
 that I will never subvert any Amphictyonic 
 city : I will never stop the courses of their wa- 
 ters, neither in war or peace. If any such out- 
 rages shall be attempted, I will oppose them by 
 force of arms, and destroy those cities who may 
 be guilty of such attempts. If any devasta- 
 tions shall be committed in the territory of the 
 god ; if any shall be privy to such ofience or 
 entertain any design against the temple ; I will 
 make use of my feet, my hands, my whole force, 
 to bring the offending party to condign punish- 
 ment. If any one shall violate any part of 
 this solemn engagement, whether city, private 
 person, or country, may such violators be ob- 
 noxious to the vengeance of Apollo, Diana, La- 
 tona, and Minerva the provident. May their 
 lands never produce their fruits : may their 
 women never bring forth children of the same 
 nature with their parents, but offsprings of an 
 unnatural and monstrous kind: may they be 
 for ever defeated in war, in judicial controver- 
 sies, and in all civil transactions ; and may 
 they, their families, and their whole race, be 
 utterly destroyed: may they never offer up an 
 acceptable sacrifice to Apollo, Diana, Latona, 
 and Minerva the provident ; but may all their 
 sacred rights be for ever rejected.' It was the 
 peculiar privilege of one of the hieromnemons 
 to preside in the council. He collected the 
 votes ; he reported the resolutions : he had the 
 power of convening the Ex'KXrjo-ta, or general 
 convention. His name was prefixed to every 
 decree, together with his title, which was that 
 of sovereign pontiff or priest of Apollo. While 
 the generous principles, on which this illus- 
 trious body was first formed, continued to pre- 
 serve their due vigour, the Amphictyons of con- 
 sequence were respectable, august and power- 
 
 ful. 
 
 When the nation itself began to degene- 
 
 rate, its representative of course shared in the 
 general corruption. The decline of this coun- 
 cil we may therefore date from the time when 
 Philip king of Macedon, began to practise with 
 its members, and prevailed to have his kingdom 
 annexed to the Hellenic body. It continued, 
 however, for ages after the destruction of Gre- 
 cian liberty, to assemble and to exercise some 
 remains of its authority. In the time of Pau- 
 sanias, who lived in the reign of Antoninus 
 Pius, the Amphictyonic cities were thirty ; but 
 of these the cities of Athens, Delphi, and Nico- 
 polis, only sent their deputies constantly, the 
 rest at particular times in rotation. But as 
 their care was now entirely confined to the rites 
 of their idolatrous worship, and as these came 
 to be forbidden in the time of Constantine, this 
 famous council of Amphictyons seems to have 
 fallen, together with their temple and their re- 
 340 
 
 ligion. Paus, in Phocic. and Achaic. — Strab. 8. 
 — Suidas. — Hcsych. — uEschin. 
 
 AMPmDROMJA, a festival observed by private 
 families at Athens, the fifth day after the birth 
 of every child. It was customary to run round 
 the fire with a child in their arms 5 whence the 
 name of the festivals. 
 
 Amphilytus, a soothsayer of Acarnania, who 
 encouraged Pisistratus to seize the sovereign 
 power of Athens. Herodot. 1, c. 62. 
 
 Amphion, a painter and statuary, son of Aces- 
 tor of Gnossus. Plin. 36, c. 10. Vid. Part III. 
 
 AMPmpoLEs, magistrates appointed at Syra- 
 cuse, by Timoleon, after the expulsion of Dio- 
 nysius the younger. The office existed for 
 above 300 years. Diod. 16 
 
 Amphis, a comic poet of Athens, son of Am- 
 phicrates, contemporary with Plato. Suidas. 
 
 Amphitryoniades, a surname of Hercules. 
 
 Ampia Labiena Lex, was enacted by T. Am- 
 pins and A. Labienus, tribunes of the people, 
 A. U. C. 693. It gave Pompey the great privi- 
 lege of appearing in triumphal robes and with a 
 golden crown at the Circensian games, and with 
 a praetexta and golden crown at theatrical plays. 
 
 Amulius, I. king of Alba, was son of Procas, 
 and youngest brother to Numitor. The crown 
 belonged to Numitor by right of birth, but 
 Amulius dispossessed him of it. Romulus and 
 Remus, when they had attained the years of 
 manhood, put to death the usurper Amulius, 
 and restored the crown to their grandfather. 
 Ovid. Fast. 3, v. &1.—Liv. 1, c.,3 and 4.— PZtil 
 
 in Romul. — Flor. 1, c. 1. — Dionys. Hal. II. 
 
 A celebrated painter. Plin. 35, c. 10. 
 
 Amyclas, the master of a ship in which 
 Caesar embarked in disguise. When Amyclas 
 wished to put back to avoid a violent storm, 
 Caesar, unveiling his head, discovered himself, 
 and bidding the pilot pursue his voyage, ex- 
 claimed, Ccesarem vehis, Ccesarisque fortunam. 
 Lmcan. 5, v. 520. 
 
 Amyntas, I. was king of Macedonia after 
 his father Alectas. His son Alexander mur- 
 dered the ambassadors of Megabyzus for their 
 wanton and insolent behaviour to the ladies of 
 his father's court. Bubares, a Persian general, 
 was sent with an army to revenge the death of 
 the ambassadors ; but, instead of making war, 
 he married the king's daughter, and defended 
 his possessions. Justin. 7, c. 3. — Herodot. 5, 7 
 
 and 8. The second of that name was son 
 
 of Menelaus, and king of Macedonia after his 
 murder of Pausanias. He was expelled by the 
 Illyrians, and restored by the Thessalians and 
 Spartans, He made war against the Illyrians 
 and Olynthians, and lived to a great age. His 
 wife Eurydice conspired against his life; but her 
 snares were seasonably discovered by one of his 
 daughters by a former wife. He had Alexander, 
 Perdiccas, and Philip, Alexander the Great's 
 father, by his first wife ; and by the other he had 
 Archelaus, Aridaeus, and Menelaus. He reign- 
 ed 24 years; and soon after his death, his son 
 Philip murdered all his brothers and ascended 
 the throne. Justin. 7, c. 4 and 9. — Diod. 14, 
 
 &c— C. Nep. and Plut. in Pelopid. III. 
 
 Another king of Macedonia, of the same name. 
 
 IV. A man who succeeded Dejotarus in 
 
 the kingdom of Gallograecia. After his death 
 it became a Roman province under Augustus. 
 Strab. 13. V- Another officer who deserted 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AN 
 
 to Darms, and was killed as he attempted to 
 
 seize Egypt. Curt. 3, c. 9. VI. A son of 
 
 Antiochus, who withdrew himself from Mace- 
 donia, because he hated Alexander. VII. 
 
 An officer m Alexander's cavalry. He was 
 accused of conspiracy against the king, on ac- 
 count of his great intimacy with Philotas, and 
 acquitted. Curt. 4, c. 15, 1. 6, c. 9, 1. 8, c. 12. 
 VIII. A Greek writer, who composed se- 
 veral works quoted by Athenaeus 10 and 12. 
 
 Amytianus, an historian in the age of An- 
 toninus, who wrote a treatise in commendation 
 of Philip, Olympias, and Alexander. 
 
 Amyrius, a king by whom Cyrus was killed 
 in a battle. Ctesias. 
 
 Amytis, I. a daughter of Astyages, whom 
 
 Cyrus married. Ctesias. II. A daughter of 
 
 Xerxes, who married Megabyzus and disgraced 
 herself by her debaucheries. 
 
 Anacharsis, a Scythian philosopher, 592 B. 
 C. who, on account of his wisdom, temperance, 
 and extensive knowledge, has been called one of 
 the seven wise men. Like his countrymen, he 
 made use of a cart instead of a house. He weis 
 wont to compare laws to cobwebs, which can 
 stop only small flies, and are unable to resist the 
 superior force of large insects. When he re- 
 turned to Scythia from Athens, where he had 
 spent some time in study, and in the friendship 
 of Solon, he attempted to introduce there the 
 laws of the Athenians, which so irritated his 
 brother, who was then on the throne, that he 
 killed him with an arrow. Anacharsis has ren- 
 dered himself famous among the ancients by his 
 writings, and his poems on war, the laws of 
 Scythia, &c.- Two of his letters to Croesus and 
 Hanno are still extant. Later authors have at- 
 tributed to him the invention of tinder, of an- 
 chors, and of the potter's wheel. The name of 
 Anacharsis is become very familiar to modern 
 ears, by that elegant, valuable, and truly clas- 
 •sical work of Barthelemi, called the Travels 
 of Anacharsis. Herodot. 4, c. 46, 47 and 48. — 
 Plut. in Conviv. — Cic. Thisc.b, c. 32. — Strab. 7. 
 
 Anacreon, a famous lyric poet of Teos, in 
 Ionia, highly favoured by Polycrates and Hip- 
 parchus, son of Pisistratus. He was of a las- 
 civious and intemperate disposition, much given 
 to drinking, and deeply enamoured of a youth 
 called Bathylus. His odes are still extant, and 
 the uncommon sweetness and elegance of his 
 poetry have been the admiration of every age 
 and country. He lived to his 85th year, and, 
 after every excess of pleasure and debauchery^ 
 choked himself with a grape-stone, and expired. 
 Plato says that he was descended from an illus- 
 trious family, and that Codras, the last king of 
 Athens, was one of his progenitors. His statue 
 was placed in the citadel of Athens, representing 
 him as an old drunken man, singing, with every 
 mark of dissipation and intemperance. Ana- 
 creon flourished 532 B.C. All that he wrote is 
 not extant; his odes were first published by H. 
 Stephens, with an elegant translation. The 
 best editions of Anacreon are, that of Maittaire, 
 4to. London, 1725, of which only one hundred 
 copies were printed, and the very correct one of 
 Barnes, 12mo. Cantab. 1721, to which may be 
 added that of Brunck, 12mo. Argentor. 1778. 
 Paus. 1, c. 2, "lb.— Strab. \L—^lian. V. H. 
 9, c. 4. — dc. in Tiisc. 4, c. 33. — Horat. epod. 
 14, V. ^.—Plin. 1.— Herodot. 3. c. 121. 
 
 Anadyomenk, a valuable painting of Venus 
 represented as rising from the sea, by Apelles, 
 Augustus bought it, and placed it in the temple 
 of J. Cgesar. The lower part of it was a little 
 defaced, and there were found no painters in 
 Rome, able to repair it, Plin. 35, c. 10. 
 
 Anagogia, a festival celebrated by the people 
 of Eryx in Sicily, in honour of Venus. Mlian. 
 V. H. 1, c. 15. H. A. 4, c. 2. 
 
 Anaxagoras, I. succeeded his father, Mega- 
 penthes, on the throne of Argos. He shared 
 the sovereign power with Bias and Melampus, 
 who had cured the women of Argos of madness, 
 Paus. 2, c. 18. — —II. A Clazomenian philoso- 
 pher, son of Hegesibulus, disciple to Anaxi- 
 menes, and preceptor to Socrates and Euripi- 
 des. He disregarded wealth and honours, to in- 
 dulge his fondness for meditation and philoso- 
 phy. He applied himself to astronomy, was ac- 
 quainted with eclipses, and predicted that one 
 day a stone would fall from the sun, which it 
 is said really fell into the river ^gos. Anaxa- 
 goras travelled into Eg5^t for improvement, and 
 used to say that he preferred a grain of wisdom 
 to heaps of gold. Pericles was in the number 
 of his pupils, and often consulted him in matters 
 of state ; and once dissuaded him from starving 
 himself to death. The ideas of Anaxagoras 
 concerning the heavens were wild and extrava- 
 gant. He supposed that the sun was inflamma- 
 ble matter, about the bigness of Peloponnesus : 
 and that the moon was inhabited. The heavens 
 he believed to be of stone, and the earth of simi- 
 lar materials. He was accused of impiety, and 
 condemned to die; but he ridiculed the sen- 
 tence, and said it had long been pronounced 
 upon him by nature; Being asked whether his 
 body should be carried into his own country, he 
 answered, no, as the road that led to the other 
 side of the grave was as long from one place as 
 the other; His scholar, Pericles, pleaded elo- 
 quently and successfully for him, and the sen- 
 tence of death was exchanged for banishment. 
 In prison, the philosopher is said to have at- 
 tempted to square the circle,or determine exactly 
 the proportion of its diameter to the circumfe- 
 rence. When the people of Lampsacus asked 
 him before his death, whether he wished any 
 thing to be done in commemoration of him, Yes, 
 says he, let the boys be allowed to play on the 
 anniversary of my death. This was carefully 
 observed, and that time, dedicated to relaxation, 
 was called Anaxagoreia. He died at Lampsa- 
 cus in his seventy-second year, 428 B. C. His 
 writings were not much esteemed by his pupil 
 Socrates. Diog. in Vita. — Plut. in Nicia and 
 Pericl.—Cic. Acad. Q. 4, c. 23.— T^/sc. 1, c. 
 
 43 III. A statuary of iEgina. Paus. 5, c. 
 
 23. IV. A grammarian, disciple to Zenodo- 
 
 tus. Diog. V. An orator, disciple to So- 
 crates. Diog. VI. A son of Echeanax, who, 
 
 with his brothers Codrus and Diodorus, destroy- 
 ed Hegesias, tyrant of Ephesus. 
 
 Anaxander, of the family of the Heraclidae, 
 was son of Eurycrates, and king of Sparta^ 
 The second Messenian war began in his reign. 
 Herodot. 7. c. 204. — Plut. in Apoph. — Paus. 3, 
 c. 3, 1. 4, c. 15 and 16. 
 
 Anaxandrides, I. son of Leon, and father to 
 Cleomenes I. and Leonidas, was king of Spar- 
 ta. By the order of the Ephori he divorced 
 his wife, of whom he was extremely fond, on 
 341 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AN 
 
 account of her barrenness; and he was the first 
 Lacedaemonian who had two wives. Herodot. 
 1, 5 and 7. — Plut. in Apoph. 1. — Pav.s. 3, c. 3, 
 &c. — —II. A comicpoetofRhodes, in the age 
 of Philip and Alexander. He was the first poet 
 who introduced intrigues and rapes upon the 
 stage. He was of such a passionate disposition 
 that he tore to pieces all his compositions which 
 met with no success. He composed about a 
 hundred plays, of which ten obtained the prize; 
 Some fragments of his poetry remain in Athe- 
 nseus. He was starved to death, by order of 
 the Athenians, for satirizing their government. 
 Aristot. 3, Rhet. 
 
 Anaxarchus, a philosopher of Abdera, one 
 of the followers of Democritus, and the friend 
 of Alexander. When the monarch had been 
 wounded in a battle, the philosopher pointed to 
 the place, adding, that is human blood and not 
 the blood of a god. The freedom of Anaxar- 
 chus offended Nicocreon, and after Alexander's 
 death, l^e tyrant, in revenge, seized the philoso- 
 pher, 8.1^ vl pounded him in a stone mortar with 
 iron hainmers. He bore this with much resig- 
 nation, and exclaimed, " Pound the body of 
 Anaxarchus, for thou dost not pound his soul." 
 Upon this Nicocreon threatened to cut his 
 tongue, and Anaxarchus bit it off with his teeth, 
 and spit it out into the tyrant's face. Ovid, in 
 lb. V. 571. — Plut. in Symp. 7. — Diog. in Vita. 
 — Cic. in l^usc. 2, c. 22. 
 
 Anaxenor, a musician, whom Antony great- 
 ly honoured, and presented with the tribute of 
 four cities. Strab. 14. 
 
 Anaxilas, and Anaxilaus, I. a Messeniaa, 
 tyrant of Rhegium. He took Zancle, and was 
 so mild and popular during his reign, that when 
 he died, 476 B. C. he left his infant sons to the 
 care of one of his servants, and the citizens 
 chose rather to obey a slave than revolt from 
 their benevolent sovereign's children. Justin. 
 3, c. ^.—Paus. 4, c. 23, 1. 5, c. 21.— Thucyd. 
 
 6, c. b.— Herodot. 6, c. 23, 1. 7, c. 167. II. A 
 
 magician of Larissa, banished from Italy by Au- 
 gustus. III. A Lacedaemonian. Plut. Al- 
 
 cib. IV. A comic writer, about the 100th 
 
 olympiad. 
 
 Anaxilides, wrote some treatises concerning 
 
 Ehilosophers, and mentioned that Plato's mother 
 ecame pregnant by a phantom of the god Apol- 
 lo, from which circumstance her son was called 
 the prince of wisdom. Diog. in Plut. 
 
 Anaximander, a Milesian philosopher, the 
 companion and disciple of Thales. He was the 
 first who constructed spheres, asserted that the 
 earth was of a cylindrical form, and thought 
 that men were born of earth and water mixed 
 together, and heated by the beams of the sun ; 
 that the earth moved, and that the moon receiv- 
 ed light from the sun, which he considered as a 
 circle of fire, like a wheel, about twenty-eight 
 times bigger than the earth. He made the first 
 geographical maps and sun-dials. He died in 
 the 64th year of his age, B. C. 547. Cic. Acad. 
 Quast. 4, c. 37. — Diog. in Vit. — Plin. 2, c. 
 79. — Plut. Ph. He had a son who bore his 
 name. Strab. 1. 
 
 Anaxjmenes, I. a philosopher, son of Erasis- 
 tratus, and disciple of Anaximander, whom he 
 succeeded in his school. He said that the air 
 was the cause of every created being, and a self- 
 existent divinity, and that the sun, the moon, 
 342 
 
 and the stars, had been made from the earth. 
 He considered the earth as a plain, and the 
 heavens as a solid concave figure, on which the 
 stars were fixed like nails, an opinion prevalent 
 at that time, and from which originated the pro- 
 verb, rt £i ovpavog eixTTscroi, if the heavens should 
 fall ? to which Horace has alluded, 3 Od. 3, v. 
 7. He died 504 years B. C. Cic. Acad.Quast. 
 4, c. 37, de Nat. D. 1, c. 10.— Plut. Ph.— Plin. 
 
 2, c. 76. II. A native of Lampsacus, son of 
 
 Aristocles. He was pupil to Diogenes the Cy- 
 ni.c, and preceptor to Alexander the Great, of 
 whose life, and that of Philip, he wiote the his- 
 tory. When Alexander, in a fit of anger, threat- 
 ened to put to death all the inhabitants of Lamp- 
 sacus, because they had maintained a long siege 
 against him, Anaximenes was sent by his coun- 
 trymen to appease the king, who, as soon as he 
 saw him, swore he would not grant the favour 
 he was going to ask. Upon this Anaximenes 
 begged the king to destroy the city and enslave 
 the inhabitants, and by this artful request the 
 city of Lampsacus was saved from destruction. 
 Besides the life of Philip and his son, he wrote 
 a history of Greece in 12 books, all now lost. 
 His nephew bore the same name, and wrote an 
 account of ancient paintings. Paus. 6, c. 18. 
 — Val. Max. 7, c. 3. — Diog. in Vit. 
 
 Anaxipolis, I. a comic poet of Thasos. Plin. 
 14, c. 14. II. A writer on agriculture, like- 
 wise of Thasos. 
 
 Anaxippus, a comic writer in the age of De- 
 metrius. He used to say that philosophers were 
 wise only in their speeches, but fools in their 
 actions. Athens. 
 
 Anaxis, a Boeotian historian, who wrote a 
 history down to the age of Philip, son of Amyn- 
 tas. Diod. 25. 
 
 Ancharia, a family of Rome. The name 
 
 of Octavia's mother. Plut. in Anton. 
 
 Anchesites, a wind which blows from An- 
 chisa, a harbour of Epirus. Cic. ad Attic. 7, ep. 
 1. — Dionys. Hal. 
 
 Anchimolius, I. a Spartan general sent 
 against the Pisistratidffi, and killed in the expe- 
 dition. Herodot. 5, c. 63. II. A son of RhcE- 
 
 tus. Vid. Ancliemolus. 
 
 Anghises, a son of Capys by Themis, daugh- 
 ter of Ilus. He was of such a beautiful com- 
 plexion, that Venus came down from heaven on 
 mount Ida, in the form of a nymph, to enjoy 
 his company. The child which Venus brought 
 forth was called JEneas, and intrusted to the 
 care of Chiron the Centaur. When Troy was 
 taken, Anchises was become so infirm, that 
 iEneas carried him through the flames upon his 
 shoulders, and thus saved his life. He accom- 
 panied his son in his voyage towards Italy, and 
 died in Sicily in the 80th year of his age. He 
 wasburiedonmountEryXjby JEneasand Aces- 
 tes, king of the country ; and the anniversary of 
 his death was afterwards celebrated by his son 
 and the Trojans on his tomb. Some authors 
 have maintained that Anchises had forgot the 
 injunctions of Venus, and boasted at a feast 
 that he enjoyed her favours on mount Ida, upon 
 which he was killed with thunder. Others say 
 that the wounds he received from the thunder 
 were not mortal, and that they only weakened 
 and disfigured his body. Virgil, in the sixth 
 book of the JEneid, introduces him m the Ely- 
 sian fields, relating to his son the fates that were 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AN 
 
 to attend him, and the fortune of his descend- 
 ants the Romans. Vid. jErieas. Virg. Mn. 
 1, 2, &.c.—Hygin. fab. 94, 254, 260, 210.— He- 
 siod. Theog. v. 1010. — Apcllod. 3, — Quid. Fast. 
 4, V. 34. — Homer. 11. 20, cf« Hymn, in Vener. — 
 Xenoph. Cyneg. c. 1. — Dionys. Hal. 1, de An- 
 tiq. Rom. — Pausanias, 8, e. 12, says, that An- 
 chises was buried on a mountain in Arcadia, 
 which from him has been called Anchisia. 
 
 Ancile. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Angus Martius, the 4th king of Rome, was 
 grandson to Numa, by his daughter. He waged 
 a successful war against the Latins, Veientes, 
 Fidenates, Volsci, and Sabines, and joined 
 mount Janiculum to the city by a bridge, and 
 enclosed mount Martius and the Aventine with- 
 in the walls of the city. He extended the con- 
 fines of the Roman territories to the sea, where 
 he built the town of Ostia, at the mouth of the 
 Tiber. He inherited the valour of Romulus 
 with the moderation of Numa. He died B. C. 
 616, after a reign of 24 years, and was succeed- 
 ed by Tarquin the elder. Dionys. Hal. 3, c. 9. 
 —Liv. 1, c. 32, &.c.—Flor. 1, c. i.— Virg. jEn. 
 6, V. 815. 
 
 Andabat.se, certain gladiators who fought 
 blindfolded ; whence the proverb, Andabatarum 
 more, to denote rash and inconsiderate mea- 
 sures. Cic. 6, ad Famil. ep. 10. 
 
 Andogides, an Athenian orator, son of Leo- 
 goras. He lived in the age of Socrates, the phi- 
 losopher, and was intimate with the most illus- 
 trious men of his age. He was often banished, 
 but his dexterity always restored him to favour. 
 Plut. has written his life in 10 orat. Four of 
 his orations are extant. 
 
 Andreas, I. a statuary of Argos. Pans. 6, 
 
 c. 16. II. A man of Panormus, who wrote 
 
 an account of all the remarkable events that had 
 happened in Sicily. Allien. 
 
 Andrisous, I. a man who wrote a history of 
 
 Naxos. Athen. 1. II. A worthless person, 
 
 called Pseudophilipp^is on account of the like- 
 ness of his features to king Philip. He incited 
 the Macedonians to revolt against Rome, and 
 was conquered and led in triumph by Metellus, 
 152 B. C. Flor. 2, c. 14. 
 
 Androclides, I. a noble Theban who defend- 
 ed the democratical against the encroachments 
 of the oligarchical power. He was killed by 
 
 one of his enemies. II. A sophist in the age 
 
 of Aurelian, who gave an accomit of philoso- 
 phers. 
 
 Androclus, a son of Codrus, who reigned in 
 Ionia, and took Ephesus and Samos. Paus. 7, 
 c. 2. 
 
 Androcydes, a physician, who wrote the fol- 
 lowing letter to Alexander : — Vinum potaturus, 
 ReZy memento, te bibere sanguinem terrce Sicii- 
 ii venenum est homini cicuta, sic et vinum. Plin. 
 14, c. 5. 
 
 Androdamds. " Vid. Andromadas. 
 
 Androdus, a slave known and protected in 
 the Roman circus by a lion whose foot he had 
 cured. Gell. 5, c. 15. 
 
 Andromache, a daughter of Eetion, king of 
 Thebes in Cilicia, married Hector son of Priam, 
 king of Troy, by whom she had Astyanax. She 
 was so fond of her husband, that she even fed 
 his horses with her own hand. During the Tro- 
 jan war she remained at home employed in her 
 domestic concerns. Her parting with Hector, 
 
 who was going to a battle, in which he perish- 
 ed, has always been deemed the best, most ten- 
 der, and pathetic of all the passages in Homer's 
 Iliad. She received the news of her husband'-S 
 death with extreme sorrow ; and after the tak- 
 ing of Troy, she had the misfortune to see her 
 only son Astyanax, after she had saved him from 
 the flames, thrown headlong from the walls of 
 the city, by the hands of the man whose father 
 had killed her husband. {Senec. in Troad.) 
 Andromache, in the division of the prisoners by 
 the Greeks, fell to the share of Neoptolemus, 
 who treated her as his wife and carried her to 
 Epirus. He had by her three sons, Molossus, 
 Piclus, and Pergamus, and afterwards repudi- 
 ated her. After this divorce she married Hele- 
 nus son of Priam, who, as herself, was a captive 
 of Pyrrhus. She reigned with him over part of 
 the country, and became mother by him of Ces- 
 trinus. Some say that Astyanax was killed by 
 Ulysses, and Euripides says that Menelaus put 
 him to death. Homer. H. 6, 22 and 24.— Q. 
 Calab. I.— Virg. JEn. 3, v. 486.— Hi ,;in. fab. 
 123. — Dares Phryg. — Ovid. Am. 1, ef. 9, v. 35. 
 Trist. 5, el. 6, v. 42.—Apollod. 3, c. Vii.—Paus. 
 1, c. 11. 
 
 Andromachus, I. an opulent person of Sici- 
 ly, father to the historian Timseus. Diod. 16. 
 He assisted Timoleon in recovering the liberty 
 of the Syracusans. II. A general of Alex- 
 ander, to whom Parmenio gavethegov^ernment 
 of Syria. He was burnt alive by the Samari- 
 tans. Curt. 4, c. 5 and 8. III. An officer 
 
 of Seleucus the younger. Polycen. 4. 
 
 Andromadas, or Androdamus, a native of 
 Rhegium, who made laws for the Thracians 
 concerning the punishment of homicide, &c. 
 Aristot. 
 
 Andron, I. a man set over the citadel of Sy- 
 racuse by Dionysius. Hermocrates advised him 
 to seize it and revolt from the tyrant, which he 
 refused to do. The tyrant put him to death for 
 not discovering that Hermocrates had incited 
 
 him to rebellion. Polycen. 5, c. 2. II. A 
 
 man of Halicarnassus who composed some his- 
 torical works. Plut. in Thes. III. A na- 
 tive of Ephesus, who wrote an account of the 
 seven wise men of Greece. Diog. IV. Ano- 
 ther of Alexandria, &c. Apollon. Hist. Mirab. 
 c. 25. — Athe7i. 
 
 Andronicus Livius. Vid. Livius. 
 
 Andronigus, I. a peripatetic philosopher of 
 Rhodes, who flourished 59 years B. C. He 
 was the first who published and revised the 
 works of Aristotle and Theophrastus. His 
 periphrasis is extant, the best edition of which 
 is that of Heinsius, 8vo. L. Bat. 1617. Plut. 
 
 in Syll. II. "A Latin poet in the age of 
 
 Caesar. III. A Latin grammarian, whose 
 
 life Suetonius has written. IV. A king of 
 
 Lydia, surnamed Alpyus. V. An astrono- 
 mer of Athens, who built a marble octagonal 
 tower in honour of the eight principal winds, 
 on the top of which was placed a Triton with 
 a stick in his hand, pointing always to the side 
 whence the wind blew. 
 
 Androsthenes, I. one of Alexander's gene- 
 rals, sent with a ship on the coast of Arabia. 
 Arrian. 7, c. \(i.—Strab. 16. II. A gover- 
 nor of Thessaly, who favoured the interest of 
 Pompey. He was conquered bv J. Caesar. 
 
 Cess. 3' Bell. Civ. c. 80. III. A statuary of 
 
 343 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AN 
 
 Thebes. Pans. 10, c. 19. IV. A geogra- 
 pher in the age of Alexander. 
 
 Androtrion, a Greek, who wrote a history 
 of Attica and a treatise on agriculture. Pli7i. 
 —Pans. 10, c. 8. ^ 
 
 Angelion, a statuary, who made Apollo s 
 statue at Delphi. Pans. 2, c. 32. 
 
 Ania, a Roman widow, celebrated for her 
 beauty. One of her friends advised her to mar- 
 ry again. No, (said she,) if I marry a man as 
 affectionate as my first husband, I shall be ap- 
 prehensive for his death ; and if he is bad, why 
 have him, after such a kind and indulgent one 1 
 Anicetus, a freed man who directed the edu- 
 cation of Nero, and became the instrument of 
 his crimes. Suet, in Ner. 
 
 Anicia, I. a family at Rome, which, m the 
 flourishing limes of the republic, produced many 
 
 brave and illustrious citizens. II. A relation 
 
 of Atticus. C. Nepos. 
 
 Anicius Gallus, I. triumphed over the Illy- 
 rians and their kingGeniius, and was propr^tor 
 
 of Rome, A. U. C. 585. II. A consul with 
 
 Corn Cethegus, A. U. C. 594. III. Probus, 
 
 a Roman consul in the fourth century, famous 
 for his humanit5^ 
 
 Anna Commena, a princess of Constantmo- 
 ple, known to the world for the Greek history 
 which she wrote of her father Alexius, emperor 
 of the east. The character of this history is not 
 very high for authenticity or beauty of compo- 
 sition: the historian is lost in the daughter; 
 and, instead of simplicity of style and narrative, 
 as Gibbon says, an elaborate affectation of rhe- 
 toric and science betrays in every page the van- 
 ity of a female author. The best edition of 
 Anna Commena is that of Paris, folio, 1651. 
 
 Ann^us, a Roman family, which was subdi- 
 vided into the Lucani, Senecae, Flori, &c. 
 
 Annales, a chronological history, which 
 gives an account of all the important events of 
 every year in a state, without entering into the 
 causes which produced them. The annals of 
 Tacitus may be considered in this light. In 
 the first ages of Rome, the writing of the annals 
 was one of the duties and privileges of the high- 
 priest ; whence they have been called Annales 
 Maximi, from the priest Pontifex Maximus, 
 who consecrated them, and gave them as truly 
 genuine and authentic. 
 
 Annalis Lex settled the age at which, among 
 the Romans, a citizen could be admitted to ex- 
 ercise the offices of the state. This law origi- 
 nated in Athens, and was introduced in Rome. 
 No man could be a knight before 18 years of 
 age, nor be invested with the consular power 
 before he had arrived to his 25th year. 
 Annianus, a poet in the age of Trajan. 
 Annibal, a celebrated Carthaginian general, 
 son of Amilcar. He was educated in his fa- 
 ther's camp, and inured from his early years to 
 the labours of the field. He passed into Spain 
 when nine years old, and at the request of his 
 father, took "a solemn oath that he never would 
 be at peace with the Romans. After his fa- 
 ther's death he was appointed over the cavalry 
 in Spain ; and, some time after, upon the death 
 of Asdrubal, he was invested with the command 
 of all the armies of Carthage, though not yet in 
 the 25th year of his age. In three years of 
 continual success he subdued all the nations of 
 Spain which opposed the Carthaginian power, 
 ^ 344 
 
 and took Saguntum after a siege of eight months. 
 The city was in alliance with the Romans ; and 
 its fall was the cause of the second Punic war, 
 which Annibal prepared to support with all the 
 courage and prudence of a consummate general. 
 He levied three large armies, one of which he 
 sent to Africa ; he left another in Spain ; and 
 marched at the head of the third towards Italy. 
 This army some have calculated at 20,000 foot 
 and 6000 horse; others say that it consisted of 
 100,000 fool, and 20,000 horse. Liv. 21, c. 38. 
 He came to the Alps, and after much trouble 
 gained the top in nine days. The passage of 
 the Alps by this bold leader, which struck the 
 utmost terror into the Romans, appeared to 
 them so prodigious that the embellishments of 
 fiction seemed to add nothing of wonder to the 
 recital, and it soon began to be believed that this 
 extraordinary passage had been effected by the 
 use of vinegar, in which the Alpine rocks were 
 dissolved. Modern writers, however, by the 
 application of a just criticism, and being, more- 
 over, less excited and less interested on this 
 point, have generally assigned to the marvellous 
 story its proper place among the inventions of 
 fancy. An author, nevertheless, of great learn- 
 ing and genius at the present day, seems, by the 
 weight of his opinion to give the story of the 
 older writers fresh currency and new authority; 
 since he manifestly inclines to receive the tra- 
 dition. He thinks, however, that there might 
 have been one difficulty in the way, and inge- 
 nuously allows that he cannot imagine how 
 Annibal obtained a " sufficient supply for his 
 purpose." (See Lemp. Did. 6th Am. Ed.) 
 He was opposed by the Romans as soon as he 
 entered Italy; and after he had defeated P. 
 Corn. Scipio and Sempronius, near the Rhone, 
 the Po, and the Trebia, he cirossedthe Apennines 
 and invaded Etruria. He defeated the army of 
 the consul Flaminius near the lake Trasimenus, 
 and soon after met the two consuls, C. Terentius 
 and L. ^Emilius at Cannae. His army consisted 
 of 40,000 foot and 10,000 horse, when he engaged 
 the Romans at the celebrated battle of Cannae. 
 The slaughter was so great, that no less than 
 40,000 Romans were killed, and the conqueror 
 made a bridge with the dead carcasses ; and, as 
 a sign of his victory, he sent to Carthage three 
 bushels of gold rings, which had been taken from 
 5630 Roman knights slain in the battle. Had 
 Annibal, immediately after the battle, marched 
 his army to the gates of Rome, it must have 
 yielded amidst the general consternation, if we 
 believe the opinions of some writers ; but his 
 delay gave the enemy spirit and boldness, and 
 when at last he approached the walls, he was 
 informed that the piece of ground on which his 
 army then stood, was selling at a high price in 
 the Roman foruip. After hovering for some 
 time round the city, he retired to Capua, where 
 the Carthaginian soldiers soon forgot to conquer 
 in the pleasures and riot of this luxurious city. 
 From that circumstance it has been said that 
 Capua was a Cannae to Annibal. After many 
 important debates in the senate, it was decreed 
 that war should be carried into Africa, to re- 
 move Annibal from the gates of Rome: and 
 Scipio, who was the first proposer of the 'plan, 
 was empowered to put it into execution. When 
 Carthage saw the enemy on her coasts, she re- 
 called Annibal from Italy ; and that great gene- 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AN 
 
 ral is said to have left, with tears in his eyes, a 
 country which, during sixteen years, he had 
 kept under continual alarms, and which he 
 could almost call his own. He and Scipio met 
 near Carthage, and after a parley, in which 
 neither would give the preference to his enemy, 
 they determined to come to a general engage- 
 ment. The battle was fought near Zama; 
 Scipio made a great slaughter of the enemy, 
 20,000 were killed, and the same number made 
 prisoners. Annibal, after he had lost the day, 
 fled to Adrumetum. Soon afterwards Annibal, 
 who wasjealous and apprehensive of the Roman 
 
 Eower, fled to Syria, to king Antiochus, whom 
 e advised to make war against Rome, and lead 
 an army into the heart of Italy. Antiochus 
 distrusted the fidelity of Annibal, and was con- 
 quered by ihe Romans, who granted him peace 
 on the condition of his delivering their mortal 
 enemy into their hands. Annibal, who was 
 apprized of this, left the court of Antiochus, 
 and fled to Prasias, king of Bithynia. He 
 encouraged him to declare war against Rome, 
 and even assisted him in weakening the power 
 of Eumenes, king of Pergamus, who was in 
 alliance with the Romans. The senate received 
 intelligence that Annibal was in Bithynia, and 
 immediately sent ambassadors, amongst whom 
 was L. Q,. Flaminius, to demand him of Prusias. 
 The king was unwilling to betray Annibal, and 
 violate the laws of hospitality, but at the same 
 time he dreaded the power of Rome. ' Annibal 
 extricated him from his embarrassment ; and 
 when he heard that his house was besieged on 
 every side, and all means of escape fruitless, he 
 took a dose of poison, which he always carried 
 with him, in a ring on his finger ; and as he 
 breathed his last, he exclaimed, Solvamus diu- 
 turnd curd populum Romanum-^ quando mortem 
 senis cxpeciare longum censet. He died in his 
 70th year, according to some, about 182 years, 
 B.C. That year was famous for the death of 
 the three greatest generals of the age, Annibal, 
 Scipio, and Philopeemen. The death of so for- 
 midable a rival was the cause of great rejoicings 
 in Rome ; he had always been a professed ene- 
 my to the Roman name, and ever endeavoured 
 to destroy its power. If he shone in the field, 
 he also distinguished himself by his studies. 
 He was taught Greek by Sosilus, a Lacedaemo- 
 nian, and he even wrote some books in that 
 language on different subjects. It is remark- 
 able that the life of Annibal, whom the Romans 
 wished so many times to destroy by perfidy, 
 was never attempted by any of his soldiers or 
 countrymen. He made himself as conspicuous 
 in the government of the state as at the head 
 of armies ; and though his enemies reproached 
 him with the rudeness of laughing in the Car- 
 thaginian senate, while every senator was bath- 
 ed in tears for the misfortunes of the country, 
 Annibal defended himself by saying, that he 
 who had been bred all his life in a camp, ought 
 to dispense with all the more polished feelings 
 of a capital. He was so apprehensive for his 
 safety, that when he was in Bithynia his house 
 was fortified like a castle; and on every side 
 there were secret doors, which could give im- 
 mediate escape, if his life was ever attempted. 
 "When he quitted Italy, and embarked on board 
 a vessel for Africa, he strongly suspected the 
 fidelity of his pilot, who told him that the lofly 
 Part XL— 2 X 
 
 mountain which appeared at a distance was a 
 promontory of Sicily, that he killed him on the 
 spot ; and when he was convinced of his fatal 
 error, he gave a magnificent burial to the man 
 whom he had so falsely murdered, and called the 
 promontory by his name. The labours which 
 he sustained, and the inclemency of the weather 
 to which he exposed himself in crossing the 
 Alps, so weakened one of his eyes that he ever 
 after lost the use of it. The Romans have cele- 
 iDraied the humanity of Annibal, who, after the 
 battle of Cannse, sought the body of the fallen 
 consul amidst the heaps of slain, and honoured 
 it with a funeral becoming the dignity of Rome, 
 He performed the same friendly offices to the 
 remains of Marcellus and Tib. Gracchus, who 
 had fallen in battle. Annibal, when in Spain, 
 married a woman of Castulo. The Romans 
 entertained such a high opinion of him, as a 
 commander, that Scipio, who conquered him, 
 calls him the greatest general that ever lived, 
 and gives the second rank to Pyrrhus the Epirot, 
 and places himself the next to these in merit and 
 abilities. The failure of Annibal's expedition 
 in Italy did not arise from his neglect, but from 
 that of his countrymen, who gave him no assist- 
 ance, Livy has painted the character of Anni- 
 bal like an enemy ; and it is much to be lamented 
 that this celebrated historian has withheld the 
 tribute due to the merits and virtues of the great- 
 est of generals. C. Nep. in vita. — Liv. 21, 22, 
 &c. — Plut. in Flamin. &c. — Justin. 32, c. 4. — 
 Sil. Ital. 1, &c. — Appian. — Florus, 2 and 3. — 
 Polyb.—Diod.—Juv. 10, v. 159, &c.— Val. Max. 
 
 —Horat. 4, Od. 4, Epod. 16. II. The son of 
 
 the great Annibal, was sent by Himilco to Lily- 
 bssum, which was besieged by the Romans, to 
 
 keep the Sicilians in their duty. Pohjb. 1. 
 
 III. A Carthaginian general, son of Asdrubal, 
 commonly called of Rhodes, above 160 years 
 before the birth of the great Annibal. Justin. 
 
 19, c. 2. — Xenophon. Hist. Grcec. IV, A son 
 
 of Giscon, and grandson of Amilcar, sent by the 
 Carthaginians to the assistance of iEgista, a 
 town of Sicily, He was overpowered by Her- 
 mocrates, an exiled SyracQsan. Justin. 22 and 
 
 23. V. A Carthaginian, surnamed Senior. 
 
 He was conquered by the consul C. Sulpit. Pa- 
 terculus, in Sardinia, and hung on a cross by 
 his countrymen for his ill success, 
 
 Anniceris, an excellent charioteer of Cyrene, 
 who exhibited his skill in driving a chariot be- 
 fore Plato and the academy. "When the philo- 
 sopher was wantonly sold by Dionysius, Anni- 
 ceris ransomed his friend ; and he showed fur- 
 ther his respect for learning, by establishing a 
 sect at Cyrene, called after his name, which 
 supported that all good consisted in pleasure. 
 Cic. de Off. 3. — Diog. in Plat. (^ Arist. — JEliau. 
 V. H. 2, c. 27. 
 
 Annon, and Hannon, I. a Carthaginian ge- 
 neral, conquered in Spain by Scipio, and sent 
 to Rome. He was son of Bomilcar, M^hom An- 
 nibal sentprivately over to the Rhone to conquer 
 the Gauls. Liv. 21, c. 27. II. A Cartha- 
 ginian who taught birds to sing " Annon is a 
 god," after which he restored them to their na- 
 tive liberty; but the birds lost with their slavery 
 what they had been taught. Milan. V. II. nit. 
 
 lib. c. 30. III. A Carthaginian who wrote, 
 
 in the Punic language, the account of a voyage 
 
 he had made round Africa. This book was 
 
 345 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AN 
 
 translated into Greek, and is still extant, Vos- 
 
 sius de Hist. Gr. 4. IV. Another, banished 
 
 from Carthage for taming a lion for his own 
 amusement, which was interpreted as if he 
 wished to aspire to sovereign power. Plin. 8, 
 c. 16. — This name has been common to many 
 Carthaginians who have signalized themselves 
 among their countrymen during the Punic wars 
 against Rome, and in their wars against the 
 Sicilians. Liv. 26, 27, &c. 
 
 Anser, a Roman poet, whom Ovid, lyist. 3, 
 el. 1, V. 425, calls bold and impertinent. Virgil 
 and Propertius are said to have played upon his 
 name with some degree of severity, 
 
 Ant^as, a king of Scythia, who said that the 
 neighing of a horse was far preferable to the 
 music of Ismenias, a famous musician who had 
 been taken captive. Plut. 
 
 Antagoras, a Rhodian poet much admired 
 by Antigonus, Id. 1, c. 2. One day, as he was 
 cooking some fish, the king asked him whether 
 Homer ever dressed any meals when he was re- 
 cording the actions of Agamemnon'? And do 
 you think, replied the poet, that he ever inquired 
 whether any individual dressed fish in his ar- 
 my 1 Plut. Symp. (f* Apoph. 
 
 Antalcidas, of Sparta, son of Leon, was 
 sent into Persia, where he made a peace with 
 Artaxerxes, very disadvantageous to his coun- 
 try, by which B. C. 387, the Greek cities of 
 Asia became tributary to the Persian monarch. 
 Paus. 9, c. 1, &c. — Diod. 14. — Plut. in Artax. 
 
 Anteius Publius, was appointed over Syria 
 by Nero. He was accused of sedition and con- 
 spiracy, and drank poison, which, operating 
 slowlv, obliged him to open his veins. Tacit. 
 An. 13, &c. 
 
 Antenor, I. a Trojan prince related to Pri- 
 am. It is said that during the Trojan war he 
 alwa3''s kept a secret correspondence with the 
 Greeks, and chiefly with Menelaus and Ulysses. 
 In the council of Priam, Homer introduces him 
 as advising the Trojans to restore Helen and 
 conclude the war. He advised Ulysses to carry 
 away the Trojan palladium, and encouraged the 
 Greeks to make the wooden horse, which, at 
 his persuasion, was brought into the city of Troy 
 by a breach made in the walls, ^neas has been 
 accused of being a partner of his guilt ; and the 
 night that Troy was taken, they had a number 
 of Greeks stationed at the doors of their houses, 
 to protect them from harm. After the destruc- 
 tion of his coU'ntry, Antenor migrated to Italy 
 near the Adriatic, where he built the town of 
 Padua. His children were also concerned in the 
 Trojan war, and displayed much valour against 
 the Greeks. Their names were Polybius, Aca- 
 mas, Agenor, and, according to others, Polyda- 
 mas and Helicaon. Liv. 1, c. 1. — Plin. 3, c. 
 n.— Virg. JEn. 1, V. 2i2.— Tacit. 16, c. 21.— 
 Homer. 11. 3, 7, 8, II.— Ovid. Met. Vi.—Dic- 
 tys Cret. b.— Dares Phryg. 6. — Strab. 13. — 
 
 Dionys. Hal. 1. — Paus. 10, c. 27. II. A 
 
 statuary. Paus. III. A Cretan who wrote 
 
 a history of his country. JElian. 
 
 Anthermds, a Chian sculptor, son of Mic- 
 ciades and grandson to Malas. He and his 
 brot\ier Bupalas made a statue of the poet Hip- 
 pons X, which caused universal laughter, on ac- 
 couc-: of the deformity of its countenance. The 
 po© was so incensed upon this, and inveighed 
 wit: 30 much bitterness against the statuaries, 
 346 
 
 that they hung themselves, according to the 
 opinion of some authors. Plin. 36, c. 5. 
 
 Anthes, a native of Anthedon, who first in- 
 vented hymns. Plut. de Mus. 
 
 Anthesphoria, a festival celebrated in Sicily, 
 in honour of Proserpine, who was carried away 
 by Pluto as she was gathering flowers. Clau- 
 
 dian. de Rapt. Pros. Festivals of the same 
 
 name were also observed at Argos in honour 
 of Juno, who was called Antheia. Paus. 
 Corinth. — Pollux. Onom. 1, c. 1, 
 
 Anthesteria, festivals in honour of Bacchus 
 among the Greeks. They were celebrated in 
 the month of February, called Anthesterion, 
 whence the name is derived, and continued 
 three days. The first was called ILiSoiyta ano 
 Tov TTiSeg oiyeiv, because they tapped their barrels 
 of liquor. The second day was called ^o^^, from 
 the measure ;5;oa, because every individual drank 
 of his own vessel, in commemoration of the ar- 
 rival of Orestes, who, after the murder of his 
 mother, came, without being purified, to Demo- 
 phoon, or Pandion, king of Athens, and was 
 obliged, with all the Athenians, to drink by him- 
 self for fear of polluting the people by drinking 
 with them before he was purified of the parri- 
 cide. It was usual on that day to ride out in 
 chariots, and ridicule those that passed b)^ 
 The best drinker was rewarded with a crown 
 of leaves, or rather of gold, and with a cask of 
 wine. The third day was called yivrpoi, from 
 Xvrpa, a vessel brought out full of all sorts of 
 seed and herbs, deemed sacred to Mercury, and 
 therefore not touched. The slaves had the per- 
 mission of being merry and free during these 
 festivals ; and at the end of the solemnity a he- 
 rald proclaimed, Gvpa^c, Kajsej, ovk £t AvStaTrjpia 
 i. e. Depart, ye Carian slaves, the festivals are 
 at an end. JElian. V. H. 2, c; 41. 
 
 Antia Lex was made for the suppression of 
 luxury at Rome. The enactor was Antius 
 Restio, who afterwards never supped abroad. 
 Macrob. 3, c. 17. 
 
 Anticlea, a daughter of Autolycus and Am- 
 phithea. She was pregnant of Ulysses when 
 she married Laertes, king of Ithaca. Laertes 
 was, nevertheless, the reputed father of Ulysses. 
 It is said that Anticlea killed herself when she 
 heard a false report of her son's death. Homer. 
 Od. 11, 19.— Hy gin. fab. 201, 243.— Paws. 10, 
 c. 29. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Anticlides, a Greek historian, whose works 
 are now lost. They are often quoted by Athe- 
 ncEUS and Plut. in Alex. 
 
 Anticrates, a Spartan, who stabbed Epa- 
 minondas, the Theban general, at the battle of 
 Mantinea. Plut. in Ages. 
 
 Antidotus, an excellent painter, pupil of 
 Euphranor. Plin. 35, c. 11. 
 
 Antigenes, one of Alexander's generals, 
 publicly rewarded for his valour. Curt. 5, c. 14. 
 
 Antigenidas, a famous musician of Thebes, 
 disciple to Philoxenus. 
 
 Antigona, daughter of Berenice, was wife 
 to king Pyrrhus, Plut. in Pyrrh. 
 
 Antigonus, I. one of Alexander's generals, 
 universally supposed to be the illegitimate son 
 of Philip, Alexander's father. In the division 
 of the provinces, after the king's death, he re- 
 ceived Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia. He 
 united with Aiitipater'and Ptolemy, to destroy 
 Perdiccas and Eumenes ; and after the death of 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AN 
 
 Perdiccas, he made continual war against Eu- 
 menes, whom, alter three years of various for- 
 tune, he took prisoner and ordered to be starved. 
 He afterwards declared war against Cassander, 
 whom he conquered, and had several engage- 
 ments by his generals with Lysimachus. He 
 obliged Selene Qs to retire from Syria, and fly for 
 refuge and safety to Egypt. Ptolemy, who had 
 established himself in Egypt, promised to de- 
 fend Seleucus ; and from thai time all friendship 
 ceased between Ptolemy and Antigonus, and a 
 new war was begun, in which Demetrius, the 
 son of Antigonus, conquered the fleet of Pto- 
 lemy near the island of Cyprus, and took 16,000 
 men prisoners, and sunk 200 ships. After this 
 famous naval battle, which happened 26 years 
 after Alexander's death, Antigonus and his son 
 assumed the title of kings, and their example 
 was followed by all the rest of Alexander's gen- 
 erals. The power of Antigonus was now be- 
 come so formidable, that Ptolemy, Seleucus, 
 Cassander, and Lysimachus, combined together 
 to destroy him ; yet Antigonus despised them, 
 saying that he would disperse them as birds. 
 He attempted to enter Egypt in vain, though 
 he gained several victories over his opponents ; 
 and he at last received so many wounds in a 
 battle that he could not survive them, and died 
 in the 80th year of his age, 301 B. C. During 
 his life he was master of all Asia Minor as far 
 as Syria. Antigonus was concerned in the 
 different intrigues of the Greeks. He made a 
 treaty of alliance with the -Etolians, and was 
 highly respected by the Athenians, to whom 
 he showed himself very liberal and indulgent. 
 Antigonus discharged some of his officers be- 
 cause they spent their time in taverns, and he 
 gave their commissions to common soldiers, 
 who performed their duty with punctuality. A 
 certain poet called him divine; but the king 
 despised his flattery, and bade him go and in- 
 quire of his servants whether he was really 
 what he supposed him. Strab. 13. — Diod. 17, 
 &c. — Pans. 2, c. 6, &c. — Justin. 13, 14, and 
 15. — C. Nep. in Eumen. — Plut. in Demetr. 
 Eumen. <^ Arat. IT. Gonatas, son of De- 
 metrius, and grandson to Antigonus, was king 
 of Macedonia. He restored the Armenians to 
 liberty, conquered the Gauls, and at last was 
 expelled by Pyrrhus, who seized his kingdom. 
 After the death of Pyrrhus, he recovered Mace- 
 donia, and died after a reign of 34 years, leaving 
 his son Demetrius to succeed, B. C. 243. Jus- 
 tin. 21 and 25. — Polyh. — Plut. in Demetr. 
 
 III. The guardian of his nephew Philip, the 
 son of Demetrius, who married the widow of 
 Demetrius, and usurped the kingdom. He was 
 called Doson, from his promising much and giv- 
 ing nothing. He conquered Cleomenes, king 
 of Sparta, and obliged him to retire into Egypt, 
 because he favoured the jEtolians against the 
 Greeks. He died B. C. 221, after a reign of 11 
 years, leaving his crown to the lawful possessor, 
 Philip, who distinguished himself by his cruel- 
 ties and the war he made against the Romans. 
 Justin. 28 and 29.—Pohjb. 2.— Plut. in Cleom. 
 
 IV. A son of Aristobulus, king of Judasa, 
 
 who obtained an armv from the king of Parthia, 
 by promising him 1000 talents and 500 women. 
 With these foreign troops he attacked his coun- 
 try, and cut the ears of Hyrcanus to make him 
 unfit for the priesthood. " Herod, with the aid 
 
 of the Romans, took him prisoner, and he was 
 put to death by Antony. Joseph. 14. — Dion. 
 and Plut. in Anton. V. Carystius, an his- 
 torian in the age of Philadelphus, who wrote 
 the lives of some of the ancient philosophers. 
 
 Diog. — Athen. VI. A statuary who wrote 
 
 on his profession. 
 
 Antilochus, I. a king of Messenia. II. 
 
 The eldest son of Nestor, by Eurydice. He 
 went to the Trojan waj- with his father, and 
 Vas killed. Homer. Od. 4. — Ovid. Heroid. says 
 
 he was killed by Hector. III. A poet who 
 
 wrote a panegyric upon Lysander, and received 
 a hat filled with silver. Plut. in L/i/s. 
 
 Antimachus, I. an historian. II. A Greek 
 
 poet and musician of Ionia in the age of So- 
 crates. He wrote a treatise on the age and ge- 
 nealogy of Homer, and proved him to be a na- 
 tive of Colophon. He repeated one of his com- 
 positions before a large audience ; but his diction 
 was so obscure and unintelligible, that all retired 
 except Plato; upon which he said, Legam, ni- 
 hil-ominuSj Plato enim mihi esi unus instar ovi- 
 nium. He was reckoned the next to Homer in 
 excellence, and the emperor Adrian was so fond 
 of his poetry, that he preferred him to Homer. 
 He wrote a poem upon the Theban war ; and 
 before he had brought his heroes to the city of 
 Thebes, he had filled twenty-four volumes. He 
 was surnamed Clarius, from Claros, a moun- 
 tain near Colophon, where he was born. Paus. 
 9, c. 35. — Plut. in Lysand. ^ Timol.-^—Propert. 
 2, el. 34, V. 45.— Quintil. 10, c. 1. III. An- 
 other poet of the same name, surnamed Psecas, 
 
 because he praised himself. Suidas. IV. 
 
 A Trojan, whom Paris bribed to oppose the 
 restoring of Helen to Menelaus and Ulysses, 
 who had come as ambassadors to recover her. 
 His sons, Hippolochus and Pisander, were kill- 
 ed by Agamemnon. Homer. 11. 11, v. 123, 1. 
 
 23, V. 188. V. A native of Heliopolis, who 
 
 wrote a poem on the creation of the world in 
 3780 verses. 
 
 Antinoeia, annual sacrifices and quinquen- 
 nial games, in honour of Antinous, instituted by 
 the emporor Adrian, at Mantinea, where Anti- 
 nous was worshipped as a divinity. 
 
 Antinous, a youth of Bithynia, of whom the 
 emperoi Adrian was so extremely fond, that at 
 his death he erected a temple to him, and wish- 
 ed it to be believed that he had been changed 
 into a constellation. Some writers suppose that 
 Antinous was drowned in the Nile, while oth- 
 ers maintain that he offered himself at a sacri- 
 fice as a victim in honour of the emperor. Vid. 
 Part III. 
 
 Antiochds, I. surnamed Soter, was son of 
 Seleucus, and king of Syria and Asia. He 
 made a treaty of alliance with Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus, king of Egypt. He fell into a linger- 
 ing disease, which none of his father's physi- 
 cians could cure for some time, till it was dis- 
 covered that his pulse was more irregular than 
 usual when Stratonice, his step-mother, enter- 
 ed his room, and that love for her was the cause 
 of his illness. This was told to the father, who 
 willingly gave Stratonice to his son, that his 
 immoderate love might not cause his death. 
 He died 291 B. C. after a reicfn of 19 years. 
 Justin. 17, c. 2, &:c.— Val. Max. b.—Polyb. 4. 
 — Afpian. The second of that name, sur- 
 named Theos{God)\>Y i\\Q. Milesians, because 
 347 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AN 
 
 he put to death their tyrant Timarchus, was i 
 son and successor of Antiochus Soter. He 
 put an end to the war which had been begun 
 with Ptolemy ; and, to strengthen the peace, he 
 married Berenice, the daughter of the Egyptian 
 king. This so offended his former wife, Lao- 
 dice, by whom he had two sons, that she poi- 
 soned him, and suborned Artemon, whose fea- 
 tures were similar to his, to represent him as 
 king. Artemon, subservient to her will, pre- 
 tended to be indisposed, and, as king, called all 
 the ministers, and recommended to them Seleu- 
 cus, surnamed Caliinicus, son of Laodice, as his 
 successor. After this ridiculous imposture, it 
 was made public that the king had died a natu- 
 ral death, and Laodice placed her son on the 
 throne,and despatched Berenice and her son, 246 
 
 years before the Christian era. Appian. The 
 
 third of that name, surnamed the Great, brother 
 to Seleucus Ceraunus, was king of Syria and 
 Asia, and reigned 36 years. He was defeated 
 by Ptolemy Philopater, at Raphia, after which 
 he made war against Persia, and took Sardes, 
 After the death of Philopater, he endeavoured to 
 crush his infant son. Epiphanes ; but his guar- 
 dians solicited the aid of the Romans, and An- 
 tiochus was compelled to resign his pretensions. 
 He conquered the greatest part of Greece, of 
 which some cities implored the aid of Rome ; 
 and Annibal, who had taken refuge at his court, 
 encouraged him to make war against Italy. He 
 was glad to find himself supported by the abili- 
 ties of such a general ; but his measures were 
 dilatory, and not agreeable to the advice of An- 
 nibal and he was conquered, and obliged to 
 retire beyond mount Taurus, and pay a yearly 
 fine of 2000 talents to the Romans. His reve- 
 nues being unable to pay the fine, he attempted to 
 plunder the temple of Belus, in Susiana, which 
 so incensed the inhabitants that they killed him 
 with his followers, 187 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. In his character of king, Antiochus 
 was humane and liberal, the patron of learning 
 and the friend of merit ; and he published an 
 edict, ordering his subjects never to obey except 
 his commands were consistent v.dth the laws of 
 the country. He had three sons, Seleucus Phi- 
 lopater, Antiochus Epiphanes, and Demetrius. 
 The first succeeded him, and the two others 
 were kept as hostages by the Romans. Justin. 
 31 and 32.—Strab. 16.—Liv. 34, c. 59.—Flor. 
 
 2, c. 1. — Appian. Bell. Syr. The fourth 
 
 Antiochus, surnamed Epiphanes, or Illustrious, 
 was king of Syria after the death of his brother 
 Seleucus, and reigned eleven years. He de- 
 stroyed Jerusalem, and was so cruel to the Jews, 
 that they called him Epimanes, or Furious, and 
 not Epiphanes. He attempted to plunder Per- 
 sepolis without etFect. He was of a voracious 
 appetite, and fond of childish diversions ; he 
 used, for his pleasure, to empty bags of money 
 in the streets, to see the people's eagerness to 
 gather it ; he bathed m the public baihs with the 
 populace, and was fond of perfuming himself to 
 excess. He invited all the Greeks he could at 
 Antioch, and waited upon them as a servant, 
 and danced with such indecency among the 
 stage-players, that even the most dissipated and 
 shameless blushed at the sight. Polybius. — Ms- 
 tin. 34, c. 3, The fifth, surnamed Ewpator, 
 
 succeeded his father Epiphanes on the throne 
 of Syria, 164 B. C. He made a peace with the 
 348 
 
 Jews, and in the second year of his reign was 
 assassinated by his uncle Demetrius, who said 
 that the crown was lawfully his own, and that 
 it had been seized from his father. Justin. 34. 
 
 — Joseph. 12. The sixth, king of Syria, 
 
 was surnamed Eutlicus or Noble. His father, 
 Alexander Bala, intrusted him to the care of 
 Malcus, an Arabian ; and he received the crown 
 from Tryphon, in opposition to his brother De- 
 metrius, whom the people hated. Before he had 
 been a year on the throne, Tryphon murdered 
 him, 143 B. C. and reigned in his place for 
 
 three years. Joseph. 13. The seventh, cal- 
 
 ed Sidetes, reigned nine years. In the begin- 
 ning of his reign he was afraid of Tryphon, 
 and concealed himself, but he soon obtained the 
 means of destroying his enemy. He made war 
 against Phraates, king of Parthia, and he fell 
 in the battle which was soon after fought, about 
 130 years before the Christian era. Justin. 36, 
 c. 1. — Appian. Bell. Syr. The eighth, sur- 
 named Grypus, from his aquiline nose, was son 
 of Demetrius Nicanor, by Cleopatra. His bro- 
 ther Seleucus was destroyed by Cleopatra ; and 
 he himself would have shared the same fate, had 
 he not discovered his mother's artifice, and com- 
 pelled her to drink the poison which was pre- 
 pared for himself He killed Alexander Zebi- 
 na, whom Ptolemy had sent to oppose him on the 
 throne of Syria, and was at last assassinated B. 
 C. 112, after a reign of eleven years. Juslin. 
 39, &c. — Joseph. — Appian. The ninth, sur- 
 named Cyzenicus, from the city Cyzicus, where 
 he received his education, was son of Anti- 
 ochus Sidetes, by Cleopatra. He disputed the 
 kingdom with his brother Grypus, who ceded to 
 him Coelosyria, part of his patrimony. He was 
 at last conquered by his nephew Seleucus, near 
 Antioch, and rather than to continue longer in 
 his hands, he killed himself, B. C. 92: While 
 a private man he seemed worthy to reign ; but 
 when on the throne he was dissolute and tyran- 
 nical. He was fond of mechanics, and invent- 
 ed some useful military engines. Appia7i. — Jo- 
 seph. The tenth, was ironically surnamed 
 
 Pi^ts, because he married Selena, the wife of 
 his father and of his uncle. He was the son of 
 Antiochus ninth, and he expelled Seleucus, the 
 son of Grypus, from Syria, and was killed in a 
 battle he fought against the Parthians, in the 
 
 cause of the Galatians. Joseph. — Appian. • 
 
 After his death, the kingdom of Syria Vv^as torn 
 to pieces by the factions of the royal family, or 
 usurpers, who, under a good or false title, un- 
 der the name of Antiochus or his relations, es- 
 tablished themselves for a little time as sove- 
 reigns either of Syria or Damascus, or other 
 dependent provinces. At last, Antiochus, sur- 
 named Asiaticus, the son of Antiochus the 
 ninth, was restored to his paternal throne by the 
 influence of Lucullus, the Roman general, on the 
 expulsion of Tigranes, king of Armenia, from 
 the Syrian dominions; but, four years after, 
 Pompey deposed him, and observed that he who 
 had hid himself while an usurper sat upon, his 
 throne, ought not to be a king. From that time, 
 B. C. 65, Svria became a Roman province, and 
 the race of Antiochus was extinguished. Jus- 
 tin. 40. A philosopher of Ascalon, famous 
 
 for his writings, and the respect withwhich he 
 was treated by his pupils, Lucullus, Cicero, and 
 Brutus. Plut. in ImcuU. An historian of 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AN 
 
 Syracuse, son of Xenophanes, who wrote, be- 
 sides other works, a history of Sicily, in nine 
 books, in which he began at the age of king Co- 
 calus. Strab. — Diod. 12. A rich king, tri- 
 butary to the Romans in the age of Vespasian. 
 
 Tacit. Hist. 2, c. 81. A sophist, who refused 
 
 to take upon himself the government of a state, 
 on account of the vehemence of his passions. 
 
 A king, conquered by Antony, &c. Ccbs. 
 
 3, Bell. Civ. 4. A king of Messenia. Paus. 
 
 4. A commander of the Athenian fleet, un- 
 der Alcibiades, conquered by Lysander. JXe- 
 
 noph. Hist. Grcsc. A writer of Alexandria, 
 
 who published a treatise on comic poets. Athen. 
 
 -Plut. wi Eumen. Alexand. &c. 
 
 -II. A son 
 
 -A sculptor, said to have made the famous 
 statue of Pallas, preserved in the Ludovisi gar- 
 dens at Rome. 
 
 Antipater, I. son of lolaus, was soldier under 
 king Philip, and raised to the rank of a general 
 under Alexander the Great. When Alexander 
 went to invade Asia, he left Antipater supreme 
 governor of Macedonia and of all Greece. An- 
 tipater exerted himself in the cause of his king ; 
 he made war against Sparta, and was soon after 
 called into Persia, with a reinforcement, by 
 Alexander. He had been suspected of giving 
 poison to Alexander, to raise himself to power. 
 After Alexander's death, his generals divided 
 the empire among themselves, and Macedonia 
 was allotted to Antipater. The wars which 
 Greece, and chiefly Athens, meditated during 
 Alexander's life, now burst forth with uncom- 
 mon fury as soon as the news of his death was 
 received. The Athenians levied an army of 
 30,000 men, and equipped 200 ships against 
 Antipater, who was master of Macedonia. Their 
 expedition was attended Avith much success, An- 
 tipater was routed in Thessaly, and even be- 
 sieged in the town of Lamia. But when Leos- 
 thenes, the Athenian general, was mortally 
 wounded under the walls of Lamia, the fortune 
 of the war was changed. Antipater obliged the 
 enemy to raise the siege, and soon after received 
 a reinforcement from Craterus from Asia, with 
 which he conquered the Athenians at Cranon 
 in Thessaly. After this defeat, Antipater and 
 Craterus marched into Boeotia, and conquered 
 the iEtolians, and granted peace to the Athe- 
 nians, on the conditions which Leosthenes had 
 proposed to Antipater when besieged in Lamia, 
 i. e. that he should be absolute master over them. 
 Besides this, he demanded from their ambas- 
 sadors, Demades, Phocion, and Xenocrates, 
 that they should deliver into his hands the ora- 
 tors Demosthenes and Hyperides, whose elo- 
 quence had inflamed the minds of their coun- 
 trymen, and had been the primary causes of the 
 war. The conditions were accepted, a Mace- 
 donian garrison was stationed in Athens, but 
 the inhabitants still were permitted the free use 
 of their laws and privileges. Antipater and 
 Craterus were the first who made hostile pre- 
 parations against Perdiccas; and, during that 
 time, Polyperchon was appointed over Macedo- 
 nia. Polyperchon defeated the ^tolians, who 
 made an invasion upon Macedonia. Antipater 
 gave assistance to Euraenes, in Asia, against 
 Antigonus, according to Justin. 14, c. 2. At 
 his death, B. C. 319, Antipater appointed Poly- 
 perchon master of all his possessions. Curt. 
 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 10. — Justin. 11, 12, 13, &c — 
 Diod. 17, 18, &c. — C. Nep. in Phoc. <^ Eumen. 
 
 of Cassander, king of Macedonia, and son-in- 
 law of Lysimachus. He killed his mother, be- 
 cause she wished his brother Alexander to suc- 
 ceed to the throne. Alexander, to revenge the 
 death of his mother, solicited the assistance of 
 Demetrius; but peace was re-established be- 
 tween the two brothers, by the advice of Lysi- 
 machus, and, soon after, Demetrius killed An- 
 tipater, and made himself king of Macedonia, 
 
 294 B. C. Justin. 26, c. 1. III. A king of 
 
 Macedonia, who reigned only 45 days, 277 B. C. 
 IV. A powerful prince, father to Herod. 
 
 He was appointed governor of Judaea by Caesar, 
 whom he had assisted in the Alexandrine war. 
 
 Joseph. V. One of Alexander's soldiers, who 
 
 conspired against his life with Hermolaus. 
 Curt. 8, c. 6.— — VI. A celebrated sophist of 
 Hieropolis, preceptor to the children of the em- 
 peror Severus. VII. A stoic philosopher of 
 
 Tarsus, 144 years B. C. VIII. A poet of 
 
 Sidon, who could compose a number of verses 
 extempore upon any subject. He ranked Sap- 
 pho among the muses in one of his epigrams. 
 He had a fever every year on the day of his 
 birth, of which at last he died. He flourished 
 about 80 years B. C. Some of his epigrams are 
 preserved in the Anthologia. Plin. 7, c. 51. — 
 Val. Max. 1, 10.— Cic. de Oral. 3, de Offic 3, de 
 Quasi. Acad. 4. IX. A philosopher of Phoe- 
 nicia, preceptor to Cato of tJtica. Pluft. in Cat. 
 
 A stoic philosopher, disciple to Diogenes 
 of Babylon. He wrote two books on divina- 
 tion, and died at Athens. Cic. de Div. 1, c 3. 
 
 —Ac. Quasi. 4, c. 6.—De Offic. 3, c. 12. 
 
 XI, A disciple of Aristotle, who wrote two 
 
 books of letters. XII. A poet of Thessalo- 
 
 nica, in the age of Augustus. 
 
 Antiphanes, I. an ingenious statuary, of Ar- 
 
 gos. Paus. 5, c. 17. II. A comic poet of 
 
 Rhodes, Smyrna, or Carystus. He was born 
 B. C. 408, of parents in the low condition of 
 slaves. This most prolific poet, (he is said to 
 have composed upwards of three hundred dra- 
 mas,) notwithstanding the meanness of his ori- 
 gin, was so popular in Athens, that on his de- 
 cease a decree was passed to remove his remains 
 from Chios to that city, where they were inter- 
 red with public honours. III. A physician 
 
 of Delos, who used to say that diseases origi- 
 nated from the variety of food that was eaten. 
 Clem. Alex. — Allien. 
 
 Antiphilus, I. an Athenian who succeeded 
 Leosthenes at the siege of Lamia against An- 
 tipater. Diod. 18. II, A noble painter, who 
 
 represented a youth lean ing over a fi re an d blow- 
 ing it, from which the whole house seemed to 
 be illuminated.- He was an Egyptian by birth: 
 he imitated Apelles, and was disciple to Ctesi- 
 demus, Plin. 35, c. 10. 
 
 Antiphus, a brother of Ctiraenus, was son of 
 Ganyctor the Naupactian. These two brothers 
 murdered the poet Hesiod, on the false suspi- 
 cion that he had offered violence to their sister, 
 and threw his body into the sea. The poet's 
 dog discovered them, and they were seized and 
 convicted of the murder, Plut. de Solert. Anim. 
 
 Antisthenes, I. a philosopher, born of an 
 Athenian father and of a Phrygian mother. 
 He taught rhetoric, and had among his pupils 
 the famous Diogenes ; but when he had heard 
 Socrates, he shut up his school, and told his pu- 
 349 
 
AN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AN 
 
 pils, "Go seek for yourselves a master, I have 
 now found one." He was the head of the sect 
 of the cynic philosophers. One of his pupils 
 asked him what philosophy had taught him 1 
 " To live with myself," said he. He sold his 
 all, and preserved only a very ragged coat, which 
 drew the attention of Socrates, and tempted him 
 to say to the cynic, who carried his contempt of 
 dress too far," " Antisthenes, I see thy vanity 
 through the holes of thy coat," Antisthenes 
 taught the unity of God, but he recommended 
 suicide. Some of his letters are extant. His 
 doctrines of austerity were followed as long as 
 he was himself an example of the cynical char- 
 acter ; but after his death they were all forgot- 
 ten. Antisthenes flourished 396 years B. C. 
 Cic. Oral. 3, c. 35. — Diog. 6. — Ptut. in Dye. 
 
 II. A disciple of Heraclitus. III. An 
 
 historian of Rhodes. Diog. 
 
 Antistius Labeo, I. an excellent lawyer at 
 Rome, who defended the liberties of his country 
 against Augustus, for which he is taxed with 
 madness, by Horat. 1, Stat. 3, v. 82. — Sueton. 
 in Aug. 54. II. Petro of Gabii, was the au- 
 thor of a celebrated treaty between Rome and 
 his country, in the age of Tarquin the Proud. 
 Dionys. Vol. 4. 
 
 Antomenes, the last king of Corinth. After 
 his death magistrates with regal authority were 
 chosen annually. 
 
 Antonia Lex, was enacted by M, Antony, 
 the consul, A. U. C. 710. It abrogated the lex 
 Atia, and renewed the lex Cornelia^ by taking 
 away from the people the privilege of choosing 
 priests, and restoring it to the college of priests, 
 to which it originally belonged. Dio. 44.- — 
 Another, by the same. It allowed an appeal 
 to the people, to those who were condemned de 
 majestate, or of perfidious measures against the 
 
 state. Another, by the same, during his 
 
 triumvirate. It made it a capital offence to 
 propose, ever after, the election of a dictator, 
 and for any person to accept of the ofUce, Ap- 
 pian. de Bell. Civ. 3, 
 
 Antonia, I. a daughter of M. Antony, by 
 Octavia. She married Domitius JEnobarbus, 
 and was mother of Nero and two daughters. 
 
 II. A sister of Germanicus. III. A 
 
 daughter of Claudius and iElia Petina. She 
 was of the family of the Tuberos, and was re- 
 pudiated for her levity. Sueton. in Claud. 1. 
 
 — Tacit. Ann. 11. tV. The wife of Drusus, 
 
 the son of Livia, and brother to Tiberius. She 
 became mother of three children, Germanicus, 
 Caligula's father; Claudius the emperor ; and 
 the debauched Livia. Her husband died very- 
 early, and she never would marr^^ again, but 
 spent her time in the education of her children. 
 Some people suppose her grandson, Caligula, 
 ordered her to be poisoned, A. D. 38, Val. 
 Max. 4, c. 3. 
 
 Antoninus, I. (Titus,) surnamed Pius, was 
 adopted by the emperor Adrian, to whom he 
 succeeded. This prince is remarkable for all 
 the virtues that can form a perfect statesman, 
 philosopher, and king. He rebuilt whatever 
 cities had been destroyed by Avars in former 
 reigns. He suffered the governors of the pro- 
 vinces to remain long in the administration, that 
 no opportunity of extortion might be given to 
 new comers. When told of conquering heroes, 
 he said with Scipio, I prefer the life and preser- 
 350 
 
 vation of a citizen to the death of one hundred ' 
 enemies. He did not persecute the Christians 
 like his predecessors, but his life was a scene of 
 universal benevolence. His last moments were 
 easy, though preceded by a lingering illness. 
 He extended the boundaries of the Roman pro- 
 vince in Britain, by raising a rampart between 
 the Friths of Clyde and Forth ; but he waged 
 no war during his reign, and only repulsed the 
 enemies of the empire who appeared in the field. 
 He died in the 75th year of his age, after a reign 
 of 23 years, A. D. 161. He was succeeded by 
 his adopted son, M. Aurelius Antoninus, sur- 
 named the philosopher, a prince as virtuous as 
 his father. He raised to the imperial dignity 
 his brother L. Verus, whose voluptuousness and 
 dissipation were as conspicuous as the modera- 
 tion of the philosopher. During their reign, the 
 Gluadi, Parthians, and Marcomanni were de- 
 feated. Antoninus wrote a book in Greek, en- 
 titled, rnKuS' eavTov, concerning himself; the best 
 editions of which are the 4to. Cantab. 1652, 
 and the 8vo. Oxon. 1704. After the war with 
 the Gluadi had been finished, Verus died of an 
 apoplexy, and Antoninus survived him eight 
 years, and died in his 61st year, after a reign of 
 
 29 years and ten days. Dio Cassius. II. 
 
 Bassianus Caracalla, son of the emperor Septi- 
 mus Severus, was celebrated for his cruelties. 
 He killed his brother Geta in his mother's arms, 
 and attempted to destroy the writings of Aris- 
 totle, observing that Aristotle was one of those 
 who sent poison to Alexander. He married his 
 mother, and publicly lived with her ; which 
 gave occasion to the people of Alexandria to 
 say that he was an (Edipus, and his wife a 
 Jocasta. He was assassinated at Edessa by 
 Macrinus, April 8, in the 43d year of his age, 
 A. D. 217. His body was sent to his wife Ju- 
 lia, who stabbed herself at the sight. There is 
 extant a Greek itinerary, and another book, 
 called Iter Britannicum, which some have attri- 
 buted to the emperor Antoninus, though it was 
 more probably written by a person of that name 
 whose age is unknown. 
 
 M. Antonius Gnipho, I. a poet of Gaul, 
 who taught rhetoric at Rome; Cicero and other 
 
 illustrious men frequented his school. II. 
 
 An orator, grandfather to the triumvir of the 
 same name. He was killed in the civil wars of 
 Marius, and his head was hung in the forum. 
 
 Val. Max. 9, c. 2.—Diican. 2, v. 121. III. 
 
 Marcus, the eldest son of the orator of the same 
 name, by means of Cotta and Cethegus obtain- 
 ed from the senate the office of managing the 
 corn on the maritime coasts of the Mediterra- 
 nean with unlimited power. This gave him 
 many opportunities of plundering the provinces 
 and enriching himself. He died of a broken 
 
 heart. Sallust. Frag. IV. Caius, a son of 
 
 the orator of that name, who obtained a troop of 
 horse from Sylla, and plundered Achaia. He 
 was carried before the praetor M. Lucullus, and 
 banished from the senate by the censors, for 
 pillaging the allies, and refusing to appear when 
 
 summoned before justice. V. Caius, son of 
 
 Antonius Caius, was consul with Cicero, and 
 assisted him to destroy the conspiracy of Ca- 
 tiline in Gaul. He went to Macedonia as his 
 province, and fought with ill success against 
 the Dardani. He was accused at his return and 
 banished. -VI. Marcus, the triumvir, was 
 
AP 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AP 
 
 grandson to the orator M. Antonius, and son 
 of Antonius, siirnamed Cretensis, from his wars 
 in Crete. He was augur and tribune of the 
 people, in which he distinguished himself by 
 his ambitious views. When the senate was 
 torn by the factions of Pompey's and Caesar's 
 adherents, Antony proposed that both should 
 lay aside the command of their armies in the 
 provinces ; but as this proposition met not with 
 .success, he privately retired from Rome to the 
 camp of Csesar, and advised him to march 
 his army to Rome. In support of his attach- 
 ment, he commanded the left wing of his army 
 at Pharsalia ; and, according to a premeditated 
 scheme, offered him a diadem in the presence 
 of the Roman, people. He besieged Mutina, 
 which had been allotted to D. Brutus, for which 
 the senate judged him an enemy to the re- 
 public, at the remonstration of Cicero. He was 
 conquered by the consuls HirtiusandPansa, and 
 by young Caesar, who soon after joined his in- 
 terest with that of Antony, and formed the cele- 
 brated triumvirate, which was established with 
 such cruel proscriptions, that Antony did not 
 even spare his own uncle that he might strike 
 off the head of his enemy Cicero. The trium- 
 virate divided the Roman empire among them- 
 selves ; and Antony returned into the east, 
 where he enlarged his dominions by different 
 conquests. Antony had married Fulvia, whom 
 he repudiated to marry Octavia the sister of 
 Augustus, and by this conjunction to strengthen 
 the triumvirate. He assisted Augustus at the 
 battle of Philippi against the murderers of J. 
 Csesar, and he buried the body of M. Brutus, 
 his enemy, in a most magnificent manner. Dur- 
 ing his residence in the east he became enamour- 
 ed of Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, and repudiat- 
 ed Octavia to marry her. This devorce incens- 
 ed Augustus, who now prepared to deprive An- 
 tony of all his power. The two enemies met 
 at Actium, where a naval engagement soon be- 
 gan, and Cleopatra, by flying with 60 sail, drew 
 Antony from the battle and ruined his cause. 
 After the battle of Actium, Antony followed 
 Cleopatra into Egypt, where he was soon inform- 
 ed of the defection of all his allies and adhe- 
 rents, and saw the conqueror on his shores. He- 
 stabbed himself, and died in the 56th year of 
 his age, B. C. 30 ; and the conqueror shed tears 
 when he was informed that his enemy was no 
 more. Antony left seven children by his three 
 wives. In his public character Antony was 
 brave and courageous ; but with the intrepidity 
 of Caesar, he possessed all his voluptuous incli- 
 nations. It is said that the night of Caesar's 
 murder Cassius supped with Antony; and be- 
 ing asked whether he had a dagger with him, 
 answered. Yes, if you, Antony, aspire to sove- 
 reign power. Plutarch has written an account 
 of his life. Virg. JEn. 8, v. GSb.—Horat. ep. 
 ' 9.- -Mv. 10, V. 122. — C. Nep. in Attic. — Cic. in 
 
 Philip. — Justin. 41 and 42. VII. Julius, 
 
 son of Antony, the triumvir, by Fulvia, was 
 consul with Paulus Fabius Maximus. He was 
 surnamed Africanus, and pnt to death by order 
 of Augustus. Some^say that he killed himself. 
 It is supposed that he wrote an heroic poem on 
 Diomede, in 12 books. Horace dedicated his 4 
 
 Od. 2. to him. Tacit. 4, Ann. c. 44. VIII. 
 
 Lucius, the triumvir's brother, was besieged in 
 Pelusium by Augustus, and obliged to surren- 
 
 der himself, with 300 men, by famine. The 
 conqueror spared his life. Some say that he 
 was killed at the shrine of Casar. IX. Ju- 
 lius, was put to death by Augustus, for his cri- 
 minal conversation with Julia. 
 
 Antorides, a painter, disciple to Aristippus. 
 Plin. 
 
 Apama, I. a daughter of Artaxerxes, who 
 
 married Pharnabazus, satrap of Ionia. II. 
 
 j^ daughter of Antiochus. Pans. 1, c. 8. 
 
 Apamb, I. the mother of Nicomedes, by Pru- 
 
 sias, king of Bithynia. II. The mother of 
 
 Antiochus Soter, by Seleucus Nicanor. 
 
 Apella, a word, Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v. 10, 
 which has given much trouble to critics and 
 commentators. Some suppose it to mean cir- 
 cumcised, {sine pelle,) nn epithet highly appli- 
 cable to a Jew. Others maintain that it is a proper 
 name, upon the authority of Cicero, a^ Attic. 12, 
 ep. 19, who mentions a person of the same name. 
 
 Apelles. a celebrated painter of Cos, or as 
 others say, of Ephesus, or Colophon, son of 
 Pithius. He lived in the age of Alexander the 
 Great, who honoured him so much that he for- 
 bade any man but Appelles to draw his picture. 
 He was so attentive to his profession, that he 
 never spent a day without employing his pencil ; 
 whence the proverb of Nulla dies sine lined. 
 His most perfect picture was Venus Anadyo- 
 mene, which was not totally finished when the 
 painter died. He made a painting of^ Alexan- 
 der holding thunder in his hand, so much like 
 life, that Pliny, Vv'ho saw it, says that the hand 
 of the king with the thunder seemed to come 
 out of the picture. This picture was placed in 
 Diana's temple at Ephesus. He made another 
 of Alexander, but the king expressed not much 
 satisfaction at the sight of it ; and at that mo- 
 ment a horse passing by, neighed at the horse 
 which was represented in the piece, supposing 
 it to be alive; upon which the painter said, 
 " One would imagine that the horse is a better 
 judge of painting than your majesty." When 
 Alexander ordered him to draw the picture of 
 Campaspe, one of his mistresses, Apelles be- 
 came enamoured of her, and the king permitted 
 him to marry her. He wrote three volumes 
 upon painting, which were still extant in the 
 age of Pliny. It is said that he was accused in 
 Egypt of conspiring against the life of Ptolemy ; 
 and that he would have been put to death had 
 not the real conspirator discovered himself and 
 saved the painter. Apelles never put his name 
 to any pictures but three ; a sleeping Venus, 
 Venus Anadyomene, and an Alexander. The 
 proverb of JYe sutor ultra crepidam, is applied 
 to him by some. Plin. 35, c. 10. — Horat. 2, ep. 
 1, V. 238. — Cic, in Famil. 1, ep. 9. — Ovid.de 
 Art. Am. 3, v. 401.— F«Z. Max. 8, c. 11. 
 
 Apellicon, a Teian peripatetic philosopher, 
 whose fondness for books was so great that he is 
 accused of stealing them when he could not 
 obtain them with money. He bought the works 
 of Aristotle and Theophrastus, but greatly dis- 
 figured them by his frequent interpolations. 
 The extensive library which he had collected at 
 Athens, was carried to Rome when Sylla had 
 conquered the capital of Attica; and among the 
 valuable books was found an original manu- 
 script of Aristotle. He died about 86 years 
 before Christ. Strdb. 13. 
 
 Aper, Marcus, I. a Latin orator of Gaul, 
 351 
 
AP 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AP 
 
 who distinguished himself as a politician as well 
 as by his genius. The dialogue of the orators, 
 inserted with the works of Tacitus and Gtuinti- 
 lian, is attributed to him. He died A. D. 85. 
 II. Another. Vid. JYuvieriamis. 
 
 Aphareus, I. a king of Messenia, who mar- 
 ried Arene daughter of CEbalus, by whom he 
 
 had three sons. II. The step-son of Iso- 
 
 crates. He began to exhibit Olymp. cm. B. 
 C. 368, and continued to compose till B. C. 
 341. He produced thirty-five or thirty-seven 
 tragedies, and was four times victor. 
 
 Aphellas, a king of Cyrene, who, with the 
 aid of Agathocies, endeavoured to reduce all 
 Africa under his power. Justm. 22, c. 7. 
 
 Aphrices, an Indian prince, who defended 
 the rock Aornus with 20,000 foot and 15 el- 
 ephants. He was killed by his troops, and his 
 head sent to Alexander. 
 
 ApHRODieiA, festivals in honour of Venus, 
 celebrated in different parts of Greece, but chief- 
 ly in Cyprus. They were first instituted by 
 Cinyras, from whose family the priests of the 
 goddess v/ere always chosen. All those that 
 v/ere initiated offered a piece of money to Ve- 
 nus, and received, as a mark of the favours of 
 the goddess, a measure of salt and a (paWos ; the 
 salt, because Venus arose from the sea ; the ^aX- 
 Aof, because she is the goddess of wantonness. 
 They were celebrated at Corinth by harlots, and 
 in every part of Greece they were very much 
 frequented. Strab. 14. — Athen. 
 
 Apianus, or ApioN, was born at Oasis in 
 Egypt, whence he went to Alexandria, of which 
 he was deemed a citizen. He succeeded Theus 
 in the profession of rhetoric in the reign of Ti- 
 berius, and wrote a book against the Jews, which 
 Josephus refuted. He was at the head of an 
 embassy which the people of Alexandria sent 
 to Caligula to complain of the Jews. Seneca, 
 ep. 88. — Plin. praf. Hist. 
 
 Apicius, a famous glutton in Rome. There 
 were three of the same name, all famous for 
 their voracious appetite. The first lived in the 
 time of the republic, the second in the reign of 
 Augustus and Tiberius, and the third under 
 Trajan. The second was the most famous, as 
 he wrote a book on the pleasures and incite- 
 ments of eating. He hanged himself after he 
 had consumed the greatest part of his estate. 
 The best edition of Apicius Caslius de Arte 
 Coquinarid, is that of Amst. 12mo. 1709. Juv. 
 11. V. 3.— Martial. 2, ep. 69. 
 
 Apion, a surname of Ptolemy, one of the 
 descendants of Ptolemy Lagus. Vid. Apianus. 
 
 Apollinares Ludi, games celebrated at 
 Rome in honour of Apollo. The people gene- 
 rally sat crowned with laurel at the represen- 
 tation of these games, which were usually cele- 
 brated at the option of the praetor, till the year 
 U. C. 545, when a law was passed to settle the 
 celebration yearly on the same day, about the 
 nones of July. When this alteration happened, 
 Rome was infested with a dreadful pestilence, 
 which, however, seemed to be appeased by this 
 act of religion. Liv. 25, c. 12. 
 
 ^Apollinaris, C. Sulpitius, I. a grammarian 
 of Carthage in the second century, who is sup- 
 posed to be the author of the verses prefixed to 
 
 Terence's plays as arguments. II. A writer 
 
 better known by the name of Sidonius. Vid. 
 Sidonius. 
 
 353 
 
 Apollocrates, a friend of Dion, supposed 
 by some to be the son of- Dionysius. 
 
 Apollodorus, I. a famous grammarian and 
 mythologist of Athens, son of Asclepias, and 
 disciple lo Pansetius, the Rhodian philosopher. 
 He flourished about 115 years before the Chris- 
 lian era, and wrote a history of Athens besides 
 other works. But of all his compositions, no- 
 thing is extant but his Bibliotheca, a valuable 
 v/ork, divided into three books. It is an abridg- 
 ed history of the gods and of the ancient heroes, 
 of whose actions and genealogy it gives a true 
 and 'faithful account. The best edition is that 
 of Heyne, Goett. in 8vo. 4 vols. 1782. Athen. — 
 Plin. 7, c. Ti.—Diod. 4 and 13. II. A tra- 
 gic poet of Cilicia, who wrote tragedies entitled 
 
 Ulysses, Thyestes, &c. III. A comic poet 
 
 of Gela in Sicily, in the age of Menander, who 
 wrote 47 plays. He was one of the six writers 
 whom the ancient critics selected as the models 
 of the New Comedy. The other five were Phi- 
 lippides, Philemon, Menander, Diphilus, and 
 Posidippus. Terence copied his Hecyra, and 
 Phormio from tM'o of his dramas ; all of which, 
 
 save the 
 -IV. An 
 
 though very numerous, are now lost, 
 titles of eight, with a few fragments. 
 
 architect of Damascus, who directed the build- 
 ing of Trajan's bridge across the Danube. He 
 was put to death by Adrian, to whom, when in 
 a private station, he had spoken in too bold a 
 
 manner. V. A disciple of Epicurus, the 
 
 most learned of his school, and deservedly 
 surnamed the illustrious. He wrote about 40 
 
 volumes on different subjects. Diog. VI. A 
 
 painter of Athens, of whom Zeuxis was a pupil. 
 Two of his paintings were admired at Pergamus 
 in the age of Pliny : a priest in a suppliant pos- 
 ture, and Ajax struck with Minerva's thunders. 
 
 Plin. 35, c. 9. VII. A statuary in the age 
 
 of Alexander. He was of such an irascible 
 disposition, that he destroyed his own pieces 
 
 upon the least provocation. Plin. 34, c. 8. 
 
 VIII. A rhetorician of Pergamus, preceptor 
 and friend to Augustus, who wrote a book on 
 rhetoric. Strab. 13. 
 
 Apollonia, a festival at jEgialea, in honour 
 of Apollo and Diana. It arose from this cir- 
 cumstance: these two deities came to ^gialea 
 after the conquest of the serpent Python; but 
 they were frightened away, and fled to Crete. 
 jEgialea was soon visited with an epidemical 
 distemper, and the inhabitants, by the advice of 
 their prophets, sent seven chosen boys, with the 
 same number of girls, to entreat them to return 
 to -lEgialea, Apollo and Diana granted their 
 petition, in honour of which a temple was raised 
 to neiQw, the goddess of persuasion ; and, ever 
 after, a number of youths, of both sexes, were 
 chosen to march in solemn procession, as if 
 anxious to bring back A polio and Diana. Pau- 
 san, in Corinth. 
 
 Apolloniades, a tyrant of Sicily, compelled 
 to lay down his power by Timoleon. 
 
 Apollonides, a physician of Cos, at the court 
 of Artaxerxes, who became enamoured of Amy- 
 tis, the monarch's sister, and was some time after 
 put to death for slighting her after the reception 
 of her favours. 
 
 Apollonius, I. a stoic philosopher of Chalcis, 
 sent for by Antoninus Pius, to instruct his adopt- 
 ed son Marcus Antoninus. When he came to 
 Rome, he refused to go to the palace, observing^. 
 
AP 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AP 
 
 that the master ought not to wait upon his pupil, 
 but the pupil upon him. The emperor, hearing 
 this, said, laughing, " It was, then, easier for 
 ApoUonius to come from Chalcis to Rome than 
 from Rome to the palace." II. A geometri- 
 cian of Perga in Pamphylia, whose works are 
 now lost. He lived about 242 years before the 
 Christian era, and composed a commentary on 
 Euclid, whose pupils he attended at Alexan- 
 dria. He wrote a treatise on conic sections, 
 
 edited by Dr. Halley, Oxon. fol. 1710. III. 
 
 A poet of Naucratis, according to some autho- 
 rities, or, according to others, of Alexandria, 
 generally called Apollonius of Rhodes, because 
 he lived for some time there. He was pupil, 
 when young, to Callimachus and Pansetius, and 
 succeeded to Eratosthenes, as third librarian of 
 the famous library of Alexandria,under Ptolemy 
 Evergetes. He was ungrateful to his master, 
 Callimachus, who wrote a poem against him, 
 in which he denominated him Ibis. Of all his 
 works nothing remains but his poem on the ex- 
 pedition of the Argonauts, in four books. The 
 best editions of Apollonius are those printed at 
 Oxford, in 4to. by Shaw, 1777, in 2 vols, and 
 in 1, 8vo. 1779, and that of Brunck, Argentor, 
 
 12mo. 1780. Quintil. 10, c. 1. IV. A Greek 
 
 orator, surnamed Molo, was a native of Ala- 
 banda in Caria. He opened a school of rheto- 
 ric at Rhodes and Rome, and had J. Caesar and 
 Cicero among his pupils. He discouraged the 
 attendance of those whom he supposed incapa- 
 ble of distinguishing themselves as orators, and 
 he recommended to them pursuits more conge- 
 nial to their abilities. He wrote a history, in 
 which he "did not candidly treat the people of 
 Judaea, according to the complaint of Josephus 
 contra Apion. Cic. de Or at. 1, c. 28, 75, 126, and 
 130. Ad. Famil. 3, ep. 16. De Invent. 1, c. 81. 
 — Quintil. 3, c. 1, 1. 2, c. 6. — Smt. in Cces. 4. — 
 
 Plut. in CcEs. V. A Greek historian, about 
 
 the age of Augustus, who wrote upon the phi- 
 losophy of Zeno and of his followers. Strab. 
 14. VI. Thyaneus, a Pythagorean philoso- 
 pher, well skilled in the art of imposture. One 
 day, while haranguing the populace at Ephesus, 
 he" suddenly exclaimed, " Strike the tyrant ! — 
 strike him ! The blow is given ; he is wounded, 
 and fallen !" At that very moment the empe- 
 ror Domitian had been stabbed at Rome. He 
 was courted by kings and princes, and com- 
 manded unusual attention by his numberless 
 artifices. His friend and companion, called 
 Damis, wrote his life, which 200 years after en- 
 gaged the attention of Philostratus. In his his- 
 tory, the biographer relates so many curious and 
 extraordinary anecdotes of his hero, that many 
 have justly deemed it a romance ; yet for all this, 
 Hierocles had the presumption to compare the 
 impostures of ApoUonius with the miracles of 
 
 Jesus Christ. VII. A sophist of Alexandria, 
 
 distinguished for his Lexicon Gracuvi lliadis et 
 OdvssecB, a book thai was beautifully edited by 
 Villoison, in 4to. 2 vols. Paris, 1773. Apollonius 
 was one of the pupils of Didymus, and flourished 
 in the besfinning of the first century. 
 
 Apollophanes, a stoic, who greatly flattered 
 king Antigonus, and maintained that there ex- 
 isted but one virtue, prudence. Diog. 
 
 Aponius, M. a governor of Mcesia, rewarded 
 with a triumphal statue by, Otho, for defeating 
 9000 barbarians. Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 79. 
 
 Part If.— 2 Y 
 
 Apotheosis, a ceremony observed by the an- 
 cient nations of the world, by which they raised 
 their kings, heroes, and great men, to the rank 
 of deities. The nations of the East were the 
 first who paid divine honours to their great men, 
 and the Romans followed their example, and 
 not only deified the most prudent and humane 
 of their emperors, but also the most cruel and 
 profligate. Herodian. 4, c. 2, has left us an 
 account of the apotheosis of a Roman emperor. 
 After the body of the deceased was burnt, an 
 ivory image was laid on a couch for seven days, 
 representing the emperor under the agonies of 
 disease. The- city was in sorrow, the senate 
 visited it in mourning, and the physicians pro- 
 nounced it every day in a more decaying state. 
 When the death was announced, a young band 
 of senators carried the couch and image to the 
 Campus Martins, where it was deposited on an 
 edifice in the form of a pyramid, where spices 
 and combustible materials were thrown. After 
 this the knights walked round the pile in solemn 
 procession, and the images of the most illustri- 
 ous Romans were drawn in state, and imme- 
 diately the new emperor, with a torch set fire to 
 the pile, and was assisted by the surrounding 
 multitude. Meanwhile an eagle was let fly from 
 the middle of the pile, which was supposed to 
 carry the soul of the deceased to heaven, where 
 he was ranked among the gods. If the deiiied 
 was a female, a peacock, and not an e^gle, was 
 sent from the flames. The Greeks observed 
 ceremonies much of the same nature. 
 
 Appianus, a Greek historian of Alexandria, 
 who flourished A. D. 123. His universal histo- 
 ry, which consisted of 24 books, was a series of 
 history of all the nations that' had been con- 
 quered by the Romans in the order of time; and 
 in the composition the writer displayed, with a 
 style simple and unadorned, a great knowledge 
 of military aflfairs, and described his battles in a 
 masterly manner. This excellent work is great- 
 ly mutilated, and there is extant now only the 
 account of the Punic, Syrian, Parthian, Mithri- 
 datic, and Spanish wars, with those of Illyricum 
 and the civil dissentions, with a fragment of the 
 Celtic wars. The best editions are those of, 
 Tollius and Variorum, 2 vols. 8vo. Amst. 1670, 
 and that of Schweigheuserus, 8 vols. 8vo. Lips. 
 1785. He was so eloquent that the emperor 
 highly promoted him in the state. He wrote a 
 universal histoiy in 24 books, which began from 
 the time of the Trojan war, down to his own 
 age. Few books of this valuable work are ex- 
 tant. 
 
 Appius, the praenomen of an illustrious fami- 
 ly at Rome. A censor of that name, A. U. 
 
 C. 442. Horat. 1, Sat. 6. 
 
 Appius Claudius, I. a decemvir, who obtain- 
 ed his power by force and oppression. He at- 
 tempted the virtue of Virginia, whom her father 
 killed to preserve her chastity. This act of vio- 
 lence was the cause of a revolution in the state, 
 and the ravisher destroyed himself when cited 
 to appear before the tribunal of his country. 
 
 Liv. 3, c. 33. II. Claudius Caecus, a Roman 
 
 orator, who built the Appian way, and many 
 aqueducts in Rome. When Pyrrhus, who was 
 come to assist the Tarentines against Rome, 
 demanded peace of the senators, Appius, grown 
 old in the service of the republic, caused himself 
 to be carried to the senate-house, and, by his 
 353 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 authority, dissuaded them from granting a peace 
 which would prove dislionourable to the Roman 
 name. Ovid. Fast 6, v. 203. Cic. in Brut. <f« 
 
 Tusc. 4. III. A Roman, who, when he 
 
 heard that he had been proscribed by the trium- 
 virs, divided his riches among his servants, and 
 embarked with them for Sicily. In their pas- 
 sage the vessel was shipwrecked, and Appius 
 alone saved his life. Appian. 4. IV. Clau- 
 dius Crassus, a consul, who, with Sp. Naut. Ru- 
 tulius, conquered the Celtiberians, and was de- 
 feated by Perseus, king of Macedonia. Liv. 
 
 V. Claudius Pulcher, a grandson of Ap. 
 
 CI. Caecus, consul in the age of Sylla, retired 
 from grandeur to enjoy the pleasures of a private 
 
 life. VI. Clausus, a general of the Sabines, 
 
 who, upon being ill-treated by his countrymen, 
 retired to Rome with 5000 of his friends, and 
 was admitted into the senate in the early ages 
 
 of the republic. Plut. in Poplic. VII. Her- 
 
 donius, seized the capital with 4000 exiles, A. U. 
 C. 292, and was soon after overthrown. Liv. 3, 
 
 c. 15.—Flor. 3, c. 19. VIII. Claudius Len- 
 
 tulus, a consul with M. Perpenna. — ■ — IX. A 
 
 dictator who conquered the Hernici. The 
 
 name of Appius was common in Rome, and 
 particularly to many consuls whose history is 
 not marked by any uncommon event. 
 
 Apries, and Aprius, one of the kings of 
 Egypt in the age of Cyrus, supposed to be the 
 Pharaoh Hophra of Scripture. He took Sidon, 
 and lived in great prosperity till his subjects 
 revolted to Amasis, by whom he was conquer- 
 ed and strangled. Herodot. 2, c. 159, &c. — 
 Diod. 1. 
 
 Apsinus, an Athenian sophist in the third 
 century, author of a work called PrcBceptor de 
 Arte Rhetorica. 
 
 Apuleia Lex, was enacted by L. Apuleius, 
 the tribune, A. U. C. 652, for inflicting a punish- 
 ment upon such as were guilty of raising sedi- 
 tions, or showing violence in the city. Vari- 
 
 lia, a grand-daughter of Augustus, convicted of 
 adultery with a certain Manlius in the reign of 
 Tiberius. Tacit. An. c. 50. 
 
 Apuleius, a learned man, born at Madaura 
 in Africa. He studied at Carthage, Athens, 
 and Rome, where he married a rich widow call- 
 ed Pudentilla, for which he was accused by some 
 of her relations of using magical arts to win her 
 heart. His apology was a masterly composition. 
 In his youth Apuleius had been very profuse; 
 but he was, in a maturer age, more devoted to 
 study, and learnt Latin without a master. The 
 most famous of his works extant is the golden 
 as.'!, in eleven books, an allegorical piece, replete 
 with morality. The best editions of Apuleius 
 are the Delphin, 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1688, and 
 Pricaei, 8vo. Goudse, 1650. 
 
 Aquilius Niger, Sabinus, I. a lawyer of 
 Rome, surnamed the Cato of his age. He was 
 father to Aquilia Severa, whom Heliogabalus 
 
 married. II. Severus, a poet and historian 
 
 in the age of Valentinian. 
 
 AauiLLiA and Aquilia, a patrician family at 
 Rome, from which few illustrious men rose. 
 
 AauiLO, a wind blowing from the north. Its 
 name is derived, according to some, from Aqui- 
 la, on account of its keenness and velocity. 
 
 Ara, a constellation, consisting of seven stars, 
 near the tail of the Scorpion. Ovid, Met. 2, 
 V. 138. 
 
 354 
 
 Arabarches, a vulgar person among the 
 Egyptians, or perhaps a usual expression for 
 the leaders of the Arabians, who resided in 
 Rome. Juv. 1, v. 130. Some believe that Ci- 
 cero, 2, ep. 17, ad Attic, alluded to Pompey un- 
 der the name of Arabarches. 
 
 Araros, son of Aristophanes, was the con- 
 temporary of Eubulus. Under his name the 
 two last pieces of his father were represented, 
 whose talents he by no means possessed. Ni- 
 costratus and Philippus, two other sons of Aris- 
 tophanes, are also recorded among the poels of 
 the Middle Comedy. The titles of several co- 
 medies written by these three brothers are pre- 
 served in Athenseus. 
 
 Aratus, I. a Greek poet of Cilicia, about 277 
 B. C. He was greatly esteemed by Antigonus 
 Gonatas, king of Macedonia, at whose court he 
 passed much of his time, and by whose desire 
 he wrote a poem on astronomy, in which he 
 gives an account of the situations, rising and 
 setting, number and motion of the stars. Ci- 
 cero represents him as imacquainted with as- 
 trology, yet capable of writing upon it in ele- 
 gant and highly finrished verses, which, however, 
 from the subject, admit of little variety. Aratus 
 wrote, besides, hymns and epigrams,&c. and had 
 among his interpreters and commentators many 
 of the learned men of Greece whose works are 
 lost, besides Cicero, Claudius, and Germanicus 
 Csesar, who, in their youth or moments of re- 
 laxation, translated the phenomena into Latin 
 verse. The best editions of Aratus are Grotius, 
 4to. apud Raphaleng. 1600; and Oxon. 8vo. 
 1672. Cic. de Nat. D. 2, c. 41.— Pans. 1, c. 2. 
 
 — Ovid. Am. 1, el. 15, v. 26. II. The-son of 
 
 Clinias and Aristodama, was born at Sicyonin 
 Achaia, near the river Asopus. When he was 
 but seven years of age, his father, who held the 
 government of Sicyon, was assassinated by 
 Abantidas, who made himself absolute. After 
 some revolutions the sovereignty came into the 
 hands of Nicocles, whom Aratus murdered to 
 restore his country to liberty. He was so jealous 
 of tyrannical power, that he even destroyed a 
 picture which was the representation of a tyrant. 
 He joined the republic of Sicyon in the Achaean 
 league, which he strengthened by making a 
 treaty of alliance with the Corinthians, and "with 
 Ptolemy, king of Egypt. He was chosen chief 
 commander of the forces of the Achaeans, and 
 drove away the Macedonians from Athens and 
 Corinth. He made war against the Spartans, 
 but was conquered in a battle by their king 
 Cleomenes. To repair the losses he had sus- 
 tained, he solicited the assistance of king Anti- 
 gonus, and drove away Cleomenes from Sparta, 
 who fled to Egypt, where he killed himself. 
 The -^tolians soon after attacked the Achaeans ; 
 and Aratus, to support his character, was obi iged 
 to call to his aid Philip, king of Macedonia. 
 His friendship with this new ally did not long 
 continue. Philip showed himself cruel and op- 
 pressive ; and put to death some of the noblest 
 of the Achaeans, and even seduced the wife of 
 the son of Aratus. Aratus, who was now ad- 
 vanced in years, showed his displeasure by with- 
 drawing himself from the society and friendship 
 of Philip. But this rupture was fatal. Philip 
 dreaded the power and influence of Aratus, and 
 therefore he caused him and his son to be poi- 
 soned. Some days before his death Aratus was 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 observed to spit blood ; and when apprized of it 
 by his friends, he replied, " Such are the re- 
 wards which a connexion with kings will pro- 
 duce." He was buried with great pomp by his 
 countrymen ; and two solemn sacrifices were 
 anniially made to him, the first on the day that 
 he delivered Sicyon from tyranny, and the se- 
 cond on the day of his birth. During those sa- 
 crifices, which were called Arateia, the priests 
 wore a riband bespangled with while and pur- 
 ple spots, and the public schoolmaster walked 
 in procession at the head of his scholars, and 
 was always accompanied by the richest and 
 most eminent senators adorned with garlands. 
 Aratus died in the 62d year of his age, B. C. 213. 
 He wrote a history of the Achaean league, much 
 commended by Polybius. Plut. in vita. — Paus. 
 2, c. 8.—Cic. de Offic. 2, c. 23.—Strab. 14.— 
 Liv. 27, c. 31.— Polyb. 2. 
 
 Arbaces, a Mede, who revolted with Belesis 
 against Sardanapalus, and founded the empire 
 of Media upon the ruins of the Assyrian power, 
 820 years before the Christian era. He reigned 
 above fifty years, and was famous for the great- 
 ness of his undertakings as well as for his val- 
 our. Justin. 1, c. 3. — Paterc. 1, c. 6. 
 
 Arbuscula, an actress on the Roman stage, 
 who laughed at the hisses of the populace while 
 she received the applauses of the knights. Hor. 
 1, Sat. 10, V. 77. 
 
 Arcadius, eldest son of Theodosius the 
 Great, succeeded his father A. D. 395. Under 
 him the Roman power was divided into the east- 
 ern and western empire. He made the eastern 
 empire his choice,and fixed his residence at Con- 
 stantinople'; while his brother Honorius was 
 made emperor of the west, and lived in Rome. 
 After this separation of the Roman empire the 
 two powers looked upon one another with indif- 
 ference; and, soon after, their indifference was 
 changed into jealousy, and contributed to hasten 
 their mutual ruin. In the reign of Arcadius, 
 Alaricus attacked the western empire and plun- 
 dered Rome. Arcadius married Eudoxia, a bold 
 ambitious woman, and died in the 31st year of 
 his age, after a reign of 13 years, in which he 
 bore the character of an effeminate prince, who 
 suffered himself to be governed by favourites, 
 and who abandoned his subjects to the tyranny 
 of ministers, while he lost himself in the pleas- 
 ures of a voluptuous court. 
 
 Argesilaus, I. son of Battus, king of Cy- 
 Tene, was driven from his kingdom in a sedition, 
 
 and died B. C. 575. II. One of Alexander's 
 
 generals, who obtained Mesopotamia at the ge- 
 neral division of the provinces after the king's 
 death. III. A chief of Catana, which he be- 
 trayed to Dionysius the elder. Diod. 14 
 
 IV. A philosopher of Pitano in -^olia, disciple 
 of Polemon. He visited Sardes and Athens, 
 and was the founder of the middle academy, as 
 Socrates founded the ancient and Carneades the 
 new one. He pretended to know nothing, and 
 accused others of the same ignorance. He ac- 
 quired many pupils in the character of teacher ; 
 but some of them left him for Epicurus, though 
 no Epicurean came to him ; which gave him oc- 
 casion to say, that it is easy to make a eunuch 
 of a man, but impossible to make a man of a 
 eunuch. He was very fond of Homer, and 
 generally divided his time among the pleasures 
 of philosophy, love, reading, and the table. He 
 
 died in his 75th year, B. C. 241, or 300, according 
 to some. Diog. in vita. — Persius, 3, v. 78. — 
 Cic. de Flnib. 
 
 Arch5:anax, of Mitylene, was intimate with 
 Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. He fortified Si- 
 gaeum with a wall from the ruins of ancient 
 Troy. Strab. 13. 
 
 Archelaus, I. a name common to some kings 
 of Cappadocia. One of them was conquered by 
 ^ylla for assisting Mithridates. II. A per- 
 son of that name married Berenice, and made 
 himself king of Egypt ; a dignity he enjoyed 
 only six months, as he was killed by the soldiers 
 of Gabinius, B. C. 56. He had been made 
 priest of Comana by Pompey. His grandson 
 was made king of Cappadocia by Antony, 
 whom he assisted at Actium, and he maintained 
 his independence under Augustus till Tiberius 
 
 perfidiously destroyed him. III. A king of 
 
 Macedonia, who succeeded his father, Perdiccas 
 the second : as he was but a natural child, he 
 killed the legitimate heirs to gain the kingdom. 
 He proved himself to be a great monarch ; but 
 he was at last killed by one of his favourites, 
 because he had promised him his daughter ia 
 marriage, and given her to another, after a reign 
 of 23 years. He patronised the poet Euripides. 
 Diod. 14. — Justi7b. 7, c. 4. — Mlian. V. H. 2, 8, 
 
 12, 14. IV. A king of the Jews, son of 
 
 Herod, He married Glaphyre, daughter of 
 Archelaus, king of Macedonia, and widow of his 
 brother Alexander, Cssar banished him for 
 
 his cruelties. Dio. V. A king of Lacedas- 
 
 mon, son of Agesilaus. He reigned 42 years 
 with Charilaus, of the other branch of the fami- 
 ly. Herodot. 7, c. 204.— Paws. ,3, c. 2. VI. 
 
 A general of Antigonus the younger, appointed 
 governor of the Acrocorinth, with the philoso- 
 pher Persaeus. Polycen. 6, c. 5. VII. A cel- 
 ebrated general of Mithridates against Sylla. 
 
 Id. 8, c. 8. VIII. A philosopher of Athens 
 
 or Messenia, son of Apollodorus, and successor 
 to Anaxagoras. He was preceptor to Socrates, 
 and was called Physicus. He supposed that 
 heat and cold were the principles of all things. 
 He first discovered the voice to be propagated 
 by the vibration of the air. Cin. Titsc. 5. — 
 
 Diog. in vita. — Aiigustin. de civ. Dei, 8. 
 
 IX. A man set over Susa by Alexander, with 
 
 a garrison of 3000 men. Curt. 5, c. 2. X. 
 
 A Greek philosopher, who wrote a history of 
 animals, and maintained that goats breathed not 
 through the nostrils, but through the ears. Plin. 
 
 8, c. 50. XI. A sculptor of Priene, in the 
 
 age of Claudius. He made an apotheosis of Ho- 
 mer, a piece of sculpture highly admired, and 
 said to have been discovered under ground, A. 
 D. 1658. XIT. A writer of Thrace. 
 
 Archemachus, a Greek writer, who published 
 a history of Euboea. Athen. 6. 
 
 Archeptolymus, son of Iphitus, king of Elis, 
 went to the Trojan war, and fought against the 
 Greeks. As he was fighting near Hector, he 
 was killed by Ajax, son of Telamon. It is said 
 that he re-established the Olympic games, i/o- 
 w£r. 11. 8, V. 128. 
 
 Archestratus, I. a tragic poet, whose pieces 
 were acted during the Peloponnesian war. Plut. 
 
 in Arist. II. A follower of Epicurus, who 
 
 wrote a poem in commendation of gluttony. 
 
 ARcmAs, I. a Corinthian, descended "from 
 Hercules. He founded Syracuse, B. C. 732. 
 355 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 Being told by an oracle to make choice of health 
 or riches, he chose the latter. Dionys. Hal. 2. 
 
 II. A poet of Antioch, intimate with the 
 
 Luculli. He obtained the rank and name of a 
 Roman citizen by the means of Cicero, who 
 defended him in an elegant oration when his 
 enemies had disputed his privileges of citizen of 
 Rome. He wrote a poem on the Cimbrian war, 
 and began another concerning Cicero's consul- 
 ship, which are now lost. Some of his epigrams 
 are preserved in the Anthologia. Cic. pro Arch. 
 
 III. A polemarch of Thebes, assassinated 
 
 in the conspiracy of Pelopidas, which he could 
 have prevented, if he had not deferred to the 
 morrow the reading of a letter which he had re- 
 ceived from Archias, the Athenian highpriest, 
 and which gave him information of his danger. 
 
 Plut. in Pelop. IV. A highpriest of Athens, 
 
 contemporary and intimate with the polemarch 
 
 of the same name. Id. ibid. V. A Theban 
 
 who abolished the oligarchy. Aristot. 
 
 Archibiades, I. a philosopher of Athens, 
 who affected the manners of the Spartans, and 
 was very inimical to the views and measures of 
 Phocion. Plut. in Phac. II. An ambassa- 
 dor of Byzantium, &c. Polycen. 4, c. 44. 
 ARcmBius, the son of the geographer Ptolemy. 
 ARcmDAMiA, I. a priestess of Ceres, who, on 
 account of her affection for Aristomenes, re- 
 stored him to liberty when he had been taken 
 prisoner by her female attendants at the cele- 
 bration of their festivals. Paus. 4, c. 17. II. 
 
 A daughter of Cleadas, who, upon hearing that 
 her countrymen, the Spartans, were debating 
 whether they should send away their women to 
 Crete, against the hostile approach of Pyrrhus, 
 seized a sword, and ran to the senate-house, ex- 
 claiming that the women were as able to fight as 
 the men. Upon this, the decree was repealed, 
 Plut. in Pyrrh. — Polycen. 8, c. 8. 
 Archidamus. Vid. Leotichydes. 
 Archidemus, a stoic philosopher, who exiled 
 himself among the Parthians. Plut. de exit. 
 
 ARcmGENEs, a physician, born at Apamea. in 
 Syria. He lived in the reign of Domitian,Nerva, 
 and Trajan, and died in the 73d year of his age. 
 Archilochus, I. a poet of Paros, who wrote 
 elegies, satires, odes, and epigrams, and was the 
 first who introduced iambics in his verses. He 
 had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycara- 
 bes, and had received promises of marriage; but 
 the father gave her to another, superior to the 
 poet in rank and fortune ; upon which Archilo- 
 chus wrote such a bitter satire, that Lycambes 
 hanged himself in a fit of despair. The Spar- 
 tans condemned his verses, on account of their 
 indelicacy, and banished him from their city as 
 a petulant and dangerous citizen. He fiiourished 
 685 B. C, and it is said that he was assassin- 
 ated. Some fragments of his poetry remain, 
 which display vigour and animation, boldness 
 and vehemence, in the highest degree; from 
 which reason, perhaps, Cicero calls virulent 
 edicts Archilochia edicta. Cic. Tusc. 1. — Quin- 
 til. 10, c. 1. — Herodot. 1, c. 12. — Horat. art. poet. 
 V. Id.—Athen. 1, 2, &c. II. A Greek histo- 
 rian, who wrote a chronological table, and other 
 works about the 20th or 30th olympiad. 
 
 Archimedes, a famous geometrician of Syra- 
 cuse, who invented a machine of glass that 
 faithfully represented the motion of all the heav- 
 enly bodies. When Marcellus, the Roman con- 
 356 
 
 sul, besieged Syracuse, Archimedes construct' 
 ed machines, which suddenly raised up in the 
 air the ships of the enemy from the bay before 
 the city, and then let them fall with such vio- 
 lence into the water that they sunk. He set 
 them also on fire with his burning-glasses. 
 When the town was taken, the Roman general 
 gave strict orders to his soldiers not to hurt Ar- 
 chimedes, and even offered a reward to him who 
 should bring him alive and safe into his presence. 
 All these precautions were useless ; the philoso- 
 pher was so deeply engaged in solving a prob- 
 lem, that he was even ignorant that the enemy 
 were in possession of the town ; and a soldier, 
 without knowing who he was, killed him, be- 
 cause he refused to follow him, B. C. 212. Mar- 
 cellus raised a monument over him, and placed 
 upon it a cylinder and a sphere ; but the place 
 remained long unknown, till Cicero, during his 
 qusestorship in Sicily, found it near one of the 
 gates of Syracuse, surrounded with thorns and 
 brambles. Some suppose that Archimedes raised 
 the site of the towns and villages of Egypt, and 
 began those mounds of earth by means of which 
 communication is kept from town to town, du- 
 ring the inundations of the Nile. The story of 
 his burning-glasses had always appeared fabu- 
 lous to some of the moderns, till the experiments 
 of Buffon demonstrated it beyond contradiction. 
 These celebrated glasses were supposed to be re- 
 flectors made of metal, and capable of producing 
 their effect at the distance of a bow-shot. The 
 manner in which he discovered how much brass 
 a goldsmith had mixed with gold in making a 
 golden crown for the king, is well known to 
 every modern hydrostatic, as well as the pump- 
 ing screw which still bears his name. Among 
 the wild schemes of Archimedes, is his saying, 
 that by means of his machines he could move 
 the earth with ease if placed on a fixed spot 
 near it. Many of his works are extant, es- 
 pecially treatises de spKcera (f* cylindro, circuli 
 dimensio, de lineis spiralibus, de quadratura pa- 
 raboles^ de numero arena, &c. the best edition of 
 which is that of David Rivaltius, fol. Paris, 
 1615. Cic. Tusc. 2, c. 25.— i)e Nat. D. 2, c. 
 U.—Liv. 24, c. M.— Quintil. 1, c. 10.— Vitruv. 
 9, c. 3.—Polyb. 9.— Plut. in Marcell.— Val. 
 Max. 8, c. 7. 
 
 ARCfflNDS, I. a man who when he was ap- 
 pointed to distribute new arms among the po- 
 pulace of Argos, raised a mercenary band, and 
 
 made himself absolute. Polycen. ^, c. 8. 
 
 11. A rhetorician of Athens. 
 
 Archippus, a comic poet of Athens, of whose 
 eight comedies only one obtained the prize. 
 
 Archon, one of Alexander's generals, w^ho 
 received the provinces of Babylon at the gene- 
 ral division after the king's death. Diod. 18. 
 
 Archontes, the name of the chief magis- 
 trates of Athens. They were nine in number, 
 and none were chosen but such as were de- 
 scended from ancestors who had been free citi- 
 zens of the republic for three generations. They 
 were also to be without deformity in all the parts 
 and members of their body ; and were obliged to 
 produce testimonials of their dutiful behaviour 
 to their parents, of the services they had render- 
 ed their country, and the competency of their 
 fortune to support their dignity. They took a 
 solemn oath that they would observe the laws, 
 administer justice with impartiality, and never 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 suffer themselves to be corrupted. If they ever 
 received bribes, they were compelled by the 
 laws to dedicate to the god of Delphi a statue 
 of gold of equal weight with their body. They 
 all had the power of punishing malefactors with 
 death. The chief among them was called Ar- 
 chon ; the year look iis denomination from him ; 
 he determined all causes between man and wife, 
 and took care of legacies and wills ; he provided 
 for orphans, protected the injured, and punished 
 drunkenness. If he suffered himself to be in- 
 toxicated during the time of his office, the mis- 
 demeanor was punished with death. The se- 
 cond of the archons was called Basileus ; it 
 was his office to keep good order, and to remove 
 all causes of quarrel in the families of those who 
 were dedicated to the service of the gods. The 
 profane and the impious were brought before his 
 tribunal ; and he offered public sacrifices for the 
 good of the state. He assisted at the celebra- 
 tion of the Eleusinian festivals and other reli- 
 gious ceremonies. His wife was to be related 
 to the whole people of Athens, and of a pure 
 and unsullied life. He had a vote among the 
 Areopagites, but was obliged to sit among them 
 without his crown. The Polemarch was an- 
 other archon of inferior dignity. He had the 
 care of all foreigners, and provided a sufficient 
 maintenance from the public treasury, for the 
 families of those who had lost their lives in de- 
 fence of their country. These three archons 
 generally chose each of them two persons of 
 respectable character, and of an advanced age, 
 whose councils and advice might assist and 
 support them in their public capacity. The six 
 other archons were indistinctly called Thesmo- 
 theta, and received complaints against persons 
 accused of impiety, bribery, and ill behaviour. 
 They settled all disputes between the citizens, 
 redressed the wrongs of strangers, and forbade 
 any laws to be enforced but such as were con- 
 ducive to the safety of the state. These officers 
 of state were chosen after the death of king 
 Codrus ; their power was originally for life, but 
 afterwards it was limited to ten years, and at 
 last to one year. After some time, the quali- 
 fications which were required to be an archon 
 were not strictly observed. Adrian, before he 
 was elected emperor of Rome, was made archon 
 at Athens, though a foreigner ; and the same 
 honours were conferred upon Plutarch. The 
 perpetual archons after the death of Codrus were 
 Medon, whose office began B. C. 1070; Acas- 
 tus, 1050 ; Archippus, 1014 ; Thersippus, 995 ; 
 Phorbas, 954 ; Megacles, 923 ; Diogenetus, 893 ; 
 Pherecles, 865; Ariphron, 846 ; Thespieus,826 ; 
 Agamestor, 799; ^schylus, 778; Alcmseon, 
 756; after whose death the archons were decen- 
 nial, the first of whom was Charops, who be- 
 gan 753 ; iEsimedes, 744 ; Clidieus, 734 ; Hip- 
 pomenes, 724 ; Leocrates, 714 ; Apsander, 704 ; 
 Eryxias, 694; after whom, the office became 
 annual, and of these annual archons Creon was 
 the first. Aris/.opk. in Nvh. and Avib. — Phut. 
 Sympos. 1. — Demost. — Pollux. — L/t/sias. 
 Archytas, I, a musician of Mitylene, who 
 
 wrote a treatise on agriculture. Diog. II. 
 
 The son of Hestiseus of Tarentura, was a fol- 
 lower of the Pythagorean philosophy, and an 
 able astronomer and geometrician. He redeem- 
 ed his master, Plato, from the hands of the tyrant 
 Dionysius, and, for his virtues, he was seven 
 
 times chosen by his fellow-citizens governor of 
 Tarentum. He invented some mathematical 
 instruments, and a wooden pigeon which could 
 fly. He perished in a shipwreck, about 394 
 years before the Christian era. He is also the 
 reputed inventor of the screw and the pulley. 
 A fragment of his writings has been preserved 
 by Porphyry. Horat. 1, od. 28. — Cic. 3, de 
 Oral. — Diog. in Vit. 
 
 Arctinus, a Milesian poet, said to be pupil 
 to Homer. Dionys. Hal. 1. 
 
 Arctos, two celestial constellations near the 
 north pole, commonly called Ursa Major and 
 Minor. Virg. G. 1. 
 
 Arcturus, a star near the tail of the Great 
 Bear, whose rising and setting were generally 
 supposed to portend great tempests. Horat. 3, 
 od. 1. The name is derived from its situation, 
 a()KTos ursus, ovpa cauda. It rises now about the 
 beginning of October ; and Pliny tells us it rose 
 in his age on the 12th, or, according to Colu- 
 mella, on the 5th of September. 
 
 Ardys, a son of Gyges, king of Lydia, who 
 reigned 49 years, took Priene,. and made war 
 against Miletus. Herodot. 1, c. 15. 
 
 Areas, a general chosen by the Greeks 
 against iEtolia. Justin. 24, c. 1. 
 
 Areius, the Platonist, was a man of equal 
 worth and knowledge with Athenodorus, but 
 he professed a milder philosophy, and one which 
 was more adapted to the temper of the times. 
 Though a native of Alexandria, he had escaped 
 the moral contagion of that licentious town. 
 When Egypt was subdued by Augustus, the 
 conqueror entered Alexandria, holding Areius 
 by the hand ; and, in the harangue which he 
 delivered to the inhabitants fro'm his tribunal, 
 informed them that he spared their town partly 
 for the sake of Areius, his own friend and their 
 fellow-citizen. Yet, mild as were the temper 
 and philosophy of this Platonist, he strongly 
 urged Augustus to destroy Caesario, the reputed 
 son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra, fortifying 
 his opinion by a line in Homer : — 
 
 'OtiK ayaQov iroXvKoipavij] etj KOipavoi £S"a) — 
 
 which Areius thus converted : — 
 
 'OvK dyadov 7ro\vKaiaappr]' tig "K-Ocaapoi £S*w. 
 
 When Augustus returned from Egypt, Areius 
 followed him to Rome. The empress Livia, in 
 the commencement of her grief for the loss of 
 her son Drusus, admitted him as a visiter, and 
 acknowledged that her sorrows were much as- 
 suaged by the topics of consolation which he 
 suggested. He was also patronised by Maece- 
 nas, in whose house he frequently resided. 
 Dunlop. 
 
 Arellius, a celebrated painter of Rome, in the 
 age of Augustus. He painted the goddesses in 
 the form of his mistresses. Plin. 35, c. 10. 
 
 AREOPAGiTiE, the judges of the Areopagus, a 
 seat of justice on a small eminence near Athens, 
 whose name is derived from apcog rrayog, the kill 
 of Mars. The time in which this celebrated 
 seat of justice was instituted is unknown. 
 Some suppose that Cecrops, the founder of 
 Athens, first established it ; while others give 
 the credit of it to Cranaus, and others to Solon. 
 The number of judges that composed this au- 
 gust assembly is not known. They have been 
 limited by some to 9, to 31, to 51, and some- 
 357 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 times to a greater number. The most worthy 
 and religious of the Athenians were admitted as 
 members, and such archons as had discharged 
 their duty with care and faithfulness. If any 
 of them were convicted of immorality, if they 
 had used any indecent language, they were im- 
 mediately expelled from the assembly, and held 
 in the greatest disgrace, though the dignity of a 
 judge of the Areopagus always was for life. 
 The Areopagites took cognizance of murders, 
 impiety, and immoral behaviour ; and particu- 
 larly of idleness, which they deemed the cause 
 of all vice. They watched over the laws, and 
 they had the management of the public treasu- 
 ry ; they had the liberty of rewarding the vir- 
 tuous, and of inflicting severe punishment upon 
 such as blasphemed against the gods, or slighted 
 the celebration of the holy mysteries. They al- 
 ways sat in the open air, because they took cog- 
 nizance of murder ; and by their laws it was 
 not permitted for the murderer and his accuser 
 to be both under the same roof. This custom 
 also might originate because the persons of the 
 judges were sacred, and they were afraid of con- 
 tracting pollution by conversing in the same 
 house with men who had been guilty of shedding 
 innocent blood. They always heard causes and 
 passed sentence in the night, that they might 
 not be prepossessed in favour of the plaintifl" or 
 of the defendant by seeing them. Whatever 
 causes were pleaded before them, were to be 
 divested of all oratory and fine speaking, lest 
 eloquence should charm their ears and corrupt 
 their judgment. Hence arose the most just and 
 most impartial decisions, and their sentence was 
 deemed sacred and inviolable, and the plaintiff 
 and defendant were equally convinced of its 
 justice. The Areopagites generally sat on the 
 27th, 28th, and 29th day of every month. Their 
 authority continued in its original state till 
 Pericles, who was refused admittance among 
 them, resolved to lessen their consequence and 
 destroy their power. From that time, the morals 
 of the Athenians were corrupted, and the Areo- 
 pagites were no longer conspicuous for their 
 virtue and justice ; and when they censured the 
 debaucheries of Demetrius, one of the family of 
 Phalereus, he plainly told them, that if they 
 wished to make a reform in Athens, they must 
 begin at home. 
 
 _ Areta, a daughter of Dionysius, who mar- 
 ried Dion. She was thrown into the sea. Plut. 
 in Dion. 
 
 Aret^us, a physician of Cappadocia, very 
 inquisitive after the operations of nature. His 
 treatise on agues has been much admired. The 
 best edition of his works which are extant, is 
 that of Boerhaave, L. Bat. fol. 1736. 
 
 ARETAPfflLA, the wife of Melanippus, a priest 
 of Cyrene. Nicocrates murdered her husband 
 to marry her. She, however, was so attached 
 to Melanippus, that she endeavoured to poison 
 Nicocrates, and at last caused him to be assas- 
 sinated by his brother Lysander, whom she mar- 
 ried. Lysander proved as cruel as his brother, 
 upon which Aretaphila ordered him to be thrown 
 in the sea. After this she retired to a private 
 station. Plut. de Virtut. Mulier.—Polyaan. 8, 
 c. 38. 
 
 Aretales, a Cnidian, who wrote a history 
 of Macedonia, besides a treatise on Islands. 
 Plut. 
 
 358 
 
 Areus, I. a king of Sparta, preferred ia the 
 succession to Cleonymus, brother of Acrotatus, 
 who had made an alliance with Pyrrhus. He 
 assisted Athens when Antigonus besieged it, 
 
 and died at Corinth. Paus. 3, c. 6. — PluL 
 
 II. A king of Sparta, who succeeded his father 
 Acrotatus 2d, and was succeeded by his son 
 Leonidas, son of Cleonymus. 
 
 ARGiEus, and Argeus, a son of Perdiccas, 
 who succeeded his father in the kingdom of 
 Macedonia. Justin. 7, c. 1. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Argathonius, a king of Tartessus, who, ac- 
 cording to Plin. 7, c. 48, lived 120 years, and 
 300 according to Ital. 3, v. 396. 
 
 Argia, daughter of Adrastus, married Poly- 
 nices, whom she loved with uncommon tender- 
 ness. When he was killed in the war, she 
 buried his body in the night against the positive 
 orders of Creon, for which pious action she was 
 punished with death. Theseus revenged her 
 death by killing Creon, Hygin. fab. 69 and 
 12.— Stat. Theb. 12. 
 
 Argilius, a favourite youth of Pausanias, 
 who revealed his master's correspondence with 
 the Persian king to the Ephori. C. Nep. in 
 Paus. 
 
 ARorog, a steward of Galba, who privately 
 interred the body of his master in his gardens. 
 Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 49. 
 
 Aria, the wife of Paetus Cecinna, of Padua, 
 a Roman senator who was accused of conspira- 
 cy against Claudius, and carried to Rome by 
 sea. She accompanied him, and in the boat she 
 stabbed herself, and presented the sword to her 
 husband, who followed her example, Plin. 7. 
 Vid. Part I. 
 
 Arijeus, an officer who succeeded to the 
 command of the surviving army after the death 
 of Cyrus the younger, after the battle of Cu- 
 naxa. He made peace with Artaxerxes, Xe- 
 noph. 
 
 Ariamnes, a king of Cappadocia, son of 
 Ariarathes 3d. 
 
 Ariarathes, a king of Cappadocia, who 
 joined Darius Ochus in his expedition against 
 
 Egypt, where he acquired much glory. His 
 
 nephew, the 2d of that name, defended his king- 
 dom against Perdiccas, the general of Alexan- 
 der ; but he was defeated and hung on a cross, 
 
 in the 81st year of his age, 321 B. C. His 
 
 son, Ariarathes the 3d, escaped the massacre, 
 and after the death of Perdiccas recovered Cap- 
 padocia, by conquering Amyntas, the Macedo- 
 nian general. He was succeeded by his son 
 
 Ariamnes. Ariarathes the4th, succeeded his 
 
 father Ariamnes,and married Stratonice,daugh- 
 ter of Antiochus Theos. He died after a reign 
 of twenty-eight years, B. C. 220, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Ariarathes the 5th, a prince 
 who married Antiochia, the daughter of king 
 Antiochus, whom he assisted against the Ro- 
 mans. Antiochus being defeated, Ariarathes 
 saved his kingdom from invasion by paying the 
 Romans a large sum of money remitted at the 
 
 instance of the king of Pergamus. His son, 
 
 the 6th of that name, called Philopater, from 
 his piety, succeeded him 166 B. C. An alliance 
 with the Romans shielded him against the false 
 claims that were laid to his crown by one of 
 the favourites of Demetrius, king of Syria. 
 He was maintained on his throne by Attalus, 
 and assisted his friends of Rome against Aris- 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 tonicus, the usurper of Pergamus ; but he was 
 killed in the war B. C. 130, leaving six children, 
 five of whom were mardered by his surviving 
 
 wife Laodice. The only one who escaped, 
 
 Ariarathes 7th, was proclaimed king, and soon 
 after married Laodice, the sister of Mithridates 
 Eupator, by whom he had two sons. He was 
 murdered by an illegitimate brother, upon which 
 his widow Laodice gave herself and kingdom 
 to Nicomedes, king of Bithynia. Mithridates 
 made war against the new king, and raised his 
 nephew to the throne. The young king, who 
 was the 8th of the name of Ariarathes, made 
 war against the tyrannical Mithridates, by 
 whom he was assassinated in the presence of 
 both armies, and the murderer's son, a child 
 eight years old, was placed on the vacant throne. 
 The Cappadocians revolted, and made the late 
 monarch's brother, Ariarathes 9th, king; but 
 Mithridates expelled him, and restored his own 
 son. The exiled prince died of a broken heart ; 
 and Nicomedes of Bithynia, dreading the power 
 of the tyrant, interested the Romans in the af- 
 fairs of Cappadocia. The arbiters wished to 
 make the country free ; but the Cappadocians 
 demanded a king, and received Ariobarzanes, 
 B. C. 9L On the death of Ariobarzanes, his 
 brother ascended the throne, under the name 
 of Ariarathes 10th; but his title was disputed 
 by Sisenna, the eldest son of Glaphyra, by Ar- 
 chelaus, priest of Comana. M, Antony, who 
 was umpire between the contending parties, 
 decided in favour of Sisenna; but Ariarathes 
 recovered it for a while, though he was soon 
 after obliged to yield in favour of Archelaus, 
 the second son of Glaphyra, B. C. 36. Diod. 
 IQ— Justin. 13 and 29.—Strab. 12. 
 
 Aridjeus, I. a companion of Cyrus the yoimg- 
 er. After the death of his friend, he recon ciled 
 himself to Artaxerxes, by betraying to him the 
 
 surviving Greeks in their return. Diod. II. 
 
 An illegitimate son of Philip, who, after the 
 death of Alexander, was made king of Macedo- 
 nia, till Roxane, who was pregnant by Alexan- 
 der, brought into the world a legitimate male 
 successor. Aridseus had not the free enjoy- 
 ment of his senses ; and therefore Perdiccas, 
 one of Alexander's generals, declared himself 
 his protector, and even married his sister, to 
 strengthen their connexion. He was seven 
 years in possession of the sovereign power, and 
 was put to death, with his wife Eurydice, by 
 Olympias. Justin. 9, c. 8. — Diod. 
 
 Arimazes, a powerful prince of Sogdiana, 
 who treated Alexander with much insolence, 
 and even asked, whether he could fly, to aspire 
 to so extensive a dominion. He surrendered, 
 and was exposed on a cross with his friends and 
 relations. Curt. 7, c. 11. 
 
 Ariobarzanes, I. a man made king of Cap- 
 -padocia by the Romans, after the troubles, 
 which the false- Ariarathes had raised, had sub- 
 sided. Mithridates drove him from his king- 
 dom, but the Romans restored him. He fol- 
 lowed the interest of Pompey, and fought at 
 Pharsalia against J. Caesar. He and his king- 
 dom were preserved by means of Cicero. Cic. 
 5, ad Attic, ep. 29. — Horat. ep. 6, v. 38. — Flor. 
 
 3, c. 5. II. A satrap of Phrygia, who, after 
 
 the death of Mithridates, invaded the kingdom 
 of Pontus, and kept it for twenty-six years. He 
 was succeeded by the son of Mithridates. Diod. 
 
 17. III. A general of Darius, who defended 
 
 the passes of Susa with 15,000 foot against Alex- 
 ander. After a bloody encounter with the Ma- 
 cedonians, he was killed as he attempted to seize 
 the city of Persepolis. Diod. 17. — Curt. 4 and 
 
 5. IV. A Mede of elegant stature and great 
 
 prudence, whom Tiberius appointed to settle 
 the troubles of Armenia. Tacit. Ann. 2, c, 4. 
 
 Ariojvundes, son of Gobryas, was general of 
 Athens against the Persians. Plut. in Cim. 
 
 Ariomardus, a son of Darius, in the army of 
 Xerxes when he went against Greece. Hero- 
 dot. 7, c. 78. 
 
 Arion, a famous lyric poet and musician, son 
 of Cylos, of Methymna, in the island of Lesbos. 
 He went into Italy with Periander, tyrant of 
 Corinth, where he obtained immense riches by 
 his profession. Some time after he wished to 
 revisit his country ; and the sailors of the ship 
 in which he embarked resolved to murder him, 
 to obtain the riches which he v>'as carrying to 
 Lesbos. Arion begged that he might be per- 
 mitted to play some melodious tune ; and as 
 soon as he had finished it, he threw himself into 
 the sea. A number of dolphins had been at- 
 tracted round the ship by the sweetness of his 
 music ; and it is said that one of them carried 
 him safe on his back to Tasnarus, whence he 
 hastened to the court of Periander, who order- 
 ed all the sailors to be crucified at their return. 
 Hijgin. fab. Id4:.—Herodot. 1, c. 23 and 24.— 
 JElian. de Nat. An. 13, c. 45. — Ital. 11. — Pro' 
 pert. 2, el. 26, v. 11.— Plut. in Symp. Vid. 
 Part III. 
 
 Ariovistus, a king of Germany, who pro- 
 fessed himself a friend of Rome. When Caesar 
 was in Gaul, Ariovistus marched against him, 
 and was conquered with the loss of 80,000 men. 
 Cass, in Bell. Gall. — Tacit. 4. Hist. 
 
 Arist^netus, a writer whose epistles have 
 been beautifully edited by Abresch. Zwollae, 
 1749. 
 
 Aristagoras, I, a writer who composed a 
 
 history of Egypt. Plin. 36, c. 12. II. A 
 
 son-in-law of Histiaeus, tyrant of Miletus, who 
 revolted from Darius, and incited the Athenians 
 against Persia, and burnt Sardis. This so ex- 
 asperated the king, that every evening before 
 supper, he ordered his servants to remind him 
 of punishing Aristagoras. He was killed in a 
 battle against the Persians, B. C. 499. Hero- 
 dot. 5, c. 30, &c. 1. 7, c. Q.—Polycen. 1, c. 14. 
 
 ARiSTARcmjs, I. a celebrated grammarian of 
 Samos, disciple of Aristophanes. He lived the 
 greatest part of his life at Alexandria, and Pto- 
 lemy Philometor intrusted him with the educa- 
 tion of his sons. He was famous for his criti- 
 cal powers, and he revised the poems of Homer 
 with such severit}'-, that ever after all severe cri- 
 tics were called Aristarchi. He wrote above 
 800 commentaries on difierent authors, much 
 esteemed in his age. In his old age he became 
 dropsical, upon which he starved himself, and 
 died in his 72d year, B. C. 157. He left two 
 sons, called Aristarchus and Aristagoras, both 
 famous for their stupidity. Horat. de Art. poet. 
 V. 499.— Oui^. 3, ex Pont. ep. 9, v. 24.— C?c. 
 ad Fam. 3, ep. 11. ad Attic. 1, ep. l^.— Quin- 
 
 til. 10, c. 1. II. A tragic poet of Tegea in 
 
 Arcadia, about 454 years B. C. He composed 
 
 70 tragedies, of which two only were rewarded 
 
 with the prize. One of them, called Achilles, 
 
 359 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. • 
 
 AR 
 
 was translated into Latin verse by Ennius. 
 
 Suidas. III. An astronomer of Samos, who 
 
 first supposed that the earth turned round its 
 axis, and revolved round the sun. This doc- 
 trine nearly proved fatal to him, as he was ac- 
 cused of disturbing the peace of the gods Lares. 
 He maintained that the sun was nineteen times 
 further distant from the earth than the moon, 
 and that the moon was 56 semi-diameters of our 
 globe, and little more than one third, and the 
 diameter of the sun six or seven times more 
 than that of the earth. The age in which he 
 flourished is not precisely known. His treatise 
 on the largeness and the distance of the sun 
 and moon is extant, of which the best edition is 
 that of Oxford, 8vo. 1688. 
 
 Aristeas, a poet of Proconnesus, who, as 
 fables report, appeared seven years after his 
 death to his countrymen, and 540 years after to 
 the people of Metapontum in Italy, and com- 
 manded them to raise him a statue near the 
 temple of Apollo. He wrote an epic poem on 
 the Arimaspi in three books, and some of his 
 verses are quoted by Longinus. HerodoL 4, 
 c. n.—Strab.U—Max. Tyr.^2. 
 
 Aristides, I. a celebrated Athenian, son of 
 Lysimachus, whose great temperance and virtue 
 procured him the surname of Just. He was 
 rival to Themistocle?, by whose influence he 
 was banished for ten years, B. C. 484 ; but be- 
 fore six years of his exile had elapsed, he was 
 recalled by the Athenians. He was at the bat- 
 tle of Salamis, and was appointed chief com- 
 mander with Pausanias against Mardonius, 
 who was defeated at Platsea. He died so poor, 
 that the expenses of his funeral were defrayed 
 at the public charge ; and his two daughters, 
 on account of their father's virtues, received a 
 dowry from the public treasury when they were 
 come to marriageable years. Poverty, however, 
 seemed hereditary in the family of Aristides, for 
 the grandson was seen in the public streets, get- 
 ting his livelihood by explaining dreams. When 
 he sat as judge, it is said that the plaintiff", in his 
 accusation, mentioned the injuries his opponent 
 had done to Aristides. "Mention the wrongs 
 you have received," replied the equitable Athe- 
 nian ; " I sit here as judge, and the lawsuit is 
 yours, and not mine." C. Nep. <^ Plut. in 
 
 vita. II. An historian of Miletus, fonder of 
 
 stories and of anecdotes than of truth. He 
 wrote a history of Italy, of which the fortieth 
 
 volume has been quoted lay Pliut. in Parall. 
 
 III. A painter of Thebes in Boeotia, in the age 
 of Alexander the Great, for one of whose pieces 
 Attains offered 6000 sesterces. Plin. 7 and 35. 
 
 IV. A Greek orator, who wrote 50 orations. 
 
 When Smyrna was destroyed by an earthquake, 
 he wrote so pathetic a letter to M. Aurelius, 
 that the emperor ordered the city immediately 
 to be rebuilt, and a statue was in consequence 
 raised to the orator. His works consist of hymns 
 in prose in honour of the gods, funeral orations, 
 apologues, panegyrics, and harangues; the best 
 edition of which is that of Jebb, 2 vols. 4to. Oxon. 
 1722, and that in a smaller size, in 12mo. 3 vols. 
 
 of Canterus apud P. Steph. 1604. V. A man 
 
 of Locris, who died by the bite of a weazel. 
 jElian. V. H. 14. 
 
 Aristh-lus, a philosopher of the Alexandrian 
 school, who, about 300 years B. C, attempted, 
 with Timocharis, to determine the place of the 
 360 
 
 different stars in the heavens, and to trace the 
 course of the planets. . 
 
 Artstio, a sophist of Athens, who, by the sup- 
 port of Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, 
 seized the government of his country, and made 
 himself absolute. He poisoned himself when., 
 defeated by Sylla. Liv. 81, 82. 
 
 Aristippus, I. the elder, a philosopher of Gy- 
 rene, disciple to Socrates, and founder of the 
 Cyrenaic sect. He was one of the flatterers of 
 Dionysius of Sicily, and distinguished himself 
 fur his epicurean voluptuousness, in support of 
 which he wrote a book, as likewise a history 
 of Libya. When travelling in the deserts of 
 Africa, he ordered his servants to throw away 
 the money they carried, as too burdensome. 
 On another occasion, discovering that the ship 
 in which he sailed belonged to pirates, he de- 
 signedly threw his property into the sea, adding, 
 that he chose rather to lose it than his life. 
 Many of his sayings and maxims are recorded 
 by Diogenes, in his life. Homer. 2, Sat. 3, v. 
 
 100. II. His grandson of the same name, 
 
 called the younger, was a warm defender of his 
 opinions, and supported that the principles of 
 all things were pain and pleasure. He flou- 
 rished about 363 years B. C. III. A tyrant 
 
 of Argos, whose life was one continued series 
 of apprehension. He was killed by a Cretan, 
 in a battle against Aratus, B. C. 242. Diog. 
 
 Aristoclea, a beautiful woman, seen naked 
 by Strabo, as she was offering a sacrifice. She 
 was passionately loved by Callisthenes, and 
 was equally admired by Strabo. The two rivals 
 so furiously contended for her hand, that she 
 died during their quarrel; upon which Strabo 
 killed himself, and Callisthenes was never seen 
 after. Plut. in Amat. 
 
 Aristocles, a peripatetic philosopher of Mes- 
 senia, who reviewed, in a treatise on philoso- 
 phy, the opinions of his predecessors. The 
 14th book of this treatise is quoted, &c. He 
 also wrote on rhetoric, and likewise nine books 
 on morals. 
 
 Aristoclides, a tyrant of Orchomenus, who, 
 because he could not win the affection of Stym- 
 phalis, killed her and her father; upon which 
 all Arcadia took up arms, and destroyed the 
 murderer. 
 
 Aristocrates, I. a king of Arcadia, put to 
 death by his subjects for offering violence to the 
 
 priestess of Diana. Paus. 8, c. 5. II. His 
 
 grandson of the same name was stoned to death 
 for taking bribes, during the second Messenian 
 war, and being the cause of the defeat of his 
 Messenian allies, B. C. 682. Id. ibid. — -III. 
 A Greek historian, son of Hipparchus. Plut. 
 in L/yc. 
 
 Aristodemus, I. son of Aristomachus, was 
 one of the Heraclidae. He, with his brothers 
 Temenus and Cresphontes, invaded Pelopon- 
 nesus, conquered it, and divided the country 
 among themselves, 1104 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. He married Argia, by whom he had 
 the twins Procles and Eurvsthenes. He was 
 killed by a thunderbolt at Naupactum, though 
 some say he died at Delphi in Phocis. Paus. 
 2, c. 18, 1.3, c. 1 and \Q.—Herodot. 7, c. 204, 1. 
 
 8, c. 131. II. A king of Messenia, who 
 
 maintained a famous war against Sparta. After 
 some losses, he recovered his strength, and ef- 
 fectually defeated the enemy's forces. Aristo- 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 demus put his daughter to death for the good of 
 his country. Being afterwards persecuted in a 
 dream by her manes, he killed himself, after a 
 reign of six years and some months, in which 
 he nad obtained much military glory, B. C. 724. 
 His death was lamented by his countrymen, 
 M^ho did not appoint him a successor, but only 
 invested Dauiis, one of his friends, with abso- 
 lute power to continue the war, which was at 
 last terminated, after much bloodshed and many 
 
 losses on both sides. Paus. in Mes&en. III. 
 
 A Spartan, who taught the children of Pausa- 
 
 nias. IV. A man who was preceptor to the 
 
 children of Pompey. 
 
 Aristogenes, I. a physician of Cnidos, who 
 obtained great reputation by the cure of Deme- 
 trius Gonatas, king of Macedonia. II. A 
 
 Thrasian who wrote 24 books on medicine. 
 
 Aristogiton and Harmodhjs, two celebrated 
 friends of Athens, who, by their joint efforts, 
 delivered their country from the tyranny of the 
 Pisistratida;, B.C. 510. They received immor- 
 tal honours from the Athenians, and had sta- 
 tues raised to their memory. These statues 
 were carried away by Xerxes, when he took 
 Athens. The conspiracy of Aristogiton was so 
 secretly planned, and so wisely carried into exe- 
 cution, that it is said a courtesan bit her tongue 
 off not to betray the trust reposed in her. Paus. 
 I, c. 'il^.—Herodot. 5, c. bb.—Plut. de 10, Or at. 
 
 An Athenian orator, surnamed Canis, for 
 
 his impudence. He wrote orations against 
 Timarchus, Timotheus, Hyperides, and Thra- 
 syllus. Paus. 
 
 Aristomachus, I. the son of Cleodfeas, and 
 grandson of Hyllas, whose three sons, Cres- 
 phontes, Temenus, and Aristodemus, called 
 Heraclidas, conquered Peloponnesus. Paus. 2, 
 
 c. 7, 1. 3, c. Ib.—Herodot. 6, 7 and 8. II. A 
 
 man who laid aside his sovereign power at Ar- 
 gos, at the persuasion of Aratus. Paus. 2, c. 8. 
 
 Aristcmenes, I. a commander of the fleet 
 of Darius on the Hellespont, conquered by the 
 
 Macedonians. Curt. 4. c. 1. II. A famous 
 
 general of Messenia, who encouraged his coun- 
 trymen to shake off the Lacedaemonian yoke, 
 imder which they had laboured for above 30 
 years. He once defended the virtue of some 
 Spartan women, whom his soldiers had attempt- 
 ed ; and when he was taken prisoner and car- 
 ried to Sparta, the women whom he had pro- 
 tected interested themselves so warmly in his 
 cause that they procured his liberty. He refus- 
 ed to assume the title of king, but was satisfied 
 with that of commander. He acquired the sur- 
 name of Just, from his equity, to which he join- 
 ed the true valour, sagacity and perseverance 
 of a general. He often entered Sparta with- 
 out being known, and was so dexterous in elud- 
 ing the vigilance of the Lacedaemonians, who 
 had taken him captive, that he twice escaped 
 from them. As he attempted to do it a third 
 time, he was unfortunately killed, and his body 
 being opened, his heart was found all covered 
 with hair. He died 671 years B. C. and it is 
 said that he left dramatical pieces behind him. 
 Diod. 15. — Paus. in Messen. 
 
 Ariston, I. the son of Agasicles. king of 
 
 Sparta. II. A tyrant of Methymna, who, 
 
 being ignorant that Chios had surrendered to 
 the Macedonians, entered into the harbour, 
 aind was taken and put to death. Curt. 4 c. 9. 
 
 Part II.— 2 Z 
 
 III. A philosopher of Chios, pupil to Zeno 
 
 the stoic, and founder of a sect which continued 
 but a little while. He supported that the na- 
 ture of the divinity is unintelligible. It is said 
 that he died by the heat of the sun, which feU 
 too powerfully upon his bald head. In his old 
 age he was much given to sensuality. Diog. 
 
 Aristonicus, I. son of Eumenes, by a concu- 
 bine of Ephesus, 126 B. C. invaded Asia and 
 ihe kingdom of Pergamus, which Attains had 
 left by his will to the Roman people. He was 
 conquered by the consul Perpenna, and stran- 
 gled in prison. Justin. 36, c. 4 — Flor. 2, c. 20. 
 11. A grammarian of Alexandria, who 
 
 wrote a commentary on Hesiod and Homer, be- 
 sides a treatise on the Musaeum established at 
 Alexandria by the Ptolemies. 
 
 Aristophanes, I. Of Aristophanes antiquity 
 supplies us with few notices, and those of doubt- 
 ful credit. The most likely account makes him 
 the son of Philippus, a native of ^gina ; and 
 therefore the comedian was an adopted, not a na- 
 tural, citizen of Athens. The exact dates of his 
 birth and death are equally unknown. At a very 
 early period of his dramatic career Aristophanes 
 directed his attention to the political situation 
 and occurrences of Athens. His second record- 
 ed comedy, the Babylonians, was aimed against 
 Cleon, and his third, the Acharnians, turns 
 upon the evils of the Peloponnesian war — then 
 in its sixth year — and the advantage of a speedy 
 peace. His talents and address soon gave him 
 amazing influence with his countrymen ; as 
 Cleon felt to his cost, the succeeding year on the 
 representation of the Equites. The fame of 
 Aristophanes was not confined. to his own city, 
 Dionysius of Syracuse would gladly have ad- 
 mitted the popular dramatist to his court and 
 patronage ; but his invitations were steadily re- 
 fused by the independent Athenian. In B. C. 
 423, the sophists felt the weight of his lash, for 
 in that year he produced,though unsuccessfully, 
 his Nuies. The vulgar notion that the exhibi- 
 tion of Socrates in this play was an intentional 
 prelude to his capital accusation in the criminal 
 court, and that Aristophanes was the leagued 
 accomplice of Melitus,has of late been frequent- 
 ly and satisfactorily refuted. The simple con- 
 sideration that twenty-four years intervened 
 between the representation of the Nubes and 
 the trial of Socrates, affords a sufficient answer 
 to any such charge. In fact, after the perform- 
 ance of this very comedy, we find Socrates and 
 Aristophanes become acquainted, and occa- 
 sionally meeting together on the best terms. 
 An imperfect knowledge of Socrates at the 
 time, his reputed doctrines, and his constantly 
 consorting with notorious sophists, along with 
 the marked singularity of his face, figure, and 
 manners,so well adapted to comic mimicry, were 
 doubtless the main reasons for the selection of 
 him as the sophistic Coryphaeus. In the Peace 
 and the lyysistrata Aristophanes again reverts 
 to politics and the Peloponnesian war: in the 
 Wasps, the Birds, and the EcclesicBzusce, he 
 takes cognizance of the internal concerns of the 
 state ; in the Tkesmophoriazusa, and the RaneE^ 
 he attacks Euripides and discusses the drama; 
 whilst in the Ptutnis he presents us with a 
 specimen of the Middle Comedy. Eleven of 
 his comedies are still extant out of upwards of 
 sixty. Aristophanes, during the whole of his 
 361 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 career, had a numerous body of rival com- 
 edians to oppose. Ecphantides, Pisander, Cal- 
 lias, Hermippus, Myrtilus, Lysimachus, Lycis, 
 Zjeucon, and Paiitacles, besides the more cele- 
 brated writers whom we have noticed above, 
 were a little his seniors ; Aristomeiies, Amcip- 
 sias, Teleclides, Pherecrates, Plato, Diodes, 
 Sannyrio, Philyllius, PMlonides, Stratiis, and 
 Theopompus, with several others, to the number 
 of thirty in all, were somewhat his juniors ; 
 with most of whom Aristophanes had to con- 
 tend in the course of his dramatic exhibitions. 
 Of these poets little is left us beyond their names 
 and a few isolated fragments. Yet Plato, Phe- 
 recrates, and Philonides were men of superior 
 talent. With Theopompus, who flourished 
 B. C. 386, closes the list of the Old Come- 
 dians. Although among the extant works of 
 Aristophanes we have some of his earliest, yet 
 all bear the marks of equal maturity. But he 
 had long been preparing himself in silence for 
 the exercise of his art, which he represents to 
 be the most difficult of all art ; nay out of mo- 
 desty, (or according to his own expression, like 
 a young girl who having given birth to a child 
 in secret, intrusts it to the care of another,) he 
 at first had his labours brought out under an- 
 other person's name. He first appeared in his 
 own character, in his Knights; and here he 
 maintained the boldness of a comedian in full 
 measure, by hazarding a capital attack on the 
 popular opinion. Its object was nothing less 
 than the ruin of Cleon, who, after Pericles, 
 stood at the head of all state affairs, who was a 
 promoter of the war, a worthless vulgar person, 
 but the idol of the infatuated people. His only 
 adversaries were those more wealthy men of 
 property, who formed the class of Knights: 
 these Aristophanes blends with his party in the 
 strongest manner, by making them his chorus. 
 He had the prudence no where to name Cleon, 
 but merely to describe him, so that he could not 
 be mistaken. Yet, from fear of Cleon's faction, 
 no mask-maker dared to make a copy of his face; 
 the poet therefore resolved to play the part him- 
 self, merely painting his face. It may be con- 
 ceived what tumults the performance excited 
 among the collected populace ; yet the bold and 
 skilful efforts of the poet were crowned with 
 success, and his piece gained the prize. Scarcely 
 any of his comedies is more political and histo- 
 rical ; it is also almost irresistibly powerful as a 
 piece of rhetoric to excite indignation : it is truly 
 a philippic drama. It is only after the storm 
 of jeering sarcasms has wasted its fury, that 
 droller scenes follow ; and droll scenes they are 
 indeed, where the two demagogues, the leather- 
 cutter (that is to say, Cleon,) and his antagonist 
 the sausage-maker, by adulation, by prophecies, 
 and by dainties, vie with each other in wooing 
 the favour of the old dotard Demos, the personi- 
 fication of the people ; and the play ends with 
 a triumph almost touchingly joyous, where the 
 scene changes from the Pnyx, the place of the 
 popular assemblies, to the majestic Propylsea; 
 and Demos,wondrously restored to youth, comes 
 forward in the garb of the old Athenians, and, 
 together with his youthful vigour, has recovered 
 the old feelings of the times of Marathon. With 
 the exception of this attack on Cleon, and of 
 those on Euripides, whom he frequently singles 
 out, the other plays of Aristophanes are not so 
 362 
 
 exclusively directed against individuals. They 
 have, for the most part, a general, and often a 
 very important aim, of which, notwithstanding 
 all his roundabout ways — his extravagant di- 
 gressions, and heterogeneous interpolations, the 
 poet never loses sight. The Peace, the Achar- 
 nians and Lysistrata, under various turns of ex- 
 pression, recommend peace; the Ecclesiazusoe, 
 the Thesmophoriazusoe, and again the Lysis- 
 trata, besides their other purposes, are satires on 
 the conditions and manners of the female sex. 
 The Clouds ridicule the metaphysics of the so- 
 phists ; the Wasps, the mania of the Athenians 
 for lawsuits and trials ; the Frogs treat of the 
 decline of tragic art ; Plutus is an allegory on 
 the unequal distribution of wealth ; the Birds 
 are seemingly the most purposeless of all, and 
 for that very reason one of the most delightful. 
 The Peace begins in an extremely sprightly and 
 lively manner : the peace-loving Trygaeus riding 
 to heaven on the back of a dung-beetle, in the 
 manner of Bellerophon: War, a wild giant, 
 who, with his comrade Riot, is the sole inhabit- 
 ant of Olympus, in place of all the other gods, 
 and is pounding the cities in a huge mortar, in 
 which operation he uses the most famous gene- 
 rals as his pestles ; the goddess of peace buried 
 in a deep w^ell, whence she is hauled up with 
 ropes by the united exertions of all the Greek 
 nations : all these inventions, which are alike 
 ingenious and fantastic, are calculated to pro- 
 duce the most pleasant effect. But afterwards 
 the poetry does not maintain an equal elevation : 
 nothing more remains but to sacrifice and make 
 feasts to the restored goddess of peace, while 
 the pressing visits of such persons as found their 
 advantage in the war, form indeed a pleasant en- 
 tertainment, though not a satisfactory conclusion 
 after a beginning of so much promise. ' We 
 have here one example, among several others, 
 which shows that the old comedians not only 
 altered the scenes in the intervals, while the 
 stage was empty, but even when an actor was 
 still in sight. The scene here changes from a 
 spot in Attica to Olympus, while Trygaeus on 
 his beetle hangs aloft in air, and calls out to the 
 machine-manager to take care that he does not 
 break his neck. His subsequent descent into 
 the orchestra denotes his return to earth. The 
 liberties taken by the tragedians, according as 
 their subject might require it, in respect of the 
 unities of place and time, on which the moderns 
 lay so foolish a stress, might be overlooked : the 
 boldness with which the old comedian subjects 
 these mere externalities to his humorous caprice 
 is so striking, as to force itself on the most short- 
 sighted : and yet, in none of the treatises on the 
 constitution of the Greek stage has it been pro- 
 perly noticed. The Acharnians, a play of an 
 earlier date, seems to us much more excellent 
 than the Peace, for the continual progress and 
 the ever-heightening wit, which at last ends in 
 a really bacchanalian revelry. Dicseopolis, the 
 honest citizen, enraged at the false pretexts with 
 which the people are put off, and all terms of 
 peace thwarted, sends an embassy to Lacedas- 
 mon, and concludes a separate peace for himself 
 and his family. Now he returns into the coun- 
 try, and, in spite of all disturbances, makes an 
 enclosure before his house, Avithin which there 
 is peace and free market for the neighbouring 
 people, while the rest of the country is harassed 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 by the war. The blessings of peace are exhi- 
 bited in the most palpable manner for hungry- 
 maws ; the fat Boeotian brings his eels and poul- 
 try for barter, and nothing is thought of but 
 feasting and revelling. Lamachus, the famous 
 general, who lives on the other side, is sum- 
 moned, by a sudden attack of the enemy, to the 
 defence of the frontier; while Dicaeopolis is 
 invited by his neighbours to partake of a feast, 
 to which each brings his contribution. The 
 preparations of arms, and the preparations in 
 the kitchen, now go on with equal diligence 
 and despatch on both sides: here they fetch the 
 lance, there the spit ; here the armour, there the 
 wine-can ; here they fasten the crest on the hel- 
 met, there they pluck thrushes. Shortly after- 
 wards, Lamachus; returns with broken head and 
 crippled foot, supported by two comrades ; on 
 the other side, Dicoeopolis, drunk, and led by 
 two good-natured damsels. The lamentations 
 of the one are continually mimicked and derid- 
 ed by the exultations of the other, and with this 
 contrast, which is carried to the very highest 
 point, the play ends. The Lysistrata bears so 
 evil a character, that we must make but fugitive 
 mention of it, like persons passing over hot en>- 
 bers. The women, according to the poet's in- 
 vention, have taken it into their heads, by a 
 severe resolution, to compel their husbands to 
 make peace. Under the guidance of their 
 clever chieftain, they organize a conspiracy for 
 this end through all Greece, and at the same 
 time get possession, in Athens, of the fortified 
 Acropolis. The terrible plight into which the 
 husbands are reduced by this separation, occa- 
 sions the most ridiculous scenes; ambassadors 
 come from both the belligerent parties, and the 
 peace is concluded with the greatest despatch un- 
 der the direction of the clever Lysistrata, In 
 spite of all the bold indecencies which the play 
 contains, its purpose, divested of these, is, on the 
 ■whole, very innocent ; the longing for the plea- 
 sures of domestic life, which were so often inter- 
 rupted by the absence of the men, is to put an 
 end to this unhappy war which was ruining all 
 Greece. The honest coarseness of the Lace- 
 daemonians, in particular, is inimitably well 
 portrayed. The Ecclesiazusse ; also a govern- 
 ment of women, but much more corrupt than the 
 former. The women, disguised as men, steal in- 
 to the assembly, and by means of this surreptiti- 
 ous majority,ordain a new constitution, in which 
 there is to be a community of goods and wives. 
 This is a satire upon the ideal republics of the 
 philosophers with laws like these ; such as Pro- 
 tagoras had projected before Plato's time. This 
 play, in our opinion, labours under the same 
 faults as the Peace : the introduction, the private 
 assembly of the women, the description of the 
 assembly, are all treated in a masterly style ; but 
 towards the middle it comes to a stand-still. 
 Nothing remains but to show the confusion aris- 
 ing from the different communities, especially 
 from the community of women, and the appoint- 
 ment of the same rights in love for the old and 
 ngly, as for the young and beautiful. This con- 
 fusion is pleasant enough, but it turns too much 
 upon one continually repeated joke. The old 
 allegoric comedy, in general, is exposed to the 
 danger of sinking in its progress. When a per- 
 son begins with turning the world upside down, 
 of course the strangest individual incidents will 
 
 result, but they are apt to appear petty compared 
 with the decisive strokes of witin thecommence- 
 ment. The play called the Thesmophoriazusae, 
 has a proper intrigue, a knot which is not untied 
 till quite at the end, and in this it possesses a 
 great advantage. Euripides, on account of the 
 well-known misogyny of his tragedies, is accus- 
 ed and sentenced to condign punishment at the 
 festival of the Thesmophoria, at which women 
 al.one might be present. After a vain attempt 
 to excite the effeminate poet Agathon to such 
 an adventure,Euripides disguises his brother-in- 
 law Mnesilochus, a man now advanced in years, 
 in the garb of a woman, that in this shape he 
 may plead his cause. The manner in which he 
 does this, renders him suspected, it is discovered 
 that he is a man ; he flees to an altar, and for 
 greater security against their persecution, he 
 snatches a child from the arms of a woman, and 
 threatens to kill it if they do not let him alone. 
 As he is about to throttle it, it turns out to be 
 only a wine-skin dressed up in child's clothes. 
 Then comes Euripides under various forms to 
 rescue his friend ; now he is Menelaus, who 
 finds his wife Helen in Egypt ; now Echo, help- 
 ing the chained Andromache lo complain ; now 
 Perseus, about to release her from her bonds. 
 At last he frees Mnesilochus, who is fastened 
 to a kind of pillory, by disguising himself as a 
 procuress, and enticing away the officer, a sim- 
 ple barbarian, who is guarding him, ^ by the 
 charms of a flute-playing girl. These parodied 
 scenes, composed almost in the very words of 
 the tragedies, are inimitable. Everywhere in 
 this poet, the instant Euripides comes into play, 
 we may lay our account with finding the clever- 
 est and most cutting ridicule : as though the 
 mind of Aristophanes possessed quite a specific 
 talent for decomposing the poetry of this trage- 
 dian into comedy. The play of the Clouds is 
 very well known, but for the most part has not 
 been properly understood and appreciated. It is ^ 
 intended to show, that the propensity to philos- 
 ophical subtilties, the martial exercises of the 
 Athenians were neglected, that speculation only 
 serves to shake the foundations of religion and 
 morality, that by sophistical slight, in particu- 
 lar, all justice was turned into quibbles, and the 
 weaker cause often enabled to come off victo- 
 rious. The Clouds, themselves, who form the 
 chorus, (for such beings the poet personifi- 
 ed, and, no doubt dressed them out strangely 
 enough) are an allegory on these metaphysical 
 thoughts, which do not rest on the ground of 
 experience, but hover about without definite 
 form and substance, in the region of possibilities. 
 It is one of the principal forms of Aristophanic 
 wit, in general, to take a metaphor in the literal 
 sense, and so place it before the eyes of the spec- 
 tators. Thus, it is said of a person who has a 
 propensity to idle, unintelligible dreams, that he 
 walks in air, and here, therefore, Socrates at 
 his first appearance descends from the air in his 
 basket. Whether this description be directly ap- 
 plicable to him is another question : but we have 
 reason to believe, that the philosophy of Socrates 
 was very idealistic, and not so much confined to 
 popular usefulness as Xenophon would havens 
 believe. But why did Aristophanes imbody 
 the metaphysics of the sophists in the person of 
 Socrates, himself, in fact, a decided antagonist 
 of the sophists 1 Perhaps there was some per- 
 363 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 sonal dislike at the bottom ; we must not attempt 
 to justify him on this score, but the choice of the 
 name does not at all prejudice the excellence of 
 the fiction. Aristophanes declares this to be 
 the most elaborate of all his works, though, in 
 this expression indeed, he must not be exactly- 
 taken at his word. He unhesitatingly allows 
 himself on every occasion the most unbounded 
 praises of himself ; this also seems to belong to 
 the unrestrained license of comedy. The play 
 of the Clouds, it may be added, was unfavour- 
 ably received at its performance ; it was twice 
 exhibited in competition for the prize, but with- 
 out success. The play of the Frogs, as already 
 mentioned, turns upon the decline of tragic art. 
 Euripides was dead, so were Sophocles and 
 Agathon; there remained none but second-rate 
 tragedians. Bacchus misses Euripides, and 
 wishes to fetch him backfrom the infernal world. 
 In this he imitates Hercules, but though equip- 
 ped with the lion-hide and club of that hero, he 
 is very unlike him in character, and as a das- 
 tardly voluptuary, gives rise to much laughter. 
 Here we may see the boldness of the comedian 
 in the right point of view ; he does not scruple 
 to attack the guardian god of his own art, in ho- 
 nour of whom the play was exhibited. It was 
 the common belief that the gods understood fun 
 as well, if not better, than men. Bacchus rows 
 himself over the Acherusian lake, where the 
 frogs pleasantly greet him with their unmelodi- 
 ous croaking. The proper chorus, however, 
 consists of the shades of the initiated in the 
 Eleusinian Mysteries, and odes of wonderful 
 Deauty are assigned to them. iEschylus had at 
 first assumed the tragic throne in the lower 
 world, but now Euripides is for thrusting him 
 oflf it. Pluto proposes that Bacchus should de- 
 cide this great contest ; the two poets, the sub- 
 limely wrathful iEschylus, the subtle, vain 
 Euripides, stand opposite each other and sub- 
 mit specimens of their art ; they sing, they de- 
 claim against each other, and all their features 
 are characterized in masterly style. At last a 
 balance is brought, on which each lays a verse ; 
 but let Euripides take what pains he will to pro- 
 duce his most ponderous lines, a verse of JEs- 
 chylus instantly jerks up the scale of his antag- 
 onist. A-t last he grows weary of the contest, 
 and tells Euripides he may mount into the bal- 
 ance himself with all his works, his wife, chil- 
 dren, and Cephisophon, and he will lay against 
 them only two verses. Bacchus, in the mean- 
 time, has come over to the cause of ^schy- 
 lus, and though he had sworn to Euripides that 
 he would take him back with him from the 
 lower world, he despatches him with an allu- 
 sion to his own verse from the Hippolytus : — 
 
 .ffischylus, therefore, returns to the living world, 
 and resigns the tragic throne to Sophocles du- 
 ring his absence. The observation which was 
 made concerning the changes of scene in the 
 Peace, may be repeated of the Frogs. The 
 scene at first lies in Thebes, of which place both 
 Bacchus and Hercules were natives. After- 
 wards the stage, though Bacchus had not left it, 
 is transformed at once into the hither shore of 
 the Acherusian lake, which was represented by 
 the sunken space of the orchestra, and it was 
 not till Bacchus landed on the other end of the 
 364 
 
 Logeum, that the scenery represented the infer- 
 nal regions, with the palace of Pluto in the back- 
 ground. Let not this be taken for mere conjec- 
 ture ; the ancient Scholiast testifies as much ex- 
 pressly. The Wasps appears to be the weakest 
 of Aristophanes' plays. The subject is too con- 
 fined, the folly exhibited appears as a singular 
 weakness without any satisfactory general sig- 
 nificance, and in the treatment it is too long 
 spun out. In this instance, the poet himself 
 speaks modestly of his means of entertainment, 
 and will not promise unbounded laughter. On 
 the contrary, the Birds sparkles with the boldest 
 and richest imagination in the province of the 
 fantastically marvellous : it is a merry, buoyant 
 creation, bright with the gayest plumage. I 
 cannot agree with the ancient critic, who con- 
 ceives the main purport of the work to consist in 
 the most universal, and most unreserved satire 
 on the corruption of the Athenian state, nay, of 
 all human constitutions in general. Rather say, 
 that it is a piece of the most harmless buffbonry. 
 which has a touch at everything, gods as well as 
 man, but without any where pressing towards 
 any particular object. All that was remarkable 
 in the stories about birds in natural history, in 
 mythology, in the lore of augury, in jfEsop's Fa- 
 bles, or even in proverbial expressions, the poet 
 has ingeniously blended in this poem ; he even 
 goes back as far as the Cosmogony, and shows 
 how at first black-winged Night laid a wind-egg, 
 whence lovely Eros, with golden pinions (doubt- 
 lessly a bird) soared aloft, and then gave birth 
 to all things. Two fugitives of the human 
 species find their way into the domain of the 
 birds,who are determined to revenge themselves 
 on them for the many hostilities they have suf- 
 fered from man ; the captives save themselves 
 by proving clearly, that the birds are pre-emi- 
 nent above all creatures, and advise them to 
 collect their scattered powers into one enormous 
 state; thus the wondrous city. Cloud-cuckoo- 
 town {'N£<p£\oKOKKvyia,) is built abovc the earth ; 
 all sorts of unbidden guests, priests, poets, 
 soothsayers, geometers, lawgivers, sycophants, 
 wish to feather their nests in the new state, but 
 are bid go their ways, new gods are ordained, 
 of course after the image of birds, as mankind 
 conceive theirs as human beings ; the frontier 
 of Olympus is walled up against the old gods, 
 so that no savour of sacrifice can reach them, 
 whereby they are brought into great distress, 
 and send an embassy, consisting of the vora- 
 cious Hercules, Neptune, (who after the usual 
 fashion among men, swears " By Neptune !") 
 and a Thracian god who cannot talk Greek in 
 the most correct fashion, but discourses gibber- 
 ish ; these, however, are compelled to put up 
 with whatever terms the birds please to offer, 
 and they leave to the birds the sovereignty of 
 the world . However like a farcical tale all this 
 may seem, it has a philosophical significance ; 
 it casts a bird's-eye glance, as it were, on the 
 sum of all things, which, once in a way, is all 
 very proper, considering that most of our con- 
 ceptions are true only for a human point of 
 view. The ancient critics judged Cratinus to 
 be strong in keen, straight-forward satire, but 
 to be deficient in pleasantry and humour ; nei- 
 ther, say they, had he skill to develop a strik- 
 ing plot to the best advantage, nor to fill up his 
 plays with the proper detail. Eupolis, they say, 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 was pleasing in his mirth, skilful in ingenious 
 tarns of meaning, so that he had no need of 
 Parabases to say whatever he wished; but he 
 wanted satiric power. Aristophanes, they add, 
 in a happy medium, unites the excellences of 
 both ; satire and mirth in his poem are most 
 completely melted down into each other, and in 
 the most attractive proportions. From these ac- 
 counts, we are justified in assuming that of the 
 plays of Aristophanes, that of" The Knights," 
 is most in the style of Cratinus ; " The Birds," 
 in that of Eupolis ; and that he had their 
 respective manners immediately in view when 
 he composed these plays. For though he 
 boasts of his independence and originality, and 
 of his never borrowing any thing from others, 
 yet there could not fail to be a reciprocal in- 
 fluence at work among such distinguished 
 contemporaries. If this conjecture be well 
 groanded, we have perhaps to deplore the loss 
 of the works of Cratinus, rather for their 
 bearing on the history of Athenian manners 
 and the insight which they would have afforded 
 us inio the Athenian constitution ; and the loss 
 of the works of Eupolis rather in respect of 
 their comic form. The Plutus is the refashion- 
 ment of an earlier work of Aristophanes, but 
 in its extant form, one of his latest. In its es- 
 sence it belongs to the Old Comedy, but in the 
 sparingness of personal satire, and in the mild- 
 ness which pervades it, it seems to verge to- 
 wards the Middle Comedy. The older comedy, 
 indeed, received its death-blow from a formal 
 enactment, but even before that event it was 
 perhaps every day more hazardous to exercise 
 the democratic privilege of the old comedian in 
 its full extent. We are even told, (but proba- 
 bly only on conjecture, for others have denied 
 the story,) that Alcibiades had Eupolis drown- 
 ed, on account of a play which that poet had 
 directed against him. Against such perils no 
 . zeal in the cause of art will stand its ground : 
 it is but fair that a person, whose calling it is to 
 amuse his fellow-citizens, should at least be se- 
 cure of his life. The best editions of the works 
 of Aristophanes are, Kuster's, fol. Amst. 1710, 
 and the 12mo. L. Bat. 1670, and that of 
 Brunck. 4 vols. 8vo. Argent. 1783, which would 
 still be more perfect did it contain the valuable 
 scholia. Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Paterc. 1, c. 16. — 
 
 Horat. 1, Sat. 4, v. 1, II, A grammarian of 
 
 Byzantium, keeper of the library of Alexan- 
 dria under Ptolemy Evergetes. 
 
 Aristophon, I. a painter in the age of So- 
 crates. He drew the picture of Alcibiades re- 
 clining on the bosom of Nemea, and all the peo- 
 ple of Athens ran in crowds to be spectators of 
 the masterly piece. He also made a painting 
 of Mars leaning on the arm of Venus. Pint. 
 
 in Alc.—Athen.'n.—Pli7v. 35, c. 11. II. A. 
 
 comic poet in the age of Alexander, many of 
 whose fragments are collected in Athenaeus. 
 
 Aristoteleia, festivals in honour of Aristo- 
 tle, because he obtained the restitution of his 
 country from Alexander. 
 
 Aristoteles, a famous philosopher, son of 
 the physician Nicomachus by Festiada, born 
 at Stagira. After his father's death he went to 
 Athens, to hear Plato's lectures, where he soon 
 signalized himself by the brightness of his ge- 
 nius. He had been of an inactive and disso- 
 lute disposition in his youth, but now he appli- 
 
 ed himself with uncommon diligence, and, after 
 he had spent 20 years in hearing the instruc- 
 tions of Plato, he opened a school for himself, 
 for which he was accused of ingratitude and il- 
 liberality by his ancient master. He was mo- 
 derate in his meals ; he slept little, and always 
 had one arm out of his couch with a bullet in it, 
 which by falling into a brazen basin underneath, 
 early awakened him. He was, according to 
 some, ten years preceptor to Alexander, who 
 received his instructions with much pleasure and 
 deference, and always respected him. Almost 
 all his writings, which are composed on a va- 
 riety of subjects, are extant : he gave them to 
 Theophrastus at his death, and they were bought 
 by one of the Ptolemies, and placed in the fa- 
 mous library of Alexandria. Diogenes Laertes 
 has given us a very extensive catalogue of them, 
 Aristotle had a deformed countenance, but his 
 genius was a sufficient compensation for all his 
 personal defects. He has been called by Plato 
 the philosopher of truth ; and Cicero compli- 
 ments him with the title of a man of eloquence, 
 universal knowledge, readiness and acuteness of 
 invention, and fecundity of thotight, Aristotle 
 studied nature more than art,and had recourse to 
 simplicity of expression more than ornament. 
 He was so authoritative in his opinions, that, as 
 Bacon observes, he wished to establish the same 
 dominion over men's minds as his pupil over 
 nations, Alexander, it is said, wished and en- 
 couraged his learned tutor to write the history 
 of animals ; and the more eifectually to assist 
 him, he supplied him with 800 talents, and in 
 his Asiatic expedition employed above a thou- 
 sand men to collect animals, either in fishing, 
 hunting,or hawking,which were carefully trans- 
 mitted to the philosopher, Aristotle's logic has 
 long reigned in the schools, and been regarded 
 as the perfect model of all imitation. As he ex- 
 pired, the philosopher is said to have uttered the 
 following sentiment: Fmde hunc mundwni ^7^- 
 Iravi, anxius vixi, perturbatus egredior, causa 
 causarum miserere mei. The letter which 
 Philip wrote to Aristotle has been preserved, 
 and is in these words : " I inform you I have a 
 son ; I thank the gods, not so much for making 
 me a father, as for giving me a son in an age 
 when he can have Aristotle for his instructer, 
 I hope you will make him a successor worthy 
 of me, and a king worthy of Macedonia." He 
 died in the 63d year of his age. B. C. 322, His 
 treatises have been published separately ; but 
 the best edition of the works collectively, is that 
 of Duval, 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1629. Tyrrwhitt's 
 edition of the Poetica, Oxon. 4to. 1794, is a va- 
 luable acquisition to literature. He had a son, 
 whom he called Nicomachus, by the courtesan 
 Herpyllis. Some have said that he drowned 
 himself in the Euripus, because he could not 
 find out the cause of its flux and reflux. There 
 are, however, different reports about the manner 
 of his death, and some believe that he died at 
 Athens of a colic, two years after Alexander's 
 death. The people of Stagira instituted festi- 
 vals in his honour, because he had rendered im- 
 portant services to their city. Ding, in vita.-— 
 Plut. in Alex, and de Alex. fort. &c. — Cic. 
 Acad. Qucest. 4, de Orat. 3, de Finif>. 5. — 
 Quintil. 1,2, 5, 10.— JElian. V. H. A.— Justin. 
 12. — Justin. Martyr. — August, de Civ. Dei, 8. 
 —Plin. 2,4, 5 &c.—Athen.— Val Max. 5, c. 6, 
 365 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 &c. There were besides seven of the same 
 
 name. 
 
 Aristoxenus, a celebrated musician, disciple 
 of Aristotle, and born at Tarentum. He wrote 
 453 different treatises on philosophy, history, 
 &c. and was disappointed in his expectations of 
 succeeding in the school of Aristotle, for which 
 he always spoke with ingratitude of his learned 
 master. Of all his works, nothing remains but 
 three books upon music, the most ancient on 
 that subject extant. 
 
 Arius, a celebrated writer, the origin of the 
 Arian controversy that denied the eternal di- 
 vinity and consubstantiality of the Word. 
 Though he was greatly persecuted for his opi- 
 nions, he gained the favour of the emperor Con- 
 stantine, and triumphed over his powerful an- 
 tagonist Athanasius. He died the very night 
 he was going to enter the church of Constanti- 
 nople in triumph. 
 
 Armentarius, a Caesar in the reign of Dio- 
 clesian. 
 
 Armilustrium, a festival at Rome on the 
 19th of October. When the sacrifices were 
 offered, all the people appeared under arms. 
 The festival has often been confounded with 
 that of the Salii. It was instituted A. U. C. 
 543. Varro. de L. L. 5, c. 3.—Liv. 27, c. 37. 
 
 Arminius, a warlike general of the Ger- 
 mans, who supported a bloody war against 
 Rome for some time, and was at last conquered 
 by Germanicus in two great battles. He was 
 poisoned by one of his friends, A. D. 19, in the 
 37th year of his age. Dio. 56. — Tacit. A7in. 1, 
 &c. 
 
 Arnobius, a philosopher in Dioclesian's reign, 
 who became a convert to Christianity. He 
 applied for ordination, but was refused by the 
 bishops till he gave them a proof of his since- 
 rity, tjpon this he wrote his celebrated treatise, 
 in which he exposed the absurdity of irreligion, 
 and ridiculed the heathen gods. Opinions are 
 various concerning the purity of his style,though 
 all agree in praise of his extensive erudition. 
 The book that he wrote, de Rhetorica Institu- 
 tione, is not extant. The best edition of his 
 treatise Adversus Gentes is the 4to. printed L. 
 Bat. 1651. 
 
 Arrianus, I. a philosopher of Nicomedia, 
 priest of Ceres and Proserpine, and disciple of 
 Epictus, called a second Xenophon, from the 
 elegance and sweetness of his diction, and dis- 
 tinguished for bis acquaintance with military 
 and political life. He wrote seven books on 
 Alexander's expedition, the periplus of the 
 Euxine and Red Sea, four books on the disser- 
 tations of Epictetus, besides an account of the 
 Alani, Bithynians, and Parthians. He flourish- 
 ed about the 140th year of Christ, and was re- 
 warded with the consulship and government of 
 Cappadocia by M. Antoninus, The best edi- 
 tion of Arrian's Expediiio Alexandria is the fol. 
 Gronovii. L. Bat. 1704, and the 8vo. a Raphe- 
 lio, 2 vols. 1757, and the Tactica, 8vo. Amst. 
 
 1683. II. A poet who wrote an epic poem 
 
 in twenty-four books on Alexander ; also ano- 
 ther poem on Attains, king of Pergamus. He 
 likewise translated Virgil's Georgics into Greek 
 verse. 
 
 ARRros, and Arius, a philosopher of Alex- 
 andria, who so ingratiated himself with Augus- 
 tus after the battle of Actium, that the con- 
 366 
 
 queror declared the people of Alexandria owed 
 the preservation of their city to three causes ; 
 because Alexander was their founder, because 
 of the beauty of the situation, and because Ar- 
 rius was a native of the place. Plut. in Anton. 
 
 Arruntius, a famous geographer, who, upon 
 being accused of adultery and treason under 
 Tiberius, opened his veins. Tacit. Ann. 6. 
 
 Arsaces, I. a man of obscure origin, who, 
 upon seeing Seleucus defeated by the Gauls, in- 
 vaded Parthia, and conquered the governor of 
 the province called Andragoras, and laid the 
 foundations of an empire, 250 B. C. He add- 
 ed the kingdom of the Hyrcani to his newly- 
 acquired possessions, and spent his time in es- 
 tablishing his power and regulating the laws. 
 
 Justin. 41, c, 5 and 6. — Strab. 11 and 12. 
 
 II. His son and successor bore the same name. 
 He carried war against Antiochus, the son of 
 Seleucus, who entered the field with 100,000 
 foot and 20,000 horse. He afterwards made 
 peace with Antiochus, and died B. C. 217. Id. 
 
 41, c. 5. III. The third king of Parthia, of 
 
 the family of the Arsacidse, bore the same name,, 
 and was also called Priapatius. He reigned 
 twelve years, and left two sons, Mithridates and 
 Phraates. Phraates succeeded, as being the 
 elder, and at his death he left his kingdom to 
 his brother, though he had many children ; ob- 
 serving, that a monarch ought to have in view, 
 not the dignity of his family, but the prosperity 
 
 of his subjects. Justin. 31, c. 5. IV, A 
 
 king of Pontus and Armenia, in alliance with 
 the Romans, He fought long with success 
 against the Persians, till he was deceived by the 
 snares of king Sapor, his enemy, who put out 
 his eyes, and soon after deprived him of life. 
 
 Marcellin. V. The eldest son of Artaba- 
 
 nus, appointed over Armenia by his father, af- 
 ter the death of king Artaxias, Tacit. Hist. 6, 
 
 ARSAciD.E, a name given to some of the 
 monarchs of Parthia, in honour of Arsaces, the 
 founder of the empire. Their power subsisted 
 till the 229th year of the Christian era, when 
 they were conquered by Artaxerxes king of 
 Persia. Justin. 41. 
 
 Arsanes, the son of Ochus, and father of 
 Codomanus, 
 
 Arses, the younger son of Ochus, whom 
 the eunuch Bagoas raised to the throne of Per- 
 sia, and destroyed with his children, after a reign 
 of three years, Diod. 17, 
 
 Arsinoe, I, a daughter of Leucippus and 
 Philodice, was mother of jEsculapius by Apol- 
 lo, according to some authors. She received 
 divine honours after death at Sparta. Apollod. 
 S.—Paus. 2, c. 26, 1. 3, c. 12. II. The sis- 
 ter and wife of Ptolemy Philadelphus, worship- 
 ped after death under the name of Venus Ze- 
 phyritis, Dinochares began to build her a tem- 
 ple with loadstones, in which there stood a sta- 
 tue of Arsinoe suspended in the air by the pow- 
 er of the magnet ; but the death of the architect 
 prevented it being perfected. Plin. 34, c, 14. 
 III. A daughter of Ptolemy Lagus, who 
 
 married Lysimachus king of Macedonia, After 
 her husband's death, Ceraunus, her own bro- 
 ther, married her, and ascended the throne of 
 Macedonia. He previously murdered Lysima- 
 chus and Philip, the sons of Arsinoe by Lysi- 
 machus, in their mother's arms, Arsinoe was 
 sometime after banished to Samothrace. Jus-- 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AR 
 
 tin. 17, c. 1, &c. IV. A younger daughter 
 
 of Plolemy Auletes, sister to Cleopatra. An- 
 tony despatched her to gain the good graces of 
 her sister. Hlrt. Alex. 4. — Appian. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Artabanos, I. son of Hysiaspes, was brother 
 to Darius ihe first. He dissuaded his nephew 
 Xerxes from making war against the Greeks, 
 and at his return he assassinated him with the 
 hopes of ascending the throne. Darius, the son 
 of Xerxes, was murdered in a sim'ilar manner ; 
 and Artaxerxes, his brother, would have shared 
 the same fate, had not he discovered the snares 
 of the assassin and punished him with death. 
 Diod. 11. — Justin. 3, c. 1, &c. — Herodot. 4, c. 
 
 38, 1. 7, c. 10, &c. II. A king of Parthia 
 
 after the death of his nephew Phraates 2d. He 
 undertook a war against a nation of Scythia, in 
 which he perished. His son Mithridates sac- 
 ceeded him,and merited the appellation of Great. 
 
 Justin. 42, c. 2. III. A king of Media, and 
 
 afterwards of Parthia. He invaded Armenia, 
 from whence he was driven away by one of the 
 generals of Tiberius. He was expelled from 
 his throne, which Tiridates usurped ; and, some 
 time after, he was restored again to his ancient 
 power, and died A. D. 48. Tacit. Ann. 5, &c. 
 
 IV. Another king of Parthia, who made 
 
 war against the emperor Caracalla, who had 
 attempted his life on pretence of courting his 
 daughter. He was murdered, and the power 
 of Parthia abolished, and the crown translated 
 to the Persian monarchs. Dio. — Herodian. 
 
 Artabazanes, or Artamenes, the eldest son 
 of Darius when a private person. He attempt- 
 ed to succeed to the Persian throne in prefe- 
 rence to Xerxes. Justin. 
 
 Artabazus, I. a son of Pharnaces, general in 
 the army of Xerxes. He fled from Greece upon 
 the ill success of Mardonius. Herodot. 7, 8 and 
 9. II. A general who made war against Ar- 
 taxerxes, and was defeated. He was afterwards 
 •reconciled to his prince, and became the fa- 
 miliar friend of Darius 3d. After the murder 
 of this prince, he surrendered himself up with 
 his sons to Alexander, who treated him with 
 much humanity and confidence. Curt. 5, c. 9 
 and 12, 1. 6, c. 5, 1. 7, c. 3 and 5, 1. 8, c. 1. 
 
 Artac^as, an oflicer in the army of Xerxes, 
 the tallest of all the troops, the king excepted. 
 
 Artaphernes, a general whom Darius sent 
 into Greece with Datis. He was conquered at 
 the battle of Marathon by Miltiades. Vid. Da- 
 tis. C. Nep. in Milt. — Herodot, 
 
 Artavasdes, a son of Tigranes, king of 
 Upper Armenia, who wrote tragedies, and shone 
 as au orator and historian. He lived in alliance 
 with the Romans, but Crassus, the Roman gene- 
 ral, was defeated partly on account of his delay. 
 He betrayed M. Antony in his expedition 
 against Parthia, for which Antony reduced his 
 kingdom, and carried him to Egypt, where he 
 adorned the triumph of the conqueror led in 
 golden chains. He was some time after mur- 
 dered. Strab. 11. -Two other kings of Ar- 
 menia bore this name. 
 
 Artaxa, and Artaxias, a general of Antio- 
 chus the Great, who erected the province of 
 Armenia into a kingdom, by his reliance on the 
 friendship of the Romans. King Tigranes was 
 one of his successors. Strab. 11. 
 
 Artaxerxes, I. succeeded to the kingdom 
 of Persia after his father Xerxes. He destroy- 
 
 ed Artabanus, who had murdered Xerxes, and 
 attempted to destroy the royal family to raise 
 himself to the throne. He made war against 
 the Bactrians, and re-conquered Egypt that had 
 revolted, with the assistance of the Athenians, 
 and was remarkable for his equity and mode- 
 ration. One of his hands was longer than the 
 other, whence he has been called Macrochir or 
 Longimaiius. He reigned 39 years, and died 
 B. C. 425. C. Nep. in Reg. — Plut. in Artax. 
 The second of that name, king of Persia, 
 
 was surnamed Mnemon, on account of his ex- 
 tensive memory. He was son of Darius the se- 
 cond, by Parysatis, the daughter of Artaxerxes 
 Longimanus, and had three brothers, Cyrus, 
 Ostanes, and Oxathres. His name was Arsa- 
 ces, which he changed into Artaxerxes when 
 he ascended the throne. His brother Cyrus, 
 who had been appointed over Lydia and the 
 seacoasts, assembled a large army under va- 
 rious pretences, and at last marched against his 
 brother at the head of 100,000 barbarians and 
 13,000 Greeks. He was opposed by Artaxerxes 
 with 900,000 men, and a bloody battle was fought 
 at Cunaxa, in which Cyrus was killed and his 
 forces routed. It has been reported that Cyrus 
 was killed by Artaxerxes, who was so desirous 
 of the honour, that he put to death two men for 
 saying that they had killed him. After he was 
 delivered from the attacks of his brother, Arta- 
 xerxes stirred up a war among the Greeks 
 against Sparta, and exerted all his inflilence to 
 weaken the power of the Greeks. It is said 
 that Artaxerxes died of a broken heart, in con- 
 sequence of his son's unnatural behaviour, in 
 the 94thyear of his age, after a reign of 46 years, 
 B. C. 358. Artaxerxes had 150 children by his 
 350 concubines, and only four legitimate sons. 
 Plut. in vita. — C. Nep. in Reg. — Justin. 10, 
 
 e. 1, &i(i.—Diod. 13, &c. The 3d, surnamed 
 
 Ochus, succeeded his father Artaxerxes 2d, and 
 established himself on his throne by murdering 
 about 80 of his nearest relations. He punished 
 with death one of his officers who conspired 
 against him, and recovered Egypt, Avhich had 
 revolted,destroyed Sidon, and ravaged all Syria, 
 He made war against the Cadusii, and greatly 
 rewarded a private man called Codomanusfor 
 his uncommon valour. But his behaviour in 
 Egypt, and his cruelty towards the inhabitants, 
 offended his subjects, and Bagoas at last obliged 
 his physician to poison him, B.C. 337, and after- 
 wards gave his flesh to be devoured by cats, and 
 made handles for swords with his bones. Jns- 
 tin. 10, c. 3.— Diod. ll.—JSlian. V. H. 6, c. 8. 
 
 Artaxerxes, or Artaxares I. a common 
 soldier of Persia, who killed Artabanus, A. D. 
 228, and erected Persia again into a kingdom, 
 which had been "extinct since the death of Da- 
 rius. Severus, the Roman emperor, conquered 
 hira, and obliged him to remain within his king- 
 dom. Herodian. 5. One of his successors, 
 
 son of Sapor, bore his name, and reigned elev- 
 en yearSjduring which he distinguished himself 
 by his cruelties. 
 
 Artaxias, I. a son of Aartavasdes, king of 
 Armenia, was proclaimed king by his father's 
 troops. He opposed Antony, by whom he was 
 defeated, and became so odious that the Romans, 
 at the request of the Armenians, raised Tigra- 
 nes to the throne. II. Another, son of Pole- 
 
 mon, whose original name was Zeno. After 
 367 
 
AR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AS 
 
 the expulsion ofVenones from Armenia, he 
 was made king of Germanicus. Tacit. 6, Ann. 
 c. 31. Vid. Artaooa. 
 
 Artayctes, a Persian, appomted governor of 
 Sestos by Xerxes. He was hung on a cross by 
 the Athenians for his cruelties. Herod. 7 and 9. 
 
 Artemidorus, I. a native of Ephesus, who 
 wrote a history and descriptionof the earth, in 
 eleven books. He flourished about 104 years 
 
 B. C. II. A man in the reign of Antoninus, 
 
 who wrote a learned work on the interpretation 
 of dreams, still extant ; the best edition of which 
 is that of Rigaltius, Paris, 4to. 1604, to which 
 
 is annexed Achmetis oneirocritica. III, A 
 
 man of Cnidus, son to the historian Theopom- 
 pus. He had a school at Rome, and he wrote a 
 Ijook on illustrious men, not extant. As he was 
 a friend of J. Caesar, he wrote dowD an account of 
 the conspiracy which was formed against him. 
 He gave it to the dictator from among the crowd 
 as he was going to the senate, but J. Cassar put 
 it with other papers which he held in his hand, 
 thinking it to be of no material consequence. 
 Plut. in CcBS. 
 
 Artemisia, daughter of Lygdamis of Hali- 
 carnassus, reigned over Halicarnassus and the 
 neighbouring country. She assisted Xerxes in 
 his expedition against Greece with a fleet, and 
 her valour was so great that the monarch ob- 
 served that all his men fought like women, and 
 all his women like men. The Athenians were 
 so ashamed of fighting against a woman, that 
 they offered a reward of 10,000 drachms for her 
 
 head. There was also another queen ofCa- 
 
 ria of that name, often confounded with the 
 daughter of Lygdamis. She was daughter of 
 Hecatomnus king of Caria, or Halicarnassus, 
 and was married to her own brother Mausolus, 
 famous for his personal beauty. She was so 
 fond of her husband, that at his death she drank 
 in her liquor his ashes after his body had been 
 burned, and erected to his memory a monument, 
 which, for its grandeur and magnificence, was 
 called one of the seven wonders of the world. 
 This monument she called Mausoleum, a name 
 which has been given from that time to all 
 monuments of unusual splendour. She invited 
 all the literary men of her age, and proposed 
 rewards to him who composed the best elegiac 
 panegyric upon her husband. The prize was 
 adjudged to Theopompus. She was so incon- 
 solable for the death of her husband, that she 
 died through grief tAVo years after. Vitruv. — 
 Strab. U.—Plin. 25, c. 7, 1. 36, c. 5. 
 
 Artemon, I. a native of Clazomena, who was 
 with Pericles at the siege of Samos, where it is 
 said he invented the battering-ram, the testudo, 
 and other equally valuable military engines. 
 II. A man who wrote a treatise on col- 
 lecting books. III. A Syrian, whose features 
 
 resembled in the strongest manner, those of An- 
 tiochus. Vid. Antiochus. 
 
 Artobarzanes, a son of Darius, who endeav- 
 oured to ascend the throne in preference to his 
 brother Xerxes, but to no purpose. Herodot. 
 7, c. 2 and 3. 
 
 ARVALEs,a name given to twelve priests who 
 celebrated the festivals called Ambarvalia. 
 They were descended from the twelve sons of 
 Acca Laurentia. Varro de L. />, 4. Vid. Am- 
 bravalia. 
 
 Aruns, I. a brother of Tarquin the Proud. 
 368 
 
 He married Tullia, who murdered him to es- 
 pouse Tarquin, who had assassinated his wife. 
 •II. A son of Tarquin the Proud, who, in 
 
 the battle that was fought between the partisans 
 of his father and the Romans, attacked Brutus, 
 the Roman consul, who wounded him and :hrew 
 
 him down from his horse. Liv. 2, c. 6. III. 
 
 A son of Porsenna, king of Etruria, sent by his 
 father to take Aricia. Liv. 2, c. 14. 
 
 Aruntius, (Paterculus.) Vid. Phalaris. 
 Aryandes, a Persian appointed governor of 
 Egypt by Cambyses. He was put to death be- 
 cause he imitated Darius in whatever he did. 
 Herodot. 4, c. 166. 
 
 ARYPTiEus, a prince of the Molossi, wlio 
 privately encouraged the Greeks against Mace- 
 donia, and afterwards embraced the party oi 
 the Macedonians. 
 
 Ascanius, son of ^neasby Creusa, was sav- 
 ed from the flames of Troy by his father, whom 
 he accompanied in his voyage to Italy. He was 
 afterwards called lulus. He behaved with 
 great valour in the war which his father carried 
 on against the Latins, and succeeded ^neas in 
 the kingdom of Latinus, and built Alba, to which 
 he transferred the seat of his empire from La- 
 vinium. The descendants of Ascanius reigned 
 in Alba, for above 420 years, under 14 kings, 
 till the age of Numitor. Ascanius reigned 38 
 years, 30 at Lavinium and eight at Alba ; and 
 was succeeded by Sylvius Posthumus, son oi 
 vEneas by Lavinia. Liv. 1, c. 3. — Virg. JEn. 
 
 1, &c. According to Dionys. Hal. I, c. 15, 
 
 &c. the son of ./Eneas by Lavinia was also cal- 
 led Ascanius. 
 
 AscLEPiA, festivals in honour of Asclepius, 
 or iEsculapius, celebrated all over Greece, 
 when prizes for poetical and musical compo- 
 sitions were hojf.ourably distributed. At Epidau- 
 rus they were called by a different name. 
 ■ AscuLEPiADEs, I. a rhctorician in the age of 
 Eumenes, who wrote an historical account of 
 Alexander. Arrian. II. A philosopher, dis- 
 ciple to Stilpo, and very intimate with Menede- 
 mus. The two friends lived together, and that 
 they might not be separated when they married, 
 Asclepiades married the daughter, and Mene- 
 demus, though much the younger, the mother. 
 When the wife of Asclepiades was dead, Mene- 
 demus gave his wife to his friend, and married 
 another. He was blind in his old age, and died 
 
 in Eretria. Plut. III. A physician of Bi- 
 
 thynia, B. C. 90, who acquired great reputation 
 at Rome, and was the founder of a sect in phy- 
 sic. He relied so much on his skill, that he laid 
 a wager he should never be sick ; and won it, as 
 he died of a fall, in a very advanced age. No- 
 thing of his medical treatises is now extant. 
 
 IV. An Eg}rptian, who wrote hymns on 
 
 the gods of his country, and also a treatise on 
 
 the coincidence of all religions. V. A native 
 
 of Alexandria, who gave a history of the Athe- 
 nian archons. VI. A disciple of Isocrates, 
 
 who wrote six books on those events which had 
 been the subject of tragedies. 
 
 AscLEPioDoRUs, a painter in the age of Apel- 
 les, 12 of whose pictures of the gods were sold 
 for 300 minae each, to an African prince. Plin. 
 35, 
 
 AscLETARiON, a mathematician in the age 
 of Domitian, who said that he should be torn by 
 dogs. The emperor ordered him to be put to 
 
AS 
 
 HISTORY, &c> 
 
 AS 
 
 death, and his body carefully secured ; but as 
 soon as he was set on the burning pile, a sud- 
 den storm arose which put out the flames, and 
 the dogs came and tore to pieces the mathema- 
 tician's body. Sueton. in Domit. 15. 
 
 AscOlia, a festival in honour of Bacchus, 
 celebrated about December, by the Athenian 
 husbandmen, who generally sacrificed a goat to 
 the god, because that animal is a great enemy to 
 the vine. They made a bottle with the skin of 
 the victim, which they iilled with oil and wine, 
 and afterwards leaped upon it. He who could 
 stand upon it first M^as victorious, and receiv- 
 ed the bottle as a reward. This was called 
 
 aaKO}\iai^eiv ~apa to etti rov acrxov aWe^dat, leaping 
 
 upon the bottle, whence the name of the festival 
 is derived. It was also introduced in Italy, 
 where the people besmeared their faces with the 
 dregs of wine, and sung hymns to the god. 
 They always hanged some small images of the 
 god on the tallest tree in their vineyards, and 
 these images they called Oscilla: Vi/'s^. G. 2, 
 V. ZSi.— Pollux. 9, c. 7. 
 
 AscoNius Labeo, I. a preceptor of Nero 
 
 make peace with Rome, and upbraided AnmbaJ 
 for laughing in the Carthaginian senate. Liv. 
 
 V. A grandson of Massinissa, murdered 
 
 in the senate-house by the Carthaginians. 
 
 II. Pedia, a man in the age of Vespasian, who 
 became blind in his old age, and lived 12 years 
 after. He wrote, besides some historical trea- 
 tises, annotations on Cicero's orations. 
 
 AsDRUJBAL, I. a Carthaginian, son-in-law of 
 Hamilcar. He distinguished himself in the 
 Numidian war, and was appointed chief general 
 on the death of his father-in-law, and for eight 
 years presided with much prudence and valour 
 over Spain, which submitted to his arms with 
 cheerfulness. Here he laid the foundation of 
 new Carthage, and saw it complete. To stop 
 his progress towards the east, the Romans, in a 
 treaty with Carthage, forbade him to pass the 
 Iberus, which was faithfully observed by the 
 general. He was killed in the midst of hjs sol- 
 diers, B. C.220, by a slave whose master he had 
 •murdered. Ital. 1, v. 165. — Appian. Iberic. — 
 
 —Polyb. 2.— Liv. 21, c. 2, &c. II. A son of 
 
 Hamilcar, who came from Spain with a large 
 reinforcement for his brother Annibal. He 
 crossed the Alps and entered Italy ; but some 
 of his letters to Annibal having fallen into the 
 hands of the Romans, the consuls M. Livius 
 Salinator and Claudius Nero attacked him sud- 
 denlv near the Metaurus, and defeated him, B . 
 C. 207. He was killed in the battle, and 56,000 
 of his men shared his fate, and 5400 were taken 
 prisoners ; about 8000 Romans were killed. 
 The head of Asdrubal was cut off, and some 
 da}^s after thrown into the camp of Annibal, 
 who, in the moment that he was m the greatest 
 expectations of a promised supply, exclaimed at 
 the sight, " In losing Asdrubal, I lose all my 
 happiness, and Carthage all her hopes." As- 
 drubal had before made an attempt to penetrate 
 into Italy by sea, but had been defeated by the 
 governor of Sardinia. Liv. 21, 2^, 27, &c. — 
 
 Polyb. — Horat. 4, od. 4. II. A Carthaginian 
 
 general, surnamed Calvus, appointed governor 
 of Sardinia, and taken prisoner by the Romans. 
 Liv. III. Another, son of Gisgon, appoint- 
 ed general of the Carthaginian forces in Spain, 
 in the time of the great Annibal. He made 
 head against the Romans in Africa, with the 
 assistance of Syphax, but he was soon after de- 
 feated by Scipio. He died B. C. 206. Liv. 
 
 IV. Another, who advised his countrymen to 
 Part II.— 3 A 
 
 VI. Anotlier, whose camp was destroyed in 
 Africa by Scipio, though at the head of 20,000 
 men, in the last Punic war. When all was 
 lost, he fled to the enemy and begged his life. 
 Scipio showed him to the Carthaginians, upon 
 which his wife, with a thousand imprecations, 
 tlirew herself and her two children into the 
 flames of the temple of ^sculapius, which she, 
 and others, had set on fire. He was not of the 
 
 same family as Hannibal. Liv. 51. VII. 
 
 A Carthagmian general, conquered by L. Cs- 
 cilius Metellus in Sicily, m a battle in which 
 he lost 130 elephants. These animals were led 
 in triumph all over Italy by the conquerors. 
 
 AsELLio (Sempronius,) an historian and mil- 
 itary tribune, who wrote an account of the ac- 
 tions in which he was present. Dionys. Hal. 
 
 AsiNARiA, a festival in Sicily, in commemora- 
 tion of the victory obtained over Demosthenes 
 and Nicias at the river Asinarius. 
 
 AsiNius Gallus, I. son of Asinius PoUio, the 
 orator, married Vipsania after she had been 
 divorced by Tiberius. This marriage gave rise 
 to a secret enmity betv/een the emperor and Asi- 
 nius, who starved himself to death, either vo- 
 luntarily, or by order of his imperial enemy. 
 He wrote a comparison between his fatjier and 
 Cicero, in which he gave a decided superiority 
 to the former. Tacit. 1 and 5. Ann. — Dio. 58. 
 
 — Plin. 7, ep. 4. II. Pollio, an excellent 
 
 orator, poet, and historian, intimate with Au- 
 gustus. He triumphed over the Dalmatians, 
 and wrote an account of the wars of Caesar and 
 Pompey, in 17 books, besides poems. He re- 
 fused to answer some verses against him by Au- 
 gustus, " Because," said he, " you have the pow- 
 er to proscribe me should my answer prove of- 
 fensive." He died in the 80th year of his age, 
 A. D. 4. He was consul with Cn. Domitius 
 Calvinus, A. U. C. 714. It is to him that the 
 fourth of Virgil's Bucolics is inscribed. Quintil. 
 — Sueton. in Cccs. 30 and 55. — Dio. 27, 49, 55. 
 — SeTiec. de Tranq. Ani. (^ ep. 100. — Plin. 7, 
 c. 30.— Tacit. Q.— Patera. 2.—Plut. in Cces. 
 
 AsPAsiA, I. a daughter of Hermotimus of 
 Phocaea, famous for her personal charms and 
 elegance. She was priestess of the sun, mis- 
 tress to Cyrus, and afterwards to his brother 
 Artaxerxes, from whom she passed to Darius. 
 She was called Milto, Vermillion, on account 
 of the beauty of her complexion. jElian. V. 
 H. 12, c. 1. — Pint, in Artax. II. Another wo- 
 man, daughter of Axiochus, born at Miletus. 
 She came to Athens, where she taught elo- 
 quence, and Socrates was proud to be among 
 her scholars. She so captivated Pericles by 
 her mental and personal accomplishments, that 
 he became her pupil, and at last took her for his 
 
 mistress and wife. III. The wife of Xeno- 
 
 phon, was also called Aspasia, if we follow the 
 improper interpretation given by some to Cic. de 
 Inv. 1, c. 31. 
 
 AsPASius, a peripatetic philosopher in the 2d 
 century, whose commentaries on different sub- 
 jects were highly valued, 
 
 AspATHiNES, one of the seven noblemen of 
 Persia, who conspired against the usurper 
 Smerdis. Herodot. 3, c. 70, &c. 
 369 
 
AT 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AT 
 
 AssARACus, a Trojan prince, son of Tros by 
 Callirrhoe. He was father to Capys, the fa- 
 ther of Anchises. The Trojans were frequent- 
 ly called the descendants of Assaracas, Gens 
 Assaraci. Homer. 11. 20. — Virg. JSn. 1. 
 
 Aster, a dexterous archer, who offered his 
 services to Philip, king of Macedonia. Upon 
 being slighted, he retired into the city and aim- 
 ed an arrow at Philip, who pressed it with a 
 siege. The arrow, on which was written, " Aim- 
 ed at Philip's right eye," struck the king's eye 
 and put it out ; and Philip, to return the pleas- 
 antry, threw back the same arrow, with these 
 words, " If Philip takes the town, Aster shall 
 be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. 
 Lucian. de Hist. Scrib. 
 
 AsTiocHus, a general of Lacedsemon, who 
 conquered the Athenians near Cnidus, and took 
 Phocgea and Cumse, B. C. 411. 
 
 AsTYAGEs, son of Cyaxarcs, was the last 
 king of Media. He was deprived of his crown 
 by his grandson, after a reign of 35 years. As- 
 tyages was very cruel and oppressive ; and 
 Harpagus, one of his officers, whose son he had 
 wantonly murdered,encouraged Mandane's son, 
 who was called Cyrus, to take up arms against 
 his grandfather, and he conquered him and took 
 him prisoner, 559 B. C. Xenophon, in his Cy- 
 ropffidia, relates a different story, and asserts 
 that Cyrus and Astyages lived in the most un- 
 disturbed friendship together. Justin. 1, c. 4, 
 &c. — Herodot. 1, c. 74, 75, &c. 
 
 AsTYANAx, I. a son of Hector and Andro- 
 mache. He was very young when the Greeks 
 besieged Troy ; and when the city was taken, 
 his mother saved him in her arms from the 
 flames. Ulysses, who was afraid lest the young 
 prince should inherit the virtues of his father, 
 and one day avenge the ruin of his country 
 upon the Greeks, seized him, and threw him 
 down from the walls of Troy. According to 
 Euripides, he was killed by Menelaus ; and 
 Seneca says, that Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, 
 pat him to death. Hector had given him the 
 name of Scamandrius; but the Trojans, who 
 hoped he might prove as great as his father, 
 called him Astyanax, or the bulwark of the city. 
 Homer. 11. 6, v. 400, 1. 22, v. 500.— Hr^. ^n. 
 2, V. 457, 1. 3, V. ^S^.—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 415. 
 II. A writer in the age of Gallienus. 
 
 AsTYDAMAS, I. an Athenian, pupil to Iso- 
 crates. He wrote 240 tragedies, of which only 
 15 obtained the poetical prize. II. A Mile- 
 sian, three times victorious at Olympia. He 
 was famous for his strength as well as for his 
 voracious appetite. He was once invited to a 
 feast by king Ariobarzanes, and he eat what 
 had been prepared for nine persons. Athen. 10. 
 — — III. Two tragic writers bore the same 
 name, one of whom was disciple to Socrates. 
 IV. A comic poet of Athens. 
 
 AsYCHis, a king of Egypt, who succeeded 
 Mycerinus, and made a law, that whoever bor- 
 rowed money must depositehis father's body in 
 the hands of his creditors as a pledge of his 
 promise of payment. He built a magnificent 
 pyramid. Herodot. 2, c. 136. 
 
 Atabulus, a wind which was frequent in 
 Apulia. Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v. 78. 
 
 Athanasius, a bishop of Alexandria, cele- 
 brated for his sufferings, and the determined op- 
 positiop J»e maintained against Arius and his 
 370 
 
 doctrine. His writings, which were numerous, 
 and some of which have perished, contain a de- 
 fence of the mystery of the Trinity, the divinity 
 of the Word and of the Holy Ghost, and an 
 apology to Constantine. The creed which bears 
 his name is supposed by some not to be his 
 composition. Athanasius died 2d May, 373 A. 
 D. after filling the archiepiscopal chair 47 years, 
 and leading alternately a life of exile and of 
 triumph. The latest edition of his works is 
 that of the Benedictines, 3 vols. fol. Paris, 1698. 
 
 AxHENiEA, festivals celebrated at Athens in 
 honour of Minerva. One of them was called 
 Panathencea and the other Chalcea ; for an 
 account of which see those words. 
 
 ATHENiEus, I. a Greek cosmographer. II. 
 
 A peripatetic philosopher of Cilicia in the time 
 
 of Augustus. Sirab. III. A Spartan sent 
 
 by his countrymen to Athens to settle the peace 
 during the Peloponnesian war. IV. A gram- 
 marian of Naucratis, who composed an elegant 
 and miscellaneous work, called Deipnosophistcs, 
 replete with very curious and interesting re- 
 marks and anecdotes of the manners of the an- 
 cients, and likewise valuable for the scattered 
 pieces of ancient poetry it preserves. The 
 work consists of 15 books, of which the two first, 
 part of the third, and almost the whole of the 
 last, are lost, Athenseus wrote, besides this, a 
 history of Syria, and other works now lost. He 
 died A. D. 194. The best edition of his works 
 is that of Casaubon, fol. 2 vols. Lugd. 1612, by 
 far superior to the editions of 1595 and 1657. 
 •V. A physician of Cilicia in the age of 
 
 Pliny, who made heat, cold, wet, dry, and air, 
 the elements, instead of the four commonly re- 
 ceived. 
 
 Athenagoras, I. a Greek in the time of Da- 
 rius, to whom Pharnabazus gave the govern- 
 ment of Chios, &c. Curt. 8, c. 5. II. A 
 
 Christian philosopher in the age of Aurelius, 
 who wrote a treatise on the resurrection, and an 
 apology for the Christians, still extant. He 
 died A. D. 177. The best edition of his works 
 is that of Dechair, 8vo. Oxon. 1706. The ro- 
 mance of Theagenes and Charis is falsely as- 
 cribed to him. 
 
 Athenion, I. a peripatetic philosopher, 108 
 B. C. II. A general of the Sicilian slaves. 
 
 Athenodorus, I. a philosopher of Tarsus, 
 intimate with Augustus. The emperor often 
 profited by his lessons, and was advised by him 
 always to repeat the 24 letters of the Greek al- 
 phabet before he gave way to the impulse of 
 anger, Athenodorus died in his 82d year, 
 
 much lamented by his countrymen. Suet. 
 
 II, A stoic philosopher of Cana, near Tarsus, 
 in the age of Augustus. He was intimate with 
 Strabo, Strab. 14. III. A philosopher, dis- 
 ciple to Zeno, and keeper of the royal library 
 at Pergamus. 
 
 Atia, I. a law enacted A. U, C. 690, by 
 Atius Labienus, the tribune of the people. It 
 abolished the Cornelian law, and put in full 
 force the Lex Domitia, by transferring the right 
 of electing priests from the college of priests to 
 
 the people, II. The mother of Augustus. 
 
 Vid. Accia. 
 
 Atilia Lex, gave the praetor, and a majority 
 of the tribunes, power of appointing guardians 
 to those minors who were not previously pro- 
 vided for by their parents. It was enacted 
 
AT 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AT 
 
 about A. U. C. 560. Another, A, U. C. 
 
 443, which gave the people power of electing 
 20 tribunes of the soldiers in four legions. Liv. 
 9, c. 30. 
 
 Atilius, a freedman, who exhibited combats 
 of gladiators at Fidense. The amphitheatre, 
 which contained the spectators, fell during the 
 exhibition, and about 50,000 persons were kill- 
 ed or mutilated. Tacit. 4, Ann. c. 62. 
 
 Atilla, the mother of the poet Lucan. She 
 was accused of conspiracy by her son, who ex- 
 pected to clear himself of the charge. Tacit. 
 Ann. 15, c. 56. 
 
 Atinia Lex, was enacted by the tribune 
 Atinius. It gave a tribune of the people the 
 privileges of a senator, and the right of sitting 
 in the senate. 
 
 Atossa, a daughter of Cyrus, who was one 
 of the wives of Cambyses, Smerdis, and after- 
 wards of Darius, by whom she had Xerxes. 
 She was cured of a dangerous cancer by De- 
 mocedes. She is supposed by some to be the 
 Vashti of scripture. Herodot. 3, c. 68, &c. 
 
 Atreus, son of Pelops by Hippodamia, 
 daughter of CEnomaus, king of Pisa, was king 
 of Mycenae, and brother to Pittheus, Troezen, 
 Thyestes, and Chrysippus. As Chrysippus 
 was an illegitimate son, and at the same time a 
 favourite, of his father, Hippodamia resolved to 
 remove him. She persuaded her sons Thyestes 
 and Atreus to murder him ; but their refusal 
 exasperated her more, and she executed it her- 
 self This murder was grievous to Pelops ; he 
 suspected his two sons, who fled away from his 
 presence. Atreus retired to the court of Eurys- 
 thenes king- of Argos, his nephew, and upon his 
 deaih he succeeded him on the throne. He mar- 
 ried, as some report, ^rope, his predecessor's 
 daughter, fey whom he had Plisthenes, Mene- 
 laus, and Agamemnon. Others affirm that 
 jJErope was the wife of Plisthenes, by whom he 
 ■had Agamemnon and Menelaus, who are the 
 reputed sons of Atreus, because that prince took 
 care of their education and brought them up as 
 his own. {^Vid. Plisthenes.^ Thyestes had 
 followed his brother to Argos, where he lived 
 with him, and debauched his wife, by whom he 
 had two, or according to some, three children. 
 This incestuous commerce offended Atreus, and 
 Thyestes was banished from his court. He was, 
 however, soon after recalled by his brother, who 
 determined cruelly to revenge the violence of- 
 fered to his bed. To effect this purpose he in- 
 vited his brother to a sumptuous feast, where 
 Thyestes was served up with the flesh of the 
 children he had by his sister-in-law the queen. 
 After the repast was finished, the arms and 
 heads of the murdered children were produced, 
 to convince Thyestes of what he had feasted 
 upon. This action appeared so cruel and im- 
 pious, that the sun is said to have shrunk back 
 in its course at the bloody sight. Thyestes im- 
 mediately fled to the court of Thesprotns, and 
 thence to Sicyon, where he ravished his own 
 daughter Pelopea, in a grove sacred to Minerva, 
 without knowing who she was. This incest he 
 committed intentionally, as some report, to re- 
 venue himself on his brother Atreus, according 
 to the words of the oracle, which promised him 
 satisfaction for the cruelties he had suffered 
 only from the hand of a son who should be bom 
 of himself and his own daughter. Pelopea 
 
 brought forth a son, whom she called ^gisthus, 
 and soon after she married Atreus, who had lost 
 his wife. Atreus adopted .^gisthus, and sent 
 him to murder Thyestes, who had been seized 
 at Delphi and imprisoned, Thyestes knew his 
 son, and made himself known to him; he made 
 him espouse his cause, and instead of becoming 
 his father's murderer, he rather avenged his 
 wrongs, and returned to Atreus whom he as- 
 sassinated. Vid. Thyestes, jEgisthus, Pelopea, 
 Agamemnon, and Menelaus. Hygin. fab. 83, 
 86, 87, 88, and 258. — Euripid. in Orest. in 
 Iphig. Taur. — Plut. in Parall. — Pans. 9, c 40. 
 — Afollod. 3, c. 10. — Senec. in Atr. 
 
 AxRiDiE, a patronymic given by Homer to 
 Agamemnon and Menelaus, as being the sons 
 of Atreus. This is false, upon the authority of 
 Hesiod, Lactantius, Dictys of Crete, &c. who 
 maintain that these princes were not the sons 
 of Atreus, but of Plisthenes, and that they were 
 brought up in the house and under the eye of 
 their grandfather. Vid. Plisthenes. 
 
 Atta, T. Q,. a writer of merit in the Augus- 
 tan age, who seems to have received this name 
 from some deformity in his legs or feet. His 
 compositions, dramatical as well as satirical, 
 were held in universal admiration, though Ho- 
 race thinks of them with indifference. Horat. 
 2, ep. 1, V. 79. 
 
 Attalus 1st, king of Pergamus, succeeded 
 Eumenes 1st. He defeated the Gauls, who had 
 invaded his dominions, extended his conquests 
 to mount Taurus, and obtained the assistance 
 of the Romans against Antiochus. The Athe- 
 nians rewarded his merit with great honours. 
 He died at Pergamus, after a reign of 44 years, 
 B. C. 197. Liv. 26, 27, 28, &.t.—Polyb. 5.— 
 
 Strab. 13. The 2d of that name, was sent 
 
 on an embassy to Rome by his brother Eumenes 
 the second, and at his return was appointed 
 guardian to his nephew, Attalus the third, who 
 was then an infant. Prusias made successful 
 war against him, and seized his capital ; but the 
 conquest was stopped by the interference of the 
 Romans, who restored Attalus to his throne. 
 Attains, who has received the name of Phila- 
 delphus, from his fraternal love, was a munifi- 
 cent patron of learning, and the founder of sev- 
 eral cities. He was poisoned by his nephew, 
 in the 82d year of his age, B.C. 138. He had 
 governed the nation with great prudence and 
 moderation for 20 years. Strab. 13. — Pohjb. 
 
 5. The 3d, succeeded to the kingdom of 
 
 Pergamus by the murder of Attalus the 2d, and 
 made himself odious by his cruelty to his rela- 
 tions, and his wanton exercise of power. He 
 was son to Eumenes 2d, and surnamed Phi- 
 lopator. He left the cares of government, to 
 cultivate his garden, and to make experiments 
 on the melting of metals. He lived in great 
 amity with the Romans ; and, as he died with- 
 out issue by his wife Berenice, he left in his 
 will the words P. R. meorum hceres esto, which 
 the Romans interpreted as themselves, and 
 therefore took possession of his kingdom, B. C. 
 133, and made it a Roman province, which 
 they governed by a proconsul. From this cir- 
 cumstance, whatever was a valuable acquisi- 
 tion, or an ample fortune, was always called by 
 the epithet Attalicus. Attalus, as well as his 
 predecessors,made themselves celebrated for the 
 valuable libraries which they collected at Perga- 
 37a 
 
AT 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AU 
 
 mus, and for the patronage which merit and 
 virtue always found at their court. Liv. 2-i, &c. 
 Plin. 7, 8, 33, &c. — Justin. 39. — Horat. 1, od, 
 
 1. rV. An officer in Alexander's army. 
 
 Curt. 4, c. 13. V. Another, very inimical to 
 
 Alexander. He was put to death by Parmenio, 
 and Alexander was accused of the murder. 
 
 Curt. 6, c. 9, 1. 8, c. 1. VI. A philosopher, 
 
 preceptor to Seneca. Senec. ep. 108. 
 
 Atteius Capito, a consul in the age of Au- 
 gustus, who wrote treatises on the sacerdotal 
 laws, public courts of justice, and the duty of a 
 senator. Vid. Ateius. 
 
 Atticus, I. (T. Pomponius) a celebrated Ro- 
 man knight, to whom Cicero wrote a great 
 number of letters, which contained the general 
 history of the age. They are now extant, and 
 divided into 17 books. In the time of Marius 
 and Sylla, Atticus retired to Athens, where he 
 so endeared himself to the citizens, that, after 
 his departure, they erected statues to him, in 
 commemoration of his munificence and libe- 
 rality. He was such a perfect masier of the 
 Greek writers, and spoke their language so flu- 
 ently, that he was surnamed Atticus. He be- 
 haved in such a disinterested manner, that he 
 oifended neither of the inimical parties at Rome, 
 and both were equally anxious of courting his 
 approbation. He lived in the greatest intimacy 
 with the illustrious men of his age, and he was 
 such a lover of truth, that he not only abstained 
 from falsehood, even in a joke, but treated with 
 the greatest contempt and indignation a lying 
 tongue. It is said that he refused to take ali- 
 ment, when unable to get the better of a fever, 
 and died in his 77th year, B. C. 32, after bearing 
 the amiable character of peacemaker among 
 his friends. Cornelius Nepos, one of his inti- 
 mate friends, has written a minute account of 
 
 his life. Cic. ad Attic. &c. II. Herodes, an 
 
 Athenian in the age of the Antonines, descended 
 from Miltiades, and celebrated for his munifi- 
 cence. His son of the same name was honoured 
 with the consulship, and he generously erected 
 an aqueduct at Troas, of which he had been 
 made governor by the emperor Adrian, and 
 raised in other parts of the empire several pub- 
 lic buildings, as useful as they were magnifi- 
 cent. Philostrat. in. vit. 2, p. 548. — A. Gell. 
 noct. Att. 
 
 Attila, a celebrated king of the Huns, a 
 nation in the southern parts of Scythia, who in- 
 vaded the Roman empire in the reign of Valen- 
 tinian, with an army of 500,000 men, and laid 
 waste the provinces. He took the town of Aqui- 
 leia, and marched against Rome ; but his retreat 
 and peace were purchased with a large sum of 
 money by the feeble emperor. Attila, who boast- 
 ed in the appellation of the scourge of^ God, 
 died A. D. 453, of an uncommon eiFusion of 
 blood the first night of his nuptials. He had 
 expressed his wish to extend his conquests over 
 the whole world; and he often feasted his bar- 
 barity by dragging captive kings in his train. 
 Jornant. de Reb. Get. Vid. Hunni, Part I. 
 
 Attilius, I. Vid. Regulus. II. Calatinus, 
 
 a Roman consul, who fought the Carthaginian 
 
 fleet. III. Marcus, a poet, who translated the 
 
 Electra of Sophocles into Latin verse, and wrote 
 comedies whose unintelligible language pro- 
 cured him the appellation of Ferreios. IV. 
 
 Regulus, a Roman censor, who built a temple 
 372 
 
 to the goddess of concord. Liv. 23, c. 23, &c. 
 
 The name of Attilius was common among 
 
 the Romans, and many of the public magis- 
 trates are called Attilii. 
 
 Attius Pelignus, I. Tullias, the general of 
 the Volsci, to whom Coriolanus fled when ban- 
 ished from Rome. Liv. II. Varus, seized 
 
 Auxinum, in Pompey's name, whence he was 
 expelled. After this, he fled to Africa, which 
 he alienated from J. Caesar. C<xs. 1, Bell. Civ. 
 
 III. A poet. Vid. Accius. The family of 
 
 the Attii was descended from Atys, one of the 
 companions of ^neas, according to the opinion 
 which Virgil has adopted. .S/t, 5, v. 568. 
 
 Atys, I. an ancient king of Lydia, who sent 
 away his son Tyrrhenus, with a colony of Ly- 
 dians, who settled in Italy. Herodot. 1, c. 7. 
 
 Vid. Part III. II. A son of Croesus, king of 
 
 Lydia. He was forbidden the use of all weapons 
 by his father, who had dreamt that he had been 
 killed. Some time after this, Atys prevailed on 
 his father to permit him to go to hunt a wild 
 boar, which laid waste the country of Mysia, 
 and he was killed in the attempt by Adrastus, 
 whom Croesus had appointed guardian over his 
 son, and thus the apprehensions of the monarch 
 were realized. Herodot. 1, c. 34, &c. Vid. 
 Adrastus. 
 
 AuFiDiA Lex, was enacted by the tribune Au- 
 fidius Lurco, A. U. C. 692. It ordained that 
 if any candidate, in canva.ssing for an oflice, 
 promised money to the tribunes, and failed in the 
 performance, he should be excused ; but if he 
 actually paid it, he should be compelled to pay 
 every tribune 6000 sesterces. 
 
 AuFiDrus, I. (Bassus,) a famous historian in 
 the age of Gluintilian, who wrote an account of 
 Germany and of the civil wars. II. A Ro- 
 man senator, famous for his blindness and abili- 
 ties. Cic. Tusc. 5. II. Lurco, a man who 
 
 enriched himself by fattening peacocks and 
 selling them. Plhi. 10. 
 
 AuGUREs, a certain officer at Rome who fore- 
 told future events, whence their name, ab avium 
 garritu. They were first created by Romulus, 
 to the number of three. Servius Tullius added 
 a fourth, and the tribunes of the people, A. U, C. 
 454, increased the number to nine ; and Sylla 
 added six more during his dictatorship. They 
 had a particular college, and the chief amongst 
 them was called magister collegii. Their office 
 was honourable ; and if any one of them was 
 convicted of any crime, he could not be deprived 
 of his privileges ; an indulgence granted to no 
 other sacerdotal body at Rome. The augur ge- 
 nerally sat on a high tower to make his observa- 
 tions. His face was turned towards the east, and 
 he had the north to his left and the south at his 
 right. With a crooked staiT he divided the face 
 of the heavens into four different partg^ and af- 
 terwards sacrificed to the gods, covering his head 
 with his vestment. There were generally five 
 things from which the augurs drew omens : the 
 first consisted in observing the phenomena of 
 the heavens, such as thunder, lightning, comets, 
 &c. The second kind of omen was drawn from 
 the chirping or flying of birds. The third was 
 from the sacred chickens, whose eagerness or 
 indifiTerence in eating the bread which was 
 thrown to them, was looked upon as lucky or 
 unlucky. The fourth was from quadrupeds, 
 from their crossing or appearing in some unac- 
 
AU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AU 
 
 customed place. The fifth was from difierent 
 casualties, which were called Z^ira, such as spil- 
 ling sa.lt upon a table or wine upon one's clothes, 
 hearing strange noises, stumbling or sneezing, 
 meeting a wolf, hare, fox, or pregnant bitch. 
 The sight of birds on the left hand was always 
 deemed a lucky object, and the words sinister 
 and IcBvus, though generally supposed to be 
 terms of ill luck, were always used by the au- 
 gurs in an auspicious sense. Cic. de Div. — 
 Liv. 1, &c. — Dionys. Hal. — Ovid. Fast. 
 
 AuGusTALiA, a festival at Rome, in commemo- 
 ration of the day on which Augustus returned 
 to R,ome, after he had established peace over the 
 different parts of the empire. 
 
 AuGUSTiNUS, a bishop of Hippo, in Africa, 
 distinguished himself by his writings, as well as 
 by the austerity of his life. In his works, which 
 are numerous, he displayed the powers of a great 
 genius, and an extensive acquamtance with the 
 philosophy of Plato. He died in the 76th year 
 of his age, A. D. 430. The best edition of his 
 works is that of the Benedict, fol. Ant. 1700 to 
 1703. 12 vols. 
 
 Augustus Octavianus Cjesar, second em- 
 peror of Rome, was son of Octavius, a senator, 
 and Accia, daughter of Julius and sister to Ju- 
 lius Caesar. There can be little doubt that 
 Cffisar had intended his grandnephew as his 
 successor in the empire ; perceiving, probably, 
 in that precocious youth the gem of those talents 
 which Sylla had foreseen in himself. Octavius 
 had pass'ed his boyhood in the family of his 
 uncle ; he had accompanied him to Spain, in 
 the expedition against the sons of Pompey, and 
 .had been sent by him, about six months before 
 his death, to complete his education in the Greek 
 city of Apollonia. It was there he first heard 
 of the assassination of his protector ; and he 
 immediately set out for Rome, where he arriv- 
 ed a weakly student from the schools of Greece, 
 ' in the most difiicult and momentous crisis which 
 had yet occurred m the history of his country. 
 Before he could reach the capital, Antony had 
 sufficient leisure to concert various measures 
 calculated to secure his ovm power, and to pos- 
 sess himself of the whole public treasure, which 
 had been amassed by Caesar. Octavius, with 
 one object ever in view, but veering about with 
 wonderful dexterity in hisprofessions,perceived, 
 in a short while, that his only chance of success 
 against this formidable opponent, was to place 
 himself at the head of the senatorian party, by 
 whose aid he nearly ruined his dangerous rival 
 at Modena. The consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, 
 having been slain in the memorable combats 
 which were fought under the walls of that city. 
 Octavius marched to Rome to demand the first 
 magistracy of the state at the head of his army. 
 Meanwhile, the reduced strength of Antony 
 was recruited by the forces of Pollio, Plancus, 
 and Lepidus, from Gaul and Spain. After this 
 accession, it became apparent that Antony and 
 Octavius were destined to form the preponder- 
 ating powers in the commonwealth. They met 
 near Bologna, where, along with Lepidus, they 
 established the inauspicious triurnvirate, and en- 
 tered into a sanguinary convention, by which it 
 was agreed to destroy the legal government — to 
 put their mutual enemies to death — divide the 
 lands ©f the richest towns and colonies in Italy 
 among their soldiers — distribute the provinces of 
 
 the republic among themselves, and proceed in 
 the following spring against Brutus and Cas- 
 sius, who still upheld the party of the common- 
 wealth in Greece and Asia. These bloody and 
 illegal designs were all fully accomplished. The 
 former triumvirs had wished only to obtain 
 power; their successors had resentments to gra- 
 tify, vengeance to exercise, and lawless troops 
 to satiate. They massacred in cold blood the 
 chiefs of the republic who had remained in Italy ; 
 they overthrew its legion at Philippi ; and Sex- 
 tus Pompey, who, for some time after that fatal 
 combat,maintained by his naval power an image 
 of the commonwealth in Sicily, at length fell a 
 victim to the jealousy and engrossing am.bition 
 of the triumviral tyrants. But the hlood which 
 these usurpers had so profusely shed, did not 
 cement their unhallowed alliance. So jarring 
 were their interests, and so unprincipled their 
 motives, that distrust and discord could hardly 
 fail to arise among them. Antony, intoxicated 
 with love, and wine, and power,was long watch- 
 ed by a sober and subtle rival. Various tempo- 
 rary, but ineffectual expedients, were tried to 
 adjust their differences, and to heal the mutual 
 jealousies and suspicions, which rankled in their 
 bosoms. Lepidus was deprived of his share of 
 sovereignty, without a blow : one blow hurled 
 Antony from his sumptuous throne and Octa- 
 vius passed through the gates of Alexandria to 
 the undisputed empire of the world.^ When 
 the genius of Octavius. had thus successively 
 triumphed over his adversaries, and when he re- 
 mained without a rival, his counsels, and per- 
 haps even his temper, changed. ' There were,' 
 says Blackwell, ' three very different periods in 
 the life of Octavius. The first,'on his early en- 
 tering on business at his return from Apollonia, 
 till the victory at Modena, during which, under 
 the direction of Cicero, he acted the Roman and 
 the patriot. The second, from his extorted con- 
 sulship till the defeat of Antony, at Actium, 
 where he played the tyrant and the triumvir; and 
 the third, from the conquest of Egypt to the end 
 of his life, when he became first the prince, and 
 then the parent of his country and people.' 
 Hitherto the palace of Octavius had resembled 
 the headquarters of a general, or citadel of a 
 tyrant ; but, after his return from Egypt, it be- 
 gan to assume the appearance of a regular court, 
 where every thing was conducted with order, 
 prudence, and moderation. Few citizens now 
 survived, who had witnessed the golden days oi 
 the republic, and all had felt the evils of its 
 anarchy. The fear of new tumults extinguish- 
 ed the love of liberty, or checked at least all 
 struggles to regain it. On the other part, Oc- 
 tavius felt that his interest was now identified 
 with that of the state : he wished to enjoy in se- 
 curity the lofty prize he had gained, and to aug- 
 ment its value. Timidity had been the source 
 of m.any of his crimes, but, having resolved to 
 retain the government, he wisely thought it 
 safest to be just and merciful. Military strength, 
 he perceived, was an insufficient prop for his 
 power. To render his authority permanent, he 
 saw it was necessary to add the good opinion, or 
 at least the affections, of the people. While, 
 therefore, he bribed the soldiers with donations 
 of money, or grants of land, he cajoled the pop- 
 ulace with shows and entertainments, and dis- 
 tributions of corn, which, by supporting them 
 373 
 
AU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AU 
 
 in idleness and'dissipation, made them forget the 
 state of political degradation into which, they 
 were fallen. The senators he soothed, by pre- 
 senting them with the flattering image of their 
 ancient privileges, and the forms of the repub- 
 lican government. Nothing was farther from 
 his wish or intention, than that the common- 
 wealth should be actually revived. Indeed, he 
 could no more have restored it to its former state, 
 than he could have reanimated the corse of 
 Cicero ; and when advised by Agrippatomake 
 the attempt, he prudently rejected the counsel 
 which would probably have proved ruinous to 
 himself, and came too late to be of service to his 
 country. Yet while he determined to preserve 
 the sovereign power, he resolved at the same 
 time, by re-establishing ancient forms, to veil in 
 part the hideous aspect of despotism. He was 
 careful not to display his power by any external 
 marks of royalty ; and he exercised his authori- 
 ty not under any new title or magistracy, but as 
 uniting in his person most of the ancient offices 
 which were of weight or importance in the state. 
 Servitude was thus established in the place of 
 liberty ; but a phantom in the shape of freedom 
 still frequented the senate, and at the choice of 
 consuls yearly walked the Forum. Octavius, 
 however,(whom we shall hereafter style Augus- 
 tus,) had recourse to more worthy arts than 
 these, to endear his name and reign to the Ro- 
 man citizens. He revived or enacted beneficial 
 laws, and introduced the most provident regula- 
 tions for the maintenance of order and tranquil- 
 lity. The police which he established, gave 
 security to life and property in the capital and 
 throughout Italy : the provinces were protected 
 from the exactions and oppressions of their go- 
 vernors, under which they had so often groaned 
 in the days of the republic. He bestowed even 
 personally, an unremitting attention on the 
 due administration of justice; and he used his 
 best exertions to stem the overwhelming tide of 
 luxury and moral corruption. His plans for the 
 melioration of the state were aided by those 
 wise counsellors by whom he was so long sur- 
 rounded, till at length the blood-stained crafty 
 triumvir was hailed, during his life, as the 
 father of his country, by the united voice of 
 senate and people, and left at his death the 
 memory of a reign which has become proverbial 
 for beneficence, clemency, and justice. Among 
 the various arts to which Augustus resorted to 
 beguile the hearts of his people, and perhaps to 
 render them forgetful of their former freedom, 
 one of the most remarkable was, the encourage- 
 ment which he extended to learning, and the pa- 
 tronage he so liberally bestowed on all by whom 
 it was cultivated. To this noble protection of 
 literature he was prompted not less by taste and 
 inclination than sound policy ; and in his pa- 
 tronage of the learned, his usual artifice had 
 probably a smaller share than in those other 
 parts of his conduct, by which he acquired the 
 favourable opinion of the world. Prom infancy 
 every thing had contributed to give him a relish 
 for learning and a respect for the learned. His 
 mother Atia, a woman of sense and prudence, 
 had admirably regulated in his boyhood the ed- 
 ucation of her son. She herself spoke the Latin 
 tongue with a purity resembling the language 
 of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi ; and 
 Augustus retained during life that urbanity of 
 374 
 
 style and conversation to which he had been ac- 
 customed in his youth. The great Julius, by 
 whom he had been adopted,was desirous, among 
 other less laudable objects of ambition, to hold 
 the first place in letters as well as in arms. 
 Those daring adventurers, Antony, Curio, and 
 Dolabella, were the instruments of his military 
 power; but his private friends were Balbus, 
 Matius, Hirtius, and Oppidus, men who were 
 all eminently accomplished — elegant in their 
 modes of life, and fond of literary pursuits. Au- 
 gustus had thus before him an example which 
 he .would naturally respect and imitate. His 
 adoptive father placed around his destined heir 
 the ablest instructers ; and sometime before his 
 death sent him to Apollonia, a Corinthian colo- 
 ny in Illyria, where he assiduously studied mo- 
 rals under Athenodorus. He was ardently pe- 
 rusing the Grecian orators, and had made con- 
 siderable progress in rhetoric, under Apollodo 
 rus, a distinguished master of eloquence, when 
 he received intelligence of the assassination of 
 Caesar. The events which called him from 
 Greece, and hurried him into the tumult of af- 
 fairs, broke not his course of study. During 
 that campaign against Antony, which terminat- 
 ed with the battle of Modena, not a day passed 
 in which he did not read, write, and declaim. 
 He, at the same time, was constantly surround- 
 ed by men of literature and taste. After the 
 victory at Modena, when he marched to Rome, 
 to demand the consulship, he was accompanied 
 by Cornelius Gallus and Maecenas, who like- 
 wise followed him to Rome from Philippi ; and 
 on his first landing in Italy, after the victory he 
 had there gained over Brutus, were his advi- 
 sers in writing to the senate in terras of mode- 
 ration. Though Athens was hostile to the Cae- 
 sarian name, yet, when he visited it after, the 
 battle of Actium, he showed the city many marks 
 of respect, and was initiated into the solemni- 
 ties of its goddesses, Minerva and Ceres. "When 
 Egypt was subdued, he entered Alexandria, 
 holding by the hand the philosopher Areius, 
 who was a native of that city ; and, in the ha- 
 rangue which he delivered to the inhabitants 
 from his tribunal, he informed them that he 
 spared their town, first, on account of the god 
 Serapis ; secondly, out of respect for its founder, 
 Alexander the Great ; and, thirdly, for the sake 
 of Areius, his own friend and their fellow-citi- 
 zen. After being firmly established without a 
 competitor in the empire, Augustus still continu- 
 ed to prosecute his private studies with unremit- 
 ting assiduity, and to reap from them the great- 
 est advantages. When he perused a Greek or 
 Latin author, he dwelt chiefly on what might 
 be a lesson or example in the administration of 
 public affairs, or in his own private conduct. — 
 'In evolvendis utriusque linguae auctoribus,' 
 says Suetonius, 'nihil aeque sectabatur, quam 
 praecepta et exempla publice vel privatim salu- 
 bria.' His literary tastes appears from the mul- 
 titude of his Greek secretaries, his superintend- 
 ants for the charge of his collection of statues 
 and pictures, his copyists and librarians. When 
 wakeful through the night, he had a reader or a 
 storyteller, like the eastern monarchs, who sat 
 by him; and he often continued listening, till 
 he dropped asleep. Among other embellish- 
 ments which he bestowed on the city of Rome, 
 be erected two public libraries; the one called 
 
AU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AU 
 
 the Octavian, which stood in the portico of Oc- 
 tavia, and the other on mount Palatme, adja- 
 cent to the temple of Apollo. From his own 
 share of the spoils of the conquered to^^ois in 
 Dalmatia, he erected, at the Palatine library, 
 a magnificent colonnade, with double rows of 
 pillars; the interstices of which were adorned 
 with statues and pictures, executed by the chief 
 Grecian masters. It was open below, but above 
 it comprehended an extensive and curious libra- 
 ry, with retiring rooms for private reading — pub- 
 lic halls for reciting — schools for teaching— and 
 in short, every allurement and aid to study. 
 Around v.'ere delightful walks, fitted for exer- 
 cise or contemplation — some under shade, and 
 others exposed to the sun, which could be alter- 
 nately resorted to as the season of the year re- 
 quired. A colossal statue of Apollo in bronze, 
 which was of Tuscan workmanship, presided 
 as the genius of the place, and no spot on earth 
 could then have been dearer to the god : — 
 
 ' T\lvi medium claro surgebat marmore temphim. 
 Et patrid Phoebo co.rius Ortygia.'' 
 
 By advice of Msecenas, he likewise provided 
 means for the careful education of the Roman 
 youth. In pursuance of his ministers' recom- 
 mendation, he, among other measures for pro- 
 moting this design, transferred the school of 
 Verrius Flaccus to the Palatme library, and 
 settled a large salary on that celebrated gramma- 
 rian. On literary men in general he lavished 
 not merely pecuniary rewards and recompense, 
 but paid them that attention and regard which 
 they all court; and which, by raising their sta- 
 tion in society, animates their exertions. Thus, 
 when he was absent from the city, he never 
 wrote to any of his own family or political ad- 
 visers, without sending letters by the same op- 
 portunity to Atticus, to inform him in what place 
 he was, how long he intended remaining in it, 
 ■ and what books he was engaged in reading. 
 While he was at Rome, and unable from the 
 multiplicity of affairs to enjoy the society of At- 
 ticus, he scarcely ever allowed a day to pass 
 without proposing to him in writing some ques- 
 tion on the subjects of antiquities, criticisms, or 
 poetry. The commencement of his political ca- 
 reer had indeed been somewhat inauspicious to 
 the rising poets of his country. Virgil, Tibul- 
 lus, and Propertius, all mourn the losses they had 
 sustained during the reign of the triumvirate. 
 But Virgil had no sooner displayed his genius 
 than his lands were restored ; while, to other 
 poets, crowns were assigned, or statues were 
 erected, as rewards and distinctions. They also 
 frequently read their works in the presence of 
 Augustus, and he willingly attended public re- 
 citations and discussions on literary topics. — 
 • Ingenia seculi sui,' says Suetonius, ' omnibus 
 modis fovit. Recitantes et benigne et patienter 
 audivit, nee tantiim carmina, et historias, sed et 
 orationes, et diaiogos. Componi tamen aliquid 
 dese,nisi et serio et a proestantissimis, offende- 
 batur.' As Augustus advanced in years, and 
 became surroimded by his own shortlived de- 
 scendants, and those of the empress Livia by 
 her former husband, all the young members of 
 the imperial family, who wished to gain his fa- 
 vour, distinguished themselves by their profi- 
 ciency in polite literature ; and by the acquisition 
 of elegant accomplishments. The imcommon 
 
 ' attention which he paid to their instruction, and 
 to the preservation of the purity of the Roman 
 language, is evinced by one of his letters to his 
 grandson, Caius Caesar, quoted by Gluiniilian, 
 in which he censures him for using the word 
 Calidus instead of Caldus, not but what the for- 
 mer was Latin, but because it was unusual and 
 pedantic. At the very close of life, when indis- 
 position rendered him incapable of continued at- 
 tention to business, or of long residence in the 
 capital, he was carried in a litter to Prasne.ste, 
 Tibur, or Baiae, through beautiful alleys, which 
 terminated with the sea, or through odoriferous 
 groves, which he himself had planted with myr- 
 tles and laurels, the shade of which was then 
 considered salutary for the health. On these 
 journeys he read the works of the poets whose 
 genius he himself had festered, and was con- 
 stantly attended by philosophers, in whose con- 
 versation he found his chief solace. Even when 
 on his death- bed at Nola, he passed his time and 
 exercised his faculties, which he retained to the 
 last moment, in philosophic conversations on the 
 vanity and emptiness of all human affairs. Au- 
 gustus was, besides, an excellent judge of com- 
 position, and a true critic in poetry ; so that his 
 patronage was never misplaced, or lavished on 
 those whose writings might rather have tended 
 to corrupt than improve the taste and learning 
 of the age. He was wont to laugh at the tinsel 
 of that style which Maecenas affected, at the la- 
 boured language of Tiberius, at Pollid's fond- 
 ness for antiquated expressions, and the empty 
 pomp of Asiatic eloquence which delighted An- 
 tony. His own style was smooth, easy, and 
 natural : he avoided all puerile or far-fetched 
 thoughts, all affectation in the turn or disposi- 
 tion of his phrases, and all words not in general 
 use. Perspicuity was his principal care ; and 
 whatever deviated in any shape from Nature, 
 hurt the delicacy of his taste and judgment. 
 Aulus Gellius, in mentioning the letters of Au- 
 gustus to his grandson, Caius Agrippa, which 
 he had just been reading, speaks with much de- 
 light and admiration of the simple, unlaboured 
 elegance of the style in which they were writ- 
 ten ; but he unfortunately quotes from them only 
 a single passage. This good taste of the prince 
 had the happiest effect on that of the age. No 
 writer could hope for patronage or popularity 
 except by cultivating a style chaste and simple 
 — which, if ornamental, was not luxuriant, or 
 if severe, was not rugged or antiquated. The 
 court of Augustus thus became a school of ur- 
 banity, where men of genius acquired that deli- 
 cacy of taste, that elevation of sentiment, and 
 that purity of expression, which characterized 
 the writers of the age. This extensive and 
 judicious patronage of literature was attended 
 with manifold political advantages to the empe- 
 ror. His poets palliated whatever was odious 
 in his despotism ; and his protection of philoso- 
 phers was regarded by the people as a pledge or 
 declaration that he was resolved to govern with 
 humanity and justice. The pageantry of learn- 
 ing may originally have been but one of those 
 many arts of government which Augustus 
 practised so admirably that he inquired on his 
 death-bed if he had not well performed his part 
 in the farce of life. But what commenced chiefly 
 in artifice, though partly perhaps in inclination, 
 tended ultimately to amend his own disposition 
 375 
 
AU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AU 
 
 and character. The emperor Julian insinuates 
 that an intercourse with those men of worth 
 and learning by whom he was surrounded, 
 mollified a heart by nature obdurate and un- 
 relenting, and from which ambition seemed to 
 have eradicated every feeling of compassion or 
 tenderness. The productions of genius, with 
 which he became acquainted, occupied the heart 
 as well as the fancy ; and in a situation other- 
 wise calculated to instil pride, jealousy, and dis- 
 trust of mankind, served at once as an antidote 
 to those evils which beset the possessor of a new 
 raised throne, and opened the way to better dis- 
 positions. What prince could be conversant 
 with the epistles of Horace, and not receive a 
 lesson of urbanity 1 or read the works of Virgil 
 without rising from the perusal more gracious 
 and benign 1 From this temper of the monarch 
 considerable freedom of expression was allowed 
 to the poets, M^hose verses often show that, 
 though the republic was subverted, the minds of 
 the Romans were still in a great measure repub- 
 lican. The daring pretensions of a people to 
 punish, as well as to resist a tyrant, could not 
 have been asserted with more energy by Milton 
 himself than by Virgil, in his story of Mezen- 
 tias and of his subjects' insurrection, which is 
 approved both by the gods and the poet : — 
 
 Ergo omnis furiis surrezit Etruria justis ; 
 Regem ad supplicium prasenti Marte reposcunt, 
 
 "With all his political virtues, sound judgment, 
 and exquisite taste in literature, Augustus had 
 some follies and weaknesses, which also exer- 
 cised an influence on the literature of the age, 
 and to which many things that we meet with, 
 particularly in the works of the poets, must be 
 referred. Thus their extravagant flattery in ad- 
 dressing him as a divinity, who had descended 
 for a short while on earth, and was about to re- 
 sume his place in the celestial mansions, origin- 
 ated in his absurd and impious desire to be con- 
 sidered and even worshipped as a god. He be- 
 gan with deifying his adoptive father, Julius, 
 who also had boasted that celestial blood flowed 
 in his veins. In a funeral oration, pronounced 
 lor his aunt, Julius had alluded to his divine 
 descent, and he frequently gave Venus Genetrix 
 as his word of battle. Seven days after his 
 death, a comet had appeared, which was be- 
 lieved by the vulgar to be the soul of Caesar, con- 
 verted by Venus into a blazing star, and in that 
 form received into heaven. Augustus, availing 
 himself of this belief, placed a brazen statue of 
 Cassar in the temple of Venus, with a star over 
 its head. His image was carried in procession 
 with that of Venus, whenever intelligence of a 
 victory was received, and supplications were 
 decreed to him as a divinity. Hence the poetic 
 incense offered to the manes of the deceased 
 usurper, and Virgil's enumeration of the prodi- 
 gies that had announced his death. The cool 
 and reflecting head of Augustus did not preserve 
 him from the influence of those extravagant and 
 impious fancies which, about the same period, 
 induced Antony to assume the character of 
 Bacchus, and Sextus Porapey to bear the title 
 and ensigns of the son of Neptune. While he 
 affected to appear for a time on earth as the 
 avenger of his adoptive parent,he was not unwil- 
 ling it should be thought that his real father was 
 376 
 
 a greater than Octavius. A fable was circulated, 
 which Augustus did not discountenance, with 
 regard to his mother Atia and Apollo, resem- 
 bling that which had been feigned concerning 
 Olympias and Jupiter Ammon ; and it gained 
 such credit that, as Suetonius informs us, some 
 writers gravely asserted he was the son of Apol- 
 lo. The name of that divinity was the word of 
 battle chosen by the triumvirs at Philippi, and 
 it was considered as an omen of the fate of 
 Brutus, that, shortly before his death, he had 
 involuntarily repeated the Homeric line : — 
 
 'AXXa ii£ jioip' oXor) KUt A/jT«f ektovev viog. 
 
 At an impious feast, held by Augustus in th& 
 beginning of his reign, he, with five of his cour- 
 tiers, represented the six great celestial gods, 
 while some of the ladies of his court personated 
 the six great goddesses ; and on this occasion 
 the emperor himself, who was in fact uncom- 
 monly beautiful, chose to appear with the attri- 
 butes of Apollo. In his medals, the countenance 
 of Augustus is what the Romans called an 
 ApoUinian face ; and Servius informs us that 
 there were statues of Augustus in Rome, which 
 represented him under the character and with 
 the emblems of that bright divinity. We also 
 learn, that because Apollo was usually repre- 
 sented with a flow of light beaming from thf 
 eyes, Augustus wished it to be supposed that hi: 
 eyes likewise, which were really fine,darted fortl 
 so strong a brightness, as to dazzle those whc 
 looked on them too steadily or closely : ' Ocu 
 los habuit claros,' says Suetonius, ' ac nitidos 
 quibus etiam existimari volebat inesse quoddanr 
 divini vigoris, gaudebatque si quis sibi acriu; 
 contuenti, quasi ad fulgorem solis, vultum sub- 
 mitteret.' He also permitted his name to be in- 
 serted in the hymns to the gods. He at length 
 became the object of private worship, and at 
 public festivals libations were poured out to him, 
 as a tutelar deity of the empire. When a gen- 
 eral obsequiousness to the will of Augustus 
 prevailed at Rome, and the senate had idolized 
 him by its decrees, we cannot wonder that the 
 poets of the court should have followed the ex- 
 ample of the conscript fathers, or that Virgil 
 and Horace should have represented him as a 
 god, the avenger of Julius, descended from hea- 
 ven for a time, but soon about to resume his 
 place among the constellations. This, it is true, 
 might be, in some degree conventional language. 
 There are three topics which poets in all ages 
 have treated somewhat in a similar manner — 
 Devotion, Love, and Loyalty ; or rather, they 
 have applied to the two latter feelings a set of 
 expressions which have been borrowed from the 
 former. The pliable nature, too, of ancient 
 mythology, made the proffer of a godhead seem 
 less ridiculous to the Romans than it appears to 
 us. It admitted of local genii, and of deified 
 heroes. Romulus, the founder, had been early 
 assumed among the number of the gods ; and 
 since the days of Ennitis a system had been 
 promulgated, and found credit in Rome, which 
 taught that all the objects of vulgar worship 
 were deified human spirits. Hence, a poet 
 might the more readily venture to ask a bene- 
 ficent prince, what sort of divinity he would be- 
 come, if he would take his station in the hea- 
 vens, rule the immense ocean, or preside in the 
 realms below. The example, however, of Au- 
 
AU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 AV 
 
 gustus was of unfortunate precedent in Latin 
 poetry; and Nero and Domitian, though de- 
 graded by their vices below the ordinary level 
 of the human species, were extolled in verse as 
 constellations or demi-gods. Towards the close 
 of the reign of Augustus, and when Rome had 
 enjoyed for nearly half a century the benign in- 
 fluence of his paternal government, the absurd 
 adoration which had been paid to him changed 
 into those mixed feelings of reverence and affec- 
 tion, the union of which, in modern times, has 
 been termed loyalty, and for which pietas was 
 the Latin expression. This sentiment towards 
 the sovereign and his family, which prompts the 
 subject to feel the wrongs of the monarch as his 
 own, and, as such, to be ready at all hazards to 
 avenge them, is frequently expressed in the 
 works of the poets who flourished at the end of 
 Augustus' reign, both in reference to their own 
 feelings and to those which prevailed among 
 others : — 
 
 Quceqiie tua est pief^s in totum nomen luli, 
 Te IcBdi, cum quis Iceditur mde, pitas. 
 
 Augustus, like Sylla, paid a sincere devotion to 
 Fortmie; and, accordingly, in the C^sars of Ju- 
 lian, that deity admits that he was the only 
 prince who had been sincerely grateful to her. 
 He repaired her temples, and omitted no oppor- 
 tunity of paying her honour. Hence, Horace's 
 courtly Odes to Fortune, and a tone prevailing 
 among the poets, as if it w^ere more flattering to 
 the vanity of a patron, that his wealth and pow- 
 er should have been acquired by her blind fa- 
 vour, than by his own talents or virtues. Great, 
 happy, and- powerful, in the commencement of 
 his reign, Augustus was, in his declining years, 
 feeble, credulous, and unfortunate, at least in 
 the interior of his palace. Domestic chagrins 
 besieged his old age, and often wrung from his 
 lips the melancholy line : — 
 
 'Atfl 6(^£\ov dyafios r kjisvai dyovos t di:o\eGQai. 
 
 Hence, in the works of the poets there were, as 
 Blackwell expresses it, ' decencies to be observ- 
 ed, and distances to be kept.' Concerning ma- 
 ny topics, there could not be the same freedom 
 as in the days of Lucilius, or Catullus. Some 
 imprudent epigrams are said tohave accelerated 
 the melancholy fate of Cornelius Gallus, and an 
 oflfensive poem was made at least the pretext for 
 the exile of Ovid. The patronage of a prince, 
 however liberal and judicious, can seldom of it- 
 self be sufficient essentially to promote the in- 
 terests of literature : but his example spreads 
 among his courtiers and the great of the land. 
 Accordingly, there never was an age in which 
 the learned were so rewarded and encouraged 
 by statesmen, politicians, and generals, as that 
 which grateful posterity has stamped with the 
 name of Augus^Js. Its literature, more than 
 any other period, was the result of patronage 
 and court favour, and consequently we must ex- 
 pect to find in it those excellences and defects 
 which patronagfe and court favour are calculated 
 to produce. Nothing can be more obvious, than 
 the advantages which the literature of a nation 
 derives from men of elevated rank aiding its pro- 
 gress, and co-operating to promote its expansion. 
 They remove the contempt which in rude ages 
 has been sometimes felt for it, and the prejudices 
 which, in more civilized states of society, have 
 Part II.— 3 B 
 
 been frequently entertained against it. Their 
 influence insensibly extends itself to each de- 
 partment of literature, and their countrymen 
 learn to judge of every thing, and to treat every 
 thing, as if the)'' were all animated with a digni- 
 fied and patrician spirit. It is to this exalted 
 patronage that Roman literature has been in- 
 debted for a large portion of its characteristic 
 greatness, both of expression and of thought. 
 On the other hand, those compositions, particu- 
 larly the poetical, which have been produced by 
 command of a patron, or with a view to merit 
 his approbation, have always an air as if they 
 had proceeded rather from premeditation than 
 feeling or impulse, and appear to have been 
 written, not as the natural expression of power- 
 ful emotions, but from the desire of favour, or 
 at best of fame. When an author, too, depends 
 solely on the patronage of exalted individuals, 
 and not, as in modern times, on the support of 
 the public, a spirit of servility and flattery is apt 
 to infuse itself into his writings. Yet to this 
 system of adulation we owe some of the sweet- 
 est lines of Tibullus, and the most splendid pas- 
 sages of Virgil ! At the commencement of the 
 reign of Augustus, the old Csesarians, Balbus, 
 Matius and Oppius, men who were highly ac- 
 complished, and had been the chief personal 
 friends of the great Julius, still survived, and led 
 the way in every species of learning and ele- 
 gance. Their correspondence with Cicero, in. 
 his Familiar Epistles, exhibits much re'finement 
 in the individuals, and in general, a highly pol- 
 ished stale of society. They had a taste for 
 gardening, planting, and architecture, and all 
 those various arts which contribute to the em- 
 bellishment of life. They rewarded the verses 
 of poets, listened to their productions, and court- 
 ed their society. When Augustus landed in 
 Italy from Apollonia, Balbus was the first per- 
 son who came to offer his services, and Matius 
 took charge of the shows which he exhibited on 
 his arrival at Rome. These ancient friends of 
 the Julian line continued, during the early part 
 of his reign to frequent the court of Augustus ; 
 and though not first in favour with the new sove- 
 reigii, they felt no jealous)^ of their successor, 
 but lived on the most cordial and intimate terms 
 with Maecenas, who now held, near the person 
 of the adopted son, the enviable place which 
 
 they had occupied with the father. The 
 
 name of Aug^tsfus was afterwards given to the 
 successors of Octavianus in the Roman empire 
 as a personal, and the name of Ccesar as a 
 family distinction. In a more distant period of 
 the empire, the title of Augustus was given only 
 to the emperor.whilethatof Ceesar was bestow- 
 ed on the second person in the state, who was 
 considered as presumptive heir. 
 
 Avmros Casstos, a man saluted emperor A. 
 D. 175. He reigned only three months, and 
 was assassinated by a centurion. He w^as called 
 a second Catiline, from his excessive love of 
 bloodshed. Diod. 
 
 AviENcs, RcFus Festus, a poet in the age of 
 Theodosius, who translated the Phaenomena of 
 Aratus, as also all Livy, into iambic verses. 
 The best edition of what remains of him is that 
 of Cannegetier, 8vo. 1731. 
 
 AviTus,'!. a governor of Britain under Nero. 
 
 Tacit. Ann. 14. II. Alcinus, a Christian poet, 
 
 who wrote a poem in 6 books on original sin, &c. 
 377 
 
BA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 BA 
 
 Adrelia Lex, was enacted A. IT. C. 653, 
 
 by the praetor L. Aurelias Cotta, to invest the 
 senatorian and equestrian orders, and the Tri- 
 
 buni iErarii, with judicial power. Another, 
 
 A. U. C. 678. It abrogated a clause of the 
 Lex Cornelia, and permitted the tribunes to hold 
 other offices after the expiration of the iribune- 
 ship. 
 
 AuRiiLiANus, emperor of Rome after Flavius 
 Claudius, was austere, and even cruel in the 
 execution of the laws, and punished his soldiers 
 with unusual severity. He rendered himself 
 famous for his military character ; and his expe- 
 dition against Zenobia, the celebrated queen of 
 Palmyra, gained him great honours. He beau- 
 tified Rome, was charitable to the poor, and the 
 author of many salutary laws. He was natu- 
 rally brave ; and in all the battles he fought, it is 
 said he killed no less than 800 men with his own 
 hand. In his triumph he exhibited to the Ro- 
 mans, people of 15 different nations, all of which 
 he had conquered. He was the first emperor 
 who wore a diadem. After a glorious reign of 
 six years, as he marched against the northern 
 barbarians, he was assassinated near Byzanti- 
 um, A. D. 275, 29th January, by his soldiers, 
 whom Mnestheus had incited to rebellion 
 against their emperor. 
 
 AuRELius, I. emperor of Rome. Vid. Anto- 
 ninus Bassianus. II. Victor, an historian 
 
 in the age of Julian, two of whose composi- 
 tions are extant, an account of illustrious men, 
 and a biography of all the Csesars to Julian, 
 The best editions of Aurelius are the 4to. of 
 Artuzenius, Amst. 1733, and the 8vo. of Pitis- 
 cus, Utr. 1696. Vid. Antoninus. 
 
 AuREOLus, a general who assumed the pur- 
 ple in the age of Gallienus. 
 
 AuRiNiA, a prophetess held in great venera- 
 tion by the Germans. Tacit. Germ. 8. 
 
 AusoNius, Decim. Magnus, a poet, born at 
 Bourdeaux in Gaul, in the 4th century, precep- 
 tor to Gratian, son of the emperor Valentinian, 
 and made consul by the means of his pupil. 
 His compositions have been long admired. The 
 thanks he returned the emperor Gratian is one 
 of the best of his poems, which were too often 
 hurried for publication, and consequently not 
 perfect. He wrote the consular fasti of Rome, 
 a useful performance, now lost. 
 
 Auspices, a sacerdotal order at Rome, nearly 
 the same as the augurs. Vid. Augures. 
 
 AuxEsiA and Damia, two virgms who came 
 from Crete to TroBzene, where the inhabitants 
 stoned them to death in a sedition. The Epi- 
 daurians raised them statues, by order of the 
 oracle, when their country was become barren. 
 They were held in great veneration at Troe- 
 zene. Herodot. 5, c. 82. — Paus. 2, c. 30. 
 
 B. 
 
 Babilius, a Roman, who, by the help of a 
 certain herb, is said to have passed in six days 
 from the Sicilian Sea to Alexandria, Plin. 
 Pram. 19. 
 
 Bacabasus, betrayed the snares of Artaba- 
 nus, brother of Darius, against Artaxerxes. 
 Justin. 3, c. 1. 
 
 Bacch^, the priestesses of Bacchus, Paus. 
 2, c. 7. 
 
 Bacchanalia. Vid. Dionysia. 
 378 
 
 Bacchantes, priestesses of Bacchus, who 
 are represented at the. celebration of the orgies 
 almost naked, with garlands of ivy, with a thyr- 
 sus, and dishevelled hair. Their looks are wild, 
 and they utter dreadful sounds, and clash difier- 
 ent musical instruments together. They are 
 also called Thyades and Menades. Ovid. Met. 
 6, V, 695.—Horat. 3, od. 2b.—Propert. 3, el. 21. 
 — LAican. 1, V. 674. 
 
 Bacchis, or Balus, king of Corinth, succeed- 
 ed his father, Prumnides. His successors were 
 always called Bacchida, in remembrance of the 
 equity and moderation of his reign. The Bac- 
 chidse increased so much, that they chose one oi 
 their number to preside among them, with regal 
 authority ; and it is said that the sovereign 
 power continued in their hands near 200 years. 
 Cypselus overturned this institution by making 
 himself absolute. Strab. 8. — Paus. 2, c. 4. — 
 Herodot. 5, c. 92.— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 407. 
 
 Bacchius and Bithus, two celebrated gladia- 
 tors, of equal age and strength; whence the 
 proverb to express equality, Bithus contra Bac- 
 chium. Sueton. in Aug. — Horat. 1, sat. 7, v. 20. 
 
 Bacchylides, a lyric poet of Cos, nephew to 
 Simonides, who, like Pindar, wrote the praises 
 of Hiero. Some of his verses have been pre- 
 served. Marcel. 
 
 Bacis, a famous soothsayer of Bceotia, Cic. 
 1, de Div. c. 34. 
 
 B^BiA Lex, was enacted for the election of 
 
 four praetors every other year. Liv. 40. 
 
 Another law, by M. Bsebius, a tribune of the 
 people, which forbade the division of the lands, 
 whilst it substituted a yearly tax to be paid by 
 the possessors, and to be divided among the 
 people. Appian. 1, 
 
 Bagoas, and Bagosas, an Egyptian eunuch 
 in the court of Artaxerxes Ochus, so powerful 
 that nothing could be done without his consent. 
 He led some troops against the Jews, and pro- 
 faned their temple. He poisoned Ochus, gave 
 his flesh to cats, and made knife-handles with 
 his bones, because he had killed the god Apis. 
 He placed on the throne Arses, the youngest of 
 the slaughtered prince's children, and afterwards 
 put him to death. He was at last killed, B. C. 
 335, by Darius, whom, after raising to the 
 crown, he had attempted to poison. Diod. 16 
 
 and 17. The name of Bagoas occurs very 
 
 frequently in the Persian history; and it seems 
 that most of the eunuchs of the monarchs of 
 Persia were generally known by that appella- 
 tion. 
 
 Balbillus, C. a learned and benevolent man, 
 governor of Egypt, of which he wrote the his- 
 tory, under Nero. Tacit. Ann. 13, c. 22. 
 
 Balbinus, a Roman, who, after governing 
 provinces with credit and honour, assassinated 
 the Gordians and seized the purple. He was 
 some time after murdered by his soldiers, A. D. 
 238. 
 
 BALNEiE, {baths,) were very numerous at 
 Rome, private as well as public. In the ancient 
 times simplicity was observed, but in the age of 
 the emperors they became expensive ; they were 
 used after walking, exercise, or labour; and 
 were deemed more necessary than luxurious. 
 Under the emperors, it became so fashionable 
 to bathe, that without this the meanest of the 
 people seemed to be deprived of one of the neces- 
 saries of life. There were certain hours of the 
 
BA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 BA 
 
 day appointed for bathing, and a small piece of 
 money admitted the poorest as well as the most 
 opulent. In the baths, there were separate 
 apartments for the people to dress and to un- 
 dress; and, after they had bathed, they com- 
 monly covered themselves, the hair was plucked 
 out of the skin, and the body rubbed over with a 
 pumice-stone, and perfumed, to render it smooth 
 and fair. The Roman emperors generally 
 built baths, and all endeavoured to eclipse each 
 other in the magnificence of the building. It is 
 said that Dioclesian employed 40,000 of his 
 soldiers in building his baths ; and when they 
 were finished, he destroyed all the workmen. 
 Alexander Severus first permitted the people to 
 use them in the night, and he himself often 
 bathed with the common people. For some 
 time both sexes bathed promiscuously and with- 
 out shame, and the edicts of the emperors proved 
 abortive for a Vv^hile in abolishing that indecent 
 custom, which gradually destroyed the morals 
 of the people. They generally read in bathing, 
 and we find many compositions written in the 
 midst of this luxurious enjoyment. 
 
 Bantius, L. a gallant youth of Nola, whom 
 Annibal found, after the battle of Cannae, al- 
 most dead amongst the heap of slain. He was 
 sent back home with great humanity; upon 
 which he resolved to betray his country to so 
 generous an enemy, Marcellus, the Roman 
 general, heard of it, and rebuked Bantius, who 
 continued firm and faithful to the interest of 
 Rome. Liv.Sb, c. 15. 
 
 BAPT.E, I. the priests of Cotytto, at Athens. 
 Her festivals were celebrated in the night. The 
 name is derived from /Sairreiv, to wash, because 
 the priests bathed themselves in the most effemi- 
 nate manner. Juv. 2, v. 91. II. A comedy 
 
 of Eupolis, in which men are introduced dancing 
 on the stage with indecent gestures. 
 
 Barbari, a name originally applied to those 
 who spoke inelegantly, or with harshness and 
 difficulty. The Greeks and Romans generally 
 called all nations, except their own, by the des- 
 picable name of barbarians, 
 
 Barcha, the surname of a noble family at 
 Carthage, of which Annibal and Hamilcar were 
 descended. By means of their bribes and in- 
 fluence, they excited a great faction, which is 
 celebrated in the annals of Carthage by the 
 name of the Barchinian faction; and at last 
 raised themselves to power, and to the independ- 
 ent disposal of all the offices of trust or emolu- 
 ment in the state. Liv. 21, c. 2 and 9. 
 
 Bardi, a celebrated sacerdotal order among 
 the ancient Gauls, who praised their heroes, and 
 published their fame in their verses or on mu- 
 sical instruments. They were so esteemed and 
 respected by the people, that at their sight two 
 armies who were engaged in battle laid dowm 
 their arms, and submitted to their orders. They 
 censured, as well as commended, the behaviour 
 of the people, l/ucan. 1, v. 447. — Strab, 4. — 
 Marcell. 15, c, 24. 
 
 Bardyllis, an Illyrian prince,whose daughter 
 Bircenna married king Pyrrhus. Plut.inPyrrh. 
 
 Bars'ine, and Barsene, a daughter of Da- 
 rius, who married Alexander, by whom she had 
 a son called Hercules. Cassander ordered her 
 and her child to be put to death. Justin. 13, c. 
 S, 1. 15, c. 2. — Arrian. 
 B.^sIUDEg, I. the father of Herodotus, who, 
 
 with others, attempted to destroy Strattes, ty- 
 rant of Chios. Uerodot. 8, c. 132. II. A 
 
 family who held an oligarchical power at Ery- 
 
 thrae, Strab. 14. lil. A priest of mount 
 
 Carmel, who foretold many momentous events 
 to Vespasian, when he offered sacrifices. Ta- 
 cit. 2, Hist. c. 87. — Suetaii. in Vesp. 7. 
 
 Basilius, a celebrated bishop of Africa, very 
 animated against the Arians, whose tenets and 
 doctrines he refuted with warmth, but great 
 ability. He was eloquent as well as ingenious, 
 and possessed of all those qualities which con- 
 stitute the persuasive orator and the elegant wri- 
 ter. 'Erasmus has placed him in the number of 
 the greatest orators of antiquity. He died in his 
 51st year, A. D. 379. The latest edition of his 
 works is that of the Benedictines, fol. Paris,1721. 
 
 Bassarides, a name given to the votaries of 
 Bacchus, and to Agave by Persius, which seems 
 derived from Bassara, a town of Libya sacred 
 to the god, or from a particular dress worn by 
 his priestesses, and so called by the Thracians. 
 Persius 1, v. 101. 
 
 Bassus AuFinrus, I. an historian in the age 
 of Augustus, who wrote on the Germanic war. 
 
 Quintil. 10, c, 1. II. Csesius, a lyric poet in 
 
 Nero's age, to whom Persius addressed his 6th 
 
 satire. Some of his verses are extant. III. 
 
 Julius, an orator in the reign of Augustus, some 
 of whose orations have been preserved by Se- 
 neca. 
 
 Bathyllus, a beautiful youth of Samos, 
 greatly beloved by Polycrates the tyrant, and by 
 
 Anacreon. Horat. ep. 14, v. 9. Mecsenas 
 
 was also fond of a youth of Alexandria of the 
 
 same name. Juv. 6, v. 63. The poet who 
 
 claimed as his own Virgil's distich, Noctepluit 
 totd, &c. bore also the same name. 
 
 Batiattjs, Lent, a man of Campania, who 
 kept a house full of gladiators, who rebelled 
 against him, Plut. in Cras. 
 
 Batis, a eunuch, governor of Gaza, who, 
 upon being unwilling to yield, was diagged 
 round the city tied by the heels to Alexander's 
 chariot. Curt. 4, c. 6. 
 
 Baton, of Sinope, wrote commentaries oi> 
 the Persian affairs. Strab. 12. 
 
 BATRACHOMYOMAcmA, a pocm, describing 
 the fight between frogs and mice, written by 
 Homer, which has been printed sometimes se- 
 parately from the Iliad and Odyssey. The best 
 edition of it is Maittaire's 8vo. London, 1721. 
 
 Battiades, a patronymic of Callimachus, 
 from his father Battus. Ovid, in Ibin. v. 53. 
 A name given to the people of Cyrene 
 
 from king Battus. Ital. 3, v. 253. 
 
 Battus I. a Lacedaemonian, who built the 
 town of Cyrene, B. C. 630, with a colony from 
 the island of Thera. He was son of Polym- 
 nestus and Phronime, and reigned in the town 
 he had founded, and after death received divine 
 honours. The difficulty with which he spoke 
 first procured him the name of Battus. Uero- 
 dot. 4, c. 155, &c.—Paus. 10, c. 15. The 
 
 2d of that name was grandson to Battus 1st, by 
 Arcesilaus. He succeeded his father on the 
 throne of Cyrene, and was surnamed Felix, 
 and died 544 B. C. Herodot. 4, c. 159, &c. 
 
 Bavius and Misvius, two stupid and malev- 
 olent poets in the age of Augustus, who at- 
 tacked the superior talents of the contemporary 
 writers. Virg. Eel. 3. 
 
 379 
 
BE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 BE 
 
 Belephantes, a Chaldean, who, from his 
 knowledge of astrology, told Alexander that his 
 entering Babylon would be attended with fatal 
 consequences to him. Diod. 17. 
 
 Belesis, a priest of Babylon, who told Ar- 
 baces, governor of Media, that he should reign 
 one day in the place of Sardanapalus. His pro- 
 phecy was verified, and he was rewarded by the 
 new king with the government of Babylon, B. 
 C. 826. Diod. 2. 
 
 Belisarius, a celebrated general, who, in a 
 degenerate and an effeminate age, in the reign 
 of Justinian, emperor of Constantinople, re- 
 newed all the glorious victories, battles, and tri- 
 umphs, which had rendered the first Romans so 
 distinguished in the time of their republic. He 
 died, after a life of military glory, and the trial of 
 royal ingratitude, in the 565th year of the Chris- 
 tian era. The story of his begging charity, with 
 date obolum Belasario is said lo be a fabrication. 
 
 Belistida, a woman who obtained a prize at 
 Olympia. Paus. 5, c. 8. 
 
 Bellovesus, a king of the Celtae, who, in 
 the reign of Tarquin Priscus, was sent at the 
 head of a colony to Italy by his uncle Ambiga- 
 tus. Liv. 5, c. 34. 
 
 Belus, I. one of the most ancient kings of 
 Babylon, about 1800 years before the age of 
 Semiramis, was made a god after death, and 
 worshipped with much ceremony by the Assy- 
 rians and Babylonians. He was supposed to 
 be the son of the Osiris of the Egyptians. The 
 temple of Belus was the most ancient and most 
 magnificent in the world. It was originally the 
 tower of Babel, which was converted into a 
 temple. It had lofty towers, and it was enriched 
 by all the succeeding monarchs til] the age of 
 Xerxes, who, after his unfortunate expedition 
 against Greece, plundered and demolished it. 
 Among the riches it contained were many sta- 
 tues of massy gold, one of which was forty feet 
 high. In the highest of the towers was a mag- 
 nificent bed, where the priests daily conducted 
 a woman, who, as they said, was honoured with 
 the company of the god. Joseph. Ant. Jud. 10. 
 — Herodot. 1, c. 181, &c. — Strab. 16. — Arrian. 
 
 7. — Diod. 1, &c. 11. A king of Egypt, son 
 
 of Epaphus and Libya, and father of Agenor. 
 
 III. Another, son of Phoenix the son of 
 
 Agenor, who reigned in Phoenica. 
 
 Berenice, and Beronice, I. a woman famous 
 for her beauty, mother of Ptolemy Philadelphus 
 by Lagus. JElian. V. H. 14, c. 43. — Theocrit. 
 — Paus. 1, c. 7. II. A daughter of Phila- 
 delphus, who married Antiochus king of Syria, 
 after he had divorced Laodice, his former wife. 
 After the death of Philadelphus, Laodice was 
 recalled ; and mindful of the treatment she had 
 received, she poisoned her husband, placed her 
 son on the vacant throne, and murdered Bere- 
 nice and her child at Antioch, where she had 
 fled, B. C. 248. III. A daughter of Ptole- 
 my Auletes, who usurped her father's throne 
 for some time, strangled her husband Seleucus, 
 and married Archelaus, a priest of Bellona. 
 Her father regained his power, and put her to 
 
 death, B. C. 55. IV. The wife of Mithri- 
 
 dates, who, when conquered by Lucullus, or- 
 dered all his wives to destroy themselves, for fear 
 the conqueror should offer violence to them. 
 She accordingly drank poison, but this not ope- 
 rating soon enough, she was strangled by a 
 380 
 
 eunuch. V. The mother of Agrippa, who 
 
 shines in the history of the Jews as daughter-in- 
 law of Herod the Great. VI. A daughter 
 
 of Agrippa, who married her uncle Herod, and 
 afterwards Polemon, king of Cilicia. She was 
 accused by Juvenal of committing incest with 
 her brother Agrippa. It is said that she was 
 passionately loved by Titus, who would have 
 made her empress but for fear of the people. 
 VII. A wife of king Attains. VIIL 
 
 Another, daughter of Philadelphus and Arsi- 
 noe, who married her own brother Evergetes, 
 whom she loved with much tenderness. When 
 he went on a dangerous expedition, she vowed 
 all the hair of her head to the goddess Venus if 
 he returned. Sometime after his victorious 
 return, the locks which were in the temple of 
 Venus disappeared ; and Conon, an astrono- 
 mer, to make his court to the queen, publicly 
 reported that Jupiter had carried them away, 
 and had made them a constellation. She was 
 put to death by her son, B. C. 221. Catull. 67. 
 
 — Hygin. P. A. 2, c. 24. — Justin. 26, c. 3. 
 
 This name is common to many of the queens 
 and princesses in the Ptolemean family in Egypt. 
 Bero.sus, a Babylonian by birth, who flourish- 
 ed in the reign of Alexander the Great, and re- 
 sided for some years at Athens. As a priest of 
 Belus, he possessed every advantage which the 
 records of the temple and the learning and tra- 
 ditions of the Chaldseans could afford. He ap- 
 pears to have sketched his history of the earlier 
 times from the representations upon the walls 
 of the temple. From written and traditionary 
 knowledge he must have learned several points 
 too well authenticated to be called in question ; 
 and correcting the one by the other, and at the 
 same time blending them as usual with my- 
 thology, he produced his strange history. The 
 first fragment preserved by Alexander Polyhis- 
 tor is extremely valuable, and contains a store 
 of very curious information. The first book of 
 the history apparently opens, naturally enough 
 with a description of Babylonia. Then refer- 
 ring to the paintings, the author finds the first 
 series a kind of preface to the rest. All men 
 of every nation appear assembled in Chaldaea : 
 among them is introduced a personage who is 
 represented as their instructer in the arts and 
 sciences, and informing them of the events 
 which had previously taken place. Unconscious 
 that Noah is represented under the character 
 of Cannes, Berosus describes him, from the 
 hieroglyphical delineation, as a being literally 
 compounded of a fish and a man, and as pas- 
 sing the natural, instead of the diluvian night in 
 the ocean, with other circum-stances indicative 
 of his character and life. The instructions of 
 the patriarch are detailed in the next series of 
 paintings. In the first of which, I conceive, 
 the Chaos is portrayed by the confusion of the 
 limbs of every kind of animal ; the second rep- 
 resents the creation of the universe : the third 
 the formation of mankind: others again that of 
 animals, and of the heavenly bodies. The sec- 
 ond book appears to have comprehended the 
 history of the antediluvian world : and of this 
 the two succeeding fragments seem to have 
 been extracts. The historian, as usual, ha.s 
 appropriated the history of the world to Chal- 
 daea. He finds nine persons, probably repre- 
 sented as kings, preceding Noah, who is again 
 
BI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 BO 
 
 introduced under the name Xisuthrus, and he 
 supposes that the representation was that of the 
 first dynasty of the Chalda^an kings. From the 
 imiversal consent of history and tradition he was 
 well assured that Alorus or Orion, ihe Nimrod 
 of the Scriptures, was the founder of Babylon 
 and the first king : consequently he places him 
 at ihe top, and Xisuthrus follows as the tenth. 
 The destruction of the records by Nabonasar 
 left him to fill up the intermediate names as he 
 could : and who are inserted, is not easy so to 
 determine. Berosus has ^iven also a full and 
 accurate description of the deluge, which is 
 wonderfully consonant with the Mosaic ac- 
 count. We have also a similar account, or it 
 may be an epitome of the same from the Assy- 
 rian history of Abydenus, who was a disciple 
 of Aristotle, and a copyist from Berosus. The 
 age in which he lived is not precisely known, 
 though some fix it in the reign of Alexander, 
 or 268 years B.C. 
 
 Bessus, I. a governor of Bactriana, who, af- 
 ter the battle of Arbela, seized Darius, his sove- 
 reign, and put him to death. After this murder 
 he assumed the title of king, and was, some 
 time after, brought before Alexander, who gave 
 him to Oxatres, the brother of Darius. The 
 prince ordered his hands and ears to be cut off", 
 and his body to be exposed on a cross, and shot 
 at by the soldiers. Justin. 12, e. b.—Curt. 6 
 
 and 7. II. A parricide who discovered the 
 
 murder he had committed, upon destroying a 
 nest of swallows, which, as he observed, re- 
 proached him of his crime. Plut. 
 
 BiBACULUs, I. (M. Furius) a Latin poet in 
 the age of Cicero. He composed annals in Iam- 
 bic verses, and wrote epigrams full of wit and 
 humour, and other poems now lost. Horai. 2. 
 
 ,S:a^. 5, V. n.—Quintil. 10. II. A praetor, 
 
 &c. Val. Max. 1, c. 1. 
 
 BiBULUS, a son of M. Calpumius Bibulus by 
 ■Portia, Cato's daughter. He was Csesar's col- 
 league in the consulship, but of no consequence 
 in the state, according to this distich mentioned 
 by Sueion. in Jul. c. 20. 
 
 Non Bibulo quicquam nuper, sed Ccesare fac- 
 tum est : 
 . Nam Bibulo fieri consule nil memini. 
 
 One of the friends of Horace bore that name. 
 1 Sat. 10, V. 86. 
 
 BiON, I. a philosopher and sophist of Borys- 
 thenes in Scythia, who rendered himself famous 
 for his knowledge of poetry, music, and philo- 
 sophy. He made every body the object of his 
 satire, and rendered his compositions distin- 
 guished for clearness of expression, for face- 
 tiousness, wit, and pleasantry. He died 241 B. 
 
 C. Diog. in vita. II. A Greek poet of 
 
 Smyrna, who wrote pastorals in an elegant style. 
 Moschus, his friend and disciple, mentions in an 
 elegiac poem that he died by poison, about 300 
 years B. C. His Idyllia are written with ele- 
 gance and simplicity, purity and ease ; and they 
 abound with correct images, such as the view 
 of the country may inspire. There are many 
 good editions of this poet's works, generally 
 printed with those of Moschus, the best of which 
 
 is that of Heskin, 8vo. Oxon. 1748. III. A 
 
 soldier in Alexander's army, &c. Curt. 4, c. 
 
 13. IV. A native of Propontis in the age of 
 
 Pherecydes. V. A man of Syracuse, who 
 
 wrote on rhetoric. VI. A native of Abdera, 
 
 disciple to Democritus. He first found out that 
 there were certain parts of the earth where 
 there were six months of perpetual light and 
 
 darkness alternately. VII. A man of Soli, 
 
 who composed a history of jEthiopia. VIII. 
 
 Another, who wrote nine books on rhetoric, 
 which he called by the names of the muses ; 
 and hence Biov^i sermones mentioned by Ho- 
 rat. 2, ep. 2, v. m.—Diog. 4. 
 
 'BiTuiTUs, a king of the Allobroges, conquer- 
 ed by a small number of Romans, &c. Val. 
 Max. 6, c. Q.—Flor. 3, c. 2. 
 
 BoccAR, a king of Mauretania. Juv. 4, v. 
 90, applies the word in a general sense to any 
 native of Africa. . 
 
 BoccHUs, a king of Getulia, m alliance with 
 Rome, who perfidiously delivered Jugurtha to 
 Sylla, the lieutenant of Marius. SaUust. Jug. 
 — Paterc. 2, c. 12. 
 
 BcBDROMiA, an Athenian festival, instituted 
 in commemoration of the assistance which the 
 people of Athens received in the reign of Erech- 
 theus, from Ion, son of Xuthus, when their 
 country was invaded by Eumolpus son of Nep- 
 tune. The word is derived otto tov PonSponeiv, 
 coming to help. Plutarch in Thes. mentions it 
 as in commemoration of the victory which The- 
 seus obtained over the Amazons in a month 
 called at Athens Boedromion. 
 
 BcEOTARCH^], the chief magistrates in Boe- 
 otia. Liv. 42, c. 43. ^ . • ' ir v 
 
 BcEOROBisTAS, a man who made himsell ab- 
 solute among the Getge by the strictness of his 
 discipline. StraJ). 7. , • , j 
 
 BoETHius, a celebrated Roman, banished, 
 and afterwards punished with death, on a sus- 
 picion of a conspiracv,by Theodoric, king of the 
 Ostrogoths, A. D. 525. It wa^ during his im- 
 prisonment that he wrote his celebrated poetical 
 treatise de consolatiane philosophic in five books. 
 The best edition of his works is that of Hage- 
 nau, 4to. 1491, or that of L. Bat. 1671, with 
 the notis variorum. 
 
 BoETUs, a foolish poet of Tarsus, who wrote 
 a poem on the battle of Philippi. Strab. 14. 
 
 Bolus, a king of the Cimbri, who killed a 
 Roman ambassador. Liv. ep. 67. 
 
 BoMONiciB, youths that were whipt at the 
 altar of Diana Orthia during the festivals of 
 the goddess. He wh o bore the lash of the whip 
 with the greatest patience, and without uttering a 
 groan, was declared victorious, and received an 
 honourable prize. Paus. 3, c. IQ.—Plut. in Lye 
 
 BoNOsius, an officer of Probus, who assumed 
 the imperial purple in Gaul. 
 Bootes. Vid. Part III. 
 BoREADEs, the descendants of Boreas, who 
 long possessed the supreme power and the 
 priesthood in the island of the Hyperboreans. 
 Diod. 1 and 2. 
 Boreas. Vid. Part III. 
 BoREiSMi, a festival at Athens m honour ol 
 Boreas, who, as the Athenians supposed, was 
 related to them on account of his marriage with 
 Orithyia, the daughter of one of their kings. 
 They attributed the overthrow of the eneniy^s 
 fleet to the respect which he paid to his wile s 
 native country. There were also sacrifices at 
 Megalopolis in Arcadia, in honour of Boreas. 
 Paus. Attic. (f« Arcad. ,, , 
 
 BouDiCEA, a queen in Britain, who rebellea 
 381 
 
BR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 BR 
 
 upon being insulted by the Romans. She poi- 
 soned herself when conquered, A. D. 61. Tacit. 
 Ann. 14, c. 31. 
 
 Brachmanes, Indian philosophers, who de- 
 rived their name from Brahma, one of the three 
 beings whom God, according to their theology, 
 created, and with whose assistance he formed 
 the world. They devoted themselves totally to 
 the worship of the gods, and were accustomed 
 from their youth to endure labours, and to live 
 with frugality and abstinence. They never ate 
 flesh, and abstained from the use of wine and all 
 carnal enjoyments. After they had spent 37 
 years in the greatest trials, they were permitted 
 to marry, and indulge themselves in a more free 
 and unbounded manner. According to modern 
 authors, Brahma is the parent of all mankind, 
 and he produced as many worlds as there are 
 parts in the body, which they reckoned 14. 
 They believed that there were seven seas, of 
 water, milk, curds, butter, salt, sugar, and 
 wine, each blessed with its particular paradise, 
 Strab. Ib.—Diod. 17. 
 
 Branchyllides, a chief of the Boeotians. 
 Paus. 9, c. 13. 
 
 Brasidas, a famous general of Lacedsemon, 
 son of Tellus, who, after many great victories 
 over Athens and other Grecian states, died of a 
 wound at Amphipolis, which Cleon, the Athe- 
 nian, had besieged, B. C. 423. A superb mon- 
 ument was raised to his memory. Pans. 3, c. 
 2i.— Thucyd. 4 and b.—Diod. b. 
 
 Brasideia, festivals at Lacedeemon in honour 
 of Brasidas. None but freemen, born Spartans, 
 were permitted to enter their lists, and such as 
 were absent were fined. 
 
 Brennus, I. a general of the Galli Senones, 
 who invaded Italy, defeated the Romans at the 
 river Allia, and entered their city without oppo- 
 sition. The Romans fled into the capitol, and 
 left the whole city in the possession of the ene- 
 my. The Gauls climbed the Tarpeian rock in 
 the night, and the capital would have been ta- 
 ken had not the Romans been awakened by the 
 noise of geese which were before the doors, and 
 immediately repelled the enemy. Camillus, 
 who was in banishment, marched to the relief 
 of his country, and so totally defeated the Gauls, 
 that not one remained to carry the news of 
 their destruction. Liv. 5, c. 36, &c. — Pint, in 
 Catnill. II. Another Gaul, who made an ir- 
 ruption into Greece with 150,000 men and 
 15,000 horse, and endeavoured to plunder the 
 temple of Apollo at Delphi. He was destroyed 
 with all his troops, by the god ; or, more pro- 
 perly, he killed himself in a fit of intoxication, 
 B. C. 278, after being defeated by the Delphians. 
 Pans. 10, c. 22 and 23. — Justin. 24, c. 6, &c. 
 
 Briseis, a woman of Lyrnessus, called also 
 Hippodamia. When her country was taken by 
 the Greeks, and her husband Mines and brother 
 killed in the fight, she fell to the share of Achil- 
 les, in the division of the spoils. Agamemnon 
 took her away some time after from Achilles, 
 who made a vow to absent himself from the 
 field of battle. Briseis was very faithful to 
 Achilles ; and when Agamemnon restored her 
 to him, he swore he had never offended her 
 chastity. Homer. Jl. 1, 2, &c. — Ovid. Heroid. 
 3, de Art. Am. 2 and 3.—Propert. 2, el. 8, 20, 
 and 22.— Paus. 5, c. 24:.— Horat. 2, od. 4. 
 
 Britannicus, a son of Claudius Csesar by 
 382 
 
 Messalina. Nero was raised to the throne in 
 preference to him, by means of Agrippina, and 
 caused him to be poisoned. His corpse was 
 buried in the night ; but it is said that a shower 
 of rain washed away the white paint which the 
 murderer had put over his face, so that it appear- 
 ed quite black, and discovered the effects of poi- 
 son. Tacit. Ann. — Sueton. in Ner. c. 33. 
 
 Brumalia, festivals celebrated at Rome in 
 honour of Bacchus, about the month of Decem- 
 ber. They were first instituted by Romulus. 
 
 Brutus, L. Junius, I. son of M. Junius and 
 Tarquinia, second daughter of Tarquin Pris- 
 ons. The father, with his eldest son, were 
 murdered by Tarquin the Proud, and Lucius, 
 unable to revenge their death, pretended to be 
 insane. The artifice saved his life ; he was 
 called Brutus for his stupidity, which he, how- 
 ever, soon after showed to be feigned. When 
 Lucretia killed herself, B. C. 509, in conse- 
 quence of the brutality of Tarquin, Brutus 
 snatched the dagger from the wound, and swore 
 upon the reeking blade, immortal hatred to the 
 royal family. His example animated the Ro- 
 mans, the Tarquins were proscribed by a de- 
 cree of the senate, and the royal authority vested 
 in the hands of consuls chosen from patrician 
 families. Brutus, in his consular office, made 
 the people swear they never would again sub- 
 mit to kingly authority ; but the first who vio- 
 lated their oath were in his own family. His 
 sons conspired with the Tuscan ambassador to 
 restore the Tarquins ; and whisn discovered, 
 they were tried and condemned before their fa- 
 ther, who himself attended at their execution. 
 Sometime after, in a combat that was fought 
 between the Romans and Tarquins, Brutus 
 engaged with Aruns, and so fierce was the at- 
 tack, that they pierced one another at the same 
 time. The dead body was brought to Rome, 
 and received as in triumph ; a funeral oration 
 was spoken over it, and the Roman matrons 
 showed their grief by mourning a year for the 
 father of the republic. Flor. 1, c. 9. — Liv. 1, 
 c. 56, 1. 2, c. 1, &c. — Dionys. Hal. 4 and 5. — 
 C. Nep. in Attic. 8. — Eutrop. de Tarq. — Virg. 
 
 JEn. 6, V. 818.— Pint, in Brut. <^ Cas. 
 
 II. Marcus Junius, father of Caesar's murderer, 
 wrote three books on civil law. He followed 
 the party of Marius, and was conquered by 
 Pompey. After the death of Sylla, he M^as be- 
 sieged in Mutina by Pompey, to whom he sur- 
 rendered, and by whose orders he was put to 
 death. He had married Servilia, Cato's sister, 
 by whom he had a son and two daughters. Cic. 
 
 de Orat. c. 55. — Pint, in Brut. III. His 
 
 son of the same name, by Servilia, was lineally 
 descended from J. Brutus, who expelled the 
 Tarquins from Rome. He seemed to inherit 
 the republican principles of his great progenitor, 
 and in the civil wars joined himself to the side 
 of Pompey, though he was his father's murder- 
 er, only because he looked upon him as more 
 just and patriotic in his claims. At the battle 
 of Pharsalia, Caesar not only spared the life of 
 Brutus, but he made him one of his most faith- 
 ful friends. He, however, forgot the favour, 
 because Caesar aspired to tyranny. He con- 
 spired with many of the most illustrious citizens 
 of Rome against the tyrant, and stabbed him in 
 Pompey's Basilica. Brutus retired into Greece, 
 where he gained himself many friends by his 
 
BU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 C^ 
 
 arms as well as by persuasion, and he was soon 
 after pursued thither by Antony, whom young 
 Octavius accompanied. A battle was fought at 
 Philippi. Brutus, who commanded the right 
 wing of the republican army, defeated the ene- 
 my ; but Cassius, who had the care of the left, 
 was overpowered, and as he knew not the situ- 
 ation of his friend, and grew desperate, he or- 
 dered one of his freedmen to run him through. 
 In another battle, the wing which Brutus com- 
 manded obtained a victory ; but the other was 
 defeated, and he found himself surrounded by 
 the soldiers of Antony. He however made his 
 escape, and soon after fell upon his sword, B. C. 
 42. Antony honoured him with a magnificent 
 funeral. Brutus is not less celebrated for his 
 literary talents, than his valour in the field. 
 When he was in the camp, the greatest part of 
 his time was employed in reading and writing ; 
 and the day which preceded one of his most 
 bloody battles, while the rest of his army was 
 under continual apprehensions, Brutus calmly 
 spent his hours tillthe evening, in writing an 
 epitome of Polybius. He was intimate with 
 Cicero, to whom he would have communicated 
 his conspiracy, had he not been apprehensive of 
 his great timidity. Plutarch mentions that Cae- 
 sar's ghost made its appearance to Brutus in 
 his tent, and told him that he would meet him 
 at Philippi. Brutus married Portia, the daugh- 
 ter of Cato. C. Nep. in Attic. — Paterc. 2, c. 
 48.—Plut. in Brut. &lc.—Cccs. l.—Flor. 4. 
 IV. D. Jun. Albinus, one of Caesar's mur- 
 derers, who, after the battle of Mutina, was de- 
 serted by the legions with which he wished to 
 march against Antony. He was put to death 
 
 by Antony's orders, though consul elect. 
 
 V. Jun. one of the first tribunes of the people 
 Pint. 
 
 BuBARis. Vid. Amyntas 1st. 
 
 Bucephalus, a horse of Alexander's, whose 
 head resembled that of a bull, whence his name 
 (/?ous KE(j)a\os, bovis caput.) Alexander was the 
 only one who could mount on his back, and he 
 always knelt down to take up his master. He 
 was present in an engagement in Asia, where 
 he received a heavy wound, and hastened im- 
 mediately out of the battle, and dropped down 
 dead as soon as he had set down the king in a 
 safe place. He was 30 years old when he died, 
 and Alexander built a city which he called after 
 his name. Plut. in Alex. Curt. — Arrian. 5, c. 
 3.—Plin. 8, c. 42. 
 
 BucoLicA, a sort of poem which treats of the 
 care of the flocks, and of the pleasures and oc- 
 cupations of the rural life, with simplicity and 
 elegance. The most famous pastoral writers of 
 antiquity are Moschus, Bion, Theocritus, and 
 Virgil. The invention of bucolics, or pastoral 
 poetry, is attributed to a shepherd of Sicily. 
 
 BuRRHUs, Afranius, I. a chief of the praeto- 
 rian guards, put to death by Nero. II. A 
 
 brother-in-law of the emperor Commodus. 
 
 BusA, a woman of Apulia, who entertained 
 1000 Romans after the battle of Cannae, Val. 
 Max. 4, c. 8. 
 
 Busiris, a king of Egypt, son of Neptune 
 and Libya, or Lysianassa, who sacrificed all 
 foreigners to Jupiter with the greatest cruelty. 
 "When Hercules visited Egypt, Busiris carried 
 him to the altar bound hand and foot. The 
 hero soon disentangled himself, and offered the 
 
 t}'rant, his son Amphidamus, and the ministers 
 
 of his cruelty, on the altar. Many Egyptian 
 
 princes have borne the same name. One of 
 them built a town called Busiris, in the middle 
 of the Delta, where Isis had a famous temple. 
 Herodot. 2, c. 59 and &\.—Strab. 11.— Ovid. 
 Met. 9, V. 132. Heroid. 9, v. 69.— Plut. in 
 Thes.— Virg. G. 3, v. b.—Apollod. 2, c. 5. 
 
 BuTEs, one of the descendants of Amycus, 
 king of the Bebryces, very expert in the com- 
 bat of the cestus. He came to Sicily, where he 
 was received by Lycaste, a beautiful harlot, by 
 whom he had a son called Eryx. Lycaste, on 
 account of her beauty, was called Venus; hence 
 Eryx is often called the son of Venus. Virgi 
 jEn. 5, V. 372. 
 
 C. 
 
 Cadmus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 CsECiLiA Caia, or Tanaquil. Vid. Tanaquil. 
 
 CiEciLiA Lex, was proposed, A. U. C. 693, 
 by Caecil. Metellus Nepos, to remove taxes, 
 from all the Italian states, and to give them free 
 
 exportation. Another, called also Didia, A, 
 
 U. C. 656, by the consul Cl. Caecilius Metellus, 
 and T. Didius. It required that no more than 
 one single matter should be proposed to the 
 people in one question ; and that every law, 
 before it was preferred, should be exposed to 
 public view on three market-days. 
 
 C^ciLiANTJs, a Latm writer before the age of 
 Cicero. 
 
 Cecilii, a plebeian family at Rome, descend- 
 ed from Caecas, one of the, companions of 
 ^neas, or from Caeculus, the son of Vulcan, 
 who built Praeneste. This family gave birth to 
 many illustrious generals and patriots. 
 
 Cecilius, Claudius Isidorus, I. a man who 
 left in his will to his heirs, 4116 slaves, 3600 
 yoke of oxen, 257,000 small cattle, and 600,000 
 
 pounds of silver. Plin. 33, c. 10. II. Epi- 
 
 rus, a freedman of Atticus, who opened a school 
 at Rome, and is said to have first taught reading 
 
 to Virgil and some other growing poets. III. 
 
 A Sicilian orator in the age of Augustus, who 
 wrote on the Servile wars, a comparison be- 
 tween Demosthenes and Cicero, and an account 
 of the orations of Demosthenes. IV. Metel- 
 lus. Vid. Metellus. V. A comic poet, ori- 
 ginally a slave. He acquired this name with 
 his freedom, having been at first called by the 
 servile appellation of Statius. He was a native 
 of Milan, and flourished towards the sixth cen- 
 tury of Rome, having survived Ennius, whose 
 intimate friend he was, about one year, which 
 places his death at 586. "We learn from the 
 prologue to the Hecyra of Terence, spoken in 
 the person of Ambivius, the principal actor, or 
 rather manager of the theatre, that when he 
 first brought out the plays of Caecilius, some 
 were hissed off'the stage,and others hardly stood 
 their ground ; but knowing the fluctuating for- 
 tunes of dramatic exhibitions, he had again at- 
 tempted; to bring them forward. His perseve- 
 rance having gained for them a full and unpre- 
 judiced hearing, they failed not to please ; and 
 this success excited the author to new efforts in 
 the poetic art, which he had nearly abandoned 
 in a fit of despondency. The comedies of Cee- 
 cilius, which amounted to thirty, are all lost, so 
 that our opinion of their merits can be formed 
 383 
 
CM 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CM 
 
 only from the criticisms of those Latin authors 
 who wrote before they had perished. Cicero 
 blames the improprieties of his style and lan- 
 guage. From Horace's Epistle to Augustus, we 
 may collect what was the popular sentiment 
 
 concernmg Caecilius :— 
 
 " Vincere Ccscilius gravitate- 
 
 ■Terentiua arte J' 
 
 It is not easy to see how a comic author could 
 be more grave than Terence; and the quality 
 applied to a writer of this cast appears of rather 
 difficult interpretation. But the opinion which 
 had been long before given by Varro aflbrds a 
 sort of commentary on Horace's expression 
 — " In argumentis," says he, " Cgecilius palmam 
 poscit; in ethesi Terentius." By gravitas 
 therefore, as applied to Caecilius, we may pro- 
 perly enough understand the grave and affecting 
 plots of his comedies : which is farther confirm- 
 ed by what Varro elsewhere observes of him — 
 ^' Pathe Trabea, Attilius et Csecilius facile 
 moverunt." Velleius Paterculus joins him with 
 Terence and Afranius, whom he reckons the 
 most excellent comic writers of Rome — " Dul- 
 cesque Latinileporis facetiae per Csecilium, Te- 
 rentiumque, et Afranium, sub pari setate, nitue- 
 runt." A great many of the plays of Caecilius 
 were taken from Menander ; and Aulus Gellius 
 informs us that they seemed agreeable and pleas- 
 ing enough, till, being compared with their 
 Greek models, they appeared quite tame and 
 disgusting, and the wit of the original, which 
 they were unable to imitate, totally vanished. 
 Horat. 2, ep. 1. 
 C^Dicius, I. (Gl.) a consul, A. U. C. 498. 
 
 II. Another, A.U. C. 465. III. A military 
 
 tribune in Sicily, who bravely devoted himself 
 to rescue the Roman army from the Cartha- 
 ginians, B. C. 254. He escaped with his life. 
 
 C^LiA Lex, was enacted A. U. C. 635, by 
 Caelius, a tribune. It ordained that in judicial 
 proceedings before the people, in cases of trea- 
 son, the votes should be given upon tablets, con- 
 trary to the exception of the Cassian law. 
 
 C^Lius, I, an orator, disciple to Cicero. He 
 died very young. Cicero defended him when 
 he was accused by Clodius of being accessary to 
 Catiline's conspiracy, and of having murdered 
 some ambassadors from Alexandria, and carried 
 on an illicit amour with Clodia, the wife of Me- 
 tellus. Or at. pro M. CceI — Quintil. 10, c. 1. 
 
 II. Aurelianus, a writer about 300 years 
 
 after Christ, the best edition of whose works is 
 that of Almeloveen, Amst. 1722 and 1755. 
 
 III. L. Antipater, wrote a history of Rome, 
 which M. Brutus epitomized, and which Adrian 
 preferred to the histories of Sallust. Caslius 
 flourished 120 years B. C. Val Max. 1, c. 7. 
 
 — Cic. 13. ad. Attic, ep. 8. IV. Tubero, a 
 
 man who came to life after he had been carried 
 
 to the burning pile. Plin. 7, c. 52. V. Vi- 
 
 bienus, a king of Etruria, who assisted Romulus 
 
 against the Cseninenses, &c. VI. Sabinus, 
 
 a writer in the age of Vespasian, who compos- 
 ed a treatise on the edicts of the curule ediles. 
 
 C^SAR, a surname given to the Julian family 
 at Rome, either because one of them kept an 
 elephant, which bears the same name in the 
 Punic tongue, or because one was born with a 
 thick head of hair. This name, after it had 
 been dignified in the person of Julius Caesar 
 and of his successors, was given to the apparent 
 384 
 
 llfcir of the empire in the age of the Roman em- 
 perors. The twelve first Roman emperors were 
 distinguished by the surname of Ccesar. They 
 reigned in the following order: — Julius Caesar, 
 Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, 
 Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Tilus, and 
 Domitian. In Domitian, or rather in Nero, the 
 family of Julius Caesar was extinguished. But 
 after such a lapse of time, the appellation of 
 Caesar seemed inseparable from the imperial 
 dignity, and therefore it was assumed by the 
 successors of the Julian family. Suetonius has 
 written an account of these twelve characters in 
 
 an extensive and impartial manner. 1. C. 
 
 Julius Cassar, the first emperor of Rome, was 
 son of L. Caesar and Aurelia the daughter of 
 Cotta. He was descended, according to some 
 accounts, from Julius the son of ^neas. "When 
 he reached his 15th year he lost his father, and 
 the year after he was made priest of Jupiter. 
 Sylla was aware of his ambition, and endea- 
 voured to remove him ; but Caesar understood 
 his intentions, and, to avoid discovery, changed 
 every day his lodgings. He was received into 
 Sylla's friendship sometime after; and the dic- 
 tator told those who solicited the advancement 
 of young Caesar, that they were warm in the in- 
 terest of a man who would prove, some day or 
 other, the ruin of their country and of their liber- 
 ty. When Caesar went to finish his studies at 
 Rhodes, under Apollonius Molo, he was seized 
 by pirates, who offered him his liberty for 30 tal- 
 ents. He gave them 40, and threatened to re- 
 venge their insults ; and he no sooner was out of 
 theirpower, than he armed a ship, pursued them, 
 and crucified them all. His eloquence procur- 
 ed him friends at Rome, and the generous man- 
 ner in which he lived equally served to promote 
 his interest. After he had passed through the 
 inferior employments of the state, he was ap- 
 pointed over Spain, where he signalized himself 
 by his valour and intrigues. At his return to 
 Rome, he was made consul, and soon after he 
 effected a reconciliation between Crassus and 
 Pompey. He was appointed for the space of five 
 years over the Gauls, by the interest of Pompey, 
 to whom he had given his daughter Julia in 
 marriage. Here he enlarged the boundaries of 
 the Roman empire by conquest, and invaded 
 Britain, which was then unknown to the Roman 
 people. He checked the Germans, and soon 
 after had his government over Gaul prolonged 
 to five other years, by means of his friends at 
 Rome. The ambition of Caesar and Pompey 
 soon became the cause of a civil war. Caesar's 
 petitions were received with coldness or indif- 
 ference by the Roman senate ; and by the in- 
 fluence of Pompey, a decree was passed to strip 
 him of his power. Antony, who opposed it as 
 tribune, fled to Caesar's camp with the news, 
 and the ambitious general no sooner heard this, 
 than he made it a plea of resistance. On pre- 
 tence of avenging the violence which had been 
 offered to the sacred office of tribune in the per- 
 son of Antony, he crossed the Rubicon, which 
 was the boundary of his province. The pas- 
 sage of the Rubicon was a declaration of war, 
 and Caesar entered Italy sword in hand. Upon 
 this, Pompey, with all the friends of liberty, 
 left Rome, and retired to Dyrrachium ; and 
 Caesar, afler he had subdued all Italy, in 60 
 days, entered Rome, and provided himself with 
 
om 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 CA 
 
 money from the public treasury. He went to 
 Spain, where he conquered the partisans of 
 Pompey, under Petreius, Afranius, and Varro ; 
 and, at his return to Rome, was declared dic- 
 tator, and soon after consul. When he left 
 Rome, he went in quest of Pompey, observing 
 that he was marching against a general with- 
 out troops, after having defeated troops without 
 a general in Spain. In the plains of Pharsalia, 
 B. C. 48, the two hostile generals engaged. 
 Pompey was conquered, and fled into Egypt, 
 where he was murdered. Caesar, after he had 
 made a noble use of victory, pursued his adver- 
 sary into Egypt, where he for some time forgot 
 his fame and character in the arms of Cleopa- 
 tra. His danger was great Avhile at Alexan- 
 dria; but he extricated himself with wonderful 
 success, and made Egypt tributary to his power. 
 After several conquests in Africa, the defeat of 
 Cato, Scipio, and Juba, and that of Pompey's 
 sons in Spain, he entered Rome, and triumphed 
 over five different nations, Gaul, Alexandria, 
 Pontus, Africa, and Spain, and was created 
 perpetual dictator. But now his glory was at 
 an end ; his uncommon success created him 
 enemies, and the chiefest of the senators, 
 among whom was Brutus, his most intimate 
 friend, conspired against him, and stabbed him 
 in the senate-house on the ides of March. He 
 died, pierced with 23 wounds, the 15th of March, 
 B. C. 44, in the 56th 3'-ear of his age.- He re- 
 ceived, as he went to the senate-house, a paper 
 from Artemidorus, which discovered the whole 
 conspiracy to him ; but he neglected the read- 
 ing of what might have saved his life. When 
 he was in his first campaign in Spain, he was 
 observed to gaze at a statue of Alexander, and 
 even shed tears at the recollection that that 
 hero had conquered the world at an age in 
 which he himself had done nothing. The learn- 
 ing of Caesar deserves commendation as well 
 as his military character. He reformed the 
 calendar. He wrote his Commentaries on the 
 Gallic wars on the spot where he fought his 
 battles ; and the composition has been admired 
 for the elegance as well as the correctness of 
 its style. This valuable book was nearly lost ; 
 and when Caesar saved his life in the bay of 
 Alexandria, he was obliged to swim from his 
 ship, with his arms in one hand and his Com- 
 mentaries in the other. Besides the Gallic and 
 Civil wars, he wrote other pieces, which are 
 now lost. The history of the war in Alex- 
 andria and Spain is attributed to him by some, 
 and by others to Hirtius. His qualities were 
 such that in every battle he could not but be 
 conqueror, and in every republic, master ; and 
 to his sense of his superiority over the rest of the 
 world, or to his ambition, we are to attribute his 
 saying, that he wished rather to be first in a little 
 village then second at Rome. It was after his 
 conquest over Pharnaces in one day, that he 
 made use of these remarkable words, to express 
 the celerity of his operations : Veni, vidi, vicL 
 Caesar has been suspected of being privy to 
 Catiline's conspiracy ; and it was his fondness 
 for dissipated pleasures which made his country- 
 men say that he was the husband of all the 
 women at Rome, and the woman of all men. It 
 is said that he conquered 300 nations, took 800 
 cities, and defeated three millions of men, one of 
 which fell in the field of battle. PH71. 7, c. 25, 
 Part II.— 3 C 
 
 says that be could employ at the same lime, his 
 ears to listen, his eyes to read, his hand to write, 
 and his mind to dictate. The best editions of 
 Caesar's Commentaries, are the magnificent one 
 by Dr. Clarke, fol. Lond. 1712 ; that of Cam- 
 bridge, with a Greek translation, 4to. 1727; 
 that of Oudendorp, 2 volumes, 4to, L. Bat. 
 1737 ; and that of Elzevir, Bvo. L. Bat. 1635. 
 Sueton cf« Plut. in vita. — Dio. — Appian. — 
 Orosius. — Diod. 16 and eel. 31 and 37. — Virg. 
 G. 1, V. iQ6.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 182.— Marcell. 
 
 — Flor. 3 and 4. II. Lucius, was father to 
 
 the dictator. He died suddenly, when putting 
 on his shoes. III. Octavianus. Vid. Augus- 
 tus. IV. Caius, a tragic poet and orator, 
 
 commended by Cic. in Brut. His brother, C. 
 LuciuSjWas consul, and followed, as well as him- 
 self, the party of Sylla. They were both put to 
 
 death by order of Marius. V. Lucius, an 
 
 uncle of M. Antony, who followed the interest 
 of Pompey, and was proscribed by Augustus. 
 His son Lucius was put to death by J. Caesar 
 
 in his youth. Two sons of Agrippa bore 
 
 also the name of Caesars, Caius and Lucius, 
 Vid. Agrippa. 
 
 C.ESAR10N, the son of J. Caesar, by queen 
 Cleopatra, was, at the age of 13, proclaimed by 
 Antony and his mother, king of Cyprus, Egypt, 
 and Coelosyria. He was put to death five years 
 after by Augustus. Suet, in Aug. 17. and Cas. 
 52. ^ 
 
 C^soNius, Maximus, was banished from 
 Italy by Nero, on account of his friendship with 
 Seneca, &c. Tacit. 15, Ann. c. 71. 
 
 Caius and Caia, a praenomen very common 
 at Rome to both sexes. C, in ■ its natural posi- 
 tion, denoted the man's name, and when revers- 
 ed C, it implied Caia. Quiiitil. 1, c. 7. 
 
 Calaber. Q,. called also Smyrnasus, wrote a 
 Greek poem in 14 books, as a continuation of 
 Homer's Iliad, about the beginning of the third 
 century. The best editions of this elegant and 
 well written book, are, thatof Rhodoman, 12mo. 
 Hanover, 1604, with the notes of Dausqueius, 
 and that of Pauw, 8vo. L. Bat. 1734. 
 
 Calantjs, a celebrated Indian philosopher, 
 one of the gymnosophists. He followed Alex- 
 ander in his Indian expedition, and being sick, 
 in his 83d year, he ordered a pile to be raised, 
 upon which he mounted, decked with flowers 
 and garlands, to the astonishment of the king 
 and of the army. When the pile was fired, 
 Alexander asked him whether he had any thing 
 to say : " No," said he, " I shall meet you 
 again in a very short time." Alexander died 
 three months after in Babylon. Strab. 15. — 
 Cic. de Div. 1, c. 23. — Arrian. cf« Plut. in Alex. 
 —Mlian. 2, c." 41, 1. 5, c. ^.— Val. Max. 1, c. 8. 
 
 Calchas. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Calenus, La famous soothsayer of Etruria, 
 
 in the age of Tarquin. Plin. 28, c. 2. II. 
 
 A lieutenant of Caesar's army. After Caesar's 
 murder, he concealed some that had been pro- 
 scribed by the triumvirs, and behaved with great 
 honour to them. Plut. in Cces. 
 
 Calidius, (M.) I. an orator and pretorian, 
 who died in the civil wars, &c. Cois. Bell. 
 Civ. 1, c. 2. II. L. Julius, a man remark- 
 able for his riches, the excellence of his char- 
 acter, his learning, and poetical abilities. He 
 was proscribed by Volumnius, but delivered by 
 Atticus. C. Nep. in Attic. 12. 
 385 
 
CA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CA 
 
 Caligula, C. the emperor, received this sur- 
 name from his wearing in the camp, the Caliga, 
 a military covering for the leg. He was son 
 of Germanicus by Agrippina, and grandson to 
 Tiberius. During the first eight months of his 
 reign, Rome experienced universal prosperity ; 
 the exiles were recalled, taxes were remitted, 
 and profligates dismissed; but Caligula soon 
 became proud, wanton, and cruel. He built a 
 temple to himself, and ordered his head to be 
 placed on the images of the gods,while he wished 
 to imitate the thunders and power of Jupiter. 
 The statues of all great men were removed, as 
 if Rome would sooner forget her virtues in their 
 absence ; and the emperor appeared in public 
 places in the most indecent manner, encouraged 
 roguery, committed incest with his three sisters, 
 and established public places of prostitution. 
 He often amused himself with putting innocent 
 people to death ; he attempted to famish Rome 
 by a monopoly of corn ; and as he was pleased 
 with the greatest disasters which befell his sub- 
 jects, ne often wished the Romans had but one 
 head that he might have the gratification to 
 strike it oiF. Wild beasts were constantly fed 
 in his palace with human victims ; and a fa- 
 vourite horse was made highpriest and consul, 
 and kept in marble apartments, and adorned 
 with the most valuable trappings and pearls 
 the Roman empire could furnish. Caligula 
 built a bridge upwards of three miles in the sea ; 
 and would, perhaps, have shown himself more 
 tyrannical, had not Chsereas, one of his ser- 
 vants, formed a conspiracy against his life, 
 with others equally tired with his cruelties and 
 the insults that were offered with impunity to 
 the persons and feelings of the Romans. In 
 consequence of this, the tyrant was murdered 
 January 24th, in his 29th year, after a reign of 
 three years and ten months, A. D. 41. It has 
 been said that Caligula wrote a treatise on 
 rhetoric ; but his love of learning is better un- 
 derstood from his attempts to destroy the wri- 
 tings of Homer and of Virgil. Dio. — Sueton. 
 in vita. — Tacit. Ann. 
 
 Callas, I. a general of Alexander. Diod. 17. 
 II. Of Cassander against Polyperchon. Id. 
 
 Callias, I. an Athenian appointed to make 
 peace between Artaxerxes and his country. 
 Diod. 12. II. A son of Temenus, who mur- 
 dered his father with the assistance of his bro- 
 thers. Apollod. 2, c. 6. III. A Greek poet, 
 
 son of Lysimachus. His compositions are lost. 
 He was surnamed Schoenion, from his twisting 
 ropes ((Txotvoi) through poverty, Athen. 10. 
 
 IV. A partial historian of Syracuse. He 
 
 wrote an account of the Sicilian wars, and was 
 well rewarded by Agathocles, because he had 
 shown him in a favourable view. Aihen. 12. — 
 
 Dionys. V. An Athenian, greatly revered 
 
 for his patriotism. Herodot. 6, c. 121. VI. 
 
 A soothsayer. VII. An Athenian, com- 
 mander of a fleet against Philip, whose ships he 
 took, &c. VIII. A rich Athenian, who libe- 
 rated Cimon from prison, on condition of mar- 
 rying his sister and wife Elpinice. C. Ncp. and 
 
 Pint, in dm. IX. An historian, who wrote 
 
 an explanation of the poems of Alcaeus and 
 Sappho. 
 
 Callicerus, a Greek poet, some of whose 
 epigrams are preserved in the Anthologia. 
 
 Callicles, an Athenian, whose house was 
 386 
 
 not searched on account of his recent marriage, 
 when an inquiry was made after the money giv- 
 en by Harpalus, &c. Plut. in Demosth. 
 
 Callicrates, I. an Athenian, who seized up- 
 on the sovereignty of Syracuse, by imposing up- 
 on Dion when he had lost his popularity. He 
 was expelled by the sons of Dionysius, after 
 reigning thirteen months. He is called Callip- 
 
 pus by some authors. C. Nep. in Dion. 
 
 n. An officer intrusted with the care of the 
 treasures of Susa by Alexander. Curt. 5, c. 
 2.- — III. An artist, who made, with ivory, 
 ants and other insects so small that they could 
 scarcely be seen. It is said that he engraved 
 some of Homer's verses upon a grain of millet. 
 Plin. 7, c. 2l.—JElian. V. H. I, c. 17. 
 
 Callicratidas, I. a Spartan, who succeeded 
 Lysander in the command of the fleet. He took 
 Methymna, and routed the Athenian fleet un- 
 der Conon. He was defeated and killed near 
 the Arginusse, in a naval battle, B. C. 406. 
 
 Diod. 13.— Xenopk. Hist. G. II. One of 
 
 the four ambassadors sent by the Lacedaemoni- 
 ans to Darius, upon the rupture of their alli- 
 ance with Alexander. Curt. 3, c. 13. 
 
 Calltdius, a celebrated Roman -orator, con- 
 temporary with Cicero, who speaks of his abili- 
 ties with commendation. Cic. in Brut. 274. — 
 Paterc. 2, 36. 
 
 Callimachus, I. an historian and poet of Cy- 
 rene, son of Battus and Mesatma, and pupil to 
 Hermocrates the grammarian. He had, in the 
 age of Ptolemy Philadelphus, kept a school at 
 Alexandria, and had Apollonius of Rhodes 
 among his pupils, whose ingratitude obliged 
 Callimachus to lash him severely in a satirical 
 poem, under the name of Ibis. {Vid. Apollo- 
 nius.') The Ibis of Ovid is an imitation of this 
 piece. He wrote a work in 120 books on famous 
 men, besides the treatises on birds ; but of all his 
 numerous compositions, only 31 epigrams, an 
 elegy, and some hymns on the gods, are extant ; 
 the best editions of which are that of Ernestus, 
 2 vols. 8vo. L. Bat. 1761, and that of Vulcani- 
 us, 12mo. Antwerp, 1584. Propertius styled 
 himself the Roman Callimachus. The precise 
 time of his death, as well as of his birth, is 
 unknown. Propert. 4, el. 1, v. 65. — Cic. Tusc. 
 1, c. Si.—Horat. 2, ep. 2, v. 109.— Quintil. 10, 
 
 c. 1. II. An Athenian general, killed in the 
 
 battle of Marathon. His body was found in 
 an erect posture, all covered with wounds. 
 
 Plut. III. A Colophonian, who wrote the 
 
 life of Homer. Plut. 
 
 Callimedon, a partisan of Phocionat Athens, 
 condemned by the populace. 
 
 Callinus, an orator, who is said to have first 
 invented elegant poetry, B. C. 776. Some of 
 his verses are to be found in Stobceus. Athen. 
 —Strab. 13. 
 
 Callipatira, daughter of Diagoras, and wife 
 of Callianax, the athlete, went disguised in 
 man's clothes, with her son Pisidorus, to the 
 Olympic games. When Pisidorus was declar- 
 ed victor, she discovered her sex through ex- 
 cess of joy, and was arrested, as women were 
 not permitted to appear there on pain of death. 
 The victory of her son obtained her release; 
 and a law was instantly made which forbade 
 any wrestlers to appear but naked. Paus. 5, c. 
 6, i. 6, c. 7. 
 
 Calliphon, I. a painter of Samos, famous for 
 
CA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CA 
 
 his historical pieces. Plin. 10, c. 26. II. A 
 
 philosopher, who made the summumbonum con- 
 sist in pleasure joined to the love of honesty. 
 This system was opposed by Cicero. Qucest. 
 Acad A, c. 131 and 139. de Offic. 3, c. 119. 
 
 Calliphron, a celebrated dancing-master, 
 who had Epaminondas among his pupils. C. 
 Nep, in J£ipam. 
 
 Callipus, or Calippus, I. an Athenian, disci- 
 ple to Plato. He destroyed Dion, &c. Vid. 
 Callicrates. C. Nep. in Dion. 11. A Co- 
 rinthian, who wrote a history of Orchomenos. 
 
 Pans. 6, c. 29. III. A philosopher. Diog. 
 
 in Zen. IV. A general of the Athenians 
 
 when the Gauls invaded Greece by Thermopy- 
 las. Pans. 1, c. 3. 
 
 Callisteia, a festival at Lesbos, during which 
 all the women presented themselves in the tem- 
 ple of Juno, and the fairest was rewarded in a 
 public manner. There was also an institution 
 of the same kind among the Parrhasians, first 
 made by Cypselus, whose wife was honoured 
 -with the first prize. The Eleans had one also, 
 in which the fairest man received as a prize a 
 complete suit of armour, which he dedicated to 
 Minerva. 
 
 Callisthenes, I. a Greek, who wrote a his- 
 tory of his own country, in ten books, beginning 
 from the peace between Artaxerxes and Greece, 
 down to the plundering of the temple of Delphi 
 
 by Philomeius. Died. 14. II. A man who, 
 
 with others, attempted to expel the garrison of 
 Demetrius from Athens. Polycbn. 5, c. 17. 
 
 III. A philosopher of Olynthus, intimate with 
 Alexander, whom he accompanied in his orien- 
 tal expedition, in the capacity of a preceptor, and 
 to whom he had been recommended by his friend 
 and master Aristotle. He refused to pay divine 
 honours to the king, for which he was accused 
 of conspiracy, mutilated, and exposed to wild 
 beasts, dragged about in chains, till Lysimachus 
 gave him poison, which ended together his tor- 
 tures and his life, B. C. 328. None of his com- 
 positions are extant. Cwrt. 8, c. 6. — Pint, in 
 Alex. — Arrian. 4. — Justin. 12, c. 6 and 7. 
 
 IV. A writer of Sybaris. V. A freedman 
 
 of Lucullus. It is said that he gave poison to 
 his master. Pint, in IavcuU. 
 
 Callistonigus, a celebrated statuary at 
 Thebes. Pans. 9, c. 16. 
 
 Calltstratus, I. an Athenian, appointed 
 general with Timotheus and Chabrias, against 
 
 Lacedgemon. Diod. 15. II. An orator of 
 
 Aphidna, in the time of Epaminondas, the most 
 eloquent of his age. III. An Athenian ora- 
 tor, with whom Demosthenes made an intimate 
 acquaintance, after he had heard him plead. 
 
 Xenoph. IV. A Greek historian, praised by 
 
 Dionys. Hal. V. A comic poet, rival of Aris- 
 
 .tophanes. 
 
 Callixenus, I. a general who perished by 
 
 famine. II. An Athenian, imprisoned for 
 
 passing sentence of death upon some prisoners. 
 Diod. 13. 
 
 Calphurnia, a daughter of L. Piso, who was 
 Julius Caesar's fourth wife. The night previous 
 to her husband's murder, she dreamed that the 
 roof of her house had fallen, and that he had 
 been stabbed in her arms ; and on that account 
 she attempted, but in vain, to detain him at 
 home. After Caesar's murder, she placed herself 
 imder the patronage of M. Antony. Suet, in Jul. 
 
 CALPHURNros Bestia, I. a noble Roman, bribed 
 by Jugurtha. It is said that he murdered his 
 
 wives when asleep. Plin. 27, c. 2. II. Cras- 
 
 sus, a patrician, who went with Regulus against 
 the Massyli. He was seized by the enemy, as 
 he attempted to plunder one of their towns, and 
 he was ordered to be sacrificed to Neptune. 
 Bisaltia, the king's daughter, fell in love with 
 him, and gave him an opportunity of escaping 
 and conquering her father. Calphurnius return- 
 ed victorious, and Bisaltia destroyed herself. 
 III. A man who conspired against the em- 
 peror Nerva.— — IV. Galerianus, son of Piso, 
 
 put to death, &c. Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 11.' 
 
 V. Piso, condemned for using seditious words 
 
 against Tiberius. Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 21. VI. 
 
 Another, famous for his abstinence. Val. Max. 
 
 4, c. 3. VII. Titus, a Latin poet, born in 
 
 Sicily, in the age of Dioclesian, seven of whose 
 eclogues are extant, and generally found with 
 the works of the poets who have written on 
 hunting. Though abounding in many beauti- 
 ful lines, they are, however, greatly inferior to 
 the elegance and simplicity of Virgil. The best 
 edition is that of Kempher, 4to. L. Bat. 1728. 
 'VIII. A man surnamed Frugi, who com- 
 
 posed Annals, B. C. 130. 
 
 Calpuhnia, or Calphdrnia, a noble family in 
 Rome, derived from Calpus, son of Numa. It 
 branched into the families of the *Pisones, 
 Bibuli, Plammse, Cassennini, Asprenates, &c. 
 Plin. in Num. 
 
 Calpurnia, and Calphurnia, Lex, was en- 
 acted A. U. C. 604, severely to punish such as 
 were guilty of using bribes, &c. , Cic. de Off. 2. 
 I. A daughter of Marius, sacrificed to the 
 
 gods by her father, who was advised to do it, in 
 a dream, if he wished to conquer the Cimbri. 
 
 Plut. in Par all.- II. A woman who killed 
 
 herself when she heard that her husband was 
 murdered in the civil wars of Marius. Paterc. 
 2, 26. III. The wife of J. Caesar. Vid. Cal- 
 phurnia. IV. A favourite of the emperor 
 
 Claudius, &c. Tacit. Ann. 
 
 CALUsmros, a soldier in the army of Ger- 
 manic us. When this general wished to stab 
 himself with his own sword, Calusidius offered 
 him his, observing that it was sharper. Tacit. 
 1, Ann. c. 35. 
 
 Calvas, Corn. Licinius, a famous orator, 
 equally known for writing iambics. He excited 
 attention by his animadversions upon Caesar 
 and Pompey, and disputed the palm of elo- 
 quence with Cicero. Cic. ep. — Horat. 1, Sat. 
 10, V. 19. 
 
 Cambyses, I. king of Persia, was son of Cyrus 
 the Great. He- conquered Egypt, and was so 
 offended at the superstition of the Egyptians, 
 that he killed their god Apis, and plundered 
 their temples. When he wished to take Pelu- 
 sium, he placed at the head of his army a num- 
 ber of cats and dogs ; and the Egyptians refus- 
 ing, in an attempt to defend themselves, to kill 
 animals which they reverenced as divinities, 
 became an easy prey to the enemy. Cambyses 
 afterwards sent an army of 50,000 men to de- 
 stroy Jupiter Ammon's temple, and resolved to 
 attack the Carthaginians and Ethiopians. He 
 killed his brother Smerdis from mere suspicion, 
 and flayed alive a partial judge, whose skin he 
 nailed on the judgment-seat, and appointed his 
 son to succeed him, telling him to remember 
 387 
 
CA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CA 
 
 ■Where he sat. He died of a small wound he had 
 givea himself with his sword, as he mounted on 
 horseback; and the Egyptians observed, that it 
 was the same place on which he had Avounded 
 their god Apis, and that therefore he was visited 
 bj'- the hand of the gods. His death happened 
 521 years before Christ. He left no issue to 
 succeed him, and his throne was usurped by the 
 magi, and ascended by Darius soon after. He- 
 rodot. 2, 3, &c.—Justm. 1, c. 9.— Val. Max. 6, 
 
 c. 3. li. Apersonof obscure origin, to whom 
 
 king Astyages gave his daughter Mandane in 
 marriage. The king, who had been terrified by 
 dreams which threatened the loss of his crown 
 by the hand of his daughter's son, had taken 
 this step in hopes that the children of so igno- 
 ble a bed would ever remain in obscurity. He 
 was disappointed. Cyrus, Mandane's son, de- 
 throned him when grown to manhood. Hero- 
 dot. 1, c. 46, 107, &c. — Justin. 1, c. 4. 
 
 Camerinus, a Latin poet, who wrote a poem 
 on the taking of Troy by Hercules, Ovid. 4, 
 
 ex Pont. el. 16, v. 19. Some of the family of 
 
 the Camerini were distinguished for their zeal 
 as citizens, as well as for their abilities as scho- 
 lars, among whom was Sulpicius, commissioned 
 by the Roman senate to go to Athens to collect 
 the best of Solon's laws. Juv. 7, v. 90. 
 
 Camilla. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Camillus, I. (L. Furius,) a celebrated Ro- 
 man, called a second Romulus from his services 
 to his country. He was banished by the people 
 for distributing, contrary to his vow, the spoils 
 he had obtained at Veii. During his exile 
 Rome was besieged by the Gauls under Bren- 
 nus. In the midst of their misfortunes the be- 
 sieged Romans elected him dictator, and he for- 
 got their ingratitude, and marched to the relief 
 of his country, which he delivered, after it had 
 been for some time in the possession of the ene- 
 my. He died in the 80th year of his age, B. C. 
 365, after he had been five times dictator, once 
 censor, three times interrex, iwice a military 
 tribune, and obtained four triumphs. He con- 
 quered the Hernici, Volsci, Latini, and Etru- 
 rians; and dissuaded his countrymen from 
 Iheir intentions of leaving Rome to reside at 
 Veii. When he besieged Falisci, he rejected, 
 with proper indignation, the offers of a school- 
 master, who had betrayed into his hands the 
 sons of the most worthy citizens. Phtt. in vita. 
 — Liv. 5. — Flor. 1, c. 13. — Diod. 14. — Virg. 
 
 Mn. 6, V. 825. II. A name of Mercury. 
 
 III. An intimate friend of Cicero. 
 
 Camissares, a governor of part of Cilicia, 
 father to Datames, C. Nep. in Dat. 
 
 Camma, a woman of Galatia, who avenged 
 the death of her husband Sinetus upon his mur- 
 derer Sinorix, by making him drink in a cup, of 
 which the liquor was poisoned, on pretence of 
 marrying him, according to the custom of their 
 country, which required that the bridegroom 
 and his bride should drink out of the same ves- 
 sel. She escaped by refusing to drink on pre- 
 tence of illness. Polycen. 3. 
 
 Campana Lex, or Julian agrarian law, was 
 enacted by J. Caesar, A. U. C. 691, to divide 
 some lands among the people. 
 
 Campaspe, and Pancaste, a beautiful con- 
 cubine of Alexander, whom the king gave to 
 Apelles, who had fallen in love with her as 
 he drew her picture. It is said that from 
 388 
 
 this beauty the painter copied the thousand 
 charms of his Venus Anadomene. Plin. 35, 
 c. 10. 
 
 Camuloginus, a Gaul, raised to great honours 
 by Caesar for his military abilities. Cas. Bell. 
 G. 7, c. 57. 
 
 Candace, a queen of -Sithiopia, in the age of 
 Augustus, so prudent and meritorious that her 
 successors always bore her name. She was 
 blind of one eye. Pliri. 6, c. 22. — Dio. 54.- 
 Strab. 17. 
 
 Candaules, or Myrsilus, son of Myrsus, 
 was the last of the Heraclidas who sat on the 
 throne of Lydia. He showed his wife naked 
 10 Gyges one of his ministers ; and the queen 
 was so incensed, that she ordered Gyges to mur- 
 der her husband, 718 years before the Christian 
 era. After this murder, Gyges married the 
 queen and ascended the throne. Justin, 1, c. 
 7. — Herodot. 1, c. 7, &c. — Plut. Symph. 
 
 Canephoria, festivals at Athens in honour 
 of Bacchus, or, according to others, of Diana, 
 in which all marriageable women offered small 
 baskets to the deity, and received the name of 
 Canephora ; whence statues representing wo- 
 men in that attitude were called by the same 
 appellation. , Cic. in Verr. 4. 
 
 Caniculares Dies, certain days in the sum- 
 mer, in which the star Canis is said to influence 
 the season, and to make the days more warm 
 during its appearance. Manilius. 
 
 Canidius, a tribune who proposed a law to 
 empower Pompey to go only with two lictors, to 
 reconcile Ptolemy and the Alexandrians. Plut. 
 in Pomp. 
 
 C. Caninius Rebilus, a consul with J. Caesar 
 after the death of Trebonius. He was consul 
 only for seven hours, because his predecessor 
 died the last day of the year, and he was cho- 
 sen only for the remaining part of the day ; 
 whence Cicero observed, that Rome was greatly 
 indebted to him for his vigilance, as he had not 
 slept during the whole time of his consulship. 
 Cic. 7, ad Fam. ep. 33. — Plut. in Cces. 
 
 Canistius, a Lacedaemonian courier, who ran 
 1200 stadia in one day. Plin. 7, c. 20. 
 
 Canius, a poet of Gades, contemporary with 
 Martial. He was so naturally merry that he 
 always laughed. Mart. 1. ep. 62. 
 
 Cantharus, I. a famous sculptor of Sicyon. 
 Paus. 6, c. 17. II. A comic poet of Athens. 
 
 Canuleius, C. a tribune of the people of 
 Rome, A. U. C. 310, who made a law to render 
 it constitutional for the patricians and plebeians 
 to intermarry. It ordained, also, that one of 
 the consuls should be yearly chosen from the 
 plebeians. Liv. 4, c. 3, &c. — Flor. 1, c. 17. 
 
 Canijsius, a Greek historian under Ptolemy 
 Auletes. Plut. 
 
 Canutius Tiberinus, I. a tribune of the peo- 
 ple, who, like Cicero, furiously attacked Antony 
 when declared an enemy to the state. His sa- 
 tire cost him his life. Pater cul. 2, c. 64. 
 
 IT. A Roman actor. Plut. in Brut. 
 
 Capaneus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Capella, I. an elegiac poet in the age of J. 
 
 Caesar. Ovid, de Pont. 4. el. 16, v. 36. II. 
 
 Marrianus, a Carthaginian, A. D. 490, who 
 wrote a poem on the marriage of Mercury and 
 Philologv, and in praise of the liberal arts. The 
 best edition is that of Walihardns, 8vo. Bernae, 
 1763. 
 
CA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CA 
 
 Capito, I. the uncle of Paterculus, who join- 
 ed Agrippa against Crassus. — Pater cul. 2, c. 
 
 69. II. Ponieius, a man sent by Antony to 
 
 settle his disputes with Augustus. Horat. 1, 
 
 Sat. 5, V. 3-2. III. An historian of Lycia, 
 
 who wrote an account of Isauria in eight 
 books. 
 
 Capitolini Ludi, games yearly celebrated at 
 Rome in honour of Jupiter, who preserved the 
 capitol from the Gauls. 
 
 Capitolinus, (Julius,) an author in Diocle- 
 sian's reign, who wrote an account of the life 
 of Verus, Antoninus Pius, the Gordians, &c. 
 most of which are now lost. 
 
 Capricornus, a sign of the zodiac, in which 
 appears 28 stars in the form of a goat, supposed 
 by the ancients to be the goat Amalthsea, which 
 fed Jupiter with her milk. Some maintain that 
 it is Pan, who changed himself into a goat when 
 frightened at the approach of Typhon. When 
 the sun enters this sign it is winter solstice, or 
 the longest night in the year. Manil. 2 and 4. 
 —Horat. 2, od. 17, v. 19.— Hijgin. fab. 196. P. 
 A. 2, c 28. 
 
 Caprificialis, a day sacred to Vulcan, on 
 which the Athenians offered him money. Plin. 
 11, c. 15. 
 
 Capys SvLvros, a king of Alba, who reigned 
 twenty-eight years. Dionys. Hal. — Virg. JEn. 
 6, V. 768. 
 
 Caractacus, a king of the Britons, conquer- 
 ed by an officer of Claudius Caesar, A. D. 47. 
 Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 33 and 37. 
 
 Caranus, I. one of the Heraclidae, the first 
 who laid the foundation of the Macedonian em- 
 pire, B.C. 814. He took Edessa and reigned 
 twenty-eight years, which he spent in establish- 
 ing and strengthening the government of his 
 newly-founded kingdom. He was succeeded by 
 Perdiccas. Justin. 7, c. 1. — Paterc. 1, c. 6. 
 II. A general of Alexander. Curt. 7. 
 
 Carausius, a tyrant of Britain for seven 
 years, A. D. 293. 
 
 Carbo, I. a Roman orator, who killed himself 
 because he could not curb the licentious man- 
 ners of his countrymen. Cic. in Brut. II. 
 
 Cneus, a son of the orator Carbo, who embraced 
 the parly of Marius, and after the death of Cin- 
 na succeeded to the government. He was kill- 
 ed in Spain, in his third consulship, by order of 
 Pompey. Val. Max. 9, c. 13. III. An ora- 
 tor, son of Carbo the orator, killed by the army 
 when desirous of re-establishing the ancient 
 military discipline. Cic. in Brut. 
 
 Carcinus, I. a tragic poet of Agrigentum, in 
 the age of Philip of Macedon. He wrote on 
 
 the rape of Proserpine. Diod. 5. II. A 
 
 man of Rhegium, who exposed his son Agatho- 
 cles on account of some uncommon dreams dur- 
 ing his wife's pregnancy. Diod. 19. 
 
 Carcinus, a constellation, the same as the 
 Cancer. Iaicom. 9, v. 536. 
 
 Carinus, (M. Aurelius,) a Roman who at- 
 tempted to succeed his father Carus as emperor. 
 He was famous for his debaucheries and cruel- 
 ties. Dioclesian defeated him in Dalmatia, and 
 he was killed bv a soldier whose wife he had 
 debauched, A. JD. 268. 
 
 Carmentales, festivals at Rome in honour 
 of Carmenta, celebrated the 11th of January, 
 near the Porta Carmentalis, below the capitol. 
 This goddess was entreated to render the Ro- 
 
 man matrons prolific and their labours easy. 
 Liv. 1, c. 7. 
 
 Carneades, a philosopher of Cyrene in Af- 
 rica, founder of a sect called the third or new 
 Academy. The Athenians sent him, with Dio- 
 genes the stoic and Critolaus the peripatetic, 
 as ambassadors to Rome, B. C. 155. The Ro- 
 man youth were extremely fond of the company 
 of these learned philosophers ; and when Car- 
 neades, in a speech, had given an accurate and 
 judicious dissertation upon justice, and in ano- 
 ther speech confuted all the arguments he had 
 advanced, and apparently given no existence to 
 the virtue he had so much commended ; a re- 
 port prevailed all over Rome, that a Grecian 
 was come, who had so captivated by his words 
 the rising generation, that ihey forgot their 
 usual amusements and ran mad after philoso- 
 phy. When this reached the ears of Cato the 
 censor, he gave immediate audience to the 
 Athenian ambassadors in the senate, and dis- 
 missed them in haste, expressing his apprehen- 
 sion of their corrupting the opinions of the Ro- 
 man people, whose only profession, he sternly 
 observed, was arms and war. Carneades de- 
 nied that any thing could be perceived or under- 
 stood in the world ; and he was the first who 
 introduced a universal suspension of assent. 
 He died in the 90th year of his age, B. C. 128. 
 Cic. ad Attic. 12, ep. 23. de Orat. 1 and S. — Plin. 
 7, c. SO.—Lactantiusb, c. 14. — Val. Max. 8, c. 8. 
 
 Carneia, a festival observed in most of the 
 Grecian cities, but more particularly at Sparta, 
 where it was first instituted, about 675 B. C. 
 in honour of Apollo surnamed Carneus. It 
 lasted nine days, and was an imitation of the 
 manner of living in camps among the ancients. 
 
 Carpophorus, an actor greatly esteemed by 
 Domitian, Martial. — Juv. 6. v. 198. 
 
 Carrinates, Secundus, a poor but inge- 
 nious rhetorician, who came from Athens to 
 Rome, where the boldness of his expression, 
 especially against tyrannical power, exposed 
 him to Caligula's resentment, who banished 
 him. Juv. 7, v. 205. 
 
 Carvilius, I. a king of Britain, who attacked 
 Caesar's naval station by order of Cassive- 
 
 launus, &c. Cas. Bell. G. 5, c. 22. IL 
 
 Spurius, a Roman who made a large image of 
 the breastplates taken from the Samnites, and 
 
 placed it in the capitol. Plin. 34, c. 7. III. 
 
 The first Roman who divorced his wife during 
 the space of above 600 years. This was for 
 barrenness, B. C. 231. Diomis. Hal. 2. — Val. 
 Max. 2, c. 1. 
 
 Cards, I. a Roman emperor who succeeded 
 Probus. He was a prudent and active general ; 
 he conquered the Sarmatians, and continued the 
 Persian war which his predecessor had com- 
 menced. He reigned two years, and died on 
 the banks of the Tigris, as lie was going in an 
 expedition against Persia, A. D. 283. He 
 made his two sons, Carinus and Numerianus, 
 Caesars ; and as his many virtues had promised 
 the Romans happiness, he was made a god after 
 death. Eutrop. II. One of those who at- 
 tempted to scale the rock Aornus, by order of 
 Alexander. Curt. 8, c. 11. 
 
 Casca, one of Caesar's assassins, who gave 
 him the first blow. Plut. in Cas. 
 
 Cassander. son of Antipater, made himself 
 master of Macedonia after his father's death, 
 389 
 
CA 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 CA 
 
 where he reigned for 18 years. He mar- 
 ried Thessalonica, the sister of Alexander, to 
 strengthen himself on his throne. Olympias, 
 the mother of Alexander, wished to keep the 
 kingdom of Macedonia for Alexander's young 
 children; and therefore she destroyed the rela- 
 tions of Cassander, who besieged her in the 
 town of Pydna, and put her to death. Roxane, 
 with her son Alexander, and Barsena, the moth- 
 er of Hercules, both wives of Alexander, 
 shared the fate of Olympias with their chil- 
 dren. Antigonus, who had been for some time 
 upon friendly terms with Cassander, declared 
 war against him ; and Cassander, to make him- 
 self equal with his adversary, made a league 
 with Lysimachus and Seleucus, and obtained a 
 memorable victory ar Ipsus, B. C. 301. He 
 died three years after this victory, of a dropsy. 
 His son Antipater killed his mother, and for 
 this unnatural murder he was put to death by 
 his brother Alexander, who, to strengthen him- 
 self, invited Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, 
 from Asia. Demetrius took advantage of the 
 invitation, and put to death Alexander, and as- 
 cended the throne of Macedonia. Paus. 1, c. 
 25.—Diod. 19.— Justin. 12, 13, &c. 
 
 Cassandra, a daughter of Priam and He- 
 cuba, was passionately loved by Apollo, who 
 promised to grant her whatever she might re- 
 quire. She asked the power of knowing futu- 
 rity; and as soon as she had received it, she 
 slighted Apollo. The god, in his disappoint- 
 ment, declared that no credit or reliance should 
 ever be put upon her predictions, however true 
 and faithful they might be. She was looked 
 upon by the Trojans as insane, and she was 
 even confined, and her predictions were disre- 
 garded. She was courted by many princes 
 during the Trojan war. In the division of the 
 spoils of Troy, Agamemnon, who was ena- 
 moured of her, took her as his wife, and return- 
 ed with her to Greece. She repeatedly foretold 
 to him the sudden calamities that awaited his 
 return ; but he gave no credit to her, and was 
 assassinated by his wife Clytemnestra. Cassan- 
 dra shared his fate, and saw all her prophecies 
 but too truly fulfilled. Vid. AgainemMon. 
 ^schyl. in Again. — Homer. 11. 13, v. 363. Od. 4. 
 —Hygin. fab. 117.— Fir o". Mn. 2, v. 246, «&c.— • 
 Q. Calab. 13, v. 421. — Eurip. in Troad. — Paus. 
 1, c. 16, 1. 3, c. 19. 
 
 Cassia Lex, was enacted by Cassius Lon- 
 ginus, A. U. C. 649. By it no man condemned 
 or deprived of military power was permitted to 
 
 enter the senate-house. Another, enacted 
 
 by C. Cassius, the praetor, to choose some of 
 the plebeians to be admitted among the patri- 
 cians. Another, A. U. C. 616, to make the 
 
 suffrages of the Roman people free and inde- 
 pendent. It ordained that they should be re- 
 ceived upon tablets. Cic. in Led. Another, 
 
 A. U. C. 267, to make a division of the terri- 
 tories taken from the Hernici, half to the Roman 
 
 people and half to the Latins. Another, 
 
 enacted A. U. C. 596, to grant a consular power 
 to P. Anicius and Octavius on the day they 
 triumphed over Macedonia. Liv. 
 
 Cassiodorus, a great statesman and writer 
 in the 6th century. He died A . D. 562, at the 
 age of 100. His works were edited by Chand- 
 ler, 8vo. London, 1722. 
 
 Cassivelaunus, a Briton invested with sove- 
 390 
 
 reign authority when J. Caesar made a descent 
 upon Britain. Cces. Bell. G. 5, c. 19, &c. 
 
 Cassius, (C.) I. a celebrated Roman, who made 
 himself known by being first quaestor to Crassus 
 in his expedition against Parthia, from which 
 he extricated himself with uncommon address. 
 He followed the interest of Pompey ; and when 
 Caesar had obtained the victory in the plains of 
 Pharsalia, Cassius was one of those who owed 
 their life to the mercy of the conqueror. He 
 married Junia, the sister of Brutus, and with 
 him he resolved to murder the man to whom he 
 was indebted for his life, on account of his op- 
 pressive ambition ; and before he stabbed Cae- 
 sar, he addressed himself to the statue of Pom- 
 pey. When the provinces were divided among 
 Caesar's murderers, Cassius received Africa; 
 and when his party had lost ground at Rome, 
 by the superior influence of Augustus and M. 
 Antony, he retired to Philippi, with his friend 
 Brutus and their adherents. In the battle that 
 was fought there, the wing which Cassius com- 
 manded was defeated, and his camp was plun- 
 dered. In this unsuccessful moment he sudden- 
 ly gave up all hopes of recovering his losses, 
 and concluded that Brutus was conquered and 
 ruined as well as himself Fearful to fall into 
 the enemy's hands, he ordered one of his freed- 
 men to run him through, and he perished by 
 that very sword which had given wounds to 
 Caesar. His body was honoured with a mag- 
 nificent funeral by his friend Brutus, who de- 
 clared over him that he deserved to be called the 
 last of the Romans. If he was brave, he was 
 equally learned. Some of his letters are still 
 extant among Cicero's epistles. He was a strict 
 follower of the doctrine of Epicurus. He was 
 often too rash and too violent ; and many of the 
 wrong steps which Brutus took are to be as- 
 cribed to the prevailing advice of Cassius. He 
 is allowed by Paterculus to have been a better 
 commander than Brutus, though a less sincere 
 friend. The day after Caesar's murder he 
 dined at the house of Antony, who asked him 
 whether he had then a dagger concealed in his 
 bosom ; Yes, (replied he,) if you aspire to tyran- 
 ny. Sueton. in Cas. <^ Aug. — Pint, in Brut. <^ 
 
 CcBS. Paterc. 2, c. AQ.—Dio. 40. II. A 
 
 Roman citizen, who condemned his son to death 
 on pretence of his raising commotions in the 
 
 state. Vol. Max. 5, c. 8. III. A tribune of 
 
 the people, who made many laws tending to di- 
 minish the influence of the Roman nobility. 
 He was competitor with Cicero for the consul- 
 ship. IV. One of Pompey's officers who, 
 
 during the civil wars, revolted to Caesar with 10 
 
 ships. V. A poet of Parma, of great genius. 
 
 He was killed by Varus by order of Augustus, 
 whom he had offended by his satirical writings. 
 His fragments of Orpheus were found, and 
 edited some time after by the poet Statius. Ho- 
 rat. 1, Sat. 10, v. 62. VI. Spurius, a Ro- 
 man, put to death on suspicion of his aspiring 
 to tyranny, after he had been three times con- 
 sul," B. C. 485. Diod. n.— Val. Max. 6, c. 3. 
 VII. Brutus, a Roman, who betrayed his 
 
 country to the Latins, and fled to the temple of 
 Pallas, where his father confined him, and he 
 
 was starved to death. VIII. Longinus, an 
 
 officer of Caesar in Spain, much disliked. Cas. 
 Alex. c. 48. IX. A consul, to whom Tibe- 
 rius married Drusilla, daughter of Germanicus. 
 
CA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CA 
 
 Sueton. in Val. c. 57. X. A lawyer, whom 
 
 Nero put to death because he bore the name of 
 
 J. Caesar's murderer. Suet, in Ner. 37. 
 
 XI. L. Hemina, the most ancient writer of an- 
 nals at Rome. He lived A. U. C. 608.- 
 
 XII. Lucius, a Roman lawyer, whose severity 
 in the execution of the law has rendered the 
 words Cassiani judices applicable to rigid 
 
 judges. Cic. pro Rose. c. 30. XIII. LoDgi- 
 
 nus, a critic. Vid. Longinus. XIV. Lucius, 
 
 a consul with C. Marius, slain, with his army, 
 
 by the Gauls Senones. Appian. in Celt. 
 
 XV. M. Scasva, a soldier of uncommon valour, 
 
 in Caesar's army. Val. Max. 3, c. 2. XVI. 
 
 An officer under Aurelius, made emperor by 
 his soldiers, and murdered three months after. 
 XVII. Felix, a physician in the age of Ti- 
 berius, who wrote on animals. XVIII. Se- 
 
 verus, an orator, who wrote a severe treatise on 
 illustrious men and women. He died in exile, 
 in his 25th year. Vid. Severus. The family 
 of the Cassii branched into the surname of Lon- 
 ginus, Viscellinus, Brutus, &c. 
 
 Castratius, a governor of Placentia, during 
 the civil wars of Marius. Val. Max. 6, c. 2. 
 
 Catagogia, festivals in honour of Venus, cele- 
 brated by the people of Eryx. Vid. Anagogia. 
 Catenes, a Persian, by whose means Bessus 
 was seized. Curt. 7, c. 43. 
 
 Catienus, an actor at Rome in Horace's age. 
 Hor. 2, Sat. 3, v. 61. 
 
 Catilina, L. Sergius, a celebrated Roman, 
 descended of a noble family. When he had 
 squandered away his fortuneby his debaucheries 
 and extravagance, and been refused the consul- 
 ship, he secretly meditated the ruin of his coun- 
 try, and conspired with many of the most illus- 
 trious of the Romans, as dissolute as himself, to 
 extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and 
 set Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely 
 discovered by the consul Cicero, whom he had 
 resolved to murder ; and Catiline, after he had 
 declared his intentions in the full senate, and 
 attempted to vindicate himself, on seeing five of 
 his accomplices arrested, retired to Gaul, where 
 his partisans were assembling an army ; while 
 Cicero at Rome punished the condemned con- 
 ■ spirators. Petreius, the other consul's lieutenant, 
 attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined troops, and 
 routed them. Catiline was killed in the engage- 
 ment, bravely fighting, about the middle of De- 
 cember, B. C. 63. To violence ofiered to a 
 vestal, he added the murder of his own brother, 
 for which he would have suffered death, had 
 not friends and bribes prevailed over justice. It 
 has been reported that Catiline and the other 
 conspirators drank human blood, to make their 
 oaths more firm and inviolable. Sallust has 
 written an account of the conspiracy, Cic. in 
 Catil.— Virg. JEn. 8, v. 668. 
 
 Catius, (M.) .1. an Epicurean philosopher of 
 Insubria, who wrote a treatise, in four books, on 
 the nature of things, and the summum bonum, 
 and an account of the doctrine and tenets of 
 Epicurus. But as he was not a sound or faith- 
 ful follower of the Epicurean philosophy, he has 
 been ridiculed by Horat. 2, Sat. 4. — Quintil. 10, 
 
 c. 1. II, Vestinus, a military tribune in M. 
 
 Antony's army. Cic. Div. c. 10, 23. 
 
 Cato, I. a surname of the Poreian family, ren- 
 dered illustrious by M. Porcius Cato, a celebrat- 
 ed Roman, afterwards called Censorius, from 
 
 his having exercised the office of censor. He 
 rose to all the honours of the state ; and the first 
 battle he ever saw was against Annibal, at the 
 age of seventeen, where he behaved with un- 
 common valour. In his quaestorship under Afri- 
 canus against Carthage, and in his expedition in 
 Spain against the Celtiberians, and in Greece, 
 he displayed equal proofs of his courage and 
 prudence. He was remarkable for his love of 
 temperance ; he never drank but water, and was 
 always satisfied with whatever meats were laid 
 upon his table by his servants, whom he never 
 reproved withan angry word. He is famous 
 for the great opposition which he made to the 
 introduction of the finer arts of Greece into Italy ; 
 and he often observed to his son, that the Ro- 
 mans would be certainly ruined whenever they 
 began to be infected with Greek. It appears, 
 however, that he changed his opinion, and made 
 himself remarkable for the knowledge of Greek 
 which he acquired in his old age. He was 
 universally deemed so strict in his morals, that 
 Virgil makes him one of the judges of hell. He 
 repented only of three things during his life : 
 to have gone by sea when he could go by land, 
 to have passed a day inactive, and to have told 
 a secret to his wife. In Cicero's age there were 
 150 orations of his, besides letters, and a cele- 
 brated work called Origines, of which the first 
 book gave a history of the Roman menarchy; 
 the second and third, an account of the neigh- 
 bouring cities of Italy; the fourth, a detail of 
 the first, and the fifth of the second Punic war ; 
 and, in the others, the Roman history was 
 brought down to the war of the Lusitanians, 
 carried on by Ser. Galba. Some fragments of 
 the Origines remain, supposed by some to be 
 supposititious. Cato's treatise, De Re rusiicd, 
 was edited by Aufon. Pompna, 8vo. Ant. Plant. 
 1590 ; but the best edition of Cato, &c. seems 
 to be Gesner's, 2 vols, 4to. Lips. 1735. Cato 
 died in an extreme old age, about 150 B. C; 
 and Cicero, to show his respect for him, has 
 introduced him in his treatise on old age as the 
 principal character, Plin. 7, c. 14. — Plutarch 
 & C. Nepos have written an account of his life. 
 
 Cic. Acad. <^ de Senect. &c. II. Marcus, the 
 
 son of the censor, married the daughter of P. 
 ^mylius. He lost his sword in a battle, and, 
 though wounded and tired, he went to his friends 
 and with their assistance renewed the battle, 
 
 and recovered his sword. Pint, in Cat. III. 
 
 A courageous Roman, grandfather to Cato the 
 censor. He had five horses killed under him in 
 battles. Plut. in Cat: IV. Valerius, a gram- 
 marian of Gallia Norbonensis, in the time of 
 Sylla, who instructed at Rome many noble pu- 
 pils, and wrote some poems. Ovid. 2, Trist. 
 
 1, V. 436. V. Marcus, surnamed Uticensis 
 
 from his death at Utica, was great grandson to 
 the censor of the same name. The early virtues 
 that appeared in his childhood seemed to prom- 
 ise a great man ; and, at the age of fourteen, he 
 earnestly asked his preceptor for a sword to stab 
 the tyrant Sylla. He was austere in his morals, 
 and a strict follower of the tenets of the stoics ; 
 he was careless of his dress, often appeared bare- 
 footed in public, and never travelled but on foot. 
 When he was set over the troops in the capacity 
 of a commander, his removal was universally 
 lamented, and deemed almost a public loss by 
 his affectionate soldiers. His fondness for can- 
 391 
 
CA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CA 
 
 dour was so great, that the veracity of Cato be- 
 came proverbial; In his visits to his friends, he 
 wished to give as little molestation as possible ; 
 and the importuning civilities of king Dejotarus 
 so displeased him, when he was at his court, that 
 he hastened away from his presence. He was 
 very jealous of the safety and liberty of ihe re- 
 public, and watched carefully over the conduct 
 of Pompey, whose power and influence were 
 great. He often expressed his dislike to serve 
 the office of a tribune ; but when he saw a man 
 of corrupted principles apply for it, he offered 
 himself a candidate to oppose him, and obtain- 
 ed the tribuneship. In the conspiracy of Cati- 
 line he supported Cicero, and was the chief 
 cause that the conspirators were capitally pun- 
 ished. When the provinces of Gaul were de- 
 creed foi' live years to Caesar, Cato observed to 
 the senators that they had introduced a tyrant 
 into the capitol. He was sent to Cyprus against 
 Ptolemy, who had rebelled, by his enemies, who 
 hoped that the difficulty of the expedition would 
 injure his reputation. But his prudence extri- 
 cated him from every danger. Ptolemy submit- 
 ted, and, after a successful campaign, Cato was 
 received at Rome with the most distinguishing 
 honours, which he, however, modestly declined. 
 When the first triumvirate was formed between 
 Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, Cato opposed 
 them with all his might ; and with an independ- 
 ent spirit foretold to the Roman people all the 
 misfortunes which soon after followed. After 
 repeated applications he was made praetor, but 
 he seemed rather to disgrace than support the 
 dignity of that office by the meanness of his 
 dress. He applied for the consulship, but could 
 never obtain it. When Caesar had passed the 
 Rubicon, Cato advised the Roman senate to de- 
 liver the care of the republic into the hands of 
 Pompey ; and when his advice had been com- 
 plied with, he followed him with his son toDyr- 
 rachium, where, after a small victory there, he 
 was intrusted with the care of the ammunition 
 and 15 cohorts. After the battle of Pharsalia, 
 Cato took the command of the Corcyrean fleet ; 
 and when he heard of Pompey's death, on the 
 coast of Africa, he traversed the deserts of 
 Libya to join himself to Scipio. He refused to 
 take the command of the army in Africa, a cir- 
 cumstance of which he afterwards repented. 
 When Scipio had been defeated, partly for not 
 paying regard to Cato's advice, Cato'fortified 
 himself in Utica ; but, however, not with the 
 intention of supportmg a siege. When Caesar 
 approached near the city, Cato disdained to fly ; 
 and rather than fall alive into the conqueror's 
 hands, he stabbed himself, after he had read 
 Plato's treatise on the immortality of the soul, 
 B. C. 46, in the 59th year of his age. He had 
 first married Attilia, a woman whose licentious 
 conduct obliged him to divorce her. Afterwards 
 he united himself to Martia, daughter of Philip. 
 Hortensius, his friend, wished to raise children 
 byMartia, and therefore obtained her from Cato. 
 After the death of Hortensius, Cato took her 
 again. This conduct was ridiculed by the Ro- 
 mans, who observed that Martia had entered the 
 house of Hortensius very poor, but returned to 
 the bed of Cato loaded with treasures. It was 
 observed that Cato always appeared in mourn- 
 ing, and never laid down at his meals since the 
 defeat of Pompey, but always sat down, contrary 
 39 « 
 
 to the custom of the Romans, as if depressed with 
 the recollection that the supporters of republican 
 liberty were decaying. Plutarch has written an 
 account of his life. iMcan. 1, v. 128, &c. — 
 Val. Max. 2, c 10.— Horat. 3, od. 21.— Fir^. 
 
 .E)i. 6, V. 841, 1. 8, V. 670. VI. A son of 
 
 Caio of Utica, who was killed in a battle after he 
 had acquired much honour, Plut. in Cat. Min. 
 Catullus, C. or Q,. Valerius, L was nearly 
 contemporary with Lucretius, having come into 
 the world a few years after him, and having 
 survived him but a short period. This ele- 
 gant poet was born of respectable parents, in 
 the territory of Verona, but whether at the town 
 so called, or on the peninsula of Sirmio, which 
 projects into the Lake Benacus, has been a sub- 
 ject of much controversy. The former opin- 
 ion has been maintained by Maffei and Bayle, 
 and the latter by Gyraldus, Schoell, Fuhrmann, 
 and most modern writers. The precise period, 
 as Avell as place, of the birth of Catullus, is a 
 topic of debate and uncertainty. According to 
 the Eusebian Chronicle, he was born in ^%Q, 
 but, according to other authorities, in 667 or 668. 
 With a view of improving his pecuniary cir- 
 cumstances, he adopted the usual Roman mode 
 of re-establishing a diminished fortune, and ac- 
 companied Caius Memmius, the celebrated pa- 
 tron of Lucretius, to Bithynia, when he was 
 appointed preetor of that province. His situa- 
 tion, however, was but little meliorated by this 
 expedition, and, in the course of it, he lost a be- 
 loved brother, who was long with him; and 
 whose death he has lamented in verses never 
 surpassed in delicacy or pathos. He came back 
 to Rome with a shattered constitution and a 
 lacerated heart. From the period of his return 
 to Italy till his decease, his time appears to have 
 been chiefly occupied with the prosecution of 
 licentious amours, in the capital or among the 
 solitudes of Sirmio. The Eusebian Chronicle 
 places his death in 696, and some writers fix it 
 in 705. It is evident, however, that he must 
 have survived at least till 708, as Cicero, in his 
 letters, talks of his verses against Caesar and 
 Mamurra as newly written, and first seen by 
 Caesar in that year. The distracted and un- 
 happy state of his country, and his disgust at 
 the treatment which he had received from Mem- 
 mius, were perhaps sufficient excuse for shun- 
 ning political employments ; but when we con- 
 sider his taste and genius, we cannot help re- 
 gretting that he was merely an idler and a de- 
 bauchee. His poems are chiefly employed in 
 the indulgence and commemoration of his vari- 
 ous passions. Ad Passerem Lesbia. — This ad- 
 dress of Catullus to the favourite sparrow of his 
 mistress, Lesbia, is well known, and has been 
 always celebrated as a model of grace and ele- 
 gance. In Nuptias Julia et Manlii. These 
 ave the three very celebrated epithalamiums of 
 Catullus. The first is in honour of the nuptials 
 of Julia and Manlius, who isgenerally supposed 
 to have been Aulus Manlius Torquatus, an in- 
 timate friend of the poet, and a descendant of 
 one ofthe most noble patrician families in Rome. 
 This poem has been entitled an epithalamiura 
 in most of the ancient editions, but Muretus 
 contends that this is an improper appellation, 
 and that it should be inscribed Carmen Nnp- 
 tiale. ' An epithalamium,' he says, * was sup- 
 posed to be sung by the virgins when the bride 
 
CA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CA 
 
 had retired to the nuptial chamber; whereas in 
 this poem an earlier part of the ceremony is cele- 
 brated and described.' Carmen Nuptiale. — 
 Some parts of this epithalamium have been 
 taken from Theocritus, particularly from his 
 eignteenth Idyl, where the Lacedaemonian 
 maids, companions of Helen, sing before the 
 bridal-chamber of Menelaus. Tiiis second nup- 
 tial hymn of Catullus may be regarded as a 
 continuation of the above poem, being also in 
 honour of the marriage of Manlius and Julia. 
 The stanzas of the former were supposed to 
 be sung or recited in the person of the poet, 
 who only exhorted the chorus of youths and 
 virgins to commence the nuptial strain. But 
 here these bands contend, in alternate verses ; 
 the maids descanting on the beauty and advan- 
 tages of a single life, and the lads on those of 
 marriage. The young men, companions of the 
 bridegroom, are supposed to have left him at 
 the rising of the evening star of love. The 
 maids who had accompanied the bride to her 
 husband's house, approached the youths who 
 had just left the bridegroom, and they commence 
 a very elegant contention concerning the merits 
 of the star, which the chorus of virgins is pleased 
 to characterize as a cruel planet. They are si- 
 lenced, however, by the youths hinting that they 
 are not such enemies to Hesper as they pretend 
 to be. Then the maids draw a beautiful, and, 
 with Catullus, a favourite comparison between 
 an unblemished virgin and a delicate flower in 
 a garden : — 
 
 * Utfios in septis secrefnis nascitur hortis, 
 Jgnotus pecori, nullo convulsus aratro, 
 Quern vudcent aurce, Jirnmt sol, edumt imber : 
 MuUi ilium piieri, muUcB optavere puellce. 
 Idem cum teuui carptus defioruit ungui, 
 Nulli ilium puen, nidlce optavere puellce. 
 Sic virgo dum intacta vian-et, turn cara suis ; sed 
 Cum castum amisib, polluto corpore^jlorem, 
 Nee piceris jucunda manei, nee cara puellis.'' 
 
 The greatest poets have not disdained to trans- 
 plant this exquisite flower of song. Perhaps 
 the most successful imitation is one by the 
 prince of the romantic bards of Italy, in the 
 first canto of his Orlando. De Ati. — The 
 story of Atis is one of the most mysterious 
 of the mythological emblems. The fable was 
 explained by Porphyry ; and the emperor Ju- 
 lian afterwards invented and published an alle- 
 gory of this mystic tale. According to them, 
 the voluntary emasculation of Atis was typical 
 of the revolution of the sun between the tropics, 
 or the separation of the human soul from vice 
 and error. In the literal acceptation in which 
 it is presented by Catullus, the fable seems an 
 unpromising and rather a peculiar subject for 
 poetry : indeed, there is no example of a similar 
 event being celebrated in verse, except the va- 
 rious poems on the fate of Abelard. It is like- 
 wise the only specimen we have in Latin of the 
 Galliambic measure; so called, because sung by 
 Galli, the effeminate votaries of Cybele. The 
 Romans, being a more sober and severe people 
 than the Greeks, gave less encouragement than 
 they to the celebration of the rites of Bacchus, 
 andhavepouredforthbutfewdithyrambic lines. 
 The genius of their language and of their usual 
 style of poetry, as Avell as their own practical 
 and imitative character, were unfavourable to 
 Part II.— 3 D 
 
 the composition of such bold, figurative, and dis- 
 cursive strains. They have lett no verses which 
 can be strictly called dithyrambic, except, per- 
 haps, the nineteenth ode of the second booK: of 
 Horace, and a chorus in the (Edipus of Seneca. 
 If not perfectly dithyrambic, the numbers of 
 the Atis of Catullus are, however, strongly ex- 
 pressive of distraction and enthusiasm. The 
 Yiolent bursts of passion are admirably aided by 
 the irresistible torrent of words, and by the ca- 
 dence of a measure powerfully denoting mental 
 agony and remorse. In this production, now 
 unexampled in every sense of the word, Catul- 
 lus is no longer the light agreeable poet, who 
 counted the kisses of his mistress, and called on 
 the Cupids to lament her sparrow. His ideas 
 are full of fire, and his language of wildness : 
 he pours forth his thoughts with an energy, ra- 
 pidity, and enthusiasm, so different from, his 
 usual tone, and, indeed, from that of all Latin 
 poets, that this production has been supposed to 
 be a translation from some ancient Greek dithy- 
 rambic, of which it breathes all the passions and 
 poetic phrensy. The employment of long com- 
 pound epithets, which constantly recur in the 
 Atis, is also a strong mark of imitation of the 
 Greek dithyrambics ; it being supposed that 
 such sonorous and new-invented words were 
 most befitting intoxication or religious enthu- 
 siasm. Anacreon, in his thirteenth oda, alludes 
 to the lamentations and transports of Atis, as 
 to a well-knowTi poetical tradition. Atis, it 
 appears from the poem of Catullus, was a beau- 
 tiful youth, probably of Greece, who, forsaking 
 his home and parents, sailed with a few com- 
 panions, to Phrygia, and having landed, hur- 
 ried to the grove consecrated to the great goddess 
 Cybele; there, struck with superstitious phren- 
 sy, he qualified himself for the service of that 
 divinity ; and, snatching the musical instru- 
 ments used in her worship, he. exhorted his com- 
 panions, who had followed his example, to as- 
 cend to the temple of Cybele. At this part of 
 the poem, we follow the new votary of the Phry- 
 gian goddess through all his wild traversing of 
 woods and mountains, till at length, having 
 reached the temple, Atis and his companions 
 drop asleep, exhausted by fatigue and mental 
 distraction. Being tranquillized in some mea- 
 sure by a night's repose, Atis becomes sensible 
 of the misery of his situation ; and, struck with 
 horror at his rash deed, he returns to the sea- 
 shore. There he cast his eyes, bathed in tears, 
 over the ocean homeward ; and comparing his 
 former happiness with his present wretched con- 
 dition, he pours forth a complaint unrivalled in 
 energy and pathos. Gibbon talks of the differ- 
 ent emotions produced by the transition of Atis 
 from the wildest enthusiasm to sober pathetic 
 complaint for his irretrievable loss ; but, in fact, 
 his complaint is not soberly pathetic — to which 
 the Galliambic measure would be little suited : 
 it is, on the contrary, the most impassioned ex- 
 pression of mental agony and bitter regret in 
 the wide compass of Roman literature. Epi- 
 thalamium Pelei et Thetidis. — This is the long- 
 est and most elaborate of the productions of 
 Catullus. It displays much accurate descrip- 
 tion, as well as pathetic and impassioned inci- 
 dent. Catullus was a Greek scholar, and all his 
 commentators seem determined that his best 
 poems should be considered as of Greek invent 
 393 
 
CA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CE 
 
 tion. I do not believe, however, that the whole 
 of this epithalamium was taken from anyone 
 poet of Greece, as the Coma Berenices v^zs from 
 Callimachus ; but the author undoubtedly bor- 
 rowed a great deal from various writers of that 
 country. The proper subject of this epithala- 
 mium is the festivals held in Thessaly in hon- 
 our of the nuptials of Peleus and Thetis; but 
 it is chiefly occupied with a long episode, con- 
 taining the story of Ariadne. De Coraa Bere- 
 nices, IS translated from a production of Calli- 
 machus, of which, only two distichs remain, 
 one preserved by Theon, a scholiast on Aratus, 
 and another in the Scholia on Apollonius Rho- 
 dius. The poem of Catullus has some faults, 
 which may be fairly attributed to his pedantic 
 model — a certain obscurity in point of diction, 
 and that ostentatious display of erudition, which 
 characterized the works of the Alexandrian 
 poets. The Greek original, however, being 
 lost, except two distichs, it is impossible to in- 
 stitute an accurate comparison ; but the Latin 
 appears to be considerably more diifuse than 
 the Greek. The Latin poem, like its Greek 
 original, is in elegiac verse, and is supposed to 
 be spoken by the constellation called Coma Be- 
 renices. It relates how Berenice, the queen and 
 sister of Ptolemy, (Euergetes,) vowed the con- 
 secration of her locks to the immortals, provid- 
 ed her husband was restored to her, safe and 
 successful, from a military expedition on which 
 he had proceeded against the Assyrians. The 
 king having returned according to her wish, 
 and her shorn locks having disappeared, it is 
 supposed, by one of those fictions which poetry 
 alone can admit, that Zephyrus, the son of Au- 
 rora, and brother of Memnon, had carried them 
 up to heaven, and thrown them into the lap of 
 Venus, by whom they were set in the sky, and 
 were soon afterwards discovered among the con- 
 stellations by Conon, a court astronomer. But 
 though the poem of Callimachus may have been 
 seriously written, and gravely read by the court 
 of Ptolemy, the lines of Catullus often ap- 
 proach to something like pleasantry or petrsi- 
 flage : and seem intended as a sort of mock- 
 heroic, and remind us strongly of the Rape of 
 the Lock. Much dispute has existed with re- 
 gard to the comparative merit of the epigram* 
 matic productions of Catullus, and those of 
 Martial, who sharpened the Latin epigram, and 
 endeavoured to surprise, by terminating an or- 
 dinary thought with some word or expression, 
 which formed a point. Of the three great tri- 
 umvirs of Latin literature, Joseph Scaliger, Lip- 
 sius, and Muretus, the last considers Catullus 
 as far superior to his successor, as the wit of a 
 gentleman to that of a scoffer and buffoon, while 
 the two former award the palm to Martial. 
 There can, I think, be no doubt, that as an epi- 
 grammatist, Martial is infinitely superior to 
 Catullus ; but it is not on his epigrams that the 
 fame of Catullus rests ; he owes his reputation 
 to about a dozen pieces, in which every word, 
 like a note of music, thrills on the heart-strings. 
 It is this felicitous selection of the most appro- 
 priate and melodious expressions, which seem 
 to flow from the heart without study or preme- 
 ditation, which has rendered him the most 
 
 graceful of poets. II, A man surnamed 
 
 Urhicarius. was a mimographer, Juv. 13, v. 
 111. 
 
 394 
 
 CaTULUS, d. LUCTATTDS, I, WCUt With 300 
 
 ships during the first Punic war against the Car- 
 thagmians, and destroyed 600 of their ships un- 
 der Hamilcar, near the iEgates. This celebrat- 
 ed victory put an end to the war. II. An 
 
 orator, distinguished also as a writer of epigrams, 
 and admired for the neatness, elegance, and 
 polished style of his compositions. He is sup- 
 posed to be the same as the colleague of Marins, 
 when a consul the fourth time ; and he shared 
 with him the triumph over the Cimbri. He was, 
 by his colleague's order, suffocated in a room 
 filled with the smoke of burning coals. Lucan. 
 
 2, V. 174. — Plut. in Mario. III. A Roman 
 
 sent by his countrymen to carry a present to 
 the god of Delphi, from the spoils taken from 
 Asdrubal. Liv. 27. 
 
 Cebe.?, a Theban philosopher, one of the dis- 
 ciples of Socrates, B. C. 405. He attended his 
 learned preceptor in his last moments, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by three dialogues that he 
 wrote ; but more particularly by his tables, which 
 contain a beautiful and affecting picture of hu- 
 man life, delineated with accuracy of judgment 
 and great splendour of sentiment. Little is 
 known of the character of Cebes from history. 
 Plato mentions him once, and Xenophon the 
 same ; but both in a manner which conveys most 
 fully the goodness of his heart and the purity 
 of his morals. The best editions of Cebes are 
 those of Gronovius, 8vo. 1689 ; and Glasgow, 
 12mo. 1747, 
 
 Cecinna, a. a Roman knight in the interest 
 of Pompey, who used to breed up young swal- 
 lows, and send them to carry news to his friends 
 as messengers. He was a particular friend of 
 Cicero, with whom he corresponded. Some of 
 his letters are still extant in Cicero. Plin. 10, 
 c. 24.— Cic. 15, ep. 66. Oral. 29. 
 
 Cecropid^, an ancient name of the Athe- 
 nians, more particularly applied to those who 
 were descended from Cecrops, the founder of 
 Athens. The honourable name of Cecropidae 
 was often conferred as a reward for some vir- 
 tuous action in the field of battle. Virg. JEn, 
 6, V. 21.— Ovid. 7, Met. 671. 
 
 Cecrops, I. a native of Sais in Egypt, who 
 led a colony to Attica, about 1556 years before 
 the Christian era, and reigned over part of the 
 country, which was called from him Cecropia. 
 He softened and polished the rude and uncul- 
 tivated manners of the inhabitants, and drew 
 them from the country to inhabit twelve small 
 villages which he had founded. He gave them 
 laws and regulations, and introduced among 
 them the worship of those deities which were 
 held in adoration in Egypt. He married the 
 daughter of Actaeus, a Grecian prince, and was 
 deemed the first founder of Athens. He taught 
 his subjects to cultivate the olive, and instructed 
 them to look upon Minerva as the watchful pa- 
 troness of their city. It is said that he was the 
 first who raised an altar to Jupiter in Greece, 
 and offered him sacrifices. After a reign of 
 50 years, spent in regulating his newly-formed 
 kingdom, and in polishing the minds of his sub- 
 jects, Cecrops died; leaving three daughters, 
 Aglaurus, Herse, and Pandrosos. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Cranaus, a native of the country. 
 Some time after, Theseus, one of his successors 
 on the throne, formed the twelve villages which 
 he had established into one city, to which the 
 
CE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CE 
 
 name of Athens was given. Vid. Athence. \ 
 Some authors have described Cecrops as a \ 
 monster, half a man and half a serpent ; and j 
 this fable is explained by the recollection that 
 he was master of two languages, the Greek and 
 Egyptian ; or that he had command over two 
 countries, Egypt and Greece. Others explain 
 it by an allusion to the regulations which Ce- 
 crops made amongst the inhabitants concerning 
 marriage and the union of the two sexes. Pans. 
 1, c. 5. — Strcib. 9. — Justin. 2, c. 6. — Herodot. 8, 
 c. U.—Apollod.^, c. U.—Ovid. Met. 11, v. 561. 
 
 — Hygin. fab. 166. II. The second of that 
 
 name was the seventh king of Athens, and the 
 son and successor of Erechtheus. He married 
 Metiadusa, the sister of Daedalus, by whom he 
 had Pandion. He reigned 40 years, and died 
 1307 B. C. Apollod. 3, c. \h.—Paus. 1, c. 5. 
 
 Celer, I. a man who, with Severus, under- 
 took to rebuild Nero's palace after the burning 
 
 of Rome. Tacit. Ann. 15, c. 42. II. A man 
 
 called Fabius, who killed Remus when he leaped 
 over the walls of Rome, by order of Romulus. 
 Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 837. — Plut. in Romul. 
 
 Celeres, 300 of the noblest and strongest 
 youths at Rome, chosen by Romulus to be his 
 body guards, to attend him wherever he went, 
 and to protect his person. The chief or captain 
 was called Tribunus Celerum. Liv. 1, c. 15. 
 
 Celsus, I. an Epicurean philosopher in the 
 second century, to whom Lucian dedicated one 
 of h is compositions. He wrote a treatise against 
 the Christians, to which an answer was re- 
 turned by Origen. II. Corn, a physician in 
 
 the age of Tiberius, who wrote eight books on 
 medicine, besides treatises on agriculture, rheto- 
 ric, and military affairs. The best editions of 
 Celsus de medicina are the 8vo. L. Bat. 1746, 
 and that of Vallart, 12mo. Paris apud Didot, 
 
 1772. III. Albinovanus, a friend of Horace, 
 
 warned against plagiarism, 1, ep. 3, v. 15, and 
 pleasantly ridiculed in the eighth epistle for his 
 foibles. Some of his elegies have been pre- 
 served. IV. Juventius, a lawyer, who con- 
 spired against Domitian. V. Titus, a man 
 
 proclaimed emperor, A. D. 265, against his 
 will, and murdered seven days after. 
 
 Censores, two magistrates of great authority 
 at Rome, first created B. C. 443. Their office 
 was to number the people, estimate the posses- 
 sions of every citizen, reform and watch over the 
 manners of the people, and regulate the taxes. 
 Their power was also extended over private 
 families ; they punished irregul arity , and inspec t- 
 ed the management and education of the Ro- 
 man youth. They could inquire into the expenses 
 of every citizen, and even degrade a senator from 
 all his privileges and honours, if guilty of any 
 extravagance. This punishment was generally 
 executed in passing over the offender's name in 
 calling the list of the senators. The office of 
 public censor was originally exercised by the 
 kings. S^rvius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome, 
 first established a census, by which every man 
 was obliged to come to be registered, and give 
 in writing the place of his residence, his name, 
 his quality, the number of his children, of his 
 tenants, estates, and domestics, &c. The ends 
 of the census were very salutary to the Roman 
 republic. They knew their own strength, their 
 ability to support a war, or to make a levy of 
 troops, or raise a tribute. It was required that 
 
 every knight should be possessed of 400,000 ses- 
 terces, to enjoy the rights and privileges of his 
 order ; and a senator was entitled to sit in the 
 senate, if he was really worth 800,000 sesterces. 
 This laborious task of numbering and reviewing 
 the people was, after the expulsion of the Tar- 
 quins, one of the duties and privileges of the 
 consuls. But when the republic was become 
 more powerful, and when the number of its citi- 
 zens was increased, the consuls were found un- 
 able to make the census, on account of the mul- 
 tiplicity of business. After it had been neglected 
 for 16 years, two new magistrates, called cen- 
 sors, were elected. They remained in office for 
 five years, and every fifth year they made a cen- 
 sus of all the citizens in the Campus Martius, 
 and offered a solemn sacrifice, and made a lustra- 
 tion in the name of all the Roman people. This 
 space of time was called a lustrum, and ten or 
 twenty years were commonly expressed by two 
 or four lustra. After the office of censors had re- 
 mained for some time unaltered, the Romans, 
 jealous of their power, abridged the duration 
 of their office; and a law was made, A. U. C. 
 420, by Mamercus iEmilius, to limit the time 
 of the censorship to 18 mouths. After the sec- 
 ond Punic war, they were always chosen 
 from such persons as nad been consuls; their 
 office was more honourable, though less pow- 
 erful, than that of the consuls ; the badges of 
 their office were the same, but the censors 
 were not allowed to have lictorsto walk before 
 them as the consuls. When one of the cen- 
 sors died, no one was elected in his room till 
 the five years were expired, and his colleague 
 immediately resigned. This circumstance ori- 
 ginated from the death of a censor before the 
 sack of Rome by Brennus, and was ever afler 
 deemed an unfortunate event to the republic. 
 The emperors abolished the censors, and took 
 upon themselves to execute their office. 
 
 Censorinus, I. (Ap. CI.) was compelled, af- 
 ter many services to the state, to assume the 
 imperial purple by the soldiers, by whom he was 
 
 murdered some days after, A. D. 270. II. 
 
 A grammarian of the 3d century, whose book, 
 De die natali, is extant, best edited in 8vo. by 
 Havercamp, L. Bat. 1767. It treats of the birth 
 of man, of years, months, and days. 
 
 Census, the numbering of the people of Rome, 
 performed by the censors, a censeo, to value. 
 
 Vid. Censores. A god worshipped at Rome, 
 
 the same as Consus. 
 
 Centumviri, the members of a court of jus- 
 tice at Rome. They were originally chosen, 
 three from the 35 tribes of the people, and, 
 though 105, they were always called Centum- 
 virs. They were afterwards increased to the 
 number of 180, and still kept their original 
 name. The praetor sent to their tribunal causes 
 of the greatest importance, as their knowledge 
 of the law was extensive. They were generally 
 summoned by the Decemviri, who seemed to be 
 the chiefest among them ; and they assembled 
 in the Basilica, or public court, and had their 
 tribunal distinguished by a spear with an iron 
 head ; whence a decree of their court was called 
 Hastes judicium ; their sentences were very 
 impartial, and without appeal. Cic. de Oral. 1, 
 c. 38.— Qwm^tZ. 4, 5, and 11. — Plin. 6. ep. 33. 
 
 Centijria, a division of the people among 
 the Romans, consisting of a hundred. The Ro- 
 395 
 
CE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CH 
 
 man people were originally divided into three 
 tribes, and each tribe into 10 curiee. Servius 
 Tullius made a census: and when he had the 
 place of habitation, name, and profession of 
 every citizen, which amounted to 80,000 men, 
 all able to bear arms, he divided them into six 
 classes, and each class into several centuries or 
 companies of a hundred men. The first class 
 consisted of 80 centuries, 40 of which were com- 
 posed of men from the age of 45 and upwards, 
 appointed to guard the city. The 40 others 
 were young men from 17 to 45 years of age, 
 appointed to go to war, and fight the enemies of 
 Rome. They were to be worth 1,100,000 «sses, 
 a sum equivalent to 1800 pounds English money. 
 The second, third, and fourth classes, consisted 
 each of twenty centuries, ten of which were 
 composed of the more aged, and the others of 
 the younger sort of people. They were to be 
 worth, in the second class, 75,000 asses, or about 
 1211. In the third, 50,000, about 801. ; and in 
 the fourth, 25,000, or about 40Z. The fifth class 
 consisted of 30 centuries, three of which were 
 carpenters by trade, and the others of diflerent 
 professions, such as were necessary in a camp. 
 They were to be worth 11,000 asses, or about 
 18^. The sixth class contained only one cen- 
 turia, comprising the whole body of the poorest 
 citizens, who were called Proletarii, as their 
 only service to the state was procreating chil- 
 dren. They were also called capite censi, as the 
 censor took notice of their person , not of their es- 
 tate. In the public assemblies in the Campus 
 Martins, at the election of public magistrates, 
 or at the trial of capital crimes, the people gave 
 their vote by centuries ; whence the assembly 
 was called comitia cetduriafa. In these public 
 assemblies, which were never convened only by 
 the consuls at the permission of the senate, or 
 by the dictator, in the absence of the consuls, 
 some of the people appeared under arms for fear 
 of an^attack from some foreign enemy. When 
 a law was proposed in the public assemblies, its 
 advantages were enlarged upon in a harangue; 
 after which it was exposed in the most con- 
 spicuous parts of the city three market-days, that 
 the people might see and consider. Exposing 
 it to public view, was called proponere legem, 
 and explaining it, promulgare legem.. He who 
 merely proposed it, was called lator legis ; and 
 he who dwelt upon its importance and utility, 
 and wished it to be enforced, was called auctor 
 legis. When the assembly was to be held, the 
 auguries were consulted by the consul, who, af- 
 ter haranguing the people, and reminding them 
 to have in view the good of the republic, dis- 
 missed them to their respective centuries, that 
 their votes might be gathered. They gave their 
 votes fi-yd voce, till the year of Rome A. U. C. 
 615, when they changed the custom, and gave 
 their approbation or disapprobation by ballots 
 thrown into an urn. If the first class was 
 unanimous, the others were not consulted, as the 
 first was superior to all the others in number ; 
 but if they were not unanimous, they proceeded 
 to consult the rest, and the majority decided the 
 question. This advantage of the first class gave 
 offence to the rest, and it was afterwards settled 
 that one class of the six should be drawn by lot, 
 to give its votes first, without regard to rank or 
 priority. After all the votes had been gathered, 
 the consul declared aloud, that the law which 
 396 
 
 had been proposed was duly and constitutionally 
 approved. The same ceremonies were observed 
 in the election of consuls, proetors, &c. The 
 word Centuria is also applied to a subdivision 
 of one of the Roman legions, which consisted of 
 a himdred men, and was the half of a manipu- 
 lus, the sixth part of a cohort, and the sixtieth 
 part of a legion. The commander of a centuria 
 was called centurion, and he was distinguished 
 from the rest by the branch of a vine which he 
 carried in his hand. 
 
 Cephalon, a Greek of louia, who wrote a 
 history of Troy, besides an epitome of univer- 
 sal history from the age of Ninus to Alexander, 
 which he divided into nine books, inscribed with 
 the name of the nine muses. He affected not 
 to know the place of his birth, expecting it 
 would be disputed like Homer's. He lived in 
 the reign of Adrian. 
 
 Cephalus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 CEPfflsiDORUs, I. a tragic poet of Athens in 
 
 the age of jEschylus. II. An historian who 
 
 wrote an account of the Phocian war. 
 
 Cehcops, a Milesian, author of a fabulous 
 history, mentioned by Athenaeus. 
 
 Cerealia, festivals in honour of "Ceres ; first 
 instituted at Rome by Memmius the edile, and 
 celebrated on the 19th of April. Persons in 
 mourning were not permitted to appear at the 
 celebration; therefore they were not observed 
 after the battle of Cannae. They are the same 
 as the Thesmophoria of the Greeks. Vid, 
 Thesmophoria. 
 
 Cestius, an Epicurean of Smyrna, who taught 
 rhetoric at Rhodes, in the age of Cicero. 
 
 Cethegus, the surname of one of the branch- 
 es of the Cornelii. 1. Marcus, a consul in 
 
 the second Punic war. Cic. in Brut. — '■ — II. 
 A tribune at Rome of the most corrupted 
 morals, who joined Catiline in his conspiracy 
 against the state, and was commissioned to 
 murder Cicero. He was apprehended, and, 
 with Lentulus, put to death by the Roman 
 
 senate. Ptut. in Cic. <^c. III. P. Corn, a 
 
 powerful Roman, who embraced the parly of 
 Marius against Sylla. His mistress had ob- 
 tained such an ascendency over him, that she 
 distributed his favours, and Lucullus was not 
 ashamed to court her smiles when he wished 
 to be appointed general against Mithridates. 
 
 Ceyx. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Chabrias, an Athenian general and philoso- 
 pher, who chiefly signalized himself when he 
 assisted the Boeotians against Agesilaus. In 
 this celebrated campaign he ordered his soldiers 
 to put one knee on the ground, and firmly to 
 rest their spears upon the other, and cover them- 
 selves with their shields, by which means he 
 daunted the enemy and had a statue raised to 
 his honour in that same posture. He assisted 
 also Nectanebus, king of Egjrpt, and conquered 
 the whole island of Cyprus : but he at last fell 
 a sacrifice to his excessive courage, and despised 
 to fly from his ship when he had it in his pow- 
 er to save his life like his companions, B. C; 
 376. C. Nep. in vitd.—Diod. l&.—Phtt. in Phoc. 
 
 Chjereas, an officer who murdered Caligu- 
 la, A. D. 41, to prevent the infamous death 
 which was prepared against himself. _ 
 
 CH.aEREM0N, I. a comic poet, and disciple of 
 
 Socrates. 11. A stoic, who wrote on the 
 
 Egyptian priests. 
 
CH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CH 
 
 Ch^rephon, a tragic poet of Athens in the 
 age of Philip of Macedonia. 
 
 Char^adas, an Athenian general, sent with 
 20 ships to Sicily during the Peloponnesian 
 war. He died 426 B. C. &c. Thucyd. 3, 
 c. 86. 
 
 Charax, a philosopher of Pergamus, who 
 wrote a history of Greece in 40 books. 
 
 Charaxes, and Charaxus, a Mitylenean, 
 brother to Sappho, who became passionately 
 fond of Rhodope, upon whom he squandered all 
 his possessions, and reduced himself to poverty 
 and the necessity of piratical excursions. Ovid. 
 Her old, 15, v. 111.— Her odot. 2, c. 135, &c. 
 
 Chares, I. a statuary of Lindus, who was 12 
 yeai's employed in making the famous Colossus 
 
 at Rhodes. Plin. 34, c. 7. II. An historian 
 
 of Mitylene, who wrote a life of Alexander. 
 
 Charicles, one of the 30 tyrants set over 
 Athens by the Lacedaemonians. Xenoph. Me- 
 mo/: 1. — Arist. Polit. 5, c. 6. II. A famous 
 
 physician under Tiberius. Tacit. Ann. 6, c. 50. 
 
 Charila, a festival observed once in nine 
 years by the Delphians. It owes its origin to 
 this circumstance. In a great famine the peo- 
 ple of Delphi assembled and applied to their 
 king to relieve their wants. He accordingly 
 distributed a little corn he had among the no- 
 blest ; but as a poor little girl, called Charila, 
 begged the king with more than common ear- 
 nestness, he beat her with his shoe, and the girl, 
 unable to bear his treatment, hanged herself in 
 her girdle. The famine increased; and the ora- 
 cle told the king, that to relieve his people he 
 must atone for the murder of Charila. Upon 
 this, a festival was instituted with expiatory 
 rites. The king presided over this institution, 
 and distributed pulse and corn to such as attend- 
 ed. Charila's image was brought before the 
 king, who struck it with his shoe; after which, 
 it was carried to a desolate place, where they 
 put a halter round its neck, and buried it where 
 Charila was buried. Plut. in Qucest. Grcec. 
 
 Chyrilaus, and Charillus, a son of Poly- 
 dectes, king of Sparta, educated and protected 
 by his uncle Lycurgus. He made war against 
 Argos and attacked Tegea. He was taken 
 prisoner, and released on promise that he would 
 cease from war, an engagement he soon broke. 
 He died in the 64th year of his age. Pans. 2, 
 36, 1. 6, c. 48. 
 
 Charisia, a festival in honour of the Graces, 
 with dances which continued all night. He who 
 continued awake the longest was rewarded with 
 a cake. 
 
 Charistia, festivals at Rome, celebrated on 
 the 20th of February, by the distribution of mu- 
 tual presents, with the intention of reconciling 
 friends and relations. Val. Max. 2, c. 1. — Ovid. 
 Fast. 1. 
 
 Chariton, a writer of Aphrodisium, at the 
 latter end of the fourth century. He composed 
 a Greek romance, called, The Loves of Chcereas 
 o,nd Callirrhoe, which has been much admired 
 for its elegance, and the originality of the char- 
 acters it describes. There is a very learned 
 edition of Chariton, by Reiske, with D'Orville's 
 notes, 2 vols. 4to. Arast. 1750. 
 
 Charmides, a philosopher of the third acad- 
 emy, B. C. 95. 
 
 Charms, a physician of Marseilles in Nero's 
 age, who used cold baths for his patients, and 
 
 prescribed medicines contrary to those of his 
 contemporaries. Plin. 21, c. 1. 
 
 Charmus, a poet of Syracuse, some of whose 
 fragments are found scattered in Athenaeus. 
 
 Charon, I. a Theban, who received into his 
 house Pelopidas and his friends, when they de- 
 livered Thebes from tyranny, &c. Plut. in Pe- 
 
 lop. II. An historian of Lampsacus, son of 
 
 JPytheus, who wrote two books on Persia, be- 
 sides other treatises, B. C. 479. III. An his- 
 torian of Naucratis, who wrote a history of 
 his country and Egy^it. 
 
 Charondas, a man of Catana, who gave laws 
 to the people of Thurium, and made a law that 
 no man should be permitted to come armed into 
 the assembly. He inadvertently broke this law, 
 and when told of it, he fell upon his sword, B. C. 
 446. Val. Max. 6, c. 5. 
 
 Charops, and Charopes, I. a powerful Epi- 
 rot, who assisted Flaminius when making war 
 against Philip, the king of Macedonia. Plut. 
 
 in Flam. II. The first decennial archon at 
 
 Athens. Pater c. 1, c. 8. 
 
 CHELiE, a Greek word, (x'?^'?)) signifying 
 claws^ which is applied to the Scorpion, one of 
 the signs of the zodiac, and lies, according to 
 the ancients, contiguous to Virgo. Virg. G. 1, 
 V. 33. 
 
 Chelidonia, a festival at Rhodes, in which 
 it was customary for boys to go begging from 
 door to door, and singing certam songs, &c. 
 
 Aiken. The wind Favonius was called also 
 
 Chelidonia., from the 6th of the ides of Februa- 
 ry to the 7th of the calends of March, the 
 time when swallows first made their appear- 
 ance. Plin. 2, c. 47. 
 
 Chelonis, a daughter of Leonidas, king of 
 Sparta, who married Cleombrotus. She accom- 
 panied her father, whom her husband had ex- 
 pelled, and soon after went into banishment 
 with her husband, who had in his turn been ex- 
 pelled by Leonidas. Plut. in Agid. <^ Cleom. 
 
 Cheops, and Cheospes, a king of Egypt after 
 Rhampsinitus, who built famous pyramids, 
 upon which 1060 talents were expended only 
 in supplying the workmen with leeks, parsley, 
 garlick, and other vegetables. Herodot. 2, c. 
 124. 
 
 Chepheren, a brother of Cheops, who also 
 built a pyramid. The Egyptians so inveterate- 
 ly hated these two royal brothers, that they pub- 
 licly reported that the pyramids which they had 
 built had been erected by a shepherd. Herodot. 
 2, c. 127. 
 
 Cherisophus, a commander of 800 Spartans, 
 in the expedition which Cyrus undertook against 
 his brother Artaxerxes. Diod. 14. 
 
 Chilo, a Spartan philosopher, who has been 
 called one of the seven wise men of Greece. 
 Plin. 7, c. 33.—Laert. 
 
 Chionides, was the first comic writer among 
 the Athenians. His representations date from 
 Olymp. 73d. 2, B. C. 487. The names of 
 three of his comedies are recorded : — ' Upms, 
 nepc-ai i] 'Affavpioi, and IlTco'x^oi. The two lat- 
 ter do not apparently bear any reference to 
 mythology, and therefore it is probable that 
 comedy was beginning to adopt subjects of a 
 different nature ; or rather, that the Attic come- 
 dy did, from its earliest times, incline, as in the 
 days of Aristophanes, to personality and satire. 
 
 Chilorus, (Constantine,^ one of the C^ssars, 
 397 
 
CI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CI 
 
 in Diocletian's age who reigned two years after 
 the emperor's abdication, and died July 25, A. 
 D. 306. 
 
 Chcerilus, I. a tragic poet of Athens, who 
 wrote many tragedies, of which 13 obtained the 
 prize. The dramas of Chcerilus appear origi- 
 nally to have been of a satiric character, like 
 those of Thespis. In his later days he natural- 
 ly copied the improvements of Phrynichus, and 
 we find him accordingly contending for the 
 tragic prizes against Phrynichus, Pratinas, and 
 ^schylus, Olymp. 70th, B. C. 499 ; the time 
 when iEschylus first exhibited. His pieces are 
 said to have amounted to a hundred and fifty : 
 not a fragment however remains ; and, if we 
 may trust Hermeas and Proclus, the commen- 
 tators on Plato, the loss is not very great. 
 
 IL An historian of Samos. Two other poets, 
 
 one of whom was very intimate with Herodotus. 
 He wrote a poem on the victory which the 
 Athenians had obtained over Xerxes, and, on 
 account of the excellence of the composition, 
 he received a piece of gold for each verse from 
 the Athenians, and was publicly ranked with 
 Homer as a poet. The other was one of Alex- 
 ander's flatterers and friends. It is said the 
 prince promised him as many pieces of gold as 
 there should be good verses in his poetry, and 
 as many slaps on his forehead as there were bad ; 
 and in consequence of this, scarce six of his 
 verses in each poem were entitled to gold, while 
 the rest were rewarded with the castigation. 
 Plut. in Alex. — Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. 232. 
 Chonnidas. Vid. Part III. 
 Chromius, an Argive, who, alone with Alce- 
 nor, survived a battle between 300 of his coun- 
 trymen and 300 Spartans. Herodot. 1, c. 62. 
 
 Chrtsanthios, a philosopher in the age of 
 Julian, known for the great number of volumes 
 he wrote. 
 
 Chrysermus, a Corinthian; who wrote a 
 history of Peloponnesus, and of India, besides 
 a treatise on rivers. Plut. in Parall. 
 
 Chrysippus, a stoic philosopher of Tarsus, 
 who wrote about 311 treatises. Among his cu- 
 rious opinions was his approbation of a parent's 
 marriage with his child, and his wish that dead 
 bodies should be eaten rather than buried. He 
 died through excess of wine, or, as others say, 
 from laughing too much on seeing an ass eating 
 figs on a silver plate, 207, B. C. in the 80th 5'-ear 
 of his age. Vol. Max. 8, c. 7. — Diod. — Horat. 
 2. Sat. 3, V. 40. 
 
 Chrysostom, a bishop of Constantinople, 
 who died A. D. 407, in his 53d year. He was 
 a great disciplinarian, and by severely lashing 
 the vices of his age, he procured himself many 
 enemies. He was banished for opposing the 
 raising a statue to the empress, after having dis- 
 played his abilities as an elegant preacher, a 
 sound theologian, and a faithful interpreter of 
 Scripture. Chrysostom's works were nobly and 
 correctly edited, without a Latin version, by Sa- 
 ville, 8 vols. fol. Etonae. 1613. They have ap- 
 peared with a translation, at Paris, edit. Bene- 
 dict. Montfaucon, 13 vols. fol. 1718. 
 
 Cicero, M. T. born at Arpinum, was son of 
 a Roman knight, and lineally descended from 
 the ancient kings of the Sabines. His mother's 
 name was Helvia. After displaying many pro- 
 mising abilities at school, he was taught philo- 
 sophy at Piso, and law by Mntius Scaevola. 
 398 
 
 [ The vehemence with which he had attacked 
 ) Clodius proved injurious to him ; and when his 
 enemy was made tribune, Cicero was banished 
 from Rome, though 20,000 young men were 
 supporters of his innocence. After sixteen 
 months absence, he entered Rome with univer- 
 sal satisfaction, and when he was sent, with the 
 power of proconsul, to Cilicia, his integrity and 
 prudence made him successful against the ene- 
 my, and at his return he was honoured with a 
 triumph, which the factions prevented him to 
 enjcry. After much hesitation during the civil 
 commotions between Ctesar and Pompey, he 
 joined himself to- the latter, and followed him 
 to Greece. When victory had declared in fa- 
 vour of Caesar, at the battle of Pharsalia, Cicero 
 went to Brundusium, and was reconciled to the 
 conqueror,who treated him with great humanity. 
 From this lime Cicero retired into the country, 
 and seldom visited Rome. When Caesar had 
 been stabbed in the senate, Cicero recommended 
 a general amnesty, and was the most earnest to 
 decree the provinces to Brutus and Cassius. 
 But when he saw the interest of Caesar's mur- 
 derers decrease, and Antony come into power, 
 he retired to Athens. He soon after returned, 
 but lived in perpetual fear of assassination. 
 Augustus courted the approbation of Cicero, 
 and expressed his wish to be his colleague in 
 the consulship. But his wish was not sincere ; 
 he soon forgot his former professions of friend- 
 ship; and when the two consuls had been kill- 
 ed at Mutina, Augustus joined his interest to 
 that of Antony, and the triumvirate was soon 
 after formed. The great enmity which Cicero 
 bore to Antony was fatal to him ; and Augus- 
 tus, Antony, and Lepidus, the triumvirs, to de- 
 stroy all cause of quarrel, and each to despatch 
 his enemies, produced their list of proscription. 
 About two hundred were doomed to death, and 
 Cicero was among the number upon the list of 
 Antony, Augustus yielded a man to whom 
 he partly owed his greatness, and Cicero was 
 pursued by the emissaries of Antony, among 
 whom was Popilius, whom he had defended 
 upon an accusation of parricide. He had fled 
 in a litter towards the sea of Caieta, and when 
 the assassins came up to him, he put his head 
 out of the litter, and it was severed from the 
 body by Herennius. This memorable event 
 happened in December, 43 B. C. after the en- 
 joyment of life for 63 years, 11 months, and 
 5 days. The head and the right hand of the 
 orator were carried to Rome, and hung up in 
 the Roman forum ; and Fulvia, the triumvir's 
 wife, drew the tongue out of the mouth, and 
 bored it through repeatedly with a gold bodkin, 
 verifying, in this act of inhumanity, what Ci- 
 cero had once observed, that no animal is more 
 revengeful than a woman. Cicero has acquir- 
 ed more real fame by his literary compositions 
 than by his spirited exertions as a Roman sena- 
 tor. The first oration which Cicero pronounced, 
 at least of those which are extant, was delivered 
 in presenceof four judges appointed by the prae- 
 tor, and with Hortensius for his opponent. It 
 was in the case of Cluintius, which was pleaded 
 in the year 672, when Cicero was 26 years of 
 age, at which time he came to the bar much 
 later than was usual, after having studied civil 
 law under Mucins Scaevola, and having further 
 qualified himself for the exercise of his profes- 
 
CI 
 
 HISTORY, &Q. 
 
 CI 
 
 sion by the study of polite literature under the 
 poet Archias, as also of philosophy under the 
 principal teachers of each sect who had resorted 
 to Rome. This case was undertaken by Cicero, 
 at the request of the celebrated comedian Ros- 
 cius, the brother-in-law of Cluintius : but it was 
 not of a nature well adapted to call forth or dis- 
 play any of the higher powers of eloquence. 
 In the year following that in which he pleaded 
 the CEise of Cluintius, Cicero undertook the de- 
 fence of Roscius of Ameria, which was the first 
 public or criminal trial in which he spoke. The 
 father of Roscius had two mortal enemies, of 
 his own name and district. During the proscrip- 
 tions of Sylla, he was assassinated one evening 
 at Rome, while returning home from supper ; 
 and, on pretexi that he was in the list proscribed, 
 his estate was purchased for a mere nominal 
 price by Chrysogonus,a favourite slave, to whom 
 Sylla had given freedoiu, and whom he had per- 
 mitted to buy the property of Roscius as a for- 
 feiture. Part of the valuable lands thus acquir- 
 ed, were made over by Chrysogonus to the R,os- 
 cii. The case seems to have been pleaded with 
 much animation and spirit, but the oration was 
 rather too much in that florid Asiatic taste, 
 which Cicero at this time had probably adopted 
 from imitation of Hortensius, who was consi- 
 dered as the most perfect model of eloquence in 
 the Forum ; and hence the celebrated passage 
 on the punishment of parricide (which consisted 
 in throwing the criminal, tied up in a sack, into 
 a river) was condemned by the severer taste of 
 his more advanced years. Cicero's courage in 
 defending and obtaining the acquittal of Ros- 
 cius, under the circumstances in which the case 
 was undertaken, was applauded by the whole 
 city. By this public opposition to the avarice 
 of an agent of Sylla, who was then in the plen- 
 itude of his power, and by the energy with 
 which he resisted an oppressive proceeding, he 
 fixed his character for a fearless and zealous pa- 
 tron of the injured, as much as for an accom- 
 plished orator. Immediately after the decision 
 of this cause, Cicero, partly on account of his 
 health, and partly for improvement, travelled 
 into Greece and Asia, where he spent two years 
 in the assiduous study of philosophy and elo- 
 quence, under the ablest teachers of Athens and 
 Asia Minor. Nor was his style alone formed 
 and improved by imitation of the Greek rheto- 
 ricians : his pronunciation also was corrected , by 
 practising under Greek masters, from whom he 
 learned the art of commanding his voice, and 
 of giving it greater compass and variety than it 
 had hitherto attained. The first cause which 
 he pleaded after his return to Rome, was that of 
 Roscius, the celebrated comedian, in a dispute, 
 which involved a mere matter of civil right, and 
 was of no peculiar interest or importance. All 
 the orations which he delivered during the five 
 following years, are lost, of which number were 
 those for Marcus TuUiusand L. Varenus, men- 
 tioned by Priscian as extant in his time. At 
 the end of that period, however, and when Ci- 
 cero was now in the thirty-seventh year of his 
 age, a glorious opportunity was afforded for the 
 display of his eloquence, in the prosecution in- 
 stituted against Verres, the praetor of Sicily, a 
 criminal infinitely more hateful than Catiline 
 or Clodius, and to whom the Roman republic^ at 
 least, never produced an equal in turpitude and 
 
 crime. He was now accused by the Sicilians 
 of many flagrant acts of injustice, rapine, and 
 cruelty, committed by him during his triennial 
 government of their island, which he had done 
 more to ruin than all the arbitrary acts of their 
 native tyrants, or the devastating wars between 
 the Carthaginians and Romans. This arduous 
 task he was earnestly solicited to undertake, by 
 ^a petition from all the towns of Sicily, except 
 'Syracuse and Messina, both which cities had 
 been occasionally allowed by the plunderer to 
 share the spoils of the province. Having ac- 
 cepted this trust, so important in his eyes to the 
 honour of the republic, neither the far-distant 
 evidence, nor irritating delays of all those gu ards 
 of guilt with which Verres was environed, could 
 deter or slacken his exertions. The first device 
 on the part of the criminal, or rather of his 
 counsel, Hortensius, to defeat the ends of jus- 
 tice, was an attempt to wrest the conduct of the 
 trial from the hands of Cicero, by placing it 
 in those of Caecilius, who was a creature of 
 Verres, and who now claimed a preference to 
 Cicero, on the ground of personal injuries re- 
 ceived from the accused, and a particular know- 
 ledge of the crimes of his pretended enemy. 
 The judicial claims of these competitors had 
 therefore to be first decided in that kind of pro- 
 cess called Divinatio, in which Cicero delivered 
 his oration, entitled Contra Ccecilium, and 
 showed, with much power of argument and sar- 
 casm, that he himself was in every way best fit- 
 ted to act as the impeacher of Verres. Having 
 succeeded in convincing the judges that Coeci- 
 lius only wished to get the cause into his own 
 hands, in order to betray it, Cicero was appoint- 
 ed to conduct the prosecution, and was allowed 
 110 days to make a voyage to Sicily, in order to 
 collect information for supporting his charge. 
 He finished his progress through the island in 
 less than half the time which had been granted 
 him. On his return he found that a plan had 
 been laid by the friends of Verres, to procrasti- 
 nate the trial at least till the following season, 
 when they expected to have magistrates and 
 judges who would prove favourable to his inter- 
 ests. In this design they so far succeeded, that 
 time was not left to go through the cause ac- 
 cording to the ordinary forms and practice of 
 oratorical discussion in the course of the year : 
 Cicero, therefore, resolved to lose no time by en- 
 forcing or aggravating the several articles of 
 charge, but to produce at once all his documents 
 and witnesses, leaving the rhetorical part of the 
 performance till the whole evidence was con- 
 cluded. The first oration, therefore, against 
 Verres, which is extremely short, was merely 
 intended to explain the motives which had in- 
 duced him to adopt this unusual mode of proce- 
 dure. He accordingly exposes the devices by 
 which the culprit and his cabal were attempting 
 to pervert the course of justice, and unfolds the 
 eternal disgrace that would attach to the Roman 
 law, should their stratagems prove successful. 
 This oration was followed by the deposition of 
 the witnesses, and recital of the documents, 
 which so clearly established the guilt of Verres, 
 that, driven to despair, he submitted, without 
 awaiting his sentence, to a voluntary exile. It 
 therefore appears, that of the six orations against 
 Verres, only one was pronounced. The other 
 five, forming the series of harangues which he 
 399 
 
CI 
 
 HISTORY, &G 
 
 CI 
 
 intended to deliver after the proof had been com- 
 pleted, were snbsequenily published in the same 
 shape as if the delinquent had actually stood his 
 trial, and was to have made a regular defence. 
 It is much to be regretted, that the oration for 
 Fonteius, the next which Cicero delivered, has 
 descended to us incomplete. It was the defence 
 of an unpopular governor, accused of oppres- 
 sion by the province intrusted to his administra- 
 tion ; and, as such, would have formed an in- 
 teresting contrast to the accusation of Verres. 
 Pro Ccecina. — This was a mere question of 
 civil right, turning on the effect of a praetorian 
 edict. Pro Lege Manilla. — Hitherto Cicero 
 had only addressed the judges in the forum in 
 civil suits or criminal prosecutions. The ora- 
 tion for the Manilian law, which is accounted 
 one of the most splendid of his productions, was 
 the iirst in which he spoke to the whole people 
 from the rostrum. It was pronounced in favour 
 of a law proposed by Manilius, a tribune of the 
 people, for constituting Pompey sole general, 
 with extraordinary powers, in the war against 
 Mithridaies and Tigranes, in which Luculius 
 at the time commanded. The chiefs of the sen- 
 ate regarded this law as a dangerous precedent 
 in the republic ; and all the authority of Catul- 
 lus, and eloquence of Hortensius, were directed 
 against it. The glare of glory that surrounded 
 Pompey, concealed from Cicero his many and 
 great imperfections, and seduced an honest citi- 
 zen, and finest genius in Rome, a roan of un- 
 paralleled industry, and that generally applied 
 to the noblest purposes, into the prostitution of 
 his abilities and virtues, for exalting an ambi- 
 tious chief, and investing him with such exor- 
 bitant and unconstitutional powers, as virtually 
 subverted the commonwealth. Pro Clicentio. — 
 This is a pleading for Cluentius, who, at his 
 mother's instigation, was accused of having poi- 
 soned his stepfather, Oppianicus. Great part 
 of the harangue appears to be but collaterally 
 connected with the direct subject of the prose- 
 cution. The whole oration discloses such a 
 scene of enormous villany — of murders, by 
 poison and assassination — of incest, and subor- 
 nation of witnesses, that the family history of 
 Cluentius may be regarded as the counterpart 
 in domestic society, of what the government of 
 Verres was in public life. Though very long, 
 and complica-ted too, in the subject, it is one of 
 the most correct and forcible of all Cicero's ju- 
 dicial orations ; and under the impression that 
 it comes nearer to the strain of a modern plead- 
 ing than any of the others, it has been selected 
 by Dr. Blair as the subject of a minute analysis 
 and criticism. De Lege Agraria contra Rul- 
 lum. — In his discourse Pro Lege Manilla^ the 
 first of the deliberative kind addressed to the as- 
 sembly of the people, Cicero had the advantage 
 of speaking for a favourite of the multitude, and 
 against the chiefs of the senate; but he was 
 placed in a very different situation when he 
 came to oppose the Agrarian law. This had 
 been for 300 years the darling object of the Ro- 
 man tribes — the daily attraction and rallying 
 word of the populace — the signal of discord, and 
 most powerful engine of the seditious tribu- 
 nate. The first of the series of orations against 
 the Agrarian law, now proposed by Rullus, was 
 delivered by Cicero in the senate-house, shortly 
 after his election to the consulship : the second 
 4O0 
 
 and third were addressed to the people from the 
 rostrum. Pro JRabirio. — About the year 654, 
 Saturninus, a seditious tribune, had been slain 
 by a party attached to the interests of the senate. 
 I'hirty-six years afterwards, Rabirius was ac- 
 cused of accession to this murder, by Labienus, 
 subsequently well known as Caesar's lieutenant 
 in Gaul. Hortensius had pleaded the cause be- 
 ibre the Duumvirs, Caius and Lucius Caesar., 
 by whom Rabirius being condemned, appealed 
 to the people, and was defended by Cicero in 
 the Comitia. Cicero's oration on this conten- 
 tion between the senatorial and tribunitiai pow- 
 er, gives us more the impression of prompt and 
 unstudied eloquence than most of his other ha- 
 rangues. Contra Catilinam. — The detection 
 and suppression of that nefarious plot form the 
 most glorious part of the political life of Cicero : 
 and the orations he pronounced against the 
 chief conspirators, are still regarded as the most 
 splendid monuments of his eloquence. The 
 conspiracy of Catiline tended to the utter ex- 
 tinction of the city and government. Cicero, 
 having discovered his designs, summoned the 
 senate to meet in the temple of Jupiter Stator, 
 with the intention of laying before it-the whole 
 circumstances of the plot. But Catiline having 
 unexpectedly appeared in the midst of the as- 
 sembly,his audacity impelled the consular orator 
 into an abrupt invective, which is directly ad- 
 dressed to the traitor, and commenced without 
 the preamble by which most of his other ha- 
 rangues are introduced. The great object of 
 the whole oration, was to drive Catiline into 
 banishment ; and it appears somewhat singular, 
 that so dangerous a personage, and who might 
 have been so easily convicted, should thus have 
 been forced, or even allowed, to withdraw to his 
 army, instead of being seized and punished. 
 Catiline havmgescaped unmolested to his camp, 
 the conduct of the consul in not apprehending, 
 but sending away this formidable enemy, had 
 probably excited some censure and discontent ; 
 and the second Catilinarian oration was in con- 
 sequence delivered by Cicero, in Ein assembly of 
 the people, in order to justify his driving the 
 chief conspirator from Rome. Manifest proofs 
 of the whole plot having been at length obtain- 
 ed, by the arrest of the ambassadors from the 
 Allobroges, with whom the conspirators had 
 tampered, and who were bearing written cre- 
 dentials from them to their own country, Cice- 
 ro, in his third oration, laid before the people all 
 the particulars of the discovery,and invited them 
 to join in celebrating a thanksgiving, which had 
 been decreed by the senate to his honour, for 
 the preservation of his country. The last Cati- 
 linarian oration was pronounced in the senate, 
 on the debate concerning the punishment to be 
 inflicted on the conspirators. Cicero does not 
 precisely declare for any particular punishment; 
 iDUt he shows that his mind evidently inclined to 
 the severest, by dwelling on the enormity of the 
 conspirators' guilt, and aggravating all their 
 crimes with much acrimony and art. His sen- 
 timents finally prevailed ; and those conspira- 
 tors who had remained in Rome, were stran- 
 gled under his immediate superintendence. In 
 these four orations, the tone and style of each of 
 them, particularly of the first and last, is very 
 different, and accommodated with a great deal 
 of judgment to the occasion, and to the circum- 
 
CI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 or 
 
 stances under which they were delivered. 
 Through the whole series of the Catilinarian 
 orations, the language of Cicero is well calcu- 
 lated to overawe the wicked, to confirm the good, 
 and encourage the timid. It is of that descrip- 
 tion which renders the mind of one man the mind 
 of a whole assembl}', or a whole people. Pro 
 Murana. — The Comitia being now held in or- 
 der to choose consuls for the ensuing year, Ju- 
 nius Silanus and Muraena were elected. The 
 latter candidate had for his competitor the cele- 
 brated jurisconsult Salpicius Rufas; who, being 
 assisted by Cato, charged Mursena with having 
 prevailed by bribery and corruption. This case 
 was one of great expectation, from the dignity 
 of the prosecutors, and eloquence of the advo- 
 cates of the accused. Before Cicero spoke, it 
 had been pleaded by Hortensius, and Crassus 
 the triumvir; and Cicero, in engaging in the 
 cause, felt the utmost desire to surpass these 
 rivals of his eloquence. Such was his anxiety, 
 that he slept none during the whole night which 
 preceded the hearing of the cause ; and being 
 thus exhausted with care, his eloquence on this 
 occasion fell short of that of Hortensius. He 
 shows, however, much delicacy and art in the 
 manner in which he manages the attack on 
 the philosophy of Cato, and profession of Sulpi- 
 cius, both of whom were his particular friends, 
 and high in the estimation of the judges he ad- 
 dressed. Pro Cornelio Sylla. — Sylla, whowas 
 afterwards a great partisan of Caesar's, was pro- 
 secuted for having been engaged in Catiline's 
 conspiracy; but his accuser, Torquatus, digres- 
 sing from^the charge against Sylla, turned his 
 raillery on Cicero ; alleging, that he had usurped 
 the authority of a king ; and asserting, that he 
 was the third foreign sovereign who had reigned 
 at Rome after Numa and Tarquin. Cicero, 
 therefore, in his reply had not only to defend his 
 client, but to answer the petulant raillery by 
 which his antagonist attempted to excite envy 
 and odium against himself For this defence of 
 Cornelius Sylla, Cicero privately received from 
 his client the sum of 20,000 sesterces, which 
 chiefly enabled him to purchase his magnificent 
 house on the Palatine Hill. Pro Archia. — 
 This is one of the orations of Cicero on which 
 he has succeeded in bestowing the finest polish, 
 and it is, perhaps, the most pleasing of all his 
 harangues. ArchiEis was a native of Amioch, 
 and, having come to Italy in early youth, was 
 rewarded for his learning and genius with the 
 friendship of the first men in the state, and with 
 the citizenship of Heraclea, a confederate and 
 enfranchised town of Magna Graecia. A few 
 years afterwards, a law was enacted conferring 
 the rights of Roman citizens on all who had 
 been admitted to the freedom of federate states, 
 provided they had a settlement in Italy at the 
 time when the law was passed, and had assert- 
 ed the privilege before the praetor within sixty 
 days from the period at which it was promul- 
 gated. After Archias had enjoyed the benefit 
 of this law for more than twenty years, his 
 claims were called in question by one Gracchus, 
 "who now attempted to drive him from the city, 
 under the enactment expelling all foreigners 
 who usurped, without due title, the name and at- 
 tributes of Roman citizens. The loss of records, 
 and some other circumstances, having thrown 
 doubts on the legal right of his client, Cicero 
 Part II.— 3 E 
 
 chiefly enlarged on the dignity of literature and 
 poetry, and the various accomplishments of Ar- 
 chias, which gave him so just a claim to the pri- 
 vileges he enjoyed. The whole oration is inter- 
 spersed with beautiful maxims and sentences, 
 which have been quoted with delight in all ages. 
 Pro CcbUo. — Middleton has pronounced this to 
 be the most entertaining of the orations which 
 Cicero has left us, from the vivacity of wit and 
 humour with which he treats the gallantries of 
 Clodia, her commerce with Ca^lius, and in gen- 
 eral the gayeties and licentiousness of youth. 
 Ccelius was a young man of considerable talents 
 and accomplishments, who had been intrusted 
 to the care of Cicero on his first introduction to 
 the Forum ; but having imprudently engaged in 
 an intrigue with Clodia, the well-known sister 
 of Clodius, and having afterwards deserted her, 
 she accused him of an attempt to poison her, 
 and of having borrowed money from her in or- 
 der to procure the assassination of Dio, the 
 Alexandrian ambassador. De Provinciis Con- 
 sularihus. — The government of Gaul was con- 
 tinued to Caesar, in consequence of this oration, 
 so that it may be considered as one of the im- 
 mediate causes of the ruin of the Roman repub- 
 lic, which it was incontestably the great wish of 
 Cicero to protect and maintain inviolate. In 
 Pisonem. — Piso having been recalled from his 
 government of MacedoU; in consequence of 
 Cicero's oration, De Provinciis Consularibus, 
 he complained, in one of his first appearances 
 in the senate, of the treatment he had received, 
 and attacked the orator, particularly on the 
 score of his poetry, ridiculing .the well-known 
 line : — 
 
 ' Cedant arma toga — concedat laurea linguce.'' 
 
 Cicero replied in a bitter invective, in which he 
 exposed the whole life and conduct of his ene- 
 my to public contempt and detestation. The 
 most singular feature of this harangue is the 
 personal abuse and coarseness of expression it 
 contains, which appear the more extraordinary 
 when we consider that it was delivered in the 
 senate-house, and directed against an individual 
 of such distinction and consequence as Piso. 
 Pro Milone. — The speech which Cicero actual- 
 ly delivered, was taken down in writing, and is 
 mentioned by Asconius Pedianus as still extant 
 in his time. But that beautiful harangue which 
 we now possess, is one which was retouched and 
 polished, as a gift for Milo, after he had retired 
 in exile to Marseilles. Pro Ligario. — This 
 oration was pronounced after Caesar, having 
 vanquished Pompey in Thessaly and destroyed, 
 the remains of the republican party in Afri- 
 ca, assumed the supreme administration of af- 
 fairs at Rome. Merciful as the conqueror ap- 
 peared, he was understood to be much exaspe- 
 rated against those who, after the rout at Phar- 
 salia, had renewed the war in Africa. Ligarius, 
 M'hen on the point of obtaining a pardon, was 
 formerly accused by his old enemy Tubero, of 
 having borne arms in that contest. The dicta- 
 tor himself presided at the trial of the case, 
 much prejudiced against Ligarius,as was known 
 from his having previously declared, that his re- 
 solution was fixed, and was not to be altered by 
 the charms of eloquence. Cicero, however, 
 overcame his prepossessions, and extorted from 
 him a pardon. The countenance of Caesar, it 
 401 
 
CI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CI 
 
 is said, changed, as the orator proceeded in his 
 speech; but when he touched on the battle of 
 Pharsalia, and described Tubero as seeking his 
 life, amid the ranks of the army, the dictator 
 became so agitated, that his body trembled, and 
 the papers which he held dropped from his hand. 
 This oration is remarkable for the free spirit 
 which it breathes, even in the face of that pow- 
 er to which it was addressed for mercy. But 
 Cicero, at the same time, shows much art in not 
 overstepping those limits, within which he knew 
 he might speak without offence, and in season- 
 ing his freedom with appropriate compliments 
 to Cassar, of which, perhaps, the most elegant 
 is, that he forgot nothing but the injuries done 
 to himself. This was the person whom, in the 
 time of Pompey, he characterized as monstrum 
 et portentum tyrannum, and whose death he 
 soon afterwards celebrated as divinum in rem- 
 publicam beneficiuml Philippica. — The chief 
 remaining orations of Cicero are those directed 
 against Antony, of whose private life and po- 
 litical conduct they present us with a full and 
 glaring picture. The character of Antony, next 
 to that of Sylla, was the most singular in the 
 annals of Rome, and in some of its features 
 bore a striking resemblance to that of the fortu- 
 nate dictator. The philipics against Antony, 
 like those of Demosthenes, derive their chief 
 beauty from the noble expression of just indig- 
 nation, which, indeed, composes many of the 
 most splendid and. admired passages of ancient 
 eloquence. They were all pronounced during 
 the period which elapsed between the assassina- 
 tion of Caesar and the defeat of Antony at Mo- 
 dena. Cicero was not only a great orator, but 
 had also left the fullest instructions and the most 
 complete historical details on the art which he 
 so gloriously practised. His precepts are con- 
 tained in the dialogue De Oratore and the Ora- 
 tor ; while the history of Roman eloquence is 
 comprehended in the dialogue entitled, Brutus, 
 sive De Claris Oratoribus. Cicero, in his youth, 
 also wrote the Rhetorica, seu de Inveniione 
 Rhetorica, of which there are still extant two 
 books, treating of the part of rhetoric that re- 
 lates to invention. This is the work mentioned 
 by Cicero, in the commencement of the treatise 
 De Oratore^ as having been published by him in 
 his youth. It is generally believed to have been 
 written in 666, when Cicero was only twenty 
 years of age, and to have originally contained 
 four books. Schutz, however, the German edi- 
 tor of Cicero, is of opinion, that he never wrote, 
 or at least, never published, more than tiie two 
 books we still possess. Cicero, who was un- 
 questionably the first orator, was as decidedly 
 the most learned philosopher of Rome ; and 
 while he eclipsed all his contemporaries in elo- 
 quence, he acquired, towards the close of his life, 
 no small share of reputation as a writer on 
 ethics and metaphysics. His wisdom, however, 
 was founded entirely on that of the Greeks, and 
 his philosophic writings were chiefly occupied 
 with the discussion of questions which had been 
 agitated in the Athenian schools, and from them 
 had been transmitted to Italy. The disquisition 
 respecting the certainty or uncertainty of hu- 
 man knowledge, with that concerning the su- 
 preme good and evil, were the inquiries which 
 he chiefly pursued ; and the notions which he 
 entertained of these subjects, were all derived 
 403 
 
 from the Portico, A cademy, or Lyceum. Cicero 
 was in many respects well qualified for the ar- 
 duous but noble task which he had undertaken, 
 of naturalizing philosophy at Rome, and exhi- 
 biting her, according to the expression of Eras- 
 mus, on the stage of life. He was a man of 
 fertile genius, luminous understanding, sound 
 judgment, and indefatigable industry — qualities 
 adequate for the cultivation of reason, and suf- 
 ficient for the supply of subjects of meditation. 
 Never wasphilosopher placed in asituation more 
 favourable for gathering the fruits of an expe- 
 rience employed on human nature and civil 
 society, or for observing the eflfects of various 
 qualities of the mind on public opinion and on 
 the actions of men . In the writings of Cicero, ac- 
 cordingly, every thing deduced from experience 
 and knowledge of world — every observation on 
 the duties of society, is clearly expressed, and 
 remarkable for justness and acuteness. But 
 neither Cicero, nor any other Roman author, 
 possessed sufiicient subtilty and refinement of 
 spirit, for the more abstruse discussions, among 
 the labyrinths of which the Greek philosophers 
 delighted to find a fit exercise of their ingenu- 
 ity. Hence, all that required research into the 
 ultimate foundation of truths, or a more exact 
 analysis of common ideas and perceptions — all, 
 in short, that related to the subtiliies of the 
 Greek schools, is neither so accurately express- 
 ed nor so logically connected. In the form of 
 dialogue, Cicero has successively treated of law, 
 metaphysics, theology., and morals. When Cae- 
 sar had attained the supremacy at Rome, and 
 Cicero no longer gave law to the senate, he be- 
 came the head of a sort of literary or philoso- 
 phical society. Filelfo, who delivered public 
 lectures at Rome, on the Tusculan disputations, 
 attempted to prove that he had stated meetings 
 of learned men at his house, and opened a reg- 
 ular academy at Tusculum. The most val- 
 uable editions of the works complete, are 
 that of Verburgius, 2 vols. fol. Amst. 1724. — 
 That of Olivet, 9 vols. 4to. Geneva, 1758.— 
 The Oxford edition in 10 vols. 4to. 1782— and 
 that of Lallemand, 12rao. 14 vols. Paris apud 
 Barbou, 1768. Plutarch, in vita. — Quinlil. — 
 Dio. Cass. — Appian. — Florus. — C. Nep. in 
 
 Attic. — Eutrop. — Cic. cfc. II. Marcus, the 
 
 son of Cicero, was taken by Augustus as his 
 colleague in the consulship. He revenged his 
 father's death by throwing public dishonour 
 upon the memory of Antony. He disgraced his 
 father's virtues, and was so fond of drinking, 
 that Pliny observes he wished to deprive Anto- 
 ny of the honour of being the greatest drunk- 
 ard in the Roman empire. Plut. in Cic. 
 
 III. Gluintus, the brother of the orator, was Cae- 
 sar's lieutenant in Gaul, and proconsul of Asia 
 for three years. He was proscribed with his 
 son at the same time as his brother Tully. Plut. 
 in Cic. — Appian. 
 
 CiLLEs, a general of Ptolemy, conquered by 
 Demetrius. Diod. 19. 
 
 CiLO, Jun. an oppressive governor of Bithynia 
 and Pontus. The provinces carried their com- 
 plaints against him to Rome ; but such was the 
 noise of the flatterers that attended the emperor 
 Claudius, that he was unable to hear them; and 
 when he asked what they had said, he was told 
 by one of Cilo's friends, that they returned 
 thanks for his good administration ; upon which 
 
CI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CI 
 
 the emperor said, Let Cilo be continued two 
 years longer in his province. Dio. 60. — Tacit. 
 Ann. 12, c. 21. 
 
 CiMBER, TuLL., one of Caesar's murderers. 
 He laid hold of the dictator's robe which was 
 a signal for the rest to strike. Plut. in Cces. 
 
 CiMBRicuM Bellum, was begun by the Cira- 
 bri and Teutones, by an invasion of the Roman 
 territories, B. C. 109. These barbarians were 
 so courageous, and even desperate, that they fas- 
 tened their first ranks each to the other with 
 cords. In the first battle they destroyed 80,000 
 Romans, under the consuls Manliusand Servi- 
 lius Caspio. But when Marius, in his second 
 consulship, was chosen to carry on the war, he 
 met the Teutones at Aquse Sextiae, where, after 
 a bloody engagement, he left dead on the field 
 of battle 20,000, and took 90,000 prisoners, 
 B. C. 102. The Cimbri, who had formed an- 
 other army, had already penetrated into Italy, 
 where they were met at the river Athesis, by 
 Marius and his colleague Catulus, a year after. 
 An engagement ensued, and 140,000 of them 
 were slain. The last battle put an end to this 
 dreadful war, and the two consuls entered 
 Rome in triumph. Mor. 3, c. 3. — Plin. 7, c. 
 22, 1. 17, c. l.—Mela, 3, c. 3.—Paterc. 2, c. 12. 
 — Plut. in Mario. 
 
 CiMON, I. an Athenian, son of Miltiades and 
 Hegisipyle, famous for his debaucheries in his 
 youth, and the reformation of his morals when 
 arrived to years of discretion. When his father 
 died, he was imprisoned, because unable to pay 
 the fine laid upon him by the Athenians; but he 
 was released from confinementby his sister and 
 wife Elpinice. Vid. Elpinice. He behaved 
 with great courage at the battle of Salamis, and 
 ren dered himself popular by his munifi cen ce and 
 valour. He defeated the Persian fleet, and took 
 200 ships, and totally routed their land army the 
 very same day. The money he obtained by his 
 victories was not applied to his ovra private 
 use ; but with it he fortified and embellished the 
 city. He, some time after, lost all his popularity, 
 and was banished by the Athenians, who de- 
 clared war against the Lacedaemonians. He 
 was recalled from his exile, and, at his return, 
 he made a reconciliation between Lacedaemon 
 and his countrymen. He was afterwards ap- 
 pointed to carry on the war against Persia in 
 Egypt and Cyprus, with a fleet of 200 ships ; 
 and on the coast of Asia he gave battle to the 
 enemy and totally ruined their fleet. He died 
 ti5 he was besieging the town of Citium in Cv- 
 prus, B. C. 449, in the 21st year of his age. He 
 maybe called the last of the Greeks, whose spirit 
 and boldness defeated the armies of the barba- 
 rians. He was such an inveterate enemy to the 
 Persian power, that he formed a plan of totally 
 destroying it ; and in his wars he had so reduced 
 the Persians, that they promised in a treaty not 
 to pass the Chelidonlan islands with their fleet, 
 or to approach within a day's journey of the 
 Grecian seas. The munificence of Cimon has 
 been highly extolled by his biograph ers ; and he 
 has been deservedly praised for leaving his gar- 
 dens open to the public. Thucyd. 1, c. 100 and 
 112.— Justin. 2, c. l3.~Diod. 11.— Plut. <^ C. 
 
 Nep. in vita. II. An Athenian, father of 
 
 Miltiades. Herodot. 6, c.34. III. A Roman, 
 
 supported in prison by the milk of his daughter. 
 • IV. An Athenian, who wrote an account 
 
 of the war of the Amazons against his country. 
 
 CiNciA Lex, was enacted by M. Cincius, tri- 
 bune of the people, A. U. C. 549. By it no man 
 was permitted to take any money as a gift or a 
 fee in judging a cause. Liv. 34, c. 4. 
 
 CiNCiNNATUs, L. CI. a celebrated Roman, 
 who was informed, as he ploughed his field, that 
 the senate had chosen him dictator. Upon this 
 he left his ploughed land with regret, and repair- 
 ed to the field of battle, where his countrymen 
 were closely besieged by the Volsci and ^Equi. 
 He conquered the enemy, and returned to Rome 
 in triumph ; and 16 days after his appointment, 
 belaid down his office and retired back to plough 
 his fields. In his 80th year he was again sum- 
 moned against Praeneste as dictator ; and after 
 a successful campaign, he resigned the absolute 
 power he had enjoyed only 21 days, nobly dis- 
 regarding the rewards that were offered him by 
 the senate. He flourished about 460 years be- 
 fore Christ. Liv. 3, c. 26. — Flor. 1, c. 11. 
 
 Cic. de FiniJ). 4. — Plin. 18, c. 3. 
 
 Cincius Alimentus, (L.) I. a praetor of 
 Sicily in the second Punic war, who wrote an- 
 nals in Greek. Dionys. Hal. I. II. Marcus, 
 
 a tribune of the people, A. U. C. 594, author 
 of the Cincia Lex. 
 
 CiNEAS, a Thessalian, minister and friend to 
 Pyrrhus, kingofEpirus. He was sent to Rome 
 by his master to sue for a peace, whicKhe, how- 
 ever, could not obtain. . He told Pyrrhus that 
 the Roman senate were a venerable assembly of 
 kings; and observed, that to fight with them 
 was to fight against another Hydra. He was 
 of such a retentive memory, that the day after 
 his arrival at Rome he could salute every sena- 
 tor and knight by his name. Plin. 7, c. 24. — 
 Cic. ad Fam. 9, ep. 25. 
 
 CiNESTAS, a Greek poet of Thebes in Boeotia, 
 who composed some dithyrambic verses. Athen. 
 
 CiNNA, L. Corn. I. a Roman who oppressed 
 the republic with his cruelties, and was banish- 
 ed by Octavius for attempting to make the fu- 
 gitive slaves free. He joined himself to Ma- 
 rius ; and with him, at the head of 30 legions, 
 he filled Rome with blood, defeated his enemies, 
 and made himself consul even to a fourth time. 
 He massacred so many citizens at Rome that 
 his name became odious ; and one of his officers 
 assassinated him at Ancona, as he was prepar- 
 ing war against Sylla. His daughter Cornelia 
 married Julius Caesar, and became mother of 
 Julia. Plut. in Mar. Pomp. tf» Syll. — L/iican. 
 4, V. 822.—Appian. Bell. Civ. l.—Flor. 3, c. 
 
 21.— Pcierc. 2, c. 20, &c.—Plut. in Cces. 
 
 II. One of Caesar's murderers. III. C. Hel- 
 
 vius Cinna, a poet, intimate with Caesar. He 
 went to attend the obsequies of Caesar, and, be- 
 ing mistaken by the populace for the other Cin- 
 na, he was torn to pieces. He had been eight 
 years in composing an obscure poem called 
 Smyrna, in which he made mention of the in- 
 cest of Cinyras. Plut. in Cces. IV. A grand- 
 son of Pompey. He conspired against Augus- 
 tus, who pardoned him and made him one of 
 his most intimate friends. He was consul, and 
 made Augustus his heir. Dio. — Seneca de 
 Clem. c. 9. 
 
 CiNNADON, a Lacedaemonian youth, who re- 
 solved to put to death the Ephori, and seize upon 
 the sovereign power. His conspiracy was dis- 
 covered, and he was put to death. Arislot. 
 403 
 
CL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CL 
 
 CiRCENSEs LuDi, gamcs performed in the Cir- 
 cus at Rome. They were dedicated to the god 
 Consus, and were first established by Romulus 
 at the rape of the Sabines. They were in imi- 
 tation of the Olympian games among the Greeks, 
 and, by way of eminence, were often called the 
 great games. Their original name was Con- 
 sualia, and they were first called Circensians by 
 Tarquin the elder, after he had built the Circus. 
 They were not appropriated to one particular 
 exhibition, but were equally celebrated for leap- 
 ing, wrestling, throwing the quoit and javelin, 
 races on foot as well as in chariots, and boxing. 
 Like the Greeks, the Romans gave the name of 
 Pentathlum or Gluinquertium to these five ex- 
 ercises. The celebration continued five days, 
 beginning on the 15th of September. All games 
 in general that were exhibited in the Circus, 
 were soon after called Circensian games. Some 
 sea-fights and skirmishes, called by the Romans 
 Naumachiae, were afterwards exhibited in the 
 Circus. Virg. Mn. 8, v. 636. 
 
 Circus, a large and elegant building at Rome, 
 where plays and shows were exhibited. There 
 were about eight at Rome ; the first, called 
 Maximus Circus, was the grandest, raised and 
 embellished by Tarquin Priscus. Its figure was 
 oblong, and it was filled all round with benches, 
 and could contain, as some report, about 300,- 
 000 spectators. It was about 2187 feet long, and 
 960 broad. All the emperors vied in beautify- 
 ing it, and J. Csesar introduced in it large canals 
 of water, which, on a sudden, could be covered 
 with an infinite number of vessels, and represent 
 a sea-fight. 
 
 Claudia, a patrician family at Rome, de- 
 scended from Clausus, a king of the Sabines. 
 It gave birth to many illustrious patriots in the 
 republic ; and it is particularly recorded that 
 there were not less than 28 of that family who 
 were invested with the consulship, five with the 
 oflice of dictator, and seven with that of censor, 
 besides the honour of six triumphs. Sueton. in 
 Tib. 1. 
 
 Claudia, T. a vestal virgin, accused of incon- 
 tinence. To show her innocence, she oflfered to 
 remove a ship which had brought the image of 
 Vesta to Rome, and had stuck in one of the shal- 
 low places of the river. This had already baf- 
 fled the efforts of a number of men ; and Clau- 
 dia, after addressing her prayers to the goddess, 
 untied her girdle, and with it easily dragged 
 after her the ship to shore, and by this action 
 was honourably acquitted. Val. Max. 5, c. 4. 
 -Propert. 4, el. 12, v. b2.—ltal. 17, v. 35.— 
 Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 315, ex Panto. 1, ep. 2, v, 144. 
 
 II. A stepdaughter of M. Antony, whom 
 
 Augustus married. He dismissed her undefil- 
 ed, immediately after the contract of marriage, 
 on account of a sudden quarrel with her mother 
 
 Fulvia. Sueton. in Aug. 62. III. The wife 
 
 of the poet Statins. Stat. 3, Sylv. 5. IV. A 
 
 daughter of Appius Claudius, betrothed to Tib. 
 
 Gracchus. V. The wife of Metellus Celer, 
 
 sister to P. Clodius and to Appius Claudius. 
 IV. Pulcra, a cousin of Agrippina, accus- 
 ed of adultery and criminal designs against Ti- 
 berius. She was condemned. Tacit. Ann. 4, 
 c. 52. VII. Antonia, a daughter of the em- 
 peror Claudius, married Cn. Pompey, whom 
 Messalina caused to be put to death. Her se- 
 cond husband Sylla Faustus, bv whom she had 
 404 
 
 a son, was killed by Nero, and she shared his 
 fate when she refused to marry his murderer. 
 
 Claudia Lex, de comitiis, was enacted by 
 M. CI. Marcellus, A. U. C. 702. It ordained 
 that at public elections of magistrates, no notice 
 should be taken of the votes of such as were ab- 
 sent. Another, de usura, which forbade peo- 
 ple to lend money to minors on condition of pay- 
 ment after the decease of their parents. Ano- 
 ther, de negotiatione, by Gl. Claudius, the tribune, 
 A. U. C. 535. It forbade any senator, or father 
 of a senator, to have any vessel containing above 
 300 amphorae, for fear of their engaging them- 
 selves in commercial schemes. The same law 
 also forbade the same thing to the scribes and 
 the attendants of the quaestors, as it was natu- 
 rally supposed that the people who had any com- 
 mercial connexions could not be faithful to their 
 
 trust, nor promote the interest of the state. 
 
 Another, A. U. C. 576, to permit the allies to 
 return to their respective cities, after their names 
 
 were enrolled. Liv. 41, c. 9. Another, to 
 
 take away the freedom of the city of Rome from 
 the colonists which Caesar had carried to Novi- 
 comum. Sueton. in Jul. 28. 
 
 CLAUDI.E Aau.E, the first water brought to 
 Rome by, means of an aqueduct of 11 miles, 
 erected by the censor Appius Claudius, A. U. 
 C. 441. Eutrop. 2, c. A.— Liv. 9, c. 29. 
 
 Claudianus, a celebrated poet, born at Alex- 
 andria in Egypt, in the age of Honorius and 
 Arcadius, who seems to possess all the majesty 
 of Virgil, without being a slave to the corrupted 
 style which prevailed in his age. Scaliger ob- 
 serves, that he has supplied the poverty of his 
 matter by the purity of his language, the hap- 
 piness of his expressions, and the melody of his 
 numbers. As he was the favourite of Stilicho, 
 he removed from the court when his patron 
 was disgraced, and passed the rest of his life in 
 retirement and learned ease. His poems on 
 Rufinus and Eutropius seem to be the best of 
 his compositions. The best editions of hisworks 
 are that of Burman, 4to. 2 vols. Amst. 1760, 
 and that of Gesner, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1758. 
 
 Claudius, I. (Tiber. Drusus Nero,) son of 
 Drusus, Livia's second son, succeeded as empe- 
 ror of Rome, after the murder of Caligula,whose 
 memory he endeavoured to annihilate. He made 
 himself popular for a while, passed over into 
 Britain, and obtained a triumph for victories 
 which his generals had won; and sufifered him- 
 self to be governed by favourites, whose licen- 
 tiousness and avarice plundered the state and 
 distracted the provinces. He married four wives, 
 one of whom, called Messalina, he put to death 
 on account of debauchery. He was at last poi- 
 soned by another called Agrippina, who wished 
 to raise her son Nero to the throne. The poi- 
 son was conveyed in mushrooms ; but as it did 
 not operate fast enough, his physician, by order 
 of the empress, made him swallow a poisoned 
 feather. He died in the 63d year of his age, 
 October 13, A. D. 54, after a reign of 13 years, 
 debased by weakness and irresolution. He was 
 succeeded by Nero. Tacit. Ann. 11, &c. — 
 
 Dio. 60. — Jitv. 6, v. 619. — Suet, in vita. 
 
 The second emperor of that name was a Dalma- 
 tian, who succeeded Gallienus. He conquered 
 the Goths, Scythians, and Heruli, and killed no 
 less than 300,000 in a battle ; and after a reign 
 of about two years, died of the plague in Pan- 
 
CL 
 
 I-IISTORY, &c. 
 
 GL 
 
 aonia. The excellence of his character, mark- 
 ed with bravery and tempered with justice and 
 benevolence, is well known by these words of 
 the senate addressed to him : Claudi Auguste, 
 tu frater, tu pater , tu amicus, tu bonus senator, 
 iu vere princeps. — —III. Nero, a consul with 
 Liv. Salinator, who defeated and killed Asdru- 
 balnear the river Metaurum, as he was passing 
 from Spain into Italy, to go to the assistance of 
 his brother Annibal. Liv. 27, &c. — Horat. 4, 
 
 od. 4, V. ^l.—Suet. in Tib. IV. The father 
 
 of the emperor Tiberius, quastor to Caesar in 
 the wars of Alexandria. V. Polios, an his- 
 torian. Plin. 7, ep. 51. VL Pontius, a gen- 
 eral of the Samnites, who conquered the Ro- 
 mans at Furcae Candinae, and made them pass 
 
 under the yoke. Liv. 9, c. 1, &c. VII. Pe- 
 
 tilius, a dictator, A. U. C. 442. VIII. App. 
 
 Ccecus, a Roman censor, who built an aque- 
 duct, A. U. C. 441, which brought water to Rome 
 from Tusculum, at the distance of seven or eight 
 miles. The water was called Appia, and it was 
 the first that was brought to the city from the 
 country. Before his age the Romans were satis- 
 fied with the waters of the Tiber or of the foun- 
 tains and wells in the city. Vid. Appius. Liv. 
 9, c. 29.— Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 203.— Czc. de sen. 6. 
 IX. Pulcher, a consul. He was unsuc- 
 cessful in his expeditions against the Cartha- 
 genians in Sicily, and disgraced on his return to 
 
 Rome. X. Tiberius Nero, was the elder 
 
 brother to Drusus, and son of Livia Drusilla, 
 who married Augustus after his divorce of Scri- 
 bonia. He married Livia, the emperor's daugh- 
 ter by Scribonia, and succeeded in the empire 
 by the name of Tiberius. Vid. Tiberius. Ho- 
 rat. 4, ep. 3, V. 2. The name of Claudius 
 
 is common to many Roman consuls and other 
 officers of state ; but nothing is recorded of 
 them. 
 
 Cleadas, a man of Plataea, who raised tombs 
 over those who had been killed in the battle 
 against Mardonius. Herodot. 9, c. 85. 
 
 Cleander, I. one of Alexander's officers, 
 who killed Parmenio by the king's command. 
 
 Curt. 7, c. 2, 1. 10, c. 1. II. The first tyrant 
 
 of Gela. Aristot. 5, Polit. c. 12. III. A fa- 
 vourite of the emperor Commodus, who was put 
 to death A. D. 190, after abusing public justice 
 and his master's confidence. 
 
 Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher of Assos in 
 Troas, successor of Zeno. He was so poor, that 
 to maintain himself he used to draw out water 
 for a gardener in the night, and study in the 
 daytime. Cicero calls him the father of the 
 stoics ; and, out of respect for his virtues, the 
 Roman senate raised a statue to him in Assos. 
 It is said that he starved himself in his 90th 
 year, B. C. 240. Strab. 13.— Cic. de Finib. 2, 
 c. 69, 1. 4, c. 7. 
 
 Clearchus, I. a tyrant of Heraclea in Pon- 
 tus, who was killed by Chion and Leonidas, 
 Plato's pupils, during the celebration of the fes- 
 tivals of Bacchus, after the enjoyment of the 
 sovereign power during twelve years, 353 B. C. 
 
 Justin. 16, c. 4. — Diod. 15. II. The second 
 
 tyrant of Heraclea of that name, died B. C. 288. 
 III. A Lacedaemonian sent to quiet the By- 
 zantines. He was recalled, but refused to obey, 
 and fled to Cyrus the younger, who made him 
 captain of 13,000 Greek soldiers. He obtained 
 a. victory over Artaxerxes, who was so enraged 
 
 at the defeat, that when Clearchus fell into his 
 hands by the treachery of Tissaphernes, he put 
 him to immediate death. Diod. 14. 
 
 Clemens Romanus, I. one of the fathers of 
 the church, said to be contemporary with St. 
 Paul. Several spurious compositions are ascrib- 
 ed to him, but the only thing extant is his epis- 
 tle 10 the Corinthians, written to quiet the dis- 
 turbances that had arisen there. It has been 
 much admired. The best edition is that of 
 
 Wotion, 8vo. Cantab. 1718. II. Another of. 
 
 Alexandria, called from thence Alexandrinus, 
 who flourished 206 A. D. His works are va- 
 rious, elegant, and full of erudition ; the best 
 edition of which is Potter's, 2 vols. fol. Oxon. 
 1715. 
 
 Cleobis and Biton. two youths, sons of Cy- 
 dippe, the priestess of Juno at Argos. "When 
 oxen could not be procured to draw their moth- 
 er's chariot to the temple of Juno, they put 
 themselves under the yoke, and drew it 45 vSta- 
 dia to the temple, amidst the acclamations of the 
 multitude, who congratulated the mother on ac- 
 count of the filial affection of her sons. Cydippe 
 entreated the goddess to reward the piety of her 
 sons with the best gift that could be granted to a 
 mortal. T hey went to rest and awoke no more : 
 and by this the goddess showed that death is the 
 only true happy event that can happen to man. 
 The Argives raised them statues at Delphi. Cic. 
 Tusc. 1, c. 47. — Val. Max. 5, c. 4. — tierodot. 1, 
 c. 31. — Plut. de Cons, ad Apol. 
 
 CLEOBtjLiNA, a daughter of Cleobulus, re- 
 markable for her genius, learning, judgment, 
 and courage. She composed enigmas, some of 
 which have been preserved. One of them runs 
 thus: "A father had 12 children, and these 12 
 children had each 30 white sons and 30 black 
 daughters, who were immortal, though they 
 die every day." In this there is no need of an 
 CEdipus to discover that there are 12 months in 
 the year, and that every month consists of 30 
 days and of the same number of nights. Laert. 
 
 Cleobulus, one of the seven wise men of 
 Greece, son of Evagoras of Lindos, famous for 
 the beautiful shape of his body. He wrote some 
 few verses, and died in the 70th year of his age, 
 B. C. 564. Diog. in vita. — Plut. in Symp. 
 
 Cleomedes, a famous athlete of Astypalaea, 
 above Crete. In a combat at Olympia he killed 
 one of his antagonists by a blow with his fist. 
 On account of this accidental murder he was 
 deprived of the victory, and he became delirious. 
 In his return to Astypalaea, he entered a school, 
 and pulled down the pillars which supported the 
 roof, and crushed to death 60 boys. He was 
 pursued with stones, and he fled for shelter into 
 a tomb, whose doors he so strongly secured that 
 his pursuers were obliged to break them for ac- 
 cess. When the tomb was opened, Cleomedes 
 could not be found either dead or alive. The 
 oracle of Delphi was consulted, and gave this 
 answer: TJltimus heroum Cleomedes Astypalces. 
 Upon this they offered sacrifices to him as a 
 god. Paus. 6, c. 9. — Plut. in Rom. 
 
 Cleomenes 1st, king of Sparta, conquered 
 the Argives, and burnt 5000 of them by setting 
 fire to a grove where they had fled, and freed 
 Athens from the tyranny of the Pisistratim. 
 By bribing the oracle, he pronounced Demara- 
 tus, his colleague on the throne, illegitimate, be- 
 cause he refused lopunish the people of TEgina, 
 405 
 
CL 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 CL 
 
 who had deserted the Greeks. He killed him- 
 self in a fit of madness, 491 B.C. Herodot. 5, 
 6 and 7. — Paus. 8, c. 3, «fec. The 2d, suc- 
 ceeded his brother Agesipolis 2d. He reigned 
 61 years in the greatest tranquillity, and was 
 father to Acrotatus and Cleonymus, and was 
 succeeded by A reus 1st, son of Acrotatus. Paus. 
 
 3, c. 6. The 3d, succeeded his father Leoni- 
 
 das. He was of an enterprising spirit, and re- 
 solved to restore the ancient discipline of Lycur- 
 gus in its full force by banishing luxury and in- 
 temperance. He killed the Ephori, and remov- 
 ed by poison his royal colleague Eurydamides, 
 and made his own brother, Euclidas, king, 
 against the laws of the state, which forbade more 
 than one of the same family to sit on the throne. 
 He made war against the Achseans, and at- 
 tempted to destroy their league. Aratus, the 
 general of the Achssans, who supposed himself 
 inferior to his enemy, called Antigonus to his 
 assistance; and Cleomenes, when he had fought 
 the unfortunate battle of Sellasia, B. G. 222, 
 retired into Egypt, to the court of Ptolemy 
 Evergetes, where his wife and children had fled 
 before him. Ptolemy received him with great 
 cordiality ; but his successor, weak and suspi- 
 cious, soon expressed his jealousy of this noble 
 stranger, and imprisoned him. Cleomenes kill- 
 ed himself, and his body was flayed and exposed 
 on a cross, B. C. 219. Polyb. 6. — Plut. in vita. 
 — Justin. 28, c. 4. 
 
 Cleon, an Athenian, who, though originally 
 a tanner, became general of the armies of the 
 state by his intrigues and eloquence. He took 
 Thoron in Thrace, and after distinguishing 
 himself in several engagements, he was killed at 
 Amphipolis, in a battle with Brasidas the Spar- 
 tan general, 422 B. C. Thucyd. 3, 4, &c.— 
 Diod. 12. 
 
 Cleonica, a young virgin of Byzantmm, 
 whom Pausanias, king of Sparta, invited to his 
 bed. She was introduced into his room when 
 he was asleep, and unluckily overturned a burn- 
 ing lamp which was by the side of the bed. 
 Pausanias was awakened at the sudden noise, 
 and thinking it to be some assassin, he seized 
 his sword, and killed Cleonica before he knew 
 who it was. Paus. 7, c. 17. — Plut. in Cim. 
 
 Cleonymus, I. a son of Cleonemes 2d, who 
 called Pyrrhus to his assistance, because Areus, 
 his brother's son, had been preferred to him in 
 the succession ; but the measure was unpopular, 
 and even the women united to repel the foreign 
 prince. His wife was unfaithful to his bed, and 
 committed adultery with Acrotatus. Plut. in 
 
 Pyrrh. — Paus. 1, c. 3. II A person so cow- 
 
 ardly,that Cleonymo timidior became proverbial. 
 
 Cle5patra, I. the grand-daughter of Attalus, 
 betrothed to Philip of Macedonia, after he had 
 divorced Olympias. When Philip was mur- 
 dered by Pausanias, Cleopatra was seized by 
 order of Olympias, and put to death, Diod. 16, 
 — Justin. 9, c. 7. — Plut. in Pyrrh. II. A sis- 
 ter of Alexander the Great, who married Per- 
 diccas, and was killed by Antigonus as she at- 
 tempted to fly to Ptolemy in Egypt. Diod. 16 
 
 and 20.— Justin. 9, c, 6, 1, 13, c. 6. III, A 
 
 wife of Tigranes, king of Armenia, sister of 
 Mithridates, Justin. 38, c. 3. IV, A daugh- 
 ter of Ptolemy Philometor, who married Alex- 
 ander Bala, and afterwards Nicanor, She 
 killed Seleucus, Nicanor's son, because he as- 
 406 
 
 cended ihe throne without her consent. She 
 was suspected of preparing poison for Antio- 
 chus her son, and compelled lo drink it herself, 
 B. C. 120. V. A wife and .sister of Ptole- 
 my Evergetes, who raised her son Alexander, 
 a minor, to the throne of Egypt, in preference 
 to his elder brother, Ptolemy Lathurus, whose 
 interest the people favoured. As Alexander 
 was odious, Cleopatra suflered Lathurus to as- 
 cend the throne, on condition, however, that he 
 should repudiate his sister and wife, called Cle- 
 opatra, and married Seleuca, his younger sis- 
 ter. She afterwards raised her favourite, Al- 
 exander, to the throne ; but her cruelties were so 
 odious that he fled to avoid her tyranny, Cle- 
 opatra laid snares for him ; and when Alexan- 
 der heard it, he put her to death, Justin. 39, c, 3 
 
 and 4. VI. A queen of Egypt, daughter of 
 
 Ptolemy Auletes, and sister and wife to Ptole- 
 my Dionysius, celebrated for her beauty and 
 her cunning. She admitted Caesar to her arms, 
 to influence him to give her the kingdom in 
 preference to her brother, who had expelled her, 
 and had a son by him called CaBsarion. As 
 she had supported Brutus, Antony, in his expe- 
 dition to Parthia, summoned her to appear De- 
 fore him. . She arrayed herself in the most 
 magnificent apparel, and appeared before her 
 judge in the most captivating attire. Her ar- 
 tifice succeeded : Antony, became enamoured of 
 her, and publicly married her, forgetful of his 
 connexion with Octavia, the sister of Augus- 
 tus. He gave her the greatest part of the eastern 
 provinces of the Roman empire. This beha- 
 viour was the cause of a rupture between Au- 
 gustus and Aniony ; and these two celebrated 
 Romans met at Actium. where Cleopatra, by 
 flying with sixty sail, ruined the interest of An- 
 tony, and he was defeated. Cleopatra had re- 
 tired to Egypt, where soon after Antony fol- 
 lowed her. Antony killed himself upon the 
 false information that Cleopatra was dead ; and 
 as his wound was not mortal, he was carried to 
 the queen, who drew him up by a cord from one 
 of the windows of the monument where she had 
 retired and concealed herself Antony soon af- 
 ter died of his wounds ; and Cleopatra, after she 
 had received pressing invitations from Augus- 
 tus, and even pretended declarations of love, de- 
 stroyed herself by the bite of an asp, not to fall 
 into the conqueror's hands. Her beauty has 
 been greatly commended, and her mental per- 
 fections so highly celebrated, that she has been 
 described as capable of giving audience to the 
 ambassadors of seven different nations, and of 
 speaking their various languages as fluently as 
 her own. In Antony's absence she improved 
 the public library of Alexandria, with the addi- 
 tion of that of Pergamus. Two treatises, de 
 medicamine faciei epistola eroticcB, and de mor- 
 bis mulierum, have been falsely attributed to her. 
 She died B. C. 30 years, after a reign of 24 
 years, aged 39. Egypt became a Roman pro- 
 vince at her death. Flor. 4, c. \\.—Appian. 5, 
 Bell. Civ.— Plut. in Pomp. (^ Ant.—fforat. 1, 
 od. 37, V.21, &c.—Strab. 17. 
 
 Cleophes, a queen of India, who submitted 
 to Alexander, by whom,, as some suppose, she 
 had a son. Curt. 8, c. 10. 
 
 Cleophon, was contemporary with Critias. 
 His style was perspicuous, but not elevated, and 
 sometimes the addition of a lofty-sounding ep- 
 
CA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CL 
 
 ithet to a trifling noun made it ridiculous. His 
 characters were drawn with an accurate but 
 unpoetic adherence to reality. Ten tragedies of 
 his are enumerated by Suidas and Eudocia, 
 and a piece called Mavcpd0ov\os by Aristotle, 
 from its name a comedy or other light poem. 
 
 Cleora, the wife of Agesilaus. Plut. in 
 Ages, 
 
 Cleostratus, I. a youth devoted to be sa- 
 crificed to a serpent among the Thespians, &c. 
 
 Paus. 9, c. 26. II. An ancient philosopher 
 
 and astronomer of Tenedos, about 536 years 
 before Christ. He first found the constellations 
 of the zodiac, and reformed the Greek calender. 
 
 Clesides, a Greek painter, about 276 years 
 before Christ, who revenged the injuries he had 
 received from queen Stratonice, by represent- 
 ing her in the arm^ of a fisherman. However 
 indecent the painter might represent the queen, 
 she was drawn with such personal beauty, that 
 she preserved the piece and liberally rewarded 
 the artist. 
 
 Clinias, I. a Pythagorean philosopher and 
 musician, 520 years before the Christian era. 
 
 Plut. Symp.—^lian. V. H. 14, c. 23. II. 
 
 A son of Alcibiades, the bravest man in the 
 Greecian fleet that fought against Xerxes. He- 
 
 rodot. 8,.c. 7. III. The father of Alcibiades, 
 
 killed at the baule of Coronea. Plut. i/i Ale. 
 
 IV. The father of Aratus, killed by Aban- 
 
 tidas, B. C. 263. Plut. in Aral. 
 
 Clincs of Cos, was general of 7000 Greeks 
 in the pay of king Nectanebus. He was killed 
 wiih some of his troops, by Nicostratus and the 
 Argives, as he passed the Nile. Diod. 16. 
 
 Clisthenes, I, the last tyrant of Sicyon. 
 
 Arislot. II. An Athenian, of the family of 
 
 Alcmaeon. It is said that he first established 
 ostracism, and that he was the first who was 
 banished by that institution. He banished Isa- 
 goras, and was himself soon after restored, 
 Plut. in Arist. — Herodot. 5, c. &&, &c. 
 
 CLiTARcmrs, I. a man who made himself ab- 
 solute at Eretria, by means of Philip of Mace- 
 donia. He was ejected by Phocion. II. 
 
 An historian, who accompanied Alexander the 
 Great, of whose life he wrote the history. CuH. 
 9, c. 5. 
 
 Clitomachus, a Carthaginian philosopher 
 of the third academy, who was pupil and suc- 
 cessor to Cameades at Athens, B. C. 128. 
 Diog. in vita. 
 
 Clitus, I. a familiar friend and foster-bro- 
 ther of Alexander. He had saved the king's 
 life in a bloody battle. Alexander killed him 
 with a javelin, in a fit of anger, because, at a 
 feast, he preferred the actions of Philip to those 
 of his son. Alexander was inconsolable for the 
 loss of a friend, whom he had sacrificed in the 
 hour of drunkenness and dissipation. Justin. 
 
 12, c. 6.— Plut. in Alex.— Curt. 4, &c. II. 
 
 An oflicer sent by Antipater, with 240 ships, 
 against the Athenians, whom he conquered 
 near Echinades. Diod. 18. 
 
 Clopia, I. the wife of LucuUus, repudiated 
 for her lasciviousness. Plut. in ImcuU. — ^—11. 
 An opulent matron at Rome, mother of D. 
 Brutus. Cic. ad. Attic. III. A vestal vir- 
 gin, who successfully repressed the rudeness of 
 a tribune that attempted to stop the procession 
 of her father in his triumph through the streets 
 of Rome. Cic. pro M. Ccel. IV. A wo- 
 
 man who married Gl. Metellus, and after- 
 wards disgraced herself by her amours with 
 Coelius. 
 
 Clodia Lex, de Cypro, was enacted by the 
 tribune Clodius, A. U. C. 695, to reduce Cy- 
 prus into a Roman province, and expose Ptole- 
 my king of Egj'pt to sale in his regal ornaments. 
 It empowered Cato to go with the praetorian 
 power, and see the auction of the king's goods, 
 and commissioned him to return the money 
 
 to Rome. Another, de Mo.gistraiibus, A. 
 
 U. C. 695, by Clodius the tribune. It for- 
 bade the censors to put a stigma or mark of in- 
 famy upon any person who had not been actu- 
 ally accused and condemned by both the cen- 
 
 sorG. Another, de Beligione, by the same, 
 
 A. U. C. 696, to deprive the priest of Cybele, 
 a native of Pessinus, of his oflice, and confer 
 the priesthood upon Brotigonus, a Gallo-gre- 
 
 cian. Another, de Provinciis, A. U, C. 
 
 695, which nominated the provinces of Syria, 
 Babylon, and Persia, to the consul Gabin us; 
 and Achaia, Thessaly, Macedon, and Greece, 
 to his colleague Piso, with pro-consular power. 
 It empowered them to defray the expenses of 
 their march from their public treasur}^ Ano- 
 ther, A. U. C. 695, which required the same 
 distribution of corn among the people gratis, 
 as had been given them before at six asses and 
 
 a iriens the bushel. Another, A. U. C. 695, 
 
 by the same, de Judiciis. It called to an ac- 
 count such as had executed a Roman citizen 
 without a judgment of the people, and all the 
 
 formalities of a trial. Another, by the same, 
 
 to pay no attention to the appearances of the 
 heavens, while any affair was before the people. 
 
 Another, to make the power of the tribunes 
 
 free, in making and proposing laws. Ano- 
 
 ther, to re-establish the companies of artists, 
 which had been instituted by Numa ; but since 
 his time abolished. 
 
 Clodius, Pb. a Roman descended from an 
 illustrious family, and remarkable for his licen- 
 tiousness, avarice, and ambition. He intro- 
 duced himself in women's clothes into the house 
 of J. Caesar, whilst Pompeia, Cassar's wife, of 
 whom he was enamoured, was celebrating the 
 mysteries of Ceres, where no man was permitted 
 to appear. He was accused for this violation of 
 human and divine laws ; but he corrupted his 
 judges, and by that means screened himself 
 from justice. He descended from a patrician 
 into a plebeian family to become a tribune. He 
 was an enemy to Cato, and also to Cicero ; and 
 by his influence he banished him from Rome, 
 partly on pretence that he had punished with 
 death, and without trial, the adherents of Cati- 
 line. He wreaked his vengeance upon Cice- 
 ro's house, which he burnt, and set all his goods 
 to sale ; which, however, to his great mortifica- 
 tion, no one offered to buy. In spite of Clodius, 
 Cicero was recalled, and all his goods restored 
 to him. Clodius was some time after murdered 
 by Milo, whose defence Cicero took upon him- 
 self. Plut. in Cic. — Appian. de Civ. 2. — Cic. 
 pro Milon. ^pro Domo. — Dio. 
 
 Clcelu, I. a Roman virgin, given with other 
 maidens as hostages to Porsenna, king of Etru- 
 ria. She escaped from her confinement, and 
 swam across the Tiber to Rome. Her unpre- 
 cedented virtue was rewarded by her country- 
 men with an equestrian statue in the Via Sa- 
 407 
 
GL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 COE 
 
 era. Liv. % c. IZ.— Virg. JEn. 8, v. 651.— 
 Dionys. Hal. 5. — Juv. 8, v, 265. IT. A pa- 
 trician family, descended from Cloelias, one of 
 the companions of iEneas. Dionys. 
 
 Clcblius Gracchus, I. a general of the Vcl- 
 sci and Sabines against Rome, conquered by Q,. 
 Cincinnatus the dictator. II. Tullus, a Ro- 
 man ambassador put to death by Tolumnius, 
 king of the Veientes. 
 
 Cluentius, a Roman citizen, accused by his 
 mother of having murdered his father, 54 years 
 B. C. He was ably defended by Cicero, in an 
 oration still extant. The family of the Cluentii 
 was descended from Cloanthus, one of the com- 
 panions of ^neas. Virg. ^n. 5, v. 122, — 
 Cic. pro Cluent. 
 
 Clusia, a daughter of an Etrurian king, of 
 whom V. Torquatus, the Roman general, be- 
 came enamoured. He asked her of her father, 
 who slighted his addresses ; upon which he be- 
 sieged and destroyed his town. Clusia threw 
 herself down from a high tower, and came to 
 the ground unhurt. Plut. in Parall. 
 
 Clymenus, a king of Orchomenos, son of 
 Presbon, and father of Erginus, Stratius, Ar- 
 rhon, and Axius. He received a wound from a 
 stone thrown by a Theban, of which he died. 
 His son Erginus, who succeeded him, made 
 war against the Thebans to revenge his death. 
 Pans. 9, c. 37. 
 
 Ci.YTEMNESTRA, a daughter of Tyndarus, 
 king of Sparta, by Leda. She was born, to- 
 gether with her brother Castor, from one of the 
 eggs which her mother brought forth after her 
 amour with Jupiter, under the form of a swan. 
 Clytemnestra married Agamemnon king of Ar- 
 gos. She had before married Tantalus, son of 
 Thyestes, according to some authors. When 
 Agamemnon went to the Trojan war, he left 
 his cousin ^Egysthus to take care of his wife, 
 of his family, and all his domestic affairs. Be- 
 sides this, a certain favourite musician was ap- 
 pointed by Agamemnon to watch over the con- 
 duct of the guardian as well as that of Clytem- 
 nestra. In the absence of Agamemnon, JSgys- 
 thus made his court to Clytemnestra, and pub- 
 licly lived with her. Her infidelity reached the 
 ears of Agamemnon before the walls of Troy, 
 and he resolved to take full revenge upon the 
 adulterers at his return. He was prevented 
 from putting his schemes into execution ; Cly- 
 temnestra, with her adulterer, murdered him at 
 his arrival, as he came out of the bath, or, ac- 
 cording to other accounts, as he sat down at a 
 feast prepared to celebrate his happy return. 
 After this murder, Clytemnestra publicly mar- 
 ried ^gysthus, and he ascended the throne of 
 Argos. Orestes, after an absence of seven 
 years, returned to Mycenae, resolved to avenge 
 his father's murder. He concealed himself in 
 the house of his sister Electra, who had been 
 married by the adulterers to a person of mean 
 extraction and indigent circumstances. His 
 death was publicly announced ; and when 
 JEgysthus and Clytemnestra repaired to the 
 temple of Apollo, to return thanks to the god 
 for the death of the surviving son of Agamem- 
 non, Orestes, who, with his faithful friend Py- 
 lades, had concealed himself in the temple, rush- 
 ed upon the adulterers and killed them with his 
 own hand. They were buried without the 
 walls of the city, as their remains were deemed 
 408 
 
 unworthy to be laid in the sepulchre of Aga- 
 memnon. Vid. jEgysthus, Agamemnon, Ores- 
 tes, Electra. Diod. 4. — Homer. Od. 11. — Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. IQ.—Paus. 2, c. 18 and ^.—Euri- 
 pid. Iphig. in Aul. — Hygin. fab. 117 and 140. 
 — Propert. 3. el. 19. — Virg. JEn. 4, v. 471. — 
 Philostr. Icon. 2, c. 9. 
 
 Cnemus, a Macedonian general, unsuccessful 
 in an expedition against the Acarnanians. Diod. 
 12.— Thucyd 2,c. 66,&c, 
 
 Cneus, or Cnjeus, a praenomen common to 
 many Romans. 
 
 Cnopus, one of the descendants of Codrus, 
 who went to settle a colony. Polyan. 8. 
 
 CoccEius Nerva, I. a friend of Horace and 
 Mecsenas, and grandfather to the emperor Ner- 
 va. He was one of those who settled the dis- 
 putes between Augustus and Antony. He af- 
 terwards accompanied Tiberius in his retreat in 
 Campania, and starved himself to death. Tacit. 
 Ann. 4, c. 58, and 6, c. 26. — Horat. 1, Sat. 5, 
 
 V. 27. II. An architect of Rome, one of 
 
 whose buildings is still in being, the present ca- 
 thedral of Naples. III. A man* to whom 
 
 Nero granted a triumph, after the discovery of 
 the Pisonian conspiracy. Tacit. 15,' Ann. c. 72. 
 
 Cocles, Pub. Horat. a celebrated Roman, 
 who, alone, opposed the whole army of Porsen- 
 na at the head of a bridge, while his companions 
 behind him were cutting off the communication 
 with the other shore. When the bridge was 
 destroyed, Cocles, though severely wounded in 
 the leg by the darts of the enemy, leapt into the 
 Tiber, and swam across with his arms. A bra- 
 zen statue was raised to him in the temple of 
 Vulcan, by the consul Publicola, for his emi- 
 nent services. He had the use only of one eye, 
 as Cocles signifies. Liv. 2, c. 10. — Val. Max. 
 3, c. 2.— Virg. jEn. 8, v. 650. 
 
 CoDOMANUs, a surname of Darius the third, 
 king of Persia. 
 
 CodridjE, the descendants of Codrus, who 
 went from Athens at the head of several colo- 
 nies. Paus. 7, c. 2. 
 
 Codrus, I. the 17th and last king of Athens, 
 son of Melanthus. When the Heraclidse made 
 war against Athens, the oracle declared that the 
 victory would be granted to that nation whose 
 king was killed in battle. The Heraclidae upon 
 this gave strict orders to spare the life of Cod- 
 rus, but the patriotic king disguised himself, 
 and attacked one of the enemy, by whom he 
 was killed. The Athenians obtained the victo- 
 ry, and Codrus was deservedly called the father 
 of his country. He reigned 22 years, and was 
 killed 1070 years before the Christian era. To 
 pay greater honour to his memory, the Athe- 
 nians made a resolution that no man after Cod- 
 rus should reign in Athens under the name of 
 king, and therefore the government was put into 
 the hands of perpetual archons. Paterc. 1, c. 
 2.— Justin. 2, c. 6 and l.—Paus. 1, c. 19, 1. 7, 
 
 c. 25.— Val. Max. 5, c. 6. II. Another, in 
 
 the reign of Domitian, whose poverty became 
 a proverb, J^iv. 3, v. 203. 
 
 CcELTA, the wife of Sylla. Plut. in Syll. 
 The Coelian family, which was plebeian, but 
 honoured with the "consulship, was descended 
 from Vibenna CcEles, an Etrurian, who came 
 to settle at Rome in the age of Romulus. 
 
 CcELios, I. a Roman, defended by Cicero. 
 II. Two brothers of Tarracina, accused of 
 
CO 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 CO 
 
 having murdered their father in his bed. They 
 were acquitted, when it was proved that they 
 were both asleep at the time of the murder. 
 
 Val. Max. 8, c. l.—Plut. in Cic. HI. A 
 
 man who, after spending his all in dissipation 
 and luxury, became a public robber with his 
 frieud Birrhus. Horat. 1, Sal. 4, v. 69. 
 
 CcENUs, an officer of Alexander, son-in-law 
 to Parmenio. He died of a distemper, in his 
 return from India. Curt. 9, c. 3. — Diod. 17. 
 
 Goes, a man of Mityiene, made sovereign 
 master of his country by Darius. His coun- 
 trymen stoned him to death. Herodot. 5, c. 11 
 and 38. 
 
 CoHORs, a division in the Roman armies, con- 
 sisting of about 600 men. It was the sixth part 
 of a legion, and consequently its number was 
 under the same fluctuations as that of the 
 legions, being sometimes more, and sometimes 
 less. 
 
 CoLJENUs, a king of Attica, before the age of 
 Cecrops, according to some accounts. Paus. 
 I, c. 31. 
 
 CoLLATJNus, L. T^RauiNius, a nephew of 
 Tarquin the Proud, who married Lucretia, to 
 whom Sext. Tarquin offered violence. He, 
 with Brums, drove the Tarquins from Rome, 
 and were made first consuls. As he was one of 
 the Tarquins, so much abominated by all the 
 Roman people, he laid down his office of con- 
 sul, and retired to Alba in voluntary banish- 
 ment. Liv. 1, c. 57, 1. 3, c. 2.—Flor. 1, c. 9. 
 
 Colo, Jun. a governor of Pontus, whobrought 
 Mithridates to the emperor Claudius. Tacit. 
 13, Ann. c. 21. 
 
 Colossus, a celebrated brazen image at 
 Rhodes, which passed forone of the seven won- 
 ders of the world. Its feet were upon the two 
 moles which formed the entrance of the harbour, 
 and ships passed in full sail between its legs. It 
 was 70 cubits, or 105 feet high, and every thing 
 in equal proportion, and few could clasp round 
 its thumb. It was the work of Chares, the dis- 
 ciple of Lysippus, and the artist was 12 years 
 in making it. It was begun 300 years before 
 Christ; and after it had remained unhurt during 
 56 or 58 years, it was partly demolished by an 
 earthquake, 224 B. C. A winding staircase 
 ran to the top, from which could easily be dis- 
 cerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that 
 sailed on the coast of Egypt, by the help of 
 glasses, which were hung on the neck of the 
 statue. It remained in ruins for the space of 
 894 years; and the Rhodians, who had received 
 several large contributions to repair it, divided 
 the money among themselves, and frustrated the 
 expectations of the donors, by saying that the 
 oracle of Delphi forbade them to raise it up 
 again from its ruins. In the year 672 of the 
 Christian era, it was sold by the Saracens, who 
 were msisters of the island, to a Jewish merchant 
 of Edessa, who loaded 900 camels with the brass, 
 whose value has been estimated at 36,000 
 pounds English money. 
 
 CoLOTEs, a Teian painter, disciple of Phidias. 
 Plin. 36, c. 8. 
 
 Columella, (L. Jun. Moderatus) a native of 
 Gades, who wrote, among other works, twelve 
 books on agriculture, of which the tenth, on gar- 
 dening, is in verse. The style is elegant, and 
 the work displays the genius of a naturalist and 
 the labours of an accurate observer. The best 
 
 Part IL— 3 F 
 
 edition of Columella is that of Gesner, 2 vols. 
 4to. Lips. 1735, and reprinted there 1772. 
 
 Coluthus, a native of Lycopolis in Egypt, 
 who wrote a short poem on the rape of Helen, 
 in imitation of Homer. The composition re- 
 mained long unknown, till it was discovered at 
 Lycopolis, in the 15th century, by the learned 
 cardinal Bessarion. Coluthus was, as some 
 ^suppose, a contemporary of Tryphiodorus. 
 
 CoMiNius, (Q,.) a Roman knight, who wrote 
 some illiberal verses against Tiberius, Tacit. 
 4, Ann. c. 31. 
 
 CoMiTu, (orum,) an assembly of the Roman, 
 people. The word is derived from Comitium, 
 the place where they were convened, quasi a, 
 ciiTn eundo. The Comitium was a large hall, 
 which was left uncovered at the top, in the first 
 ages of the republic; so that the assembly was 
 often dissolved in rainy weather. The Comitia 
 were called, some consularia, for the election of 
 the consuls ; others pratoria, for the election of 
 praetors, &c. These assemblies were more gen- 
 erally known by the name of Comitia, Curiata^ 
 Ceniuriata, and Tributa. The Curiata was 
 when the people gave their votes by curiae. The 
 Centuriata were not convened in later times. 
 ( Vid. Centuria.) Another assembly was called 
 Comitia Tributa, where the votes were receiv- 
 ed from the whole tribes together. At first the 
 Roman people were divided only into three 
 tribes ; but as their numbers increased, the tribes 
 were at last swelled to 35. The object of these 
 assemblies w^as the electing of magistrates, and 
 all the public officers of slate. They could be 
 dissolved by one of the tribunes, if he differed 
 in opinion from the rest of his colleagues. If 
 one among the people was taken with the falling 
 sickness, the whole assembly was immediately 
 dissolved ; whence that disease is called inorbis 
 comitalis. After the custom of giving their 
 votes vi'vavocehd.diheen abolished, every one of 
 the assembly, in the enacting of a law, was pre- 
 sented with two ballots, on one of which were the 
 letters U. R. that is, uti rogas, be it as it is re- 
 quired : on the other was an A, that is, antiqiio, 
 which bears the same meaning asantiquam volo, 
 I forbid it, the old law is more preferable. If 
 the number of ballots with U. R. was superior 
 to the A's the law was approved constitutional- 
 ly; if not, it was rejected. Only the chief ma- 
 gistrates, and sometimes the pontifices, had the 
 privilege of convening these assemblies. There 
 were only these eight of the magistrates who had 
 the power of proposing a law, the consuls, the 
 dictator, the praetor, the interrex, the decemvirs, 
 the military tribunes, the kings, and the trium- 
 virs. These were called majores magisiratus: 
 to whom one of the minores magistratus was 
 added, the tribune of the people. 
 
 CoMius, a man appointed king over the At- 
 trebates, by J. Caesar, for his services. Ccbs. 
 Bell. G. 4, c. 21. 
 
 CoMMODus, (L. Aurelius Antoninus) son of 
 M. Antoninus, succeeded his father in the Ro- 
 man empire. He was naturally cruel, and fond 
 of indulging his licentious propensities ; and re- 
 gardless of the instructions of philosophers and 
 of the decencies of nature, he corrupted his own. 
 sisters, and kept 300 women, and as many boys, 
 for his illicit pleasures. Desirous to be called 
 Hercules, like that hero, he adorned his shoul- 
 ders with a lion's skin, and armed his hand with 
 409 
 
CO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CO 
 
 a knotted club. He showed himself naked in 
 public, and fought with ihe gladiators, and 
 boasted of his dexterity in killing the wild beasts 
 in the amphitheatre. He required divine hon- 
 ours from the senate, and they were granted, 
 He was wont to put such an immense quantity 
 of gold dust in his hair, that when he appeared 
 bareheaded in the sunshine, his head glittered 
 as if surrounded with sunbeams. Martia, one 
 of his concubines, whose death he had prepared, 
 poisoned him ; but as the poison did not quickly 
 operate, he was strangled by a wrestler. He 
 died in the 31st year of his age, and the 13th of 
 his reign, A, D. 192. It has been observed, 
 that he never trusted himself to a barber, but 
 always burnt his beard in imitation of the ty- 
 rant Dionysius. Herodian. 
 
 CoMPiTALiA, festivals celebrated by the Ro- 
 mans the 12th of January and the 6th of March, 
 in the cross ways, in honour of the household 
 gods called Lares. Tarquin the Proud, or, ac- 
 cording to some, Servius Tullius, instituted 
 them, on account of an oracle which ordered 
 him to offer heads to the Lares. He sacrificed 
 to them human victims ; but J. Brutus, after the 
 expulsion of the Tarquins, thought it sufficient 
 10 offer them only poppy heads and men of straw. 
 The slaves were generally the ministers, and, 
 during the celebration, they enjoyed their free- 
 dom. Varro. de L. L. 5, c. 3. — Ovid. Fast. 5, 
 V. 140. — Dionys. Hal. 4. 
 
 CoNETODUNus and Cotuatus, two desperate 
 Gauls, who raised their countrymen against 
 Rome, &c. Cces. Bell. G. 7, c. 3. 
 
 Confucius, a Chinese philosopher, as much 
 honoured among his countrymen as a monarch. 
 He died about 479 years B. C. 
 
 CoNON, I. a famous general of Athens, son of 
 Timotheus. He was made governor of all the 
 islands of the Athenians, and was defeated in a 
 naval battle by Lysander, near the iEgospota- 
 mos. He retired in voluntary banishment to 
 Evagoras, king of Cyprus, and afterwards to 
 Artaxerxes king of Persia, by whose assist- 
 ance he freed his country from slavery. He de- 
 feated the Spartans near Cnidos, in an engage- 
 ment where Pisander, the enemy's admiral, 
 was killed. By his means the Athenians forti- 
 fied their city with a strong wall, and attempted 
 to recover Ionia and iEolia. He was perfidi- 
 ously betrayed by a Persian, and died in prison, 
 B. C. 393. C. Nep. in vita.—Plut. in Dys. cf. 
 
 Artax. — Isocrates. II. A Greek astronomer 
 
 of Samos, who. to gain the favour of Ptolemy 
 Evergetes, publicly declared that the queen's 
 locks, which had been dedicated in the temple of 
 Venus, and had since disappeared, were become 
 a constellation. He was intimate with Archi- 
 medes, and flourished 247 B. C. Catul. 67. — 
 
 Virg. Ed. 3, v. 40. III. A Grecian mytho- 
 
 logist, in the age of Julius Caesar, who wrote a 
 book which contained 40 fables, still extant, 
 
 preserved by Photius. There was a treatise 
 
 written on Italy by a man of the same name. 
 
 CoNsiDius jEauus, I. a Roman knight, &c. 
 Tacit. II. Caius, one of Pompey's adhe- 
 rents, &c. Cces Belt. Civ. 2, c. 23. 
 
 CoNSTANs, a son of Constantine. Vid. Con- 
 slantinus. 
 
 CoNSTANTiA, a grand-daughtcr of the great 
 Constantine, who married the emperor Gratian. 
 
 CoNSTANTiNUs, I. sumamcd the Great, from 
 410 
 
 the greatness of his exploits, was son of Con- 
 stantius. As soon as he became independent, 
 he assumed the title of Augustus, and made 
 war against Licinius, his brother-in-law and 
 colleague on the throne, because he was cruel 
 and ambitious. He conquered him, and obli- 
 ged him to lay aside the imperial power. It is 
 said, that as he was going to fight against Max- 
 entius, one of his rivals, he saw a cross in the 
 sky, with this inscription, ev rovroi viko, in hoc 
 vince. From this circumstance he became a 
 convert to Christianity, and obtained an easy 
 victory, ever after adopting a cross or labarum. 
 as his standard. After the death of Diocletian, 
 Maximian,Maxentius, Maximinus, andLicini- 
 us,who had reigned together, though in a subor- 
 dinate manner, Constantine became sole empe- 
 ror, and began to reform the state. He founded 
 a city where old Byzantium formerly stood, and 
 called it by his own name, Constantinopolis. 
 Thither he transported part of the Roman sen- 
 ate 5 and by keeping his court there, he made it 
 the rival of Rome in population and magnifi- 
 cence. From that -time the two imperial cities 
 began to look upon each other with an eye of 
 envy ; and soon after the age of Constantine, 
 a separation was made of two empires, and 
 Rome was called the capital of the western, 
 and Constantinopolis was called the capital 
 of the eastern dominions of Rome. The em- 
 peror has been distinguished for personal cour- 
 age, and praised for the protection he extend- 
 ed to the Christians. He at first persecuted 
 the Arians, but afterwards inclined to their 
 opinions. His murder of his son Crispus has 
 been deservedly censured. By removing the 
 Roman legions from the garrisons on the 
 rivers, he opened an easy passage to the bar- 
 barians, and rendered his soldiers unwarlike. 
 He defeated 100,000 Goths, and received into 
 his territories 300,000 Sarmatians,who had been 
 banished by their slaves, and allowed them land 
 to cultivate. Constantine was learned, and 
 preached, as well as composed, many sermons, 
 one of which remains. He died A. D, 337, 
 after a reign of 31 years of the greatest glory 
 and success. He left three sons, Constantinus, 
 Constans, and Constantius, among whom he 
 divided his empire. The first, who had Gaul, 
 Spain, and Britain, for his portion, was conquer- 
 ed by the armies of his brother Constans, and 
 killed in the 25th year of his age, A. D. 340. 
 Magnentius, the governor of the provinces of 
 Rhsetia, murdered Constans in his bed, after a 
 reign of 13 years over Italy, Africa, and Illyri- 
 cum; and Constantius, the only surviving 
 brother, now became the sole emperor, A. D. 
 353, punished his brother's murderer, and gave 
 way to cruelty and oppression. He visited 
 Rome, where he displayed a triumph, and died 
 in his march against Julian, who had been pro- 
 claimed independent emperor by his soldiers. — 
 The name of Constantine was very common 
 to the emperors of the east in a later period. 
 II. A private soldier in Britain, rais- 
 
 ed on account of his name to the imperial dig- 
 nity. III. A general of Belisarius. 
 
 Constantius Chlorus, I. son of Eutropius, 
 and father of the great Constantine, merited the 
 title of Caesar, which he obtained, by his victo- 
 ries in Britain and Germany. He became the 
 colleague of Galerius on the abdication of Dio- 
 
CO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CO 
 
 cletian ; and after bearing the character of a hu- 
 mane and benevolent prince, he died at York, 
 and made his son his successor, A. D. 306. 
 
 II. The second son of Constantine the Great, 
 Vid. Constantinus. III. The father of Ju- 
 lian and Gallus, was son of Constantius by- 
 Theodora, and died A. D. 337. IV. A Ro- 
 man general of Nyssa, who married Placidia, 
 the sister of Honorius, and was proclamied em- 
 peror, aa honour he enjoyed only seven months. 
 He died, universally regretted, 421 A. D. and 
 was succeeded by his son Valentinian in the 
 west. 
 
 CoNSDALES LuDi, or CoNsalLiA, festivals at 
 Rome in honour of Consus, the god of counsel, 
 whose altar Romulus discovered under the 
 ground. This altar was always covered, except 
 at the festival, when a mule was sacrificed, and 
 games and horseraces exhibited in honour of 
 Neptune. It was during these festivals that Ro- 
 mulus carried away the Sabine women who had 
 assembled to.be spectators of the games. They 
 were first instituted by Romulus. Some say, 
 however, that Romulus only regulated and re- 
 instituted them after they had been before estab- 
 lished by Evander. During the celebration, 
 which happened about the middle of August, 
 horses, mules, and asses, were exempted from 
 ail labours, and were led through the streets 
 adorned with garlands and flowers. Auson. GQ, 
 v. d.— Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 199.— iir. 1, c. 9.— 
 Dionys. Hal. 
 
 Consul, a magistrate at Rome, with regal 
 . authority for the space of one year. There were 
 two consuls, a consulendo. annually chosen in 
 the Campus Martius. The two first consuls 
 were L. Jun. Brutus, and L. Tarquinius Colla- 
 tinus, chosen A. U. C. 244, after the expulsion 
 of the Tarquins. In the first ages of the repub- 
 lic, the two consuls were always chosen from 
 patrician families or noblemen ; but the people 
 obtained the privilege, A. U. C. 388, of elect- 
 ing one of the consuls from their own body ; and 
 sometimes both were plebeians. The first con- 
 sul among the plebeians was L. Sextius. It was 
 required that every candidate for the consulship 
 should be 43 years of age, called legitimum tem- 
 pus. He was always to appear at the election 
 as a private man, without a retinue ; and it was 
 requisite, before he canvassed for the office, to 
 have discharged the inferior functions of quaes- 
 tor, edile, and prcetor. Sometimes these quali- 
 fications were disregarded. Val. Corvinus was 
 made a consul in his 23d year, and Scipioinhis 
 24th. Young Marius, Pompey, and Augustus, 
 were also under the proper age when they were 
 invested with the office, and Pompey had never 
 been quaestor or praetor. The power of the con- 
 .suls was unbounded, and they knew no superior 
 but the gods and the laws: but after the expira- 
 tion of their office, their conduct was minutely 
 scrutinized by the people, and misbehaviour was 
 often punished by the laws. The badge of their 
 office was the praiexta, a robe fringed with pur- 
 ple, afterwards exchanged for the toga picta or 
 palmata. They v\rere preceded by 12 lictors, 
 carrying the fasces or bundle of sticks, in the 
 middle of which appeared an axe. The axe, 
 being the characteristic rather of tyranny than 
 of freedom, was taken away from the fasces 
 by Valerius Publicola, but it was restored by 
 his successor. The consuls took it by turns, 
 
 monthly, to be preceded by the lictors while at 
 Rome, lest the appearance of two persons with 
 the badges of royal authority should raise appre- 
 hensions in the multitude. While one appeared 
 publicly in state, only a crier walked before the 
 other, and the lictors followed behind without 
 the fasces. Their authority was equal ; yet the 
 Valerian law gave the right of priority to the old- 
 er, and the Julian law to him who had the most 
 children, and he was generally called co7t,sul ma- 
 jor or prior. As their power was absolute, they 
 presided over the senate, and could convene and 
 dismiss it at pleasure. The senators were their 
 counsellors ; and among the Romans, the man- 
 ner of reckoning their years was by the name 
 of the consuls ; and by M Tull. Cicerone <^ L. 
 Antonio Consulibus, for instance, the year of 
 Rome 691 was always understood. This cus- 
 tom lasted from the year of Rome 244 till the 
 year 1294, or 541st year of the Christian era, 
 when the consular office was totally suppressed 
 by Justinian. In public assemblies the consuls 
 sat in ivory chairs, and held in their hands an 
 ivory wand, called scipio eburneus, which had 
 an eagle on its top, as a sign of dignity and pow- 
 er. When they had drawn by lot the provinces 
 over which they were to preside during their 
 consulship, they went to the capitol to offer 
 their prayers to the gods, and entreat them to 
 protect the republic : after this they, departed 
 from the city, arrayed in their military dress, and 
 preceded by the lictors. Sometimes the prov- 
 inces were assigned them, without drawing by 
 lot, by the will and appointment of the senators. 
 At their departure, they were provided by the 
 state with whatever was requisite during their 
 expedition. In their provinces they were both 
 attended by the 12 lictors, and equally invested 
 with legal authority. They were not permitted 
 to return to Rome without the special command 
 of the senate, and they always remained in the 
 province till the arrival of their successor. At 
 their return they harangued the people, and 
 solemnly protested that they had done nothing 
 against the laws or interests of their country, but. 
 had faithfully and diligently endeavoured to pro- 
 mote the greatness and welfare of the state. No 
 man could be consul two following years , yet 
 this institution was sometimes broken ; and we 
 find Marius re-elected consul, after the expira- 
 tion of his office, during the Cimbrian war. The 
 office of consul, so dignified during the times of 
 the commonwealth, became a mere title under 
 the emperors, and retained nothing of its au- 
 thority but the useless ensigns of original digni- 
 ty. Even the office of consul, which was origin- 
 ally annual, was reduced to two or three months 
 by J. Caesar : but they who were admitted on 
 the first of January denominated the year, and 
 were called ordinarii. Their successors, dur- 
 ing the year, were distinguished by the name of 
 sufecti. Til3erius and Claudius abridged the 
 time of the consulship, and the emperor Com- 
 modus made no less than 25 consuls in one year. 
 Constantine the Great renewed the original in- 
 stitution, and permitted them to be a whole year 
 in office. The two first consuls, A. U. C. 244, 
 were L. Jun. Brutus and L. Tarq. Collatinus. 
 Collatinus retired from Rome, and Pub. Valerius 
 was chosen in his room. When Brutus was kill- 
 ed in battle, Sp, Lucretius was elected to suc- 
 ceed him ; and afTer the death of Lucretius, Mar- 
 411 
 
CO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CO 
 
 cus Horatius was chosen for the rest of the year 
 •with Valerius Publicola. The first consulship 
 lasted about 16 months, during which the Ro- 
 mans fought against the Tarquins, and the 
 capitol was dedicated. From the time of Au- 
 gustus the consular authority may be consider- 
 ed at an end, though consuls continued to be 
 elected till the latest days of the empire. The 
 Italians always retained a fondness for this 
 name, and the principal officers of the republics 
 of the middle ages were generally called 
 consuls. 
 
 CoRAx, an ancient rhetorician of Sicily, who 
 first demanded salary of his pupils. Cic. in 
 Brut. 12, de orat. 1, c. 20.—Aul. Gell. 5, c. 10. 
 — Quintil. 3, c. 1. 
 
 CoRBULo, (Doraitius,) a prefect of Belgium, 
 who, when governor of Syria, routed the Par- 
 thians, destroyed Artaxata, and made Tigranes 
 king of Arinenia. Nero, jealous of his virtues, 
 ordered hhn to be murdered ; and Corbulo, hear- 
 ing this, fell upon his sword, exclaiming, I have 
 well deserved this ! A. D. Q6. His name was 
 given to a place (Monumentum) in Germany, 
 which some suppose to be modern Groningen. 
 Tacit. Ann. 11, c. 18. 
 
 CoRDUs. Vid. Cremutius. 
 
 CoRiNNA, L a celebrated woman of Tanagra, 
 near Thebes, disciple to Myrtis. Her fathei's 
 name was Archelodorus. It is said that she 
 obtained five times a poetical prize, in which 
 Pindar was her competitor; but it must be ac- 
 knowledged that her beauty greatly contributed 
 to defeat her rivals. She had composed 50 books 
 of epigrams and odes, of which only some few 
 verses remain. Propert. 2, el, 3. — Paus. 9, c. 
 
 22. II. Corinna, a wanton, enticing beauty, 
 
 whose real name and family ihe commentators 
 and biographers have ineffectually laboured to 
 discover. From the elegies of Ovid, it appears 
 that she was a married woman, but it does not 
 seem to have been known even at Rome in the 
 poet's time, who the lady was that he sung under 
 that fictitious name ; and others than the true 
 Corinna advanced their vain pretensions to the 
 celebrity which his verses conferred. It is quite 
 improbable that Corinna denoted Julia, the 
 daughter of Augustus, and impossible that she 
 represented Julia his grand-daughter, who was 
 but an infant when Ovid recorded his amours 
 with Corinna. It is evident, however, that she 
 was a lady of some distinction, and of a rank 
 superior to his own. She was attended not only 
 by a waiting-maid, but a watchful eunuch. 
 The poet compares her to Semiramis, and 
 speaks of her condescension towards him as re- 
 sembling that of the goddess Calypso in loving 
 Ulysses. Corinna, whoever she may have been, 
 always held the first place among his mistress- 
 es, and his passion for her is the chief subject 
 of his amatory poems. But even she, with all 
 her charms and fascinations, was compelled to 
 share his affections not only with the legal part- 
 ners of his heart, but with her own attendant ; 
 which, however, he perhaps justified, as one of 
 the arts practised for gaining the affections of 
 the mistress. 
 
 CoRiNNus, an ancient poet in the time of the 
 Trojan war, on which he wrote a poem. Ho- 
 mer, as some suppose, took his subject from the 
 poem of Corinnus. 
 
 CoRioLANUs, the surname of C. Martius, 
 412 
 
 from his victory over Corioli. When master of 
 the place, he accepted, as the only reward, the 
 surname of Coriolanus, a horse, and prisoners, 
 and his ancieni host, to whom he immediately 
 gave his liberty. After a number of military 
 exploits, and many services to his country, he 
 was refused the consulship by the people, when 
 his scars had for a while influenced them in his 
 favour. This raised his resentment ; and when 
 the Romans had received a present of corn from 
 Gelo, king of Sicily, Coriolanus insisted that it 
 should be sold for money and not be given gratis. 
 Upon this the tribunes raised the people against 
 him, and even wished to put him to death. 
 This rigorous sentence was stopped by ihe in- 
 fluence of the senators, and Coriolanus submit- 
 ted to a trial. He was banished by a majority 
 of three tribes, and he immediately retired 
 among the Volsci, to Tullus Aufidius, his great- 
 est enemy, from whom he met a most friendly 
 reception. He advised him to make war against 
 Rome, and he marched at the head of the Volsci 
 as general. The approach of Coriolanus greatly 
 alarmed the Romans, who sent him several em- 
 bassies to reconcile him to his country and to 
 solicit his return. He was deaf to all proposals, 
 and bade them prepare for war. He pitched 
 his camp only at the distance of five miles from 
 the city; and his enmity against his country 
 would have been fatal, had not his mother Vo- 
 lumnia, and his wife Vergilia, been prevailed 
 upon by the Romon matrons to go and appease 
 his resentment. The meeting of Coriolanus with 
 his family was tender and affecting. He re- 
 mained long inexorable; but at last the tears and 
 entreaties of a mother and a wife prevailed over 
 the stern and obstinate resolutions of an enemy, 
 and Coriolanus marched the Volsci from the 
 neighbourhood of Rome. To show their sense 
 of Volumnia's merit and patriotism, the Romans 
 dedicated a temple to Female Fortune. The be- 
 haviour of Coriolanus, however, displeased the 
 Volsci. He was summoned to appear before 
 the people of Antium, and was murdered on the 
 place appointed for his trial, B. C. 488. His 
 body was honoured with a magnificent funeral 
 by the Volsci, and the Roman matrons put on 
 mourning for his loss. Some historians say 
 that he died in exile, in an advanced old age. 
 Plut. in vita. — Flor. 2, c. 22. 
 
 Cornelia Lex, de Civiiate, was enacted A. 
 U. C. 670, by L. Corn. Sylla. It confirmed the 
 Sulpician law, and required that the citizens of 
 the eight newly elected tribes should be divided 
 
 among the 35 ancient tribes. Another, de 
 
 Judiciis, A. U. C. 673, by the same. It or- 
 dained that the prastor should always observe 
 the same invariable method in judicial proceed- 
 ings, and that the process should not depend 
 
 upon his will. Another, de Svmptibus, by 
 
 the same. It limited the expenses which gen- 
 erally attended funerals. Another, de Re- 
 
 ligione, by the same, A. U. C. 677. It restored 
 to the college of priests the privilege of choosing 
 the priests, which, by the Domitian law, had 
 been lodged in the hands of the people.— — An- 
 other, de Mitnicipiis, by the same ; which re- 
 voked all the privileges which had been some 
 time before granted to the several towns that 
 had assisted Marius and Cinna in the civil 
 
 wars. Another, de Magistratibus,^ by the 
 
 same : which gave the power of bearing hon- 
 
CO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CO 
 
 ours and being promoied before the legal age, 
 to those who had followed the interest of Sylla, 
 while the sons and partisans of his enemies, 
 who had been proscribed, were deprived of the 
 privilege of standing for any office of the state. 
 
 Another, de Magistratibus, by the same, 
 
 A. U. C, 673. It ordained that no person 
 should exercise the same office within ten years' 
 distance, or be invested with two different ma- 
 gistracies in one year. Another, de Magis- 
 
 iraiihcs, A. U. C. 673. It divested the tribunes 
 of the privilege of making laws, interfering, 
 holding assemblies, and receiving appeals. All 
 such as had been tribunes were incapable of 
 holding any other office in the state by that law, 
 
 Another, de Majestate, by the same, A. 
 
 U. C. 670. It made it treason to send an army 
 out of a province, or engage m a war without 
 orders, to influence the soldiers to spare or ran- 
 som a captive general of the enemy, to pardon 
 the leaders of robbers or pirates, or for the ab- 
 sence of a Roman citizen to a foreign court, 
 without previous leave. The punishment was 
 
 aqua et ignis interdictio. Another, by the 
 
 same, which gave the power to a man accused 
 of murder, either by poison, weapons, or false 
 accusations, and the setting fire to buildings, to 
 choose whether the jury that tried him should 
 give their verdict dam or po2am viva voce^ or by 
 
 ballots. Another, by the same, which made 
 
 it aqucB et ignis interdictioio such as were guilty 
 of forgery, concealing and altering of wills, cor- 
 ruption, false accusations, and the debasing or 
 counterfeiting of the public coin ; all such as 
 were accessary to this offence, were deemed as 
 
 guilty as the offender. Another, de pecuniis 
 
 repetundis, by which a man convicted of pecula- 
 tion or extortion in the provinces, was condemn- 
 ed to suffer the aqua et ignis interdictio. 
 
 Another, by the same, which gave the power to 
 such as were sent into the provinces with any 
 government, of retaining their command and 
 appointment without a renewal of it by the 
 
 senate, as was before observed. Another, by 
 
 the same, which ordained that the lands of pro- 
 scribed persons, should be common, especially 
 those about Volaterrte and Fesulae in Etruria, 
 
 which Sylla divided among his soldiers. 
 
 Another, by C. Cornelius, tribune of the peo- 
 ple, A. U. C. 686 ; which ordained that no per- 
 son should be exempted from any law, accord- 
 ing to the general custom, unless 200 senators 
 were present in the senate ; and no person thus 
 exempted, could hinder the bill of his exemp- 
 tion from being carried to the people for their 
 
 concurrence. Another, by Nasica, A. U. C. 
 
 582, to make war against Perseus, son of Philip, 
 king of Macedonia, if he did not give proper 
 satisfaction to the Roman people. 
 
 Cornelia, I. a daughter of Cinna, who was 
 the first wife of J. Caesar. She became mother 
 of Julia, Pompey's wife, and was so affection- 
 ately loved by her husband, that at her death 
 he pronounced a funeral oration over her body. 
 
 Plut. in Cces. IT. A daughter of Metellus 
 
 Scipio, who married Pompey after the death of 
 her husband P. Crassus. She ha? been praised 
 
 for her great virtues. Plut. in Pomp. III. 
 
 A daughter of Scipio Africanus, who married 
 Sempronius Gracchus, and was the mother of 
 Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. She was court- 
 ed by a king, but she preferred being the wife 
 
 of a Roman citizen to that of a monarch. Her 
 virtues have been deservedly commended, as 
 well as the wholesome principles she inculcated 
 in her two sons. When a Campanian lady 
 made once a show of her jewels at Cornelia's 
 house, and entreated her to favour her with a 
 sight of her own, Cornelia produced her two 
 sons, saying, These are the only jewels of which 
 \ can boast. A statue was raised to her, with 
 this inscription, Cornelia mater Gracchorum. 
 Some of her epistles are preserved. Plut. in 
 Gracch. — Juv. 6, v. 167. — Val. Max. 4, c, 4. — 
 Cic. in Brut. 58, de El. Or. 58. 
 
 CoRNELn, Cossus, I, a military tribune during 
 the time that there were no consuls in the re- 
 public. He offered to Jupiter the spoils called 
 opima. Liv. 4, c. 19. II. Scipio, a man ap- 
 pointed master of the horse, by Camillus, when 
 
 dictator. III. C. Nepos, an historian, Vid. 
 
 Nepos. IV, Merula, a consul, sent against 
 
 the Boii in Gaul. He killed 1400 of them. His 
 grandson followed the interest of Sylla ; and 
 when Marius entered the city, he killed himself 
 
 by opening his veins. V. Severus, an epic 
 
 poet in the age of Augustus, of great genius. 
 He wrote a poem on mount ^tna, and on the 
 
 death of Cicero, Quintil. 10, v. 1. VI. 
 
 Aur, Celsus, wrote eight books on medicine, still 
 
 extant, and highly valued. VII. Cn, and 
 
 Publ. Scipio, Vid. Scipio. 
 
 CoRNiFicius, I. a poet and general in the age 
 of Augustus, employed to accuse Brutus, &c. 
 His sister Cornificia was also blessed with a po- 
 etical genius, Plut. in Brut. II, A lieu- 
 tenant of J. Caesar. Id. in Cces.—, — III. A friend 
 of Cicero and his colleague in the office of augur. 
 
 CoRNiJTUs, I. A stoic philosopher of Africa, 
 preceptor to Persius, the satirist. He wrote 
 some treatises on philosophy and rhetoric. Pers. 
 5, V. 36. II. A Roman, saved from the pro- 
 scription of Marius by his servants, who hung 
 a dead man in his room, and said it was their 
 master. Plut. in Mario. 
 
 CoRCEBUs, I, a Phrygian, son of Mygdon and 
 Anaximena. He assisted Priam in the Trojan 
 war, with the hopes of being rewarded wilh the 
 hand of Cassandra, Cassandra advised him 
 in vain to retire from the war. He was killed 
 by Peneleus. Paus. 10, c. 27. — Virg. yEw. 2, 
 
 v. 341, &c, II. A courier of Elis, killed by 
 
 Neoptolemus. He obtained a prize at Olyra- 
 pia, B. C, 776, in the 28th olympiad, from the 
 institution of Iphitus; but this year has gene- 
 rally been called the first olympiad, Paus. 5, 
 c. 8. 
 
 CoRviNus, I. a name given to M, Valerius 
 from a crow, which assisted him when he was 
 fighting against a Gaul. II. Messala, an elo- 
 quent orator in the Augustan age, distinguish- 
 ed for integrity and patriotism, yet ridiculed 
 for his frequent quotations of Greek in his ora- 
 tions. In his old age he became so forgetful 
 as not even to remember his own name. 
 
 CoRUNCANUs, T. the first plebeian who was 
 
 made high-priest at Rome. The family of 
 
 the Coruncani was famous for the number ot 
 great men which it supplied for the service of 
 the republic. Cic. pro Domo. 
 
 Cossus, a surname given to the family of the 
 
 Cornelii. A Roman, who killed Volumnius, 
 
 kins: of Veii, and obtained the Spolia Opima, 
 A. U. C. 317. Virg. jEn. 6, v. 841. 
 413 
 
CR 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 CR 
 
 CossuTii, a family at Rome, of which Cossu- 
 tia, Caesar's wife, was descended. Suet, in Ccbs. 
 1. — One of the family was distinguished as an 
 architect about 200 B. C. He first introduced 
 into Italy the more perfect models of Greece, 
 
 CoTiso, a king of the Daci, whose army 
 invaded Pannonia, and was defeated by Corn. 
 Lentulus, the lieutenant of Augustus. It is 
 said that Augustus solicited his daughter in 
 marriage. SvM. in Aug. 63. — Horat. 3, od. 8, 
 V. 18. 
 
 CoTTA, M. AuRELius, I. a Roman who op- 
 posed Marius. He was consul with Lucullus ; 
 and when in Asia, he was defeated by sea and 
 land by Mithridates. He was surnamed Pon^ 
 ticus, because he took Heraclea of Pontus by 
 
 treachery. Plut. in Laccull. II. An orator, 
 
 greatly commended by Cicero de Orat. In his 
 manner he was soft and relaxed ; but every thing 
 he said was sober, and in good taste, and he 
 often led the judges to the same conclusion to 
 which Sulpicius impelled them, " No two 
 things," says Cicero, " were ever more unlike 
 than they are to each other. The one, in a polite, 
 delicate manner, sets forth his subject in well- 
 chosen expressions. He still keeps to his 
 point ; and, as he sees with the greatest pene- 
 tration what he has to prove to the court, he 
 directs to that the whole strength of his reason- 
 ing and eloquence, wiihout regarding other ar- 
 guments. But Sulpicius, endued with irresisti- 
 ble energy, with a full strong voice, with the 
 greatest vehemence and dignity of action, ac- 
 companied with so much weight and variety 
 of expression, seemed, of all mankind, the best 
 fitted by nature for eloquence," It was sup- 
 posed that Cotta wished to resemble Antony, 
 as Sulpicius obviously imitated Crassus; but 
 the latter wanted the agreeable pleasantry of 
 Crassus, and the former the force of Antony. 
 None of the orations of Sulpicius remained 
 in the time of Cicero — those circulated under 
 his name have been written by Canutius after 
 his death. The oration of Cotta for himself, 
 when accused on the Varian law, was com- 
 posed, it is said, ai his request by Lucius 
 ^lius; and, if this be true, nothing can ap- 
 pear to us more extraordinary, than that so 
 accomplished a speaker as Cotta should have 
 wished any of the trivial harangues of iElius to 
 pass for his own. 
 
 CoTYs, I. a king of Thrace, who divided the 
 kingdom with his uncle, by whom he was killed. 
 It is the same to whom Ovid writes from his 
 banishment. Tacit. 2, Ann. 64. — Ovid. 2, de 
 
 Pont. ep. 9. II, A king of Armenia Minor, 
 
 who fought against Mithridates in the age of 
 Claudius, Tacit. Ann. 11 and 13, 
 
 Cranaus, the second king of Athens, who suc- 
 ceeded Cecrops, and reigned nine years, B, C. 
 1497, Pans. 1, c. 2. 
 
 Crantor, a philosopher of Soli. 
 
 Crassus, I. a grandfather of Crassus the Rich, 
 
 who never laughed. Plin. 7, c. 19. II. Publ. 
 
 Licinius, a Roman high-priest, about 131 years 
 B. C, who went into Asia with an army against 
 Aristonicus, where he was killed, and buried at 
 Smyrna. III. M. Licinius, a celebrated Ro- 
 man, surnamed Rich on account of his opulence. 
 The cruelties of Cinna obliged him to leave 
 Rome, and he retired to Spain. After Cinna's 
 death he passed into Africa, and thence to Italy, 
 414 
 
 where he served Sylla, and ingratiated himself 
 in his favour. When the gladiators, with Spar- 
 tacus at their head, had spread a universa. 
 alarm in Italy, and defeated some of the Roman 
 generals, Crassus was sent against them. A 
 battle was fought, in which Crassus slaughtered 
 12,000 of the slaves, and by this decisive blow 
 he soon put an end to the war, and was honour- 
 ed with an ovatio at his return. He was socn 
 after made consul with Pompey; and in this 
 high office he displayed his opulence, by enter- 
 taining the populace at 10,000 tables. He was 
 afterwards censor, and formed the first triumvi- 
 rate with Pompey and Caesar, As his love of 
 riches was more predominant than that of glory, 
 Crassus never imitated the ambitious conduct 
 of his colleagues, but was satisfied with the pro- 
 vince of Syria, which seemed to produce an in- 
 exhaustible source of wealth. With hopes of 
 enlarging his possessions he set off from Rome, 
 though the omens proved unfavourable, and 
 every thing seemed to threaten his ruin. He 
 crossed the Euphrates, and, forgetful of the rich 
 cities of Babylon and Seleucia, he hastened to 
 make himself master of Parthia. He was be- 
 trayed in his march by the delay of Artavasdes, 
 king of Armenia, and the perfidy of Ariamnes. 
 He was met in a large plain by Surena, the 
 general of the forces of Orodes, king of Parthia ; 
 and a battle was fought, in which 20,000 Ro- 
 mans were killed, and 10,000 taken prisoners. 
 The darkness of the night favoured the escape 
 of the rest, and Crassus, forced' by the mutiny 
 and turbulence of his soldiers, and the treachery 
 of his guides, trusted himself to the general of 
 the enemy, on pretence of proposing terms of 
 accommodation, and he was put to death, B.C. 
 53. His head was cut off, and sent to Orodes, 
 who poured melted lead down his throat, and 
 insulted his misfortunes. The firmness with 
 which Crassus received the news of his son's 
 death, who perished in that expedition, has been 
 deservedly commended ; and the words that he 
 uttered when he surrendered himself into the 
 hands of Surena, equally claim our admiration. 
 He was wont often to say, that no man ought 
 to be accounted rich if he could not maintain an 
 army. Though he has been called avaricious, 
 yet he showed himself always ready to lend 
 money to his friends without mterest. He was 
 fond of philosophy, and his knowledge of his- 
 tory was great and extensive. Plutarch has 
 
 written his life. Flor. 3, c. 11. IV. Publius, 
 
 the son of the rich Crassus, went into Parthia 
 with his father. When he saw himself sur- 
 rounded by the enemy, and without any hope 
 of escape, he ordered one of his men to run him 
 through. His head was cut off, and shown 
 with insolence to his father by the Parthians. 
 Plut. in Crass. — — V, L, Licinius, a celebrated 
 Roman orator, commended by Cicero, and in- 
 troduced in his book (Ze Oratore SiS the principal 
 
 speaker, VI, A son of Crassus the Rich, 
 
 killed in the civil wars, after Cassar's death. 
 
 Craterus, I. one of Alexander's generals. 
 He rendered himselfconspicuousby his literary 
 fame, as well as by his valour in the field, and 
 wrote the history of Alexander's life. He was 
 greatly respected and loved by the Macedonian 
 soldiers,and Alexander always trusted him with 
 unusual confidence. After Alexander's death, 
 he subdued Greece with Antipater, and passed 
 
CR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CR 
 
 with his colleagiie into Asia,where he was killed 
 in a battle against Eumenes, B. C. 321, He 
 had received for his share of Alexander's king- 
 doms, Greece and Epirus. Nep. in Eumen. 2. 
 —Justin. 12 and 13. — Curt. 3. — Arrian. — 
 Plui. in Alex. II. An Athenian, who col- 
 lected into one body all the decrees M'hich had 
 passed in the public assemblies at Athens. 
 
 Crates, I. a philosopher of Boeotia, son of 
 Ascondus and disciple of Diogenes the cynic, 
 B. C. 324. He sold his estates, and gave the 
 money to his fellow-citizens. He was naturally 
 deformed,and he rendered himself more hideous 
 by sewing sheepskins to his mantle, and by the 
 singularity of his manners. He clothed him- 
 self as warm as possible in the summer ; but in 
 the winter his garments were uncommonly thin, 
 and incapable to resist the inclemency of the 
 season. Hipparchia, the sister of a philosopher, 
 became enamoured of him ; and, as he could not 
 cool her passion by representing himself as poor 
 and deformed, he married her. Some of his 
 
 letters are extant. Diog. in vita. II. A 
 
 stoic, son of Timocrates, who opened a school at 
 Rome, where he taught grammar. Sueton.- 
 
 Ill, A native of Pergamus, who wrote an ac- 
 count of the most striking events of every age, 
 
 B. C. 165. Mlian. de Anim. 17, c. 9. IV, 
 
 A philosopher of Athens, who succeeded in the 
 
 school of his master Polemon. V. He was 
 
 originally an actor, and performed the principal 
 parts in the plays of Cratinus, Afterwards, 
 about B. C. 450, he began to compose comedies 
 himself. Crates, according to Aristotle, was the 
 first Athenian poet who abandoned the iambic 
 or satiric form of comedy, and made use of in- 
 vented and general stories or fables. Perhaps 
 the law, mentioned below ( Vid. Cratinus) might 
 have some share in giving his plays this less of- 
 fensive turn. His style is said to have been gay 
 and facetious ; yet the few fragments of his writ- 
 ings which remain are of a serious cast. From 
 the expressions of Aristophanes,in the parabasis 
 of the Equites, the comedies of Crates seem to 
 have been marked by elegance of language and 
 ingenious ideas. Yet, with all his endeavours 
 to please his fastidious authors, the poet had, in 
 common with his rivals, to endure many con- 
 tumelies and vexations. He nevertheless, with 
 unwearied resolution, continued to compose and 
 exhibit during a varied career of success and 
 reverses, 
 
 Cratinus, the son of Callimedes, an Athe- 
 nian, was bom Olymp. 65th, 2, B. C. 519. It 
 was not till late in life that he directed his atten- 
 tion to comic composition. The first piece of 
 his on record is the ^AfjyiXoyoi, which was re- 
 presented about Olymp. 83d, B. C.448; at which 
 time he was in his 71st year. Soon after this, 
 comedy became so licentious and virulent in its 
 personalitieSjthat the magistracy were obliged to 
 interfere. A decree was passed, Oljfmp. 85th, 1, 
 B. C.440, prohibiting the exhibitions of comedy ; 
 which law continued in force only during that 
 year and the two following, being repealed in 
 the archonship of Euthymenes. Three victo- 
 ries of Cratinus stand recorded after the recom- 
 mencement of comic performances. With the 
 ^sifia^onEvoi he was second, B. 425, when 
 the 'Axapvsii of Aristophanes won the prize, 
 and the third place was adjudged to the Nod- 
 itnviai of Eupolis. In the succeeding year he 
 
 was again second with the Hdrvpoi, and Aristo- 
 phanes again first with the 'linrETi. In a pa- 
 rabasis of this play, that young rival makes 
 mention of Cratinus ; where, after having no- 
 ticed his former successes, he insinuates under 
 the cloak of an equivocal pity, that the vete- 
 ran was become doting and superannuated. 
 The old man, now in his 95th year, indignant 
 at this insidious attack, exerted his remaining 
 vigour, and composed against the contests of the 
 following season a comedy entitled UvmvTi, or 
 The FlagarijWhich turned upon the accusations 
 brought against him by Aristophanes. The 
 aged dramatist had a complete triumph. He 
 was first ; whilst his humbled antagonist was 
 also vanquished by Ameipsias with the Kowis, 
 though the play of Aristophanes was his favour- 
 ite Ne^EXat. Notwithstanding his notorious ex- 
 cesses, Cratinus lived to an extreme old age, 
 dying B. C, 422, in his 97th year. The titles of 
 38 of his comedies h ave been collected by Meur- 
 sius, Kcenig, &c. His style was bold and ani- 
 mated: and, like his younger brethren, Eupolis 
 and Aristophanes, he fearlessly and unsparing- 
 ly directed his satire against the iniquitous pub- 
 lic oflicer and the profligate of private life. Nor 
 yet are we to suppose that the comedies of Cra- 
 tinus and his contemporaries contained nothing 
 beyond broad jests or coarse invective and lam- 
 poon. They were, on the contrary, marked by 
 elegance of expression and purity of language ; 
 elevated sometimes into philosophical dignity 
 by the sentiments which they introduced, and 
 graced with many a passage of beautiful idea 
 and high poetry : so that Cluinctilian deems the 
 Old comedy, after Homer, the most fitting and 
 beneficial object for a young pleader's study. 
 In short, the character of this stage in the comic 
 drama cannot be more happily defined than 
 by the words of the chorus in the Ranae ; its 
 duty was — 
 
 TToXXa fjilv ysXola ei- 
 
 TTUv TToXAa 61 airovSaXa. — 389. 
 
 Cratippus, I. a philosopher of Mitylene, who, 
 among others, taught Cicero's son at Athens, 
 After the battle of Pharsalia, Pompey visited the 
 houseof Cratippus, where their discourse chief- 
 ly turned upon Providence, which the warrior 
 blamed and the philosopher defended. Phil, in 
 
 Pomp. — Cic. in Offic. 1. II. An historian 
 
 contemporary with Thucydides; Dionys. Hal. 
 
 Cratylus, a philosopher, preceptor to Plato 
 after Socrates. 
 
 Cremutius Cordus. He wrote during the 
 reign of Augustus, and is said to have read to 
 that prince a history, in which he styled Bru- 
 tus and Cassius the last of the Romans. Au- 
 gustus did not take pleasure, like Caligula or 
 Nero, in cruel or arbitrary acts; and he was so 
 skilful a politician, that he never, like Tiberius, 
 suspected a plot or apprehended a danger, when 
 none in fact existed. He knew that bis throne 
 was then too firmly established to be shaken by 
 the empty echoes of liberty, and he heard, per- 
 haps, with secret satisfaction, that Brutus and 
 Cassius would have no successors among his 
 subjects. The writings of Cordus, however, 
 were suppressed under the reign of Tiberius; 
 but his daughter Marcia saved a copy which 
 was extant in the time of Seneca. The appella- 
 tion of the last of the Romans which he bestow- 
 415 
 
CR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 CR 
 
 ed on Brutus and Cassius, was made the pretext 
 of a capital charge during the administration of 
 Sejanus, who had taken umbrage at an observa- 
 tion which had escaped him with regard to a 
 statue of that minister, placed in the theatre of 
 Pompey. Two infamous informers, Salrius 
 Secundus and Pinarius Natta, came forward 
 as his accusers. Their connexion with the 
 minister of Tiberius was itself ominous of his 
 fate. The emperor heard his defence in person, 
 in the senate, with a stern countenance, which 
 announced to him the sentence he was about to 
 receive. Certain of death, he pleaded his cause 
 with a spirit and eloquence which he perhaps 
 might not have exerted had any hope of safety 
 remained. He justified himself by the exam- 
 ple of Livy, Pollio, and Messala , he mentioned 
 Cicero's panegyric of Cato, which Caesar con- 
 tented himself with answering by a similar pro- 
 duction, and also a number of other composi- 
 tions, as the epistles of Antony, and the ha- 
 rangues of Brutus, all filled with opprobrious 
 defamations of Augustus ; after which, having 
 left the senate-house, he returned home, and re- 
 solved to perish by abstaining from sustenance. 
 He retired to his own chamber, where he partly 
 exhausted his strength by the excessive use of 
 the warm bath. That he might deceive his 
 daughter, he pretended that he ate in his own 
 apartment; and, in order to carry on the de- 
 ception, he concealed, or threw overthe window, 
 part of the provisions which were brought to him. 
 While at supper with his family, he excused 
 himself from partaking of their meal, on the pre- 
 tence that he had already eaten sufficiently in 
 his own chamber. He persisted in this absti- 
 nence for three days; but on the fourth, the ex- 
 treme exhaustion and weakness of his body be- 
 came manifest. It was then that he embraced 
 nis daughter, announced to her his approaching 
 end, and informed her that she neither could 
 preserve his existence longer, nor ought to at- 
 tempt it. Having shut himself up in his cham- 
 ber, he ordered the light to be completely ex- 
 cluded, and expired at the very moment when 
 his infamous accusers were deliberating in court 
 on the forms and proceedings to be adopted at 
 his trial. 
 
 Creon. Vid. Fa-Ytlll. 
 
 Creophilus, a Samian, who hospitably en- 
 tertained Homer, from whom he received a 
 poem in return. Some say that he was that 
 poet's master, &c. Strab. 14. 
 
 Cresphontes, a son of Aristomachus, who, 
 with his brothers Temenus and Aristodemus, 
 attempted to recover the Peloponnesus. Paus. 
 4, c. 3, &c. 
 
 Creusa, a daughter of Priam, king of Troy, 
 by Hecuba, She married ^neas, by whom 
 she had some children, among which was As- 
 canius. When Troy was taken, she fled in the 
 night with her husband ; but they were separat- 
 ed in the midst of the confusion, and iEneas 
 could not recover her, nor hear where she was. 
 Cybele saved her, and carried her to her temple, 
 of which she became priestess, according lo the 
 relation of Virgil, who makes Creusa appear to 
 her husband in a vision, while he was seeking 
 her in the tumult of war. She predicted to 
 ^neas the calamities that attended him, the 
 fame he should acquire when he came to Italy, 
 and his consequent marriage with a princess of 
 416 
 
 the country. Paus. 10, c, IG, — Virg. Mn. 2, 
 V. 562, &c. Vid. Part III, 
 
 Crispinus, I. a praetorian, who, though ori- 
 ginally a slave in Egypt, was, after the acquisi- 
 tion of riches, raised to the honours of Roman 
 
 knighthood by Domitian, Juv. 1, v, 26. II. 
 
 A stoic philosopher, as remarkable for his lo- 
 quacity as for the foolish and tedious poem he 
 wrote to explain the tenets of his own sect, to 
 which Horace alludes in the last verses of 1, 
 Sat. 1, 
 
 Crispus Sallustius, Vid. Sallustius. 
 
 Flav. Jul. a son of the great Constantine, made 
 Caesar by his father, and distinguished for val- 
 our and extensive knowledge. Fausta, his step- 
 mother, wished to seduce him; and when he 
 refused, she accused him before Constantine, 
 who believed the crime and caused his son to be 
 poisoned, A. D. 326. 
 
 Critias, one of the thirty tyrants set over 
 Athens by the Spartans. He was eloquent and 
 wellbred, but of dangerous principles; and he 
 cruelly persecuted his enemies, and put them to 
 death. He was killed in a battle against those 
 citizens whom his oppression had banished. He 
 had been among the disciples of Socrates, and 
 had written elegies and other compositions, of 
 which some fragments remain. Cic. 2, de Orat. 
 
 Crito, T. one of the disciples of Socrates, who 
 attended his learned preceptor in his last mo- 
 ments, and composed some dialogues now lost. 
 
 Diog. II. A Macedonian historian, who 
 
 wrote an account of Pall en e of Persia, of the 
 foundation of Syracuse, of the Getai, &c. 
 
 Critobulos, I, a general of Phocis, at the 
 battle of Thermopylae between Antiochus and 
 the Romans. Paus. 10, c. 20. — -II. A son of 
 Crito, disciple to Socrates. Diog. in Grit. 
 
 Critolaus, I. a citizen of Tegea in Arcadia, 
 who, with two brothers, fought against the two 
 sons of Demostratus of Pheneus, to put an end 
 to a long war between their respective nations. 
 The brothers of Critolaus were both killed, and 
 he alone remained to withstand his three bold 
 antagonists. He conquered them ; and when, 
 at his return, his sister deplored the death of one 
 of his antagonists, to whom she was betrothed, 
 he killed her in a fit of resentment. The offence 
 deserved capital punishment ; but he was par- 
 doned, on account of the services he had render- 
 ed his country. He was afterwards general of 
 the Achaeans, and it is said that he poisoned 
 himself, because he hadbeen conquered at Ther- 
 mopylae by the Romans. Cic. de Nat. D. 
 
 II. A peripatetic philosopher of Athens, sent 
 ambassador to Rome, &c. 140 B. C. Cic. 2, de 
 Orat. 
 
 Crcesus, the fifth and last of the Mermnadae, 
 who reigned in Lydia, was son of Alyattes, and 
 passed for the richest of mankind. He was the 
 first who made the Greeks of Asia tributary to 
 the Lydians. His court was the asyluni of 
 learning; and iEsop, the famous fable-writer, 
 among others, lived under his patronage. In a 
 conversation with Solon, Croesus wished to be 
 thought the happiest of mankind; but the phi- 
 losopher apprized him of his mistake, and gave 
 the preference to poverty and domestic virtue. 
 Croesus undertook a war against Cyrus, the king 
 of Persia, and marched to meet him with an 
 army of 420,000 men and 60,000 horse. After 
 a reign of 14 years, he was defeated, B. C. 548 ; 
 
cu 
 
 HISTORY, &o. 
 
 CU 
 
 his capital was besieged, and he fell into the 
 conqueror's hands, who ordered him to be burnt 
 alive. The pile was already on fire, when Cy- 
 rus heard the conquered monarch three times 
 exclaim, Solon ! with lamentable energy. He 
 asked him the reason of his exclamation, and 
 Croesus repeated the conversation he had once 
 had with Solon on human happiness. Cyrus 
 was moved at the recital, and at the recollection 
 of the inconstancy of human affairs, he ordered 
 CrcEsus to be taken from the burning pile, and 
 he became one of his most intimate friends. 
 The kingdom of Lydia became extinct in his 
 person, and the power was transferred to Persia. 
 Croesus survived Cyrus. The manner of his 
 death is unknown. He is celebrated for the im- 
 mensely rich presents which he made to the 
 temple of Delphi, from which he received an 
 obscure and ambiguous oracle, which he inter- 
 preted in his favour, and which was fulfilled in 
 the destruction of his empire. Herodot. 1, c. 
 26, &c. — Plut. in Solon. 8, c. 26. — Justin. 1, c. 7. 
 
 Cronia, a, festival at Athens, in honour of 
 Saturn. The Rhodians observed the same fes- 
 tival, and generally sacrificed to the god a con- 
 demned malefactor. 
 
 Ctesias, I. a Greek historian and physician 
 of Cnidos, taken prisoner by Artaxerxes Mne- 
 mon at the battle of Cunaxa. He cured the 
 king's wounds, and was his physician for 17 
 years. He wrote a history of the Assyrians 
 and Persians, which Justin and Diodorus have 
 partially preferred to that of Herodotus. Some 
 fragments of his compositions have been pre- 
 served by Photius, and are to be found in Wes- 
 seling's edition of Herodotus. Strab. 1. — Athen. 
 
 12. — Plut. in Artax. II. A sycophant of 
 
 Athens. III. An historian of Ephesus. 
 
 Ctesibius, I. a mathematician of Alexandria, 
 who flourished 135 years B. C. He was the 
 inventor of the pump and other hydraulic in- 
 struments. He also invented a clepsydra, or a 
 water- clock. This invention of measuring time 
 by water, was wonderful and ingenious. Water 
 was made to drop upon wheels, which it turned. 
 The wheels communicated their regular motion 
 to a small wooden image, which, by a gradual 
 rise, pointed with a stick to the proper hours 
 and months, which were engraved on a column 
 near the machine. This artful invention gave 
 rise to many improvements; and the modern 
 manner of measuring time with an hour-glass is 
 an imitation of the clepsydra of Ctesibius. Vi- 
 
 truv. de Archil. 9, c. 9. II. An historian, who 
 
 flourished 254 years B. C.and died in his 104th 
 year. Plut. in Dem. 
 
 Ctesiphon, an Athenian, son of Leosthenes, 
 who advised his fellow-citizens publicly to pre- 
 sent Demosthenes with a golden crown for his 
 probity and virtue. This was opposed by the 
 orator iEschines, the rival of Demosthenes, who 
 accused Ctesiphon of seditious views. Demos- 
 thenes undertook the defence of his friend, in a 
 celebrated oration still extant, and iEschines 
 was banished. Demost. and Mchin. de Corona. 
 
 Curia, a division of the Roman tribes. Ro- 
 mulus originally divided the people into three 
 tribes, and each tribe into 10 Curiae. Over each 
 Curiaj was appointed a priest, who officiated at 
 the sacrifices of his respective assembly. The 
 sacrifices -were called Curionia, and the priest 
 Curio. He was to be above the age of fifty. 
 
 Part II.— 3 G 
 
 His morals were to be pure and unexception- 
 able, and his body free from all defects. The 
 Curiones were elected by their respective Curiae, 
 and above them was a superior priest called Cu- 
 rio maximus, chosen by all the Curise in a pub- 
 lic assembly. The word Curia was also 
 
 applied to public edifices among the Romans. 
 These were generally of two sorts, divine and 
 civil. In the former were held the assemblies of 
 the priests, and of every religious order, for the 
 regulation of religious sacrifices and ceremonies. 
 The other was appointed for the senate, where 
 they assembled for the despatch of public busi- 
 ness. The Curia were solemnly consecrated 
 by the augurs before a lawful assembly could 
 be convened there. There were three at Rome 
 which more particularly claim our attention ; 
 Curia Hostilia, built by King Tullus Hosti- 
 lius ; Curia Pompeii, where Julius Caesar was 
 murdered ; and Curia Augusti, the palace and 
 court of the emperor Augustus. 
 
 Curia Lex, de Comitiis, was enacted by M. 
 Curius Dentatus, the tribune. It forbade the 
 convening of the Comitia, for the election of 
 magistrates, without a previous permission from 
 the senate. 
 
 Curiatii, a family of Alba, which was carried 
 to Rome by Tullus Hostilius, and entered among 
 the patricians. The three Curiatii, who en- 
 gaged the Horatii, and lost the victory, were of 
 this family. Flor. 1, c. 3. — Dionys. Hal. 5. — 
 Liv. 1, c. 24. 
 
 Curio, (Cl.) I. an excellent orator, who called 
 Caesar in full senate, Omnium mulierum virum, 
 et omnium virorum mulierem. Tacit. 21. Ann. 
 
 c. 7. — Suet, in Cces. 49. — Cic. in Brut. II. 
 
 His son, C. Scribonius, was tribune of the peo- 
 ple, and an intimate friend of Caesar. He saved 
 Caesar's life as he returned from the senate- 
 house after the debates concerning the punish- 
 ments which ought to be inflicted on the ad- 
 herents of Catiline. He killed himself in Af- 
 rica. Flor. 4, c. 2. — Plut. in Pomp. <^ Cces. 
 i9.— Val. Max. 9, c. l.—lMcan. v. 268. 
 
 Curius Dentatus Marcus Annius, a Ro- 
 man, celebrated for his fortitude and frugality. 
 He was three times consul, and was twice hon- 
 oured with a triumph. He obtained decisive 
 victories over the Samnites, the Sabines, and the 
 Lucanians, and defeated Pyrrhus near Taren- 
 tum. The ambassadors of the Samnites visited 
 his cottage while he was boiling some vegetables 
 in an earthen pot, and they attempted to bribe 
 him by the ofier of large presents. He refused 
 their ofl^ers with contempt, and said, I prefer my 
 earthen pots to all your vessels of gold and sil- 
 ver; and it is my wish to command those who 
 are in possession of money, while I am deprived 
 of it and live in poverty. Plut. in Cat. Cens. 
 —Horat. 1, od. 12, v. A\.—Flor. 1, c. 15. 
 
 CuRTius, M. a Roman youth, who devoted 
 himself to the gods Manes for the safety of his 
 country, about 360 years B. C. A wide gap, 
 called afterwards Curtius lacus, had suddenly 
 opened in the forum, and the oracle had said 
 that it never would close before Rome threw 
 into it whatever it had most precious. Curtius 
 immediately perceived thatnoless than a human 
 sacrifice was required. He armed himself, 
 mounted his horse, and solemnly threw himself 
 into the gulf, which instantly closed over his 
 head. Liv. 7, c. 6. — Val. Max. 5, c. 6. 
 417 
 
CY 
 
 HISTORY, &o. 
 
 CY 
 
 CuRULis Magistratus, a state officer at Rome, 
 who had the privilege of silting in an ivory 
 chair in public assemblies. The dictator, the 
 consuls, the censors, the praetors, and ediles, 
 claimed that privilege, and therefore were called 
 curules magistratus. The senators who had pass- 
 ed through the abovemenlioned offices were 
 generally carried to the senate-house in ivory 
 chairs, as all generals in their triumphant pro- 
 cession to the capital. When names of distmc- 
 tion began to be known among the Romans, the 
 descendants of curule magistrates were called 
 nohiks ; the first of a family who discharged that 
 office were known by the name of noti, and 
 those that had never been in office were called 
 ignoHles. 
 
 Cyaraxes, or Cyaxares, I. son of Phraortes, 
 was king of Media and Persia. He bravely 
 defended his kingdom, which the Scythians had 
 invaded. He made war against Alyattes, king 
 of Lydia, and subjected to his power all Asia 
 beyond the river Halys. He died, after a reign 
 of 40 years, B. C. 585. Diod. 2.—Herodot. 1, 
 c. 73 and 103.— — II. Another prince, supposed 
 by some lo be the same as Darius the Mede. 
 He was the son of Astyages, king of Media. 
 He added seven provinces to his father's do- 
 minions, and made war against the Assyrians, 
 •whom Cyrus favoured. Xenoph. Cyrop. 1, 
 
 Cydias, a painter who made a painting of the 
 Argonauts. This celebrated piece was bought 
 by the orator Hortensius for 164 talents. Plin. 
 34. 
 
 Cyn^egirus, an Athenian, celebrated for his 
 extraordinary courage. He was brother to the 
 poet jEschylus. After the battle of Marathon, 
 he pursued the flying Persians to their ships, 
 and seized one of their vessels with his right 
 hand, which was immediately severed by the 
 enemy. Upon this he seized the vessel with 
 his left hand, and when he had lost that also, 
 he still kept his hold with his teeth. Herodot. 
 6, c. 114. — Justin. 2, c. 9. 
 
 Cynici, a sect of philosophers, founded by 
 Antisthenes the Athenian. They received this 
 name a canind mordacitate, from their canine 
 propensity to criticise the lives and actions of 
 men, ot because, like dogs, they were not asham- 
 ed to gratify their crimmal desires publicly. 
 They were famous for their contempt of riches, 
 for the negligence of their dress, and the length 
 of their beards. Diogenes was one of their sect. 
 They generally slept on the ground. Vid. Di- 
 ogenes. Cic. 1, O^. 35 and 41. Vid. Antisthenes. 
 
 Cynisca, a daughter of Archidamus, king of 
 Sparta, who obtained the first prize m the chariot 
 races at the Olympic games. Pans. 3, c. 8. 
 
 Cyprianus, a native of Carthage, who, though 
 born of heathen parents, became a convert to 
 Christianity, and the bishop of his country. 
 To be more devoted to purity and study, he 
 abandoned his wife ; and, as a proof of his 
 charity, he distributed his goods to the poor. 
 He wrote 81 letters, besides several treatises, de 
 Dei gratia, de virginum habitu, &c. and ren- 
 dered his compositions valuable by the informa- 
 tion he conveys of the discipline of the ancient 
 church, and by the soundness and purity of his 
 theology. He died a martyr, A. D. 258. The 
 best editions of Cyprian are, that of Fell, fol. 
 Oxon. 1682, and that reprinted Amst. 1700. 
 Cypsblides, the name of three princes as 
 418 
 
 descendants of Cypselus, who reigned at Co- 
 rinth during 73 years. Cypselus was succeeded 
 by his son Periander, who left his kingdom, after 
 a reign of 40 years, to Cypselus II. 
 
 Cypselus, I. a king of Arcadia, who married 
 the daughter of Ctesiphon, to strengthen him- 
 self against the Heraclidae. Pans. 4, c. 3. 
 
 II. A man of Corinth, son of Eetion and father 
 of Periander. He destroyed the Bacchiadte, 
 and seized upon the sovereign power, about 659 
 years before Christ. He reigned 30 years, and 
 was succeeded by his son. Periander had two 
 sons, Lycophron and Cypselus,who was insane. 
 Cypselus received his name from the Greek 
 word KvipeXos, a coffer, because when the Bac- 
 chiadaB attempted to kill him, his mother saved 
 his life by concealing him in a cofter. Pans. 
 5, c. 17.— Cic. Tusc. 5, c. 31.— Herodot. 1. c. 
 
 114, 1. 5, c. 92, &,c.—Aristot. Polit. III. 
 
 The father of Miltiades. Herodot. 6, c. 35. 
 
 Cyrenaici, a sect of philosophers who follow- 
 ed the doctrine of Aristippus. They placed 
 their summum bonum in pleasure, and said that 
 virtue ought to be. commended because it gave 
 pleasure. Laeri. in Arist. — Cic. de Nat. D. 3. 
 
 Cyriades, one of the thirty tyrants who ha- 
 rassed the Roman empire in the reign of Gal- 
 lienus. He died A. D. 259. 
 
 Cyrillus, I. a bishop of Jerusalem, who died 
 A. D. 386. Of his writings, composed in Greek, 
 there remain 28 catacheses, and a letter to the 
 emperor Constantine, the best edition of which 
 
 is Milles, fol. Oxon. 1703. II. A bishop of 
 
 Alexandria, who died A. D. 444. The best edi- 
 tion of his writings, which are mostly controver- 
 sial in Greek, is that of Paris, fol. 7 vols. 1638. 
 
 Cyrsilus, an Athenian, stoned to death by 
 his countrymen because he advised them to re- 
 ceive the army of Xerxes, and to submit to the 
 Dower of Persia. Demosth. de Corona. — Cic. 
 'de Offlc. c. 11. 
 
 Cyrus, I. a king of Persia, son of Cambyses 
 and Mandane, daughter of Astyages king of 
 Media. His father was of an ignoble family, 
 whose marriage with Mandane had been con- 
 summated on account of the apprehensions of 
 Astyages. (^Vid. Astyages.^ Cyrus was ex- 
 posed as soon as born ; but he was preserved by 
 a shepherdess, who educated him as her own 
 son. As he was playing with his equals in 
 years, he was elected king in a certain diver- 
 sion, and he exercised his power with such an 
 independent spirit, that he ordered one of his 
 play companions to be severely whipped for dis- 
 obedience. The father of the youth, who was 
 a nobleman, complained to the king of the ill 
 treatment which his son had received from a 
 shepherd's son. Astyages ordered Cyrus be- 
 fore him, and discovered that he was Mandane's 
 son, from whom he had so much to apprehend. 
 He treated him with great coldness ; and Cyrus, 
 unable to bear his tyranny, escaped from his 
 confinement, and began to levy troops to de- 
 throne his grandfather. He was assisted and 
 encouraged by the ministers of Astyages, who 
 w^ere displeased with the king's oppression. 
 He marched against him, and Astyages was 
 defeated in a battle and taken prisoner, B. C. 
 559. From this victory the empire of Media 
 became tributary to the Persians. Cyrus sub- 
 dued the eastern parts of Asia, and made war 
 against Croesus, king of Lydia, whom he con- 
 
DM 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DA 
 
 quered, B. C. 548. He invaded the kingdom of 
 Assyria, and took the city of Babylon, by dry- 
 ing the channels of the Euphrates, and march- 
 ing his troops through the bed of the river, 
 while the people were celebrating a grand fes- 
 tival. He afterwards marched against Tomyris, 
 the queen of the Messagetae, a Scythian na- 
 tion, and was defeated in a bloody battle, B. C. 
 530. The victorious queen, who had lost her 
 son in a previous encounter, was so incensed 
 against Cyrus, that she cut off his head, and 
 threw it into a vessel filled with human blood, 
 exclaiming, Satia te sanguine quern sitisti. Xe- 
 nophon has written, the life of Cyrus ; but his 
 history is not perfectly authentic. In the cha- 
 racter of Cyrus, he delineates a brave and vir- 
 tuous prince, and often puts in his mouth many 
 of the sayings of Socrates. The chronology 
 is false; and Xenophon, in his narration, has 
 given existence to persons whom no other his- 
 torian ever mentioned. The Cyropcedia, there- 
 fore, is not to be looked upon as an authentic 
 history of Cyrus the Great, but we must con- 
 sider it as showing what every good and virtu- 
 ous prince ought to be. Diod. 1. — Herodot. 1, 
 
 c. 75, &c. — Justin, 1, c. 5 and 7, II. The 
 
 younger Cyrus was the younger son of Darius 
 Nothus, .and the brother of Artaxerxes. He 
 was sent by his father, at the age of sixteen, 
 to assist the Lacedaemonians against Athens. 
 Artaxerxes succeeded to the throne at the death 
 of Nothus ; and Cyrus, who was of an aspir- 
 ing soul, attempted to assassinate him. He was 
 discovered, and would have been punished with 
 death, hadnot his mother, Parysatis, saved him 
 from the hands of the executioner by her tears 
 and entreaties. This circumstance did not in 
 the least check the ambition of Cyrus; he was 
 appointed over Lydia and the seacoast, where 
 he secretly fomented rebellion, and levied troops 
 under various pretences. At last, he took the 
 field with an army of 100,000 barbarians, and 
 13,000 Greeks under the command of Clearchus. 
 Artaxerxes met him with 900,000 men near 
 Cunaxa. The battle was long and bloody, 
 and Cyrus might have perhaps obtained the 
 victory, had not his uncommon rashness proved 
 his ruin. It is said that the two royal brothers 
 met in person, and engaged with the most in- 
 veterate fury, and their engagement ended in 
 the death of Cyrus, 401 years B. C. It is said 
 that in the letter he wrote to Lacedaemon, to 
 solicit auxiliaries, Cyrus boasted his philoso- 
 phy, his royal blood, and his ability to drink 
 more wine than his brother without being in- 
 toxicated. Plut. in Artax. — Diod. 14. — Justin. 
 
 5, c. 11. III. A poet of Panopolis, in the 
 
 age of Theodosius, Vid. Part I. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dacicus, a surname assumed by Domitian on 
 his pretended victory over the Dacians. Juv. 
 
 6, V. 204. 
 
 D.EDALA, two festivals in Boeotia. One of 
 these was observed at Alalcomenosby thePla- 
 taeans, in a large grove, where they exposed, in 
 the open air, pieces of boiled flesh, and carefully 
 observed whither the crows that came to prey 
 upon them directed their flight. All the trees 
 upon which any of these birds alighted were 
 immediately cut down, and with them statues 
 
 were made called Dadala, in honour of Daeda- 
 lus. — The other festival was of a more solemn 
 kind. It was celebrated every sixty years, by all 
 the cities of Boeotia, as a compensation for the 
 intermission of thesmaller festivals for thatnum- 
 ber of years, during the exile of the Plataeans. 
 Fourteen of the statues, called Dsedala, were dis- 
 tributed by lot among the Plataeans, Lebadaeans, 
 C^oroneans, Orchomenians, Thespians, The- 
 bans, Tanagraeans, and Chaeroneans, because 
 they had effected a reconciliation among the 
 Platagans, and caused them to be recalled from 
 exile about the time that Thebes was restored 
 by Cassander, the son of Antipater. During 
 this festival, a woman in the habit of a bride- 
 maid accompanied a statue which was dressed 
 in female garments, on the banks of the Euro- 
 tas. This procession was attended to the top of 
 mount Cithaeron by many of the Boeotians, who 
 had places assigned them by lot. Here an altar 
 of square pieces of wood, cemented together like 
 stones, was erected, and upon it were thrown 
 large quantities of combustible materials. Af- 
 terwards a bull was sacrificed to Jupiter, and an 
 ox or heifer to Juno, by every one of the cities 
 of Boeotia, and by the most opulent that attended. 
 The poorest citizens offered small cattle ; and 
 all these oblations, together with the Dsedala, 
 were thrown in the common heap and set on 
 fire, and totally reduced to ashes, 
 
 D.EDALUS. ^Vid. Part III. 
 
 Daidis, a solemnity observed by the Greeks. 
 It lasted three days. The first was in com- 
 memoration of Latona's labour ; the second in 
 memory of Apollo's birth ; and the -third in 
 honour of the marriage of Podalirius and the 
 mother of Alexander, Torches were always 
 carried at the celebration ; whence the name. 
 
 Damagetos, a man of Rhodes, who inquired 
 of the oracle what wife he ought to marry ; and 
 received for answer, the daughter of the bravest 
 of the Greeks. He applied to A ristomenes, and 
 obtained his daughter in marriage, B, C. 670. 
 Paus. 4, c. 24. 
 
 Damascius, a stoic of Damascus, who wrote 
 a philosophical history, the life of Isidorus, and 
 four books on extraordinary events, in the age 
 of Justinian. His works, which are now lost, 
 were greatly esteemed according to Photius. 
 
 Damippus, a Spartan, taken by Marcellus as 
 he sailed out of the port of Syracuse. He dis- 
 covered to the enemy that a certain part of the 
 city was negligently guarded, and in conse- 
 quence of this discovery, Syracuse was taken. 
 PolycBn. 
 
 Damis, a man who disputed with Aristode- 
 mus, the right of reigning over the Messenians. 
 Paus. 4, c. 10. 
 
 Damnonh, a people of Britain, now supposed 
 Devonshire. 
 
 Damo, a daughter of Pythagoras, who, by or- 
 der of her father, devoted her life to perpetual 
 celibacy, and induced others to follow her ex- 
 ample. Pythagoras at his death intrusted her 
 with all the secrets of his philosophy, and gave 
 her the unlimited care of his compositions, un- 
 der the promise that she never would part with 
 them. She faithfully obeyed his injunctions; 
 and though in the extremest poverty, she refus- 
 ed to obtain money by the violation of her fa- 
 ther's commands. Laert. in Pythag. 
 
 Damocles, one of the flatterers of Dionysius 
 419 
 
DA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DA 
 
 the elder, of Sicily. He admired the tyrant's 
 wealth, and pronounced him the happiest man 
 on earth. Dionysius prevailed upon him to un- 
 dertake for a while the charge of royalty, and 
 be convinced of the happiness which a sovereign 
 enjoyed. Damocles ascended the throne, and 
 while he gazed upon the wealth and splendour 
 ihat surrounded him, he perceived a sword hang- 
 ing over his head by a horse-hair. This so ter- 
 rified him, that all his imaginary felicity vanish- 
 ed at once, and he begged Dionysius to remove 
 him from a situation which exposed his life to 
 such fears and dangers. Cic. in Tuscul, 5, c. 21. 
 
 Damocritus, I. a timid general of the Achae- 
 ans, &c. Paus. 7, c. 13. 11. A Greek wri- 
 ter, who composed two treatises, one upon the 
 art of drawing an army in battle array, and the 
 
 other concerning the Jews. III. A man who 
 
 wrote a poetical treatise upon medicine. 
 
 Damon, I. a victor at Olympia. Olymp. 102. 
 
 — Paus. 4, c. 27. II. A poet arid musician 
 
 of Athens, intimate with Pericles, and distin- 
 guished for his knowledge of government and 
 fondness of discipline. He was banished for 
 his intrigues about 430 years before Christ. C. 
 Nep. 15, c. 2.—Phit. in Pericl. III. A Py- 
 thagorean philosopher, very intimate with Py- 
 thias. When he had been condemned to death 
 by Dionysius, he obtained from the tyrant leave 
 to go and settle his domestic affairs, on promise 
 of returning at a stated hour to the place of exe- 
 cution. Pythias pledged himself to undergo 
 the punishment which was to be inflicted on Da- 
 mon, should he not return in time, and he con- 
 sequently delivered himself into the hands of 
 the tyrant. Damon returned at the appointed 
 moment, and Dionysius was so struck with the 
 fidelity of those two friends, that he remitted the 
 punishment, and entreated them to permit him 
 to share their friendship and enjoy their confi- 
 dence. Val. Max. 4, c. 7. 
 
 Damophila, a poetess of Lesbos, wife of 
 Pamphilus. She was intimate with Sappho, 
 and not only wrote hymns in honour of Diana 
 and of the gods, but opened a school, where the 
 younger persons of her sex were taught the va- 
 rious powers of music and poetry. Philostr. 
 
 Danaus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Daphnephoria, a festival in honour of Apol- 
 lo, celebrated every ninth year by the Boeotians. 
 It M^as then usual to adorn an olive bough with 
 garlands of laurel and other flowers, and place 
 on the top a brazen globe, on which were sus- 
 pended smaller ones. In the middle was placed 
 a number of crowns, and a globe of inferior 
 size, and the bottom was adorned with a saffron- 
 coloured garment. The globe on the top repre- 
 sented the sun, or Apollo, that in the middle was 
 an emblem of the moon, and the others of the 
 stars. The crowns, which were 65 in number, 
 represented the sun's annual revolution. This 
 bough was carried in solemn procession by a 
 beautiful youth of an illustrious family, and 
 whose parents were both living. The youth 
 was dressed in rich garments, which reached to 
 the ground ; his hair hung loose and dishevelled, 
 his head was covered with a golden crown, and 
 he wore on his feet shoes called Iphicratidce^ 
 from Iphicrates, an Athenian, who first invent- 
 ed them. He was called Aacpvrj^opog, laurel- 
 bearer, and at that time he executed the office 
 of priest to Apollo. He was preceded by one of 
 420 
 
 his nearest relations, bearing a rod adorned with 
 garlands, and behind him followed a train of 
 virgins with branches in their hands. In this 
 order the procession advanced as far as the tem- 
 ple of Apollo, surnamed Ismenius, where sup- 
 plicatory hymns were sung to the god. — This 
 festival owed its origin to the following circum- 
 stance: when an oracle advised the ^tolians, 
 who inhabited Arne and the adjacent country, 
 to abandon their ancient possessions, and go in 
 quest of a settlement, they invaded the Theban 
 territories, which at that time were pillaged by 
 an army of Pelasgians. As the celebration of 
 Apollo's festivals was near, both nations, who 
 religiously observed it, laid aside all hostilities, 
 and, accordmgto custom, cut down laurel boughs 
 from mount Helicon and in the neighbourhood 
 of the river Melas, and walked in procession in 
 honour of the divinity. The day that this so- 
 lemnity was observed, Polemates, the general of 
 the Boeotian army, saw a youth in a dream that 
 presented him with a complete suit of armour, 
 and commanded the BoBotians to offer solemn 
 prayers to Apollo,-and walk in procession with 
 laurel boughs in their hands every ninth year. 
 Three days after this dream, the Boeotian gene- 
 ral made a sally, and cut off the greater part of 
 the besiegers, who were compelled by this blow 
 to relinquish their enterprise, Polemates im- 
 mediately instituted a novennial festival to the 
 god who seemed to be the patron of the Boeo- 
 tians. Paus. Baiotic, &c. 
 
 Daphnis, a shepherd of Sicily, son of Mercu- 
 ry by a Sicilian nymph. It is supposed he was 
 the first who wrote pastoral poetry, in which 
 his successor Theocritus so happily excelled. 
 From the celebrity of this shepherd, the name 
 of Daphnis has been appropriated by the poets, 
 ancient and modern, to express a person fond 
 of rural employments, and of the peaceful in- 
 nocence which accompanies the tending of 
 flocks, JElian. V. H. 10, c. \^.—Diod. 4. 
 
 Dardanides, a name given to ^neas, as de- 
 scended from Dardanus. The word, in the plu- 
 ral number, is applied to the Trojan women. 
 Virg. JEn. 
 
 Dardanus, a son of Jupiter and Electra, who 
 killed his brother Jasius to obtain the kingdom 
 of Etruria, after the death of his reputed father 
 Corytus, and fled to Samothrace, and thence to 
 Asia Minor,where he married Batia, the daugh- 
 ter of Teucer, king of Teucria. Dardanus 
 taught his subjects to worship Minerva ; and he 
 gave them two statues of the goddess, one of 
 which is well known by the name of Palladium. 
 Virg. ^En. 2, v. 167. — Paus. 7, c. 4. — Hygin. 
 fab. 155 and Tlb.—Apollod. Z.— Homer. 11. 20. 
 
 Dares, a Phrygian, who lived during the 
 Trojan war, in which he was engaged, and of 
 which he wrote the history in Greek. This his- 
 tory was extant in the age of jElian ; the Latin 
 translation, now extant, is universally believed 
 to be spurious, though it is attributed by some 
 to Cornelius Nepos, The best edition is that of 
 Smids cum not, var. 4to. and 8vo. Amst. 1702. 
 Homer. II. 5, v, 10 and 27, 
 
 Darius, a noble satrap of Persia, son of Hys- 
 taspes, who conspired with six other noblemen 
 to destroy Smerdis, who usurped the crown of 
 Persia after the death of Cambyses. On the 
 murder of the usurper, the seven conspirators 
 universally agreed that he whose horse neighed 
 
d:^ 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DA 
 
 first should be appointed king. In consequence 
 of this resolution, the groom of Darius previous- 
 ly led his master's horse to a mare at a place 
 near which the seven noblemen were to pass. 
 On the morrow, before sunrise, when they pro- 
 ceeded all together, the horse, recollecting the 
 mare, suddenly neighed, and at the same time a 
 clap of thunder was heard, as if in approbation 
 of the choice. The noblemen dismounted from 
 their horses, and saluted Darius king ; and a re- 
 solution was made among them, that the king's 
 wives and concubines should be taken from no 
 other family but that of the conspirators, and that 
 they should for ever enjoy the unlimited privi- 
 lege of being admitted into the king's presence 
 without previous introduction. Darius was 29 
 years old when he ascended the throne, and he 
 soon distinguished himself by his activity and 
 military accomplishments. He besieged Baby- 
 lon, which he took, after a siege of 20 months, 
 by the artifice of Zopyrus. Prom thence he 
 marched against the Scythians, and in his way 
 conquered Thrace. This expedition was unsuc- 
 cessful, and after several losses and disasters in 
 the wilds of Scythia,the king retired with shame, 
 and soon after turned his arms against the In- 
 dians, whom he subdued. The burning of Sar- 
 dis, which was a Grecian colony, incensed the 
 Athenians, and a war was kindled between 
 Greece and Persia. Darius was so exasperated 
 against the Greeks, that a servant every evening, 
 by his order, repeated these words : '-Remember, 
 O king, to punish the Athenians." Mardonius, 
 the king's son-in-law, was intrusted with the 
 care of the" war, but his army was destroyed by 
 the Thracians ; and Darius, more animated by 
 his loss, sent a more considerable force under- 
 the command of Datis and Artaphernes. They 
 were conquered at the celebrated battle of Mar- 
 athon, by 10.000 Athenians ; and the Persians 
 lost in that expedition no less than 206,000 men. 
 Darius was not disheartened by this severe blow, 
 but he resolved to carry on the war in person, 
 and immediately ordered a still larger army to 
 be levied. He died in the midst of his prepara- 
 tions, B. C. 485, after a reign of 36 years, in the 
 65th year of his age. Herodot. 1, 2, &:c.—Diod. 
 1. — Justin. 1, c. 9. — Plut. in Arist. — C. Nep. in 
 
 Miltiad. The second king of Persia of that 
 
 name, was also called OcTius or Nothus, because 
 he was the illegitimate son of Artaxerxes by a 
 concubine. Soon after the murder of Xerxes he 
 ascended the throne of Persia, and married Pa- 
 rysatis, his sister, a cruel and ambitious woman, 
 by whom he had Artaxerxes Memnon, Ames- 
 tris, and Cyrus the younger. He carried on 
 many wars with success, under the conduct of 
 his generals, and of his son Cyrus. He died B. 
 C. 404, after a reign of 19 years, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Artaxerxes, who asked him 
 on his deathbed, what had been the guide of 
 his conduct in the management of the empire, 
 that he might imitate him *? The dictates of jus- 
 tice and religion, replied the expiring monarch. 
 
 Justin. 5, c. 11.— Diod. 12. The third of 
 
 that name was the last king of Persia, sur- 
 named Codomanus. He was son of Arsanes and 
 Sysigambis, and descended from Darius Nothus. 
 The peace of Darius was early disturbed, and 
 Alexander invaded Persia to avenge the injuries 
 which the Greeks had suffered from the prede- 
 cessors of Darius. The king of Persia met his 
 
 adversary in person, at the head of 600,000 
 men. This army was remarkable more for its 
 opulence and luxury than for the military cou- 
 rage of its soldiers ; and Athenaus mentions 
 that the camp of Darius was crowded with 277 
 cooks, 29 waiters, 87 cupbearers, 40 servants to 
 perfume the king, and Q& to prepare garlands 
 and flowers to deck the dishes and meals which 
 ^ippeared on the royal table. With these forces 
 Darius met Alexander. A battle was fought 
 near the Granicus, in which the Persians were 
 easily defeated. Another was soon after fought 
 near Issus ; and Alexander left 110,000 of the 
 enemy dead on the field of battle, and took 
 among the prisoners of war, the mother, wife, 
 and children of Darius. The darkness of the 
 night favoured the retreat of Darius, and he 
 saved himself by flying in disguise on the horse 
 of his armour-bearer. These losses weakened 
 but discouraged not Darius •, he assembled ano- 
 ther more powerful army, and the last decisive 
 battle was fought at Arbela. The victory was 
 long doubtful ; but the intrepidity of Alexander, 
 and the superior valour of the Macedonians, 
 prevailed over the effeminate Persians ; and 
 Darius, sensible of his disgrace and ruin, fled 
 towards Media. His misfortunes were now 
 complete. Bessus, the governor of Bactriana, 
 took away his life, in hopes of succeeding him 
 on the throne ; and Darius was fouHd by the 
 Macedonians in his chariot,covered with wounds 
 and almost expiring, B. C. 331. He asked for 
 water, and exclaimed, when he received it from 
 the hand of a Macedonian : " It is the greatest 
 of my misfortunes that I cannot reward thy hu- 
 manity. Beg Alexander to accept my warmest 
 thanks for the tenderness with which he has 
 treated my wretched family, whilst I am doomed 
 to perish by the hand of a man whom I have 
 loaded with kindness." In him the empire of 
 Persia was extinguished, 228 years after it had 
 been first founded by Cyrus the Great. Diod. 
 17. — Plut. in Alex. — Justin. 10, 11, &c. — Cur- 
 tius. A son of Artaxerxes, declared succes- 
 sor to the throne, as being the eldest prince. 
 He conspired against his father's life, and was 
 capitally punished. Plut. in Artax. 
 
 Datames, a son of Camissares, governor of 
 Caria, and general of the armies of Artaxerxes, 
 The influence of his enemies at court obliged 
 him to fly for safety, after he had greatly sig- 
 nalized himself by his military exploits. He 
 took up arms in his own defence, and the king 
 made war against him. He was treacherously 
 killed by Mithridates, who had invited him un- 
 der pretence of entering into the most inviolable 
 connexion and" friendship, 362 B. C. C. Nep. 
 in Datam. 
 
 Dataphernes, after the murder of Darius, 
 betrayed Bessus into Alexander's hands. He 
 also revolted from the conqueror, and was de- 
 livered up by the Dahae. Curt. 7, c. 5 and 8. 
 
 Datis, a general of Darius 1st, sent with an 
 army of 200,000 foot and 10,000 horse, against 
 the Greeks, in conjunction with Artaphernes: 
 He was defeated at the celebrated battle of 
 Marathon by Miltiad es, and some time after put 
 to death by the Spartans. C. Nep. in Milt. 
 
 Daunus, a son of Pilumnus and Danae. He 
 
 came from Illyricum into Apulia, where he 
 
 reigned over part of the country, which from him 
 
 was called Daunia, and he was still on the throne 
 
 421 
 
DE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DE 
 
 "When Diomedes came to Italy. Ptol. 3, c. 1. — 
 Mela. 2, c. i.—Strab. 5. 
 
 Decebalus, a warlike king of the Daci, who 
 made a succes'iful war against Dotnitian. He 
 was conquered by Trajan, Domitian's successor, 
 and he obtained peace. His active spirit again 
 kindled rebellion, and the Roman emperor 
 marched against him and defeated him. He 
 destroyed himself, and his head was brought to 
 Rome, and Dacia became a Roman province, A 
 D. 103. Dio. 68. 
 
 Decemviri, ten magistrates of absolute au- 
 thority among the Romans. The tribunes de- 
 manded that a code of laws might be framed for 
 the use and benefit of the Roman people. This 
 petition was complied with, and three ambassa- 
 dors were sent to Athens, and all the other 
 Grecian states, to collect the laws of Solon and 
 of the other celebrated legislators of Greece. 
 Upon the return of the commissioners, it was 
 universally agreed that ten new magistrates,call- 
 ed Decemviri^ should be elected from the senate 
 to put the project into execution. Their power 
 was absolute ; all other offices ceased after their 
 election, and they presided over the city with re- 
 gal authority. They were invested with the 
 badges of the consul, in the enjoyment of which 
 they succeeded by turns, and only one was pre- 
 ceded by the fasces, and had the power of as- 
 sembling the senate and confirming decrees. 
 The first decemvirs were Appius Claudius, T, 
 Genutius, P. Sextus, Sp. Veturius, C. Julius, 
 A.Manlius, Ser. Sulpitius Pluriatius, T. Romu- 
 lus, Sp. Posthumius, A. U. C. 303. Under 
 them the laws which had been exposed to pub- 
 lic view, that every citizen might speak his sen- 
 timents, were publicly approved of as constitu- 
 tional, and ratified by the priests and augurs in 
 the most solemn and religious manner. These 
 laws were ten in number, and were engraved on 
 tables of brass ; two were afterwards added, and 
 they were called the laws of the twelve tables, 
 leges duodecim tabularum, and leges decemvi- 
 rales. In the third year after their creation, the 
 decemvirs became odious, on account of their 
 tyranny ; and the attempt of Ap. Claudius to 
 ravish Virginia was followed by the total aboli- 
 tion of the office. There were other officers 
 
 in Rome, called decemvirs, who were originally 
 appointed, in the absence of the praetor, to ad- 
 minister justice. Their appointment became 
 afterwards necessary, and they generally assist- 
 ed at sales called sicbhastationes, because a spear, 
 hasta, was fixed at the door of the place where 
 the goods were exposed to sale. They were 
 called decemviri litibusjudicandis.—'The officers 
 whom Tarquin appointed to guard the Sibylline 
 books were also called decemviri. They were 
 originally two in number, called duumviri, till 
 the year of Rome 388, when their number was 
 increased to ten, five of which were chosen from 
 the plebeians and five from the patricians. Sylla 
 increased their number to fifteen, called quin- 
 decemvirs. 
 
 Degia Lex, was enacted by M. Decius the 
 tribune, A. U. C. 442, to empower the people 
 to appoint two proper persons to fit and repair 
 the fleets. 
 
 Dscrus Mus, I. a celebrated Roman consul, 
 who, after many glorious exploits, devoted him- 
 self to the gods Manes for the safety of his coun- 
 try, in a battle against the Latins, 338 years B. 
 422 
 
 C. His son Decius imitated his example, and 
 devoted himself in like manner, in his fourth 
 consulship, when fighting against the Gauls and 
 Samnites, B. C. 296. His grandson also did 
 the same in the war against Pyrrhus and the 
 Tarentines, B. C. 280. II. Brutus, conduct- 
 ed Ca3sar to the senate-house the day that he was 
 
 murdered. III. (Cn. Metius, CI. Trajanus,) 
 
 a native of Pannonia, sent by the emperor Philip 
 to appease a sedition in Mcesia. Instead of 
 obeying his master's command, he assumed the 
 imperial purple, and soon after marched against 
 him, and at his death became the only empe- 
 ror. He signalized himself against the Per- 
 sians ; and when he marched against the Goths, 
 he pushed his horse in a deep marsh, from which 
 he could not extricate himself, and he perished 
 with all his army by the darts of the barbarians, 
 A. D. 251, after a reign of two years. This 
 monarch enjoyed the character of a brave man 
 and of a great disciplinarian ; and by his justice 
 and exemplary life, merited the title of Opti- 
 mus, which a servile senate lavished upon him. 
 
 Degurio, a subaltern officer in the Roman 
 armies. He commanded a decuria, which con- 
 sisted of ten men, and was the third part of a 
 turma, or the 30th part of a legio of horse, which 
 was composed of 300 men. The badge of the 
 centurions was a vine rod or sapling, and each 
 had a deputy called optio. There were certain 
 magistrates in the provinces, called decuriones 
 municipales, who formed a body to represent 
 the Roman senate in free and corporate towns. 
 They consisted of ten, whence the name ; and 
 their duty extended to watch over the interest of 
 th eir fellow-citizens, and to increase the reven ues 
 of the commonwealth. Their court was called 
 curia decurionum and minor senatus ; and their 
 decrees, called decreta decurionum, were mark- 
 ed with two D. D. at the top. They generally 
 styled themselves civitatum patres curiales, and 
 honorati municipiorum, senatores. They were 
 elected with the same ceremonies as the Roman 
 senators ; they were to be at least 25 years of 
 age, and to be possessed of a certain sum of 
 money. The election happened on the calends 
 of March. 
 
 Deioces, a son of Phraortes, by whose means 
 the Medes delivered themselves from the yoke 
 of the Assyrians. He presided as judge among 
 his countrymen, and his great popularity and 
 love of equity raised him to the throne, and he 
 made himself absolute, B. C. 700. He was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Phraortes, after a reign of 53 
 years. He built Ecbatana, according to Hero- 
 dotus, and surrounded it with seven different 
 walls, in the middle of which was the royal 
 palace. Herodot. 1, c. 96, &.c. — Polycen. 
 
 Deiotarus, a governor of Galatia,made king 
 of that province by the Roman people. In the 
 civil wars of Pompey and Csesar, Deiotarus fol- 
 lowed the interest of the former. After the bat- 
 tle of Pharsalia, Caesar severely reprimanded 
 Deiotarus for his attachment to Pompey, depriv- 
 ed him of part of his kingdom, and left him only 
 the bare title of royalty. When he was accused 
 by his grandson of attempts upon Caesar's life, 
 Cicero ably defended him in the Roman senate. 
 He joined Brutus with a large army, and faith- 
 fully supported the republican cause. His wife 
 was barren, but fearing that her husband might 
 die without issue, she presented him with a beau- 
 
DE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DE 
 
 tiful slave, and tenderly educated, as her o-wn, 
 the children of this union. Deiotarus died in an 
 advanced old age. Strab. 12. — lAican. 5, v. 55. 
 
 Deiphobus, a son of Priam and Hecuba, who. 
 after the death of his brother Paris, married He- 
 len. His wife unworthily betrayed him, and in- 
 troduced into his chamber her old husband Me- 
 nelaus, to whom she wished to reconcile herself. 
 He was shamefully mutilated and killed by Me- 
 nelaus. He had highly distinguished himself 
 during the war, especially in his two combats 
 with Merion, and in that in which he slew 
 Ascalaphus, son of Mars, Virg. jEn. 6, v. 495. 
 — Homer. 11. 13. 
 
 DELD0N,a king of Mysia, defeated by Crassus. 
 
 Delia, a festival celebrated every fifth year in 
 the island of Delos, in honour of Apollo. It was 
 first instituted by Theseus, who, at his return 
 from Crete, placed a statue there, which he had 
 received from Ariadne. At the celebration, 
 they crowned the statue of the goddess with gar- 
 lands, appointed a choir of music, and exhibited 
 horseraces. They afterwards led a dance, in 
 ■which they imitated, by their motions, the va- 
 rious windings of the Cretan labyrinth, from 
 which Theseus had extricated himself by Ari- 
 adne's assistance. There was also another 
 
 festival .of the same name, yearly celebrated by 
 the Athenians in Delos. It was also instituted 
 by Theseus, who, when he was going to Crete, 
 made a vow that if he returned victorious he 
 would yearly vioit, in a solemn manner, the tem- 
 ple of Delos. The person employed in this an- 
 nual procession were called Deliastce and Theo- 
 ri. The ship, the same which carried Theseus, 
 and had been carefully preserved by the Athe- 
 nians, was called Theoria and Delias. When 
 the ship was ready for the voyage, the priest of 
 Apollo solemnly adorned the stern with gar- 
 lands, and a universal lustration was made all 
 over the city. The Theori were crowned with 
 laurel, and before them proceeded men armed 
 with axes, in commemoration of Theseus, 
 who had cleared the way from Troezene to 
 Athens, and delivered the country from robbers. 
 When the ship arrived at Delos, they offered 
 solemn sacrifices to the god of the island, and 
 celebrated a festival in his honour. After this 
 they retired to the ship, and sailed back to 
 Athens, where all the people of the city ran in 
 crowds to meet them. Every appearance of 
 festivity prevailed at their approach, and the 
 citizens opened their doors; and prostrated 
 themselves before the Deliastse as they walked 
 in procession. During this festival, it was un- 
 lawful to put to death any malefactor ; and on 
 that account the life of Socrates was prolonged 
 for thirty days. Zenophon. Memor. tf» in Conv. 
 — Plut. in Phced. — Senec. ep. 70. 
 
 Delmattus, F1. Jul. a nephew of Constan- 
 tine the Great, honoured with the title of Caesar, 
 and put in possession of Thrace, Macedonia, 
 and Achaia. His great virtues were unable to 
 save him from a violent death, and he was as- 
 sassinated by his own soldiers, &c. 
 
 DELPms, the priestess of Delphi. Martial. 
 9, ep. 43. 
 
 Demades, an Athenian, who, from a sailor 
 became an eloquent orator, and obtained much 
 influence in the state. He was taken prisoner 
 at the battle of Cheronaea, by Philip, and in- 
 gratiated himself into the favour of that prince, 
 
 by whom he was greatly esteemed. He was 
 put to death, with his son, on suspicion of trea- 
 son, B. C. 322. One of his orations is extant. 
 Diod. 16 and 17. — Plv^t. in Dem. 
 
 Demaratus, I. the son and successor of Aris- 
 ton on the throne of Sparta, B. C. 526. He 
 was banished by the intrigues of Cleomenes, his 
 royal colleague, as being illegitimate. He re- 
 tired into Asia, and was kindly received by 
 Darius, son of Hystaspes, king of Persia. When 
 the Persian monarch made preparations to in- 
 vade Greece, Demaratus, though persecuted by 
 the Lacedaemonians, informed them of the hos- 
 tilities which hung over their head. Herodot. 
 5, c. 75, &c. 1. 6, c. 50, &c. II. A rich citi- 
 zen of Corinth, of the family of the Bacchiadee. 
 When Cypselus had usurped the sovereign 
 power of Corinth, Demaratus, with all his fam- 
 ily, migrated to Italy, and settled at Tarquinii, 
 658 years before Christ. His son, Lucuraon, 
 was king of Rome, under the name of Tarquin- 
 ius Priscus. Dionys. Hal. 
 
 Demariste, the mother of Timoleon. 
 
 Dematria, a Spartan mother, who killed her 
 son because he returned from a battle without 
 glory. Plut. Lac. Inst. 
 
 Demetria, a festival in honour of Ceres, called 
 by the Greeks Demeter. It was then customary 
 for the votaries of the goddess to lash them- 
 selves with whips made with the bark of trees. 
 The Athenians had a solemnity of \he same 
 name, in honour of Demetrius Poliorcetes. 
 
 Demetrius, I. a son of Antigonus and Stra- 
 tonice, surnamed Poliorcetes, destroyer of towns. 
 At the age of 22, he was sent by his father 
 against Ptolemy, who invaded Syria. He was 
 defeated near Gaza ; but he soon repaired his 
 loss by a victory over one of the generals of the 
 enemy. He afterwards sailed with a fleet of 
 250 ships to Athens, and restored the Athenians 
 to liberty, by freeing them from the power of 
 Cassander and Ptolemy, and expelling the gar- 
 rison which was stationed there under Deme- 
 trius Phalereus. After this successful expedi- 
 tion, he besieged and took Mun}''chia, and de- 
 feated Cassander at Thermopylae. His recep- 
 tion at Athens, after these victories, was attend- 
 ed with the greatest servility ; and the Athenians 
 were not ashamed to raise altars to him as a god, 
 and to consult his oracles. This uncommon 
 success raised the jealousy of the successors of 
 Alexander; and Seleacus, Cassander, and Ly- 
 simachus, united to destroy Antigonus and his 
 son. Their hostile armies met at Ipsus, B. C. 
 301. Antigonus was killed in the battle; and 
 Demetrius, after a severe loss, retired to Ephe- 
 sus. His ill success raised him many enemies ; 
 and the Athenians, who had lately adored him 
 as a god, refused to admit him into their city. 
 He soon after ravaged the territories of Lj'-sima- 
 chus, and reconciled himself to Seleucus, to 
 whom he gave his daughter Stratonice in mar- 
 riage. Athens now laboured under tyranny; 
 and Demetrius relieved it, and pardoned the in- 
 habitants. The loss of his possessions in Asia, 
 recalled him from Greece, and he established 
 himself on the throne of Macedonia, by the 
 murder of Alexander, the son of Cassander, 
 Here he was continually at war with the neigh- 
 bouring states ; and the superior power of his 
 adversaries obliged him to leave Macedonia, 
 after he had sat on the throne for seven years. 
 423 
 
DE 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 DE 
 
 He passed into Asia, and attacked some of the 
 provinces of Lysimachus with various success ; 
 but famine and pestilence destroyed the greatest 
 part of his army, and he retired to tlie court of 
 Seleucas for support and assistance. He met 
 with a kind reception, but hostilities were soon 
 begun ; and after he had gained some advan- 
 tages over his son-in-laAv, Demetrius was totally 
 forsaken by his troops in the field of battle, and 
 became an easy prey to the enemy. Though 
 he was kept in confinement by his son-in-law, 
 yet he maintained himself like a prince, and 
 passed his time in hunting, and in every labo- 
 rious exercise. His son Antigonus offered Se- 
 leucus all his possessions, and even his person, 
 to procure his father's liberty ; but all proved 
 unavailing, and Demetrius died in the 54th year 
 of his age, after a confinement of three years, 
 286 B. C. His remains .were given to Antigo- 
 nus, and honoured with a splendid funeral pomp 
 at Corinth, and thence conveyed to Demetrias. 
 His posterity remained in possession of the 
 Macedonian throne till the age of Perseus, who 
 was conquered by the Romans. Demetrius has 
 rendered himself famous for his fondness of 
 dissipation when among the dissolute, and his 
 love of virtue and military glory in the field of 
 battle. He has been commended as a great war- 
 rior; and his ingenious inventions, his warlike 
 engines, and stupendous machines in his war 
 with the Rhodians, justify his claims to that 
 perfect character. He has been blamed for his 
 voluptuous indulgences ; and his biographer ob- 
 serves, that no Grecian prince had more wives 
 and concubines than Poliorcetes. His obedience 
 and reverence to his father have been justly ad- 
 mired ; and it has been observed that Antigonus 
 ordered the ambassadors of a foreign prince par- 
 ticularly to remark the cordiality and friendship 
 which subsisted between him and his son. Plui. 
 
 in vita,. — Diod, 17. — Justin. 1, c. 17, &c. 
 
 11. A prince who succeeded his father Antigo- 
 nus on the throne of Macedonia. He reigned 
 11 years, and was succeeded by Antigonus Do- 
 son. Justin. 26, c. 2.—Polyb. 2. III. A 
 
 son of Philip, king of Macedonia, delivered as 
 a hostage to the Romans. His modesty de- 
 livered his father from a heavy accusation laid 
 before the Roman senate. When he returned 
 to Macedonia, he was falsely accused by his 
 brother Perseus, who was jealous of his popu- 
 larity, and his father too credulously consented 
 to his death, B. C. 180. Lav. 40, c. 20.— Justin. 
 
 32, c, 2. IV. A prince, surnamed Soter, was 
 
 son of Seleucus Philopater, the son of Antio- 
 chus the Great, king of Syria. His father 
 gave him as a hostage to the Romans. After 
 the death of Seleucus, Antiochus Epiphanes, 
 the deceased monarch's brother, usurped the 
 kingdom of Syria, and was succeeded by his 
 son Antiochus Eupator. This usurpation dis- 
 pleased Demetrius, who was detained at Rome ; 
 he procured his liberty, on pretence of going to 
 hunt, and fled to Syria, where the troops re- 
 ceived him as their lawful sovereign, B. C. 162. 
 He put to death Eupator and Lysias, and es- 
 tablished himself on his throne by cruelty and 
 oppression. Alexander Bala, the son of An- 
 tiochus Epiphanes, laid claim to the crown of 
 Syria, and defeated Demetrius in a battle, m 
 the 12th year of his reign. Strab, 16. — Appian. 
 
 — Justin. 34, c. 3. V. The 2d, surnamed 
 
 424 
 
 Nicanor^ or Conqueror, vi?^ son of Soter, to 
 whom he succeeded by the assistance of Ptolemy 
 Philometer, after he had driven out the usurper 
 Alexander Bala, B. C. 146. He married Cleo- 
 patra, daughter of Ptolemy ; who was, before, 
 the wife of the expelled monarch. Demetrius 
 gave himself up to luxury and voluptuousness, 
 and suffered his kingdom to be governed by his 
 favourites. At that time a pretended son of 
 Bala, called DiodorusTryphon, seized a part of 
 Syria ; and Demetrius, to oppose his antagonist, 
 made an alliance with the Jews, and marched 
 into the east, where he was taken by the Par- 
 ihians. Phraates, king of Parthia, gave him his 
 daughter Rhodogyne in marriage ; and Cleopa- 
 tra was so incensed at this new connexion, that 
 she gave herself up to Antiochus Sidetes, her 
 brother-in-law, and married him, Sidetes was 
 killed in a battle against the Parthians, and De- 
 metrius regained the possession of his kingdom. 
 His pride and oppression rendered him odious, 
 and his subjects asked a king of the house of 
 Seleucus, from Ptolemy Physcon, king of Egypt; 
 and Demetrius, unable to resist the power of 
 his enemies, fled to Ptolemais, which was then 
 in the hands of his wife Cleopatra. -The gates 
 were shut up against his approach by Cleopa- 
 tra ; and he was killed by order of the governor 
 of Tyre, whither he had fled for protection. He 
 was succeeded by Alexander Zebina, whom 
 Ptolemy had raised to the throne, B. C. 127. 
 Justin. 36, &c. — Appian. de Bell. Syr. — Joseph. 
 
 VI. The 3d, surnamed Eucerus, was son 
 
 of Antiochus Gryphus. After the example of 
 his brother Philip, who had seized Syria, he 
 made himself master of Damascus, B. C. 93, 
 and soon after obtained a victory over his bro- 
 ther. He was taken in a battle against the 
 Parthians, and died in captivity, Joseph. 1. 
 
 r-VII. Phalereus, a disciple of Theophras- 
 
 tus, who gained such an influence over the 
 Athenians, by his eloquence and the purity of 
 his manners, that he was elected decennial ar- 
 chon, B. C. 317, He so embellished the city, 
 and rendered himself so popular by his muni- 
 ficence, that the Athenians raised 360 brazen 
 statues to his honour. Yet in the midst of all 
 this popularity, his enemies raised a sedition 
 against him, and he was condemned to death, 
 and all his statues thrown down, after main- 
 taining the sovereign power for 10 years. He 
 fled without concern or mortification to the court 
 of Ptolemy Lagus, where he met with kindness 
 and cordiality. The Egyptian monarch con- 
 sulted him concerning the succession of his 
 children ; and Demetrius advised him to raise 
 to the throne the children of Eurydice in pre- 
 ference to the offspring of Berenice. This coun- 
 sel so irritated Philadelphus, the son of Be- 
 renice, that after his father's death he sent the 
 philosopher into Upper Egypt, and there de- 
 tained him in strict confinement. Demetrius, 
 tired with his situation, put an end to his life 
 by the bite of an asp, 284 B.C. According to 
 some, Demetrius enjoyed the confidence of Phi- 
 ladelphus, and enriched his library at Alexan- 
 dria with 200,000 volumes. All the works of 
 Demetrius, on rhetoric, history, and eloquence, 
 are lost. The last edition of the treatise on 
 rhetoric, attributed improperly to him, is that of 
 Glasgow, 8vo. 1743. Diog. in vita. — Cic. in 
 Brut. 4* de OJJic.—Plut. in Exit. VIII. A 
 
DE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DE 
 
 cynic philosopher, disciple of Apollonius Thy- 
 aneus, in the age of Caligula. The emperor 
 wished to gain the philosopher to his interest by 
 a large present ; but Demetrius refused it with 
 indignation, and said, If Caligula wishes to bribe 
 me, lei him send me his crown. Vespasian was 
 displeased with his insolence, and banished him 
 to an island. The cynic derided the punish- 
 ment, and bitterly inveighed against the em- 
 peror. He died in a great old age ; and Se- 
 neca observes, that nature hoA brought him 
 forth, to show mankind that an exalted genius can 
 live securely without being corrupted by the vices 
 of the surrounding world. Senec. — Philostr. in 
 Apoll. IX. A writer, who published a his- 
 tory of the irruptioDS of the Gauls into Asia. 
 
 Democedes, a celebrated physician of Cro- 
 tona, son of Calliphon, and intimate with Poly- 
 crates. He was carried as a prisoner from Sa- 
 mos toDarius, king of Persia, where he acquired 
 great riches and much reputation by curing the 
 king's foot and the breast of Atossa. He was 
 sent to Greece as a spy by the king, and fled 
 away to Crotona, where he married the daugh- 
 ter of the wrestler Milo. jElian. V. H. 8, c. 
 IS.—Herodot. 3, c. 124, &c. 
 
 Demoghares, I. an Athenian, sent with some 
 of his countrymen with an embassy to Philip, 
 king of Macedonia. The monarch gavethem 
 audience ; and when he asked them whai he 
 could do to please the people of Athens, De- 
 mochares replied, " Hang yourself " But Phil- 
 ip mildly dismissed them, and bade them ask 
 their countrymen, which deserved most the ap- 
 pellation of wise and moderate, they who gave 
 such ill language, or he who received it without 
 any signs of resentment 1 Serwc. de Ira. 3. — 
 jElian. V. H. 3, 7, 8, 12.— Cic. in Brut. 3, de 
 
 Orat. 2. II. A poet of Soli, who composed 
 
 a comedy on Demetrius Poliorcetes. Plut. in 
 
 Dem. III. A statuary, who wished to make a 
 
 statue of mount Athos. Vitruv. IV. A gen- 
 eral of Pompey the younger, who died B. C. 36. 
 
 Democritus, a celebrated philosopher of Ab- 
 dera, disciple to Leucippus. He travelled over 
 the greatest part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, 
 in quest of knowledge, and returned home in the 
 greatest poverty. There was a law at Abdera, 
 which deprived of the honour of a funeral the 
 man who had reduced himself to indigence ; and 
 Democritus, to avoid ignominy, repeated before 
 his countrymen one of his compositions called 
 Diacosmus. It was received with such uncom- 
 mon applause, that he was presented with 500 
 talents ; statues were erected in his honour ; and 
 a decree passed that the expenses of his funeral 
 should be paid from the public treasury. He 
 retired to a garden near the city, where he de- 
 dicated his time to study and solitude ; and, ac- 
 cording to some authors, he put out his eyes to 
 apply himself more closely to philosophical in- 
 quiries. He was accused of insanity, and Hip- 
 pocrates was ordered to inquire into the nature 
 of his disorder. The physician had a conference 
 with the philosopher, and declared that not De- 
 mocritus, but his enemies were insane. He con- 
 tinually laughed at the follies and vanities of 
 mankind, who distract themselves with care, 
 and are at once a prey to hope and to anxiety. 
 He told Darius, who was inconsolable for the 
 loss of his wife, that he would raise her from the 
 dead if he could find three persons who had gone 
 
 Part II.— 3 H 
 
 through life without adversity, whose names he 
 might engrave on the queen's monument. The 
 king's inquiries to find such persons proved un- 
 availing, and the philosopher in some manner 
 soothed the sorrow of his sovereign. He taught 
 his disciples that the soul died with the body ; 
 and therefore, as he gave no credit to the ex- 
 istence of ghosts, some youths, to try his forti- 
 tude, dressed themselves in a hideous and de- 
 formed habit, and approached his cave in the 
 dead of night with whatever could create terror 
 and astonishment. The philosopher received 
 them unmoved ; and without even looking at 
 them, he desired them to cease making them- 
 selves such objects of ridicule and folly. He 
 died in the 109th year of his age, B. C. 361. 
 His father was so rich, that he entertained 
 Xerxes, with all his army, as he was marching 
 against Greece. All the works of Democritus 
 are lost. He was the author of the doctrine of 
 atoms, and first taught that the Milky-way was 
 occasioned by a confused light from a multitude 
 of stars. He may be considered as the parent 
 of experimental philosophy, in the prosecution 
 of which he showed himself so ardent, that he 
 declared he would prefer the discovery of one 
 of the causes of the works of nature to the dia- 
 dem of Persia. He made artificial emeralds, 
 and tinged them with various colours ; he like- 
 wise dissolved stones and softened ivory. Eu- 
 seb. 14, c. 27. — Diog. in vita. — Mlian. V. H. 
 4, c. 20.— Cic. de Finib.— Val. Max. 8, c. 7.— 
 Strab. 1 and 15. 
 
 Demodochus, a musician at the court of Al- 
 cinous, who sang, in the presence of Ulysses, 
 the secret amours of Mars and Venus, &c. Ho- 
 mer. Od. 8, V. M.—Plut. de Mus. 
 
 Demon, an Athenian, nephew to Demosthe- 
 nes. He was at the head of the government 
 during the absence of his uncle, and obtained a 
 decree that Demosthenes should be recalled, and 
 that a ship should be sent to bring him back. 
 
 Demonax, a celebrated philosopher of Crete 
 in the reign of Adrian. He showed no concern 
 about the necessaries of life ; but when himgry, 
 he entered the first house he met, and there sa- 
 tisfied his appetite. He died in his 100th year. 
 
 Demosthenes, a celebrated Athenian, son of 
 a rich blacksmith, called Demosthenes, and of 
 Cleobule. He was but seven years of age when 
 his father died. His guardians negligently ma- 
 naged his affairs, and embezzled the greatest 
 part of his possessions. His education was total- 
 ly neglected ; and for whatever advances he 
 made in learning, he was indebted to his indus- 
 try and application. He became the pupil of 
 Isaeus and Plato, and applied himself to study 
 the orations of Isocrates. At the age of 17 he 
 gave an early proof of his eloquence and abili- 
 ties against his guardians, from whom he ob- 
 tained the retribution of the greatest part of his 
 estate. His rising talents were, however, im- 
 peded, by weak lungs, and a difficulty of pro- 
 nunciation, especially of the letter p ; but these 
 obstacles were soon conquered by unwearied 
 application. His abilities as an orator raised 
 him to consequence at Athens, and he wavS 
 soon placed at the head of the government. 
 In this public capacity he roused his country- 
 men from their indolence, and animated them 
 against the encroachments of Philip of Mace- 
 donia. In the battle of Cheronasa, however, 
 425 
 
DE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DI 
 
 Demosthenes betrayed his pusillanimity, and 
 saved his life by flight. After the death of 
 Philip he declared himself warmly against his 
 son and successor, Alexander, whom he brand- 
 ed with the appellation of boy ; and when the 
 Macedonians demanded of the Athenians their 
 orators, Demosthenes reminded his countrymen 
 of the fable of the sheep which delivered their 
 dogs to the wolves. Though he had boasted 
 that all the gold of Macedonia could not tempt 
 him, yet he suffered himself to be bribed by 
 a small golden cup from Harpalus. The tu- 
 mults which this occasioned forced him to retire 
 from Athens ; and in his banishment, which he 
 passed at Troezene and JEgina, he lived with 
 more effeminacy than true heroism. When 
 Antipater made war against Greece, after the 
 death of Alexander, Demosthenes was publicly 
 recalled from his exile, and a galley was sent 
 to fetch him from ^gina. His return was at- 
 tended with much splendour, and all the citi- 
 zens crowded at the Piraeus to see him land. 
 His triumph and popularity, however, were 
 short. Antipater and Craterus were near 
 Athens, and demanded all the orators to be de- 
 livered up into their hands. Demosthenes, with 
 all his adherents, fled to the temple of Neptune 
 in Calauria ; and when he saw that all hopes of 
 safety were banished, he took a dose of poison, 
 which he always carried in a quill, and expired 
 on the day that the Thesmophoria were celebrat- 
 ed, in the 60th year of his age, B. C. 322. The 
 Athenians raised a brazen statue to his honour, 
 with an inscription translated into this distich : 
 
 Si tibi par menti robur, Vir magTie, fuisset, 
 GrcBcia non MacedcB succubuisset Jikro. 
 
 Demosthenes has been deservedly called the 
 prince of orators ; and Cicero, his successful ri- 
 val among the Romans, calls him a perfect mo- 
 del, and such as he wished to be. These two 
 great princes of eloquence have often been com- 
 pared together ; but the judgment hesitates to 
 which to give the preference. They both ar- 
 rived at perfection ; but the measures by which 
 they obtained it were diametrically opposite. 
 Demosthenes has been compared, and with pro- 
 priety, by his rival ^schines, to a siren, from 
 the melody of his expression. No orator can 
 be said to have expressed the various passions 
 of hatred, resentment, or indignation, with more 
 energy than he; and, as a proof of his uncom- 
 mon application, it need only be mentioned, that 
 he transcribed eight, or even ten times, the his- 
 tory of Thucydides, that he might not only imi- 
 tate, but possess the force and energy of the 
 great historian. The best editions of his works 
 arethatofWolfius,fol.Frankof 1604; that left 
 unfinished by Taylor, Cantab. 4to. and that 
 published in 12 vols. 8vo. 1720, &c. Lips, by 
 Reiske and his widow. Plut. in vita. — Diod. 
 16.— Cic. in Oral. &c.— Paws. 1, c. 8, 1. 2, c. 33. 
 
 II. An Athenian general, sent to succeed 
 
 Alcibiades in Sicily. He attacked Syracuse 
 with Nicias, but his efforts were ineffectual. 
 After many calamities, he fell into the enemy's 
 hands, and his army was confined to hard labour. 
 The accounts about the death of Demosthenes 
 are various ; some believe that he stabbed him- 
 self, whilst others suppose that he was put to 
 death by the Syracusans, B. C. 413. Phit. in 
 
 .Nic.— Thucyd. 4, Sac— Diod. 12. III. The 
 
 426 
 
 father of the orator Demosthenes. He was 
 very rich, and employed an immense number 
 of slaves, in the business of a sword cutler. 
 Plut. m Dem. 
 
 Demylus, a tyrant, who tortured the philoso- 
 pher Zeno. Plut. de Stoic. Rep. 
 
 Deodatus, an Athenian who opposed the 
 cruel resolutions of Cleon against the captive 
 prisoners of Mitylene. 
 
 Dercyllidas, a general of Sparta, celebrated 
 for his military exploits. He took nine different 
 cities in eight days, and freed Chersonesus from 
 the inroads of the Thracians by building a wall 
 across the country. He lived B. C. 399. Diod. 
 14. — Xenoph. Hist. GrcBC. 1, &c. 
 
 DiAGORAS, I. an Athenian philosopher. His 
 father's name was Teleclytus. From the great- 
 est superstition, he became a most unconquer- 
 able atheist : because he saw a man, who laid a 
 false claim to one of his poems, and who per- 
 jured himself, go unpunished. His great im- 
 piety and blasphemies provoked his countrymen, 
 and the Areopagites promised one talent to him 
 who brought his head before their tribunal, and 
 two if he were produced alive. He lived about 
 416 years before Christ. Cic. de Nat. D. 1, c. 
 
 23, 1. 3, c. 37, &c.— FaZ. Max. 1, c. 1. II. 
 
 An athlete of Rhodes, 460 years before the 
 Christian era. Pindar celebrated his merit in a 
 beautiful ode, still extant, which was written in 
 golden letters in a temple of Minerva. He saw 
 his three sons crowned the same day at Olympia, 
 and died through excess of joy. Cic. Tusc. 5. 
 — Plut. in Pel. — Paus. 6, c. 7. 
 
 DiALis, a priest of Jupiter at Rome, first insti- 
 tuted by Numa. He was never permitted to 
 swear, even upon public trials. Varro. L. L. 
 4, c. 15. — Dionys. 2. — Liv. 1, c. 20. 
 
 DiAMASTiGosTs, a fcstival at Sparta, in honour 
 of Diana Orthia, which received that name air^) 
 Tov txacTiyovv, from loMpping, because boys were 
 whipped before the altar of the goddess. These 
 boys, called Bomonicse, were originally freeborn 
 Spartans; but, in the more delicate ages, they 
 were of mean birth, and generally of a slavish 
 origin. This operation was performed by an 
 officer, in a severe and unfeeling manner; and 
 that no compassion should be raised, the priest 
 stood near the altar with a small light statue of 
 the goddess, which suddenly became heavy and 
 insupportable if the lash of the whip was more 
 lenient or less rigorous. The parents of the 
 children attended the solemnity, and exhorted 
 them not to commit any thing, either by fear or 
 groans, that might be unworthy of Laconian 
 education. These flagellations were so severe, 
 that the blood gushed in profuse torrents, and 
 many expired under the lash of the whip with- 
 out uttering a groan, or betraying any marks of 
 fear. Such a death was reckoned very honour- 
 able, and the corpse was buried with much so- 
 lemnity, with a garland of flowers on its head. 
 The origin of this festival is unknown. Some 
 suppose that Lycurgus first instituted it. Ores- 
 tes first introduced that barbarous custom, after 
 he had brought the statue of Diana Taurica 
 into Greece. There is another tradition, which 
 mentions that Pausanias, as he was offering 
 prayers and sacrifices to the gods, before he en- 
 gaged with Mardonius, was suddenly attacked 
 by a number of Lydians, who disturbed the sa- 
 crifice, and were at last repelled with staves and 
 
BI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DI 
 
 stones, the only weapons with which the Lace- 
 dEemonians were provided at that moment. In 
 commemoration of this, therefore, that whipping 
 of boys was instituted at Sparta, and after that 
 the Lydian procession. 
 
 DiAsiA, festivals in honour of Jupiter, at 
 Athens. They received their name, ano rov Sios 
 Kai TTjs auris, from JupUer and misfort'une, be- 
 cause, by making applications to Jupiter, men 
 obtained relief from their misfortunes, and were 
 delivered from dangers. During this festival 
 things of all kinds were exposed to sale. 
 
 DicEARCHUs, a Messenian, famous for his 
 knowledge of philosophy, history, and mathe- 
 matics. He was one of Aristotle's disciples. 
 Nothing remains of his numerous compositions. 
 He had composed a history of the Spartan re- 
 public, which was publicly read over every year 
 by order of the magistrates, for the improve- 
 ment and instruction of youth. 
 
 DicENEus, an Egyptian philosopher in the age 
 of Augustus, who travelled into Scythia, where 
 he ingratiated himself with the king of the coun- 
 try, and by his instructions softened the wildness 
 and rusticity of his manners. He also gained 
 such an influence over the multitude, that they 
 destroyed all the vines which grew in their coun- 
 try, to prevent the riot and dissipation which the 
 wine occasioned among them. He wrote all his 
 maxims and his laws in a book, that they might 
 not lose the benefit of them after his death. 
 
 Dictator, a magistrate at Rome, invested 
 with regal authority. This officer, whose ma- 
 gistracy seems to have been borrowed from the 
 customs of the Albans or Latins, was first cho- 
 sen during the Roman wars against the Latins, 
 The consuls being unable to raise forces for the 
 defence of the slate, because the plebeians re- 
 fused to enlist if they were not discharged from 
 all the debts they had contracted with the patri- 
 cians,- the senate found it necessar)'" to elect a 
 new magistrate, with absolute and uncontrollable 
 power, to take care of the state. The dictator 
 remained in office for six months; after which 
 he was again elected, if the afl^airs of the state 
 seemed to be desperate; but if tranquillity was 
 re-established, he generally laid down his power 
 before the time was expired. He knew no su- 
 perior in the republic, and even the laws were 
 subjected to him. He w^as called dictator, be- 
 cause dictus, named by the consul, or quoniam 
 dictis ejus parcbat populus, because the people 
 implicitly obeyed his command. He was named 
 by the consul in the night, viva voce, and his 
 election was confirmed by the auguries, though 
 sometimes he was nominated or recommended 
 by the people. As his power was absolute, he 
 could proclaim war, levy forces, conduct them 
 against an enemy, and disband them at pleasure. 
 He punished as he pleased : and from his deci- 
 sion there was no appeal, at least till later times. 
 He was preceded by 24 lictors, with the fasces; 
 during his administration, all other officers ex- 
 cept the tribunes of the people, were suspended, 
 and he was the master of the republic. But 
 amidst all this independence he was not per- 
 mitted to go beyond the borders of Italy, and he 
 was always obliged to march on foot in his ex- 
 peditions; and he never could ride, in difficult 
 and laborious marches, without previously ob- 
 taining a formal leave from the people. This 
 office, so respectable and illustrious in the first 
 
 ages of the republic, became odious by the per- 
 petual usurpations of Sylla and J. Caesar ; and 
 after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, 
 on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a 
 decree, which for ever after forbade a dictator 
 to exist in Rome. The dictator, as soon as elect- 
 ed, chose a subordinate officer, called his master 
 of horse, magister equitum. This officer was 
 respectable, but he was totally subservient to 
 the will of the dictator, and could do nothing 
 without his express order, though he enjoyed 
 the privilege of using a horse, and had the same 
 insignia as the praetors. This subordination, 
 however, was some time after removed ; and 
 during the second Punic war the master of the 
 horse was invested with a power equal to that 
 of the dictator. A second dictator was also cho- 
 sen for the election of magistrates at Rome, af- 
 ter the battle of Cannae. The dictatorship was 
 originally confined to the patricians, but the ple- 
 beians were afterwards admitted to share it. 
 Titus Latins Flavus was the first dictator, A. 
 U. C. 253. Dionys. Hal.—Cic. de Leg. 3.— 
 Dio. — Plut. in Fab. — Appian. 3. — Polyb. 3. — 
 Patera. 2, c. ^S.—Liv. 1, c. 23, 1. 2, c. 18, 1. 4, 
 c. 57, 1. 9, c. 38. 
 
 DiCTYs, a Cretan, who went with Idomeneus 
 to the Trojan war. It is supposed that he wrote 
 a history of this celebrated war, and that at 
 his death he ordered it to be laid in his tomb, 
 where it remained, till a violent earthquake in 
 the reign of Nero opened the monument where 
 he had been buried. This convulsion of the 
 earth threw out his history of the Trojan war, 
 which was found by some shepherds, and after- 
 wards carried to Rome. This Inysterious tra- 
 dition is deservedly deemed fabulous ; and the 
 history of the Trojan war, which is now extant 
 as the composition of Dictys of Crete, was com- 
 posed in the 15th century, or, according to 
 others, in the age of Constantine, and falsely 
 attributed to one of the followers of Idomeneus. 
 The edition of Dictys is by Masellus Venia, 
 4to. Mediol. 1477. 
 
 DiDiA Lex, de Sumptibus, by Didius, A. XJ. 
 C. 606, to restrain the expenses that attended 
 public festivals and entertainments, and limit 
 the number of guests which generally attended 
 them, not only at Rome, but in all the provinces 
 of Italy. By it, not only those who received 
 guests in these festive meetings, but the guests 
 themselves, were liable to be fined. It was an 
 extension of the Oppian and Fannian laws. 
 
 Didius, I. a governor of Spain, conquered by 
 
 Sertorius. Plut. in Sert. II. A man who 
 
 brought Caesar the head of Pompey's eldest son. 
 
 Plut. III. A governor of Britain, under 
 
 Claudius. IV. Julianus, a rich Roman, who, 
 
 after the murder of Pertinax, bought the empire 
 which the praetorians had exposed to sale, A. D. 
 192. His great luxury and extravagance ren- 
 dered him odious; and when he refused to pay 
 the money which he had promised for the impe- 
 rial purple, the soldiers revolted against him, and 
 put him to death, after a short reign. Severus 
 was made emperor after him. 
 
 Dido, called also Elissa, a daughter of Belus, 
 king of Tyre, who married Sichaeus, or Sichar- 
 bas, her uncle, who was priest of Hercules. 
 Pygmalion, who succeeded to the throne of Tyre 
 after Belus, murdered Sichseus, to get posses- 
 sion of the immense riches which he possessed ; 
 427 
 
DI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DI 
 
 and Dido, disconsolate for the loss of a husband 
 whom she tenderly loved, and by whom she was 
 equally esteemed, set sail in quest of a settle- 
 ment, with a number of Tyrians, to whom the 
 cruelty of the tyrant became odious. According 
 to some accounts, she threw into the sea the 
 richesof her husband,whichPygmalion so great- 
 ly desired; and by that artifice compelled the 
 ships to fly with her, that had come by order of 
 the tyrant to obtain the riches of Sichseus. A 
 storm drove her fleet on the African coast, and 
 she bought of the inhabitants as much land as 
 could be covered by a bull's hide cut into thongs. 
 Upon this piece of land she built a citadel call- 
 ed Byrsa, ( Vid. Byrsa,) and the increase of 
 population, and the rising commerce among her 
 subjects, soon obliged her to enlarge her city 
 and the boundaries of her dominions. Her 
 beauty, as well as the fame of her enterprise, 
 gained her many admirers ; and her subjects 
 wished to compel her to mary larbas, king of 
 Mauretania, who threatened them with a dread- 
 ful war. Dido begged three months to give her 
 decisive answer; and during that time she erect- 
 ed a funeral pile, as if wishing, by a solemn 
 sacrifice, to appease the manes of Sichseus, to 
 whom she had promised eternal fidelity. When 
 all was prepared, she stabbed herself on the pile 
 in presence of her people, and by this uncom- 
 mon action obtained the name of Dido, valiant 
 woman, instead of Elissa. According to Virgil 
 and Ovid, the death of Dido was caused by the 
 sudden departure of iEneas, of whom she was 
 deeply enamoured, and whom she could not ob- 
 tain as a husband. This poetical fiction repre- 
 sents jfEneas as living in the age of Dido, and 
 introduces an anachronism of near 300 years. 
 Dido left Phoenicia 247 years after the Trojan 
 war, or the age of iEneas, that is, about 953 
 years B. G. This chronological error proceeds 
 not from the ignorance of the poets, but it is 
 supported by the authority of Horace : — 
 
 " Auifamansequere, autsibi co7ivenie7itiafinge" 
 
 While Virgil describes, in a beautiful episode, 
 the desperate love of Dido, and the submission 
 of iEneas to the will of the gods ; he at the 
 same time gives an explanation of the hatred 
 which existed between the republics of Rome 
 and Carthage, and informs his readers that their 
 mutual enmity originated in their very first 
 foundation, and was apparently kindled by a 
 more remote cause than the jealousy and rival- 
 ship of two flourishing empires. Dido, after 
 her death, was honoured as a deity by her sub- 
 jects. Justin. 18, c. 4, &c. — Paterc. 1, c. 6. — 
 Virg. Mn.— Ovid. Met. 14, fab. 2.—Heroid. 
 
 7. — Appian. Alex. Oros. 4. — Herodian. — 
 
 Dionys. Hal. 
 
 DiiiYMUs, a scholiast on Homer, surnamed 
 XaXv£vr£f)o?, flourished B. C. 40. He wrote a 
 number of books, which are now lost. The 
 editions of his commentaries are, that in .2 vols. 
 8vo. Venut. apud. Aid. 152S, and that of Paris, 
 8vo. 1530. 
 
 DiENECEs, a Spartan, who, upon hearing, 
 before the battle of Thermopylae, that the Per- 
 sians were so numerous that their arrows would 
 darken the light of the sun, observed, that it 
 ■would be a great convergence, for they then 
 should fight in the shade. Herodot. 7, c. 226. 
 
 DiNARCHUs, a Greek orator, son of Sostratus, 
 438 
 
 and disciple to Theophrastus, at Athens. He 
 acquired much money by his compositions, and 
 suffered himself to be bribed by the enemies of 
 the Athenians, 307 B. C. Of 64 of his ora- 
 tions, only three remain. Cic. de Oral. 2, c. 53. 
 
 DiNOCHAREs, an architect, who finished the 
 temple of Diana at Ephesus, after it had been 
 burnt by Erostratus. 
 
 DiNOCRATEs, I. an architect of Macedonia, 
 who proposed to Alexander to cut mount Athos 
 in the form of a statue, holding a city in one 
 hand, and in the other a basin, into which all 
 the waters of the mountain should empty them- 
 selves. This project Alexander rejected as too 
 chimerical, but he employed the talents of the 
 artist in building and beautifying Alexandria. 
 He began to build a temple in honour of Arsi- 
 noe, by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, in 
 which he intended to suspend a statue of the 
 queen by means of loadstones. His death, and 
 that of his royal patron, prevented the execu- 
 tion of a work which would have been the ad- 
 miration of future ages. Plin. 7, c. 37. — Mar- 
 
 cell. 22i c. ^^.—Plut. in Alex. II. A Mes- 
 
 senian, who behaved with great effeminacy and 
 wantonness. He defeated Philopoemen, and 
 put him to death B. C, 183. Pint, in Flam. 
 
 DiNOLOcHus, a Syracusan, who composed 14 
 comedies. jElian. de Anim. 6, c. 52. 
 
 DiNON, the father of Clitarchus, who wrote 
 a history of Persia in Alexander's age. He is 
 esteemed a very authentic historian by C. Nep. 
 in Conon. — Plut. in Alex. — Diog. 
 
 DiocLEA, festivals in the spring at Megara, 
 in honour of Diodes, who died in the defence 
 of a certain youth to whom he was tenderly at- 
 tached. There was a contention on his tomb, 
 and the youth who gave the sweetest kiss wan 
 publicly rewarded with a garland. Theocritus 
 has described them in his 12 Jdyll. v. 27. 
 
 DiocLEs, I. a general of Athens, &c. PolycBn. 
 
 5. II. A comic poet of Athens. III. An 
 
 historian, the first Grecian who ever wrote con- 
 cerning the origin of the Romans and the fab- 
 ulous history of Romulus. Plut. in Rom. 
 
 IV. One of the four brothers placed over the 
 citadel of Corinth by Archelaus, &c. Polyan. 6. 
 
 DiocLETiANUs, I. (Caius Valerius Jovius) a 
 celebrated Roman emperor, born of an obscure 
 family in Dalmatia. He was first a common 
 soldier, and by merit and success he gradually 
 rose to the office of a general, and, at the death 
 of Numerian, he was invested with the imperial 
 purple. In his high station he rewarded the vir- 
 tues and fidelity of Maximian, who had shared 
 with him all the subordinate officers in the army, 
 by making him his colleague on the throne. He 
 created two subordinate emperors, Constantius 
 and Galerius, whom he called Casars, whilst 
 he claimed for himself and his colleague the su- 
 perior title of Augustus. Diocletian has been 
 celebrated for his military virtues ; and though 
 he was naturally unpolished by education and 
 study, yet he was the friend and patron of learn- 
 ing with true genius. His cruelty, however, 
 against the followers of Christianity has been 
 deservedly branded with the appellation of un- 
 bounded tyranny and insolent wantonness. Af- 
 ter he had reigned 21 years in the greatest pros- 
 perity, he publicly abdicated the crown at Nico- 
 media, on the first of May, A. D. 304, and re- 
 tired to a private station at Salona. Maximian, 
 
DI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DI 
 
 his colleague,followed bis example, but not from 
 voluntary choice ; and when be some time after 
 endeavoured to rouse the ambition of Diocletian, 
 and persuade him to reassume the imperial pur- 
 ple, he received for answer, that Diocletian took 
 now more delight in cultivating his little garden, 
 than he formerly enjoyed in a palace when his 
 power was extended over all the earth. He 
 lived nine years after his abdicatioQ, iathe great- 
 est security and enjoyment at Salona, and died 
 in the 68th year of his age, Diocletian is the 
 first sovereign who voluntarily resigned his 
 power ; a philosophical resolution, which, in a 
 later age, was imitated by the emperor Charles 
 the fifth, of Germany. 
 
 DiODoRUs, I. an historian, sumamed Siculus, 
 because he was born in Sicily. He wrote a 
 history of Egypt, Persia, Syria, Media, Greece, 
 Rome, and Carthage, which was divided into 40 
 books, of which only 15 are extant, with some 
 few fragments. This valuable composition was 
 the work of an accurate inquirer, and it is said 
 that he visited all the places of which he has 
 made mention in his history. It was the labour 
 of 30 years, though the greater part may be con- 
 sidered as nothing more than a judicious compi- 
 lation from Berosus, Timseus, Theopompus, 
 Callisthenes, and others. The author, however, 
 is too credulous in some of his narrations, and 
 often wanders far from the truth. His style is 
 neither elegant nor too laboured ; butof great 
 simplicity and unaffected correctness. He often 
 dwells too long upon fabulous reports and tri- 
 fling incidents, while events of the greatest im- 
 portance to history are treated with brevity, and 
 sometimes passed over in silence. His manner 
 of reckoning, by the Olympiads and the Roman 
 consuls, will be found very erroneous. The his- 
 torian flourished about 44 years B . C . He spent 
 much time at Rome to procure information and 
 authenticate his historical narrations. The best 
 edition of his works is that of Wesseling, 2 vols, 
 fol. Amst. 1746. II. A stoic philosopher, pre- 
 ceptor to Cicero. He lived and died in the house 
 of his pupil, whom he instructed in the various 
 branches of Greek literature. Cic. in Brut. 
 
 Diogenes, I. a celebrated cynic philosopher 
 of Sinope, banished from his country for coin- 
 ing false money. From Sinope he retired to 
 Athens, where he became the disciple of An- 
 tisthenes, who was at the head of the cynics. 
 Antisthenes, at first, refused to admit him into 
 his house, and even struck him with a stick. 
 Diogenes calmly bore the rebuke, and said, 
 Strike me, Antisthenes, but never shall you find 
 a stick sufficiently hard to remove me from your 
 presence while there is any thing to be learnt, 
 any information to be gained from your conver- 
 sation and acquaintance. Such firmness re- 
 commended him to Antisthenes, and he became 
 his most devoted pupil. He dressed himself in 
 the garment which distinguished the cynics, 
 and walked about the streets with a tub on his 
 head, which served him as a house and a place 
 of repose. Such singularity, joined to the 
 greatest contempt for riches, soon gained him 
 reputation; and Alexander the Great conde- 
 scended to visit the philosopher in his tub. He 
 asked Diogenes if there was any thing in which 
 he could gratify or oblige him. Get out of my 
 sunshine, was the only answer which the phi- 
 losopher gave. Such an independence of mind 
 
 so pleased the monarch, that he turned to his 
 courtiers, and said, " Were I not Alexander, I 
 would wish to be Diogenes." He was once sold 
 as a slave ; but his magnanimity so pleased his 
 master, that he made him the preceptor of his 
 children and the guardian of his estates. After 
 a life spent in the greatest misery and indigence, 
 he died B. C. 324, in the 96th year of his age. 
 
 II. A stoic of Babylon, disciple of Chry- 
 
 sippus. He went to Athens, and was sent as 
 ambassador to Rome, with Carneades and Cri- 
 tolaus, 155 years before Christ. He died in the 
 88th year of his age, after a life of the most 
 exemplary virtue. Some suppose that he was 
 strangled by order of Antiochus, king of Syria, 
 for speaking disrespectfully of his family in one 
 of his treatises. Quintil. 1, c. 1. — Athen. 5, c. 
 
 11. — Cic. d£ Offic. 3, c. 51. III. Laertius, an 
 
 Epicurean philosopher, born in Cilicia. He 
 wrote the lives of the philosophers, in ten books, 
 still extant. This work contains an accurate 
 account of the ancient philosophers, and is 
 replete with all their anecdotes and particular 
 opinions. It is compiled, however, without any 
 plan, method, or precision, though much neat- 
 ness and conciseness are observable through 
 the whole. In this multifarious biography, the 
 author does not seem particularly partial to any 
 sect, except, perhaps, it be that of Potamon, of 
 Alexandria, Diogenes died A. D. 222, The 
 best editions of his works are that ef Meibo- 
 mius, 2 vols. 4to, Amst, 1692, and that of Lips. 
 8vo. 1759. 
 
 DioGNETUs, a philosopher who instructed 
 Marcus Aurelius in philosophy and in writing 
 dialogues. 
 
 DioMEDEs, son of Tydeus and Deiphyle, was 
 king of ^tolia, and one of the bravest of the 
 Grecian chiefs in the Trojan war. He engaged 
 Hector and jEneas, and by repeated acts of 
 valour obtained much military glory. He went 
 with Ulysses to steal the Palladium from the 
 temple of Minerva at Troy, and assisted in mur- 
 dering Rhesus, king of Thrace, and carrying 
 away his horses. At his return from the siege 
 of Troy, he lost his way in the darkness of the 
 night, and landed in Attica, where his com- 
 panion plundered the country, and lost the Tro- 
 jan Palladium. During his long absence, his 
 wife .^giale forgot her marriage vows, and Di- 
 omedes resolved to abandon his native country. 
 He came to that part of Italy which has been 
 called Magna GraBcia, where he built a city, 
 called Argyripa, and married the daughter of 
 Daunus, the king of the country. He died 
 there in extreme old age, or, according to a cer- 
 tain tradition, he perished by the hand of his 
 father-in-law. His death was greatly lamented 
 by his companions, who, in the excess of their 
 grief, were changed into birds resembling swans. 
 These birds took flight into a neighbouring 
 island in the Adriatic, and became remarkable 
 for the tameness with which they approached 
 the Greeks, and for the horror with which the)'' 
 shunned all other nations. They are called the 
 birds of Diomedes. Altars were raised to Dio- 
 medes, as to a god, one of which Strabo men- 
 tions at Timavus. Virg. Mn. 1, v. 756, 1. 11, 
 v.243,&c.— Oi^i^. Met. 14, i^h.Vd.—Afollod. 1, 
 c. 8, 1. 3, c, l.—Hygin. fab, 97, 112, and 113.— 
 Pans. 2, c. 30. 
 Dion, I. a Svracusan, son of Hipparinus, fa- 
 429 
 
m 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 m 
 
 mous for his power and abilities. He was related 
 to Dionysius, and often advised him, together 
 with the philosopher Plato, who, at his request, 
 had come to reside at the tyrant's court, to lay 
 aside the supreme power. His great popularity 
 rendered him odious in the eyes of the tyrant, 
 who banished him to Greece. There he collect- 
 ed a numerous force, and, encouraged by the in- 
 fluence of his name and the hatred of his ene- 
 my, he resolved to free his country from tyranny. 
 He entered the port of Syracuse only with two 
 ships, and in three days reduced under his power 
 an empire which had already subsisted for fifty 
 years, and which was guarded by 500 ships of 
 war, and 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse. The 
 tyrant fled to Corinth, and Dion kept the power 
 in his own hands, fearful of the aspiring ambi- 
 tion of some of the friends of Dionysius. He 
 was, however, shamefully betrayed and mur- 
 dered by one of his familiar friends, called 
 Callicrates, or Callipus, 354 years before the 
 Christian era, in the 55th year of his age, and 
 four years after his return from Peloponnesus. 
 His death was universally lamented by the Sy- 
 racusans, and a monument was raised to his 
 
 memory. Diod.16. — C. Nep.invitd. II. Cas- 
 
 sius, a native of Nicoea in Bithynia. His father's 
 name was Apronianus. He was raised to the 
 greatest offices of state in the Roman empire by 
 Pertinax and his three successors. Naturally 
 fond of study, he improved himself by unwea- 
 ried application, and was ten years in collecting 
 materials for a history of Rome, which he made 
 public in 80 books, after a laborious employment 
 of 12 years in composing it. This valuable his- 
 tory began with the arrival of iEneas in Italy, 
 and was continued down to the reign of the em- 
 peror Alexander Severus. The 34 first books 
 are totally lost, the 20 following are mutilated, 
 and fragments are all that we possess of the last 
 20. In the compilation of his extensive history, 
 Dion proposed tohiraself Thucydides for a mo- 
 del ; but he is not perfectly happy in his imita- 
 tion. His style is pure and elegant, and his nar- 
 rations are judiciously managed, and his reflec- 
 tions learned ; but upon the whole he is credu- 
 lous, and the bigoted slave of partiality, satire, 
 and flattery. He inveighs agains the republi- 
 can principles of Brutus and Cicero, and extols 
 the cause of Caesar. Seneca is the object of his 
 satire, and he represents him as debauched and 
 licentious in his morals. Dion flourished about 
 the 230th year of the Christian era. The best 
 edition of his works is that of Reimarus, 2 vols. 
 
 fol. Hamb. 1750. III. A famous Christian 
 
 writer, surnamed Chrysostom, &c. 
 
 DioNYsiA, festivals in honour of Bacchus 
 among the Greeks. Their form and solemnity 
 were first introduced into Greece from Egypt by 
 a certain Melampus, and if we admit that Bac- 
 chus is the same as Isis, the Dionysia of the 
 Greeks are the same as the festivals celebrated 
 by the Egyptians in honour of Isis. They were 
 observed at Athens with more splendour and 
 ceremonious superstition than in any other part 
 of Greece. The years were numbered by their 
 celebration, the archon assisted at the solemnity, 
 and the priests that officiated were honoured 
 with the most dignified seats at thepublic games. 
 At first they were celebrated with great simpli- 
 city, and the time was consecrated to mirth. It 
 was then usual to bring a vessel of wine adorn- 
 430 
 
 ed with a vine branch, after which followed a 
 goat, a basket of figs, and the ^aWoi. The wor- 
 shippers imitated in their dress and actions the 
 poetical fictions concerning Bacchus. They 
 clothed themselves in fawnskins, fine linen, and 
 mitres ; they carried thyrsi, drums, pipes, and 
 flutes, and crowned themselves with garlands of 
 ivy, vine, fir, &c. Some imitated Silenus, Pan, 
 and the Satyrs, by the uncouth manner of their 
 dress and their fantastical motions. Some rode 
 upon asses, and others drove the goats to slaugh- 
 ter for the sacrifice. In this manner both sexes 
 joined in the solemnity, and ran about the hills 
 and country, nodding their heads, dancing in 
 ridiculous postures, and filling the air with hide- 
 ous shrieks and shouts, and crying aloud, Evoe 
 Bacche! lo! lo! Evoe! lacche! lobacchel 
 Evohe ! Besides these, there were a number of 
 persons called \iKvoipopoi, who carried ih.eXtKi>ov 
 or musical van of Bacchus ; without their at- 
 tendance none of the festivals of Bacchus were 
 celebrated with due solemnity, and on that ac- 
 count the god is often called Xikvit/h. The fes- 
 tivals of Bacchus were almost innumerable. 
 The name of the' most celebrated were the 
 Dionysia ap^'*'""?'') ^^ LimnsB in Attica. The 
 chief persons that officiated were fourteen wo- 
 men, called yepaipai, venerable. They were ap- 
 pointed by one of the archons, and before their 
 appointment they solemnly took an oath, before 
 the archon or his wife, that their body was free 
 
 from all pollution. The greater Dionysia, 
 
 sometimes called aaiKa or ra kut' oav, as bemg 
 celehraXedwithin the city, were the most famous. 
 They were supposed to be the same as the pre- 
 ceding.—- — The less Dionysia, sometimes call- 
 ed ra KUT^ aypovs, bccause celebrated in the coun- 
 try, or Xrivaia, from \r]voq a winepress, were. to 
 all appearance a preparation for the greater fes- 
 tivals. They were celebrated in autumn. 
 
 The Dionysia 0pavpovia, observed at Brauron 
 in Attica, were a scene of lewdness, extrava- 
 gance, and debauchery. The Dionysia wk- 
 
 rn\ta were observed by the Athenians in honour 
 of Bacchus Nyctelius. It was unlawful to re- 
 veal whatever was seen or done during the cele- 
 bration. The Dionysia called oi^ocpayia, be- 
 cause human victims were offered to the god, or 
 because the priests imitated the eating of raw 
 jlesh, were celebrated with much solemnity. 
 The priests put serpents in their hair, and by 
 the wildness of their looks, and the oddity of 
 
 their actions, they feigned insanity. The 
 
 Dionysia apKaSiKa were yearly observed in Ar- 
 cadia, and the children who had been instructed 
 in the music of Philoxenus and Timotheus, 
 were introduced in a theatre, where they cele- 
 brated the festivals of Bacchus by entertaining 
 the spectators with songs, dances, and different 
 exhibitions. There were, besides these, others 
 of inferior note. There was also one observed 
 every three years, called Dionysia rjoiempt/fa, and 
 it is said that Bacchus instituted it himself in 
 commemoration of his Indian expedition, in 
 which he spent three years. There is also an- 
 other, celebrated every fifth year, as mentioned 
 
 by the scholiast of Aristophanes. All these 
 
 festivals in honour of the god of wine, were ce- 
 lebrated by the Greeks with great licentious- 
 ness, and they contributed much to the corrup- 
 tion of morals among all ranks of people. They 
 were also introduced into Tuscany, and from 
 
DI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DI 
 
 thence to Rome. Among the Romans both sexes 
 promiscuously joined in the celebration during 
 the darkness of night. The drunkenness, the 
 debauchery, and impure actions and indulgen- 
 ces, which soon prevailed at the solemnity, call- 
 ed aloud for the interference of the senate; and 
 the consuls Sp. Posthumius Albinus and Q,. 
 Martins Philippus, made a strict examination 
 concerning the propriety and superstitious forms 
 of the Bacchanalia. The disorder and pollu- 
 tion which was practised with impuniiy by no 
 less than 7000 votaries of either sex, was be- 
 held with horror and astonishment by the con- 
 suls; and the Bacchanalia were for ever ban- 
 ished from Rome by a decree of the senate. 
 They were again reinstituted there in length of 
 time, but not with such licentiousness as before. 
 Eurip. in Bacc. — Virg. Mn. 11, v. 737. — Diod. 
 A.— Ovid. Met. 3, V. 533, 1. 4. v. 391, 1. 6, v. 587. 
 DioNYsius, 1st, or the elder, was son of Her- 
 mocrates. He signalized himself in the wars 
 which the Syracusans carried on against the 
 Carthaginians, and taking advantage of the 
 power lodged in his hands, he made himself ab- 
 solute at Syracuse. To strengthen himself in 
 his usurpation, and acquire popularity, he in- 
 creased the pay of the soldiers, and recalled 
 those that had been banished. He vowed eternal 
 enmity against Carthage, and experienced va- 
 rious successes in his wars against that republic. 
 He was ambitious of being thought a poet, and 
 his brother Theodoras was commissioned to go 
 to Olympia, and repeat there some verses in his 
 name, with other competitors, for the poetical 
 prizes. His expectations were frustrated, and 
 his poetry was received with groans and hisses. 
 He was not, however, so unsuccessful at Athens, 
 where a poetical prize was publicly adjudged to 
 one of his compositions. This victory gave him 
 more pleasure than all the victories he had ever 
 obtained in the field of battle. His tyranny and 
 cruelty at home rendered him odious in the eyes 
 of his subjects, and he became so suspicious, 
 that he never admitted his wife or children to his 
 private apartments without a previous examina- 
 tion of their garments. He never trusted his 
 head to a barber, but always burnt his beard. 
 He made a subterraneous cave in a rock, said 
 to be still extant, in the form of a human ear, 
 which measured 80 feet in height and 250 in 
 length. It was called the ear of Dionysius. The 
 sounds of this subterraneous cave were all ne- 
 cessarily directed to one common tympanum, 
 which had a communication with an adjoining 
 room where Dionysius spent the greater part of 
 his time to hear whatever was said by those 
 whom his suspicions and cruelty had confined in 
 the apartments above. The artists that had 
 been employed in making this cave were all put 
 to death by order of the tyrant, for fear of their 
 revealing to what purpose a work of such un- 
 common construction was to be appropriated. 
 His impiety and sacrilege were as conspicuous 
 as his suspicious credulity. He took a golden 
 mantle from the statue of Jupiter, observing that 
 the son of Saturn had too warm a covering for 
 the summer, and too cold for the winter, and he 
 placed one of wool instead. He also robbed 
 ^sculapius of his golden beard, and plundered 
 the temple of Proserpine. He died of an indi- 
 gestion, in the 63d year of his age, B. C. 368, 
 after a reign of 38 years. Authors, however, 
 
 are divided about the manner of his death, and 
 some are of opinion that he died a violent death. 
 Some suppose that the tyremt invented the cata- 
 pulta, an engine which proved of infinite service 
 for the discharging of showers of darts and stones 
 in the time of a siege. Diod. 13, 14, &c. — 
 Justin. 20, c. 1, &c. — Xenoph. Htst. Gr<zc. — 
 C. Nep. Timol.—Plut. in Diod. The se- 
 cond of that name, surnamed the younger, was 
 son of Dionysius the 1st, by Doris. He suc- 
 ceeded his father as tyrant of Sicily, and by the 
 advice of Dion, his brother-in-law, he invited 
 the philosopher Plato to his court, under whom 
 he studied for a while. The philosopher advised 
 him to lay aside the supreme power, and in his 
 admonitions he was warmly seconded by Dion. 
 Dionysius refused to consent, and soon after 
 Plaio was seized and publicly sold as a slave, 
 Dion likewise,on account of his great popularity, 
 was severely abused and insulted in his family, 
 and his wife given in marriage to another. Such 
 a violent behaviour was highly resented ; Dion, 
 who was banished, collected some forces in 
 Greece, and in three days rendered himself 
 master of Syracuse, and expelled the tyrant B. 
 C. 357. {Vid. Dion.) Dionysius retired to 
 Locri, where he behaved with the greatest op- 
 pression, and was ejected by the citizens. He 
 recovered Syracuse ten years after his expul- 
 sion : but his triumph was short, and the Corin- 
 thians, under the conduct of Timoleon, obliged 
 him to abandon the city. He fled to Corinth, 
 where, to support himself, he kept a school, as 
 Cicero observes, that he might still continue to 
 be tyrant; and as he could not command over 
 men, that he might siill exercise' his power over 
 boys. It is said that he died from an excess of 
 joy when he heard that a tragedy of his own 
 composition had been awarded with a poetical 
 prize. Dionysius was as cruel as his father, but 
 he did not, like him, possess the art of retaining 
 his power. This was seen and remarked by the 
 old man, who, when he saw his son attempting 
 to debauch the wives of some of his subjects, 
 asked him, with the greatest indignation, whe- 
 ther he had ever heard of his having acted so 
 brutal a part in his younger days'? No, (answered 
 the son) because you were not the son of a king. 
 "Well, my son, (replied the old man,) never shalt 
 thou be the father of a king, Justin. 21, c, 1, 
 2, SiC— Diod. 15, &c.—^lian. V. H. 9, c. 8. 
 — Quintil. 8, c. 6. — C. Nep. in Dion. — Cic. 
 
 Tusc. 5, c. 2. III. An historian of Hali- 
 
 carnassus, who left his country and came to re- 
 side at Rome, that he might carefully study all 
 the Greek and Latin writers, whose composi- 
 tions treated ofthe Roman history. He formed 
 an acquaintance with all the learned of the age, 
 and derived much information from their com- 
 pany and conversation. After an unremitted 
 application during 24 years, he gave to the 
 world his Roman antiquities, in 20 books, oi 
 which only the 1 1 first are now extant, nearly 
 containing the account of 312 years. His com- 
 position has been greatly valued by the ancients 
 as well as the moderns for the easiness of his 
 style, the fidelity of his chronology, and the ju- 
 diciousness of his remarks and criticism. Like 
 a faithful historian, he never mentioned any 
 thing but what was authenticated, and totally 
 disregarded the fabulous traditions which fill 
 and disgrace the pages of both his predecessors 
 431 
 
DO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DO 
 
 and followers. To the merits of the elegant 
 historian, Dionysius, as may be seen in his 
 treatises, has also added the equally respecta- 
 ble character of the eloquent orator, the critic, 
 and the politician. He lived during the Au- 
 gustan age, and came lo Rome about 30 years 
 before the Christian era. The best editions of 
 his works are that of Oxford, 2 vols. fol. 1704, 
 and that of Reiske, 6 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1774. 
 
 IV. A tyrant of Heraclea in Pontus, in the 
 
 age of Alexander the Great. After the deaih 
 of the conqueror and of Perdiccas, he married 
 Amestris, the niece of king Darius, and assum- 
 ed the title of king. He was of such an un- 
 common corpulence that he never exposed his 
 person in public ; and when he gave audience 
 to foreign ambassadors, he always placed him- 
 self in a chair, which was conveniently made 
 to hide his face and person from the eyes of the 
 spectators. When he was asleep it was impos- 
 sible to wake him without boring his flesh with 
 pins. He died in the 55th year of his age. As 
 his reign was remarkable for mildness and popu- 
 larity, his death was severely lamented by nis 
 subjects. He left two sons and a daughter, 
 
 and appointed his widow queen regent. V. 
 
 A writer in the Augustan age, called Periegetes. 
 He wrote a very valuable geographical treatise 
 in Greek hexameters, still extant. The best 
 edition of his treatise is that of Henry Ste- 
 phens, 4to. 1577, with the scholia, and that of 
 
 Hill, 8vo. Lond. 1688. VI. A Christian 
 
 ■writer, A. D. 492, called Areopagita. The best 
 edition of his works is that of Antwerp, 2 vols. 
 
 fol. 1634. VII. The music master of Epami- 
 
 nondas. C. Nep. VIII. A celebrated critic, 
 
 Vid. Longinus. 
 
 DioPHANTCJs, I. an Athenian general of the 
 Greek mercenary troops in the service of Nec- 
 
 tanebus, king of Egypt. Diod. 16. II. A 
 
 Greek orator of Mitylene, preceptor to Tib. 
 
 Gracchus. Cic. in Brut. III. A native of 
 
 Alexandria, in the fourth century. He wrote 13 
 books of arithmetical questions, of which six are 
 still extant, the best edition of which is that in 
 folio, Tolosae, 1670. He died in his 84th year, 
 but the age in which he lived is uncertain. 
 Some place him in the reign of Augustus, others 
 under Nero and the Antonines. 
 
 DioscoRiDES, I. a native of Cilicia, who was 
 physician to Antony and Cleopatra, or lived, as 
 some suppose, in the age of Nero. He was ori- 
 ginally a soldier, but afterwards he applied him- 
 self to study, and wrote a book upon medicinal 
 herbs, of which the best edition is that of Sara- 
 
 cenus, fol. Francof 1598. II. A man who 
 
 wrote an account of the republic of Lacedaj- 
 mon. A nephew of Antigonus. Diod. 19. 
 
 DioTiME, a woman who gave lectures upon 
 philosophy, which Socrates attended. Plut. in 
 Symp. 
 
 DiPHiLUs, I. the contemporary of Menander, 
 was born at Sinope in Pontus, and died at 
 Smyrna in Ionia. His comedies were celebrated 
 for their wit, sense, and pleasantness; though 
 some accused them of occasional dullness and 
 insipidity, Plautus took his Casina from the 
 
 KXepovfievoi of Diphilus. II. An Athenian 
 
 general, A. U. C 311. III. An architect, so 
 
 slow in finishing his works, that Diphilo tardior 
 became a proverb. Cic. ad fratr. 3. 
 
 DociMus, a man of Tarentum, deprived of his 
 432 
 
 military dignity by Philip, son of Amyntas, for 
 indulging himself with hot baths. Polycem.. 4. 
 
 DODoNiDEs, the priestesses who gave oracles 
 in the temple of Jupiter in Dodona. According 
 to some traditions, the temple was originally 
 inhabited by seven daughters of Atlas, who 
 nursed Bacchus. Their names were Ambrosia, 
 Eudora, Pasithoe, Pylho, Plexaure, Coronis, 
 Tythe or Tyche. In the latter ages, the oracles 
 were always delivered by three old women, 
 which custom was first established when Jupiter 
 enjoyed the company of Dione, whom he per- 
 mitted to receive divine honours in his temple 
 at Dodona. The Boeotians were the only people 
 of Greece who received their oracles at Dodona 
 from men, for reasons which Strabo 1, 9, fully 
 explains. 
 
 DoLABELLA, (P. CoRN.) I. a Romau who mar- 
 ried the daughter of Cicero. During the civil 
 wars he warmly espoused the interest of J. 
 Caesar, whom he accompanied at the famous 
 battles at Pharsalia, Africa, and Munda. He 
 was made consul by his patron, though M. An- 
 tony, his colleague, opposed it. After the death 
 of J. Csesar, he received the government of Sy- 
 ria as his province. Cassius opposed his views, 
 and Dolabella, for violence, and for the assas- 
 sination of Trebonius, one of Caesar's murder- 
 ers, was declared an enemy to the republic of 
 Rome. He was besieged by Cassius in Laodi- 
 cea, and when he saw that all was lost, he killed 
 himself, in the 27th year of his age. He was 
 of a small stature, which gave occasion to his 
 father-in-law to ask him once, when he entered 
 his house, who had tied him so cleverly to his 
 sword. 31. Another, who conquered the 
 Gauls, Etrurians, and Boii, at the lake Vadi- 
 
 monis, B. C. 283, The family of the Dola- 
 
 bellas distinguished themselves at Rome, and 
 one of them (L. Corn.) conquered Lusitania, 
 B.C. 99. 
 
 DoLON, I. a Trojan, son of Eumedes, famous 
 for his swiftness. Being sent by Hector to spy 
 the Grecian camp by night, he was seized oy 
 Dioraedes and Ulysses, to whom he revealed the 
 situation, schemes, and resolutions of his coun- 
 trymen, with the hope of escaping with his life. 
 He was put to death by Diomedes, as a traitor. 
 Homer. II. 10, v. 2U.— Virg. Mn. 12, v. 349, &C. 
 ■II. A poet. Vid. Susarion. 
 
 Dominica, a daughter of Petronius, who mar- 
 ried the emperor Valens. 
 
 Domitia Lex, de Religione, was enacted by 
 Domitius Ahenobarbus, the tribune, A. U. C- 
 650. It transferred the right of electing priests 
 from the college to the people. 
 
 Domitia LoNG?NA,aRoman lady, who boasted 
 of her debaucheries. She was the wife of the 
 emperor Domitian. 
 
 DoMiTiANus, Titus Flavins, son of Vespasian 
 and Flavia Domatilla, made himself emperor of 
 Rome at the death of his brother Titus, whom, 
 according to some accounts, he destroyed by 
 poison. The beginning of his reign promised 
 tranquillity to the people, but their expectations 
 were soon frustrated. Domitian became cruel, 
 and gave way to incestuous and unnatural in- 
 dulgences. He commanded himself to be called 
 God and Lord in all the papers which were 
 presented to him. He passed the greatest part 
 of the day in catching flies,and killing them with 
 a bodkin : so that it was wittily answered by 
 
DO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 DR 
 
 Vibius to a person who asked him who was with 
 the emperor, Nobody, not even a fly. In the 
 latter part of his reign, Domitian became sus- 
 picious, and his anxieties were increased by the 
 predictions of astrologers,but still more poignant- 
 ly by the stings of remorse. He was so distrust- 
 ful, even when alone, that round the terrace, 
 where he usually walked, he built a wall with 
 shinmg stone, that from them he might perceive, 
 as in a looking-glass, whether any body folloAved 
 him. All these precautions were unavailing ; 
 he perished by the hand of an assassin, the 8th 
 of September, A. D. 96, in the 45th year of his 
 age and the 15th of his reign. He was the last 
 of the twelve Caesars. He distinguished himself 
 for his love of learning ; and in a little treatise 
 which he wrote upon the great care which ought 
 to be taken of the hair, to prevent baldness, he 
 displayed much taste and elegance, according to 
 the observations of his biographers. After his 
 death he was publicly deprived by the senate of 
 all the honours which had been profusely heap- 
 ed upon him, and even his body was left in the 
 open air without the honours of a funeral. This 
 disgrace might proceed from the resentment of 
 the senators, whom he had exposed to terror as 
 well as to ridicule. He once assembled that au- 
 gust body to know in what vessel a turbot might 
 be most conveniently dressed. At another time 
 they received a formal invitation to a feast, and 
 when they arrived at the palace, they were in- 
 troduced into a large gloomy hall "hung with 
 black, and lighted with a few glimmering tapers. 
 In the middle were placed a number of coffins, 
 on each of which was inscribed the name of 
 some one of the invited senators. On a sudden 
 a number of men burst into the room, clothed 
 in black, with drawn swords and flaming torch- 
 es, and after they had for some time terrified the 
 guests, they permitted them to retire. Such 
 were the amusements and cruelties of a man 
 who, in the first part of his reign, was looked 
 upon as the father of his people and the restorer of 
 learning and liberty. Suet, in vita. — Eutrop. 7. 
 
 DoMiTiLLA, I, (Flavia,) a woman who mar- 
 ried Vespasian, by whom she had Titus a year 
 after her marriage, and 11 years after Domitian. 
 
 II. A niece of the emperor Domitian, by 
 
 whom she was banished. 
 
 DoMiTius DoMiTiANUs, I. a general of Dio- 
 cletian in Egypt. He assumed the imperial pur- 
 ple at Alexandria, A. D. 288, and supported the 
 dignity of emperor for about two years. He died 
 
 a violent death. II. Lucius. Vid. jEnobar- 
 
 bus. III. Cn. ^nobarbus, a Roman consul, 
 
 who conquered Bituitus the Gaul, and left 20,000 
 of the enemy on the field of battle, and took 3000 
 
 prisoners. IV. A grammarian in the reign of 
 
 Adrian. He was remarkable for his virtues an d 
 
 his melancholy disposition. V. A Roman 
 
 . who revolted from Antony to Augustus. He 
 was at the battle of Pharsalia, and forced Pom- 
 pey to fight by the mere force of his ridicule. 
 
 VI. The father of Nero, famous for his 
 
 cruelties and debaucheries. Suet, in Ner. 
 
 VII. A tribune of the people, who conquered 
 the Allobroges. Plut. VIII. A consul, dur- 
 ing whose consulate peace was concluded with 
 
 Alexander king of Epirus. Liv. 8, c. 17. 
 
 IX. A consul under Caligula. He wrote some 
 few things now lost. X. A Latin poet, called 
 
 also Marsus, in the age of Horace. 
 Part IT._3 I 
 
 He wrote 
 
 epigrams, remarkable for little besides their in- 
 delicacy. Ovid, de Pont. 4, el. 16, v. 5. XL 
 
 Afer, an orator, who was preceptor to Gluintil- 
 ian. He disgraced his talents by his adulation, 
 and by practising the arts of an informer under 
 Tiberius and his successors. He was made a 
 consul by Nero, and died A. D. 59. 
 
 DoNATus, ^Lius, I. a grammarian who flou- 
 rished A. D. 353. II. A bishop of Numidia, 
 
 ■a promoter of the Donatists, A. D. 311. III. 
 
 A bishop of Africa, banished from Carthage A. 
 D. 356. 
 
 DoRSo, (C. Fabius,) a Roman, who, when 
 Rome was in the possession of the Gauls, is- 
 sued from the capitol, which was then besieged, 
 to go and ofier a sacrifice, which was to be offer- 
 ed on mount Cluirinalis. He dressed himself in 
 sacerdotal robes, and carrying on his shoulders 
 the statues of his country gods, passed through 
 the guards of the enemy without betraying the 
 least signs of fear. When he had finished his 
 sacrifice, he returned to the capitol unmolested 
 by the enemy, who were astonished at his bold- 
 ness, and did not obstruct his passage or molest 
 his sacrifice. Liv. 5, c. 46. 
 
 DoRUs, a son of Hellen and Orseis, or, ac- 
 cording to others, of Deucalion, who left Phthio- 
 tis, where his father reigned, and went to make 
 a settlement with some of his companions near 
 mount Ossa. The country was called Doris, and 
 the inhabitants Dorians. Herodot. l,*c. 56, &c. 
 
 DosiADAs, a poet who wrote a piece of poetry 
 in the form of an altar (Pojios) which Theocri- 
 tus has imitated. 
 
 Draco, I. a celebrated lawgiver of Athens. 
 When he exercised the ofiice of archon, he made 
 a code of laws, B. C. 623, for the use of the cit- 
 izens, which, on account of their severity, were 
 said to be written in letters of blood. By them, 
 idleness was punished with as much severity as 
 murder, and death was denounced against the 
 one as well as the other. Such a code of rigo- 
 rous laws gave occasion to a certain Athenian 
 to ask of the legislator why he was so severe in 
 his punishments; and Draco gave for answer, 
 that as the smallest transgression had appeared 
 to him deserving death, he could not find any 
 punishment more rigorous for more atrocious 
 crimes. These laws were at first enforced, but 
 they were often neglected on account of their 
 extreme severity, and Solon totally abolished 
 them, except that one which punished a murder- 
 er with death. The popularity of Draco was 
 uncommon, but the gratitude of his admirers 
 proved fatal to him. When once he appeared 
 on the theatre, he was received with repeated 
 applause, and the people, according to the cus- 
 tom of the Athenians, showed their respect to 
 their lawgiver by throwing garments upon him. 
 This was done in such profusion, that Draco 
 was soon hid under them, and smothered by the 
 too great veneration of his citizens. Plut. in 
 Sol. II. A man who instructed Plato in mu- 
 sic. Id. de Music. 
 
 Drances. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Drimachps, a famous robber of Chios. When 
 a price was set upon his head, he ordered a 
 young man to cut it ofl" and go and receive the 
 money. Such an uncommon instance of gene- 
 rosity so pleased the Chians, that they raised a 
 temple to his memory and honoured him as a 
 god, Athen. 13. 
 
 433 
 
DU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 £B 
 
 Drusilla LiviA, a daughter of Germanicus 
 and Agrippina, famous for her debaucheries and 
 licentiousness. Her brother Caligula was so 
 tenderly attached to her, that in a dangerous ill- 
 ness he made her heiress of all his possessions, 
 and commanded that she should succeed him in 
 the Roman empire. She died A. D. 38, in the 
 23d year of her age, and was deified by her bro- 
 ther Caligula, who survived her for someiime. 
 
 Druso, an unskilful historian and mean usu- 
 rer, who obliged his debtors, w^hen they could not 
 pay him, to hear him read his compositions, to 
 draw from them praises and flattery. Horai. 
 1, Sai. 3, V. 86. 
 
 Drusus, I. a son of Tiberius and Vipsania, 
 who made himself famous by his intrepidity and 
 courage in the provinces of lUyricum and Pan- 
 nonia. He was raised to the greatest honours 
 of the state by his father, but a blow which he 
 gave to Sejanus, an audacious libertine, proved 
 his ruin. Sejanus corrupted Livia, the wife of 
 Drusus, and in conjunction with her he caused 
 him to be poisoned by a eunuch, A. D. 23 
 
 II. A son of Germanicus and Agrippina, who 
 enjoyed offices of the greatest trust under Tibe- 
 rius. His enemy Sejanus, however, eflfected 
 his ruin by his insinuations ; Drusus was con- 
 fined by Tiberius, and deprived of all aliment. 
 He was found dead nine days after his confine- 
 ment, A. D. 33. III. A son of the emperor 
 
 Claudius,who died by swallowing a pear thrown 
 in the air. IV. An ambitious Roman, grand- 
 father to Cato. He was killed for his seditious 
 conduct. Paterc. 1, c. 13. V. Livius, fa- 
 ther of Julia Augusta, was intimate with Bru- 
 tus, and killed himself with him after the battle 
 of Philippi. Paterc. 2, c. 71. VI. M. Li- 
 vius, a celebrated Roman, who renewed the pro- 
 posals of the Agrarian laws, which had proved 
 fatal to the Gracchi. He was murdered as he 
 entered his house, though he was attended with 
 a number of clients and Latins, to whom he 
 had proposed the privileges of Roman citizens, 
 
 B. C. 190. Cic. ad Her. 4, c. 12. VII. Nero 
 
 Claudius, a son of Tiberius Nero and Livia, 
 adopted by Augustus. He was brother to Ti- 
 berius, who was afterwards made emperor. He 
 greatly signalized himself in his wars in Ger- 
 many and Gaul, against the Rhoeti and Vinde- 
 lici, and was honoured with a triumph. He died 
 of a fall from his horse in the 30th year of his 
 age, B. C. 9. He left three children, Germani- 
 cus, Livia, and Claudius, by his wife Antonia. 
 
 Dion. VIII. Caius, an historian, who being 
 
 one day missed from the cradle, was found the 
 next on the highest part of the house, with his 
 
 face turned towards the sun. The plebeian 
 
 family of the Drusi produced eight consuls, two 
 censors, and one dictator. The surname of 
 Drusus was given to the family of the Livii, as 
 some suppose, because one of them killed a 
 Gaulish leader of that name. Virg. in 6, Mn. v. 
 824, mentions the Drusi amonglhe illustrious 
 Romans, and that perhaps more particularly 
 because the wife of Augustus was of that family. 
 DuiLLiA Lex, was enacted by M. Duillius, a 
 tribune, A. U, C. 304. It made it a capital 
 crime to leave the Roman people without its 
 tribunes, or to create any new magistrate with- 
 out a sufficient cause. Liv. 3, c. 55. Anoth- 
 er, A. U. C. 392, to regulate what interest 
 ought to be paid for money lent. 
 434 
 
 Duillius Nepos, C. a Roman consul, the 
 first who obtained a victory over the naval pow- 
 er of Carthage, B. C. 260. He took 50 of the 
 enemy's ships, and was honoured with a naval 
 triumph, the first that ever appeared at Rome. 
 The senate rewarded his valour by permitting 
 him to have music playing and torches lighted, 
 at the public expense, every day while he was 
 at supper. There were some medals struck in 
 commemoration of this victory, and there still 
 exists a column at Rome, which was erected on 
 the occasion. Cic. de Senec. — Tacit. Ann. 1, 
 c. 12. 
 
 DuMNORix, a powerful chief among the ^dui. 
 Cces. Bell. G. 1, c. 9. 
 
 DuRis, an historian of Samos, who flourislied 
 B. C. 257. He wrote the life of Agathocles of 
 Syracuse, a treatise on tragedy, a history of 
 Macedonia, «&c, Sirab. 1. 
 
 DouMviRi, two noble patricians at Rome, first 
 appointed by Tarquin to keep the Sybilline 
 books, which were supposed to contain the fate 
 of the Roman empire. These sacred books 
 were placed in the capitol, and secured in a 
 chest under the ground. They were consulted 
 but seldom, and only by an order of the senate, 
 when the armies had been defeated in war. or 
 when Rome seemed to be threatened by an inva- 
 sion or by secret seditions. These priests con- 
 tinued in their original institution till the year 
 U. C. 388, when a law was proposed by the tri- 
 bunes to increase the number to ten. Some 
 time after Sylla increased them to fifteen, known 
 
 by the name of Cluin decemviri. There were 
 
 also certain magistrates at Rome, called Duum- 
 viri perduelliones sive capitales. They were 
 first created by Tullus Hostilius, for trying such 
 as were accused of treason. This office was 
 abolished as unnecessary, but Cicero complains 
 of their revival by Labienus the tribune. Oral, 
 pro Rabir. Some of the commanders of the 
 Roman vessels were also called Duumviri, 
 especially when there were two together. They 
 were first created A. U. C. 542. There were 
 also in the municipal towns in the provinces 
 two magistrates called Duumviri municipales. 
 They were chosen from the Centurions, and 
 their office was much the same as that of the 
 two consuls at Rome. They were sometimes 
 preceded by two lictors with the fasces. Their 
 magistracy continued for five years, on which 
 account they have been called Qmnquennales 
 magistratus. 
 
 Dymnus, one of Alexander's officers. He 
 conspired with many of his fellow-soldiers 
 against his master's life. The conspiracy was 
 discovered, and Dymnus stabbed himself before 
 he was brought before the king. Curt. 6, c. 7. 
 
 Dysaules, a brother of Celeus, who insiiiu- 
 ted the mysteries of Ceres at Celese. Pans. % 
 c. 14. 
 
 Dyscinetus, an Athenian archon. Pans. 4. 
 
 E. 
 
 Ebdome, a festival m honour of Apollo at 
 Athens, on the seventh day of every lunar 
 month. It was usual to sing hymns in honour 
 of the god, and to carry about boughs of laurel. 
 
 There was also another of the same name, 
 
 celebrated by private families the seventh day 
 after the birth of every child. 
 
DA 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 DA 
 
 EcHECKATEs, a Thcssaliaii, wlio offered vio- 
 lence to Phoebas, the priestess of Apollo's tem- 
 ple of Delphi. From this circumstance a de- 
 cree was made, by which no woman was ad- 
 mitted to the office of priestess before the age of 
 fifty. Diod. 4. 
 
 EcHEMDs, I. an Arcadian, who conquered the 
 Dorians when they endeavoured to recover Pe- 
 loponnesus under Hyllus. Paus. 8, c. 5. II. 
 
 A king of Arcadia, who joined Aristomenes 
 against the Spartans. 
 
 EcHESTRATUs, a SOU of Agis 1st, king of Spar- 
 ta, who succeeded his father, B. C. 1058. He- 
 rodot. 7, c. 204. 
 
 Eetion, I. the father of Andromache, and of 
 seven sons, was king of Thebes in Cilicia. He 
 was killed by Achilles. From him the word 
 EeiioTieus is applied to his relations or descend- 
 ants. Homer. II. 12. II. The commander 
 
 of the Athenian fleet conquered by the Mace- 
 donians under Clytus, near the Echinades. 
 Diod. 18. 
 
 Egnatia Maximilla, a woman who accom- 
 panied her husband into banishment under Ne- 
 ro, &c. Tacit. Ann. 15, c. 71. 
 
 Elaphebolia, a festival in honour of Diana 
 the Huntress. In the celebration a cake was 
 made in the form of a deer, e\a((,os, and offered 
 to the goddess. It owed its institution to the 
 following circumstance : when the Phocians had 
 been severely beaten by the Thessalians, they 
 resolved, by the persuasion of a certain Dei- 
 phantus, to raise a pile of combustible materials, 
 and burn their wives,children,and effects, rather 
 than submit to the enemy. This resolution was 
 unanimously approved by the women, who de- 
 creed Deiphantus a crown for his magnanimity. 
 When every thing was prepared, before they 
 fired the pile, they engaged their enemies, and 
 fought with such desperate fury, that they total- 
 ly routed them, and obtained a complete victory. 
 In commemoration of this unexpected success, 
 this festival was instituted to Diana, and ob- 
 served with the greatest solemnity, so that even 
 one of the months of the year, March, was 
 called Elaphebolion from this circumstance. 
 
 Electra, a daughter of Agamemnon, king 
 of Argos. She first incited her brother Orestes 
 to revenge his father's death by assassinating 
 his mother Clytemnestra. Orestes gave her in 
 marriage to his friend Pylades, and she became 
 mother of two sons, Strophius and Medon. Her 
 adventures and misfonunes form one of the in- 
 teresting tragedies of the poet Sophocles. Hy- 
 gin. fab. 122.— Paws. 2, c. \Q.—Mlian. V. H. 
 4, c. 26, &c. 
 
 Electryon. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Eleusinia, a great festival observed every 
 fourth year by the Celeans, Phliasians, as also 
 by the Pheneatae, Lacedaemonians, Parrhasians, 
 and Cretans ; but more particularly by the peo- 
 ple of Athens, every fifth year, at Eleusis in 
 Attica, where it was introduced by Eumolpus, 
 B. C. 1356. It was the most celebrated of all 
 the religious ceremonies of Greece ; whence it 
 is often called by way of eminence livcrrripta, the 
 mysteries. If any one ever revealed it, it was 
 supposed that he had called divine vengeance 
 upon his head, and it was unsafe to live in the 
 same house with him. Such a wretch was pub- 
 licly put to an ignominious death. This festi- 
 val was sacred to Ceres and Proserpine ; every 
 
 thing contained a mysteiy, and Ceres herself 
 was known only by the name of ax^Ssia, from 
 the sorrow and grief (a%^of) which she suffered 
 for the loss of her daughter. This mysterious 
 secrecy was solemnly observed, and enjoined to 
 all the votaries of the goddess ; and if any one 
 ever appeared at the celebration, either inten- 
 tionally or through ignorance, without proper 
 introduction, he was immediately punished with 
 tieath. Persons of both sexes and all ages were 
 initiated at this solemnity ; and it was looked 
 upon as so heinous a crime to neglect this sacred 
 part of religion, that it was one of the heaviest 
 accusations which contributed to the condemna- 
 tion of Socrates. The initiated were under the 
 more particular care of the deities, and therefore 
 their life was supposed to be attended with more 
 happiness and real security than that of other 
 men. This benefit was not only granted during 
 life, but it extended beyond the grave ; and they 
 were honoured with the first places in the Ely- 
 sian fields, while others were left to wallow in 
 perpetual filth and ignominy.. Such as were 
 guilty of murder, though against their will, and 
 such as were convicted of witchcraft, or any 
 heinous crime, were not admitted; and the Athe- 
 nians suffered none to be initiated but such as 
 were members of their city. This regulation, 
 which compelled Hercules, Castor, and Pollux, 
 to become citizens of Athens, was strictly ob- 
 served in the first ages of the institution, but af- 
 terwards, all persons, barbarians excepted, were 
 freely initiated. The festivals were divided into 
 greater and less mysteries. The less were insti- 
 tuted from the following circumstance: Her- 
 cules passed near Eleusis while the Athenians 
 were celebrating the mysteries, and desired to be 
 initiated. As this could not be done because he 
 was a stranger, and as Eumolpus was unwilling 
 to displease him on account of his great power, 
 and the services which he had done to the Athe- 
 nians, another festival was instituted without 
 violating the laws. It was called iJiKpa, and 
 Hercules was solemnly admitted to the celebra- 
 tion and initiated. These less mysteries were 
 observed at Agrae near the Ilissus. The greater 
 were celebrated at Eleusis, from which place 
 Ceres has been called Eleusinia. In later times 
 the smaller festivals were preparatory to the 
 greater, and no person could be initiated at 
 Eleusis without a previous purification at Agra. 
 This purification they performed by keeping 
 themselves pure, chaste, and unpolluted during 
 nine days, after which they came and offered 
 sacrifices and prayers,wearing garlands of flow- 
 ers, called icrnepa or ifiepa and having under 
 their feet Aioj Kcoc^iov, Jupiter^s skin, which Avas 
 the skin of a victim offered to that god. The 
 person who assisted was called vSpaiwg from 
 v6o>p, water, which was used at the purification, 
 and they themselves were called, ixvcai, the ini- 
 tiated. A year after the initiation at the less 
 mysteries, they sacrificed a sow to Ceres, and 
 were admitted in the greater, and the secrets of 
 the festivals were solemnly revealed to them, 
 from which they were called ecpopoi and aTonrai, 
 inspectors. After this the priest, called hpocpav- 
 rm, proposed to them certain questions, to which 
 they readily answered. After this, strange and 
 amazing objects presented themselves to their 
 sight, hideous noises and bowlings were heard, 
 and the trembling spectators were alarmed by 
 435 
 
EL 
 
 HISTORY, &e. 
 
 EL 
 
 sudden and dreaded apparitions. This was 
 called avToipia, intuition. After this, the ini- 
 tiated were dismissed wiih the barbarious words 
 of Koy^ ojiira^. The garments in which they 
 were initiated were held sacred, and of no less 
 efficacy to avert evils than charms and incanta- 
 tions. From this circumstance, therefore, they 
 were never left off before they were totally unfit 
 for wear, after which they were appropriated for 
 children or dedicated to ihe goddess. The chief 
 person that attended at the initiation was called 
 l£(,o(pavTr];, the revealer of sacred things. He 
 was a citizen of Athens, and held his office dur- 
 ing life ; though among the Celeans and Phlia- 
 sians it was limited to the period of four years. 
 He was obliged to devote himself totally to the 
 service of the deities ; his life was chaste and 
 single, and he usually anointed his body with 
 the juice of hemlock, which is said, by its ex- 
 treme coldness, to extinguish, in a great degree, 
 the natural heat. The Hierophantes had three 
 attendants ; the first was called JoaJw;/os, torch- 
 bearer, and was permitted to marry. The 
 second was called Kvpj]^, a cryer. The third 
 administered at the altar, and was called oem 
 
 ^oiiwL. This festival was observed in the 
 
 month Baedromion on September, and continued 
 nine days, from the 15th till the 23d, During 
 that time it was unlawful to arrest any man, or 
 present any petition, on pain of forfeiting a 
 thousand drachmas, or, according to others, on 
 pain of death. It was also unlawful for those 
 who were initiated to sit upon the cover of a 
 well ; to eat beans, mullets, or weasels. If any 
 woman rode to Eleusis in a chariot, she was 
 obliged by an edict of Lycurgus to pay 6000 
 drachmas. The design of this law was to 
 destroy all distinction between the richer and 
 poorer sorts of citizens. The first day of the cele- 
 bration was called aynpjxos, assembly, as it might 
 be said that the worshippers first met together. 
 The second day was called aXaSe nvcai, to the 
 sea, you that are initiated, because they were 
 commanded to purify themselves by bathing in 
 the sea. On the third day sacrifices, and chiefly 
 a mullet, were offered; as also barley from a 
 field of Eleusis. These oblations were called 
 Ova, and held so sacred, that the priests them- 
 selves were not, as in other sacrifices, permitted 
 to partake of them. On the fourth day, they 
 made a solemn procession, in which the «aXa- 
 6iov, holy basket of Ceres, was carried about in 
 a consecrated cart, while on every side the peo- 
 ple shouted x'^ioE ArinriTep Hail, Ceres! After 
 these followed women, called Ki(ro(popoi, who car- 
 ried baskets, in which were sesamum, carded 
 wool, grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, 
 reeds, ivy boughs, certain cakes, &c. The fifth 
 was called H tmv XaniraSoiv rijiepa, the torch- 
 day, because on the following night the people 
 run about with torches in their hands. It was 
 usual to dedicate torches to Ceres, and contend 
 which should offer the biggest in commemora- 
 tion of the travels of the goddess, and of her 
 lighting a torch in the flames of mount Mlna.. 
 The sixth day was called laKX"?, from lacchus, 
 the son of Jupiter and Ceres, who accompanied 
 his mother in her search of Proserpine, with a 
 torch in his hand. From that circumstance his 
 statue had a torch in his hand, and was carried 
 in solemn procession from the Ceramicus to 
 Eleusis. The statue, with those that accompa- 
 436 
 
 nied it, called laKxay'^Y'^h were crowned with 
 myrtle. In the way, nothing was heard but sing- 
 ing and the noise of brazen kettles, as the vota- 
 ries danced along. The way through which 
 they issued from the city was called lepa oSosj 
 the sacred way ; the resting place, lepa ovkh), from 
 a fig-tree which grew in the neighbourhood. 
 They also stopped on a bridge over the Cephi- 
 sus, where they derided those that passed by. 
 After they had passed this bridge, they entered 
 Eleusis by a place called nvariKr} eiav^oi, the my&- 
 tical entrance. On the seventh day were sports, 
 in which the victors were rewarded with a 
 measure of barley, as that grain had been first 
 sown in Eleusis. The eighth day was called 
 Y^nihavpioiv rijiepa, because oucc iEsculapius, at 
 his return from Epidaurus to Athens, was ini- 
 tiated by the repetition of the less mysteries. It 
 became customary, therefore, to celebrate them 
 a second time upon this, that such as had not 
 hitherto been initiated, might be lawfully ad- 
 mitted. The ninth and last day of the festival 
 was called H\ri ixvxoai, earthen vessels, "because 
 it was usual to fill two such vessels with wine, 
 one of which being placed towards the east, and 
 the other towards the west ; which, after the 
 repetition of some mystical words, were both 
 thrown down ; and the wine being spilt on the 
 ground, was offered as a libation. Such was 
 the manner of celebrating the Eleusinian myste- 
 ries, which have been deemed the most sacred 
 and solemn of all the festivals observed by the 
 Greeks. Some have supposed them to be 
 obscene and abominable, and that from thence 
 proceeded all the mysterious secrecy. They 
 were carried from Eleusis to Rome in the reign 
 of Adrian, where they were observed with the 
 same ceremonies as before, though perhaps with 
 more freedom and licentiousness. They lasted 
 about 1800 years, and were at last abolished bv 
 Theodosius the Great. Mlian. V. H. 12, c. 24. 
 Cic. de Leg. 2, c. \^.—Paus. 10, c. 21, «&c.— 
 Plut. 
 
 Eleutheria, a festival celebrated at Plataea 
 in honour of Jupiter Eleutherius, or the asserter 
 of liberty, by delegates from almost all the cities 
 of Greece. Its institution originated in this : 
 after the victory obtained by the Grecians under 
 Pausanias over Mardonius, the Persian general 
 in the country of Plataea, an altar ancl statue 
 were erected to Jupiter Eleutherius, who had 
 freed the Greeks from the tyranny of the bar- 
 barians. It was further agreed upon, in a 
 general assembly, by the advice of Aristides the 
 Athenian, that deputies should be sent every 
 fifth year from the different cities of Greece to 
 celebrate Eleutheria, festivals of liberty. The 
 Platseans celebrated also an aniversary festival 
 in memory of those who had lost their lives in 
 that famous battle. There was also a festival of 
 the same name observed by the Samians, in 
 honour of the god of love. Slaves also, when 
 they obtained their liberty, kept a holiday, which 
 they called Eleutheria. 
 
 Eliensis. and Eliaca, a sect of philosophers 
 founded bv Phoedon of Elis, who was originally 
 a slave, but restored to liberty by Alcibiades. 
 Diog. — Strab. 
 
 Elissa. Vid. Dido. 
 
 Elpinice, a daughter of Miltiades, who mar- 
 ried a man that promised to release from con- 
 finement her brother and husband, whom the 
 
EN 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 EN 
 
 laws of Athens had made responsible for the 
 fine imposed on his father. C. Nep. in Cim. 
 
 Empedocles, a philosopher, poet, and histo- 
 rian of Agrigentum in Sicily, who flourished 
 444 B. C. He was the disciple of Telauges 
 the Pythagorean, and warmly adopted the doc- 
 trine of transmigration. He wrote a poem upon 
 the opinions of Pythagoras, very much com- 
 mended, in which he spoke of the various bodies 
 which nature had given him. He was first a 
 girl, afterwards a boy, a shrub, a bird, a fish, 
 and lastly Empedocles. His poetry was bold 
 andanimated,and his verses were so universally 
 esteemed, that they were publicly recited at the 
 Olympic games with those of Homer and He- 
 siod. Empedocles was no less remarkable for his 
 humanity and social virtues than for his learn- 
 ing. He showed himself an inveterate enemy 
 to tyranny, and refused to become the sovereign 
 of his country. He taught rhetoric in Sicily, 
 and often alleviated the anxieties of his mind as 
 well as the pains of his body with music. It is 
 reported that his curiosity to visit the flames of 
 the crater of ^tna proved fatal to him. Some 
 maintain that he wished it to be believed that 
 he was a god, and, that his death might be un- 
 known, he threw himself into the crater and 
 perished in the flames. His expectations, how- 
 ever, were frustrated, and the volcano, by throw- 
 ing up one of his sandals, discovered to the 
 world that Empedocles had perished by fire. 
 Others report that he lived to an extreme old 
 age, and that he was drowned in the sea. 
 Horat. 1, ep. 12, v. 20.— Cic. de Orat. 1, c. 50, 
 &c. — Diog. in vita. 
 
 Ennius, Ql. This poet, who has generally re- 
 ceived the glorious appellation of the Father of 
 Roman song, was a native of Rudiee, a town in 
 Calabria, and lived from the year of Rome 515 to 
 585. In his early youth he went to Sardinia ; 
 and, if Silius Italicus may be believed, he served 
 in the Calabrian levies, which, in the year 538, 
 followed Titus Manlius to the war which he 
 waged in that island against the favourers of the 
 Carthaginian cause. After the termination of 
 the campaign, he continued to live for twelve 
 years in Sardinia. He was at length brought to 
 Rome by Calo the censor, who, in 550, visited 
 Sardinia, on returning as questor from Africa. 
 At Rome he fixed his residence on the Aventine 
 hill, where he lived in a very frugal manner, 
 having only a single servant-maid as an attend- 
 ant. He instructed, however, the patrician 
 youth in Greek, and acquired the friendship of 
 many of the most illustrious men in the state. 
 Being distinguished (like jEschylus, the great 
 father of Grecian tragedy) in arms as well as 
 letters, he followed M. Fulvius Nobilior during 
 his expedition to ^toliain 564; and in 569 he 
 obtained the freedom of the city, through the 
 favour of Q,uintus Fulvius Nobilior, the son of 
 his former patron, Marcus. He was also pro- 
 tected by the elder Scipio Africanus, whom he 
 is said to have accompanied in all his campaigns. 
 In his old age he obtained the friendship of Sci- 
 pio Nasica; and the degree of intimacy subsist- 
 ing between them has been characterized by the 
 well-known anecdote of their successively feign- 
 ing to be from home. He is said to have been 
 intemperate in drinking, which brought on the 
 disease called Morbus Articularis, a disorder re- 
 sembling the gout, of which he died at the age 
 
 of seventy, just afler he had exhibited his tra- 
 gedy of Thyestes. There is still extant an epi- 
 taph on this poet, reported to have been writ- 
 ten by himself, strongly characteristic of that 
 overweening conceit and that high estimation of 
 his own talent, which are said to have formed 
 the chief blemish of his character : — 
 
 ' Aspicite, O cives, senis Enni imaginis formam • 
 flic vestrum panxit maxuma facta patrum. 
 ISemo me lacrumis decor et, nee funera Jleiu 
 Faxit — cur 7 volito vivusper era virum.' 
 
 To judge by the fragments of his works which 
 remain, Ennius greatly surpassed his predeces- 
 sors, not only in poetical genius, but in the art 
 of versification. By his time, indeed, the best 
 models of Greek composition had begun to be 
 studied at Rome. Ennius particularly professed 
 to have imitated Homer, and tried to persuade 
 his countrymen that the soul and genius of that 
 great poet had revived in him, through the me- 
 dium of a peacock, according to the process of 
 Pythagorean transmigration. Accordingly, we 
 find in the fragments of Ennius many imitations 
 of the Iliad and Odyssey. It is, however, the 
 Greek tragic writers whom Ennius has chiefly 
 imitated ; and indeed it appears from the frag- 
 ments which remain, that all his plays were ra- 
 ther translations from the dramas of Sophocles 
 and Euripides, on the same subjects which he 
 has chosen, than original tragedies. They are 
 founded on the old topics of Priam and Paris, 
 Hector and Hecuba ; and truly Ennius, as well 
 as most other Latin tragedians, seems to have 
 anticipated Horace's maxim : — 
 
 ' Rectius liiacum carmen deducts in actus, 
 Quam si proferres ignota indiciaque primus.^ 
 
 The great work, however, of Ennius, and of 
 which we have still considerable remains, was 
 his Annals, or metrical chronicles,devoted to the 
 celebration of Roman exploits, from the earliest 
 periods to the conclusion of the Istrian war. 
 These Annals were written by our poet in his 
 old age ; at least, Aulus Gellius informs us, on 
 the authority of Varro, that the twelfth book 
 was finished by him in his sixty-seventh year. 
 The Annals of Ennius were partly founded on 
 those ancient traditions and old heroic ballads, 
 which Cicero, on the authority of Cato's Ori- 
 gines, mentions as having been sung at feasts 
 by the guests, many centuries before the age of 
 Cato, in praise of the heroes of Rome. Nie- 
 buhr has attempted to show, that all the memo- 
 rable events of Roman history had been versi- 
 fied in ballads, or metrical chronicles, in the Sa- 
 turnian measure, before the time of Ennius ; 
 who, according to him, merely expressed in the 
 Greek hexameter, what his predecessors had 
 delivered in a ruder strain, and then maliciously 
 depreciated these ancient compositions, in order 
 that he himself might he considered as the 
 founder of Roman poetry. The poem of En- 
 nius, entitled Phagetica, is curious, — as one 
 would hardly suppose, that in this early age, 
 luxury had made such progress, that the culin- 
 ary art should have been systematically or poet- 
 ically treated. All that we know, however, of 
 the manner in which it was prepared or served 
 up, is from the Apologia of Apuleius. It was, 
 which its name imports, a didactic poerri on 
 eatables, particular! v fish, as Apuleius testifies : 
 ' 437 
 
EP 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 EP 
 
 — * CI. Enuii edeo phagetica, quas versibus scrip- 
 sit, iiinumerabilia piscium genera enumerat, 
 quas scilicet curiose cognorat.' It is well known, 
 that previous to the time of Ennius, this subject 
 had been discussed both in prose and verse by 
 various Greek authors, and was particularly- 
 detailed in the poem of Archestratus, the Epicu- 
 rean : — 
 
 The bard 
 
 Who sang of poultry, venison^ and lard, 
 Poet and cook ' 
 
 It appears from a passage of Apuleius, that the 
 work of Ennius was a digest of all the previous 
 books on this subject. Another poem of En- 
 nius, entitled Epicharmus, was so called be- 
 cause it was translated from the Greek work of 
 Epicharmus, the Pythagorean, on the Nature 
 of Things, in the same manner as Plato gave 
 the name of Timesus to the book which he trans- 
 lated from Timseus the Locrian. On the whole, 
 the works of Ennius are rather pleasing and 
 interesting, as the early blossoms of that-poetry 
 which afterwards opened to such perfection, 
 than estimable from their own intrinsic beauty. 
 This applies to the poetical productions of En- 
 nius; but the most curious point connected 
 with his literary history is his prose translation 
 of the celebrated work of Euhemerus, entitled, 
 'lepa Avaypacprj. Euhemerus is generally sup- 
 posed to have been an inhabitant of Messene, 
 a city of Peloponnesus. Being sent, as he rep- 
 resented, on a voyage of discovery by Cassan- 
 der, king of Macedon, he came to an island 
 called Panchaia, in the capital of which, Pana- 
 ra, he found a temple of the Tryphilian Jupi- 
 ter, where stood a column inscribed with a re- 
 gister of the births and deaths of many of the 
 gods. Among these, he specified Uranus, his 
 sons Pan and Saturn, and his daughters Rhea 
 and Ceres ; as also Jupiter, Juno, and Neptune, 
 who were the offspring of Saturn. According- 
 ly, the design of Euhemerus was to show, by 
 investigating their actions, and recording the 
 places of their births and burials, that the my- 
 thological deities were mere mortal men, raised 
 to the rank of gods on account of the benefits 
 which ihey had conferred on mankind, — a sys- 
 tem which, according to Meiners and Warbur- 
 ton, formed the grand secret revealed at the ini- 
 tiation into the Eleusinian mysteries. The 
 translation by Ennius, as well as the original 
 work, is lost ; but many particulars concerning 
 Euhemerus, and the object of his history, are 
 mentioned in a fragment of Diodorus Siculus, 
 preserved by Eusebius. Some passages have 
 also been saved by St. Augustine; and long 
 quotations have been made by Lactantius, in 
 his treatise De Falsa Religione. These, so far 
 as they extend, may be regarded as the truest 
 and purest sources of mythological history, 
 though not much followed in our modern Pan- 
 theons. 
 
 Entellus, a famous athlete among the friends 
 of ^neas. He was intimate with Eryx, and 
 entered the lists against Dares, whom he con- 
 quered in the funeral games of Anchises in 
 Sicily. Virg. JEn. 5, v. 387, &c. 
 
 Epaminondas, a famous Theban, descended 
 
 from the ancient kings of Boeotia. His father's 
 
 name was Polymnus. He has been celebrated 
 
 for his private virtues and military accomplish- 
 
 438 
 
 ments. His love of truth was so great, that he 
 never disgraced himself by falsehood. He 
 formed a most sacred and inviolable friendship 
 with Pelopidas, whose life he saved in a battle. 
 By his advice Pelopidas delivered Thebes from 
 the power of Lacedaemon. This was the signal 
 of war. Epaminondas was set at the head of 
 the Theban armies, and defeated the Spartans 
 at the celebrated battle of Leuctra, about 371 
 years B. C. Epaminondas made a proper use 
 of this victorious campaign, and entered the 
 territories of Lacedaemon with 50,000 men. 
 Here he gained many friends and partisans ; 
 but at his return to Thebes he was seized as a 
 traitor for violating the laws of his country. 
 When he was making the Theban arms vic- 
 torious on every side, he neglected the law 
 which forbade any citizen to retain in his hands 
 the supreme power more than one month, and 
 all his eminent services seemed unable to re- 
 deem him from death. He paid implicit obe- 
 dience to the laws of his country, and only beg- 
 ged his judges that it might be inscribed on his 
 tomb that he had suffered death for saving his 
 country from ruin. This animated reproach 
 was felt ; he was pardoned, and invested again 
 with the sovereign power. He was successful 
 in a war in Thessaly, and assisted the Eleans 
 against the Lacedaemonians, The hostile ar- 
 mies met near Man tinea, and while Epaminon- 
 das was bravely fighting in the thickest of the 
 enemy, he received a fatal wound in the breast, 
 and expired, exclaiming that he died uncon- 
 quered, when he heard that the Boeotians ob- 
 tained the viciory, in the 48th year of his age, 
 363 years before Christ. The Thebans severely 
 lamented his death ; in him their power was 
 extinguished, for only during his life they had 
 enjoyed freedom and independence among the 
 Grecian states. Epaminondas was frugal as 
 well as virtuous, and he refused with indigna- 
 tion the rich presents which were offered to him 
 by Artaxerxes, the king of Persia. He is re- 
 presented by his biographer as an elegant dancer 
 and a skilful musician, accomplishments high- 
 ly esteemed among his countrymen. Plut. in 
 Par all. — C. JVep. in vita. — Xenoph. Quasi. 
 GrcBc.—Diod. 15. — Polyb. 1, 
 
 Ephetjb, a number of magistrates at Athens, 
 first instituted by Demophoon, the son of The- 
 seus. They were reduced to the number of 51 
 by Draco, who, according to some, first estab- 
 lished them. They were superior to the Areop- 
 agites, and their privileges were great and nu- 
 merous. Solon, however, lessened their power, 
 and intrusted them only with the trial of man- 
 slaughter and conspiracy against the life of a 
 citizen. They were all more than fifty years 
 old, and it was required that their manners 
 should be pure and innocent, and their beha- 
 viour austere and full of gravity. 
 
 Ephori, powerful magistrates at Sparta, who 
 were first created by Lycurgus ; or, according 
 to some, by Theopompus, B. C. 760. They 
 were five in number. Like censors in the state, 
 they could check and restrain the authority of the 
 kings, and even imprison them if guilty of irreg- 
 ularities. They fined Archidamus for marry- 
 ing a wife of small stature, and imprisoned Agis 
 for his unconstitutional behaviour. They were 
 much the same as the tribunes of the people at 
 Rome, created to watch with a jealous eye over 
 
EP 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 EP 
 
 the liberties and rights of the populace. They 
 had the management of the public money, and 
 were the arbiters of peace and war. 'I'heir of- 
 fice was annual, and they had the privilege of 
 convening,proroguing, and dissolving the great- 
 er and less assemblies of the people. The for- 
 mer was composed of 9000 Spartans, all in- 
 habitants of the city ; the latter of 30.000 Lace- 
 daemonians, inhabitants of the inferior towns 
 and villages. C. Nep. in Paus. 3. — Aristot. 
 Pol. 2, 7. 
 
 Ephorus, an orator and historian of Cum^ 
 in ^olia, about 352 years before Christ. He 
 was disciple of Isocrates, by whose advice he 
 wrote a history which gave an account of all 
 the actions and battles that had happened be- 
 tween the Greeks and barbarians for 750 years. 
 It was greatly esteemed by the ancients. It is 
 now lost. Quintil. 10, c. 1. 
 
 Epicharmus, the first comic writer of whom 
 we have any certain account, was a Syracusan 
 by birth or emigration. It was about Olymp. 
 70th, 1, B. C. 500,— thirty-five years after 
 Thespis biegan to exhibit, eleven years after the 
 commencement of Phrynichus, and just before 
 the appearance of iEschylus as a tragedian, — 
 that Epicharmus produced the first comedy pro- 
 perly so called. Before him this department of 
 the drama was, as we have every reason to be- 
 lieve, nothing but a series of licentious songs 
 and satiric episodes, without plot, connexion, or 
 consistency. He gave to each exhibition one 
 single and unbroken fable, and converted the 
 loose interlocutions into regular dialogue. The 
 subjects of his comedies, as we may infer from 
 the extant titles of thirty-five of them, were 
 chiefly mythological. Tragedy had, some few 
 years before the era of Epicharmus, begun to 
 assume its staid and dignified character. The 
 woes of heroes and the majesty of the gods had, 
 under Phrynichus, become its favourite theme. 
 The Sicilian poet seems to have been struck 
 with the idea of exciting the mirth of his audi- 
 ence, by the exhibition of some ludicrous matter 
 dressed up in all the grave solemnity of the 
 newly-invented art. Discarding, therefore, the 
 low drolleries and scurrilous invectives of the 
 ancient Krw^ojJta, he opened a novel and less in- 
 vidious source of amusement, by composing a 
 set of burlesque dramas upon the usual tragic 
 subjects. They succeeded ; and the turn thus 
 given to comedy long continued ; so that when 
 it once more returned to personality and satire, 
 as it speedily did, tragedy and tragic poets were 
 the constant objects of its parody and ridicule. 
 The great changes thus effected by Epicharmus 
 justly entitled him to be called the inventor of 
 comedy. But his merits rest not here : he was 
 distinguished for elegance in composition, as 
 well as originality of conception. So many 
 were his dramatic excellencies, that Plato terms 
 him the first of comic writers; and, in a later 
 age and foreign country, Plautus chose him as 
 his model. The plays of Epicharmus, to judge 
 from the fragments still left us, abounded in 
 apothegms, little consistent with the idea we 
 might otherwise have entertained of their na- 
 ture, from our knowledge of the buff^ooneries 
 whence his comedy sprung, and the writings of 
 Aristophanes, his partially-extant successor. 
 But Epicharmus was a philosopher and a Pytha- 
 gorean. In the midst of merriment he failed 
 
 not to inculcate, in pithy gnomae, the otherwise 
 distasteful lessons of morality to the gay and 
 thoughtless; and, sheltered by comic license, to 
 utter offensive political truths, which, promul- 
 ged under any other circumstances, might have 
 subjected the sage to the vengeance of a des- 
 potic government. We find Epicharmus still 
 composing comedies, B, C. 485; and again du- 
 ring the reign of Hiero, B. C. 477. He died at 
 the age of ninety or ninety-seven years. 
 
 Epiclides, a Lacedaemonian of the family of 
 the Eurysthenidae. He was raised to the throne 
 by his brother Cleomenes 3d, in the place of 
 Agis, against the laws and constitution of Spar- 
 ta. Paus. 2, c. 9. 
 
 Epicraies, was a native of Ambracia in Epi- 
 rus, and the imitator, accordi g to Athenaeus, 
 of Antiphanes. He made Plato the subject of 
 his ridicule ; and a long and curious fragment 
 is preserved, where the disciples of that philos- 
 opher are described as engaged in deep dis- 
 cussion over a cucumber. 
 
 Epictetds, a stoic philosopher ofHieropolis 
 in Phrygia, originally the slave of Epaphrodi- 
 tus, the freedman of Nero. Though driven 
 from Rome by Domitian, he returned after the 
 emperor's death, and gained the esteem of Ad- 
 rian and Marcus Aurelius. Like the stoics, he 
 supported the doctrine of the immortality of the 
 soul, but he declared himself strongly against 
 suicide, which was so warmly adopted by his 
 sect. He died in a very advanced age. The 
 earthen lamp of which he made use, was sold 
 some time after his death at 3000 drachmas. 
 His Enchiridion is a faithful picture of the stoic 
 philosophy ; and his dissertations, which were 
 delivered to his pupils, were collected by Arrian. 
 His style is concise, and devoid of all ornament, 
 full of energy and useful maxims. The value 
 of his compositions is well known from the say- 
 ing of the emperor Antoninus, who thanked 
 the gods he could collect from the writings of 
 Epictetus wherewath to conduct life with honour 
 to himself and advantage to his country. 
 
 Epicurus, a celebrated philosopher, son of 
 Neocles and Cherestrata, born at Gargetius 
 in Attica, He was early sent to school, where 
 he distinguished himself by the brilliancy of 
 his genius, and at the age of 12, when his pre- 
 ceptor repeated to him this verse from He- 
 siod : — 
 
 Hrot jjitv npuTiffa ')(^aioi yivtr^ ^ &C. 
 
 In the beginning of things the Chaos was 
 created, 
 
 Epicurus earnestly asked him who created it. 
 To this the teacher answered, that he knew not, 
 but only philosophers. " Then," says the youth, 
 " philosophers henceforth shall instruct me." 
 After having improved himself, and enriched 
 his mind by travelling, he visited Athens, which 
 was then crowded by the followers of Plato, the 
 cynics, the peripatetics, and the stoics. Here 
 he established himself, and soon attracted a 
 number of followers by the sweetness and gra- 
 vity of his manners, and by his social virtues. 
 He taught them that the happiness of mankind 
 consisted in pleasure, not such as arises from 
 sensual gratification or from vice, but from the 
 enjoyments of the mind and the sweets of virtue. 
 This doctrine was warmly attacked by the phi- 
 losophers of the different sects, and particularly 
 439 
 
EP 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ER 
 
 by the stoics. When Leontium, one of his 
 female pupils, was accused of prostituting her- 
 self to her master and to all his disciples, the 
 philosopher proved the falsity of the accusation 
 by silence and an exemplary life. His health 
 was at last impaired by continual labour, and he 
 died of a retention of urine, which long sub- 
 jected him to the most excrutiating torments, 
 and which he bore with unparalleled fortitude. 
 His death happened 270 years before Christ, in 
 the 72d year of his age. His disciples showed 
 their respect for the memory of their learned 
 preceptor by the unanimity which prevailed 
 among them. While philosophers in every sect 
 were at war with mankind and among them- 
 selves, the followers of Epicurus enjoyed perfect 
 peace, and lived in the most solid friendship. 
 The day of his birth was observed with univer- 
 sal festivity, and during a month all his admi- 
 rers gave themselves up to mirth and innocent 
 amusement. Of all the philosophers of antiqui- 
 ty, Epicurus is the only one whose writings de- 
 serve attention for their number. He wrote no 
 less than 300 volumes according to Diogenes 
 Laertius ; and Chrysippus was so jealous of the 
 fecundity of his genius, that no sooner had Epi- 
 curus published one of his volumes than he im- 
 mediately composed one, that he might not be 
 overcome in the number of his productions. 
 Epicurus, however, advanced truths and argu- 
 ments unknown before; but Chrysippus said 
 what others long ago had said, without showing 
 any thing which might be called originality. 
 The followers of Epicurus were numerous in 
 every age and country, his doctrines were rapid- 
 ly disseminated over the world, and when the 
 gratification of the sense was substituted to the 
 practice of virtue, the morals of mankind were 
 undermined and destroyed. No philosopher has 
 been the subject of so much eulogium, and, at 
 the Game time, of so much reproach, because his 
 doctrines were calculated to divide the opinions 
 of mankind in regard to their influence upon the 
 moral constitution of society, and do actually 
 contain within themselves the elements of contra- 
 diction ; but moreover because the opinions of 
 his later disciples, and still more their conduct, 
 deduced from one of these contrary interpreta- 
 tions of his dogmas, have been too generally re- 
 ceived for those of Epicurus himself. Diog. in 
 vita. — Milan. V. H. 4, c 13. — Cic. de Nat. D. 
 1, c. 24 and 25.— T-iisc. 3, 49, de finib. 2, c. 22. 
 
 Epidauria, a festival at Athens in honour of 
 iEsculapius. 
 
 Epigoni, the sons and descendants of the 
 Grecian heroes who were killed in the first The- 
 ban war. The war of the Epigoni is famous 
 in ancient history. It was undertaken ten years 
 after the first. The sons of those who had per- 
 ished in the first war resolved to avenge the 
 death of their fathers, and marched against 
 Thebes, under the command of Thersander; 
 or, according to others, of Alcmaeon, the son of 
 Amphiaraus. The Argives were assisted by the 
 Corinthians, the people of Messenia, Arcadia, 
 and Megara. The Thebans had engaged all 
 their neighbours in their quarrel, as in one 
 common cause, and the two hostile armies met 
 and engaged on the banks of the Glissas. The 
 fight was obstinate and bloody, but victory de- 
 clared for the Epigoni, and some of the Thebans 
 fled to Illyricum with Leodamus their general, 
 440 
 
 while others retired into Thebes, where tney 
 were soon besieged and forced to surrender. In 
 this war .«Egialeus alone was killed, and his fa- 
 ther Adrastus was the only person who escaped 
 alive in the first war. This whole war, as Pau- 
 sanias observes, was written in verse ; and Cal- 
 linus, who quotes some of the verses, ascribes 
 them to Homer, which opinion has been adopt- 
 ed by many writers. For my part, continues 
 the geographer, I own that, next to the Iliad 
 and Odyssey of Homer, I have never seen a 
 finer poem. Pans. 9, c. 9 and 25. — Apollod. 1 
 and 3. — Diod. 4. This name has been applied 
 to the sons of those Macedonian veterans, who, 
 in the age of Alexander, formed connexions 
 with the women of Asia, 
 
 Epimenides, an epic poet of Crete, contem- 
 porary with Solon. His father's name was 
 Agiasarchus, and his mother's Blasta. He is 
 reckoned one of the seven wise men by those 
 who exclude Periander from the number. While 
 he was tending his flocks one day, he entered 
 into a cave, where he fell asleep. His sleep 
 continued for 40, or 47, or, according to Pliny, 
 57 years ; and when he awoke, he found every 
 object so considerably altered, that he scarce 
 knew where he was. His brother apprized him 
 of the length of his sleep to his great astonish- 
 ment. It is supposed that he lived 289 years. 
 After death he was revered as a god, and great- 
 ly honoured by the Athenians, whom he had 
 delivered from a plague, and to whom he had 
 given many good and useful counsels. He is 
 said to be the first who built temples in the 
 Grecian communities, Cic. de Div. 1, c. 34. — 
 Diog. in vita. — Pans. 1, c. 14. — Plut. in Sol. — 
 Val. Max. 8, c. IS.—Strab. 10.— Plin. 7, c. 12. 
 
 Epiochus, a son of Lycurgus, who received 
 divine honours in Arcadia. 
 
 EpmPANES, (illustrious,) a surname given to 
 
 the Antiochuses, kings of Syria. A surname 
 
 of one of the Ptolemies, the fifth of the house 
 of the Lagidae. Strab. 17. 
 
 Epiphanius, a bishop of Salamis, who was 
 active in refuting the writings of Origen, but 
 his compositions are more valuable for the frag- 
 ments which they preserve than for their own 
 intrinsic merit. The only edition is by Dionys. 
 Petavius, 2 vols. Paris, 1622. The bishop died 
 A. D. 403. 
 
 Epitades, a man who first violated a law of 
 Lycurgus, which forbade laws to be made. Plut, 
 in Agid. 
 
 Erasistratds, a celebrated physician, grand- 
 son to the philosopher Aristotle. He discovered 
 by the motion of the pulse the love which An- 
 tiochus had conceived for his mother-in-law 
 Stratonice, and was rewarded with 100 talents 
 for the cure by the father of Antiochus. He was 
 a great enemy to bleeding and violent physic. 
 He died B. C. 257. Val. Max. 5, c. l.—Plut. 
 in Demetr. 
 
 Eratosthenes, son of Aglaus, was a native 
 of Cyrene, and the second intrusted with the 
 care of the Alexandrian library. He dedicated 
 his time to grammatical criticism and philoso- 
 phy, but more particularly to poetry and ma- 
 thematics. He has been called a second Plato, 
 the cosmographer, and the geometer of the 
 world. He is supposed to be the inventor oi 
 the armillary sphere. With the instruments 
 with which the munificence of the Ptolemies 
 
EV 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 EU 
 
 supplied the library of Alexandria, he was en- 
 abled 10 measure the obliquity of the ecliptic, 
 "which he called 20 1-2 degrees. He also mea- 
 sured a degree of the meridian, and determined 
 the extent and circumference of the earth with 
 great exactness, by means adopted by the mod- 
 erns. He starved himself after he had lived to 
 his 82d year, B. C. 194. Some few fragments 
 reinain of his compositions. He collected the 
 annals of the Egyptian kings by order of one of 
 the Ptolemies. Cic. ad Attic. 2, ep. 6. — Varro. 
 de R. R. 1, c. 2. 
 
 Eratostratus, an Ephesian, who burnt the 
 famous temple of Diana, the same night that 
 Alexander the Great was born. Thi burning, 
 as some writers have observed, was not pre- 
 vented or seen by the goddess of the place, who 
 was then present at the labours of Olympias 
 and the birth of the conqueror of Persia. Era- 
 tostratus did this villany merely to eternize his 
 name by so uncommon an action. Plut. iiu 
 Alex.— Val. Max. 8, c. 14. 
 
 Erechtheus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Erichthonius. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Eriphanis, a Greek woman, famous for her 
 poetical compositions. She was extremely fond 
 of the himter Melampus, and, to enjoy his com- 
 pany, she accustomed herself to live in the 
 woods." Athen. 14. 
 
 Erixo, a Roman knight, condemned by the 
 people for having whipped his son lo death. 
 Setiec. 1, de Clem. 14. 
 
 Eropus, or ^ROPAS, a king of Macedonia, 
 who, when in the cradle, succeeded his father 
 Philip 1st, B. C. 602. He made war against the 
 Illyrians, whom he conquered. Justin. 7, c. 2. 
 
 JEros, a servant of whom Antony demanded 
 a sword to kill himself Eros produced the in- 
 strument, but instead of giving it to his master, 
 he killed himself in his presence. Plut. in Anton. 
 
 Erotia, a festival in honour of Eros, the god 
 of love. It was celebrated by the Thespians 
 every fifth year with sports and games, when 
 musicians and others contended. If any quar- 
 rels or seditions had arisen among the people, 
 it was then usual to offer sacrifices and prayers 
 to the god that he would totally remove them. 
 
 Estiaia, solemn sacrifices to Vesta, of which 
 it was unlawful to carry away any thing or 
 communicate it to any body. 
 
 ETEARcmjs, a king of Oaxus in Crete. ' After 
 the death of his wife, he married a woman who 
 made herself odious for her tyranny over her 
 step-daughter Phronima. Etearchus gave ear to 
 all the accusations which were brought against 
 his daughter, and ordered her to be thrown into 
 the sea. She had a son called Battus, who 
 led a colony to Cyrene. Herodot. 4, c. 154. 
 
 Eteocles. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Eteonicus, a Lacedaemonian general, who, 
 upon hearing that Callicratidas was conquered 
 at Arginusas, ordered the messengers of this 
 news to be crowned, and to enter Mitylene in 
 triumph. This so terrified Conon, who besieged 
 the town, that he concluded that the enemy had 
 obtained some advantageous victory, and he 
 raised the siege. Diod. 13. — Polyan. 1. 
 
 Etesije, periodical northern winds of a gen- 
 tle and mild nature, very common for five or 
 six weeks in the months of spring and autumn. 
 iMcret. 5, V. 741. 
 
 Evagoras, a king of Cyprus, who retook Sa- 
 
 PartIL-3K 
 
 lamis, which had been taken from his father by 
 the Persians. He made war against Artaxerxes, 
 the king of Persia, with the assistance of the 
 Egyptians, Arabians, and Tyrians, and ob- 
 tained some advantage over the fleet of his ene- 
 my. The Persians, however, soon repaired 
 their losses, and Evagoras saw himself defeated 
 by sea and land, and obliged to be tributary to 
 the power of Artaxerxes, and to be stripped of 
 all his dominions except the town of Salamis. 
 He was assassinated soon after this fatal change 
 of fortune, by a eunuch, 374 B. C. He left 
 two sons, Nicocles, who succeeded him, and 
 Protagoras, who deprived his nephew Evagoras 
 of his possessions. Evagoras deserves to be 
 commended for his sobriety, moderation, and 
 magnanimity ; and if he was guilty of any po- 
 litical error m the management of his kingdom, 
 it may be said that his love of equity was a full 
 compensation. His grandson bore the same 
 name, and succeeded his father Nicocles. He 
 showed himself oppressive, and his uncle Pro- 
 tagoras took advantage of his unpopularity to 
 deprive him of his power. Evagoras fled to 
 Artaxerxes Ochus, who gave him a government 
 more extensive than that of Cyprus, but his op- 
 pression rendered him odious, and he was ac- 
 cused before his benefactor, and by his orders 
 put to death. C. Nep. 12, c. 'H.—Diod. 14.— 
 Paus. 1, c. 3. — Justin. 5, c. 6. 
 
 Evander, a son of the prophetess Carmente, 
 king of Arcadia, An accidental murder obliged 
 him to leave his country, and he came to Italy, 
 where he drove the Aborigines from their an- 
 cient possessions, and reigned in that part of the 
 country where Rome was afte'rwards founded. 
 It is said that he first brought the Greek alpha- 
 bet into Italy, and introduced there the worship 
 of the Greek deities. He was honoured as a 
 god after death by his subjects, who raised him 
 an altar on mount Aventine. Paus. 8, c. 43. 
 — Liv. 1, c. 7. — Ital. 7. v. 18. — Dionys. Hal. 1, 
 c. l.— Ovid.^Fast. 1, v. 500, 1. v. 91. 
 
 Evangorides, a man of Elis, who wrote an 
 account of all those who had obtained a prize at 
 Olympia, where he himself had been victorious. 
 Paus. 6, c. 8. 
 
 Evax, an Arabian prince, who wrote to Nero 
 concerning jewels, &c. Plin. 25, c. 2. 
 
 EuBULE, an Athenian virgin, daughter of 
 Leon, sacrificed with her sisters, by order of 
 the oracle of Delphi, for the safety of her coun- 
 try, which laboured under a famine. uElian. V. 
 H. 12, c. 18. 
 
 Edbulides, a philosopher of Miletus, pupil 
 and successor of Euclid, Demosthenes was one 
 of his pupils, and by his advice and encourage- 
 ment to perseverance he was enabled to con- 
 quer the difficulty he felt in pronouncing the 
 letter R. He severely attacked the doctrines of 
 Aristotle. Diog. 
 
 EuBULUS, I. an Athenian orator, rival to De- 
 mosthenes. II. A comic poet. III. An 
 
 historian who wrote a voluminous account of 
 Mithras. 
 
 EucERUs, a man of Alexandria, accused of 
 adultery with Octavia, that Nero might have 
 occasion to divorce her. Tacit. Ann. 14, c. 60. 
 
 EucmDES, an Athenian who went to Delphi 
 and returned the same day, a journey of about 
 107 miles. The object of his journey was to 
 obtain some sacred fire. 
 441 
 
EV 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 EU 
 
 EucLiDES, I. a native of Megara, disciple of 
 Socrates, B. C. 404. When the Athenians had 
 forbidden ail the people of Megara on pain of 
 death to enter their city, Euclides disguised him- 
 self in woman's clothes to introduce himself into 
 the presence of Socrates. Dtog. m Socrate. 
 
 II, A mathematician of Alexandria, who 
 
 flourished 300 B. C. He distinguished himself 
 by his writings on music and geometry, but 
 particularly by 15 books on the elements of ma- 
 thematics, which consist of problems and theo- 
 rems with demonstrations. This work has been 
 greatly mutilated by commentators. Euclid was 
 so respected in his lifetime, that king Ptolemy 
 became one of his pupils. Euclid established a 
 school at Alexandria, which became so famous, 
 that from his age to the time of the Saracen 
 conquest, no mathematician was found but what 
 had studied at Alexandria. He was so respect- 
 ed, that Plato, himself a mathematician, being 
 asked concerning the building of an altar at 
 Athens, referred his inquiries to the mathema- 
 tician of Alexandria. Val. Max. 8, c. 1*2. — Cic. 
 de Oral. 3. c. 72. 
 
 EuDAMiDAs, I. a son of Archidamus 4th, bro- 
 ther to Agis 4th. He succeeded on the Spartan 
 throne, aftef his brother's death, B. C. 330. 
 
 Pau5. 3, c. 10. II. A son of Archidamus, 
 
 king of Sparta, who succeeded B. C. 268.- 
 
 III. The commander of a garrison stationed at 
 Troezene by Craterus. 
 
 EuDociA, the wife of the emperor Theodosius 
 the younger, who gave the public some compo- 
 sitions. She died A. D. 460. 
 
 EuDOXiA, I. the wife of Arcadius, &c. II. 
 
 A daughter of Theodosius the younger, who 
 married the emperor Maximus, and invited 
 Genseric the Vandal into Italy. 
 
 EuDOxus, I. a son of ^schines of Cnidus, 
 who distinguished himself by his knowledge of 
 astrology, medicine, and geometry. He was 
 the first who regulated the year among the 
 Greeks, among whom he first brought from 
 Egypt the celestial sphere and regular astrono- 
 my. He spent a great part of his life on the top 
 of a mountain, to study the motion of the stars, 
 by whose appearance he pretended to foretell 
 the events of faturity. He died in his .53d year, 
 B. C. 352. I.uca%. 10, v. \^l.—Diog.—Pe- 
 
 iron. 88. II. A native of Cyzicus, who sailed 
 
 all round the coast of Africa from the Red 
 Sea, and entered the Mediterranean by the 
 
 columns of Hercules. III. A Sicilian, son 
 
 of Agathocles. 
 
 EvEMERUs, an ancient historian of Messenia, 
 intimate with Cassander. He travelled over 
 Greece and Arabia, and wrote a history of the 
 gods, in which he proved that they all had been 
 upon earth as mere mortal men. Ennius trans- 
 lated it into Latin. It is now lost. 
 
 EvEPHENUS, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
 whom Dionysius condemned to death because 
 he had alienated the people of Metapontum from 
 his power. The philosopher begged leave of 
 the tyrant to go and marry his sister, and pro- 
 mised to return in six months. Dionysius con- 
 sented by receiving Eucritus, who pledged him- 
 self to die if Evephenus did not return in time. 
 Evephenus returned at the appointed moment, 
 10 the astonishment of Dionysius, and delivered 
 his friend Eucritus from the death which threat- 
 ened him. The tyrant was so pleased with 
 442 
 
 these two friends, that he pardoned Evephenus^ 
 and begged to share their friendship and con- 
 fidence. Pohjczn. 5. 
 
 EvERGETES, a sumamc signifying benefactor, 
 given to Philip of Macedonia, and to Antigonus 
 Doson and Ptolemy of Egypt. It was also 
 commonl}^ given to the kings of Syria and Pon- 
 tus ; and we often see among the former an 
 Alexander Evergetes, and among the latter a 
 Mithridates Evergetes. Some of the Roman 
 emperors also claimed that epithet, so expres- 
 sive -of benevolence and humanity. 
 
 EuGE.vius, a usurper of the imperial title 
 after the death of Valentinian the 2d, A. D. 
 392. 
 
 EuMiEUs, a herdsman and steward to Ulysses, 
 who knew his master at his return home from 
 the Trojan war after 20 years' absence, and as- 
 sisted him in removing Penelope's suiters. He 
 was originally the son of the king of Scyros, 
 and, upon being carried away by pirates, he 
 was sold as a slave to Laertes, who rewarded 
 his fidelity and services. Homer. Od. 13, v. 403, 
 1. 14, V. 3, 1. 15, V. 288, 1. 16 and 17. 
 
 EuMELUS, I. one of the Bacchiadae, who wrote, 
 among other things, a poetical history of Co- 
 rinth, B. C. 750, of which a small fragment is 
 
 still extant. Paus. 2, c. 1. 11. A king of 
 
 the Cimmerian Bosphorus, who diedB. C. 304. 
 
 EuMENEs, I. a Greek officer in the army of 
 Alexander, son of a charioteer. He was the 
 most worthy of all the officers of Alexander to 
 succeed after the death of his master. He con- 
 quered Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, of which 
 he obtained the government, till the power and 
 jealousy of Antigonus obliged him to retire. He 
 joined his forces to those of Perdiccas, and de- 
 feated Craterus and Neoptolemus. Neoptole- 
 mus perished by the hands of Eumenes. When 
 Craterus had been killed during the war, his 
 remains received an honourable funeral from 
 the hand of the conqueror ; and Eumenes, after 
 weeping over the ashes of a man who once was 
 his dearest friend, sent his remains to his rela- 
 tions in Macedonia. Eumenes fought against 
 Antipater, and conquered him ; and after the 
 death of Perdiccas, his ally, his arms were di- 
 rected against Antigonus, by whom he was con- 
 quered chiefly by the treacherous conduct of his 
 officers. This fatal battle obliged him to dis- 
 band the greatest part of his army to secure 
 himself a retreat; and he fled with only 700 
 faithful attendants to Nora, a fortified place on 
 the confines of Cappadocia, where he Avas soon 
 besieged by the conqueror. He supported the 
 siege for a year with courage and resolution, 
 but some disadvantageous skirmishes so re- 
 duced him, that his soldiers, grown desperate, 
 and bribed by the offers of the enemy, had the 
 infidelity to betray him into the hands of Anti- 
 gonus. "The conqueror, from shame or remorse, 
 had not the courage to visit Eumenes ; but when 
 he was asked by his officers in what manner he 
 wished him to be kept, he answered, Keep him 
 as carefully as you would keep a lion. This 
 severe command was obeyed ; but the asperity 
 of Antigonus vanished in a few days, and Eu- 
 menes, delivered from the weight of chains, was 
 permitted to enjoy the company of his friends. 
 Even Antigonus hesitated whether he should 
 not restore 10 his liberty a man with whom he 
 had lived in the greatest mtimacy while both 
 
EU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 EU 
 
 were subservient to ilie command of Alexander; 
 and these secret emotions of pity and humanity- 
 were not a little increased by the petitions of his 
 son Demetrius for the release of Eumenes. But 
 the calls of ambition prevailed ; and when An- 
 tigonus recollected what an active enemy he had 
 in his power, he ordered Eumenes to be put to 
 death in the prison; (though some imagine he 
 Avas murdered without the knowledge of his 
 conqueror.) His bloody commands were exe-- 
 cuted B. C. 315. Such was the end of a man 
 who raised himself to power by merit alone. 
 His skill in public exercises first recommended 
 him to the notice of Philip ; and under Alexan- 
 der his attachment and fidelity to the royal per- 
 son, and particularly his military accomplish- 
 ments, promoted him to the rank of a general. 
 Even his enemies revered him; and Antigo- 
 nus, by whose orders he perished, honoured his 
 remains with a splendid funeral, and conveyed 
 his ashes to his wife and family in Cappadocia. 
 It has been observed that Eumenes had such a 
 universal influence over the successors of Alex- 
 ander, that none, during his lifetime, dared to 
 assume the title of king ; and it does not a little 
 reflect to his honour, to consider that the wars he 
 carried on were not from private or interested 
 motives, but for the good and welfare of his 
 deceased benefactor's children. Plut. tf* C. Nep. 
 in vita. — Diod. 19. — Justin. 13. — Curt. 10. — Ar- 
 rian. II. A king of Pergamus, who succeed- 
 ed his uncle Philetserus on the throne, B. C. 263. 
 He made war against Antiochus, the son of Se- 
 leucus, and enlarged his possessions by seizing 
 upon many of the cities of the kings of Syria. 
 He lived in alliance with the Romans, and made 
 war against Prusias, king of Bithynia. He was 
 a great patron of learning, and given much to 
 wine. He died of an excess in drinking, after 
 a reign of 22 years. He was succeeded by At- 
 tains. Strah. 15. III. The second of that 
 
 name, succeeded his father Attains on the throne 
 of Asia and Pergamus. His kingdom was small 
 and poor ; but he rendered it powerful and opu- 
 lent; and his alliance with the Romans did not 
 a little contribute to the increase of his domin- 
 ions after the victories obtained over Antiochus 
 the Great, He carried his arms against Prusias 
 and Antigonus, and died B. C. 159, after a reign 
 of .38 years, leaving the kingdom to his son At- 
 tains second. He had been admired for his 
 benevolence and magnanimity, and his love of 
 learning greatly enriched the famous library of 
 Pergamus, which had been founded by his pre- 
 decessors, in imitation of the Alexandrian col- 
 lection of the Ptolemies. His brothers were so 
 attached to him, and devoted to his interest, that 
 they enlisted among his bodj-'-guards, to show 
 their fraternal fidelity. Strah. 13. — Justin. 31 
 
 and 34. — Polyb. IV. A celebrated orator of 
 
 Athens, about the beginning of the fourth cen- 
 tury. Some of his harangues and orations are 
 extant. V. An historical writer in Alexan- 
 der's army. 
 
 EuMENiDiA, festivals in honour of the Eume- 
 nides, called by the Athenians aciivai Oeai, ven- 
 erable goddesses. They were celebrated once 
 every year with sacrifices of pregnant ewes, with 
 offerings of cakes made by the most eminent 
 youths, and libations of honey and wine. At 
 Athens none but freeborn citizens were admit- 
 ted, such as had led a life the most virtuous atid 
 
 unsullied. Such only were accepted by the god- 
 desses, who punished all sorts of wickedness in 
 a severe manner. 
 
 EuMOLPicE, the priests of Ceres, at the cele- 
 bration of her festivals of Eleusis. All causes 
 relatmg to impiety or profanation were referred 
 to their judgment; and their decisions, though 
 occasionally severe, were considered as general- 
 ly impartial. The Eumolpidoe were descended 
 from Eumolpus, a king of Thrace, who was 
 made priest of Ceres by Erechtheus, king of 
 Athens. He became so powerful after his ap- 
 pointment to the priesthood .that he main tamed 
 a war against Erechtheus. This war proved 
 fatal to both ; Erechtheus and Eumolpus were 
 both killed, and peace was re-established among 
 their descendants, on condition that the priest- 
 hood should ever remain in the family of Eu- 
 molpus, and the regal power in the house of 
 Erechtheus. The priesthood continued in the 
 family of Eumolpus for 1200 years; and this 
 is still more remarkable, because he who was 
 once appointed to the holy oflice was obliged 
 to remain in perpetual celibacy. Pans. 2, 
 c. 14. 
 
 Eumolpus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 EuNAPius, a physician, sophist, and historian, 
 born at Sardis. He flourisned in the reign of 
 Valentinian and his successors, and wrote a his- 
 tory of the Caesars, of which few fragments re- 
 main. His life of the philosophers of his age is 
 still extant. It is composed with fidelity and 
 elegance, precision and correctness. 
 
 EuNus, a Syrian slave, who inflamed the 
 minds of the servile multitude by pretended in- 
 spiration and enthusiasm. He filled a nut with 
 sulphur in his mouth, and by artfully conveying 
 fire to it, he breathed out flames to the astonish- 
 ment of the people, who believed him to be a god 
 or something more than human. Oppression 
 and misery compelled 2000 slaves to join his 
 cause, and he soon saw himself at the head of 
 50,000 men. With such a force he defeated the 
 Roman armies, till Perponna obliged him to sur- 
 render by famine, and exposed on a cross the 
 greatest part of his followers, B. C. 132. Plut. 
 in Sert. 
 
 EuPATOR, a son of Antiochus. The sur- 
 name of Eupator was given to many of the 
 Asiatic princes, such as Mithridates, &c. 
 Stralj. 12. 
 
 EuPEiTHES. Vid. Part III, 
 
 EuPHAEs, succeeded Androcles on the throne 
 of Messenia, and in his reign the first Messe- 
 nian war began. He died B. C. 730. Pmis. 
 4, c. 5 and 6. 
 
 EuFHANTus, a poet and historian of Olynthus, 
 son of Eubulides and preceptor to Antigonus, 
 king of Macedonia. Diog. in Eucl. 
 
 EuPHORBUs, I. a famous Trojan, son of Pan- 
 thous, the first who wounded Patroclus, whom 
 Hector killed. He perished by the hand of 
 Menelaus, who hung his shield in the temple of 
 Juno at Argos. Pythagoras, the founder of the 
 doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigra- 
 tion of souls, affirmed that he had been once 
 Euphorbus, and that his soul recollected many 
 exploits which had been done while it animated 
 that Trojan's body. As a further proof of his 
 assertion, he showed at first sight the shield of 
 Euphorbus in the temple of Juno. Ovid. Met. 
 15, V. \m.—Paus. 2, c. 11.— Horner. 11. IG and 
 443 
 
EtJ 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 EU 
 
 17. II. A physician of Juba, king of Mau- 
 
 retania. 
 
 EuPHORiON, I. a Greek poet of Chalcis in 
 Euboea, in the age of Antiochus the Great. 
 Tiberius took him for his model for correct 
 writing, and was so fond of him that he hung 
 his pictures in all the public libraries. His 
 father's name was Polymnetus. He died in 
 his 56th year, B. C. 220. Cicero, de Nat. 
 
 D. 2, c. 64, calls him Obscurum. II. The 
 
 son of jEschylus. He conquered four times 
 with posthumous tragedies of his father's com- 
 position ; and also wrote several dramas him- 
 self One of his victories is commemorated 
 in the argument to the Medea of Euripides ; 
 where we are told that Euphorion was first, 
 Sophocles second, and Euripides third with the 
 Medea. Olymp. 87th, 2, 431. 
 
 Euphrates, I. a disciple of Plato, who gov- 
 erned Macedonia with absolute authority in 
 the reign of Perdiccas, and rendered himself 
 odious by his cruelty and pedantry. After the 
 death of Perdiccas, he was murdered by Par- 
 
 menio. II. A stoic philosopher in the age of 
 
 Adrian, who destroyed himself, with the empe- 
 ror's leave, to escape the miseries of old age, 
 
 A. D. 118. Dio. Vid. Part III. 
 
 EupoLis, was nearly of the same age with Aris- 
 tophanes,and probablyexhibited for the first time 
 
 B. C. 429. In B. C. 425, he was third with his 
 'Novixriviai, wheu Ciatinus was second, and Aris- 
 tophanes first. In B. C. 421, he brought out 
 his MapiKcii and his KdXa/ces ; one at the Dionysia 
 £p Arjvaiois, the Other at those iv aam ; and in 
 a similar way his A.vT6\vK0i and ^KarpaTEvroi the 
 following year. The titles of more than twenty 
 of his comedies have been collected by Meur- 
 sius. A few fragments remain. Eupolis was 
 a bold and severe satirist on the vices of his day 
 and city. In the Maptx-aj he attacked Hyper- 
 bolus, in the A.vt6\vko5 an Athenian so named, 
 
 in the 'Ao-rparetjrot Melanthius. In the BaTrral 
 
 he inveighed against the effeminacy of his coun- 
 trymen ; in his AaKeSatfioves he assailed Cimon, 
 accusing him, amongst other charges, of an 
 unpatriotic bias towards every thing Spartan. 
 His death was generally ascribed to the ven- 
 geance of Alcibiades, whom he had lampooned, 
 probably in the BaTrral. By his orders, accord- 
 ing to the common account, Eupolis was thrown 
 overboard during the passage of the Athenian 
 armament to Sicily, B. C. 415. Cicero, how- 
 ever, calls this story a vulgar error ; since 
 Eratosthenes, the Alexandrian librarian, had 
 shown that several comedies were composed by 
 Eupolis some time after the date assigned to 
 this pseudo-assassination. His tomb, too, ac- 
 cording to Pausanias, was erected on the banks 
 of the ^sopusby the Sicyonians, which makes 
 it most probable that this was the place of his 
 death. 
 
 Euripides, was the son of Mnesarchus and 
 Clito, of the borough Phlya, and the Cecropid 
 tribe. He was born, Olymp. 75th, 1. B. C. 
 480, in Salamis (whither his parents had retired 
 during the occupation of Attica by Xerxes,) on 
 the very day of the Grecian victory near that 
 island. Aristophanes repeatedly imputes mean- 
 ness of extraction, by the mother's side, to Eu- 
 ripides. He asserts that she was an herb-seller ; 
 and, according to Aulus Gellius, Theopompus 
 confirms the comedian's sarcastic insinuations. 
 444 
 
 Philochorus, on the contrary, in a work no lon- 
 ger extant, endeavoured to prove that the mo- 
 ther of our poet was a lady of noble ancestry. 
 That there was some ground for the gibes of 
 Aristophanes can hardly be questioned. In a 
 city like Athens, where every person and every 
 movement were exposed to the remark and the 
 gossip of a prying and loquacious population 
 the birth and parentage of a distinguished dra- 
 matist must have been known to every spectator 
 in the comedian's audience. Hence there could 
 have been neither point nor poignancy in these 
 endless jeerings, had not the fact, in which they 
 turned, been matter of public notoriety. 1 he 
 mother of Euripides then was probably of hum- 
 ble station. His father, to whom the malicious 
 Aristophanes never alludes, was, doubtless, a 
 man of wealth and respectability ; for the cost- 
 ly education which the young Euripides receiv- 
 ed intimates a certain degree of wealth and con- 
 sequence in his family. The pupil of Anax- 
 agoras, Protagoras, andProdicus (an instructer 
 so notorious for the extravagant terms which he 
 demanded for his lessons) could not have been 
 the son of persons- at that time very mean or 
 very poor. In early life we are told that his 
 father made him direct his attention chiefly to 
 gymnastic exercises, and that in his seventeenth 
 year he was crowned in the Eleusinian and 
 Thesean contests. It does not appear, how- 
 ever, that Euripides was ever actually a candi- 
 date in the Olympian games. The genius of 
 the young poet was not dormant whilst he was 
 occupied in these mere bodily accomplishments ; 
 and even at this early age he is said to have at- 
 tempted dramatic composition. He seems to 
 have also cultivated a natural taste for painting ; 
 and some of his pictures were long afterwards 
 preserved at Megara. At length, quitting the 
 gymnasium, he applied .himself to philosophy 
 and literature. Under the celebrated rhetori- 
 cian Prodicus, one of the instructers of Pericles, 
 he acquired that oratorical skill for which his 
 dramas are so remarkably distinguished ; and 
 from Anaxagoras he imbibed those philosoph- 
 ical notions which are occasionally brought 
 forward in his works. Here too Pericles was 
 his fellow-disciple. With Socrates, who had 
 studied under the same master, Euripides was 
 on terms of the closest intimacy ; and from him 
 he derived those moral gnomae so frequently 
 interwoven into his speeches and narrations. 
 Indeed Socrates was even suspected of largely 
 assisting the tragedian in the composition of his 
 plays. Euripides began his public career, as a 
 dramatic writer, Olymp. 81st, 2, B. C. 455, in 
 the twenty-fifth year of his age. On this occa- 
 sion he was the third with a play entitled 
 Pleiades. In Olymp. 84th, 4, B. C. 441, he won 
 the prize. In Olymp. 87th, 2, B. C. 431, be was 
 third with the Medea, the Philoctetes, the Diciys, 
 and the Theristce, a satiric drama. His com- 
 petitors were Euphorion and Sophocles. He 
 was first with the Hippolytus, Olymp. 88th, 1, 
 B. C. 428, the year of his master Anaxagoras's 
 death : second, Olymp. 91st, 2, B. C. 415, with 
 the Alexander (or Paris,) the Palamedes, the 
 Troades, and the Sisyphus, a satiric drama. It 
 was in this contest that Xenocles was first. 
 Two years after this the Athenians sustained 
 the total loss of their armament before Syracuse. 
 In his narration of this disaster Plutarch gives 
 
EU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 EU 
 
 an anecdote, which, if true, bears a splendid 
 testimony to the high reputation in which Eu- 
 ripides was then held. Those amongst the cap- 
 tives, he tells us, who could repeal any portion 
 of that poet's works, were treated with kindness, 
 and even set at liberty. The same author also 
 informs us that Euripides honoured the soldiers 
 who had fallen in that siege with a funeral 
 poem, two lines of which he has preserved. 
 The Andromeda was exhibited Olymp. 92d, 1, 
 
 B. C. 412, the Orestes, Olymp. 93d, 1, B. C. 
 408. Soon after this lime the poet retired into 
 Magnesia, and from thence into Macedonia, to 
 the court of Archelaus. As in the case of 
 ^schylus, the motives for this self-exile are ob- 
 scure and uncertain. We know, indeed, that 
 Athens was by no means the most favourable 
 residence for distinguished literary merit. The 
 virulence of rivalry raged unchecked in a licen- 
 tious democracy, and the caprice of a petulant 
 multitude would not afford the most satisfactory 
 patronage to a high-minded and talented man. 
 Report, too, insinuates that Euripides was un- 
 happy in his own family. His first wife, Me- 
 lito, he divorced for adultery ; and in his sec- 
 ond, Ch^rila, he was not more fortunate. Envy 
 and enmity amongst his fellow-citizens, infi- 
 delity and domestic vexations at home, would 
 prove no small inducements for the poet to ac- 
 cept the invitation of Archelaus. In Macedonia 
 be is said to have written a play in honour of 
 that monarch, and to have inscribed it with his 
 patron's name, who was so pleased with the 
 manners and abilities of his guest as to appoint 
 him one of his ministers. No further particu- 
 lars are recorded of Euripides, except a few 
 apocryphal letters, anecdotes, and apothegms. 
 His death, which took place Olymp. 93d, 2, B. 
 
 C. 406, if the popular account be true, was, like 
 that of iEschylus, in its nature extraordinary. 
 Either from chance or malice, the aged drama- 
 tist was exposed to the attack of some ferocious 
 hounds, and by them so dreadfully mangled as 
 to expire soon afterwards in his seventy-fifth 
 year. The Athenians entreated Archelaus to 
 send thehody to the poet's native city for inter- 
 nment. The request was refused; and, with 
 every demonstration of grief and respect, Eu- 
 ripides was buried at Pella. A cenotaph, how- 
 ever, was erected to his memory at Athens, 
 bearing the following inscription : — 
 
 Mv^^a filv 'EXXa? uTraff' ^vpiiriSov' oaria 6' iff^et 
 
 T^fj^laKeScJv' f] yap Se^aro repfia Piov. 
 llarpls S' 'KWaSos 'EXAaj ^Adrivai' TrXeTcxTa 51 Mdv- 
 
 TiprpaSj i.K ttoXXwi' Kal tov eiraivov syei. 
 
 Euripides, in the estimation of the ancients, 
 certainly held a rank much inferior to that of 
 his two great rivals. The caustic wit of Aris- 
 .tophanes, whilst it fastens but slightly on the 
 failings of the giant iEschylus, and keeps re- 
 spectfully aloof from the calm dignity of Sopho- 
 cles, assails with merciless malice every weak 
 point in the genius, character, and circumstan- 
 ces of Euripides. He banters or reproaches 
 him for lowering the dignity of tragedy, by ex- 
 hibiting so many heroes as whining tattered 
 beggars ; by introducing the vulgar affairs of 
 ordinary life ; by the sonorous unmeaningness 
 of his choral odes ; the meretricious voluptuous- 
 ness of his music; the feebleness of his verses; 
 
 and by the loquacity of all his personages, how- 
 ever low their rank or unsuitable their charac- 
 ter might be. He laughs at the monotonous 
 construction of his clumsy prologues. He 
 charges his dramas with an immoral tendency, 
 and the poet himself with contempt of the gods 
 and a fondness for new-fangled doctrines. He 
 jeers his affectation of rhetoric and philosophy. 
 In short, Aristophanes seems to regard Eurip- 
 ides with a most sovereign contempt, bordering 
 even upon disgust. The attachment of Socra- 
 tes and the admiration of Archelaus may per- 
 haps serve as a counterpoise to the insinuations 
 of Aristophanes against the personal character 
 of Euripides. As to his poetic powers, there is 
 a striking diversity of opinion between the later 
 comedians and the author of the Ranse ; for 
 Menander and Philemon held him in high es- 
 teem. Yet the exact Aristotle, whilst allowing 
 to Euripides a pre-eminence in the excitement 
 of sorrowful emotion, censures the general ar- 
 rangement of his pieces, the wanton degrada- 
 tion of his personages, and the unconnected na- 
 ture of his choruses. Longinus, like Aristotle, 
 ascribes to Euripides great power in working 
 upon the feelings by depiction of love and mad- 
 ness, but he certainly did not entertain the high- 
 est opinion of his genius. He even classes him 
 among those writers, who, far from possessing 
 originality of talent, strive to conceal the real 
 meanness of their conceptions, and as'Sume the 
 appearance of sublimity by studied composition 
 and laboured language. Diod. 13. — Val. Max. 
 3, c, l.~Cic. In. 1, c. 50. Or. 3, c, l.—Arcad, 
 1, 4, Offic. 3 ; Finib. 2, Tusc. 1 and 4, &c. 
 
 EuRYALUs. Vid. Nisus. 
 
 EuRYBiADEs, a Spartan general of the Gre- 
 cian fleet at the battles of Artemisium and Sa- 
 lamis against Xerxes, He has been charged 
 with want of courage, and with ambition. He 
 offered to strike Themistocles when he wished 
 to speak about the manner of attacking the Per- 
 sians ; upon which the Athenian said, Strike 
 me, but hear me, Herodot. 8, c. 2, 74, &c, — 
 Plut. in Them. — C. Ne'p. in Them. 
 
 EuRYCLEs, I. an orator of Syracuse, who pro- 
 posed to put Nicias and Demosthenes to death, 
 and to confine to hard labour all the Athenian 
 soldiers in the quarries. Plut. II. A Lace- 
 daemonian at the battle of Actium on the side of 
 Augustus. Id. in Anton. 
 
 EuRYDAMUs, a wrestler of Gyrene, who, in a 
 combat, had his teeth dashed to pieces by his 
 antagonist, which he swallowed without show- 
 ing any signs of pain or discontinuing the fight. 
 ^lian. V.H. 10, c. 19. 
 
 EuRYDiCE, I. the wife of Amyntas, king of 
 Macedonia. She had by her husband, Alexan- 
 der, Perdiccas, and Philip, and one daughter 
 called Euryone. A criminal partiality for her 
 daughter's husband, to whom she offered her 
 hand and the kingdom, made her conspire 
 against Amyntas, who must have fallen a victim 
 to her infidelity, had not Euryone discovered it. 
 Amyntas forgave her. Alexander ascended the 
 throne after his father's death, and perished by 
 the ambition of his mother. Perdiccas, who 
 succeeded him, shared his fate; bat Philip, who 
 was the next in succession, secured himself 
 against all attempts from his mother, and ascend- 
 ed the throne with peace and universal satisfac- 
 tion. Eurydice fled to Iphicrates, the Athenian 
 445 
 
EU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 FA 
 
 general, for protection. The manner of her 
 
 death is unknoAvn. C. Nep. in IpMc. 3. -11. 
 
 A daughter of Amyntas, who married her uncle 
 Aridseus, the illegitimate son of Philip. After 
 the death of Alexander the Great, Aridaus as- 
 cended the throne of Macedonia, but he was to- 
 tally governed by the intrigues of his wife, who 
 called back Cassander, and joined her forces 
 with his to march against Polyperchon and 
 Olympias. Eurydice was forsaken by her troops, 
 Arid<£as was pierced through with arrows by 
 order of Olympias, who commanded Eurydice 
 to destroy herself either by poison, the sword, 
 or the halter. She chose the latter. Vid. Part 
 
 III. III. A daughter of Antipater, who 
 
 married one of the Ptolemies. Paus. 1, 
 c. 7. 
 
 EuuYMEDON, a man who accused Aristotle of 
 propagating profane doctrines in the Lyceum. 
 
 EcRYPON, a king of Sparta, son of Sous. His 
 reign was so glorious, that his descendants were 
 called Eurypontidce. Paus. 3, c. 7. 
 
 EuRYSTHENEs, a SOU of Aristodemus, who 
 lived in perpetual dissention with his twin bro- 
 ther Procles, while they both sat on the Spartan 
 throne. It was unknown which of the two was 
 born first ; the mother, who wished to see both 
 her sons raised on the throne, refused to declare 
 it, and they were both appointed kings of Sparta, 
 by order of the oracle of Delphi, B. C. 1102. 
 After the death of the two brothers, the Lacedae- 
 monians, who knew not to what family the right 
 of seniority and succession belonged, permitted 
 two kings to sit on the throne, one of each fa- 
 mily. The descendants of Eurysthenes were 
 called EurysthenidcB ; and those of Procles, 
 Proclidce. It was inconsistent with the laws of 
 Sparta for two kings of the same family to as- 
 cend the throne together, yet that law was 
 sometimes violated by oppression and tyranny. 
 Eurji-sthenes had a son called Agis, who suc- 
 ceeded him. His descendants were called Agi- 
 da.. There sat on the throne of Sparta 31 kings 
 of the family of Eurysthenes, and only 24 of 
 the Proclidae. The former were the more illus- 
 trious. Herodot. 4, c. 147, 1. 6, c. 52.; — Paus. 3, 
 c. 1. — C. Nep. in Ages. 
 
 EuRYSTHEUs, Vid. Part III. 
 
 EuRYTHioN, and Eurytion, a man of Hera- 
 clea convicted of adultery. His punishment 
 was the cause of the abolition of the oligarchi- 
 cal power there. Aristot. 5, Polit. 
 
 EusEBiA, an emperess, wife to Constantine, 
 &c. She died A. D. 360, highly and deservedly 
 lamented. 
 
 EusEBius, a bishop of Csesarea in great fa- 
 vour with the emperor Constantine. He was 
 concerned in the theological disputes of Arius 
 and Athanasius, and distinguished himself by 
 his writings, which consisted of an ecclesiasti- 
 cal history, the life of Constantine, Chronicon, 
 Evangelical preparations, and other numerous 
 treatises, most of which are now lost. The best 
 edition of his Preparatio and Demonstratio 
 Evangelica, is by Vigerus, 2 vols, folio ; Rotho- 
 magi, 1628; and of his ecclesiastical history by 
 Reading, folio Cantab. 1720. 
 
 EusTATHius, I, a Greek commentator on the 
 works of Homer. It is to be lamented the de- 
 sign of Alexander Politus, begun at Florence in 
 1735, and published in the first five books of the 
 Iliad, is not executed, as a Latin translation of 
 446 
 
 these excellent commentaries is among the de 
 
 siderata of the present day. II. A man who 
 
 wrote a very foolish Romance in Greek, entitled 
 de Jsvienice and Ismenes amoribus, edited by 
 Gaulminus, 8vo. Paris, 1617. 
 
 Euthycrates, I. a sculptor of Sicyon, son of 
 Lysippus. He was peculiarly happy in the pro- 
 portions of his statues. Those of Hercules and 
 Alexander were in general esteem, and par- 
 ticularly that of Medea, which was carried on a 
 
 chariot by four horses. Plin. 34, c. 8. II. A 
 
 man who betrayed Olynthus to Philip. 
 
 EuTHYDEMUs, au orator and rhetorician, who 
 greatly distinguished himself by his eloquence, 
 &c. Strab. 14. 
 
 EuTROPius, I. a Latin historian in the age of 
 Julian, under whom he carried arms in the fa- 
 tal expedition against the Persians. His origin, 
 as well as his dignity, are unknown ; yet some 
 suppose, from the epithet of CZarissmws prefixed 
 to his history, that he was a Roman senator. 
 He wrote an epitome of the history of Rome, 
 from the age of Romulus to the reign of the em- 
 peror Valens, to whom the work was dedicated. 
 He wrote a treatise on medicine without being 
 acquainted with the art. Of all his works, the 
 Roman history alone is extant. It is composed 
 with conciseness and precision, but without ele- 
 gance. The best edition of Eutropius is that of 
 Haverkamp, C^tm notis variorum, 8vo. L. Bat. 
 
 1729 and 1760. 11. A famous eunuch at the 
 
 court of Arcadius, the son of Theodosius the 
 Great, &c. 
 
 EuTYCLiDE, a woman who was thirty times 
 brought to bed, and carried to the grave by 
 twenty of her children. Pli7i. 7, c. 3. 
 
 EuxENUS, a man who WTote a poetical history 
 of the fabulous ages of Italy. Dionys. Hal. 1. 
 
 EuxiPPE, a woman who killed herself because 
 the ambassadors of Sparta had oifered violence 
 to her virtue, &c. 
 
 ExAGONUs, the ambassador of a nation in 
 Cyprus, who came to Rome and talked so much 
 of the power of herbs, serpents, &c. that the 
 consuls ordered him to be thrown into a vessel 
 full of serpents. These venomous creatures, far 
 from hurting him, caressed him, and harmlessly 
 licked him with their tongues. Plin. 28, c. 3. 
 
 F 
 
 Pabaria, festivals at Rome in honour of Car- 
 na, wife of Janus, when beans {fabai) were pre- 
 sented as an oblation. 
 
 Fabia Lex, de ambitu, was to circumscribe 
 the number of Sectatores, or attendants, which 
 were allowed to candidates in canvassing some 
 high office. It was proposed, but did not pass. 
 
 Fabh, a noble and powerful family at Rome. 
 They were once so numerous, that they took 
 upon themselves to wage war against the Veien- 
 tes. They came to a general engagement near 
 the Cremera, in which all the family, consist- 
 ing of 306 men, were totally slain, B. C. 447. 
 There only remained one, whose tender age had 
 detained him at Rome, and from him arose the 
 noble Fabii in the following ages. The family 
 was divided into six different branches, the Am- 
 busti, the Maximi, the Vibulani, the Buteoms, 
 the Dorsones, and the Pictores ; the three first of 
 which are frequently mentioned in the Roman 
 history, but the others seldom. Dionys. 9, c. 5. 
 
FA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 FA 
 
 ^Ltv. % c. 48, &c.—Flor. 1, c. 2.— Ovid. Trist. 
 2, V. 235— Virg. .En. 6, v. 845. 
 
 Fabius, I. (Maximus Rullianus) was the first 
 of the Fabii who obtained the suraame of 3Iax- 
 imus, for lessening the power of the populace at 
 elections. He was master of horse, and his vic- 
 tories over the Samnites in that capacity nearly 
 cost him his life, because he engaged the enem}' 
 without the command of the dicta,tor. He was 
 five times consul, twice dictator, and once cen- 
 sor. He triumphed over seven different nations 
 in the neighbourhood of Rome, and rendered 
 
 himself illustrious by his patriotism. II. Rus- 
 
 ticus, an historian in the age of Claudius and 
 I\ ero. He was intimate wath Seneca ; and the 
 encomiums which Tacitus passes upon his st}^le 
 make us regret the loss of his compositions 
 
 III. Q,. Maximus, a celebrated Roman, first sur- 
 named Verrucosus, from a wart on his lip, and 
 Agnicula^ from his inofiensive manners. From 
 a dull and unpromising childhood he burst into 
 deeds of valour and heroism, and was gradually 
 raised by merit to the highest offices of the state. 
 In his first consulship he obtained a victory over 
 Liguria ; and the fatal battle of Thrasymenus 
 occasioned his election to the dictatorship. In 
 this important office, he began to oppose Anni- 
 bal, not by fighting him in the open field, like 
 his predecessors, but he continually harassed 
 his army by countermarches and ambuscades, 
 for which he received the surname of Cuncto.tor, 
 or delayer. Such operations for the commander 
 of the Roman armies gave ofience to some, and 
 Fabius was even accused of cowardice. He, 
 how-ever, still pursued the measures which pru- 
 dence and reflection seemed to dictate as most 
 salutary to Rome; and he patiently bore to see 
 his master of horse raised to share the dictato- 
 rial dignity with himself, by means of his ene- 
 mies at home. Tarentum was obliged to surren- 
 der to his arms after the battle of Cannae ; and on 
 that occasion the Carthaginian enemy observed, 
 that Fabius was the Annibal of Rome. When he 
 had made an agreement with Annibal for the 
 ransom of the captives, which was totally dis- 
 approved by the Roman senate, he sold all his 
 estates to pay the money, rather than forfeit his 
 ■word to the enemy. The bold proposal of 
 young Scipio, to go and carry the war from Italy 
 to Africa, was rejected by Fabius as chimerical 
 and dangerous. He did not. however, live to 
 see the success of the Roman arms under Scipio, 
 andthe conquest ofCarthage by measures which 
 he treated with contempt and heard with indig- 
 nation. He died in the 100th year of his age, 
 after he had been five times consul, and twice 
 honoured with a triumph. Plut. in vita. — Flor. 
 
 2, c. 6. — Liv. — Polyb. IV. His son bore the 
 
 same name, and showed himself worthy of his 
 noble father's virtues. During his consulship, 
 he received a visit from his father on horseback 
 in the camp: the son ordered the father to dis- 
 mount, and the old man cheerfully obeyed, em- 
 bracing his son, and saying, I wished to know 
 "whether you knew what it was to be consul. 
 He died before his father; and the Cunctator, 
 "With the moderation of a philosopher, delivered 
 a funeral oration over the dead body of his son. 
 
 Plut. iro Fabio. V. Pictor, the first Roman 
 
 who wrote an historical account of his country, 
 from the age of Romulus to the year of Rome 
 536. He flourished B, C. 235. The senti- 
 
 ments expressed by Dionysius of Halicamassus, 
 concerning Fabius Pictor's relation of events, 
 in the early ages of Rome, and those of Poly- 
 bius, on the occurrences of which he was him- 
 self an eyewitness, enable us to form a pretty 
 accurate estimate of the credit due to his whole 
 history. Dionysius having himself written on the 
 antiquities of Rome, was competent to deliver 
 an opinion as to the works of those who had 
 .preceded him in the same undertaking ; and it 
 Avould rather have been favourable to the gene- 
 ral view which he has adopted, to have estab- 
 lished the credibility of Fabius. We may also 
 safely rely on the judgment which Polybius has 
 passed, concerning this old annalist's relation 
 of the events of the age in which he lived, since 
 Polybius had spared no pains to be thoroughly 
 informed of whatever could render his own ac- 
 count of them complete and unexceptionable. 
 The work -which is now extant, and which is 
 attributed to him, is a spurious composition. 
 'VI. A Roman consul, surnamed Ambus- 
 
 tus, because he was struck with lightning.- 
 
 VII. Fabricianus, a Roman assassinated by his 
 wife Fabia, that she might more freely enjoy 
 the company of a favourite youth. His son was 
 saved from his mother's cruelties, and when he 
 came of age he avenged his father's death by 
 murdering his mother and her adulterer. The 
 senate took cognizance of the action, and pa- 
 tronised the parricide. Plut. in Parall. 
 
 VIII. A son of Paulus^milius, adopted into 
 the famil}' of the Fabii. 
 
 Fabricius, I. a Latin writer in the reign of 
 Nero, who employed his pen in satirizing and 
 defaming the senators. His wprks were burnt 
 by order of Nero. II. Caius Luscinus, a cele- 
 brated Roman, who, in his first consulship, 
 obtained several victories over the Samnites and 
 Lucanians, and was honoured with a triumph. 
 Two years after, Fabricius went as ambassador 
 to Pyrrhus. and refused with contempt the pre- 
 sents, and heard with indignation the offers, 
 which might have corrupted the fidelity of a less 
 virtuous citizen. Pyrrhus had occasion to ad- 
 mire the magnanimity of Fabricius ; but his 
 astonishment was more powerfully awakened 
 when he opposed him in the field of battle, and 
 when he saw him make a discovery of the per- 
 fidious offer of his physician, who pledged him- 
 self to the Roman general for a sum of money 
 to poison his royal master. A contempt of lux- 
 ury and useless ornaments Fabricius wished to 
 inspire among the people ; and, during his cen- 
 sorship, he banished from the senate Cornelius 
 Rufinus, who had been twice consul and dicta- 
 tor, because he kept in his house more than ten 
 pound w^eight of silver plate. He lived and died 
 in the greatest poverty. His body was buried at 
 the public charge, and the Roman people were 
 obliged to give a dowry to his two daughters 
 when they arrived at marriageable vears. Vol. 
 Max. 2, c. 9, 1. 4, c. 4.— Flor. 1, c. 18.— Cic: 3, 
 de Offic. — Plut. in Pyrrh. — Virg, ^n. 6, v. 
 844. 
 
 Fannia, a woman of Minturnae, who hospi- 
 tably entertained Marius in his flight, though 
 he had formerly sat in judgment upon her, and 
 divorced her from her husband. 
 
 Fannia Lex, de Suviptibus, by Fannius the 
 consul, A. U. C. 593. It enactedthat no person 
 should spend more than 100 asses a day at the 
 447 
 
FE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 FL 
 
 great festivals, and 30 asses on other days, and 
 ten at all other times. 
 
 Fannius, (Caius,) an author in Trajan's 
 reign, whose history of the cruelties of Nero is 
 greatly regretted. 
 
 Faunus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Fausta, I. a daughter of Sylla, &.c. Horat. 
 1. Sat. 2, V. 64. -II. The wife of the empe- 
 ror Constantine, disgraced for her cruelties and 
 vices, 
 
 Faustina, I. the wife of the emperor Antoni- 
 nus, famous for her debaucheries. Her daugh- 
 ter of the same name, blessed with beauty, live- 
 liness, and wit, became the most abandoned of 
 
 her sex. She married M. Aurelius. II. 
 
 The third wife of the emperor Heliogabalus 
 bore that name. 
 
 Faustulus, a shepherd ordered to expose 
 Romulus and Remus. He privately brought 
 them up at home. Liv. 1, c. 4. — Justin. 43, c. 
 2. — Plut. in Rom. 
 
 Feciales, a number of priests at Rome, em- 
 ployed in declaring war and making peace. 
 When the Romans thought themselves injured, 
 one of the sacerdotal body was empowered to 
 demand redress, and, after the allowance of 33 
 days to consider the matter, war was declared if 
 submissions were not made, and the Fecialis 
 hurled a bloody spear into the territories of the 
 enemy in proof of intended hostilities. Liv. 1, 
 c. 3, 1. 4, c. 30. 
 
 Felix, M. Antomus, a freedman of Clau- 
 dius Coesar, made governor of Judtea, Samaria, 
 and Palestine. He is called by Suetonius the 
 husband of three queens, as he married the two 
 Drusilloe, one grand-daughter of Antony and 
 Cleopatra, and the other a Jewish princess, sis- 
 ter to Agrippa. The name of his third wife is 
 unknown. Suet, in CI. 18. — Tacit. Ann. 12, 
 c. 14. 
 
 Fbralia, a festival in honour of the dead, 
 observed at Rome the 17th or 21st of February. 
 It continued for 11 days, during which time 
 presents were carried to the graves of the de- 
 ceased, marriages were forbidden, and the tem- 
 ples of the gods were shut. 
 
 Feri;b LATiNiG, festivals at Rome, instituted 
 by Tarquin the Proud. The principal magis- 
 trates of 47 towns in Latium usually assembled 
 on the mount near Rome, where they altogether 
 with the Roman magistrates offered a bull to 
 Jupiter Latialis, of which they carried home 
 some part after the immolation, after they had 
 sworn mutual friendship and alliance. Ir con- 
 tinued but one day originally, but in process of 
 time four days were dedicated to its celebration. 
 Dionys. Hal. 4, c. 49. — Cic. Ep. 6. — Liv. 21, 
 &c. The feriaj among the Romans were certain 
 days set apart to celebrate festivals, and during 
 that time it was unlawful for any person to work. 
 They were either public or private. The public 
 were of four different kinds. The ferice stativce 
 were certain immoveable days always marked 
 in the calendar, and observed by the whole city 
 with much festivity and public rejoicing. The 
 fcria conceptiva were moveable feasts, and the 
 day appointed for the celebration was always 
 previously fixed by the magistrates or priests. 
 Among these Avere the ferice Laiincs, which 
 were first established by Tarquin, and observed 
 by the consuls regularly before they set out for 
 the nrovinces : the Compitalia, &c. The f erics 
 448 
 
 imperatives were appointed only by the com- 
 mand of the consul, dictator, or praetor, as a pub- 
 lic rejoicing for some important victory gained 
 over the enemy of Rome. The ferice Nundince 
 were regular days, in which the people of the 
 country and neighbouring towns assembled to- 
 gether, and exposed their respective commodi- 
 ties to sale. They were called Nundinae, because 
 kept every ninth day. The ferice privates Avere 
 observed only in families, in commemoration of 
 birthdays, marriages, funerals, and the like. 
 The days on which the ferice were observed 
 were called by the Romans festi dies, because 
 dedicated to mirth, relaxation, and festivity. 
 
 Fimbria, a Roman officer who besieged Mith- 
 ridates in Pritane, and failed in his attempts 
 to take him prisoner. He was deserted by his 
 troops for his cruelty, upon which he killed him- 
 self Plut. in IalcuU. 
 
 FiRMius, M., a powerful native of SeleuQia, 
 who proclaimed himself emperor, and was at 
 last conquered by Aurelian. 
 
 Flaccus, (Verrius,) a grammarian, tutor to 
 the two grandsons of Augustus, and supposed 
 
 author of the Capitoline marbles. A name 
 
 of Horace. Vid. Hor alius. 
 
 Flacilla, ^lia, the mother of Arca'^ius 
 and Honorius, was daughter of Antoniuo, a 
 prefect of Gaul. 
 
 Flaminia Lex, agraria^ by C. Flaminius 
 the tribune, A. U. C. 525. It required that the 
 lands of Picenum, from which the Gauls Se- 
 nones had been expelled, should be divided 
 among the Roman people. 
 
 Flaminius, C, a Roman consul of a turbu- 
 lent disposition, who was drawn into a battle, 
 near the lake of Thrasymenus, by the artifice 
 of Annibal. Cic. de Inv. 2, c. 17. — Liv. 22, c. 
 3, &c. — Polyh. Vid.. Flaminia Lex. 
 
 Flaminius, or Flaminius, (T. Gt.) I. a cele- 
 brated Roman, raised to the consulship A. U. 
 C. 556. He was sent at the head of the Ro- 
 man troops against Philip, king of Macedonia, 
 and in his expedition he met with uncommon 
 success. The Greeks gradually declared them- 
 selves his firmest supporters, and he totally de- 
 feated Philip on ihe confines of Epirus, and 
 made allLocris, Phocis, and Thessaly, tributary 
 to the Roman power. He granted peace to the 
 conquered monarch, and proclaimed all Greece 
 free and independent at the Isthmian games. 
 He was afterwards sent ambassador to king 
 Prusias, who had given refuge to Annibal, and 
 there his prudence and artifice hastened out oi 
 the world a man who had long been the terror oi 
 the Romans. Flaminius was found dead in his 
 bed, after a life spent in the greatest glory, in 
 which he had imitated with success the virtues 
 
 of his model Scipio. Plut. in vita. — Flor. 
 
 II. Lucius, the brother of the preceding, sig- 
 nalized himself in the wars of Greece. He was 
 expelled from the senate for killing a Gaul. 
 Plut. in Flam. III. Calp. Flamma, a tri- 
 bune, who, at the head of 300 men, saved the 
 Roman army in Sicily, B. C. 258, by engaging 
 the Carthaginians and cutting them to pieces. 
 
 Flavius, I. a Roman who informed Gracchus 
 of the violent measures of the senate against 
 
 him. II. A brother of Vespasian, &c. 
 
 One of the names of the emperor Domitian. 
 Juv. 4, V. 37. 
 
 Floralia, games in honour of Flora at Rome. 
 
FU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 GA 
 
 They were instituted about the age of R,omu- 
 lus, but they were not celebrated wiih regularity 
 and proper attention till the year U. C. 580. 
 They were observed yearly, and exhibited a 
 scene of the most unbounded licentiousness. It 
 is reported that Cato wished once to be present 
 at the celebration, and that when he saw that 
 the deference for his presence interrupted the 
 feast, he retired. This behaviour so captivated 
 the degenerate Romans, that the venerable sen- 
 ator was treated with the most uncommon ap- 
 plause as he retired. Val. Max. 2, c. 10. — Varro. 
 de L. L. l.—Paterc. c. l.—Plin. 18, c. 29. 
 
 Florus, (L. Annaeus Julius,) a Latin histo- 
 rian of the same family which produced Seneca 
 and Lucan, A. D. 116. He wrote an abridg- 
 ment of Roman Annals in four books, composed 
 in a florid and poetic style, and rather a pane- 
 gyric on many of the great actions of the Ro- 
 mans than a faithful and correct recital of their 
 history. He also wrote poetry, and entered the 
 lists against the emperor Adrian. 
 
 FoNTEros Capito, a man who conducted 
 Cleopatra into Syria by order of Antony. Plui. 
 in Ant, 
 
 FrontinuSj Sex. Jul. a celebrated geome- 
 trician, who made himself known by the books 
 he wrote on aqueducts and stratagems, dedi- 
 cated to Trajan. He ordered at his death that 
 no monument should be raised to his memory, 
 saying, Memoria nostri durcd/it^ si vitam me- 
 ruimus. The best edition of Frontiniis is that 
 of Oudendorp, 8vo. L. Bat. 1779. 
 
 Fronto, a preceptor of M. Antoninus, by 
 whom he was greatly esteemed. 
 
 Fdlvia ■ Lex was proposed but rejected, A. 
 U. C. 628, by Flaccus Fulvius. It tended to 
 make all the people of Italy citizens of Rome. 
 
 FuLviA, I. a bold and ambitious woman, who 
 married the tribune Clodius, and afterwards 
 Curio, and at last M. Antony. She took a part 
 in all the intrigues of her husband's triumvirate, 
 and showed herself cruel as well as revengeful. 
 Antony divorced her to marry Cleopatra, upon 
 which she attempted to avenge her wrongs by 
 persuading Augustus to take up arms against 
 her husband. When this scheme did not suc- 
 ceed, she raised a faction against Augustus, in 
 which she engaged L. Antonius, her brother-in- 
 law ; and when all her attempts proved fruitless, 
 she retired into the east, where her husband re- 
 ceived her with great coldness and indifference. 
 This unkindness totally broke her heart, and 
 she soon after died, about 40 years before the 
 
 Christian era. Plut. in Cic. <^ Anton. II. 
 
 A woman who discovered to Cicero the designs 
 of Catiline upon his life. Pint, in Cic. 
 
 Fulvius, I. a Roman senator, intimate with 
 Augustus. He disclosed the emperor's secrets 
 to his wife, who made it public to all the Roman 
 matrons, for which he received so severe a re- 
 primand from Augustus, that he and his wife 
 hanged themselves. II. A friend of C. Grac- 
 chus, who was killed in a sedition with his son. 
 His body was throum into the river, and his 
 widow was forbidden to put on mourning for 
 
 his death. Plut. in Gracch. lit. Flaccus 
 
 Censor, a Roman who plundered a marble tem- 
 ple of Juno, to finish the building of one which 
 
 he had erected to Fortune. Liv. 2.5, c. 2. 
 
 IV. Ser. Nobilior, a Roman consul who went 
 to Africa after the defeat of Regulus. He was 
 
 Part II.— 3 L 
 
 shipwrecked at his return with 200 Roman 
 ships. His grandson Marcus was sent to Spain, 
 where he greatly signalized himself. He was 
 afterwards rewarded with the consulship. 
 
 FijRii, a family which migrated from Medul- 
 lia in Latium, and come to settle at Rome un- 
 der Romulus, and was admitted among the pa- 
 tricians. Camillus was of this family, and it 
 was he who iirst raised it to distinction. Plut. 
 in Camill. 
 
 FiJRiA Lex, de Te.siamentis, by C. Furius the 
 tribune. It forbade any person to leave as a leg- 
 acy more than a thousand asses, except to the 
 relations of the master who manumitted, with 
 a few more exceptions. Cic. 1. Verr. 42. — 
 Liv. 35. 
 
 FuRius^ I. a military tribune with Camillus. 
 He was sent against the Tuscans by his col- 
 league. II. A Roman slave who obtained 
 
 his freedom, and applied himself with unremit- 
 ted attention to cultivat'C a small portion of land 
 which he had purchased. He was accused be- 
 fore a Roman tribunal of witchcraft, but hon- 
 ourably acquitted.— — III. M. Bibaculus, a 
 Latin poet of Cremona, who wrote annals in 
 Iambic verse, and was universally celebrated 
 for the wit and humour of his expressions. It 
 is said that Virgil imitated his poetry, and even 
 borrowed some of his lines. Horace, however, 
 ridicules his verses^ Quintil. 8. c. 6, &c. — Ho- 
 rat. 2, Sai. 5, v. 50. ' <■ 
 
 FuRNTUs, a friend of Horace, who was con- 
 sul, and distinguished himself by his elegant 
 historical writings. 1 Sat. 10, v. 36. 
 
 Fuscus, Arist. a friend of Horace, as con- 
 spicuous for the integrity and propriety of his 
 manners, as for his learning and abilities. 
 
 FusHJs, a Roman actor, whom Horace ridi- 
 cules. 2 Sat. 3, V. 60. He intoxicated him- 
 self; and when on the stage, he fell asleep 
 whilst he personated Ilione, when he ought to 
 have been roused and moved by the cries of a 
 ghost. 
 
 G. 
 
 GIbienus, a friend of Augustiis, beheaded by 
 order of Sext. Pompey. It is maintained that 
 he spoke after death. 
 
 Gabinia Lex, de Comiiiis, by A. Gabinius, 
 the tribune, A. U. C 614. It required that in 
 the public assemblies for electing magistrates, 
 the votes should be given by tablets n,nd not 
 viva, voce. Another, de Militia, by A. Ga- 
 binius the tribune, A. U. C. 685. It granted 
 Pompey the power of carrying on the war 
 against ihe pirates during three years, and of 
 obliging all kings, governors, and states, to sup- 
 ply hira with all the necessaries he wanted, over 
 all the Mediterranean Sea, and in the maritime 
 
 provinces, as far as 400 stadia from the sea. 
 
 Another, de Usurd, by Aul. Gabinius the tri- 
 bune, A. U. C. 685. It ordained that no action 
 should be granted for the recovery of any money 
 borrowed upon small interest to be lent upon 
 larger. This was a usual practice at Rome, 
 which obtained the name of versuram facere. 
 
 Gabinius Aultijs. a Roman consul, who made 
 war in Judsea. and re-established tranquillity 
 there. He suffered himself to be bribed, and re- 
 placed Ptolemy Auletes on the throne of Egypt. 
 He was accused, at his return, of receiving 
 449 
 
GA 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 GA 
 
 bribes. Cicero, at the request of Pompey, ably 
 defended him. He was banished, and died 
 about 40 years before Christ, at Salona. 
 
 GiETULicus, a poet who wrote some epigrams, 
 in which he displayed great genius and wit, 
 
 Galba, I. a surname of the first of the Sul- 
 pitii, from the smallness of his stature. The 
 word signifies a small worm, or, according to 
 some, it implies, in the language of Gaul, fat- 
 ness, for which the founder of the Sulpitian 
 
 family was remarkable. II. Servius Sulpi- 
 
 tius, a Roman, who rose gradually to the great- 
 est offices of the state, and exercised his power 
 in the provinces with equity and unremitted dil- 
 igence. He dedicated the greatest part of his 
 time to solitary pursuits, chiefly to avoid the 
 suspicions of Nero, His disapprobation of the 
 emperor's oppressive command in the provinces 
 was the cause of new disturbances. Nero or- 
 dered him to be put to death, but he escaped 
 from the hands of the executioner, and was pub- 
 licly saluted emperor. Irregularities in the em- 
 peror's ministers greatly displeased the people ; 
 and when Galba refused lo pay the soldiers the 
 money which he had promised them when he 
 was raised to the throne, they assassinated him 
 in the 73d year of his age, and in the eighth of 
 his reign, and proclaimed Olho emperor in his 
 room, January 16th, A. D. 69, The virtues 
 which had shone so bright in Galba when a 
 private man, totally disappeared when he as- 
 cended the throne ; and he who showed himself 
 the most impartial judge, forgot the duties of an 
 emperor and of a father of his people, Sueion. 
 
 t^ Plut. in vita.— Tacit. III, A learned man, 
 
 grandfather to the emperor of the same name. 
 
 Suet, in Galb. 4. IV, Sergius, a celebrated 
 
 orator before the age of Cicero, He showed 
 his sons to the Roman people and implored their 
 protection, by which means he saved himself 
 from the punishment which either his guilt or 
 the persuasive eloquence of his adversaries, M. 
 Cato and L. Scribonius, urged as due to him. 
 Cic. de Oral. 1, c. 53. ad Her. 4, c. 5, 
 
 Galenus Claudius, a celebrated physician 
 in the age of M. Antoninus and his successors, 
 born at Pergamus, the son of an architect. He 
 applied himself with unremitted labour to the 
 study of philosophy, mathematics, and chiefly of 
 physic. He was very intimate with Marcus 
 Aurelius, the emperor, after whose death he re- 
 turned to Pergamus, where he died in his 90th 
 year, A. D. 193. He wrote no less than 300 
 volumes, the greatest part of which were burnt 
 in the temple of Peace at Rome, where they had 
 been deposited. What remains of the works of 
 Galen has been published, without a Latin trans- 
 lation, in five vols. fol. Basil. 1538. Galen was 
 likewise edited, together with Hippocrates, by 
 Charterius, 13 vols, fol, Paris, 1679, but very in- 
 correct. 
 
 Galeria, I. the wife of Vitellius. II. Fus- 
 
 tinia, the wife of the emperor Antoninus 
 Pius. 
 
 Galerius, a native of Dacia, made emperor 
 of Rome by Diocletian. Vid. Mazimianus. 
 
 Gallienus, (Publ. Lucinius,) son of the em- 
 peror Valerian, He reigned conjointly with 
 his father for seven years, and ascended the 
 throne as sole emperor, A. D. 260, In his 
 youth he showed his activity and military char- 
 acter, in an expedition against the Germans and , 
 450 
 
 Sarmatoe ; but when he came to the purple, he 
 delivered himself up to pleasure and indolence. 
 His time was spent in the greatest debauchery. 
 He often appeared with his hair powdered with 
 golden dust ; and enjoyed tranquillity at home, 
 while his provinces abroad were torn by civil 
 quarrels and seditions ; and when he was ap- 
 prized that Egypt had revolted, he only observed 
 that he could live without the produce of Egypt. 
 He was of a disposition naturally inclined to 
 raillery ; and when his wife had been deceived 
 by a jeweller, Gallienus ordered the malefactor 
 to be placed in the circus, in expectation of be- 
 ing exposed to the ferocity of a lion ; when the 
 executioner, by order of the emperor, let loose 
 a capon upon him. An uncommon laugh was 
 raised upon this, and the emperor observed, that 
 he who had deceived others should expect to be 
 deceived himself The revolt of two of his of- 
 ficers roused him to exertion; he marched 
 against his antagonists, and put all the rebels to 
 the sword, without showing the least favour 
 either to rank, sex, or age. These cruelties 
 irritated the people and the army; emperors 
 were elected, and. no less than thirty tyrants 
 aspired to the imperial purple. Gallienus re- 
 solved boldly to oppose his adversaries ; but in 
 the midst of his preparations, he was assassi- 
 nated at Milan by one of his officers, in the 50th 
 year of his age, A. D. 268. 
 
 Gallus (Caius,) I, a friend of the great Afri- 
 canus, famous for his knowledge of astronomy, 
 and his exact calculations of eclipses, Cic. dM 
 
 Senec. II. ^lius, the 3d governor of Egypt 
 
 in the age of Augustus, III, Cornelius, a 
 
 Roman knight, who rendered himself famous 
 by his poetical as well as military talents. From 
 the obscurity of his birth and of his original 
 situation, little is known concerning the early 
 years of Gallus, He is first mentioned in histo- 
 ry as accompanying Octavius, when he march- 
 ed to Rome, after the battle of Modena, to de- 
 mand the consulship. He had soon so far in- 
 gratiated himself with this leader, that we find 
 him among the number of his advisers after the 
 battle of Philippi, and counselling him, along 
 with MiBcenas, to write in gentle terms to the 
 senate, with assurances that he would offer no 
 violence to the city, but would regulate all things 
 with clemency and moderation. On the parti- 
 tion of the lands, which followed the defeat of 
 Brutus, Gallus was appointed to collect, from 
 the cantons on the banks of the Po, a tribute 
 which had been imposed on the inhabitants, in 
 place of depriving them of their lands. After 
 the battle of Actium, he was opposed to Antony 
 in person, on the invasion of Egypt; and while 
 Augustus took possession of Pelusium, its east- 
 ern key, Gallus was employed to make himself 
 master of Par?etonium, which was considered 
 as its western barrier, Egypt having been re- 
 duced to complete submission, its conqueror di- 
 rected his whole attention towards the adminis- 
 tration of its internal affairs. He accordingly 
 took into his own hands the whole administra- 
 tion, which, on his return to Rome, he deter- 
 mined to devolve on a viceroy, supported by a 
 great military force stationed in different parts 
 of the kingdom. Gallus was the person whom 
 he first invested with this prefecture ; and his 
 long-tried fidelity, his attachment to his master, 
 and his talents for conciliation, gave every pros- 
 
GA 
 
 HISTORY, &a 
 
 GE 
 
 pect of a government which would be exercised 
 with advantage to the prince who trusted him, 
 and the people who were confided to his care ; 
 and so long as he acted under the direction of 
 Augustus, he manifested no defect either in ca- 
 pacity or zeal. He opened new conduits from 
 the Nile, and caused the old channels to be 
 cleared ; he restored the rigour of the laws, pro- 
 tected commerce, and encouraged arts ; and he 
 founded another Alexandrian library, the for- 
 mer magnificent collection of books havmg been 
 accidentally burnt in the time of Julius Ccesar. 
 By these means, Egypt for a while enjoyed, un- 
 der the government of Gallus, a prosperity and 
 happiness to which she had long been a stranger 
 during the sway of the Ptolemies. But the ter- 
 mination of the rule of this first prefect of Egypt 
 did not correspond to its auspicious commence- 
 ment. Elated with power, he soon forgot the 
 respect that was due to his benefactor. He as- 
 cribed every thing to his own merit — erecting 
 statues to hiinself throughout all Egypt, and 
 engraving a record of his exploits on the pyra- 
 mids. In unguarded hours, and when under 
 the influence of the double intoxication of pros- 
 perity and wine, he applied to his master the 
 most opprobrious and insulting expressions. In- 
 discretion and vanity were quickly followed by 
 acts of misgovernment and rapine. He plun- 
 dered the ancient city of Thebes, and stripped 
 itof its principal ornaments ; and he is even said, 
 though on no very certain authority, to have 
 filled up the measure of his offences by conspir- 
 ing against the life of the emperor. In conse- 
 quence of his misconduct, and of those unguard- 
 ed expressions, which were probably conveyed 
 to his master, with exaggeration, by some false 
 friend or enemy, he was recalled, in the fifth 
 year of his government ; and immediately after 
 his return to Rome, one of his most intimate 
 friends, called Largus, stood forth as his accuser. 
 Augustus, in the meanwhile, forbade him his 
 presence; and the charges, which now multi- 
 plied from every quarter, were brought before 
 the senate. Though Gallus had many friends 
 among the poets, he had few among the senators. 
 No one could refuse verses to Gallus ; but a fair 
 . hearing was probably denied him. He was sen- 
 tenced to perpetual exile, and his whole proper- 
 ty was confiscated. Unable to endure the hu- 
 miliation, which presented such a contrast to his 
 former brilliant fortune, he terminated his exist- 
 ence by a voluntary death. This sad conclu- 
 sion to his once prosperous career took place in 
 727, when he was in the 43d year of his age. 
 The guilt or the misfortunes of Gallus as a 
 statesman, have been long since forgotten, and 
 he is now remembered only as a distinguished 
 patron of learning, and as an elegant poet. Gal- 
 lus was the friend of Pollio and Msecenas, and 
 ■rivalled them, through life, as an eminent pro- 
 moter of the interests of literature. He pro- 
 tected Parthenius Nicenus, a Greek author, 
 who had been brought to Rome during the 
 Milhridatic war, and who inscribed to him his 
 collection of amorous mythological stories, en- 
 titled, Jlepi ipwTiKOiv Tra^rj/iarcoj', declaring in his 
 dedication, that he addressed the work to Gal- 
 lus, as likely to furnish incidents which might 
 be employecl by him in the poems he was then 
 writing. But Gallus is best known to posterity 
 as the patron of Virgil, whom he introduced to 
 
 the notice of Ma&cenas, and was also instru- 
 mental in obtaining for him restitution of his 
 farm, after the partition of the lands among the 
 soldiery. In gratitude for these and other fa- 
 vours conferred on him, the Mantuan bard has 
 introduced an elegant compliment to Gallus in 
 the sixth eclogue ; and has devoted the tenth to 
 the celebration of his passion for Lycoris. The 
 elegies of Gallus consisted of four books, but 
 they have now all perished; they were held, 
 however, in high estimation so long as they 
 survived. Ovid speaks of Tibullus as the suc- 
 cessor of Gallus, and as his companion in the 
 Elysian fields ; and he oftener than once al- 
 ludes to the extensive celebrity which his verses 
 had procured for himself as well as his mistress. 
 Gluintilian ranks him as an elegiac poet with 
 Tibullus and Propertius, though he thinks his 
 style was somewhat harsher than that of either. 
 Besides the four books of elegies, Gallus trans- 
 lated or imitated from the Greek of Euphro- 
 nion, a poem on the Grynean Grove, written in 
 the manner of Hesiod. Though scarcely a 
 vestige of the writings of Gallus remains, his 
 name is still celebrated. ' The praises,' says 
 Berwick, ' bestowed on him by his contempo- 
 raries, particularly Virgil, have survived, and 
 made posterity, at the distance of near two 
 thousand years, anxious to hear his story. In 
 vain did Augustus endeavour to suppress his 
 fame — in vain did imperial resentment strive 
 to obstruct his reputation. His name as a poet 
 still lives, though his works, which gave ce- 
 lebrity to that name, have totally perished.' 
 He was passionately fond of the slave Lycoris 
 or Cytheris, and celebrated her beauty in his 
 poetry. Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Virs;. Eel. 6 and 
 
 10.— Ovid. Amat. 3, el. 15, v. 29. IV. Vi- 
 
 bius Gallus, a celebrated orator of Gaul, in 
 the age of Augustus, of whose orations Seneca 
 has preserved some fragments. V. A Ro- 
 man who assassinated Decius, the emperor, and 
 raised himself to the throne. He showed him- 
 self indolent and cruel, and beheld with the 
 greatest indifference the revolt of his provinces 
 and the invasion of his empire by the barba- 
 rians. He was at last assassinated by his sol- 
 diers, A. D. 253.— VI. Flavins Claudius Con- 
 stantinus, abrother of the emperor Julian, raised 
 to the imperial throne, under the title of Caesar, 
 by Constantius, his relation. He conspired 
 against his benefactor, and was publicly con- 
 demned to be beheaded, A. D. 354. 
 
 Gellius, Aulus, a Roman grammarian in 
 the age of M. Antoninus, about'130 A. D. He 
 published a work which he called Nodes Atticce, 
 because he composed it at Athens during the 
 long nights of the winter. It is a collection of 
 incongruous matter, which contains many frag- 
 ments from the ancient writers, and often serves 
 to explain antique monuments. It was origi- 
 nally composed forthe improvement of his chil- 
 dren, and abounds with many grammatical re- 
 marks. The best editions of A, Gellius are, 
 that of Gronovius, 4to. L. Bat. 1706, and that of 
 Conrad, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1762. 
 
 Greminiijs, an inveterate enemy of Marius. 
 He seized the person of Marius, and carried 
 him to Minturnae. Plut in Mario. 
 
 Genseric, a famous Vandal prince, who 
 passed from Spain to Africa, where he took 
 Carthage. He laid the foundation of the Vaih 
 451 
 
GI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 GL 
 
 dal kingdom in Africa, and in the course of his 
 military expeditions, invaded Italy, and sacked 
 Rome in July 455. 
 
 Gentius, a king of lUyricum, who imprisoned 
 the Roman ambassador at the request of Per- 
 seus, king of Macedonia. This offence was 
 highly resented by the Romans, and Gentius 
 was conquered by Anicius, and led in triumph 
 with his family, B. C. 169. Liv. 43, c. 19, &c. 
 
 GEORGiC-i. Vid. Virgilius. 
 
 Germanicus C;esar, a son of Dfusus and 
 Antonia, the niece of Augustus. He was adopt- 
 ed by his uncle Tiberius, and raised to the 
 most important offices of the state. When his 
 grandfather Augustus died, he was employed 
 in a war in Germany, defeated the celebrated 
 Arminius, and was revi/arded with a triumph 
 at his return to Rome. Tiberius declared him 
 emperor of the east, and sent him to appease 
 the seditions of the Armenians. But the suc- 
 cess of Germanicus in the east was soon looked 
 upon with an envious eye by Tiberius, and his 
 death was meditated. He was secretly poison- 
 ed at DaphnCj near Antioch, by Piso, A. D. 19, 
 in the thirty-fourth year of his age. The news 
 of his death was received with the greatest 
 grief and the most bitter lamentations, and Ti- 
 berius seemed to be the only one who rejoiced 
 in the fall of Germanicus. He had married 
 Agrippina, by whom he had nine children, one 
 of whom, Caligulaj disgraced the name of his 
 illustrious father. In the midst of war he de- 
 voted some moments to study, and he favourr 
 ed the world with two Greek comedies, some 
 epigrams, and a translation of Aratus in Latin 
 
 verse. Suelon. This narne w^as common, in 
 
 the age of the emperors, not only to those who 
 had obtained victories over the Germans, but 
 even to those who had entered the borders of 
 their country at the head of an army. Domitian 
 applied the name of Germanicus, which he him- 
 self had vainly assumed, to the month of Sep- 
 tember in honour of hiinself. S^ieL in Dom. 
 l"^.— Martial. 9, ep. 2, v. 4. 
 
 Geta, I. a man who raised seditions at Rome 
 in Nero's rei^n, &c. Taeit. Hist. 2, c. 72 
 
 II. Septimius, a son of the emperor Severus, 
 brother to Caracalla. After his father's death 
 he reigned at Rome conjointly with his brother ; 
 but Caracalla, who envied his virtues, and was 
 jealous of his popularity, murdered him in the 
 arms of his mother Julia, who, in the attempt of 
 defending the fatal blows from his body, receiv- 
 ed a wound in her arm from the hand of her 
 son, the 28th of March, A. D. 212. Geta had 
 not reached the 23d year of his age, and the 
 Romans had reason to lament the death of so 
 virtuous a prince, while they groaned under the 
 cruelties and oppression of Caracalla. 
 
 Gisco, son of Hamilcon, the Carthaginian 
 general, was banished from his country by the 
 influence of his enemies. He was afterwards 
 recalled, and empowered by the Carthaginians 
 to punish, in what manner he pleased, those 
 who had occasioned his banishment. He was 
 satisfied to see them prostrate on the ground, 
 and to place his foot on theii' neck, showing 
 that independence and forgiveness are two of 
 the most brilliant virtues of a great mind. He 
 was made a general soon after in Sicily, against 
 the Corinthians, about 309 years before the 
 Christian era; and by his success and intrepi- 
 452 
 
 dity he obliged the enemies of his country to 
 sue for peace. 
 
 Gladiatorii Ludi, combats originally exhib- 
 ited on the grave of deceased persons at Rome. 
 They were first introduced at Rome by the 
 Bruti, upon the death of their father, A. U. C. 
 488. It was supposed that the ghosts of the 
 dead were rendered propitious by human blood ; 
 therefore, at funerals, it was usual to murder 
 slaves in cool blood. In succeeding ages it 
 was reckoned less cruel to oblige them to kill 
 one another like men, than to slaughter them 
 like brutes ; therefore the barbarity was covered 
 by the specious show of pleasure and voluntary 
 combat. Originally captives, criminals, or dis- 
 obedient slaves, were trained up for combat; 
 but when the diversion became more frequent, 
 and was exhibited on the smallest occasion, to 
 procure esteem and popularity many of the 
 Roman citizens enlisted themselves among the 
 gladiators, and Nero at one show exhibited no 
 less than 400 senators and 600 knights. The 
 people were treated with these combats not only 
 by the great and opulent, but the very priests 
 had their Ludi 'pcmlijicoles and Ludi sacer do- 
 tales. It is supposed that there were no more 
 than three pair of gladiators exhibited by the 
 Bruti. Their numbers, however, increased 
 with the luxury and power of the city ; and the 
 gladiators became so formidable, that Spartacus, 
 one of their body, had courage to take up arms, 
 and the success to defeat the Roman armies, 
 only with a train of his fellow-sufferers. When 
 they were first brought upon the arena, they 
 walked round the place with great pomp and 
 solemnity, and after that they were matched in 
 equal pairs with great nicety. They first had a 
 skirmish with wooden files, called rudes or ar~ 
 ma lusoria. After this the effective weapons, 
 such as swords, daggers, &c. called arma decre- 
 toria, were given them, and the signal for the 
 engagement was given by the sound of a trum- 
 pet. As they had all previously sworn to fight 
 till death, or suffer death in the most excruciat- 
 ing torments, the fight was bloody and obsti- 
 nate ; and when one signified his submission by 
 surrendering his arms, the victor was not per- 
 mitted to grant him his life without the leav 
 and approbation of the multitude. This was 
 done by clenching the fingers of both hands be- 
 tween each other, and holding the thumbs up- 
 right close together, or bending back their 
 thumbs. The first of these was called pollicem 
 premere, and signified the Avish of the people to 
 spare the life of the conquered. The other sign, 
 cdWe^pollicem vertere, signified their disappro- 
 bation, and ordered the victor to put his antago- 
 nist to death. The combats of gladiators were 
 sometimes different, either in weapons or dress; 
 whence they were generally distinguished. The 
 sec7i?orgs were armed with a sword and buckler, 
 to keep off the net of ibeir antagonists, the rc- 
 tiarii. The threccs, originally Thracians, were 
 armed with a falchion and small round shield. 
 The mijrmillones, called also galli, from their 
 Gallic (Iress, were much the same as the secii- 
 tores. They were, like them, armed with a 
 sword, and on the top of their headpiece they 
 wore the figure of a fish, embossed, called 
 fiopjwpoi, whence their name. The hoplomachi, 
 were completely armed from head to foot, as 
 their name implies. The samnites, armed after. 
 
GO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 GR 
 
 the manner of the Samniies, wore a large shield, 
 broad at the top, and growing more narrovv'' at 
 the bottom, more conveniently to defend the 
 upper parts of the body. The essedarh, gene- 
 rally fought from the essedwn, or chariot used 
 by the ancient Gauls and Britons. The anda- 
 battz avaParai, fought on horseback, with a hel- 
 met that covered and defended their faces and 
 eyes. Hence, andabatarw/n more pugnare, is 
 to fight blindfolded. The meridiani, engaged 
 in the afternoon. The poUulatitii, were men 
 of great skill and experience, and such as were 
 generally produced by the emperors. The^s- 
 cales, were maintained out of the emperor's 
 treasury, fiscus. The dimachceri fought with 
 two swords in their hands, whence their name. 
 After these cruel exhibitions had been continued 
 for the amusement of the Roman populace, 
 they were abolished by Constantine the Great, 
 near 600 years after their first institution. They 
 were, however, revived under the reign of Con- 
 stantius and his two successors, but Honorius 
 for ever put an end to these cruel barbarities. 
 
 Glaucus, I. a physician, crucified because 
 Hephaestion died while under his care. Plut. 
 
 in Alex. II. A son of Hippolytus, whose 
 
 descendants reigned in Ionia. 
 
 Gebar, a governor of Mesopotamia, who 
 checked" the course of the Euphrates that it 
 might not run rapidly through Babylon. Plin. 
 6, c, 26. 
 
 GoBRYAS, a Persian, one of the seven noble- 
 men who conspired against the usurper Smer- 
 dis. Vid. Darius. Herodot. 3, c. 70. 
 
 GoRDiANus, M. Antonius Africanus, I. a son 
 of Metius Marcellus, descended from Trajan by 
 his mother's side. He applied himself to the 
 study of poetry, and composed a poem in thirty 
 books, upon the virtues of Titus Antoninus and 
 M. Aurelius. After he had attained his 80th 
 year in the greatest splendour and domestic 
 tranquillity, he was roused from his peaceful 
 occupations by the tyrannical reign of the 
 Maximini, and he was proclaimed emperor by 
 the rebellious troops of his province. He long 
 declined to accept the imperial purple, but the 
 threats of immediate death gained his compli- 
 ance. Maximinus marched against him with 
 the greatest indignation; and Gordian sent his 
 son, with whom he shared the imperial dignity, 
 to oppose the enemy. Young Gordian was 
 killed, and the father, worn out with age, and 
 grown desperate on account of his misfor- 
 tunes, strangled himself at Carthage before he 
 had been six weeks at the head of the em- 
 pire, A. D. 236. He was universally lamented 
 
 by the army and people. II. M. Antoninus 
 
 Africanus, son of Gordianus, was instructed by 
 Serenus Samnoticus, who left him his library, 
 which consisted of 62.000 volumes. He passed 
 into Africa, in the character of lieutenant to his 
 father, who had obtained that province, and 
 seven years after he was elected emperor in 
 conjunction with him. He marched against the 
 partisans of Maximinus, his antagonist, in Mau- 
 retania, and was killed in a bloody battle on the 
 25th of June A. D. 236, after a reign of about 
 six weeks. He was of an amiable disposition, 
 but he has been justly blamed by his biographers 
 on account of his lascivious propensities, which 
 reduced him to the weakness and infirmities of 
 old age, though he was but in his 46th year at 
 
 the time of his death. 
 
 -III. M. Antoninus 
 
 Pius, grandson of the first Gordian, was but 12 
 years old when he was honoured with the title 
 of CaBsar. He was proclaimed emperor in the 
 16th year of his age, and his election was at- 
 tended with universal marks of approbation. 
 In the 18th year of his age he married Furia 
 Sabina Tranquilina, daughter of Misitheus, a 
 man celebrated for his eloquence and public 
 ^virtues. He conquered Sapor, and look many 
 flourishing cities in the east from his adversary. 
 In this success the senate decreed him a tri- 
 umph, and saluted Misitheus as the guardian 
 of the republic. Gordian was assassinated in 
 the east, A. D. 244, by the means of Philip, 
 who had succeeded to the virtuous Misitheus, 
 and who usurped the sovereign power by mur- 
 dering a warlike and amiable prince. The se- 
 nate, sensible of his merit, ordered that the de- 
 scendants of the Gordians should ever be free 
 at Rome from all the heavy taxes and burdens 
 of the state. During the reign of Gordianus, 
 there was an uncommon eclipse of the sun, in 
 which the stars appeared in the middle of the 
 day. 
 
 GoRDius, I. a Phrygian, who, though origi- 
 nally a peasant, was raised to the throne. Dur- 
 ing a sedition, the Phrygians consulted the ora- 
 cle, and were told that all their troubles would 
 cease as soon as they chose for their king the 
 first man ihey met going to the temple of Jupi- 
 ter mounted on a chariot. Gordius was the ob- 
 ject of their choice, and he immediately conse- 
 crated his chariot in the temple of Jupiter. The 
 knot which tied the yoke to the draught tree 
 was made in such an artful mariner that the ends 
 of the cord could not be perceived. From this 
 circumstance a report was soon spread that the 
 empire of Asia was promised by the oracle to 
 him that could untie the Gordian knot. Alex- 
 ander, in his conquest of Asia, passed by Gor- 
 dium ; and, as he wished to leave nothing un- 
 done which might inspire his soldiers with cou- 
 rage, and make his enemies believe that he was 
 born to conquer Asia, he cut the knot with his 
 sword; and from that circumstance asserted 
 that the oracle was really fulfilled, and that his 
 claims to universal empire were fully justified. 
 
 Justin. 11, c. 7. — Curt. 3, c. 1. — Arrian. 1. 
 
 II. A tyrant of Corinth. Aristot.. 
 
 GoRGiAS, a celebrated sophist and orator, son 
 of Carmantides, surnamed Leontinus, because 
 born at Leontium in Sicily. He was sent by 
 his countrymen to solicit the assistance of the 
 Athenians against the Syracusans, and was 
 successful in his embassy. He lived to his 108th 
 year, and died B. C. 400. Only two fragments 
 of his compositions are extant. Paus. 6, c. 17. 
 — Cic. in Orcht. 22. &c. — Senect. 15, in Brut. 
 Ib.— Quintil. 3 and' 12. 
 
 GoRGus, the son of Aristomenes (he Messe- 
 nian. He was married, when young, to a vir- 
 gin, by his father, who had experienced the 
 greatest kindness from her humanity, and had 
 been enabled to conquer seven Cretans who had 
 attempted his life, &c. Paus. 4, c. 19. 
 
 Gracchus, (T. Sempronius,) I. father of Ti- 
 berius and Caius Gracchus, twice consul and 
 once censor, was distinguished by his integrity, 
 as well as his prudence and superior ability ei- 
 ther in the senate or at the head of the armies. 
 He made war in Gaul, and met with much sue 
 453 
 
GR 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 GY 
 
 cess in Spain, He married Sempronia, of the 
 family of the Scipios, a woman of great virtue, 
 piety, and learning. Cic. de Oral. 1, c. 48. 
 Their children, Tiberius and Caius, who had 
 been educated under the watchful eye of their 
 mother, rendered themselves famous for their 
 eloquence, seditions, and an obstinate attach- 
 ment to the interests of the populace, which at 
 last proved fatal to them. With a winning elo- 
 quence, affected moderation, and uncommon 
 popularity, Tiberius began to renew the Agra- 
 rian law, which had already caused such dissen- 
 tions at Rome. ( Vid. Agraria.) By the means 
 of violence, his proposition passed into a law, 
 and he was appointed commissioner, with his 
 father-in-law Appius Claudius, and his brother 
 Caius, to make an equal division of the lands 
 among the people. The riches of Attains, 
 which were left to the Roman people by will, 
 were distributed without opposition ; and Tibe- 
 rius enjoyed the triumph of his successful en- 
 terprise, when he was assassinated in the midst 
 of his adherents by P. Nasica, while the popu- 
 lace were all unanimous to re-elect him to serve 
 the office of tribune the following year. The 
 death of Tiberius checked for a while the friends 
 of the people ; but Caius, spurred by ambition 
 and furious zeal, attempted to remove every ob- 
 stacle which stood in his way by force and vio- 
 lence. He supported the cause of the people 
 with more vehemence than Tiberius ; and his 
 success served only to awaken his ambition, and 
 animate his resentment against the nobles. 
 With the privileges of atribune, he soon became 
 the arbiter of the republic, and treated the pa- 
 tricians with contempt. This behaviour hasten- 
 ed the ruin of Caius, and in the tumult he fled 
 to the temple of Diana, where his friends pre- 
 vented him from committing suicide. This 
 increased the sedition, and he was murdered by 
 order of the consul Opimius, B. C. 121, about 
 13 years after the unfortunate end of Tiberius. 
 His body was thrown into the Tiber, and his 
 wife forbidden to put on mourning for his death. 
 Caius has been accused of having stained his 
 hands in the blood of Scipio Africanus the 
 younger, who was found murdered in his bed. 
 Plut. m vita. — Cic. in Cat. 1, — Lucan. 6, v. 
 
 796.— Mor, 2, c. 17, 1. 3, c. 14, &c. II. 
 
 Sempronius, a Roman, banished to the coast of 
 Africa for his adulteries with Julia, the daugh- 
 ter of Augustus. He was assassinated by or- 
 der of Tiberius, after he had been banished 14 
 years, Julia also shared his fate. Tacit. Ann. 
 i, c, 53. ^- ■ 
 
 Granius Petronius, I. an officer who, being 
 taken by Pompey's general, refused the life 
 which was tendered to him ; observing that Cge- 
 sar's soldiers received not but granted life. He 
 
 killed himself Plut. in Ccbs. II. A son of 
 
 the wife of Marius by a former husband.- 
 
 III. Gluintus, a man intimate with Crassus and 
 other illustrious men of Rome, whose vices he 
 lashed with an unsparing hand, Cic. Brut. 43 
 and 46. Orat. 2, c. 60, 
 
 Gratianus, I. a native of Pannonia, father 
 to the emperor Valentinian 1st. He was raised 
 to the throne, though only eight years old ; and 
 after he had reigned for some time conjointly 
 with his father, he became sole emperor in the 
 16th year of his age. He soon after took, as 
 his imperial colleague, Theodosius, whom he 
 454 
 
 appointed over the eastern parts of the empire. 
 His courage in the field is as remarkable as his 
 love of learning and fondness for philosophy. 
 He slaughtered 30,000 Germans in a battle, and 
 supported the tottering state by his prudence 
 and intrepidity. His enmity to the Pagan su- 
 perstition of his subjects proved his ruin ; and 
 Maximinus, who undertook the defence of the 
 worship of Jupiter and of all the gods, wasjoin- 
 ed by an infinite number of discontented Ro- 
 mans, and met Gratian near Paris in Gaul. 
 Gratian was forsaken by his troops in the field 
 of battle, and was murdered by the rebels, A. D. 
 383, in the 24th year of his age. II. a Ro- 
 man soldier, invested with the imperial purple 
 by the rebellious army in Britain, in opposition 
 to Honorms. He was assassinated four months 
 after by those very troops to whom he owed his 
 elevation, A. D. 407. 
 
 Gratius Faliscus, a Latin poet, contempo- 
 rary with Ovid, and mentioned only by him 
 among the more ancient authors. He wrote a 
 poem on coursing, called Cynegeticon^ rnwch. 
 commended for its elegance and perspicuity. 
 It may be compared to the Georgics of Virgil, 
 to which it is nearly equal in the number of 
 verses. The latest edition is that of Arast. 4lo. 
 1728, Ovid. Pont. 4, el. 16, v. 34, 
 
 Gregorius, (Theod. Thaumaturgus,) I. a dis- 
 ciple of Origen, afterwards bishop of Neocaesa- 
 rea, the place of his birth. He died A. D. 266, 
 and it is said that he left only seventeen idola- 
 ters in his diocess, where he had found only 
 seventeen Christians, Of his works are extant 
 his gratulatory oration to Origen, a canonical 
 epistle, and other treatises in Greek ; the best 
 
 edition of which is that of Paris, fol. 1622. 
 
 II. Nanzianzen, surnamed the Divine^ was 
 bishop of Constantinople, which he resigned on 
 its being disputed. His writings rival those of 
 the most celebrated orators of Greece, in elo- 
 quence, sublimity, and variety. His sermons 
 are more for philosophers than common hear- 
 ers, but replete with seriousness and devotion. 
 Erasmus said that he was afraid to translate 
 his works, from the apprehension of not trans- 
 fusing into another language the smartness ana 
 acumen of his style, and the stateliness and 
 happy diction of the whole. He died A, D. 
 389. The best edition is that of the Benedic- 
 tines, the first volume of which, in fol, was pub- 
 lished at Paris, 1778. III. A bishop of Nyssa, 
 
 author of the Nicene creed. His style is repre- 
 sented as allegorical and afiected ; and he has 
 been accused of mixing philosophy too much 
 with theology. His writings consist of com- 
 mentaries on Scripture, moral discourses, ser- 
 mons on mysteries, dogmatical treatises, pane- 
 gyrics on saints ; the best edition of which is 
 that of Morel], 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1615. The 
 bishop died A. D, 396. IV. Another Chris- 
 tian writer, whose works were edited by the 
 Benedictines, in four vols. fol. Paris, 1705. 
 
 Gryllus, a son of Xenophon, who killed 
 Epaminondas, and was himself slain at the bat- 
 tle of Mantinea, B, C, 363. Vid. Xenophon. 
 
 Gyges, or Gyes, a Lydian, to whom Can- 
 daules, king of the country, showed his wife 
 naked. The queen was so incensed at this 
 instance of imprudence and infirmity in her 
 husband, that she ordered Gyges either to pre- 
 pare for death himself or to murder Candaules. 
 
HA 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 HE 
 
 He chose the latter, and married the queen, and 
 ascended the vacant throne about "/IS years be- 
 fore the Christian era. He "was the first of the 
 Mermnadae who reigned in Lydia. He reigned 
 38 years, and distinguished himself by the im- 
 mense presents which he made to the oracle of 
 Delphi. Herodot, 1, c. 8. — Plat. dial. 10, de 
 rep. — Val. Max, 7, c. \.—Cic. Offic. 3, 9. 
 
 Gylippus, I. a Lacedaemonian, sent B. C. 
 414, by his countrymen to assist Syracuse 
 against the Athenians. He obtained a cele- 
 brated victory over Nicias and Demosthenes, 
 the enemy's generals, and obliged them to sur- 
 render. He accompanied Lysander in his 
 expedition against Athens, and was intrusted 
 by the conqueror with the money which had 
 been taken in the plunder, which amounted to 
 1500 talents. As he conveyed it to Sparta, he 
 had the meanness to unsew ihe bottom of the 
 bags which contained it, and secreted about 
 three hundred talents. His theft was discover- 
 ed ; and, to avoid the punishment which he 
 deserved, he fled from his country, and by this 
 act of meanness, tarnished the glory of his vic- 
 torious actions. Tibull. 4, el. 1, v. 199. — Pint. 
 
 in Nicia. II. An Arcadian in the Rutulian 
 
 war. Virg. ^n. 12, v. 272. 
 
 Gymnasium. Vid. Part. I. 
 
 Gymnosophist^, a certain sect of philoso- 
 phers in India, who, according to some, placed 
 their summurn bonum in pleasure, and their 
 summum malum in pain. They lived naked, 
 as iheir name implies, and for 37 years they 
 exposed themselves in the open air, to the heat 
 of the sun, the inclemency of the seasons, and 
 the coldness of the night. They were often 
 seen in the fields fixing their eyes full upon the 
 disk of the sun from the time of its rising till 
 the hour of its setting. Sometim.es they stood 
 whole days upon one foot in burning sand, with- 
 out moving or showing any concern for what 
 surrounded them. Alexander was astonished 
 at the sight of a sect of men who seemed to de- 
 spise bodily pain, and who inured themselves 
 to suffer the greatest tortures without uttering a 
 groan or expressing any marks of fear. The 
 conqueror condescended to visit them, and his 
 astonishment was increased when he saw one 
 of them ascend a burning pile with firmness 
 and unconcern, to avoid the infirmities of old 
 age, and stand upright on one leg and un- 
 moved, when the flames surrounded him on 
 every side. Vid. Calanus. The Brachmans 
 were a branch of the sect of the Gymnosophistse. 
 Vid. Brachma?j£s. — Strab. 15, &c. — Plin. 1, c. 
 2.—Cic. Tusc. b.—lALcan. 3, v. 240.— Curt. 8, 
 c. 9. — Dion. 
 
 H. 
 
 . HiBMON. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Halotus, a eunuch, who used to taste the 
 meat of Claudius. He poisoned the emperor's 
 food by order of Agrippina. Tacit. Ann. 2, 
 c. 66. 
 
 Hannibal. Vid. Annibal. 
 
 Hanno. Vid. Anno. 
 
 Harmodius, a friend of Aristogiton, who de- 
 livered his country from the tyranny of the Pi- 
 sistratidaB, B. C. 510. {Vid. Aristogiton.) The 
 Athenians, to reward the patriotism of these 
 illustrious citizens, made a law that no one 
 
 should ever bear the name of Aristogiton and 
 Harmodius. Herodot. 5, c. 35. — Plin. 34, c. 8. 
 — Scnec. Ir. 2. 
 
 Harpagus, a general of Cyrus. He con- 
 quered Asia Minor after he had revolted from 
 Astyages, who had cruelly forced him to eat 
 the flesh of his son, because he had disobeyed 
 his orders in not putting to death the infant Cy- 
 rus. Herodot. 1, c. 108. — Justin. 1, c. 5 and 6. 
 . Harpalus, a man intrusted with the trea- 
 sures of Babylon by Alexander. His hopes 
 that Alexander would perish in his expedition, 
 rendered him dissipated, negligent, and vicious. 
 When he heard that the conqueror was return- 
 ing with great resentment, he fled to Athens, 
 where, with his money, he corrupted the ora- 
 tors, among whom was Demosthenes. When 
 brought to justice, he escaped with impunity to 
 Crete, where he was at last assassinated by 
 Thimbro, B , C . 325. Plut. in Phoc.—Diod.- 17. 
 
 Harpalyce, I. the daughter of Harpalycus, 
 king of Thrace. When her father's kingdom 
 was invaded by Neoptolemus, the son of Achil- 
 les, she repelled and defeated the enemy with 
 manly courage. The death of her father, which 
 happened soon after in a sedition, rendered her 
 disconsolate ; she fled the society of mankind, 
 and lived in the forests upon plunder and ra- 
 pine. After her death the people of the country 
 disputed their respective right to the posses- 
 sions she had acquired by rapine, and they soon 
 after appeased her manes by proper oblations 
 on her tomb. Virg. jEn. 1, v. 321. — Hygin. 
 fab. 193 and 252. 
 
 Harpocration, I. a Platonic philosopher of 
 Argos, from whom Stobaeus compiled his ec- 
 logues. II. A sophist, called also ^lins. 
 
 III. Valerius, a rhetorician of Alexandria, au- 
 thor of a Lexicon on ten orators. 
 
 Haruspex, a soothsayer at Rome, who drew 
 omens by consulting the entiails of beasts that 
 were sacrificed. He received the name of 
 Aruspex, ah aris aspiciendis, and that of Ex- 
 tispex, ah extis inspiciendis. The order of Arus- 
 piceswas first established at Rome by Romulus, 
 and the first Aruspices were Tuscans by origin, 
 as they were particularly famous in that branch 
 of divination. {Vid.Tages.) They were ori- 
 ginally three, but the Roman senate yearly sent 
 six noble youths, or, according to others, twelve, 
 to Etruria, to be instructed in all the mysteries 
 of the art. The office of the Haruspices con- 
 sisted in observing these four particulars ; the 
 beast before it was sacrificed ; its entrails; the 
 flames which consumed the sacrifice ; and the 
 flour, frankincense, &c. which was used. This 
 custom of consulting the entrails of victims did 
 not originate in Tuscany, but it was in use 
 among the Chaldeans, Greeks, Egyptians, &c. 
 and the more enlightened part ofmankind well 
 knew how to render it subservient to their 
 wishes or tyranny. Agesilaus, when in Eg}^pt, 
 raised the drooping spirits of his soldiers by a 
 superstitious artifice. He secretly wrote in his 
 hand the word viKn, victory^ in large characters, 
 and holding the entrails of a victim in his hand 
 till the impression was communicated to the 
 flesh, he showed it to the soldiers, and animated 
 them by observing, that the gods signified their 
 approaching victories even by marking it in the 
 bodv of the sacrificed animals. Cic. de Div. 
 
 Hecat^us, an historian of Miletus, born 549 
 455 
 
HE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HE 
 
 years before Christ, m the reign of Darius Hys- 
 taspes. Hero dot. 2, c. 143, 
 
 Hecatesia, a yearly festival observed by the 
 Stratonicensians in honour of Hecate. The 
 Athenians paid also particular worship to this 
 goddess, who was deemed the patroness of fam- 
 ilies and of children. From this circumstance 
 the statues of the goddess were erected before 
 the doors of the houses, and upon every new 
 moon a public supper, was always provided at 
 the expense of the richest people, and set in the 
 streets, where the poorest of the citizens were 
 permitted to retire and feast upon it while they 
 reported that Hecate had devoured it. 
 
 Hecatomboia, a festival celebrated in honour 
 of Juno, by the Argians and people of ^gina. 
 It receives its name from sKarov, & Povg, a sac- 
 rifice of a hundred bulls, which were always 
 offered to the goddess, and the flesh distributed 
 among the poorest citizens. 
 
 HECAroMPHONiA, a solemu sacrifice offered 
 by ihe Messenians to Jupiter, when any of them 
 had killed an hundred enemies^ Paus. 4, c. 19. 
 
 Hector, son of king Priam and Hecuba, was 
 the most valiant of all the Trojan chiefs that 
 fought against the Greeks. He married An- 
 dromache, the daughter of Eetion, by whom he 
 had Astyanax. He was appointed captain of 
 all the Trojan forces when Troy was besieged 
 by the Greeks ; and the valour with which he 
 behaved showed how well qualified he was to 
 discharge that important office. He engaged 
 with the bravest of the Greeks, and according 
 to Hyginus, no less than 31 of the most valiant 
 of the enemy perished by his hand. "When 
 Achilles had driven back the Trojans towards 
 the city. Hector, too great to fly, waited the ap- 
 proach of his enemj'- near the Scean gaies, 
 though his father and mother, with tears in their 
 eyes, blamed their rashness, and entreated him to 
 retire. The sight of Achilles terrified him, and 
 he fled before him in the plain. The Greek 
 pursued, and Hector was killed, and his body 
 was dragged in cruel triumph by the conqueror 
 round the tomb of Patroclus, whom Hector had 
 killed. The body, after receiving the grossest 
 insults, was ransomed by old Priam, and the 
 Trojans obtained from the Greeks a truce of 
 some days to pay the last offices to the greatest 
 of their leaders. The Thebans boasted in the 
 age of the geographer Pausanias that they had 
 the ashes of Hector preserved in an urn, by or- 
 der of an oracle; which promised them undis- 
 turbed felicity if they were in possession of that 
 hero's remains. The epithet of Ilectoreits is 
 applied by the poets to the Trojans, as best ex- 
 pressive of valour and intrepidity. Homer. II. 
 1, &c.— Vio-g. Mn. 1, &c.— Ovid. Met. 12 and 
 13. — Dicti/s Cret. — Dares Phryg. — Hygin. fab. 
 90 and U2.—Paus. 1, 3, and 9, c. 18.— Quintil. 
 Smyrn. 1 and 3. 
 
 Hecuba, a daughter of Dymas, a Phrji-gian 
 prince, or, according to others, of Cisseis, a 
 Thracian king, was the second wife of Priam, 
 king of Troy, and proved the chastest of wo- 
 men, and the most tender and unfortunate of 
 mothers. During the Trojan war she saw the 
 greatest part of her children perish by the hands 
 of the enemy, and, like a mother, she confessed 
 her grief by her tears and lamentations, particu- 
 larly at the death of Hector, her eldest son. 
 When Troy was taken, Hecuba, as one of the 
 456 
 
 captives, fell to the lot of Ulysses, and embarked 
 with the conquerors for. Greece. After this she 
 threw herself into the sea, according to Hygi- 
 nus, and the place w^as, from that circumstance, 
 called Cyneum. Hecuba had a great number of 
 children by Priam, among whom were Hector, 
 Paris, Deiphobus, Pammon, Helenus, Polytes, 
 Antiphon, Hipponous, Polydorus, Troilus ; and 
 among the daughters, Creusa, Ilione, Laodice, 
 Polyxena, and Cassandra. Ovid. Met. 11, v. 
 761, 1. 13, V. blb.—Hygm. fab. III.— Virg. 
 JEn. 3, V, U.—Jtw. 10, V. 2ll.—Strab. 13,- 
 Dictys Cret. 4 and 5. — Apollod. 3, c. 12. 
 
 Hegelochus, a general of 6000 Athenians 
 sent to Mantinea to stop the progress of Epami- 
 nondas. Diod. 15. 
 
 Heqemon, I. a Thracian poet in the age of 
 Alcibiades. He wrote a poem called Giganto- 
 raachia, besides other works, jElian. V. H. 4, 
 
 c. 11. II. Another poet, who wrote a poem 
 
 on the war of Leuctra, &c. JElian. V. H. 8, c. 
 11. 
 
 Hegesius, I. a philosopher, who so eloquently 
 convinced his auditors of their failings and fol- 
 lies, and persuaded them that there were no 
 dangers after death, that many were guilty of 
 suicide. Ptolemy forbade him to continue his 
 
 doctrines.. Cic. Tusc. 1, c. 34. II. A famous 
 
 orator of Magnesia, who corrupted the elegant 
 diction of Attica, by the introduction of Asiatic 
 idioms. Cic. Orat. 67, 69. Brut. 83, — Strab. 
 9. — Plut. in Alex. 
 
 Hegesilochtis, I. one of the chief magis- 
 trates of Rhodes in the reign of Alexander and 
 
 his father Philip. 11. Another native of 
 
 Rhodes, 171 years before the Christian era. 
 He engaged his countrymen to prepare a fleet 
 of 40 ships to assist the Romans against Per- 
 seus, king of Macedonia. 
 
 Hegesipyle, a daughter of Olorus king of 
 Thrace, who married Miltiades and became 
 mother of Cimon. Phtt. 
 
 Hegetorides, a Thasian, who, upon seeing 
 his country besieged by the Athenians, and a 
 law forbidding any one on pain of death to speak 
 of peace, went to the market-place with a rope 
 about his neck, and boldly told his countrymen 
 to treat him as they pleased, provided they 
 saved the city from the calamities which the 
 continuation of the war seemed to threaten. 
 The Thasians were aM^akened, the law was 
 abrogated, and Hegetorides pardoned, &c. 
 Polyan. 2. 
 
 Helena, I. the most beautiful woman of her 
 age, sprung from one of the eggs which Leda, 
 the wife of king Tyndarus, brought forth after 
 her amour with Jupiter metamorphosed into a 
 swan. Vid. Leda. According to some au- 
 thors, Helen was daughter of Nemesis by Jupi- 
 ter, and Leda was only her nurse; and to re- 
 concile this variety of" opinions, some imagine 
 that Nemesis and Leda are the same persons. 
 Her beauty was so universally admired, even 
 in her infancy, that Theseus, with his friend Pi- 
 rithous, carried her away before she had attain- 
 ed her tenth year, and concealed her at Aphid- 
 nse, under the care of his mother iEthra. Her 
 brothers Castor and Pollux, recovered her by 
 force of arms, and she returned safe and unpol- 
 luted to Sparta, her native country. The most 
 celebrated of her suiters were Ulysses son of 
 Laertes, Antilochus, son of Nestor, Sthenelus 
 
HE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HE 
 
 son of Capaueus, Diomedes son of T3'deus, 
 Philoctetes son of Pisan, Protesilaus son of 
 Iphiclus, Eurj'-pilus son of Everaon, Ajax and 
 Teucer sons "of Telamon, Pairoclus son of 
 Mnoelius, Menelaus son of Atreus, Thoas. Ido- 
 meneus, and Merion, Tyndarus was rather 
 alarmed than pleased at the sight of sut:h a num- 
 ber of illustrious princes, who eagerly solicited 
 each to become his son-in-law. Ulysses advised 
 the king tc» bind, by a solemn oath, all the suit- 
 ers, that they would approve of the uninfluen- 
 ced choice which Helen should make of one 
 among them ; and engage to unite together and 
 defend her person and character if ever any at- 
 tempts M^ere made to ravish her from the arms 
 of her husband. The advice of Ulysses was 
 followed, the princes consented, and Helen fixed 
 her choice upon Menelaus, and married him. 
 Hermione was the early fruit of this union, 
 which continued for three years with mutual 
 happiness. After this, Paris, son of Priam 
 king of Troy, came to Lacedasmon on pretence 
 of sacrificing to Apollo. Pie was kindly receiv- 
 ed by Menelaus, but shamefully abused his fa- 
 vours,; and in his absence in Crete he corrupted 
 the fidelity of his wife Helen, and persuaded her 
 to follow him to Troy, B. C. 1198. The beha- 
 viour of Helen, during the Trojan war, is not 
 clearly known. When Paris was killed, in the 
 ninth year of the war, she married Deiphobus, 
 one of Priam's sons; and when Troy was taken, 
 she made no scruple to betray him, and to intro- 
 duce the Greeks into his chamber, to ingratiate 
 herself with Menelaus. She returned to Spar- 
 ta, and the love of Menelaus forgave the errors 
 which she had committed. After she had lived 
 for some years at Sparta, Menelaus died, and 
 she was driven from Peloponnesus by Maga- 
 penthes and Nicostratus, the illegitimate sons 
 of her husband; she retired to Rhodes, where 
 at that time Polyxo, a native of Argos, reigned 
 over the country. Polyxo remembered that 
 her widowhood originated in Helen, and that 
 her husband Tlepolemus had been killed in the 
 Trojan war, which had been caused by the de- 
 baucheries of Helen : therefore she meditated 
 revenge. While Helen one day retired to bathe 
 in the river, Polyxo disguised her attendants in 
 the habits of furies, and sent them v/ith orders 
 to murder her enemy. Helen was tied to a tree 
 and strangled, and her misfortunes were after- 
 wards remembered, and the crimes of Polyxo 
 expiated by the temple which the Rhodians 
 raised to Helen Dendritis, or tied to a tree. 
 There is a tradition mentioned by Herodotus, 
 which says that Paris was driven, as he returned 
 from Sparta, upon the coast of Egypt, where 
 Proteus, king of the country, expelled him from 
 his dominions for his ingratitude to Menelaus, 
 and confined Helen. From that circumstance, 
 therefore, Priam informed the Grecian ambassa- 
 dors that neither Helen nor her possessions were 
 in Troy, but in the hands of the king of Eg}'-pt. 
 In spite of this assertion, the Greeks besieged 
 the town, and took it after ten years siege ; and 
 Menelaus, by visiting Egypt as he returned 
 home, recovered Helen at the court of Proteus, 
 and was convinced that the Trojan war had 
 been undertaken on very unjust and unpardon- 
 able grounds. Helen was honoured after death 
 as a goddess, and the Spartans built her a tem- 
 ple at Therapne, which had power of giving 
 Part IL— 3 M 
 
 beauty to all the deformed women who entered 
 it. Helen, according to some, was carried into 
 the island of Leuce after death, where she mar- 
 ried Achilles, who had been one of her warmest 
 admirers. Pans. 3, c. 19, &c. — Apollod. 3, c. 
 10, &c. — Hygin. fab. 11.— Hero dot. '2,, c. 112. — 
 Pktt. in Thes. &c. — Cic. d.e Office. 3. — Horat. 
 3, od. 3. — Dictys Cret. 1, &c. — Quint. Smyrn. 
 10, 13, &c.— Homer. II. 2, and Od. 4 and 15. 
 II. A young woman of Sparta, often con- 
 founded with the daughter of Leda. As she 
 was going to be sacrificed because the lot had 
 fallen upon her, an eagle came and carried away 
 the knife of -the priest; upon which, she was 
 released, and the barbarous custom ot ofl^ering 
 human victims was abolished. III. A daugh- 
 ter of the emperor Constantine, who married 
 
 Julian. IV. The mother of Constantine. 
 
 She died in her 80th year, A. D. 328. 
 
 Helenus, a celebrated soothsayer, son of 
 Priam and Hecuba, greatly respected by all the 
 Trojans. When Deiphobus was given in mar- 
 riage to Helen, in preference to himself, he re- 
 solved to leave his country, and he retired to 
 mount Ida, where Ulysses took him prisoner by 
 the advice of Chalcas. As he was well ac- 
 quainted with futurity, the Greeks made use of 
 prayers, threats, and promises, to induce him to 
 reveal the secrets of the Trojans ; and either the 
 fear of death, or gratification of resentment, 
 seduced him to disclose, to the enemies of his 
 country that Troy couJd not be taken whilst it 
 was in possession of the Palladium, nor before 
 Philoctetes came from his retreat at Lemnos, 
 and assisted to support the siege. After the ruin 
 of his country, he fell to the share of Pyrrhus, 
 the son of Achilles, and saved his life by warn- 
 ing him to avoid a dangerous tempest, which in 
 reality proved fatal to all those who set sail. 
 This endeared him to Pyrrhus, and he received 
 from his hand Andromache, the widow of his 
 brother Hector, by whom he had a son called 
 Cestrinus. This marriage, according to some, 
 was consummated after the death of Pyrrhus, 
 who lived with Andromache as his wife. Hele- 
 nus was the only one of Priam's sons who sur- 
 vived the ruin of his country. After the death 
 of Pyrrhus, he reigned over part of Epirus, 
 which he called Chaonia, in memory of his 
 brother Chaon, whom he had inadvertently 
 killed. Helenus received ^neas as he voyaged 
 towards Italy, and foretold him some of the 
 calamities which attended his fleet. The manner 
 in which he received the gift of prophecy is 
 doubtful. Vid. Cassajidra. Homer. 11. 6, v. 76, 
 
 1. 7, V. Al.— Virg. Mn. 3, v. 295, &c.— P«W5. 1, 
 c. 11, 1. 2, c. ^Z.— Ovid. Met. 13, v. 99 and 723, 
 1. 15, V. 437. - 
 
 HELiASTiE, a name given to the judees of the 
 most numerous tribunal at Athens. They con- 
 sisted of 1,000, and sometimes of 1.500; they 
 were seldom assembled, and only upon matters 
 of the greatest importance. Demosth. contr. 
 Tim. — Diog. in Sol. 
 
 Hrltcaon, a Trojan prince, son of Antenor. 
 He married Laodice, the daughter of Priam, 
 whose form Iris assumed to inform Helen of the 
 state of the rival armies before Troy. Homer. 11. 
 
 2, v. 123. 
 
 Hruodorus, I. one of the favourites of Seleu- 
 cus Philopator, king of Syria. He attempted 
 to plunder the temple of the Jews, about 176 
 457 
 
HE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HE 
 
 years before Christ, by order of his master, &c. 
 -II. A Greek mathematician of Larissa.- 
 
 III. A famous sophist, the best editions of whose 
 entertaining romance, called jEthiopica, are 
 Commelin, 8vo. 1596, and Bourdelot, 8vo. Paris, 
 1619. 
 
 Heuogabalus, I. a deity among the Phceni- 
 
 cians. II. M. Aurelius Antoninus, a Roman 
 
 emperor, son of Varius Marcellus, called Helio- 
 gabalus, because he had been priest of that 
 divinity in Phoenicia. After the death of Macri- 
 nus, he was invested with the imperial purple ; 
 and the senate, however unwilling to submit to 
 a youth only fourteen years of age, approved of 
 his election, and bestowed upon him the title of 
 Augustus. Heliogabalus made his grandmother 
 MoBsa and his mother Soemias his colleagues 
 on the throne ; and to bestow more dignity upon 
 the sex, he chose a senate of women, over 
 which his mother presided, and prescribed all 
 the modes and fashions which prevailed in the 
 empire. Rome, however, soon displayed a scene 
 of cruelty and debauchery ; the imperial palace 
 was full of prostitution, and the most infamous 
 of the populace became the favourites of the 
 prince. He raised his horse to the honours of 
 the consulship, and obliged his subjects to pay 
 adoration to the god Heliogabalus, which was 
 no other than a large black stone, whose figure 
 resembled that of a cone. To this ridiculous 
 deity temples were raised at Rome, and the al- 
 tars of the gods plundered to deck those of the 
 new divinity. Such licentiousness soon displeas- 
 ed the populace, and Heliogabalus, unable to ap- 
 pease the seditions of the soldiers, whom his ra- 
 pacity and debaucheries had irritated, hid him- 
 self in the filth and excrements of the camp, 
 where he was found in the arms of his mother, 
 His head was severed from his body, the 10th of 
 March, A. D. 222, in the 18th year of his age, 
 after a reign of three years, nine months, and 
 four days. He was succeeded by Alexander 
 Severus. His cruelties were as conspicuous as 
 his licentiousness. 
 
 Hellanicus, I, a celebrated Greek historian, 
 born at Mitylene. He wrote a history of the 
 ancient kings of the earth, with an account of 
 the founders of the most famous towns in every 
 kingdom, and died B. C. 411, in the 85th year 
 of his age. Paus. 2, c. 3. — Cic. de Orat. 2, c. 
 
 53.—Aul. Gel. 15, c. 23. II. A brave ofiicer 
 
 rewarded by Alexander. Curt. 5, c. 2. III. 
 
 An historian of Miletus, who wrote a descrip- 
 tion of the earth. 
 
 Hellenes, the inhabitants of Greece. Vid. 
 Hellen. 
 
 Hellotia, two festivals, one of which was 
 observed in Crete, in honour of Europa, whose 
 bones were then carried in solemn procession, 
 with a myrtle garland no less than twenty cu- 
 bits in circumference, called cXXwrt?. The other 
 festival was celebrated at Corinth with games 
 and races, where young men entered the lists, 
 and generally ran with burning torches in their 
 hands. It was mstituted in honour of Minerva, 
 surnamed Hellotis, ano tov e'Kov, from a certain 
 pond of Marathon, where one of her statues 
 
 was erected, or airo rov e.}^£iv tov iTTTTOv TOV TLeyaaov. 
 
 because by her assistance Bellerophontook and 
 managed the horse Pegasus, which was the ori- 
 ginal cause of the institution of the festival. 
 Others derive the name from Hellotis, a Corin- 
 458 
 
 thian woman, from the following circumstance : 
 when the Dorians and the Heraclidse invaded 
 Peloponnesus, they took and burnt Corinth j 
 the inhabitants, and particularly the women, es- 
 caped by flight, except Hellotis and her sister 
 Eurytione, who took shelter in Minerva's tem- 
 ple, relying for safety upon the sanctity of the 
 place. When this was known, the Dorians set 
 fire to the temple, and the two sisters perished 
 in the flames. This wanton cruelty was follow- 
 ed by a dreadful plague ; and the Dorians, to 
 alleviate the misfortunes which they suffered, 
 were directed by the oracle to appease the manes 
 of the two sisters, and therefore they raised a 
 new temple to the goddess Minerva, and estab- 
 lished the festivals which bore the name of one 
 of the unfortunate women. 
 
 Helotje, and Helotes, the public slaves of 
 Sparta, &c. Vid. Helos, Part I. 
 
 Helvl4., the mother of Cicero. 
 
 Heph^stl4, a festival in honour of Vulcan 
 (ijiai^os) at Athens. There was then a race 
 with torches between three young men. Each 
 in his turn run a race with a lighted torch in 
 his hand, and whoever could carry it to the end 
 of the course before it was extinguished, obtain- 
 ed the prize. They delivered it one to the other 
 after they finished their course, and from that 
 circumstance we see many allusions in ancient 
 authors, who compare the vicissitudes of human 
 affairs to this delivering of the torch, particu- 
 larly in these lines of Lucretius 2 : — 
 
 Inque brevi spatio mutantur sacla animantum, 
 Et quasi cursores vital lampada tradunL 
 
 Heph^stio, a Greek grammarian of Alex- 
 andria, in the age of the emperor Verus. There 
 remains of his compositions a treatise entitled 
 Enchiridion de metris d^ poemate, the best edi- 
 tion of W'hich is that of Pauw, 4to. JJUraj. 1726. 
 
 HephjGstion, a Macedonian, famous for his 
 intimacy with Alexander. He died atEcbatana, 
 325 years before the Christian era. Alexander 
 was so inconsolable at the death of this faithful 
 subject, that he shed tears at the intelligence, 
 and ordered the sacred fire to be extinguished, 
 which was never done but at the death of a Per- 
 sian monarch. The physician who attended 
 Hephaestion in his illness was accused of neg- 
 ligence, and by the king's order inhumanly put 
 to death, and the games were interrupted. He 
 was so like the king in features and stature, 
 that he was often saluted by the name of Alex- 
 ander. Curt. Arrian. 7, &c. — Plut. in Alex. — 
 ^lian. V. H. 7, c. 8. 
 
 Heracleia, a fesrival at Athens, celebrated 
 every fifth year, in honour of Hercules. The 
 Thisbians and Thebans in Boeotia observed a 
 festival of the same name, in which they offered 
 
 apples to the god. There was also a festival 
 
 at Sicyon in honour of Hercules. It continued 
 two days, the first was called ovojxaTas, the se- 
 cond TjpaKXeia. At a festival of the same name 
 
 at Cos, the priest officiated with a mitre on his 
 
 head, and in women's apparel. At LinduS; 
 
 a solemnity of the same name was also observ- 
 ed, and at the celebration nothing was heard 
 but execration and profane words, and whoso- 
 ever accidentally dropped any other words, was 
 accused of having profaned the sacred rites. 
 
 Heracleotes, a surname of Dionysius the 
 philosopher. A philosopher of Heracleaj 
 
HE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HE 
 
 "Who, like his master Zeno and all the stoics, 
 firmly believed that pain was not an evil. A 
 severe illness, attended with the most acute 
 pains, obliged him to renounce his principles, 
 and at the same time the philosophy of the sto- 
 ics, about 264 years before the Christian era. 
 He became afterwards one of the Cyrenaic sect, 
 which placed the summum bonum in pleasure. 
 He wrote some poetry, and chiefly treatises of 
 philosophy. Diod. in vit. 
 
 HERACLiDiE, the descendants of Hercules, 
 greatly celebrated in ancient history. Hercules 
 at his death left to his son Hyllus all the rights 
 and claims which he had upon the Pelopon- 
 nesus, and permitted him to marry lole as soon 
 9.S he came of age. He soon after challenged 
 to single combat Atreus, the successor of Eu- 
 rystheus on the throne of Mycenee ; and it was 
 mutually agreed that the undisturbed possession 
 of the Peloponnesus should be ceded to whoso- 
 ever defeated his adversary. Echemus accept- 
 ed the challenge for Atreus, and Hyllus was 
 killed, and the Heraclidas a second time de- 
 parted from the Peloponnesus. Cleodaeus, the 
 <;on of Hyllus, made a third attempt, and was 
 equally unsuccessful ; and his son Aristoma- 
 chus, some time after, met with the same unfa- 
 vourable reception, and perished in the field of 
 battle.' Aristodemas, Temenus, and Chres- 
 phontes, the three sons of Aristomachus, en- 
 couraged by the more expressive and less am- 
 biguous word of an oracle, and desirous to 
 revenge the death of their progenitors, assem- 
 bled a numerous force, and with a fleet invaded 
 all Peloponnesus. Their expedition was at- 
 tended with success, and after some decisive 
 battles they became masters of all the peninsula, 
 which they divided among themselves two 
 years after. The recovery of the Peloponnesus 
 by the descendants of Hercules forms an inter- 
 esting epoch in ancient history, which is uni- 
 versally believed to have happened 80 years 
 after the Trojan war, or 1104 years before the 
 Christian era. This conquest was totally 
 achieved about 120 years after the first attempt 
 of Hyllus. ApoUod. 2, e. 7, &c. — Herodot. 9, c. 
 26. — Paus. 1, c. 17. — Paterc. 1, c. 2. — Clemens. 
 Alex. Strom. 1. — Tlmcyd. 1, c. 12, &c. — Diod. 
 1, (fee. — Aristot. de Rep. 7, c. 26. 
 
 Hekaclides, I. a philosopher of Heraclea in 
 Pontus, for some time disciple of Speusippus 
 and Aristotle. He lived about 335 years before 
 the Christian era. Cic. Tasc. 5, ad Quint. 3. 
 
 — Dlos;. in Pyth. II. A man who, after the 
 
 retreat of Dionysius the younger from Sicily, 
 raised cabals against Dion, in whose hands the 
 sovereign power was lodged. He was put to 
 
 death by Dion's order. C. Nep. in Dion. 
 
 III. An architect of Tarentum, intimate with 
 Philip, king of Macedonia. He fled to Rhodes 
 on pretence of a quarrel with Philip, and set 
 fire to the Rh'odian fleet. PolycBu. 
 
 HERACLiTas, I. a celebrated Greek philoso- 
 
 Eher of Ephesus, who flourished about 500 years 
 efore the Christian era. His father's name 
 was Hyson, or Heracion. Naturally of a mel- 
 ancholy disposition, he passed his time in a sol- 
 itary and unsocial manner, and received the 
 appellation of the obscure philosopher, and the 
 mourner, from his unconquerable custom of 
 weeping at the follies, frailty, and vicissitude of 
 human affairs. He employed his time m wri- 
 
 ting different treatises, and one particularly, in 
 which he supported that there was a fatal ne- 
 cessity, and that the world was created from 
 fire, which he deemed a god omnipotent and 
 omniscient. His opinions about the origin of 
 things were adopted by the stoics, and Hip- 
 pocrates entertained the same notions of a su- 
 preme power. He retired to the mountains, 
 where for some time he fed on grass in com- 
 mon with the wild inhabitants of the place. 
 Such a diet was soon productive of a dropsical 
 complaint, and the philosopher condescended 
 to revisit the town. The enigmatical manner 
 in which he consulted the physicians made his 
 applications unintelligible, and be v/as left to 
 depend for cure only upon himself. He fixed 
 his residence on a dunghill, in hopes that the 
 continual warmth which proceeded from it 
 might dissipate the watery accumulation, and 
 restore him to the enjoyment of his former 
 health. Such a remedy proved ineffectual; and 
 the philosopher, despairingof a cure by the ap- 
 plication of ox-dung, suffered himself to die in 
 the 60th year of his age. Some say that he was 
 torn to pieces by dogs. Diog. in vita. — Clem. 
 
 Alex. Str. 5. II. A lyric poet. III. a 
 
 writer of Halicarnassus, intimate with Calli- 
 machus. He was remarkable for the elegance 
 of his style. 
 Heraclius, I. a brother of Constantine, &c. 
 ■II. A Roman emperor. 
 
 Her^a, festivals at Argos in honour of Juno, 
 who was the patroness of that city. They were 
 also observed by the colonies of the Argives 
 which had been planted at Samos and .^Egina. 
 There was a festival of the same name in 
 
 Eiis, celebrated every fifth year, in which six- 
 teen matrons wove a garment for the goddess. 
 There were also others instituted by Hip- 
 
 podamia, who had received assistance from Ju- 
 no when she married Pelops. Sixteen matrons, 
 each attended by a maid, presided at the cele- 
 bration. The contenders were young virgins, 
 who, being divided in classes according to 
 their age, ran races each in their order, begin- 
 ning with the youngest. She who obtained the 
 victory was permitted to dedicate her picture to 
 
 the goddess. There was also a solemn day 
 
 of mourning at Corinth, which bore the same 
 name, in commemoration of Medea's children, 
 who were buried in Juno's temple. They had 
 been slain by the Corinthians ; who, as it is re- 
 ported, to avert the scandal which accompanied 
 so barbarous a murder, presented Euripides 
 with a large sum of money to write a play, in 
 which Medea is repre^ented as the murderer of 
 
 her children. Another festival of the same 
 
 name at Pallene, with games, in which the vic- 
 tor was rewarded with a garment. 
 
 Herennius Senecio, I. a centurion sent in 
 pursuit of Cicero by Antony. He cut off the 
 
 orator's head. Phil, in Cic. II. Caius, a 
 
 man to whom Cicero dedicates his book de Rhe- 
 torica, a work attributed by some to Cornificius. 
 III. Philo, a Phoenician, who wrote a bock 
 
 on Adrian's reign. He also composed a trea- 
 tise, divided into 12 parts, concerning the choice 
 of books, &c. 
 
 Hermathena, a statue, which represented 
 
 Mercury and Minerva in the same body. This 
 
 statue was generally placed in schools where 
 
 eloquence and philosophy were taught, because 
 
 459" 
 
HE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HE 
 
 these two deities presided over the arts and sci- 
 ences. 
 
 HfiRMiAS, a Galatian philosopher in the se- 
 cond century. His irrisio philosophoruvi gen- 
 tilium was printed with Justin Martyr's works, 
 fol. Paris, 1615 and 1636, and with the Oxford 
 edition of Taiian, 8vo. 1700. 
 
 Hermione, a daughter of Menelaus and 
 Helen. She was privately promised in marriage 
 to Orestes, the son of Agamemnon ; but her 
 father, ignorant of his pre-engagement, gave her 
 hand to Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles, whose 
 services he had experienced in the Trojan war. 
 Pyrrhus, at his return from Troy, carried home 
 Hermione and married her. Hermione, ten- 
 derly attached to her cousin Orestes, looked 
 upon Pyrrhus with horror and indignation. Ac- 
 cording to others, however, Hermione received 
 the addresses of Pyrrhus with pleasure. Her 
 jealousy of Andromache, according to some, 
 induced her to unite herself to Orestes, and to 
 destroy Pyrrhus. She gave herself to Ores- 
 tes, after this murder, and received the king- 
 dom of Sparta as a dowry. Home?-. Od.4. — 
 Eurip. in Andr, d^ Orest. — Ovid. Her. 8. — 
 Propert. 1. 
 
 Hermippus, a man who accused Aspasia, the 
 mistress of Pericles, of impiety and prostitution. 
 He was son of Lysis, and distinguished himself 
 as a poet by forty theatrical pieces, and other 
 compositions, some of which are quoted by 
 Athenaeus. Plut. 
 
 Hermogrates, I. a general of Syracuse against 
 Nicias the Athenian. His lenity towards the 
 Athenian prisoners was looked upon as treach- 
 erous. He was banished from Sicily without 
 even a trial, and was murdered as he attempted 
 to return back to his country, B. C. 408. Plut. 
 
 in Nic. &c. II. A Rhodian, employed by 
 
 Artaxerxes to corrupt the Grecian states. 
 
 III. A sophist, preceptor to Pausanias, the mur- 
 derer of Philip. Diod. 16. 
 
 Hrrmodorus. I. a philosopher of Ephesus, 
 who is said to have assisted, as interpreter, the 
 Roman decemvirs in the composition of the ten 
 tables of laws which had been collected in 
 
 Greece. Cic. Tusc. 5, c. 2Q.—Plin. 34, c. 5. 
 
 II. A poet who wrote a book, called ISojiiim, on 
 the laws of different nations. 
 
 Hermogenes, I. an architect of Alabanda in 
 Caria, employed in building the temple of Di- 
 ana at Magnesia. He wrote a book upon his 
 
 profession. II. A rhetorician in the second 
 
 century, the best editions of whose Rhetorica are 
 that of Sturmius, 3 vols. 12mo. Argent. 1571, 
 and Laurentius, Genev. 1614. He died A. D. 
 161, and it is said that his body was opened, 
 and his heart found hairy, and of an extraordi- 
 nary size. At the age of 25, as is reported, he 
 totally lost his memory. 
 
 Hermolaus, a young Macedonian, among the 
 attendants of Alexander. As he was one day 
 hunting with the king, he killed a wild boar 
 which was coming towards him. Alexander, 
 who followed close behind him, was so disap- 
 pointed because the beast had been killed before 
 he could dart at him, that he ordered Hermo- 
 laus to be severely whipped. This treatment 
 irritated Hermolaus, and he conspired to take 
 away the king's life, with others who were 
 displeased with the cruel treatment he had 
 received. The plot was discovered by one of 
 460 
 
 the conspirators, and Alexander ordered him 
 to be put to death. Curt. 8, c. 5. 
 
 Hermotimus, a famous prophet of Clazomc- 
 nae. It is said that his soul separated itself from 
 his body, and wandered in every part of the 
 earth to explain futurity ; after which it returned 
 again, and animated his frame. His wife, who 
 was acquainted with the frequent absence of his 
 soul, took advantage of it, and burnt his body, 
 as if totally dead, and deprived the soul of its 
 natural receptacle. Hermotimus received divine 
 honours in a temple at Clazomense, into which 
 it was unlawful for women to enter. Plin. 7, 
 c. 52, &c. — Ducian. 
 
 Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus at Ses- 
 tos, greatly enamoured of Leander, a youth of 
 Abydos. These two lovers were so faithful to 
 one another, that Leander in the night escaped 
 from the vigilance of his family, and swam across 
 the Hellespont, while Hero, in Sestos, directed 
 his course by holding a burning torch on the top 
 of a high tower. After many interviews of 
 mutual affection and tenderness, Leander was 
 drowned in a tempestuous night as he attempted 
 his usual course; and Hero, in despair, threw 
 herself down from her tower, and perished in the 
 sea. Musaus de Leand. tf« Hero. — Ovid. Heroid. 
 17 and 18.— Virg. G. 3, v. 258. 
 
 Herodes, I. surnamed the Great and Ascalo- 
 nita^ followed the interest of Brutus and Cassius, 
 and afterwards that of Antony. He was made 
 king of Judaea by means of Antony, and after 
 the battle of Actium, he was continued in his 
 power by his flattery and submission to Augus- 
 tus. He rendered himself odious by his cruelty; 
 and, as he knew that the day of his death 
 would become a day of mirth and festivity, he 
 ordered the most illustrious of his subjects to be 
 confined, and murdered the very moment that he 
 expired, that every eye in the kingdom might 
 seem to shed tears at the death of Herod. He 
 died in the 70th year of his age, after a reign of 40 
 years. Josephus. II. Atticus. Vid. Atticus. 
 
 Herodianus, a Greek historian, who flour- 
 ished A. D. 247. He was born at Alexandria, 
 and he was employed among the officers of the 
 Roman emperors. He wrote a Roman history 
 in eight books, from the death of Marcus Aure- 
 lius to Maximinus. His style is peculiarly ele- 
 gant, but it wants precision ; and the work, too, 
 plainly betrays that the author was not a perfect 
 master of geography. He is accused of being 
 too partial to Maximinus, and too severe upon 
 Alexander Severus. His book comprehends the 
 history of 68 or 70 years, and he asserts that he 
 has been an eyewitness of whatever he has 
 written. The best editions of his history are 
 that of Politian, 4to. Dovan, 1525, who after- 
 wards published a very valuable Latin transla- 
 tion ; and that of Oxford, 8vo. 1708. 
 
 Herodotus, a celebrated historian of Hali- 
 carnassus, whose father's name was Lyxes, and 
 that of his mother Dyro. He fled to Samos 
 when his country laboured under the oppressive 
 tyranny of Lygdamis, and travelled over Egypt, 
 Italv, and all Greece. He afterwards returned 
 toHalicarnassus, and expelled the tyrant, which 
 patriotic deed, far from gaining the esteem and 
 admiration of the populace, displeased and irri- 
 tated them so that Herodotus was obliged to fly 
 to Greece from the public resentment. He pub- 
 licly repeated at the Olympic games the history 
 
HE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HI 
 
 which he had composed in his 39th year, B.C. 
 445. It was received with universal applause. 
 This celebrated composition, which has pro- 
 cured its author the title of father of history, is 
 written in the Ionic dialect. It is a history of 
 the wars of the Persians against the Greeks, 
 from the age of Cyrus to the battle of Mycale 
 in the reign of Xerxes ; and besides this it gives 
 an account of the most celebrated nations in the 
 world. Herodotus had written another history 
 of Assyria and Arabia, which is not extant. 
 The life of Homer, generally attributed to him, 
 is supposed not to be the production of his pen. 
 The two best editions of this great historian are 
 that of Wesseling, fol. Amsterdam, 1763, and 
 that of Glasgow, 9 vols. 12mo. 1761. Cic. de 
 leg. 1. de Oral. 2. — Dionys. Hal. 1. — Quintil. 
 10, c. 1. — Plut. de mal. Herod. 
 
 Heron, tw^o mathematicians, one of whom is 
 called the ancient and the other the younger. 
 The former, who lived about 100 years before 
 Christ, w^as disciple of Ctesibius, and wrote a 
 curious book, translated into Latin, under the 
 title of Spiriticalium Liber, the only edition of 
 which is that of Baldus, Aug. Vind. 1616. 
 
 Herophilus, I. an impostor in the reign of 
 J. Caesar, who pretended to be the grandson of 
 Marius. He was banished from Rome by Cae- 
 sar for his seditions, and w^as afterwards stran- 
 gled in prison. II .A Greek physician, about 
 
 570 years before the Christian era. He was one 
 of the first.who dissected bodies. Pliny, Cicero, 
 and Plutarch have greatly commended him. 
 
 Hersilia, one of the Sabines, carried away 
 by the Romans at the celebration of the Con su- 
 alia. She was given and married to Romulus, 
 though, according to some, she married Hostus, 
 a youth of Latium, by whom she had Hostus 
 Hostilius. After death she w^as presented with 
 immortality by Juno, and received divine hon- 
 ours under the name of Ora. Liv. 1, c. 11. — 
 Ovid. Met. 14, v. 832. 
 
 Hesiodus, a celebrated poet, bom at Ascra 
 in BoEotia. His father's name was Dius, and 
 his mother's Pycimede. He lived in the age of 
 Homer, and even obtained a poetical prize in 
 competition with him, according to Varro and 
 Plutarch. Cluintilian, Philostratus, and others, 
 maintain that Hesiod lived before the age of 
 Homer; but Val. Paterculus, and others, sup- 
 port that he flourished about 100 years after 
 him. Hesiod is the first who wrote a poem on 
 agriculture. This composition is called The 
 Works a,nd the Days. His Thengony is a mis- 
 cellaneous narration, valuable for the faithful 
 account it gives of the gods of antiquity. His 
 Shield of Hercules is but a fragment of a larger 
 poem, in which it is supposed he gave an ac- 
 count of the most celebrated heroines among 
 the ancients. Hesiod, without being master of 
 • the fire and sublimity of Homer, is admired for 
 the elegance of his diction and the sweetness of 
 his poetry. Besides these poems, he wrote oth- 
 ers, now lost. Pausanius says that in his age 
 Hesiod's verses were still written on tablets in 
 the temple of the Muses, of which the poet was 
 a priest. If we believe Oxm. Alexand. 6, Strom. 
 the poet borrowed much from Muscevs. Virgil, 
 in his Georgics, has imitated the compositions 
 of Hesiod, and taken his ope7-a and dies for a 
 model, as he acknowleds:es. Cicero strongly 
 commends him, and the Greeks were so partial 
 
 to his poetry and moral instructions, that they 
 ordered their children to learn all by heart. He- 
 siod was murdered by the sons of Ganyclor of 
 Naupactum, and his body was thrown into the 
 sea. Some dolphins brought back the body to 
 the shore, which was immediately known, and 
 the murderers were discovered by the poet's 
 dogs and thrown mto the sea. If Hesiod flour- 
 ished in the age of Homer, he lived 907 B. C. 
 The best editions of this poet are that of Robin- 
 son, 4to. Oxon. 1737 ; that of Loesner, 8vo. 
 Lips. 1778, and that of Parma, 4to. 1785. Cic. 
 Fam. 6, ep. 18. — Paus. 9, c. 3, &c. — Quiyitil. 
 
 10, c. 1. — Pater c. — Varro. — Plut. de 7, Sep. <^ 
 de Anion. Stag. 
 
 Hesione. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Hestchius, the author of a Greek lexicon in 
 the beginning of the 3d century, a valuable 
 work, which has been learnedly edited by Al- 
 bert, 2 vols. fol. L. Bat. 1746. 
 
 Hierax, (Antiochus,) king of Syria, and 
 brother to Seleucus, received the surname of 
 Hierax. Justin. 37, c. 3. 
 
 HiERO, 1st, a king of Syracuse, after his 
 brother Gelon, who rendered himself odious in 
 the beginning of his reign by his cruelty and 
 avarice. He made w-ar against Theron, the 
 tyrant of Agrigenlum, and took Himera. He 
 obtained three difierent crowns at the Olympic 
 games, two in horseraces and one at^a chariot- 
 race. Pindar has celebrated him as being vic- 
 torious at Olympia. In the latter part of his 
 reign, the conversation of Simonides, Epichar- 
 mus, Pindar, &c. softened, in some measure, 
 the roughness of his morals and the severity of 
 his government, and rendered him the patron 
 of learning, genius, and merit. He died, after a 
 reign of 18 years, B. C. 467, leaving the crown 
 to his brother Thrasybulus, who disgraced him- 
 self by his vices and tyranny. Diod. 11. 
 
 The second of that name, king of Syracuse, 
 w^as descended from Gelon. He was unani- 
 mously elected king by all the states of the 
 island of Sicily, and appointed to carry on the 
 w^ar against the Carthaginians. He joined his 
 enemies in besieging Messana, which had sur- 
 rendered to the Romans, but he was beaten by 
 Appius Claudius, the Roman consul, and obli- 
 ged to retire to Syracuse, where he was soon 
 blocked up. Seeing all hopes of victory lost, 
 he made peace with the Romans, and proved 
 so faithful to his engagements during the fifty- 
 nine years of his reign, that the Romans never 
 had a more firm or more attached ally. He 
 died in the 94th year of his acre, about 225 years 
 before the Christian era. He was universally 
 regretted, and all the Sicilians showed, by their 
 lamentations, that they had lost a common 
 father aud a friend. He liberally patronised 
 the learned, and employed the talents of Archi- 
 medes for the good of his country. He w-rote 
 a book on a2:riculture, now lost. He was suc- 
 ceeded bv Hieronvmus. Mlian. V. H. 4, 8.— 
 Justin. 23, c. ^.—Flor. 2, c. 2.— Liv. 16. 
 HiEROCLES, T. a persecutor oftheChri.itiaus un- 
 der Diocletian, who pretended to find inconsis- 
 tencies in Scripture, and preferred the miracles 
 of Thyaneus to those of Christ. His writings 
 were refuted by Lactantius and Eusebius. 
 
 11. A Platonic philo^^opher, who taught at Alex- 
 andria, and wrote a book on providence and fate, 
 fragments of which are preserved by Photius; 
 
 461 
 
HI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HI 
 
 a commenlary on the golden verses of Pythago- 
 ras ; and facetious moral verses. He flourished 
 
 A. D. 485. The best edition is that of Asheton 
 and Warren, 8vo. London, 1742. 
 
 HiERONicA Lex, by Hiero, tyrant of Sicily, 
 to settle the quantity of corn, the price and time 
 of receiving it, between the farmers of Sicily 
 and the collector of the corn-tax at Rome. This 
 law, on account of its justice and candour, was 
 continued by the Romans when they became 
 masters of Sicily. 
 
 HiERONYMus, I. a tyrant of Sicily, who suc- 
 ceeded his father or grandfather Hiero, when 
 only 15 years old. He rendered himself odious 
 by his cruelty, oppression, and debauchery. He 
 abjured the alliance of Rome, which Hiero had 
 observed with so much honour and advantage. 
 He was assassinated, and all his family was 
 overwhelmed in his fall, and totally extirpated, 
 
 B. C. 214. — — II. A Christian writer, commonly 
 called SL Jerome, born in Pannonia, and distin- 
 guished for his zeal against heretics. He wrote 
 commentaries on the prophets, St. Matthew's 
 Gospel, &c. a Latin version, known by the name 
 of Vulgate, polemical treatises, and an account 
 of ecclesiastical writers before him. Of his 
 "Works, which are replete with lively animation, 
 sublimity, and erudition, the best edition is that 
 of Valarsius, fol. Veronae, 1734 to 1740, 14 vols. 
 Jerome died A. D. 420, in his 91st year. 
 
 HiLARius, a bishop of Poictiers, in France, 
 who wrote several treatises, the most famous of 
 "which is on the Trinity, in 12 books. The only 
 edition is that of the Benedictine monks, fol. 
 Paris, 1693. Hilary died A. D. 372, in his 
 80th year. 
 
 HiMiLco, I. a Carthaginian, sent to explore 
 the western parts of Europe. Fest. Avien 
 
 II. A son of Amilcar, who succeeded his father 
 in the command of the Carthaginian armies in 
 Sicily. He died with his army by a plague, 
 B. C. 398. Justin. 19, c. 2. 
 
 HippARCHiA, a woman in Alexander's age, 
 who became enamoured of Crates, the cynic 
 philosopher, because she heard him discourse. 
 She wrote some things, now lost. Vid. Crates. 
 Diocr. 6_ — Suidas. 
 
 HippARCHUs, I. a son of Pisistratus, who suc- 
 ceeded his father as tyrant of Athens, with his 
 brother Hippias. He patronised some of the 
 learned men of the age, and distinguished him- 
 self by his fondness for literature. The seduc- 
 tion of a sister of Harmodius raised him many 
 enemies; and he was ar last assassinated by a 
 desperate band of conspirators, with Harmodius 
 and Arisio°:iton at their head, 513 vears before 
 Christ. jElian. V. H. 8, c. 2. II. A mathe- 
 matician and astronomer of Nicsea. - He first 
 discovered that the interval between the vernal 
 and the autumnal equinox is 186 days, 7 days 
 longer than between the autumnal and vernal, 
 occasioned by the eccentricity of the earth's or- 
 bit. He divided the heavens into 49 constella- 
 tions, 12 in the ecliptic, 21 in the northern, and 
 16 in the southern hemisphere, and gave names 
 to all the stars. He makes no mention of 
 comets. From viewing a tree on a plain from 
 different situations, which changed its apparent 
 position, he was led to the discovery of the paral- 
 lax of the planets, or the distance between their 
 real or apparent position, viewed from the centre 
 and from the surface of the earth. He deter- 
 462 
 
 mined longitude and latitude, and fixed the first 
 degree of longitude at the Canaries. He like- 
 wise laid the first foundations of trigonometry, 
 so essential to facilitate astronomical studies. 
 He was the first who, after Thales and Sulpicius 
 Gallus, found out the exact time of eclipses, of 
 which he made a calculation for 600 years. He 
 died 125 years before the Christian era. Plin. 
 2, c. 26, &c. 
 
 HiPPARiNus, I. a son of Dionysius, who eject- 
 ed Callipus from Syracuse, and seized the sove- 
 reign power for 27 years. Polycen. 5. II. 
 
 The father of Dion. 
 
 HippiAS, I. a philosopher of Elis, who main- 
 tained that virtue consisted in not being in want 
 of the assistance of men. At the Olympic games 
 he boasted that he was master of all the liberal 
 and mechanical arts ; and he said that the ring 
 upon his finger, the tunic, cloak, and shoes which 
 he then wore were all the work of his own 
 hands. Cic. de Orat. 3, c. 32. — -II. A son of 
 Pisistratus, who became tyrant of Athens, after 
 the death of his father, with his brother Hippar- 
 chus. He was driven from his country, and 
 fled to king Darius in Persia, and was killed at 
 the battle of Marathon, fighting against the 
 Athenians^ B. C. 490. He had five children by 
 Myrrhine, the daughter of Callias. Herodot. 6. 
 — Thucyd.l. 
 
 Hippocrates, I. a celebrated physician of 
 Cos, one of the Cyclades. He studied physic, 
 in which his grandfather Nebrus was so emi- 
 nently distinguished; and he improved himself 
 by reading the tablets in the temples of the gods, 
 where each individual had written down the dis- 
 eases under which he laboured, and the means 
 by which he had recovered. He delivered 
 Athens from a dreadful pestilence in the begin- 
 ning of the Peloponnesian war; and he was pub- 
 licly rewarded with a golden crown, the privi- 
 leges of a citizen of Athens, and the initiation 
 atlhe grand festivals. He openly declared the 
 measures which he had taken to cure a disease, 
 and candidly confesses that of 42 patients which 
 were intrusted to his care, only 17 had recovered, 
 and the rest had fallen a prey to the distemper, 
 in spite of his medical applications. He devoted 
 all his time for the service of his country; and 
 when Artaxerxes invited him, even by force of 
 arms, to come to his court, Hippocrates firmly 
 and modestly answered, that he was born to 
 serve his countrymen, and not a foreigner. The 
 experiments which he had tried upon the human 
 frame increased his knowledge; and from his 
 consummate observations, he knew how to mo- 
 derate his own life, as well as to prescribe to 
 others. He died in the 99th year of his age, B. C. 
 361, free from all disorders of the mind and body; 
 and after death he received, with the name of 
 Great, ihe same honours which were paid to 
 Hercules. He wrote in the Ionic dialect, at the 
 advice of Democritus, though he was a Dorian. 
 His memory is still venerated at Cos, and the 
 present inhabitants of the island show a small 
 house, which Hippocrates, as they mention, once 
 inhabited. The best editions of his works are 
 that of Fassius, Genev. fol. 1657; of Linden, 2 
 vols. 8vo. Amst. 1665; and that of Mackius, 2 
 vols. fol. Viennge, 1743. His treatises, especially 
 the Aphorisvis, have been published separately. 
 
 Plin. 7, c. 37.— Cic. de Orat. 3. II. The 
 
 father of Pisistratus. 
 
HO 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 HO 
 
 HippOLYTUs, a Christian writer in the third 
 century, whose works have been edited by Fa- 
 bricius, Hamb. fol, 1716. 
 
 HippoMACHUs, a musician, who severely re- 
 buked one of his pupils because he was praised 
 by the multitude, and observed that it was the 
 greatest proof of his ignorance. Mlian. 2, V. 
 H. c. 6. 
 
 HiPPOMENEs, an Athenian archon, who ex- 
 posed his daughter Limone to be devoured by 
 horses, because guilty of adultery. Ovid, in lb. 
 459. 
 
 HippoNAX, a Greek poet, born at Ephesus, 
 540 years before the Christian era. He culti- 
 vated the same satirical poetry as Archilochus, 
 and was not inferior to him in the beauty or 
 vigour of his lines. His satirical raillery obliged 
 him to fly from Ephesus. Vid Anthevias. Cic. 
 ad famil. 7, ep. 24. 
 
 HiRPiNus, Q,. a Roman, to whom Horace de- 
 dicated his 2 od. 11, and also 1, ep. 16. 
 
 HiRTius, AuLUs, I. a consul with Pansa, who 
 assisted. Brutus when besieged at Mutina by 
 Antony. They defeated Antony, but were both 
 killed in battle, B. C. 43. Suet, in Aug. 10. 
 
 II. An historian, to whom the 8th book of 
 
 Caesar's history of the Gallic wars, as also that 
 of the Alexandrian and Spanish wars, is attrib- 
 uted. The style is inferior to that of Caesar's 
 Commentaries. The author, who was Ccesar's 
 friend and Cicero's pupil, is supposed to be the 
 consul Hirtius. 
 
 HisPANUs, a native of Spain: the word His- 
 paniensis was also used, but generally applied 
 to a person living in Spain, and not born there. 
 Martial. 12, prczf. 
 
 HisTi5:us, a tyrant of Miletus, who excited 
 the Greeks to take up arms against Persia. 
 Hero dot. 5, &c. 
 
 HoMEROMASTix, a sumame given to Zoiius 
 the critic. 
 
 HoMEROS, I. a celebrated Greek poet, the most 
 ancient of all the profane writers. The age in 
 which he lived is not known, though some sup- 
 pose it to be about 168 years after the Trojan 
 war, or, according to others, 160 years before 
 the foundation of Rome. According to Pater- 
 culus, he flourished 968 years before the Chris- 
 tian era, or 884, according to Herodus, who 
 supposed him to be contemporary with Hesiod. 
 The Arundelian Marbles fix his era 907 years 
 before Christ, and made him also contemporary 
 with Hesiod. No less than seven illustrious 
 cities disputed the right of having given birth to 
 the greatest of poets, as it is well expressed in 
 these lines : — 
 
 Smyrna^ Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodes, 
 
 Argos, Athena, 
 Orbis de patrid certat, Homere tua. 
 
 He was called Melesigenes, because supposed 
 to be born on the borders of the river Meles. 
 There prevailed a report that he had established 
 a school at Chios in the latter part of his life ; 
 and, indeed, this opinion is favoured by the 
 present inhabitants of the island, who still glory 
 in showing to travellers the seats where the ven- 
 erable master and his pupils sat in the hollow of 
 a rock, at the distance of about four miles from 
 the modern capital of the island. In his two 
 celebrated poems, called the Iliad and Odyssey, 
 Homer has displayed the most consummate 
 
 knowledge of human nature, and rendered him- 
 self immortal by the sublimity, the fire, sweet- 
 ness and elegance of his poetry. In his Iliad, 
 Homer has described the resentment of Achil- 
 les, and its fatal consequences in the Grecian 
 army before the walls of Troy. In the Odys- 
 sey, the poet has for his subject the return of 
 Ulysses into his country, with the many misfor- 
 tunes which attended his voyage after the fall of 
 Troy. These two poems are each divided into 
 24 books, the same number as the letters of the 
 Greek alphabet; and though the Iliad claims an 
 uncontested superiority over the Odyssey, yet 
 the same force, the same sublimity and elegance, 
 prevail, though divested of its more powerful 
 fire; and Longinus, the most refined of critics, 
 beautifully compares the Iliad to the mid-day, 
 and the Odyssey to the setting sun ; and observes, 
 that the latter still preserves its original splen- 
 dour and majesty, though deprived of its meri- 
 dian heat. The poetry of Homer was so uni- 
 versally admired, that, in ancient times, every 
 man of learning could repeat with facility any 
 passage in the Iliad or Odyssey; and, indeed, 
 it was a sufficient authority to settle disputed 
 boundaries or to support any argument. Mod- 
 ern travellers are astonished to see the differ- 
 ent scenes, which the pen of Homer described 
 about 3,000 years ago, still existing in the same 
 unvaried form ; and the sailor, who steers his 
 course along the iEgean, sees all the promonto- 
 ries and rocks which appeared to Nestor and 
 Menelaus when they returned victorious from 
 the Trojan war. The ancients had such vene- 
 ration for Homer, that they not only raised tem- 
 ples and altars to him, but offered-sacrifices, and 
 worshipped him as a god. The inhabitants of 
 Chios celebrated festivals every fifth year in his 
 honour, and medals were struck, which repre- 
 sented him sitting on a throne, holding his Iliad 
 and Odyssey. In Egvpt, his memory was con- 
 secrated by Ptolemy Philopater, who erected a 
 magnificent temple, within which was placed a 
 statue of the poet, beautifully surrounded with a 
 representation of the seven cities which con- 
 tendedforthe honour of his birth. The inhabit- 
 ants of Cos, one of the Sporades, boasted that 
 Homer was buried in their island ; and the 
 Cyprians claimed the same honour, and said that 
 he was born of Themisto. a female native of 
 Cyprus. It is said that Pisistratus, tyrant of 
 Athens, was the first who collected and arranged 
 the Iliad and Odyssey in the manner in which 
 they now appear to us; and that it is to the 
 well-directed pursuits of Lycurgus that we are 
 indebted for their preservation. Besides the Iliad 
 and Odyssey, Homer wrote, according to the 
 opinion of some authors, a poem upon Amphia.- 
 raus's expedition against Thebes, besides the 
 Phoceis. the Cercopse, the small Iliad, the Epi- 
 cichlides, and the Batrachomyomachia, and 
 many hymns to some of the gods. He borrow- 
 ed from Orpheus, or, according to Suidas, (voce 
 Corinnus,) he took his plan of the Iliad from 
 Corinnus, an epic poet, who wrote on the Tro- 
 jan war at the very time the Greeks besieged 
 that famed cit}'. Of the numerous commenta- 
 ries published on Homer, that of Eustathius, 
 bishop of Thessalonica, is by far the most ex- 
 tensive and erudite. Herodot. 2, c. 53. — Theo- 
 crit. 16. — Aristot. Poet. — Strab. — Dio. Chrys^ 
 33. Orat.—Pav,s. 2, 9, 10.— Heliodor. 3.— 
 463 
 
HO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HO 
 
 jElian. V. H. 13.— Val 
 til. 1, 8, 10, \'2.—Paterc. 
 — PLut. in Alex. &c. — 
 
 Max. 8, c. S.—Quin- 
 1, c. 5. — Dionys. Hal. 
 •II. One of the Greek 
 
 poets, called Pleiades, bom at Hierapolis, B. C. 
 
 263. He wrote 45 tragedies, all lost. There 
 
 were se\^en other poets, of inferior note, who 
 bore the name of Homer, 
 
 HoNORius, an emperor of the western em- 
 pire of Rome, who succeeded his father Theo- 
 dosius the Great, with his brother Arcadius. He 
 was neither bold nor vicious, but he Avas of a 
 modest and timid disposition, unfit for enterprise 
 and fearful of danger. He conquered his ene- 
 mies by means of his generals, and suffered 
 himself and his people to be governed by minis- 
 ters who took advantage of their imperial mas- 
 ter's indolence and inactivity. He died of a 
 dropsy, in the 39th year of his age, 15th of Au- 
 gust, A. D. 423. He left no issue, though he 
 married two wives. Under him and his bro- 
 ther the Roman power was divided into two 
 different empires. The successors of Honorius, 
 who fixed their residence at Rome, were call- 
 ed the emperors of the west ; and the succes- 
 sors of Arcadius, who sat on the throne of Con- 
 stantinople, were distinguished by the name of 
 emperors of the eastern Roman empire. 
 
 HoRAPOLLO, a Greek writer, whose age is 
 unknown. His Hieroglypkica, a curious and 
 entertaining book, has been edited by Corn, de 
 Pauw, 4to. Ultraj. 1727. 
 
 HoRATiA, the sister of the Horatii, killed by 
 her brother for mourning the-death of the Cu- 
 riatii. Cic. de Inv. 2, c. 20. 
 
 HoRATius CocLES. {Vid. Codes.) Q.. 
 
 Flaccus, a celebrated poet, born in the year 
 689, at Venusia, or Venusium, (now Venosa,) 
 a town situated on the confines on the ancient 
 Apulia and Lucania ; at present the district of 
 Basilicata in Calabria. He was the son of a 
 freed man, who, it appears, had acquired as much 
 wealth as enabled him to purchase a small farm, 
 lying on the banks of the Aufidus, and in the 
 immediate vicinity of Venusium. Here Horace 
 passed his childhood, wandering sometimes to 
 a distance from his paternal home, amid the 
 wild and mountainous scenery of his native re- 
 gion. When he was about ten years of age, 
 his father sold the farm at Venusium, and came 
 to the capital, where he was appointed a collec- 
 tor of imposts. His son was placed under the 
 care of the grammarian Orbilius Pupillus, with 
 whom our young scholar read (though, it would 
 appear, with no great relish) the most ancient 
 poets of his country. He was also instructed 
 in Greek literature ; and the writings of Homer, 
 which were perused by him with much great- 
 er profit and satisfaction than those of Livius 
 or Ennius, first seem to have awakened in his 
 breast a taste for poetry. After he had assumed 
 the toga virilis, Horace completed his course of 
 instruction by a residence at Athens, where he 
 studied philosophy, along with the son of Cicero, 
 Varus, and the young Messala. He was there 
 at the time of the assassination of Caesar ; and 
 the conspirators Brutus and Cassius, having 
 shortly afterwards arrived in Greece, Horace, 
 with most of the other young Romans who were 
 then studying at Athens, joined the republican 
 party; and the camp of Brutus became throng- 
 ed with the heirs of those illustrious patricians 
 who had formerly rallied around the standard of 
 464 
 
 Pompey. Horace continued nearly two years 
 under the command of Brutus, and followed 
 him to Macedonia, where he attained the rank 
 of a military tribune. He was present at the fatal 
 battle of Philippi, and much has been said of the 
 cowardice he exhibited in that combat. Our 
 poet himself acknowledges, in an ode imitated 
 from Archilochus,that he threw away his shield, 
 and fled with precipitation ; and there seems no 
 reason to suppose that he saved himself earlier 
 than others, or that he left the field of battle till 
 all hopes of victory had vanished. His father 
 had died during his absence, and it is likely 
 that this small patrimony had been ruined or 
 confiscated in the course of those civil dissen- 
 sions, in which he had engaged on the vanquish- 
 ed side. About this time he composed the odes 
 which at present form the tenth and twent)^- 
 eighth of the first book, and the seventh of the 
 first book of satires. At length, in the year 
 716, when he had reached the age of twenty- 
 seven, he was recommended to the notice of 
 Maecenas, first by Virgil, and subsequently by 
 Varus, He was shortly afterwards presented 
 in due form to this.distinguished patron of litera- 
 ture; but he felt so overawed, that he spoke lit- 
 tle and with much hesitation. Though this 
 introduction laid the foundation of his future 
 fame and fortune, Maecenas paid him no great 
 attention at the first interview. To the poet's 
 candid statement of his situation and circum- 
 stances, he made but a brief answer, and dis- 
 missed him after a short and unsatisfactory con- 
 versation. He took no farther notice of him for 
 the space of nine months, and Horace did not 
 stoop to any servility or flattery, during the in- 
 terval, to obtain his patronage. At the end of 
 this period, Maecenas at length sent for him, 
 and soon admitted him among the number of 
 his domestic friends. From this time, Maecenas 
 was somewhat more to Horace than a mere 
 patron, or even acquaintance; and it appears, 
 both from the odes and satires, that, notwith- 
 standing the difference in rank and situation, a 
 tender friendship subsisted between them. Vir- 
 gil andPropertius were learned and skilful poets; 
 but Horace was also a man of the world, of de- 
 lightful conversation and accomodating temper, 
 and a fit companion for patricians or statesmen. 
 Horace was better rewarded for his fidelity, and 
 the dangers he encountered for the sake of a 
 patron, than his predecessors, Lucretius and 
 Catullus, or his contemporary TibuUus. Mae- 
 cenas bestowed on him a villa at Tibur, and ob- 
 tained for him a grant of land in the eastern 
 extremity of the Sabine territory. He also pro- 
 cured for him the favour of Augustus, who of- 
 fered him the situation of one of his private 
 secretaries. This office would have removed 
 him from the table of Maecenas, which he usual- 
 ly frequented,to that of the emperor himself. The 
 offer was declined, on the plea of bad health ; 
 but, so far was the refusal from offending Au- 
 gustus, that he continued to treat him with the 
 utmost distinction and familiarity. With Au- 
 gustus himself for his protector— with Maecenas, 
 Tibullus, and Virgil, for his friends— enlivened 
 by the smiles of Lalage— blessed with a tran- 
 quil mind, and a competence with which he was 
 satisfied— engaged in the composition of works 
 which obtained for him the high esteem of his 
 contemporaries,and which he foresaw would en- 
 
HO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HO 
 
 sure him immortality, he attained, perhaps, the 
 greatest felicity which an Epicurean life could 
 afford. The manner in which he usually spent 
 his time may be learned from his works : he 
 passed it while at Rome, ia the most delectable 
 lounging, and when he retired to the country, 
 in the most delightful rural occupations. In this 
 happy frame of mind, Horace lived till Novem- 
 ber 746, when he expired suddenly at Rome. 
 He was unable, in his last moments, to put his 
 hand to his testament, but he nominated Au- 
 gustus as his heir. His life terminated about 
 the same time with that of Maecenas, though it 
 seems uncertain whether he survived or prede- 
 ceased his friend. He died at the age of fifty- 
 seven, and his remains were deposited near the 
 tomb of Maecenas, on the Esquiline Hill. The 
 intellectual and moral character of Horace may 
 be gathered from his writings, as accurately as 
 the mode in which he passed his time. His 
 mind was enlightened by study, and invigorated 
 by observation. It was comprehensive, but not 
 visionary — delicate, but not fastidious — too sa- 
 gacious to be warped by prejudice. — too reflec- 
 tive to be influenced by resentment. To infer 
 the moral dispositions of a poet from the tone of 
 sentiment which pervades his works, may be 
 often a fallacious analogy ; but the soul of Hor- 
 ace speaks so unequivocally through his odes 
 and epistles, that we may safely consult them 
 as the faithful mirrors of his heart. His moral 
 qualities, perhaps, may not be so highly esti- 
 mated as his iniellectual endowments ; but he 
 was of a cheerful temper, and of great modera- 
 tion, equanimity, and independence of mind. 
 In early youth, when he first came to the capi- 
 tal, after the battle of Philippi, he was somewhat 
 of a coxcomb, both in his dress and manners, 
 and much addicted to the promiscuous gallan- 
 try which then prevailed. The advance of time 
 scarcely saved him from the power of love ; and, 
 at the age of fifty, he felt the full force of a pas- 
 sion which he believed had been conquered. 
 According to the principles of that sect to which 
 he belonged, he adopted as a rule of conduct, 
 that he should permit nothing to ruffle his tem- 
 per. His heart was devoted to an indolence, 
 which often arises from the conviction that hap- 
 piness is not to be found in wealth, or power, or 
 dignity. He was grateful to his benefactors, and 
 warmly attached to his friends ; but he wrapped 
 himself up in Epicurean indifference to the 
 crimes, and follies, and projects, of the rest of 
 mankind. Of these, however, though little 
 affected by them, he was a constant and acute 
 observer ; and his accurate, lively delineations 
 of every species of human error and absurdity, 
 form the most valuable, as well as the most 
 characteristic portion of his agreeable compo- 
 sitions. The works of Horace comprehend, 
 1st, Odes ; 2d, Epodes ; 3d, Satires ; and 4th, 
 Epistles. It seems to be universally agreed, that, 
 as a lyric poet at least, Horace has little claim 
 to the praise of originality. Even in those 
 odes which are most original, and, so far as we 
 know, are not translated or imitated from any 
 lyric bard of Greece, the words, the phrases, 
 and sentiments, are all Greek, and evidently 
 proceed from a poet whose mind was imbued 
 not only with the compositions of Alcseus, Pin- 
 dar, and Sappho, the three writers whom he is 
 supposed chieflv to have imitated, but also with 
 Part II.~3 N 
 
 the works of Homer, and of the great trage- 
 dians. This particularly appears, as was to 
 be expected, in the epithets attached to Greek 
 places, heroes, or divinities. The odes which 
 seem to be of the invention of the Latin poet, 
 are chiefly of that sort which has been termed 
 occasional. He willingly employed his muse 
 to celebrate a festive day, to lament the depar- 
 ture of a friend, or congratulate him on his re- 
 turn, to record any pleasant occurrence of his 
 own life, or any political event, which might 
 reflect honour on his patrons. Being of this 
 miscellaneous description, the odes of Horace 
 cannot be all classed ; but the greater propor- 
 tion of them may be reduced under four divi- 
 sions, — amatory, convivial, moral, and polit- 
 ical. Those of an amorous strain, are by far 
 the most numerous. In them he celebrates his 
 love for Lydia, Tyndaris, Lalage, Glycera, and 
 many others, who were perhaps real mistresses, 
 but with fictitious names. The passion he 
 sings, is of alight trivial description, compared 
 with that of tlie contemporary elegiac poets ; 
 and both the style and sentiments are suited to 
 the " grata protervitas" of his Glycera. The 
 convivial odes consist of invitations to Mcece- 
 nas, and other illustrious friends, to join his 
 social board. He prepares for the entertain- 
 ment; he provides the accompaniments of mu- 
 sic and garlands of flowers, and he celebrates 
 the happy influence of the gifts of Bacchus with 
 fervid and joyous praises. Many of these con- 
 vivial odes are tempered with moral reflections ; 
 and some of them perhaps cannot be well dis- 
 criminated from the third or moral class. Both 
 in the moral and convivial odes, the friends to 
 whom they are addressed are frequently re- 
 minded of the shortness of life, and of its clo- 
 sing scene — sometimes, indeed, with a moral 
 scope, but oftener with a view of exciting to the 
 enjo3''ment of the present hour,by a glance at the 
 uncertainty and gloom of the future. In a his- 
 tory of Roman poetry, the political odes of 
 Horace are those which are most deserving of 
 consideration. They are chiefly of his own 
 composition, instead of being translated or imi- 
 tated, like so many of the others, from the Greek; 
 and as they refer to the most prominent events 
 of Roman history, they afford some insight into 
 the political discussions and state intrigues of 
 the day. All of them are written in courtly and 
 soothing language. They breathe that spirit of 
 wisdom, moderation, and humanity, which now 
 began to prevail in the councils of the prince ; 
 and the mildest maxims of policy are inculcated 
 amid bursts of lyric fancy. The epodes of 
 Horace may be considered as intermediate com- 
 positions between his odes and satires. They 
 are in iambic measure, and a few of them are 
 on similar topics with the odes; but the others 
 consist of invectives, directed against the orator 
 Cassius Severus — the poet Maevius — and Me- 
 nas, the freedman of Sextus Pompey, who, be- 
 ing admiral of his fleet, became so infamous 
 duringthe civil wars by alternately deserting the 
 service of Pompey and Octavius. Even to the 
 second epode, containing the praises of acoun- 
 trv life, a satirical and epigrammatic turn is 
 given at the conclusion by putting them in the 
 mouth of the usurer Alphius. In general, how- 
 ever, the satire in these odes is coarse, violent, 
 and personal, resemblinsr what is supposed to 
 465 
 
HO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HO 
 
 have been the style of the invectives of Archilo- 
 chus and Lycambes, rather than that delicate 
 tone of reproof and irony which Horace after- 
 wards adopted in his own satires. Horace has 
 now been described as the great master of Ro- 
 man lyric poetry, whether amatory, convivial, 
 or moral. We have still to consider him as a 
 satiric, humorous, or familiar writer, in which 
 character (though he chiefly valued himself on 
 his odes) he is more instructive, and perhaps 
 equally pleasing. He is also more an original 
 poet in his satires than in his lyrical composi- 
 tions. D, Heinsius, indeed, in his confused and 
 prolix dissertation, De Satira Horatiand, has 
 pointed out several passages, which he thinks 
 have been suggested by the comedies and 
 satiric dramas of the Greeks. If, however, we 
 except the dramatic form which he has given 
 to so many of his satires, it will be diflicult to 
 find any general resemblance between them and 
 those productions of the Greek stage which are 
 at present extant. The epistles of Horace were 
 written by him at a more advanced period of life 
 than his satires, and were the last fruits of his 
 long experience. Accordingly, we find in them 
 more matured wisdom, more sound judgment, 
 mildness, and philosophy, more of his own in- 
 ternal feelings, and greater skill and perfection 
 in the versification. The chief merit, however, 
 of the epistles depends on the variety in the 
 characters of the persons to whom they are 
 addressed; and, in conformity with which, 
 the poet changes his tone and diversifies his 
 colouring. They have not the generality of some 
 modern epistles, which are merely inscribed 
 with the name of a friend, and may have been 
 composed for the whole human race ; nor of 
 some ancient idyls, where we are solely remind- 
 ed of an individual by superfluous invocations 
 on his name. Each epistle is written expressly 
 for the entertainment, instruction, or reforma- 
 tion of him to whom it is addressed. The poet 
 enters into his situation with wonderful facility, 
 and every word has a reference, more or less 
 remote, to his circumstances, feelings, or preju- 
 dices. In his satires, the object of Horace was 
 to expose vice and folly ; but, in his epistles, he 
 has also an eye to the amendment of a friend, 
 on whose failings he gently touches, and hints, 
 perhaps, at their correction. The celebrated 
 work of Horace, commonly called the Ars Po- 
 etica, which was written about the year 739, is 
 usually considered as a separate and insulated 
 composition. The critical works of Horace, 
 which comprise one of his satires, the two epis- 
 tles of the second book, and the Ars Poetica, 
 have generally been considered, especially by 
 critics themselves, as the most valuable part of 
 his productions. Hurd has pronounced them 
 ' the best and most exquisite of all his writings;' 
 and of the Ars Poetica, in particular, he says, 
 * that the learned have long since considered it 
 as a kind of summary of the rules of good 
 writing, to be gotten by heart by every young 
 student, and to whose decisive authority the 
 greatest masters in taste and composition must 
 finally submit.' Mr. Gifford, in the introduction 
 to his translation of Juvenal, remarks that, * as 
 an ethical writer, Horace has not many claims 
 to the esteem of posterity ; but as a critic, he is 
 entitled to all our veneration. Such is the 
 soundness of his judgment, the correctness of 
 466 
 
 his taste, and the extent and variety of his 
 knowledge, that a body of criticism might be se- 
 lected from his works, more perfect in its kind 
 than any thing which antiquity has bequeathed 
 us.' S^^€t. in Aug. — Ovid. Trist. 4, el, 10, v. 49. 
 Three brave Romans, born at the same 
 
 birth, who fought against the three Curiatii, 
 about 667 years before Christ, This celebrated 
 battle was fought between the hostile camps of 
 the people of Alba and Rome, and on their suc- 
 cess depended the victory. In the first attack 
 two of the Horatii were killed, and the only 
 surviving brother, by joining artifice to valour, 
 obtained an honourable trophy: by pretending 
 to fly from the field of battle, he easily separated 
 his antagonists ; and, in attacking them one by 
 one, he was enabled to conquer them all. As he 
 returned victorious to Rome, his sister reproach- 
 ed him with the murder of one of the Curiatii, 
 to whom she was promised in marriage. He 
 was incensed at the rebuke, and killed his sister. 
 This violence raised the indignation of the 
 people ; he was tried, and capitally condemned. 
 His eminent services, however, pleaded in his 
 favour; the sentence of death was exchanged 
 for a more moderate, but more ignominious 
 punishment, and he was only compelled to pass 
 under the yoke. A trophy was raised in the Ro- 
 man Forum, on which he suspended the spoils 
 of the conquered Curiatii. Cic. de Invent. 2, 
 c. 26. — Liv. 1, c. 24, &c. — Dionys. Hal. 3, c. 3. 
 A consul, who dedicated the temple of Ju- 
 
 piter Capitolinus. During the ceremony he was 
 informed of the death of his son, but he did not 
 forget the sacred character he then bore for the 
 feelings of a parent, and continued the dedica- 
 tion, after ordering the body to be buried. Liv. 2. 
 
 HoRCiAS, the general of 3000 Macedonians, 
 who revolted from Antigonus in Cappadocia. 
 Polycen. 4. 
 
 HoRMisDAs, a name which some of the Per- 
 sian kings bore m the reign of the Roman em- 
 perors. 
 
 HoRTENsiA, a celebrated Roman lady, daugh- 
 ter of the orator Hortensius, whose eloquence 
 she had inherited in the most eminent degree. 
 When the triumvirs had obliged 14,000 women 
 to give upon oath an account of their posses- 
 sions, to defray the expenses of the state, Hor- 
 tensia undertook to plead their cause, and was 
 so successful in her attempt, that 1000 of her 
 female fellow-sufferers escaped from the ava- 
 rice of the triumvirate. Val. Max. 8, c, 3. 
 
 HoRTENsiA Lex, by Gl. Hortensius, the dic- 
 tator, A. U. C. 367. It ordered the whole body 
 of the Roman people to pay implicit obedience 
 to whatever was enacted by the commons. The 
 nobility, before this law was enacted, had claim- 
 ed an absolute exemption. 
 
 HoRTENsnis, Cl. This celebrated orator was 
 born in the year 640. His first appearance in 
 the Forum way at the early age of nineteen — 
 that is, in 659; and his excellence, says Cice- 
 ro, was immediately acknowledged, like that of 
 a statue by Phidias, which only requires to be 
 seen in order to be admired. The case in which 
 he first appeared was of considerable responsi- 
 bility for one so young and inexperienced, being 
 an accusation, at the instance of the Roman 
 province of Africa, against its governors for ra- 
 pacity. It was heard before Scaevola andCras- 
 sus, as judges— the one the ablest lawyer, the 
 
HO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HO 
 
 other the most accomplished speaker, of his age ; 
 and the young orator had the good fortune to 
 obtain their approbation, as well as that of all 
 who were present at the trial. His next plead- 
 ing of importance was in behalf of Nicomedes, 
 king of Bithynia, in which he even surpassed 
 his former speech for the Africans. After this 
 we hear little of him for several years. The 
 imminent perils of the Social war, which broke 
 out in 663, interrupted, in a great measure, the 
 business of the Forum. Hortensius served in 
 this alarming contest for one year as a volunteer, 
 and in the folio wmg season as a military tribune. 
 When, on the re-establishment ofpeace in Italy 
 in 666, he returned to Rome, and resumed the 
 more peaceful avocations to which he had been 
 destined from his youth, he found himself with- 
 out a rival. Crassus, as we have seen, died in 
 662, before the troubles of Marius and Sylla. 
 Antony, with other orators of inferior note, 
 perished in 666, during the temporary and last 
 ascendency of Marius, in the absence of Sylla. 
 Sulpicius was put to death in ihe same year, 
 and Cotta driven into banishment, from which 
 he was not recalled until the return of Sylla to 
 Rome, and his election to the dictatorship in 
 670. Hortensius was thus left for some years 
 without a competitor ; and after 670, with none 
 of eminence but Cotta, whom also he soon out- 
 shone. His splendid, warm, and animated 
 manner was preferred to the calm and easy ele- 
 gance of his rival. Accordingly, when engaged 
 in a cause on the same side, Cotta, though ten 
 years senior, was employed to open the case, 
 while the more important parts were left to the 
 managenient of Hortensius. He continued the 
 undisputed sovereign of the Forum, till Cicero 
 returned from his quaestorship in Sicily, in 679, 
 when the talents of that orator first displayed 
 themselves in full perfection and maturity. Hor- 
 tensius was thus, from 666 till 679, a space of 
 thirteen years, at the head of the Roman bar ; 
 and being, in consequence, engaged during that 
 long period, on one side or other, in every cause 
 of importance, he soon amassed a prodigious 
 fortune. He lived, too, with a magnificence 
 corresponding to his wealth. An example of 
 splendour and luxury had been set to him by 
 the orator Crassus, who inhabited a sumptuous 
 palace in Rome, the hall of which was adorned 
 with four pillars of Hymettian marble, twelve 
 feet high, which he brought to Rome in his 
 sedileship, at a time when there were no pillars 
 of foreign marble even in public buildings. 
 The court of this mansion was ornamented by 
 six lotus trees, which Pliny saw in full luxu- 
 riance in his youth, but which were afterwards 
 burnt in the conflagration in the time of Nero. 
 He had also a number of vases, and two drink- 
 ing-cups, engraved by the artist Mentor, but 
 which were of such immense value that he was 
 ashamed to use them. Hortensius had the same 
 tastes as Crassus, but surpassed him and all 
 his contemporaries in magnificence. His man- 
 sion stood on the Palatine hill, which appears 
 to have been the most fashionable situation in 
 Rome, being at that time covered with the 
 houses of Lutatius Catulus, iEmilius Scaurus, 
 Clodius, Catiline, Cicero, and Caesar. The 
 residence of Hortensius was adjacent to that 
 of Catiline ; and though of no great exten.t, it 
 was splendidly furnished. After the death of the 
 
 orator, it was inhabited by Octavius Csesar, and 
 formed the centre of the chief imperial palace, 
 which increased from the time of Augustus to 
 that of Nero, till it covered a great part of the Pal- 
 atine Mount, and branched over other hills. Be- 
 sides his mansion in the capital, he possessed 
 sumptuous villas at Tusculum, Bauli, andLau- 
 rentum, where he was accustomed to give the 
 most elegant and expensive entertainments. He 
 'had frequently peacocks at his banquets, which 
 he first served up at a grand augural feast, and 
 which, saysVarrOjWere more commended by the 
 luxurious, than by men of probity and austerity. 
 His olive plantations he is said to have regularly 
 moistened and bedewed with wine ; and on one 
 occasion, during the hearing of an important 
 case in which he was engaged along with Cicero, 
 begged that he would change with him the pre- 
 viously arranged order of pleading, as he was 
 obliged to go to the country to pour wine on a 
 fa.v our ite platanus, which grew near his Tuscu- 
 lan villa. Notwithstanding this profusion, his 
 heir found not less than 10,OK)0 casks of wine ia 
 his cellar after his death. Besides his taste for 
 wine, and fondness for plantations, he indulged 
 a passion for pictures and fishponds. At his 
 Tusculan villa, he built a hall for the reception 
 of a painting of the expedition of the Argonauts, 
 by the painter Cydias, which cost the enormous 
 sum of a hundred and forty-four thousand ses- 
 terces. At his country-seat, near Baoili, on the 
 seashore, he vied with Lucullus and Philippus 
 in the extent of his fishponds, which were con- 
 structed at immense cost, and so formed that 
 the tide flowed into them. Under the promon- 
 tory of Bauli, travellers are yet shown the Pis- 
 chuL Mirabilis, a subterraneous edifice, vaulted 
 and divided by four rows of arcades ; and which 
 is supposed by some antiquarians to have been 
 a fish-pond of Hortensius. Yet such was his 
 luxury, and his reluctance to diminish his sup- 
 ply, that when he gave entertainments at Bauli, 
 he generally sent to the neighbouring town of 
 Puteoli to buy fish for supper. The eloquence 
 of Hortensius procured him not only all this 
 wealth and luxury, but the highest official 
 honours of the state. He was sedile in 679, 
 praetor in 682, and consul two years afterwards. 
 The wealth and dignities he had obtained, and 
 the want of competition, made him gradually 
 relax from that assiduity by which they had 
 been acquired, till the increasing fame of Cice- 
 ro, and particularly the glory of his consulship, 
 stimulated him to renew his exertions. But 
 his habit of labour had been in some degree 
 lost, and he never again recovered his former 
 reputation. Cicero partly accounts for this de- 
 cline, from the peculiar nature and genius of 
 his eloquence. It was of that showy species 
 called Asiatic, which flourished in the Greek 
 colonies of Asia Minor, and was infinitely more 
 florid and ornamental than the oratory oi 
 Athens, or even of Rhodes, being full of bril- 
 liant thoughts and of sparkliug expressions. 
 This glowing style of rhetoric, though deficient 
 in solidity and weight, was not unsuitable in a 
 young man ; and being farther recommended 
 by a beautiful cadence of periods, met with the 
 utmost applause. But Hortensius, as he ad- 
 vanced in life, did not prune his exuberance, 
 or adopt a chaster eloquence ; and this luxury, 
 and glitter of phraseologry, which even in his 
 467 
 
HO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 HO 
 
 earliest years, had occasionally excited ridicule 
 or disgust among the graver fathers of the 
 senatorial order, being totally inconsistent with 
 his advanced age and consular dignity, which 
 required something more serious and compos- 
 ed, his reputation diminished with increase of 
 years ; and though the bloom of his eloquence 
 might be in fact the same, it appeared to be 
 somewhat withered. Besides, from his declin- 
 ing health and strength, which greatly failed 
 in his latter years, he may not have been able 
 to give full etFect lo that showy species of rhet- 
 oric in which he indulged. A constant tooth- 
 ache, and swelling in the jaws, greatly impaired 
 his power of elocution and utterance, and be- 
 came at length so severe as to accelerate his 
 end. A few months, however, before his death, 
 which happened in 703, he pleaded for his 
 nephew, Messala, who was accused of illegal 
 canvassing, and who was acquitted, more in 
 consequence of the astonishing exertions of his 
 advocate, than the justice of his cause. So un- 
 favourable, indeed, was his case esteemed, that 
 however much the speech of Hortensius had 
 been admired, he was received, on entering the 
 theatre of Curio on the following day, with loud 
 clamour and hisses, which were the more re- 
 marked, as he had never met with similar treat- 
 ment in ihe whole course of his forensic career. 
 The speech, however, revived all the ancient 
 admiration of the public for his oratorical tal- 
 ents, and convinced them, that had he always 
 possessed the same perseverance as Cicero, he 
 would not have ranked second to that orator. 
 Another of his most celebrated harangues was 
 that against the Manilian law, which vested 
 Pompey with such extraordinary powers, and 
 was so warmly supported by Cicero. That 
 against the sumptuary law proposed by Crassus 
 and Pompey, in the year 683, which tended to 
 restrain the indulgence of his own taste, was well 
 adapted to Hortensius's style of eloquence ; and 
 his speech was highly characteristic of his dis- 
 position and habits of life. He declaimed, at 
 great length, on the glory of Rome, which re- 
 quired splendour in the mode of living followed 
 by its citizens. He frequently glanced at the 
 luxury of the consuls themselves, and forced 
 them at length, by his eloquence and sarcastic 
 declamation, to relinquish their scheme of do- 
 mestic reirenchment. The speeches of Hor- 
 tensius, it has been already mentioned, lost part 
 of their effect by the orator's advance in years, 
 but they suffered still more by being transferred 
 to paper. As his chief excellence consisted in 
 action and delivery, his writings were much 
 inferior to what was expected from the high 
 fame be had enjoyed ; and, accordingly, after 
 death, he retained little of that esteem, which 
 he had so abundantly possessed during his life. 
 Although, therefore, 'his orations had been pre- 
 served, thev would have given us but an imper- 
 fect idea of the eloquence of Hortensius; but 
 even this has been denied us, and we must, 
 therefore, now chiefly trust for this oratorical 
 character to the opinion of his great but unpre- 
 judiced rival. The friendship and honourable 
 competition of Hortensius and Cicero, present 
 an agreeable contrast to the animosities of .^s- 
 chines and Demosthenes, the two great orators 
 of Greece. It was by means of Hortensius 
 that Cicero was chosen one of the college of Au- 
 468 
 
 I gurs — a service of which his gratified vanity 
 I ever appears to have retained an agreeable recol- 
 lection. — In a few of his letters, indeed, written 
 during the despondency of his exile, he hints a 
 suspicion that Hortensius had been instrumen- 
 tal in his banishment, with a view of engrossing 
 to himself the whole glory of the bar ; but this 
 mistrust ended with his recall, which Horten- 
 sius, though originally he had advised him to 
 yield to the storm, urged on with all the influ- 
 ence of which he was possessed, Hortensius 
 also appears to have been free from every feeling 
 of jealousy or envy, which in him was still more 
 creditable, as his rival was younger than him- 
 self, and yet ultimately forced him from the su- 
 premacy. Such having been their sentiments 
 of mutual esteem, Cicero has done his oratoric 
 talents ample justice — representing him as en- 
 dued with almost all the qualities necessary to 
 form a disiinguished speaker. His imagination 
 was fertile — his voice was sweet and harmo- 
 nious — his demeanour dignified — his language 
 rich and elegant — his acquaintance with litera- 
 ture extensive. So prodigious was his memory, 
 that, without the aid of writing, he recollected 
 every word he had meditated, and every sen- 
 tence of his adversary's oration, even to the 
 titles and documents brought forward to sup- 
 port the case against him — a faculty which 
 greatly aided his peculiarly happy art of reca- 
 pitulating the substance of what had been said 
 by his antagonist, or by himself He also origin- 
 ally possessed an indefatigable application ; and 
 scarcely a day passed in which he did not speak 
 in the Forum, or exercise himself in forensic 
 studies or preparation. But, of all the various 
 arts of oratory, he most remarkably excelled in 
 a happy and perspicuous arrangement of his 
 subject. Cicero only reproaches him, and that 
 but slightly, with showing more study and art 
 in his gestures than was suitable for an orator. 
 It appears, however, from Macrobius, that he 
 w^as much ridiculed by his contemporaries, on 
 account of his affected gestures. In pleading, 
 his hands were constantly in motion, whence 
 he was often attacked by his adversaries in the 
 Forum for resembling an actor ; and, on one 
 occasion, he received from his opponent the 
 appellation of Dionysia, which was the name 
 of a celebrated dancing girl. ^Esop and Ros- 
 cius frequently attended his pleadings, to catch 
 his gestures, and imitate them on the stage. 
 Such, indeed, was his exertion in action, that it 
 was commonly said that it could not be determi- 
 ned whether people went to hear or to see him. 
 Like Demosthenes, he chose and put on his 
 dress with the most studied care and neatness. 
 He is said, not only to have prepared his atti- 
 tudes, but also to have adjusted the plaits of his 
 gown before a mirror, when about to issue 
 forth to the Forum ; and to have taken no less 
 care in arranging them, than in moulding the 
 periods of his discourse. He so tucked up his 
 gown, that the folds did not fall by chance, but 
 were formed with great care, by means of a 
 knot artfully tied, and concealed in the plies 
 of his robe, which apparently flowed carelessly 
 around him. Macrobius also records a story 
 of his instituting: an action of dama?:es against 
 a person who had jostled him, while walking , 
 in this elaborate dress, and had ruffled his toga, 
 when he was about to appear in public with 
 
HY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 lA 
 
 his drapery adjusted according to the happiest 
 arrangement— an anecdote which, whether true 
 or false, shows by its currency the opinion en- 
 tertained of his finical attention to every thing 
 that concerned the elegance of his attire, or the 
 gracefulness of his figure and attitudes. He 
 also bathed himself in odoriferous waters, and 
 daily perfumed himself with the most precious 
 essences. This too minute attention to his per- 
 son, and to gesticulation, appears to have been 
 the sole blemish in his oratorical character ; 
 and the only stain on his moral conduct, was 
 his practice of corrupting the judges of the 
 causes in which he was employed — a practice 
 which must be, in a great measure, imputed to 
 the defects of the judicial system at Rome ; for, 
 whatever might be the excellence of the Roman 
 laws, noihing could be worse than the proce- 
 dure under which they were administered. 
 
 HosTiA, the daughter of Hostius the poet, 
 celebrated by Proper tins under the name of 
 Cynthea. 
 
 HosTius HosTiLius, a warlike Roman, pre- 
 sented with a crown of boughs by Romulus, for 
 his intrepid behaviour in a battle. Dlomjs. Hal. 
 
 HYACiNTfflA, an annual solemnity at Amy- 
 clee, in Laconia, in honour of Hyacinthus and 
 Apollo. It continued for three days, during 
 which time the people did not adorn their hair 
 with garlands during their festivals, nor eat 
 bread, but fed only upon sweetmeats.. They 
 did not even sing pceans in honour of Apollo, or 
 observe any of the solemnities which were usual 
 at other sacrifices. On the second day of the 
 festival there were a number of difierent exhi- 
 bitions. The city began then to be filled with 
 joy, and immense numbers of victims were of- 
 fered on the altars of Apollo, and the votaries 
 liberally entertained their friends and slaves. 
 During this latter part of the festivity, all were 
 eager to be present at the games, and the city 
 " was almost desolate and without inhabitants. 
 Athen. 4.— Ovid. Met. 10, v. 219.— Pans. 3, c. 
 1 and 19. 
 
 Hydrophoria, a festival observed at Athens, 
 called a-rro rov (popeiv vSojp, from Carrying water. 
 It was celebrated in commemoration of those 
 who perished in the deluge of Deucalion and 
 Og>'ges. 
 
 Hyginus, C. Jul., a grammarian, one of the 
 freedmen of Augustus. He was a native of 
 Alexandria, or, according to some, he was a 
 Spaniard, very intimate with Ovid. He was 
 appointed librarian to the library of mount Pa- 
 latine, and he was able to maintain himself by 
 the liberality of C. Licinius. He wrote a my- 
 thological history, which he called fables, and 
 Poeticon Astronomicon, besides treatises on the 
 cities of Italy, on such Roman families as were 
 descended from the Trojans, a book on agricul- 
 ture, commentaries on Virgil, the lives of great 
 men, &c. now lost. The best edition of Hygi- 
 nus is that of Munkerus, 2 vols. 8vo. Amst. 
 1681. These compositions have been greatly 
 mutilated, and their Incorrectness and their bad 
 Latinity, have induced some to suppose that they 
 are spurious. Sueton. de Gram. 
 
 Hyllus, a son of Hercules and Dejanira, 
 who, soon after his father's death, married lole. 
 He, as well as his father, was persecuted by the 
 envy of Eurystheus, and obliged to fly frorn the 
 Peloponnesus, The Athenians gave a kind re- 
 
 ception to Hyllus and the rest of the Heraclidse, 
 and marched against Eurystheus, Hyllus ob- 
 tained a victory over his enemies, and killed 
 with his own hand Eurystheus, and sent his 
 head to Alcmena, his grandmother. Some 
 time after, he attempted to recover the Pelopon- 
 nesus with the Heraclidas, and was killed in 
 single combat by Echemus, king of Arcadia. 
 Vid. Heraclidce, Hercules. Herodot. 7, c. 204, 
 &.c.—Strab. 9. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Hyperborei. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Hyperides, an Athenian orator, disciple to 
 Plato and Socrates, and long the rival of De- 
 mosthenes. His father's name was Glaucippus. 
 He distinguished himself by his eloquence, and 
 the active part he took in the management of the 
 Athenian republic. After the unfortunate bat- 
 tle of Cranon, he was taken alive, and that he 
 might not be compelled to betray the secrets of 
 his country, he cut off his tongue. He was put 
 to death by order of Antipater. B.C. 322. Only 
 one of his numerous orations remains, admired 
 for the sweetness and elegance of his style. It 
 is said that Hyperides once defended the cour- 
 tesan Phryne, who was accused of impiety ; and 
 that when he saw bis eloquence ineffectual, he 
 unveiled the bosom of his client, upon which 
 the judges, influenced by the sight of her beauty, 
 acquitted her. Plut. in Demost. — Cic. m Oral. 
 1, &c. — Quintil. 10, &c. 
 
 Hypsicratea, the wife of Mithridates, who 
 accompanied her husband in man's clothes 
 when he fled before Pompey. Plut. in Pomp. 
 
 Hypsicrates, a Phoenician, who wrote a 
 history of his country in the Phoenician lan- 
 guage. This history was saved from the flames 
 of Carthage, when that city was taken by Sci- 
 pio, and translated into Greek. 
 
 Hystaspes, a noble Persian, of the family of 
 the Achaemenides. His father's name was Ar- 
 sames. His son Darius reigned in Persia after 
 the murder of the usurper Smerdis. It is said 
 by Ctesias, that he wished to be carried to see 
 the royal monument which his son had built 
 between two mountains. The priests who car- 
 ried him, as reported, slipped the cord with 
 which he was suspended in ascending the moun- 
 tain, and he died of the fall. Hystaspes was the 
 first who introduced the learning and mysteries 
 of the Indian Brachmans into Persia ; and to his 
 researches in India the sciences were greatly 
 indebted, particularly in Persia. Darius is called 
 jyyste.spes, or son of Hystaspes, to distinguish 
 him from his royal successors of the same name. 
 Herodot. 1, c. 209, 1. 5, c. ^"i.— Ctesias. Fragm, 
 
 I. 
 
 Iambltcus, a Greek author, who wrote the 
 life of Pythagoras and the history of his follow- 
 ers, an exhortation to philosophy, a treatise 
 against Porphyry's letters on the mysteries of 
 the Egyptians, &c. He was a great favourite 
 of the emperor Julian, and died A. D. 363. 
 
 lAMiDiG, certain prophets among the Greeks, 
 descended from lamus, a son of Apollo, who 
 received the gift of prophecy from his father, 
 which remained among his posterity. Paus. 6, 
 C.2. 
 
 Iarchas, and Jarchas, a celebrated Indian 
 philosopher. His seven rings are famous for 
 their power of restoring old men to the bloom 
 469 
 
ID 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 IN 
 
 and vigour of youth, according to the traditions 
 of Philostr. in Apoll. 
 
 Jason. Vid. Part. III. 
 
 Ibis, a poem of the poet CallimachuSj in which 
 he bitterly satirises the ingratitude of his pupil 
 the poet Apollonius. Ovid has also written a 
 poem which bears the same name, and which, 
 in the same satirical language, seems, according 
 to the opinion of some, to inveigh bitterly 
 against Hyginus, the supposed hero of the com- 
 position. Suidas. 
 
 Ibycus, a lyric poet of Rhegium, about 540 
 years before Christ. He was murdered by rob- 
 bers, and at the moment of death he implored 
 the assistance of some cranes which at that mo- 
 ment flew over his head. Some time after, as 
 the murderers were in the market-place, one of 
 them observed some cranes mthe air, and said 
 
 to his companions, ai i0vkov^ ekSikoi Trapeia-iv^ 
 there are the birds that are conscious of the 
 death of Ibycus. These words, and the recent 
 murder of Ibycus, raised suspicions in the peo- 
 ple ; the assassins were seized and tortured, and 
 they confessed their guilt, Cic. Tusc. 4, c. 43. 
 —.mian. V. H. 
 
 Iccius. Horace writes to him, 1 od. 29, and 
 ridicules him for abandoning the pursuits of 
 philosophy and the muses for military employ- 
 menis. 
 
 IcETAS, a man who obtained the supreme 
 power at Syracuse after the death of Dion. He 
 attempted to assassinate Timoleon, B. C. 340. 
 C. Nep. in Tim. 
 
 L. IciLius, I. a tribune of the people, who made 
 a law, A. U. C. 397, by which moant Aventine 
 was given to the Roman people to build houses 
 
 upon. Liv. 3, c. 54. II. A tribune who 
 
 signalized himself by his inveterate enmity 
 against the Roman senate. He took an active 
 part in the management of aifairs after the mur- 
 der of Virginia. 
 
 Idanthyrsus, a powerful king of Scythia, 
 who refused to give his daughter in marriage to 
 Darius the 1st, king of Persia. This refusal 
 was the cause of a war between the two na- 
 tions, and Darius marched against Idanthyrsus 
 at the head of 700,000 men. He was defeated, 
 and retired to Persia, after an inglorious cam- 
 paign. Strab. 13. 
 
 Idomeneus, succeeded his father Deucalion 
 on the throne of Crete, and accompanied the 
 Greeks to the Trojan war, with a fleet of 90 
 ships. During this celebrated war he rendered 
 himself famous by his valour, and slaughtered 
 many of the enemy. At his return, he made a 
 vow to Neptune in a dangerous tempest, that if 
 he escaped from the fury of the seas and storms, 
 he would offer to the god whatever living crea- 
 ture first presented itself to his eye on the Cretan 
 shore. This was no other than his son, who 
 came to congratulate his father upon his safe 
 return. Idomeneus performed his promise to 
 the god, and the inhumanity and rashness of 
 his sacrifice rendered him so odious in the eyes 
 of his subjects, that he left Crete, and migrated 
 in quest of a settlement. He came to Italy, and 
 founded a city on the coast of Calabria, which 
 he called Salentum. He died in an extreme 
 old age, after he had had the satisfaction of see- 
 ing his new kingdom flourish and his subjects 
 happy. According to the Greek scholiast of 
 Lycophron, v. 1217, Idomeneus, during his 
 470 
 
 absence in the Trojan war, intrusted the man- 
 agement of his kingdom to Leucos, to whom 
 he promised his daughter Clisithere in marriage 
 at his return. Leucos strengthened himself on 
 the throne of Creie ; and Idomeneus, at his re- 
 turn, found it impossible to expel the usurper. 
 Ovid. Met. 13, v. ZbS.—Hygin. ^'2.— Homer. 
 11. 11, &c. Od. 19.— Paus. 5, c. 25.— Ftr^-. 
 JEn. 3, V. 122. 
 
 Idrieus, the son of Euromus of Caria, brother 
 to Artemisia, who succeeded to Mausolus, and 
 invaded Cyprus. Diod. 16. — Polycen. 6. 
 
 Ignatius, a bishop of Antioch, torn to pieces 
 in the amphitheatre at Rome by lions, during a 
 persecution, A. D. 107. His writings were let- 
 ters to the Ephesians, Romans, &c., and he sup- 
 ported the divinity of Christ, and the propriety 
 of the episcopal order, as superior to priests and 
 deacons. The best edition of his works is that 
 of Oxon, in 8vo. 1708. 
 
 Ilia, or Rhea. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Iliaci Ludi, games instituted by Augustus, in 
 commemoration of the victory he had obtained 
 over Antony and Cleopatra. They are suppo- 
 sed to be the same as the Trojani ludi and the 
 Actia ; and Virgil says they were celebrated by 
 iEneas. During these games were exhibited 
 horseraces and gymnastic exercises. Virg. Mn. 
 3, V. 280. 
 
 Ilias, a celebrated poem, composed by Homer, 
 upon the Trojan war. It delineates the wrath 
 of Achilles, and all the calamities which befell 
 the Greeks, from the refusal of that hero to ap- 
 pear in the field of battle. It finished at the 
 death of Hector, whom Achilles had sacrificed 
 to the shades of his friend Patroclus. It is di- 
 vided into 24 books. Vid. Homerus. 
 
 Ilus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Inachi, a name given to the Greeks, particu- 
 larly the Argives, from king Inachus. 
 
 iNACHiDiE, the name of the eight first succes- 
 sors of Inachus on the throne of Argos. 
 
 Inoa, festivals in memory of Ino, celebrated 
 yearly with sports and sacrifices at Corinth. 
 An anniversary sacrifice was also oflered to Ino 
 at Megara, where she was first worshipped, 
 
 under the name of Leucothoe. Another in 
 
 Laconia, in honour of the same. It was usual 
 at the celebration to throw cakes of flour into 
 a pond, which, if they sunk, were presages of 
 prosperity ; but if they swam on the surface of 
 the waters, they were inauspicious and very 
 unlucky. 
 
 Intaphernes, one of the seven Persian noble- 
 men who conspired against Smerdis, who usurp- 
 ed the crown of Persia. He was so disappointed 
 at not obtaining the crown, that he fomented 
 seditions against Darius, who had been raised 
 to the throne after the death of the usurper. 
 When the king had ordered him and all his 
 family to be put to death, his wife excited the 
 compassion of Darius, who pardoned her, and 
 permitted her to redeem from death any one of 
 her relations whom she pleased. She obtained 
 her brother ; and when the king expressed his 
 astonishment because she preferred him to her 
 husband and children, she replied, that she 
 could procure another husband, and children 
 likewise : but that she could never have ano- 
 ther brother, as her father and mother were 
 dead. Intaphernes was put to death. Herodot. 
 - Interrex, a supreme magistrate at Rome, 
 
JO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 IS 
 
 who was intrusted with, the care of the govern- 
 ment after the death of a king, till the election 
 of another. This office was exercised by the 
 senators alone, and none continued in power 
 longer than five days, or, according to Plu- 
 tarch, only 12 hours. Liv. 1, c. 17. — Dionys. 
 2, c. 15. 
 
 loLAiA, a festival at Thebes, the same as that 
 called Heracleia. It was instituted in honour of 
 Hercules and his friend lolas, who assisted him 
 in conquering the hydra. The place where the 
 exercises were exhibited was called lolaion, 
 where there were to be seen the monument of 
 AmphitryoD, and the cenotaph of lolas, who 
 was buried in Sardinia. These monuments 
 were strewed with garlands and flowers on the 
 day of the festival. 
 
 Ion. Vid. Zones and Jonia, Part I. — A tra- 
 gic poet of Chics. He began to exhibit, Olymp. 
 Lxxxii. 2, B. C. 451. The number of his 
 dramas is variously estimated at from twelve to 
 forty. Bentley has collected the names of 
 eleven. The same great critic has also shown 
 that this Ion was a person of birth and fortune, 
 distmct from Ion Ephesius, a mere begging 
 rhapsodist. Besides tragedies, Ion composed 
 dithyrambs, elegies, &c., and several works in 
 prose. Like Euripides, he was intimate with 
 Socrates. Ion was so delighted with being de- 
 creed victor on one occasion in the tragic con- 
 tests at Athens, that he presented each citizen 
 with a vase of Chian pottery. We gather from 
 a joke of Aristophanes, on a word taken from 
 one of his dithyrambs, that Ion died before the 
 exhibition of the Paz, B. C. 419. 
 
 loNEs. Vid. Part I. 
 
 loPHON, a son of Sophocles, whose plays 
 he was suspected of exhibiting as his own. Be 
 that as it may, he is represented as being the 
 best tragic poet at the time when, the Ra7icB was 
 ■composed ; for Sophocles, Euripides, and Aga- 
 thon were then dead. lophon is said to have 
 contended against his father, with much ho- 
 nour to himself as a dramatist. He, too, is the 
 son who is reported to have brought the un- 
 successful charge of dotage against the age of 
 Sophocles. Vid. Sophocles. 
 
 JoRNANDES, an historian who wrote on the 
 Goths. He died A. D. 552. 
 
 JosEPHDs Flavtos, a celebrated Jew, born 
 in Jerusalem, who signalized his military abili- 
 ties in supporting a siege of forty-seven days 
 against Vespasian and Titus, in a small town of 
 Judaea. When the city surrendered there were 
 found not less than 40,000 Jews slain, and the 
 number of captives amounted to 12,000. Jose- 
 phus saved his life by flying into a cave, where 
 40 of his countrymen had also taken refuge. 
 He dissuaded them from committing suicide ; 
 and when they had all drawn lots to kill one 
 a;nother, Josephus fortunately remained the 
 last, and surrendered himself to Vespasian. He 
 wrote the history of the wars of the Jews, first 
 in Syriac, and afterwards translated it into 
 Greek. This composition so pleased Titus, that 
 he authenticated it by placing his signature upon 
 it, and by preserving it in one of the public li- 
 braries. He finished another work, which he 
 divided into twenty books, containing the history 
 of the Jewish antiquities, in some places sub- 
 versive of the authority and miracles mentioned 
 in the Scriptures. He also wrote two books to 
 
 defend the Jews against Apion, their greatest 
 enemy ; besides an account of his own life, &c. 
 Josephus has been admired for his lively and 
 animated style, the bold propriety of his expres- 
 sions, the exactness of his descriptions, and the 
 persuasive eloquence of his orations. He has 
 been called the Livy of the Greeks. Though, 
 in some cases, inimical to the Christians, yet he 
 has commended our Saviour so warmly, that St. 
 Jerome calls him a Christian writer. Josephus 
 died A. D. 93, in the 56th year of his age. The 
 best editions of his works are Hudson's, 2 vols, 
 fol. Oxon. 1720. and Havercamp's, 2 vols. fol. 
 Amst. 1826, Suetonin Vesp. &c. 
 
 JovtANUs, (Flavins Claudius,) a native of 
 Pannonia, elected emperor of Rome by the sol- 
 diers after the death of Julian. He at first re- 
 fused to be invested with the imperial purple, 
 because his subjects followed the religious prin- 
 ciples of the late emperor ; but they removed 
 his groundless apprehensions ; and, when they 
 assured him that they were warm for Christian- 
 ity, he accepted the crown. He made a dis- 
 advantageous treaty with the Persians, against 
 whom Julian was marched with a victorious 
 army. Jovian died seven months and twenty 
 days after his ascension, and was found in his 
 bed sufibcatedby the vapours of charcoal, which 
 had been lighted in his room, A. D. 364. Some 
 attribute his death to intemperance. He burned 
 a celebrated library at Antioch. Marcellin. 
 
 IpmcRATEs, a celebrated general of Athens, 
 who, though son of a shoemaker, rose from the 
 lowest station to the highest ofiices in the state. 
 He married a daughter of Cofys, king of 
 Thrace, by whom he had a son ' called Mnes- 
 theus, and died 380, B. C. When he was 
 once reproached of the meanness of his origin, 
 he observed, that he would be the first of his 
 family, but that his detractor would be the last 
 of his own. C. Nep. in Ephic. 
 
 Iphigenia. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Iphitus, a king of Elis, son of Praxonides, in 
 the age of Lycurgus. He re-established the 
 Olympic games 338 years after their institution 
 by Hercules, or about 884 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. This epoch is famous in chronological 
 history, as every thing previous to it seems in- 
 volved in fabulous obscurity. Paterc. 1, c. 8. — 
 Pans. 5, c. 4. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Iren^us, a native of Greece, disciple of Po- 
 lycarp, and bishop of Lyons in France. He 
 wrote on different subjects; but as what remains 
 is in Latin, some suppose he composed in. that 
 language, and not in Greek. Fragments of his 
 works in Greek are, however, preserved, which 
 prove that his style was simple, though clear 
 and often animated. His opinions concerning 
 the soul are curious. He suffered martyrdom, 
 A. D. 202. The best edition of his works is that 
 of Grabe, Oxon. fol. 1702. 
 
 Irus, a beggar of Ithaca, who executed the 
 commissions of Penelope's suiters. When Ulys- 
 ses returned home, disguised in a beggar's dress, 
 Irus hindered him from entering the gates, and 
 even challenged him. Ulysses brought him to 
 the ground with a blow, and dragged him out 
 of the house. From his poverty originates the 
 proverb Iro pauperior. Homer. Od. 8, v. 1 and 
 ^b.—Ovid. Trist. 3, el. 7, v. 42. 
 
 IsADAS, a Spartan who, upon seeing the The- 
 bans entering the city, stripped himself naked, 
 471 
 
IS 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 JU 
 
 and, with a spear and sword, engaged the ene- 
 my. He was rewarded with a crown for his 
 valour. Plut. 
 
 IsJEUs, I. an orator of Chalcis, in EubcEa, who 
 came to Athens, and became there the pupil of 
 Lysias, and soon after the master of Demos- 
 thenes. Ten of his sixty-four orations are ex- 
 tant. Juv. 3, V. 74. — Plut. de 10 Orat. Dem. 
 
 II. Another Greek orator, who came to 
 
 Rome A. D. 17. He is greatly commended 
 by Pliny the younger, who observes, that he al- 
 ways spoke extempore, and wrote with elegance, 
 unlaboured ease, and great correctness. 
 
 IscHENiA, an annual festival at Olympia, in 
 honour of Ischenus, the grandson of Mercury 
 and Hierea, who, in time of famine devoted 
 himself for his country, and was honoured with 
 a monument near Olympia. 
 
 IsDEGERDEs, a king of Persia, appointed by 
 the will of Arcadius guardian to Theodosius 
 the Second. He died in his 31st year, A. D. 
 408. 
 
 IsiA, certain festivals observed in honour of 
 Isis, which continued nine days. They were 
 abolished by a decree of the senate, A. U. C. 
 696. They were introduced again, about 200 
 years after, by Commodus. 
 
 IsiDORus, I. a native of Charax, in the age of 
 Ptolemy Lagus, who wrote some historical trea- 
 tises, besides a description of Parthia. II. A 
 
 disciple of Chrysostom, Q,Q.\\e& Pelusiota from 
 his living in Egypt. Of his epistles 2012 re- 
 main, written in Greek with conciseness and 
 elegance. The best edition is that of Paris, fol. 
 
 1638. III. A Christian Greek writer, who 
 
 flourished in the 7th century. He is surnamed 
 Hespalensis. His works have been edited, fol. 
 de Breul, Paris, 1601. 
 
 IsMENus, I. a Theban bribed by Timocrates 
 of Rhodes, that he might use his influence to 
 prevent the Athenians and some other Grecian 
 states from assisting Lacedaemon, against which 
 Xerxes was engaged in a war. Paus. 3, c. 9. 
 
 II. A Theban general, sent to Persia with 
 
 an embassy by his countrymen. As none were 
 admitted into the king's presence without pros- 
 trating themselves at his feet, Ismenias had re- 
 course to artifice to avoid doing an action which 
 would prove disgraceful to his country. When 
 he was introduced he dropped his ring, and the 
 motion he made to recover it from the ground 
 was mistaken for the most submissive homage, 
 and Ismenias had a satisfactory audience of the 
 monarch. 
 
 IsocRATEs, a celebrated orator, son of Theo- 
 dorus, a rich musical insirument-maker at 
 Athens, He was taught in the school of Gor- 
 gias and Prodicus, but his oratorical abilities 
 were never displayed in public, and Isocrates 
 was prevented by an unconquerable timidity 
 from speaking in the popular assemblies. He 
 opened a school of eloquence at Athens, wheie 
 he distinguished himself by the number, charac- 
 ter, and fame of his pupils, and by the immense 
 riches which he amassed. He was intimate 
 with Philip of Macedon, and regularly corre- 
 sponded with him; and to his familiarity with 
 that monarch the Athenians were indebted for 
 some of the few peaceful years which they pass- 
 ed. The aspiring ambition of Philip, how- 
 ever, displeased Isocrates ; and the defeat of the 
 Athenians at Cheronceahad such an effeci upon 
 472 
 
 his spirits, that he did not survive the disgrace 
 of his country, but died, after he had been four 
 days without taking any aliment, in the 99th 
 year of his age, about 338 years before Christ. 
 Isocrates has always been much admired for the 
 sweetness and graceful simplicity of his style, 
 for the harmony of his expressions, and the dig- 
 nity of his language. The conduct of the Athe- 
 nians against Socrates highly displeased him, 
 and, in spite of all the undeserved unpopularity 
 of that great philosopher, he put on mourning 
 the day of his death. About 31 of his orations 
 are extant. Isocrates was honoured after death 
 with a brazen statue by Timotheus, one of his 
 pupils, and Aphareus, his adopted son. The 
 best editions of Isocrates are that of Battie, 2 
 vols. 8vo. Cantab. 1729, and that of Augur, 3 
 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1782. Plut. de 10 Orat. &c. 
 Cic. Orat. 20 de Inv. 2, c. 126. in Brut. c. 15. 
 de Orat. 2, c. 6. — Q,ui7itilL 2, &c. — Pater c. 1, 
 c;16. 
 
 IsTHMiA, sacred games among the Greeks, 
 which received their name from the Isthmus of 
 Corinth, where they were observed and cele- 
 brated in commemoration of Melicerta, They 
 were interrupted after they had been celebrated 
 with great regularity during some years, and 
 Theseus at last reinstituted them in honour of 
 Neptune, whom he publicly called his father. 
 These games were observed every third, or rath- 
 er fifth year, and held so sacred and inviolable, 
 that even a public calamity could not prevent 
 the celebration. When Corinth was destroyed 
 by Mummius, the Roman general, they were 
 observed with the usual solemnity, and the 
 Sicyonians were entrusted with the superin- 
 tendence, which had been before one of the 
 privileges of the ruined Corinthians. The years 
 were reckoned by the celebration of the Isth- 
 mian games, as among the Romans from the 
 consular government. Paus. 1, c. 44, 1. 2, c. 
 1 and 2. — Plin. 4, c. 5. — Plut. in Thes. 
 
 Italds. Vid. Part III, 
 
 JuBA, I. a king of Numidia and Mauritania, 
 who succeeded his father Hiempsal, and favour- 
 ed the cause of Pompey against J. Cassar, He 
 defeatedCurio, whom Caesar had sent to Africa, 
 and after the battle of Pharsalia he joined his 
 forces to those of Scipio, He was conquered 
 in a battle at Thapsus, and totally abandoned 
 by his subjects. He killed himself with Pe- 
 treius, who had shared his good fortune and his 
 adversity. His kingdom became a Roman pro- 
 vince, of which Sallust was the first governor. 
 Plut. in Pomp, tf* Cixs. — Flor. 4, c, 12. — Suet, 
 in Cces. c, 35. — Dion. 41. — Mela, 1, c. 6. — 
 Lucan. 3, &c. — CcBsar. de Bell. Civ. 2. — Pa- 
 
 terc. 2, c. 54. II. The second of that name 
 
 was the son of Juba the First. He was led 
 among the captives of Rome to adorn the tri- 
 umph of Caesar. He gained the hearts of the 
 Romans by the courteousness of his manners, 
 and Augustus rewarded his fidelity by giving 
 him in marriage Cleopatra, the daughter of An- 
 tony, and conferring upon him the title of king, 
 and making him master of all the territories 
 which his father once possessed. Juba wrote a 
 history of Rome in Greek, which is often quoted 
 and commended by the ancients, but of which 
 onlv a few fragments remain. He also wrote 
 on the history of Arabia and the antiquities of 
 Assyria, chiefly collected from Berosus. Be- 
 
JU 
 
 HISTORY, &.C. 
 
 JU 
 
 sides these, he composed some treatises upon 
 the drama, Roman antiquities, the nature of 
 animals, painting, grammar, &c. now lost. 
 Strab. 11.— Suet, in Col. 26.—Flin. 5, c. 25 and 
 32.— Dion. 51, &c. 
 
 JuGURTHA, the illegitimate son of Manasta- 
 bal, the brother of Micipsa. Micipsa and Manas- 
 tabal were the sons of Massinissa, king of Nu- 
 midia. Micipsa, who had inherited his father's 
 kingdom, educated his nephew, with his two 
 sons Adherbal and Hiempsal ; but as he was of 
 an aspiring disposition, he sent him with a body 
 of troops to the assistance of Scipio, who was be- 
 sieging Numantia, hoping to lose a youth whose 
 ambition seemed to threaten the tranquillity of 
 his children. His hopes were frustrated; Ju- 
 gurthashowed himself brave and active, and en- 
 deared himself to the Roman general. Micipsa 
 appointed him successor to his kingdom with his 
 two sons, but the kindness of the father proved 
 fatal to the children. Jugurtha destroyed Hiemp- 
 sal, and stripped Adherbal of his possessions, 
 and obliged him to fly to Rome for safety. The 
 Romans listened to the well-grounded com- 
 plaints of Adherbal, but Jugurtha's gold prevail- 
 ed among the senators, and the suppliant mon- 
 arch, forsaken in his distress, perished by the 
 snares of his enemy. Caecilius Metell us was at 
 last sent against Jugurtha, and his firmness and 
 success soon reduced the crafty Numidian, and 
 obliged him to fly among his savage neighbours 
 for support. Marius and Sylla succeeded Me- 
 tellus, and fought with equal success. Jugurtha 
 was at last betrayed by his father-in-law Boc- 
 chus, from whom he claimed assistance, and he 
 was delivered into the hands of Sylla, after car- 
 rying on a war of five years. He was exposed 
 to the view of the Roman people, and dragged 
 in chains to adorn the triumph of Marius. He 
 was afterwards put in a prison, where he died 
 six days after of hunger, B. C. 106. The name 
 and the wars of Jugurtha have been immortal- 
 ized by the pen of Sallust. Sallust. in Jug. — 
 Flor. 3, c. \.—Paterc. 2, c. 10, &c.—Plut. in 
 Mar. and Syll. — Eutrop. 4, c. 3. 
 
 Julia Lex, prima de provinciis, by J. Caesar, 
 A. U. C. 691. It confirmed the freedom of all 
 Greece ; it ordained that the Roman magistrates 
 should act there as judges ; that the governors, 
 at the expiration of their office, should leave a 
 scheme of their accounts in two cities of their 
 province ; that the provincial governors should 
 not accept of a golden crown, unless they were 
 honoured with a triumph by the senate ; that no 
 supreme commander should go out of his pro- 
 vince, enter any dominions, lead an army, or 
 engage in a war, without the previous appro- 
 bation and command of the Roman senate and 
 
 people. Another, de Sumptibus, in the age 
 
 of Augustus. It limited the expense of provi- 
 sions on the dies profesti, or days appointed for 
 the transaction of business, to 200 sesterces ; on 
 common calendar festivals to 300 ; and on all 
 extraordinary occasions, such as marriages, 
 
 births, &c. to 1000. Another, de provinciis, 
 
 by J. Csesar, dictator. It ordained that no 
 pretorian province should be held more than 
 one year, and a consular province more than two 
 
 years. Another, called also Campana agra- 
 
 ria, by the same, A. U. C. 691. It required 
 that ail the lands of Campania, formerly rented 
 according to the estimation of the state, should 
 Part II.— 3 O 
 
 be divided among the plebeians, and that all the 
 members of the senate should bind themselves 
 by an oath to establish, confirm, and protect, 
 that law. Another, de civitate, by L. J. Cae- 
 sar, A. U. C. 664. It rewarded with the name 
 and privileges of citizens of Rome all such as, 
 during the civil wars, had remained the con- 
 stant friends of the republican liberty. When 
 that civil war was at an end, all the Italians 
 were admitted as free denizens, and composed 
 
 eight new tribes. Another, de judicibus, by 
 
 J. Caesar. It confirmed the Pompeian law in a 
 certain manner, requiring the judges to be cho- 
 sen from the richest people in every century, al- 
 lowing the senators and knights in the number, 
 
 and excluding the tribuni cerarii. Another, 
 
 de ambitu, by Augustus. It restrained the illi- 
 cit measures used at elections, and restored to 
 the comitia their ancient privileges, which had 
 been destroyed by the ambition and bribery of 
 
 J. Caesar. Another, by Augustus, de adulte- 
 
 rio and pudicitia. It punished adultery with 
 death. It was afterwards confirmed and en- 
 forced by Domitian. Juverial. Sat. 2, v. 30, 
 
 alludes to it. Another, called also Papia, or 
 
 Papia PoppcBa, which was the same as the fol- 
 lowing, only enlarged by the consuls Papius and 
 
 Poppaeaus, A. U. C. 762. Another, de mari- 
 
 tandis ordinibus, by Augustus. It proposed re- 
 wards to such as engaged in matrimony, of a 
 particular description. It inflicted punishment 
 on celibacy, and permitted the patricians, the 
 senators and sons of senators excepted, to inter- 
 marry with the libertini, or children of those 
 that had been liberti, or servants manumitted. 
 Horace alludes to it when he speaks of lex ma~ 
 
 rita. Another, de magestate, by J. Caesar. 
 
 It punished with aqua et ignis inter dictio all 
 such as were found guilty of the crimen majes- 
 tatis, or treason against the state. 
 
 Julia, I. a daughter of J. Caesar, by Cornelia, 
 famous for her personal charms and for her vir- 
 tues. She married Corn, Caepio, whom her fa- 
 ther obliged her to divorce to marry Pompey the 
 Great. Her amiable disposition more strongly 
 cemented the friendship of the father and of the 
 son-in-law; and her sudden death in child-bed, 
 B. C. 53, broke all ties of intimacy and relation- 
 ship, and soon produced a civil war. Plut. 
 
 II. The mother of M. Antony. III. An aunt 
 
 of J. Caesar, who married C. Marius. Her fu- 
 neral oration was publicly pronounced by her 
 nephew. IV. The only daughter of the em- 
 peror Augustus, remarkable for her beauty, ge- 
 nius, and debaucheries. She was tenderly lov- 
 ed by her father, who gave her in marriage to 
 Marcellus ; after whose death she was given to 
 Agrippa, by whom she had five children. She 
 became a second time a widow, and was mar- 
 ried to Tiberius. Her lasciviousness and de- 
 baucheries so disgusted her husband, that he 
 retired from the court of the emperor ; and Au- 
 gustus, informed of her lustful propensities and 
 infamy, banished her from his sight, and con- 
 fined her in a small island on the coast of Cam- 
 pania. She was starved to death, A. D. 14, 
 by order of Tiberius, who had succeeded to 
 
 Augustus as emperor of Rome. Phd. V. 
 
 A daughter of the emperor Titus. VI. A 
 
 daughter of Julia, the wife of Agrippa, who 
 married Lepidus, and was banished for her li- 
 centiousness. VII. A daughter of Germani- 
 
 473 
 
JU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 jir 
 
 cus and Agrippina, born in the island of Lesbos, 
 A. D. 17. She married a senator called M. 
 Vinucius, at the age of 16, and enjoyed the 
 most unbounded favours in the court of her bro- 
 ther Caligula, who is accused of being her first 
 seducer^ She was banished by Caligula on 
 suspicion of conspiracy. Claudius recalled her ; 
 but she was soon after banished by the powerful 
 intrigues of Messalina, and put to death about 
 the 24th year of her age, Seneca, as some sup- 
 pose,was banished to Corsica for having seduced 
 
 ner. VIII. A celebrated woman, born in 
 
 Phoenicia. She is also called Domna. She ap- 
 plied herself to the study of geometry and philo- 
 sophy, &c., and rendered herself conspicuous as 
 much by her mental as by her personal charms. 
 She married Septimius Severus, who, twenty 
 years after this matrimonial connexion, was in- 
 vested with the imperial purple. She is even 
 said to have conspired against the emperor ; but 
 she resolved to blot, by patronising literature, 
 the spots which her debauchery and extrava- 
 gance had rendered indelible in the eyes of vir- 
 tue. Her influence, after the death of Severus, 
 was for some time productive of tranquillity and 
 cordial union between his two sons and succes- 
 sors. Geta at last, however, fell a sacrifice to 
 his brother Caracalla, and Julia was even 
 wounded in the arm while she attempted to 
 screen her favourite son from his brother's 
 dagger. She starved herself when her ambi- 
 tious views were defeated by Macrinus, who 
 aspired to the empire in preference to her, 
 after the death of Caracalla. 
 
 JuLiANUs, a son of Julius Constantius, the 
 brother of Constantine the Great, born at Con- 
 stantinople. The massacre which attended the 
 elevation of the sons of Constantine the Great 
 to the throne, nearly proved fatal to Julian and 
 to his brother Gallus. The two brothers were 
 privately educated together, and taught the doc- 
 trine of the Christian religion, and exhorted to 
 be modest, temperate, and to despise the grati- 
 fication of all sensual pleasures. Julian was some 
 time after appointed over Gaul, with the title of 
 Caesar, by Constans, and there he showed him- 
 self worthy of the imperial dignity by his pru- 
 dence, valour, and the numerous victories he ob- 
 tained over the enemies of Rome in Gaul and 
 Germany. His mildness, as well as his conde- 
 scension, gained him the hearts of his soldiers ; 
 and when Constans, to whom Julian was be- 
 come suspected, ordered him to send him part of 
 his forces to go into the east, the army imme- 
 diately mutinied, and promised fidelity to their 
 leader, by refusing to obey the orders of Con- 
 stans. They even compelled Julian by threats 
 and entreaties to accept of the title of indepen- 
 dent emperor and of Augustus ; and the death 
 of Constans, which soon after happened, left 
 him sole master of the Roman empire, A. D, 
 361. Julian then disclosed his religious senti- 
 ments, and publicly disavowed the doctrines of 
 Christianity, and offered solemn sacrifices to all 
 the gods of ancient Rome. This change of re- 
 ligious opinion was attributed to the austerity 
 with which he received the precepts of Chris- 
 tianity; or, according to others, to the literary 
 conversation and persuasive eloquence of some 
 of the Athenian philosophers. From this cir- 
 cumstance, therefore, Julian has been called 
 Apostate. After he had made his public entry at 
 474 
 
 Constantinople, he determined to continue the 
 Persian war, and check those barbarians who 
 had for 60 years derided the indolence of the 
 Roman emperors. Wheii he had crossed the 
 Tigris he burned his fleet, and advanced with 
 boldness into the enemy's country. But the 
 country of Assyria had been left desolate by the 
 Persians, and Julian, without corn or provisions, 
 was obliged to retire. As he could not convey 
 his army again over the stream of the Tigris, 
 he took the resolution of marching up the sources 
 of the river, and imitating the bold return of the 
 ten thousand Greeks. As he advanced through 
 the country, he defeated the officers of Sapor, 
 the king of Persia ; but an engagement proved 
 fatal to him, and he received a deadly wound as 
 he animated his soldiers to battle. He expired 
 the following night, the 27th of June, A. D. 363, 
 in the 32d year of his age. His last moments 
 were spent in a conversation with a philosopher 
 about the immortality of the soul, and he breath- 
 ed his last without expressing the least sorrow 
 for his fate or the suddenness of his death. Ju- 
 lian's character has been admired by some and 
 censured by others, "but the malevolence of his 
 enemies arises from his apostacy. He was mo- 
 derate in his successes, merciful to his enemies, 
 and amiable in his character. He was frugal in 
 his meals, and slept little, reposing himself on a 
 skin spread on the ground. He awoke at mid- 
 night, and spent the rest of the night in reading 
 or writing, and issued early fi om his tent to pay 
 his daily visit to the guards around the camp. 
 When he passed throughAntioch in his Persian 
 expedition, the inhabitants of the place, offend- 
 ed at his religious sentiments, ridiculed his per- 
 son, and lampooned him in satirical verses. The 
 emperor made use of the same.arms for his de- 
 fence ; and rather than destroy his enemies by 
 the sword, he condescended to expose them to 
 derision, and unveil their follies and debauche- 
 ries in a humorous work ; which he called Miso- 
 Tpogon,oT beard-hater. He was buried at Tarsus, 
 and afterwards his body was conveyed to Con- 
 stantinople. He distinguished himself by his 
 writings as well as by his military character. 
 Besides his Misopogon, he wrote Ihe history of 
 Gaul. He also wrote two letters to the Athe- 
 nians ; and besides, there are now extant sixty- 
 four letters on various subjects. His Ca^sars is 
 the most famous of all his compositions, being a 
 satire upon all the Roman emperors, from Julius 
 Cassar to Constantine. It is written in the form 
 of a dialogue, in which the author severely at- 
 tacks the venerable character of M. Aurelius, 
 whom he had proposed to himself as a pattern ; 
 and speaks in a scurrilous and abusive language 
 of his relation Constantine. It has been observ- 
 ed of Julian, that, like Caesar, he could employ 
 at the same time his hand to write, his ear to 
 listen, his eyes to read, and his mind to dictate. 
 The best edition of his works is that of Span- 
 heim, fol. Lips. 1696 ; and of the Caesars, that 
 of Heusinsfer, 8vo. Gothas, 1741. Julian. — 
 Socrat. — Eutrop. — Amm. — Liban, &c. 
 
 JuLii, a family of Alba, brought to Rome by 
 Romulus, where they soon rose to the great- 
 est honours of the state. J. Caesar and Augus- 
 tus were of this family ; and it was said, per- 
 haps through flattery, that they were lineally de- 
 scended from uEneas, the founder of Lavinium. 
 
 Julius Cjesar, I. Vid. Casar. 11. Agri- 
 
JTJ 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LA 
 
 cola, a governor of Britain, A. C. 80, who first 
 discovered that Britain was an island by sailing 
 round it. His son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, 
 has written an account of his life. Tacit, in 
 
 Agric. III. Obsequens, a Latin writer, who 
 
 flourished A. D. 214. The best edition of his 
 book, de prodigiis, is that of Oudendorp, 8vo. 
 
 L. Bat. 1730. IV. S. a prastor, &c. Cic. 
 
 ad Her. 2, c. 13. V. Solinus, a writer. Vid. 
 
 Solinus. VI. Titianus, a writer in the age 
 
 of Diocletian. His son became famous for his 
 oratorical powers, and was made preceptor in 
 the family of Maximinus. Julius wrote a his- 
 tory of all the provinces of the Roman empire, 
 greatly commended by the ancients. He also 
 wrote some letters, in which he happily imitated 
 the style and elegance of Cicero, for which he 
 
 was called the ape of his age. VII. Con- 
 
 stantius, the father of the emperor Julian, was 
 killed at the accession of the sons of Constan- 
 tine to the throne, and his son nearly shared his 
 
 fate. VIII. Pollux. Vid. Pollux. IX. 
 
 Proculus, a Roman, who solemnly declared to 
 his countrymen, after Romulus had disappeared, 
 that he had seen him above in human shape, 
 and that he had ordered him to tell the Romans 
 to honour him as a god. Julius was believed. 
 
 Plut. in Rom. — Ovid. X. Florus. Vid. 
 
 Florus: XI. L. Caesar, a Roman consul, 
 
 uncle to Antony the triumvir, the father of Cae- 
 sar the dictator. He died as he was putting on 
 
 his shoes. XII. Maximinus, a Thracian, 
 
 who, from a shepherd, became an emperor of 
 Rome. Vid. Maximinus. 
 
 ItJLUS, I. the name of Ascanius, the son of 
 .^neas. Vid. Ascanius. II. A son of As- 
 canius, born in Lavinium. In the succession to 
 the kingdom of Alba, ^neas Sylvius, the son 
 of JEneas and Lavinia, was preferred to him. 
 He was, however, made chief priest, Dionys. 
 1. — Virg. j^n. 1, V. 271. Vid. Antonius Julius. 
 
 JtJNiA Lex, Sacrata, by L. Junius Brutus, the 
 first tribune of the people, A. U. C. 260. It 
 ordained that the person of the tribune should 
 be held sacred and inviolable; that an appeal 
 might be made from the consuls to the tribune ; 
 and ihat no senator should be able to exercise 
 
 the office of a tribune. Another, A. U. C. 
 
 627, v/hich excluded all foreigners from enjoy- 
 ing the privileges or names of Roman citizens. 
 
 JuNiA, I. a niece of Cato of Utica, who married 
 Cassius, and died 64 years after her husband 
 had killed himself at the battle of Philippi.- 
 
 II. Calvina, a beautiful Roman lady, descend- 
 ed from Augustus. She was banished by Clau- 
 dius, and recalled by Nero. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Junius, (Lupus,) a senator who accused Vi- 
 tellius of aspiring to the sovereignty, &c. Tacit. 
 Ann. 12, c. 42. Vid. Brutus. 
 
 JuNONALiA, and Junonia, festivals at Rome in 
 honour of Juno, the same as the Heraea of the 
 Greeks. Vid. Hercea. Liv. 27, c. 37. 
 
 JusTiNUs M. JuNiANUs, I. a Latin historian in 
 the age of Antoninus, who epitomized the his- 
 tory of Trogus Pompeius. This epitome, ac- 
 cording to some traditions, was the cause that 
 the comprehensive work of Trogus was lost. It 
 comprehends the historj' of the Assyrian, Per- 
 sian, Grecian, Macedonian, and Roman em- 
 pires, &c. in a neat and elegant style. It is 
 replete with many judicious reflections and 
 animated harangues; but the author is often 
 
 too credulous, and sometimes examines events 
 too minutely, while others are related only in a 
 few words, too often obscure. The indecency 
 of many of his expressions is deservedly censu- 
 red. The best editions of Justin are that of Ab. 
 Gronovius. Svo. L. Bat. 1719, that of Hearne, 
 8 vo. Oxon, 1703, and that of Barbou, 12mo. Pa- 
 ris, 1770. II. Martyr, a Greek father, for- 
 merly a Platonic philosopher, born in Palestine. 
 He died in Egypt, and wrote two apologies for the 
 Christians, besides his dialogue with a Jew, two 
 treatises, &c. in a plain and unadorned style. 
 The best editions of Justin Martyr are that of 
 Paris, fol. 1636. Of his apologies, 2 vols. Svo. 
 1700 and 1703, and Jebb's dialogue with Try- 
 
 pho, published in London, 1722. III. An 
 
 emperor of the east, who reigned nine years, 
 
 and died A. D. 526. IV. Another, who died 
 
 A. D. 564, after a reign of 38 years. V. An- 
 
 other,whodied577,A.D. after a reign of ISyears. 
 JuvENALis, (Decius Junius,) a poet, born at 
 Aquinum in Italy. He came early to Rome, 
 and passed some time in declaiming; after 
 which he applied himself to write satires, 16 of 
 which are extant. He spoke with virulence 
 against the partiality of Nero for the pantomime 
 Paris; and though all his satire and declama- 
 tion were pointed against this ruling favourite 
 of the emperor, yet Juvenal lived in security 
 during the reign of Nero. After the death of 
 Nero, the effects of the resentment of Paris were 
 severely felt, and the satirist was sent by Domi- 
 tian as governor on the frontiers of Egypt. Ju- 
 venal was then in the 80th year of his age, and 
 he suffered much from the trouble which at- 
 tended his office, or rather his exile. He return- 
 ed, however, to Rome after the death of Paris, 
 and died in the reign of Trajan, A. D. 128. 
 His writings are fiery and animated, and they 
 abound with humour. He may be called, and 
 with reason, perhaps, the last of the Roman po- 
 ets. After him poetry decayed, and nothing 
 more claims our attention as a perfect poetical 
 composition. The best editions are those of 
 Casaubon, 4to. L. Bat. 1695, with Persius, and 
 of Hawkey, Dublin, 12mo. 1746, and of Grse- 
 vius cum notis variorum, Svo. L. Bat. 1684. 
 
 L. 
 
 Labeo, (Antistius,) I. a celebrated lawyer in 
 the age of Augustus, whose views he opposed, 
 and whose offers of the consulship he refused. 
 His works are lost. He was wont to enjoy the 
 company and conversation of the learned for 
 six months, and the rest of the year was spent in 
 writing and composing. His father, of the same 
 name, was one of Caesar's murderers. He kill- 
 ed himself at the battle of Philippi. Horace 1, 
 Sat. 3, V. 82, has unjustly taxed him with insan- 
 ity, because, no doubt, he inveighed against his 
 patrons. Appian Alex. 4. — Siiet. in Aug. 45. 
 II. A tribune of the people at Rome, who 
 
 condemned the censor Metullus to be thrown 
 down from the Tarpeian rock, because he had 
 expelled him from the senate. This rigorous 
 sentence was stopped by the interference of an- 
 other of the tribunes. III. CI. Fabius, a Ro- 
 man consul, A. TJ. C. 571, who obtained a na- 
 val victory over the fleet of the Cretans. He 
 assisted Terence in composing his comedies, 
 
 according to some. TV. Actius, an obscure 
 
 475 
 
LA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LM 
 
 poet, who reconciled himself to the favour of 
 Nero by an incorrect translation of Homer into 
 Latin. The work is lost, and only this curious 
 line is preserved by an old scholiast; Perseus, 
 1, V. 4 :— 
 
 Crudum manducus Priamum, Priamique Pi- 
 sinnos. 
 
 Laberius, (J, Decimus,) a Roman knight, 
 famous for his poetical talents in writing panto- 
 mimes. J. Csesar compelled him to act one of 
 his characters on the stage. The poet consent- 
 ed with great reluctance, but he showed his re- 
 sentment during the acting of the piece, by 
 throwing severe aspersions upon J. Caesar, by 
 warning the audience against his tyranny, and 
 by drawing upon him the eyes of the whole 
 theatre. Cassar, however, restored him to the 
 rank of knight, which he had lost by appearing 
 on the stage ; but to his mortification, when he 
 went to take his seat among the knights, no one 
 oifered to make room for him; and even his 
 friend Cicero said, Recepissem te nisi anguste 
 sederem. Laberius was offended at the affecta- 
 tion and insolence of Cicero, and reflected upon 
 his unsettled and pusillanimous behaviour du- 
 ring the civil wars of Csesar and Pompey, by the 
 reply of Mirum si anguste sedes, qui soles dua- 
 bus sellis sedere. Laberius died ten months af- 
 ter the murder of J. Csesar. Some fragments 
 remain of his poetry. Macrob. Sat, 2, c. 3 and 
 7. — Horat. 1, sat. 10. — Senec. de Controv. 18. — 
 Suet, in Cess. 
 
 Labienus, I. an officer of Caesar in the wars 
 of Gaul. He deserted to Pompey, and was kill- 
 ed at the battle of Munda. Cas. Bell. G. 6, &c. 
 
 Liican. 5, v. 346. II. A Roman who fol- 
 lowed the interest of Brutus and Cassius, and 
 became general of the Parthians against Rome. 
 He wa»s conquered by the officers of Augustus. 
 
 Strab. 13 and U.—Dio. 48. III. Titus, a 
 
 declaimer and historian, is chiefly known from 
 some passages in Seneca, the rhetorician, who 
 informs us that his history was marked by an 
 excessive rage for liberty, and its vituperation 
 of all ranks and classes of men. He used to 
 read it aloud in assemblies of his fellow-citizens : 
 but he was wont to pass over the more violent 
 passages, saying, that what he thus omitted 
 would be perused after his death. He was the 
 first author whose works were burned by public 
 authority. They were condemned to the flames, 
 towards the close of the reign of Augustus, by 
 a decree of the senate. Labienus could not 
 endure to survive the records of his genius : he 
 made himself be carried to the sepulchre of his 
 ancestors, where he was shut in, and expired. 
 It would appear, however, that all the copies of 
 Labienus's history had not been destroyed ; for 
 Caligula, while affecting to play the moralist 
 and the patriot at the commencement of his 
 reign, allowed his writings to be sought after, 
 and read — since, as he remarked, it was of the 
 utmost importance to him to encourage such 
 compositions, in order that all the actions of 
 his life should be transmitted to posterity. Suet, 
 in Cal. 16. — Seneca. 
 
 Labinetus, or Labynetus, a king of Baby- 
 lon, &c. Herodot. 1, c. 74. 
 
 Laches, I. an Athenian sent with Carias at 
 the head of a fleet in the first expedition under- 
 taken against Sicily in the Peloponnesian war. 
 476 
 
 Justin. 4, c. 3. II. An artist who finished 
 
 the Colossus of Rhodes. 
 
 Lacidas, a Greek philosopher ofCyrene, who 
 flourished B. C. 241. His father's name was 
 Alexander. He was disciple of Arcesilaus, 
 whom he succeeded in the government of the 
 second academy. He was greatly esteemed by 
 king Attains, who gave him a garden, where 
 he spent his hours in study. He taught his 
 disciples to suspect their judgment, and never 
 speak decisively. He disgraced himself by the 
 magnificent funeral with which he honoured a 
 favoiirite goose, and died through excess of 
 drinking. Diog. 4. 
 
 Lagtantius, a celebrated Christian writer, 
 whose principal works are de ira divind, de Dei 
 operibus, and his divine institutions, in seven 
 books, in which he proves the truth of the Chris- 
 tian religion, refutes the objections, and attacks 
 the illusions and absurdities of Paganism. The 
 expressive purity, elegance, and energy of his 
 style have gained him the name of the Christian 
 Cicero. He died A. D. 325. The best editions 
 of his works are that of Sparke, 8vo. Oxon. 
 1684, that of Biineman, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1739, 
 and that of Du Fresnoy, 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 
 1748. 
 
 L^LiANus, a general, proclaimed emperor in 
 Gaul by his soldiers, A. D. 268, after the death 
 of Gallienus. He was conquered by another 
 general, called Posthumus, who also aspired to 
 the imperial purple. 
 
 L^Lius, C. a Roman consul, A. U. C. 614, 
 surnamed Sapiens^ so intimate with Africanus 
 the younger, that Cicero represents him, in his 
 treatise De Amicitid, as explaining the real na- 
 ture of friendship, with its attendant pleasures. 
 He made war with success against Viriathus. 
 It is said that he assisted Terence in the com- 
 position of his comedies. 
 
 Lxna, and Le^na, the mistress of Harmo- 
 dius and Aristogiton. Being tortured because 
 she refused to discover the conspirators, she bit 
 off her tongue, totally to frustrate the violent 
 efforts of her executioners. 
 
 Laertes, a king of Ithaca, son of Arcesius 
 and Chalcomedusa, who married Anticlea, the 
 daughter of Autolycus. Ulysses was treated 
 with paternal care by Laertes, though not really 
 his son, and Laertes ceded to him his crown, and 
 retired into the country, where he spent his lime 
 in gardening. He was found in this mean em- 
 ployment by his son at his return from the Tro- 
 jan war, after 20 years' absence ; and imme- 
 diately the father and son repaired to the palace 
 of Penelope, the wife of Ulysses, whence all the 
 suiters who daily importuned the princess were 
 forcibly removed. Laertes was one of the Ar- 
 gonauts, according to Apollodorus, 1, c. 9. — 
 Homer. Od. 11 and 2i.—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 32. 
 Heroid. 1, v. 98. 
 
 Laertius Diogenes. Vid. Diogenes. 
 
 Ljeta, the wife of the emperor Gration, cele- 
 brated for her humanity and generous senti- 
 ments. 
 
 L^TDs, I. a Roman whom Commodus con- 
 demned to be put to death. This violence raised 
 Laetus against Commodus ; he conspired against 
 
 him, and raised Perlinax to the throne. II. 
 
 A general of the emperor Severus, put to death 
 for his treachery to the emperor ; or, according 
 to others, on account of his popularity. 
 
LA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LA 
 
 L^JviNUs, a Roman consul sent against Pyr- 
 rhus, A. U, C. 474, He was defeated. 
 
 Lagus, a Macedonian, of mean extraction. 
 He received in marriage Arsinoe, the daughter 
 of Meleager, who was then pregnant by king 
 Philip, and being willing to hide the disgrace of 
 his Wife, he exposed the child in the woods. An 
 eagle preserved the life of the infant, and La- 
 gus then adopted the child as his own, and call- 
 ed him Ptolemy, This Ptolemy became king 
 of Egypt after the death of Alexander. Ac- 
 cording to other accounts, Arsinoe was nearly 
 related to Philip king of Macedonia, and her 
 marriage with Lagus was not considered as dis- 
 honourable, because he was opulent and power- 
 ful. The first of the Ptolemies is called Lagus, 
 to distinguish him from his successors of the 
 same name ; and the surname of Lagidas was 
 transmitted to all his descendants on the Egyp- 
 tian throne till the reign of Cleopatra, Antony's 
 mistress, Plutarch mentions an anecdote, which 
 serves to show how far the legitimacy of Ptole- 
 my was believed in his age, A pedantic gram- 
 marian, says the historian, once displaying his 
 great knowledge of antiquity in the presence of 
 Ptolemy, the king suddenly interrupted him 
 with the question of, Prmj, tell me, sir, who 
 was the father of Peleus ? Tell me, replied the 
 grammarian, without hesitation, tell me, if you 
 can, O king I 2vho the father of Lagus was? 
 This reflection on the meanness of the mon- 
 arch's birth did not in the least irritate his re- 
 sentment, though the courtiers all glowed with 
 indignation. Ptolemy praised the humour of 
 the gramniarian, and showed his moderation 
 and the mildness of his temper, by taking him 
 under his patronage. Paus. Attic. — Justin. 13. 
 — Curt. 4. — Plut. de ira cohib. — L/wcan. 1, v. 
 684.— iteZ. 1, V, 196. 
 
 Lais, a celebrated courtesan, daughter of 
 Timandra, the mistress of Alcibiades, born at 
 Hyccara in Sicily, She was carried away from 
 her native country into Greece, when Nicias, 
 the Athenian general invaded Sicily, She first 
 began to sell her favours at Corinth for 10,000 
 drachmas ; and the immense number of princes, 
 noblemen, philosophers, orators and plebeians, 
 who courted her embraces, show how much com- 
 mendation is owed to her personal charms. The 
 expenses which attended her pleasures gave 
 rise to the proverb of Non ciiivis homini con- 
 tingit adire Corinthum. Even Demosthenes 
 himself visited Corinth for the sake of Lais ; 
 but when he was informed by the courtesan 
 that admittance to her bed was to be bought at 
 the enormous sum of about 200Z. English money, 
 the orator departed, and observed that he would 
 not buy repentance at so dear a price. The 
 charms which had attracted Demosthenes to 
 Corinth had no influence upon Xenocrates. 
 "When Lais saw the philosopher unmoved by 
 her beauty, she visited his house herself ; but 
 there she had no reason to boast of the licen- 
 tiousness or easy submission of Xenocrates. 
 Diogenes the cynic was one of her warmest ad- 
 rairero, and though filthy in his dress and man- 
 ners, yet he gained her heart and enjoyed her 
 most unbounded favours. Lais ridiculed the 
 austerity of philosophers, observing that the 
 sages and philosophers of the age were not above 
 the rest of mankind, for she found them at her 
 door as often as the rest of the Athenians, The 
 
 success which her debaucheries met at Corinth 
 encouraged Lais to pass into Thessaly, and more 
 particularly to enjoy the company of a favourite 
 youth called Hippostratus. She was, however, 
 disappointed ; the women of the place, jealous 
 of her charms, and apprehensive of her corrupt- 
 ing the fidelity of their husbajids,assassinated her 
 in the temple of Venus, about 340 years before 
 the Christian era. Some suppose that there 
 were two persons of this name, a mother and 
 her daughter. Cic. ad Fam. 9, ep, 26. — Ovid. 
 Amor. 1, el, 5. — Plut. in. Alcib. — Paus. 2, c. 2, 
 
 Lamachus, I, a son of Xenophanes, sent into 
 Sicily with Nicias. He was killed B. C, 414, 
 before Syracuse, where he displayed much cour- 
 age and intrepidity, Plut. in Alcib. II. A. 
 
 governor of Heraclea in Pontus, who betrayed 
 his trust to Mithridates, after he had invited all 
 the inhabitants to a sumptuous feast. 
 
 Lamia, a famous courtesan, mistress to De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes. Plut. in Dem. — Alhen. 
 13.— JElian. V. H. 13, c, 9. Vid. Parts I. and III. 
 Lamiacum Bellum happened after the death 
 of Alexander, when the Greeks, and particular- 
 ly the Athenians, incited by their orators, re- 
 solved to free Greece from the garrisons of the 
 Macedonians, Leosthenes was appointed com- 
 mander of a numerous force, and marched 
 against Antipater, who then presided overMa- 
 cedonia, Antipater entered Thessaly at the 
 head of 13,000 foot and 600 horse, 'and was 
 beaten by the superior force of the Athenians 
 and of their Greek confederates. Antipater, 
 after this blow, fled to Lamia, B. C, 323, where 
 he resolved, with all the courage and sagacity 
 of a careful general, to maintain a siege with 
 about the 8 or 9000 men that had escaped from 
 the field of battle. Leosthenes, unable to take 
 the city by storm, began to make a regular 
 siege. His operations were delayed by the fre- 
 quent sallies of Antipater ; and Leosthenes be- 
 ing killed by the blow of a stone, Antipater 
 made his escape out of Lamia ; and soon after, 
 with the assistance of the army of Craterus, 
 brought from Asia, he gave the Athenians bat- 
 tle near Cranon; and though only 500 of their 
 men were slain, yet they became so dispirited, 
 that they sued for peace from the conqueror. 
 Plut. in Demost. — Diod. 17. — Justin. 11, &c. 
 
 Lamias ^lius, a governor of Syria, under 
 Tiberius, He was honoured with a public fu- 
 neral by the senate ; and as having been a re- 
 spectable and useful citizen, Horace has dedi- 
 cated his 26 od. lib. 1, to his praises, as also 3 
 od. 17. Tacit. Ann. 6, c, 27, 
 
 Lampedo, a woman ofLacedaemon, who wels 
 daughter, wife, sister, and mother of a king. 
 She lived in the age of Alcibiades, Agrippina, 
 the mother of Claudius, could boast the same 
 honours. Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 22 and 37. — Plut. 
 in Age. — Plato in 1, Ale. — Plin. 7, c, 41. 
 Lampeto. Vid. Part III. 
 Lampridius jElius, a Latin historian in the 
 fourth century, who wrote the lives of some of 
 the Roman emperors. His style is inelegant, 
 and his arrangement injudicious. His life of 
 Commodus, Heliogabalus, Alexander Severus, 
 &c, is still extant, and to be found in the works 
 of the Histories Augustce Scriptores. 
 
 Lampteria, a festival at Pellene in Achaia, 
 in honour of Bacchus, who was surnamed 
 Lampter from \auretv, to shine, because, during 
 477 
 
LA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LE 
 
 this solemnity, which was observed in the night, 
 the worshippers went to the temple of Bac- 
 chus with lighted torches in their hands. Paus. 
 4, c. 21. 
 
 Lamus. Vid. Part III, 
 
 Lanassa, a daughter of Agathocles, who 
 married Pyrrhus, whom she soon after forsook 
 for Demetrius. Plut. 
 
 Laocoon. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Laodamia, a daughter of Alexander, king of 
 Epirus, by Olympia, the daughter of Pyrrhus. 
 She was assassinated in the temple of Diana, 
 where she had fled for safety during a sedition. 
 Her murderer, called Milo, soon after turned 
 his dagger against his own breast, and killed 
 himself. Justin. 28, c. 3. 
 
 Lao DICE, I. a daughter of Agamemnon, call- 
 ed also Electra. Homer 11. 9. II. A sister 
 
 of Mithridates, who married Ariarathes, king 
 of Cappadocia, and afterwards her own brother 
 Mithridates. She attempted to poison Mithri- 
 dates, for which she was put to death. III. 
 
 A queen of Cappadocia, put to death by her sub- 
 jects for poisoning live of her children. tV. 
 
 A sister and wife of Antiochus2d. She put to 
 death Berenice, whom her husband had married. 
 Vid. Antiochus 2d, She was murdered by 
 
 order of Ptolemy Evergetes, B. C. 246. V. 
 
 A daughter of Demetrius, shamefully put to 
 death by Ammonius, the tyrannical minister of 
 
 the vicious Alexander Bala, king of Syria. 
 
 VI. The mother of Seleucus. Nine months 
 before she brought forth, she dreamt that Apollo 
 had presented her with a precious stone, on 
 which was engraved the figure of an anchor, 
 commanding her to deliver it to her son as soon 
 as born. Not only the son that she brought 
 forth, called Seleucus, but also all his successors 
 of the house of the Seleucidae, had the mark of 
 an anchor upon their thigh. Justin. Appian. 
 in Syr. mentions this anchor, though in a dif- 
 ferent manner. 
 
 La5medon. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Largus, a Latin poet, who wrote a poem on 
 the arrival of Antenor in Italy, where he built 
 the town of Padua. He composed with ease 
 and elegance. Ovid, ex Pont. 4 ep. 16, v. 17. 
 
 Lartios Florus, (T.) I. a consul who ap- 
 peased a sedition raised by the poorer citizens, 
 and was the first dictator ever chosen at Rome, 
 B. C. 498. He made Spurius Cassius his mas- 
 ter of horse. Z/i-y. 2, c. 18. II. Spurius, one 
 
 of the three Romans who alone withstood the 
 fury of Porsenna's army at the head of abridge, 
 while the communication was cutting down be- 
 hind them. His companions were Codes and 
 Herminius. Vid. Codes. Liv. 2, c. 10 and 18. 
 
 —Dionys. Hal.— Val. Max. 3, c. 2. The 
 
 name of Lartius has been common to many 
 Romans. 
 
 Lassus, or Lasus, a dithyrambic poet, born at 
 Hermione in Peloponnesus, about 500 years be- 
 fore Christ, and reckoned among the wise men 
 of Greece by some. He was acquainted with 
 music. Some fragments of his poetry are to be 
 found in Athenaeus. He wrote an ode upon 
 the Centaurs, and a hymn to Ceres, without 
 inserting the letter S in the composition. Athen. 
 10. 
 
 LasthenIa, a woman who disguised herself 
 to come and hear Plato's lessons. Diog. 
 
 Lateranus Plautus, a Roman consul elect, 
 478 
 
 A. D. 65. A conspiracy with Piso against the 
 emperor Nero proved fatal to him. He was led 
 to execution, where he refused to confess the 
 associates of the conspiracy, and did not even 
 frown at the executioner, wlio was as guilty as 
 himself; but when a first blow could not sever 
 his head from his body, he looked at the execu- 
 tioner, and shaking his head, he returned it to 
 the hatchet with the greatest composure, and it 
 was cut off. There exists now a celebrated pal- 
 ace at Rome which derives its name from its 
 ancient possessors, the Laterani. 
 
 Laudamia, I. a daughter of Alexander, king 
 of Epirus, and Olympias, daughter of Pyrrhus, 
 killed in a temple of Diana by the enraged pop- 
 ulace. Justin. 28, c. 3. II. The wife of 
 
 Protesilaus. Vid. Laodamia. 
 
 Lavinia. Vid. Part III, 
 
 Laurentalia, certain festivals celebrated at 
 Rome in honour of Laurentia, on the last day 
 of April and the 23d of December. They were, 
 in process of time, part of the Saturnalia. Ovid. 
 Fast. 3, V. 57. 
 
 Leander. Vid Hero. 
 
 Legio, a corps- of soldiers in the Roman ar- 
 mies, whose numbers have been different at dif- 
 ferent times. The legion under Romulus con- 
 sisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, and was soon 
 after augmented to 4000, after the admission of 
 the Sabines into the city. "When Annibal was 
 in Italy it consisted of 5000 soldiers, and after- 
 wards it decreased to 4000, or 4500. Marius 
 made it consist of 6200, besides 700 horse. This 
 was the period of its greatness in numbers. Livy 
 speaks of ten, and even eighteen, legions kept 
 at Rome. They were distributed over the Ro- 
 man empire, and their stations were settled and 
 permanent. The peace of Britain was protect- 
 ed by three legions ; sixteen were stationed on 
 the banks of the Rhine and Danube, viz. two 
 in Lower, and three in Upper Germany ; one in 
 Noricum, one in Rhaetia, three in Mcesia, four 
 in Pannonia, and two in Dacia. Eight were 
 stationed on the Euphrates, six of which re- 
 mained in Syria, and two in Cappadocia; while 
 the remote provinces of Egypt, Africa, and 
 Spain, -were guarded each by a single legion. 
 Besides these, the tranquillity of Rome was pre- 
 served by 20,000 soldiers, who, under the titles 
 of city cohorts and of praetorian guards, watched 
 over the safety of the monarch and of the capi- 
 tal. The legions were distinguished by differ- 
 ent appellations, and generally borrowed their 
 name from the order in which they were first 
 raised, as prima, secunda, tertia, quarta, &c. 
 Besides this distinction, another more expres- 
 sive was generally added, as from the name of 
 the emperor who imbodied them, as Augusta, 
 Claudiana, GaBiana, Flavia, Vlpia, Trajana, 
 Antoniana, &c. ; from the provinces or quar- 
 ters where they were stationed, as Britannicay 
 Cyrenica, Gallica, &c. ; from the provinces 
 which had been subdued by their valour, as 
 Parthica, Scythica, Arabica, Africana, &c. ; 
 from the names of the deities whom their gene- 
 rals particularly worshipped, asMinervia, Apol- 
 linaris, &c. ; or from more trilling accidents, 
 as Martia, Fulminatrix, Rapax^ Adjuirix, &c. 
 Each legion was divided into ten cohorts, each 
 cohort into three mampuli, and every manipu- 
 lus into three centuries or ordines. The chief 
 commander of the legion was called legatuSf 
 
LE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LE 
 
 lieutenant. The standards borae by the legions 
 were various. In the first ages of Rome a wolf 
 was the standard, in honour of Romulus. Ma- 
 rius changed them all for the eagle, being a re- 
 presentation of that bird in silver, holding some- 
 times a thunderbolt in its claws. The Roman 
 eagle ever after remained in use, though Tra- 
 jan made use of the Dragon. 
 
 Leleges. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Lelex, I. an Egyptian, who came with a 
 colony to Megara, where he reigned about 200 
 years before the Trojan war. His subjects were 
 called from him Leleges, and the place Lelegeia 
 
 mcenia. Paus. 3, c. 1. II. A Greek, who 
 
 was the first king of Laconia in Peloponnesus. 
 His subjects were also called Leleges, and the 
 country where he reigned Lelegia. Id. 
 
 Lentui.us, a celebrated family at Rome, which 
 produced many great men in the common- 
 wealth. The most illastrious were, — I. Corn. 
 Lentulus, surnamed Sura. He joined in Cati- 
 line's conspiracy, and assisted in corrupting the 
 Allobroges. He was convicted in full senate by 
 Cicero, and put in prison, and afterwards exe- 
 cuted. II. Cn. Lentulus, surnamed Gcctuli- 
 
 cus, was made consul A. D. 26, and was, some 
 time after, put to death by Tiberius, who was 
 jealous of his great popularity. He wrote a 
 history, nientioned by Suetonius, and attempted 
 
 also poetry. III. P. Corn. Lentulus, a prce- 
 
 tor, defeated by the rebellious slaves in Sicily. 
 IV. P. Lentulus, a friend of Brutus, men- 
 tioned by Cicero, {de Orat. 1, c. 48,) as a great 
 and consummate statesman. The consulship 
 was in the femily of the Lentuli in the years of 
 Rome 427, 479, 517, 518, 553, 555, 598, &c. 
 Tacit. Ann. — Liv. — Flor. — Plin. — Plut. — Eu- 
 trop. 
 
 Leo, I. a native of Byzantium, who flourished 
 350 years before the Christian era. His philo- 
 sophical and political talents endeared him to 
 his countrymen, and he was always sent upon 
 every important occasion as ambassador to 
 Athens, or to the court of Philip, king of Mace- 
 donia. This monarch was sensible that his 
 views and claims to Byzantium would never 
 succeed while it was protected by the vigilance 
 of such a patriotic citizen. To remove him he 
 had recourse to artifice and perfidy. A letter 
 was forged, in which Leo made solemn promises 
 of betraying his country to the king of Mace- 
 donia for money. This was no sooner known 
 than the people ran enraged to the house of 
 Leo, and the philosopher, to avoid their fury, 
 and without attempting his justification, stran- 
 gled himself He had written some treatises 
 upon physic, and also the history of his country 
 and the wars of Philip, in seven books, which 
 
 have been lost. Plut. II. An emperor of 
 
 the east, surnamed the Thracian. He reigned 
 17 years, and died A. D. 474, being succeeded 
 by Leo the Second for 10 months, and after- 
 wards by Zeno. 
 
 Leocorion, a monument and temple erected 
 by the Athenians to Pasithea, Theope, and Eu- 
 bule, daughters of Leos, who immolated them- 
 selves when an oracle had ordered that, to stop 
 the raging pestilence, some of the blood of the 
 citizens must be shed. JElian. 12, c. 28. — Cic. 
 N. D. 3, c. 19. 
 
 Leonatus, one of Alexander's generals. His 
 father's name was Eunus. After the death of 
 
 Alexander, at the general division of the prov- 
 inces, he received for his portion that part of 
 Phrygia which borders on the Hellespont. He 
 aspired to the sovereignty of Macedonia, and 
 secretly communicated to Eumenes the different 
 plans he meant to pursue to execute his designs. 
 He passed from Asia into Europe, to assist Anti- 
 paler against the Athenians, and was killed in 
 a battle which ^as fought soon after his arrival. 
 Historians have mentioned, as an instance of the 
 luxury of Leonatus, that he employed a number 
 of camels to procure some earth from Egypt to 
 wrestle upon, as, in his opinion, it seemed better 
 calculated for that purpose. Plut. in Alex. — 
 Curt. 3, c. 12, 1. 6, c. 8. — Justin. 13, c. 2. — 
 Diod. 18. — C. Nep. in Eum. 
 
 Leonidas, a celebrated king of Lacedaemon, 
 of the family of the Euristhenidae, sent by his 
 countrymen to oppose Xerxes, king of Persia, 
 who had invaded Greece with about five millions 
 of souls. He was offered the kingdom of Greece 
 by the enemy if he would not oppose his views ; 
 but Leonidas heard the proposal with indigna- 
 tion, and observed, that he preferred death for 
 his country to an unjusi though extensive do- 
 minion over it. Before the engagement Leonidas 
 exhorted his soldiers, and told them all to dine 
 heartily, as they were to sup in the realms of 
 Pluto. The battle was fought at Thermopylae, 
 and the 300 Spartans, who alone had refused to 
 abandon the scene of action, withstood the ene- 
 my with such vigour, that they were obliged to 
 retire, wearied and conquered, during three suc- 
 cessive days, till Ephialtes, a Trachinian, had 
 the perfidy to conduct a detachment of Persians 
 by a secret path up the mountains, whence they 
 suddenly fell upon the rear of the Spartans and 
 crushed them to pieces. Only one escaped of 
 the 300 ; he returned home, where he was treat- 
 ed with insult and reproaches for flying inglo- 
 riously from a battle in which his brave com- 
 panions, with their royal leader, had perished. 
 This celebrated battle, which happened 480 
 years before the Christian era, taught the 
 Greeks to despise the number of the Persians, 
 and to rely upon their own strength and intre- 
 pidity. Temples were raised to the fallen hero ; 
 and festivals, called Li?o?ii<ie«, yearly celebrated 
 at Sparta, in which freeborn youths contended. 
 Leonidas, as he departed for the battle from La- 
 cedaemon, gave no other injunction to his wife, 
 but after his death to marry a man of virtue 
 and honour, to raise from her children deserving 
 of the name and greatness of her first husband. 
 Herodot. 7, c. 120, &c.— C. Nep. in Them.— 
 Justin. 2. — Val. Max. 1, c. 6. — Paus. 3, c. 4. — 
 
 Plut. in L/yc. (^ Cleom. II. A king of Sparta 
 
 after Are us II. 257 years before Christ. He 
 was driven from his kingdom by Cleombrotus, 
 his son-in-law, and afterwards re-established. 
 
 Leontium, a celebrated courtesan of Athens, 
 who studied philosophy under Epicurus, and 
 became one of his most renowned pupils. Me- 
 trodorus shared her favours in the most un- 
 bounded manner, and by him she had a son, to 
 whom Epicurus was so partial, that he recom- 
 mended him to his executors on his dying bed. 
 Leontium not only professed herself a warm ad- 
 mirer and follower of the doctrines of Epicurus, 
 but she even wrote a book in support of them 
 against Theophrastus. This book was valuable, 
 if we believe the testimony and criticism of Ci- 
 479 
 
LE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LI 
 
 cero, who praised the purity and elegance of its 
 style, and the truly Attic turn of the expressions. 
 Leontium had also a daughter, called Danae, 
 who married Sophron. Cic. de Nat. D. I, c. 33. 
 
 Leos, a son of Orpheus. Vid. Leocorion. 
 
 Leosthene.s, I. an Athenian general. Vid. 
 
 Lamiacum. Diod. 17 and 18. — Strab. 9. 
 
 II. Another general of Athens, condemned on 
 account of the bad success which attended his 
 arms against Peparelhos. 
 
 Leotychides, I. a king of Sparta, son of 
 Menares, of the family of the Proclidse. He was 
 set over the Grecian fleet, and by his courage 
 and valour he put an end to the Persian war at 
 the famous battle of Mycale. It is said that he 
 cheered the spirits of his fellow-soldiers at My- 
 cale, v/ho were anxious for their countrymen in 
 Greece, by raising a report that a battle had been 
 fought at Plataea, in which the barbarians had 
 been defeated. This succeeded, and though the 
 information was false, yet a battle was fought at 
 Plataea, in which the Greeks obtained the vic- 
 tory the same day that the Persian fleet was de- 
 stroyed at Mycale. Leotychides was accused of 
 a capital crime by the Ephori ; and, to avoid 
 the punishment which his guilt seemed to de- 
 serve, he fled to the temple of Minerva at Tegea, 
 where he perished, B. C. 469, after a reign of 
 22 years. He was succeeded by his grandson 
 Archidamus, who assisted the Phocians in 
 plundering the temple of Delphi. Pans. 3, c. 
 
 7 and 8. — Diod. 11. II. A son of Agis, king 
 
 of Sparta, by Timsea. The legitimacy of his 
 birth was disputed by some, and it was generally 
 believed that he was the son of Alcibiades. He 
 was prevented from ascending the throne of 
 Sparta by Lysander, though Agis had declared 
 him upon his deathbed his lawful son and heir, 
 and Agesilaus was appointed in his place. C. 
 Nep. in Ages. — Plut. — Paus. 3, c. 8. 
 
 Lepida Domitia, a daughter of Drusus and 
 Antonia, great niece to Augustus, and aunt to 
 the emperor Nero. She is described by Taci- 
 tus as infamous in her manners, violent in her 
 temper, and yet celebrated for her beauty. She 
 was put to death by means of her rival Agrip- 
 pina, Nero's mother. Tacit. 
 
 Lepidus, M, ^MiLius, I. a Roman, celebrated 
 as being one of the triumvirs with Augustus 
 and Antony. He was of an illustrious family, 
 and, like the rest of his contemporaries, he was 
 remarkable for his ambition, to which was add- 
 ed a narrowness of mind, and a great deficiency 
 of military abilities. He was sent against Cae- 
 sar's murderers and some time after he leagued 
 with M. Antony, who had gained the heart of 
 his soldiers by artifice, and that of their com- 
 mander by his address. When his influence 
 and power among the soldiers had made him 
 one of the triumvirs, he showed his cruelty, like 
 his colleagues, by his proscriptions ; and even 
 suffered his own brother to be sacrificed to the 
 dagger of the triumvirate. He received Africa 
 as his portion in the division of the empire ; but 
 his indolence soon rendered him despicable in 
 the eyes of his soldiers and of his colleagues ; 
 and Augustus, who was well acquainted with 
 the unpopularity of Lepidus, went to his camp, 
 and obliged him to resign the power to which 
 he was entitled as being a triumvir. After this 
 degrading event, he sunk into obscurity, and 
 retired, by order of Augustus, to Cerceii, a small 
 480 
 
 town on the coast of Latium, where he ended 
 his days in peace, B. C. 13, and where he was 
 forgotten as soon as out of power. Appi<m. — 
 
 Plut. in Aug. — Flor. 4, c. 6 and 7. II. A son 
 
 of Julia, the grand-daughter of Augustus. He 
 was intended by Caius as his successor in the 
 Roman empire. He committed adultery with 
 Agrippina when young, Dion, 59. 
 
 Leptines, I. a son of Herraocrates, of Syra- 
 cuse, brother to Dionysius. He was sent by 
 his brother against the Carthaginians, and ex- 
 perienced so much success that he sunk fifty of 
 their ships. He was afterwards defeated by 
 Mago, and banished by Dionysius. He was 
 killed in a battle with the Carthaginians. Diod, 
 
 15. II. A famous orator at Athens, who 
 
 endeavoured to unload the people from oppres- 
 sive taxes. He was opposed by Demosthenes. 
 
 Lesches, a Greek poet of Lesbos, who flour- 
 ished B. C. 600. Some suppose him to be the 
 author of the little Iliad, of which only a few 
 verses remain quoted by Paus. 10, c. 25. 
 
 Leugippus, a celebrated philosopher of Ab- 
 dera, about 428 years before Christ, disciple of 
 Zeno. He was 'the first who invented the fa- 
 mous system of atoms, and of a vacuum, which 
 was afterwards more fully explained by Demo- 
 critus and Epicurus. Many of his hypotheses 
 have been adopted by the moderns with advan- 
 tage. Diogenes has written his life. Vid. 
 Part III, 
 
 Leucon, a tyrant of Bosphorus, who lived in 
 great intimacy with the Athenians. He was a 
 great patron of the useful arts, and greatly en- 
 couraged commerce. Strab. — Diod. 14. 
 
 LEUTYcniDEs. Vid. Leotychides. 
 
 LiBANius, a celebrated sophist of Antioch, in 
 the age of the emperor Julian. He was edu- 
 cated at Athens, and opened a school at An- 
 tioch, which produced some of the best and most 
 of the literary characters of the age. When 
 Julian had imprisoned the senators of Antioch 
 for their impertinence, Libanius undertook the 
 defence of his fellow-citizens. Some of his ora- 
 tions, and above 1600 of his letters are extant ; 
 they discover much affectation and obscurity of 
 style. Julian submitted his writings to the 
 judgment of Libanius with the greatest con- 
 fidence, and the sophist freely rejected or ap- 
 proved, and showed that he was more attached 
 to the person than the fortune and greatness of 
 his prince. The time of his death is unknown. 
 The best edition of Libanius seems to be that 
 of Paris, fol. 1606, with a second volume pub- 
 lished by Morell, 1627. His epistles have been 
 edited by Wolf, fol. 1738. 
 
 LiBERALiA, festivals yearly celebrated in hon- 
 our of Bacchus the 17th of March, much the 
 same as the Dionysia of the Greeks. Varro. 
 
 LiBO, a friend of the first triumvirate, who 
 killed himself, and was condemned after death. 
 
 LiBON, a Greek architect, who built the fa- 
 mous temple of Jupiter Olympius. He flourish- 
 ed about 450 years before the Christian era. 
 
 LicHEs, an Arcadian, who found the bones 
 of Orestes buried at Tegea, &c. Herodot. 
 
 LiciNiA Lex, was enacted by L. Licinius 
 Crassus and Cl. Mutius, consuls, A. U. C. 657. 
 It ordered all the inhabitants of Italy to be en- 
 rolled on the list of citizens, in their respec- 
 tive cities. Another, by C. Licinius Cras- • 
 
 sus the tribune, A. U. C. 608. It transferred 
 
la 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LI 
 
 the right of choosing priests from the college to 
 the people. It was proposed, but did not pass, 
 
 Another, by C. Licinius Stolothe tribune. 
 
 It forbade any person to possess 500 acres of 
 laud, or keep more than 100 head of large cattle 
 
 or 500 of small. Another, by P. Licinius 
 
 Varus, A. U. C. 545, to settle the day for the 
 celebration of the Ludl ApoUinares which was 
 
 before uncertain. Another, by P. Licinius 
 
 Crassus Dives, B. C. 110. It was the same as 
 the Fannian law, and farther required that no 
 more than 30 asses should be spent at any table 
 on the calends, nones, or nundina?, and only 
 three pounds of fresh and one of salt meat on 
 ordinary days. None of the fruits of the earth 
 
 were forbidden. Another, de sodalitiis, by 
 
 M. Licinius the consul, 690. It imposed a se- 
 vere penalty on party clubs, or societies assem- 
 bled or frequented for election purposes, as com- 
 ing' under the definition of ambitus, and of of- 
 fering violence in some degree to the freedom 
 
 and independence of the people. Another, 
 
 called also jEbuLia, by Licmius and ^butius 
 the tribunes. It enacted, that when any law 
 was preferred with respect to any office of 
 power, the person who proposed the bill, as well 
 as his colleagues in office, his friends and rela- 
 tions, should be declared inca.pable of being in- 
 vested With the said office or power. 
 
 LiciNiA, I. the wife of C. Gracchus, who at- 
 tempted to dissuade her husband from.his sedi- 
 tious measures by a pathetic speech. She was 
 deprived of her dowry after the death of Caius. 
 
 II, The wife of Maecenas, distinguished 
 
 for conjugal tenderness. She was sister to Pro- 
 culeius, and bore also the name of Terentia. 
 Horat. 2, od. 12, v. 13. 
 
 Licinius, (C.) I. a tribune of the people, cele- 
 brated for the consequence of his family, for his 
 intrigues and abilities. He was a plebeian, and 
 was the first of that body who was raised to the 
 office of a master of horse to the dictator. He 
 made a law which permitted the plebeians to 
 share the consular dignity with the patricians, 
 A. U. C. 388. He reaped the benefits of this 
 law, and was one of the first plebeian consuls. 
 The law was proposed and passed by Licinius, 
 as it is reported, at the instigation of his ambi- 
 tious wife, who WELs jealous of her sister who had 
 married a patrician, and who seemed to be of a 
 higher dignity in being the wife of a consul. 
 Liv. 6, c. M.—Plut. II. C. Calvus, a cele- 
 brated orator and poet in the age of Cicero. He 
 distinguished himself by his eloquence in the 
 forum, and his poetry, which some of the an- 
 cients have compared to Catullus. His ora- 
 tions are greatly commended by Cluintilian. 
 Some believe that he wrote annals quoted by 
 Dionysius of Halicarnassus. He died in the 
 30th year of his age. Quintil. — Cic. in Brut. 
 
 81. III. Macer, a Roman accused by Cicero 
 
 when praetor. He derided the power of his ac- 
 cuser, but when he saw himself condemned, he 
 grew so desperate that he killed himself. Plut. 
 
 -IV. P. Crassus, a Roman, sent against 
 
 Perseus, king of Macedonia. He was at first 
 defeated, but afterwards repaired his losses and 
 
 obtained a complete victory, &c. V. Caius 
 
 Imbrex, a comic poet in the age of Africanus, 
 preferred by some to Ennius and Terence. His 
 Nsevia andNeseraare quoted by ancient authors, 
 but of all his poetry only two verses are preserv- 
 
 Part II.— 3 P 
 
 ed, Aul. Gel.—^Yl. Mucianus, a Roman who 
 wrote about the history and geography of the 
 eastern countries, often quoted by Pliny, He 
 
 lived in the reign of Vespasian, VII. P. Te- 
 
 gula, a comic poet of Rome, about 200 years be- 
 fore Christ, He is ranked as the fourth of the 
 best comic poets which Rome produced. Few 
 lines of his compositions are extant. He wrote 
 an ode, which was sung all over the city of Rome 
 -by nine virgins during the Macedonian war. 
 
 Liv. 31, c. 12. VIII. Varro Mui^na, a 
 
 brother of Proculeius, who conspired against 
 Augustus with Fannius Caepio, and suffered for 
 his crime. Horace addressed his 2 od. 10, to 
 him, and recommended equanimity in every 
 
 situation. Dio. 54. IX. C. Flavins Vale- 
 
 rianus, a celebrated Roman emperor. His fa- 
 ther was a poor peasant of Dalmatia, and him- 
 self a common soldier in the Roman armies. His 
 valour recommended him to the notice of Gale- 
 rius Maximianus, who took him as a colleague 
 in the empire, and appointed him over the pro- 
 vince of Pannonia and Rhcetia. Constantine, 
 who was also one of the emperors, courted the 
 favour of Licinius, and made his intimacy more 
 durable by giving him his sister Constantia in 
 marriage, A. D. 313. The continual successes 
 of Licinius, particularly against Maximinus, in- 
 creased his pride, and rendered him jealous of 
 the greatness of his brother-in-law. The per- 
 secutions of the Christians, whose doctrines 
 Constantine followed, soon caused a rupture, 
 and ill-fortune attended Licinius ; he was con- 
 quered, and fled to Nicomedia, where soon the 
 conqueror obliged him to surrender, and to re- 
 sign the imperial purple. Constantine ordered 
 him to be strangled at Thessalonica, A. D. 324. 
 His family was involved in his ruin. The ava- 
 rice, licentiousness, and cruelty of Licinius, are 
 as conspicuous as his misfortunes. He was 
 an enemy to learning, and his aversion totally 
 proceeded from his ignorance of letters and the 
 rusticity of his education. His son by Con- 
 stantia bore also the same name. He was hon- 
 oured with the title of Cassar when scarce 20 
 months old. He was involved in his father's 
 ruin, and put to death by order of Constantine, 
 
 LiGARiDs, Ql. a Roman pro-consul of Africa, 
 after Confidius, In the civil wars he followed 
 the interests of Pompey, and was pardoned when 
 Ccesar had conquered his enemies, Cassar, 
 however, and his adherents, were determined 
 upon the ruin of Ligarius ; but Cicero, by an 
 eloquent oration, still extant, defeated his ac- 
 cusers, and he was pardoned. He became af- 
 terwards one of Cassar's murderers. Cic. pro 
 leg. — Plut. in CcBsar. 
 
 LiMNATiDiA, a, festival in honour of Diana. 
 
 LiTAVictJs, one of the ^dui, who assisted 
 Caesar with 10,000 men. Cces. Bell. G. 7, c. 37. 
 
 LiTHOBOLiA, a festival celebrated at Troezene, 
 in honour of Lamia and Auxesia, who came 
 from Crete, and were sacrificed by the fury of 
 the seditious populace, and stoned to death. 
 Hence the name of the solemnity, \idoPo\ia, 
 lapidation. 
 
 Li VIA Drusilla, a celebrated Roman lady, 
 daughter of L. Drusus Calidianus. She mar- 
 ried Tiberius Claudius Nero, by whom she had 
 the emperor Tiberius and Drusus Germanicus, 
 The attachment of her husband to the cause of 
 Antony was the beginning of her greatness. 
 481 
 
LI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LI 
 
 Augustus saw her as she fled from tlie danger 
 which threatened her husband, and he resolved 
 to marry her, though she was then pregnant. 
 Her children by Drusus were adopted by the 
 emperor ; and, that she might make the succes- 
 sion of her son Tiberius more easy and undis- 
 puted, Livia is accused of secretly involving in 
 one common ruin the heirs and nearest rela- 
 tions of Augustus. She is also charged with 
 having murdered her own husband, to hasten 
 the elevation of Tiberius. If she was anxious 
 for the aggrandizement of her son, Tiberius 
 proved ungrateful, and hated a woman to whom 
 he owed his life, his elevation, and his greatness. 
 Livia died in the 86th year of her age, A. D. 29. 
 Tiberius showed himself as undutiful after her 
 death as before, for he neglected her funeral, 
 and expressly commanded that no honours, 
 either private or public, should be paid to her 
 
 memory. Tacit. Ann. 1, c. 3. Suet, in 
 
 Aug. ^ Tib. — Dion. Cass. 
 
 Li VIA Lex, de sociis^ proposed to make all the 
 inhabitants of Italy free citizens of Rome. M. 
 Livius Drusus, who framed it, was found mur- 
 dered in his house before it passed. Ano- 
 ther, by M. Livius Drusus the tribune, A. U. 
 C. 662, which required that the judicial power 
 should be lodged in the hands of an equal num- 
 ber of knights and senators, 
 
 Livius Andronicus, I, a native of Magna 
 Grsecia, was the first who attempted to establish 
 at Rome a regular theatre, or to connect a dra- 
 matic fable,free from the mummeries, the ballet, 
 and the melodrama of the ancient satires. Tira- 
 boschi asserts, that when his country was finally 
 subdued by the Romans, in 482, Livius was 
 made captive and brought to Rome. It is gene- 
 rally believed that he there became the slave,and 
 afterwards the freedman of Livius Salinator, 
 from whom he derived one of his names ; these 
 facts, however, do not seem to rest on any au- 
 thority more ancient than the Eusebian Chron- 
 icle. The precise period of his death is un- 
 certain ; but in Cicero's dialogue De Senectute. 
 Cato is introduced saying, that he had seen 
 old Livius while he was himself a youth. Now 
 Cato was born in 519, and since the period of 
 youth among the Romans was considered as 
 commencing at fifteen, it may be presumed that 
 the existence of Livius was at least protracted 
 till the year 534 of the city. It has been fre- 
 quently said, that he lived till the year 546 be- 
 cause Livy mentions that a hymn composed by 
 this ancient poet was publicly sung in that year, 
 to avert the disasters threatened by an alarming 
 prodigy ; but the historian does not declare that 
 it was written for the occasion, or even recently 
 before. The earliest play of Livius was repre- 
 sented in 513 or 514, about a year after the ter- 
 mination of the first Punic war. Osannus, a 
 modern German author, has written a learned 
 and chronological dissertation on the question, 
 in which of these years the first Roman play 
 was performed ; but it is extremely difficult for 
 us to come to any satisfactory conclusion on a 
 subject which, even in the time of Cicero, was 
 one of doubt and controversy. Like Thespis, 
 and other dramatists in the commencement of 
 the theatrical art, Livius was an actor, and for 
 a considerable time the sf^le performer in his 
 own pieces. Afterwards, however, his voice 
 failing, in consequence of the audience insisting 
 482 
 
 on a repetition of favourite passages, he intro- 
 duced a boy who relieved him, by declaiming in 
 concert with the flute, while he himself executed 
 the corresponding gesticulations in the mono- 
 logues, and in the parts where high exertion was 
 required, employmg his OAvn voice only in the 
 conversational and less elevated scenes. It was 
 observed that his action grew more lively and 
 animated, because he exerted his whole strength 
 in gesticulating, while another had the care and 
 trouble of pronouncing. ' Hence,' continues 
 Livy, ' the practice arose of reciting those pas- 
 sages which required much modulation of the 
 voice, to the gesture and action of the comedian. 
 Thenceforth the custom so far prevailed, that 
 the comedians never pronounced any thing 
 except the verses of the dialogues:' and this 
 system, which one should think must have com- 
 pletely destroyed the theatric illusion,continued, 
 under certain modifications, to subsist on the 
 Roman stage during the most refined periods of 
 taste and literature. The popularity of Livius 
 increasing from these performances, as well as 
 from a propitiatory hymn he had composed, and 
 which had been followed by great public suc- 
 cess, a building was assigned to him on the 
 Aventine hill. This edifice was partly con- 
 verted into a theatre, and was also inhabited by 
 a troop of players, for whom Livius wrote his 
 pieces, and frequently acted along with them. 
 It has been disputed whether the first drama 
 represented by Livius Andronicus at Rome was 
 a tragedy or comedy. However, this may be, it 
 appears from the names which have been pre- 
 served of his plays, that he wrote both tragedies 
 and comedies. These titles, which have been 
 collected by Fabricius and other writers, are 
 Achilles, Adonis, jEgisthus, Ajax, Andromeda, 
 Antiopa, Centauri, Equus Trojanus, Helena, 
 Hermione, Ino, Lydius, Protesilaodamia, Se- 
 reniis, Tereus, Teucer, Virgo. Such names 
 also evince that most of his dramas were trans- 
 lated or imitated from the works of his country- 
 men of Magna Grsecia, or from the great trage- 
 dians of Greece. Thus, jEschylus wrote a 
 tragedy on the subject of ^gisthus. There is 
 still an Ajax of Sophocles extant, and he is 
 known to have written an Andromeda : Sto- 
 baeus mentions the Antiopa of Euripides. Four 
 Greek dramatists, Sophocles, Euripides, Anax- 
 andrides, and Philssterus, composed tragedies 
 on the subject of Tereus ; and Epicharmus, as 
 well as others, chose for their comedies the story 
 of the Sirens. Little, however, except the titles, 
 remains to us from the dramas of Livius. The 
 longest passage we possess in connexion, ex- 
 tends only to four lines. It forms part of a hymn 
 to Diana, recited by the chorus, in the tragedy 
 of Ino, contains an animated exhortation to 
 a person about to proceed to the chase, and 
 testifies the vast improvement effected by Li- 
 vius on the Latin tongue. As this is the only 
 passage among the fragments of Livius, from 
 which a connected meaning can be elicited, 
 we must take our opinion of his poetical 
 merits from those who judg:ed of them while 
 his writings were yet wholly extant. Cicero 
 has pronounced an unfavourable decision, de- 
 claring that they scarcely deserved a second 
 perusal. They long, however, continued popu- 
 lar in Rome, and were read by the youths in 
 schools even during the Augustan age of poetry. 
 
LI 
 
 HISTORY, Sic. 
 
 LI 
 
 It is evident, indeed, that during that golden pe- 
 riod of Roman literature, there prevailed a taste 
 corresponding to our black-leiier rage, which 
 led to an. inordinate admiration of the works of 
 Livius, and to the bitter complaints of Horace, 
 that they should be extolled as perfect, or held 
 up by old pedants to the imitation of youth in 
 an age when so much better models existed. 
 But although Livius may have been too much 
 read in the schools, and too much admired in an 
 age which could boast of models so greatly 
 superior to his writings, he is at least entitled to 
 praise, as the inventor among the Romans of a 
 species of poetry w^hich was afterwards carried 
 by them to much higher perfection. By trans- 
 lating the Odyssey, too, into Latin verse, he 
 adopted the means which, of all others, were 
 most likely to foster and improve the infant lite- 
 rature of his country — as he thus presented it 
 with an image of the most pure and perfect 
 taste, and at the same time with those wild and 
 romantic adventures, which are best suited 
 to attract the sympathy and interest of a half- 
 civilized nation. This happy influence could 
 not be prevented, even by the use of the rugged 
 Saturniati verse, which led Cicero to compare 
 the translation of Livius to the ancient statutes, 
 
 which might be attributed to Dsedalus. II. 
 
 M. Salmator, a Roman consul sent against 
 the Illyrians. The success with which he 
 finished his campaign, and the victory which 
 some years after he obtained over Asdrubal, 
 who was passing into Italy with a reinforcement 
 for his brother Annibal, show how deserving he 
 was to be at the head of the Roman armies. 
 Liv. III, Titus. This writer, though un- 
 questionably the greatest historian of Rome, 
 has been but slightly mentioned, either by those 
 authors of his own country who were contem- 
 porary with him, or by those who succeeded 
 him ; and we, in consequence, have little infor- 
 mation concerning the circumstance of his life. 
 He was born at Padua, of a consular family, in 
 the year of Rome 695. The place of his birth 
 was one of the most ancient and distinguished 
 municipal states of the Roman empire. Titus 
 Livius Optatus was the first of the Livian fa- 
 mily who came to it from Rome ; and from him 
 was descended Caius Livius, the father of the 
 historian. Many of the poets and literary men 
 of R,ome were brought in early youth to the 
 capital. Livy, however, seems to have received 
 his early instruction in his native city. Soon 
 after his arrival at Rome, he composed some 
 dialogues on philosophical and political ques- 
 tions, which he addressed to Augustus. These 
 dialogues, which are now lost, procured for him 
 the favour of the emperor, who gave him free 
 access to all those archives and records of the 
 state which might prove serviceable in the pro- 
 secution of the. historical researches in which he 
 was employed. He also allotted him apartments 
 in his own palace. It appears that Livy availed 
 himself of the good graces of the emperor, only 
 for the purpose of facilitating the hi.storical re- 
 searches in which he was engaged. We do not 
 hear that he accepted any pecuniary favours, or 
 even held any public employment. It has been 
 conjectured by some writers, from a passage in 
 Suetonius, that he had for a short while super- 
 intended the education of Claudius, who after- 
 "wards succeeded to the empire. But though the 
 
 expressions scarcely authorize this inference, 
 they prove, that at Livy's suggestion, Claudius 
 undertook in his youth to write a history of 
 Rome, from the death of Julius Caesar, and ihus 
 acquired the habit of historical composition, 
 which he continued after his accession ; being 
 better qualified, as Gibbon remarks, to record 
 great actions than to perform them. Livy con- 
 tinued for nearly twenty years to be closely oe- 
 ■cupied in the composition of his history. Dur- 
 ing this long period his chief residence was at 
 Rome, or in its immediate vicinity. Though 
 Livy's great work was not finished till the year 
 745 or 746, he had previously published parts of 
 it, from time to time, by which means he early 
 acquired a high reputation with his country- 
 men, who considered him as holding the same 
 rank, in the class of their historians, which 
 Virgil occupied among their poets, and Cicero 
 among their orators. His fame reached even 
 the remotest extremities of the Roman empire. 
 An inhabitant of Cadiz was so struck with his 
 illustrious character, that he travelled all the 
 way from the city to Rome on purpose to see 
 him, and, having gratified his curiosity, straight- 
 way returned to Spain. Although his history 
 was completed, as we have seen, in 745, Livy 
 continued to reside at Rome till the death of 
 Augustus, which happened in 765. On the 
 accession of Tiberius, he returned to Padua, 
 where he survived five years longer, and at 
 length died at the place of his birth, in 770, and 
 in the 76th year of his age. Livy is supposed 
 to have been twice married. By one of his 
 wives he left several daughters and a son, to 
 whom he addressed an epistle or short treatise 
 on the subject of rhetoric, in which, while de- 
 livering his opinion concerning the authors most 
 proper to be read by youth, he says, that they 
 ought first to study Demosthenes and Cicero, 
 and next, such writers as most closely resem- 
 ble these excellent orators. After his death, 
 statues were erected to Livy at Rome ; for we 
 learn, from Suetonius, that the mad Caligula 
 had nearly ordered that all his images, as well 
 as those of Virgil, should be removed from the 
 public libraries. His more rational subjects, 
 nevertheless, regarded Livy as the only histo- 
 rian that had yet appeared, whose dignity of 
 sentiment, and majesty of expression, rendered 
 him worthy to record the story of the Roman 
 republic. The work of Livy comprehends the 
 whole history of Rome, from its foundation to 
 the death of Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, 
 which happened in the year 744. It consisted 
 of 140, or according to some, of 142 books ; 
 but of these, as is well known, only thirty-five 
 are now extaiit : and it must be admitted that 
 the most valuable portion of Livy's history has 
 perished. The commencement of those dissen- 
 sions, which ended in the subversion of the li- 
 berties of Rome, and the motives by which the 
 actors on the great political stage were influen- 
 ced would have given scope for more interesting 
 reflection, and more philosophic deduction, than 
 details of the wars with the Sabines and Sam- 
 nites, or even of those with the Carthaginians 
 and Greeks. Stronger reliance might also have 
 been placed on this portion of the history, than 
 on that by which it was preceded. The au- 
 thor's account of the civil wars of Marius and 
 Sylla, of Pompey and Cnesar, may have been 
 483 
 
LO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LU 
 
 derived from those who were eyewitnesses of 
 these destructive contests, and he himself was 
 living an impartial and intelligent observer of 
 all the subsequent events which his history re- 
 corded. Both Lord Bolingbroke and Gibbon 
 have declared, that they would willingly give 
 up what we now possess of Livy, on the terms 
 of recovering what we have lost. It would lead 
 into a field of discussion much too extensive to 
 enter into any investigation concerning even a 
 few of the most important mistakes which have 
 been imputed to Livy. Inexperienced in mili- 
 tary affairs, numerous blunders have been at- 
 tributed to him with regard to encampments, 
 circumvalations, sieges, and in general all war- 
 like operations. He did not, like Polybius, Sal- 
 lust, or Diodorus Siculus, take the pains to 
 visit the regions which had been the theatre of 
 the great events he commemorates. Hence, 
 many mistakes in geography, and much con- 
 fusion with regard to the situation of towns 
 and the boundaries of districts. ' Considered 
 in this view,' says Gibbon, ' Livy appears mere- 
 ly as a man of letters, covered with the dust of 
 his library, little acquainted with the art of war, 
 and careless in point of geography.' Livy, be- 
 sides, was not a very learned or zealous antiqua- 
 ry ; and hence he has fallen into many errors 
 of chronology, as also into mistakes concerning 
 the ancient manners and institutions of the Ro- 
 mans. Into various inadvertences and contra- 
 dictions he has been betrayed by carelessness 
 or haste. Thus, having discovered an inscrip- 
 tion on a breastplate, which was at variance, 
 as to a particular fact, with the common nar- 
 rative of the annalists, he states it to be decisive 
 against them ; yet, subsequently, hurried away 
 by the crowd of historians whom he followed, 
 he forgets both himself and the confidence due 
 to the breastplate, and subscribes to the accura- 
 cy of the annalists whose narrative is falsified. 
 Sometimes, when there are two relations, by 
 two different authors, varying from each other, 
 he follows the one in one part of his history, 
 and yet assents to the other in a subsequent pas- 
 sage. Sometimes the same incidents are twice 
 related, as having occurred in different years 
 — a confusion into which he was led by the vast 
 number of annalists whom he consulted, and the 
 discrepancy in Roman chronology, some writers 
 following Cato, and others Varro, who disagreed 
 by two years in the epoch which they fixed for 
 the foundation of Rome. Considering the pe- 
 riod in which he lived, the impartiality and sin- 
 cerity of Livy passed through a fiery ordeal. 
 But though his youth was spent in a period of 
 civil war and violent faction, he seems to have 
 imbibed none of the feelings of a partisan ; and 
 in this respect, perhaps, his residence at Padua, 
 far from the dissensions and excitement of the 
 capital, was favourable to his impartiality. The 
 absolute domination of Augustus, and the fa- 
 vour which, on Livy's arrival at Rome, the em- 
 peror extended to him, might well have corrupt- 
 ed the fidelity of a republican historian. But he 
 honoured the memory of the conquered patriots 
 in the court of the conquering prince. The 
 best editions of Livy will be found to be those 
 of Maittaire, 6 vols. 12mo. London, 1722 ; of 
 Drachenborch, 7 vols. 4to. Amst. 1731, and of 
 Ruddiraan, 4 vols. 12mo. Edin. 1751. 
 LocusTA, a celebrated woman at Rome, ini 
 484 
 
 the favour of Nero. She poisoned Claudius 
 and Britannicus, and at last attempted to de- 
 stroy Nero himself, for which she was ex- 
 ecuted. Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 66, &c. — Suet, in 
 Mr. 33. 
 
 LoLLiA Paulina, a beautiful woman, daugh- 
 ter of M. Lollius, who married C. Memmius 
 Regulus, and afterwards Caligula. She was 
 divorced and put to death by means of Agrip- 
 pina. Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 1, &c. 
 
 Lollius, M. a companion and tutor of C. 
 Caesar, the son-in-law of Tiberius. He was con- 
 sul,and offended Augustus by his rapacity in the 
 provinces. Horace has addressed two of his 
 epistles to him, &c. Tacit Ann. 3. 
 
 LoNGiMANUs, a surname of Artaxerxes, from 
 his having one hand longer than the other. The 
 Greeks called him Macrochir. C. Nep. in Reg. 
 
 LoNGiNUs,(Dionysius Cassius,) I. a celebrated 
 Greek philosopher and critic of Athens. He 
 was preceptor of the Greek language, and after- 
 wards minister to Zenobia, the famous queen 
 of Palmyra, and his ardent zeal and spirited ac- 
 tivity in her cause, proved at last fatal to him. 
 When the emperor Aurelian entered victorious 
 the gates of Palmyra, Longinus was sacrificed 
 to the fury of the Roman .soldiers, 'A. D, 273. 
 At the moment of death he showed himself great 
 and resolute ; and with a philosophical and un- 
 paralleled firmness of mind, he even repressed 
 the tears and sighs of the spectators who pitied 
 his miserable end. Longinus rendered his name 
 immortal by his critical remarks on ancient au- 
 thors. His treatise on the sublime gives the 
 world reason to lament the loss of his other valu- 
 able compositions. The best editions of this 
 author are that of Tollius, 4to. Traj. ad Rhen. 
 
 1694, and that of Toup, 8vo. Oxon. 1778. 
 
 II. A lawyer whom, though blind and respect- 
 ed, Nero ordered to be put to death, because he 
 had in his possession a picture of Cassius, one 
 of CaBsar's murderers. Juv. 10, v. 6. 
 
 LoNGUs, a Greek author, who wrote a novel 
 called the amours of Daphnis and Chloe. The 
 age in which he lived is not precisely known. 
 The best editions of this pleasing writer are that 
 of Paris, 4to. 1754, and that of Villoison, 8vo. 
 Paris, 1778. 
 
 LucANUs, M. ANNiGus, I. a native of Cordu- 
 ba in Spain. He was early removed to Rome, 
 where his rising talents, and more particularly 
 his lavished praises and panegyrics,recommend- 
 ed him to the emperor Nero. This intimacy was 
 soon productive of honour, and Lucan was rais- 
 ed to the dignity of an augur and quaestor be- 
 fore he had attained the proper age. The poet 
 had the imprudence to enter the lists against his 
 imperial patron ; he chose for his subject Or- 
 pheus, and Nero took the tragical story of 
 Niobe. Lucan obtained an easy victory, but 
 Nero became jealous of his poetical reputation, 
 and resolved upon revenge. The insults to which 
 Lucan was daily exposed, provoked at last his 
 resentment, and he joined Piso in a conspiracy 
 against the emperor. The whole was discover- 
 ed, and the poet had nothing left but to choose 
 the manner of his execution. He had his veins 
 opened in the warm bath, and as he expired, he 
 pronounced with great energy the lines which, 
 in his Pharsalia, 1. 3, v. 630—642, he had put 
 into the mouth of a soldier who died in the 
 same manner as himself. Some have accused 
 
LU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LU 
 
 him of pusillanimity at the moment of his death, 
 and say that, lo free himself from the punish- 
 ment which threatened him he accused his own 
 mothei, and involved her in the crime of which 
 he was guilty. This circumstance, which throws 
 an indelible blot upon the character of Lucan, 
 is not mentioned by some writers, who observe 
 that he expired with all the firmness of a philo- 
 sopher. He died in his 26th year, A. D. 65. 
 Of all hi3 compositions none but his Pharsalia 
 remains. This poem, which is an account of the 
 civil wars of Cassar and Pompey, is unfinished. 
 Opinions are various as to the merits of the po- 
 etry, Lucan, to use the words of Gluintilian, is 
 more an orator than a poet. He wrote a poem 
 upon the burning of Rome, now lost. It is said 
 that his wife, Polla Argentaria, not only assist- 
 ed him in the composition of his poem, but even 
 corrected it after his death. Scaliger says that 
 Lucan rather barks than sings. The best edi- 
 tions of Lucan are those of Oudendorp, 4to. L. 
 Bat. 1728, of Bentley, 4to. printed at Strawber- 
 ry-hill, 1760, and of "Barbou, 12mo. Paris, 1767. 
 Quintil. 10. — Suet. — Tacit. Ann. 15, &c. — 
 
 Martial. 7, ep. 20. II. Ocellus, or Ucellus, 
 
 an ancient Pythagorean philosopher, whose 
 age is unknown. He wrote, in the Attic dialect 
 a book on the nature of the universe, which he 
 deemed eternal, and from it were dra"v\Ti the 
 systems adopted by Aristotle, Plato, and Philo 
 Judeeus. This work was first translated into 
 Latin by Nogarola. Another book of Ocellus 
 on laws, written in the Doric dialect, was 
 greatly esteemed by Archytas and Plato, a 
 fragment of which has been preserved by Sto- 
 bseus, of which, however. Ocellus is disputed to 
 be the author. There is an edition of Ocellus, 
 with a learned commentary, by C. Emman.Viz- 
 zanius, Bononise, 1646, in 4to. 
 
 LuccEros, L. a celebrated historian. He 
 composed histories of the Social war, and of 
 the Civil wars of Sylla, which were so highly 
 esteemed by Cicero, that he urged him, in one 
 of his letters, to undertake a history of his con- 
 sulship, in which he discovered and suppressed 
 the conspiracy of Catiline. From a subsequent 
 letter to Atticus we learn that Lucceius had 
 promised to accomplish the the task suggested 
 to him. It is probable, however, that it never 
 was completed — his labours having been inter- 
 rupted by the civil wars, in which he followed 
 the fortunes of Pompey, and was indeed one of 
 his chief advisers in adopting the fatal resolution 
 of quitting Italy. Cic. ad Fam. 5, ep. 12, &c. 
 
 LucEREs, a body of horse, composed of Ro- 
 man knights, established by Romulus and Ta- 
 tius. It received its name either from Ldtcumo, 
 an Etrurian, who assisted the Romans against 
 the Sabines, or from lucus, a grove where Rom- 
 ulus had erected an asylum, or a place of re- 
 fuge for all fugitives, slaves, homicides, &c. 
 that he might people his city. The Luceres 
 were some of these men, and they were in- 
 corporated with the legions. Property 4. el. 1, 
 V. 31. 
 
 LuciANus, a celebrated writer of Samosata. 
 His father was poor in his circumstances, and 
 Lucian was early bound to one of his uncles, 
 who was a sculptor. The employment highly 
 displeased him ; he made no proficiency in the 
 art, and resolved to seek his livelihood by better 
 means. He visited different places ; and An- 
 
 tioch, Ionia, Greece, Italy, Gaul, and more par- 
 ticularly Athens, became successively acquaint- 
 ed with the depth of his learning and the power 
 of his eloquence. The emperor M. Aurelius 
 was sensible of his merit, and appointed him 
 register to the Roman governor of Egypt. He 
 died A. D. 180, in his 90th year, and some of 
 the moderns have asserted that he was torn to 
 pieces by dogs for his impiety, particularly for 
 ridiculing the religion of Christ. The works 
 of Lucian, which are numerous, and written in 
 the Attic dialect, consist partly of dialogues, 
 in which he introduces different characters, with 
 much dramatic propriety. His style is easy, 
 simple, elegant, and animated ; and he has 
 stored his compositions with many lively sen- 
 timents, and much of the true Attic wit. He 
 also wrote the life of Sostrates, a philosopher 
 of Bceotia, as also that of the philosopher De- 
 monax. Some have also attributed to him, 
 with great impropriety, the life of Apollonius 
 Thyaneus. The best editions of Lucan are 
 that of Graevius, 2 vols. 8vo. Amst. 1687, and 
 that of Reitzius, 4 vols. 4to. Amst. 1743. 
 
 Lucifer. Vid. Part III; 
 
 LuciLius, (C.) I. a Roman knight, who was 
 born in the year 605, at Suessa, a towTi in the 
 Auruncian territory. He was descended of a 
 good family, and was the maternal granduncle 
 of Pompey the Great. In early youth he served 
 at the siege of Numantia, in the same camp 
 with Marius and Jugurtha, under the younger 
 Scipio Africanus, whose friendship and protec- 
 tion he had the good fortune to acquire. On 
 his return to Rome from his Spanish campaign, 
 he dwelt in a house which had been built at the 
 public expense, and had been inhabited by Se- 
 leucus Philopater, prince of Syria, whilst he 
 resided in his youth as a hostage at Rome. Lu- 
 cilius continued to live on terms of the closest 
 intimacy with the brave Scipio and wiseLselius. 
 These powerful protectors enabled him to satir- 
 ise the vicious without restraint or fear of pun- 
 ishment. In his writings he drew a genuine 
 picture of himself, acknowledged his faults, 
 made a frank confession of his inclinations, gave 
 an account of his adventures, and, in short, ex- 
 hibited a true and spirited representation of his 
 whole life. Fresh from business or pleasure, 
 he seized his pen while his fancy was yet warm, 
 and his passions still awake, — while elated with 
 success or depressed by disappointment. All 
 these feelings, and the incidents which occa- 
 sioned them, he faithfully related, and made 
 his remarks on them with the utmost freedom. 
 Unfortunately, however, the writings of Lucil- 
 ius are so mutilated, that few particulars of his 
 life and manners can be gleaned from them. 
 Little farther is known concerning him, than 
 that he died at Naples, but at what age has been 
 much disputed. Eusebius and most other wri- 
 ters have fixed it at 45, which, as he was born 
 in 605, would be in the 651st year of the city. 
 But M. Dacier and Bayle assert that he must 
 have been much older at the time of his death, 
 as he speaks in his satires of the Licinian law 
 against exhorbitant expenditure at entertain- 
 ments, which was not promulgated till 657 or 
 658. Lucilius did not confine himself to invec- 
 tives on vicious mortals. In the first book of 
 his satires, he appears to have declared war on 
 the false gods of Olympus, whose plurality he 
 485 
 
LU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LtJ 
 
 denied, and ridiculed the simplicity of the peo- 
 ple, who bestowed on an infinity of gods the 
 venerable name of father, which should be re- 
 served for one. Qtcmtil. 10, c. 1. — Cic. de Oral. 
 
 2. — Horat. II. Lucinus, a famous Roman, 
 
 who fled with Brutus after ihe battle of Pin- 
 lippi. Tiiey were soon after overtaken by a 
 party of horse, and Lucilius suffered himself 
 to be severely wounded by the dart of the ene- 
 my, exclaiming that he was Brutus. He was 
 tak'Ji and carried to the conquerors, whose 
 clemency spared his life. Plut. 
 
 LuciLLA, a daughter of M. Aurelius, cele- 
 brated for the virtues of her youth, her beauty, 
 debaucheries, and misfortunes. At the age of 
 sixteen her father sent her to Syria to marry the 
 emperor Verus, who was then employed in a 
 war with the Parthians and Armenians. The 
 conjugal virtues of Lucilla were great at first, 
 but when she saw Verus plunge himself into 
 debauchery and dissipation, she followed his ex- 
 ample. At her return to Rome she saw the 
 incestuous commerce of her husband with her 
 mother, and at last poisoned him. She after- 
 wards married an old but virtuous senator, by 
 order of her father, and was not ashamed soon 
 to gratify the criminal sensualities of her brother 
 Commodus. The coldness and indifference with 
 which Commodus treated her afterwards deter- 
 mined her on revenge, and she, with many illus- 
 trious senators, conspired against his life, A. D. 
 185. The plot was discovered, Lucilla was 
 banished, and soon after put to death by her 
 brother, in the 38th year of her age. 
 
 Lucius, a writer, called by some Saturantius 
 Apuleius. He was born in Africa, on the bor- 
 ders of Numidia. He studied poetry, music, 
 geometry, &c. at Athens, and warmly embraced 
 the tenets of the Platonists. He cultivated 
 magic, and some miracles are attributed to his 
 knowledge of enchantments. He wrote in Greek 
 and Latin, with great ease and simplicity ; his 
 style, however, is sometimes affected, though his 
 eloquence was greatly celebrated in his age. 
 Some fragments of his compositions are still ex- 
 tant. He flourished in the reign of M. Aure- 
 lius. The word Lucius is a praenomen com- 
 mon to many Romans, of whom an account is 
 given under their family names. 
 
 LucRETiA, a celebrated Roman lady, daugh- 
 ter of Lucretius, and wife of Tarquinius Collati- 
 nus. The beauty and innocence of Lucretia in- 
 flamed the passions of Sextus,the son ofTarquin. 
 He cherished his flame, and secretly retired 
 from the camp, and came to the house of Lucre- 
 tia, where he met with a kind reception. In the 
 dead of night he introduced himself to Lucretia, 
 who refused to his entreaties what her fear of 
 shame granted to his threats. She yielded to her 
 ravisher when he threatened to murder her, and 
 to slay one of her slaves and put him in her bed. 
 Lucretia in the morning sent for her husband 
 and her father, and, after she had revealed to 
 them the indignities she had suffered from the 
 son of Tarquin, and entreated them to avenge 
 her wrongs, she stabbed herself with a dagger 
 which she had previously concealed under her 
 clothes. Brutus, who was present at the tragi- 
 cal death of Lucretia, kindled the flames of re- 
 bellion, and the republican or consular govern- 
 ment was established at Rome, A. U. C. 244. 
 Liv. 1, c. 57, &c. — Dionys. Hal. 4, c. 15. — 
 48G" 
 
 Ovid. Fast. % v. 141.— Val. Max. 6, c. 1.- 
 Plut. — August, de Cic. D. 1, c. 19. 
 
 Lucretius Carus, (T.) I. was the most re- 
 markable of the Roman writers, as he united 
 the precision of the philosopher to the fire and 
 fancy of the poet; and, while he seems to have 
 had no perfect model among the Greeks, has 
 left a production unrivalled, (perhaps not to be 
 rivalled,) by any of the same kind in later ages. 
 Of the life of Lucretius very little is known : 
 he lived at a period abounding with great poli- 
 tical actors, and full of portentous events — a 
 period when every bosom was agitated with 
 terror or hope, and when it must have been the 
 chief study of a prudent man, especially if a 
 votary of philosophy and the Muses, to hide 
 himself as much as possible amid the shades. 
 The year of his birth is uncertain. According 
 to the chronicle of Eusebius, he was born in 
 658, being thus nine years younger than Cicero, 
 and two or three younger than Caesar. To 
 judge from his style, he might be supposed older 
 than either ; but this, as appears from the ex- 
 ample of Sallust, is no certain test, as his ar- 
 chaisms may hav.e arisen from the imitation of 
 ancient writers : and we know that he was a 
 fond admirer of Ennius. One of the dearest, 
 perhaps the dearest friend of Lucretius, was 
 Memmius, who had been his school-fellow, and 
 whom, it is supposed he accompanied to Bithy- 
 nia when appointed to the government of that 
 province. The poem DeReruvi Natura, if not 
 undertaken at the request of Memmius, was 
 doubtless much encouraged by him ; and Lucre- 
 tius, in a dedication expressed in terms of man- 
 ly and elegant courtesy, very different from the 
 servile adulation of some of his great successors, 
 tells him, that the much-desired pleasure of his 
 friendship, was what enabled him to endure 
 any toil or vigil ; — 
 
 ' Sed tua me virtus tamen, et sperata voluptas 
 Suavis amiciti^B, quemvis ecferre laborem 
 Suadet, et inducit nocieis vigilare serenas? 
 
 The life of the poet was short, but happily was 
 sufficiently prolonged to enable him to complete 
 his poem, though, perhaps, not to give some 
 portions of it their last polish. According to 
 Eusebius, he died in the 44th year of his age, by 
 his own hands, in a paroxysm of insanity, pro- 
 duced by a filter, which Lucilia, his wife or 
 mistress, had given him, with no design of de- 
 priving him of life or reason, but to renew or 
 increase his passion. Others suppose that his 
 mental alienation proceeded from melancholy, 
 on account of the calamities of his country, and 
 the exile of Memmius — circumstances which 
 were calculated deeply to affect his mind. There 
 seems no reason to doubt the melancholy fact 
 that he perished by his own hand. The poem 
 of Lucretius, De Rerum Natura^ which he 
 composed during the lucid intervals of his mal- 
 ady, is, as the name imports, philosophic and 
 didactic in the strictest acceptation of these 
 terms. The poem of Lucretius contains a full 
 exposition of the theological, physical,and moral 
 system of Epicurus. It has been remarked by 
 an able writer, ' that all the religious systems of 
 the ancient Pagan world were naturally perish- 
 able, from the quantity of false opinions, and 
 vicious habits and ceremonies that were attach- 
 ed to them.' He observes even of the barba- 
 
LU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LU 
 
 rous Angio Saxons, that, ' as the nation advan- 
 ced in its active intellect, it began to be dissatis- 
 fied with its mythology. Many indications exist 
 of this spreading alienation, which prepared the 
 northern mind Tor the reception of the nobler 
 truths of Christianity.' A secret incredulity of 
 this sort seems to have been long nourished 
 in Greece, and appears to have been imported 
 into Rome with its philosophy and literature. 
 The more pure and simple religion of early 
 Rome was quickly corrupted, and the multitude 
 of ideal and heterogeneous beings which super- 
 stition introduced into the Roman worship, led 
 to its total rejection. This infidelity is very ob- 
 vious in the writings of Ennius, who translated 
 Euhemerus's work on the Deification of Human 
 Spirits, while Plautus dramatized the vices of 
 the father of the gods and tutelar deity of Rome. 
 The doctrine of materialism was introduced at 
 Rome during the age of Scipio and Lselius ; 
 and perhaps no stronger proof of its rapid pro- 
 gress and prevalence can be given, than that 
 Csesar, though a priest, and ultimately Pontifex 
 Maximus, boldly proclaimed in the senate, that 
 death is the end of all things, and that beyond 
 it there is neither hope nor joy. This state of 
 the public mind was calculated to give a fashion 
 to the system of Epicurus. According to this 
 distinguished philosopher, the chief good of man 
 is pleasure, of which the elements consist, in 
 having a body free from pain, and a mind tran- 
 quil and exempt from perturbation. Of this 
 tranquillity there are, according to Epicurus, as 
 expounded by Lucretius, two chief enemies, 
 superstition, or slavish fear of the gods, and the 
 dread of death. In order to oppose these two 
 foes to happiness, he endeavours, in the first 
 place, to show that the world was formed by a 
 fortuitous concourse of atoms, and that the gods, 
 who, according to the popular theology, were 
 constantly interposing, take no concern what- 
 ever in human afiairs. We do injustice to Epi- 
 curus when we estimate his tenets by the re- 
 fined and exalted ideas of a philosophy purified 
 by faith, without considering the superstitious 
 and polluted notions prevalent at his time. ' The 
 idea of Epicurus,' as observed by Dr. Drake, 
 ' that it is the nature of gods to enjoy an immor- 
 tality in the bosom of perpetual peace, infinitely 
 remote from all relations to this globe, free from 
 care, from sorrow, and from pain, supremely 
 happy in themselves,and neither rejoicing in the 
 pleasures, nor concerned for the evils of human- 
 ity — though perfectly void of any rational foun- 
 dation, yet possesses much moral charm when 
 compared with the popular religions of Greece 
 and Rome: The felicity of their deities consist- 
 ed in the vilest debauchery ; nor was there a 
 crime, however deep its die, that had not been 
 committed and gloried in by some one of their 
 numerous objects of worship.' Never, also, 
 could the doctrine, that the gods take no con- 
 cern in human affairs, appear more plausible 
 than in the age of Lucretius, when the destiny 
 of man seemed to be the sport of the caprice of 
 such a monster as Sylla. With respect to the 
 other great leading tenet of Lucretius and his 
 master — the mortality of the soul — still greater 
 injustice is done to the philosopher and poet. It 
 is affirmed, and justly, by a great Apostle, that 
 life and immortality have been brought to light 
 by the gospel ; and yet an author who lived be- 
 
 fore this dawn is reviled because he asserts, that 
 the natural arguments for the immortality of the 
 sou], afforded by the analogies of nature or prin- 
 ciple of moral retribution, are weak and incon- 
 clusive ! In fact, however, it is not by the truth 
 of the system or general philosophical views in 
 a poem, (for which no one consults it,) that its 
 value is to be estimated ; since a poetical work 
 may be highly moral on account of its details, 
 even when its systematic scope is erroneous or 
 apparently dangerous. Notwithstanding pas- 
 sages which seem to echo Spinosism, and almost 
 to justify crime, the Essay on Man is rightly 
 considered as the most moral production of our 
 most moral poet. In like manner, where shall 
 we find exhortations more eloquent than those 
 of Lucretius, against ambition, and cruelty, and 
 luxury, and lust — against all the dishonest plea- 
 sures of the body, and all the turbulent passions 
 of the mind. In the whole history of Roman 
 taste and criticism, nothing appears to us so ex- 
 traordinary as the slight mention that is made 
 of Lucretius by succeeding Latin authors; and, 
 when mentioned, the coldness with which he is 
 spoken of by all Roman critics and poets, with 
 the exception of Ovid, Perhaps the spirit of 
 free-ihinking which pervaded his writings, ren- 
 dered it unsuitable or unsafe to extol even his 
 poetical talents. There was a time, when, in 
 this country, it was thought scarcely decorous 
 or becoming to express high admiration of the 
 genius of Rosseau or Voltaire. Paterc. 2, c, 
 
 36. — Quintil. 3, c. 1, 1. 10, c, 1. II. Cluin- 
 
 tus, a Roman who killed himself because the 
 inhabitants of Sulmo, over which he v/as ap- 
 pointed with a garrison, seemed to favour the 
 cause of J. Csesar, Cces. Bell. Civ. 1, c. 18. 
 
 He is called Vespillo. III. Sp. Tricipitinus, 
 
 father of Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, was made 
 consul after the death of Brutus, and soon after 
 died himself. Horatius Pulvillus succeeded 
 
 him. Liv. 1, c. 58. — Plui. in Piib. IV. 
 
 Osella, a Roman, put to death by Sylla because 
 he had applied for the consulship without his 
 permission. Plut. 
 
 LucTATius Catulus, (C.) I. a Roman consul 
 with Marius. He assisted his colleague in con- 
 quering the Cimbrians. Vid. Cvmhricum Bel- 
 lum. He was eloquent as well as valiant, and 
 wrote the history of his consulship which is 
 lost. Cic. de Oral. — Varro de L. L. — Ftor. 2, 
 
 c. 2. II. C. Catulus, a Roman consul, who 
 
 destroyed the Carthaginian fleet. Vid Catulus. 
 
 LucuLLEA, a festival established by the Greeks 
 in honour of Lucullus, who had behaved with 
 great prudence and propriety in his province. 
 Plut. in Luc. 
 
 Lucullus, (Lucius Licinius,) I. a Roman 
 celebrated for his fondness of luxury, and for his 
 military talents. He was born about 115 years 
 before the Christian era, and soon distinguished 
 himself by his proficiency in the liberal arts, par- 
 ticularly eloquence and philosophy. His first 
 military campaign was in the Marsian war, 
 where his valour and cool intrepidity recom- 
 mended him to public notice. His mildness 
 and constancy gained him the admiration and 
 confidence of Sylla, and from this connexion he 
 derived honour, and during his qusestorship in 
 Asia and praetorship in Africa, he rendered him- 
 self more conspicuous by his justice, modera- 
 tion, and humanity. He was raised to the con- 
 487 
 
LU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LU 
 
 bulship A. U, C. 680, and intrusted with the care 
 of the Mithridatic war, and first displayed his 
 military talents in rescuing his colleague Coita, 
 whom the enemy had besieged in Chalcedonia, 
 This was soon followed by a celebrated victory 
 over the forces of Mithridates, on the borders of 
 the Granicus, and by the conquest of all Bithy- 
 nia. His victories by sea were as great as those 
 by land, and Mithridates lost a powerful fleet 
 near Lemnos. Such considerable losses weak- 
 ened the enemy, and Mithridates retired with 
 precipitation towards Armenia, to the court of 
 king Tigranes, his father-in-law. His flight 
 was perceived, and Lucullus crossed the Eu- 
 phrates with great expedition, and gave battle 
 to the numerous forces which Tigranes had al- 
 ready assembled to support the cause of his son- 
 in-law. According to the exaggerated account 
 of Plutarch, no less than 100,000 foot, and near 
 55,000 horse of the Armenians, lost their liv^es 
 in that celebrated battle. All this carnage was 
 made by a Roman army amounting to no more 
 than 18,000 men, of whom only five were killed 
 and 100 wounded daring the combat. The 
 taking of Tigranocerta, the capital of Armenia, 
 was the consequence of this immortal victory, 
 and Lucullus there obtained the greatest part of 
 the royal treasures. This continual success, 
 however, was attended wdth serious consequen- 
 ces. The severity of Lucullus, and the haugh- 
 tiness of his commands, ofiended his soldiers, 
 and displeased his adherents at Rome. Pom- 
 pey was soon after sent to succeed him, and to 
 continue the Mithridatic war ; and the inter- 
 view which he had with Lucullus began with 
 acts of mutual kindness, and ended in the most 
 inveterate reproaches and open enmity, Lu- 
 cullus was permitted to retire to Rome, and 
 only 1600 of the soldiers who had shared his 
 fortune and his glories were suffered to accom- 
 pany him. He was received with coldness at 
 Rome, and he obtained with difficulty a triumph, 
 which was deservedly claimed by his fame, his 
 successes, and his victories. In this ended the 
 days of his glory; he retired to the enjoyment 
 of ease and peaceful society, and no longer inter- 
 ested himself in the commotions which disturb- 
 ed the tranquillity of Rome. He dedicated his 
 time to studious pursuits and to literary conver- 
 sation. His house was enriched with a valuable 
 library, which was opened for the service of the 
 curious and of the learned. Lucullus fell into 
 a delirium in the last part of his life, and died in 
 the 67th or 68th year of his age. The people 
 showed their respect for his merit by their wish 
 to give him an honourable burial in the Campus 
 Martins; but their offers were rejected, and he 
 was privately buried by his brother in his estate 
 at Tusculum. Lucullus has been admired for 
 his many accomplishments, but he has been cen- 
 sured for his severity and extravagance. The 
 expenses of his meals were immoderate, his halls 
 were distinguished by the different names of the 
 gods; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted 
 to surprise him, they were astonished at the 
 costliness of a supper which had been prepared 
 upon the word of Lucullus, who had merely 
 said to his servants that he would sup in the hall 
 of Apollo. In his retirement, Lucullus was fond 
 of artificial variety ; subterraneous caves and 
 passages were dug under the hills on the coast 
 of Campania, and the sea water was conveyed 
 488 
 
 round the house and pleasure-grounds, where 
 the fishes flocked in such abundance that not 
 less than 25,000 pounds worth were sold at his 
 death. In his public character Lucullus was 
 humane and compassionate, and he showed his 
 sense of the vicissitudes of human affairs by 
 shedding tears at the sight of one of the cities 
 of Armenia which his soldiers reduced to ashes. 
 He was a perfect master of the Greek and Latin 
 languages, and he employed himself for some 
 time to write a concise history of the Marsi in 
 Greek hexameters. Such are the striking char- 
 acteristics of a man who meditated the conquest 
 of Parthia, and for a while gained the admira- 
 tion of all the inhabitants of the east by his jus- 
 tice and moderation, and who might have dis- 
 puted the empire of the world with a Caesar or 
 a Pompey, had not, at last, his fondness for re- 
 tirement withdrawn him from the reach of am- 
 bition. Cic.pro Arch. 4. — Quisat. Ac. 2, c, 1. — 
 Plut. in vita. — I^lor. 3, c. 5. — Sirab. — Appian. 
 in Mithr. &c. — Orosius 6, &c. II. A con- 
 sul, who went to Spain, &c. 
 
 LucuMO, the firsi name of Tarquinius Pris- 
 cus, afterwards changed into Lucius. The word 
 is Etrurian, and signifies prince or chief. Plut. 
 in Bom. 
 
 LuPERCALiA, a yearly festival, observed at 
 Rome the ISthof Februry, in honour of the god 
 Pan, It was usual first to sacrifice two goats 
 and a dog, and to touch with a bloody knife the 
 foreheads of two illustrious youths, who always 
 were obliged to smile when they were touched. 
 The blood was wiped away with sol't wool dip- 
 ped in milk. After this the skins of the victims 
 were cut in thongs, with which whips were 
 made for the youths. "With these whips the 
 youths ran about the streets, all naked except 
 the middle, and whipped freely all those they 
 met. Women, in particular, were fond of re- 
 ceiving the lashes, as they superstitiously believ- 
 ed that they removed barrenness and eased the 
 pains of childbirth. This festival, as Plutarch 
 mentions, was first instituted by the Romans in 
 honour of the she-wolf which suckled Romulus 
 and Remus. This opinion is controverted by 
 others; and Livy, with Dionysius of Halicar- 
 nassus, observes that they were introduced into 
 Italy by Evander. The name seems to be bor- 
 rowed from the Greek name of Pan, Ia/ccbus, 
 from \vKOi, a wolf; not only because these cere- 
 monies were, like the Lycsean festivals, observed 
 in Arcadia, but because Pan, as god of the shep- 
 herds, protected the sheep from the rapacity of 
 the wolves. The priests who officiated at the 
 Lupercalia were called Jjwperci. Augustus for- 
 bade any person above the age of fourteen to 
 appear naked, or to run about the streets during 
 the Lupercalia. Cicero, in his philipics, re- 
 proaches Antony for having disgraced the dig- 
 nity of the consulship by running naked, and 
 armed with a whip, about the streets. It was 
 during the celebration of these festivals that 
 Antony offered a crown to J. Csesar, which the 
 indignation of the populace obliged him to re- 
 fuse. Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 427.— Farm />. i. 5, 
 c. 3. 
 
 LuPERcr, a number of priests at Rome, who 
 assisted at the celebration of the Lupercalia, in 
 honour of the god Pan, to whose service they 
 were dedicated. This order of priests was the 
 most ancient and respectable of all the sacerdo- 
 
LY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LY 
 
 tal offices. It was divided into two separate col- 
 leges, called Fabiani and Quintiliani, from Fa- 
 bius and Cluintilius, two of their highpriests. 
 The former were instituted in honour of Romu- 
 lus, and the latter of Remus. To these two sa- 
 cerdotal bodies, J. Csesar added a third, called 
 from himself, the Julii, and this action contrib- 
 uted not a little to render his cause unpopular, 
 and to betray his ambitious and aspiring views. 
 Vid. Lupercalia. Plut. in Rom. — Dio. Cas. 
 A.b.— Virg. ^n. 8, v. 663. 
 
 Lupus, I, a comic writer of Sicily, who wrote 
 a poem on the return of Menelaus and Helen to 
 Sparta, after the destructton of Troy. Ovid, ex 
 
 Pont. 4, ep. 16, v. 26. II. P. Rut. a Roman 
 
 who, contrary to the omens, marched against the 
 Marsi, and was killed with his army. Horat. 
 2, Sat. 1, V. 68. 
 
 Iiuscius LAViNros, was the contemporary 
 and enemy of Terence, who, in his prologues, 
 has satirised his injudicious translations from 
 the Greek : — 
 
 ' Qui bene, vertendo et eas describendo male. 
 Ex Greeds bonis, Latinas fecit non bonus.' 
 
 In particular, we learn from the prologue to the 
 Phormio, that he was fond of bringing on the 
 stage frantic youths, committing all those ex- 
 cesses of folly and distraction which are sup- 
 posed to be produced by violent love. Donatus 
 has afforded us an account of the plot of his 
 Phasma, which was taken from Menander. 
 Part of the old Scotch ba]lad, the Heir of 
 Linne, has a curious resemblance to the plot of 
 this play of Luscius Lavinius. 
 
 Lyc^a, festivals in Arcadia, in honour of 
 Pan, the god of shepherds. They are the same 
 
 as the Lupercalia of the Romans. A festival 
 
 at Argos in honour of Apollo Lycaeus, who de- 
 livered the Argives from wolves, &c. 
 
 Lycambes, the father of Neobule. He prom- 
 ised his daughter in marriage to the poet Ar- 
 chilocus, and afterwards refused to fulfil his en- 
 gagement when she had been courted by a man 
 whose opulence had more influence than the 
 fortune of the poet. This irritated Archilocus ; 
 he wrote a bitter invective against Lycambes 
 and his daughter, and rendered them both so 
 desperate by the satire of his composition, that 
 they hanged themselves. Horat. ep, 6, v. 13. 
 — Ovid, in lb. 52. — Aristot. Rhet. 3. 
 
 Lyciscus, a Messenian of the family of the 
 ^pytidae. When his daughters were doomed 
 by lot to be sacrificed for the good of their coun- 
 try, he fled with them to Sparta, and Aristode- 
 mus upon this cheerfully gave his own children, 
 and soon after succeeded to the throne. Pans. 
 4, c. 9. 
 
 Lycomedes, I. an Arcadian, who, with 500 
 chosen men, put to flight 1000 Spartans and 
 500 Argives, &c. Diod. 15. II. An Athe- 
 nian, the first who took one of the enemy's ships 
 at the battle of Salamis. Plut. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Lycon, a philosopher of Troas, son of Astyo- 
 nax, in the age of Aristotle. He was greatly 
 esteemed by Eumenes, Antiochus, &c. He 
 died in the 74th year of his age. Diog. in vit. 
 
 Lycophron, I. a son of Periander, king of 
 Corinth. The murder of his mother Melissa, 
 by his father, had such an efiectupon him, that 
 he resolved never to speak to a man who had 
 been so wantonly cruel against his relations. 
 
 Part II.— 3 Q. 
 
 This resolution was strengthened by the advice 
 of Procles, his maternal uncle ; and Periander 
 at last banished to Corcyra a son whose disobe- 
 dience and obstinacy had rendered him odious. 
 Cypselus, the eldest son of Periander, being in- 
 capable of reigning, Lycophron was the only 
 surviving child who had any claim to the crown 
 of Corinth. But when the infirmities of Peri- 
 ander obliged him to look for his successor, Ly- 
 cophron refused to come to Corinth while his 
 father was there, and he was induced to leave 
 Corcyra, only on promise that Periander would 
 come and dwell there while he remained mas- 
 ter of Corinth. ' This exchange, however, was 
 prevented. The Corcyreans, who were appre- 
 hensive of the tyranny of Periander, murdered 
 Lycophron before he left that island. Herodot. 
 
 Z.— Aristot. II. A brother of Thebe, the 
 
 wife of Alexander, tyrant of Pherse. He assist- 
 ed his sister in murdering her husband, and he 
 afterwards seized the sovereignty. He was 
 dispossessed by Philip of Macedonia. Plut. — 
 
 Diod. 16. III. A famous Greek poet and 
 
 grammarian, born at Chalcis in Euboea. He 
 was one of the poets who flourished under Pio- 
 lemy Philadelphus, and who, from their num- 
 ber, obtained the name of Pleiades. Lycophron 
 died by the wound of an arrow. He wrote tra- 
 gedies, the titles of twenty of which have been 
 preserved. The only remaining composition 
 of this poet is called Cassandra, or Alexandra. 
 It contains 1474 verses, whose obscurity has 
 procured the epithet of Tenebrosus to its au- 
 thor. It is a mixture of prophetical effusions, 
 which, as he supposes, were given by Cassan- 
 dra during the Trojan war. The best editions 
 of Lycophron, are that of Basil, 1546, fol. en- 
 riched with the Greek commentary of Tzetzes ; 
 that of Canter, 8vo. apud Commelin, 1596 ; and 
 that of Potter, fol. Oxon. 1702. Ovid, in lb. 
 533.— Stat. 5. Sylv. 3. 
 
 Lycoris, a freedwoman of the senator Vo- 
 lumnius, also called Cytheris, and Volum7iia, 
 from her master. She was celebrated for her 
 beauty and intrigues. The poet Gallus was 
 greatly enamoured of her, and his friend Vir- 
 gil comforts him in his 10th eclogue, for the loss 
 of the favours of Cytheris, who followed M. 
 Antony's camp, and was become the Aspasia 
 of Rome. The charms of Cleopatra, however, 
 prevailed over those of Cytheris, and the un- 
 fortunate courtesan lost the favours of Antony 
 and of all the world at the same time. Lycoris 
 was originally a comedian. Vi7'g. Ed. 10. — 
 CyDid. A. A. 3, V. 537. 
 
 Lycortas, the father of Polybius, who flour- 
 ished B. C. 184. He was chosen general of the 
 Achaean league," and he revenged the death of 
 Philopoemen, &c. Plut. 
 
 Lycurgides, annual days of solemnity ap- 
 pointed in honour of the lawgiver of Sparta. 
 
 The patronymic of a son of Lycurgus, 
 
 Ovid, in lb. v. 503. 
 
 Lycurgus, I. an oratoi' of Athens, surnamed 
 Ibis, in the age of Demosthenes, famous for his 
 justice and impartiality when at the head of the 
 government. He was one of the thirty orators 
 whom the Athenians refused to deliver up to 
 Alexander. Some of his orations are extant. 
 He died about 330 years before Christ. Diod. 
 
 16. II. A celebrated lawgiver of Sparta, son 
 
 of king Eunomus, and brother to Polydectes. 
 489 
 
LY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LY 
 
 He succeeded his brother on the Spartan throne ; 
 but when he saw that the widow of Polydectes 
 was pregnant, he refused to marry his brother's 
 widow, who wished to strengthen him on his 
 throne by destroying her own son Chariiaus, 
 and leaving him in the peaceful possession of 
 the crown. The integrity with which he acted, 
 when guardian of his nephew Chariiaus, united 
 with the disappointment and the resentment of 
 the queen, raised him many enemies, and he at 
 last yielded to their satire and malevolence, and 
 retired to Crete ; but he returned home at the 
 earnest solicitations of his countrymen. The 
 disorder which reigned at Sparta induced him 
 to reform the government ; and the more effec- 
 tually to execute his undertaking, he had re- 
 course to the oracle of Delphi. He was re- 
 ceived by the priestess of the god with every 
 mark of honour, his intentions were warmly 
 approved by the divinity, and he was called the 
 friend of gods, and himself rather god than man. 
 After such a reception from the most celebrated 
 oracle of Greece, Lycurgus found no difficulty 
 in reforming the abuses of the state, and all were 
 equally anxious in promoting a revolution which 
 had received the sanction of heaven. This hap- 
 pened 884 years before the Christian era. Ly- 
 curgus first established a senate, which was 
 composed of 28 senators, whose authority pre- 
 served the tranquillity of the state, and main- 
 tained a due and just equilibrium between the 
 kings and the people, by watching over the in- 
 trusions of the former, and checking the sedi- 
 tious convulsions of the latter. All distinction 
 was destroyed ; and by making an equal and im- 
 partial division of the land among the members 
 of the commonwealth, Lycurgus banished lux- 
 ury, and encouraged the useful arts. The use of 
 money, either of gold or silver, was forbidden ; 
 and the introduction of heavy brass and iron 
 coin brought no temptations to the dishonest,and 
 left every individual in the possession of his ef- 
 fects without any fears of robbery or violence. 
 All the citizens dined in common, and no one 
 had greater claims to indulgence and luxury 
 than another. The intercourse of Sparta with 
 other nations was forbidden, and few were per- 
 mitted to travel. The youths were intrusted to 
 the public master as soon as they had attained 
 their seventh year, and their education was left 
 to the wisdom of the laws. They were taught 
 early to think, to answer in a short and laconic 
 manner, and to excel in sharp repartee. They 
 were instructed and encouraged to carry things 
 by surprise, but if ever the theft was discovered, 
 they were subjected to a severe punishment. 
 Lycurgus was happy and successful in estab- 
 lishing and enforcing these laws, and by his 
 prudence and administration the face of affairs 
 in Lacedaemon was totally changed, and it gave 
 rise to a set of men distinguished for their intre- 
 pidity, their fortitude, and their magnanimity. 
 After this, Lycurgus retired from Sparta to Del- 
 phi, or, according to others, to Crete ; and before 
 nis departure, he bound all the citizens of Lace- 
 daemon by a solemn oath, that neither they nor 
 their posterity would alter, violate, or abolish 
 the laws which he had established before his 
 return. He soon after put himself to death, 
 and he ordered his ashes to be thrown into the 
 sea, fearful lest, if they were carried to Sparta, 
 ihe citizens should call themselves freed from 
 490 
 
 the oath which they had taken, and empowered 
 to make a revolution. The wisdom and the 
 good effect of the laws of Lycurgus have been 
 firmly demonstrated at Sparta, where, for 700 
 years, they remained in force ; but the legisla- 
 tor has shown himself inhumane in ordering 
 mothers to destroy such of their children whose 
 feebleness or deformity in their youth seemed to 
 promise incapability of action in maturer years, 
 and to become a burden to the staie. His reg- 
 ulations about marriage must necessarily be 
 censured, and no true conjugal felicity can be 
 expected from the union of a man with a person 
 whom he perhaps never knew before, and whom 
 he was compelled to choose in a dark room, 
 where all the marriageable women in the state 
 assembled on stated occasions. Lycurgus has 
 been compared to Solon, the celebrated legisla- 
 tor of Athens ; and it has been judiciously ob- 
 served, that the former gave his citizens morals 
 conformable to the laws which he had estab- 
 lished, and that the latter had given the Athe- 
 nians laws which coincided with their customs 
 and manners. The ofiice of Lycurgus de- 
 manded resolution, and he showed himself in- 
 exorable and severe. In Solon artifice was re- 
 quisite, and he showed himself mild and even 
 voluptuous. The moderation of Lycurgus is 
 greatly commended, particularly when we re- 
 collect that he treated with the greatest human- 
 ity and confidence Alcander, a youth who had 
 put out one of his eyes in a seditious tumult. 
 Lycurgus had a son called Antiorus, who left 
 no issue. The Lacedaemonians showed their 
 respect for their great legislator by yearly cele- 
 brating a festival in his honour, called Lycur- 
 gidse or Lycurgides. The introduction of money 
 into Sparta, in the reign of Agis, the son of Ar- 
 chidamus, was one of the principal causes which 
 corrupted the innocence of the Lacedsemonians, 
 and rendered them the prey of intrigue and of 
 faction. The laws of Lycurgus were abrogated 
 by Philopcemen, B. C. 188, but only for a little 
 time, as they were soon after re-established by 
 the Romans. Plut. in vita. — Justin. 3, c. 2, 
 &LC.—Strab. 8, 10, 15, &.c.—Dionys. Hal. 2.— 
 Pauc. 3, c. 2. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Lycus, an oflicer of Alexander in the interest 
 of Lysimachus. He made himself master of 
 Ephesus by the treachery of Andron, &c. Po- 
 lycen. 5. Vid. Part I. and III. 
 
 Lygdamis, or Lygdamus, I, a general of the 
 Cimmerians, who passed into Asia Minor, and 
 took Sardis, in the reign of Ardyes, king of 
 
 Lydia. Callim. II. An athlete of Syracuse, 
 
 the father of Artemisia, the celebrated queen 
 of Halicarnassus. Herodot. 7, c. 99. 
 
 Lyncest^e, a noble family of Macedonia, 
 connected with the royal family. Justin. 11, c. 
 2, &c. 
 
 Lyncestes, (Alexander,) a son-in-law of An- 
 tipater, who conspired against Alexander and 
 was put to death. Curt. 7, &c. 
 
 Lysander, I. a celebrated general of Sparta, 
 in the last years of the Peloponnesian war. He 
 drew Ephesus from the interest of Athens, and 
 gained the friendship of Cyrus the younger. 
 He gave battle to the Athenian fleet, consisting 
 of 120 ships, at iEgospotamos, and destroyed it 
 all, except three ships, with which the enemy's 
 general fled to Evagoras, king of Cyprus. In 
 this celebrated battle, which happened 405 years 
 
LY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 LY 
 
 before the Christian era, the Athenians lost 
 3000 men, and with them their empire and in- 
 fluence among the neighbouring states, Ly- 
 sander well knew how to take advantage of his 
 victory, and the following year Athens, worn 
 out by a long war of 27 years, and discouraged 
 by its misfortunes, gave itself up to the power 
 of the enemy, and consented to destroy the Pi- 
 raeus, to deliver up ail its ships, except 12, to 
 recall all those who had been banished ; and, in 
 short, to be submissive in every degree to the 
 power of Lacedasmon. Besides these humilia- 
 ting conditions, the government of Athens was 
 totally changed, and 30 tyrants were set over it 
 by Lysander. This glorious success, and the 
 honour of having put an end to the Peloponne- 
 sian war, increased the pride of Lysander. He 
 had already begun to pave his way to universal 
 power, by establishing aristocracy in the Gre- 
 cian cities of Asia, and now he attempted to 
 make the crown of Sparta elective. In the pur- 
 suit of his ambition he used prudence and arti- 
 fice ; and as he could not easily abolish a form 
 of government which ages and popularity had 
 confirmed, he had recourse to the assistance of 
 the gods. His attempt, however, to corrupt the 
 oracles of Delphi, Dodona, and Jupiter Ammon, 
 proved ineffectual ; and he was even accused of 
 using bribes by the priests of the Libyan temple. 
 The sudden declaration of war against the The- 
 bans saved him from the accusations of his ad- 
 versaries, and he was sent, together with Pau- 
 sanias, against the enemy. The plan of his mili- 
 tary operations was discovered, and the Haliar- 
 tians, whose ruin he secretly meditated, attacked 
 him unexpectedly, and he was killed in a bloody 
 battle which ended in the defeat of his troops, 394 
 years before Christ. His body was recovered by 
 his colleague Pausanias, and honoured with a 
 magnificent funeral. In the midst of all his 
 pomp, his ambition, and intrigues, he died ex- 
 tremely poor, and his daughters were rejected 
 by two opulent citizens of Sparta, to whom they 
 had been betrothed during the life of their father. 
 This behaviour of the lovers was severely pun- 
 ished by the Lacedaemonians, who protected 
 from injury the children of a man whom they 
 hated for his sacrilege, his contempt of religion, 
 and his perfidy. The father of Lysander, whose 
 name was Aristoclites or Aristocrates, w^as de- 
 scended from Hercules, though not reckoned of 
 the race of the Heraclidse. Plut d^ C. Nep. in 
 
 vita. — Diod. 13. II. A grandson of the great 
 
 Lysander. Pans. 
 
 Lysandra, a daughter of Ptolemy Lagus, who 
 married Agathocles, the son of Lysimachus. 
 She was persecuted by Arsinoe, and fled to Se- 
 leucus for protection. Paus. 1, c. 9, &c. 
 
 Lysias, a celebrated orator, son of Cephalus, 
 a native of Syracuse. His father left Sicily and 
 went to Athens, where Lysias was born and 
 carefully educated. In his i5th year he accom- 
 mnied the colony which the Athenians sent to 
 Thurium, and after a long residence there he 
 returned home in his 47th year. He distin- 
 guished himself by his eloquence, and by the 
 simplicity, correctness, and purity of his ora- 
 tions, of which he wrote no less than 425, ac- 
 cording to Plutarch, though the number may 
 with more probability be reduced to 230. Of 
 these 34 are extant, the best editions of which 
 are that of Taylor, 8vo. Cantab. 1740, and that 
 
 of Auger, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1783. He died in 
 the 81st year of his age, 378 years before the 
 Christian era. Plut. de Orat. — Cic. de Brut, 
 de Orat. — Qitintil. 3, &c. — Diog.2. 
 
 Lysicles, an Athenian, sent with Chares in- 
 to Boeotia, to stop the conquests of Philip of 
 Macedonia. He was conquered at Chaeronaea, 
 and sentenced to death for his ill conduct there. 
 
 Lysimachus, I. a son of Agathocles, among 
 the generals of Alexander. After the death of 
 that monarch, he made himself master of part of 
 Thrace, where he built a town which he called 
 Lysimachia. He sided with Cassander and Se- 
 leucus against Antigonus and Demetrius, and 
 fought with them at the celebrated battle of Ip- 
 sus. He afterwards siezed Macedonia, after 
 expelling Pyrrhus from the throne, B. C. 286 ; 
 but his cruelty rendered him odious, and the 
 murder of his son, Agathocles, so offended his 
 subjects, that the most opulent and powerful re- 
 volted from him, and abandoned the kingdom. 
 He pursued them to Asia, and declared war 
 against Seleucus, who had given them a kind re- 
 ception. He was killed in a bloody battle, 281 
 years before Christ, in the 80th year of his age, 
 and his body was found in the heaps of slain 
 only by the fidelity of a little dog, which had 
 carefully watched near it. It is said that the 
 love and respect of Lysimachus for his learned 
 master Callisthenes proved nearly fatal to him. 
 He, as Justin mentions, was thrown* into the 
 den of a hungry lion, by order of Alexander, 
 for having given Callisthenes poison to save his 
 life from ignominy and insult; and when the 
 furious animal darted upon him, he wrapped 
 his hand in his mantle, and boldly thrust it into 
 the lion's mouth, and by twisting his tongue, 
 killed an adversary ready to devour him. This- 
 act of courage in his self-defence recommended 
 him to Alexander. He was pardoned, and ever 
 after esteemed by the monarch. Justin. 15, c. 
 
 3, &c.—niod. 10, &c.—Patts. 1, c. 10. II. 
 
 An Acarnanian, preceptor to Alexander the 
 Great. He used to call himself Phoenix, his 
 pupil Achilles, and Philip Peleus. Plut. in 
 Alex. — Justin. 15, c. 3. 
 
 Lysippus, a famous statuary of Sicyon. He 
 was originally a whitesmith, and afterwards 
 applied himself to painting, till his talents and 
 inclination taught him that he was born to excel 
 in sculpture. He flourished about 325 years 
 before the Christian era, in the age of Alex- 
 ander the Great. The monarch was so partial 
 to the artist, that he forbade any sculptor but 
 Lysippus to make his statue. Lysippus excel- 
 led in expressing the hair, and he was the first 
 who made the head of his statues less large, 
 and the body smaller than usual, that they might 
 appear taller. This was observed by one of his 
 friends, and the artist gave for answer, that his 
 predecessors had represented men in their na- 
 tural form, but that he represented them such 
 as they appeared. Lysippus made no less than 
 600 statues, the most admired of which were 
 those of Alexander ; one of Apollo of Taren- 
 tum, 40 cubits high; one of a man coming out 
 of a bath with which Agrippa adorned his 
 baths ; one of Socrates ; and those of the 25 
 horsemen who were drowned in the Granicus. 
 These were so valued that in the age of Augus- 
 tus they were bought for their weight in gold. 
 Plut. in Alex.— Cic. in Brut. c. 1(34, ad Her. 
 491 
 
MA 
 
 HISTORY, i&c. 
 
 MA 
 
 4, c. U8.—Plin. 37, c. l.—PaUrc. 1, c. 11.— 
 Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. 240. 
 
 Lysistratus, a brother of Lysippus, He 
 was the first artist who ever made a statue with 
 wax. Plin. 34, c. 8, 1. 35, c. 12. 
 
 M. 
 
 Macar, a son of Criasius or Crinacus, the 
 first Greek who led a colony to Lesbos. His 
 four sons took possession of the four neighbour- 
 ing islands, Chios, Samos, Cos, and Rhodes, 
 which were called the seats of the Macares or 
 the blessed {iiaxap, beatus.) Dionys. Hal. 1. — 
 Homer. 11. 2i.—Diod. 5.— Mela. 2, c. 7. 
 
 Macareus, a son of ^olus, who debauched 
 his sister Canace, and had a son by her. The 
 father, being informed of the incest, ordered the 
 child to be exposed, and sent a sword to his 
 daughter, and commanded her to destroy her- 
 self Macareus fled to Delphi, where he became 
 priest of Apollo. Ovid. Met.Heroid. ll,in lb.563. 
 
 Macedonicum Bellum, was undertaken by 
 the Romans against Philip, king of Macedonia, 
 some few months after the second Punic war, 
 B. C. 200. The cause of this war originated in 
 the hostilities whichPhilip had exercised against 
 the Achseans. the friends and allies of Rome. 
 The consul Fiarainius had the care of the war, 
 and he conquered Philip on the confines of Epi- 
 rus, and afterwards in Thessaly. The Mace- 
 donian fleets were also defeated; Euboea was 
 taken ; and Philip, after continual losses, sued 
 for peace, which was granted him in the fourth 
 year of the war. The ambition and cruelty of 
 Persius, the son and successor of Philip, soon 
 irritated the Romans. Another war was un- 
 dertaken, in which the Romans suffered two de- 
 feats. This, however, did not discourage them : 
 Paulus .^milius was chosen consul in the 60th 
 year of his age, and intrusted with the care of 
 the war. He came to a general engagement 
 near the city of Padua, and 20,000 of the Ma- 
 cedonian soldiers were left on the field of battle. 
 This decisive blow put an end to the war, 
 which had already continued for three years, 
 168 years before the Christian era. Perseus, 
 and his sons Philip and Alexander were taken 
 prisoners, and carried to Rome to adorn the tri- 
 umph of the conqueror. About fifteen years 
 after, new seditions were raised in Macedonia, 
 and the false pretensions of Andriscus, who 
 called himself the son of Perseus, obliged the 
 Romans to send an army to quell the commo- 
 tions. Andriscus at first obtained many con- 
 siderable advantages over the Roman forces, till 
 at last he was conquered and delivered to the 
 consul Matellus, who carried him to Rome. 
 After these commotions, which are sometimes 
 called the third Macedonian war, Macedonia 
 was finally reduced into a Roman province, and 
 governed by a regular proconsul, about 148 
 years before the Christian era. 
 
 Macedonicus, a surname given to Metellus, 
 from his conquests in Macedonia. It was also 
 given to such as had obtained any victory in 
 that province. 
 
 Macer. There appears to have been two 
 poets who bore the name of Macer, during the 
 Augustan age, both of considerable note and 
 both friends of Ovid. The elder, called ^mi- 
 lius, who was born at Verona, was of greater 
 493 
 
 age than Ovid, though he sometimes conde- 
 scended to read his works to his youthful friend. 
 These were poems on birds and serpents, and 
 on the virtues of different sorts of herbs. They 
 were written in hexameters, and were chiefly 
 translated from Nicander, a Greek poet of Co- 
 lophon. Macer also composed a piece, entitled 
 T/ieriaca, on wild animals, from which Isido- 
 rus and others have saved about half a dozen of 
 verses. Nonius Marcellus adds, chat he wrote 
 a Theogony, from which he cites a single line. 
 He also published a book on the subject of 
 Bees ; but it is not certain whether this work 
 was in prose or in verse. Tibullus inscribed 
 one of his elegies to this Macer, on occasion of 
 his setting out on some military expedition. It 
 would appear that, at his departure from Rome, 
 Macer had boasted that, however deeply he 
 seemed involved in the snares of love, yet his 
 heart was free, and that he now only panted for 
 military fame. But Tibullus addresses Cupid, 
 bids him follow Macer to the field, and threat- 
 ens, that if he did not bring him back, he would 
 himself desert the service of love, and forget his 
 fondness for the fair, amid the various duties of 
 a soldier. It is probable that Macer never re- 
 turned from this expedition, since, according to 
 the Eusebian Chronicle, he died in 737, during 
 the consulate of Furnius and Silanus. As his 
 death took place in that year, he must be a dif- 
 ferent poet from the Macer to whom Ovid ad- 
 dressed one of his epistles from Pontus, which 
 was not written till after his banishment to that 
 country, in 762. With this second Macer Ovid 
 had travelled in his youth through the different 
 cities of Asia and Sicily : — 
 
 Te duce magnificas AsicB perspeximus urbes ; 
 Trinacris est oculis te duce nota meis. . 
 
 Macer was the author of one of those numerous 
 poems on the Trojan war, which went under 
 the name of Homeri Paralipomena. 
 
 Tu eanis esterno quicquid restabat Homero^ 
 Ne careant summa Tro'ica bella manu. 
 
 In this poem he followed the historic order of 
 events, beginning with the departure of the ex- 
 pedition from Greece, and ending with the com- 
 mencement of the wrath of Achilles — intermin- 
 gling with the heroic part of the composition a 
 great number of love adventures, as those of 
 Paris and Helen, of Protesilaus and Laodamia, 
 which occurred previous to the siege of Troy, 
 or immediately after its commencement. Ovid. 
 Trist, 4, el. 10, v. 44. ex Pont. 2, ep. 10.— 
 
 Quintil. 10, c. 1. L. Claudius, a pro-prsetor 
 
 of Africa in the reign of Nero. He assumed 
 the title of emperor, and was put to death by 
 order of Galba. 
 
 Maghaon, Vid. Part III. 
 
 Macrianus, (Titus Fulvius Julius), an Egyp- 
 tian of obscure birth, who, from a private sol- 
 dier, rose to the highest command in the army, 
 and proclaimed himself emperor when Valerian 
 had been made prisoner bv the Persians, A. D. 
 260. When he had supported his dignity for a 
 year in the eastern parts of the world, Macria- 
 nus marched towards Rome, to crush Gallienus, 
 who had been proclaimed emperor. He was 
 defeated in lUyricum by the lieutenant of Gal- 
 lienus, and put to death with his son, at his own 
 request, A. D. 262. 
 
MM 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MA 
 
 Macrinus, (M. Opilius Sevenis,) a native of 
 Africa, who rose from the most ignominious 
 condition to the r£ink of praefect of the praetorian 
 guards, and at last of emperor, after the death 
 of Caracalla,whom he sacrificed to his ambition, 
 A. D. 217. The beginning of his reign was 
 popular ; the abolition of the taxes, and an af- 
 fable and complaisant behaviour endeared him 
 to his subjects. These promising appearances 
 did not long continue, and the timidity which 
 Macrinus betrayed in buying the peace of the 
 Persians by a large sum of money, soon ren- 
 dered him odious. Heliogabalus was proclaim- 
 ed emperor, and Macrinus attempted to save his 
 life by flight. He was, however, seized in Cap- 
 padocia, and his head was cut off and sent to 
 his successor, June 7th, A. D, 218. MacrintLS 
 reigned about two months and three days. 
 His son, called Diadumenianus, shared his fa- 
 ther's fate. 
 
 Macro, a favourite of the emperor Tiberius, 
 celebrated for his intrigues, perfidy, and cruelty. 
 He destroyed Sejanus, and raised himself upon 
 the ruins of that unfortunate favourite. He was 
 accessary to the murder of Tiberius, and con- 
 ciliated the good opinion of Caligula, by prosti- 
 tuting to him his own wife, called Ennia. He 
 soon after became unpopular, and was obliged 
 by Caligula to kill himself, together with his 
 wife, A. D. 38. 
 
 MACROBros, a Latin writer, who died A. D. 
 415. Some suppose that he was chamberlain 
 to the emperor Theodosius II, but this appears 
 groundless, when we observe that Macrobius 
 was a follower of paganism, and that none were 
 admitted t6 the confidence of the emperor, or to 
 the enjoyment of high stations, except such as 
 were of the Christian religion. Macrobius has 
 rendered himself famous for a composition call- 
 ed Saturnalia ; a miscellaneous collection of an- 
 tiquities and criticisms, supposed to have been 
 the result of a conversation of some of the learn- 
 ed Romans, during the celebration of the Sa- 
 turnalia. This was written for the use of his 
 son, and the bad latinity which the author has 
 often introduced, proves that he was not born 
 in a part of the Roman empire where the La- 
 tin tongue was spoken, as he himself candidly 
 confesses. The Saturnalia are useful for the 
 learned reflections they contain, and particu- 
 larly for some curious observations on the two 
 greatest epic poets of antiquity. Besides this, 
 Macrobius wrote a commentary on Cicero's 
 somnium Scipionis, which is likewise com- 
 posed for the improvement of the author's son, 
 and dedicated to him. The best editions are 
 that of Gronovius, 8vo. L. Bat. 1670, and that 
 of Lips. 8vo. 1777. 
 
 ; Madetes, a general of Darius, who bravely 
 defended a place against Alexander. The con- 
 queror resolved to put him to death, though 
 thirty orators pleaded for his life. Sisygambis 
 prevailed over the almost inexorable Alexander, 
 and Madetes was pardoned. Curt. 5, c. 3. 
 
 Madyes, a Scythian prince who pursued the 
 Cimmerians in Asia, and conquered Cyaxares, 
 B.C. 623. He held for some time the supreme 
 power of Asia Minor, Herodot. 8, c. 103. 
 
 MiEMACTERiA, sacrificcs offered to Jupiter at 
 Athens in the winter month Maemacterion, 
 
 MffiONiDES, a surname of Homer. Ovid. 
 
 MjEviDs, a poet of inferior note in the Au- 
 
 gustan age, who made himself known by his A- 
 liberal attacks on the character of the first wri- 
 ters of his time, as well as by his affected compo- 
 sitions. His name would have sunk in oblivion 
 if Virgil had not ridiculed him in his third 
 eclogue, and Horace in his 10th epode. 
 
 Magi, a religious sect among the eastern na- 
 tions of the world, and particularly in Persia. 
 They had great influence in the political, as well 
 as religious affairs of the state, and a monarch 
 seldom ascended the throne without their pre- 
 vious approbation. Zoroaster was founder of 
 their sect. They paid particular homage to fire, 
 which they deemed a deity, as pure in itself, and 
 the purifier of all things. In their religious 
 tenets they had two principles, one good, the 
 source of every thing good ; and the other evil, 
 from whence sprung all manner of ills. Their 
 professional skill in the mathematics and philo- 
 sophy rendered every thing familiar to them, 
 and from their knowledge of the phenomena of 
 the heavens, the word Magi was applied to all 
 learned men ; and in process of time, the Magi, 
 from their experience and profession, were con- 
 founded with the magicians who impose upon 
 the superstitious and credulous. Hence the 
 word Magi and magicians became sjTionymous 
 among the vulgar. Smerdis, one of the Magi, 
 usurped the crowTi of Persia after the death of 
 Cambyses, and the fraud was not discovered till 
 the seven noble Persians conspired against the 
 usurper, and elected Darius king. From this 
 circumstance there was a certain day on which 
 none of the Magi were permitted to appear in 
 public, as the populace had the privilege of mur- 
 dering whomsoever of them they met. Strab. 
 — Cic. de Div. 1. Herodot. 3, c. 62, &c. 
 
 MAGNENTros, an ambitious Roman, who dis- 
 tinguished himself by his cruelty and perfidy. 
 He conspired against the life of Constans, and 
 murdered him in his bed. This cruelty was 
 highly resented by Constantius ; and the assas- 
 sin, unable to escape from the fury of his an- 
 tagonist, murdered his own mother and the rest 
 of his relations, and afterwards killed himseli 
 by falling upon a sword which he had thrust 
 against a wall. He was the first of the follow- 
 ers of Christianity who ever murdered his law- 
 ful sovereign. A, D. 353. , 
 
 Magnes, the Athenian, was of the same age 
 as Chionides. All his comedies have perish- 
 ed; but such of their titles as are preserved 
 confirm the opinion that the materials of Athe- 
 nian comedy were derived from other sources 
 than mythology. The plays of Magnes were 
 probably much of the same nature with those 
 of Aristophanes. Indeed two of them, the Ba- 
 rpaxoi and the "OpviOeg, had the very titles which 
 are borne by two of the surviving dramas of 
 the latter poet, Magnes, whilst in his prime, 
 was an active and popular writer, full of wit 
 and invention ; but in his old age he fell into 
 disrepute : his services were forgotten by an 
 ungrateful audience, and he was left to die in 
 neglect and obscurity. 
 
 Mago, I. a Carthaginian general, sent against 
 Dionysius tyrant of Sicily. He obtained a vic- 
 tory, and granted peace to the conquered. In 
 a battle, which soon after followed this treaty of 
 peace, Mago was killed. His son of the same 
 name succeeded to the command of the Cartha- 
 ginian army, but he disgraced himself by flying 
 493 
 
MA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MA 
 
 at the approach of Timoleon, who had come to 
 assist the Syracusans. He was accused in the 
 Carthaginian senate, and he prevented by sui- 
 cide the execution of the sentence justly pro- 
 nounced against him. His body was hung on 
 
 a gibbet, and exposed to public ignominy. 
 
 II. A brother of Annibal the Great. He was 
 present at the battle of Cannae, and was deputed 
 by his brother lo carry to Carthage the news of 
 the celebrated victory which had been obtained 
 over the Roman armies. His arrival at Car- 
 thage was unexpected ; and, more powerfully 
 to astonish his countrymen, on account of the 
 victory at Cannse, he emptied in the senate- 
 house the three bushels of golden rings which 
 had been taken from the Roman knights slain 
 in battle. He was afterwards sent to Spain, 
 where he defeated the two Scipios, and was 
 himself, in another engagement, totally ruined. 
 He retired to the Beleares, which he conquer- 
 ed ; and one of the cities there still bears his 
 name, and is called Portus Magonis, Port Ma- 
 hon. After this, he landed in Italy with an 
 army, and took possession of part of Insubria. 
 He was defeated in a battle by Gtuintilius Va- 
 rus, and died of a mortal wound, 203 years be- 
 fore the Christian era. Liv. 30, &c. — C. JYep. 
 in Ann. 8, gives a very different account of his 
 death, and says he either perished in a ship- 
 wreck or was murdered by his servants. Per- 
 haps Annibal had two brothers of that name. 
 
 III. A. Carthaginian, more known by the 
 
 excellence of his writings than by his military 
 exploits. He wrote 28 volumes upon hus- 
 bandry ; these were preserved by Scipio at the 
 taking of Carthage, and presented to the Roman 
 senate. They were translated into Greek by 
 Cassius Dionysius of Utica, and into Latin by 
 order of the Roman senate, though Cato had 
 already written so copiously upon the subject ; 
 and the Romans, as it has been observed, con- 
 sulted the writings of Mago with greater ear- 
 nestness than the books of the Sibylline verses. 
 
 Columella. IV. A Carthaginian, sent by his 
 
 countrymen to assist the Romans against Pyr- 
 rhus and the Tarentines, with a fleet of 120 
 sail. This offer was politely refused by the 
 Roman senate. This Mago was father of As- 
 drubal and Hamilcar. Val. Max. 
 
 Maherbal, a Carthaginian, who was at the 
 siege of Saguntum, and who commanded the 
 cavalry of Annibal at the battle af Cannae. He 
 advised the conqueror immediately to march to 
 Rome, but Annibal required time to consider on 
 so bold a measure ; upon which Maherbal ob- 
 served, that Annibal knew how to conquer, but 
 not how to make a proper use of victory. 
 
 Majorianus, Jul. (Valerius,) an emperor of 
 the western Roman empire, raised to the impe- 
 rial throne A. D. 457. He signalized himself 
 by his private as well as public virtues. He was 
 massacred, after a reign of 37 years, by one of 
 his generals. 
 
 Mamercus, a tyrant of Catana, who surren- 
 dered to Timoleon. His attempts to speak in 
 a public assembly at Syracuse were received 
 with groans and hisses ; upon which he dashed 
 his head against a wall, and endeavoured to de- 
 stroy himself The blows were not fatal, and 
 Mamercus was soon after put to death as a rob- 
 ber, B. C. 340. Poly an. 5.— C. Ncp. in. Tim. 
 
 MamertIni, a mercenary band of soldiers, 
 494 
 
 which passed from Campania into Sicily at the 
 request of Agathocles. When they were in the 
 service of Agathocles, they claimed the privi- 
 lege of voting at the election of magistrates at 
 Syracuse, and were ordered to leave Sicily. In 
 their M'^ay to the coast, they were received with 
 great kindness by the people of Messana, and 
 soon returned perfidy for hospitality. They 
 murdered all the males in the city, and render- 
 ed themselves masters of the place. After this 
 violence, they assumed the name of Mamertini, 
 and called their city Mamertina, from a provin- 
 cial-word, which, in their language, signified 
 Martial or warlike. The Mamertines were af- 
 terwards defeated by Hiero, and totally disabled 
 to repair their ruined affairs. Pint, in Pyrrh.&c. 
 
 Mamilia Lex, de limitibus, by the tribune 
 Mamilius. It ordained that in the boundaries 
 of the lands, five or six feet of land should be 
 left uncultivated, which no person could convert 
 into private property. It also appointed com- 
 missioners to see it carried into execution. 
 
 Mamilii, a plebeian family at Rome, de- 
 scended from the Aborigines. They first lived 
 at Tasculum, from whence they came to Rome. 
 Liv. 3, c. 29. 
 
 Mamilius Ogtavius. Vid. Manilius. 
 
 Mamxjrius Veturius. Vid. Ancile, Part III. 
 
 Mamurra, a Roman knight, born at Formiae. 
 He followed the fortune of J. Caesar in Gaul, 
 where he greatly enriched himself. He built a 
 magnificent palace on mount Coslius, and was 
 the first who incrusted his walls with marble. 
 Catullus has attacked him in his epigrams. 
 Formiae is sometimes called Mamurrarum urbs. 
 Plin. 36, c. 6. 
 
 Manginus, C. a Roman general, who, though 
 at the head of an army of 30,000 men, was de- 
 feated by 4000 Numantians, B. C. 138. He 
 was dragged from the senate, &c. Cic. in Orat. 
 1, c. 40. 
 
 Mandane, a daughter of king Astyages, 
 married by her father to Cambyses, an ignoble 
 person of Persia. Vid. Cyrus. 
 
 Mandanes, an Indian prince and philoso- 
 pher, whom Alexander invited by his ambassa- 
 dors, on pain of death, to come to his banquet, 
 as being the son of Jupiter. The philosopher 
 ridiculed the threats and promises of Alexan- 
 der, &c. Strab. 15. 
 
 Mandubratius, a young Briton, who came 
 over to Caesar in Gaul. His father, Imraanu- 
 entius, was king in Britain, and had been put 
 to death by order of Cassivelaunus. Cas. Bell. 
 G. 5, c. 20. 
 
 Manetho, a celebrated priest of Heliopolis 
 in Egypt, surnamed the Mendesian, B. C. 261. 
 He wrote in Greek a history of Egypt, which 
 has been often quoted and commended by the 
 ancients, particularly by Josephus. It was 
 chiefly collected from the writings of Mercury, 
 and from the journals and annals which were 
 preserved in the Egyptian temples. This his- 
 tory has been greatly corrupted by the Greeks. 
 The author supported that all the gods of the 
 Egyptians had been mere mortals, and had all 
 lived upon earth. This history, which is now 
 lost, had been epitomised, and some fragments 
 of it are still extant. There is extant a Greek 
 poem ascribed to Manetho, in which the power 
 of the stars, which preside over the birth and 
 fate of mankind, is explained. The Apoteles- 
 
MA 
 
 HISTORY, &o. 
 
 MA 
 
 mata of this author were edited in 4to. by Gro- 
 novius, L. Bat. 1698. 
 
 Manilia Lex, by Manilius the tribune, A. 
 U. C. 678. It required that all the forces of 
 Lucullus and his province, together with 
 Bithynia, which was then under the command 
 of Glabrio, should be delivered to Pompey, and 
 that this general should, without any delay, de- 
 clare war against Mithridates, and still retain 
 the command of the Roman fleet, and the em- 
 pire of the Mediterranean, as before. 
 
 Manilius, I. a Roman who married the 
 daughter of Tarquin. He lived at Tusculum, 
 and received his father-in-law in his house 
 when banished from Rome, &c. Liv. 2, c. 15. 
 
 II. Caius, a celebrated mathematician and 
 
 poet of Antioch, who wrote a poetical treatise 
 on astronomy, of which five books are extant, 
 treating of the fixed stars. The style is not 
 elegant. The age in which he lived is not 
 known, though some suppose that he flourished 
 in the Augustan age. No author, however, in 
 the age of Augustus, has made mention of 
 Manilius. The best editions of Manilius are 
 those of Bentley, 4to. London, 1739, and Sto- 
 eberus, 8vo. Argentor, 1767. 
 
 Manlius ToRauATus, I. a celebrated Ro- 
 man, whose youth was distinguished by a lively 
 and cheerful disposition. These promising tal- 
 ents were, however, impeded by a difiiculty of 
 speaking ; and the father, unwilling to expose 
 his son's rusticity at Rome, detained him in the 
 country. The behaviour of the father was pub- 
 licly censured, and MariusPomponius the tri- 
 bune cited him. to answer for his unfatherly be- 
 haviour to his son. Young Manlius was in- 
 formed of this, and with a dagger in his hand 
 he entered the house of the tribune, and made 
 him solemnly promise that he would drop the 
 accusation. This action of Manlius endeared 
 him to the people, and soon after he was chosen 
 military tribune. In a war against the Gauls 
 he accepted the challenge of one of the enemy, 
 whose gigantic stature and ponderous arms had 
 rendered him terrible and almost invincible in 
 the eyes of the Romans. The Gaul was con- 
 quered, and Manlms stripped him of his arms ; 
 and, from the collar (iorquis) which he took 
 from the enemy's neck, he was ever after sur- 
 named Torquatus. Manlius was the first Ro- 
 man who was raised to the dictatorship without 
 having been previously consul. The severity 
 of Torquatus lo his son has been deservedly 
 censured. This father had the courage and 
 heart to put to death his son, because he had 
 engaged one of the enemy, and obtained an hon- 
 ourable victory, without his previous permis- 
 sion. This uncommon rigour displeased many 
 of the Romans ; and though Torquatus was 
 honoured with a triumph, and commended by 
 the senate for his services, yet the Roman youth 
 showed their disapprobation of the consul's se- 
 verity by refusing him at his return the homage 
 which every other conqueror received. Some 
 time after, the censorship was offered to him ; 
 but he refused it, observing, that the people 
 could not bear his severity nor he the vices of 
 the people. From the rigour of Torquatus, all 
 edicts, and actions of severity and justice have 
 been called Manliana edicta. Liv. 7, c, 10. — 
 
 Vol. Max. 6, c. 9. II. Marcus, a celebrated 
 
 Roman, whose valour was displayed in the field 
 
 of battle, even at the early age of sixteen- 
 When Rome was taken by the Gauls, Manlius, 
 with a body of his countrymen, fled into the 
 capitol, which he defended when it was sudden- 
 ly surprised in the night by the enemy. This 
 action gained him the surname of Capitolinus ; 
 and the geese, which by their clamour had 
 awakened him to arm himself in his own de- 
 fence, were ever after held sacred among the 
 Romans. A law which Manlius proposed, to 
 abolish the taxes on the common people, raised 
 the senators against him. The dictator. Corn. 
 Cossus, seized him as a rebel, but the people 
 put on mourning, and delivered from prison 
 their common father. This did not in the least 
 check his ambition ; he continued to raise fac- 
 tions, and even secretly to attempt to make him- 
 self absolute, till at last the tribunes of the peo- 
 ple themselves became his accusers. He was 
 tried in the Campus Martins ; but when the 
 distant view of the capitol which Manlius had 
 saved, seemed to influence the people in his fa- 
 vour, the court of justice was removed, and 
 Manlius was condemned. He was thrown 
 down from the Tarpeian rock, A. U. C. 371 ; 
 and, to render his ignominy still greater, none 
 of his family were afterwards permitted to bear 
 the surname of Marcus, and the place where 
 his house had stood was deemed unworthy to 
 be inhabited. Liv. 5, c. 31, 1. 6, c. 5. — Flor. 1, 
 c. 12 and 26.— FaZ. Max. 6, c. ^.— Virg. jEn. 
 
 6, V. 825. III. Imperiosus, father of Manlius 
 
 Torquatus, was made dictator. Vid. Manlius 
 
 TorquMtus. IV. Volso, a Roman consul, 
 
 who received an army of Scipio in Asia, and 
 made war against the Gallo-Grecians, whom he 
 conquered. He was honoured "with a triumph 
 at his return, though it was at first strongly op- 
 posed. Flor. 3, c. 11. — Liv. 38, c, 12, &c.— — 
 V. Caius, or Aulus, a senator sent to Athens 
 to collect the best and wisest laws of Solon, A. 
 
 U. C. 300.— Li-y. 2, c. 54, 1. 3, c. 31. VI. 
 
 Another in whose consulship the temple of Ja- 
 nus was shut. VII. a Roman appointed 
 
 judge between his son Silanus and the province 
 of Macedonia. When all the parties had been 
 heard, the father said: " It is evident that my 
 son has sufiered himself to be bribed, therefore 
 I deem him unworthy of the republic and of my 
 house, and I order him to depart from my pres- 
 ence." Silanus was so struck at the rigour of 
 his father, that he hanged himself. Val. Max. 
 5, c. 5. 
 
 Mansuetus, J. a friend of Vitellius, who en- 
 tered the Roman armies, and left his son, then 
 very young, at home. The son was promoted 
 by Galba, and soon after met a detachment of 
 the partisans of Vitellius in which his father 
 was. A battle was fought, and Mansuetus was 
 wounded by the hand of his son, &c. Tacit. 
 Hist. 3, c. 25. 
 
 MarcellInus Ammianus, a celebrated his- 
 torian, who carried arms under Constantius, 
 Julian, and Valens, and wrote a history of 
 Rome from the reign of Domitian, where Sue- 
 tonius stops, to the emperor Valens. His style 
 is neither elegant nor laboured, but it is greatly 
 valued for its veracity, and in many of the ac- 
 tions he mentions the author was nearly con- 
 cerned. This history was composed at Rome, 
 where Ammianus retired from the noise and 
 troubles of the camp, and does not betray that 
 49^ 
 
MA 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 MA 
 
 severity against the Christians which other 
 writers have manifested, though the author was 
 warm in favour of Paganism, the religion which 
 for a while was seated on the throne. It was 
 divided into thirty-one books, of which only the 
 eighteen last remain, beginning at the death of 
 Magnenlius. The best editions of Ammianus 
 are those of Gronovius, fol. and 4to. L. Bat. 
 1693, and of Ernesti, 8vo. Lips. 1773. 
 
 Margellus, I. (Marcus Claudius,) a famous 
 Roman general, who, after the first Punic war, 
 had the management of an expedition against 
 the Gauls, where he obtained the Spolia opima, 
 by killing with his own hand Veridomarus, the 
 king of the enemy. Such success rendered him 
 popular, and soon after he was intrusted to op- 
 pose Annibal in Italy. He was the first Ro- 
 man who obtained some advantage over this 
 celebrated Carthaginian, and showed his coun- 
 trymen that Annibal was not invincible. The 
 troubles which were raised in Sicily by the Car- 
 thaginians at the death of Hieronymus, alarmed 
 the Romans, and Marcellus, in his third con- 
 sulship, was sent with a powerful force against 
 Syracuse. He attacked it by sea and land, but 
 his operations proved ineffectual, and the in- 
 vention and industry of a philosopher, vid.At' 
 cAimedes, were able to baffle all the efforts, and 
 to destroy all the great and stupendous machines 
 and military engines of the Romans during three 
 successive years. The perseverance of Marcel- 
 lus at last obtained the victory. The inatten- 
 tion of the inhabitants durmg their nocturnal 
 celebration of the festivals of Diana, favoured 
 Ms operations ; he forcibly entered the town, 
 and made himself master of it. The conqueror 
 enriched the capital of Italy with the spoils of 
 Syracuse, and when he was accused of rapa- 
 ciousness, for stripping the conquered city of all 
 its paintings and ornaments, he confessed that 
 he had done it to adorn the public buildings of 
 Rome, and to introduce a taste for the fine arts 
 and elegance of the Greeks among his country- 
 men. After the conquest of Syracuse, Marcel- 
 lus was called upon by his country to oppose a 
 second time Annibal. In this campaign he be- 
 haved with greater vigour than before; the 
 greatest part of the towns of the Samnites, which 
 had revolted, were recovered by force of arms, 
 and 3000 of the soldiers of Annibal made pris- 
 oners. Some time after, an engagement with 
 the Carthaginian general proved unfavourable ; 
 Marcellus had the disadvantage; but on the 
 morrow a more successful skirmish vindicated 
 his military character, and the honour of the 
 Roman soldiers. Marcellus, however, was not 
 sufficiently vigilant against the snares of his 
 adversary. He imprudently separated himself 
 from his camp, and. was killed in an ambuscade, 
 in the 60th year of his age, in his fifth consul- 
 ship, A. U. C 546. His body was honoured 
 with a magnificent funeral by the conqueror, 
 and his ashes were conveyed in a silver urn to 
 his son. Marcellus claims our commendation for 
 his private as well as public virtues ; and the 
 humanity of a general will ever be remembered, 
 who, at the surrender of Syracuse, wept at the 
 thought that many were going to be exposed to 
 the avarice and rapaciousness of an incensed 
 soldiery, which the policy of Rome and the laws 
 of war rendered inevitable. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 855. 
 
 — Pater c. 2, c. ^'^.—PUt. in vita, &c. II. 
 
 49e 
 
 One of his descendants, who bore the same 
 name, signalized himself in the civil wars of 
 Caesar and Pompey, by his firm attachment 
 to the latter. He was banished by Caesar, but 
 afterwards recalled at the request of the senate. 
 Cicero undertook his defence in an oration 
 
 which is still extant. III. The grandson of 
 
 Pompey's friend, rendered himself popular by 
 his universal benevolence and affability. He 
 was son of Marcellus by Octavia the sister of 
 Augustus. He married Julia, that emperor's 
 daughter, and was publicly intended as his suc- 
 cessor. Vid. Octavia. Marcellus was buried 
 at the public expense. Virg. Mn. 6, v. 883, 
 Suet, in Aug. — Plut. in Marcell. — Senec. Con- 
 sol, ad Marc.—Paterc. 2, c. 93. IV. The 
 
 son of the great Marcellus who took Syracuse, 
 was caught in the ambuscade which proved 
 fatal to his father, but he forced his way from 
 the enemy and escaped. He received the ashes 
 of his father from the conqueror. Plut. in 
 Marcell. 
 
 Marcia Lex, by Marcius Censorinus. It for- 
 bade any man to be invested with the office of 
 censor more than once. 
 
 Marcia, I, the wife of Regulus. When she 
 heard that her husband had been put to death at 
 Carthage in the most excruciating manner, she 
 retorted the punishment, and shut up some Car- 
 thaginian prisoners in a barrel, which she had 
 previously filled with sharp nails. The senate 
 was obliged to stop her wantonness and cruelty. 
 
 Diod. 24. II. A daughter of Cato of Utica. 
 
 Marciana, a sister of the emperor Trajan, 
 who, on account of her public and private vir- 
 tues, and her amiable disposition, was declared 
 Augustus and emperess by her brother. She died 
 A. D. 113. 
 
 Margianus, I. a native of Thrace, born of an 
 obscure family. After he had for some time 
 served in the army as a common soldier, he was 
 made private secretary to one of the officers of 
 Theodosius. His winning address and uncom- 
 mon talents raised him to higher stations ; and 
 on the death of Theodosius the 2d, A. D. 450, 
 he was invested with the imperial purple in the 
 east. The subjects of the Roman empire had 
 reason to be satisfied with their choice. Marci- 
 anus showed himself active and resolute ; and 
 when Attila, the barbarous king of the Huns, 
 asked of the emperor the annual tribute which 
 the indolence and cowardice of his predecessors 
 had regularly paid, the successor oiTheodosius 
 firmly said, that he kept his gold for his friends, 
 but that iron was the metal which he had pre- 
 pared for his enemies. In the midst of univer- 
 sal popularity, Marcianusdied, after a reign of 
 six years, in the 69th year of his age, as he was 
 making warlike preparations against the barba- 
 rians that had invaded Africa. His death was 
 lamented, and indeed his merit was great, since 
 his reign has been distinguished by the appella- 
 tion of the golden age. Marcianus married 
 Pulcheria, the sister of his predecessor. It is 
 said that in the years of his obscurity he found 
 a man who had been murdered, and that he had 
 the humanity to give him a private burial ; for 
 which circumstance he was accused of the homi- 
 cide and imprisoned. He was condemned to 
 lose his life, and the sentence would have been 
 executed, had not the real murderer been discov- 
 ered, and convinced the world of the innocence 
 
MA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MA 
 
 of Marcianus. II. Capella. Vid. Capella. 
 
 MARcros Sabinus, (M.) I. was the progenitor 
 of the Marcian family at Rome. He came to 
 Rome with Numa, and it wels he who advised 
 Numa to accept of the crown which the Romans 
 oiTered to him. He attempted to make himself 
 king of Rome in opposition to TuUus Hostilius, 
 and when his efforts proved unsuccessful, he 
 killed himself His son, who married a daughter 
 of Numa, was made highpriest by his father- 
 in-law. He was father of Ancus Martins. Plut. 
 
 in Numa. II. A man whom Catiline hired 
 
 to assassinate Cicero. 
 
 Marcus, a preen omen common to many of 
 the Romans. Vid. JEmilius, Lepidus, &c 
 
 Car/nensis, a general of the Achaean league, 
 255 B. C. 
 
 Mardonius, a general of Xerxes, who, after 
 the defeat of his master at Thermopylae and Sa- 
 lamis, was left in Greece with an army of 
 300,000 chosen men, to subdue the country and 
 reduce it under the power of Persia. In a bat- 
 tle at Plataea, Mardonius was defeated and left 
 among the slain, B. C. 479. He had been com- 
 mander of the armies of Darius in Europe, and 
 it was chiefly by his advice that Xerxes invaded 
 Greece. He was son-in-law of Darius. Plut. 
 in Arist. — Herodot. 6, 7 and 8. — Diod. 11. — 
 Justin.. 2, c. 13, &c. 
 
 Margites, a man against whom, as some 
 suppose. Homer wrote a poem, to ridicule his 
 superficial knowledge, and to expose his affec- 
 tation. When Demosthenes wished to prove 
 Alexander an inveterate enemy to Athens, he 
 called him another Margites. 
 
 Maria' Lex, by C. Marius, the tribune, A. 
 U. C. 634. It ordered the planks called pontes^ 
 on which the people stood up to give their votes 
 in the comitia, to be narrower, that no other 
 might stand there to hinder the proceedings of 
 
 the assembly. Another, called also Porcia, 
 
 by L. Marius and Porcius, tribunes, A. U. C. 
 691. It fined a certain sum of money such com- 
 manders as gave a false account to the Roman 
 senate of the number of slain in a battle. 
 
 Mariamna, a Jewish woman, who married 
 Herodes. 
 
 Marius,(C.)I. a celebrated Roman, who, from 
 a peasant became one of the most powerful and 
 cruel tyrants that Rome ever beheld during her 
 consular government. He was born at Arpinum, 
 of obscure and illiterate parents. His father 
 bore the same name eis himself, and his mother 
 was called Fulcinia. He forsook the meaner 
 occupations of the country for the camp, and 
 signalized himself under Scipio at the siege of 
 Numantia. His marriage with Julia, who was 
 of the family of the Caesars, contributed in some 
 measure to raise him to consequence. He pass- 
 ed into Africa as lieutenant to the consul Me- 
 tellus against Jugurtha, and, after he had there 
 ingratiated himself with the soldiers, and raised 
 enemies to his friend and benefactor, he return- 
 ed to Rome, and canvassed for the consulship. 
 He was elected, and appointed to finish the war 
 against Jugurtha. No sooner was Jugurtha 
 conquered than new honours and fresh trophies 
 awaited Marius. The provinces of Rome were 
 suddenly invaded by an army of 300,000 barba- 
 rians, and Marius was sent against the Teu- 
 tones. The war was prolonged, and Marius 
 was a third and fourth time invested with the 
 
 Part II.— 3 R 
 
 consulship. At last two engagements were 
 fought, and not less than 200,000 of the barba-- 
 rian forces of the Ambrones and Teutones were 
 slain in the field of battle, and 90,000 made pris- 
 oners. The following year was also marked 
 by a total overthrow of the Cimbri,another horde 
 of barbarians, in which 140,000 were slaughter- 
 ed by the Romans and 60,000 taken prisoners. 
 After such honourable victories, Marius, with 
 ^his colleague Catulus,entered Rome in triumph ; 
 'and, for his eminent services, he received the 
 appellation of the third founder of Rome. He 
 was elected consul a sixth time ; and, as his in- 
 trepidity had delivered his country from its for- 
 eign enemies, he sought employment at home ; 
 and his restless ambition began to raise seditions 
 and to oppose the power of Sylla. This was 
 the cause and the foundation of a civil war. 
 Sylla refused to deliver up the command of the 
 forces with which he was empowered to prose- 
 cute the Mithridatic war, and he resolved to op- 
 pose the authors of a demand which he consid- 
 ered as arbitrary and improper. He advanced 
 to Rome, and Marius was obliged to save his 
 life by flight. The unfavourable winds prevent- 
 ed him from vseeking a safer retreat in Africa, 
 and he was left on the coast of Campania, where 
 the emissaries of his enemy soon discovered him 
 in a marsh, where he had plunged himself into 
 the mud, and left only his mouth above the sur- 
 face for respiration. He was violently dragged 
 to the neighbouring town of Minturnae ; and 
 the magistrates, all devoted to the interest of 
 Sylla, passed sentence of immediate death on 
 their magnanimous prisoner. A Gaul was com- 
 manded to cut off his head in the dungeon, but 
 the stern countenance of Maritis disarmed the 
 courage of the executioner, and when he heard 
 the exclamation of Tune homo, atides occidere 
 Caium Marium, the dagger dropped from his 
 hand. Such an uncommon adventure awakened 
 the compassion of the inhabitants of Minturnae. 
 They released Marius from prison, and favour- 
 ed his escape to Africa, where he joined his son 
 Marius, who had been arming the princes of the 
 country in his cause. Marius landed near the 
 walls of Carthage, and he received no small 
 consolation at the sight of the venerable ruins 
 of a once powerful city, which, like himself, 
 had been exposed to calamity, and felt the cruel 
 vicissitude of fortune. He soon after learned 
 that Cinna had embraced his cause at Rome. 
 This intelligence animated Marius ; he set sail 
 to assist his friend, only at the head of a thou- 
 sand men. His army, however, gradually in- 
 creased, and he entered Rome like a conqueror. 
 His enemies were inhumanly sacrificed to his 
 fury. Rome was filled with iDlood, and he who 
 had once been called the father of his country, 
 marched through the streets of the city, attend- 
 ed b}^ a number of assassins, who immediately 
 slaughtered all those whose salutations were not 
 answered by their leader. Such were the sig- 
 nals for bloodshed. When Marius and Cinna 
 had sufliciently gratified their resentment, they 
 made themselves consuls ; but Marius, already 
 worn out with old age and infirmities, died six- 
 teen days after he had been honoured with the 
 consular dignity for the seventh time, B. C. 86. 
 His end was probably hastened by the uncom- 
 mon quantity of wine which he drank when 
 labouring under a dangerous disease. Such was 
 497 
 
MA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MA 
 
 the end of Marias, Avho rendered himself con- 
 spicuous by his victories and by his cruelty. As 
 he was brought up in the midst of poverty and 
 among peasants, it will not appear wonderful 
 that he always betrayed rusticity in his behav- 
 iour, and despised in others those polished man- 
 ners and that studied address which education 
 had denied him. His countenance was stern, 
 his voice firm and imperious, and his disposition 
 untractable. He was in the 70th year of his age 
 when he died, and Rome seemed to rejoice in 
 the fall of a man whose ambition had proved 
 fatal to so many of her citizens. His only quali- 
 fications were those of a great general, and with 
 these he rendered himself the most illustrious 
 and powerful of the Romans, because he was the 
 only one whose ferocity seemed capable to op- 
 pose the barbarians of the north. Plut. in vita. 
 ^Paterc. 2, c. ^.—Flor. 3, c. ^.—Juv. 8, v. 245, 
 &c. — LMcan. 2, v. 69.—- — II. Caius, the son of 
 the great Marius, was as cruel as his father, 
 and shared his good and his adverse fortune. 
 He made himself consul in the 25th year of his 
 age, and murdered all the senators who oppo- 
 sed his ambitious views. He was defeated by 
 Sylla, and fled to Prseneste, where he killed 
 
 himself Plut. in Mario. III. One of the 
 
 Greek fathers of the 5th century, whose works 
 were edited by Garner, 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1673 ; 
 and Balazius, ib. 1684.— — IV. M. Aurelius, a 
 native of Gaul, who, from the mean employ- 
 ment of a blacksmith, became one of the gene- 
 rals of Gallienus, and at last caused himself to 
 be saluted emperor. Three days after this ele- 
 vation, a man who had shared his poverty with- 
 out partaking of his more prosperous fortune, 
 publicly assassinated him, and he was killed by 
 a sword which he himself had made in the time 
 of his obscurity. Marius has been often cele- 
 brated for his great strength; and it is confi- 
 dently reported that he could stop, with one of 
 his fingers only, the wheel of a chariot in its 
 
 most rapid course. V. Maximus, a Latin 
 
 writer, who published an account of the Ro- 
 man emperors from Trajan to Alexander, now 
 lost. His compositions were entertaining, and 
 executed with great exactness and fidelity. 
 
 Marpesia. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Marres, a king of Egypt, who had a crow 
 which conveyed his letters wherever he pleased. 
 He raised a celebrated monument to his faith- 
 ful bird near the city of Crocodiles. JElian An. 
 6, c. 7. 
 
 Martha, a celebrated prophetess of Syria, 
 whose artifice and fraud proved of the greatest 
 service to C. Marius, in the numerous expedi- 
 tions he undertook. Plut. in Mario. 
 
 Martialis, (Marcus Valerius,) a native of 
 Bilbilis in Spain, who came to Rome about the 
 20tn year of his age, where he recommended 
 himself lo notice by his poetical genius. Domi- 
 tian gave him the tribuneship; but the poet, 
 unmindful of the favours he received, after the 
 death of his benefactor, exposed to ridicule the 
 vices and cruelties of a monster whom, in his 
 lifetime, he had extolled as the pattern of virtue, 
 goodness, and excellence. Trajan treated the 
 poet with coldness ; and Martial, after he had 
 passed thirty-five years in the capital of the 
 world, in the greatest splendour and affluence, 
 retired to his native country, where he had the 
 mortification to be the object of malevolence, sa- 
 
 tire, and ridicule. He received some favors 
 from his friends, and his poverty was alleviated 
 by the liberality of Pliny the younger, whom he 
 had panegyrized in his poems. Martial died 
 about the 104th year of the Christian era, in the 
 75th year of his age He is now well known by 
 the fourteen books of epigrams which he wrote, 
 and whose merit is now best described by the 
 candid confession of the author in this line : — 
 
 Svmt bona, sunt qucedam mediocria, sunt mala 
 plura. 
 
 It has been observed of Martial that his talent 
 was epigrams. Every thing he did was the sub- 
 ject of an epigram. The best editions of Mar- 
 tial are those of Rader, fol. Mogunt, 1627, of 
 Schriverius, 12mo. L. Bat. 1619, and of Smids, 
 8vo. Amst. 1701. 
 
 Marullus, L a tribune of the people, who 
 tore the garlands which had been placed upon 
 Caesar's statues, and who ordered those that 
 had saluted him king to be imprisoned. He 
 was deprived of his consulship by J. Caesar. 
 Plut.- — II. A Latin poet in the reign of M. 
 Aurelius. He satirised the emperor with great 
 licentiousness, but his invectives were disre- 
 garded and himself despised. 
 
 Masinissa, son of Gala, was king of a small 
 part of Africa, and assisted the Carthaginians 
 in their wars against Rome. He proved a most 
 indefatigable and courageous ally, but an act 
 of generosity converted him to the interests of 
 Rome. After the defeat of Asdrubal, Scipio, 
 the first Africanus who had obtained the victo- 
 ry, found, among the prisoners of war, one of 
 the nephews of Masinissa. He sent him back 
 to his uncle, loaded with presents, and conduct- 
 ed him with a detachment for the safety and 
 protection of his person. Masinissa was struck 
 with the generous action of the Roman general, 
 he forgot all former hostilities, and joined his 
 troops to those of Scipio. It was to his exer- 
 tions they owed many of their victories in Afri- 
 ca, and particularly in that battle which proved 
 fatal to Asdrubal and Syphax. The Numidian 
 conqueror, charmed with the beauty of Sopho- 
 nisba, the captive wife of Syphax, carried her 
 to his camp, and married her ; but when he per- 
 ceived that this new connexion displeased Sci- 
 pio, he sent poison to his wife, and recommend- 
 ed her to destroy herself, since he could not pre- 
 serve her life in a manner which became her 
 rank, her dignity, and fortune, without oflfend- 
 ing his Roman allies. In the battle of Zama, 
 Masinissa greatly contributed to the defeat of 
 the great Annibal ; and the Romans, who had 
 so often been spectators of his courage and val- 
 our, rewarded his fidelity with the kingdom of 
 Syphax and some of the Carthaginian territo- 
 ries. Masinissa died in the 97th year of his age, 
 after a reign of above sixty years, 149 years be- 
 fore the Christian era. In the last years of his 
 life he was seen at the head of hisarmies, be- 
 having with the most indefatigable activity ; and 
 he often remained for many successive days on 
 horseback, without a saddle under him or a 
 covering upon his head, and without showing 
 the least marks of fatigue. This strength of 
 mind and body he chiefly owed to the temper- 
 ance which he observed. He was seen eating 
 brown bread at the door of his tent, like a pri- 
 vate soldier, the day after he had obtained an 
 498 
 
MA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MA 
 
 immortal victory over the armies of Carthage. 
 He left fifty-four sons, three of v^^hom were 
 legitimate, Micipsa, Gulussa, and Manastabal. 
 The kingdom was fairly divided among them 
 by Scipio, and the illegitimate children receiv- 
 ed, as their portions, very valuable presents. 
 The death of Gulussa and Manastabal soon 
 after left Micipsa sole master of the large pos- 
 sessions of Masinissa. Strcd). 17. — Polyb. — 
 Appian. lAjbic. — Cic. de Senec. — Vol. Max. 8. 
 — Sallust. in Jug. — Liv. 25, &c. — Ovid. Fast. 
 6, V. 769. — Justin. 33, c. 1, 1. 38, c. 6. 
 
 Massaget.e. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Matralia, a festival at Rome in honour of 
 Matuta, or Ino. Only matrons and freeborn 
 women were admitted. Varro de L. L. 5, c. 
 22.— Ovid. Fast. 6, v. il.—Plut. in Cam. 
 
 Matronalia, festivals at Rome in honour of 
 Mars, celebrated by married women, in com- 
 memoration of the rape of the Sabines, and of 
 the peace which their entreaties had obtained 
 between their fathers and husbands. Flowers 
 were then offered in the temples of Juno. Ovid. 
 Fast. 3,'c. 229 — Plut. in Rom. 
 
 Maurus, a man who flourished in the reign 
 of Trajan, o-r, according to others, of rhe Anto- 
 nini. He was governor of Syene in Upper 
 Egypt. He wrote a Latin poem upon the rules 
 of poetry and versification. 
 
 Mausolus, a king of Caria. His wife Arte- 
 misia was so disconsolate at his death, which 
 happened B. C. 353, that she drank up his ash- 
 es, and resolved to erect one of the grandest and 
 noblest monuments of antiquity, to celebrate the 
 memory of a husband whom she tenderly loved. 
 This famous monument, which passed for one 
 of the seven wonders of the world, was called 
 Mausoleum; and from it all other magnificent 
 sepulchres and tombs have received the same 
 name. It was built by four different architects ; 
 Scopas erected the side which faced the east, 
 Timotheus had the south, Leochares had the 
 west, and Bruxis the north. Pithis was also 
 employed in raising a pyramid over this stately 
 monument, and the top was adorned by a chari- 
 ot drawn by four horses. The expenses of this 
 edifice were immense, and tliis gave occasion 
 to the philosopher An axagoras to exclaim, when 
 he saw it, How much money changed into stones ! 
 Vid. Artemisia. Herodot. 7, v. 99. — Strab. 14. 
 —Diod. 16.—Paus. 8, c. l6.—Flor. 4, c. 11. 
 GelL^lO, c. 18.— Propert. 3, el. 2, v. ^l.—Suet. 
 Aug. 100. 
 
 Maxentius, (Marcus Aurelius Valerius,) a 
 son of the emperor Maximianus Hercules. 
 Some suppose him to have been a supposititious 
 child. The voluntary abdication of Diocletian, 
 and of his father, raised him in the state, and he 
 declared himself independent emperor, or Au- 
 gustus, A. D. 306. He afterwards incited his 
 father to re-assume his imperial authority, and 
 in a perfidious manner destroyed Severus, who 
 had delivered himself into his hands, and relied 
 upon his honour for the safety of his life. His 
 victories and successes were impeded by Gale- 
 rius Maximianus, who opposed him with a pow- 
 erful force. The defeat and voluntary death of 
 Galerius soon restored peace to Italy, and Max- 
 entius passed into Africa, where he rendered 
 himself odious by his cruelty and oppression. 
 He soon after returned to Rome, and was in- 
 formed that Constantine was come to dethrone 
 
 him. He gave his adversary battle near Rome, 
 and, after he had lost the victory, he fled back 
 to the city. The bridge over which he crossed 
 the Tiber was in a decayed situation, and he 
 fell into the river and was drowned, on the 24th 
 of September, A. D. 312. 
 
 Maximianus, I. (Herculius Marcus Aurelius 
 Valerius,) a native of Sirmium, in Pannonia, 
 who served as a common soldier in the Roman 
 armies. When Diocletian had been raised to 
 the imperial throne, he remembered the valour 
 and courage of his fellow-soldier Maximianus, 
 and rewarded his fidelity by making him his 
 colleague in the empire, and by ceding to him 
 the command of the provinces of Italy, Africa, 
 and Spain, and the rest of the western territo- 
 ries of Rome. Maximianus showed the justness 
 of the choice of Diocletian by his victories over 
 the barbarians. In Britain success did not at- 
 tend his arms ; bui in Africa he defeated and 
 put to death Aurelius Julianus, who had pro- 
 claimed himself emperor. Soon after, Diocle- 
 tian abdicated the imperial purple, and obliged 
 Maximianus to follow his example, on the 1st 
 of April, A. D. 304. Maximianus reluctantly 
 complied with the command of a man to whom 
 he owed his greatness. Before the first year of 
 his resignation had elapsed, he re-assumed the 
 imperial dignity; but the troops mutinied against 
 him, and he fled for safety to Gaul, to the court 
 of Constantine, to whom he gave his daughter 
 Faustina in marriage. Here he again acted a 
 conspicuous character, and re-assumed the im- 
 perial power, which his misfortunes had obliged 
 him to relinquish. This offended Constantine. 
 But when open violence seemed to frustrate the 
 ambitious views of Maximianus, he had re- 
 course to artifice. He prevailed upon his daugh- 
 ter Faustina, to leave the doors of her chamber 
 open in the dead of night ; and he secretly intro- 
 duced himself to her bed, where he stabbed the 
 man who slept by the side of his daughter. This 
 was not Constantine ; Faustina, faithful to her 
 husband, had apprized him of her father's ma- 
 chinations, and a eunuch had been placed in 
 his bed. Constantine resolved to punish Max- 
 imianus, and nothing was left to him but to 
 choose his own death. He strangled himself at 
 Marseilles, A. D. 310, in the 60th year of his 
 age. His body was found fresh and entire in a 
 leaden coffin about the middle of the eleventh 
 
 century. II. Galerius Valerius, a native of 
 
 Dacia, who, in the first years of his life, was 
 employed in keeping his father's flocks. He 
 entered the army, where his valour and bodily 
 strength recommended him to the notice of his 
 superiors, and particularly to Diocletian, who 
 invested him with the imperial purple in the 
 east, and gave him his daughter Valeria in mar- 
 riage. Galerius deserved the confidence of his 
 benefactor. He conquered the Goths and Dal- 
 matians, and checked the insolence of the Per- 
 sians. In a battle, however, with the king of 
 Persia, Galerius was defeated ; and, to complete 
 his ignominy, and render him more sensible of 
 his disgrace, Diocletian obliged him to walk 
 behind his chariot arrayed in his imperial robes. 
 This humiliation stung Galerias to the quick ; 
 he assembled another army, and gave battle to 
 the Persians. He gained a complete victory, 
 and took the wives and children of his enemy. 
 This success elated Galerius to such a degree, 
 499 
 
MA 
 
 HISTORY, (fee. 
 
 MA 
 
 that he claimed the most dignified appellations, 
 and ordered himself to be called the son of Mars. 
 Diocletian himself dreaded his power, and even, 
 it is said, abdicated the imperial dignity by- 
 means of his threats. As soon as Diocletian 
 had abdicated, Galerius was proclaimed Augus- 
 tus, A. D. 304, but his cruelty soon rendered 
 him odious ; and the Roman people, offended at 
 his oppression, raised Maxentias to the imperial 
 dignity the following year, and Galerius was 
 obliged to yield, and to fly before his more for- 
 tunate adversary. He died in the greatest ago- 
 nies, A. D. 311. In his character, Galerius 
 was wanton and tyrannical ; and he often feast- 
 ed his eyes with the sight of dying wretches, 
 whom his barbarity had delivered to bears and 
 wild beasts. Lactant. de M. P. 33. — Eusehius 
 8, c. 16. 
 
 Maximinus, (Caius Julius Verus,) the son of 
 a peasant in Thrace. He was originally a shep- 
 herd, and, by heading his countrymen against 
 the frequent attacks of the neighbouring bar- 
 barians and robbers, he inured himself to the 
 labours and to the fatigues of a camp. He en- 
 tered the Roman armies, where he gradually 
 rose to the first offices ; and on the death of 
 Alexander Severus he caused himself to be 
 proclaimed emperor, A. D. 235. The popu- 
 larity which he had gained when general of the 
 armies, was at an end when he ascended the 
 throne. He was delighted with acts of the 
 greatest barbarity, and no less than 400 persons 
 lost their lives on the false suspicion of having 
 conspired against the emperor's life. Such is 
 the character of the suspicious and tyrannical 
 Maximinus. In his military capacity he acted 
 with the same ferocity ; and in an expedition in 
 Germany, he not only cut down the corn, but 
 he totally ruined and set fire to the whole coun- 
 try, to the extent of 450 miles. Such a mon- 
 ster of tyranny at last provoked the people of 
 Rome. The Gordians were proclaimed em- 
 perors, but their innocence and pacific virtues 
 were unable to resist the fury of Maximinus. 
 After their fall, the Roman senate invested 
 twenty men of their number with the imperial 
 dignity, and intrusted into their hands the care 
 of the republic. These measures so highly ir- 
 ritated Maximinus, that, at the first intelligence, 
 he howled like a wild beast, and almost destroy- 
 ed himself by knocking his head against the 
 walls of his palace. When his fury was aba- 
 ted, he marched to Rome, resolved on slaughter. 
 His bloody machinations were stopped, and his 
 soldiers, ashamed of accompanying a tyrant 
 whose cruelties had procured him the name of 
 Busiris, Cyclops, and Phalaris, assassinated him 
 in his tent before the walls of Aquileia, A. D. 
 236, in the 65th year of his age. Maximinus 
 has been represented by historians as of a gi- 
 gantic stature ; he was eight feet high, and the 
 bracelets of his wife served as rings to adorn 
 the fingers of his hand. His strength was pro- 
 portionable to his gigantic shape ; he could 
 alone draw a loaded wagon, and, with a blow 
 of his fist, he often broke the teeth in a horse's 
 mouth. Herodianus. — Jornand. de reb. Get. 
 — Capitol. Maximinus made his son, of the 
 same name, emperor, as soon as he was invest- 
 ed with the purple ; and his choice was unani- 
 mously approved by the senate, by the people, 
 and by the army.— — II. Galerius Valerius, a 
 500 
 
 shepherd of Thrace, who was raised to the im- 
 perial dignity by Diocletian, A. D. 305. He 
 was nephew to Galerius Maximianus, by his 
 mother's side, and to him he was indebted for 
 his rise and consequence in the Roman armies. 
 As Maximinus was ambitious and fond of pow- 
 er, he looked with an eye of jealousy upon those 
 who shared the dignity of emperor with him- 
 self. He declared war against Licinius, his 
 colleague on the throne ; but a defeat, which 
 soon after followed, on the 30th of April, A. D. 
 313, between Heraclea and Adrianopolis, left 
 him without resources and without friends. 
 His victorious enemy pursued him, and he fled 
 beyond mount Taurus, forsaken and almost un- 
 known. He attempted to put an end to his 
 existence, but his eiforts were ineffectual ; and 
 though his death is attributed by some to despair, 
 it is more universally believed that he expired 
 in the greatest agonies, of a dreadful distemper, 
 which consumed him day and night with inex- 
 pressible pains. III. One of the ambassa- 
 dors of young Theodosius to Attila, king of the 
 Huns. 
 
 Maximus, (Magnus,) I. a native of Spain, 
 who proclaimed himself emperor, .A. D. 383. 
 The unpopularity of Gratian favoured his usur- 
 pation, and he was acknowledged by his troops. 
 Gratian marched against him, but he was defeat- 
 ed, and soon after assassinated. Maximus re- 
 fused the honours of a burial to the remains of 
 Gratian; and when he had made himself mas- 
 ter of Great Britain, Gaul, and Spain, he sent 
 ambassadors into the east, and demanded of the 
 emperor Theodosius to acknowledge him as his 
 associate on the throne. Theodosius endeavour- 
 ed to amuse and delay him, but Maximus re- 
 solved to support his claim by arms, and crossed 
 the Alps. Italy was laid desolate, and Rome 
 opened her gates to the conqueror. Theodosius 
 now determined to revenge the audaciousness of 
 Maximus, and had recourse to artifice. He be- 
 gan to make a naval armament, and Maximus, 
 not to appear inferior to his adversary, had al- 
 ready embarked his troops, when Theodosius, 
 by secret and hastened marches, fell upon him, 
 and besieged him at Aquileia. Maximus was 
 betrayed by hiii soldiers, and the conqueror, 
 moved with compassion at the sight of his fallen 
 and dejected enemy, granted him life; but the 
 multitude refused him mercy, and instantly 
 struck off" his head, A. D. 388. His son, Victor, 
 who shared the imperial dignity with him, was 
 soon after sacrificed to the fury of the soldiers. 
 
 II. Petronius, a Roman, descended of an 
 
 illustrious family. He caused Valentinian III. 
 to be assassinated, and ascended the throne ; and 
 to strengthen his usurpation, he married the em- 
 peress, to whom he had the weakness and im- 
 prudence to betray that he had sacrificed her 
 husband to his love for her person. This decla- 
 ration irritated the emperess ; she had recourse 
 to the barbarians to avenge the death of Valen- 
 tinian, and Maximus was stoned to death by his 
 soldiers, and his body thrown into the Tiber, 
 
 A. D. 455. He reigned only 77 days. III. 
 
 Pupianus. Vid. Pupianus. IV. A celebra- 
 ted cynic philosonher and magician of Ephe- 
 sus. He instructed the emperor Julian in magic, 
 and, according to the opinion of some historians, 
 it was in the conversation and company of Max- 
 imus that the apostacy of Julian originated. The 
 
ME 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ME 
 
 emperor not only visited the philosopher, but he 
 even submitted his writings to his inspection and 
 censure. Maximus refused to live in the court 
 of Julian, and the emperor, not dissatisfied with 
 the refusal, appointed him high pontiff in the 
 province of Lydia, an office which he discharged 
 with the greatest moderation and justice. When 
 Julian went into the east, the philosopher pro- 
 mised him success, and even said that his con- 
 quests would be more numerous and extensive 
 than those of the son of Philip. He persuaded 
 his imperial pupil, that, according to the doctrine 
 of metempsychosis, his body was animated by 
 the soul which once animated the hero whose 
 greatness and victories he was going to eclipse. 
 After the death of Julian, Maximus was almost 
 sacrificed to the fury of the soldiers : but the in- 
 terposition of his friends saved his life, and he 
 retired to Constantinople. He was soon after 
 accused ofmagical practices before the emperor 
 Valens, and beheaded at Ephesus, A. D. 366. 
 He wrote some philosophical and rhetorical trea- 
 tises, some of which were dedicated to Julian. 
 
 They are now all lost. Ammian. V. Tyrius, 
 
 a Platonic philosopher in the reign of M. Aure- 
 lius. This emperor, who was naturally fond of 
 study, became one of the pupils of Maximus, 
 and paid great deference to his instructions. 
 There are extant of Maximus 41 dissertations 
 on moral and philosophical subjects, written in 
 Greek, The best editions of which are that of 
 Davis, 8vo. Cantab. 1703 ; and that of Reiske, 
 
 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1774. VI. One of the 
 
 Greek fathers of the 7th century, whose works 
 were edited by Combesis, 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1675. 
 
 VII. A native of Sirmium, in Pannonia. 
 
 He was originally a gardener, but, by enlisting 
 in the Roman army, he became one of the mili- 
 tary tribunes, and his marriage with a woman 
 of rank and opulence soon rendered him inde- 
 pendent. He was father to the emperor Probus. 
 Mec^nas, or Meccbnas, (C. Cilnius,) a cel- 
 ebrated Roman knight, descended from the 
 kings of Etruria. He has rendered himself im- 
 morial by his liberal patronage of learned men 
 and of letters; and to his prudence and advice 
 Augustus acknowledged himself indebted for 
 the security he enjoyed. It was from the result 
 of his advice, against the opinion of Agrippa, 
 that Augustus resolved to keep the supreme 
 power in his hands, and not by a voluntary re- 
 signation to plunge Rome into civil commotions. 
 The emperor received the private admonitions 
 of Mecoenas in the same friendly manner as 
 they were given : and he was not displeased with 
 the liberty of his friend, who threw a paper to 
 him with these words, Descend from the tribu- 
 nal^ thou butcher ! while he sat in the judgment- 
 seat, and betrayed revenge and impatience in 
 his countenance. Mecoenas was fond of litera- 
 ture, and, according to the most received opin- 
 ion, he wrote a history of animals, a journal 
 of the life of Augustus, a treatise on the differ- 
 ent natures and kinds of precious stones, be- 
 sides the two tragedies of Octavia and Prome- 
 theus, and other things, all now lost. He died 
 eight years before Christ; and on his death- 
 bed he particularly recommended his poetical 
 friend Horace to the care and confidence of Au- 
 gustus. From the patronage and encourage- 
 ment which the princes of heroic and Ivric po- 
 etry, among the Latins, received from the fa- 
 
 vourite of Augustus, all patrons of literature 
 have ever since been called Mecanates. Virgil 
 dedicated to him his Georgics, and Horace his 
 Odes. Suet, in Aug. &Q, &c. — Plut. in Aug. — 
 Herodlan. — Senec. ep. 19 and 92. 
 
 Medon, son of Codrus, the 17th and last king 
 of Athens, was the first archon that was appoint- 
 ed with regal authority, B. C. 1070. In the 
 election Medon was preferred to his brother 
 'Neleus by the oracle of Delphi, and he render- 
 ed himself popular by the justice and modera- 
 tion of his administration. His successors were 
 called from him Medontida, and the office of 
 archon remained for above 200 years in the 
 family of Codrus under 12 perpetual archons. 
 Pans. 7, c. 2. — Pater c. 2, c. 2, 
 
 Medus, a son of JEgexxs and Medea, who gave 
 his name to a country of Asia. Medus, when 
 arrived to years of maturity, went to seek his 
 mother, whom the arrival of Theseus in Athens 
 had driven away. Vid. Medea. He came to 
 Colchis, where he was seized by his uncle Per- 
 ses, who usurped the throne of jEetes, his 
 mother's father, because the oracle had de- 
 clared that Perses should be murdered by one ot 
 the grandsons of iEetes. Medus assumed an- 
 other name, and called himself Hippotes, son 
 of Creon. Meanwhile, Medea arrived at Col- 
 chis, disguised in the habit of a priestess of Di- 
 ana ; and when she heard that one of Creon's 
 children was imprisoned, she resolved to hasten 
 the destruction of a person whose family she 
 detested. To effect this with more certainty, 
 she told the usurper that Hippotes was really a 
 son of Medea, sent by his mother to murder 
 him. She begged Perses to give her Hippotes, 
 that she might sacrifice him to her resentment. 
 Perses consented. Medea discovered that it 
 was her own son, and she instantly armed him 
 with the dagger which she had prepared against 
 his life, and ordered him to stab the usurper. 
 He obeyed, and Medea discovered who he was, 
 and made her son Medus sit on his grandfa- 
 ther's throne. Hesiod. — Theog. — Paus. 2. — 
 Apollod. 1. — Justin. 42. — Scnec. in Med. — Diod. 
 
 Megabyzus, I. one of the noble Persians who 
 conspired against the usurper Smerdis. He 
 was set over an army in Europe by king Darius, 
 where he took Perynthus, and conquered all 
 Thrace. He was greatly esteemed by his sove- 
 reign. Herodot. 3, &c. — -II. A son of Zopy- 
 rus, satrap to Darius. He conquered Egypt, 
 
 &c. Herodot. 3, c. 160. III. A satrap of 
 
 Artaxerxes. He revolted from his king, and 
 defeated two large armies that had been sent 
 against him. The interference of his friends 
 restored him to the king's favour, and he 
 showed his attachment to Artaxerxes by killing 
 a lion which threatened his life in hunting. 
 This act of affection in Megabyzus was looked 
 upon with envy by the king. He was discarded, 
 and afterwards reconciled to the monarch by 
 means of his mother. He died in the 76th year 
 of his age, B.C. 447, greatly regretted. Ctesias. 
 
 Megacles, I. an Athenian archon, who in- 
 volved the greatest part of the Athenians in the 
 sacrilege which was committed in the conspi- 
 racy of Cylon. Plut in Sol. II. A son of 
 
 Alcmoeon, who revolted with some Athenians 
 after the departure of Solon from Athens. He 
 
 was ejected by Pisistratus. III. A man who 
 
 exchanged dress with Pyrrhus when assisting 
 501 
 
ME 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ME 
 
 the Tarentines in Italy. He was killed in that 
 disguise. 
 
 Megaleas, a seditious person of Corinth. He 
 was seized for his treachery to King Philip of 
 Macedonia, upon which he destroyed himself to 
 avoid punishment. 
 
 Mec-apenthes, an illegitimate son of Mene- 
 laus, who, after his father's return from the 
 Trojan war, was married to a daughter of 
 Alector, a native of Sparta. His mother's 
 name was Teridae, a slave of Menelaus. Ho- 
 mer. Od, 4. — Apollod. 3. 
 
 Megasthenbs, a Greek historian in the age 
 of Seleucus Nicanor, about 300 years before 
 Christ. He wrote about the Oriental nations, 
 and particularly the Indians. His history is 
 often quoted by the ancients. What now passes 
 as his composition is spurious. 
 
 Mela Pomponius, a Spaniard who flourished 
 about the 45th year of the Christian era, and 
 distinguished himself by his geography, divided 
 into three books, and written with elegance, 
 with great perspicuity and brevity. The best 
 editions of this book, called de situ orbis, are 
 those of Gronovius, 8vo. L. Bat. 1722, and 
 Reinhold, 4to. Eton. 1761. 
 
 Melanippides, a Greek poet, about 520 years 
 before Christ. His grandson, ofthe same name, 
 flourished about 60 years after at the court of 
 Perdiccas the second, of Macedonia. Some 
 fragments of their poetry are extant. 
 
 Melanthus, Melanthes, or Melanthius, 
 a son of Andropompus, whose ancestors were 
 kings of Pylos. He was driven from his pater- 
 nal kingdom by the Heraclidae, and came to 
 Athens, where king ThymcEtes resigned the 
 crown to him provided he fought a battle against 
 Xanthus, a general of the Boeotians, who made 
 war against him. He fought and conquered. 
 Vid. Apaturia, and his family, surnamed the 
 JVeleida, sat on the throne of Athens till the 
 age of Codrus. He succeeded to the crown 
 1128 years B. C. and reigned 37 years. Pans. 
 2, c. 18. 
 
 Meles, I. a beautiful Athenian youth, belov- 
 ed by Timagoras, whose afiections he repaid 
 with the greatest coldness and indifference. 
 He even ordered Timagoras to leap down a 
 precipice from the top of the citadel of Athens, 
 and Timagoras, not to disoblige him, obeyed, 
 and was killed in the fall. This token of true 
 friendship and affection had such an effect upon 
 Meles, that he threw himself down from the 
 place, to atone by his death for the ingratitude 
 which he had shown to Timagoras. Paus 1, 
 
 c. 30. II. A king of Lydia, who succeeded 
 
 his father Alyattes, about 747 years before 
 Christ. He was father to Candaules. 
 
 Meletus, a poet and orator of Athens, who 
 became one of the principal accusers of Socra- 
 tes. After his eloquence had prevailed, and 
 Socrates had been put ignominiously to death, 
 the Athenians repented of iheir severity to the 
 philosopher, and condemned his accusers. Me- 
 letus perished among them. Diog. 
 
 Melissus, I. a philosopher of Samos, who 
 maintained that the world was infinite, immove- 
 able, and without a vacuum. According to 
 his doctrines, no one could advance any argu- 
 ment upon the power or attributes of Provi- 
 dence, as all human knowledge was weak and 
 imperfect. Themistocles was among his pu- 
 502 
 
 pils. He flourished about 440 years before the 
 Christian era. Diog. — —II. A freedman of 
 Mecsenas, appointed librarian to Augustus. 
 He wrote some comedies. Ovid. Pont. 4, ep. 
 16, V. 30. — Siieto7i. de Gram. 
 
 Melius, Sp, a Roman knight accused of as- 
 piring to tyranny, on account of his uncommon 
 liberality to the populace. He was summoned 
 to appear by the dictator L. Q,. Cincinnatus, 
 and when he refused to obey, he was put to 
 death by Ahala, the master of horse, A. U. C. 
 314.. Varro de L. L. 4.— Val. Max. 6, c. 3. 
 
 Mella Annjeus, the father of Lucan. He 
 was accused of being privy to Pisco's conspira- 
 cy against Nero, upon which he opened his 
 veins. Tacit. 16, Ann. c. 17. 
 
 Memmia Lex, ordained that no one should be 
 entered on the calendar of criminals who was 
 absent on the public accounts. 
 
 Memmius, a Roman knight, who rendered 
 himself illustrious for his eloquence and poet- 
 ical talents. He was made tribune, praetor, and 
 afterwards governor of Bithynia. He was 
 accused of extortion in his province, and ban- 
 ished by J. Caesar, though Cicero undertook his 
 defence. Lucretius dedicated his poem to him, 
 
 Cic. in Brut. The family of the Memmii 
 
 were plebeians. They were descended, ac- 
 cording to some accounts, from Mnestheus, the 
 friend of Mneas. Virg. JSn. 4, v. 117. 
 
 Memnon, a general of the Persian forces 
 when Alexander invaded Asia. He distin- 
 guished himself for his attachment to the inter- 
 est of Darius, his valour in the field, the sound- 
 ness of his counsels, and his great sagacity. 
 He defended Miletus against Alexander, and 
 died in the midst of his successful enterprises, 
 B. C. 333. His wife Barsine was taken prisoner 
 with the wife of Darius. Diod. 16. Vid. Part. III. 
 
 Menander, the chief of the New Comedy, 
 was born B. C. 342. His father, Diopithes, 
 was at this time commander of the forces sta- 
 tioned by the Athenians at the Hellespont, and 
 must therefore have been a man of some con- 
 sequence. Alexis the comic poet was his uncle 
 and instructer in the drama. Theophrastus 
 was his tutor in philosophy and literature. In 
 his twenty-first year, B. C. 321, he brought out 
 the 'Opyf] his first drama. He lived twenty- 
 nine years more, dying B. C. 292, after having 
 composed one hundred and five plays. All an- 
 tiquity seems to combine in celebrating Menan- 
 der. Terence, the first of Latin comedians, 
 was but the translator of his dramas, and ac- 
 cording to Caesar's well-known expression, only 
 a dimidiatus Menander : Plutarch and Dio 
 Chrysostom prefer him to Aristophanes : Ovid 
 declares that his fame shall never die whilst the 
 characters, which he so admirably exhibited, 
 exist among mankind ; and Cluinctilian pro- 
 nounces a splendid eulogy on his works. 
 Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Paterc. 1, c. 16. 
 
 Menas, a freedman of Pompey the Great, 
 who distinguished himself by the active and 
 perfidious part he took in the civil wars which 
 were kindled between the younger Pompey and 
 Augustus. When Pompey invited Augustus 
 to his galley, Menas advised his master to seize 
 the person of his enemy, and at the same time 
 the Roman empire, by cutting the cables of his 
 ship. No, (replied Pompey,) I would have ap- 
 proved ofthe measure if you had done it without 
 
ME 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ME 
 
 consulting me, but I scorn to break my word. 
 Svxt. in Oct. Horace, epod. 4, has ridiculed 
 ihe pride of Menas, and recalled to his mind 
 his former meanness and obscurity. 
 
 Menecrates, a physician of Syracuse, fa- 
 mous for his vanity and arrogance. He was 
 generally accompanied by some of his patients 
 whose disorders he had cured. He crowned 
 himself like the master of the gods ; and in a 
 letter which he wrote to Philip,king of Macedon, 
 he styled himself, in these words, Menecrates 
 Jupiter to king Philip, greeting. The Macedo- 
 nian monarch answered, Philip to Menecrates, 
 greeting, and better sense. Philip also invited 
 him to one of his feasts, but when the meats 
 were served up, a table was put separate for the 
 physician, on which he was served only with 
 perfumes and frankincense, like the father of 
 the gods. This entertainment displeased Me- 
 necrates ; he remembered that he was a mortal, 
 and hurried away from the company. He lived 
 about 360 years before the Christian era. 
 Miian. V. H. 10, c. bl.—Athen. 7, c. 13. 
 
 Menedemus, I. a Socratic philosopher of 
 Eretria, who was originally a tentmaker, an 
 employment which he left for the profession of 
 arms. The persuasive eloquence and philo- 
 sophical lectures of Plato had such an influence 
 over him, that he gave up his offices in the state 
 to cultivate literature. It is said that he died 
 through melancholy when Antigonus, one of 
 Alexander's generals, had made himself master 
 of his country, B. C. 301, in the 74th year of 
 his age. Some attribute his death to a different 
 cause, and say that he was falsely accused of 
 treason, for which he became so desperate that 
 he died after he had passed seven days without 
 taking any aliment. He was called the Ere- 
 tria7i Bull, on account of his gravity. Strah. 
 
 9. — Diog. II. A cynic philosopher of Lamp- 
 
 sacus, who said that he was come from hell to 
 observe the sins and wickedness of mankind. 
 His habit was that of the furies, and his behav- 
 iour was a proof of his insanity. He was disci- 
 ple of Colotes of Lampsacus. Diog. 
 
 Menelau, a festival celebrated at Therapnse 
 in Laconia, in honour of Menelaus. He had 
 there a temple, where he was worshipped with 
 his wife Helen as one of the supreme gods. 
 
 Menelaus, a king of Sparta, brother to Aga- 
 memnon. His father's name was Atreus, ac- 
 cording to Homer, or, according to the more 
 probable opinion of Hesiod, Apollodorus, &c. 
 he was the son of Plisthenes and iErope. Vid. 
 Plisthenes. He was educated with his brother 
 Agamemnon in the house of Atreus, and, like 
 the rest of the Grecian princes, solicited the 
 marria2:e of Helen, the daughter of kingTynda- 
 rus. By the artifice and advice of Ulysses, 
 Helen was permitted to choose a husband, and 
 she fixed her eyes upon Menelaus and married 
 him, after her numerous suiters had solemnly 
 bound themselves by an oath to defend her, and 
 protect her person against the violence or as- 
 sault of every intruder. Vid. Helena. As soon 
 as the nuptials were celebrated, Tyndariis re- 
 signed the crowTi to his son-in-law, and their hap- 
 piness was complete. The absence of Menelaus 
 in Crete gave opportunities to Paris, the Trojan 
 prince, to corrupt the fidelity of Helen, and to 
 carry away home what the goddess of beauty 
 had promised to him as his due. This action 
 
 was highly resented by Menelaus ; he reminded 
 the Greek princes of their oath and solemn en- 
 gagements when they courted the daughter of 
 Tyndarus, and immediately all Greece took up 
 arms to defend his cause. During the Trojan 
 war Menelaus behaved with great spirit and 
 courage ; andParis must have fallen by his hand, 
 had not Venus interposed and redeemed him 
 from certain death. He also expressed his wish 
 to engage Hector, but Agamemnon hindered 
 him from fighting with so powerful an adver- 
 sary. In the tenth year of the Trojan war, Helen 
 obtained the forgiveness of Menelaus by intro- 
 ducing him, v\^ith Ulysses, the night that Troy 
 was reduced to ashes, into the chamber of Dei- 
 phobus, whom she had married after the death 
 of Paris. This perfidious conduct totally re- 
 conciled her to her first husband; and she re- 
 turned with him to Sparta, during a voyage of 
 eight years. He died some time after his re- 
 turn. The palace which Menelaus once in- 
 habited was still entire in the days of Pausanias, 
 as well as the temple which had been raised to 
 his memory by the people of Sparta. Homer. 
 Od. 4, &c. 11. 1, &.c.—ApoUod. 3, c. 10.— Pans. 
 3, c. 14 and 19.—Dictys. Cret. 2, 6ic.— Virg. 
 ^n. 2, &c. — Qidntil. Smyrn. 14. — Ovid. He- 
 roid. 5 and 13. — Hygin. fab. 79. — Eurip. in 
 Iphig. — Propert. 2. — Sophocles. 
 
 Menenius Agrippa, a celebrated Roman, 
 who appeased the Roman populaca in the in- 
 fancy of the consular government by repeating 
 the well-known fable of the belly and limbs. 
 He flourished 495 B. C. Liv. 2, c. 16, 32, 33. 
 
 Menes, the first king of Egypt. He built 
 the town of Memphis, as it is generally suppos- 
 ed, and deserved, by his abilities and popularity, 
 to be called a god after death. Herodot. 2, c. 1 
 and 90.— Z)io^. 1. 
 
 Menesteus, or Menestheus, or Mnestheus, 
 a son of Pereus, who, during the long absence 
 of Theseus, was elected king. As he had been 
 one of Helen's suiters, he went to the Trojan 
 war at the head of the people of Athens, and 
 died in his return in the island of Melos. He 
 reigned 23 years, 1205, and was succeeded by 
 Demophoon, the son of Theseus. Plut. in Thes. 
 
 Menippus, a cynic philosopher of Phosnicia. 
 He was originally a s]ave,and obtained his liber- 
 ty with a sum of money, and became one of the 
 greatest usurers at Thebes. He grew so des- 
 perate from the continual reproaches and insults 
 to which he was daily exposed on account of 
 his meanness, that he destroyed himself. He 
 wrote 13 books of satires, which have been lost. 
 M. Varro composed satires in imitation of his 
 style, and called them Menippean. 
 
 Menius, a plebeian consul at Rome. He 
 was the first who made the rostrum at Rome 
 with the beaks (rostra) of the enemy's ships. 
 
 Menon, I. a Thessalian commander in the 
 expedition of Cyrus the younger against his 
 brother Artaxerxes. He was dismissed on the 
 suspicion that he had betrayed his fellow-sol- 
 diers. Diod. 14. II. A Thessalian refused 
 
 the freedom of Athens though he furnished a 
 number of auxiliaries to the people. 
 
 Menophilus, a eunuch to whom Mithrida- 
 tes, when conquered by Pompey, intrusted the 
 care of his daughter. Menophilus murdered 
 the princess for fear of her falling into the ene- 
 my's hands. Ammian. 16. 
 503 
 
ME 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ME 
 
 Meriones, a charioteer of Idomeneus king of 
 Crete during the Trojan war, son of Molus, a 
 Cretan prince, and Melphidis. He signalized 
 himself before Troy, and fought with Deipho- 
 bus, the son of Priam, whom he wounded. He 
 was greatly admired by the Cretans, who even 
 paid him divine honours after death. Horat. 1, 
 od. 6, v< 15. — Homer. 11. 2, &c. — Dictys. Cret. 
 
 I, &c.— Ovid. Met. 13, fab. 1. 
 
 Mermnad^, a race of kings in Lydia, of 
 which Gyges was the first. They sat on the 
 Lydian throne tilll the reign of Crcesus, who 
 was conquered by Cyrus king of Persia. They 
 were descendants of the Heraclidae, and prob- 
 ably received the name of Mermnadae from 
 Mermnas, one of their own family. They were 
 descended from Lemnos, or, according to others 
 from Agelaus, the son of Omphale by Hercules. 
 Herodot. 1, c. 7 and 14. 
 
 Merope, a daughter of Cypselus, who mar- 
 ried Cresphontes king of Messenia, by whom 
 she had three children. Her husband and two 
 of her children were murdered by Polyphontes. 
 The murderer obliged her to marry him, and 
 she would have been forced to comply had not 
 Egyptus or Telephontes, her 3d son, revenged 
 his father's death by assassinating Polyphontes. 
 Apollod. 2, c. e.—Paus. 4, c. 3. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Messalina Valeria, I. a daughter of Messala 
 Barbatus. She married the emperor Claudius, 
 and disgraced herself by her cruelties and in- 
 contmence. Her extravagances at last irri- 
 tated her husband ; he commanded her to ap- 
 pear before him to answer to all the accusations 
 which were brought against her, upon which 
 she attempted to destroy herself; and when her 
 courage failed, one of the tribunes, who had 
 been sent to her, despatched her with his sword, 
 A. D. 48. It is in speaking of her debaucheries 
 and lewdness that a celebrated satirist says : — 
 
 Et lassata viris, necdum satiata, recessit 
 
 Juv. — Tacit. Ann. 11, c. 37. — Suet, in Claud. 
 
 — Dio. II. Another, called also Statilia. 
 
 She was descended of a consular family, and 
 married the consul AtticusVistinus, whom Nero 
 murdered. She received with great marks of 
 tenderness her husband's murderer, and mar- 
 ried him. She had married four husbands be- 
 fore she came to the imperial throne ; and after 
 the death of Nero she retired to literary pur- 
 suits and peaceful occupations. Otho courted 
 her, and would have married her had he not 
 destroyed himself. In his last moments he 
 wrote her a very pathetic and consolatory let- 
 ter, &c. Tacit. Ann. 
 
 Messalinus (M. Valer.) I. a Roman officer 
 in the reign of Tiberius. He was appointed 
 governor of Dalmatia, and rendered himself 
 known by his opposition to Piso, and by his at- 
 tempts to persuade the Romans of the necessity 
 of suffering women to accompany the camps on 
 their different expeditions. Tacit. Ann. 3. 
 
 II. One of Domitian's informers. 
 
 Messene, a daughter of Triopas, king of Ar- 
 gos, who married Polycaon son of Lelex, king 
 of Laconia. She encouraged her husband to 
 levy troops, and to seize a part of Peloponne- 
 sus, which, after it had been conquered, receiv- 
 ed her name. She received divine honours af- 
 ter her death, and had a magnificent temple at 
 Ithome, where her statue was made half of 
 501 
 
 gold and half of Parian marble. Pans. i,c. 1 
 and 13. 
 
 Metabus, a tyrant of the Privernates. He 
 was father of Camilla, whom he consecrated to 
 the service of Diana, when he had been banish- 
 ed from his kingdom by his subjects. Virg. 
 JEn. 11, V. 540. 
 
 Metelli, the surname of the family of the 
 Caicilii at Rome, the most known of whom were 
 — I. CL. Caecilius, who rendered himself illus- 
 trious by his successes against Jugurtha, the 
 Numidian king, from which he was surnamed 
 Numidicus. He took, in this expedition, the 
 celebrated Mari us, as his lieutenant, and he had 
 soon cause to repent of the confidence he had 
 placed in him. Marius raised himself to power 
 by defaming the character of his benefactor, and 
 Metellus was recalled to Rome, and accused of 
 extortion and ill-management. He was acquit- 
 ted of the crimes laid to his charge before the 
 tribunal of the Roman knights, who observed 
 that the probity of his whole life, and the great- 
 ness of his exploits were greater proofs of his in- 
 nocence than the most powerful arguments, Cic. 
 
 de Orat. 1, c. 43.^-SaUust de Bell. Jug. 
 
 II. L. Caecilius, another, who saved from the 
 flames the palladium, when Vesta's temple was 
 on fire. He was then highpriest. He lost his 
 sight and one of his arms in doing it ; and the 
 senate, to reward his zeal and piety, permitted 
 him always to be drawn to the senate-house in 
 a chariot, an honour which no one had ever be- 
 fore enjoyed. He also gained a great victory 
 over the Carthaginians in the first Punic war, 
 and led in his triumph 13 generals and 120 ele- 
 phants taken from the enemy. He was hon- 
 oured with the dictatorship and the ofiice of 
 
 master of horse, &c. III. Q,. Caecilius Celer, 
 
 another, who distinguished hiiiiself by his spirit- 
 ed exertions against Catiline. He married Clo- 
 dia, the sister of Clodius, who disgraced him 
 by her incontinence and lasciviousness. He 
 died 57 years before Christ. He was greatly 
 lamented by Cicero, who shed tears at the loss 
 of one of his most faithful and valuable friends. 
 
 Cic. de Ccel. IV. L. Caecilius, a tribune in 
 
 the civil wars of J. Caesar and Pompey, He 
 favoured the cause of Pompey, and opposed 
 Caesar when he entered Rome with a victorious 
 army. He refused to open the gates of Saturn's 
 temple, in which were deposited great treasures; 
 upon which they were broken open by Cnesar, 
 and Metellus retired when threatened with 
 
 death. V, d. Caecilius, the grandson of the 
 
 highpriest who saved the palladium from the 
 flames, was a warlike general, who, from his 
 conquest of Crete and Macedonia, was surnam- 
 ed Macedonicus. He had six sons, of which 
 four are particularly mentioned by Plutarch. 
 
 VI. Q,. Caecilius, surnamed Belearicus, 
 
 from his conquest of the Beleares. VII. L. 
 
 Caecilius, surnamed Diadematus, but supposed 
 the same as that called Lucius with the surname 
 of Dalmaticus, from a victory obtained over the 
 Dalmatians during his consulship with Mutius 
 
 Scaevola. VIII. Caius CaBcilius, surnamed 
 
 Caprarius, who was consul with Carbo, A, IT. 
 
 C. 641. IX. The fourth was Marcus, and of 
 
 these four brothers it is remarkable, that two of 
 them triumphed in one day, but over what na- 
 tion is not mentioned hj Eutrop.4. ^^ A 
 
 general of the Roman armies against the Sici- 
 
ME 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MI 
 
 lians and Carthaginians. Before he marched he 
 offered sacrifices to all the gods, except Vesta, 
 for which neglect the goddess was so incensed 
 that she demanded the blood of his daughter 
 Metella. When Metella was going to be im- 
 molated, the goddess placed a heifer in her place, 
 and carried her to a temple at Lanuvium, of 
 
 which she became the priestess. XI. Lucius 
 
 Cascilius, or Cluintus, surnamed Creticus, from 
 his conquest in Crete, B. C. 66, is supposed by 
 some to be the son of Metellus Macedonicus. 
 
 Xll.Cimber, one of the conspirators against 
 
 J. Csesar. It was he who gave thesignal to attack 
 and murder the dictator in the senate-house. 
 
 XIII. Pius, a general in Spain, against 
 
 Sertorius, on whose head he set a price of 100 
 talents, and 20,000 acres of land. He distin- 
 guished himself also in the Marsian war, and 
 was high-priest. He obtained the name of Pius 
 from the sorrow he showed during the banish- 
 ment of his father Metellus Numidicus, whom 
 he caused to be recalled. Paterc. 2, c. 5. — 
 Sallust. Jug. 4A. 
 
 Methodius, a bishop of Tyre, who maintain- 
 ed a controversy against Porphyry. The best 
 edition is that of Paris, fol. 1657. 
 
 Metiua Lex, was enacted A. U. C. 536, to 
 settle the power of the dictator, and of his mas- 
 ter of horse, within certain bounds. 
 
 Metiochus, a son of Miltiades, who was 
 taken by the Phoenicians, and given to Darius, 
 king of Persia. He was tenderly treated by the 
 monarch, though his father had conquered the 
 Persian armies in the plains of Marathon. 
 Plut. — Herodot. 6, c. 41. 
 
 Metio'n, a son of Erechtheus, king of Athens, 
 and Praxithea. He married Alcippe, daughter 
 of Mars and Agraulos. His sons drove Pan- 
 dion from the throne of Athens, and were after- 
 wards expelled by Pandion's children. 4?*^^- 
 lod. 3. c. 15. — Pans. 2, c. 6. 
 
 Metius Curtius, I. one of the Sabines who 
 fought against the Romans on account of the 
 
 stolen virgins. II. Suffetius, a dictator of 
 
 Alba in the reign of Tullus Hostilius. He 
 fought against the Romans, and at last, finally 
 to settle their disputes, he proposed a single 
 combat between the Horatii and Curiatii. The 
 Albans were conquered, and Metius promised 
 to assist the Romans against their enemies.' In 
 a battle against the Veientes and Fidenates, 
 Metius showed his infidelity by forsaking the 
 Romans at the first onset, and retired to a neigh- 
 bouring eminence, to wait for the event of the 
 battle, and to fall upon whatever side proved vic- 
 torious. The Romans obtained the victory, and 
 Tullus ordered Metius to be tied between two 
 chariots, which were drawn by four horses two 
 different ways, and his limbs were torn away 
 from his body, about 669 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. Liv. 1, c. 23, &c. — Flor. 1, c. 3. — 
 
 Virg. JEn. 8; v. 642. III. A critic. Vid. 
 
 Tarpa. IV. Cams, a celebrated informer 
 
 under Domitian, who enriched himself with 
 the plunder of those who were sacrificed to the 
 emperor's suspicion. 
 
 Meton, an astrologer and mathematician of 
 Athens. His father's name was Pausanias. In 
 a book called Enneadecaterides, or the cycle of 
 19 years, he endeavoured to adjust the course 
 of the sun and of ihe moon ; and supported that 
 the solar and lunar vears could regularly be- 
 
 Part II.— 3 S 
 
 gin from the same point in the heavens. This 
 is called by the moderns ihe golden numlers. He 
 flourished B. C. 432. Vitruv. I.— Plut. in Nicia. 
 
 Metrocles, a pupil of Theophrastus, who 
 had the care of the education of Cleombrotus 
 and Cleomenes. He suffocated himself when 
 old and infirm. Diog. 
 
 Metrodorus, I. a physician of Chios, B. C. 
 444. He was a disciple of Democritus, and 
 ■had Hippocrates among his pupils. His com- 
 positions on medicine, &c. are lost. He sup- 
 ported that the world was eternal and infinite, 
 
 and denied the existence of motion. Diog. 
 
 II. A painter and philosopher of Stratonice, B. 
 C. 171. He was sent to Paulus iEmylius, who, 
 after the conquest of Perseus, demanded of the 
 Athenians a philosopher and a painter, the for- 
 mer to instruct his children, and the latter to 
 make a painting of his triumphs. Metrodorus 
 was sent, as in him alone were imited the phi- 
 losopher and painter. Plin. 35, c. 11. — Cic. 5, 
 de Fiuib. 1. de Orat. 4. Acad. — Diog. in Epic. 
 III. A friend of Mithridates, sent as am- 
 bassador to Tigranes, king of Armenia. He 
 was remarkable for his learning, moderation, 
 humanity, and justice. He was put to death by 
 his master, B. C. 72. Strab. — Plut. 
 
 Mezentius, a king of the Tyrrhenians when 
 vEneas came into Italy. He was remarkable 
 for his cruelties, and put his subjects to death 
 by slow tortures, or sometimes tied a man to a 
 dead corpse face to face, and suffered him to 
 die in this condition. He was expelled by his 
 subjects, and fled to Turn as, who employed him 
 in his war against the Trojans. He was killed 
 by ^neas, with his son Lausus. Dionys. Hal. 
 1, c. 15. — Justin. 43, c. 1. — Liv. 1, c. 2. — Virg. 
 jEn. 7, V. 648, 1. 8, v. A82.— Ovid. Fast. 4. v. 881. 
 
 MiciPSA, a king of Numidia, son of Masi- 
 nissa, who at his death, B. C. 119, left his king- 
 dom between his sons Adherbal and Hiempsal, 
 and his nephew Jugurtha. Sallust. de Jug. — 
 Elor. 3, c. 1. — Plut in Gr. 
 
 MiLO, I. a celebrated athlete of Crotona in 
 Italy. His father's name was Diotimus. He 
 early accustomed himself to carry the greatest 
 burdens, and by degrees became a monster in 
 strength. It is said that he carried on his 
 shoulders a young bullock four years old, for 
 above forty yards, and afterwards killed it with 
 on^ blow of his fist, and eat it up in one day. He 
 was seven times crowned at the Pythian games, 
 and six at Olympia. He presented himseif a 
 seventh time, but no one had the courage or 
 boldness to enter the lists against him. He was 
 one of the disciples of Pythagoras, and to his 
 uncommon strength the learned preceptor and 
 his pupils owed their life. The pillar which 
 supported the roof of the school suddenly gave 
 way, but Milo supported the whole weight of 
 the building, and gave the philosopher and his 
 auditors time to escape. In his old age Milo at- 
 tempted to pull up a tree by the roots and break 
 it. He partly effected it, but his strength being 
 gradually exhausted, the tree, when half cleft, 
 reunited, and his hands remained pinched in the 
 body of the tree. He was then alone, and be- 
 ing unable to disentangle himself, he was eaten 
 up by the wild beasts of the place, about 500 
 years before the Christian era. Ovid. Met. 15. 
 —Cic. de Senect.— Val. Max. 9, c. 1-2.— Strab. 
 
 16.— Pans. 6, c. 11. II. T. Annius, a native 
 
 505 
 
MI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MI 
 
 of Lanuvium, who attempted to obtain the con- 
 sulship at Rome by intrigue and seditious tu- 
 mults. Clodius the tribune opposed his views, 
 yet Milo would have succeeded had not an un- 
 fortunate event totally frustrated his hopes. As 
 he was going into the country, attended by his 
 wife and a numerous retinue of gladiators and 
 servants, he met on the Appian road his enemy 
 Clodius. A quarrel arose between the servants. 
 Milo supported his attendants, and the dispute 
 became general. Clodius received many severe 
 wounds, and was obliged to retire to a neigh- 
 bouring cottage. Milo pursued his enemy in his 
 retreat, and ordered his servants to despatch 
 him. Eleven of the servants of Clodius shared 
 his fate, as also the owner of the house who had 
 given them reception. The body of the mur- 
 dered tribune was carried to Rome, and exposed 
 to public view. Cicero undertook the defence of 
 Milo, but the continual clamours of the friends 
 of Clodius, and the sight of an armed soldiery, 
 which surrounded the seat of judgment, so ter- 
 rified the orator, that he forgot the greatest part 
 of his arguments. Milo was condemned, and 
 banished to Massilia. Cicero soon after sent his 
 exiled friend a copy of the oration which he had 
 delivered in his defence, in the form in which 
 we have it now ; and Milo, after he had read it, 
 exclaimed, O Cicero, hadst thou spoken before 
 my accusers in these terms, Milo would not be 
 now eating Jigs at Marseilles! The friendship 
 and cordiality of Cicero and Milo were the fruits 
 of long intimacy and familiar intercourse. It 
 was by the successful labours of Milo that the 
 orator was recalled from banishment and restor- 
 ed to his friends, Cic. pro Milon. — Paterc. 2, 
 
 c. 47 and 68. — Dio. 40. III. A general of the 
 
 forces of Pyrrhus. He was made governor of 
 Tarentum, and that he might be reminded of 
 his duty 10 his sovereign, Pyrrhus sent him as a 
 present a chain,which was covered with the skin 
 of Nicias the physician, who had perfidiously of- 
 fered the Romans to poison his royal master for 
 a sum of money. Polyan. 8, &c. 
 
 MiLTiADEs, I. an Athenian, son of Cypselus, 
 who obtained a victory in a chariot-race at the 
 Olympic games, and led a colony of his coun- 
 trymen to the Chersonesus. The causes of this 
 appointment are striking and singular. The 
 Thracian Dolonci, harassed by a long war with 
 the Absynthians, were directed by the oracle of 
 Delphi to take for their king the first man they 
 met in their return home, who invited them to 
 come under his roof and partake of his enter- 
 tainments. This was Miltiades, whom the ap- 
 pearance of the Dolonci, their strange arms and 
 garments, had struck. He invited them to his 
 house, and was made acquainted with the com- 
 mands of the oracle. He obeyed, and when the 
 oracle of Delphi had approved a second time 
 the choice of the Dolonci, he departed for the 
 Chersonesus, and was invested by the inhabi- 
 tants with sovereign power. The first measure 
 he took was to stop the further incursions of the 
 Absynthians, by building a strong wall across 
 the isthmus. When he had established himself 
 at home, and fortified his dominions against 
 foreign invasion, he turned his arms against 
 Lampsacus. His expedition was unsuccessful ; 
 he was taken in an ambuscade and made pris- 
 oner. His friend Croesus, king of Lydia, was 
 informed of his captivity, and he procured his 
 506 
 
 release by threatening the people of Lampsacus 
 with his severest displeasure. He lived a few 
 years after he had recovered his liberty. Ashe 
 had no issue, he left his kingdom and posses- 
 sions to Stesagoras the son of Cimon, who was 
 his brother by the same mother. The memory 
 of Miltiades was greatly honoured by the Do- 
 lonci, and they regularly celebrated festivals and 
 exhibited shows in commemoration of a man to 
 whom they owed all their greatness and preser- 
 vation. Some time after Stesagoras died with- 
 out issue, and Miltiades the son of Cimon, and 
 the brother of the deceased, was sent by the 
 Athenians with one ship to take possession of 
 the Chersonesus. At his arrival Miltiades ap- 
 peared mournful, as if lamenting the recent 
 death of his brother. The prin cipal inhabitants 
 of the country visited the new governor to con- 
 dole with him ; but their confidence in his sin- 
 cerity proved fatal to them. Miltiades seized 
 their persons, and made himself absolute in 
 Chersonesus; and, to strengthen himself, he 
 married Hegesipyla, the daughter of Olorus, the 
 king of the Thracians. He was present at the 
 celebrated battle of Marathon, in which all the 
 chief officers ceded their power to him, and left 
 the event of the battle to depend upon his su- 
 perior abilities. He obtained an important vic- 
 tory, ( Vid. Marathon,^ over the more numerous 
 forces of his adversaries ; and when he demand- 
 ed of his fellow-citizens an olive crown as the 
 reward of his valour in the field of battle, he was 
 not only refused, but severely reprimanded for 
 presumption. The only reward, therefore, that 
 he received, was in itself simple and inconsider- 
 able, though truly great in the opinion of that 
 age. He was represented in the front of a pic- 
 ture among the rest of the commanders who 
 fought at the battle of Marathon, and he seem- 
 ed to exhort and animate the soldiers to fight 
 with courage and intrepidity. Some time after, 
 Miltiades was intrusted with a fleet of 70 ships, 
 and ordered to punish those islands which had 
 revolted to the Persians. He was successful at 
 first, but a sudden report that the Persian fleet 
 was coming to attack him, changed his opera- 
 tions as he was besieging Paros. He raised the 
 siege and returned to Athens, where he was ac- 
 cused of treason, and particularly of holding cor- 
 respondence with the enemy. The falsity of 
 these accusations might have appeared if Mil- 
 tiades had been able to come into the assembly. 
 A wound which he had received before Paros 
 detained him at home ; and his enemies, taking 
 advantage of his absence, became more eager 
 in their accusations and louder in their clam- 
 ours. He was condemned to death, but the 
 rigour of the sentence was retracted on the re- 
 collection of his great services to the Athenians, 
 and he was put into prison till he had paid a 
 fine of 50 talents to the state. His inability to 
 discharge so great a sum detained him in con- 
 finement, and soon after his wounds became in- 
 curable, and he died about 489 years before the 
 Christian era. His body was ransomed by his 
 son Cimon, who was obliged to borrow and pay 
 the 50 talents to give his father a decent burial. 
 Cornelius Nepos has written the life of Milti- 
 ades the son of Cimon ; but his history is incon- 
 gruous and not authentic ; and the author, by 
 confounding the actions of the son of Cimon 
 with those of the son of Cypselus, has made the 
 
Ml 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MI 
 
 whole dark and uaintelligible. Greater reliance 
 in reading the actions of both the Miltiades is 
 to be placed on the narration of Herodotus, 
 whose veracity is confirmed, and who was in- 
 disputably more informed and more capable of 
 giving an account of the lives and exploits of 
 men who flourished in his age, and of which he 
 could see the living monuments. Herodotus 
 was born about six years after the famous battle 
 of Marathon, and C. Nepos, as a writer of the 
 Augustan age, flourished about 450 years after 
 the age of the father of history. C. Nep. in 
 vita.—Herodot. 4, c. 137, 1. 6, c. 34, &.c.—P(,ut. 
 in Cim. — Val. Max. 5, c. 3. — Justin. 2. — Pans. 
 
 II. An archon of Athens, 
 
 MiMALLONEs, ihc Bacchauals, who, when 
 they celebrated the orgies of Bacchus, put horns 
 on their heads. They are also called Mimallo- 
 7iides, and some derive their name from the 
 mountain Mimas. Pers. I, v. 99. — Ovid. A. A. 
 V. bil.-^Stat. Tfieb. 4, v. 660. 
 
 MiMNERMDs, a Greek poet and musician of 
 Colophron in the age of Solon. He chiefly ex- 
 celled in elegiac poetry, whence some have at- 
 tributed the invention of it to him, and, indeed, 
 he was the poet who made elegy an amorous 
 poem, instead of a mournful and melancholy 
 tale. In the expression of love, Propertius pre- 
 fers him to Homer, as this verse shows : — 
 
 Plus in amore valet Mimnermi versus Homer o. 
 
 In his old age Mimnermus became enamoured 
 of a young girl called Nanno. Some few frag- 
 ments of his poetry remain, collected by Stobse- 
 us. He is supposed by some to be the inventor 
 of the pentamater verse, which others however 
 attribute to Callinus or Archilochus. The sur- 
 name of Ligustiades, \iyvs {^shrill-voiced), has 
 been applied to him ; though some imagine the 
 word to be the name of his father. Strab. I 
 and 14. — Pans. 9, c. 29. — Diog. 1. — Propert, 
 1, el. 9, V. n.—Horat. 1, ep. 6, v. 65. 
 
 MiNERVALiA, festivals at Rome in honour of 
 Minerva, celebrated in the months of March 
 and June. During the solemnities scholars ob- 
 tained some relaxation from their studious pur- 
 suits ; and the present which it was usual for 
 them to offer to their masters was called Mi- 
 nerval, in honour of the goddess Miverva. 
 Varro deR. R. 3, c. 2.— Ovid. Trist. 3, v. 809. 
 — Liv. 
 
 Minos. Vid. Part III. 
 
 MiNUTiA, a vestal virgin, accused of de- 
 bauchery on account of the beauty and ele- 
 gance of her dress. She was condemned to be 
 buried alive, because a female supported the 
 false accusation, A. U. C. 418. Liv. 8, c. 15. 
 
 MiNUTius, I. a tribune of the people, who put 
 Maelius to death when he aspired to the sove- 
 reignty of Rome. He was honoured with a 
 brazen statue for causing the corn to be sold at 
 a reduced price to the people. Liv. 4, c. 16. — 
 
 Plin. 18, c. 3. IT. Rufus, a master of horse 
 
 to the dictator Fabius Maximus. His disobe- 
 dience to the commands of the dictator was pro- 
 ductive of an extension of his prerogative, and 
 the master of the horse was declared equal in 
 power to the dictator. Minutius, soon after this, 
 fought with ill success against Annibal, and 
 was saved by the interference of Fabius : which 
 circumstance had such an effect upon him that 
 he laid down his power at the feet of his deliv- 
 
 erer, and swore that he would never act again 
 but by his directions. He was killed at the bat- 
 tle of CannaB. Liv. — C. Nep. in Ann. III. 
 
 A Roman, chosen dictator, and obliged to lay 
 down his office, because, during the time of his 
 
 election, the sudden cry of a rat was heard. 
 
 IV. A Roman, one of the first who were chosen 
 
 quaestors. V. Felix, an African lawyer, who 
 
 flourished 207 A. D. He has written an elegant 
 •dialogue in defence of the Christian religion, 
 called Octavius, from the principal speaker in it. 
 This book was long attributed to Arnobius, and 
 even printed as an 8th hook {Octavius), till Bal- 
 duinus discovered the imposition in his edition 
 of Felix, 1560. The two last editions are that 
 of Davies, 8vo. Cantab. 1712 ; and of Grono- 
 vius, 8vo. L. Bat. 1709. 
 
 MisiTHEUs, a Roman, celebrated for his vir- 
 tues and his misfortunes. He was father-in-law 
 to the emperor Gordian, whose counsels and 
 actions he guided by his prudence and mode- 
 ration. He was sacrificed to the ambition of 
 Philip, a wicked senator, who succeeded him 
 as praefect of the proetorian guards. He died 
 A. D. 243, and left all his possessions to be ap- 
 propriated for the good of the public. 
 
 MiTHRADATEs, a hcrdsmau of Astyages, or- 
 dered to put young Cyrus to death. He refused, 
 and educated him at home as his own son, &c. 
 Herodot. — Justin. 
 
 MiTHRiDATEs Ist, was the third king of Pon- 
 tus. He was tributary to the crown of Persia, 
 and his attempts to make himself independent 
 proved fruitless. He was conquered in a battle, 
 and obtained peace with difficulty. Xenophon 
 calls him merely a governor .of Cappadocia. 
 He was succeeded by Ariobarzanes, B. C. 363. 
 
 Diod. — Xenoph. The second of that name, 
 
 king of Pontus, was grandson to Mithridates I. 
 He made himself master of Pontus, which had 
 been conquered by Alexander, and had been 
 ceded to Antigonus at the general division of 
 the Macedonian empire among the conqueror's 
 generals. He reigned about 26 years, and died 
 at the advanced age of 84 years, B. C. 302, 
 He was succeeded by his son, Mithridates III. 
 Some say that Antigonus put him to death, be- 
 cause he favoured the cause of Cassander. Ap- 
 
 playi. Mith. — Diod. The III. was son of the 
 
 preceding monarch. He enlarged his paternal 
 possessions by the conqu-est of Cappadocia and 
 Paphlagonia, and died, after a reign of 36 years. 
 Diod. The IV. succeeded his father Ario- 
 barzanes, who was the son of Mithridates III, 
 The V. succeeded his father Mithridates 
 
 IV. and strengthened himself on his throne by 
 an alliance with Antiochus the Great, whose 
 daughter,Laodice,he married. He was succeed- 
 ed by his son Pharnaces. The VI. succeed- 
 ed his father Pharnaces. He was the first of 
 the kings of Pontus who made alliance with the 
 Romans. He furnished them with a fleet in the 
 third Punic war,and assisted them against Aris- 
 tonicus, who had laid claim to the kingdom of 
 Pergamus. Thisfidelity was rewarded; he was 
 called Evergetes, and received from the Roman 
 people the province of Phrygia Major, and was 
 called the friend and ally of Rome. He was 
 murdered B. C. 123. Appian. Mithr.— Justin. 
 
 37, &c. The VII. surnaraed Evpator and 
 
 T/ie Great, succeeded his father, Mithridates 
 
 VI. though only at the age of 11 vears. The 
 
 507 
 
MI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MI 
 
 beginning of his reign was marked by ambition, 
 cruelty, and artifice. He murdered his own 
 mother, who had been left by his father coheiress 
 of the kingdom, and also the two sons whom 
 his sister Laodice had had by Ariarathes, king 
 of Cappadocia and placed one of his own chil- 
 dren, only eight years old, on the vacant throne. 
 These violent proceedings alarmed Nicomedes, 
 king of Bithynia, who had married Laodice, the 
 widow of Ariarathes. He suborned a youth to 
 be king of Cappadocia, as the third son of Ari- 
 arathes, and Laodice was sent to Rome to im- 
 pose upon the senate, and assure them that her 
 third son was now alive, and that his preten- 
 sions to the kingdom of Cappadocia were just 
 and well-grounded. Mithridates used the same 
 arms of dissimulation. He also sent to Rome 
 Gordius, the governor of his son, who solemnly 
 declared before the Roman people,that the youth 
 who sat on the throne of Cappadocia was the 
 third son and lawful heir of Ariarathes, and that 
 he was supported as such by Mithridates. This 
 intricate affair displeased the Roman senate, 
 and finally, to settle the dispute between the 
 two monarchs, the powerful arbiters took away 
 the kingdom of Cappadocia from Mithridates, 
 and Paphlagonia from Nicomedes. These two 
 kingdoms being thus separated from their ori- 
 ginal possessors, were presented with their free- 
 dom and independence ; but the Cappadocians 
 refused it, and received Ariobarzanes for king. 
 Such were the first seeds of enmity between 
 Rome and the king of Pontus, which ended in 
 his destruction. Vid. Mithridaiicum, Bellum,. 
 He fled to Tigranes, but that monarch refused 
 an asylum to his father-in-law, whom he had 
 before supported with all the collected forces of 
 his kingdom. Mithridates found a safe retreat 
 among the Scythians ; and, though destitute of 
 power, friends, and resources, yet he meditated 
 the destruction of the Roman empire, by pene- 
 trating into the heart of Italy by land. These 
 wild projects were rejected by his followers, and 
 he sued for peace. It was denied to his ambas- 
 sadors,and the victorious Pompey declared, that, 
 to obtain it, Mithridates must ask it in person. 
 He scorned to trust himself in the hands of his 
 enemy, and resolved to conquer or to die. His 
 subjects refused to follow him any longer, and 
 they revolted from him, and made his son Phar- 
 nacesking. The son showed himself ungrateful 
 to his father, and even, according to some wri- 
 ters, ordered him to be put to death. This un- 
 natural treatment broke the heart of Mithrida- 
 tes ; he obliged his wife to poison herself, and at- 
 tempted to do the same himself It was in vain 
 the frequent antidotes he had taken in the early 
 part of his life, strengthened his constitution 
 against the poison ; and when this was unavail- 
 ing, he attempted to stab himself The blow 
 was not mortal; and a Gaul, who was then 
 present, at his own request, gave him the fatal 
 stroke, about 63 years before the Christian era, 
 in the 72d year of his age. Such were the mis- 
 fortunes, abilities, and miserable end of a man, 
 who supported himself so long against the pow- 
 er of Rome ; and who, according to the declara- 
 tion of the Roman authors, proved a more pow- 
 erful and indefatigable adversary to the capital 
 of Italy, than the great Annibal, and Pyrrhus, 
 Perseus, or Antiochus. Mithridates has been 
 commended for his eminent virtues and cen- 
 508 
 
 I sured for his vices. As a commander, he ae- 
 I serves the most unbounded applause ; and it may 
 ; create admiration to see him waging war wilii 
 i such success during so many years, against the 
 most powerful people on earth, led to the field 
 by a Sylla, a Lucuilus, and a Pompey. He was 
 the greatest monarch that ever sat on a throne, 
 according to the opinion of Cicero; and, indeed, 
 no better proof of his military character can be 
 brought,than the mention of the great rejoicings 
 which happened in the Roman armies and in 
 the capital at the news of his death. No less than 
 twelve days were appointed for public thanks- 
 givings to the immortal gods; and Pompey, who 
 had sent the first intelligence of his death to 
 Rome, and who had partly hastened his fall,was 
 rewarded with the most uncommon honours. 
 Vid. Ampia lex. It is said that Mithridates 
 conquered 24 nations, whose different languages 
 he knew, and spoke with the same ease and 
 fluency as his own. As a man of letters he also 
 deserves attention. He was acquainted with 
 the Greek language, and even wrote in that dia- 
 lect a treatise on botany. His skill in physic is 
 well known, and even now there is a celebrated 
 antidote which bears his name, and is called 
 Mithridate. Superstition, as well' as nature, 
 had united to render him great ; and if we rely 
 upon the authority of Justin, his birth was ac-^ 
 companied by the appearance of two large 
 comets, which were seen for seventy days suc- 
 cessively, and whose splendour eclipsed the 
 midday sun, and covered the fourth part of the 
 heavens, Justin. 37, c. 1, &c. — Strab. — Diod. 
 U.—Flor. 3, c. 5, &c.—Plut. in SylL—Lntc. 
 Mar. tf« Pomp. — Val. Max. 4, c, 6, &c. — Dio. 
 30, &iC.—Appian. Mithrid.—Plin. 2, c. 97, 1. 
 7, c. 24, 1. 25, c. 2, 1. 33, c. 3, &c.—Cic. pro 
 Man., &c. — Paterc. 2, c. 18.— Eutrop. 5.— Jo- 
 seph. 14. — Oros. 6, &c. — —II. A man in the 
 armies of Artaxerxes. He was rewarded by the 
 monarch for having wounded Cyrus the young- 
 er ; but when he boasted that he had killed 
 him, he was cruelly put to death. Plut. in 
 Artax. 
 
 MiTHRiDATicuM Bellum, beguu 89 years B. 
 C, was one of the longest and most celebrated 
 wars ever carried on by the Romans against a 
 foreign power. Three Roman officers, L. Cas- 
 sius, the pro-consul, M. Aquilius, and d. Op- 
 pius, opposed Mithridates with the troops of 
 Bithynia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and Gallo- 
 grsecia. The army of these provinces, together 
 Avith the Roman soldiers in Asia, amounted to 
 70,000 men and 6000 horse. The forces of the 
 king of Pontus were greatly superior to these ; 
 he led 250,000 foot,40,000 horse, and 130 armed 
 chariots, into the field of battle, under the com- 
 mand of Neoptolemus and Archelaus, His fleet 
 consisted of 400 ships of war, well manned and 
 provisioned. In an engagement, the king of 
 Pontus obtained the victory, and dispersed the 
 Roman forces in Asia. He became master of 
 the greatest part of Asia, and the Hellespont 
 submitted to his power. Two of the Roman 
 generals were taken, and M. Aquilius, who was 
 the principal cause of the war, was carried about 
 in Asia, and exposed to the ridicule and insults 
 of the populace, and at last put to death by Mith- 
 ridates, who ordered melted gold to be poured 
 down his throat as a slur upon the avidity of the 
 Romans. The conqueror took every possible 
 
MI 
 
 HISTORY, «&c. 
 
 MN 
 
 advantage ; he subdued all the islands of the 
 ^gean sea, and, though Rhodes refused to sub- 
 mit to his power, yet all Greece was soon over- 
 run by his general Archelaus, and made tributa- 
 ry to the kingdom of Pontus. Meanwhile, the 
 Romans, incensed against Mithridates on ac- 
 count of his perfidy, and of his cruelty in mas- 
 sacring 80,000 of their countrymen in one day 
 all over Asia, appointed Sylla to march into the 
 east. Sylla landed in Greece, where the in- 
 habitants readily acknowledged his power; but 
 Athens shut her gates against the Roman com- 
 mander, and Archelaus, who defended it, de- 
 feated, with the greatest courage, all the efforts 
 and operations of the enemy. This spirited 
 defence was of short duration. Archelaus re- 
 treated into Boeotia, where Sylla soon followed 
 him. The two hostile armies drew up in a line 
 of battle near Chaeronea, and the Romans ob- 
 tained the victory; and, of the almost innumer- 
 able forces of the Asiatics, no more than 10,000 
 escaped. Anoiher battle in Thessaly, near Or- 
 chomenos, proved equally fatal to the king of 
 Pontus. Dorylaus, one of his generals, was 
 defeated, and he soon after sued for peace, Sylla 
 listened to the terms of accommodation, as his 
 presence at Rome was now become necessary to 
 quell the commotions and cabals which his ene- 
 mies had raised against him. He pledged him- 
 self to the king of Pontus to confirm him in the 
 possession of his dominions, and to procure him 
 the title of friend and ally of Rome ; and Mithri- 
 dates consented to relinquish Asia and Paphla- 
 gonia, to deliver Cappadocia to Ariobarzanes, 
 and Bithynia to Nicoraedes ; and to pay to the 
 Romans'2000 talents to defray the expenses of 
 the war, and to deliver into their hands 70 gal- 
 leys with all their rigging. Though Mithridates 
 seemed to have re-established peace in his do- 
 minions, yet Fimbria, whose sentiments were 
 contrary to those of Sylla, and who made him- 
 self master of an army by intrigue and oppres- 
 sion, kept him under continual alarms, and 
 rendered the existence of his power precarious. 
 Sylla, who had returned from Greece to ratify 
 the treaty which had been made with Mithri- 
 dates, rid the world of the tyrannical Fimbria ; 
 and the king of Pontus, awed by the resolution 
 and determined firmness of his ad versary, agreed 
 to the conditions, though with reluctance. The 
 hostile preparations of Mithridates, which con- 
 tinued in the time of peace, became suspected 
 by the Romans; and Mursena, who was left 
 as governor of Asia in Sylla's absence, and who 
 ■wished to make himself known by some con- 
 spicuous action, began hostilities by taking Co- 
 mana, and plundering the temple of Bellona. 
 Mithridates did not oppose him, but he com- 
 plained of the breach of peace before the Roman 
 senate. Muraena was publicly reprimanded; 
 but, as he did not cease from hostilities, it was 
 easily understood that he acted by the private 
 directions of the Roman people. The king up- 
 on this marched against him, and a battle was 
 fought, in which both the adversaries claimed 
 the victory. This was the last blow which the 
 king of Pontus received in this war, which is 
 called the second Mithridatic war, and which 
 continued for about three years. Sylla, at that 
 time, was made perp'^tual dictator at Rome, and 
 he commanded Muraena to retire from the king- 
 dom of Mithridates. The death of Svllachan- 
 
 ged the face of affairs ; the treaty of peace 
 between the king of Pontus and the Romans, 
 which had never been committed to writing, de- 
 manded frequent explanations, and Mithridates 
 at last threw off the mask of friendship, and de- 
 clared war, Nicomedes, at his death, left his 
 kingdom to the Romans ; but Mithridates dispu- 
 ted their right to the possessions of the deceas- 
 ed monarch, and entered the field with 120,000 
 jnen, besides a fleet of 400 ships in his ports, 
 16,000 horsemen to follow him, and 100 chariots 
 armed with scythes, Lucullus was appointed 
 over Asia, and intrusted with the care of the 
 Mithridatic war. His valour and prudence 
 showed his merit; and Mithridates, in his vain 
 attempts to take Cyzicum, lost no less than 
 300,000 men. Success continually attended the 
 Roman arms. The king of Pontus was defeat- 
 ed in several bloody engagements, and with dif- 
 ficulty saved his life, and retired to his son-in- 
 law, Tigranes, king of Armenia. Lucullus pur- 
 sued him, and when his application for the per- 
 son of the fugitive monarch had been despised 
 by Tigranes, he marched to the capital of Ar- 
 menia, and terrified, by his sudden approach, the 
 numerous forces of the enemy. A battle ensued. 
 The Romans obtained an easy victory, and no 
 less than 100,000 foot of the Armenians perish- 
 ed, and only five men of the Romans were kill- 
 ed, Tigranocerta, the rich capital of the coun- 
 try, fell into the conqueror's hands. After such 
 signal victories, Lucullus had the mortification 
 to see his ov\m troops mutiny, and to be dispos- 
 sessed of the command by the arrival of Pompey. 
 The new^ general showed himself worthy to suc- 
 ceed Lucullus. He defeated Mithridates, and 
 rendered his affairs so desperate, that the mon- 
 arch fled for safety into the country of the 
 Scythians, where, for a while, he meditated the 
 ruin of the Roman empire ; and, with more wild- 
 ness than prudence, secretly resolved to invade 
 Italy by land, and march an army across the 
 northern wilds of Asia and Europe to the 
 Apennines. Not only the kingdom of Mithri- 
 dates had fallen into the enemy's hands, but also 
 all the neighbouring kings and princes were 
 subdued ; and Pompey saw prostrate at his feet 
 Tigranes himself, that king of kings, who had 
 lately treated the Romans with such contempt. 
 Meantime, the wild projects of Mithridates ter- 
 rified his subjects ; and they, fearful to accom- 
 pany him in a march of above 2000 miles across 
 a barren and uncultivated country, revolted, 
 and made his son king. The monarch, forsaken 
 in his old age, even by his own children, put an 
 end to his life, (Vid. Mithridates VII.) and 
 gave the Romans cause to rejoice, as the third 
 Mithridatic war was ended in his fall, B. C. 63. 
 The duration of the Mithridatic war is not pre- 
 cisely known. According to Justin, Orosius, 
 Floras, and Eutropius, it lasted for forty 5'ears; 
 but the opinion of others, who fix its duration to 
 30 years, is far more credible; and, indeed, by 
 proper calculation, there elapsed no more than 
 26 years from the time that Mithridates first 
 entered the field against the Romans till the 
 time of his death, AppioM. in Mithrid. — Jus- 
 tin, 37, &c.—rior. 2, &c.—Liv.—Plut. in Lnic. 
 &r. — Orosius. — Palerc. — Dion. 
 
 Mnason, a tyrant of Elatia, who gave 1200 
 pieces of gold for twelve pictures of twelve gods 
 of Asclepiodorus, PHn. 35, c. 16. 
 509 
 
MU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 MU 
 
 McERis, a king of Egypt. He was the last 
 of the 300 kings from Menes to Sesostris, and 
 reigned 68 years. Herodot. 3, c. 16. 
 
 MoLo, I. a philosopher of Rhodes, called also 
 Apollonius. Some are of opinion that Apollo- 
 nius and Molo are two different persons, who 
 were both natives of Alabanda, and disciples of 
 Menecles of the same place. They both visit- 
 ed Rhodes, and there opened a school, but Molo 
 flourished some time after Apollonius. Molo 
 had Cicero and J. Caesar among his pupils. 
 
 Vid. Apollonius. Cic. de Oral. II. A prince 
 
 of Syria, who revolted against Antiochus, and 
 killed himself when his rebellion was attended 
 with ill success. 
 
 MoLossi. Vid. Part I. 
 
 MoLOssus, a son of Pyrrhus and Andro- 
 mache. He reigned in Epirus after the death 
 of Helenus, and part of his dominions receiv- 
 ed the name of Molossia from him, Paus. 1, 
 c. 11. 
 
 MoNiMA, a beautiful woman of Miletes, whom 
 Mithddates the Great married. Vid. Mithri- 
 dates. 
 
 MoNOPHiLUS, a eunuch of Mithridates. The 
 king intrusted him with the care of one of his 
 daughters ; and the eunuch, when he saw the 
 affairs of his master in a desperate situation, 
 stabbed her, lest she should fall into the enemy's 
 hands, 
 
 MoNTANUS, one of the senators whom Domi- 
 tian consulted about boiling a turbot. Juv. 4. 
 
 MoNYMUs, a servant of Corinth, who, not be- 
 ing permitted by his master to follow Diogenes 
 the cynic, pretended madness, and obtained his 
 liberty. He became a great admirer of the phi- 
 losopher, and also of Crates, and even wrote 
 something in the form of facetious stories 
 Diog. Laert. 
 
 Mopsus, Vid. Part III. 
 
 MoscmoN, a name common to four different 
 writers, whose compositions, character, and na- 
 tive place are unknown. Some fragments of 
 their writings remain, some few verses and a 
 treatise de morbis mulierum, edited by Gesner, 
 4to. Basil. 1566. 
 
 MoscHus, I. a Phoenician, who wrote the 
 history of his country in his own mother-tongue. 
 II. A philosopher of Sidon. He is sup- 
 posed to be the founder of anatomical philoso- 
 phy. Strab. III. A Greek bucolic poet in 
 
 the age of Ptolemy Philadelphus. The sweet- 
 ness and elegance of his eclogues, which are 
 still extant, make ihe world regret the loss of 
 poetical pieces no ways inferior to the produc- 
 tions of Theocritus. The best edition of Mos- 
 chus with Bion is that of Heskin, 8vo. Oxon. 
 1748. 
 
 Moses, a celebrated legislator and general 
 among the Jews, well known in sacred history. 
 He was born in Egypt, 1571, B. C. and after 
 he had performed his miracles before Pharaoh, 
 conducted the Israelites through the Red Sea, 
 and gave them laws and ordinances during 
 their peregrination of 40 years in the wilderness 
 of Arabia. He died at the age of 120. His 
 writings have been quoted and recommended 
 by several of the heathen authors, who have di- 
 vested themselves of their prejudices against a 
 Hebrew, and extolled his learning and the ef- 
 fects of his wisdom. Longinus. — Diod. 1. 
 
 Mummius. L. a Roman consul, sent against 
 510 
 
 the Achseans, whom he conquered, B. C. 147, 
 He destroyed Corinth, Thebes, andChalcis, by 
 order of the senate, and obtained the surname 
 of Achaicus from his victories. He did not en- 
 rich himself with the spoils of the enemy, but 
 returned home without any increase of ibrtune. 
 He was so unacquainted with the value of the 
 paintings and works of the most celebrated ar- 
 tists of Greece, which were found in the plunder 
 of Corinth, that he said to those who conveyed 
 them to Rome, that if they lost them or injured 
 them they should make others in their stead. 
 Paterc. 1, c. 13.— Strab. 8.—Plin. 34, c. 7, 1. 
 37, c. l.—Flor. 2, c. 6.— Paus. 5, c. 24. 
 
 MuNATiDs, Plancus, I. a consul sent to the 
 rebellious army of Germanicus. He was almost 
 killed by the incensed soldiery, who suspected 
 that it was through him that they had not all 
 been pardoned and indemnified by a decree of 
 the senate. Calpurnius rescued him from their 
 
 fury. II, An orator and disciple of Cicero. 
 
 His father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, 
 bore the same name. He was with Caesar in 
 Gaul, and was made consul with Brutus, He 
 promised to favour the republican cause for 
 some time, but he deserted again to Caesar. He 
 was long Antony's favourite, but heleft him at 
 the battle of Actium, to conciliate the favours of 
 Octavius, His services were great in the sen- 
 ate ; for, through his influence and persuasion, 
 that venerable body flattered the conqueror of 
 Antony with the appellation of Augustus. He 
 was rewarded with the ofiice of censor. Plut, 
 in Ant. 
 
 MuRSJNA, a celebrated Roman, left at the 
 head of the armies of the republic in Asia by 
 Sylla. He invaded the dominions of Mithri- 
 dates with success, but soon after met with a 
 defeat. He was honoured with a triumph at his 
 return to Rome. He commanded one of the 
 wings of Sylla's army at the battle against 
 Archelaus near Chaeronea. He was ably de- 
 fended in an oration by Cicero when his char- 
 acter was attacked and censured, Cic. pro 
 Mur. — Appian. de Mithrid. 
 
 Mdsa Antonius, I. a freedman and physician 
 of Augustus. He cured his imperial master of 
 a dangerous disease under which he laboured, 
 by recommending to him the use of the cold 
 bath. He was not so successful in recommend- 
 ing the use of the cold bath to Marcellus as he 
 had been to Augustus, and his illustrious pa- 
 tient died under his care. Two small treatises, 
 de Jierba Botanica, and de tuendd Valetudine, 
 are supposed to be the productions of his pen. 
 
 II. A daughter of Nicomedes, king of 
 
 Bithynia. She attempted to recover her father's 
 kingdom from the Romans, but to no purpose, 
 though Caesar espoused her cause. Paterc. 2. 
 — Suet, in Cces. 
 
 MusiEus, an ancient Greek poet, supposed to 
 have been son or disciple of Linus or Orpheus, 
 and to have lived about 1410 years before the 
 Christian era. The elegant poem of the loves 
 of Leander and Hero was written by a Musseus 
 who flourished in the fourth century, according 
 to the more received opinions. Among the 
 good editions of Musaeus two may be selected 
 as the best, that of Rover, 8vo. L. Bat. 1727; 
 and that of Schroder, 8vo. Leovard, 1743, Virgi 
 JEn. 6, c, 611.— Diog. 
 
 MuTiA, a daughter of Gt. Mutius Scaevola, 
 
MY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 NA 
 
 and sister of Metellus Celer. She was Pom- 
 pey's third wife. Her incontinent behaviour so 
 disgusted her husband, that, at his return from 
 the Mithridatic war, he divorced her, though she 
 had borne him three children. She afterwards 
 married M. Scaurus. Augustus greatly esteem- 
 ed her. Plut in Pomp. II. A wife of Julius 
 
 Caesar, beloved by Clodius the tribune. Suet. 
 in CcEs. 50. III. The mother of Augustus, 
 
 MuTiA Lex, the same as that which was en- 
 acted by LiciniUs Crassus and Q,. Mutius, A. 
 U. C- 657. Vid Licinia Lex. 
 
 MuTiNEs, one of Annibal's generals, who 
 was honoured with the freedom of Rome on 
 delivering up Agrigentum, Liv. 25, c, 41, 1. 
 27, c. 5, 
 
 Mutius, I, the father-in-law of C, Marius, 
 — —II. A Roman, who saved the life of young 
 Marius, by conveying him away from the pur- 
 suits of his enemies m a load of straw. III. 
 
 A friend of Tiberius Gracchus, by whose means 
 
 he was raised to the office of a tribune. IV. 
 
 C. Sccevola, surnamed Cordus, because famous 
 for his courage and intrepidity. When Porsen- 
 na, king of Etruria, had beseiged Rom.e, Mu- 
 tius disguised himself in the habit of a Tuscan, 
 and as he could fluently speak the language, he 
 gained an easy introduction into the royal tent. 
 Porsenna sat alone with his secretary when Mu- 
 tius entered. The Roman rushed upon the sec- 
 retary, and stabbed him to the heart, mistaking 
 him for his royal master. This occasioned a 
 noise, and Mutius, unable to escape, was seized 
 and brought before the king. He gave no an- 
 swers to the inquiries of the courtiers, and only 
 told them that he was a Roman ; and, to give 
 them a proof of his fortitude, he laid his right 
 hand on an altar of burning coals, and, sternly 
 looking at the king, and without uttering a 
 groan, he boldly told him that 300 young Ro- 
 mans like himself had conspired against his life, 
 and entered his camp in disguise, determined 
 either to destroy him or perish in the attempt. 
 This extraordinary confession astonished Por- 
 senna ; he made peace with the Romans, and 
 retired from their city. Mutius obtained the 
 surname of Sccei^ola, because he had lost the use 
 of his right hand by burning it in the presence 
 of the Etrurian king. Plut in Par. — Flor. 1, c. 
 
 10. — Liv. 2, c. 12. V. Q.. Scaevola, a Roman 
 
 consul. He obtained a victory over the Dalma- 
 tians, and signalized himself greatly in the Mar- 
 sian war. He is highly commended by Cicero, 
 whom he instructed in the study of civil law. 
 dr.. — Plut. VI. Another, appointed procon- 
 sul of Asia, which he governed with so much 
 popularity, that he was generally proposed to 
 others as a pattern of equity and moderation. 
 Cicero speaks of him as eloquent, learned, and 
 ingenious ; equally eminent as an orator and as 
 a lawyer. He was murdered in the temple of 
 Vesta, during. the civil war of Marius and 
 Sylla, 82 years before Christ. Plut. — Cic. de 
 Orat. 1, c. ^S.— Pater c. 2, c. 22. 
 
 Mycerinus, a son of Cheops, king of Egypt. 
 After the death of his father he reigned with 
 great justice and moderation. Herodot. 2, c. 
 129. 
 
 Mycithus, a servant of Anaxilaus, tyrant of 
 Rhegium. He was intrusted with the care of 
 the kingdom, and of the children of the deceas- 
 ed prince, and he exercised his power with such 
 
 fidelity and moderation, that he acquired the 
 esteem of all the citizens, and at last restored 
 the kingdom to his master's children when 
 come to years of maturity, and retired to peace 
 and solitude with a small portion. He is call- 
 ed by some Micalus. Justin. 4, c. 2. 
 
 Mycon, a celebrated painter, who with others 
 assisted in making and perfecting the Pcecile 
 of Athens. He was the rival of Polygnotus. 
 JPlin. 33 and 35. 
 
 Myrmidones. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Myron, a celebrated statuary of Greece, pe- 
 culiarly happy in imitating nature. He made 
 a cow so much resembling life, that even bulls 
 were deceived, and approached her as if alive, 
 as is frequently mentioned by many epigrams 
 in the Anthoiogia. He flourished about 442 
 years before Christ. Ovid. Art. Am. 3, v. 319. 
 — Pa.us. — Juv. 8. — Profert. 2, el. 41. 
 
 Myrsilus, a son of Mersus, the last of the 
 Heraclidae who reigned in Lydia. He is also 
 called Candaules, Vid. Candaules. 
 
 Myrtis, a Greek woman, who distinguished 
 herself by her poetical talents. She flourished 
 about 500 years B. C. and instructed the cele- 
 brated Corinna in the several rules of versifi- 
 cation. Pindar himself, as some report, was 
 also one of her pupils. 
 
 Mys, (myos,) an artist famous in working 
 and polishing silver. He beautifully represent- 
 ed the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithse on a 
 shield in the hand of Minerva's statue made 
 by Phidias. Paus. 1, c. 28. — Martial. 8, ep. 34 
 and 51, 1. 14, ep. 9'S.—Propert. 3, el. 9, c. 14. 
 
 Myscellus, or Miscellus, a native of 
 Rhypae in Achaia, who founded Crotona in 
 Italy, according to an oracle, which told him 
 to build a city where he found rain with fine 
 weather. The meaning of the oracle long per- 
 plexed him, till he found a beautiful woman all 
 in tears in Italy, which circumstance he inter- 
 preted in his favour. According to some, Mys- 
 cellus, who was the son of Hercules, went out 
 of Argos, without the permission of the magis- 
 trates, for which he was condemned to death. 
 The judges had put each a black ball as a sign 
 of condemnation, but Hercules changed them 
 all and made them white, and had his son ac- 
 quitted ; upon which Myscellus left Greece, and 
 came to Italy, where he built Crotona. Ovid. 
 Met. 15, V. 19. — Strab. 6 and 8. — Suidas. 
 
 Mystes, a son of the poet Valgius, whose 
 early death was so lamented by the father, that 
 Horace wrote an ode to allay the grief of his 
 friend. Horat. 2, od. 9. 
 
 Mythecus, a sophist of Syracuse. He studied 
 cookery, and when he thought himself suffi- 
 ciently skilled , in dressing meat, he went to 
 Sparta, where he gained much practice, espe- 
 cially among the younger citizens. He was 
 soon after expelled the city by the magistrates, 
 who observed, that the aid of Mythecus was un- 
 necessary, as hunger was the best seasoning. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nabazanes, an officer of Darius third, at the 
 battle of Issus. He conspired with Bessus to 
 murder his royal master, either to obtain the 
 favour of Alexander, or to seize the kingdom. 
 He was pardoned by Alexander. Cii/rt. 3, &c. 
 —Diod. 17. 
 
 511 
 
■NiE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 N^ 
 
 Nabis, a celebrated tyrant of Lacednemon, 
 who in all acts of cruelty and oppression sur- 
 passed a Phalaris or a Dionysius. When he 
 had exercised every art in plundering the citi- 
 zens of Sparta, he made a statue, which in re- 
 semblance was like his wife, and was clothed in 
 the most magnificent apparel; and whenever 
 any one refused to deliver up his riches, the 
 tyrant led him to the statue, which immediately, 
 by means of secret springs, seized him in its 
 arms, and tormented him in the most excrucia- 
 ting manner with bearded points and prickles 
 hid under the clothes. Nabis made an alliance 
 with Flaminius, the Roman general, and pur- 
 sued, with the most inveterate enmity, the war 
 which he had undertaken against the Achseans. 
 He besieged Gythium, and defeated Philopoe- 
 men in a naval battle. His triumph was short ; 
 the general of the Achseans soon repaired his 
 losses, and Nabis was defeated in an engage- 
 ment, and treacherously murdered as he at- 
 tempted to save his life by flight, B. C. 192, 
 after a usurpation of 14 years. Polyb. 13. — 
 Justin. 30 and 31. — Plut. in Phil. — Paus. 7, c. 
 S.—Flor. 2, c. 7. 
 
 Nabonassar, a king of Babylon, after the 
 division of the Assyrian monarchy. From him 
 the Nabonassarean epoch received its name, 
 agreeing with the year of the world 3237, or 
 746 B. C. 
 
 N^evius, (Cn.) I. a native of Campania, was 
 the first imitator of ihe regular dramatic works 
 which had been produced by Livius Androni- 
 cus. He served in the first Punic war, and 
 his earliest plays were represented at Rome in 
 the year 519. The names of his tragedies, 
 from which as few fragments remain as from 
 those of Livius, are still preserved : — Alcestis, 
 (from which there is yet extant a description of 
 old age in rugged and barbarous verse) — Danae, 
 Dulorestes, Hesiona, Hector, Iphigenia, Lycur- 
 gus, PhsenisscB, Protesilaus, and T'elcphus. All 
 these were translated, or closely imitated, from 
 the works of Euripides, Anaxandrides, and 
 other Greek dramatists. Cicero commends a 
 passage in the Hector, one of the above-men- 
 tioned tragedies, where the hero of the piece 
 delighted with the praises which he had re- 
 ceived from his father Priam, exclaims : — 
 
 ' Lcetus sum 
 
 Laudari rue abs te, pater, laudato viro.' 
 
 Nsevius, however, was accounted abetter comic 
 than tragic poet. Cicero has given us some 
 specimens of his jests, with which that cele- 
 brated wit and orator appears to have been 
 greatly amused ; but they consist rather in un- 
 expected turns of expression, or a play of words, 
 than in genuine humour. Unfortunately for 
 Ngevius, he did not always confine himself in 
 his comedies to such inoffensive jests. The 
 dramas of Magna Grsecia and Sicily, especially 
 those of Epicharmus, were the prototypes of 
 the older Greek comedy ; and accordingly the 
 most ancient Latin plays, particularly those of 
 Nsevius, which were formed on the same school, 
 though there be no evidence that they ridiculed 
 political events, partook of the personal satire 
 and invective which pervaded the productions of 
 Aristophanes. If, as is related, the comedies of 
 Nsevius were directed against the vices and cor- 
 poral defects of the consuls and senators of 
 513 
 
 Rome, he must have been the most original of 
 the Latin comic poets, and infinitely more so 
 than Plautus or Terence ; since, although he 
 may have parodied or copied the dramatic fables 
 of the ancient Greek or Sicilian comedies, the 
 spirit and colouring of the particular scenes 
 must have been his own. The elder Scipio was 
 one of the chief objects of his satiric representa- 
 tions, and the poetic severity with which Aris- 
 tophanes persecuted Socrates or Euripides, was 
 hardly more indecent and misdirected than the 
 sarcasms of Naevius against the greatest captain, 
 the most accomplished scholar, and the most 
 virtuous citizen of his age. Nevius, however, 
 did not long escape with impunity. Rome was 
 a very diflerent sort of republic from Athens : 
 it was rather an aristocracy than a democracy, 
 and its partisans were not always disposed to 
 tolerate the taunts and insults which the chiefs 
 of the Greek democracy were obliged to endure. 
 Nsevius had said, in one of his verses, that the 
 patrician family of the Matelli had frequently 
 obtained the consulship before the age permit- 
 ted by law, and he insinuated that they had been 
 promoted to this dignity, not in consequence of 
 their virtues, but the cruelty of the Roman fate : 
 
 * Falo Metelli Romtzfiunt Consules.'' 
 
 With the assistance of the other patricians, 
 the Metelli retorted his sarcasms in a Saturnian 
 stanza, not unlike the measure of some of our 
 old ballads, in which they threatened to play 
 the devil with their witty persecutor : — 
 
 ' Et Ncevio Poetce, 
 Cwrn scepe Icederentur, 
 Dabunt inalwm Matelli, 
 Dabunt malum Matelli, 
 Dabunt malum Matelli.' 
 
 The Metelli, however, did not confine their 
 vengeance to the ingenious and spirited satire, 
 in the composition of which, ii may be presumed 
 that the whole Roman senate was engaged. 
 On account of the unceasing abuse and re- 
 proaches which he had uttered against them, 
 and other chief men of the city, he was thrown 
 into prison, where he wrote his comedies, the 
 Ha.riolus and Leontes. These plays being in 
 some measure intended as a recantation of his 
 former invectives, he was liberated by the tri- 
 bunes of the people. He soon, however, relapsed 
 into his former courses, and continued to per- 
 secute the nobility in his dramas and satires with 
 such implacable dislike, that he was at length 
 driven from Rome by their influence, and hav- 
 ing retired to Utica, he died there, m the year 
 550, according to Cicero ; but Varro fixes his 
 death somewhat later. Before leaving Rome, 
 he had composed the following epitaph on 
 himself, which Gellius remarks is full of Cam- 
 panian arrogance; though the import of it, he 
 adds, might be allowed to be true, had it been 
 written by another : — 
 
 ' Mortales immortales flere si for et fas, 
 Flerent diva CamancB Ncevium poeiam ; 
 Itaque postquam est Orcino traditus thesauro, 
 Oblitei sunt Romce loquier Latina lingua.' 
 
 Besides his comedies and the above epitaph, 
 Nsevius was also author of the C)'prian Iliad, a 
 translation from a Greek poem, called the Cy- 
 piria-n Epic. Aristotle, in the 23d chapter of his 
 
NA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 NE 
 
 Poetics, mentions the original work, {ra Kvnpia,) 
 which, he says, had furnished many subjects for 
 the drama. Some writers, particularly Pindar, 
 have attributed this Greek poem to Homer ; and 
 there was long an idle story current, that he had 
 given it as a portion to his daughter Arsephone. 
 Herodotus, in his second book, concludes, after 
 some critical discussion, that it was not written 
 by Homer, but that it was doubtless the work 
 of a contemporary poet, or one who lived shortly 
 after him. Heyne thinks it most probable, that 
 it was by a poet called Stasinus, a native of the 
 island of Cyprus, and that it received its name 
 from the country of its author. Whoever may 
 have written this Cyprian Epic, it contained 
 twelve books, and was probably a work of amo- 
 rous and romantic fiction. It commenced with 
 the nuptials of Thetis and Peleus — it related 
 the contention of the three goddesses on mount 
 Ida — the fables concerning Palamedes — the 
 story of the daughters of Anius — and the love 
 adventures of the Phrygian fair during the 
 early period of the siege of Troy — and it termi- 
 nated with the council of the gods, at which it 
 was resolved that Achilles should be withdrawn 
 from the war, by sowing dissension between 
 him and Atrides. A metrical chronicle, which 
 chiefly related the events of the first Punic war, 
 was another, and probably the last work of 
 Naevius, since Cicero says, that in writing it he 
 filled up the leisure of his latter days with won- 
 derful complacency and satisfaction. Cic. 
 Thisc. 1, c. 1. de Senect. — Horat. 2, ep. 1, c. 53. 
 
 II. An augur in the reign of Tarquin. To 
 
 convince the king and the Romans of his power 
 as an ailgur, he cut a flint with a razor, and 
 turned the ridicule of the populace into admira- 
 tion. The razor and flint were buried under an 
 altar, and it was usual among the Romans to 
 make witnesses in civil causes swear near it. 
 Dionys. Hal. — Liv. 1, c. 36. — Cic. de divin. 1, 
 c 17, dc JV. D. 2, c. 3, 1. 3, c. 6. 
 
 Narcissus, a freedman and secretary of Clau- 
 dius, who abused his trust and the infirmities of 
 his imperial master, and plundered the citizens 
 of Rome to enrich himself Messalina, the em- 
 peror's wife, endeavoured to remove him, but 
 Narcissus sacrificed her to his avarice and re- 
 sentment, Agrippina, who succeeded in the 
 place of Messalina, was more successful. Nar- 
 cissus was banished by her intrigues, and com- 
 pelled to kill himself, A. D, 54, Vid. Part 
 III. 
 
 Nasica, the surname of one of the Scipios. 
 Nasica was the first who invented the measuring 
 of time by water, B. C. 159, about 134 years 
 after the introduction of sundials at Rome. 
 Vid. Scipio. An avaricious fellow, who mar- 
 ried his daughter to Coranus, a man as mean 
 as himself, that he might not only not repay the 
 money he had borrowed, but moreover become 
 his creditor's heir. Coranus, understanding his 
 meaning, purposely alienated his property from 
 him and his daughter, and exposed him to ridi- 
 cule. Horat. 2, Sat. 5, v. 64, &c. 
 
 Nasidienus, a Roman knight, whose luxury, 
 arrogance, and ostentation, exhibited at an en- 
 tertainment he gave to Mecaenas, were ridi- 
 culed by Horace, 2, Sat. 8. 
 
 Naucrates, I. a Greek poet, who was em- 
 ployed by Artemisia to write a panegyric upon 
 Mausolus.r II. An orator who endeavoured 
 
 Part II.— 3 T 
 
 to alienate the cities of Lycia from the interest 
 of Brutus. 
 
 Nausicaa, a daughter of Alcinous, king of the 
 Phaeaceans, She met Ulysses shipwrecked on 
 her father's coasts, and it was to her humanity 
 that he owed the kind reception he experienced 
 from the king. She married, according to Aris- 
 totle and Dictys, Telemachus the son of Ulys- 
 ses, by whom she had a son called Perseptolis 
 or Ptoliporthus. Homer. Od. 6. — Pau$. 5, c. 
 \^.—Hygin. fab, 126. 
 
 Nautes, a Trojan soothsayer, who comforted 
 ^neas when his fleet had been burnt in Sicily. 
 Virg. Mn. 5, v. 704. He was the progenitor of 
 the Nautii at Rome, a family to whom the pal- 
 ladium of Troy was, in consequence of the 
 service of their a.ncestors, intrusted. Virg. 
 Mn. 5, v. 794. 
 
 Nealices, a painter, amongst whose capital 
 pieces are nsentioned a painting of Venus, a 
 seafight between the Persians and the Egyp- 
 tians, and an ass drinking on the shore with a 
 crocodile preparing to attack it, 
 
 Nearchus, an officer of Alexander in his In- 
 dian expedition. He was ordered to sail upon 
 the Indian ocean with Onesicritus, and to ex- 
 amine it. He wrote an account of this voyage 
 and of the king's life ; but his veracity has been 
 called in question by Arrian. After the king's 
 death he was appointed over Lycia and Pam- 
 phylia. Curt. 9, c. 10. — Polyan. 9. — Justin. 13, 
 c. A.—Strab. 2, &c. . 
 
 Nechos, a king of Egypt, who attempted to 
 make a communication between the Mediterra- 
 nean and Red seas, B. C. 610. No less than 
 12,000 men perished in the attempt. It was 
 discovered in his reign that AfVica was circum- 
 navigable. Herodot. 2, c, 158, 1. 4, c. 42. 
 
 Negtanebus, and Nectanabis, a king of 
 Egypt, who defended his country against the 
 Persians, and was succeeded by Tachos, B. C. 
 363. His grandson, of the same name, made 
 an alliance with Agesilaus, king of Sparta, and 
 with his assistance he quelled a rebellion of his 
 subjects. Some time after, he was joined by the 
 Sidonians, Phoenicians, and inhabitants of Cy- 
 prus, who had revolted from the king of Persia. 
 This powerful confederacy was soon attacked 
 by Darius, the king of Persia, who marched at 
 the head of his troops. Nectanebus, to defend 
 his frontiers against so dangerous an enemy, 
 levied 20,000 mercenary soldiers in Greece, the 
 same number in Libya, and 60,000 were fur- 
 nished in Egypt, This numerous body was 
 not equal to the Persian forces ; and Nectane- 
 bus, defeated in a battle, gave up all hopes of 
 resistance, and fled into Ethiopia, B. C. 350, 
 where he found a safe asylum. His kingdom 
 of Egypt became from that time tributary to the 
 king of Persia. Plut. Ages. — Diod. 16, &c. — 
 Polycen. 2. — Nep. in Ages. 
 
 Nemesianijs, M. Aurel. Olymp., a Latin 
 poet, born at Carthage, of no very brilliant tal- 
 ents, in the third century, whose poems on 
 hunting and bird-catching were published by 
 Bumam, inter scriptores rei venaticae, 4to. L. 
 Bat. 1728. 
 
 Nemesius, a Greek writer, whose elegant and 
 useful treatise de Natnra Hominis was edited 
 in 12mo. Ant. apud Plant. 1565, and in 8vo. 
 Oxon. 1671. 
 
 Neocles, I. an Athenian philosopher, father, 
 513 
 
NE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 NE 
 
 or, according to Cicero, brother to the philoso- 
 pher Epicurus, Cic. 1, de Nat. D. c. 21. — 
 
 Diog. II. The father of Themistocles, ^EZi- 
 
 an. V. H. 2, &c. — Cic. Nep. in Them. 
 
 Neon, one of the commanders of the ten 
 thousand Greeks who assisted Cyrus against 
 Artaxerxes. 
 
 Neoptolemus, I. a king of Epirus, son of 
 Achilles and Deidamia, called Pyrrhus, from 
 the yelloio colour of his hair. He was carefully 
 educated under the eye of his mother, and gave 
 early proofs of his valour. After the death of 
 Achilles, Calchas declared in the assembly of 
 the Greeks that Troy could not be taken with- 
 out the assistance of the son of the deceased 
 hero. Immediately upon this Ulysses and Phoe- 
 nix were commissioned to bring Pyrrhus to the 
 war. He returned with them with pleasure, 
 and received the name of Neoptolemus, {new 
 soldier^) because he had come late to the field. 
 His cruelty, howevei", was as great as that of his 
 father. Not satisfied with breaking down the 
 gates of Priam's palace, he exercised the great- 
 est barbarity upon the remains of his family; 
 and, without any regard to the sanctity of the 
 place where Priam had taken refuge, he slaugh- 
 tered him without mercy ; or, according to 
 others, dragged him by ihe hair to the tomb of 
 his father, -where he sacrificed him, and where 
 he cut ofif his head, and carried it in exultation 
 through the streets of Troy fixed on the point 
 of a spear. He also sacrificed Astyanax to his 
 fury, and immolated Polyxena on the tomb of 
 Achilles, according to those who deny that that 
 sacrifice was voluntary. When Troy was taken, 
 the captives were divided among the conquer- 
 ors, and Pyrrhus had for his share Andromache, 
 the widow of Hector, and Helenus, the son of 
 Priam, The place of his retirement after the 
 Trojan war is not known. Some maintain that 
 he went to Thessaly, where his grandfather still 
 reigned ; but this is confuted by others, who ob- 
 serve, perhaps with more reason, that he went 
 to Epirus, where he laid the foundations of a 
 new kingdom, because his grandfather Peleus 
 had been deprived of his sceptre by Acastus the 
 son of Pelias. Neoptolemus lived with Adro- 
 mache after his arrival in Greece, He had a 
 son by this unfortunate princess, called Molos- 
 sus, and two others, if we rely on the authority 
 of Pausanias, Besides Andromache, he married 
 Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus, as also 
 Lanassa, the daughter of Cleodseus, one of the 
 descendants of Hercules, The cause of his 
 death is variously related, Menelaus, before the 
 Trojan war, had promised his daughter Her- 
 mione to Orestes, but the services he experien- 
 ced from the valour and the courage of Neopto- 
 lemus, duringthesiege of Troy, induced him to 
 reward his merit by making him his son-in-law. 
 The nuptials were accordingly celebrated, but 
 Orestes caused his rival to be assassinated in 
 the temple of Delphi, and he was murdered at 
 the foot of the altar by Machareus the priest, or 
 by the hand of Orestes himself, according to 
 Virgil, Paterculus, and Hyginus, Some say 
 that he was murdered by the Delphians, who 
 had been bribed by the presents of Orestes, He 
 suffered the same death and the same barbari- 
 ties which he had inflicted in the temple of Mi- 
 nerva upon the aged Priam and his wretched 
 family. From this circumstance the ancients 
 514 
 
 have made use of the proverb of Neoptolemic 
 revenge when a person had suffered the same 
 savage treatment which others had received 
 from his hands. The Delphians celebrated a 
 festival with great pomp and solemnity in mem- 
 ory of Neoptolemus, who had been slain in his 
 attempt to plunder their temple, bec0,ase, as 
 they said, Apollo, the patron of the place, had 
 been in some manner accessary to the death of 
 ilchilles, Paterc. 1, c, 1. — Virg. ^En.2 and 
 3.— Pans. 10, c. 24:.— Ovid. Met. 13, v. 334, 
 455, &c. Heroid. 8, — Slrab. 9. — Pind. Nem. 
 l.-^Eurip. Androm. and Orest. &c. — Plut. in 
 Pyrr. — Justin. 17, c. 3.—Dictys Cret. 4, 5 and 
 6.—Ho7)ier. Od. 11, v, 504. II. 19, v. 326.— 
 Sophocl. Philoct. — Apollod. 3, c. 13. — Hygin. 
 fab. 97 and lQi2.—Philostr. Her. 19, &c.— Da- 
 res Phryg.—Q. Smyrn. 14. II. An uncle of 
 
 the celebrated Pyrrhus, who assisted the Ta- 
 rentines. He was made king of Epirus by the 
 Epirots, who had revolted from their lawful 
 sovereign, and was put to death when he at- 
 tempted to poison his nephew, &c. Plut. in 
 
 Pyrr. III. A tragic poet of Athens, greatly 
 
 favoured by Philip, king of Macedonia. When 
 Cleopatra, the monarch's daughter, was married 
 to Alexander of Epirus, he wrote some verses 
 which proved to be prophetic of ihe tragical 
 death of Philip, Diod. 16,-— IV. A relation 
 of Alexander, He was the first who climbed 
 the walls of Gaza when that city was taken by 
 Alexander. After the king's death he received 
 Armenia as his province, and made war against 
 Eumenes. He was supported by Crater us, but 
 an engagement with Eumenes proved fatal to 
 his cause, Craterus was killed, and himself 
 mortally wounded by Eumenes, B, C. 321, C. 
 Nep. in Kumen. 
 
 Nepherites, a king of Egypt, who assisted 
 the Sparians against Persia when Agesilaus 
 was in Asia. He sent them a fleet of 100 ships, 
 which were intercepted by Conon as they were 
 sailing towards Rhodes, &c, Diod. 14, 
 
 Nepos, (Corn,) I. the author of the Vitcz 
 Ezcellentium Imperatorum, and the life of Titus 
 Pomponius Atticus, the celebrated friend and 
 correspondent of Cicero, There can be no 
 doubt that an author of the name of Cornelius 
 Nepos lived at Rome during this period, and 
 enjoyed considerable celebrity. He is generally 
 believed to have been born at Hostilia (now 
 Ostiglia), a small to\^Ti situated on the banks 
 of the Po, near the confines of the Veronese 
 and Mantuan territories. The year of his birth 
 is uncertain, but he first came toRome during the 
 dictatorship of Julius Caesar, He does not ap- 
 pear to have filled any public office in the state ; 
 but his merit soon procured him the friendship 
 of the most eminent men who at that time 
 adorned the capital of the world, Catullus, 
 dedicated to him the volume of poems, which 
 he had privately read and approved of before 
 their publication. Nepos addressed one of his 
 own works to Pomponius Atticus, with whom 
 also he was on terms of intimacy. He likewise 
 obtained the esteem and affection of Cicero, 
 who speaks of his writings with high approba- 
 tion in one of his letters, and in another alludes 
 with much sympathy to the loss which Nepos 
 had sustained by the death of a favourite son. 
 It farther appears, that Cicero had frequently 
 corresponded with him, for Macrobius quotes 
 
NE 
 
 HISTORY, <S^c. 
 
 NE 
 
 the second book of that orator's epistles to Cor- 
 nelius Nepos. It is thus probable that some of 
 our author's works had been prepared, or were 
 m the course of composition, previous to the 
 death of Cicero ; but they were not given to 
 the public till early in the reign of Augustus, 
 since Eusebius considers him as flourishing in 
 the fourth year of that emperor. The precise 
 period of his death is unknown, and it can only 
 be ascertained that he survived Atticus, whose 
 biography he writes, and who died in the 732d 
 year of the city. Some chronological accounts 
 extend his life till the commencement of the 
 Christian era, but it is scarcely possible that one 
 who was a distinguished literary character in 
 the time of Catullus could have existed till that 
 epoch. Whether the Cornelius Nepos, concern- 
 ing whose life these circumstances have been 
 gleaned, was the author of the well-known book 
 entitled Vita Excellentium Imperatorum, has 
 been a subject, ever since it was first printed, of 
 much debate and controversy among critics and 
 commentators. The discussion originated in 
 the following circumstances : — A person of the 
 name, of jEmilius Probus, who lived in the 
 fourth century, during the reign of Theodosius 
 the Great, presented to his sovereign a copy of 
 the Vitcs Imperatorum, and prefixed to it some 
 barbarous verses, which left it doubtful whether 
 he meant to announce himself as the author, 
 or merely as the transcriber, of the work. To 
 myself it appears, that after allowing for the 
 superior dignity of the oflice of a transcriber 
 in the age of Theodosius, compared with its 
 diminished importance at the present day, there 
 is something more implied in the verses of 
 Probus than that he was merely a copyist, and 
 he must either have had a part in the compo- 
 sition, or, having discovered the MS., was not 
 unwilling that he should have some share of 
 the credit due to the author. The Vitcs Im- 
 peratorum, properly so called, contains the lives 
 of nineteen Greek, one Persian, and two Car- 
 thaginian generals. It has been conjectured, 
 that there was also a series of lives of Roman 
 commanders, but that these had perished be- 
 fore iEmilius Probus commenced his transcrip- 
 tion. That Nepos at least intended to write 
 these biographies, appears from a passage at 
 the end of the life of Hannibal, in which he 
 says: ' it is now time to conclude this book, and 
 proceed to the lives of the Roman generals, that 
 their exploits, being compared with those of the 
 Greeks, it may be judged which are to be pre- 
 ferred.' That he actually accomplished this 
 task is rendered at least probable, from the cir- 
 cumstance of Plutarch quoting the authority of 
 Nepos, for facts concerning the lives of Marcel- 
 lus and Lucullus; and it seems not unlikely, 
 that the sentence at the close of Hannibal, may 
 - have suggested to that biographer the idea of 
 his parallel lives. The principles which Nepos 
 displays in that part of the work which still re- 
 mains, are those of an admirer of virtue, a foe 
 to vice, and a supporter of the cause of free- 
 dom. It was written in the crisis of his coun- 
 try's fate, and during her last struggles for lib- 
 erty, when despotism was impending, but the 
 hope of freedom was not yet extinguished in the 
 breasts of the last of the Romans. The work, 
 it has been conjectured, was undertaken to fan 
 the expiring flame, by exhibiting the example 
 
 of such men as Dion and Timoleon, and by 
 inserting sentiments which were appropriate to 
 the times. In choosing the subjects of his biog- 
 raphies, the author chiefly selects those heroes 
 who had maintained or recovered the liberties 
 of their country, and he passes over all that bears 
 no reference to this favourite theme. Nepos 
 appears to have been a very fertile writer. Be- 
 sides the lives of commanders and that of Pom- 
 ponius Atticus, he was the author of several 
 works, chiefly of a historical description, which 
 are now almost entirely lost. He wrote, in 
 three books, an abridgment of the history of 
 the world ; and he had the merit of being the 
 first author among the Romans who completed 
 a task of this laborious and useful description. 
 Aulus Gellius mentions his life of Cicero, and 
 quotes the fifth book of his work, entitled Ez- 
 emplorum Libri. He also composed a treatise 
 on the difference of the terms literatus and 
 eruditus ; and, finally, a book De Historicis 
 Greeds. Among the many good editions of 
 Cornelius Nepos, two may be selected as the 
 best, that of Verheyk, 8vo. L. Bat. 1773, and 
 
 that of Glasgow, 12mo. 1761. II. Julius, an 
 
 emperor of the west, &c. 
 
 Nepotianus, (Flavins Popilius,) a son of 
 Eutropia, the sister of the emperor Constan- 
 tine. He proclaimed himself emperor after the 
 death of his cousin Constans, and rendered 
 himself odious by his cruelty and oppression. 
 He was murdered byAnicetus, after one month's 
 reign, and his family were involved in his ruin. 
 
 Nero, I. (Claud. Domitius Caesar,) a cele- 
 brated Roman emperor, son of Caius Domitius 
 Ahenobarbus and Agrippina, the daughter of 
 Germanicus. He was adopted by the emperor 
 Claudius, A. D. 50, and four years after he suc- 
 ceeded to him on the throne. The beginning 
 of his reign was marked by acts of the greatest 
 kindness and condescension, by affability, com- 
 plaisance, and popularity ; and when he was 
 desired to sign his name to a list of malefactors 
 that were to be executed, he exclaimed, 1 wish 
 to Hea.ven J could not write. These promising 
 virtues were soon discovered to be artificial, and 
 Nero displayed the propensities of his nature. 
 He delivered himself from the sway of his moth- 
 er, and at last ordered her to be assassinated. 
 Many of his courtiers shared the unhappy fate 
 of Agrippina, and Nero sacrificed to his fury or 
 caprice all such as obstructed his pleasure or 
 diverted his inclination. He also turned actor, 
 and publicly appeared on the Roman stage in 
 the meanest characters. In his attempts to 
 excel in music, and to conquer the disadvan- 
 tages of a hoarse rough voice, he moderated his 
 meals, and often passed the day without eating. 
 The celebrity of the Olympian games attracted 
 his notice. He passed into Greece, and present- 
 ed himself as a candidate for the public honour. 
 He was defeated in wrestling, but the flattery 
 of the spectators adjudged him the victory. He 
 disguised himself in the habit of a woman, and 
 was publicly married to one of his eunuchs. 
 This violence to nature and decency was soon 
 exchanged for another: Nero resumed his sex, 
 and celebrated his nuptials with one of his mean- 
 est catamites ; and it was on this occasion that 
 one of the Romans observed, that the world 
 would have been happy if Nero's father had had 
 such a wife. He sacrificed to his wantonness 
 515 
 
NE 
 
 IITSTORY, &c. 
 
 NE 
 
 his wife Octavia Poppsea, and the celebrated 
 writers, Seneca, Lucan, Petronius, «&c. The 
 Christians also did not escape his barbarity. 
 He had heard of the burning of Troy ; and as 
 he wished to renew that dismal scene, he caused 
 Rome to be set on fire in different places. The 
 conflagration became soon universal, and during 
 nine successive days the fire was unextinguish- 
 ed. Nero placed himself on the top of a high 
 tower, and sang on his lyre the destruction of 
 Troy ; a dreadful scene, which his barbarity had 
 realized before his eyes. He built himself a cel- 
 ebrated palace, which he called his golden 
 house. It was profusely adorned with gold, with 
 precious stones, and with whatever was rare and 
 exquisite. It contained spacious fields, artifi- 
 cial lakes, woods, gardens, orchards, and what- 
 ever could exhibit beauty and grandeur. The 
 entrance of this edifice could admit a large colos- 
 sus of the emperor 120 feet high; the galleries 
 were each a mile long, and the whole was cov- 
 ered with gold. The roofs of the dining-halls 
 represented the firmament, in motion as well as 
 in figure, and continually turned round night 
 and day, showering down all sorts of perfumes 
 and sweet waters. When this grand edifice, 
 which, according to Pliny,extended all round the 
 city, was finished, Nero said that now he could 
 lodge like a man. This continuation of de- 
 bauchery and extravagance at last roused the 
 resentment of the people. Many conspiracies 
 were formed against the emperor, but they were 
 generally discovered, and such as were acces- 
 sary suffered the greatest punishments. The 
 most dangerous conspiracy against Nero's life 
 was that of Piso, from which he was delivered 
 by the confession of a slave. The conspiracy 
 of Galba proved more successful; and the con- 
 spirator, when he was informed that his plot 
 was known to Nero, declared himself emperor. 
 The unpopularity of Nero favoured his cause ; 
 he was acknowledged by all the Roman empire, 
 and the senate condemned the tyrant that sat 
 on the throne to be dragged naked through the 
 streets of Rome, and whipped to death, and af- 
 terwards to be thrown down from the Tarpeian 
 rock like the meanest malefactor. This, how- 
 ever, was not done ; and Nero, by a voluntary 
 death, prevented the execution of the sentence. 
 He killed himself, A. D. 68, in the 32d j^ear 
 of his age, after a reign of 13 years and eight 
 months. The tyrant, as he expired, begged 
 that his head might not be cut ofi* from his body, 
 and exposed to the insolence of the enraged pop- 
 ulace, but that the whole might be burned on 
 the funeral pile. His request was granted by one 
 of Galba's freedmen, and his obsequies were 
 performed with the usual ceremonj es. T hough 
 his death seemed to be the source of universal 
 gladness, yet many of his favourites lamented 
 his fall, and were grieved to see that their pleas- 
 ures and amusements were stopped by the death 
 of the patron of debauchery and extravagance. 
 Even the king of Parthia sent ambassadors 
 to Rome to condole with the Romans, and to 
 beg that they would honour and revere the 
 memory of Nero. His statues were also crown- 
 ed with garlands of flowers, and many believed 
 that he was not dead, but that he would soon 
 make his appearance, and take a due vengeance 
 upon his enemies. Pliny calls him the common 
 enemy and the fury of mankind ; and in this 
 516 
 
 he has been followed by all writers, who exhibit 
 Nero as a pattern of the most execrable barba- 
 rity and unpardonable wantonness. Plut. in 
 Galb. — Sv£t. in vita. — Plin. 7, c. 8, &c. — Dio. 
 64. — Aurel. Victor. — Tacit. Ann. II. Clau- 
 dius, a Roman general, sent into Spain to suc- 
 ceed the two Scipios. He suffered himself to 
 be imposed upon by Asdrubal, and was soon 
 after succeeded by young Scipio. He was 
 afterwards made consul, and intercepted Asdru- 
 bal, who was passing from Spain into ItaJ}' 
 with a large reinforcement for his brother Anni- 
 bal. An engagement was fought near the river 
 Metaurus, in which 56,000 of the Carthaginians 
 were left on the field of battle, and great num- 
 bers taken prisoners, 207 B. C. Asdrubal, the 
 Carthaginian general, was also killed, and his 
 head cut off and thrown down into his brother's 
 camp by the conquerors. Appian. iii Han. — 
 Oros. 4. — Liv. 27, &c. — Horab, 4, od. 4, v. 37. 
 
 —Flor. 2, c. Q.— Val. Max. 4, c. 1. III. A 
 
 son of Germanicus, who was ruined by Sejanus, 
 and banished from Rome by Tiberius. He died 
 in the place of his exile. His death was volun- 
 tar)'-, according to some. Sicet. in Tib. — Domi- 
 tian was called Nero, because his cruelties sur- 
 passed those of his predecessors, and also Cal- 
 vus, from the baldness of his head. Juv. 4. — 
 The Neros were of the Claudian family, which, 
 during the republican times of Rome, was hon- 
 oured with 28 consulships, five dictatorships, 
 six triumphs, seven censorships, and two ova- 
 tions. They assumed the surname of Nero, 
 which, in the language of the Sabines, signifies 
 strong and warlike. 
 
 Neronia, a name given to Artaxata by Ti- 
 ridates, who had been restored to his kingdom 
 by Nero, whose favours he .acknowledged by 
 calling the capital of his dominions after the 
 name of his benefactor, 
 
 Nerva Cocceius, I. a Roman emperor, after 
 the death of Domitian, A. D. 96. He rendered 
 himself popular by his mildness, his generosity, 
 and the active part he took in the manage- 
 ment of affairs. He suffered no statues to be 
 raised to his honour, and he applied to the use 
 of the government all the gold and silver statues 
 which flattery had erected to his predecessor. 
 In his civil character he was the pattern of good 
 manners, of sobriety, and temperance. He for- 
 bade the mutilation of male children, and gave 
 no countenance to the law which permitted the 
 marriage of an uncle with his niece. He made 
 a solemn declaration that no senator should 
 suffer death during his reign ; and this he ob- 
 served with such sanctity, that, when two mem- 
 bers of the senate had conspii'ed against his life, 
 he was satisfied to tell them that he was inform- 
 ed of their wicked machinations. He also con- 
 ducted them to the public spectacles, and seat- 
 ed himself between them, and when a sword 
 was offered to him, according to the usual cus- 
 tom, he desired the conspirators to try it upon 
 his ijody. Such goodness of heart, such con- 
 fidence in the self-conviction of the human mind, 
 and such reliance upon the consequence of his 
 lenity and indulgence, conciliated the affection 
 of all his subjects. Yet the praetorian guards 
 at last mutinied, and Nerva nearly yielded to 
 their fury. He uncovered bis aged neck in the 
 presence of the incensed soldiery, and bade them 
 wreak their vengeance upon him, provided they 
 
NI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 NI 
 
 spared the lives of those to whom he was indebl- 
 efl for the empire, and whom his honour com- 
 manded him to defend. His seeming submis- 
 sion was unavailing, and he was at last obliged 
 to surrender to the fury of his soldiers some of 
 his friends and supporters. The infirmities of 
 his age, and his natural timidity, at last obliged 
 him to provide himself against any future muti- 
 ny or tumuli, by choosing a worthy successor. 
 He had many friends and relations, but he did 
 not consider the aggrandizement of his family, 
 and he chose for his son and successor Trajan, 
 a man of whose virtues and greatness of mind 
 he was fully convinced. He died on the 27th 
 of July, A. D. 98, in his 72d year, and his suc- 
 cessor showed his respect for his merit and his 
 character by raising him altars and temples in 
 Rome, and in the provinces, and by ranking 
 him in the number of the gods. Nerva was 
 the first Roman emperor who was of foreign 
 extraction, his father being a native of Crete. 
 
 Plin. paneg. — Diod. 69. II. M. Cocceius, 
 
 a consul in the reign of Tiberius. He starved 
 himself, because he would not be concerned in 
 
 the extravagance of the emperor. III. A 
 
 celebrated lawyer, consul with the emperor 
 Vespasian. He was father to the emperor of 
 that name. 
 
 Nestocles, a famous statuary of Greece, 
 rival of Phidias. Plin. 34, c. 8. 
 
 Nestor, a son of Neleus and Chloris, ne- 
 phew to Pelias, and grandson to Neptune. He 
 had eleven brothers, who were all killed, with 
 his father, by Hercules. As king of Pylos and 
 Messenia he led his subjects to the Trojan war, 
 where he distinguished himself, among the rest 
 of the Grecian chiefs, by eloquence, address, 
 wisdom, justice, and an uncommon prudence 
 of mind. Homer displays his character as the 
 most perfect of all his heroes ; and Agamemnon 
 exclaims, that if he had ten generals like Nes- 
 tor, he should soon see the walls of Troy re- 
 duced to ashes. After the Trojan war, Nestor 
 retired to Greece, where he enjoyed, in the bo- 
 som of his family, the peace and tranquillity 
 which were due to his wisdom and to his old 
 age. The manner and the time of his death are 
 unknown ; the ancients are all agreed that he 
 lived three generations of men, which length of 
 time some suppose to be 300 years, though, more 
 probably, only 90, allowing 30 years for each 
 generation. He had two daughters, Pisidice 
 and Polycaste ; and seven sons, Perseus, Stra- 
 ticus, Aretus, Echephron, Pisistratus, Antilo- 
 chus, and Trasimedes. Nestor was one of the 
 Argonauts, according to Valerius Flaccus, 1, v. 
 380, &c. — Dictys Cret. 1, c. 13, &c. — Homer, 
 n. 1, &c. Od. 3 and n.—Hvgin.—fab. 10 and 
 273.— Paws. 3, c. 26, 1. 4, c. 3 and 3l.—ApoIlod. 
 1, c. 9, 1. 2, c. l.— Ovid Met. 12, v. 169, &c.— 
 Hot at. 1, od. 15. 
 
 Nestorius, a bishop of Constantinople, who 
 flourished A. D. 431. He was condemned and 
 degraded from his episcopal dignity for his 
 heretical opinions, &c. 
 
 NicAGORAs, a sophist of Athens, in the reign 
 of the emperor Philip. He wrote the lives of 
 illustrious men, and was reckoned one of the 
 greatest and most learned men of his age. 
 
 Nicander, I. a king of Sparta, son of Cha- 
 rillus, of the family of the Proclidae. He reign- 
 ed 39 years, and died B. C. 770, II. A 
 
 Greek grammarian, poet, and physician, of 
 Colophon, 137 B. C. His writings were held 
 in estimation. Two of his poems, entitled 
 Theriaca^ on hunting, and Alexipharmaca, on 
 antidotes against poison, are still extant ; the 
 best editions of which are those of Gorrseus, 
 with a translation in Latin verse by Grevinus, 
 a physician at Paris, 4to. Paris, 1557, and Sal- 
 vinus, 8vo. Florenl. 1764. Cic. 1, de Oral. c. 16. 
 
 NiCANOR, ( Vid. Demetrius 2d,) I. a governor 
 of Media, conquered by Seleucus. He had been 
 governor over the Athenians under Cassander, 
 
 by whose orders he was put to death. II. A 
 
 governor of Munychia, who seized the Piraeus, 
 and was at last put to death by Cassander, be- 
 cause he wished to make himself absolute over 
 
 Attica. Diod. 18. III. A general of Antio- 
 
 chus, king of Syria. He made war against the 
 Jews, and showed himself uncommonly cruel. 
 
 NiciAs, I. an Athenian general, celebrated 
 for his valour and for his misfortunes. When 
 Athens determined to make war against Sicily, 
 Niciaswas appointed, with Alcibiades and La- 
 machuSjtoconductthe expedition, which he rep- 
 robated as impolitic, and as the future cause of 
 calamities to the Athenian power. In Sicily he 
 behaved w^ith great firmness, but he often blam- 
 ed the quick and inconsiderate measures of his 
 colleagues. The success of the Athenians re- 
 mained long doubtful. Alcibiades was recalled 
 by his enemies to take his trial, and Nicias was 
 left at the head of affairs. Syracuse was sur- 
 roimded by a wall, and though the operations 
 were carried on slowly, yet the city would have 
 surrendered, had not the sudden appearance of 
 Gylippus, the Corinthian ally of the Sicilians, 
 cheered up the courage of the besieged at the 
 critical moment. Gylippus proposed terms of 
 accommodation to the Athenians, which were 
 refused ; some battles were fought, in which the 
 Sicilians obtained the advantage, and Nicias at 
 last, tired of his ill success, and grown despond- 
 ingjdemanded of the Athenians a reinforcement 
 or a successor. Demosthenes, upon this, was 
 sent with a powerful fleet ; but the advice of 
 Nicias was despisef^. and the admiral, by his 
 eagerness to come to a decisive engagement, 
 ruined his fleet and the interest of Athens. Ni- 
 cias gave himself up to the conquerors with all 
 his army, and was shamefully put to death with 
 Demosthenes. His troops were sent to quarries, 
 where the plague and hard labour diminished 
 their numbers and aggravated their misfortunes. 
 Some suppose that the death of Nicias w^as not 
 violent. He perished about 413 years before 
 Christ, and the Athenians lamented in him a 
 great and valiant, but unfortunate general. 
 JPlut.invitd.— C. Nep. in Alcib. — Thucyd. 4, 
 
 &c. — Diod. 15. II. A physician of Pyrrhus, 
 
 king of Epirus, who made an offer to the Ro- 
 mans of poisoning his master for a sum of mo- 
 ney. The Roman general disdained his offers, 
 and acquainted Pyrrhus with his treachery. 
 He is oftener called Cineas. 
 
 Nico, a celebrated architect and geometri- 
 cian. He was father to the celebrated Galen, 
 
 the prince of physicians. The name of an 
 
 ass which Augustus met before the battle of Ac- 
 tium, a circumstance which he considered as a 
 
 favourable omen. The name of an elephant, 
 
 remarkable for his fidelity to king Pyrrhus. 
 
 NicocLEs, I. a familiar friend of Phocion, 
 517 
 
NI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 NI 
 
 condemned to death. Plut. II. A king of 
 
 Salamis, celebrated for his contest with a king 
 of PhcEnicia, to prove which of the two was most 
 
 effeminate. III. A king of Paphos, who 
 
 reigned under the protection of Ptolemy, king of 
 Egypt. He revolted from his friend to the king 
 of Persia, upon which Piolemy ordered one of 
 his servants to put him to death, to strike terror 
 into the other dependant princes. The servant, 
 unwilling to murder the monarch, advised him 
 to kill himself Nicocles obeyed, and all his 
 family followed the example, 310 years before 
 
 the Christian era. IV. An ancient Greek 
 
 poet,who called physicians a happy race of men, 
 Decause light published their good deeds to the 
 world, and the earth hid all their faults and im- 
 perfections. V. A king of Cyprus, who suc- 
 ceeded his father Evagoras on the throne, 374 
 years before Christ. It was with him that the 
 
 philosopher Isocrates corresponded. VI. A 
 
 tyrant of Sicyon, deposed by means of Aratus 
 the Achaean. Plut. in Aral. 
 
 NicocRATEs, I. a tyrant of Cyrene. II. 
 
 An author at Athens. III. A king of Sala- 
 mis in Cyprus; who made himself known by a 
 valuable collection of books. Athen. 1. 
 
 NicocREON, a tyrant of Salamis, in the age 
 of Alexander the Great. He ordered the phi- 
 losopher Anaxarchus to be pounded to pieces 
 in a mortar. 
 
 NicoDEMus, I. an Athenian, appointed by 
 Conon over the fleet which was going to the 
 
 assistance of Artaxerxes. Diod. 14. II. A 
 
 tyrant of Italy, &c. III. An ambassador sent 
 
 to Pompey by Aristobulus, 
 
 NicoLAUs, a celebrated Syracusan, who en- 
 deavoured to dissuade his countrymen from 
 offering violence to the Athenian prisoners 
 who had been taken with Nicias their general. 
 His eloquence was unavailing. 
 
 NicoMACHA, a daughter of Themistocles. 
 
 NicoMACHUs, the father of Aristotle, whose 
 son also bore the same name. The philosopher 
 composed his ten books of morals for the use 
 and improvement of his son, and thence they 
 are called Nicomachea. Suidas. 
 
 NicoMEDEs, I. a king of Bithynia, about 
 278 years before the Christian era. It was by 
 his exertions thai this part of Asia became a 
 monarchy. He behaved with great cruelty to 
 his brothers, and built a town which he called 
 by his own name, Nicomedia. Justin. — Paus. 
 
 &c. The 2d, was ironically surnamed Phi- 
 
 lopater, because he drove his father Prusias 
 from the kingdom of Bithynia, and caused him 
 to be assassinated, B. C. 149. He reigned 59 
 years. Mithridates laid claim to his kingdom, 
 but all their disputes were decided by the Ro- 
 mans, who deprived Nicomedes of the province 
 of Paphlagonia, and his ambitious rival of Cap- 
 padocia. He gained the affections of his sub- 
 jects by a courteous behaviour, and by a mild 
 
 and peaceful government. Justin. The 3d, 
 
 son and successor of the preceding, was de- 
 thronedby his brother Socrates, and afterwards 
 by the ambitious Mithridates. The Romans re- 
 established him on his throne, and encouraged 
 him to make reprisals upon the king of Pontus. 
 He followed their advice, and he was, at last, 
 expelled another time from his dominions, till 
 Sylla came into Asia, who restored him to his 
 former power and affluence. Sirab. — Appian. 
 5!8 
 
 The fourth of that name, was son and suc- 
 cessor of Nicomedes 3d. He passed his life in 
 an easy and tranquil manner, and enjoyed the 
 peace which his alliance with the Romans had 
 procured him. He died B. C 75, without 
 issue, and left his kingdom, with all his posses- 
 sions, to the Roman people. Strab. 12. — Ap- 
 pian. Mithr.—Just. 33, c. 2, &c.—Flor. 3, c. 5. 
 
 NicosTRATA, a courtesan, who left all her pos- 
 sessions to Sylla. — The same as Carmente, 
 mother of Evander. 
 
 NicosTRATUs, I. a man of Argos, of great 
 strength. He was fond of imitating Hercules 
 by clothing himself in a lion's skin. Diod. 16. 
 II. One of Alexander's soldiers. He con- 
 
 spired against the king's life with Hermolaus. 
 
 Curt. 8. III. A general of the Achseans, 
 
 who defeated the Macedonians. 
 
 Niger, (C. Pescennius Justus,) a celebrated 
 governor in Syria, well known by his valour in 
 the Roman armies, while yet a private man. 
 At the death of Pertinax he was declared em- 
 peror of Rome, and his claims to that elevated 
 situation were supported by a sound understand- 
 ing, prudence of dnind, moderation, courage, 
 and virtue. He proposed to imitate the actions 
 of the venerable Antoninus, of Trajan, of Ti- 
 tus, and M. Aurelius. He was remarkable for 
 his fondness for ancient discipline, and never 
 suffered his soldiers to drink wine, but obliged 
 them to quench their thirst with water and 
 vinegar. He forbade the use of silver or gold 
 utensils in his camp, all the bakers and cooks 
 were driven away, and the soldiers ordered to 
 live, during the expedition they undertook, 
 merely upon biscuit. In his punishments Ni- 
 ger was inexorable ; he condemned ten of his 
 soldiers to be beheaded in the presence of his ar- 
 my, because they had stolen and eaten a fowl. 
 The sentence was heard with groans ; the army- 
 interfered ; and when Niger consented to di- 
 minish the punishment for fear of kindling a re- 
 bellion, yet he ordered the criminals to make 
 each a restoration of ten fowls to the person 
 whose property they had stolen ; they were, be- 
 sides, ordered not to light a fire the rest of the 
 campaign, but to live upon cold aliments and 
 to drink nothing but water. Such great quali- 
 fications in a general seemed to promise the res- 
 toration of ancient discipline in the Roman 
 armies, but the death of Niger frustrated every 
 hope of reform. Severus, who had been invest- 
 ed with the imperial purple, marched against 
 him ; some battles were fought, and Niger was 
 at last defeated, A. D. 194. His head was cut 
 off, and fixed to a long spear, and carried in tri- 
 umph through the streets of Rome. He reign- 
 ed about one year. Herodian. 3. — Eutrop. Vid, 
 Part I. 
 
 NiGiDius FiGiJLUS, P. a celebrated philoso- 
 pher and astrologer at Rome, one of the most 
 learned men of his age. He was made praetor, 
 and honoured with a seat in the senate. In the 
 civil wars he followed the interests of Pompey, 
 for which he was banished by the conqueror. 
 He died in the place of his banishment 47 years 
 before Christ. Cic. ad Fam. 4, ep. 13. — Diican, 
 1, V. 639. 
 
 NiLEUs, a son of Codrus, who conducted a 
 colony of lonians to Asia, where he built Ephe- 
 ses, Miletus, Priene, Colophon, Myus, Teos, 
 Lebedos, Clazomenae, &c. Paus. 7. c. 2, &c. 
 
NO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 NtJ 
 
 NiNUs, a son of Belus, who built a city to 
 which he gave his own name, and founded the 
 Assyrian monarchy, of which he was the first 
 sovereign, B. C. 2059. He was very warlike, 
 and extended his conquests from Egypt to the 
 extremities of India and Bactriana. Hebe- 
 came enamoured of Semiramis, the wife of one 
 of his officers, and he married her after her hus- 
 band had destroyed himself through fear of his 
 powerful rival, Ninus reigned 52 years, and at . 
 his death he left his kingdom^© the care of his 
 wife Semiramis, by whom he had a son. Ninus 
 after death received divine honours, andbecame 
 the Jupiter of the Assyrians and the Hercules 
 of the Chaldeans. Ctesias. — Diod. 2. — Justin. 
 1, c. l.—Herodot. 2. Vid. Part I. 
 
 NiNYAS, a son of Ninus and Semiramis, king 
 of Assyria, who succeeded his mother, who had 
 voluntarily abdicated the crown. The reign of 
 Ninyas is remarkable for its luxury and extrav- 
 agance. Justin. 1, c. 2. — Diod. 1, &c. 
 
 Nisus, a son of Hyrtacus, born on mount Ida, 
 near Troy, He came to Italy with iEneas, and 
 signalized himself by his valour against the Ru- 
 tulians. He was united in the closest friend- 
 ship with Euryalus, a young Trojan, and with 
 him he entered, in the dead of night, the ene- 
 my's camp. As they were returning victorious, 
 after much bloodshed, they were perceived by 
 the Rutulians, who attacked Euryalus. Nisus, 
 in endeavouring to rescue his friend from the 
 enemy's darts, perished himself with him, and 
 their heads were cut off and fixed on a spear, 
 and carried in triumph to the camp. Their death 
 was greatly lamented by all the Trojans ; and 
 their great friendship, like that of aPylades and 
 an Orestes, or of a Theseus and Pirithous, is 
 become proverbial. Virg. JEn. 9, v. 176. Vid. 
 Part III, 
 
 NiTocRis, I. a celebrated queen of Babylon, 
 who built a bridge across the Euphrates, in the 
 middle of that city, and dug a number of reser- 
 voirs for the superfluous waters of that river. 
 She ordered herself to be buried over one of the 
 gates of the city, and placed an inscription on 
 her tomb, which signified that her successors 
 would find great treasures within, if ever they 
 were in need of money, but that their labours 
 would be ill-repaid if ever they ventured to 
 open it without necessity. Cyrus opened it 
 through curiosity, and was struck to find within 
 these words : — If thy avarice had not been insa- 
 tiable thou never would have violated the monu- 
 ments of the dead. Herodot. 1, c. 185. II. 
 
 A queen of Egypt, who built a third pyramid, 
 
 NoMADES, a name given to all those uncivil- 
 ized people who had no fixed habitation, and 
 who continually changed the place of their res- 
 idence to go in search of fresh pasture for the 
 numerous cattle which they tended. There 
 were Nomades in Scythia, India, Arabia, and 
 Africa. Those of Africa were afterwards called 
 Numidians, by a small change of the letters 
 which composed their name, Ital. 1, v, 215, — 
 Plin. 5, c. 3.— Herodot. 1, c. 15, 1. 4, c. 187.— 
 Strab. 1—Mela. 2, c. 1, 1. 3, c. 4..— Virg. G. 3, 
 V. U3.— Paus. 8, c, 43, 
 
 NoMENTANUs, an epithet applied to L, Cas- 
 sius as a native of Nomentum. He is mention- 
 ed by Horace as a mixture of luxury and dissi- 
 pation. Horat. 1, Sat. 1, v. 102, and alibi. 
 Nonius, a Roman who exhorted his country- 
 
 men after the fatal battle of Pharsalia and the 
 flight of Poropey, by observing that eight stand- 
 ards {aquilce) still remained in the camp ; to 
 which Cicero answered, Recte, si nobis cumgra- 
 cutis bellus esset. 
 
 NoNNius Marcellus, a grammarian, whose 
 treatise de varia significatiotie verborum was 
 edited by Mercer, 8vo. Paris, 1614. 
 
 NoNNUs, a Greek writer of the fifth century, 
 v/ho wrote an account of the embassy he had 
 undertaken to ^Ethiopia, among the Saracens 
 and other eastern nations. He is also known by 
 his Diom/siaca, a wonderful collection of hea- 
 then mythology and erudition, edited 4to. Ant- 
 werp, 1569. His paraphrase on John was edit- 
 ed by Heinsius, 8vo. L. Bat, 1627. 
 
 NoNus, a Greek physician, v/hose book de 
 omiiium morboruvi curatione, was edited in 
 12mo. Argent, 1568. 
 
 NoRBANUs, C. a young and ambitious Roman, 
 who opposed Sylla, and joined his interest to 
 that of young Marius. In his consulship he 
 marched against Sylla, by whom he was de- 
 feated, &c. Plut. 
 
 NuMA MARcros, a man made governor of 
 Rome by Tullus Hoslilius. He was son-in-law 
 of Numa Pompilius, and father to Ancus Mar- 
 tins. Tacit. A. 6, c. 11. — Liv. 1, c. 20. 
 
 Numa Pompilius, I. a celebrated philosopher, 
 born at Cures, a village of the Sabines, on the 
 day that Romulus laid the foundation of Rome, 
 He married Tatia, the daughter of Tatius, the 
 king of the Sabines, and at her death he retired 
 into the country to devote himself more freely 
 to literary pursuits. At the death of Romulus 
 the Romans fixed upon him .to be their new 
 king, and two senators were sent to acquaint 
 him with the decisions of the senate and of the 
 people. Numa refused their offers, and it was 
 not but at the repeated solicitations and prayers 
 of his friends that he was prevailed upon to 
 accept the royalty. The beginning of his reign 
 was popular, and he dismissed the 300 body- 
 guards which his predecessor had kept around 
 his person, observing that he did not distrust a 
 people who had compelled him to reign over 
 them. He applied himself to tame the ferocity 
 of his subjects, to inculcate in their minds a 
 reverence for the deity, and to quell their dis- 
 sensions by dividing all the citizens into differ- 
 ent classes. He established different orders of 
 priests, and taught the Romans not to worship 
 the deity by images ; and from his example no 
 graven or painted statues appeared in the tem- 
 ples or sanctuaries of Rome for upwards of 160 
 years. He encouraged the report which was 
 spread of his paying regular visits to the nymph 
 Egeria, and made use of her name to give sanc- 
 tion to the laws and institutions which he had 
 introduced. He established the college of the 
 vestals, and dedicated a temple to Janus, which, 
 during his whole reign, remained shut, as a 
 mark of peace and tranquillity at Rome. Numa 
 died after a reign of 43 years, in which he had 
 given every possible encouragement to the use- 
 ful arts, and in which he had cultivated peace, 
 B. C.672. He forbade his body to be burnt, ac- 
 cording to the custom of the Romans, but he 
 ordered it to be buried near mount Janiculum, 
 with many of the books which he had written. 
 These books were accidentally found by one of 
 the Romans about 400 vears after his death; 
 519 
 
NY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 OC 
 
 and as ihey contained nothing new or interest- 
 ing, but merely the reasons why he had made 
 innovations in the form of worship and in the 
 religion of the Romans, they were burnt by or- 
 der of the senate. He left behind one daughter, 
 called Pompilia, who married Numa Martius, 
 and became the mother of Ancus Martius, the 
 fourth king of Rome. Some say that he had 
 also four sons ; but this opinion is ill founded. 
 Plut. in vita. — Varro. — Liv. l,c. 18. — Plin. 13 
 and 14, &iC.—Flor. 1, c. 2.— Virg. JEn. 6, v. 
 809, ]. 9, V. 562.— Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 2 and 17. 
 Val. Max. 1, c. 'H.—Dionys. Hal. 2, c. 59. — 
 
 Ovid. Faat. 3, &c. II. One of the Rutulian 
 
 chiefs, killed in the night by Nisus and Eurya- 
 lus. Virg, JEn. 9, v. 454. 
 
 NuMENiA, or Neomenia, a festival observed 
 by the Greeks at the beginning of every lunar 
 month, in honour of all the gods, but especially 
 of Apollo or the Sun. It was observed with 
 games and public entertainments, which were 
 provided at the expense of rich citizens, and 
 which were always frequented by the poor. 
 
 NuMERiANCJS, (M. Aurelius,) a son of the 
 emperor Carus. He accompanied his father 
 into the east with the title of Caesar, and at his 
 death he succeeded him with his brother Cari- 
 nus, A. D. 282. His reign was short. Eight 
 months after his father's death he was murdered 
 in his litter by his father-in-law, Arrius Aper, 
 who accompanied him in an expedition. Nu- 
 merianus has been admired for his learning as 
 well as his moderation. He was naturally an 
 eloquent speaker, and in poetry he was inferior 
 to no writer of his age, 
 
 NuMERius, a man who favoured the escape 
 of Marius to Africa, &c. 
 
 NuMiTOR, a son of Procas, king of Alba, who 
 inherited his father's kingdom with his brother 
 Amulius, who began to reign conjointly with 
 him. He expelled his brother, and put to death 
 his son Lausus, and consecrated his daughter 
 Ilia to the service of the goddess Vesta, which 
 demanded perpetual celibacy. These great pre- 
 cautions were rendered abortive. Ilia became 
 pregnant; and though the two children whom 
 she brought forth were exposed in the river by 
 order of the tyrant, their life was preserved, 
 and Numitor was restored to his throne by his 
 grandsons, and the tyrannical usurper was put to 
 death. Dion. Hal. — Liv. 1, c. 3. — Plut. in Rom. 
 —Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 55, &c.— Virg. jEn. 6, v. 768. 
 
 NuMiToRius, a Roman, who defended Vir- 
 ginia, to whom Appius wished to offer violence. 
 He was made military tribune. 
 
 NuNCOREUs, a son of Sesostris, king of Egypt, 
 who made an obelisk, some ages after brought 
 to Rome and placed in the Vatican. Plin. 36, 
 c. 11. He is called Pheron by Herodotus. 
 
 Nyctelia, festivals in honour of Bacchus, 
 {Vid. Nyctelius,) observed on mount Cithaeron. 
 Plut in Simp. 
 
 Nymphidius, a favourite of Nero, who said 
 that he was descended from Caligula, He was 
 raised to the consular dignity, and soon after 
 disputed the empire with Galba. He was slain 
 by the soldiers, &c. Tacit. Ann. 15. 
 
 Nympholeptes, or Nymphomanes, possessed 
 by the nymphs. This name was given to the 
 inhabitants of mount Cithaeron, who believed 
 that they were inspired by the nymphs. Plut 
 in Arist. 
 
 500 
 
 O. 
 
 Oarses, the original name of Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon. 
 
 OcEiA, a woman who presided over the sacred 
 rites of Vesta for 57 years with the greatest 
 sanctity. She died in the reign of Tiberius, 
 and the daughter of Domitius succeeded her. 
 Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 86. 
 
 Ocellus, an ancient philosopher of Lucania, 
 Vid. L/ucanus. 
 
 OcHUS. Vid. Artaxerxes. 
 
 OcRisiA, a woman of Corniculum, who was 
 one of the attendants of Tanaquil, the wife of 
 Tarquinius Priscus. As she was throwing 
 into the flames, as offerings, some of the meats 
 that were served on the table of Tarquin, she 
 suddenly saw in the fire what Ovid calls Obsca- 
 ni forma virilis. She informed the queen of it, 
 and when by her orders she had approached 
 near it, she conceived a son, who was called 
 Servius Tullius, and who, being educated in 
 the king's family, afterwards succeeded to the 
 vacant throne. Plut. de fort. Rom. — Plin. 36, 
 c, 21.— Ovid. Fast: 6, v. 627. 
 
 OcTAViA, I. a Roman lady, sister to the empe- 
 ror Augustus, and celebrated for her beauty and 
 virtues. She married Claudius Marcellus, and 
 after his death M. Antony. Her marriage with 
 Antony was a political step to reconcile her 
 brother and her husband. Antony proved for 
 some time attentive to her, but he soon after de- 
 spised her for Cleopatra. After the battle of 
 Actium and the death of Antony, Octavia, for- 
 getful of the injuries she had received, took into 
 her house all the children of her husband, and 
 treated them with maternal tenderness. Mar- 
 cellus, her son by her first husband, was married 
 to a niece of Augustus, and publicly intended 
 as a successors to his uncle. Vid. Virgil. Oc- 
 tavia had two daughters by Antony, Antonia 
 Major and Antonia Minor. The death of Mar- 
 cellus preyed upon the mind of Octavia, who 
 died of melancholy about 10 years before the 
 Christian era. Her brother paid great regard to 
 her memory, by pronouncing himself her fu- 
 neral oration. The Roman people also showed 
 their respect for her virtues by their wish to pay 
 her divine honours. — Suet, in Aug. — Plut. in 
 
 Anton. &c. II. A daughter of the emperor 
 
 Claudius by Messalina. She was betrothed to 
 Silanus, but by the intrigues of Agrippina, she 
 was married to the emperor Nero in the 16th 
 year of her age. She was soon after divorced 
 on pretence of barrenness, and the emperor 
 married Poppsea, who exercised her enmity 
 upon Octavia by causing her to be banished 
 into Campania. She was afterwards recalled 
 at the instance of the people, and Poppaea, who 
 was resolved on her ruin, caused her again to 
 be banished to an island, where she was ordered 
 to kill herself by opening her veins. Her head 
 was cut off and carried to Poppaea. Suet, in 
 Claud. 27, in Ner. 7 and ^b.— Tacit. Ann. 12. 
 
 OcTAViANUS, or OcTAVius C^SAR. Vid. Au- 
 gustus. 
 
 OcTAVius, I. a Roman officer, who brought 
 Perseus, king of Macedonia, a prisoner to the 
 consul. He was sent by his countrymen to be 
 guardian to Ptolemy Eupa^or, the young king 
 of Egypt, where he behaved with the greatest 
 arrogance. He was assassinated by Lysias, 
 
OL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 OL 
 
 •who was bfjfore regent of Egypt. The murderer 
 
 ■was sent to Rome. II. A man who banished 
 
 Cinna from Rome, and became remarkable for 
 his probity and fondness of discipline. He was 
 seized and put to death by order of his success- 
 ful rivals Marius and Cinna. III. A Roman, 
 
 who boasted of being in the number of Caesar's 
 murderers. His assertions were false, yet he 
 was punished as if he had been accessaiy to the 
 
 conspiracy. -IV. A lieutenant of Crassus in 
 
 Parthia. He accompanied his general to the 
 tent of the Parthian conqueror, and was killed 
 by the enemy as he attempted lo hinder them 
 
 from carrying away Crassus. V. A tribune 
 
 of the people at Rome, whom Tib. Gracchus 
 
 his colleague deposed. VI. A poet in the 
 
 Augustan age, intimate with Horace. He also 
 distinguished himself as an historian, Horat. 
 ], Sat.lQ, V.83. 
 
 Odenatus, a celebrated prince of Palmyra. 
 When Aurelian had been taken prisoner by Sa- 
 por, king of Persia, Odenalus solicited his re- 
 lease by writing a letter to the conqueror and 
 sending him presents. The king of Persia was 
 offended at the liberty of Odenatus ; he tore the 
 letter, and ordered the presents which were of- 
 fered to be thrown into a river. To punish Ode- 
 natus, who had the impudence, as he observed, 
 to pay homage to so great a monarch as himself, 
 he ordered him to appear before him, on pain of 
 being devoted to instant destruction, with all his 
 family, if he dared to refuse. Odenatus disdain- 
 ed the summons of Sapor, and opposed force to 
 force. Gallienus, the then reigning emperor, 
 named Odenatus as his colleague on the throne, 
 and gave the title of Augustus to his children, 
 and to his wife, the celebrated Zenobia. He 
 perished by the dagger of one of his relations, 
 whom he had slightly offended in a domestic 
 entertainment. He died at Emessa, about the 
 267th year of the Christian era. Zenobia suc- 
 ceeded to all his titles and honours. 
 
 Odoacer, a king of the Heruli, who destroy- 
 ed the western empire of Rome, and called him- 
 self king of Italy, A. D. 476. 
 
 Odyssea, one of Homer's epic poems, in 
 which he describes, in 24 books, the adventures 
 of Ulysses on his return from the Trojan war, 
 with other material circumstances. The whole 
 of the action comprehends no more than 55 
 days. Vid,. Homerus. 
 
 QEbares, a groom of Darius, son of Hystas- 
 pes. He was the cause that his master obtain- 
 ed the kingdom of Persia, by his artifice in 
 making his horse neigh first. Herodot. 3, c. 
 85. — Justin. 1, c. 10. 
 
 CEcuMENiDs, wrote in the middle of the 10th 
 century a paraphrase of some of the books of 
 the New Testament in Greek, edited in 2 vols, 
 fol. Paris, 1631. 
 
 OiLEUS. Vid. Part. III. 
 
 Olen, a Greek poet of Lycia, who flourished 
 some time before the age of Orpheus, and com- 
 posed many hymns, some of which were regu- 
 larly sung ai Delphi on solemn occasions. Some 
 suppose that he was the first who established 
 the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, where he first 
 delivered oracles. Herodot. 4, c. 35. 
 
 Ollius, T. the father of Poppaea, destroyed 
 on account of his intimacy with Sejanus, &c. 
 Tacit. Ann. 13, c. 45. 
 
 Ollovico, a prince of Gaul, called the friend 
 
 Part XL— 3 U 
 
 of the republic of the Roman senate. Ccbs. B: 
 G. 7, c. 31. 
 
 Olympia, (oru7)i,) celebrated games which re- 
 ceived their name either from Olympia, where 
 they were observed, or from Jupiter Olympius, 
 to whom they were dedicated. They were, ac- 
 cording to some, instituted by Jupiter after his 
 victory over the Titans, and first observed by 
 the Idaei Daetyli, B. C. 1453. Some attribute 
 -the institution to Pelops, after he had obtained 
 a victory over CEnomaus and married Hippoda- 
 mia; but the more probable, and indeed the more 
 received opinion is, that they were first estab- 
 lished by Hercules in honour of Jupiter Olym- 
 pius, after a victory obtained over Augias, B. C. 
 1222. They are not, however, mentioned by 
 Homer, Iphitus, in the age of the lawgiver of 
 Sparta, renewed them, and instituted the cele- 
 bration with greater solemnity. This reinstitu- 
 tion, which happened B. C. 884, forms a cele- 
 brated epoch in Grecian history, and is the 
 beginning of the Olympiads. ( Vid. Olympias.) 
 They, however, were neglected for some time 
 after the age of Iphitus, till Corcebus, who ob- 
 tained a victory B. C. 776, reinstituted them to 
 be regularly and constantly celebrated. The 
 care and superintendence of the games were in- 
 trusted to the people of Elis, till they were ex- 
 cluded by the Pisaeans, B. C. 364, after the 
 destruction of Pisa. These obtained greatprivi- 
 leges from this appointment ; the^y were in 
 danger neither of violence nor war, but they 
 were permitted to enjoy their possessions with- 
 out molestation, as the games were celebrated 
 within their territories. Only one person super- 
 intended till the 50th Olympiad, when two were 
 appointed. In the 103d Olympiad, the number 
 was increased to twelve, according to the num- 
 ber of the tribes of Elis. But in the following 
 Olympiad they were reduced to eight, and after- 
 wards increased to ten, which number continued 
 till the reign of Adrian. No women were per- 
 mitted to appear at the celebration of the Olym- 
 pian games, and whoever dared to trespass this 
 law was immediately thro^Am down from a rock. 
 This, however, M'-as sometimes neglected, for we 
 find not only women present at the celebration, 
 but also some among the combatants, and some 
 rewarded with the crown. The preparations 
 for these festivals were great. No person was 
 permitted to enter the lists if he had not regu- 
 larly exercised himself ten months before the 
 celebralion at the public gymnasium of Elis. 
 The wrestlers were appointed by lot. Some 
 little balls, superscribed with a letter, were 
 thrown into a silver urn, and such as drew the 
 same letter were obliged to contend one with the 
 other. He who had an odd letter remained the 
 last, and he often had the advantage, as he was 
 to encounter the last who had obtained the su- 
 periority over his adversary. He was called 
 F.<i)c6po?. In these games were exhibited run- 
 ning, leaping, wrestling, boxing, and the th row- 
 ing" of the quoit, which was called altogether 
 Trei>Ta9)<ov, OT quinquertium. Besides these, 
 there were horse and chariot-races, and also 
 contentions in poetry, eloquence, and the fine 
 arts. The only reward that the conqueror ob- 
 tained was a crown of olive ; which, as some 
 suppose, was in memory of the labours of Her- 
 cules,which were accomplished for the universal 
 good of mankind, and for which the hero claira- 
 521 
 
OL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ON 
 
 ed no other reward but the consciousness of hav- 
 ing been the friend of humanity. The statues 
 of the conquerors, called OJympionicEe, were 
 creeled in Olympia, in the sacred wood of Jupi- 
 ter. Their return home was that of a warlike 
 conqueror; and their entrance into their native 
 city was not through the gates, but, to make it 
 more grand and more solemn, a breach was 
 made in the walls. Painters and poets were em- 
 ployed in celebrating their names ; and indeed 
 the victories severally obtained at Olj'-mpia are 
 the subjects of the most beautiful odes of Pin- 
 dar. The combatants were naked; a scarf 
 was originally tied round their waist, but when 
 it had entangled one of the adversaries, and 
 been the cause that he lost the victory, it was 
 laid aside, and no regard was paid to decency. 
 The Olympic games were observed every fifth 
 year, or, to speak with greater exactness, after 
 a revolution of four years, and in the first 
 month of the fifth year, and they continued for 
 five successive days. As they were the most 
 ancient and the most solemn of all the festivals 
 of the Greeks, it will not appear wonderful 
 that they drew so many people together, not 
 only inhabitants of Greece, but of the neigh- 
 bouring islands and countries. Pind Olymp. 
 1 and 2. — Strab. 8. — Pans. 5, c.> 67, &c.— 
 Diod. 1, &c. — Plut. in Thes. Lye. &c. — ^li- 
 an. V. H. 10, v. l.—Cic. Tusc. 1, c. AQ.—Lu- 
 cian. de Gym. — T'zetz. in Uycophr. — Aristotel. 
 —Stat. Theb. fi.— C. Nep. in Prcef.— Virg. G. 
 3, V. 49. 
 
 Olympus, a certain space of time which 
 elapsed between the celebration of the Olympic 
 games. The Olympic games were celebrated 
 after the expiratien of four complete years, 
 whence some have said that they were observed 
 every fifth year. The period of lime was called 
 Olympiad, and became a celebrated era among 
 the Greeks, who computed their time by it. The 
 custom of reckoning time by the celebration of 
 the Olympic games was not introduced at the 
 first institution of these festivals, but, to speak 
 accurately, only the year in which Coroebus ob- 
 tained the prize. This Olympiad, Which has al- 
 ways been reckoned the first, fell, according to 
 the accurate and learned computations of some 
 of the moderns, exactly 776 years before the 
 Christian era, in the year of the Julian period 
 3938, and 23 years before the building of Rome. 
 The games were exhibited at the time of the full 
 moon next after the summer solstice ; therefore 
 the Olympiads were ofunequal lengths, because 
 the time of the full moon differs 11 days every 
 year, and for that reason they sometimes began 
 the next day after the solstice, and at other times 
 four weeks after. The computations by Olym- 
 piads ceased, as some suppose, after the 364th, 
 in the year 440 of the Christian era. It was 
 universally adopted, not only by the Greeks, 
 but by many of the neighbouring countries, 
 though still the Pythian games served as an 
 epoch to the people of Delphi and to the Boeo- 
 tians, the Nemaean games to the Argives and 
 Arcadians, and the Isthmian to the Corinthi- 
 ans and the inhabitants of the Peloponnesian 
 
 isthmus, A celebrated woman, who was 
 
 daughter of a king of Epirus, and who married 
 Philip, king of Macedonia, by whom she had 
 Alexander the Great. Her haughtiness, and 
 more probably her infidelity, obliged Philip to 
 522 
 
 repudiate her, and to marry Cleopatra, the niece 
 of king Attains. Olympias w^as sensible of this 
 injury, and Alexander showed his disapproba- 
 tion of his father's measures by retiring from 
 the court to his mother. The murder of Philip, 
 which soon followed this disgrace, and which 
 some have attributed to the intrigues of Olym- 
 pias, was productive of the greatest extrava- 
 gancies. The queen paid the highest honour to 
 her husband's murderer. She gathered his 
 mangled limbs, placed a crown of gold on his 
 head J and laid his ashes near those of Philip. 
 When Alexander was dead, Olympias seized 
 the government of Macedonia, and, to establish 
 her usurpation, she cruelly put to death Ari- 
 daeus, with his wife Eurydice, as also Nicanor, 
 the brother of Cassander, with one hundred 
 leading men of Macedon, who were inimical to 
 her interest. Such barbarities did not long re- 
 main unpunished, Cassander besieged her in 
 Pydna, where she had retired with the remains 
 of her family, and she was obliged to surrender 
 after an obstinate siege. The conqueror ordered 
 her to be accused, and to be put todeath. A body 
 of 200 soldiers were directed to put the bloody 
 commands into execution, but the splendour 
 and majesty of the queen disarmed their cour- 
 age, and she was at last massacred by those 
 whom she had cruelly deprived of their children, 
 about 316 years before the Christian era. Justin. 
 7, c. 6, 1. 9, c. 7. — Plut. in Alex. — Curt. — Pans. 
 Olympiodorus, I. a musician, who taught 
 Epaminondas music. C. Nep. — —II. A native 
 of Thebes, in Egypt, who flourished under 
 Theodosius 2d, and wrote 22 books of history, 
 in Greek, beginning with the seventh consul- 
 ship of Honorius, and the second of Theodosius, 
 ^o the period when Valentinian was made em- 
 peror. He wrote also an accoimt of an embassy 
 to some of the barbarian nations of the north, 
 &c. His style is censured by some as low, and 
 unworthy of an historian. The commentaries 
 of Olympiodorus on the Meteora of Aristotle 
 were edited apud Aid. 1550, in fol. 
 
 Olympus, a poet and musician of Mysia, son 
 of Maeon, and disciple to Marsyas. He lived 
 before the Trojan war, and distinguished him- 
 self by his amatory elegies, his hymns, and par- 
 ticularly the beautiful airs which he composed, 
 and which were still preserved in the age of 
 Aristophanes. Ploio in Min. — Aristot. Pol. 8. 
 Onesicritus, a cynic philosopher of ^gina, 
 who went with Alexander into Asia, and was 
 sent to the Indian Gymnosophists. He wrote 
 a history of the king's life, which has been 
 censured for the romantic, exaggerated, and im- 
 probable narrative it gives. It is asserted that 
 Alexander, upon reading it, said that he should 
 be glad to come to life again for some time, to 
 see what reception the historian's work met 
 with. Plut. in Alex. — Curt. 9, c. 10. 
 
 Onesimus, a Macedonian nobleman, treated 
 with great kindness by the Roman emperors. 
 He wrote an account of the life of the emperor 
 Probus and of Carus, with great precision and 
 elegance. 
 
 Onomacritus, a soothsayer of Athens. It is 
 generally believed, that the Greek poem on the 
 Argonautic expedition, attributed to Orpheus, 
 was written by Onomacritus. The elegant 
 poems of Musasus are also, by some, supposed 
 to be the production of his pen. He flourished 
 
OP 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 OR 
 
 about 516 years before the Christian era, and 
 was expelled from Athens by Hipparchus, one 
 of the sons of Pisistralus. Herodot. 7, c. 6. 
 
 Onomachus, a Phocian, son of Euthycrates, 
 and brother of Philomelus, whom he succeeded 
 as general of his countrymen in the Sacred war. 
 After exploits of valour and perseverance, he 
 was defeated and slain in Thessaly by Philip 
 of Macedon, who ordered his body to be igno- 
 miniously hung up, for the sacrilege offered to 
 the temple of Delphi. He died 353 B. C. 
 Arisiot. Pel. 5, c. 4. — Diod. 17. 
 
 Onophas, one of the seven Persians who con- 
 spired against the usurper Smerdis. Ctesias. 
 
 Onosander, a Greek writer, whose book De 
 Imperatoris Institutione has been edited by 
 Schwebel, with a French translation, fol. No- 
 rimb. 1752. 
 
 Opimius, L. a Roman, who made himself 
 consul in opposition to the interest and efforts 
 of the Gracchi. He showed himself a most in- 
 veterate enemy to C. Gracchus and his adhe- 
 rents, and behaved, during his consulship, like 
 a dictator. He was accused of bribery and 
 banished. He died of want at Dyrrachium. 
 Cic.pro Sext. Plane. ^ in Pis. — Pint. 
 
 Oppia Lex, by C. Oppius, the tribune, A. U. 
 C. 540. It required that no woman should wear 
 above half an ounce of gold, have party-colour- 
 ed garments, or be carried in any city or town, 
 or to any place within a mile's distance, unless 
 it was to celebrate some sacred festivals or so- 
 lemnities. This famous law, which was made 
 while Annibal was in Italy, and while Rome 
 was in distressed circumstances, created dis- 
 content, and 18 years after, the Roman ladies 
 petitioned the assembly of the people that it 
 might be repealed. Cato opposed it strongly, 
 and made many satirical reflections upon the 
 women for their appearing in public to solicit 
 votes. The tribune Valerius, who had pre- 
 sented the petition to the assembly, answered 
 the objections of Cato, and his eloquence had 
 such an influence on the minds of the people, 
 that the law was instantly abrogated with the 
 unanimous consent of all the comitia, Cato alone 
 excepted. Liv. 33 and 34. — Cic. de Or at. 3. 
 
 Oppianus, a Greek poet of Cilicia in the sec- 
 ond century. His father's name was Agesi- 
 laus, and his mother's Zenodota. He wrote 
 some poems, celebrated for their elegance and 
 sublimity. Two of his poems are now extant, 
 five books on fishing, called alieuticon, and four 
 on hunting, called cynegeticon. The emperor 
 Caracalla was so pleased with his poetry, that 
 he gave him a piece of gold for every verse of 
 his cynegeticon ; from which circumstance the 
 poem received the name of the golden verses of 
 Oppian. The poet died of the plague, in the 
 30th year of his age. His countrymen raised 
 statues to his honour, and engraved on his tomb 
 that the gods had hastened to call back Oppian in 
 the flower of his youth only because he had al- 
 ready excelled all mankind. The best edition of 
 his works is that of Schneider, 8vo. Argent.1776. 
 
 Oppius, C. a friend of Julius Caesar, celebra- 
 ted for his life of Scipio Africanus, and of Pom- 
 pey the Great. In the age of Suetonius, he 
 was deemed the true author of the Alexandrian, 
 African, and Spanish wars, which some attri- 
 bute to Ccesar and others to A. Hirtius. Tacit. 
 Ann. 12. — Suet, in Cess. 53. 
 
 Optatus, one of the fathers whose works 
 were edited by Du Pin, fol. Paris, 1700. 
 
 Oraculum, an answer of the gods to the 
 questions of men, or the place where those an- 
 swers were given. Nothing is more famous 
 than the ancient oracles of Egypt, Greece, 
 Rome, &c. They were supposed to be the will 
 of the gods themselves, and they were consulted, 
 not only upon every important matter, but even 
 in the affairs of private life. The small prov- 
 ince of Bcsotia could once boast of her 25 ora- 
 cles, and the Peloponnesus of the same number. 
 Not only the chief of the gods gave oracles, but, 
 in process of time, heroes were admitted to enjoy 
 the same privileges ; and the oracles of a Tro- 
 phonius and an Antinous were soon able to rival 
 the fame of Apollo and of Jupiter. The most 
 celebrated oracles of antiquity were those of 
 Dodona, Delphi, Jupiter Ammon, &c. Vid. 
 Dodona^ Delphi, Ammon. The temple of 
 Delphi seemed to claim a superiority over the 
 other temples ; its fame was once more extended, 
 and its riches were so great, that not only pri- 
 vate persons, but even kings and numerous ar- 
 mies made it an object of plunder and of rapine. 
 The manner of delivering oracles was different. 
 The answers were sometimes given in verse 
 or written on tablets, but their meaning was 
 always obscure, and often the cause of disaster 
 to such as consulted them. Croesus, when he 
 consulted the oracle of Delphi, was told that if 
 he crossed the Halys, he should destroy a great 
 empire ; he supposed that that empire was the 
 empire of his enemy, but unfortunately it was 
 his own. The words of Credo te jEacida, Ro- 
 manos vincere posse, which Pyrrhus received 
 when he wished to assist the Tarentines against 
 the Romans, by a favourable interpretation for 
 himself, proved his ruin. Nero was ordered by 
 the oracle of Delphi to beware of 73 years ; 
 but the pleasing idea that he should live to that 
 age rendered him careless, and he was soon 
 convinced of his mistake, when Galba, in his 
 73d, year, had the presumption to dethrone him. 
 Some have believed that all the oracles of the 
 earth ceased at the birth of Christ, but the sup- 
 position rs false. It was, indeed, the beginning 
 of their decline, but they remained in repute, 
 and were consulted, though, perhaps, not so fre- 
 quently, till the fourth century, when Christi- 
 anity began to triumph over paganism. The 
 oracles often suffered themselves to be bribed. 
 Alexander did it ; but it is well known that Ly- 
 sander failed in the attempt. Herodotus, who 
 first mentioned the corruption which often pre- 
 vailed in the oracular temples of Greece and 
 Egypt, has been severely treated for his remarks 
 by the historian Plutarch. Demosthenes is also 
 a witness of the corruption ; and he observed, 
 that the oracles of Greece were servilely subser- 
 vient to the will and pleasure of Philip, king of 
 Macedonia, as he beautifully expresses it by the 
 word (f>i\nnri^civ. Hovier 11. Od. 10. — Herodot. 
 1 and 2. — Xenoph. memor. — Strai. 5, 7, &c. — 
 Pans. 1, &c. — Pint, de defect, orac. de Ages. 
 <f« dc Hor. malign. — Cic. de Div. 1, c. 19. — 
 Justin. 24, c. G.—Liv. Ti.—^lian. V. H. 6.— 
 C. Nep. in Lys. — Aristoph. in Equit. (^' Plut. 
 —Demosth. Phil.— Ovid. Met. 1. 
 
 Orjea, certain solemn sacrifices of fruits, of- 
 fered in the four seasons of the year, to obtain 
 mild and temperate weather. They were of- 
 523 
 
OR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 OR 
 
 fered to the goddesses who presided over the 
 seasons, who attended upon the sun, and who 
 received divine worship at Athens. 
 
 Orbilius Pupillus, a grammarian of Bene- 
 ventura, who was the first instructer of the poet 
 Horace. He came to Rome in the consulship 
 of Cicero, and there, as a public teacher, ac- 
 quired more fame than money. He was nat- 
 urally of a severe disposition, of which his pu- 
 pils often felt the effects. He lived almost to 
 his 100th year, and lost his memory some time 
 before his death. Suet, de lllust. Gr. 9. — Ho- 
 rat. 2, ep. 1, v. 71. 
 
 ORCfflA Lex, by Orchius, the tribune, A. TJ. 
 C. 566. It was enacted to limit the number of 
 guests that were to be admitted at an enter- 
 tainment; and it also enforced, that during sup- 
 per, which was the chief meal among the Ro- 
 mans, the doors of every house should be left 
 open. 
 
 Ordovices, the people of North Wales in 
 Britain, mentioned by Toxit. Ann. 12, c. 53. 
 
 Orestes, I. a son of Agamemnon and Cly- 
 temnestra. When his father was cruelly mur- 
 dered by Clytemnestra and iEgisthus, young 
 Orestes was saved from his mother's dagger by 
 means of his sister Electra, called Laodicea by 
 Homer, and he was privately conveyed to the 
 house of Strophius, who was king of Pocis, 
 and who had married a sister of Agamemnon. 
 He was tenderly treated by Strophius, who edu- 
 cated him with his son Pilades. The two 
 young princes soon became acquainted, and 
 from their familiarity arose the most inviolable 
 attachment and friendship. When Orestes was 
 arrived to years of manhood, he visited Myce- 
 nse, and avenged his father's death by assassin- 
 ating his mother Clytemnestra, and her adul- 
 terer ^gisthus. This murder received the pun- 
 ishment which, among the ancients, was al- 
 ways supposed to attend parricide. Orestes was 
 tormented by the Furies, and exiled himself to 
 Argos, where he was still pursued by the avenge- 
 ful goddesses. Apollo himself purified him, 
 and he was acquitted by the unanimous opinion 
 of the Areopagites, whom Minerva herself in- 
 stituted on this occasion, according to the nar- 
 ration of the poet ^Eschylus. According to 
 Pausanias, Orestes was purified of the murder, 
 not at Delphi, but at Troezene, where still was 
 seen a large stone at the entrance of Diana's 
 temple, upon which the ceremonies of purifica- 
 tion had been performed by nine of the princi- 
 pal citizens of the place. There was also, at 
 Megalopolis in Arcadia, a temple dedicated to 
 the Furies, near which Orestes cut off one of 
 his fingers with his teeth in a fit of insanity. 
 These different traditions are confuted by Eu- 
 ripides, who says that Orestes, after the murder 
 of his mother, consulted the oracle of Apollo at 
 Delphi, where he was informed that nothing 
 could deliver him from the persecutions of the 
 Furies if he did not bring into Greece Diana's 
 statue, which was in the Taurica Chersonesus, 
 and which, as it is reported by some, had fallen 
 down from heaven. The king of the Cherso- 
 nesus always sacrificed on the altars of the god- 
 dess all such as entered the borders of his coun- 
 try. Orestes and his friend were both carried 
 before Thoas, the king of the place, and they 
 were doomed to be sacrificed. Iphigenia was 
 then priestess of Diana's temple, and it was her 
 534 
 
 office to immolate these strangers. The intelli- 
 gence that they were Grecians delayed the prep- 
 arations, and Iphigenia was anxious to learn 
 something about a country which had given her 
 birth. Vid. Iphigenia. She even interested 
 herself in their misfortunes, and offered to spare 
 the life of one of them, provided he would con- 
 vey letters to Greece from her hand. This was 
 a difficult trial ; never was friendship more truly 
 displayed, according to the words of Ovid, ex 
 Pont. 3, el. 2 :— 
 
 Ire jubet Pylades carum moriturus Orestem. 
 Hie negat ; inque vicem pngnat uterque mori. 
 
 At last Pylade, gave way to the pressing entrea- 
 ties of his friend, and consented to carry the let- 
 ters of Iphigenia to Greece. These were ad- 
 dressed to Orestes himself, and therefore these 
 circumstances soon led to a total discovery of the 
 connexions of the priestess with the man whom 
 she was going to immolate. Iphigenia was 
 convinced that he was her brother Orestes, and 
 when the causes of their journey had been ex- 
 plained, she resolved, with the two friends, to fly 
 from Chersonesus; and to carry away the statue 
 of Diana. Their flight was discovered, and 
 Thoas prepared to pursue them ; but Minerva 
 interfered, and told him that all had been done 
 by the will and approbation of the gods. After 
 these celebrated adventures, Orestes ascended 
 the throne of Argos, where he reigned in perfect 
 security, and married Hermione, the daughter 
 of Menelaus, and gave his sister to his friend 
 Pylades. The marriage of Orestes with Her- 
 mione is a matter of dispute among the an- 
 cients. All are agreed that she had been prom- 
 ised to the son of Agamemnon, but Menelaus 
 had married her to Neoptolemus, the son of 
 Achilles, who had shown himself so truly in- 
 terested in his cause during the Trojan war. 
 The marriage of Hermione with Neoptolemus 
 displeased Orestes ; he remembered that she had 
 been earlypromised to him, andtherefore he re- 
 solved to recover her by force or artifice. This 
 he effected by causing JNTeoptolemus to be assas- 
 sinated, or assassinating him himself. Accord- 
 ing to Ovid's epistle of Hermione to Orestes, 
 Hermione had always been faithful to her first 
 lover, and even it was by her persuasions that 
 Orestes removed her from the house of Neop- 
 tolemus. His old age was crowned with peace 
 and security, and he died in the 90th year of 
 his age, leaving his throne to his son Tisamenes, 
 by Hermione. Three years after, the Hera- 
 ciidae recovered the Peloponnesus, and banished 
 the descendants of Menelaus from the throne 
 of Argos. Orestes died in Arcadia, as some 
 suppose, by the bite of a serpent ; and the Lace- 
 demonians, who had become his subjects at the 
 death of Menelaus, were directed by an oracle 
 to brine: his bones to Sparta. They were, some 
 time after, discovered atTegea, and his stature 
 appeared to be seven cubits, according to the 
 traditions mentioned by Herodotus and others. 
 The friendship of Orestes and of Pylades be- 
 came proverbial, and the two friends received 
 divine honours among the Scythians, and were 
 worshipped in temples. Pans. 1, 2, 4, &c. — 
 Paterc. 1, c. 1 and 3.—ApoUod. 1, &.c.—Strah. 
 9 and 13.— Ovid. Heroid. 8, Ex. Pont. 3, el. 2, 
 Met. 15. in Ih.—Euripid. in Orest.—And.r. &c. 
 Iphig.—Sophod. in electr. &z.—jEschyl. in 
 
OR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 OS 
 
 Eum. Agam. &c. — Herodoi. 1, c, 69. — Hygin. 
 fab. 120 and 261. — Plut. in Dye. — Dictys. 6, &c. 
 —Pindar. Pyth. 2.—Plin. 33.— Virg. JEn. 3, 
 &.C.— Homer. Od. 3, v. 304, 1. 4, v. b'^O.— Tzetz, 
 ad Ijycophr. 1374. II. A man sent as am- 
 bassador by Attila, king of the Hans, to the 
 emperor Theodosius. He was highly honour- 
 ed at the Roman court, and his son Augustulus 
 
 was the last emperor of the western empire. 
 
 III. A governor of Egypt, under the Roman em- 
 perors. IV. A robber of Athens, who pre- 
 tended madness, &c. Aristoph. ach. 4, 7. 
 
 V. A general of Alexander. Curt. 4, c. 108. 
 
 Orestid^, the descendants or subjects of 
 Orestes, the son of Agamemnon. They were 
 driven from the Peloponnesus by the Hera- 
 clidae, and came to settle in a country which, 
 from them, was called Orestidae, at the south- 
 west of Macedonia. Some suppose that that 
 part of Greece originally received its name from 
 Orestes, who fled and built there a city, which 
 gave its founder's name to the whole province. 
 Thucyd. 2.—Liv. 31. 
 
 Oretilia, a woman who married Caligula, 
 by whom she was soon after banished. 
 
 Orgetorix, one of the chief men of the 
 Helvetii when Caesar was in Gaul. He formed 
 a conspiracy against the Romans, and when 
 accused,- he destroyed himself Cas. 
 
 Orgia, festivals in honour of Bacchus. They 
 are the same as the Bacchanalia, Dionyjsia, &c. 
 Vid. Dionysia. 
 
 Orisasus, a celebrated physician, greatly es- 
 teemed by the emperor Julian, in whose reign 
 he flourished. He abridged the works of Ga- 
 lenus, and of all the most respectable writers on 
 physic, at the request of the emperor. After 
 Julian's death, he fell into the hands of the bar- 
 barians. The best edition of his works is that 
 
 of Dundas, 4to. L. Bat. 1745. One of Ac- 
 
 taeon's dogs, ab opog mons, and 0aivcj, scando. 
 Ovid. Met. 
 
 Origen, a Greek writer, as much celebrated 
 for the easiness of his manner, his humility, and 
 modesty, as for his learning and the sublimity 
 of his genius. He was sumamed Adamanius, 
 from his assiduity, and became so rigid a Chris- 
 tian, that he made himself a eunuch, by fol- 
 lowing the literal sense of a passage in the 
 Greek testament, which speaks of the voluntary 
 eunuchs of Christ. He suifered martyrdom in 
 his 60th year, A. C. 254. His works were ex- 
 cellent and numerous, and contained a number 
 of homilies,commentarieson the holy scriptures, 
 and different treatises, besides the Hexapla, so 
 called from its being divided into six columns, 
 the first of which contained the HebreM'- text 
 the second, the same text in Greek characters 
 the third, the Greek version of the Septuagint 
 the fourth, that of Aquila ; the fifth, that of Sym- 
 machus ; and the sixth, Theodosian's Greek 
 version. This famous work first gave the hint 
 for the compilation of our Polyglot bibles. The 
 works of Origen have been learnedly edited by 
 the Benedictine monks, though ihe whole is not 
 yet completed, in four vols. fol. Paris, 1733, 
 1740, and 1759. The Hexapla was published 
 in 8vo. at Lips. 1769, by Car. Frid. Bahrdt. 
 
 Orodes, a prince of Parthia, who murdered 
 hisbrother Mithridates,and ascended his throne. 
 He defeated Crassus, the Roman triumvir, and 
 poured melted gold do^vn the throat of his fallen 
 
 enemy, to reproach him for his avarice and 
 ambition. He followed the interest of Cassius 
 and Brutus at Philippi. It is said, that, when 
 Orodes became old and infirm, his thirty chil- 
 dren applied to him, and disputed, in his pres- 
 ence, their right to the succession. Phraates, 
 the eldest of them, obtained the crown from his 
 father, and, to hasten him out of the world, he 
 attempted to poison him. The poison had no 
 effect, and Phraates, still determined on his fa- 
 ther's death, strangled him with his own hands, 
 about 37 years before the Christian era. Orodes 
 had then reigned about 50 years. Justin. 42, 
 c. 4.—Paterc. 2, c. 30. 
 
 Orcetes, a Persian governor of Sardis, fa- 
 mous for his cruel murder of Polycrates. He 
 died B. C. 521. Herodot. 
 
 Orosius, a Spanish writer, A. D. 416, who 
 pablished a universal history, in seven books, 
 from the creation to his own time, in which, 
 though learned, diligent, and pious, he betrayed 
 a great ignorance of the knowledge of historical 
 facts and of chronology. The best edition is 
 that of Havercamp, 4to. L. Bat. 1767. 
 
 Orphica, a name by which the orgies of Bac- 
 chus were called, because they had been intro- 
 duced to Europe from Egypt by Orpheus. 
 
 Orsippus, a man of Megara, who was pre- 
 vented from obtaining a prize at the Olympic 
 games, because his clothes were entangled as he 
 ran. Vid. Olympia. " 
 
 Ortalus, M. a grandson of Hortensius, who 
 was induced to marry by a present from Augus- 
 tus, who wished that ancient family not to be 
 extinguished. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 37. — Val. Max. 
 3, c. 5. — Suet, in TiJber. 
 
 OscHOPHORiA, a festival observed by the 
 Athenians. It received its name a™ tov <f)£p€iv 
 rai oa^as, from carrying boughs hung with 
 grapes, called oaxa^- Its original institution is 
 thus mentioned by Plut. in Thes. Theseus, 
 at his return from Crete, forgot to hand out the 
 white sail by which his father was to be appri- 
 zed of his success. This neglect was fatal to 
 -^geus, who threw himself into the sea and per- 
 ished. Thesius no sooner reached the land 
 than he sent a herald to inform his father of his 
 safe return, and in the meantime he began to 
 make the sacrifices which he vowed when he 
 first set sail from Crete. The herald, on his en- 
 trance into the city, found the people in great 
 agitation. Some lamented the king's death, 
 while others, elated at the sudden news of the 
 victory of Theseus, crowned the herald with 
 garlands in demonstration of their joy. The 
 herald carried back the garlands on his staff" to 
 th€ seashore, and after he had waited till The- 
 seus had finished his sacrifice, he related the 
 melancholy story of the king's death. Upon this 
 the people ran in crowds to the city, showmg 
 their grief by cries and lamentations. From that 
 circumstance, therefore, at the feast of Oscho- 
 phoria, not the herald, but his stafl^, is crowned 
 with garlands, and all the people that are pre- 
 sent always exclaim tXc\€v, nt if*, the first of 
 which expresses haste, and the other a conster- 
 nation or depression of spirits. The historian 
 further mentions that Theseus, when he went 
 to Crete, did not take with him the usual num- 
 ber of virgins, but that, instead of two of them, 
 he filled up the number with two youths of his 
 acquaintance, whom he made pass for women, 
 525 
 
OT 
 
 HISTORY, &e. 
 
 OV 
 
 by disguising their dress, and by using them to 
 the ointments and perfumes of women, as well 
 as by a long and successful imitation of their 
 voice. The imposition succeeded, their sex 
 was not discovered in Crete, and when Theseus 
 had triumphed 07er the Minotaur, he, with these 
 two youths, led a procession with branches in 
 their hands, in the same habit which is still 
 used at the celebration of the Oschophoria. The 
 branches which were carried were in honour of 
 Bacchus or of Ariadne, or because they return- 
 ed in autumn, when the grapes were ripe. 
 Besides this procession, there was also a race 
 exhibited, in which only young men, whose pa- 
 rents were both alive, were permitted to engage. 
 It was usual for them to run from the temple 
 of Bacchus to that of Minerva, which was on the 
 seashore. The place where they stopped was 
 called oaxo(l>opiov, because the boughs which 
 they carried in their hands were deposited there. 
 The reward of the conqueror was a cup called 
 TTsi/ra i:\oa, Jive-fold, bccause it contained a mix- 
 ture of five different things, wine, honey, cheese, 
 meal, and oil. Plut. in Thes. 
 
 Osci. Vid. Part I. 
 
 OsYMANDYAS, a magnificent king of Egypt, 
 in a remote period. 
 
 Otanes, a noble Persian, one of the seven 
 who conspired against the usurper Smerdis. It 
 was through him that the usurpation was first 
 discovered. He was afterwards appointed by 
 Darius over the seacoast of Asia Minor, and 
 took Byzantium. Herodot. 3, c. 70, &c, 
 
 Otho, M. Salvius, a Roman emperor, de- 
 scended from the ancient kings of Etruria. He 
 was one of Nero's favourites, and, as such, he 
 was raised to the highest offices of the state, and 
 made governor of Pannonia by the interest of 
 Seneca, who wished to remove him from Rome 
 lest Nero's love for Poppaea should prove his 
 ruin. After Nero's death, Otho conciliated the 
 favour of Galba the new emperor ; but when 
 Galba had refused to adopt him as his successor, 
 he resolved to make himself absolute without 
 any regard to the age or dignity of his friend. He 
 was acknowledged by the senate and the Ro- 
 man people ; but the sudden revolt of Vitellius 
 in Germany rendered his situation precarious, 
 and it was mutually resolved that their respec- 
 tive right to the empire should be decided by 
 arms. Otho obtained three victories over his 
 enemies, but in a general engagement near 
 Brixellum, his forces were defeated, and he 
 stabbed himself when all hopes of success were 
 vanished, after a reign of three months, on the 
 20th of April, A. D. 69. It has been justly ob- 
 served, that the last moments of Otho's life were 
 those of a philosopher. He comforted his sol- 
 diers, who lamented his fortune, and he express- 
 ed his concern for their safety, when they ear- 
 nestly solicited to pay him the last friendly of- 
 fices before he stabbed himself, and he observed 
 that it was better that one man should die than 
 that all should be involved in ruin for his ob- 
 stinacy. He also burnt the letters which, by 
 falling into the hands of Vitellius, might pro- 
 voke his resentment against those who had fa- 
 voured the cause of an unfortunate general. 
 These noble and humane sentiments in a man 
 who was the associate of Nero's shameful pleas- 
 ures, and who stained his hand in the blood of 
 his master, have appeared to some wonderful, 
 526 
 
 and passed for the features of policy, and not of 
 anaturally-virtuous and benevolent heart, Plut. 
 in vita. — S2iet. — Tacit. 2, Hist. c. 50, &c.— 
 Juv. 2, V, 90, 
 
 Othryades, one of the 300 Spartans who 
 fought against 300 Argives, when those two na- 
 tions disputed their respective right to Thyrea. 
 Two Argives, Alcinor and Cronius, and Othry- 
 ades, survived the battle. The Argives went 
 home to carry the news of their victory, but 
 Othryades, who had been reckoned among the 
 number of the slain, on account of his wounds, 
 recovered himself, and carried some of the 
 spoils of which he had stripped the Argives, into 
 the camp of his countrymen ; and after he had 
 raised a trophy, and had written with his own 
 blood the word vici on his shield, he killed 
 himself, unwilling to survive the death of his 
 countrymen, Val. Max. 3, c. 2. — Plut. in 
 Parall. 
 
 Ovinius Naso, (P.) I. This celebrated writer 
 was born at Sulmo, (now Sulmona,) a town 
 lying on the river Pescara, at the distance of 
 ninety miles from Rome. He came into the 
 world in 711, the memorable year in which the 
 two consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, fell at the bat- 
 tle of Modena. Little is precisely known con- 
 cerning his parents, or any of his ancestors ; but 
 it appears, from several passages in his works, 
 that he belonged to a family of ancient Roman 
 knights. The spot where he was born lay in a 
 cold, though well-watered and fertile region, in 
 which the male inhabitants were remarkable 
 for their rudeness, and the females were noted 
 for their deficiency in personal attractions. As 
 Sulmo probably did not afford the means of po- 
 lite education, Ovid was carried to Rome at an 
 early period of life, along with an elder brother, 
 that he might be fully instructed in the arts and 
 learning of the capital. He soon disclosed an 
 inclination towards poetry ; but he was for some 
 time dissuaded from a prosecution of the art by 
 his father, whose chief object was to render him 
 an accomplished orator and patron, and there- 
 by open to him the path to civic honours. Having 
 assumed the Toga Virilis, and completed the 
 usual course of rhetorical tuition at Rome, he 
 proceeded to finish his education at Athens, 
 After his return to the capital, he ventured on a 
 trial of his legal skill in the actual business of 
 life. He successively held several of the lower 
 judicial offices of the state, and also frequently 
 acted as arbiter, highly to the satisfaction of the 
 litigants whose causes he decided. These avo- 
 cations, however, were speedily relinquished. 
 The father of Ovid had for some time restrained 
 his son's inclination towards poetry ; but the ar- 
 guments he deduced against its cultivation, from 
 the stale example of the poverty of Homer, 
 were now receiving an almost practical refuta- 
 tion in the court favour and affluence of Virgil 
 and Horace. The death, too, of his elder bro- 
 ther, by leaving Ovid sole heir to a fortune am- 
 ple enough to satisfy his wants, finally induced 
 him to abandon the profession to which he had 
 been destined, and bid adieu at once to pub- 
 lic affairs and the clamour of the forum. 
 While frequenting the court of Augustus, Ovid 
 was well received by the politest of the courtiers. 
 The titles of many of the epistles written dur- 
 ing his banishment, show that they were ad- 
 dressed to persons well known to us, even at this 
 
ov 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PA 
 
 distance of time, as distinguished statesmen and 
 imperial favourites. Nor was Ovid's acquaint- 
 ance less with the celebrated poets of his age 
 than with its courtiers and senators. Virgil, 
 indeed, he had merely seen, and premature 
 death cut off the society of Tibullus; but Ho- 
 race, Macer, and Propertius, were long his fa- 
 miliar friends, and often communicated to him 
 their writings previous to publication. Ovid 
 passed nearly thirty years in the voluptuous 
 enjoyment of the pleasures of the capital — blest 
 with the smiles of fortune, honoured with the 
 favour of his prince, and fondly anticipating a 
 tranquil old age. He now remained at Rome, 
 the last of the constellation of poets, which had 
 brightened the earlier age of Augustus. That 
 prince had now lost his favourite ministers Mae- 
 cenas and Agrippa; he was less prosperous 
 than during former years in the external affairs 
 of the empire, and less prudently advised in his 
 domestic concerns ; he was insidiously aliena- 
 ted from his own family, and was sinking in his 
 old age under the sway of the imperious Livia, 
 and the dark-souled Tiberius. Ovid's friend- 
 ships lay chiefly among those who supported 
 the lineal descendants of Augustus — the unfor- 
 tunate offspring of Julia and Agrippa. He thus 
 became an object of suspicion to the party in 
 power, and had lost many of those benefactors 
 who might have shielded him from the storm, 
 which now unexpectedly burst on his head, and 
 swept from him every hope and comfort for the 
 remainder of his existence. It was in the year 
 762, and when Ovid had reached the age of 51, 
 that Augustus suddenly banished him from 
 Rome to a' wild and distant corner of the em- 
 pire. Ovid has derived nearly as much celeb- 
 rity from his misfortunes as his writings ; and, 
 as they were solely occasioned by the vengeance 
 of Augustus, they have reflected some dishon- 
 our on a name which would otherwise have 
 ■ descended to posterity as that of a generous and 
 almost universal protector of learning and po- 
 etry. The real cause of his exile is the great 
 problem in the literary history of Rome, and 
 has occasioned as much doubt and controversy 
 as the imprisonment of Tasso by Alphonso has 
 created in modern Italy. His death happened 
 in the year 771, in the ninth year of his exile, 
 and the fourth of the reign of Tiberius. Be- 
 fore his decease, he expressed a wish that his 
 ashes might be carried to Rome, lest his shade 
 should continue to wander in the barbarous re- 
 gion, for which, during life, he had felt such 
 horror. Even this desire, however, was not 
 complied with. His bones were buried in the 
 Scythian soil, and the Getae erected to him a 
 monument near the spot of his earthly sojourn. 
 This, however, is an imposition lo render cele- 
 brated an obscure corner of the world which 
 never contained the bones of Ovid. The great- 
 est part of Ovid's poems are remaining. His 
 Metamorphoses, in 15 books, are extremely cu- 
 rious, on account of the many different mytho- 
 logical facts and traditions which they relate, 
 but they can have no claim to an epic poem. 
 In composing this,'the poet was more indebted 
 to the then existing traditions, and to the theog- 
 ony of the ancients, than to the powers of his 
 own imagination. His Fasti were divided into 
 12 books, the same number as the constellations 
 in the zodiac ; but of these, six have perished, 
 
 and the learned world have reason to lament 
 the loss of a poem which must have thrown so 
 much light upon the religious rites and ceremo- 
 nies, festivals and sacrifices, of the ancient Ro- 
 mans, as we may judge from the six that have 
 survived the ravages of time and barbarity. His 
 Tristia, which are divided into five books, con- 
 tain much elegance and softness of expression, 
 as also his Elegies on different subjects. The 
 Her aides are nervous, spirited, and diffuse ; the 
 poetry is excellent, the language varied, but 
 the expressions are often too wanton and indel- 
 icate, a fault which is common in his composi- 
 tions. His three books of Amorum^ and the 
 same number de Arte Amandi, with the other 
 de Remedio Amoris, are written with great ele- 
 gance, and contain many flowery descriptions ; 
 but the doctrine which they hold forth is dan- 
 gerous, and they are to be read with caution, as 
 they seem to be calculated to corrupt the heart, 
 and sap the foundations of virtue and morality. 
 His Ibis, which is written in imitation of a poem 
 of Callimachus of the same name, is a satirical 
 performance. Besides these, there are extant 
 some fragments of other poems, and among 
 these some of a tragedy called Medea. It has 
 been judiciously observed that his poetry, after 
 his banishment from Rome, was destitute of that 
 spirit and vivacity which we admire in his other 
 compositions. His Fasti are perhaps the best 
 written of all his poems, and after them we may 
 fairly rank his love-verses, his Heroides, and 
 after all, his Metamorphoses, which were not 
 totally finished when Augustus sent him into 
 banishment. His Epistles from Pontus are the 
 language of an abject and pusillanimous flat- 
 terer. Ovid married three wives, but of the last 
 alone he speaks with fondness and affection. 
 He had only one daughter, but by which of his 
 wives is unknown ; and she herself became 
 mother of two children by two husbands. The 
 best editions of Ovid's works are those of Bur- 
 man, 4 vols. 4to. Amst. 1727 ; of L. Bat. 1670, 
 in 8vo. and of Utrecht, in 12mo. 4 vols. 1713. 
 Ovid. Trist. 3 and 4, &c. — Paterc. 2. — Martial. 
 
 3 and 8. II. A man who accompanied his 
 
 friend Caesonius when banished from Rome by 
 Nero. Martial. 7, ep. 43. 
 
 Oxidates, a Persian whom Darius condemn- 
 ed to death. Alexander took him prisoner, and 
 some time after made him governor of Media. 
 He became oppressive and was removed. Curt. 
 8, c. 3, 1. 9, c. 8. 
 
 OxYLUs, a leader of the Heraclidse when 
 they recovered the Peloponnesus. He was re- 
 warded with the kingdom of Elis. Pans. 5, c. 4. 
 
 OzoLiB. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Pacatianus, (Titus Julius,) a general of the 
 Roman armies, who proclaimed himself empe- 
 ror of Gaul about the latter part of Philip's 
 reign. He was soon after defeated, A. D. 249, 
 and put to death, &c. 
 
 Paconius, M. a stoic philosopher. He was 
 banished from Italy by Nero, and he retired 
 from Rome with the greatest composure and 
 indifference. Arrian. 1, c. 1. 
 
 Pacorus, the eldest of the thirty sons of 
 Orodes, king of Parthia, sent against Crassus, 
 whose army he defeated, and whom he took 
 527 
 
PA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PA 
 
 prisoner. He took Syria from the Romans, and 
 supported the republican party of Pompey, and 
 of the murderers of Julius Caesar. He was 
 killed in a battle by Ventidius Bassus, B. C. 
 39, on the same day (9th of June) thai Crassus 
 had been defeated. FLor. 4, c. 9. — Horat. 3, 
 od. 6, V. 9. 
 
 Pactyas, a Lydian, entrusted with the care of 
 the treasures of Croesus at Sardes. The im- 
 mense riches which he could command cor- 
 rupted him, and, to make himself independent, 
 he gathered a large army. He laid siege to 
 the citadel of Sardes, but the arrival of one of 
 the Persian generals soon put him to flight. 
 He retired to Cumse and afterwards to Lesbos, 
 where he was delivered into the hands of Cyrus. 
 Herodot. 1, c. 154, &c. — Pans. 2, c. 35. 
 
 Pacuvius, M. a native of Brundusium, son of 
 the sister of the poet Ennius, who distinguished 
 himself by his skill in painting, and by his po- 
 etical talents. He wrote satires and tragedies, 
 which were represented at Rome, and of some 
 of which the names are preserved, as Peribosa, 
 Hermione, Atalanta, Ilione, Teucer, Antiope, 
 &c. Orestes was consid ered as the best-finished 
 performance ; the style, however, though rough, 
 and without either purity or elegance, deserved 
 the commendation of Cicero and Quintilian, 
 w^ho perceived strong rays of genius and perfec- 
 tion frequently beaming through the clouds of 
 the barbarity and ignorance of the times. The 
 poet, in his old age, retired to Tarentum, where 
 he died in his 90th year, about 131 years before 
 Christ. Of all his compositions, about 437 scat- 
 tered lines are preserved in the collections of 
 Latin poets. Cic. de Or at. 2, ad Heren. 2, c. 
 'HI.— Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. m.—Quintil. 10, c. 1. 
 
 Pjbdaretus, a Spartan, who, on not being 
 elected in the number of the 300, sent out an ex- 
 pedition, &c., declared, that instead of being 
 mortified, he rejoiced that 300 men better than 
 himself could be found in Sparta. Plut. in 
 Lye. 
 
 P^TUs, C^ciNNA, the husband of Arria. 
 Vid. Arria. 
 
 Pal^phatus, L an ancient Greek philoso- 
 pher, whose age is unknown . He wrote 5 books 
 de incredibilibus, of which only the first re- 
 mains, and in it he endeavours to explain fabu- 
 lous and mythological traditions by historical 
 facts. The best edition of Palaephatus is that 
 
 of J. Frid. Fischer, in 8vo. Lips. 1773. II. 
 
 An heroic poet of Athens, who wrote a poem on 
 the creation of the world. 
 
 Palamepes, a Grecian chief, son of Nauplius, 
 king of Euboea, by Clymene. He was sent by 
 the Greek princes who were going to the Tro- 
 jan war, to bring Ulysses to the camp, who, to 
 withdraw himself from the expedition, pretend- 
 ed insanity ; and the better to impose upon his 
 friends, used to harness different animals to a 
 plough, and sow salt instead of barley into the 
 farrows. The deceit was soon perceived by 
 Palamedes ; he took Telemachus, whom Pene- 
 lope had lately brought into the world, and put 
 him before the plough of his father. Ulysses 
 showed that he was not insane by turning the 
 plough a different way, not to hurt his child. 
 This having been discovered, Ulysses was obli- 
 ged to attend the Greek princes to the war: but 
 an immortal enmity arose between Ulysses and 
 Palamedes. The king of Ithaca resolved to take 
 528 
 
 every opportunity to distress him ; and when all 
 his expectations were frustrated, he had the 
 meanness to bribe one of his servants, and to 
 make him dig a hole in his master's tent, and 
 there conceal a large sum of money. After this, 
 Ulysses forged a letter in Phrygian characters, 
 which king Priam was supposed to have sent to 
 Palamedes. In the letter, the Trojan king seem- 
 ed to entreat Palamedes to deliver into his hands 
 the Grecian army, according to the conditions 
 which had been previously agreed upon when 
 he received the money. I'his forged letter was 
 carried by means of Ulysses before the princes 
 of the Grecian army. Palamedes was summon- 
 ed, and he made the most solemn protestations 
 of innocence, but all was in vain ; the money 
 that was discovered in his tent served only to 
 corroborate the accusation . He was found guilty 
 by all the army, and stoned to death. Homer is 
 silent upon the miserable death of Palamedes ; 
 and Pausanias mentions that it had been report- 
 ed by some, that Ulysses and Diomedes had 
 drowned him in the sea, as he was fishing on 
 the coast. Philostratus, who mentions the tra- 
 gical story above related, adds that Achilles and 
 Ajax burned his body with great pomp on the 
 seashore, and that they raised upon it a small 
 chapel, where sacrifices were regularly offered 
 by the inhabitants of Troas. Palamedes was a 
 learned man as well as a soldier; and, accord- 
 ing to some, he completed the alphabet of Cad- 
 mus by the addition of the four letters, 6, ^, x, 
 (p, during the Trojan war. To him also is at- 
 tributed the invention of dice and backgammon; 
 and it is said he was the first who regularly 
 ranged an army in a line of battle, and who 
 placed sentinels round a camp, and excited 
 their vigilance and attention by giving them a 
 watchword. Hygin. fab. 96, 105, &c, — Apol- 
 lod. 2, &.c.—Dictys Cret. 2, c. 15.— Ovid. Met. 
 13, V. 56 and 308.— Pans. 1, c. 31.— Manil. 
 4, V. 205. — Philostrat. v. 10, c. 6. — Euripid. in 
 Phceniss. — Martial. 13, ep. 75. — Plin. 7, c. 56. 
 
 Palilta, a festival celebrated by the Romans 
 in honour of the goddess Pales. The ceremony 
 consisted in burning heaps of straw, and in leap- 
 ing over them. No sacrifices w^ere offered, but 
 the purifications were made with the smoke of 
 horse's blood, and with the ashes of a calf that 
 had been taken from the belly of his mother 
 after it had been sacrificed, and with the ashes 
 of beans. The purification of the flocks was 
 also made with the smoke of sulphur, of the 
 olive, the pine, the laurel, and the rosemary. 
 Offerings of mild cheese, boiled wine, and cakes 
 of millet, were afterwards made to the goddess. 
 This festival was observed on the 21st of April, 
 and it was during the celebration that Romulus 
 first began to build his city. Some call this 
 festival Parilia quasi a pariendo, because the 
 sacrifices were offered to thedivinily for the fe- 
 cundity of the flocks. Ovid. Met.H. v. 774. 
 —Fast. 4, V. 721, &c. 1. 6, v. 251.—Propert. 4, 
 el. 1, V. l^.-Tibull. 2, el. 5, v. 87. 
 
 Palinurus, a skilful pilot of the ship of 
 ^neas. He fell into the sea in his sleep, and 
 was three days exposed to the tempests and the 
 waves of the sea, and at last came safe to the 
 seashore near Velia, where the cruel inhabit- 
 ants of the place murdered him to obtain his 
 clothes. His body was left unbuned on the sea- , 
 shore ; and as, according to the religion of the 
 
PA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PA 
 
 ancient Romans, no person was suffered to cross 
 the Stygian lake before one hundred years were 
 elapsed if his remains had not been decently 
 buried, we find jEneas, when he visited the in- 
 fernal regions, speaking to Palinurus, and as- 
 suring him that, though his bones were deprived 
 of a funeral, yet the place where his body was 
 exposed should soon be adorned with a monu- 
 ment, and bear his name ; and accordingly a 
 promontory was called Palinurus, now Po2i- 
 nuro. Virg. .Sn. 3, v. 513, 1. 5, v. 840, &c. 1. 
 6, V. 3il.— Ovid. de Rem. bll.—Mela. 2, c. 4, 
 ^Strab.—Horat. 3, od. 4, v. 28. 
 
 Pallad£s, certain virgins of illustrious pa- 
 rents, who were consecrated to Jupiter by the 
 Thebans of Egypt. It was required that they 
 should prostitute themselves, and afterwards 
 they were permitted to marry. StroM. 17. 
 
 Palladium. Vid. Part III, 
 
 Palladids, a Greek physician, whose treatise 
 on fevers was edited 8vo. L. Bat. 1745. 
 
 Pallas, (ajitis,) I. a son of king Evander, 
 sent with some troops to assist ^neas. He 
 Avas killed by Turn us, the king of the Rutuli, 
 after he had made great slaughter of the ene- 
 my. Virg. ^^n. 8, v. 104, &c. II. One of 
 
 the giants, son of Tartarus and Terra. He 
 was killed by Minerva, who covered herself 
 with his skin ; whence, as some suppose, she is 
 
 called Pallas. Apollod. 3, c. 12. III. A 
 
 freedman of Claudius, famous for the power 
 and the riches he obtained. He advised the 
 emperor, his master, lo marry Agrippina, and 
 to adopt her son Nero for his successor. It was 
 by this naeans that Nero was raised to the throne. 
 Nero forgot to whom he was indebted for the 
 crown. He discarded Pallas, and some time 
 after caused him to be put to death, that he 
 might make himself master of his great riches, 
 A. D. 61.^ Tacit. 12, Ann. c. 53. 
 
 Pamphilus, a celebrated painter of Mace- 
 donia, in the age of Philip, distinguished above 
 his rivals by a superior knowledge of literature. 
 He was founder of the school for painting at Si- 
 cyon, and he made a law which was observed 
 not only in Sicyon, but all over Greece, that 
 none but the children of noble and dignified 
 persons should be permitted to learn painting. 
 Apelles was one of his pupils. Diog. 
 
 Pamphos, a Greek poet, supposed to have lived 
 before Hesiod's age. 
 
 Pamphyla, a Greek woman, -who wrote a 
 general history in 33 books, in Nero's reign. 
 This history, much commended by the ancients, 
 is lost. 
 
 Panjetius, I. a stoic philosopher of Rhodes, 
 138 B. C. He studied at Athens for some time, 
 of which he refused to become a citizen, observ- 
 ing, that a good and honest man ought to be 
 satisfied with one country. He came to Rome, 
 where he reckoned among his pupils La?lius 
 and Scipio the second Africanus. The latter 
 he attended in his expeditions. To the inter- 
 est of their countrymen at Rome the Rhodians 
 were greatly indebted for their prosperity and 
 the immunities which they for some time enjoy- 
 ed. Panaetius wrote a treatise on the duties of 
 man, the merit of which can be ascertained from 
 the encomiums which Cicero bestows upon it. 
 Cic. in qfiic. de Dii\ 1. hi Acad. 2, c. 2, de N. 
 D. 2, c. 46. II. A tyrant of Leontini in Si- 
 cily, B. C. 613. Polvicn. 5. 
 
 iPART II.— 3 X 
 
 Panathen.s;a, festivals in honour of Minerva, 
 the patroness of Athens. T hey were first insti- 
 tuted by Erichtheus or Orpheus, and called 
 Athencea ; but Theseus afterwards renewed 
 them, and caused them to be celebrated and ob- 
 served by all the tribes of Athens, which he had 
 united into one, and from which reason the fes- 
 tivals received their name. Some suppose that 
 they are the same as the Roman Quinquatria, 
 ^s they are often called by that name among the 
 Latins. In the first year of the institution 
 they were observed only during one day, but af- 
 terwards the time was prolonged. The festivals 
 were two ; the great Panathenaa, (//eyaXa.) 
 which were observed every 5th year, beginning 
 ont he 22d of the month called iZeca^owz^tson, or 
 7th of July ; and the lesser Pa/iatheiKca, (juuYJa,) 
 which were kept every 3d year, or rather an- 
 nually, beginning on the 21st or 20th of the 
 month called Thargelion, corresponding to the 
 5th or 6th day of the month of May. In the 
 lesser festivals there were three games, conduct- 
 ed by ten presidents chosen from the ten tribes 
 of Athens, who continued four years in office. 
 On the evening of the first day there was a race 
 with torches, in which men on foot, and after- 
 wards on horseback, contended. The second 
 combat exhibited a trial of strength and bodily 
 dexteriiy. The last was a musical contention, 
 first instituted by Pericles. Phrynis of Mity- 
 lene was the first who obtained th^ victory by 
 playing upon the harp. There were, besides, 
 other musical instruments, on which they play- 
 ed in concert, such as flutes, &c. The poets 
 contended in four plays, called from their num- 
 ber rerpaloYia. The last of these was a satire. 
 There was also at Sunium ah imitation of a 
 naval-fight. Whoever obtained the victory in 
 any of these games was rewarded with a vessel 
 of oil, which he was permitted to dispose of in 
 whatever manner he pleased, and it was unlaw- 
 ful for any other person to transport that com- 
 modity. The conqueror also received a crown 
 of the olives which grew in the groves of Aca- 
 demus, and were sacred to Minerva, and called 
 [lopeiai, from nopos, death, in remembrance of the 
 tragical end of Hallirhotius, the son of Neptune, 
 who cut his own legs when he attempted to cut 
 down the olive which had given the victory to 
 Minerva in preference to his father, when these 
 two deities contended about giving a name to 
 Athens. Some suppose that the word is de- 
 rived from [JLcpoi, a part, because these olives 
 were given by contribution by all such as attend- 
 ed at the festivals. There was also a dance, 
 called Pyrrhichia, performed by young boys in 
 armour, in imitation of Minerva, who thus ex- 
 pressed her triumph over the vanquishedTitans. 
 Gladiators were also introduced when Athens 
 became tributary to the Romans. During the 
 celebration, no person was permitted to appear 
 in died garments, and if any one transgressed, 
 he was punished according to the discretion of 
 the president of the games. After these things, 
 a sumptuous sacrifice was offered, in which 
 everyone of the Athenian boroughs contributed 
 an ox, and the whole was concluded by an en- 
 tertainment for all the company with the flesh 
 that remained from the sacrifice. In the great- 
 er festivals, the same rites and ceremonies were 
 usually observed, but with more solemnity and 
 magnificence. Others were also added, particu- 
 529 
 
PA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PA 
 
 larly the procession, in which Minerva's sacred 
 TTSffAoj, or garment^ was carried. This gar- 
 ment was woven by a select number of virgins, 
 called spyaaKai, from ipyov, work. They were 
 superintended by two of the apprjipopoi^ or young 
 virgins, not above seventeen years of age nor 
 under eleven, whose garments were white, and 
 set oflf with ornaments of gold. Minerva's pep- 
 lus, was of a white colour, without sleeves, and 
 embroidered with gold. Upon it were described 
 the achievements of the goddess, particularly 
 her victories over the giants. The exploits of 
 Jupiter and the other gods were also represent- 
 ed there, and from that circumstance men of 
 courage and bravery are said to hea^ioi tt£tt\ov, 
 worthy to be pourtrayed in Minerva's sacred 
 garment. In the procession of the peplus the 
 following ceremonies were observed. In the 
 ceramicus, without the city, there was an engine 
 built in the form of a ship, upon which Miner- 
 va's garment was hung as a sail, and the whole 
 was conducted, not by beasts, as some have sup- 
 posed, but by subterraneous machines, to the 
 temple of Ceres Eleusinia, and from thence to 
 the citadel, where the peplus was placed upon 
 Minerva's statue, which was laid upon a bed 
 woven or strewed with tlowers, which was call- 
 ed n\aKig. Persons of all ages, of every sex 
 and quality, attended the procession, which was 
 led by old men and women, carrying olive 
 branches in their hands ; from which reason 
 they were called 6a'\\o(popoi, bearers of green 
 boughs. Next followed men of full age, with 
 shields and spears. They were attended by the 
 lisToiKoi, or foreigners, who carried small boats 
 as a token of their foreign origin, and from that 
 account were called aKa^rjcpopoi, boat-bearers. 
 After them came ihe women, attended by the 
 wives of the foreigners, called i^Jjsta^opot, because 
 they carried water-pots. Next to these came 
 young men crowned with millet, and singing 
 hymns to the goddess, and after them followed 
 select virgins of the noblest families, called 
 Kavn(popni, basket-bearers, because they carried 
 baskets, in which were certain things necessary 
 for the celebration, with whatever utensils were 
 also requisite. These several necessaries were 
 generally in the possession of the chief mana- 
 ger of the festival, called apxiOso^pog, who dis- 
 tributed them when occasion offered. The vir- 
 gins were attended by the daughters of the for- 
 eigners, who carried umbrellas and little seats, 
 from which they were named 6i(ppri(popoi, seat- 
 carriers. The boys, called natSaf-nKoi, as it may 
 be supposed, led the rear, clothed in coats gen- 
 erally worn at processions. The necessaries 
 for this and every other festival were prepared 
 in a public hall erected for that purpose, be- 
 tween the Piraean gate and the temple of Ce- 
 res. The management and the care of the whole 
 was intrusted to the vono<pv'XaKEq, or people em- 
 ployed in seeing the rites and ceremonies prop- 
 erly observed. It was also usual to set all prison- 
 ers at liberty, and to present golden crowns to 
 such as had deserved well of their country. 
 Some persons were also chosen to sing some of 
 Homer's poems, a custom which was first in- 
 troduced by Hipparchus, the son of Pisistratus. 
 It was also customary in this festival, and every 
 other quinquennial festival, to pray for the pros- 
 perity of the Plataeans, whose services had been 
 so conspicuous at the battle of Marathon. 
 
 Plut in Thes.—Paus Arc. 2.—^lian. V. H. 8, 
 c. 2. — Apollod. 3, c. 14. 
 
 Pandarus, a son of Lycaon, who assisted the 
 Trojans in their war against the Greeks. He 
 went to the war without a chariot, and there- 
 fore he generally fought on foot. He broke the 
 truce which had been agreed upon between the 
 Greeks and Trojans, and wounded Menelaus 
 and Diomedes, and showed himself brave and 
 unusually courageous. He was ar last killed 
 by Diomedes ; and ^Eneas, who then carried 
 him. in his chariot, by attempting to revenge 
 his death, nearly perished by the hand of the 
 furious enemy. Dictys Cret. 2, v. 35. — Homer 
 11. 2 and b.—Hygin.'fah. 112.— Virg. JEn. 5, 
 V. 495. — Strab. 14. — Servius. in loco. Vid. 
 Part III. 
 
 Pandia, a festival at Athens, established by 
 Pandion, from whom it received its name, or 
 because ii was observed in honour of Jupiter, 
 who can ra Ttavra Siyeveiv, move and turn all 
 things as he pleases. Some suppose that it 
 concerned the moon, because it does tavrore 
 levai, move incessantly, by showing itself day 
 and night, rather than the sun, which never ap- 
 pears but in the day-time. It was celebrated 
 after the Dionysia. 
 
 Panopion, a Roman, saved from death by the 
 uncommon fidelity of his servant. When the 
 assassins came to murder him, as being pro- 
 scribed, the servant exchanged clothes with his 
 master, and let him escape by a back door. 
 He afterwards went into his master's bed, and 
 suffered himself to be killed, as if Panopion 
 himself. Val. Max. 
 
 Pansa, (C. Vibius,) a Roman consul, who, 
 with A. Hirtius, pursued the murderers of J. 
 Caesar, and was killed in a battle near Mutina. 
 On his deathbed, he advised young Octavius to 
 unite his interest with that of Antony, if he 
 wished to revenge the death of Julius Caesar; 
 and from his friendly advice soon after rose the 
 celebrated second triumvirate. Some suppose 
 that Pansa was put to death by Octavius him- 
 self, or through him, by the physician Glicon, 
 who poured poison into the wounds of his pa- 
 tient. Pansa and Hirtius were the two last 
 consuls who enjoyed the dignity of chief ma- 
 gistrates of Rome with full power. The au- 
 thority of the consuls afterwards dwindled into 
 a shadow. Paterc. 2, c. 6. — Dio. 46. — Ovid. 
 Trist. 3, el. 5. — Plut (^ Appian. 
 
 Pantaleon, a king of Pisa, who presided at 
 the Olympic games, B. C. 664, after excluding 
 the Eleans, who on that account expunged the 
 Olympiad from the Fasti, and called it the 2d 
 Anolympiad. They had called, for the same 
 reason, the 8th the 1st Anolympiad, because the 
 Pisaeans presided. 
 
 Panthea, the wife of Abradates, celebrated 
 for her beauty and conjugal affection. She was 
 taken prisoner by Cyrus, who refused to visit 
 her, not to be ensnared by the power of her 
 personal charms. She killed herself on the 
 body of her husband, who had been slain in a 
 battle, &c. Vid. Abradates. Xenoph. Cyrop.— 
 Suidas. 
 
 Panthoides, a patronymic of Euphorbus, the 
 son of Panthous. Pythagoras is sometime? 
 called by that name, as he asserted that he was 
 Euphorbus during the Trojan war. Horat. 1, 
 
 od. 28, V. 10.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 161. A 
 
 530 
 
PA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PA 
 
 Spartan general, killed by Pericles at the bat- 
 tle of Tanagra. 
 
 Panyasis, an ancient Greek, uncle to the 
 historian Herodotus. The celebrated Hercules 
 in one of his poems, and the lonians in another, 
 and was universally esteemed. Athen. 2. 
 
 Papia Lex, de peregrinis, by Papius the tri- 
 bune, A. U. C. 688, which required that all 
 strangers should be driven away from Rome. 
 It was afterwards confirmed and extended by 
 
 the Julian law. Another, called Papia Pop- 
 
 pcea, because it was enacted by the tribunes 
 M. Papius Mutilus and GL. Poppseus Secun- 
 dus, who had received consular power from the 
 consul for six months. It was called afterwards 
 the Julian law. Vid. Julia lex de Maritandis 
 ordinibus. It gave the patron a certain right 
 to the property of his client, if he had left a 
 specified sum of money, or if he had not three 
 children. 
 
 Papianus, a man who proclaimed himself 
 emperor some time after the Gordians. He was 
 put to death. 
 
 Papias, an early Christian writer, who first 
 propagated the doctrine of the Milennium. 
 There are remaining some historical fragments 
 of his. 
 
 Papirtus, I. a Roman, from whose ill-treat- 
 ment of the slaves a decree was made which 
 forbade any person to be detained in fetters, but 
 only for a crime that deserved such a treatment, 
 and only till the criminal had suffered the pun- 
 ishment which the laws directed. Creditors 
 also had a right to arrest the goods and not the 
 
 person of their debtors. Liv. 8, c. 28. II. 
 
 Carbo, a Roman consul, who undertook the 
 defence of Opimius, who was accused of con- 
 demning and putting to death a number of citi- 
 zens on mount Aventius, without the formali- 
 ties of a trial. His client was acquitted 
 
 III. Cursor, a man who first erected a sundial 
 in the temple of Cluirinus at Rome, B.C. 293 ; 
 from which time the days began to be divided 
 
 into hours. IV. A dictator, who ordered his 
 
 master of horse to be put to death because he 
 had fought and conquered the enemies of the 
 republic without his consent. The people in- 
 terfered and the dictator pardoned him. Cursor 
 made war against the Sabines, and conquered 
 them, and also triumphed over the Samnites. 
 His great severity displeased the people. He 
 flourished about 320 years before the Christian 
 
 era. Liv. 9, c. 14. V. one of his family, 
 
 surnamed Prcetextahos, from an action of his 
 whilst he wore the pratexta, a certain gown for 
 young men. His father of the same name, car- 
 ried him to the senate-house, where affairs of the 
 greatest importance were then in debate before 
 the senators. The mother of young Papirius 
 wished to know what had passed in the senate; 
 but Papirius, unwilling to betray the secrets of 
 that august assembly, amused the mother by 
 telling her that it had been considered whether 
 it would be more advantageous to the republic 
 to give two wives to one husband, than two 
 husbands to one Avife. The mother of Papirius 
 was alarmed, and she communicated the secret 
 to the other Roman matrons, and, on the mor- 
 row, they assembled in the senate, petitioning 
 that one woman might have two husbands, ra- 
 ther than one husband two wives. The sena- 
 tors were astonished at this petition, but young 
 
 Papirius unravelled the whole mystery, and 
 from that time it was made a law among the 
 senators that no young man should for the fu- 
 ture be introduced into the senate-house, except 
 Papirius. This law was carefully observed till 
 the age of Augustus, who permitted children of 
 all ages to hear the debates of the senators, 
 
 Macrob. Sat. 1, c. 6. VI. Carbo, a friend of 
 
 Cinna and Marius. He raised cabals against 
 Sylla and Pompey, and was at last put to death 
 by order of Pompey, after he had rendered him- 
 self odious by a tyrannical consulship, and after 
 
 he had been proscribed by Sylla. VII. Ma- 
 
 so, a consul, who conquered Sardinia and Cor- 
 sica, and reduced them into the form of a prov- 
 ince. At his return to Rome he refused a 
 triumph, upon which he introduced a triumphal 
 procession, and walked with his victorious army 
 to the capitol, wearing a crown of myrtle on his 
 head. His example was afterwards followed 
 by such generals as were refused a triumph by 
 
 the Roman senate. Val. Max. 3, c. 6. The 
 
 family of the Papirii were patrician, and long 
 distinguished for its service to the state. It 
 bore the different surnames of Crassus, Cursor, 
 Mugillanus, Maso, Pratextatus, and PcBtus, 
 of which the three first branches became the 
 most illustrious. 
 
 Papiria Lex, by Papirius Carbo, A. U. C. 
 621. It required that, in passing or rejecting 
 laws in the comitia, the votes should be given 
 on tablets. Another, by the tribune Papi- 
 rius, which enacted that no person should con- 
 secrate any edifice, place, or thing, without the 
 consent or permission of the people. Cic. pro 
 domo, 50. Another, A. U. C. 563, to dimin- 
 ish the weight and increase the value of the 
 
 Roman as. Another, A. U. C. 421, to give 
 
 the freedom of the city to the citizens of Acerrae. 
 
 Pappia Lex was enacted to settle the rights 
 of husbands and wives if they had no children, 
 
 Another, by which a person less than 50 
 
 years old could not marry another of 60. 
 
 Parabyston, a tribunal at Athens, where 
 causes of inferior consequence were tried by 11 
 judges. Paus. 1, c. 40. 
 
 Paralus, I. a friend of Dion, by whose as- 
 sistance he expelled Dionysius. II. A son oi 
 
 Pericles. His premature death was greatly la- 
 mented by his father. Plut. 
 
 Parentalia, a festival annually observed at 
 Rome in honour of the dead. The friends and 
 relations of the deceased assembled on the oc- 
 casion, when sacrifices were offered and ban- 
 quets provided, ^neas first established it. 
 Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 544. 
 
 Paris, I. the son of Priam, king of Troy, by 
 Hecuba, also "called Alexander. He was des- 
 tined, even before his birth, to become the ruin 
 of his country ; and when his mother, in the 
 first month of her pregnancy, had dreamed that 
 she should bring forth a torch which would set 
 fire to her palace, the soothsayers foretold the 
 calamities which might be expected from the 
 imprudence of her future son, and which would 
 end in the destruction of Troy. Priam, to pre- 
 vent so great and so alarming an evil, ordered 
 his slave Arehelaus to destroy the chiM as soon 
 as born. The slave did not destrov him, but 
 was satisfied to expose him on mount Ida, where 
 the shepherds of the place found him, and edu- 
 cated him as their own son. Some attribute 
 531 
 
PA 
 
 HISTORY. &c. 
 
 PA 
 
 the preservation of his life, before he was found 
 by the shepherds, to the motherly tenderness of 
 a she-bear which suckled him. Young Paris, 
 though educated among shepherds and peasants, 
 gave early proofs of courage and intrepidity ; 
 and from his care in protecting the flocks of 
 mount Ida against the rapacity of the wild 
 beasts, he obtained the name of Alexander 
 {helper or defender). He gained the esteem of 
 all the shepherds, and his graceful countenance 
 and manly deportment recommended him to the 
 favour of CEnone, a nymph of Ida, whom he 
 married. He was chosen umpire between Ju- 
 no, Minerva, and Venus ; and appointed to ad- 
 judge the prize of beauty to the fairest of the 
 goddesses. The goddesses appeared before their 
 judge, and each tried, by promises and entrea- 
 ties, to gain the attention of Paris, and to in- 
 fluence his judgment. Juno promised him a 
 kingdom ; Minerva, military glory ; and Venus, 
 the fairest woman in the world for his wife, as 
 Ovid expresses it. Heroid. 17, v. 118 : — 
 
 TJnaque cum regnum ; belli daret alter laudem ; 
 Tyndaridis conjux, Tertia dixit ^ eris. 
 
 After he had heard their several claims and pro- 
 mises, Paris adjudged the prize to Venus. This 
 decision of Paris in favour of Venus, drew upon 
 the judge and his family the resentment of the 
 two other goddesses. Soon after, Priam propos- 
 ed a contest among his sons and other princes, 
 and promised to reward the conqueror with one 
 of the finest bulls of mount Ida. His emissa- 
 ries were sent to procure the animal, and it was 
 found in the possession of Paris, who reluctant- 
 ly yielded it up. The shepherd was desirous 
 of obtaining again this favourite animal, and he 
 went to Troy, and entered the lists of the com- 
 batants. He was received with the greatest 
 applause, and obtained the victory over his ri- 
 vals, Nestor, the son of Neleus ; Cycnus, son 
 of Neptune ; Polites, Helenus, and Deiphobus, 
 sons of Priam. He also obtained a superiority 
 over Hector himself. Cassandra, the daughter 
 of Priam, soon discovered that he was her broth- 
 er, and as such she introduced him to her fa- 
 ther and to his children. Priam acknowledged 
 Paris as his son, forgetful of the alarming dream 
 "which had influenced him to meditate his death, 
 and all jealousy ceased among the brothers. 
 Paris did not long suffer himself to remain in- 
 active; he equipped a fleet, as if willing to 
 redeem Hesione, his father's sister, whom Her- 
 cules had carried away. He visited Sparta, the 
 residence of Helen, who had married Menelaus, 
 and was received with every mark of respect ; 
 but he abused the hospitality of Menelaus, and, 
 while the husband was absent in Crete, Paris 
 persuaded Helen to elope with him, and to fly 
 to Asia. Upon this, all Greece took up arms in 
 the cause of Menelaus. Vid. T^-oja. Paris, 
 meanwhile, who had refused Helen to the peti- 
 tions and embassies of the Greeks, armed him- 
 self, with his brothers and subjects, to oppose 
 the enemy ; but the success of the war was 
 neither hindered nor accelerated by his means. 
 He fought with little courage, and at the very 
 sight of Menelaus, whom he had so recently 
 injured, all his resolution vanished, and he re- 
 tired from the front of the army, where he walk- 
 ed before like a conqueror. In a combat with 
 Menelaus, which he undertook at the persua- 
 532 
 
 sioa of his brother Hector, Paris must have per- 
 ished, had not Venus interfered, and stolen him 
 froni the resentment of his adversary. He nev- 
 ertheless wounded, in another battle, Macha- 
 on, Euryphilus, and Diomedes ; and, according 
 to some opinions, lie killed with one of his ar- 
 rows the great Achilles. Vid. Achilles. The 
 death of Paris is differently related ; some sup- 
 pose that he was mortally wounded by one of 
 the arrows of Philoctetes, which had been once 
 in the possession of Hercules, and that when 
 he found himself languid on account of his 
 wounds, he ordered himself to be carried to the 
 feet of CEnone, whom he had basely abandon- 
 ed, and who, in the years of his obscurity, had 
 foretold him that he would solicit her assistance 
 in his dying moments. He expired before he 
 came into the presence of OEnone, and the 
 nymph, still mindful of their former loves,threw 
 herself upon his body, and stabbed herself to 
 the heart. According to some authors, Paris 
 did not immediately go to Troy when he left 
 the Peloponnesus, but he was driven on the coast 
 of Egypt, where Proteus, who was king of the 
 country, detained him, and when he heard of 
 the violence which had been offered to the king 
 of Sparta, he kept Helen at his court and per- 
 mitted Paris to retire. Vid. Helena. Dictys 
 Cret. 1, 3, and 4. — Apollod. 3, c. 12. — Homer. 
 11. — Ovid. Heroid. 5, 16, and 17. — Quint Ca- 
 lab. 10, V. 290. — Horat. od. 3. — Eurip. in 
 Iphig. — Hygin. fab. 92 and 273. — Virg.JSn. 1, 
 Scc—JElian. V. H. 12, c. ^"i.—Paus. 10, c. 27. 
 — Cic. de Div, — Lycophr. «|« Tzetz. in L/yc. 
 
 II. A celebrated player at Rome, in the 
 
 good graces of the emperor Nero, &c. Tacit. 
 Ann. 13, c. 19, &c. 
 
 Parmenides, a Greek philosopher of Elis, 
 who flourished about 505 years before Christ. 
 He was son of Pyres of Elis, and the pupil of 
 Xenophanes, or of Anaximander, according to 
 some. He maintained that there were only two 
 elements, fire and the earth ; and he taught that 
 the first generation of men was produced from 
 the sun. He first discovered that the earth was 
 round, and habitable only in the two temperate 
 zones, and that it was suspended in the centre 
 of the universe, in a fluid lighter than air, so 
 that all bodies left to themselves fell on its sur- 
 face. There were, as he supposed, only two 
 sorts of philosophy ; one founded on reason, and 
 the other on opinion. He digested this unpop- 
 ular system in verse, of which a few frag- 
 ments remain. Diog. 
 
 Parmento, a celebrated general in the armies 
 of Alexander, who enjoyed the king's confi- 
 dence, and was more attached to his person as 
 a man than as a monarch. When Darius, king 
 of Persia, offered Alexander all the country 
 which lies at the west of the Euphrates, with 
 his daughter Statira in marriage, and 10,000 tal- 
 ents of gold, Parmeniotook occasion to observe, 
 that he would without hesitation accept of these 
 conditions if he were Alexander. So would I 
 v)ere I Parmenio, replied the conquerer. This 
 friendship, so true and inviolable, was sacrifi- 
 ced to a moment of resentment and suspicion; 
 and Alexander, who had too eagerly listened 
 to a light, and perhaps a false, accusation, or- 
 dered Parmenio and his son to be put to death, 
 as if guilty of treason against his person. Par- 
 menio was in the 70th year of his age, B. C. 
 
PA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PA 
 
 330. He died in the greatest popularity ; and 
 it has been judiciously observed, that Parmenio 
 obtained many victories without Alexander, 
 bat Alexander not one without Parmenio. 
 Curt. 7, &c. — Plut in Alex. 
 
 Parphorus, a native of Colophon, who, at 
 the head of a colony, built a town at the foot of 
 Ida, which was abandoned for a situation nearer 
 his native city. Strab. 14. — Paus. 7, c. 3. 
 
 Parrhasius, I. a famous painter, son of Eve- 
 nor of Ephesus, in the age of Zeuxis, about 415 
 years before Christ. He acquired himself great 
 reputation by his pieces, but by none more than 
 that in which he allegorically represented the 
 people of Athens, with all the injustice, the 
 clemency, the fickleness, timidity, the arro- 
 gance, and inconsistency, which so eminently 
 characterized that celebrated nation. He once 
 entered the lists against Zeuxis, and when they 
 had produced their respective pieces, the birds 
 came to pick with the greatest avidity the 
 grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Immedi- 
 ately Parrhasius exhibited his piece, and Zeu- 
 xis said remove your curtain, that we may see the 
 fainting. The curtain was the painting, and 
 Zeuxis acknowledged himself conquered by 
 exclaiming, Zeuxis has deceived birds ; but Par- 
 rhasius has deceived Zeuxis himself. Parrha- 
 sius grew so vain of his art, that he clothed 
 himself in purple, and wore a crowoi of gold, 
 calling himself the king of painters. Plut. in, 
 Thes. d,e Poet. and. — Paus. 1, c. 28. — Plin. 35, 
 
 V. 10. — Horat. 4, od. 8. II. A son of Jupiter, 
 
 or, according to some, of Mars, by a nymph 
 called Philonomia. 
 
 Partheni^ and Parthenh, a certain num- 
 ber of desperate citizens of Sparta. During the 
 Messenian war, the Spartans were absent from 
 their city for the space of ten years, and it was 
 unlawful for them to return, as they had bound 
 themselves by a solemn oath not to revisit Spar- 
 ta before they had totally subdued Messenia. 
 This long absence alarmed the Lacedaemonian 
 women, as well as the magistrates. The Spar- 
 tans were reminded by their wives, that if they 
 continued in their resolution, the state must at 
 last decay for want of citizens; and when they 
 had duly considered this embassy, they empow- 
 ered all the young men in the army, who had 
 come to the war while yet under age, and who 
 therefore were not bound by the oath, to return 
 to Sparta, and, by a familiar and promiscuous 
 intercourse with all the unmarried women of 
 the state, to raise a future generation. It was 
 carried into execution, and the children that 
 sprang from this union were called Partheniae, 
 or sons of virgins, (tuoSsi/o?.) The war with 
 Messenia was some time after ended, and the 
 Spartans returned victorious ; but the cold in- 
 difference with which they looked upon the 
 Parthenias was attended with serious conse- 
 ■ quences. They joined with the Helots, and it 
 was mutually agreed to murder all the citizens 
 of Sparta, and to seize their possessions. This 
 massacre was to be done at a general assembly, 
 and the signal was the throwing of a cap in the 
 air. The whole, however, was discovered 
 through the diffidence and apprehensions of the 
 Helots; and when the people had assembled, 
 the Parthenise discovered that all was known, 
 by the voice of a crier, who proclaimed that no 
 man should throw up his cap. The Partheniae, 
 
 though apprehensive of punishment, were not 
 visibly treated with greater severity; their ca- 
 lamitous condition was attentively examined, 
 and the Spartans, afraid of another conspiracy, 
 and awed by their numbers, permitted them to 
 sail for Italy, with Phalantus, their ringleader, 
 at their head. They settled in Magna Graecia, 
 and built Tarentum, about 707 years before 
 Christ. Justin. 3, c. 5. — Strab. 6. — Paus. in 
 Jjacon. &c. — Plut. in Apoph. 
 
 Parthenius, a Greek writer, whose romance 
 de Amotoriis Affectionibus has been edited in 
 12mo. Basil. 1531. 
 
 Parysatis, a Persian princess, wife of Darius 
 Ochus, by whom she had Artaxerxes Mnenon 
 and Cyrus the younger. The death of Cyrus, 
 at the battle of Cunaxa, was revenged with the 
 grossest barbarity, and Parysatis sacrificed to 
 her resentment all such as she found concerned 
 in his fall. She also poisoned Statira, the wife 
 of his son Artaxerxes, and ordered one of the 
 eunuchs of the court to be flayed alive, and his 
 skin to be stretched on two poles before her eyes, 
 because he had, by order of the king, cut off the 
 hand and the head of Cyrus. These cruelties 
 offended Artaxerxes, and he ordered his mother 
 to be confined in Babylon ; but they were soon 
 after reconciled, and Parysatis regained all her 
 power and influence till the time of her death, 
 Plut. in Art. — Ctes. 
 
 Passienus, (Paulus,) I. a Romaji knight, 
 nephew to the poet Propertius, whose elegiac 
 compositions he imitated. He likewise at- 
 tempted lyric poetry, and with success, and 
 chose for his model the writings of Horace. 
 Plin. ep. 6 and 9. II. Crispus, a man dis- 
 tinguished as an orator, but more as the hus- 
 band of Domitia and afterwards of Agrippina, 
 Nero's mother, &c. Tacit Ann. 6, c. 20. 
 
 Patercijlus, I. a Roman, whose daughter, 
 Sulpicia, was pronounced the chastest matron 
 at Rome. Plm. 7, c. 35. — —II. Velleius, an 
 historian. Vid. Velleius. 
 
 Patizithes, one of the Persian Magi, who 
 raised his brother to the throne because he re- 
 sembled Smerdis, the brother of Cambyses, 
 &c. Herodot. 3, c. 61. 
 
 Patroclus, one of the Grecian chiefs during 
 the Trojan war, son of Menoetius by Sthenele, 
 whom some called Philomela,or Polymela. The 
 accidental murder of Clysonymus, the son of 
 Amphidamus, in the time of his youth, obliged 
 him to fly from Opus, where his father reigned. 
 He retired to the court of Peleus, king of Phthia, 
 where he was kindly received, and where he 
 contracted the most intimate friendship with 
 Achilles, the monarch's son. When his friend 
 refused to appear in the field of battle, because 
 he had been offended by Agamemnon, Patro- 
 clus imitated his example, and by his absence 
 was the cause of the overthrow of the Greeks. 
 But at last Nestor prevailed on him to return to 
 the war, and Achilles permitted him to appear 
 in his armour. The valour of Patroclus, to- 
 gether with the terror which the sight of the 
 arms of Achilles inspired, soon routed the vic- 
 torious arms of the Trojans, and obligred them 
 to fly within their walls for safety. He would 
 have broken down the walls of the city; but 
 Apollo, who hadinterestedhimself for the Tru- 
 jans, placed himself to oppose them, and Hector, 
 at the instigation of the ?od, dismounted from 
 533 
 
PA 
 
 HISTORY, &G. 
 
 PA 
 
 his chariot to attack him, as he attempted to 
 strip one of the Trojans whom he had slain. 
 The engagement was obstinate, but at last Pa- 
 troclus was overpowered by the valour of Hec- 
 tor and the interposition of Apollo. His arms 
 became the property of the conqueror, and Hec- 
 tor would have severed his head from his body 
 had not Ajax and Menelaus intervened. His 
 body was at last recovered, and carried to the 
 Grecian camp, where Achilles received it with 
 the bitterest lamentations. His funeral was ob- 
 served with the greatest solemnity. Achilles 
 sacrificed near the burning pile twelve young 
 Trojans, besides four of their horses and two of, 
 his dogs ; and the whole was concluded by the 
 exhibition of funeral games, in which the con- 
 querors were liberally rewarded by Achilles. 
 The death of Patroclus, as it is described by 
 Homer, gave rise to new events ; Achilles for- 
 got his resentment against Agamemnon, and 
 entered the field to avenge the fall of his friend, 
 and his anger was gratified only by the slaugh- 
 ter of Hector, who had more powerfully kindled 
 his wrath by appearing at the head of the Tro- 
 jan armies in the armour which had been taken 
 from the body of Patroclus. The patronymic 
 of Aciorides is often applied to Patroclus, be- 
 cause Actor was father to Mencetius. Dictys 
 Cret. 4, &c. — Homer. 11. 9, &c. — Apollod. 3, c. 
 13.— Hy gin. fab. 97 and 216.— Ovid. Met. 13, 
 V. 273. 
 
 Paula, the first wife of the emperor Helio- 
 gabalus. She was daughter of the prefect of 
 the pretorian guards. The emperor divorced 
 her, and Paula retired to solitude and obscurity 
 with composure. 
 
 Paulina, I. a Roman lady who married Sa- 
 lurninus, a governor of Syria, in the reign of 
 the emperor Tiberius. Her conjugal peace was 
 disturbed, and violence was offered to her vir- 
 tue by a young man named Mundus, who was 
 enamoured of her, and who had caused her to 
 come to the temple of Isis by means of the priests 
 of the goddess, who declared that Anubis wish- 
 ed to communicate to her something of moment. 
 Saturninus complained to the emperor of the 
 violence which had been offered to his wife, 
 and the temple of Isis was overturned and 
 Mundus banished, &c, Joseph. A. 18, c. 4 
 
 II. The wife of the philosopher Seneca, who 
 attempted to kill herself when Nero had or- 
 dered her husband to die. The emperor, how- 
 ever, prevented her, and she lived some few 
 days after, in the greatest melancholy. Tacit. 
 Ann. 15, c. 63, &c. 
 
 Paulinus Pompeius, I. an officer in Nero's 
 reign, who had the command of the German 
 armies, and finished the works on the banks of 
 the Rhine, which Drusus had begun 63 years 
 before. Tacit. Ann. 13, c. 53. — Sttetonius. 
 
 II. A Roman general, the first who crossed 
 
 mount Atlas with an army. He wrote a history 
 of this expedition in Africa, which is lost. Pau- 
 linus also distinguished himself in Britain, &c. 
 He followed the arms of Otho against Vitellius. 
 Plin. 5, c. 1. 
 
 Paulus jEmylius, I. a Roman, son of the 
 iEmylius who fell at Cannae, was celebrated for 
 his victories, and received the surname of Mace- 
 donicus from his conquest of Macedonia. In 
 his first consulship his arms were directed 
 against the Ligurians, whom he totally sub- 
 534 
 
 jected. His applications for a second consul- 
 ship proved abortive ; but when Perseus, the 
 king of Macedonia, had declared war a ainst 
 Rome, the abilities of Paulus were remembered, 
 and he was honoured with the consulship about 
 the 60th year of his age. Afier this appoint- 
 ment he behaved with uncommon vigour, and 
 soon a general engagement was fought near 
 Pydna. The Romans obtained the victory, 
 and Perseus saw himself deserted by all his sub- 
 jects. In two days the conqueror made him- 
 self master of all Macedonia, and soon after the 
 fugitive monarch was brought into his presence. 
 Paulus did not exult over his fallen enemy; but 
 when he had gently rebuked him for his temer- 
 ity in attacking the Romans, he had addressed 
 himself in a pathetic speech to the officers of his 
 army who surrounded him, and feelingly en- 
 larged on the instability of fortune and vi- 
 cissitude of all human affairs. When he had 
 finally settled the government of Macedonia 
 with ten commissioners from Rome, and after 
 he had sacked 70 cities of Epirus, and divided 
 the booty among his soldiers, Paulus returned 
 to Italy. He was .received with the usual ac- 
 clamations, and though some of the seditious 
 soldiers attempted to prevent his triumphal entry 
 into the capitol, yet three days were appointed 
 to exhibit the fruits of his victories. Perseus, 
 with his wretched family, adorned the triumph 
 of the conqueror ; and as they were dragged 
 through the streets, before the chariot of Paulus, 
 they drew tears of compassion from the people. 
 The riches which the Romans derived from this 
 conquest were immense, and the people were 
 freed from all taxes till the consulship of Hir- 
 tius and Pansa; but while every one of the cit- 
 izens received somebenefit from the victories of 
 Paulus, the conqueror himself was poor, and ap- 
 propriated for his own use nothing of the Mace- 
 donian treasures except the library of Perseus. 
 In the office of censor, to which he was after- 
 wards elected, Paulus behaved with the greatest 
 moderation, and at his death, which happened 
 about 168 years before the Christian era, not 
 only the Romans, but their very enemies con- 
 fessed, by their lamentations, the loss which 
 they had sustained. He had married Papiria, 
 by whom he had two sons, one of which was 
 adopted by the family of Maximus, and the 
 other in that of Scipio Africanus. He had also 
 two daughters, one of whom married a son of 
 Cato, and the other jiElius Tubero. He after- 
 wards divorced Papiria; and when his friends 
 wished to reprobate his conduct in doing so, by 
 observing that she was young and handsome, 
 and that she had made him father of a fine 
 family, Paulus replied, that the shoe which he 
 then wore was new and well-made, but that he 
 was obliged to leave it off, though no one but 
 himself, as he said, knew where it pinched him. 
 He married a second wife, by whom he had two 
 sons, whose sudden death exhibited to the Ro- 
 mans, in the most engaging view, their father's 
 philosophy and stoicism. The elder of these 
 sons died five days before Paulus triumphed 
 over Perseus, and the other, three days after the 
 public procession. This domestic calamity did 
 not shake the firmness of the conqueror ; yet 
 before he retired to a private station, he ha- 
 rangued the people, and in mentioning the se- 
 verity of fortune upon his family, he expressed 
 
PA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PE 
 
 his wish that every evil might be averted from 
 the republic by the sacrifice of the domestic 
 prosperity of an individual. Plut. in vita. — 
 
 Liv. 43, 44, &c. — Justin. 33, c. 1, &c. II. 
 
 Maximus. Vid. Maximus Fabius. III. iEgi- 
 
 neia, a Greek physician, whose work was ed- 
 ited apud Aid. fol. 1528. IV. L. iEmylius, a 
 
 consul, who, when opposed to Annibal in Italy, 
 checked the rashness of his colleague Varro, 
 and recommended an imitation of the conduct 
 of the great Fabius, by harassing and not facing 
 the enemy in the field. His advice was reject- 
 ed, and the battle of Cannae, so glorious to An- 
 nibal, and so fatal to Rome, soon followed. 
 PauJus was wounded ; but when he might have 
 escaped from the slaughter, by accepting a horse 
 generously offered by one of his officers, he 
 disdained to fly, and perished by the darts of 
 the enemy. Horat. od. 12, v. 2S.—Liv. 22, c. 39. 
 Pausanias, T. a Spartan general, who greatly 
 signalized himself at the battle of Platasa against 
 the Persians ; but the haughtiness of his behav- 
 iour created him many enemies, and the Athe- 
 nians soon obtained a superiority in the affairs 
 of Greece. Pausanias was dissatisfied with his 
 countrymen, and he offered to beiray Greece to 
 the Persians, if he received in marriage, as the 
 reward of his perfidy, the daughter of their 
 monarch. His intrigues were discovered by 
 means of a youth, who was intrusted with his 
 letters to Persia, and who refused to go, on the 
 recollection that such as had been einployed in 
 that office before had never returned. The 
 letters were given to the Ephori of Sparta, and 
 the perfidy of Pausanias laid open. He fled for 
 safety to a temple of Minerva, and as the sanc- 
 tity of the place screened him from the violence 
 of his pursuers, the sacred building was sur- 
 rounded with heaps of stones, the first of which 
 was carried there by the indignant mother of the 
 unhappy man. He was starved to death in the 
 temple, and died about 471 years before the 
 Christian era. There was a festival and solemn 
 games instituted in his honour, in which only 
 freeborn Spartans contended. There was also 
 an oration spoken in his praise, in which his 
 actions were celebrated, particularly the battle 
 of Plataea and the defeat of Mardonius. C. Nep. 
 in vita. — Plut. in Arist. (^ Them. — Herodot. 
 
 9. II. Another, at the court of King Philip, 
 
 He was grossly and unnaturally abused by At- 
 talus, one of the friends of Philip, and when he 
 complained of the injuries he had received, the 
 king in some measure disresrarded his remon- 
 strances. This incensed Pausanias; he resolved 
 to revenge himself, and stabbed Philip as he en- 
 tered a public theatre. After this bloody action 
 he attempted to make his escape to his chariot, 
 which waited for him at the door of the city, 
 but he was stopped accidentally by the twig of 
 a vine, and fell down. Atialus, Perdiccas, and 
 other friends of Philip, who pursued him, im- 
 mediately fell upon him and despatched him. 
 Some support that Pausanias committed this 
 murder at the instigation of Olympias, the wife 
 of Philip, and of her son Alexander. Diod. 16. 
 — Justin. 9. — Plut. in Apoph. III. A cele- 
 brated orator and historian,who settled at Rome, 
 A. D. 170, where he died in a very advanced 
 age. He wrote a history of Greece in ten 
 books, in the Ionic dialect, in which he gives, 
 with great precision and geographical know- 
 
 ledge, an account of the situation of its different 
 cities, their antiquities, and the several curios- 
 ities which they contained. He has also inter- 
 woven mythology in his historical account, and 
 introduced many fabulous traditions and super- 
 stitious stories. In each book the author treats 
 of a separate country, such as Attica, Arcadia, 
 Messenia, Elis, &c. Some suppose that he gave 
 a similar description of Phoenicia and Syria. 
 , There was another Pausanias, a native of Caesa- 
 rea in Cappadocia, who wrote some declama- 
 tions, and who is often confounded with the his- 
 torian of that name. The best edition of Pau- 
 sanias is that- of Khunius, fol. Lips. 1696. 
 
 IV. A king of Sparta, of the family of the Eu- 
 rysthenidae, who died 397 B. C, after a reign of 
 14 years. 
 
 Pausias, a painter of Sicyon, the first who 
 understood how to apply colours to wood or 
 ivory by means of fire. He made a beautiful 
 painting of his mistress, Glycere, whom he rep- 
 resented as sitting on the ground and making 
 garlands with flowers, and from this circum- 
 stance the picture, which was bought afterwards 
 by Lucullus for two talents, received the name 
 of Stephanoplocon. Some lime after the death 
 of Pausias, the Sicyonians were obliged to part 
 with the pictures they possessed to deliver them- 
 selves from an enormous debt, and M. Scaurus, 
 the Roman, bought them all, in which were 
 those of Pausias, to adorn the theatre, which 
 had been built during his edileship. Pausias 
 lived about 350 years before Christ. Plin. 35, 
 c. 11. 
 
 Pedius Bljesus, I. a Roman, accused by the 
 people of Cyrene of plundering the temple of 
 jEsculapius. He was condemned under Nero, 
 
 &c. Tacit. Ann. 14, c. 18. II. A nephew 
 
 of Julius Caesar, who commanded one of his 
 legions in Gaul, &c. III, Poplicola, a law- 
 yer in the age of Horace. His father was one 
 of J. Caesar's heirs, and became consul with 
 Augustus, after Pansa's death. 
 
 Pelasgi. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Peleus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Pelopeia, a festival observed by the people 
 of Elis in honour of Pelops. It was kept in 
 imitation of Hercules, who sacrificed to Pe- 
 lops in a trench, as it was usual, when the 
 manes and the infernal gods were the objects 
 of worship. 
 
 Pelopidas, a celebrated general of Thebes, 
 son of Hippoclus. He was descended of an 
 illustrious family, and was remarkable for his 
 immense possessions, which he bestowed with 
 great liberality to the poor and necessitous. 
 Many were the objects of his generosity ; but 
 when Epaminondas had refused to accept his 
 presents, Pelopidas disregarded all his wealth 
 and preferred before it the enjoyment of his 
 friend's conversation and of his poverty. From 
 their friendship and intercourse the Thebans 
 derived the most considerable advantages. No 
 sooner had the interest of Sparta prevailed at 
 Thebes, and the friends of liberty and national 
 independence been banished from the city, than 
 Pelopidas, who was in the number of the ex- 
 iles, resolved to free his country from foreign 
 slavery. His plan was bold and animated, and 
 his deliberations were slow. Meanwhile Epa- 
 minondas, who had been left by the tyrants at 
 Thebes, as being in appearance a worthless and 
 535 
 
PE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PE 
 
 insignificant philosopher, animated the youths 
 of the city, and at last Pelopidas, with eleven 
 of his associates, entered Thebes, and easily 
 massacred the friends of the tyranny, and freed 
 the country from foreign masters. After this 
 successful enterprise,Pelopidas was unanimous- 
 ly placed at the head of the government ; and so 
 confident were the Thebans of his abilities as a 
 general and a magistrate, that they successively 
 re-elected him 13 times to fill the honourable 
 oflice of governor of Boeotia. Epaminondas 
 shared with him the sovereign power, and it 
 was to their valour and prudence that the The- 
 bans were indebted for a celebrated victory at 
 the battle of Leuctra. In a war which Thebes 
 carried on against Alexander, tyrant of Pherae, 
 Pelopidas was appointed commander ; but his 
 imprudence in trusting himself unarmed into 
 the enemy's camp nearly proved fatal to him. 
 He was taken prisoner, but Epaminondas re- 
 stored him to liberty. The perfidy of Alexander 
 irritated him, and he was killed, bravely fighting 
 in a celebrated battle in which his troops ob- 
 tained the victory, B. C. 364 years, Pelopidas 
 is admired for his valour, as he never engaged 
 an enemy without obtaining the advantage. It 
 has been justly observed, that with Pelopidas 
 and Epaminondas the glory and the independ- 
 ence of the Thebans rose and set. Plut. <f« 
 C. Kep. in vita. — Xenoph. Hist. G. — Diod. 15. — 
 Polijb. 
 
 Peloponnesiacum Bellum, a celebrated 
 war, which continued for 27 years between the 
 Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus 
 with their respective allies. The circumstances 
 which gave birth to this memorable war are 
 these : the power of Athens, under the prudent 
 and vigorous administration of Pericles, was al- 
 ready extended over Greece, and it had procu- 
 red itself many admirers and more enemies, 
 when the Corcyreans,w^ho had been planted by 
 a Corinthian colony, refused to pay to their 
 founders those marks of respect and reverence 
 which, among the Greeks, every colony was 
 obliged to pay to its mother-country. The Co- 
 rinthians wished to punish that infidelity ; and 
 when the people ofEpidamus, a considerable 
 town on the Adriatic, had been invaded by some 
 of the barbarians of Illyricum, the people of Co- 
 rinth gladly granted to the Epidaranians that 
 assistance which had in vain been solicited from 
 the Corcyreans, their founders and their patrons. 
 The Corcyreans were ofiended at the interfer- 
 ence of Corinth in the affairs of their colony ; 
 they manned a fleet, and obtained a victory over 
 the Corinthian vessels which had assisted the 
 Epidamnians. The subsequent conduct of the 
 Corcyreans, and their insolence to some of the 
 Elians who had furnished a few ships to the 
 Corinthians, provoked thePeloponnesians, and 
 the discontent became general. The Lacedae- 
 monians, who had long beheld with concern and 
 with jealousy the ambitious power of the Athe- 
 nians, determined to support the cause of the 
 Corinthians. However, before they proceeded 
 to hostilities, an embassy was sent to Athens to 
 represent the danger of entering into a war with 
 the most powerful and flourishing of all the 
 Grecian states, and the answer which was re- 
 turned to the Spartans, was taken as a declara- 
 tion of war. The Spartans were supported by 
 all the republics of the Peloponnesus, except 
 536 
 
 Argos and part of Achaia, besides the people of 
 Megara, Boeotia, Phocis, Locris, Leucas, Am- 
 bracia, and Anactorium. The Plataeans, the 
 Lesbians, Carians, Chians, Messenians, Acar- 
 nanians, Zacynthians, Corcyreans,Dorians, and 
 Thracians, were the friends of the Athenians, 
 with all the Cyclades, except Euboea, Samos, 
 Melos, and Thera. The first blow had already 
 been struck. May 7, B. C. 431, by an attempt 
 of the Boeotians to surprise Platoea ; and there- 
 fore Archidamus king of Sparta, who had in 
 vain recommended moderation to the allies, en- 
 tered Attica, at the head of an army of 60,000 
 men, and laid waste the country by fire and 
 sword. Pericles, who was at the head of the 
 government, did not attempt to oppose them in 
 the field ; but a fleet of one himdred and fifty ships 
 set sail without delay, to ravage the coast of 
 the Peloponnesus. Megara was also depopu- 
 lated by an army of 20,000 men ; and the cam- 
 paign of the first year of the war was concluded 
 in celebrating, with the most solemn pomp, the 
 funerals of such as had nobly fallen in battle. 
 The following year was remarkable for a pes- 
 tilence which raged in Athens, and which de- 
 stroyed the greatest part of the inhabitants. The 
 public calamity was still heightened by the ap- 
 proach of the Peloponnesian army on the bor- 
 ders of Attica, and by the unsuccessful expedi- 
 tion of the Athenians against Epidaurus and 
 in Thrace, The pestilence which had carried 
 away so many of the Athenians proved also 
 fatal to Pericles, and he died about two years 
 and six months after the commencement of the 
 Peloponnesian war. The following years did 
 not give rise to decisive events ; but, some time 
 after, Demosthenes, the Athenian general, inva- 
 ded ^tolia, where his arms were attended with 
 the greatest success. He also fortified Pylos in 
 the Peloponnesus, and gained so many advan- 
 tages over the confederates, that they sued for 
 peace, which the insolence of Athens refused. 
 The fortune of war soon after changed, and 
 the Lacedaemonians, under the prudent conduct 
 of Brasidas, made themselves masters of many 
 valuable places in Thrace. But this victorious 
 progress was soon stopped by the death of their 
 general, and that of Cleon, the Athenian com- 
 mander; and the pacific disposition ofNicias, 
 who was now at the head of Athens, made over- 
 tures of peace and universal tranquillity. Plis- 
 toanax, the king of the Spartans, wished them 
 to be accepted; but the intrigues of the Corin- 
 thians prevented the discontinuation of the war, 
 and therefore hostilities began anew. But while 
 war was carried on with various success in dif- 
 ferent parts of Greece, the Athenians engaged 
 in a new expedition ; they yielded to the per- 
 suasive eloquence of Gorgias of Leontium, and 
 the ambitious views of Alcibiades, and sent a 
 fleet of 20 ships to assist the Sicilian states 
 against the tyrannical power of Syracuse, B. 
 C. 416, Syracuse implored the assistance oi 
 Corinth, and Gylippns was sent to direct her 
 operations, and to defend her against the power 
 of her enemies. After a campaign of two years 
 of bloodshed, the fleets of Athens were totally 
 ruined, and the few soldiers that survived the 
 destructive siege made prisoners of war, Al- 
 cibiades, who had been treated with cruelty by 
 his countrymen, and who had for some time 
 resided in Sparta, and directed her military 
 
PE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PE 
 
 operations, now exerted himself to defeat the 
 designs of the confederates, by inducing the 
 Persians to espouse the cause of his country. 
 The Athenians soon after obtained a naval vic- 
 tory, and the Peloponnesian fleet was defeated 
 by Alcibiades. The Athenians beheld with 
 rapture the success of their arms : but when 
 their fleet, in the absence of Alcibiades, had been 
 defeated and destroyed, near Andros, by Lysan- 
 der, the Lacedsemonian admiral, they showed 
 their discontent and mortification by eagerly 
 listening to the accusations which were brought 
 against their naval leader, to whom they grate- 
 fully had acknowledged themselves indebted 
 for their former victories. Alcibiades was dis- 
 graced in the public assembly, and ten com- 
 mginders were appointed to succeed him in the 
 management of the republic. This change of 
 admirals, and the appointment of Callicratidas 
 to succeed Lysander, whose office had expired 
 with the year, produced new operations. The 
 Athenians fitted out a fleet, and the two nations 
 decided their superiority near Arginusas, in a 
 naval battle. Callicratidas was killed, and the 
 Lacedaemonians conquered ; but the rejoicings 
 which the intelligence of this victory occasioned 
 were soon stopped, when it was known that the 
 wrecks of some of the disabled ships of the 
 Athenians, and the bodies of the slain had not 
 been saved from the sea. The admirals were 
 accused in the tumultuous assembly, and im- 
 mediately condemned. Lysander was again 
 placed at the head of the Peloponnesian forces, 
 instead of Eteonicus, who had succeeded to 
 the command at the death of Callicratidas. 
 The superiority of the Athenians over that of 
 the Peloponnesians, rendered the former inso- 
 lent, proud, and negligent ; and when they had 
 imprudently forsaken their ships to indulge 
 their indolence, or pursue their amusements on 
 the seashore at ^gospotamos, Lysander at- 
 tacked their fleet, and his victory was complete. 
 Of one hundred and eighty sail, only nine es- 
 caped ; eight of which fled, under the command 
 of Conon, to the island of Cyprus, and the other 
 carried to Athens the melancholy news of the 
 defeat. The Athenian prisoners were all mas- 
 sacred ; and when the Peloponnesian conquer- 
 ors had extended their dominion over the states 
 and communities of Europe and Asia, which 
 formerly acknowledged the power of Athens, 
 they returned home to finish the war by the re- 
 duction of the capital of Attica. The siege was 
 carried on with vigour, and supported with firm- 
 ness ; and the first Athenian who mentioned 
 capitulation to his countrymen, was instantly 
 sacrificed to the fury and the indignation of the 
 populace, and all the citizens unanimously de- 
 clared, that the same moment would terminate 
 their independence and their lives. This ani- 
 mated language, however, was not long con- 
 tinued. During four months, negociations were 
 carried on with the Spartans by the aristocrati- 
 cal part of the Athenians, and at last it was 
 agreed that, to establish the peace, the fortifica- 
 tions of the Athenian harbours must be demol- 
 ished, together with the long walls which join- 
 ed them to the city ; all their ships, except 12, 
 ■were to be surrendered to the enemy ; they were 
 to resign every pretension to their ancient do- 
 minions abroad ; to recall from banishment all 
 the members of the late aristocracy ; to follow 
 Part II.— 3 Y 
 
 the Spartans in war ; and, in time of peace, to 
 frame the constitution according to the will and 
 the prescriptions of their Peloponnesian con- 
 querors. The terms were accepted, and the 
 enemy entered the harbour, and took possession 
 of the city that very day on which the Atheni- 
 ans had been accustomed to celebrate the anni- 
 versary of the immortal victory which their an- 
 cestors had obtained over the Persians, about 7G 
 . years before, near the island of Salamls. The 
 walls and fortifications were instantly levelled 
 with the ground ; and the conquerors observed, 
 that, in the demolition of Athens, succeeding 
 ages would fix the era of Grecian freedom. 
 The day was concluded with a festival, and the 
 recitation of one of the tragedies of Euripides, in 
 which the misfortunes of the daughter of Aga- 
 memnon, who was reduced to misery, and ban- 
 ished from her father's kingdom, excited a kin- 
 dred sympathy in the bosom of the audience, 
 who melted into tears at the recollection that 
 one moment had likewise reduced to misery and 
 servitude the capital of Attica, which was once 
 called the common patroness of Greece and the 
 scourge of Persia. This memorable event hap- 
 pened about 404 years before the Christian era, 
 and 30 tyrants were appointed by Lysander over 
 the government of the city. Xen. Grac. Hist. 
 — Phit. in. Lys. Per. Alcib. Nic. <^ Ages. — Di- 
 od. — 11, &c. — Aristophan. — TTiur.yd. — Plato. — 
 Arist. I/ycias. — Isocrates. — C. Nep. in Lys. 
 Alcib. &c. — Cic. in off. 1, 24. 
 
 Penelope, a celebrated princess of Greece, 
 daughter of Icarius, and wife of Utysses, king 
 of Ithaca. Her marriage with Ulysses was cele- 
 brated about the same time that Menelaus mar- 
 ried Helen, and she retired with her husband to 
 Ithaca, against the inclination of her father, who 
 wished to detain her at Sparta, her native coim- 
 try. She soon after became mother of Telema- 
 chus, and was obliged to part with great reluc- 
 tance from her husband, whom the Greeks obli- 
 ged to go to the Trojan war. Vid. Palamedes. 
 She was soon beset by a number of importuning 
 suiters, who wished her to believe that her hus- 
 band was shipwrecked, and that therefore she 
 ought not longer to expect his return, but forget 
 his loss, and fix her choice and aflections on one 
 of her numerous admirers. She received their 
 addresses with coldness and disdain ; but as she 
 was destitute of power, and a prisoner, as it were, 
 in their hands, she yet flattered them with hopes 
 and promises, and declared that she would make 
 choice of one of them as soon as she had finish- 
 ed a piece of tapestry on which she was employ- 
 ed. The work was done in a dilatory manner, 
 and she baffled their eager expectations, by un- 
 doing in the ' night what she had done in the 
 daytime. This artifice of Penelope has given 
 rise to the proverb of Penelope's locb. which is 
 applied to whatever labour can never be ended. 
 The return of Ulysses, after an absence of 
 twenty years, however, delivered her from fears 
 and from her dangerous suiters. Penelope is 
 described by Homer as a model of female virtue 
 and chastity ; but some more modern writers dis- 
 pute her claims to modest}'- and continence, and 
 they represent her as the most voluptuous of her 
 sex. After the return of Ulysses, Penelope had 
 a daughter, who was called" Ptoliporthe; but if 
 we believe the traditions that were longpreserv- 
 ed at Mantinea, Ulvsses repudiated his wife 
 '537 
 
PE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PE 
 
 for her incontinence during his absence, and 
 Penelope fled to Sparta, and afterwards to Man- 
 tinea, where she died and was buried. After 
 the death of Ulysses, according to Hyginus, she 
 married Telegonus, her husband's son by Circe, 
 by order of the goddess Minerva. Some say that 
 her original name was Arnea, or Amirace, and 
 that she was called Penelope, when some river 
 birds, called penelopes, had saved her from the 
 waves of the sea when her father had exposed 
 her. Icarius had attempted to destroy her, be- 
 cause the oracles had told him that his daughter 
 by Periboea would be the most dissolute of her 
 sex and a disgrace to her family. Apollod. 3, c. 
 10.— Pans. 3, c. 12.— Homer. 11. (^ Od.— Ovid. 
 Her Old. 1. Met. — Aristot. Hist. anim. 8. — Hy- 
 gin. fab. 127. — Aristoph. in Avib. — Plin. 37. 
 
 Penthilus, a son of Orestes by Erigone, the 
 daughter of ^gysthus, who reigned conjointly 
 with his brother Tisamenus at Argos. He was 
 driven some time after from his throne by the 
 HeraclidaB,and he retired to Achaia, and thence 
 to Lesbos, where he planted a colony. Paus. 5. 
 c. 4.—Strab. 13.— Paterc. 1, c. 1. 
 
 Penthylus, a prince of Paphos, who assisted 
 Xerxes with 12 ships. He was seized by the 
 Greeks, to whom he communicated many im- 
 portant things concerning the situation of the 
 Persians, &c. Herodot. 7, c. 195. 
 
 Perdiccas, I. the fourth king of Macedonia, 
 B. C, 729, was descended from Temenus. He 
 increased his dominions by conquest, and in the 
 latter part of his life he showed his son Argeus 
 where he wished to be buried, and told him that 
 as long as the bones of his descendants and suc- 
 cessors to the throne of Macedonia were laid in 
 the same grave, so long would the crown remain 
 in the family. These injunctions were observed 
 till the time of Alexander, who was buried out 
 of Macedonia. Herodot. 7 and 8. — Justin. 7, c. 2. 
 II. Another king of Macedonia, son of Alex- 
 ander. He reigned during the Peloponnesian 
 war, and assisted the Lacedaemonians against 
 Athens. He behaved with great courage on the 
 throne, and died B.C. 413, after a long reign of 
 glory and independence, daring which he had 
 subdued some of his barbarian neighbours 
 
 III. Another king of Macedonia, who was sup- 
 ported on his throne by Iphicrates the Athenian, 
 against the intrusions of Pausanias. He was 
 killed in a war against the Illyrians, B. C. 360. 
 Justin. 7, &c. IV. One of the friends and fa- 
 vourites of Alexander the Great. At the king's 
 death he wished to make himself absolute ; and 
 the ring which he had received from the hand of 
 the dying Alexander, seemed in some measure 
 to favour his pretensions. The better to support 
 his claims to the throne, he married Cleopatra, 
 the sister of Alexander, and strengthened him- 
 self by making a league with Eumenes. His 
 ambitious views were easily discovered by Anti- 
 gonus and the rest of the generals of Alexan- 
 der, who all wished, like Perdiccas, to succeed 
 to the kingdom and honours of the deceased 
 monarch. Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, 
 leagued with Antigonus against him, and after 
 much bloodshed on both sides, Perdiccas was 
 totally ruined, and at last assassinated in his 
 tent in Egypt, by his own officers, about 321 
 years before the Christian era. Plut. in Alex. 
 —Diod. 17 and 18.— Curt. 10.— C. Nep. Bum. 
 '-^lian. V. H. 12. 
 
 538 
 
 Perennis, a favourite of the emperor Com- 
 modus. He is described by some as a virtuous 
 and impartial magistrate, while others paint him 
 as a cruel, violent, and oppreseive tyrant, who 
 committed the greatest barbarities to enrich 
 himself He was put to death for aspiring to 
 the empire. Herodian. 
 
 Periander, I a tyrant of Corinth, son of 
 Cypselus. The first years of his government 
 were mild and popular, but he soon learnt to be- 
 come oppressive, when he had consulted the ty- 
 rant of Sicily about the surest way of reigning. 
 He was not only cruel to his subjects, but his 
 family also were objects of his vengeance. He 
 committed incest with his mother, and put to 
 death his wife Melissa, upon false accusation. 
 He also banished his son Lycophron to the 
 island of Corcyra, because the youth pitied and 
 wept at the miserable end of his mother, and de- 
 tested the barbarities of his father. Periander 
 died about 585 years before the Christian era, in 
 his 80th year ; and by the meanness of his flatter- 
 ers he was reckoned one of the seven wise men 
 of Greece. Though he was tyrannical, yet he 
 patronised the fine arts ; he was fond of peace, 
 and he showed himself the friend and protector 
 of genius and of learning. He used to say, that 
 a man ought solemnly to keep his word, but not 
 to hesitate to break it if ever it clashed with his 
 interest. He said, also, that not only crimes 
 ought to be punished, bui also every wicked and 
 corrupt thought. Diog. in vita. — Arist. 5, Po- 
 
 lit. — Patis. 2. II. A tyrant of Ambracia, 
 
 whom some rank with the seven wise men of 
 Greece, and not the tyrant of Corinth. 
 
 Pericles, an Athenian of a noble family, son 
 of Xanthippus and Agariste. He was natu- 
 rally endowed with great powers, which he im- 
 proved by attending the lectures of Damon, of 
 Zeno, and of Anaxagoras. When he took a 
 share in the administration of public affairs, he 
 rendered himself popular by opposing Cimon, 
 who was the favourite of the nobility ; and, to 
 remove every obstacle which stood in the way 
 of his ambition, he lessened the dignity and the 
 power of the court of the Areopagus, which the 
 people had been taught for ages to respect and 
 to venerate. He also attacked Cimon, and 
 caused him to be banished by the ostracism, 
 Thucydides also, who bad succeeded Cimon on 
 his banishment, shared the same fate, and Per- 
 icles remained for 15 years the sole minisier, 
 and, as it may be said, the absolute sovereign of 
 a republic which always showed itself so jeal- 
 ous of its liberties, and which distrusted so 
 much the honesty of her magistrates. In his 
 ministerial capacity, Pericles did not enrich 
 himself, but the prosperity of Athens was the 
 object of his administration. He made war 
 against the Lacedaemonians, and restored the 
 temple of Delphi to the care of the Phocians, 
 who had been illegally deprived of that honour- 
 able trust. He obtained a victory over the Si- 
 cyonians near Nemaea, and waged a successful 
 war against the inhabitants of Samos at the re- 
 quest of his favourite mistress, Aspasia. The 
 Peloponnesian war was fomented by his ambi- 
 tious views. Vid. Peloponnesiacum Bellum. 
 But an unfortunate expedition raised clamours 
 against Pericles, and the enraged popuiace at- 
 tributed all their losses to hira, and condemned 
 him to pay 50 talents. This loss of popular fa- 
 
PE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PE 
 
 vour, by republican caprice, did not so much 
 affect Pericles as the recent death of all his 
 children ; and when the tide of unpopularity 
 was passed by, he was again restored to all his 
 honours, and, if possible, invested with more 
 power and more authority than before ; but the 
 dreadful pestilence which had diminished the 
 number of his family, proved fatal to him, and 
 about 429 years before Christ, in his 70lh year, 
 he fell a sacrifice to that terrible malady which 
 robbed Athens of so many of her citizens. 
 Pericles was for 40 years at the head of the ad- 
 ministration, 25 years with others and 15 alone ; 
 and the flourishing stale of the empire, during 
 his government, gave occasion to the Atheni- 
 ans publicly to lament his loss, and to venerate 
 his memory. As he was expiring, and seem- 
 ingly senseless, his friends that stood around 
 his bed expatiated with warmth on the most 
 glorious actions of his life, and the victories 
 which he had won, when he suddenly interrupt- 
 ed their tears and conversation, by saying, that 
 in mentioning the exploits that he had achiev- 
 ed, and which were common to him with all 
 generals, they had forgot to mention a circum- 
 stance which reflected far greater glory upon 
 him as a minister, a general, and above all, as a 
 man. It is, says he, that not a citizen in Athens 
 has been obliged to put on mourning on my ac- 
 count. The Athenians were so pleased with 
 his eloquence that they compared it to thunder 
 and lightning, and, as to another father of the 
 gods, they gave him the surname of Olympian. 
 Yet great and venerable as this character may 
 appear, we must not forget the follies of Peri- 
 cles. Pericles lost all his legitimate children 
 by the pestilence, and to call a natural son by 
 his own name he was obliged to repeal a law 
 which he had made against spurious children, 
 and which he had enforced with great severity. 
 This son, called Pericles, became one of the ten 
 generals who succeeded Alcibiades in the ad- 
 ministration of affairs, and, like his colleagues, 
 he was condemned to death by the Athenians, 
 after the unfortunate battle of Arginusae, Paus. 
 1, c. 25. — Plut. in vita. — Quintil. 12, c. 9, — 
 Cic. de Orat. 3.—JBlian. V. H. 4, c. 10.— 
 Xenoph. Hist. G. — Thfiicyd. 
 
 Periegetes Dionysius, a poet. Vid. Dio- 
 nysins. 
 
 Perilla, a daughter of Ovid the poet. She 
 was extremely fond of poetry and literature. 
 Ovid. Fast. 3, el. 7, v. 1. 
 
 Perillus, an ingenious artist at Athens, who 
 made a brazen bull for Phalaris, tyrant of Agri- 
 gentum. This machine was fabricated to put 
 criminals to death by burning them alive, and 
 it was such that their cries were like the roar- 
 ing of a bull. When Perillus gave it to Pha- 
 laris, the tyrant made the first experiment upon 
 the donor, and cruelly put him to death by light- 
 ing a slow fire "under the belly of the bull. Plin. 
 34, c. 8. — Ovid, in art. Am. 1, v. 653, in ib. 439. 
 
 Peripatetici, a sect of philosophers at 
 Athens, disciples to Aristotle. They received 
 this name from the place where they were 
 taught, called Peripaton, in the Lyceum, or 
 because they received the philosopher's lectures 
 as they walked, (nEonrarovvre;'). The peripatetics 
 acknowledged the dignity of human nature, and 
 placed their suvimum bonum not in the pleas- 
 ure of passive sensation, but in the due exer- 
 
 cise of the moral and intellectual faculties. 
 Cic. Acad. 2, &c. 
 
 Periphemus, an ancient hero of Greece, to 
 whom Solon sacrificed ai Salamis, by order of 
 the oracle. 
 
 Pero, or Perone, a daughter of Cimon, re- 
 markable for her filial affection. When her fa- 
 ther had been sent to prison, where his judges 
 had condemned him to starve, she supported 
 Jiis life by giving him the milk of her breasts as 
 to her own child. Val. Max. 5, c. 4. 
 
 Perola, a Roman,' who meditated the death 
 of Hannibal in Italy. His father, Pacuvius, 
 dissuaded him from assassinating the Cartha- 
 ginian general. 
 
 Perpenna, (M.) I. a Roman, who conquered 
 Aristonicus in Asia, and took him prisoner. He 
 
 died B. C. 130. II. Another, who joined the 
 
 rebellion of Sertorius, and opposed Pompey. 
 He was defeated by Metellus, and some time 
 after he had the meanness to assassinate Serto- 
 rius, whom he had invited lo his house. He 
 fell into the hands of Pompey, who ordered him 
 to be put to death. Plut. in Sert. — Paterc. 2, 
 c. 30. III. A Greek who obtained the con- 
 sulship at Rome. Val. Mai. 3, c. 4. 
 
 Perseus, or Perses, a son of Philip, king of 
 Macedonia. He distinguished himself like his 
 father, by his enmity to the Romans, and when, 
 he had made sufficient preparations, he declared 
 war against them. When Paulus ^tjas appoint- 
 ed to the command of the Roman armies in 
 Macedonia, Perseus showed his inferiority by 
 his imprudent encampments, and when he had 
 at last yielded to the advice of his officers, who 
 recommended a general engagement,and drawn 
 up his forces near the walls of t^ydna, B. C. 168, 
 he was the first who ruined his own cause, and 
 by flying as soon as the battle was begun, he left 
 the enemy masters of the field. From Pydna, 
 Perseus flew to Samothrace, but he was soon 
 discovered in his obscure retreat, and brought 
 into the presence of the Roman conqueror, 
 where the meanness of his behaviour exposed 
 him to ridicule, and not to mercy. He was car- 
 ried to Rome, aud dragged along the streets of 
 the city to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. 
 His family were also exposed to the sight of the 
 Roman populace, who shed tears on viewing in 
 their streets, dragged like a slave, a monarch 
 who had once defeated their armies, and spread 
 alarm all over Italy by the greatness of his mili- 
 tary preparations and by his bold undertakings. 
 Perseus died in prison, or, according to some, he 
 was put to a shameful death the first year of his 
 captivity. He had two sons, Philip and Alex- 
 ander, and one daughter, whose name is not 
 known. Alexander, the younger of these, was 
 hired to a Roman carpenter, and led the great- 
 est parf of his life in obscurity, till his ingenuity 
 raised him to notice. He was afterwards made 
 secretary to the senate. Liv. 40, &c. — Justin. 
 33, c. 1, &c. — Plut. in Paulo. — Flor. 2, c. 12. — 
 Propert. ^, e\. 12, v. 39. 
 
 Persius FlaccUvS, Aulus, a Latin poet of 
 Volaterrae. He was of an equestrian family, 
 and he made himself known by his intimacy 
 with the most illustrious Romans of the age. 
 The early part of his life was spent in his na- 
 tive town, and at the age of sixteen he was le- 
 moved to Rome, where he studied philosophy 
 under Cornutus the celebrated stoic. He also 
 539 
 
PE 
 
 HISTORY. &c. 
 
 PE 
 
 received the instructions of Paleraon, the gram- 
 marian, and Virginius, the rhetorician. Natu- 
 rally of a mild disposition, his character was un- 
 impeached, his modesty remarkable, and his 
 benevolence universally admired. He distin- 
 guished himself by his satirical humour, and 
 made the faults of the orators and poets of his 
 age the subject of his poems. He did not even 
 spare Nero, and the more effectually to expose 
 the emperor to ridicule, he introduced into his 
 satires some of his verses. The torva mimal- 
 loneis implerunt cornua bombis, with the three 
 following verses, are Nero's according to some. 
 But though he was so severe upon the vicious 
 and ignorant, he did not forget his friendship 
 for Cornutus, and. he showed his regard for his 
 character and abilities by making mention of 
 his name with great propriety in his satires. It 
 was by the advice of his learned preceptor that 
 he corrected one of his poems in which he had 
 compared Nero to Midas, and at his represen- 
 tation he altered the words Auriculas asini 
 Mida rex habet, into Auriculas asini quis non 
 habet ? Persius died in the 30th year of his age, 
 A. D, 62, and left all his books, which consisted 
 of seven hundred volumes, and a large sum of 
 money, to his preceptor; but Cornutus only 
 accepted the books, and returned the money to 
 the sisters and friends of the deceased. The 
 satires of Persius are six in number, blamed by 
 some for the obscurity of style and of language. 
 But though they may appear almost unintelligi- 
 ble to some, it ought to be remembered that they 
 were read with pleasure and with avidity by his 
 contemporaries; and that the only difficulties 
 which now appear to the moderns, arise from 
 their not knowing the various characters which 
 they described, the vices which they lashed, and 
 the errors which they censured. The satires 
 of Persius are generally printed with those of 
 Juvenal, the best editions of which will be found 
 to be Hennin. 4to. L. B. 1695, and Hawkey, 
 12mo. Dublin 1746. The best edition of Per- 
 sius, separate, is that of Meric Casaubon, 12mo. 
 Lond. 1647, Martial. — Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Au- 
 gxist. de Magist. 9. — Lactant. 
 
 Pertinax, Publius Helvius, a Roman empe- 
 ror after the deaib of Commodus. He was de- 
 scended from an obscure family, and, like his 
 father, who was either a slave or the son of a 
 manumitted slave, he for some time followed the 
 mean employment of drying wood and making 
 charcoal . His indigence, however, did not pre- 
 vent him from receiving a liberal education, and 
 indeed he was for some time employed in teach- 
 ing a number of pupils the Greek and Roman 
 languages in Etruria. He left his laborious 
 profession for a military life, and by his valour 
 and intrepidity he gradually rose to offices of 
 the highest trust in the army, and was made 
 consul by M. Aurelius for his emment services. 
 He wa? afterwards intrusted with the govern- 
 ment of Moesia, and at last he presided over the 
 city of Rome as governor. When Commodus 
 was murdered, Pertinax was universally select- 
 ed to succeed to the imperial throne, and his 
 refusal, and the plea of old age and increased 
 infirmities, did not prevent his being saluted 
 emperor and Augustus. He melted all the sil- 
 ver statues which had been raised to his vicious 
 predecessor, and he exposed to public sale all 
 his concubines, his horses, his arms, and all the 
 540 
 
 instruments of his pleasure and extravagance* 
 With the money raised from these he enriched 
 the empire, and was enabled to abolish ail the 
 taxes which Commodus had laid on the rivers, 
 ports, and highways through the empire. This 
 patriotic administration gained him the affection 
 of the worthiest and most discerning of his sub- 
 jects ; but the extravagant and luxurious raised 
 their clamours against him, and when Pertinax 
 attempted to introduce among the pretorian 
 guards that discipline which was so necessary 
 to preserve the peace and tranquillity of Rome, 
 the 'flames of rebellion were kindled, and the 
 minds of the saldiers totally alienated. Pertinax 
 was apprized of this mutiny, but he refused to 
 fly at the hour of danger. He scorned the ad- 
 vice of his friends, who wished him to withdraw 
 from the impending storm, and he unexpect- 
 edly appeared before the seditious pretorians, 
 and, without fear or concern, boldly asked them 
 whether they, who were bound to defend the 
 person of their prince and emperor, were come 
 to betray him and to shed his blood. His un- 
 daunted assurance and his intrepidity would 
 have had the desired effect, and the soldiers had 
 already begun to retire, when one of the most 
 seditious advanced and darted his javelin at the 
 emperor's- breast, exclaiming, 7%e soldiers send 
 you this! The rest immediately followed the 
 example, and Pertinax, mufiimg up his head, 
 and calling upon Jupiter to avenge his death, 
 remained unmoved, and was instantly de- 
 spatched. His head was cut off, and carried 
 upon the point of a spear, as in triumph, to the 
 camp. This happened on the 28th of March, 
 A. D. 193. Pertinax reigned only 87 days, and 
 his death was the more universally lamented as 
 it proceeded from a seditious tumult, and robbed 
 the Roman empire of a wise, virtuous, and be- 
 nevolent emperor. Dio. — HerodioM. — Capitol. 
 
 Peteus, a son of Orneus and grandson of 
 Erechtheus. He reigned in Attica, and became 
 father of Menestheus, who went with the Greeks 
 to the Trojan war. He is represented by some 
 of the ancients as a monster, half a man and 
 half a beast. Apollod. 3, c. 10. — Paus. 10, c. 35. 
 
 Petilii, two tribunes, who accused Scipio 
 Africanus of extortion. 
 
 Petilius, I. a prsEtor, who persuaded the peo- 
 ple of Rome to burn the books which had been 
 found in Numa's tomb, about 400 years after 
 his death. His advice was followed. Plut. in 
 
 JSum. II. A plebeian decemvir, &c. 
 
 III. A governor of the capitol, who stole away 
 the treasures intrusted to his care. He was 
 accused, but, though guilty, he was acquitted as 
 being the friend of Augustus. Horat. 1, Sat. 
 4, v. 94. 
 
 Petreius, I. a Roman soldier, who killed his 
 tribune during the Cimbrian wars, because he 
 hesitated to attack the enemy. He was reward- 
 ed for his valour with a crown of grass. Plin. 
 
 22, c. 6. II. A lieutenant of C. Antonius, 
 
 who defeated the troops of Catiline. He took 
 the part of Pompey against Julius Caesar. 
 When Caesar had been victorious in evervpart 
 of the world, Petreius, who had retired into 
 Africa, attempted to destroy himself by fighting 
 I with his friend, king Juba, in single combat. 
 Juba was killed first, and Petreius obliged one 
 of his slaves to run him through. Sallust. Ca- 
 , til. — Appian. — Cess. 1, Civ. 
 
PH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PH 
 
 Petronius, I. a governor of Egypt, appointed 
 to succeed Gallus. He behaved with great 
 humanity to the Jews, and made war against 
 
 Candace, queen of Ethiopia. Strab. 17. II. 
 
 Maximus, a Roman emperor. Vid. Maximus. 
 
 III. Arbiter, a favourite of the emperor 
 
 Nero, and one of the ministers and associates 
 of all his pleasures and debaucheries. What- 
 ever he did, seemed to be performed with an 
 air of unconcern and negligence ; he was affa- 
 ble in his behaviour, and his wiuicisms and 
 satirical remarks appeared artless and natural. 
 He was appointed proconsul of Bithynia, and 
 afterwards he was rewarded with the consul- 
 ship, in both of which honourable employments 
 he behaved with all the dignity which became 
 one of the successors of a Brutus or a Scipio. 
 Tigellinus, one of Nero's favourites, jealous of 
 his fame, accused him of conspiring against the 
 emperor's life. The accusation was credited, 
 and Petronius immediately resolved to with- 
 draw himself from Nero's punishment, by a vol- 
 untary death. This was performed in a man- 
 ner altogether unprecedented, A. D. &Q. Pe- 
 tronius ordered his veins to be opened, but with- 
 out the eagerness of terminating his agonies he 
 had them closed at intervals. Some time after 
 they were opened, and, as if he wished to die 
 in the same careless and unconcerned manner 
 as he had lived, he passed his time in discours- 
 ing with his friends upon trifles, and listened 
 with the greatest avidity to love verses, amusing 
 stories, or laughable epigrams. Sometimes he 
 manumitted his slaves or punished them with 
 stripes. In this ludici'ous manner he spent his 
 last moments, till nature was exhausted ; and 
 before he expired, he wrote an epistle to the 
 emperor, in which he has described, with a mas- 
 terly hand, his nocturnal extravagances and the 
 daily impurities of his actions. This letter was 
 carefully sealed, and after he had conveyed it 
 privately to the emperor, Petronius broke his 
 signet, that it might not, after his death, become 
 a snare to the innocent. He is the author of 
 many elegant but obscene compositions, still 
 extant, among which is a poem on the civil 
 wars of Pompey and Csesar, superior, in some 
 respects, to the Pharsalia of Lucan. There is 
 also the feast of Trimalcion, in which he paints 
 with too much licentiousness the pleasures and 
 the debaucheries of a corrupted court of an ex- 
 travagant monarch — reflections on the instabil- 
 ity of human life — a poem on the vanity of 
 dreams — another on the education of the Ro- 
 man youth — two treatises, &c. The best edi- 
 tions of Petronius are those of Burman, 4to. 
 Utr. 1709, and Reinesius, 8vo. 1731. 
 
 Peucestes, a Macedonian, set over Egypt by 
 Alexander. He received Persia, at the general 
 division of the Macedonian empire at the king's 
 •death. He behaved with great cowardice after 
 he had joined himself to Eumenes, C. Nep. in 
 Bum.— Pint.— Curt. 4, c. 8. 
 
 Ph^don, I. an Athenian, put to death by the 
 30 tyrants. His daughters, to escape the op- 
 pressors and preserve their chastitv, threw 
 themselves together into a well. II. A dis- 
 ciple of Socrates. He had been seized by 
 pirates in his younger days, and the philoso- 
 pher, who seemed to discover something un- 
 common and promising in his countenance, 
 bought his libert}' for a sum of money, and ever 
 
 I after esteemed him. Phsedon, after the death of 
 1 Socrates, returned to Elis, his native country, 
 I where he founded a sect of philosophers, called 
 ! Elean. The name of Phaedon is afiixed to one of 
 the dialogues of Plato. Macrob. Sat. 1, c. 11. — 
 
 I Ph^drus, a Thracian, who became one of 
 the freedmen of the emperor Augustus. He 
 translated into Iambic verses the fables of iEsop, 
 in the reign of the emperor Tiberius. They 
 are divided into five books, valuable for their pre- 
 cision, purity, elegance, and simplicity. They 
 were discovered in the library of St. Remi at 
 Ilheims, and published by Peter Pithou, a 
 Frenchman, at the end of the 16th century, 
 Phaedrus was for some time persecuted by Se- 
 janus, because this corrupt minister believed that 
 he was satirised and abused in the encomiums 
 which the poet every where pays to virtue. 
 The best editions of Phaedrus are those of Bur- 
 man 4to. Leyd. 1727; Hoogstraten, 4to. Amst. 
 1701, and Barbou, 12mo. Paris, 1754. 
 
 Ph5:dyma, a daughter of Otanes, who first 
 discovered that Smerdis, who had ascended the 
 throne of Persia at the death of Cambyses, was 
 an imposter. Herodot. 3, c. QQ, 
 
 Ph2Enarete, tho mother of the philosopher 
 Socrates. She was a midwife by profession. 
 
 Phagesia, a festival among the Greeks, ob- 
 served during the celebration of the Dionysia. 
 It received its name from the good eating and 
 living that then universally prevailed, cpayeiv. 
 
 PHAL.ECOS, a general of Phocis against the 
 Boeotians, killed at the battle of Cheronaea. 
 Diod. 16. 
 
 Phalanthus, a Lacedaemonian, who founded 
 Tarentum in Italy, at the head of the Parthe- 
 niae. His fathers name was Aracas. As he 
 went to Italy he was shipwrecked on the coast, 
 and carried to shore by a dolphin, and from that 
 reason there was a dolphin placed near his statue 
 in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Vcd. Par- 
 thenicB. He received divine honours after death. 
 Justin. 3, c. 4. — Paus. 10, c. 10. — Horat. 2, od. 
 6, V. n.—Sil. Ital. 11, V. 16. 
 
 Phalaris, a tyrant of Agrigentum, who 
 made use of the most excruciating torments 
 to punish his subjects on the smallest suspi- 
 cion. The people of Agrigentum revolted in 
 the tenth year of his reign, and put him to 
 death in the same manner as he had tortured 
 Perillus and many of his subjects after him, B. 
 C. 552. The brazen bull of Phalaris was car- 
 ried by Amilcar to Carthage : when that city 
 was taken by Scipio, it was delivered again to 
 the inhabitants of Agrigentum by the Romans. 
 There are now some letters extant, written by 
 a certain Abaris to Phalaris, with their respect- 
 ive answers ; but they are supposed by some to 
 be spurious. The best edition is that of the 
 learned Boyle, Oxon. 1718. Cic. in Verr. 4, 
 ad Attic. 7, ep. 12, de offic. 2. — Ovid, de Art. 
 Am. 1, V. 663.— Juy. 8, v. 81.— PZm. 34, c. 8. - 
 Diod. 
 
 Phalereus DEMETRros. Vid. Demetrius. 
 
 PHALLiCAjfestivals observed by the Egyptians, 
 in honour of Osiris. They receive their name 
 from (i,aXXof simulachrum ligneum membri viri- 
 lis. The festivals of the phallus were imitated 
 by the Greeks, and introduced into Europe by 
 the Athenians, who made the procession of the 
 phallus part of the celebration of the Dionysia 
 541 
 
PH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PH 
 
 of the god of wine. Those that carried the 
 phallus, at the end of a long pole, were called 
 phallophori. They generally appeared, among 
 the Greeks, besmeared with the dregs of wine, 
 covered with skins of lambs, and wearing on 
 their heads a crown of ivy, Lucian. de Dea 
 Syr. — Plut. de Isid. tf* Osir. — Paus. 1, c. 2. 
 
 Phanes, a man of Halicarnassus, who fled 
 from Amasis, king of Egypt, to the court of 
 Cambyses, king of Persia, whom he advised, 
 when he invaded Egypt, to pass through Ara- 
 bia. HerodoL. 3, c. 4. 
 
 Phanocles, an elegiac poet of Greece, who 
 wrote a poem on that unnatural sin of which So- 
 crates is accused by some. He supported that 
 Orpheus had been the first who disgraced him- 
 self by that indulgence. Some of his fragments 
 are remaining. Clem. Alex. Str. 6. 
 
 Phantasia, a daughter of Nicarchas of Mem- 
 phis, in Egypt. Some have supposed that she 
 wrote a poem on the Trojan war, and another 
 on the return of Ulysses to Ithaca, from which 
 compositions Homer copied the greatest part of 
 his Iliad and Odyssey, when he visited Mem- 
 phis, where they were deposited. 
 
 Phaon. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Pharacides, a general of the Lacedaemonian 
 fleet, who assisted Dionysius, the tyrant of Si- 
 cily, against the Carthaginians. PolycBn. 2. 
 
 Pharnabazus, a satrap of Persia, son of a 
 person of the same name, B. C. 409. He as- 
 sisted the Lacedaemonians against the Athe- 
 iiians,and gained their esteem by his friendly be- 
 haviour and support. His conduct, however, 
 towards Alcibiades, was of the most perfidious 
 nature, and he did not scruple to betray to his 
 mortal enemies the man he had long honoured 
 with his friendship, C. Nep. in Ale. — Plut. 
 
 Pharnaces, a son of Mithridates, king of 
 Pontus, who favoured the Romans against his 
 father. He revolted against Mithridates, and 
 even caused him to be put to death, according 
 to some accounts. In the civil wars of Julius 
 Caesar and Pompey, he interested himself for 
 neither of the contending parties ; upon which 
 Caesar turned his army against him, and con- 
 quered him. It was to express the celerity of 
 his operations in conquering Pharnaces, that 
 the victorious Roman made use of these words: 
 Veni, vidi, vici. Flor. 3. — Suet, in Cess. 37. — 
 Paterc. 2, c. 55, 
 
 Phavorinus, a writer, the best edition of 
 whose Greek Lexicon is that in fol. Venet. 1712. 
 
 Phemius, I. a man introduced by Homer as a 
 musician am«ng Penelope's suiters. Some say 
 that he taught Homer, for which the grateful 
 poet immortalized his name. Homer. Od. 
 
 II. A man, who, according to some, wrote an 
 account of the return of the Greeks from the 
 Trojan war. The word is applied by Ovid, 
 Am. 3, V. 7, indiscriminately to any person who 
 excels in music. 
 
 Pherecrates. a comic poet of Athens, in the 
 age of Plato and Aristophanes. He is suppos- 
 ed to have written 21 comedies, of which only a 
 few verses remain. He introduced living cha- 
 racters on the stage, but never abused the liber- 
 ty which he had taken, either by satire or de- 
 famation. He invented a sort of verse, which 
 from him has been called Pherecration. It con- 
 sisted of the three last feet of an hexameter 
 verse, of which the first was always a spondee, 
 542 
 
 as, for instance, the third verse of Horace's 1, 
 
 od. 5, Grato Pyrrha sub antro. 
 
 Pheregydes, a philosopher of Scyros, disci- 
 ple to Pittacus, one of the first who delivered 
 his thoughts in prose. He was acquainted with 
 the periods of the moon, and foretold eclipses 
 with the greatest accuracy. The doctrine of 
 the immortality of the soul was first supported 
 by him, as also that of the metempsychosis. 
 Pythagoras was one of his disciples, remarkable 
 for his esteem and his attachment to his learned 
 master. When Pherecydes lay dangerously ill 
 in the island of Delos, Pythagoras hastened to 
 give him every assistance in his power, and 
 when all his efforts had proved ineffectual, he 
 buried him, and after he had paid him the last 
 offices, he retired to Italy, Some, however, sup- 
 pose that Pherecydes threw himself down from 
 a precipice as he was going to Delphi ; or, ac- 
 cording to others, he fell a sacrifice to the lousy 
 disease, B, C, 515, in the 85th year of his age. 
 Diog. — Lactant. 
 
 Pheretima, the wife of Battus, king of Cy- 
 rene and mother of Arcesilaus. After her son's 
 death she recovered the kingdom by means of 
 Amasis, king of Egypt, and to avenge the mur- 
 der of Arcesilaus, she caused all his assassins 
 to be crucified round the walls of Cyrene, and 
 she cut off the breasts of their wives, and hung 
 them up near the bodies of their husbands. It 
 is said she was devoured alive by worms. 
 Polyan. 8, — Herodot. 4, c, 204, &c. 
 
 Pheron, a king of Egypt, who succeeded 
 Sesostris. He was blind, and he recovered his 
 sight by washing his eyes, according to the di- 
 rections of the oracle, in the urine of a woman 
 who had never had any unlawful connexions. 
 He tried his wife first, but she appeared to have 
 been faithless to his bed, and she was biirnt, 
 with all those whose urine could not restore 
 sight to the king. He married the woman whose 
 urine proved beneficial. Herodot. 2, c. 111. 
 
 PmDiAS, a celebrated statuary of Athens, 
 who died B. C. 432. He made a statue of 
 Minerva, at the request of Pericles, which was 
 placed in the Pantheon. It was made with ivory 
 and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. He 
 was accused of having carved his own image 
 and that of Pericles on the shield of the statue 
 of the goddess, for which he was banished from 
 Athens by the clamorous populace. He retired 
 to Elis, where he determined to revenge the ill 
 treatment he had received from his countrymen, 
 by making a statue which should eclipse the 
 fame of that of Minerva. He was successful 
 in the attempt ; and the statue he made of Ju- 
 piter Olympius was always reckoned the best 
 of all his pieces, and has passed for one of the 
 wonders of the world. The people of Elis were 
 so sensible of his merit, and of the honour he 
 had done to their city, that they appointed his 
 descendants to the honourable office of keeping 
 clean that magnificent statue, and of preserv- 
 ing it from injury. Paus. 9, c. 4. — Cic. de 
 Orat.—Strah. S.—Q,uintil. 12, c. \0.—Plut. in 
 Per. 
 
 PmLippiDEs, a celebrated courier, who ran 
 from Athens to Lacedaemon, about 152 English 
 miles, in two days, to ask of the Lacedaemo- 
 nians assistance against the Persians. The 
 Athenians raised a temple to his memory. 
 Herodot. 6, c. 105,— C. Nep. in Milt. 
 
PH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PH 
 
 Phiditia, a public entertainmerit at Sparta, 
 where much frugality was observed, as the word 
 {(p£iSiTia, from (peiSofiai, parco) denotes. Cic. 
 Tiisc. 5, c. 34. Pans. 3, c. 10. 
 
 Phidon, I. a man who enjoyed the sovereign 
 power of Argos, and is supposed to have invent- 
 ed scales and measures, and coined silver at 
 Mginsi. He died B.C. 854. Arist. — Herodot. 6, 
 c. 127. II. An ancient legislator at Corinth. 
 
 PfflLA, the eldest daughter of Antipater, who 
 married Craierus. She afterwards married De- 
 metrius,and when her husband had lost the king- 
 dom of Macedonia, she poisoned herself. Plut. 
 
 Philadelphus. Vid. Ptolemceus 2d. 
 
 Phil^ni, two brothers of Carthage. When 
 a contest arose between the Cyreneans and Car- 
 thaginians, about the extent of their territories, 
 it was mutually agreed, that, at a stated hour, 
 two men should depart from each city, and that 
 wherever they met there they should fix the 
 boundaries of their country. The Philaeni ac- 
 cordingly departed from Carthage, and met the 
 Cyreneans when they had advanced far into 
 their territories. This produced a quarrel, 
 and the Cyreneans supported that the Philaeni 
 had left Carthage before the appointment, and 
 that therefore they must retire or be buried in 
 the sand. The Philaeni refused, upon which 
 they were ovej'powered by the Cyreneans, and 
 accordingly buried in the sand. Vid. PMIcb- 
 norum ArcB^ Part I. 
 
 PfflLEMON, I, a Greek comic poet, contempora- 
 ry with Menander. He obtained some poetical 
 prizes over Menander, not so much by the merit 
 of his compositions as by the intrigues of his 
 friends. Plautus imitated some of his comedies. 
 He lived to his 97th year, and died, as it is re- 
 ported, of laughing, on seeing an ass eat figs, 
 
 B. C. 274.- II. His son, who bore the same 
 
 name, wrote 54 comedies, of which some few 
 . fragments remain, which do not seem to entitle 
 him to great rank among the Greek comic 
 writers. Vol. Max. 9, c. 12. — Quintil. 10. — 
 Plut. de ira. coh. — Sired). 14. Vid. Baucis. 
 
 PniLETiERUs, a eunuch, made governor of 
 Pergamus by Lysimachus. He quarrelled with 
 Lysimachus, and made himself master of Per- 
 gamus, where he laid the fo.undations of a king- 
 dom called the kingdom of Pergamus, B. C. 
 283. He reigned there for 20 years, and at his 
 death he appointed his nephew Eumenes as his 
 successor. Sirab. 13. — Paus. 1, c. 8. 
 
 PfflLETAS, a grammarian and poet of Cos, in 
 the reign of king Philip and of his son Alex- 
 ander the Great. He was made preceptor to 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus. The elegies and epi- 
 grams which he wrote have been greatly com- 
 mended by the ancients, and some fragments of 
 them are still preserved by Athenaeus. He was 
 so small and slender, according to the improba- 
 ble accounts of ^lian, that he always carried 
 pieces of lead in his pockets to prevent being 
 blown away by the wind. Mlio^n. V. H. 9, c. 
 14. — Ovid. Fast. 1, el. 5. — Propert. 3, el. 1. 
 
 PmLiDAS, a friend of Pelopidas, who favour- 
 ed the conspiracy formed to expel the Spartans 
 from Thebes. He received the conspirators in 
 his own house, 
 
 PmuNUs, a native of Agrigentum, who fought 
 with Annibal against the Romans, He wrote 
 a partial history of the Punic wars. C. Nep. 
 in Annib. — Polyb. 
 
 PfflLippiDEs, the son of Philocles, an Athe- 
 nian, is the earliest writer of the new comedy. 
 He flourished B. C. 335. He was in great fa- 
 vour with Lysimachus, the general, and after- 
 wards one of the successors of Alexander. 
 This intimacy was the cause of many benefits 
 to the Athenians, bestowed by Lysimachus at 
 the intercession of the patriotic poet. In B. C. 
 301, we find the poet, in a fragment preserved 
 by Plutarch, ridiculing the flatteries shown to 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes at Athens, through the 
 exertions of Stratocles the demagogue. Philip- 
 pides died at an advanced age, from excess of 
 joy on obtaining the comic prize contrary t.o his 
 expectations. The number of his plays was 
 forty-five ; the titles of nine have been collected. 
 
 PmLippus, I. son of Argeus, succeeded his 
 father on the throne of Macedonia, and reigned 
 
 38 years, B. C.40. The second of that name 
 
 was the fourth son of Amyntas, king of Mace- 
 donia. He was sent to Thebes as a hostage, 
 by his father, where he learnt the art of war, 
 under Epaminondas, and studied with the 
 greatest care the manners and the pursuits of 
 the Greeks. He was recalled to Macedonia, and 
 at the death of his brother Perdiccas, he ascend- 
 ed the throne as guardian and protector of the 
 youthful years of his nephew. His ambition, 
 however, soon discovered itself, and he made 
 himself independent. Philip meditated no less 
 than the destruction of a republic which had ren- 
 dered itself so formidable to the rest of Greece, 
 and had even claimed submission from the prin- 
 ces of Macedonia. But before he could make 
 Athens an object of conquest, the Thracians 
 and the Illyrians demanded his attention. He 
 made himself master of a Thracian colony, to 
 which he gave the name of Philippi, and from 
 which he received the greatest advantages, on 
 account of the golden mines in the neighbour- 
 hood. In the midst of his political prosperity 
 Philip did not neglect the honour of his family. 
 He married Olympias, the daughter of Neopto- 
 lemus, king of the Molossi; and when, some 
 time after, he became father of Alexand er,e very 
 thing seemed to conspire to his aggrandize- 
 ment ; and historians have observed, that Philip 
 received in one day the intelligence of three 
 things which could gratify the most unbounded 
 ambition, and flatter the hopes of the most aspir- 
 ing monarch : the birth of a son, an honourable 
 crown at the Olympic games, and a victory over 
 the barbarians of Illyricum. But all these in- 
 creased rather than satiated his ambition ; he de- 
 clared his inimical sentiments against the power 
 of Athens and the independence of all Greece, 
 by laying siege to Olynthus, a place which, on 
 account of its situation and consequence, would 
 prove most injurious to the interests of the Athe- 
 nians, and most advantageous to the intrigues 
 and military operations of every Macedonian 
 prince. The Athenians, roused by the eloquence 
 of Demosthenes, sent 17 vessels and 200 men 
 to the assistance of Olynthus, but the money of 
 Philip prevailed over all their efforts. Thegreat- 
 est part of the citizens suffered themselves to be 
 bribed by the Macedonian gold, and Olynthus 
 surrendered to the enemy, and was instantly re- 
 duced to ruins. His successes were as great in 
 every part of Greece ; he was declared head of 
 the Amphictyonic council, and was intrusted 
 with the care of the sacred temple of Apollo at 
 543 
 
PH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PH 
 
 Delphi. By assuming the mask of a moderator 
 and peace-maker, he gained confidence ; and in 
 attempting to protect the Peloponnesians against 
 the encroaching power of Sparta,he rendered his 
 cause popular, and by ridiculing the insults that 
 were offered to his person, as he passed through 
 Corinth,he displayed to the world his moderation 
 and philosophic virtues. In his attempts to make 
 himself master of Euboea, Philip was unsuccess- 
 ful; and Phocion,who despised his gold, obliged 
 him to evacuate an island whose inhabitants 
 were as insensible to the charms of money as 
 they were unmoved at the horrors of war and the 
 bold efforts of a vigilant enemy. FromEubceahe 
 turned his arms against the Scythians, but the 
 advantages he obtained over this indigent nation 
 were inconsiderable, and he again made Greece 
 an object of plunder and rapine. He advanced 
 far into Boeotia, and a general engagement was 
 fought at Cheeronea, The fight was long and 
 bloody, bat Philip obtained the victory. His be- 
 haviour after the battle reflects great disgrace 
 upon him as a man and as a monarch. In the 
 hour of festivity, and during the entertainment 
 which he had given to celebrate the trophies he 
 had won, Philip sallied from his camp, and with 
 the inhumanity of a brute, he insulted the bodies 
 of the slain, and exulted over the calamities of 
 the prisoners of war. His insolence, however, 
 was checked, when Demedes, one of the Athe- 
 nian captives, reminded him of his meanness by 
 exclaiming. Why do you, O king, act the part 
 of a Thersites, when you can represent with so 
 much dignity the elevated character of an Aga- 
 memnon. The reproof was felt, Demades re- 
 ceived his liberty,and Philip learned howto gain 
 popularity, even among his fallen enemies, by 
 relieving their wants and easing their distresses. 
 At the battle of Chseronea, the independence of 
 Greece was extinguished ; and Philip, unable 
 to find new enemies in Europe formed new en- 
 terprises, and meditated new conquests. He 
 was nominated general of the Greeks against 
 the Persians, and was called upon, as well from 
 inclination as duty, to revenge those injuries 
 which Greece had suffered from the invasions of 
 Darius and of Xerxes. But he was stopped in 
 the midst of his warlike preparations ; he was 
 stabbed by Pausanias, as he entered the theatre, 
 at the celebration of the nuptials of his daugh- 
 ter Cleopatra. The character of Philip is that 
 of a sagacious, artful, prudent, and intriguing 
 monarch ; he was brave in the field of battle, elo- 
 quent and dissimulating at home; and he pos- 
 sessed the wonderful art of changing his con- 
 duct according to the disposition and caprice of 
 mankind, without ever altering his purpose or 
 losing sight of h is ambitious aims. He possess- 
 ed much perseverance ; and in the execution of 
 his plans he was always vigorous. The private 
 character of Philip lies open to censure and 
 raises indignation. The admirer of his virtuesis 
 disgusted to find him disgracing himself by the 
 most unnatural crimes and lascivious indulgen- 
 ces, which can make even the most debauched 
 and the most profligate to blush. He was mur- 
 dered in the 47ih year of his age, and the 24th 
 of his reign, about 336 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. His reign is become uncommonly in- 
 teresting, and his administration a matter of in- 
 struction. He is the first monarch whose life 
 and actions are described with peculiar accuracy 
 544 
 
 and historical faithfulness. Philip was the father 
 of Alexander the Great and of Cleopatra, by 
 Olympias ; he had also by Audaca, an Illyriem, 
 Cyna, who married Amyntas, the sonofPer- 
 diccas, Philip's elder brother ; byNicasipolis, a 
 Thessalian, Nicaea, who married Cassander ; 
 by Philinna, a Larissean dancer, Aridaeus, who 
 leigned some time after Alexander's death ; by 
 Cleopatra, the niece of Attains, Caranus and 
 Europa, who were both murdered by Olympias ; 
 and Ptolemy ihe first, king of Egypt, by Arsi- 
 noe', who in the first month of her pregnancy 
 was married to Lagus. Demosth. in Phil. ^ 
 Olynth. — Justin. 7, &c.—Dion. 16. — Plut. in 
 Alex. — Dem. tf- Apoph. — Isocrat. ad Phil.— 
 Curt. 1. &c. — JEschines. — Paus. — BcBoiic, &c. 
 
 The last king of Macedonia, of that name, 
 
 was son of Demetrius. His infancy, at ihe 
 death of his father, was protracted by Antigo- 
 nus, one of his friends, who ascended the throne, 
 and reigned for 12 years with the title of inde- 
 pendent monarch. When Antigonus died, 
 Philip recovered his father's throne, though on- 
 ly fifteen years of age, and he early distinguished 
 himself by his boldness and his ambitious views. 
 His cruelty, however, to Aratus soon displayed 
 his character in its true light; and to the grat- 
 ification of every vice, and every extravagant 
 propensity, he had the meanness to sacrifice this 
 faithful and virtuous Athenian. Not satisfied 
 with the kingdom of Macedonia, Philip aspired 
 to become the friend of Annibal, and wished to 
 share with him the spoils which the distresses 
 and continual loss of the Romans seemed soon 
 to promise. The consul Leevinus entered with- 
 out delay his territories of Macedonia, and after 
 he had obtained a victory over him near Apol- 
 lonia, and reduced his fleet to ashes, he com- 
 pelled him to sue for peace. This peaceful dis- 
 position was not permanent, and when tne Ro- 
 mans discovered that he had assisted their im- 
 mortal enemy Annibal with men and money, 
 they appointed T. Q,. Flaminius to punish his 
 perfidy and the violation of the treaty. The 
 Roman consul, with his usual expedition, in- 
 vaded Macedonia, and in a general engagement, 
 which was fought near Cynoscephale, the hos- 
 tile army was totally defeated, and the monarch 
 saved his life with difficulty by flying from the 
 field of battle. In the midst of these public ca- 
 lamities, the peace of his family was disturbed ; 
 and Perses, the eldest of his sons by a concubine, 
 raised seditions against his brother Demetrius, 
 whose condescension and humanity had gained 
 popularity among the Macedonians, and who, 
 from his residence at Rome, as a hostage, had 
 gained the good graces of the senate, and by 
 the modesty and innocence of his manners had 
 obtained forgiveness from that venerable bod}"- 
 for the hostilities of his father. Philip listened 
 with too much avidity to the false accusations of 
 Perses ; and when he heard it asserted that 
 Demetrius wished to rob him of his crown, he 
 no longer hesitated to punish with death so un- 
 worthy and so ungrateful a son. He died in 
 the 42d year of his reign, 179 years before the 
 Christian era. Philip has been compared with 
 his great ancestor of the same name ; but though 
 they possessed the same virtues, the same am- 
 bition, and were tainted with the same vices, yet 
 the father of Alexander was more sagacious and 
 more intriguing, and the son of Demetrius was 
 
PH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PH 
 
 more suspicious, more cruel, and more implaca- 
 ble; and, according to the pretended prophecy 
 of one of the sibyls, Macedonia was indebted 
 to one Philip for her rise and consequence among 
 nations, and under another Philip she lamented 
 the loss of her power, her empire, and her dig- 
 nity. Polijb. 16, &.Q,.— Justin. 29, &c — Plut. 
 in Flam. — Paus. 7, c. S. — Liv. 31, &c. — Val. 
 
 Max. 4, c. 8.— Orosius. 4, c. 20. M. Julius, 
 
 a Roman emperor, of an obscure family in Ara- 
 bia, from whence he was surnamed Arabian. 
 From the lowest rank in the army he gradually 
 rose to the highest offices,and when he was made 
 general of the pretorian guards, he assassinated 
 Gordian to make himself emperor, and was uni- 
 versally approved by the senate and the Roman 
 people. Philip rendered his cause popular by 
 his liberality and profusion ; and it added much 
 to his splendour and dignity, that the Romans 
 durmg his reign commemorated the foundation 
 of their city, a solemnity which was observed 
 but once every hundred years, and which was 
 celebrated with more pomp and more magnifi- 
 cence than under the preceding reigns. The 
 people were entertained with games and spec- 
 tacles, the theatre of Pompey was successively 
 crowded during three days and three nights, 
 and 20Q0 gladiators bled in the circus at once, 
 for the amusement and pleasure of a gazing 
 populace. His usurpation, however, was short ; 
 Philip was defeated by Dacius, who had pro- 
 claimed himself emperor in Pannonia, and he 
 was assassinated by his own soldiers, near Ve- 
 rona, in the 45th year of his age and fhe 5th of 
 his reign, A. D. 249. His son, who bore the 
 same name, and who had shared with him the 
 imperial dignity, was also massacred in the arms 
 of his mother. Young Philip was then in the 
 12t;h year of his age, and the Romans lamented 
 in him the loss of rising talents, of natural hu- 
 manity, and endearing virtues. Aurel. Victor. 
 — Zozim. A native of Acarnania, physi- 
 cian to Alexander the Great, When the mon- 
 arch had been suddenly taken ill, after bathing 
 in the Cydnus, Philip undertook to remove the 
 complaint, when the rest of the physicians be- 
 lieved that all medical assistance would be inef- 
 fectual. But as he was preparing his medicine, 
 Alexander received a letter from Parmenio, in 
 which he was advised to beware of his physi- 
 cian Philip, as he had conspired against his life. 
 The monarch was alarmed, and when Philip 
 presented him the medicine, he gave him Par- 
 menio's letter to peruse, aad began to drink the 
 potion. The serenity and composure of Philip's 
 countenance, as he read the letter, removed 
 every suspicion from Alexander's breast, and 
 he pursued the directions of his physician, and 
 in a few days recovered. Plut. in Alex. — 
 Curt. 3. — Arrian. 2. A freed man of Pom- 
 pey the Great. He found his master's body 
 deserted on the seashore, in Egypt, and he 
 gave it a decent burial, with the assistance 
 of an old Roman soldier who had fought 
 
 under Pompey. The father-in-law of the 
 
 emperor Augustus. A native of Pam- 
 
 phylia, who wrote a diffuse history from the 
 creation down to his own time. It was not 
 much valued. He lived in the age of Theo- 
 dosius 2d. 
 
 Philiscus, a famous sculptor, whose statues 
 of Latona, Venus, Diana, the Muses, and a 
 
 Part II.— 3 Z 
 
 naked Apollo, were preserved in the portico 
 belonging to Octavia. 
 
 Philistus, a Syracusan, who, during his ban- 
 ishment from his native country wrote a his- 
 tory of Sicily in 12 books, which was commend- 
 ed by some, though condemned for inaccuracy 
 by Pausanias. He was afterwards sent against 
 the Syracusans by Dionysius the younger, and 
 he killed himself when overcome by the enemy, 
 856, B. C. Plut. in Dion.—Diod. 13. 
 
 PmLO, I. a Jewish writer of Alexandria, A: 
 D. 40, sent as ambassador from his nation to 
 Caligula. He was unsuccessful in his embassy, 
 of which he wrote an entertaining account ; and 
 the emperor, who wished to be worshipped as a 
 god, expressed his dissatisfaction with the Jews, 
 because they refused to place his statues in their 
 temple. He was so happy in his expressions 
 and elegant in his variety, that he has been 
 called the Jewish Plato ; and the book which he 
 wrote on the sufferings of the Jews in the reign 
 of Caius, met with such unbounded applause 
 in the Roman senate, where he read it publicly, 
 that he was permitted to consecrate it in the 
 public libraries. His works were divided into 
 three parts, of which the first related to the crea- 
 tion of the world, the second spoke of sacred 
 history, and in the third the author made men- 
 tion of the laws and customs of the Jewish na- 
 tion. The best edition of Philo is that of Man- 
 gey, 2 vols. fol. London, 1742. 'II. An ar- 
 chitect of Byzantium, who flourished about three 
 centuries before the Christian era. He built a 
 dock at Athens, where ships were drawn in 
 safety and protected from storms. Cic. in Orat. 
 
 1, c. 14. III. A Greek Christian writer, 
 
 whose work was edited at Rome, 4to. 1772. 
 
 Philoghorus, a man who wrote a history 
 of Athens in 17 books, a catalogue of the ar- 
 chons, two books of Olympiads, &c. He died 
 B. C. 222. 
 
 PmLocLES, I. one of the admirals of the Athe- 
 nian fleet during the Peloponnesian war. He 
 recommended to his countrymen to cut off the 
 right hand of such of the enemies as were taken, 
 that they might be rendered unfit for service. 
 His plan was adopted by all the 10 admirals ex- 
 cept one ; but their expectations were frustrated, 
 and, instead of being conquerors, they were to- 
 tally defeated at jEgospotamos by Lysander; 
 and Philocles, with 3000 of his countrymen, 
 was put to death, and denied the honours of a 
 
 burial. Plut. in Lys. II. Is said by Suidas 
 
 to have been the nephew of ^schylus, and the 
 father of Morsimus. A trilogy of his, entitled 
 the Pandionid, was recorded by Aristotle in 
 the Didascaliae. The Tercus, one of the plays 
 in this trilogy, written in imitation of the Te- 
 reus of Sophocles, is wittily ridiculed by Aris- 
 tophanes in the Aves. This tragedian was 
 termed XoXr; or Bile, from his harsh and bitter 
 language. In figure he was deformed : hence 
 Aristophanes takes occasion to cut sundry jokes 
 upon him. In the ThesmophoriazusajMnesHo- 
 chus, following up the principle laid down by 
 Agathon, that as the man is, so is the poetry, 
 begins : — 
 
 Tavr' ap' h^i\oK\rjs ai(rj(^pds mv aia^pMiroiii.' — 168. 
 
 In the Aves he finds in his shape a similarity to 
 the lark, kopvSos ^i\oK><e£i....v. 1295. 
 PmLOCTETEs, a son of Poean, and Demonas- 
 545 
 
PH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PH 
 
 sa, was one of the Argonauts according to Flac- 
 cus and Hyginus, and the arm-bearer and parti- 
 cular friend of Hercules. He was present at 
 the death of Hercules, and because he had 
 erected the burning pile on which the hero was 
 consumed, he received from him the arrows, 
 which had been dipped in the gall of the hydra, 
 after he had bound himself by a solemn oath 
 not to betray the place where his ashes were de- 
 posited. Like the rest of those princes who had 
 courted the daughter of Tyndarus, and who 
 had bound themselves to protect her from inju- 
 ry, he was called upon by Menelaus to accom- 
 pany the Greeks to the Trojan war, and he im- 
 mediately set sail from Meliboea with seven 
 ships, and repaired to Aulis, the general ren- 
 dezvous of the combined fleet. He was here 
 prevented from joining his countrymen, and the 
 offensive smell which arose from a wound in his 
 foot, obliged the Greeks, at the instigation of 
 Ulysses, to remove him from the camp ; and he 
 was accordingly carried to the island of Lem- 
 nos, or, as others say, to Chryse, where Phima- 
 cus, the son of Dolophion, was ordered to wait 
 upon him. In this solitary retreat he was suf- 
 fered to remain for some time, till the Greeks, 
 on the tenth year of the Trojan war, were in- 
 formed by the oracle thatTroy could not be taken 
 without the arrows of Hercules, which were 
 then in the possession of Philoctetes. Upon this 
 Ulysses, accompanied by Diomedes, or, accord- 
 ing to others, by Pyrrhus, was commissioned by 
 the rest of the Grecian array to go to Lemnos, 
 and to prevail upon Philoctetes to come and 
 finish the tedious siege. Philoctetes recollected 
 the ill treatment he had received from theGreeks, 
 and particularly from Ulysses; and therefore 
 he not only refused to go to Troy, but he even 
 persuaded Pyrrhus to conduct him to Melibcea. 
 As he embarked, the manes of Hercules forbad 
 him to proceed, but immediately to repair to the 
 Grecian camp, where he should be cured of his 
 wounds, and put an end to the war. Philoc- 
 tetes obeyed, and after he had been restored to 
 his former health by iEsculapius, or, according 
 to some, by Machaon or Podaliris, he destroyed 
 an immense number of the Trojan enemy, 
 among whom was Paris, the son of Priam, with 
 the arrows of Hercules. When by his valour 
 Troy had been ruined, he set sail from Asia, 
 but as he was unwilling to visit his native coun- 
 try, he came to Italy, where, by the assistance of 
 his Thessalian followers, he was enabled to 
 build a town in Calabria, which he called Peti- 
 lia. Authors disagree about the causes of the 
 wound which Philoctetes received on the foot. 
 The most ancient mythologists support, that it 
 was the bite of the serpent which Juno had 
 sent to torment him, because he had attended 
 Hercules in his last moments, and had buried 
 his ashes. According to another opinion, the 
 princes of the Grecian array obliged him to dis- 
 cover where the ashes of Hercules were depos- 
 ited, and as he had made an oath not to men- 
 tion the place, he only with his foot struck the 
 ground where they lay, and by this means con- 
 cluded he had not violated his solemn engage- 
 ment. For this, however, he was soon after 
 punished, and the fall of one of the poisoned 
 arrows, from his quiver, upon the foot which 
 had struck the ground, occasioned so offensive 
 a wound, that the Greeks were obliged to re- 
 546 
 
 move him from their camp. The suffermgs 
 and adventures of Philoctetes are the subject of 
 one of the best tragedies of Sophocles. Virg. 
 Mn. 3, V. 46. — Pindar. Pyth. 1. — Dictys Cret. 
 1, c. 14. — Senec. in Here. — Sophocl. Phil. — 
 Quintil. CalaJb. 9 and \0.—Hygin. fab. 26, 97, 
 and 102.— Diod. 2 and 4.— Ovid. Met. 13, v. 
 3-29, 1. 9, V. 234. Trist. 5, el. 2.—Cic. Tusc. c. 
 2.—Ptolem. Hajph. 6. 
 
 PmLOLAUs, a Pythagorean philosopher of 
 Crotona, B. C. 374, who first supported the di- 
 urnal motion of the earth round its axis, and 
 its annual motion round the sun. Cicero, in 
 Acad. 4, c. 39, has ascribed this opinion to the 
 Syracusan philosopher Nicetas, and likewise to 
 Plato ; and from this passage some suppose 
 that Copernicus started the idea of the system 
 which he afterwards established. Diog. — Cic. 
 de Oral. 3.— Pint. 
 
 Philologus, a freedman of Cicero. He be^ 
 trayed his master to Antony, for which he was 
 tortured by Pomponia, the wife of Cicero's bro- 
 ther,and obliged to cutoff'his own flesh by piece- 
 meal and to boil and eat it up. Plut. in Cic. &c. 
 
 PmLONiDES, a courier of Alexandria, who 
 ran from Sicyone to Elis, 160 miles, in nine 
 hours, and returned the same journey in fifteen 
 hours. Plin. 2, c. 71. 
 
 Philopator. Vid. PtolemcBus. 
 
 Philophron, a general, who, with 5000 sol- 
 diers, defended Pelusium against the Greeks 
 who invaded Egypt. Diod. 16. 
 
 PmLOPCEMEN, I. a celebrated general of the 
 Achaean league, born at Megalopolis. His fa- 
 ther's name was Grangis. His education was 
 begun and finished under Cassander, Ecderaus, 
 and Demophanes ; and he early distinguished 
 himself in the field of battle, and appeared fond 
 of agriculture and a country life. He proposed 
 himself Epaminondas for a model, and he was 
 not unsuccessful in imitating the prudence and 
 the simplicity, the disinterestedness and activity, 
 of this famous Theban. When Megalopolis 
 was attacked by the Spartans, Philopoeraen, 
 then in the 30th year of his age, gave the most 
 decisive proofs of his valour and intrepidity. 
 He afterwards assisted Antigonus, and was 
 present in the famous battle in which the ^Eto- 
 lians were defeated. Raised to the rank of chiei 
 commander, he showed his ability to discharge 
 that important trust, by killing, with his own 
 hand, Mechanidas, the tyrant of Sparta ; and 
 if he was defeated in a naval battle by Nabis, 
 he soon after repaired his losses by taking the 
 capital of Laconia, B. C. 188, and by abolish- 
 ing the laws of Lycurgus, which had flourish- 
 ed there for such a length of time. Sparta, 
 after its conquest, become tributary to the Achse- 
 ans, and Philopoeraen enjoyed the triumph of 
 having reduced to ruins one of the greatest and 
 the most powerful of the cities of Greece. Some 
 time after, the Messenians revolted from the 
 Achaean league, and Philopoeraen, who headed 
 the Achaeans, unfortunately fell from his horse, 
 and was dragged to the enemy's camp. Dino- 
 crates, the general of the Messenians, treated 
 him with great severity ; he was thrown into a 
 dungeon, and obliged to drink a dose of poison. 
 When he received the cup from the hand of the 
 executioner, Philopoeraen asked hira how his 
 countrymen had behaved in the field of battle ; 
 and when he heard that they had obtained the 
 
PH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PH 
 
 victory, he drank the whole with pleasure, ex- 
 claiming that this was comfortable news. The 
 death of Philopoemen, which happened about 
 183 years before the Christian era, in his 70th 
 year, was universally lamented ; and the Achae- 
 ans, to revenge his death, immediately marched 
 to Messenia, where Dinocrates, to avoid their 
 resentment, killed himself. The rest of his 
 murderersweredraggedto his tomb, where they 
 were sacrificed ; and the people of Megalopolis, 
 to show farther their great sense of his merit, 
 ordered a bull to be yearly offered on his tomb, 
 and hymns to be sung in his praise, and his ac- 
 tions to be celebrated in a panegyrical oration. 
 He had also statues raised to his memory, which 
 some of the Romans attempted to violate and 
 to destroy, to no purpose, when Mummius took 
 Corinth.' Philopoemen has been justly called by 
 his countrymen the last of the Greeks. Plut. 
 
 in vita. — Justin. 32, c. 4. — Polyb. II. A 
 
 native of Pergamus, who died B. C. 138. 
 
 Philostratus, I. a famous sophist, born at 
 Lemnos, or, according to some, at Athens. He 
 came to Rome, where he lived under the patron- 
 age of Julia, the wife of the emperor Severus, 
 and he was intrusted by the empress with all 
 the papers which contained some account or 
 anecdotes of Apollonius Thyanseus, and he was 
 ordered to review them, and with them to com- 
 pile a history. The life of Apollonius is writ- 
 ten with elegance ; but the improbable accounts, 
 the fabulous stories, and exaggerated details 
 which it gives, render it disgusting. There is, 
 besides, another treatise remaining of his wri- 
 tings, &c. He died A. D. 244. The best edi- 
 tion of his writings is that of Olearius, fol. Lips. 
 
 1709. II. His nephew, who lived in the 
 
 reign of Heliogabalus, wrote an account of so- 
 phists. 
 
 Philotas, a son of Parmenio, distinguished 
 in the battles of Alexander, and at last accused 
 of conspiring against his life. He was tortured 
 and stoned to death, or, according to some, 
 stuck through with darts by the soldiers, B. C. 
 330. Curt. 6, c. 11. — Plut. — Arrian. 
 
 PmLoTis, a servant-maid at Rome, who 
 saved her countrymen from destruction. After 
 the siege of Rome by the Gauls, the Fidenates 
 assembled an army under the command of Lu- 
 cius Posthumius, and marched against the capi- 
 tal, demanding all the wives and daughters in 
 the city as the conditions of peace. This extra- 
 ordinary demand astonished the senators, and 
 when they refused to comply, Philotis advised 
 them to send all their female slaves disguised 
 in matron's clothes, and she oifered to march 
 herself at the head. Her advice was followed, 
 and when the Fidenates had feasted late in the 
 evening, and were quite intoxicated and fallen 
 asleep, Philotis lighted a torch as a signal for her 
 countrymen to attack the enemy. The whole 
 was successful"; the Fidenates were conquered, 
 and the senate, to reward the fidelity of the fe- 
 male slaves, permitted them to appear in the 
 dress of the Roman matrons. Plut. in Rom. — 
 Varro. de L. L. 5. — Ovid, de Art. Am. 2. 
 
 PmLOXENUs, I. an officer of Alexander, who 
 received Cilicia at the general division of the 
 
 provinces. II. A son of Ptolemy, who was 
 
 eiven to Pelopidas as an hostage. III. A 
 
 dithyrambic poet of Cythera, who enjoyed the 
 favour of Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, for some 
 
 time, till he offended him by seducing one of his 
 female singers. During his confinement, Phi- 
 loxenus composed an allegorical poem, called 
 Cyclops, in which he had delineated the charac- 
 ter of the tyrant under the name of Polyphemus, 
 and represented his mistress under the name of 
 Galataja, and himself under that of Ulysses. 
 The tyrant, who was fond of writing poetry 
 and of being applauded, removed Philoxenus 
 from his dungeon, but the poet refused to pur- 
 chase his liberty by saying things unworthy of 
 himself, and applauding the wretched verses of 
 Dionysius, and therefore he was sent to the 
 quarries. When he was asked his opinion at a 
 feast about some verses which Dionysius had 
 just repeated, and which the courtiers had re- 
 ceived with the greatest applause, Philoxenus 
 gave no answer, but he ordered the guards that 
 surrounded the tyrant's table to take him back 
 to the quarries. Dionysius was pleased with 
 his pleasantry and with his firmness, and im- 
 mediately forgave him. Philoxenus died ai 
 Ephesus, about 380 years before Christ. Plut, 
 IV. A philosopher, who wished to have the 
 
 neck of a crane, that he might enjoy the taste of 
 his aliments longer, and with more pleasure. 
 Arist. eth. 3. 
 
 Phlegon, a native of Tralles in Lydia, one 
 of the emperor Adrian's freed-men. He wrote 
 different treatises on the long-lived, on wonder- 
 ful things, besides an historical accQunt of Si- 
 cily, sixteen books on the Olympiads, an ac- 
 count of the principal places in Rome, three 
 books of fasti, &c. Of these some fragments 
 remain. His style was not elegant, and he wrote 
 without judgment or precision. His works have 
 been edited by Meursius, 4to. L. Bat. 1620. 
 
 Phocilides, a Greek poet and philosopher of 
 Miletus, about 540 years before the Christian 
 era. The poetical piece now extant, called vov- 
 SeriKov, and attributed to him, is not of his com- 
 position, but of another poet who lived in ihe 
 reign of Adrian. 
 
 Phocion, an Athenian, celebrated for his 
 virtues, private as well as public. He was edu- 
 cated in the school of Plato and of Xenocrates, 
 and as soon as he appeared among the states- 
 men of Athens, he distinguished himself by his 
 prudence and moderation, his zeal for the pub- 
 lic good, and his military abilities. He often 
 checked the violent and inconsiderate measures 
 of Demosthenes ; and when the Athenians seem- 
 ed eager to make war against Philip, king of 
 Macedonia, Phocion observed that war should 
 never be undertaken without the strongest and 
 most certain expectations of victory and success. 
 When Philip endeavoured to make himself 
 master of Euboea, Phocion stopped his progress, 
 and soon obliged him to relinquish his enter- 
 prise. He was 45 times appointed governor of 
 Athens, and no greater encomium can be pass- 
 ed upon his talents as a minister and statesman, 
 than that he never solicited, that high, though 
 dangerous office. In his rural retreat, or at the 
 head of the Athenian armies, he always appear- 
 ed barefooted and without a cloak; whence one 
 of his soldiers had occasion to observe, when he 
 saw him dressed more warmly than usual during 
 a severe winter, that since Phocion wore his 
 cloak it was a sign of the most inclement wea- 
 ther. Philip, as well as his son Alexander, at- 
 tempted to bribe him, but to no purpose; and 
 547 
 
PH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PH 
 
 Phocion boasted in being one of the poorest of 
 the Athenians, and in deserving the appellation 
 of the Good. It was through him that Greece 
 was saved from an impending war, and he ad- 
 vised Alexander rather to turn his arms against 
 Persia than to shed the blood of the Greeks, 
 who were either his allies or his subjects. An- 
 tipater, who succeeded in the government of 
 Macedonia after the death of Alexander, also 
 attempted to corrupt the virtuous Athenian, but 
 with the same success as his royal predecessor ; 
 and when a friend had observed to Phocion, 
 that if he could so refuse the generous offers of 
 his patrons, yet he should consider the good of 
 his children, and accept them for their sake, 
 Phocion calmly replied, that if his children were 
 like him, they could maintain themselves as 
 well as their father had done ; but if they be- 
 haved otherwise, he declared that he was un- 
 willing to leave them any thing which might 
 either supply their extravagances or encourage 
 their debaucheries. When the Pirseus was tak- 
 en, Phocion was accused of treason, and there- 
 fore to avoid ihe public indignation, he fled for 
 safety to Polyperchon. Polyperchon sent him 
 back to Athens, where he was immediately con- 
 demned to drink the fatal poison. He received 
 the indignities of the people with uncommon 
 composure ; and when one of his friends lament- 
 ed his fate, Phocion exclaimed, This is no more 
 than what I expected; this treatvient the most 
 ilhcstrious citizens of Athens have received be- 
 fore me. He died about 318 years before the 
 Christian era. His body was deprived of a 
 funeral by order of the ungrateful Athenians, 
 and if it was at last interred, it was by stealth, 
 under a hearth, by the hand of a woman who 
 placed this inscription over his bones : Keep in- 
 violate, O sacred hearth, the precious remains 
 of a good man, till a better day restores them 
 to the monuments of their forefathers, when 
 Athens shall be delivered from her phrensy, and 
 shall be more wise. His countenance was stern 
 and unpleasant, but he never behaved with se- 
 verity, his expressions were mild and his re- 
 bukes gentle. At the age of 80 he appeared at 
 the Athenian armies like the most active officer, 
 and to his prudence and cool valour in every 
 period of life his citizens acknowledged them- 
 selves much indebted. His merits were not 
 buried in oblivion, the Athenians repented of 
 their ingratitude, and honoured his memory by 
 raising him statues, and putting to a cruel 
 death his guilty accusers. Plut. d^ C. Nep. in 
 vita. — Diod. 16. 
 
 Phocus, I. son of Phocion, was dissolute in 
 his manners, and unworthy of the virtues of his 
 great father. He was sent to Lacedaemon to 
 imbibe there the principles of sobriety, of tem- 
 perance, and frugality. He cruelly revenged 
 the death of his father, whom the Athenians 
 
 had put to death. Plut. in Phoc. cf« Apoph. 
 
 II. A son of Oryntion, who led a colony of 
 Corinthians into Phocis. He cured Antiope, 
 a daughter of Nycteus, of insanity, and married 
 her, and by her became father of Panopeus and 
 Crisus. Pans. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Phocylides. Vid. Phocilides. 
 
 Phcebidas, a Lacedaemonian general, sent by 
 
 the Ephori to the assistance of the Macedonians 
 
 against the Thracians. He seized the citadel 
 
 of Thebes : but though he was disgraced and 
 
 548 
 
 banished from the Lacedaemonian army for 
 this perfidious measure, yet his countrymen 
 kept possession of the town. He died B. C. 
 377. C. Nep. in Pelop.—Diod. 14, &c. 
 
 Phcbnix, son of Amyntor, king of Argos, by 
 Cleobule, or Hippodamia, was preceptor to 
 young Achilles. When his father proved faith- 
 less to his wife, on account of his fondness for 
 a concubine, called Clytia, Cleobule, jealous of 
 her husband, persuaded her son Phoenix to in- 
 gratiate himself into the favours of his father's 
 mistress. Phcenix easily succeeded, but when 
 Amyntor discovered his intrigues, he drew a 
 curse upon him, and the son was soon after de- 
 prived of his sight by divine vengeance. Ac- 
 cording to some, Amyntor himself put out the 
 eyes of his son, which so cruelly provoked him, 
 that he meditated the death of his father. 
 Reason and piety, however, prevailed over pas- 
 sion, and PhcEnix, not to became a parricide, 
 fled from Argos to the court of Peleus, king of 
 Phthia. Peleus carried him to Chiron, who 
 restored him to his eye-sight, and soon after he 
 was made preceptor to Achilles. He was also 
 presented with the' government of many cities, 
 and made king of the Dolopes. After the death 
 of Achilles, Phoenix, with others, was commis- 
 sioned by the Greeks to return into Greece, to 
 bring to the war young Pyrrhus. This com- 
 mission he performed with success, and after 
 the fall of Troy he returned with Pyrrhus, and 
 died in Thrace. He was hurried at ^on, or, 
 according to Strabo, near Trachinia, where a 
 small river in the neighbourhood received the 
 name of PhcEnix. Strai. 9. — Homer. 11. 9, &c. 
 Ovid, in lb. V. 762. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Phormfo, I. an Athenian general, whose fa- 
 ther's name was Asopicus. He impoverished 
 himself to maintain and support the dignity of 
 his, army. His debts were some time after paid 
 by the Athenians, who wished to make him 
 their general, an office which he refused while 
 he had so many debts, observing that it was un- 
 becoming an officer to be at the head of an 
 army when he knew that he was poorer than 
 the meanest of his soldiers. II. A peripate- 
 tic philosopher of Ephesus, who once gave a 
 lecture upon the duties of an officer and a mili- 
 tary profession. The philosopher was himself 
 ignorant of the subject which he treated ; upon 
 which Hannibal the Great, who was one of his 
 auditors, exclaimed that he had seen many dot- 
 ing old men, but never one worse than Phormio. 
 
 Cic. de Nat. D. 2. III. A disciple of Plato, 
 
 chosen by the people of Elis to make a reforma- 
 tion in their governmentand their jurisprudence. 
 
 Phormis, was the countryman and contem- 
 porary of Epicharmus, and tutor to the sons of 
 Gelon, the elder brother and predecessor of 
 Hiero. His comedies also appear to have been 
 mythological parodies. 
 
 Phoroneus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Photinus, an eunuch, who was prime minis- 
 ter to Ptolemy, kinsr of Egypt. When Pompey 
 fled to the court of Ptolemy, after the battle of 
 Pharsalia, Photinus advised his master not to 
 receive him, bnt to put him to death. Juliua 
 Csesar some time after visited Egj^t, and Pho- 
 tinus raised seditions against him, for which he 
 was put to death. 
 
 Photius, son of Anton ina, who betrayed to 
 Belisarius his wife's debaucheries. 
 
PH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PH 
 
 Phraates I. a king of Parthia, who suc- 
 ceeded Arsaces the 3d, called also Phriapatius, 
 He made war against Antiochus, king of Syria, 
 and was defeated in three successive battles. 
 He left many children behind him ; but as they 
 were all too young, and unable to succeed to 
 the throne, he appointed his brother Mithri- 
 dates king, of whose abilities and military pru- 
 dence he had often been a spectator, Justin. 
 
 41, c. 5. The 2d, succeeded his father 
 
 Mithridates, as king of Parthia, and made war 
 against the Scythians, whom he called to his 
 assistance against Antiochus, king of Syria, 
 and whom he refused to pay, on the pretence 
 that they came too late. He was murdered by 
 some Greek mercenaries, who had been once 
 his captives, and who had enlisted in his army, 
 B. C. 129. Justi7i. 42, c. l.—Plut. in Pomp. 
 
 The 3d, succeeded his father Pacorus on 
 
 the throne of Parthia, and gave one of his 
 daughters in marriage to Tigranes, the son of 
 Tigranes, king of Armenia. Soon after he in- 
 vaded the kingdom of Armenia, to make his 
 son-in-law sit on the throne of his father. His 
 expedition was attended with ill success. He 
 renewed a treaty of alliance which his father 
 had made with the Romans. At his return in 
 Parthia, he w-as assassinated by his sons Orodes 
 
 and Mithridates. Justin. The 4th, was 
 
 nominated king of Parthia by his father Orodes, 
 whom he soon after murdered, as also his own 
 brothers. He made war against M. Antony 
 with great success, and obliged him to retire 
 with much loss. Some time after he was de- 
 throned by the Parthian nobility, but he soon 
 regained his power,and drove away the usurper, 
 called Tiridates. The usurper claimed the pro- 
 tection of Augustus, the Roman emperor, and 
 Phraates sent ambassadors to Rome to plead 
 his cause and gain the favours of his powerful 
 judge. He was successful in his embassy : he 
 made a treaty of peace and alliance v^ith the 
 Roman emperor, restored the ensigns and stand- 
 ards which the Parthians had taken from Cras- 
 sus and Antony, and gave up his four sons with 
 their wives as hostages, till his engagements 
 were performed. Some suppose that Phraates 
 delivered his children into the hands of Augus- 
 tus to be confined at Rome, that he might reign 
 with greater security, as he knew his subjects 
 would revolt as soon as they found any one of 
 his family inclined to countenance their rebel- 
 lion, though, at the same time, they scorned to 
 support the interest of any usurper who was not 
 of the royal house of the Arsacidse. He was, 
 however, at last murdered by one of his concu- 
 bines, who placed her son, called Phraatices, 
 on the throne. Vol. Max. 7, c. 6. — Justin. 42, 
 c. 5. — Diod. Cas. 51, &c. — Plut. in Artton, &c. 
 — Tacit. Ann. 6, c. 32. 
 
 Phraatices, a. son of Phraates 4th. He, with 
 his mother, murdered his father, and took pos- 
 session of. the vacant throne. His reign was 
 short, he was deposed by his subjects, whom he 
 had offended by cruelty, avarice, and oppression, 
 
 Phraortes succeeded his father Deioces on 
 the throne of Media. He made war against the 
 neighbouring nations, and conquered the great- 
 est part of Asia. He was defeated and killed 
 in a battle by the Assyrians, after a reign of 22 
 years, B. C. 625. His son Cyaxares succeeded 
 him. It is supposed that the Arphaxad men- 
 
 tioned in Judith in Phraortes. Paus.—Herodot. 
 1, c. 102. 
 
 Phrasicles, a nephew of Themistocles, 
 whose daughter Nicomacha he married. Plut. 
 in Them. 
 
 PuRONiAU, a daughter of Etearchus, king of 
 Crete. She was delivered to a servant to be 
 thrown into the sea, by order of her father, at 
 the instigation of his second wife. The servant 
 was unwilling to murder the child, but as he 
 was bound by an oath to throw her into the sea, 
 he accordingly let her down into the water by a 
 rope, and took her out again unhurt. Phronima 
 was afterwards in the number of the concubines 
 of Polymnetius, by whom she became mother 
 of Battus, the founder of Gyrene. Herodot. 4. 
 c. 154. 
 
 Phryne, I. a celebrated prostitute, who flou- 
 rished at Athens about 328 years before the 
 Christian era. She was mistress to Praxiteles, 
 who drew her picture. Vid. Praxiteles. This 
 was one of his best pieces, and it was placed in 
 the temple of Apollo at Delphi. It is said that 
 Apelles painted his Venus Anadyomene after 
 he had seen Phryne on the sea-shore naked, and 
 with dishevelled hair. Phryne became so rich 
 by the liberality of her lovers, that she offered 
 to rebuild, at her ow^n expense, Thebes, which 
 Alexander had destroyed, provided this inscrip- 
 tion was placed on the walls : Alexander diruit 
 sed meretrix Phryne refecit. This was refus- 
 ed. Plin. 34, c. 8. II. There was also ano- 
 ther of the same name, who was accused of im- 
 piety. When she saw that she was going to be 
 condemned, she unveiled her bosom, which so 
 influenced her judges that she was immediately 
 acquitted. Quintil. 2, c. 15. 
 
 Phrtnichus, a tragic poet of Athens, disciple 
 ofThespis. At the close of the sixth century 
 before Christ, the elements of tragedy, though 
 still in a separate state, were individually so 
 fitted and prepared, as to require nothing but a 
 master hand to unite them into one whole of 
 life and beauty. The Dithyramb presented in 
 its solemn tone and lofty strains a rich mine of 
 choral poetry ; the regular narrative and mi- 
 metic character of the Thespian chorus furnish- 
 ed the form and materials of dramatic exhibi- 
 tion. To him belongs the chief merit of this 
 combination. Dropping the light and farcical 
 cast of the Thespian drama, and dismissing al- 
 together Bacchus with his satyrs, he sought for 
 the subjects of his pieces in the grave and strik- 
 ing events registered in the mythology or history 
 of his country. This, however, was not a prac- 
 tice altogether original or unexampled. The 
 fact, casually mentioned by Herodotus, that the 
 tragic choruses at Sicyon sung, not the adven- 
 tures of Bacchus, but the woes of Adrastus, 
 shows tliat, in the Cyclic chorus at least, melan- 
 choly incident and mortal personages had long 
 before been introduced. There is also some 
 reason for supposing, that the young tragedian 
 was deeply indebted to Homer in the formation 
 of his drama. Aristotle distinctly attributes to 
 the author of the Iliad and Odyssey the prima- 
 ry suggestions of tragedy; as in his Margites 
 was given the first idea of comedy. Now it is 
 an historical fact that a few years before Phry- 
 nichus began to exhibit, the Homeric poems 
 had been collected, revised, arrang:ed and pub- 
 lished by the care of Pisistratus. Such an event 
 549 
 
PH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PH 
 
 "would naturally attract attention, and add a 
 deeper interest to the study of this mighty mas- 
 ter ; and it is easy to conceive how his fiinficeis 
 i^pajiaTiKai, as Aristotle terms them, would strike 
 and operate upon a mind, acute, ready, and in- 
 genious, as that of Phrynichus must have been. 
 At any rate these two facts stand in close chro- 
 nological connexion — the first edition of Homer, 
 and the birth of tragedy, properly so called. 
 Taking then the ode and the tone of the Di- 
 thyramb, the mimetic personifications of Homer 
 and the themes, which natural tradition or even 
 recent events supplied. Phrynichus combined 
 these several materials together, and so brought 
 them forward under the dramatic form of the 
 Thespian exhibition. Thus, at length, does 
 tragedy dawn upon us. These changes in the 
 character of the drama, necessarily produced 
 corresponding alterations in its form and man- 
 ner. The recitative was no longer a set of dis- 
 jointed, rambling episodes of humorous legend, 
 separated by the wild dance and noisy song of 
 a Satyr choir, but a connected succession of se- 
 rious narrative or grave conversation, with a 
 chorus composed of personages involved in the 
 story ; all relating to one subject and all tending 
 to one result. This recitative again alternated 
 with a series of choral odes, composed in a spirit 
 of deep thought and lofty poetry, themselves 
 turning more or less directly upon the theme of 
 the interwoven dialogue. In correspondency 
 with these alterations in tone and composition, 
 the actor and the choristers must have assumed 
 a different aspect. The performers were now 
 the representatives not of Silenus and the Sa- 
 tyrs, but of heroes, princes, and their attendants. 
 The goat-skin guise and obstreperous sportive- 
 ness were laid aside for the staid deportment of 
 persons engaged in matters of serious business 
 or deep affliction, and a garb befitting the rank 
 and state of several individuals employed in 
 the piece. Nor are we to suppose, that, as the 
 actor was still but one, so never more than one 
 personage was introduced. For it is very prob- 
 able that this one actor, changing his dress, ap- 
 peared in different characters during the course 
 of the play : a device frequently employed in 
 later times, when the increased number of act- 
 ors rendered such a contrivance less necessary. 
 This actor sometimes represented female per- 
 sonages, for Phrynichus is stated to have first 
 brought a female character on the stage. Thus 
 from the midst of the coarse buffooneries and 
 rude imitations of the Satyric chorus, did trage- 
 dy start up at once in her proper, though not 
 her perfect, form. For mighty as had been the 
 stride towards the establishment of the serious 
 drama, yet in the exhibitions of Phrynichus we 
 find the infancy not the maturity of tragedy. 
 There was still many an excrescence to be re- 
 moved ; many a chasm to be filled up ; many a 
 rugged point to be smoothed into regularity ; 
 and many an embryo part to be expanded into 
 its full and legitimate dimensions. The man- 
 agement of the piece was simple and inartificial 
 even to rudeness. The argument was some 
 naked incident, mythologic or historical, on 
 which the chorus sung and the actor recited in 
 a connected but desultory succession. There 
 was no interweaving or development of plot ; 
 no studied arrangement of fact and catastrophe; 
 no skilful contrivance to heighten the natural 
 550 
 
 interest of the tale, and work up the feelings of 
 the audience into a climax of terror or of pity. 
 The odes of the chorus were sweet and beauti- 
 ful ; the dances scientific and dexterously given ; 
 but then these odes and dances still composed 
 the principal part of the performance. They 
 narrowed in the episodes of the actor, and threw 
 them into comparative insignificance. Nay, not 
 unfrequently, whilst the actor appeared in a 
 posture of thought, wo, or consternation, the 
 chorus would prolong its dance and chantings, 
 and leave to the performer little more than the 
 part of a speechless image. In short, the d rama 
 of Phrynichus was a serious opera of lyric song 
 and skilful dance, and not a tragedy of artful 
 plot and interesting dialogue. Such was Phry- 
 nichus as an inventor ; but since the poet con- 
 tinued to exhibit during a space of nearly forty 
 years, and since for more than twenty of those 
 years he had in iEschylus a contemporary and 
 a rival, his own experience and the improve- 
 ments of such an opponent would give to the 
 later plays of Phrynichus a character, an ex- 
 pansion, and a refinement, in which his earlier 
 and unaided attempts were so deficient. The 
 Capture oj Miletus, which he composed at least 
 seventeen years after his own first "appearance 
 as a dramatist, and five years after the first vic- 
 tory of iEschylus, was, to judge from its effects,, 
 a piece of no inconsiderable merit. Eighteen 
 years after this, he won the tragic prize for his 
 Choragus Themistocles, with the Phcenissa, a 
 play perhaps little inferior in dramatic excel- 
 lence and arrangement to the Persce, which, 
 four years afterwards, ^Eschylus produced on 
 the same subject. Indeed, the poet, whose 
 odes were characterized, even in the days of 
 Aristophanes, as reaped from the sacred mea- 
 dow of the muses, sweet as the ambrosia of the 
 bee ; the poet, whose dramas were by the same 
 admirable judge styled pieces of singular beau- 
 ty ; the poet, who so long and sometimes so suc- 
 cessfully competed with an iEschylus — must, 
 beyond all doubt, have been no ordinary com- 
 poser ; and the charge of plagiarism, which that 
 great tragedian is represented as so studiously 
 rebutting, is another high compliment to the 
 
 Eowers of Phrynichus. Still we must remem- 
 er, in tracing the inventive improvers of trag- 
 edy, that the real claims of Phrynichus are not 
 to be measured by what he finally achieved 
 through imitation of others, but by the produc- 
 tions of his own unassisted ingenuity and talent. 
 In this view, those claims must almost entirely 
 be restricted to the combination of the poetry of 
 the Cyclic with the acting of the Thespian cho- 
 rus ; the conversion of Satyric gayety into the 
 solemnity and pathos of what was thenceforth 
 peculiarly styled tragedy. In all succeeding 
 alterations and additions, Phrynichus seems to 
 have been simply the follower of iEschylus. 
 
 Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, the first 
 who obtained a musical prize at the ^Panathe- 
 naea at Athens, He added two strings to the 
 lyre, which had always been used with seven 
 by all his predecessors, B. C. 438. It is said 
 that he was originally a cook at the house of 
 Hiero, king of Sicily. 
 Phya. Vid Pisistratus. 
 Phyllus, a general of Phocis, during the 
 Phocian or Sacred war against the Thebans. 
 He had assumed thfe command after the death 
 
PI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PI 
 
 of his brothers, Philomelus and Onomarchus. 
 He is called by some Phayllus. Vid Phocis. 
 
 Physcon, a surname of one of the Ptole- 
 mies, from {<pv(TKr) venter). Aiken. 2, c. 23. 
 
 Phyton, a general of the people of Rhegium 
 against Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily. He 
 was laken by the enemy and tortured, B, C. 
 387, and his son was thrown into the sea. 
 Diod. 14. 
 
 PiA, or PiALu, festivals instituted in honour 
 of Adrian by the emperor Antoninus. They 
 were celebrated at Puteoli on the second year 
 of the Olympiads. 
 
 PicTiE. Vid. Part I. 
 
 PicTOR, Fabius, a consul, under whom silver 
 was first coined at Rome, A. U. C. 485. 
 
 PiNDARUs, a celebrated lyric poet of Thebes. 
 He was carefully trained from his earliest years 
 to the study of music and poetry, and he was 
 taught how to compose verses with elegance 
 and simplicity by Myrtis and Corinna. When 
 he was young, it is said that a swarm of bees 
 settled on his lips, and there left some honey- 
 combs as he reposed on the grass. This was 
 universally explained as a prognostic of his fu- 
 ture greatness and celebrity, and indeed he 
 seemed entitled to notice when he had conquer- 
 ed Myrtis in a musical contest. He w£ls not, 
 however; so successful against Corinna, who 
 obtained five times, while he was competitor, a 
 poetical prize, which was adjudged rather to the 
 charms of her person, than to the brilliancy of 
 her genius or the superiority of her composi- 
 tion. In the public assemblies of Greece, where 
 females were not permitted to contend, Pindar 
 was rewarded with the prize in preference to 
 every other competitor ; and as the conquerors 
 at Olympia were the subject of his composi- 
 tions, the poet was courted by statesmen and 
 princes. His hymns and paeans were repeated 
 before the most crowded assemblies in the tem- 
 ' pies of Greece , and the priestess of Delphi de- 
 clared that it was the will of Apollo that Pindar 
 should receive the half of all the first fruit-offer- 
 ings that were annually heaped on his altars. 
 This was not the only public honour which he 
 received ; after his death he was honoured with 
 every mark of respect, even to adoration. His 
 statue was erected at Thebes, in the public 
 place where the games were exhibited, and six 
 centuries after was viewed with pleasure and 
 admiration by the geographer Pausanias. The 
 honours which had been paid to him while alive 
 were also shared by his posterity ; and at the 
 celebration of one of the festivals of the Greeks, 
 a portion of the victim which had been offered in 
 sacrifice was reserved for the descendants of the 
 poet. Even the most inveterate enemies of the 
 Thebans showed regard for his memory, and 
 the Spartans spared the house which the prince 
 of lyrics had inhabited when they destroyed the 
 houses and the walls of Thebes, The same 
 respect was also paid him by Alexander the 
 Great, when Thebes was reduced to ashes. It 
 is said that Pindar died at the advanced age of 
 86, B. C. 435. The greatest part of his works 
 have perished. He had written some hymns to 
 the gods, poems in honour of Apollo, dithyram- 
 bics to Bacchus, and odes on several victories 
 obtained at the four greatest festivals of the 
 Greeks, the Olympic, Isthmian, Pythian, and 
 Nemean games. Of all these, the odes are the 
 
 only compositions extant, admired for sublimity 
 of sentiments, grandeur of expression, energy 
 and magnificence of style, boldness of meta- 
 phors, harmony of numbers, and elegance of 
 diction. He has been censured for his affecta- 
 tion in composing an ode from which the letter 
 S was excluded. The best editions of Pindar 
 are those of Heyne, 4to. GoUingen, 1773 ; of 
 Glasgow, 12mo. 1774 ; and of Schmidius, 4to. 
 "Witteberg, 1616. Athen. — Quintil. 10, c. 1. — 
 Horat. 4, od. 2.—JElian. V. H. 3.— Pans. 1, c. 
 8, 1. 9, c. 23.— Val. Max. 9, c. 12.— Pint, in 
 Alex. — Curt. 1, c. 13. 
 
 PisANDER, I. an admiral of the Spartan fleet 
 during the Peloponnesian war. He abolished 
 the democracy at Athens, and established the 
 aristocratical government of the four hundred 
 tyrants. He was killed in a naval battle by 
 Conon, ihe Athenian general, near Cnidus, in 
 which the Spartans lost 50 galleys, B. C. 394. 
 
 Diod. II, A poet of Rhodes, who composed 
 
 a poem called Heraclea, in which he gave an 
 account of all the labours and all the exploits 
 of Hercules. He was the first who ever repre- 
 sented his hero armed with a club. Paus. 8, 
 c. 22. 
 
 PisEUs, a king of Etruria, about 260 years 
 before the foundation of Rome. Plin. 7, c. 26. 
 
 Pisis, a native of Thespis, who gained un- 
 common influence among the Thebans, and 
 behaved with great courage in defencfe of their 
 liberties. He was taken prisoner by Demetrius, 
 who made him governor of Thespiee. 
 
 PisisTRATiD.a3, the descendants of Pisistra- 
 tus, tyrant of Athens. Vid. Pisistratus. 
 
 PisisTRATUs, I, an Athenian, son of Hippo- 
 crates, who early distinguished himself by his 
 valour in the field, and by his address and elo- 
 quence at home. After he had rendered him- 
 self the favourite of the populace by his libe- 
 rality, and by the intrepidity with which he had 
 fought their battles, particularly near Salamis, 
 he resolved to make himself master of his 
 country. Everything seemed favourable to his 
 views; but Solon alone, who was then at the 
 head of affairs, and who had lately instituted his 
 celebrated laws, opposed him, and discovered 
 his duplicity and artful behaviour before the 
 public assembly. Pisistratus was not disheart- 
 ened by the measures of his relation, Solon, but 
 he had recourse to artifice. In returning from his 
 country-house, he cut himself in various places, 
 and after he had exposed his mangled body to 
 the eyes of the populace, deplored his misfor- 
 tunes, and accused his enemies of attempts upon 
 his life, because he was the friend of the people, 
 the guardian of the poor, and the reliever of the 
 oppressed, he claimed a chosen body of 50 men 
 from the populace to defend his person in fu- 
 ture from the malevolence and the cruelty of his 
 enemies. The unsuspecting people unanimous- 
 ly granted his request, though Solon opposed it 
 with all his influence ; and Pisistratus had no 
 sooner received an armed band, on whose fidel- 
 ity and attachment he could rely, than he seized 
 the citadel of Athens, and made himself abso- 
 lute. The people too late perceived their credu- 
 lity ; yet, though the tyrant was popular, two of 
 the citizens, Megacles and Lycurgus, conspired 
 together against him, and by their means he was 
 forcibly ejected from the city. His house and 
 all his effects were exposed to sale, but there was 
 551 
 
PI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PI 
 
 found in Athens only one man who would buy 
 them. The private dissentions of the friends of 
 liberty proved fa vo arable to the expelled tyrant; 
 and iViegacles, who was jealous of Lycurgus, 
 secretly proposed to restore Pisistratus to all his 
 rights and privileges in Athens, if he would 
 marry his daughter. Pisistratus consented, and 
 by the assistance of his father-in-law, he was 
 soon enabled to expel Lycurgus, and to re-es- 
 tablish himself By means of a woman called 
 Phya, whose shape was tall, and whose features 
 were noble and commanding, he imposed upon 
 the people, and created himself adherents even 
 among his enemies. Phya was conducted 
 through the streets of the city, and showing 
 herself subservient to the artifice of Pisistratus, 
 she was announced as Minerva, the goddess of 
 wisdom, and the patroness of Athens, who was 
 come down from heaven to re-establish her fa- 
 vourite Pisistratus in a power which was sanc- 
 tioned by the will of heaven, and favoured by 
 the affection of the people. Some time after, 
 when he repudiated the daughter of Megacles, 
 he found that not only the citizens, but even his 
 very troops, were alienated from him by the in- 
 fluence, the intrigues, and the bribery of his 
 father-in-law. He fled from Athens, where he 
 could no longer maintain his power, and retired 
 to Euboea. Eleven years after he was drawn 
 from his obscure retreat, by means of his son 
 Hippias, and he was a third time received by 
 the people of Athens as their master and sove- 
 reign. He died about 527 years before the 
 Christian era, after he had enjoyed the sovereign 
 power at Athens for 33 years, including the 
 years of his banishment, and he was succeeded 
 by his son Hipparchus. Pisistratus claims our 
 admiration for his justice, his liberality, and 
 his moderation. He often refused to punish 
 the insolence of his enemies, and when he 
 had one day been virulently accused of murder, 
 rather than inflict immediate punishment upon 
 the man who had criminated him, he went to 
 the areopagus, and there convinced the Athe- 
 nians that the accusation of his enemies were 
 groundless, and that his life was irreproachable. 
 It is to his labours that we are indebted for the 
 preservation of the poems of Homer ; and he 
 was the first, according to Cicero, who intro- 
 duced them at Athens in the order in which 
 they now stand. He also established a public 
 library at Athens, and the valuable books which 
 he had diligently collected were carried into 
 Persia when Xerxes made himself master of 
 the capital of Attica. Hipparchus and Hippias, 
 the sons of Pisistratus, who had received the 
 name of Pisistratida, rendered themselves as 
 illustrious as their father, but the flames of lib- 
 erty were too powerful to be extinguished. The 
 Pisistratidae governed wiih great moderation, 
 yet the name of tyrant or sovereign was insup- 
 portable to the Athenians. Two of the most 
 respectable of the citizens, called Harmodius 
 and Aristogiton, conspired against them, and 
 Hipparchus was despatched in a public as- 
 sembly. This murder was not, however, at- 
 tended with any advantages ; and though the 
 two leaders of the conspiracy, who have been 
 celebrated through every age for their patriot- 
 ism, were supported by the people, yet Hippias 
 quelled the tumult by his uncommon firmness 
 and prudence, and for a while preserved that 
 552 
 
 peace in Athens which his father had often 
 been unable to command. This was not long 
 to continue. Hippias was at last expelled by 
 the united efforts of the Athenians and of their 
 allies of Peloponnesus, and he left Attica when 
 he found himself unable to maintain his power 
 and independence. After the banishment of 
 the Pisistratidae, the Athenians became more 
 than commonly jealous of their liberty, and 
 often sacrificed the most powerful of their citi- 
 zens, apprehensive of the influence pop- 
 ularity, and a well-directed liberality, might 
 gain among a fickle and unsettled populace. 
 The Pisistratida3 were banished from Athens 
 about 18 years after the death of Pisistratus, B. 
 C. 510. ^lian. V. H. 13, c. U.—Paus. 7, c. 
 26. — Herodot. 1, c. 59, 1. 6, c. 103. — Cic. de oral. 
 
 3.— Val. Max. 1, c. 2. II. A son of Nestor. 
 
 Apollod. III. A king of Orchoraenos, who 
 
 rendered himself odious by his cruelty towards 
 the nobles. He was put to death by them, and 
 they carried away the body from the public as- 
 sembly, by hiding each a piece of flesh under 
 their garments to prevent a discovery from the 
 people, of which his was a great favourite. Pint, 
 in Par. IV. A Theban attached to the Ro- 
 man interest, while the consul Flaminius was 
 in Greece. He assassinated the prastor of 
 Bceotia, for which he was put to death, &c. 
 
 Piso, a celebrated family at Rome, which 
 was a branch of the Calpurnians, descended 
 from Calpus, the son of Numa. Before the 
 death of Augustus, eleven of this family had 
 obtained the consulship, and many had been 
 honoured with triumphs, on account of their vic- 
 tories in the difi'erent provinces of the Roman 
 empire. Of this family, the most famous were, 
 
 1, Lucius Calpumius, who was tribune of 
 
 the people about 149 years before Christ, and 
 afterwards consul. His frugality procured him 
 the surname of Frugi, and he gained the great- 
 est honours as an orator, a lawyer, a statesman, 
 and an historian. He made a successful cam- 
 paign in Sicily, and rewarded his son, who had 
 behaved with great valour during the war, with 
 a crown of gold which weighed twenty pounds. 
 He composed some annals and harangues,which 
 were lost in the age of Cicero. His style was 
 
 obscure and inelegant. II. Caius, a Roman 
 
 consul, A. U. C. 687, who supported the con- 
 sular dignity against the tumults of the tribunes 
 and the clamours of the people. He made a 
 law to restrain the cabals M'hich generally pre- 
 vailed at the election of the chief magistrates. 
 III. Cneius, another consul under Augus- 
 tus. He was one of the favourites of Tiberius, 
 by whom he was appointed governor of Syria, 
 where he rendered himself odious by his cruelty. 
 He was accused of having poisoned Germani- 
 cus, and when he saw that he was shunned and 
 despised by his friends, he destroyed himself, 
 A. D. 20. IV. Lucius, a private man, ac- 
 cused of having uttered seditious words against 
 the emperor Tiberius. He was condemned, but 
 a natural death saved him from the hands of the 
 
 executioner. V. Lucius, a governor of Rome 
 
 for twenty years, an office which he discharged 
 with the greatest justice and credit. Some, 
 however, say that Tiberius made him governor 
 of Rome, because he had continued drinking 
 with him a night and two days, or two days and 
 two nights according to Pliny. Horace dedi- 
 
PI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PL 
 
 cated his poem dc Arte Poeticd to his two sons, 
 whose partiality for literature had distinguished 
 them among the rest of the RomaDs, and who 
 •were fond of cultivating poetry in their leisure 
 
 hours. Plut. in Cas. — Plin. 18, c. 3. VI. 
 
 Cneius, a factious and turbulent youth, who con- 
 spired against his country with Catiline. He 
 was among the friends of Julius Caesar. 
 
 VII. Caius, a Roman who was at the head of a 
 celebrated conspiracy against the emperor Nero. 
 He had rendered himself a favourite of the peo- 
 ple by his private as well as public virtues, by 
 the generosity of his behaviour, his fondness of 
 pleasure with the voluptuous, and his austerity 
 with the grave and the reserved. He had been 
 marked by some as a proper person to succeed 
 the emperor ; but the discover}'' of the plot by a 
 freedman, who was among the conspirators, 
 soon cut him off, with all his partisans. He 
 refused to court the affections of the people and 
 of the army, when the whole had been made 
 public; and, instead of taking proper measures 
 for his preservation, either by proclaiming him- 
 self emperor, as his friends advised, or by seek- 
 ing a retreat in the distant provinces of the 
 empire, he retired to his own house, where he 
 opened the veins of both his arms, and bled to 
 death. VIII. Lucius, a senator, who follow- 
 ed the emperor Valerian into Persia. He pro- 
 claimed himself emperor after the death of Va- 
 lerian, but he was defeated and put to death a 
 few weeks after, A. D. 261, by Valens, &c. 
 Horat. — Tacit. Ann. <^ Hist. — Val. Max. — 
 Liv. — Sueton. — Cic. de offic. &c. — Plut. in Ca:s. 
 
 &c. IX. One of the 30 tyrants appointed 
 
 over Athens by Lysander. 
 
 PiTHOLEON, an insignificant poet of Rhodes, 
 who mingled Greek and Latin in his compo- 
 sitions. He wrote some epigrams asrainst J. 
 Cassar, and drew upon himself the ridicule of 
 Horace on account of the inelegance of his 
 style. Sueton. de cl. Rh. — Horat. 1, sat. 10, v. 
 'iX.—Marcob. 2, sat. 2. 
 
 PiTTACUs, a native, of Mitylene in Lesbos, 
 was one of the seven wise men of Greece. His 
 father's name was Cyrradius. With the assist- 
 ance of the sons of Alcaeus, he delivered his 
 country from the oppression of the tyrant Me- 
 lanchrus ; and in the war which the Athenians 
 waged against Lesbos he appeared at the head 
 of his countrymen, and challenged to single 
 combat Phr^Tion, the enemy's general. Pittacns 
 had recourse to artifice, and entangled his ad- 
 versary in a net, which he had concealed under 
 his shield, and easily despatched him. He was 
 amply rewarded for his victory, and his coun- 
 trymen, sensible of his merit, unanimouslv ap- 
 pointed him governor of their citv with unlimit- 
 ed authority. In this capacity Pittacus behaved 
 with great moderation and prudence, and after 
 he had governed his fellow-citizens with the 
 strictest justice, and after he had established 
 and enforced the most salutary laws, he volun- 
 tarily resigned the sovereign power after he had 
 enjoyed it for 10 years, observing that the vir- 
 tues and innocence of private life were incom- 
 patible with the power and influence of a sove- 
 reign. His disinterestedness gained him many 
 admirers ; and when the Mitvleneans wished to 
 reward his public services by presenting him 
 with an immense tract of territorv'-, he refused 
 to accept more land than what should be con- 
 
 Part II.— 4 A 
 
 tained within the distance to which he could 
 throw a javelin. He died in the 82d year of 
 his age, about 570 years before Christ, after he 
 had spent the last len years of his life in litera- 
 ry ease and peaceful retirement. Many of his 
 maxims were inscribed on the walls of Apollo's 
 temple at Delphi, to show the world how great 
 an opinion the Mityleneans entertained of his 
 abilities as a philosopher, a moralist, and a man. 
 Sy one of his laws, every fault committed by a 
 man when intoxicated deserved double punish- 
 ment. The titles of some of his writings are 
 preserved by Laertius, among which are men- 
 tioned elegiac verses, some laws in prose ad- 
 dressed to his countrymen, epistles, and moral 
 precepts called adomena. Diog. — Aristot. Po- 
 lit. — Plut. in symp. — Paus. 10, c. 24. — ^lian. 
 H. V. 2, &c.— Vai. Max. 6, c. 5. 
 
 Placidia, a daughter of Theodosius the 
 Great, sister to Honorius and Arcadius. She 
 married Adolphus, king of the Goths, and af- 
 terwards Constantius, by whom she had Valen- 
 tinian the third. She died A. D. 449. 
 
 Plancina, a woman celebrated for her in- 
 trigues and her crimes, who married Piso, and 
 was accused with him of having murdered Ger- 
 manicus, in the reign of Tiberius. She was 
 acquitted either by means of the emperess Livia, 
 or on account of the partiality of the emperor 
 for her person. Subservient in every thing to 
 the will of Livia, she, at her instigation, be- 
 came guilty of the greatest crimes to injure the 
 character of Agrippina. After the death of 
 Agrippina, Plancina put herself to death, A. D. 
 33. Tacit. Ann. 6, c. 26, &c. 
 
 Plancus, L. Munattos, I. a Roman, who 
 rendered himself ridiculous by his follies and 
 his extravagance. He had been consul, Eind 
 had presided over a province in the capacity of 
 governor, but he forgot all his dignity, and be- 
 came one of the most servile flatterers of Cleo- 
 patra and Antony. At the court of the Egyp- 
 tian queen in Alexandria, he appeared in the 
 character of the meanest stage-dancer, and, in 
 comedy, he personated Glaucus, and painted 
 his body of a green colour, dancing on a public 
 stage quite naked, only with a cro-wTi of green 
 reeds on his head, while he had tied behind 
 his back the tail of a large sea fish. This ex- 
 posed him to the public derision, and when An- 
 tony had joined the rest of his friends in cen- 
 suring him for his unbecoming behaviour, he 
 deserted to Octavius, who received him with 
 great marks of friendship and attention . It was 
 he who proposed, in the Roman senate, that the 
 title of Augustus should be conferred on his 
 friend Octavius, as expressive of the dignitv 
 and the reverence which the greatness of his 
 exploits seemed to claim. Horace has dedi- 
 cated 1 od. 7 to him ; and he certainly deserved 
 the honour, from the elegance of his letters, 
 which are still extant, written to Cicero. He 
 founded a town in Gaul, which he called Lug- 
 
 dunum. Plut. in Anton.- II. A patrician, 
 
 proscribed by the second triumvirate. His 
 servants wished to save him from death, but 
 he refused it rather than expose their persons 
 to danger. 
 
 Plato, I. a celebrated philosopher at Athens, 
 
 son of Ariston and Parectonia. His original 
 
 name was Aristocles, and he received that of 
 
 Plato from the largeness of his shoulders. As 
 
 553 
 
PI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PI 
 
 one of the descendants of Codrus, and as the 
 offspring of a noble, illustrious, and opulent 
 family, Plato was educated with care, his body 
 was formed and invigorated with gymnastic ex- 
 ercises, and his mind was cultivated and enlight- 
 ened by the study of poetry and of geometry, 
 from which he derived that acuteness of judg- 
 ment and warmth of imagination, which have 
 stamped his character as the most subtile and 
 flowery writer of antiquity. He first began his 
 literary career by writing poems and tragedies ; 
 but he was soon disgusted with his own produc- 
 tions, when, at the age of 20, he was introduced 
 into the presence of Socrates, and when he was 
 enabled to compare and examine, with critical 
 accuracy, the merit of his compositions with 
 those of his poetical predecessors. During eight 
 years he continued to be one of the pupils of 
 Socrates ; and after his death Plato retired from 
 Athens, and began to travel over Greece. He 
 visited Magara, Thebes, and Elis, where he 
 met with ihe kindest reception from his fellow- 
 disciples, whom the violent death of their mas- 
 ter had likewise removed from Attica. He af- 
 terwards visited Magna Grsecia, attracted by the 
 fame of the Pythagorean philosophy, and by the 
 learning, abilities, and reputation, of its profes- 
 sors, Philolaus, Archytas, and Eurytus. He 
 afterwards passed into Sicily, and examined the 
 eruptions and fires of the volcano of that island. 
 He also visited Egypt, where then the mathe- 
 matician Theodorus flourished, and where he 
 knew that the tenets of the Pythagorean philo- 
 sophy and metempsychosis had been fostered 
 and cherished. When he had finished his tra- 
 vels, Plato retired to the groves of Academus, 
 in the neighbourhood of Athens, where his lec- 
 tures were soon attended by a crowd of learn- 
 ed, noble, and illustrious pupils ; and the philo- 
 sopher, by refusing to have a share in the ad- 
 ministration of affairs, rendered his name more 
 famous and his school more frequented. Dur- 
 ing forty years he presided at the head of the 
 academy, and there he devoted his time to the 
 instruction of his pupils, and composed those 
 dialogues which have been the admiration of 
 every age and country. His studies, however, 
 were interrupted for a while, whilst he obeyed 
 the pressing calls and invitations of Dionysius, 
 and whilst he persuaded the tyrant to become a 
 man, the father of his people, and the friend of 
 liberty. Vid. Dionysius 2d. In his dress the 
 philosopher was not ostentatious, his manners 
 were elegant, but modest, simple, without affec- 
 tation ; and the great honours which his learn- 
 ing deserved were not paid to his appearance. 
 When he came to the Olympian games, Plato 
 resided in a family who were totally strangers 
 to him. He told them his name was Plato, yet 
 he never spoke of the employment he pursued 
 at Athens ; and when he returned home, attend- 
 ed by the family which had so kindly entertain- 
 ed him, he was desired to show them the great 
 philosopher whose name he bore : their surprise 
 was great when he told them that he himself 
 was the Plato whom they wished to behold. 
 In his diet he was moderate, and indeed, to so- 
 briety and temperance in the use of food, and 
 to the want of those pleasures which enfeeble 
 the body and enervate the mind, some have at- 
 tributed his preservation during the tremendous 
 pestilence which raged at Athens with so much 
 5.54 
 
 fury at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, 
 Plato died on his birthday, in the 81st year of 
 his age, about 384 years before the Christian 
 era. He expired, according to Cicero, as he 
 was writing. The works of Plato are nume- 
 rous ; they are all written in the form of a dia- 
 logue, except 12 letters. He speaks always by 
 the mouth of others ; and for the elegance, me- 
 lody, and sweetness of his expressions, he was 
 distinguished by the appellation of the Athe- 
 nian bee. Cicero had such an esteem for him, 
 that in the warmth of panegyric he exclaimed 
 errare mehercule malo cum Platone, quam cum 
 istis vera sentire ; and Gtuintilian said, that 
 when he read Plato, he seemed to hear not a 
 man, but a divinity speaking. His style, how- 
 ever, though admired and commended by the 
 best and most refined critics among the an- 
 cients, has not escaped the censure of some of 
 the moderns ; and the philosopher has been 
 blamed who supports that fire is a pyramid tied 
 to the earth by numbers, that the world is a 
 ^gure consisting of 12 pentagons, and who, to 
 prove the metempsychosis and the immortality 
 of the soul, asserts, that the dead are born from 
 the living, and the living from the dead. In his 
 system of philosophy, he followed the physics of 
 Heraclitus, the metaphysical opinions of Pytha- 
 goras, and the morals of Socrates. He main- 
 tained the existence of two beings, one self-ex- 
 istent, and the other formed by the hand of a 
 pre-existent creature, god and man. The world 
 was created by that self-existent, cause, from the 
 rude undigested mass of matter which had ex- 
 isted from all eternity, and which had even been 
 animated by an irregular principle of motion. 
 The origin of evil could not be traced under the 
 government of a deity, without admitting a stub- 
 born intractability and wildness congenial to 
 matter ; and from these, consequently, could be 
 demonstrated the deviations from the laws of 
 nature, and from thence the extravagant pas- 
 sions and appetites of men. From materials 
 like these were formed the four elements, and 
 the beautiful structure of the heavens and the 
 earth ; and into the active, but irrational princi- 
 ple of matter, the divinity infused a rational 
 soul. The souls of men were formed from the 
 remainder of the rational soul of the world, 
 which had previously given existence to the 
 invisible gods and demons. The philosopher, 
 therefore, supported the doctrine of ideal forms, 
 and the pre-existence of the human mind, which 
 he considered as emanations of the Deity, which 
 can never remain satisfied with objects or things 
 unworthy of their divine original. Men could 
 perceive with their corporeal senses, the types 
 of immutable things, and the fluctuating objects 
 of the material world ; but the sudden changes 
 to which these are continually obnoxious, create 
 innumerable disorders, and hence arises decep- 
 tion, and, in short, all the errors and miseries of 
 human life. Yet, in whatever situation man 
 mav be, he is still an object of divine concern, 
 and to recommend himself to the favour of the 
 pre-existent cause, he must comply with the 
 purposes of his creation, and by proper care 
 and diligence he can recover those immaculate 
 powers with which he was naturally endowed. 
 All science the philosopher made to consist in 
 reminiscence, and in recalling the nature, forms, 
 and proportions of those perfect and immutable 
 
PL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PL 
 
 essences with which the human mind bad been 
 conversant. The passions were divided into 
 two classes, the first consisted of the irascible 
 passions, which originated in pride or resent- 
 ment, and were seated in the breast : the other, 
 founded on the love of pleasure, was the concu- 
 piscible part of the soul, seated in the belly and 
 inferior parts of the body. These different 
 orders induced the philosopher to compare the 
 soul to a small republic, of which the reasoning 
 and judging powers were stationed in the head, 
 as in a firm citadel, and of which the senses 
 were its guards and servants. By the irascible 
 part of ibe soul men asserted their dignity, re- 
 pelled injuries, and scorned danger; and the 
 concupiscible part provided the support and the 
 necessities of the body, and, when governed 
 with propriety, it gave rise to temperance. Jus- 
 tice was produced by the regular dominion of 
 reason, and by the submission of the passions; 
 and prudence arose from the strength, acute- 
 ness, and perfection of the soul, without which 
 all other virtues could not exist. Plato was the 
 first who supported the immortality of the soul 
 upon arguments solid and permanent, deduced 
 from truth and experience. From doctrines 
 like these, the great founder of Platonism con- 
 cluded, that there might exist in the world a 
 community of men whose passions could be gov- 
 ern ed with moderation, and who, from know- 
 ing the evils and miseries which arise from ill 
 conduct, might aspire to excellence, and attain 
 that perfection which can be derived from the 
 proper exercise of the rational and moral pow- 
 ers. To illustrate this more fully, the philoso- 
 pher wrote a book, well known by the name of 
 the republic of Plato, in which he explains, 
 with acuteness, judgment, and elegance, the 
 rise and revolution of civil society ; and so re- 
 spected was his opinions as a legislator, that his 
 scholars were employed in regulating the repub- 
 lics of Arcadia, Elis, and Cnidus, at the desire 
 of those states, and Xenocrates gave political 
 rules for good and impartial government to the 
 conqueror of the east. The best editions of 
 Plato are those of Francof fol. 1602, and Bi- 
 pont. 12 vols. 8vo. 1788. Plato. Dial. &c.— 
 Cic. de offic. 1. de div. 1, c. 36, de N. D. 2, c. 
 12. Tus. 1, c. 17. — Plui. in Sol. &c. — Seneca. 
 ep. — Quintil. 10, c. 1, &c. — Mlian. V. H. 2 
 
 and 4. — Pans. 1, c. 30. — Diog. II A Greek 
 
 poet, called the prince of the middle comedy, 
 who flourished B. C. 445. Some fragments 
 remain of his pieces. 
 
 Plautia Lex, was enacted by M. Plautius, 
 the tribune A. U. C. 664. It required every 
 tribe annually to choose fifteen persons of their 
 body to serve as judges, making the honour 
 common to all the three orders, according to the 
 
 majorit}' of votes in every tribe. Another, 
 
 called also Plotia, A. U. C. 675. It punished 
 with the interdictio ignis et aq%a^ all persons 
 who were found guilty of attempts upon the 
 state, or the senators or magistrates, or such as 
 appeared in public armed with any evil design, 
 or such as forcibly expelled any person from 
 his legal possessions. 
 
 Plautia Nus Fulvius, an African of mean 
 birth, who was banished for his seditious be- 
 haviour in the years of his obscurity. In his 
 banishment, Plautianus formed an acquaint- 
 ance with Severus, who some years after as- 
 
 cended the imperial throne. This was the be- 
 ginning of his prosperity, Plautianus shared 
 the favours of Severus in obscurity as well as 
 on the throne. He was invested with as much 
 power as his patron at Rome, and in the prov- 
 inces, and indeed, he wanted but the name of 
 emperor to be his equal. He was concerned in 
 all the rapine and destruction which was com- 
 mitted through the empire, and he enriched 
 himself with the possessions of those who had 
 been sacrificed to the emperor's cruelty or ava- 
 rice. To complete his triumph, and to make 
 himself still greater, Plautianus married his 
 favourite daughter Plautilla to Caracalla, the 
 son of the emperor. The son of Severus had 
 complied with great reluctance, and, though 
 Plautilla was amiable in her manners, com- 
 manding in aspect, and of a beautiful counte- 
 nance, yet the young prince often threatened to 
 punish her haughty and imperious behaviour as 
 soon as he succeeded to the throne. Plautilla 
 reported the whole to her father, and, to save 
 his daughter from the vengeance of Caracalla, 
 Plautianus conspired against the emperor and 
 his son. The conspiracy was discovered, the 
 wicked minister was immediately put to death, 
 and Plautilla banished to the island of Lipari, 
 with her brother Plautius, where, seven years 
 after, she was put to death by order of Cara- 
 calla, A. D. 211. Plautilla had two children, 
 a son, who died in his childhood, and a daugh- 
 ter, whom Caracalla murdered in the^arms of 
 her mother. Dion. Cass. 
 
 Plautus, M. Accids, I. a comic poet, bom 
 at Sarsina in Umbria. Fortune proved unkind 
 to him, and, from competence, he was reduced 
 to the meanest poverty, by engaging in a com- 
 mercial line. To maintain himself, he entered 
 into the family of a baker as a common ser- 
 vant, and, while he was employed in grinding 
 corn, he sometimes dedicated a few moments 
 to the comic muse. Some, however, deny this 
 account. He wrote 25 comedies, of which only 
 20 are extant. He died about 184 years before 
 the Christian era; and Varro, his learned 
 countryman, wrote this stanza, which deserved 
 to be engraved on his tomb : — 
 
 Postquam morte captus est Plautus, 
 Comozdia luget, sceTia est diserta ; 
 Deinde risus, ludus,jocusque, et numeri 
 Innumeri simul omnes collacrymarunt. 
 
 The plays of Plautus were universally esteemed 
 at Rome ; and Varro. whose judgment is great 
 and generally decisive, declares, that if the 
 Muses were willing to speak Latin, they would 
 speak in the language of Plautus. In the Au- 
 gustan age, however,when the Roman language 
 became more pure and refined, the comedies of 
 Plautus did not appear free from inaccuracy. 
 The poet, when compared to the more elegant 
 expressions of a Terence, was censured for his 
 negligence in versification, his low wit, execra- 
 ble puns, and disgusting obscenities. Yet, how- 
 ever censured as to language or sentiments, 
 Plautus continued to be a favourite on the stage. 
 If his expressions were not choice or delicate, it 
 was universally admitted that he was more hap- 
 py than other comic writers in his pictures, the 
 incidents of his plays were more varied, the acts 
 more interesting, the characters more truly dis- 
 played, and the catastrophe more natural. In 
 555 
 
PL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PL 
 
 he reign of ihe emperor Diocletian,his comedies 
 were still acted on the public theatres ; and no 
 greater compliment can be paid to his abilities as 
 a comic writer, and no greater censure can be 
 passed upon his successors in dramatic compo- 
 sition, than to observe, that for 500 years, with 
 all the disadvantage of obsolete language and 
 diction, in spite of the change of manners and 
 the revolutions of government, he commanded 
 and received that applause which no other 
 writer dared to dispute with him. The best 
 editions of Plautus are, that of Gronovius, 8vo. 
 L, Bat, 1664 ; that of Barbou, 12mo, in 3 vols. 
 Paris, 1759 ; that of Ernesti, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips. 
 1760; and that of Glasgow, 3 vols. 12mo. 1763. 
 
 Varro afud Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Cic. de Offic 1, 
 &c. — Do Oral. 3, &c. — Horat. 3, ep. I, v. 58, 
 
 170, de art. poet. 54 and 270. II. ^lianus, a 
 
 highpriest, who consecrated the capitol in the 
 reign of Vespasian. Tacit. Hist. 4, c. 53. 
 
 Plinius Segundus, (C.) I. surnamed the Elder, 
 was born at Verona, of a noble family. He 
 distinguished himself in the field, and after he 
 had been made one of the augurs at Rome, he 
 was appointed governor of Spain, In his pub- 
 lic character he did not neglect the pleasures of 
 literature, the day was employed in the adminis- 
 tration of the affairs of his province, and the 
 night was dedicated to study. Every moment 
 of time was precious to him ; at his meals one of 
 his servants read to him books valuable for their 
 information, and from them he immediately 
 made copious extracts, in a memorandum book. 
 He deemed every moment lost which was not 
 dedicated to study, and from these reasons he 
 never appeared at Rome but in a chariot, and 
 wherever he went he was always accompanied 
 by his amanuensis. He even censured his 
 nephew, Pliny the younger, because he had in- 
 dulged himself with a walk ; and sternly observ- 
 ed, that he might have employed those moments 
 to better advantage. He was courted and ad- 
 mired by the emperors Titus and Vespasian, 
 and he received from them all the favours which 
 a virtuous prince could offer and an honest sub- 
 ject receive. As he was at Misenum, where 
 he commanded the fleet which was then sta- 
 tioned there, Pliny was surprised at the sudden 
 appearance of a cloud of dust and ashes. He 
 was then ignorant of the cause which produced 
 it, and he immediately set sail in a small vessel 
 for mount Vesuvius, which he at last discovered 
 to have made a dreadful eruption. The sight 
 of a number of boats, that fled from the coast to 
 avoid the danger, might have deterred another ; 
 but the curiosity of Pliny excited him to ad- 
 vance with more boldness, and, though his ves- 
 sel was often covered with stones and ashes that 
 were continually thrown up by the mountam, 
 yet he landed on the coast. The place was de- 
 serted by the inhabitants, but Pliny remained 
 there during the night, the better to observe the 
 .inountain,which, during the obscurity, appeared 
 to be one continual blaze. He was soon dis- 
 turbed by a dreadful earthquake, and the con- 
 trary wind on the morrow prevented him from 
 returning to Misenum. The eruption of the 
 volcano increased, and, at last, the fire approach- 
 ed the place where the philosopher made his 
 observations. Pliny endeavoured to fly before 
 it, but though he was supported by two of his 
 servants he was unable to escape. His body 
 556 
 
 was found three days after, and decently buried 
 by his nephew, who was then at Misenum with 
 the fleet. This memorable event happened in 
 ihe 79th year of the Christian era ; and the 
 philosopher who perished by the eruptions of 
 the volcano, has been called by some the martyr 
 of nature. He was then in the 56th year of 
 his age. Of the works which he composed none 
 are extant, but his natural history in 37 books. 
 It is a work, as Pliny the younger says, full of 
 erudition, and as varied as nature itself It 
 treats of the stars, the heavens, wind, rain, hail, 
 minerals, trees, flowers, and plants, besides an 
 account of all living animals, birds, fishes, and 
 beasts; a geographical description of every place 
 on the globe, and a history of every art and 
 science, of commerce and navigation, with their 
 rise, progress, and several improvements. He 
 is happy in his descriptions as a naturalist, he 
 writes with force and energy; andthoughmany 
 of his ideas and conjectures are sometimes ill- 
 founded, yet he possesses that fecundity of ima- 
 gination, and vivacity of expression, which are 
 requisite to treat a subject with propriety, and 
 to render a history of nature pleasing, interest- 
 ing, and, above all, instructive. His style pos- 
 sesses not the graces of the Augustan age ; he 
 has neither its purity and elegance, nor its sim- 
 plicity ; but is rather cramped, obscure, and 
 sometimes unintelligible. He had written 160 
 volumes of remarks and annotations on the 
 various authors which he had read; and so 
 great was the opinion, in his contemporaries, 
 of his erudition and abilities, that a man called 
 Lartius Latinus offered to buy his notes and ob- 
 servations for the enormous sum of about 3242Z. 
 English money. The philosopher, who was 
 himself rich and independent, rejected the offer, 
 and his compilations, after his death, came into 
 the hands of his nephew Pliny. The best edi- 
 tions of Pliny are that of Harduin, 3 vols. fol. 
 Paris, 1723, that of Frantzius, 10 vols. 8vo. Lips. 
 1778, that of Brotier, 6 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1779. 
 and the Variorum, 8vo. in 8 vols. Lips. 1778 to 
 1789. Tacit. Ann. 1. c. 69, 1. 13, c. 20, 1. 15, c. 
 
 53. — Plin. ep. &c. II. C. Csecilius Secun- 
 
 dus, surnamed the younger, was son of L. Cae- 
 cilius by the sister of Pliny the elder. He was 
 adopted by his uncle, whose name he assumed, 
 and whose estates and effects he inherited. He 
 received the greatest part of his education under 
 duintilian, and at the age of 19 he appeared at 
 the bar, where he distinguished himself so much 
 by his eloquence, that he and Tacitus were 
 reckoned the two greatest orators of their age. 
 He did not make his profession an object of gain 
 like the rest of the Roman orators, but he refus- 
 ed fees from the rich as well as from the poorest 
 of his clients, and declared that he cheerfully 
 employed himself forthe protection of innocence, 
 the relief of the indigent, and the detection of 
 vice. He published many of his harangues and 
 orations, which have been lost. When Trajan 
 was invested with the imperial purple, Pliny 
 was created consul by the emperor. This hon- 
 our the consul acknowledged in a celebrated 
 panegyric, which, at the request of the Roman 
 senate, and in the name of the whole empire, 
 he pronounced on Trajan. Some time after he 
 presided over Pontus and Bithynia, in the office, 
 and with the power, of proconsul ; and by his 
 humanity and philanthropy the subject was 
 
PL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PL 
 
 freed from the burden of partial taxes, and the 
 persecution which had been begun against the 
 Christians of his province was stopped, when 
 Pliny solemnly declared to the emperor, that the 
 followers of Christ were a meek and inoffensive 
 sect of men, that their morals were pure and in- 
 nocent, that they were free from all crimes, and 
 that they voluntarily bound themselves, by the 
 most solemn oaths, to abstain from vice and to 
 relinquish every sinful pursuit. If he rendered 
 himself popular in his province, he was not less 
 respected at Rome. His native country shared 
 among the rest his unbounded benevolence ; and 
 Comum, a small town of Insubria, which gave 
 him birth, boasted of his liberality in the valu- 
 able and choice library of books which he col- 
 lected there. He made bis preceptor Gluintil- 
 ian, and the poet Martial, objects of his benev- 
 olence ; and when the daughter of the former 
 was married, Pliny wrote to the father with the 
 greatest civility ; and while he observed that he 
 was rich in the possession of learning, though 
 poor in the goods of fortune, he begged of him 
 to accept, as a dowry for his beloved daughter, 
 50,000 sesterces, about 300^. I would not, con- 
 tinued he, be so moderate were 1 not assured from 
 your modesty and disinterestedness, that the small- 
 ness of the present will render it acceptable. He 
 died in the 52d year of his age, A. D. 113. He 
 had written a history of his own times, which 
 is lost. Ii is said that Tacitus did not begin 
 his history till he had found it impossible to per- 
 suade Pliny to undertake that laborious task; 
 and, indeed, what could not have been expected 
 from the panegyrist of Trajan, if Tacitus ac- 
 knowledged himself inferior to him in delinea- 
 ting the character of the times. Some suppose, 
 but falsely, that Pliny wrote the lives of illus- 
 trious men universally ascribed to Cornelius 
 Nepos. He also wrote poetry, but his verses 
 have all perished, and nothing of his learned 
 works remain but his panegyric on the emperor 
 Trajan, and ten booksof letters, which he him- 
 self collected and prepared for the public, from 
 a numerous and respectable correspondence. 
 They are written with elegance and great puri- 
 ty ; and the reader every where discovers that 
 affability, that condescension and philanthropy, 
 which so eminently marked the advocate of the 
 Christians. These letters are esteemed by some 
 equal to the voluminous epistles of Cicero. In 
 his panegyric, Pliny's style is florid and bril- 
 liant : he has used, to the greatest advantage, 
 the liberties of the panegyrist and the elegance 
 of the courtier. His ideas are new and refined, 
 but his diction is distinguished by that affecta- 
 tion and pomposity which marked the reign of 
 Trajan. The best editions of Pliny are those of 
 Gesner, 8vo. Lips. 1770, and of Lallemand, 
 12mo. Paris, apud Barbou ; and of the Pane- 
 gyric separate, that of Schwartz, 4to. 1746, and 
 of the Epistles, the Variorum, L. Bat. 1669, 8vo. 
 Plin. ep. — Vossius. — Sidonius. 
 
 Plistoanax, and Plistonax, son of Pausa- 
 nias, was general of the Lacedaemonian armies 
 in the Peloponnesian war. He was banished 
 from his kingdom of Sparta for 19 years, and 
 was afterwards recalled by order of the oracle 
 of Delphi. He reigned 58 years. He had 
 succeeded Plistarchus. Thucyd. 
 ^ Plotina Pompeia, a Roman lady, who mar- 
 ried Trajan while he was yet a private man. 
 
 She entered Rome m the procession with her 
 husband when he was saluted emperor, and dis- 
 tinguished herself by the affability of her be- 
 haviour, her humanit)', and liberal offices to the 
 poor and friendless. She accompanied Trajan 
 in the east, and at his death she brought back 
 his ashes to Rome, and still enjoyed all the 
 honours and titles of a Roman emperess under 
 Adrian, who, by her means, had succeeded to 
 the vacant throne. Dion. 
 
 Plotinus, a Platonic philosopher of Lycopo- 
 lis in Egypt. He was for eleven years a pupil 
 of Ammonius the philosopher, and after he had 
 profited by all the instructions of his learned 
 preceptor, he determined^te improve his know- 
 ledge, and to visit the territories of India and 
 Persia to receive information. He accompanied 
 Gordian in his expedition into the east, but the 
 day which proved fatal to the emperor, nearly 
 terminated the life of the philosopher. He 
 saved himself by flight, and the following year 
 he retired to Rome, where he publicly taught 
 philosophy. His school was frequented by peo- 
 ple of every sex, age, and quality; and many, 
 on their deathbed, left all their possessions to 
 his care, and intrusted their children to him as 
 a superior being. It is even said, that the em- 
 peror and the emperess Salonina intended to 
 rebuild a decayed city of Campania, and to ap- 
 point the philosopher over it, that there he might 
 experimentally know, while he presided over a 
 colony of philosophers, the validity and the use 
 of the ideal laws of the republic of Plato. This 
 plan was not executed through the envy and 
 malice of the enemies of Plotinus. The philo- 
 sopher, at last became helpless, and infirm, re- 
 turned to Campania, where the liberality of his 
 friends for a while maintained him. He died 
 A. D. 270, in the 66th year of his age, and as he 
 expired, he declared that he made his last and 
 most violent efforts to give up what there was 
 most divine in him and in the rest of the uni- 
 verse. Amidst the great qualities of the phi- 
 losopher, we discover some ridiculous singu- 
 larities. Plotinus never permitted his picture 
 to be taken, and he observed, that to see a 
 painting of himself in the following age was 
 beneath the notice of an enlightened mind. His 
 writings have been collected by his pupil Por- 
 phyry, They consist of 54 different treatises, 
 divided into six equal parts, written with great 
 spirit and vivacity ; and the reasonings are ab- 
 struse, and the subject metaphysical. The best 
 edition is that of Picinus, foL JBasil, 1580. 
 
 Plotius Crispinus, I. a stoic philosopher and 
 poet, whose verses were very inelegant, and 
 whose disposition was morose, for which he has 
 been ridiculed by Horace, and cdWedi Artalogus. 
 
 Horat. 1, sat. 1, v. 4. II. Tucca, a friend of 
 
 Horace and of Virgil, who made him his heir. 
 He was selected by Augustus, with Varius, to 
 review the JEneid of Virgil. Horat.l, sat. 5.v. 40. 
 Plutarchus, a native of Chseronea, descended 
 of a respectable family. His father, whose name 
 is unknown, was distinguished for his learning 
 and virtues ; and his grandfather, called Lam- 
 prias, was also as" conspicuous for his elo- 
 quence and the fecundity of his genius. Under 
 Ammonius, a reputable teacher at Delphi, Plu- 
 tarch was made acquainted with philosophy 
 and mathematics ; and after he had visited, like 
 a philosopher and historian, the territories of 
 557 
 
PL 
 
 HISTORY,&c. 
 
 PO 
 
 Egypt and Greece, he retired to Rome, where he 
 opened a school. The emperor Trajan admir- 
 ed his abilities, and honoured him with the 
 office of consul, and appointed him governor of 
 Illyricum. After the death of his imperial 
 benefactor, Plutarch removed from Rome to 
 Chseronea, where he lived in the greatest tran- 
 quillity, respected by his fellow-citizens, and 
 raised to all the honours which his naiive town 
 could bestow. In this peaceful and solitary re- 
 treat Plutarch closely applied himself to study, 
 and wrote the greatest part of his works, and 
 particularly his lives. He died in an advanced 
 age at Chseronea, about the 140th year of the 
 Christian era. Plutarch had five children by 
 his wife, called Timoxena, four sons and one 
 daughter. Two of the sons and the daughter 
 died when young, and those that survived were 
 called Plutarch and Lamprias, and the latter 
 did honour to his father's memory, by giving to 
 the world an accurate catalogue of his writings. 
 In his private and public character, the histo- 
 rian of Chasronea was the friend of discipline. 
 He boldly asserted the i\atural right of man- 
 kind, liberty ; but he recommended obedience 
 and submissive deference to magistrates, as ne- 
 cessary to preserve the peace of society. He 
 always carried a commonplace-book with him, 
 and preserved with the greatest care whatever 
 judicious observations fell in the course of con- 
 versation. The most esteemed of his works are 
 his lives of illustrious men. He writes with 
 precision; and though his diction is neither 
 pure nor elegant, yet there is energy and ani- 
 mation, and in many descriptions he is inferior 
 to no historian. In some of his -narrations, 
 however, he is often too circumstantial, his re- 
 marks are often injudicious ; and when he com- 
 pares the heroes of Greece with those of Rome, 
 the candid reader can easily remember which 
 side of the Adriatic gave the historian birth. 
 He is the most entertaining, the most instructive 
 and interesting, of all the writers of ancient 
 history; and were a man of true taste and 
 judgment asked what book he wished to save 
 from destruction of all the profane compositions 
 of antiquity, he would perhaps without hesita- 
 tion reply, the Lives of Plutarch, The best edi- 
 tions of Plutarch are that of Francfort, 2 vols, 
 fol. 1599; that of Stephens, 6 vols. 8vo. 1572; 
 the Lives by Reiske, 12 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1775 : 
 and the Moralia, &c. by Wyttenbach. Plut. 
 
 Plynterta, a festival among the Greeks, in 
 honour of Aglauros, or rather of Minerva, who 
 received from the daughter of Cecrops the name 
 af Aglauros. The word seems to be derived 
 from n\vv£iv, lavare, because, during the solem- 
 nity, they undressed the statue of the goddess, 
 and vMsked it. The day on which it was ob- 
 served was universally looked upon as unfor- 
 tunate and inauspicious, and on that account no 
 person was permitted to appear in the temples, 
 as they were purposely surrounded with ropes. 
 The arrival of Alcibiades in Athens that day 
 was deemed very unfortunate ; but, however, 
 the success that ever after attended him, proved 
 it to be otherwise. It was customary at this 
 festival to bear in procession a cluster of figs, 
 which intimated the progress of civilization 
 among the first inhabitants of the earth, as figs 
 served them for food after they had found a dis- 
 like for acorns. Pollux. 
 658 
 
 PoLEMOCRATiA, a quccu of Thracc, who fled 
 to Brutus after the murder of Caesar. She re- 
 tired from her kingdom because her subjects 
 had lately murdered her husband. 
 
 PoLEMON, I. a youth of Athens, son of Phi- 
 lostratus. He once, when intoxicated, entered 
 the school of Xenocrates, while the philosopher 
 was giving his pupils a lecture upon the effects 
 of intemperance, and he was so struck with the 
 eloquence of the academician, and the force of 
 his arguments, that from that moment he re- 
 nounced the dissipated life he had led, and ap- 
 plied himself totally to the study of philosophy. 
 He was then in the 30th year of his age, and 
 from that time never drank any other liquor but 
 water ; and after the death of Xenocrates he 
 succeeded in the school where his reformation 
 had been efiected. He died about 270 years be- 
 fore Christ, in an extreme old age. Diog. in 
 vita. — Horat. 2, sat. 3, v. 254. — Val. Max. 6, c. 
 
 9. II. A son of Zeno the rhetorician, made 
 
 king of Pontus by Antony. He attended his pa- 
 tron in his expedition against Parthia. After 
 the battle of Actium he was received into favour 
 by Augustus, though he had fought in the cause 
 of Antony. He was killed some time after by 
 the barbarians near the Palus Maeotis, against 
 
 whom he had made war. Strab. — Dion. 
 
 III. His son, of the same name, was confirmed 
 on his father's throne by the Roman emperors, 
 and the province of Cilicia was also added to his 
 
 kingdom by Claudius. IV. A rhetorician at 
 
 Rome, who wrote a poem on weights and mea- 
 sures, still extant. He was master to Persius, 
 the celebrated satirist, and died in the age of 
 Nero. — — V. A sophist of Laodicea in Asia 
 Minor, in the reign of Adrian. He was often sent 
 to the emperor with an embassy by his country- 
 men, which he executed with great success. He 
 was greatly favoured by Adrian, from whom 
 he exacted much money. In the 5f>th year of 
 his age he buried himself alive, as he laboured 
 with the gout. He wrote declamations in Greek. 
 
 PoLiEiA, a festival at Thebes in honour of 
 Apollo, who was represented there with gray 
 hair, {iro'Xioc,), contrary to the practice of all other 
 places. The victim was a bull, but when it hap- 
 pened once that no bull could be found, an ox 
 was taken from the cart and sacrificed. From 
 that time the sacrifice of labouring oxen was 
 deemed lawful, though before it was looked 
 upon as a capital crime, 
 
 PoLisTRATUs, an Epicurean philosopher, born 
 the same day as Hippoclides, with whom he 
 always lived in the greatest intimacy. They 
 both died at the same hour. Diod. — Val. 
 Max. 1. 
 
 PoLLES, a Greek poet, whose writings were 
 so obscure and unintelligible that his name be- 
 came proverbial. Suidas. 
 
 PoLLio, (C. Asinius,) I. a Roman consul, un- 
 der the reign of Augustus, who distinguished 
 himself as much by his eloquence and writings 
 as by his exploits in the field. He defeated the 
 Dalmatians, and favoured the cause of Antony 
 against Augustus. He patronised, with great 
 liberality, the poets Virgil and Horace, who 
 have immortalized him in their writings. He 
 was the first who raised a public library at 
 Rome. In his library were placed the statues 
 of all the learned men of every age, and Varro 
 was the only person who was honoured there 
 
PO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PO 
 
 during his lifetime. He was with J. Csesar 
 when he crossed the Rubicon. He was greatly 
 esteemed by Augustus when he had become 
 one of his adherents after the ruin of Antony. 
 Pollio wrote some tragedies, orations, and a 
 history, which was divided into 17 books. All 
 these compositions are lost, and nothing remains 
 of his writings except a few letters to Cicero. 
 He died in the 80th year of his age, A. D. 4, 
 He is the person in whose honour Virgil has 
 inscribed his fourth eclogue, Pollio, els a recon- 
 ciliation was effected between Augustus and 
 Antony during his consulship. The poet, it is 
 supposed by some, makes mention of a son of 
 the consul born about this time, and is lavish in 
 his excursions into futurity, and his predictions 
 of approaching prosperity. Paterc. 2, c. 86. — 
 Horat. 2, od. 1, Sat. 10, 1. l.— Virg. Ed. 3 and 
 
 i.— Val. Max. 8, c. 13.— Quint. 10. II. Ve- 
 
 dius, one of the friends of Augustus, who used 
 to feed his fishes with human flesh. This cru- 
 elty was discovered when one of his servants 
 broke a glass in ihe presence of Augustus, who 
 had been invited to a feast. The master order- 
 ed the servant to be seized ; but he threw him- 
 self at the feet of the emperor, and begged him 
 to interfere, and not to suffer him to be devour- 
 ed by fishes. Upon this the causes of his ap- 
 prehension were examined, and Augustus, 
 astonished at the barbarity of his favourite, 
 caused the servant to be dismissed, all the fish- 
 ponds to be filled up, and the crystal glasses of 
 
 Pollio to be broken to pieces. III. A man 
 
 who poisoned Britannicus, at the instigation of 
 Nero. 
 
 PoLLnJs Felix, a friend of the poet Statins, 
 to whom he dedicated his second Sylva. 
 
 Pollux. Vid. Castor. A Greek writer, who 
 flourished A. D. 186, in the reign of Commo- 
 dus, and died in the 58th year of his age. He 
 was bom at Naucratis, and taught rhetoric at 
 Athens, and wrote a useful work called Ono- 
 'nmsticon, of which the best edition is that of 
 Hemsterhusius, 2 vols. fol. Amst. 1706. 
 
 PoLus, a celebrated Grecian actor. 
 
 PoLY^NUs, a native of Macedonia, who wrote 
 eight books, in Greek, of stratagems, which he 
 dedicated to the emperors Antoninus and Verus, 
 while they were making war against the Par- 
 thians. He wrote also other books, which have 
 been lost, among which was a history, with a 
 description of the city of Thebes. The best 
 editions of his stratagems are those of Mas- 
 vicius, 8vo. L. Bat. 1690, and of Mursinna, 
 12mo. Berlin, 1756. 
 
 PoLYBiTjs, a native of Megalopolis in Pelo- 
 ponnesus, son of Lycortas. He was early ini- 
 tiated in the duties, and made acquainted with 
 the qualifications of a statesman by his father, 
 who was a strong supporter of the Achsean 
 league, and under him Philopoeraen was taught 
 the art of war. ' In Macedonia he distinguished 
 himself by his valour against the Romans, and 
 when Perseus had been conquered, he was 
 carried to the capital of Italy as a prisoner of 
 war. Scipio and Fabius were acquainted with 
 his uncommon abilities as a warrior and as a 
 man of learning, and they made him their friend 
 by kindness and attention. He accompanied 
 Scipio in his expeditions, and was present at 
 the taking of Carthage and Numantia. After 
 the death of Scipio, he retired from Rome, and 
 
 passed the rest of his days at Megalopolis. He 
 died in the 82d year of his age, about 124 years 
 before Christ, of a wound which he had receiv- 
 ed by a fall from his horse. He wrote a imi- 
 versal history in Greek, divided into 40 books, 
 which began with the wars of Rome with the 
 Carthaginians, and finished with the conquest 
 of Macedonia by Paulus. The greatest part of 
 this valuable history is lost ; the five first books 
 ■are extant, and of the twelve following, the 
 fragments are numerous. The history of Po- 
 iybius is admired for its authenticity, and he is, 
 perhaps, the only historian among the Greeks 
 who was expeiimentally and professedly ac- 
 quainted with the military operations and the 
 political mcELSures of which he makes mention. 
 Polybius, however great and entertaining, is 
 sometimes censured for his unnecessary digres- 
 sions, for his uncouth and ill-digested narra- 
 tions, for his negligence, and the inaccurate 
 arrangement of his words. But every where 
 there is instruction to be found, information to 
 be collected, and curious facts to be obtained ; 
 and it reflects not much honotir upon Livy for 
 calling the historian, from whom he has copied 
 whole books, almost word for word, without 
 gratitude or acknowledgment, hand quaqv/iiji 
 spernendus auctor. Dionysius, also of Halicar- 
 nassus, is one of his most violent accusers ; but 
 the historian has rather exposed his ignorance 
 of true criticism than discovered ina"ccuracyor 
 inelegance. The best editions of Polybius are 
 those of Gronovius, 3 vols. 8vo. Amst. 1670, or 
 Ernesti, 3 vols. 8vo. 1764, and of Schweighaeu- 
 ser, 7 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1785. Plut. in Phil, in 
 prcec. — Liv. 30, c. 45. — Pans. 8, c, 30. 
 
 PoLYCARPUs, a famous Greek writer, born 
 at Smyrna, and educated at the expense of a 
 rich but pious lady. Some suppose that he 
 was St. John's disciple. He became bishop of 
 Smyrna, and went to Rome to settle the festi- 
 val of Easter, but to no purpose. He was con- 
 demned to be burnt at Smyrna, A. D. 167. His 
 epistle to the Philippians is simple and modest, 
 yet replete with useful precepts and rules for 
 the conduct of life. The best editions of Poly- 
 carp's epistle is that of Oxon. 8vo. 1708, being 
 annexed to the works of Ignatius. 
 
 PoLYCHAREs, a rich Messenian, said to have 
 been the cause of the war which was kindled 
 between the Spartans and his countrymen, 
 which was called the first Messenian war. 
 
 PoLYCLES, I. an Athenian, in the time of 
 
 Demetrius, &c. Polycen. 5. II. A famous 
 
 athlete, often crowned at the four solemn games 
 of the Greeks. He had a statue in Jupiter's 
 grove at Olympia. Pans. 6, c. 1. 
 
 PoLYCLETUs,'a Celebrated statuary of Sicyon, 
 about 232 years before Christ. He was univer- 
 sally reckoned the most skilful artist of his 
 profession among the ancients, and the second 
 rank was given to Phidias. One of his pieces, 
 in which he had represented a body-guard of 
 the king of Persia, was so happily executed, 
 and so nice and exact in all its proportions, that 
 it was looked upon as a most perfect model, and 
 accordingly called the Rule. He was acquaint- 
 ed with architecture. Paus. 2 and 6. — Quin- 
 til. 12, c. 10. 
 
 PoLYCHATEs, I. a tyrant of Samos, well known 
 for the continual flow of s^ood fortune which at- 
 tended him. He had a fleet of a hundred ships 
 559 
 
PO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PO 
 
 of war, and was so universally respected, that 
 Amasis, the king of Egypt, made a treaty of 
 alliance with him. The Egyptian monarch, 
 however, terrified by his continual prosperity, 
 advised him to checker his enjoyments by re- 
 linquishing some of his most favourite objects. 
 Polycrates complied, and threw into the sea a 
 beautiful seal, the most valuable of his jewels ; 
 but a few days after, he received as a present a 
 large fish, in whose belly the jewel was found. 
 Amasis no sooner heard this, than he rejected 
 all alliance with the tyrant of Samos ; and ob- 
 served, that sooner or later his good fortune 
 would vanish. Some time after, Polycrates vis- 
 ited Magnesia, on the Meeander, where he had 
 been invited by Oroetes, the governor. He was 
 shamefully put to death, 522 years before Christ, 
 merely because the governor wished to termi- 
 nate the prosperity of Polycrates. Pans. 8, c. 
 
 U—Strab. U.—Herodot. 3, c. 39, &c. II. 
 
 A sophist of Athens, who, to engage the public 
 attention, wrote a panegyric on Busiris and 
 Clytemnestra. Quintil. 2, c. 17. 
 
 PoLYCTOR, an athlete of Elis. It is said that 
 he obtained a victory at Olympia by bribing his 
 adversary, Sosander, who was superior to him 
 in strength and courage, l-'aus. 5, c. 21. 
 
 PoLYDAMAS, I, a Trojau, son of Antenor by 
 Theano, the sister of Hecuba. He married 
 Lycaste, a natural daughter of Priam, He is 
 accused by some of having betrayed his country 
 
 to the Greeks. Dares Phryg. II. a son of 
 
 Panthous, born the same night as Hector. He 
 was inferior in valour to none of the Trojans 
 except Hector ; and his prudence, the wisdom 
 of his counsels, and the firmness of his mind, 
 claimed equal admiration. He was at last kill- 
 ed by Ajax, after he had slaughtered a great 
 number of the enemy. Dictys Cret. 1, &c. — 
 
 Homer. 11. 12, &c. 'III. A celebrated athlete, 
 
 son of Nicias, who imitated Hercules in what- 
 ever he did. He killed a lion with his fist, and 
 it is said that he could stop a chariot with his 
 hand in its most rapid course. He was one 
 day with some of his friends in a cave, when on 
 a sudden a large piece of rock came tumbling 
 down, and while all fled away, he attempted to 
 receive the fallen fragment in his arms. His 
 prodigious strength, however, was insuflicient, 
 and he was instantly crushed to pieces under 
 the rock. Pans. 6, c. 5. 
 
 PoLYDECTEs, a king of Sparta, of the family 
 of the Proclidae. He was son of Eunomus. 
 Paus. 3, c. 7. Vid. Part III. 
 
 PoLYDORUs, I. a son of Alcamenes, king of 
 Sparta. He put an end to the war, which had 
 been carried on during 20 years, between Mes- 
 senia and his subjects ; and during his reign the 
 Lacedaemonians planted two colonies, one at 
 Crotona, and the other at Locri. He was uni- 
 versally respected. He was assassinated by a 
 nobleman called Polymarchus. His son Eury- 
 crates succeeded him 724 years before Christ. 
 Paus. 3.—Herodot. 7, c. 204. II. A cele- 
 brated carver of Rhodes, who, out of a single 
 block, made the famous statue of Laocoon and 
 
 his children. Plin. 34, c. 8. III. A son of 
 
 Priam by Hecuba, or, according to others, by 
 Laothoe, the daughter of Altes, king of Pedasus, 
 As he was young and inexperienced when Troy 
 was besieged by the Greeks, his father removed 
 him to the court of Polymnestor, king of Thrace, 
 560 
 
 and also intrusted to the care of the monarch a 
 large sum of money and the greatest part of his 
 treasures. Polymnestor assassinated young Po- 
 lydorus, and threw his body into the sea, where 
 it was found by Hecuba. Vid. Polymnestor. 
 According to Virgil, the body of Polydorus was 
 buried near the shore by his assassin, and there 
 grew on his grave a myrtle, whose boughs 
 dropped blood, when ^neas, going to Italy, 
 attempted to tear them from the tree. Virg. 
 jEn. 3, V. 21, &c.—Apollod. 3, c. 12.— Ovid. 
 Met. 13, V. 432.— Homer. II. 20.— Dictys Cret. 
 2, c. 18. 
 
 PoLYGNoTis, I. a celebrated painter of Tha- 
 sos, about 422 years before the Christian era. 
 His father's name was Aglaophon. He adorned 
 one of the public porticoes of Athens with his 
 paintings, in which he had represented the most 
 striking events of the Trojan war. He par- 
 ticularly excelled in giving grace, liveliness, 
 and expression to his pieces. The Athenians 
 were so pleased with him that they offered to 
 reward his labours with whatever he pleased to 
 accept. He declined this generous offer, and 
 the Amphictyonic council, which was composed 
 of the representatives of the principal cities of 
 Greece, ordered that Polygnotus should be 
 maintained at the public expense wherever he 
 went. Quintil. 12, c. 10.— Plin. 33 and 34.— 
 
 Plut. in Cim.—Paus. 10, c. 25, &c. II. A 
 
 statuary. Plin. 34, 
 
 Polymnestor, I. A king of the Thracian 
 Chersonesus, who married Ilione, the eldest of 
 Priam's daughters. When the Greeks besieged 
 Troy, Priam sent the greatest part of his trea- 
 sures, together with Polydorus, the youngest of 
 his sons, to Thrace, where they were intrusted 
 to the care of Polymnestor. The Thracian 
 monarch paid every attention to his brother-in- 
 law, but when he was informed that Priam was 
 dead, he murdered him to become master of the 
 riches which were in his possession. At that 
 time the Greeks were returning victorious from 
 Troy, followed by all the captives, among whom 
 was Hecuba, the mother of Polydorus. The 
 fleet stopped on the coast of Thrace, where one 
 of the female captives discovered on the shore 
 the body of Polydorus, whom Polymnestor had 
 thrown into the sea. The dreadful intelligence 
 was immediately communicated to the mother, 
 who did not doubt but Polymnestor was the 
 cruel assassin. She resolved to revenge her 
 son's death, and immediately she called out 
 Polymnestor, as if wishing to impart to him 
 a mattei' of the most important nature. The 
 tyrant was drawn into the snare, and was no 
 sooner introduced into the apartments of the 
 Trojan princess, than the female captives rush- 
 ed upon him and put out his eyes with their 
 pins, while Hecuba murdered his two children 
 who had accompanied him. According to Eu- 
 ripides, the Greeks condemned Polymnestor to 
 be banished into a distant island for his perfidy. 
 Hyginus, however, relates the whole differently, 
 and observes that when Polydorus was sent to 
 Thrace, Ilione, his sister, took him instead of 
 her son Deiphilus, who was of the same age, 
 apprehensive of her husband's cruelty. The 
 monarch was unacquainted with the imposition-, 
 he looked upon Polydorus as his own son, and 
 treated Deiphilus as the brother of Ilione. 
 After the destruction of Troy, the conquerors, 
 
PO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PO 
 
 "who wished the house and family of Priam 
 to be totally extirpated, offered Eleclra, the 
 daughter of Agamemnon to Polymnestor, if he 
 would destroy Ilione and Polydorus. The mon- 
 arch accepted the offer, and immediately de- 
 spatched his own son Deiphilus, whom he had 
 been taught to regard as Polydorus. Polydorus, 
 who passed as the son of Polymnestor, consulted 
 the oracle after the murder of Deiphilus, and 
 when he was informed that his father was dead, 
 his mother a captive in the hands of the Greeks, 
 and his country in ruins, he communicated the 
 answer of the god to Ilione, whom he had al- 
 ways regarded as his mother. Ilione told him 
 the measures she had pursued to save his life, 
 and upon this he avenged the perfidy of Po- 
 lymnestor b}'- putting out his eyes. Eurip. in 
 Hecvb. — Hijgin. fab. 109, — Virg. jEn. 3, v. 45, 
 
 &.c.—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 430, &c. II. A young 
 
 Milesian, who look a hare in running, and af- 
 terwards obtained a prize at the Olympic games. 
 
 POLYPERCHON, Or PoLYSPERCHON, OUC of the 
 
 officers of Alexander. Antipater, at his death, 
 appointed him governor of the kingdom of 
 Macedonia in preference to his son Cassander. 
 Polyperchon, though old, and a man of expe- 
 rience, showed great ignorance in the adminis- 
 tration of the government. He became cruel 
 not only to the Greeks, or such as opposed his 
 ambitious views, but even to the helpless and 
 innocent children and friends of Alexander, to 
 whom he was indebted for his rise and military 
 reputation. He was killed in a battle 309 B.C. 
 Curt. — Diod. 17, &c. — Justin. 13. 
 
 PoLYSTRATUS, I. a Macedonian soldier, who 
 found Darius after he had been stabbed by Bes- 
 sus, and who gave him water to drink, and car- 
 ried the last injunctions of the dying monarch 
 to Alexander. Curt. 5, c. 13. II. An Epicu- 
 rean philosopher, who flourished B. C. 238. 
 
 PoLYXENA, a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
 celebrated for her beauty and accomplishments. 
 Achilles became enamoured of her, and soli- 
 cited her hand ; and their marriage would have 
 been consummated had not Hector, her brother, 
 opposed it. Polyxena, according to some au- 
 thors, accompanied her father when he went to 
 the tent of Achilles to redeem the body of his 
 son Hector. Some time after the Grecian hero 
 came into the temple of Apollo to obtain a sight 
 of the Trojan princess, but he was murdered 
 there by Paris; and Polyxena, who had re- 
 turned his affection, was so afflicted at his death, 
 that she went and sacrificed herself on his tomb. 
 Some, however, suppose that that sacrifice was 
 not voluntary, but that the manes of Achilles 
 appeared to the Greeks as they were going to 
 embark, and demanded of them the sacrifice of 
 Polyxena. The princess, who was in the num- 
 ber of the captives, was upon this dragged to 
 her lover's tomb, and there immolated by Ne- 
 optolemus, the son of Achilles. Ovid. Met. 13, 
 fab. 5, &c. — Dictys Cret. 3 and 5. — Virg. ^n. 
 3, V. 321.— CaiwZZ. ep. 65.- Hygin. fab. 90. 
 
 PoLYZELUS, a Greek poet of Rhodes. He 
 had written a poem on the origin and birth of 
 Bacchus, Venus, the Muses, &c. Some of his 
 verses are quoted by Athenaeus. Hygin. P. A. 
 2, c. 14. 
 
 PoMPEiA, I. a daughter of Sextus Pompey, 
 by Scribonia. She was promised to Marcellus, 
 as a means of procuring a reconciliation be- 
 
 Part II.— 4 B 
 
 tween her father and the 
 married Scribonius Libo. — 
 
 triumvirs, but she 
 —II. A daughter of 
 Pompey the Great, Julius Caesar's third wife. 
 She was accused of incontinence, because 
 Clodius had introduced himself in women's 
 clothes into the room where she was celebrating 
 the mysteries of Cybele. Cassar repudiated her 
 upon this accusation. Plut. 
 
 PoMPEiA Lex, by Pompey the Great, de am- 
 bitu, A. U. C. 701. It ordained that whatever 
 person had been convicted of the crime of am- 
 bitus, should be pardoned, provided he could 
 impeach two others of ihe same crime, and oc- 
 casion the condemnation of one of them. 
 
 Another by the same, A. U. C. 701, which for- 
 bade the use of laudatores in trials, or persons 
 who gave a good character of the prisoner then 
 
 impeached. Another by the same, A. U. C. 
 
 683. It restored to the tribunes their original 
 power and authority, of which they had been 
 
 deprived by the Cornelian law. Another by 
 
 the same, A. U. C. 701. It shortened the forms 
 of trials, and enacted that the three first days 
 of a trial should be employed in examining 
 witnesses, and it allowed only one day to the par- 
 ties to make their accusation and defence. The 
 plaintiff was confined to two hours, and the de- 
 fendant to three. This law had for its object 
 the riots which happened from the quarrels of 
 
 Clodius and Milo. Another by the same, A. 
 
 U. C. 698, It required that the judges should 
 be the richest of every century, contrary to the 
 usual form. It was, however, requisite that they 
 should be such as the Aurelian law prescribed. 
 
 PoMPEiANUs, I. a Roman knight of Antioch, 
 raised to ofi[ices of the greatest trust under the 
 emperor Aurelius, whose daughter Lu cilia he 
 married. He lived in great popularity at Rome, 
 and retired from the court when Commodus 
 succeeded to the imperial crown. He ought, 
 according to Julian's opinion, to have been 
 chosen and adopted as successor by M. Aure- 
 lius. II. A general of Maxentius, killed by 
 
 Constantine. 
 
 PoMPEius, (CI.) I. a consul,who carried on war 
 against the Numantines, and made a shameful 
 treaty. He is the first of that noble family of 
 
 whom mention is made. Flor. 2, c. 18. II. 
 
 Cneus, a Roman general,who made war against 
 the Marsi, and triumphed over the Piceni. He 
 declared himself against Cinna and Marius, 
 and supported the interest of the republic. He 
 was surnamed Strabo, because he squinted. 
 While he was marching against Marius, a 
 plague broke out in his army, and raged with 
 such violence that it carried away 11,000 men 
 in a few days. He was killed by a flash of 
 lightning; and as he had behaved with cruelty 
 while in power, the people dragged his body 
 through the streets of Rome with an iron hook, 
 and threw it into the Tiber. Paterc. 2. — Plut. 
 
 in Pomp. IIL Rufus, a Roman consul with 
 
 Sylla. He was sent to finish the Marsian war, 
 but the army mutinied at the instigation of 
 Pompeius Strabo, whom he was to succeed in 
 command, and he was assassinated by some of 
 
 the soldiers. Appian. Civ. 1. IV. Cneus. 
 
 surnamed Magnus, from the greatness of his 
 exploits, was son of Pompeius Strabo and Lu- 
 cilia. He early distinguished himself in the 
 field of battle, and fought with success and 
 bravery under his father, whose courage and 
 561 
 
PO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PO 
 
 military prudence he imitated. He began his 
 career with great popularity, the beauty and 
 elegance of his person gained him admirers, 
 and by pleading at the bar, he displayed his 
 eloquence, and received the most unbounded 
 applause. In the disturbances which agitated 
 Rome, by the ambition and avarice of Marius 
 and Sylla, Pompey followed the interest of the 
 latter, and by levying three legions for his ser- 
 vice, he gained his friendship and his protec- 
 tion. In the 26th year of his age he conquered 
 Sicily, which was in the power of Marius and 
 his adherents, and in 40 days he regained all 
 the territories of Africa which had forsaken the 
 interest of Sylla. This rapid success astonish- 
 ed the Romans, and Sylla, who admired and 
 dreaded the rising power of Pompey, recalled 
 him to Rome. Pompey immediately obeyed, 
 and the dictator, by saluting him with the ap- 
 pellation of the Great, showed to the world what 
 expectations he formed from the maturer age 
 of his victorious lieutenant. This sounding title 
 was not sufficient to gratify the ambition of 
 Pompey ; he demanded a triumph, and when 
 Sylla refused to grant it, he emphatically ex- 
 claimed, that the sun shone with more ardour at 
 his rising than at his setting. His assurance 
 gained what petitions and entreaties could not 
 obtain ; and he was the first Roman knight who, 
 without an office under the appointment of the 
 senate, marched in triumphal procession through 
 the streets of Rome. He now appeared, not as 
 a dependant, but as a rival of the dictator, and 
 his opposition to his measures totally excluded 
 him from his will. After the death of Sylla, 
 Pompey supported himself against the remains 
 of the Marian faction, which were headed by 
 Lepidus. He defeated them, put an end to the 
 war which the revolt of Sertorius in Spain had 
 occasioned, and obtained a second triumph, 
 though still a private citizen, about 73 years be- 
 fore the Christian era. He was soon after made 
 consul, and in that office he restored the tribu- 
 nitial power to its original dignity, and in forty 
 days removed the pirates from the Mediterra- 
 nean, where they had reigned for many years, 
 and by their continual plunder and audacity al- 
 most destroyed the whole naval power of Rome. 
 While he prosecuted the piratical war, Pompey 
 was empowered to finish the war against two of 
 the most powerful monarchs of Asia, Mithri- 
 dates, king of Pontus, and Tigranes, king of 
 Armenia. His operations against the king of 
 Pontus were bold and vigorous, and in a gene- 
 ral engagement the Romans so totally defeated 
 the enemy, that the Asiatic monarch escaped 
 with difficulty from the field of battle. Vid. 
 MUhridaticum Bellum. Pompey did not lose 
 sight of the advantages despatch would en- 
 sure ; and he entered Armenia, received the 
 submission of King Tigranes, and after he had 
 conquered the Albanians and Iberians, visited 
 countries which were scarce known to the Ro- 
 mans, and, like a master of the world, disposed 
 of kingdoms and provinces, and received 
 homage from 12 crowned heads at once; he 
 entered Syria, and pushed his conquests as far 
 as the Red Sea. Part of Arabia was subdued, 
 Judaea became a Roman province ; and when he 
 had now nothing to fear from Mithridates, who 
 had voluntarily destroyed himself, Pompey re- 
 turned to Italy with all the pomp and majesty of 
 562 
 
 an eastern conqueror. The Romans dreaded 
 his approach ; they knew his power and his in- 
 fluence among his troops ; and they feared the 
 return of another tyrannical Sylla. Pompey, 
 however, banished their fears ; he disbanded his 
 army, and the conqueror of Asia entered Rome 
 like a private citizen. He was honoured with a 
 triumph, and the Romans, for three successive 
 days, gazed with astonishment on the riches and 
 the spoils which their conquests had acquired 
 in the east, and by which the revenues of the 
 republic were raised from 50 to 85 millions of 
 drachmae. Pompey soon after united his inter- 
 est with that of Caesar and Crassus, and formed 
 the first triumvirate, by solemnly swearing that 
 their attachment should be mutual, their cause 
 common, and their union permanent. The 
 agreement was completed by the marriage of 
 Pompey with Julia, the daughter of Caesar, and 
 the provinces of the republic were arbitrarily di- 
 vided among the triumvirs. Pompey was allot- 
 ted Africa and the two Spains, while Crassus 
 repaired to Syria, to add Parthia to the empire 
 of Rome, and Cassar remained satisfied with the 
 rest, and the continuation of his power as gov- 
 ernor of Gaul for five additional years. But 
 this powerful confederacy was soon broken ; the 
 sudden death of Julia, and the total defeat of 
 Crassus in Syria, shattered the political bands 
 which held the jarring interest of Caesar and 
 Pompey united. Pompey dreaded his father-in- 
 law, and yet he affected to despise him ; and by 
 suffering anarchy to prevail in Rome, he con- 
 vinced his fellow-citizens of the necessity of in- 
 vesting him with a dictatorial power. But while 
 the conqueror of Mithridates was as a sovereign 
 at Rome, the adherents of Caesar were not si- 
 lent. They demanded that either the consul- 
 ship should be given to him, or that he should 
 be continued in the government of Gaul. This 
 just demand would perhaps have been granted, 
 but Cato opposed it ; and when Pompey sent 
 for the two legions which he had lent to Caesar, 
 the breach became more wide, and a civil war 
 inevitable. Caesar was privately preparing to 
 meet his enemies, while Pompey remained in- 
 dolent, and gratified his pride in seeing all Italy 
 celebrate his recovery from an indisposition by 
 universal rejoicings. Caesar was now near 
 Rome ; and Pompey, who had once boasted 
 that he could raise legions to his assistance by 
 stamping on the ground with his foot, fled from 
 the city with precipitation, and retired to Brun- 
 dusium with the consuls and part of the sena- 
 tors. His cause, indeed, was popular ; he had 
 been invested with discretionary power, the 
 senate had entreated him to protect the republic 
 against the usurpation and tyranny of Caesar; 
 and Cato, by embracing his cause, and appear- 
 ing in his camp, seemed to indicate that he was 
 the friend of the republic and the assertor or 
 Roman liberty and independence. But when 
 Caesar had gained to his cause the western parts 
 of the Roman empire, he crossed Italy and ar- 
 rived in Greece, where Pompey had retired, 
 supported by all the powers of the east, the 
 wishes of the republican Romans, and by a 
 numerous and well-disciplined army. In the 
 plains of Pharsalia the two armies engaged. 
 The cavalry of Pompey soon" gave way, and 
 the general retired to his camp, overwhelmed 
 with grief and shame. But here there was no 
 
PO^ 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PO 
 
 safety ; the conqueror pushed on every side, and 
 Pompey disguised himself, and fled to the sea- 
 coast, whence he passed to Egypt, where he 
 hoped to find a safe asylum, till better and more 
 favourable moments returned, in the court of 
 Ptolemy, a prince whom he had once protected 
 and ensured on his throne. A boat was sent to 
 fetch him on shore, and the Roman general left 
 his galley, after an affectionate and tender part- 
 ing with his wife Cornelia. I'he Egyptian 
 sailors sat in sullen silence in the boat, and 
 when Pompey disembarked, Achillas and Sep- 
 timius assassinated him. His wife, who had 
 followed him with her eyes to the shore, was a 
 spectator of the bloody scene, and she hastened 
 away from the bay of Alexandria, not to share 
 his miserable fate. He died B. C. 48, in the 
 58th or 59th year of his age, the day after his 
 birthday. His head was cut off and sent to 
 Caesar, who turned away from it with horror, 
 and shed a flood of tears. The body was left 
 for some time naked on the seashore, till the 
 humanity of Philip, one of his freedmen, an 
 old soldier who had once followed his standard 
 to victory, raised a burning pile, and deposited 
 his ashes under a mound of earth. Caesar 
 erected a monument on his remains ; and the 
 emperor Adrian, two centuries after, when he 
 visited Egypt, ordered it to be repaired at his 
 own expense, and paid particular honour to the 
 memory of a great and good man. The char- 
 acter of Pompey is that of an intriguing and 
 artful general ; yet amidst all his dissimulation, 
 we perceive many other striking features. 
 Pompey was kind and clement to the conquer- 
 ed, and generous to his captives ; and he buried, 
 at his own expense, Mithridates, with all the 
 pomp and the solemnity which the greatness of 
 his power an d the extent of his dominions seemed 
 to claim. He lived with great temperance and 
 moderation ; and his house was small, and not 
 ostentatiously furnished. He destroyed, with 
 great prudence, the papers which were found in 
 the camp of Sertorius, lest mischievous curios- 
 ity should find cause to accuse the innocent, 
 and to meditate their destruction. With great 
 disinterestedness he refused the presents which 
 princes and raonarchs offered to him, and he 
 ordered them to be added to the public revenue. 
 He might have seen a better fate, and termina- 
 ted his days with more glory, if he ' had not 
 acted with such imprudence when the flames 
 of civil war were first kindled ; and he reflected 
 with remorse, after the battle of Pharsalia, upon 
 his want of usual sagacity, and military pru- 
 dence, in fighting at such a distance from the 
 sea, and in leaving the fortified places of Dyr- 
 rachium to meet in the open plain an enemy, 
 without provisions, without friends, and with- 
 out resources. Pompey married four different 
 times. His first matrimonial connexion was 
 with Antistia, the daughter of the praetor An- 
 listius, whom he divorced with great reluct- 
 ance to marry iEmylia, the daughter-in-law 
 of Sylla. vErnylia died in childbed ; and 
 Pompey's marriage with Julia, the daughter of 
 Caesar, was a step more of policy than affec- 
 tion. Yet Julia loved Pompey with great ten- 
 derness, and her death in childbed was the 
 signal of war between her husband and father. 
 He afterwards married Cornelia, the daughter 
 of Martellus Scipio, a woman commended for 
 
 her virtues, beauty, and accomplishments. 
 Plut. in vita. — Flor. 4. — Pater c. 2, c. 29. — 
 Dio. Cass. — LALcan. — Appian. — Cas. Bell. Civ. 
 — Cic. Oral. 68, ad Attic. 7, ep. 25, ad Jam. 13, 
 
 ep. 19. — Eutrop. The two sons of Pompey 
 
 the Great, called Cneuis and Sextus, were 
 masters of a powerful army when the death of 
 their father was known. They prepared to op- 
 pose the conqueror, but Cassar pursued them 
 with his usual vigour and success, and at the 
 battle of Munda they were defeated, and Cneius 
 was left among the slain. Sextus fled to Sicily, 
 where he for some time supported himself; but 
 the murder of Caesar gave rise to new events, 
 and if Pompey had been as prudent and as 
 sagacious as his father, he might have become, 
 perhaps, as great £md as formidable. He treat- 
 ed with the triumvirs as an equal, and when 
 Augustus and Antony had the imprudence to 
 trust themselves without arms and without at- 
 tendants in his ship, Pompey, by following the 
 advice of his friend Menas, who wished him to 
 cut off the illustrious persons who were masters 
 of the world, and now in his power, might have 
 made himself as absolute as Caesar; but he re- 
 fused, and observed it was unbecoming the son 
 of Pompey to act with such duplicity. This 
 friendly meeting of Pompey with two of the 
 triumvirs was not productive of advantages to 
 him, he wished to have no superior, and hos- 
 tilities began. Pompey was at the head of 350 
 ships, and appeared so formidable to his ene- 
 mies, and so confident of success in himself, 
 that he called himself the son of Neptune and 
 the lord of the sea. He was, however, soon de- 
 feated in a naval engagement by Octavius and 
 Lepidus; andof all his numeroils fleet, only 17 
 sail accompanied his flight to Asia. Here for 
 a moment he raised seditions, but Antony or- 
 dered him to t?e seized and put to death, about 
 35 years before the Christian era. Plut. in 
 Anton., &c. — Paterc 2, c.55, &c. — Flor. 4, c. 2, 
 
 &c. Trogus. Vid. Tragus. Sextus Fes- 
 
 tus, a Latin grammarian, of whose treatise de 
 verborum significatioic, the best edition is in 4to. 
 Amst. 1699. 
 
 PoMPiLius NuMA, I. the second king of Rome. 
 Vid. Numa. The descendants of the monarch 
 were called Pompilius Sanguis, an expression 
 applied by Horace to the Pisos. Art. Poet. v. 
 
 292. II. Andronicus, a grammarian of Syria, 
 
 who opened a school at Rome, and had Cicero 
 and Caesar among his pupils. Sueton. 
 
 PoMPiiJA, a daughter of Numa Pompilius. 
 She married Numa Martins, by whom she had 
 Ancus Martius, the fourth king of Rome. 
 
 PoMPoMA, the wife of Cl. Cicero, sister to 
 Pomponius Atticus. She punished with the 
 greatest cruelty Philologus, the slave who had 
 betrayed her husband to Antony, and she or- 
 dered him to cut his flesh by piecemeal, and 
 afterwards to boil it and eat it in her presence, 
 
 PoMPoNros, I, the father of Numa, advised 
 his son to accept the regal dignity which e 
 
 Roman ambassadors offered to him. II. 
 
 Flaccus, a man appointed governor of Moesia 
 and Syria by Tiberius, because he had con- 
 tinued drinking and eating with him for two 
 days without intermission. Suet, in Theb. 42. 
 III. A tribune of the people in the time of 
 
 Servilius Ahala, the consul. IV. Mela. Vid. 
 
 Mela. V. A Roman, who accused Manlius 
 
 563 
 
vo 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PO 
 
 the dictator of cruelty. He triumphed over 
 Sardinia, of which he was made governor. He 
 escaped from Rome and the tyranny of the tri- 
 umvirs, by assuming the habit of a praetor, and 
 by travelling with his servants disguised in the 
 
 dress of lictors with their fasces. VI. Se- 
 
 cundus, an officer in Germany in the age of 
 Nero. He was honoured with a triumph for a 
 victory over the barbarians of Germany. He 
 wrote some poems, greatly celebrated by the 
 ancients for their beauty and elegance. They 
 are lost. 
 
 PoNTicus, a poet of Rome, contemporary 
 with Propertius, by whom he is compared to 
 Homer. He wrote an account of the Theban 
 war in heroic verse. Propert. 1, el. 7. 
 
 PoNTiMUs, I. a friend of Cicero. II. A 
 
 tribune of the people, who refused to rise up 
 when Cassar passed in triumphal procession. 
 He was one of Caesar's murderers, and was 
 killed at the battle of Mutina. Sueton. in 
 CcEsar. 78. — Cic. 10, ad fam. 
 
 Pontius Auftdianus, I. a Roman citizen, 
 who, upon hearing that violence had been of- 
 fered to his daughter, punished her and her 
 
 ravisher with death. Val. Max. 6, c. 1. II. 
 
 Herennius, a general of the Samnites, who 
 surrounded the Roman army under the consuls 
 T. Veturius and P. Poslhumius. As there was 
 no possibility of escaping for the Romans, 
 Pontius consulted his father what he could do 
 with an army that were prisoners in his hands. 
 The old man advised him either to let them go 
 untouched, or put them all to the sword. Pon- 
 tius rejected his father's advice, and spared the 
 lives of the enemy, after he had obliged them 
 to pass under the yoke, with the greatest igno- 
 miny. He was afterwards conquered, and 
 obliged in his turn to pass under the yoke. 
 Fabius Maximus defeated him, when he ap- 
 peared again at the head of another army, and 
 he was afterwards shamefully put to death by 
 the Romans, after he had adorned the triumph 
 of the conqueror. Liv. 9, c. 1, &c. 
 
 PopiLius, (M.) I. a consul who was informed, 
 as he was offering a sacrifice, that a sedition was 
 raised in the city against the senate. Upon 
 this he immediately went to the populace in his 
 sacerdotal robes, and quieted the multitude with 
 a speech. He lived about the year of Rome 
 
 404. Liv. 9, c. ^\.— Val. Max. 7, c. 8. II. 
 
 L3Bnas,a Roman ambassador to Antiochus, king 
 of Syria. He was commissioned to order the 
 monarch to abstain from hostilities against Pto- 
 lemy, king of Egypt, who was an ally of Rome. 
 Antiochus wished to evade him by his answers, 
 but Popilius, with a stick which he had in his 
 hand, made a circle round him on the sand, and 
 bade him, in the name of the Roman senate and 
 people, not to go beyond it before he spoke de- 
 cisively. This boldness intimidated Antiochus ; 
 he withdrew his garrisons from Egypt, and no 
 longer meditated a war against Ptolemy. Val. 
 Max. 6, c. 4. — Liv. 45, c. 12 — Paterc. 1. c. 10. 
 
 III. A tribune of the people who murdered 
 
 Cicero, to whose eloquence he was indebted 
 for his life when he was accused of parricide. 
 Plut. 
 
 PoppjEA Sabina, a celebrated Roman matron, 
 daughter of Titus Ollius. She married a Ro- 
 man knight called Rufus Crispinus, by whom 
 she had a son. Her personal charms, and the 
 564 
 
 elegance of her figure, captivated Otho, who 
 was then one of Nero's favourites. He carried 
 her away and married her ; but Nero, who had 
 seen her, and had often heard her accomplish- 
 ments extolled, soon deprived him of her com- 
 pany, and sent him out of Italy on pretence of 
 presiding over one of the Roman provinces. 
 After he had taken this step, Nero repudiated 
 his wife Octavia, on pretence of barrenness, and 
 married Poppsea. She died of a blow which 
 she received from his foot when many months 
 advanced in her pregnancy, about the 65ih year 
 of the Christian era. Her funecal was perform- 
 ed with great pomp and solemnity, and statues 
 were raised to her memory. It is said that she 
 was so anxious to preserve her beauty and the 
 elegance of her person, that 500 asses were kept 
 on purpose to afford her milk, in which she used 
 daily to bathe. Even in her banishment she was 
 attended by 50 of these animals for the same 
 purpose, and from their milk she invented a kind 
 of ointment, or pomatum, to preserve beauty, 
 called poppcBanum from her. Plhi. 11, c. 41. — 
 Dio. 62. — Jiiv. 6. — Siieton. in Ner. d^ Oth. — 
 Taci^. 13 and 14.. 
 
 PoRCiA, a daughter of Cato of Utica, who 
 married Bibulus, and, after his death, Brutus. 
 She was remarkable for her prudence, philos- 
 ophy, courage, and conjugal tenderness. She 
 gave herself a heavy wound in the thigh, to see 
 with what fortitude she could bear pain ; and 
 when her husband asked her the reason of it, 
 she said that she wished to try whether she had 
 courage enough to share not only his bed, but to 
 partake of his most hidden secrets. Brutus was 
 astonished at her constancy, and no longer de- 
 tained from her knowledge the conspiracy which 
 he and many other illustrious Romans had 
 formed against J. Caesar. Porcia wished them 
 success, and though she betrayed fear, and fell 
 into a swoon the day that her husband was 
 gone to assassinate the dictator, yet she was 
 faithful to her promise, and dropped nothing 
 which might affect the situation of the conspira- 
 tors. When Brutus was dead, she refused to 
 survive him, and attempted to end her life as a 
 daughter of Cato. Her friends attempted to 
 terrify her ; but when she saw that every weapon 
 was removed from her reach, she swallowed 
 burning coals, and died, about 42 years before the 
 Christian era. Valerius Maximus says that she 
 was acquainted with her husband's conspiracy 
 against Csesar when she gave herself the wound. 
 Val. Max. 3, c. 2. 1. 4, c. 6.— Plut. in Brut. &c. 
 
 PoRciA Lex, de civitate, by M. Porcius the 
 tribune, A. U. C. 453. It ordained that no 
 magistrate should punish with death, or scourge 
 with rods, a Roman citizen when condemned, 
 but only permit him to go into exile. Sallust. 
 in Cat. — Liv. 10. — Cic. pro Rab. 
 
 PoRCiNA, a surname of the orator M. JE. 
 Lepidus, who lived a Utile before Cicero's age, 
 and was distinguished for his abilities. Cic. ad 
 Her. 4, c. 5. 
 
 PoRcius Latro, (M.) I. a celebrated orator, 
 who killed himself when labouring under a 
 
 quartan ague, A. U. C. 750. II. Licinius, a 
 
 Latin poet, during the time of the third Punic 
 war, commended for the elegance, the graceful 
 ease, and happy wit of his epigrams. 
 
 PoREDORAX, one of the 40 Gauls whom Mith- 
 ridates ordered to be put to death, and to re- 
 
IPO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PO 
 
 main unburied for conspiring against him. His 
 mistress, at Pergaraus, buried him against the 
 orders of the monarch. Plut. de Vert. Mid. 
 
 PoRPHTRius, a Platonic philosopher of Tyre. 
 He studied eloquence at Athens, under Longi- 
 nus, and afterwards retired to Rome, where he 
 perfected himself under Plotinus. He express- 
 ed his sentiments with elegance and dignity ; 
 and while other philosophers studied obscurity 
 in their language, his style was remarkable for 
 its simplicity and grace. The books that he 
 wrote were numerous, and some of his smaller 
 treatises are still extant. His much celebrated 
 work, which is now lost, was against the reli- 
 gion of Christ ; and in this theological contest 
 he appeared so formidable, that most of the fa- 
 thers of the church have been employed in con- 
 futing his arguments and developing the false- 
 hood of his assertions. Porphyry resided for 
 some time in Sicilv, and died at the advanced 
 a^e of 71, A. D. 304. The best edition of his 
 life of Pythagoras is that of Kuster, 4to. Amst. 
 1707, that of his treatise De abstifientia, is De 
 Rhoer. Traj. ad Rhen. 8vo. 1767, and that De 
 Antra Nympharum is 8vo. Traj. ad Rhen. 1765, 
 
 PoRSENNA, or PoRSENA, a king of Etruria, 
 ■who declared war against the Romans because 
 they refused to restore Tarquin to his throne 
 and to his royal privileges. He was at first suc- 
 cessful, the Romans were defeated, and Porsen- 
 na would have entered the gates of Rome, had 
 not Codes stood at the head of a bridge and 
 supported the fury of the whole Etrurian army, 
 while his companions behind were cutting off 
 the communication with the opposite shore. 
 This act of bravery astonished Porsenna ; but 
 w^hen he had seen Mutius Scsevola enter his 
 camp with an intention to murder him, and 
 when he had seen him burn his hand without 
 emotion, he made peace with the Romans, and 
 never after supported the claims of Tarquin. 
 The generosity of Porsenna's behaviour to the 
 captives was admired by the Romans, and to 
 reward his humanity, they raised a brazen 
 statue to his honour. Liv. 2, c. 9, &c. — Plut. 
 in Public. — Flor. 1, c, 10. — Horat. ep. 16. — 
 Virg. jEn. 8, v. 646. 
 
 PoRTUMNALiA, festivals of Portumnus at 
 Rome, celebrated on the 17th of August, in a 
 very solemn and lugubrious manner, on the 
 borders of the Tiber. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 547. — 
 Varro de L. L. 5, c. 3. 
 
 PoRUs, a king of India. When Alexander 
 invaded Asia, he marched a large army to the 
 banks of the Hydaspes. The stream of the 
 river was rapid, but Alexander crossed it in the 
 obscurity of the night, and defeated one of the 
 sons of the Indian monarch. Porus himself re- 
 newed the battle, but the valour of the Macedo- 
 nians prevailed, and the Indian prince retired, 
 covered with wounds, on the back of one of his 
 elephants. Alexander sent one of the kings of 
 India to demand him to surrender, but Porus, 
 killed the messenger, exclaiming, Is not this the 
 voice of the wretch who has abandoned his 
 country 1 and when he at last was prevailed 
 upon to come before the conqueror, he approach- 
 ed him as an equal. Alexander demanded of 
 him how he wished to be treated ; Like a king., 
 replied the Indian monarch. This magnani- 
 mous answer so pleased the Macedonian con- 
 queror, that he not only restored him his do- 
 
 minions, but he incrcELsed the kingdom by the 
 conquest of new provinces ; and Porus, in ac- 
 knowledgment of such generosity and benevo- 
 lence, became one of the most faithful and 
 attached friends of Alexander. Plut. in Alex. 
 —Philostr. 2, c. \0.—Curt. 8, c. 8, &c.— Claud. 
 Cons. Honor. 4. 
 
 PosiDEs, a eunuch and freedman of the 
 emperor Claudius, who rose to honours by the 
 favour of his master. Juv. 14, v. 94. 
 
 Posmippus, the last poet of the new comedy, 
 was a Macedonian, and born at Cassandria. 
 He did not begin to exhibit till three years af- 
 ter Menander's death, B. C. 289. He attained 
 great fame by the excellence of his dramatic 
 compositions, of which he published upwards 
 of fifty. 
 
 PosiDONius, a philosopher of Apamea, He 
 lived at Rhodes for some time, and afterwards 
 came to Rome, where, after cultivating the 
 friendship of Pompey Eind Cicero, he died in 
 his 84th year. He wrote a treatise on the na- 
 ture of the gods, and also attempted to measure 
 the circumference of the earth; he accounted 
 for the tides from the motion of the moon, and 
 calculated the height of the atmosphere to be 
 400 stadia, nearly agreeing to the ideas of the 
 moderns. Cic. Tusc. 5, c, 37. — Strab. 14. 
 
 PosTHUMUis Albinos, I. a man who suffered 
 himself to be bribed by Jugurtha, against whom 
 
 he had been sent with an army. XL A writer 
 
 at Rome whom Cato ridiculed for composing a 
 history in Greek, and afterwards offering apolo- 
 gies for the inaccuracy and inelegance of his ex- 
 pressions. III. Tubero, a master of horse to 
 
 the dictator iEmilius Mamercus. He was him- 
 self made dictator in the war which the Romans 
 waged against the Volsci, and he punished his 
 son with death for fighting against his orders, 
 
 A. U. C. 312. Liv. 4, c. 23. IV. Spurius, a 
 
 consul sent against the Samnites. He was taken 
 in an ambush by Pontius, the enemy's general, 
 and obliged to pass under the yoke with all his 
 army. He saved his life by a shameful treaty, 
 and when he returned to Rome, he persuaded 
 the Romans not to reckon as valid the engage- 
 ment he had made with the enemy, as it was 
 without their advice. He was given up to the 
 enemy because he could not perform his engage- 
 ment ; but he was released by Pontius for his 
 
 generous and patriotic behaviour. V. A 
 
 general who defeated the Sabines, and who was 
 
 the first who obtained an ovation. VI. A 
 
 general who conquered the JEqui, and who was 
 stoned by the army because he refused to divide 
 
 the promised spoils. Flor. 22. VII. Lucius, 
 
 a Roman consul, who was defeated by the Boii, 
 He was left amons: the slain, and his head was 
 cut off from his body, and carried in triumph by 
 the barbarians into their temples, where they 
 made with a scull a sacred vessel to offer liba- 
 tions to their gods. VIII. Marcus Crassus 
 
 Latianus,an officer proclaimed emperor in Gaul, 
 A. D. 260. He reigned with great popularity, 
 and gained the affection of his subjects by his 
 humanity and moderation. He took his son of 
 the same name as a colleague on the throne. 
 They were both assassinated bv their soldiers, 
 after a reign of six years. IX. Albus, a Ro- 
 man decemvir, sent to Athens to collect the 
 most salutary laws of Solon, &c. Liv. 3, c. 31. 
 
 PoTHiNus, a eunuch, tutor of Ptolemy, king 
 565 
 
PR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PR 
 
 of Egypt. He advised the monarch to murder 
 Pompey, when he claimed his protection after 
 the battle of Pharsalia. He stirred up commo- 
 tions in Alexandria when Caesar came there, 
 upon which the conqueror ordered him to be 
 put to death. Lucan. 8, v. 483, 1. 10, v. 95. 
 
 Pr^tor, one of the chief magistrates at Rome. 
 The office of praetor was first instituted A. U. 
 C. 388, by the senators, who wished by some 
 new honour to compensate for the loss of the 
 consulship, of which the plebeians had claimed 
 a share. The prastor received his name aprae- 
 undo. Only one was originally elected, and 
 another A. U. C. 501. One of them was totally 
 employed in administering justice among the 
 citizens, whence he was called Tpr^tortirbanus; 
 and the other appointed judge in all causes 
 which related to foreigners. In the year of 
 Rome 520, two more praetors were created to as- 
 sist the consul in the government of the prov- 
 inces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been 
 lately conquered, and two more when Spain was 
 reduced into the form of a Roman province, A. 
 U, C. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, 
 and Julius Caesar increased the number to 10, 
 and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate 
 to 64. After this their numbers fluctuated, be- 
 ing sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till, in the decline 
 of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their 
 numbers were reduced to three. In his public 
 capacity the praetor adminfistered justice, pro- 
 tected the rights of widows and orphans, pre- 
 sided at the celebration of public festivals, and 
 in the absence of the consul assembled or pro- 
 rogued the senate as he pleased. He also ex- 
 hibited shows to the people ; and in the festi- 
 vals of the Bona Dea, where no males were 
 permitted to appear, his wife presided over the 
 rest of the Roman matrons. Feasts were an- 
 nounced and proclaimed by him, and he had the 
 power to make and repeal laws, if it met with 
 the approbation of the senate and people. The 
 quaestors were subject to him, and in the absence 
 of the consuls, he appeared at the head of the ar- 
 mies, and in the city he kept a register of all the 
 freedmen of Rome, with the reasons for which 
 they had received their freedom. In the prov- 
 inces the praetors appeared with great pomp, six 
 lictors with the fasces walked before them; and 
 when the empire was increased by conquests, 
 they divided, like the consuls, their government, 
 and provinces were given them by lot. When 
 the year of their praetorship was elapsed, they 
 were called proprators if they still continued at 
 the head of the province. At Rome the praetors 
 appeared also with much pomp, two lictors pre- 
 ceded them, they wore the prafexta, or the white 
 robe with purple borders; they sat in curule 
 chairs ; and their tribunal was distinguished by 
 a sword and a spear while they administered 
 justice. The tribunal was called prcBtorium. 
 When they rode they appeared on white horses 
 at Rome, as a mark of distinction. The praetor 
 who appointed judges to try foreign causes, was 
 called prcetor peregrinus. The praetors Cereales, 
 appointed by Julius Caesar, were employed in 
 providing corn and provisions for the city. They 
 were on that account often called frumentarii. 
 
 Prjetoritjs, a name ironically applied to A. 
 Sempronius Rufus, because he was disappoint- 
 ed in his solicitations for the praetorship, as be- 
 ing too dissolute and luxurious in his manners 
 566. 
 
 He was the first who had a stork brought to his 
 table. Horat. 2, Sat. 2, v. 50. 
 
 Pratinas, a Greek poet of Phlius, contem- 
 porary with JEschylus. He was the first among 
 the Greeks who composed satires, which were 
 represented as farces. Borrowing from tra- 
 gedy its external form and mythological ma- 
 terials, Pratinas added a chorus of Saiyrs, with 
 their lively songs, gestures, and movements. 
 This new composition was called the Satyric 
 Drama. The novelty was exceedingly well 
 timed. The innovations of Thespis and Phryni- 
 chiis had banished the satyric chorus wiih its 
 wild pranks and merriment, to the great dis- 
 pleasure of the commonalty ; who retained a 
 strong regret for their old amusement amidst the 
 new and more refined exhibitions. The saty- 
 ric drama gave them back under an improved 
 form the favourite diversion of former times : 
 and was received with such universal applause, 
 that the tragic poets, in compliance with the 
 humour of their auditors, deemed it advisable 
 to combine this ludicrous exhibition with their 
 graver pieces. One satyric drama was added 
 to each tragic trilogy, as long as the custom of 
 contending with a series of plays, and not with 
 single pieces, continued, ^schyius; Sophocles, 
 and Euripides were all distinguished satyric 
 composers ; and in the Cyclops of the latter we 
 possess the only extant specimen of this singular 
 composition. 
 
 Praxagoras, an Athenian writer, who pub- 
 lished a history of the kings of his own coun- 
 try. He was then only 19 years old, and three 
 years after, he wrote the life of Constantine the 
 Great. He had also written the life of Alex- 
 ander, all now lost. 
 
 Praxiteles, a famous sculptor of Magna 
 Grfficia, who flourished about 324 years before 
 the Christian era. He chiefly worked on Parian 
 marble, on account of its beautiful whiteness. 
 The most famous of his pieces was a Cupid, 
 which he gave to Phryne. This celebrated 
 courtesan, who wished to have the best of all 
 the statues of Praxiteles, and who could not 
 depend upon her own judgment in the choice, 
 alarmed the sculptor by telling him his house 
 was on fire. Praxiteles upon this showed his 
 eagerness to save his Cupid from the flames 
 above all his other pieces ; but Phryne restrain- 
 ed his fears, and by discovering her artifice, ob- 
 tained the favourite statue. The sculptor em- 
 ployed his chisel in making a statue of this 
 beautiful courtesan, which was dedicated in the 
 temple of Delphi, and placed between the sta- 
 tues of Archidamus, king of Sparta, and Philip, 
 king of Macedon. He also made a statue of 
 Venus, at the request of the people of Cos, and 
 gave them the choice of the goddess, either 
 naked or veiled. The former was superior to 
 the other in beauty and perfection, but the in- 
 habitants of Cos preferred the latter. The Cni- 
 dians, who did not wish to patronise modesty 
 and decorum with the same eagerness as the 
 people of Cos, bought the naked Venus ; and 
 it was so universally esteemed, that Nicomedes, 
 king of Bithynia, oflered the Cnidians to pay 
 an enormous debt, under which they laboured, 
 if they would ^vre him their favourite statue. 
 This offer was not accepted. The famous Cu- 
 pid was bought of the Thespians by Caius Cae-* 
 sar, and carried to Rome; but Claudius restored 
 
PR 
 
 HISTORY, «&c. 
 
 PR 
 
 It to them, and Nero afterwards obtained pos- 
 session of it. Paus. 1, c. 40, 1. 8, c. 9. — Plin. 7, 
 c. 34 and 36. 
 
 Prexaspes, a Persian, who put Smerdis to 
 death by order of king Cambyses. Herodot. 3, 
 c. 30. 
 
 Priamus, ihe last king of Troy, was son of 
 Laomedon, by Strymo, called Placia by some. 
 When Hercules took the city of Troy ( Vid. 
 Lao'medaw) Priam was in the number of his 
 prisoners, but his sister Hesione redeemed him 
 from captivity, and he exchanged his original 
 name of Podarces for that oi Priam, which sig- 
 nifies bought or ransomed. Vid. Pordarces. 
 He was also placed on his father's throne by 
 Hercules, and he employed himself with well- 
 directed diligence in repairing, fortifying, and 
 embellishing the city of Troy. He had mar- 
 ried, by his father's orders, Arisba, whom he di- 
 vorced for Hecuba, the daughter of Dimas, or 
 Cisseus, a neighbouring prince. He had by 
 Hecuba, 17 children, according to Cicero, or ac- 
 cording to Homer, 19; the most celebrated of 
 whom are Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, 
 Troilus, Creusa, Polyxena, and Cassandra. 
 Besides these he had many others by concu- 
 bines. After he had reigned for some time in 
 the greatest prosperity, Priam expressed a de- 
 sire to recover his sister Hesione, whom Her- 
 cules had carried into Greece, and married to 
 Telamon his friend. To carry this plan into 
 execution, Priam manned a fleet, of which he 
 gave the command to his son, Paris, with orders 
 to bring back Hesione. Paris neglected in 
 some measure his father's injunctions, and car- 
 ried away Helen, the wife of Menelaus, king of 
 Sparta, during the absence of her husband. 
 Priam beheld this with satisfaction, and he 
 countenanced his son by receiving in his palace 
 the wife of the king of Sparta. This rape 
 . kindled the flames of war ; Troy was soon be- 
 sieged, and Priam had the misfortune to see the 
 greatest part of his children massacred by the 
 enemy. Some time sifter, Troy was betrayed 
 into the hands of the Greeks by Antenor and 
 jEneas, and Priam upon this resolved to die in 
 the defence of his country. He put on his 
 armour and advanced to meet the Greeks ; but 
 Hecuba, by her tears and entreaties, detained 
 him near an altar of Jupiter, whither she had 
 fled for protection. While Priam yielded to the 
 prayers of his wife, Polites, one of his sons, fled 
 also to the altar before Neoptolemus, who pur- 
 sued him with fury. Polites, wounded and over- 
 come, fell dead at the feet of his parents, and 
 the aged father, fired with indignation, vented 
 the most bitter invectives against the Greek, 
 who paid no regard to the sanctity of altars and 
 temples, and, raising his spear, darted it upon 
 him. The spear, hurled by the feeble hand of 
 Priam, touched the buckler of Neoptolemus and 
 fell to the ground. This irritated the son of 
 Achilles, he seized thegray hairs of Priam, and 
 without compassion or reverence for the sanc- 
 tity of the place, he plunged his dagger into his 
 breast. His head was cut off, and the muti- 
 lated body was left among the heaps of slain. 
 DiclA/s Cret. 1, &c. — Dares Phryg. — Herodot. 2, 
 c. 120.— Paws. 10, c. Tl.— Homer. 11. 22, &c.— 
 Eurip.inTroad. — Cir. Tusc.l, c.35. — Q.Smyrn. 
 l.— Virg. Mn. 2, v. .507, &.c.—Horat. Od. 10, 
 V. 14.— j^T/o^m. fab. 110.— Q. C«Zflier. 15, v. 226. 
 
 Priscus Servilius, ( Vid. Tarquinius,) a go- 
 vernor of Syria, brother to the emperor Philip. 
 He proclaimed himself emperor in Macedonia 
 when he was informed of his brother's death, 
 but he was soon after conquered and put to 
 death by Decius, Philip's murderer. 
 
 Proba, I. the wife of the emperor Probus. 
 II. A woman who opened the gates of 
 
 Rome to the Goths. 
 - Probus, I. (M.AureliusSeverus,) a native of 
 Sirmium in Pannonia. His father was origi- 
 nally a gardener, who, by entering the army, 
 rose to the rank of a military tribune. His son 
 obtained the same oflice in the 22d year of his 
 age, and he distinguished himself so much by 
 his probiiy, his valour, his intrepidity, modera- 
 tion and clemency, that, at the death of the em- 
 peror Tacitus, he was invested v/ith the impe- 
 rial purple by the voluntary and uninfluenced 
 choice of his soldiers. His election was univer- 
 sally approved by the Roman senate and the 
 people ; and Probius, strengthened on his throne 
 by the affection and attachment of his subjects, 
 marched against the enemies of Rome in Gaul 
 and Germany. Several battles were fought, 
 and after he had left 400,000 barbarians dead 
 in the field, Probus turned his arms against the 
 Sarmatians. The same success attended him ; 
 and the military character of the emperor was so 
 well established, that the king of Persia sued 
 for peace by his ambassadors, and attempted to 
 buy the conqueror's favours by the most splen- 
 did presents. Probus was then feasting upon 
 the most common food when the ambassadors 
 were introduced ; but, without even casting his 
 eyes upon them, he said, that if their master 
 did not give proper satisfaction to the Romans, 
 he would lay his territories desolate, and as 
 naked as the crown of his head. As he spoke 
 the emperor took off" his cap, and showed the 
 baldness of his head to the ambassadors. His 
 conditions were gladly accepted by the Persian 
 monarch, and Probus retired to Rome to con- 
 vince his subjects of the greatness of his con- 
 quests, and to claim from them the applause 
 which their ancestors had given to the conqueror 
 of Macedonia, or the destroyer of Carthage, as 
 he passed along the streets of Rome. He at- 
 tempted to drain the waters which were stag- 
 nated in the neighbourhood of Sirmium, by 
 conveying them to the sea by artificial canals. 
 His armies were employed in this laborious un- 
 dertaking ; but as they were unaccustomed to 
 such toils, they soon mutinied, and fell upon the 
 emperor as he was passing into one of the towns 
 of Illyricum. He fled into an iron tow^er, which 
 he himself had built to observe the marshes, but 
 as he was alone and without arms, he was soon 
 overpowered and murdered in the 50th year of 
 his age, after a reign of six years and four 
 months, on the second of November, after 
 Christ 282. The new^s of his death w^as re- 
 ceived with the greatest consternation; not only 
 his friends, but his very enemies deplored his 
 fate: and even the army which had been con- 
 cerned in his fall erected a monument over his 
 body, and placed upon it this inscription ; — Hie 
 Probus imperator, vere probus^ situs est, victor 
 omnium gentium barbararum, victor etiam ty- 
 rannorum,. He was then preparing in a few 
 days to march against the Persians that had 
 revolted, and his victories there might have 
 567 
 
PR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PR 
 
 been as great as those he obtained in the two 
 other quarters of the globe. He was succeeded 
 by Carus, and his family, who had shared his 
 greatness, immediately retired from Rome, not 
 to become objects either of private or public 
 
 malice. Zos, — Proh. — Saturn. 11. iEmilius, 
 
 a grammarian in the age of Theodosius. The 
 lives of excellent commanders, written by Cor- 
 nelius Nepos, have been falsely attributed to 
 him by some authors. 
 
 Procles, a Carthaginian writer, son of Eu- 
 crates. He wrote some historical treatises, of 
 whichPausanias has preserved some fragments. 
 Paus. 4, c. 35. 
 
 PROCLiDis, the descendants of Procles, who 
 sat on the throne of Sparta together with the 
 Eurysthenidae. Vid. Lacedamon and Eurys- 
 thenes. 
 
 Procopius, I. a celebrated officer of a noble 
 family in Cilicia, related to the emperor Julian, 
 with whom he lived in great intimacy. He 
 was universally admired for his integrity, but 
 he was not destitute of ambition or pride. 
 After he had signalized himself under Julian 
 and his successor, he retired from the Roman 
 provinces among the barbarians in the Thra- 
 cian Chersonesus, and some time after he sud- 
 denly made his appearance at Constantinople, 
 when the emperor Valens had marched into 
 the east, and he proclaimed himself master of 
 the eastern empire. His usurpation was univer- 
 sally acknowledged, and his victories were so 
 rapid, that Valens would have resigned the im- 
 perial purple had not his friends intervened. 
 But now fortune changed, Procopius was de- 
 feated at Phrygia, and abandoned by his army. 
 His head was cut off, and carried to Valenti- 
 nian, in Gaul, A. D. 366. Procopius was slain 
 in the 42d year of his age, and he had usurped 
 the title of emperor for about eight months. 
 
 Ammian. Marcel. 25 and 26. II. A Greek 
 
 historian of Csesarea in Palestine, secretary to 
 the celebrated Belisarius, A. D. 534. He wrote 
 the history of the reign of Justinian, and greatly 
 celebrated the hero, whose favours and patron- 
 age he enjoyed. This history is divided into 
 eight books, two of which give an account of 
 the Persian war, two of the Vandals, and four 
 of the Goths, to the year 553, which was after- 
 wards continued in five books by Agathias till 
 559. Of this performance the character is 
 great, though perhaps the historian is often too 
 severe on the emperor. The works of Proco- 
 pius were edited in 2 vols, folio, Paris, 1662. 
 
 Proculeius, a Roman knight very intimate 
 with Augustus. He is celebrated for his hu- 
 manity and fraternal kindness to his brothers 
 Muragna and Scipio, with whom, he divided his 
 possessions, after they had fortified their es- 
 tates, and incurred the displeasure of Augustus 
 for siding with young Pompey. He was sent 
 by Augustus to Cleopatra, to endeavour to 
 bring her alive into his presence, but to no pur- 
 pose. He destroyed himself when labouring 
 under a heavy disease. Horat. 2, od. 2. — Plut. 
 in Anton. — Plin. 36, c. 24. 
 
 Proculus Julius, I. a Roman, who, after the 
 death of Romulus, declared that he had seen 
 him in his appearance more than human, and 
 that he had ordered him to bid the Romans to 
 offer him sacrifices under the name of duirinus, 
 and to rest assured that Rome was destined by 
 568 
 
 the gods to become the capital of the world. 
 
 Plut. in Rom. — Liv. 1, c. 16. II. An African 
 
 in the age of Aurelius. He published a book 
 entitled de regionibus, or religionibus, on foreign 
 countries, &c. — —III. An ofiicer who pro- 
 claimed himself emperor in Gaul, in the reign 
 of Probus. He was soon after defeated, and 
 exposed on a gibbet. He was very debauched 
 and licentious in his manners, and had acquired 
 riches by piratical excursions. 
 
 Procyon, a star near Sirius, or the dog-star, 
 before which it generally rises in July. Cicero 
 calls it Anticanis, which is of the same signi- 
 fication {npo Kvcov.) Horat. 3, od. 29. — Cic. de 
 Nat. D. 2, c. 44. 
 
 Prodicus, a sophist and rhetorician of Cos, 
 about 396 years before Christ. He was sent 
 as ambassador by his countrymen to Athens, 
 where he publicly taught, and had among his 
 pupils Euripides, Socrates, Theramenes, and 
 Isocrates. He travelled from town to town in 
 Greece, to procure admirers and get money. 
 He made his auditors pay to hear him ha- 
 rangue, which has given occasion to some of 
 the ancients to speak of the orations of Prodi- 
 cus, for 50 drachms. In his writings, which 
 were numerous, he composed a beautiful epi- 
 sode, in which virtue and pleasure were intro- 
 duced as attempting to make Hercules one of 
 their votaries. The hero at last yielded to the 
 charms of virtue, and rejected pleasure. This 
 has been imitated by Lucian. Prodicus was 
 at last put to death by the Athenians, on pre- 
 tence that he corrupted the morals of their 
 youth. Xenophon. Memor. 
 
 Prcbtus, a king of Argos, son of Abas and 
 Ocalea. He was twin brother to Acrisius, with 
 whom he quarrelled even, before their birth. 
 This dissention between the two brothers in- 
 creased with their years. After their father's 
 death, they both tried to obtain the kingdom of 
 Argos; but the claims of Acrisius prevailed, 
 and PrcEtus left Peloponnesus, and retired to 
 the court of Jobates, king of Lycia, where he 
 married Stenoboea, called by some An tea or 
 Antiope. He afterwards returned to Argolis, 
 and by means of his father-in-law, he made 
 himself master of Tirynthus. Stenobcea had 
 accompanied her husband to Greece, and she 
 became by him mother of the Proetides, and of a 
 son called Megapenthes, who, after his father's 
 death, succeeded to the throne of Tirynthus. 
 Homer. 11. 6, v. \&).~Apollod. 2, c. 2. 
 
 Promenjea, one of the priestesses of the tem- 
 ple of Dodona. It was from her that Herodo- 
 tus received the tradition that two doves had 
 flown from Thebes, in Egypt, one to Dodona, 
 and the other to the temple of Jupiter Ammon, 
 where they gave oracles. Herodot. 2, c. 55. 
 
 Pronomus, a Theban, who played so skilfully 
 on the flute, that the invention of that musical 
 instrument is attributed to him. Pans. 9, c. 12. 
 — Athen. 14, c. 7. 
 
 PROPERTros, (Sextus Aurelius,) a Latin poet, 
 born at Mevania in Umbria. His father was 
 a Roman knight, whom Augustus proscribed 
 because he had followed the interest of Antony. 
 Mec8enas,Gallus,and Virgil,became his friends, 
 and Augustus his patron. Mecaenas wished 
 him to attempt an epic poem, of which he pro- 
 posed the emperor for hero ; but Propertius re- 
 fused, observing that his abilities were unequal 
 
PR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 to the task. He died about 19 years before 
 Christ, in the 40th year of his age. His works 
 consist of four books of elegies, which are writ- 
 ten with so much spirit, vivacity, and energy, 
 that many authors call him the prince of the 
 elegiac poets among the Latins. Cynthia, who 
 is the heroine of all his elegies, was a Roman 
 lady, whose real name was Hostia, or Hostilia, 
 of whom the poet was deeply enamoured. 
 Though Mevania is more generally supposed to 
 be the place of his birth, yet four other cities 
 in Umbria have disputed the honour of it ; Hes- 
 pillus, Ameria, Perusia, and Assisium. The 
 best edition is that of Santenius, 4to. Traj. ad 
 Rh. 1780, and when published together with 
 Catullus and Tibullus, those of Grsevius, 8vo. 
 Utr. 1680, and of Vulpius, 4 vols. Patavii, 1737, 
 1749, 1755, and the edition of Barbou, 12mo. 
 Paris, 1754. Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 465, 1. 4, el. 10, 
 V. 53, de Art. Am. 3, v. ^'2,'^.— Martial. 8, ep. 
 73, 1. 14, ep. 189.— Qwm^iZ. 10, c. l.—Plin. 6, 
 ep. 1, 9, ep. 22. 
 
 Protagoras, a Greek philosopher of Abdera 
 in Thrace, who was originally a porter. He 
 became one of the disciples of Democriius, when 
 that philosopher had seen him carrying fagots 
 on his head, poised in a proper equilibrium. He 
 soon rendered himself ridiculous by his doc- 
 trines, and in a book which he published he 
 denied the existence of a Supreme Being. This 
 book was publicly burnt at Athens, and the 
 philosopher banished from the city. Protago- 
 ras visited, from Athens, different islands in 
 the Mediterranean, and died in Sicily in a very- 
 advanced age, about 400 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. • He generally reasoned by dilemmas, 
 and always left the mind in suspense about all 
 the questions which he proposed. Some sup- 
 pose that he was drowned. Diog. 9. — Plut. in 
 Protag. 
 
 Protogenes, a painter of Rhodes, who flour- 
 ished about 328 years before Christ. He was 
 originally so poor that he painted ships to main- 
 tain himself His countrymen were ignorant 
 of his ingenuity before Apelles came to Rhodes 
 and offered to buy all his pieces. This opened 
 the eyes of the Rhodians, they became sensible 
 of the merit of their countr5'man, and liberally 
 rewarded him. Protogenes was employed for 
 seven years in finishing a picture of Jalysus, a 
 celebrated huntsman, supposed to have been 
 the son of Apollo and the founder of Rhodes. 
 During all this time the painter lived only upon 
 lupines and water, thinking that such aliment 
 would leave him greater flights of fancy ; but all 
 this did not seem to make him more successful 
 in the perfection of his picture. He was to 
 represent in the piece a dog panting, and with 
 froth at his mouth, but this he never could do 
 with satisfaction to himself; and when all his 
 labours seemed to be without success, he threw 
 liis sponge upon the piece in a fit of anger. 
 Chance alone brought to perfection what the 
 utmost labours of art could not do ; the fall of 
 the sponge upon the picture represented the 
 froth of the mouth of the dog in the most per- 
 fect and natural manner, and the piece was uni- 
 versally admired. Protogenes was very exact 
 in his representations, and copied nature with 
 the greatest nicety, but this was blamed as a 
 fault by his friend Apelles, When Demetrius 
 besieged Rhodes, he refused to set fire to a part 
 
 Part II.— 4 C 
 
 of the city which might have made him master 
 of the whole, because he knew that Protogenes 
 was then working in that quarter. When the 
 town was taken, the painter was found closely 
 employed in a garden in finishing a picture ; 
 and when the conqueror asked him why he 
 showed not more concern in the general ca- 
 lamity, he replied that Demetrius made war 
 against the Rhodians, and not agaiust the fine 
 arts. PaxLS. 1, c. 3. — Plin. 35, c. 10. — Mlian. 
 V. H. 12.— Juv. 3, V. 120.— Plut. in Dcm. 
 
 Prudentius, (Aurelius Clemens,) a Latin 
 poet, who flourished A. D. 392, and was succes- 
 sively a soldier, an advocate, and a judge. His 
 poems are numerous and all theological, devoid 
 of the elegance and purity of the Augustan age, 
 and yet greatly valued. The best editions are 
 the Delphin, 4to, Paris, 1687; thatof Cellarius, 
 12mo. Halse, 1703 ; and that of Parma, 2 vols. 
 4to. 1788. 
 
 Prusias, surnamed Venator^ who made an 
 alliance with the Romans when they waged war 
 with Antiochus, king of Syria. He gave a 
 kind reception to Annibal, and by his advice he 
 made war against Eumenes, king of Pergamus, 
 and defeated him. Eumenes, who was an ally 
 of Rome as well as Prusias, complained before 
 the Romans of the hostilities of the king of 
 Brthynia. Q.. Flaminius was sent from Rome 
 to settle the disputes of the two monarchs, and 
 he was no sooner arrived in Bilhynia, than 
 Prusias, to gain his favour, prepared^to deliver 
 to him, at his request, the celebrated Carthagi- 
 nian, to whom he was indebted for all the ad- 
 vantages he had obtained over Eumenes ; but 
 Annibal prevented it by a voluntary death. 
 When, some time after, he visited the capital of 
 Italy, he appeared in the habit of a manumitted 
 slave, called himself the freedman of the Ro- 
 mans ; and when he was introduced into the 
 senate-house, he saluted the senators by the 
 name of visible deities, of saviours, and deliver- 
 ers. Such abject behaviour rendered him con- 
 temptible, not only in the eyes of the Romans, 
 but of his subjects, and when he returned home, 
 the Bithynians revolted, and placed his son Ni- 
 comedes on the throne. The banished monarch 
 fled to Nicomedia, where he was assassinated 
 near the altar of Jupiter, about 149 years before 
 Christ. Polyb. — Liv. — Justin, 31, &c. — C. Nep. 
 in Anib. — Plut. in Flam. &c. 
 
 Prytanes, certain magistrates at Athens, 
 who presided over the senate, and had the pri- 
 vilege of assembling it when they pleased, fes- 
 tivals excepted. They generally met in a large 
 hall, called prytaneum, where they gave audi- 
 ences, offered sacrifices, and feasted together 
 with all those who had rendered signal service 
 to their country. The prytanes were elected 
 from the senators, which were in mtmber 500, 
 fifty of which were chosen from each tribe. 
 When they were elected, the names of the 10 
 tribes of Athens were thrown into one vessel, 
 and into another were placed nine black beans 
 and a white one. The tribe whose name was 
 drawn with the white bean, presided the first, 
 and the rest in the order in which they were 
 dra^Ti. They presided each for 35 days, as the 
 year was divided into 10 parts ; but it is un- 
 known what tribe presided the rest of those 
 days which were supernumerar)^ When the 
 number of tribes was increased to 12, each of 
 569 
 
PT 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PT 
 
 the prytanes presided one full month, Some 
 
 of the principal magistrates of Corinth were 
 also called prytanes. 
 
 PsAMMENiTus, succcedcd his father Amasis 
 on the throne of Egypt. Cambyses made war 
 against him, Psammenitus was twice beaten, 
 at Pelusium and in Memphis, and became one 
 of the prisoners of Cambyses, who treated him 
 with great humanity. Psammenitus, however, 
 raised seditions against the Persian monarch ; 
 and attempted to make the Egyptians rebel, for 
 which he was put to death by drinking bull's 
 blood. He had reigned about six months. He 
 flourished about 525 years before the Christian 
 era. Herodot. 3, c. 10, &c. 
 
 PsAMMETicHUs, a king of Egypt. He was one 
 of the 12 princes who shared the kingdom 
 among themselves ; but as he was more popu- 
 lar than the rest, he was banished from his do- 
 minions, and retired into the marshes near the 
 seashore, A descent of some of the Greeks 
 upon Egypt proved favourable to his cause ; he 
 joined the enemy, and defeated the 11 princes 
 who had expelled him from the country. He 
 rewarded the Greeks by whose valour he had 
 recovered Egypt ; he allotted them some terri- 
 tory on ihe seacoast, patronised the liberal arts, 
 and encouraged commerce among his subjects. 
 He made useless mquiries to find the sources of 
 the Nile ; and he stopped, by bribes and money, 
 a large army of Scythians that were marching 
 against him. He died 617 years before the 
 Christian era, and was buried in Minerva's 
 temple at Sais. During his reign there was a 
 contention among some of the neighbouring 
 nations about the antiquity of their language. 
 Psammetichus took a part in the contest. He 
 confined two young children, and fed them with 
 milk ; the shepherd to whose care they were 
 intrusted, was ordered never to speak to them, 
 but to watch diligently their articulations. Af- 
 ter some time the shepherd observed, that when- 
 ever he entered the place of their confinement 
 they repeatedly exclaimed Beccos, and he gave 
 information of this to the monarch, Psammeti- 
 chus made inquiries, and found that the word 
 Beccos signified bread in the Phoenician lan- 
 guage, and from that circumstance, therefore, 
 it was universally concluded that the language 
 of Phoenicia was of the greatest antiquity, He- 
 rodot. 2, c, 28, Scc—PolycBn. 8.—Strab. 16, 
 
 PsAMMis, or PsAMMUTms, a king of Egypt, 
 B. C. 376. 
 
 PsAPHo, a Libyan, who taught a number of 
 birds which he kept to say, Psapho is a god, 
 and afterwards gave them their liberty. The 
 birds did not forget the words which they had 
 been taught, and the Africans paid divine hon- 
 ours to Psapho. jElian. 
 
 Ptolem^os I. surnamed Lagus, a king of 
 Egypt, son of Arsinoe, who, when pregnant by 
 Philip of Macedonia, married Lagus, a man of 
 mean extraction, Vid. Lagus. Ptolemy was 
 educated in the court of the king of Macedonia ; 
 he became one of the friends and associates of 
 Alexander, and when that monarch invaded 
 Asia, the son of Arsinoe attended him as one of 
 his generals. During the expedition, he behaved 
 with uncommon valour ; he killed one of the 
 Indian monarchs in single combat, and it was to 
 his prudence and courage that Alexander was 
 indebted for the reduction of the rockAornus. 
 570 
 
 After the conqueror's death, in the general divi- 
 sion of the Macedonian empire, Ptolemy ob- 
 tained as his share the government of Egypt, 
 with Libia, and part of the neighbouring terri- 
 tories of Arabia, He made himself master of 
 CoBlosyria, Phoenicia, and the neighbouring 
 coast of Syria ; and when he had reduced Je- 
 rusalem, he carried above 100,000 prisoners to 
 Egypt, to people the extensive city of Alexan- 
 dria, which became the capital of his dominions. 
 After he had rendered these prisoners the most 
 attached and faithful of his subjects, by his lib- 
 erality and the grant of privileges, Ptolemy as- 
 sumed the title of king of Egypt, and soon after 
 reduced Cyprus under his power. He made 
 war with success against Demetrius and Anti- 
 gonus, who disputed his right to the provinces 
 of Syria ; and from the assistance he gave to 
 the people of Rhodes against their common 
 enemies, he received the name of Soter. The 
 bay of Alexandria being dangerous of access, 
 he built a tower to conduct the sailors in the 
 obscurity of the night ; ( Vid. Pharos,) and that 
 hi« subjects might be acquainted with literature, 
 he laid the foundation of a library, which, under 
 the succeeding reigns, became the most cele- 
 brated in the world. He also established in the 
 capital of his dominions a society called mu- 
 seum, of which the members, maintained at the 
 public expense, were employed in philosophical 
 researches, and in the advancement of science 
 and the liberal arts, Ptolemy died in the 84th 
 year of his age, after a reign of 39 years, about 
 284 years before Christ. He was succeeded 
 by his son Ptolemy Philadelphus, who had been 
 his partner on the throne the last ten years of his 
 reign. Ptolemy Lagus has been commended 
 for his abilities, not only as a sovereign, but as 
 a writer ; and among the many valuable com- 
 positions which have been lost, we are to lament 
 a history of Alexander the Great, by the king 
 of Egypt, greatly admired and valued for ele- 
 gance and authenticity. All his successors 
 were called Ptolemies from him. Paus. 10, c. 
 8, — Justin. 13, &c, — Polyh. 2, — Arrian. — Curt. 
 
 — Plut. in Alex. The 2d son of Ptolemy the 
 
 first, succeeded his father on the Egyptian 
 throne, and was called Philadelphus by Anti- 
 phrasis, because he killed two of his brothers; 
 He showed himself worthy in every respect to 
 succeed his great father, and, conscious of the 
 advantages which arise from an alliance with 
 powerful nations, he sent ambassadors to Italy 
 to solicit the friendship of the Romans, whose 
 name had become universally known for the 
 victories which they had just obtained over 
 Pyrrhus and the Tarentines, But while Ptole- 
 my strengthened himself by alliances with for- 
 eign powers, the internal peace of his kingdom 
 was disturbed by the revolt of Magas, his bro- 
 ther, king of Cyrene, The sedition, however, 
 was stopped, though kindled by Antiochus, king 
 of Syria, and the death of the rebellious prince 
 re-established peace for some time in the family 
 of Philadelphus, Antiochus, the Syrian king, 
 married Berenice the daughter of Ptolemy, and 
 the father, though old and infirm, conducted his 
 daughter to her husband's kingdom, and assist- 
 ed at the nuptials, Philadelphus died in the 
 64th year of his age, 246 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. He left two sons and a daughter, by 
 Arsinoe the daughter of Lysimachus, He had 
 
PT 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PT 
 
 afterwards married his sister Arsinoe, whom he 
 loved with uncommon tenderness, and to whose 
 memory he began to erect a celebrated monu- 
 ment. Vid. Dinocrates. The inhabitants of 
 the adjacent countries were allured by promises 
 and presents to increase the number of the 
 Egyptian subjects, and Ptolemy could boast of 
 reigning over 33,339 well-peopled cities. He 
 gave every possible encouragement to com- 
 merce, and by keeping two powerful fleets, one 
 in the Mediterranean and the other in the Red 
 Sea, he made Egypt the mart of the world. His 
 army consisted of 200,000 foot, 40,000 horse, 
 besides 300 elephants and 2000 armed chariots. 
 With justice, therefore, he has been called the 
 richest of all the princes and monarchs of his 
 age ; and, indeed, the remark is not false when 
 it is observed, that at his death he left in his 
 treasury 750,000 Egyptian talents, a sum equiv- 
 alent to two hundred millions sterling. His 
 palace was the asylum of learned men, whom 
 he admired and patronised. He paid particular 
 attention to Euclid, Theocritus, Callimachus, 
 and Lycophron ; and by increasing the library 
 which his father had founded, he showed his 
 taste for learning and his wish to encourage 
 genius. This celebrated library at his death con- 
 tained 200,000 volumes of the best and choicest 
 books,and it was afterwards increased to 700,000 
 volumes. Part of it was burnt by the flames of 
 Caesar's fleet when he set it on fire to save him- 
 self, a circumstance, however, not mentioned by 
 the general, and the whole was again magnifi- 
 cently repaired by Cleopatra, who added to the 
 Egyptian library that of the kings of Pergamus. 
 It is said that the Old Testament was translated 
 into Greek during his reign, a translation which 
 has been called Septuagint, because translated 
 by the labours of 70 different persons. Eutr. — 
 Justin. 17, c. 2, &c. — Liv. — Plut. — Theocrit. 
 —Athen. 12.— Plin. 13, c. 12.—Dio. i2.—Gel- 
 
 lius. 6, c. 17. The 3d, succeeded his father 
 
 Philadelphus on the Egyptian throne. He early 
 engaged in a war against Antiochus Theus, for 
 his unkindness to Berenice theEg}T)tian king's 
 sister, whom he had married with the consent 
 of Philadelphus. With the most rapid success 
 he conquered Syria and Silicia, and advanced 
 as far as the Tigris; but a sedition at home 
 stopped his progress, and he returned to Egypt 
 loaded with the spoils of conquered nations. 
 Among the immense riches which he brought, 
 he had above 2500 statues of the Egyptian gods, 
 which Cambyses had carried away into Persia, 
 when he conquered Egypt. These were re- 
 stored to the temples, and the Egyptians called 
 their sovereign Evergetes, in acknowledgment 
 of his attention, beneficence, and religious zeal 
 for the gods of his country. The last years of 
 Ptolemy's reign were passed in peace, if we ex- 
 cept the refusal of the Jews to pay the tribute of 
 20 silver talents which their ancestors had al- 
 ways paid to the Egyptian monarchs. He also 
 interested himself in the affairs of Greece, and 
 assisted Cleomenes, the Spartan king, against 
 the leaders of the Achaean league ; but he had 
 the mortification to see his ally defeated, and 
 even a fugitive in Egypt. Evergetes died 221 
 years before Christ, after a reign of 25 years, 
 and, like his two illustrious predecessors, he was 
 the patron of learning; and indeed he is the last 
 of the Lagides who gained popularity among 
 
 his subjects by clemency, moderation, and hu- 
 manity, and who commanded respect, even from 
 his enemies, by valour, prudence, and reputa- 
 tion. It is said that he deposited 15 talents in 
 the hands of the Athenians to be permitted to 
 translate the original manuscripts of ^schylus, 
 Euripides, and Sophocles. Plut. in Cleom. &c. 
 —Polyb. 2.— Justin. 29, &c. The fourth suc- 
 ceeded his father Evergetes on the throne of 
 Egypt, and received the surname of Philopater 
 by antiphrasis, because, according to some his- 
 torians, he destroyed his father by poison. He 
 began his reign with acts of the greatest cruelty, 
 and he successively sacrificed to his avarice his 
 own mother, his wife, his sister, and his brother. 
 He received the name of Typhon^ from his ex- 
 travagance and debauchery, and that of Gallus, 
 because he appeared in the streets of Alexan- 
 dria like one of the bacchanals, and with all the 
 gestures of the priests of Cybele. In the midst 
 of his pleasures Philopater was called to war 
 against Antiochus,king of Syria,and at the head 
 of a powerful army he soon invaded his enemy's 
 territories, and might have added the kingdom 
 of Syria to Egypt, if he had made a prudent use 
 of the victories which attended his arms. In 
 his return he visited Jerusalem, but the Jews 
 prevented him forcibly from entering their tem- 
 ple, for which insolence to his majesty the mon- 
 arch determined to extirpate the whole nation. 
 He ordered an immense number of Jews to be 
 exposed in a plain, and trodden under the feet 
 of elephants ; but by a supernatural instinct, the 
 generous animals turned their fury not on those 
 that had been devoted to death, but upon the 
 Egyptian spectators. This circumstance terri- 
 fied Philopater, and he behaved with more than 
 common kindness to a nation which he had so 
 lately devoted to destruction. In the latter part 
 of his reign, the Romans, whom a dangerous 
 M^ar with Carthage had weakened, but at the 
 same time roused to superior activity, renewed, 
 for political reasons, the treaty of alliance which 
 had been made with the Egyptian monarchs. 
 Philopater, at last, weakened and enervated by 
 intemperance and continual debauchery, died 
 in the 37th year of his age, after a reign of 17 
 years, 204 years before the Christian era. His 
 death was immediately followed by the murder 
 of the companions of his voluptuousness and 
 extravagance, and their carcasses were dragged 
 with the greatest ignominy through the streets 
 of Alexandria. Polyb. — Justin. 30, &c. — Phit. 
 
 in Cleom. The 5th, succeeded his father 
 
 Philopater as king of Egypt, though only in the 
 4th year of his age. During the years of his 
 minority he was under the protection of Sosi- 
 cius and of Aristomenes, by whose prudent ad- 
 ministration Antiochus was dispossessed of the 
 provinces of Coelosyria and Palestine, which he 
 had conquered by war. The Romans also re- 
 newed their alliance with him after their victo- 
 ries over Annibal and the conclusion of the 
 second Punic war. This flattering embassy in- 
 duced Aristomenes to offer the care of the pa- 
 tronage of the young monarch to the Romans, 
 but the regent was confirmed in his honourable 
 office ; and by making a treaty of alliance with 
 the people of Achaia, he convinced the Egyp- 
 tians that he was qualified to wield the sceptre 
 and to govern the nation. But now that Ptole- 
 my had reached his 14th year, according to the 
 571 
 
PT 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PT 
 
 laws and customs of Egypt, the years of his 
 minority had expired. He received the sur- 
 name of Epiphanes, or illustrious, and was 
 crowned at Alexandria with the greatest solem- 
 nity. Young Ptolemy was no sooner delivered 
 from the shackles of a superior, than he betray- 
 ed the same vices which had characterized his 
 father ; the counsels of Aristomenes were de- 
 spised ; and the minister, who for ten years had 
 governed the kingdom with equity and modera- 
 tion, was sacrificed to the caprice of the sove- 
 reign, who abhorred him for the salutary advice 
 which his own vicious inclinations did not per- 
 mit him to follow. In the midst of his extrava- 
 gance, Epiphanes did not forget his alliance 
 with the Romans ; above all others he showed 
 himself eager to cultivate friendship with a na- 
 tion from which he could derive so many advan- 
 tages, and during their war against Antiochus, 
 he offered to assist them with money against a 
 monarch, whose daughter Cleopatra he had 
 married, but whom he hated on account of the 
 seditions he raised in the very heart of Egypt. 
 After a reign of 24 years, 180 years before 
 Christ, Piolemy was poisoned by his ministers, 
 whom he had threatened to rob of their posses- 
 sions, to carry on a war against Seleucus, king 
 of Syria. Liv. 35, c. 13, &c. — Justin. &c 
 
 The 6th, succeeded his father Epiphanes on 
 the Egyptian throne, and received the surname 
 of Philometor, on account of his hatred against 
 his mother Cleopatra. He was in the 6th year 
 of his age when he ascended the throne, and 
 during his minority the kingdom was governed 
 by his mother, and at her death by a eunuch 
 who was one of his favourites. He made war 
 against Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, to 
 recover the provinces of Palestine and Coelosy- 
 ria, which were part of the Egyptian dominions, 
 and after several successes he fell into the hands 
 of the enemy, who retained him in confine- 
 ment. During the captivity of Philometer, the 
 Egyptians raised to the throne his younger bro- 
 ther, Ptolemy E vergetes, or Physcon , also son cf 
 Epiphanes ; but he was no sooner established in 
 his power than Antiochus turned his arms against 
 Egypt, drove the usurper, and restored Philo- 
 metor to all his rights and privileges as king of 
 Egypt. This artful behaviour of Antiochus was 
 soon comprehended by Philometer, and when 
 he saw that Pelusium, the key of Egypt, had 
 remained in the hands of his Syrian ally, he re- 
 called his brother Physcon, and made him part- 
 ner on the throne, and concerted with him how 
 to repel their common enemy. This union of 
 interest in the tv/o royal brothers incensed An- 
 tiochus ; he entered iEgypt with a large army, 
 but the Romans checked his progress and obli- 
 ged him to retire. No sooner were they deliver- 
 ed from the impending war, when Philometor 
 and Physcon, whom the fear of danger had 
 united, began with mutual jealousy to oppose 
 each other's views. Physcon was at last ban- 
 ished by the superior power of his brother, 
 and as he could find no support in Egypt, he 
 immediately repaired to Rome. To excite more 
 effectually the compassion of the Romans, and 
 to gain their assistance, he appeared in the 
 meanest dress, and took his residence in the 
 most obscure corner of the ciiy. He received 
 an audience from the senate, "and the Romans 
 settled the dispute between the two royal bro- 
 572 
 
 thers, by making them independent of one ano- 
 ther, and giving the government of Libya and 
 Cyrene to Physcon, and confirming Philometor 
 in the possession of Egypt and the island Oi. 
 Cyprus. These terms of accommodation were 
 gladly accepted, but Physcon soon claimed the 
 dominion of Cyprus, and in this he was sup- 
 ported by the Romans, who wished to aggran- 
 dize themselves by the diminution of the Egyp- 
 tian power. Philometor refused to deliver up 
 the island of Cyprus, and to call away his bro- 
 ther!s attention, he fomented the seeds of rebel- 
 lion in Cyrene. But the death of Philometor, 
 145 years before the Christian era, left Physcon 
 master of Egypt and all the dependant prov- 
 inces. Philometor has been commended by some 
 historians for his clemency and moderation. 
 
 Diod. — Liv. — Polijb. The 7th Ptolemy, sur- 
 
 named Physcon, ascended the throne of Egypt 
 after the death of his brother Philometor; and 
 as he had reigned for some time conjointly with 
 him, ( Vid PtolemcBus 6th,) his succession was 
 approved, though the wife and the son of the 
 deceased monarch laid claim to the crown. 
 Cleopatra was supported in her claims by the 
 Jews, and it was at last agreed that Physcon 
 should marry the queen, and that her son should 
 succeed on the throne at his death. The nup- 
 tials were accordingly celebrated, but on that 
 very day the tyrant murdered Cleopatra's son 
 in her arms. He ordered himself to be called 
 Evergetes, but the Alexandrians refused to do 
 it, and stigmatized him with the appellation of 
 Kakergetes, or evil-doer, a surname which he 
 deserved by his tyranny and oppression. A 
 series of barbarity rendered him odious, but as 
 no one attempted to rid Egypt of her tyranny, 
 the Alexandrians abandoned their habitations, 
 and fled from a place which continually stream- 
 ed with the blood of their massacred fellow- cit- 
 izens. The king at last, disgusted with Cleopa- 
 tra, repudiated her, and married her daughter, 
 by Philometor, called also Cleopatra. He still 
 continued to exercise the greatest cruelty upon 
 his subjects, but the prudence and vigilance of 
 his ministers kept the people in tranquillity, till 
 all Egypt revolted when the king had basely 
 murdered all the young men of Alexandria. 
 Without friends or support in Egypt he fled to 
 Cyprus, and Cleopatra, the divorced queen, 
 ascended the throne. In his banishment Phys- 
 con dreaded lest the Alexandrians should also 
 place the crown on the head of his son by his 
 sister Cleopatra, who was then governor of 
 Cyrene, and under these apprehensions he sent 
 for the young prince, called Memphitis to Cy- 
 prus, and murdered him as soon as he had 
 reached the shore. To make the barbarity more 
 complete, he sent the limbs of Memphitis to 
 Cleopatra, and they were received as the queen 
 was going to celebrate her birthday. Soon af- 
 ter this he invaded Egypt with an army, and 
 obtained a victory over the forces of Cleopatra, 
 who, being left without friends or assistance, 
 fled to her eldest daughter Cleopatra, who had 
 married Demetrius king of Syria. This deci- 
 sive blow restored Physcon to his throne, where 
 he continued to reign for some time, hated by 
 his subjects and feared by his enemies. He died 
 at Alexandria in the 67th year of his age, after 
 a reign of 29 years, about 116 years before 
 Christ. Some authors have extolled Physcon 
 
PT 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PT 
 
 for his fondness for literature; they have ob- 
 served, that from his extensive knowledge he 
 was called the philologist, and that he wrote a 
 comment upon Homer, besides a history in 24 
 books, admired for its elegance, and often quot- 
 ed by succeeding authors whose pen was em- 
 ployed on the same subject. Diod. — Justin. 38, 
 
 &LQ..—Athen. 2.—Porphyr. The 8th, surna- 
 
 med Lathyrus, from an excrescence like a pea 
 on the nose, succeeded his father Physcon as 
 king of Eg}T)t. He had no sooner ascended the 
 throne, than his mother Cleopatra, who reigned 
 conjointly with him, expelled him to Cyprus, 
 and placed the crown on the head of his bro- 
 ther Ptolemy Alexander, her favourite son. 
 Lathyrus, banished from Egypt, became king 
 of Cyprus, and soon after he appeared at the 
 head of a large army, to make war against 
 Alexander Jannaeus, king of Judse, through 
 whose assistance and intrigue he had been ex- 
 pelled by Cleopatra. The Jewish monarch was 
 conquered, and 50,000 of his men were left on 
 the field of battle. Lathyrus, after he had ex- 
 ercised the greatest cruelty upon the Jews, and 
 made vain attempts to recover the kingdom of 
 Egypt, retired to C}T3rus till the death of his 
 brother Alexander restored him to his native 
 dominions. Some of the cities of Egypt re- 
 fused to acknowledge him as iheir sovereign, 
 and Thebes, for its obstinacy, was closely be- 
 sieged for three successive years, and from a 
 powerful and populous city it was reduced to 
 ruins. In the latter part of his reign, Lathyrus 
 was called upon to assist the Romans with a 
 nav}^ for the conquest of Athens, but Lucullus, 
 who had been sent to obtain the supply, though 
 received with kingly honours, was dismissed 
 with evasive and unsatisfactory answers, and 
 the monarch refused to part with troops which 
 he deemed necessary to preserve the peace of 
 .his kingdom. Lathyrus died 81 years before the 
 Christian era, after a reign of 36 years since the 
 death of his father Physcon, eleven of which he 
 had passed with his mother Cleopatra on the 
 Egyptian throne, eighteen in Cyprus, and seven 
 after his mother's death. He was succeeded by 
 his only daughter, Cleopatra, whom Alexander, 
 the son of Ptolemy Alexander, by means of the 
 dictator Sylla, soon after married and murder- 
 ed. Jose'ph. Hist. — Justin. 39. — Plut. in Luc. — 
 Appian. in Mithrid. The 9ih. Vid. Alex- 
 ander Ptolemy 1st ; for the 10th Ptolemy, vid. 
 Alexander Ptolemy 2d ; for the 11th, vid. Alex- 
 ander Ptolemy 3d. The 12th, the illegiti- 
 mate son of Lathyrus, ascended the throne of 
 Egypt at the death of Alexander 3d. He receiv- 
 ed the surname of Auletes, because he played 
 skilfully on the flute. His rise showed great 
 marks of prudence and circumspection ; and as 
 his predecessor by his will had left the king- 
 dom of Eg}'pt to the Romans, Auletes knew that 
 he could not be firmly established on his throne 
 without the approbation of the Roman senate. 
 He was successful in his applications, and Cae- 
 sar, who was then consul, and in want of mo- 
 ney, established his succession, and granted him 
 the alliance of the Romans, after he had receiv- 
 ed the enormous sum of about a million and 
 162,500^ sterling. But these measures render- 
 ed him unpopular at home, and when he had 
 suffered the Romans quietly to take possession 
 of Cyprus, the Egyptians revolted, and Auletes 
 
 was obliged to fly from his kingdom, and seek 
 protection among the most powerful of his allies. 
 His complaints were heard at Rome, at first with 
 indifference, and the murder of 100 noblemen of 
 Alexandria, whom the Egyptians had sent to 
 justify their proceedings before the Roman 
 senate, rendered him unpopular and suspected. 
 Pompey, however, supported his cause, and the 
 senators decreed to re-establish Auletes on his 
 throne ; but as they proceeded slowly in the ex- 
 ecution of their plans, the monarch retired from 
 Rome to Ephesus, where he lay concealed for 
 some time in the temple of Diana. During his 
 absence from Alexandria, his daughter Bere- 
 nice had made herself absolute, and established 
 herself on the throne by a marriage with Ar- 
 chelaus, a priest of Bellona's temple at Comana, 
 but she was soon driven from Egypt when Ga- 
 binius, at the head of a Roman army, approach- 
 ed to replace Auletes on his throne. Auletes 
 was no sooner restored to power than he sacri- 
 ficed to his ambition his daughter Berenice, and 
 behaved with the greatest ingratitude and per- 
 fidy to Rabirius, a Roman,who had supplied him 
 with money when expelled from his kingdom. 
 Auletes died four years after his restoration, 
 about 51 years before the Christian era. He left 
 two sons and two daughters, and by his will 
 ordered the eldest of his sons to marry the eldest 
 of his sisters, and to ascend with her the vacant 
 throne. As these children were young, the 
 dying monarch recommended them to the pro- 
 tection and paternal care of the Romans, and 
 accordingly Pompey the Great was appointed 
 by the senate to be their patron and their guar- 
 dian. Their reign was as turbulent els that of 
 their predecessors ; and it is remarkable for no 
 uncommon events ; only we may observe that 
 the young queen w- as the Cleopatra who soon 
 after became so celebrated as being the mistress 
 of J. Csesar, the wife of M. Antony, and the 
 last of the Egyptian monarchs of the family of 
 Lagus. Cic. pro Rabir. — Strab. 17. — Dion. 39. 
 
 — Appian. de Civ. The 13th, surnamed 
 
 Dionysius or Bacchus ascended the throne of 
 Egy^t conjointly with his sister Cleopatra, 
 whom he had married according to the direc- 
 tions of his father Auletes. He was under the 
 care and protection of Pompey the Great, ( Vid. 
 Ptolem(msl2(h,)hvit the wickedness and avarice 
 of his ministers soon obliged him to reign inde- 
 pendent. He w^as then in the 13th year of his 
 age, when his guardian, after the fatal battle of 
 Pharsalia, came to the shores of Eg5''pt and 
 claimed his protection. He refused to grant the 
 required assistance, and by the advice of his 
 ministers, he basely murdered Pompey after he 
 had brought him to shore under the mask of 
 friendship and cordiality. To curry the favour 
 of the conqueror of Pharsalia, Ptolemy cut oft 
 the head of Pompey, but Caesar turned with 
 indignation from such perfidy, and when he ar- 
 rived at Alexandria he found the king of Egj^pt 
 as faithless to his cause as that of his fallen 
 enemy. Caesar sat as judge to hear the various 
 claims of the brother and' sister to his throne; 
 and, to satisfy the people, he ordered the will of 
 Auletes to be read, and confirmed Piolemy and 
 Cleopatra in the possession of Egypt, and ap- 
 pointed the two younger children masters of the 
 island of Cyprus. This fair and candid deci- 
 sion might have left no room for dissatisfaction, 
 573 
 
PT 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PT 
 
 but Ptolemy was governed by cruel and ava- 
 ricious ministers, and therefore he refused to 
 acknowledge Caesar as a judge or mediator. 
 The Roman enforced his authority by arms, 
 and three victories were obtained over the 
 Egyptian forces. Ptolemy, who had been for 
 some time a prisoner in the hands of Caesar, 
 now headed his armies, but a defeat was fatal, 
 and as he attempted to save his life by flight, he 
 was drowned in the Nile, about 48 years before 
 Christ, and three years and eight months after 
 the death of Auietes. Cleopatra, at the death 
 of her brother, became sole mistress of Egypt ; 
 but as the Egyptians were no friends to female 
 government, Caesar obliged her to marry her 
 younger brother Ptolemy, who was then in the 
 eleventh year of his age. Appian. Civ. — Cces. 
 in Alex. — Strab. 17. — Joseph. Ant. — Dio. — Plut. 
 
 in Ant. &c. Sueton. in Cas. Apion, 
 
 king of Cyrene, was the illegitimate son of 
 Ptolemy Physcon. After a reign of 20 years he 
 died ; and as he had no children, he made the 
 Romans heirs of his dominions. The Romans 
 presented his subjects with their independence. 
 
 Liv. 70. Ceraunus, a son of Ptolemy Soter, 
 
 by Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater. 
 Unable to succeed to the throne of Egypt, 
 Ceraunus fled to the court of Seleucus where 
 he was received with friendly marks of atten- 
 tion, Seleucus was then king of Macedonia, 
 an empire which he had lately acquired by 
 the death of Lysimachus, in a battle in Phrygia; 
 but his reign was short, and Ceraunus perfidi- 
 ously murdered him and ascended his throne, 
 280 B. C. The murderer, however, could not be 
 firmly established in Macedonia as long as Ar- 
 sinoe, the widow, and the children of Lysima- 
 chus were alive, and entitled to claim his king- 
 dom as the lawful possession of their father. 
 To remove these obstacles Ceraunus made of- 
 fers of marriage to Arsinoe, who was his own 
 sister. The queen at first refused, but the pro- 
 testations and solemn promises of the usurper 
 at last prevailed upon her to consent. The 
 nuptials, however, were no sooner celebrated, 
 than Ceraunus murdered the two young princes, 
 and confirmed his usurpation by rapine and 
 cruelty. But now three powerful princes claim- 
 ed the kingdom of Macedonia as their own, 
 Antiochus, the son of Seleucus ; Antigonus, the 
 son of Demetrius ; and Pyrrhus the king of 
 Epirus. These enemies, however, were soon 
 removed ; Ceraunus conquered Antigonus in 
 the field of battle, and stopped the hostilities of 
 his other two rivals by promises and money. 
 He did not long remain inactive, a barbarian 
 army of Gauls claimed a tribute from him, and 
 the monarch immediately marched to meet them 
 in the field. The battle was long and bloody. 
 The Macedonians might have obtained the vic- 
 tory if Ceraunus had shown more prudence. 
 He was thrown down from his elephant, and 
 taken prisoner by the enemy, who immediately 
 tore his body to pieces. Ptolemy had been king 
 of Macedonia only 18 months. Justin. 24, &c. 
 Paiis. 10, c. 10. An illegitimate son of Ptole- 
 my Lathyrus, king of Cyprus, of which he was 
 tyrannically dispossessed by the Romans. Cato 
 was at the head of the forces which were sent 
 against Ptolemy by the senate, and the Roman 
 general proposed to the monarch to retire from 
 the throne, and to pass the rest of his days in 
 574 
 
 the obscure oflice of highpriest in the temple of 
 Venus at Paphos. This oflfer was rejected with 
 the indignation which it merited, and the mon- 
 arch poisoned himself at the approach of the 
 enemy. The treasures found in the island 
 amounted to the enormous sum of 1,356,250^. 
 sterling, which were carried to Rome by the 
 conquerors. Plut. in Cat. — Val. Max.9. — Mor. 
 
 3. A man who attempted to make himself 
 
 king of Macedonia in opposition to Perdiccas, 
 
 He was expelled by Pelopidas. A son of 
 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, by Antigone, the 
 daughter of Berenice. He was left governor 
 of Epirus when Pyrrhus went to Italy to assist 
 the Tarentines against the Romans, where he 
 presided with great prudence and moderation. 
 He was killed, bravely fighting, in the expedi- 
 tion which Pyrrhus undertook against Sparta 
 
 and Argos. A eunuch, by whose friendly 
 
 assistance Mithridates the Great saved his life 
 after a battle with Lucullus. A king of Epi- 
 rus, who died very young, as he was marching 
 an army against the JEtolians, who had seized 
 
 part of his dominions. — Justin. 28. A king 
 
 of Chalcidica, in Syria, about 30 years before 
 Christ. He opposed Pompey when he invaded 
 Syria, but he was defeated in the attempt, and 
 the conqueror spared his life only upon receiv- 
 ing one thousand talents. Joseph. Ant. 13. 
 
 A nephew of Antigonus, who commanded an 
 army in the Peloponnesus. He revolted from 
 his uncle to Cassander, and sometime after he 
 attempted to bribe the soldiers of Ptolemy La- 
 gus, king of Egypt, who had invited him to his 
 camp. He was seized and imprisoned for this 
 treachery, and the Egyptian monarch at last 
 
 ordered him to drink hemlock. A son of 
 
 Seleucus, killed in the celebrated battle which 
 was fought at Issus between Darius and Alex- 
 ander the Great. A son of Juba, made king 
 
 of Mauretania. He was son of Cleopatra Se- 
 lene, the daughter of M. Antony and the cele- 
 brated Cleopatra. He was put to death by 
 
 Caius Caligula. Dio. — Tacit. Ann. 11. A 
 
 friend of Otho. A favourite of Antiochus, 
 
 king of Syria. He was surnamed Macron. 
 
 A Jew, famous for his cruelty and avarice. He 
 
 was for some time governor of Jericho, about 
 
 135 years before Christ, A powerful Jew 
 
 during the troubles which disturbed the peace 
 
 of Judaea in the reign of Augustus. A son of 
 
 Antony by Cleopatra, surnamed PhiladelpMis, 
 by his father, and made master of Phoenicia, 
 Syria, and all the territories of Asia Minor 
 which were situated between the JEgean and 
 
 the Euphrates. Plut. in Anton. Claudius, 
 
 a celebrated geographer and astrologer in the 
 reign of Adrian and Antoninus. He was a 
 native of Alexandria, or, according to others, 
 of Pelusium, and on account of his great learn- 
 ing, he received the name of the most wise and 
 most divine among the Greeks. In his system 
 of the world, he places the earth in the centre 
 of the universe, a doctrine universally believed 
 and adopted till the 16th century, when it was 
 confuted and rejected by Copernicus. His 
 geography is valued for its learning, and the 
 very useful information which it gives. Besides 
 his system and his geography, Ptolemy wrote 
 other books, in one of which he gives an ac- 
 count of the fixed stars ; of 1022 of which he 
 gives the certain and definite longitude and 
 
PU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 FU 
 
 latitude. The best edition of Ptolemy's geog- 
 raphy is that of Bertius, fol. Amst. 1618, and 
 that of his treatise de Judiciis Astrologicis, by 
 Camerar, 4to. 1535, and of the Harmonica, 4to. 
 WalHs, Oxon. 1683. 
 
 PcBLicoLA, a name given to Publius Vale- 
 rius on account of his great popularity, Vid. 
 Valerius. Plut. in PvJb. — Liv. 2, c. 8. — Plin. 
 30, c. 15. 
 
 PuBLiLiA Lex, was made by Publilius Philo, 
 the dictator, A. U. C. 445. Ii permitted one of 
 the censors to be elected from the plebeians, 
 since one of the consuls were chosen from that 
 
 body. Liv. 8, c. 12. Another, by which it 
 
 was ordained that all laws should be previously 
 approved by the senators before they were pro- 
 posed by the people. 
 
 Publius Syrus, a Syrian mimic poet, who 
 flourished about 44 years before Christ. This 
 celebrated Mime was brought from Asia to 
 Italy in early youth, in the same vessel with his 
 countryman and kinsman, Manlius Antiochus, 
 the professor of astrology, and Staberius Eros, 
 the grammarian, who all, by some desert in 
 learning, rose above their original fortune. He 
 received a good education and liberty from his 
 master, in reward for his witticisms and face- 
 tious disposition. He first represented his 
 Mimes in the provincial towns of Italy, whence, 
 his fame having spread to Rome, he was sum- 
 moned to the capital, to assist in those public 
 spectacles which Caesar afforded his country- 
 men, in exchange for their freedom. On one 
 occasion, he challenged all persons of his own 
 profession to contend with him on the stage ; 
 and in this competition he successively over- 
 came every one of his rivals. By his success in 
 the representation of their popular entertain- 
 ments, he amassed considerable wealth, and 
 lived with such luxury, that he never gave a 
 great supper without having sow's udder at the 
 table — a dish which was prohibited by the cen- 
 sors, as being too great a luxury even for the 
 table of patricians. Nothing farther is known of 
 his history, except that he was still continuing to 
 perform his Mimes with applause at the period 
 of the death of Laberius. We have not the 
 names of any of the Mimes of Publius ; nor 
 do we precisely know their nature or subject, — 
 all that is preserved from them being a number 
 of detached sentiments or maxims to the num- 
 ber of 800 or 900, seldom exceeding a single 
 line, but containing reflections of unrivalled 
 force, truth, and beauty, on all the various re- 
 lations, situations, and feelings of human life — 
 friendship, love, fortune, pride, adversity, ava- 
 rice, generosity. Both the writers and actors 
 of Mimes were probably careful to have their 
 memory stored with commonplaces and pre- 
 cepts of morality, in order to introduce them 
 . appropriately in their extemporaneous perform- 
 ances. The maxims of Publius were interspers- 
 ed through his dramas, but being the only por- 
 tion of those productions now remaining, they 
 have just the appearance of thoughts or senti- 
 ments, like those of Rochefoucauld. His Mimes 
 must either have been very numerous, or very 
 thickly loaded with those moral aphorisms. It 
 is also surprising that they seem raised far 
 above the ordinary tone even of regular come- 
 dy, and appear for the greater part to be almost 
 stoical maxims. Seneca has remarked that 
 
 many of his eloquent verses are fitter for the 
 buskin than the slipper. How such exalted 
 precepts should have been grafted on the lowest 
 farce, and how passages, which would hardly 
 be appropriated in the most serious sentimental 
 comedy, were adapted to the actions or man- 
 ners of gross and drunken buffoons, is a diffi- 
 culty which could only be solved had we for- 
 tunately received entire a larger portion of 
 tjiese productions, which seem to have been pe- 
 culiar to Roman genius. The sentiments of 
 Publius Syrus now appear trite. They have 
 become familiar to mankind, and have been re- 
 echoed by poets and moralists from age to age. 
 All of them are most felicitously expressed, and 
 few of them seem erroneous, while at the same 
 time they are perfectly free from the selfish or 
 worldly-minded wisdom of Rochefoucauld, or 
 Lord Burleigh. It would be endless to quote 
 the lines of the different Latin poets, particu- 
 larly Horace and Juvenal, which are nearly 
 copied from the maxims of Publius Syrus. Se- 
 neca, too, has availed himself of many of his 
 reflections, and, at the same time, does full jus- 
 tice to the author from whom he has borrowed. 
 Publius, says he, is superior in genius both to 
 tragic and comic writers: whenever he gives 
 up the follies of the Mimes, and that language 
 which is directed to the crowd, he writes many 
 things not only above that species of composi- 
 tion, but worthy of the tragic buskin.^ 
 
 Publius, a prsenomen common among the 
 
 Romans. Caius, a man who conspired with 
 
 Brutus against J. Caesar. A praetor who 
 
 conquered Palaepolis. He was only a plebeian, 
 and, although neither consul nor dictator, he 
 obtained a triumph in spite of the opposition of 
 the senators. He was the first who was ho- 
 noured with a triumph during a praetorship. 
 
 PuLCHERiA, I. a daughter of the emperor 
 Theodosius the Great, famous for her piety, 
 
 moderation, and virtues. II. A daughter of 
 
 Arcadius, who held the government of the Ro- 
 man empire for many years. She was mother 
 of Valentinian. Her piety, and her private 
 as well as public virtues, have been universally 
 admired. She died A. D. 452, and was interred 
 at Ravenna, where her tomb is still to be seen. 
 
 PuNicuM Bellum. The first Punic war was 
 undertaken by the Romans against Carthage, 
 B. C. 264. For upwards of 240 years, the two 
 nations had beheld with secret jealousy each 
 other's power, but they had totally eradicated 
 every cause of contention, by settling, in three 
 different treaties, the boundaries of their respec- 
 tive territories, the number of their allies, and 
 how far one nation might sail into the Mediter- 
 ranean without giving offence to the other. Si- 
 cily was the seat of the first dissentions. The 
 Mamerdni, a body of Italian mercenaries, were 
 appointed by the king of Syracuse to guard the 
 town of Messana ; but this tumultuous tribe, in- 
 stead of protecting the citizens, basely massa- 
 cred them, and seized their possessions. This 
 act of cruelty raised the indignation of all the 
 Sicilians, and Hiero, king of Syracuse, who had 
 employed them, prepared to punish their per- 
 fidy ; and the Mamertini, besieged in Messana, 
 and without friends or resources, resolved to 
 throw themselves for protection into the hands 
 of the first power that could relieve them. They 
 were, however, divided in their sentiments, aai 
 575 
 
PU 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PU 
 
 while some implored the assistance of Carthage, 
 others called upon the Romans for protection. 
 Without hesitation or delay the Carthaginians 
 entered Messana, and the Romans also hastened 
 to give to the Mamertini that aid which had been 
 claimed from them with as much eagerness as 
 from the Carthaginians. At the approach of the 
 Roman troops, the Mamertini, who had implor- 
 ed their assistance, took up arms, and forced the 
 Carthaginians to evacuate Messana. Fresh 
 forces were poured in on every side, and though 
 Carthage seemed superior in arms and in re- 
 sources, yet the valour and intrepidity of the Ro- 
 mans daily appeared more formidable, and Hie- 
 ro, the Syracusan king who hitherto embraced 
 the interests of the Carthaginians, became the 
 most faithful ally of the republic. From a 
 private quarrel the war became general. The 
 Romans obtained a victory in Sicily, but as 
 their enemies were masters at sea, the ad- 
 vantages they gained were small and incon- 
 siderable. To make themselves equal to their 
 adversaries, they aspired to the dominion of 
 the sea, and in sixty days timber was cut 
 down, and a fleet of 120 galleys completely 
 manned and provisioned. The successes they 
 met with at sea were trivial, and little ad- 
 vantage could be gained over an enemy that 
 were sailors by actual practice and long ex- 
 perience. Duilius at last obtained a victory, 
 and he was the first Roman who ever received 
 a triumph after a naval battle. The losses they 
 had already sustained induced the Carthagini- 
 ans to sue for peace, and the Romans, whom an 
 unsuccessful descent upon Africa, under Regu- 
 lus, ( Vid. Regulus,) had rendered diffident, lis- 
 tened to the proposal, and the first punic war was 
 concluded B.C. 241, on the following terras : — 
 The Carthaginians pledged themselves to pay 
 to the Romans, within twenty years, the sum of 
 3000 Euboic talents, they promised to release 
 all the Roman captives without ransom, to 
 evacuate Sicily and the other islands in the Me- 
 diterranean, and not to molest Hiero, king of 
 Syracuse, or his allies. After this treaty the 
 Carthaginians, who had lost the dominion of 
 Sardinia and Sicily, made new conquests in 
 Spain, and soon began to repair their losses by 
 industry and labour. They planted colonies and 
 secretly prepared to revenge themselves upon 
 their powerful rivals. The Romans were not 
 insensible of their successes in Spain, and to stop 
 their progress towards Italy, they made a stipu- 
 lation with the Carthaginians, by which they 
 were not permitted to cross the Iberus, or to 
 molest the cities of their allies, the Saguntines, 
 This was for some time observed, but when An- 
 nibal succeeded to the command of the Cartha- 
 ginian armies in Spain, he spurned the bound- 
 aries which the jealousy of Rome had set to his 
 arms, and he immediately formed the siege of 
 Saguntum. The Romans were apprized of the 
 hostilities which had been begun against their 
 allies, but Saguntum was in the hands of the 
 active enemy before they had taken any steps 
 to oppose him. Complaints were carried to 
 Carthage, and war was determined upon by the 
 influence of Annibal in the Carthaginian senate. 
 Without delay or diffidence, B. C. 218, Annibal 
 marched a numerous army of 90,000 foot and 
 12,000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry 
 
 He crossed the 
 576 
 
 the war to the gates of Rome 
 
 Alps and the Appenines with uncommon cele- 
 rity, and the Roman consuls who were stationed 
 to stop his progress were universally defeated. 
 After this, Annibal called his brother Asdrubal 
 from Spain with a large reinforcement ; bui the 
 march of Asdrubal was intercepted by the Ro- 
 mans, his army was defeated, and himself slain. 
 Affairs had now taken a different turn, and 
 Marcellus, who had the command of the Roman 
 legions in Italy, soon taught his countrymen 
 that Annibal was not invincible in the field. 
 The conquests of young Scipio in Spain mean- 
 while had raised the expectations of the Ro- 
 mans, and he had no sooner returned to Rome 
 than he proposed to remove Annibal from the 
 capital of Italy by carrying the war to the gates 
 of Carthage. The conquests of the young Ro- 
 man were as rapid in Africa as in Spain, and 
 the Carthaginians, apprehensive of the fate of 
 their capital, recalled Annibal from Italy, and 
 preferred their safety at home to the maintain- 
 ing of a long and expensive war in another 
 quarter of the globe. Annibal received their 
 order with indignation, and with tears in his 
 eyes he left Italy, -where for 16 years he had 
 kn own no superior in the field of battle. At his 
 arrival in Africa, the Carthaginian general 
 soon collected a large army, and met his ex- 
 ulting adversary in the plains of Zama. The 
 Romans obtained the victory, and Annibal, who 
 had sworn eternal enmity to the gods of Rome, 
 fled from Carthage after he had advised his 
 countrymen to accept the terms of the conqueror. 
 This battle of Zama was decisive, the Cartha- 
 ginians sued for peace, which the haughty con- 
 querors granted with difficulty. The conditions 
 were these : Carthage was permitted to hold all 
 the possessions which she had in Africa before 
 the war, and to be governed by her own laws 
 and institutions. She was ordered to make res- 
 titution of all the ships and other effects which 
 had been taken in violation of a truce that had 
 been agreed upon by both nations. She was to 
 surrender the whole of her fleet, except 10 gal- 
 leys ; she was to release and deliver up all the 
 captives, deserters, or fugitives, taken or re- 
 ceived during the war ; to indemnify Masinissa 
 for all the losses which he had sustained ; to 
 deliver up all her elephants, and for the future 
 never more to tame or break any more of these 
 animals. She was not to make war upon any 
 nation whatever without the consent of the Ro- 
 mans, and was to reimburse the Romans, to 
 pay the sum of 10,000 talents, at the rate of 200 
 talents a year for 50 years, and she was to give 
 up hostages from the noblest families for the 
 performance of these several articles ; and, till 
 the ratification of the treaty, to supply the Ro- 
 man forces with money and provisions. These 
 humiliating conditions were accepted 201 B. C. 
 and immediately 4000 Roman captives were 
 released, five hundred galleys were delivered 
 and burnt on the spot ; but the immediate ex- 
 action of 200 talents was more severely felt, 
 and many of the Carthaginian senators burst 
 into tears. During the 50 years which followed 
 the conclusion of the second Punic war, the 
 Carthaginians were employed in repairing 
 their losses by unwearied application and in- 
 dustry ; but they found still in the Romans a 
 jealous rival and a haughty conque/or, and in 
 Masinissa, the ally of Rome, an intriguing, and 
 
m 
 
 HISTORY, &G. 
 
 PY 
 
 ambitious monarch. The king of Numidia 
 made himself master of one of their provinces; 
 and as they were unable to make war without 
 the consent of Rome, the Carthaginians sought 
 relief by embassies, and made continual com- 
 plaints in the Roman senate of the tyranny 
 and oppression of Masinissa. While the senate 
 were debating about the existence of Carthage, 
 and while they considered it as a dependant 
 power, and not as an ally, the wrongs of Africa 
 were without redress, and Masinissa continued 
 his depredations. Upon this the Carthaginians 
 resolved to do to their cause that justice which 
 the Romans had denied them ; they entered 
 the field against the Numidians, but they 
 were defeated in a bloody battle by Masinissa, 
 who was then 90 years old. In this bold mea- 
 sure they had broken the peace ; and as their 
 late defeat had rendered them desperate, they 
 hastened with all possible speed to the capital 
 of Italy to justify their proceedings, and to im- 
 plore the forgiveness of the Roman senate. 
 The news of Masinissa's victory had already 
 reached Italy,and immediately some forces were 
 sent to Sicily, and from thence ordered to pass 
 into Africa. The ambassadors of Carthage re- 
 ceived evasive and unsatisfactory answers from 
 the senate. The consuls replied, that to pre- 
 vent every cause of quarrel, the Carthaginians 
 must deliver into their hands 300 hostages, all 
 children of senators, and of the most noble and 
 respectable families. The demand was great 
 and alarming, but it was no sooner granted, than 
 the Romans made another demand, and the 
 Carthaginians were told that peace could not 
 continue' if they refused to deliver up all their 
 ships, their arms, engines of war, with all their 
 naval and military stores. The Carthaginians 
 complied, and immediately 40,000 suits of ar- 
 mour, 20,000 large engines of war, with a plen- 
 tiful store of ammunition and missile weapons, 
 were surrendered. After this duplicity had 
 succeeded, the Romans laid open the final reso- 
 lutions of the senate, and the Carthaginians 
 were then told, that, to avoid hostilities, they 
 must leave their ancient habitations and retire 
 into the inland parts of Africa, and found ano- 
 ther city, at the distance of no less than ten 
 miles from the sea. This was heard with hor- 
 ror and indignation; the Romans were fixed 
 and inexorable, and Carthage was filled with 
 tears and lamentations. But the spirit of liberty 
 and independence v/as not yet extinguished in 
 the capital of Africa, and the Carthaginians 
 determined to sacrifice their lives for the pro- 
 tection of their gods, the tombs of their forefa- 
 thers, and the place which bad given them birth. 
 Before the Roman army approached the city, 
 preparations to support a siege were made, and 
 the ramparts of Carthage were covered with 
 stones, to compensate for the weapons and in- 
 struments of war which they had ignorantly 
 betrayed to the duplicity of their enemies. As- 
 drubal, whom the despair of his countrymen had 
 banished on account of the unsuccessful ex- 
 pedition against Masinissa, was immediately 
 recalled ; and, in the moment of danger, Car- 
 thage seemed to have possessed more spirit and 
 vigour, than when Annibal was victorious at 
 the gates of Rome. The town was blocked up 
 bv the Romans, and a regular siege begun. 
 Two years were spent in useless operations, and 
 Part II.— 4 D 
 
 Carthage seemed still able to rise from its ruins, 
 to dispute for the empire of the world ; when 
 Scipio, the descendant of the great Scipio, who 
 finished the second Punic war, was sent to 
 conduct the siege. The vigour of his operations 
 soon baffled the eiforts and the bold resistance 
 of the besieged ; the communications which they 
 had with the land were cut oif, and the city, 
 which was twenty miles in circumference, was 
 completely surrounded on all sides by the ene- 
 my. Despair and famine now raged in the 
 city, and Scipio gained access to the city walls, 
 where the battlements were low and unguarded. 
 His entrance into the streets was disputed with 
 uncommon fury, the houses as he advanced 
 were set on fire to stop his progress; but when 
 a body of 50,000 persons of either sex had claim- 
 ed quarter, the rest of the inhabitants were dis- 
 heartened, and such as disdained to be prisoners 
 of war, perished in the flames, which gradually 
 destroyed their habitations, 147 B. C, after a 
 continuation of hostilities for three years. Du- 
 ring 17 days Carthage was in flames ; and the 
 soldiers were permitted to redeem from the fire 
 whatever possessions they could. This remark- 
 able event happened about the year of Rome 
 606. The news of this victory caused the great- 
 est rejoicings at Rome ; and immediately com- 
 missioners were appointed by the Roman senate, 
 not only to raze the walls of Carthage, but even 
 to demolish and burn the very materials with 
 which they were made ; and in a few days, that 
 city which had been once theseat of commerce, 
 and model of magnificence, the common store 
 of the wealth of nations, and one of the most 
 powerful states of the world, left behind no 
 traces of its splendour, of its power, or even of 
 its existence. Polyb. — Orosius. — Appian. de 
 Punic, d^c. — Flor. — Plut. in Cat. d^c. — Strab. 
 — Liv. epit. — Diog. 
 
 PupiENUs, (Marcus Claudius Maximus,) a 
 man of an obscure family, who raised himself 
 by his merit to the highest ofiices in the Roman 
 armies, and gradually became a praetor, consul, 
 prefect of Rome, and a governor of the pro- 
 vtnces. His father was a blacksmith. After 
 the death of the Gordians, Pupienus was elect- 
 ed with Balbinus to the imperial throne, and 
 soon after prepared to make war against the 
 Persians; but in this he was prevented, and 
 massacred, A. D. 236, by the praetorian guards. 
 Balbinus shared his fate. Pupienus is some- 
 times called Maximus. In his private charac- 
 ter he appeared always grave and serious; he 
 was the constant friend of justice, moderation, 
 and clemency ; and no greater encomium can 
 be passed upon his virtues, than to say that he 
 was invested with the purple without soliciting 
 for it, and that the Roman senate said that they 
 had selected him from thousands, because they 
 knew no person more worthy or better quali- 
 fied to support the dignity of an emperor. 
 
 Puppius, a tragic poet in the age of J. Csesar. 
 His tragedies were so pathetic, that when they 
 were represented on the Roman stage, the au- 
 dience melted into tears ; from which circum- 
 stance Horace calls them lacrymosa, 1, ep. v. 67. 
 
 Pygmalion, I. a king of Tyre, son of Belus, 
 and brother to the celebrated Dido, who founded 
 Carthage. At the death of his father, he as- 
 cended the vacant throne, and soon became 
 odious by his cruelty and avarice. He sacri- 
 577 
 
PY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PY 
 
 ficed every thing to the gratification of his pre- 
 dominant passions, and he did not even spare 
 the life of Sichasus, Dido's husband, because he 
 was the most powerful and opulent of all the 
 Phoenicians. This murder he committed in a 
 temple, of which Sichseus was the priest ; but 
 instead of obtaining the riches which he desired, 
 Pygmalion was shunned by his subjects, and 
 Dido, to avoid further acts of cruelty, fled away 
 with her husband's treasure, and a large colony, 
 to the coast of Africa, where she founded a city. 
 Pygmalion died in the 56th year of his age and 
 in the 47th of his reign. Virg. jEn. 1, v. 347, 
 &c. — Justin. 18, c. 5. — Apollod. 3. lial. 1 
 
 II. A celebrated statuary of the island of Cy- 
 prus. He became enamoured of a beautiful 
 statue of marble which he had made, and at his 
 earnest request and prayers, according to the 
 mythologists, the goddess of beauty changed 
 the favourite statue into a woman, whom the 
 artist married, and by whom he had a son called 
 Paphus, who founded the city of that name in 
 Cyprus. Ovid. Met. 10, fab. 9. 
 
 Pylades, I. a son of Strophius, king of Phocis, 
 by one of the sisters of Agamemnon. He was 
 educated together with his cousin Orestes, with 
 whom he formed the most inviolable friend- 
 ship, and whom he assisted to revenge the 
 murder of Agamemnon, by assassinating Cly- 
 temnestra and iEgysthus, He also accompa- 
 nied him to Taurica Chersonesus, and for his 
 services Orestes rewarded him, by giving him 
 his sister Electra in marriage. Pylades had 
 by her two sons, Medon and Strophius. The 
 friendship of Orestes and Pylades became pro- 
 verbial. Vid. Orestes. Eurip. in Iphig. — A^s- 
 chyl. inAg., &c. — Paios. 1, c. 28. 11. A cele- 
 brated Roman pantomime, was a native of Ci- 
 licia. He was brought to Rome in the flower 
 of youth, and first gave grace and dignity to the 
 pantomimic stage, on which only unmeaning at- 
 titudes and rude gesticulations had been hitherto 
 exhibited. The recitation, however, of the 
 regular tragedy had always been accompanied 
 with vehement and significant gestures. In 
 consequence of one person thus gesticulating 
 while the other declaimed, the Roman people 
 had probably become expert in the interpreta- 
 tion of mimetic action ; and, before the time of 
 Pylades, certain signs, both natural and con- 
 ventional, would be recognised as the tokens of 
 corresponding emotions. It was principally 
 tragic and majestic parts that Pylades repre- 
 sented, such as OEdipus and Hercules Furens ; 
 and his dancing chiefly expressed the grandeur 
 of heroic sentiments. 
 
 Pylas, a king of Megara. He had the mis- 
 fortune accidentally to kill his uncle Bias, for 
 which he fled away, leaving his kingdom to 
 Pandion, his son-in-law, who had been driven 
 from Athens. Apollod. 3, c. 15. — Pans. 1, c. 39. 
 
 Pyramus, a youth of Babylon, who became 
 enamoured of Thisbe, a beautiful virgin who 
 dwelt in the neighbourhood. The flame was 
 mutual, and the two lovers, whom their parents 
 forbade to marry, regularly received each 
 other's addresses through the chink of a wall 
 which separated their houses. After the most 
 solemn vows of sincerity, they both agreed to 
 elude the vigilance of their friends, and to meet 
 one another at thetombof Ninus, under a white 
 mulberry-tree, without the walls of Babylon. 
 578 
 
 Thisbe came first to the appointed place, but 
 the sudden arrival of a lioness frightened her 
 away ; and as she fled into a neighbouring cave 
 she dropped her veil, which the lioness found 
 and besmeared with blood, Pyramus soon ar- 
 rived, he found Thisbe's veil all bloody, and 
 concluding that she had been torn to pieces by 
 the wild beasts of the place, he stabbed himself 
 with his sword. Thisbe, when her fears were 
 vanished, returned from the cave, and at the 
 sight of the dying Pyramus, she fell upon the 
 sword which still reeked with his blood. This 
 tragical scene happened under a white-mul- 
 berry-tree, which, as the poets mention, was 
 stained with the blood of the lovers, and ever 
 after bore fruit of the colour of blood. Ovid. 
 Met. 4, V. 55, &c.—Hygin. fab. 243. 
 
 Pyrgoteles, a celebrated engraver on gems, 
 in the age of Alexander the Great. He had the 
 exclusive privilege of engraving the conqueror, 
 as Lysippus was the only sculptor who was per- 
 mitted to make statues of him. Pli7i. 37, c. 1. 
 
 Pyrodes, a son of Cilix, said to be the first 
 who discovered and applied to human purposes 
 the fire concealed in flints. Plin. 7, c, 56. 
 
 PYRRmAs, a boatman of Ithaca, remarkable 
 for his humanity. He delivered from slavery 
 an old man v/ho had been taken by pirates, and 
 robbed of some pots full of pitch. The old man 
 was so grateful for his kindness, that he gave 
 the pots to his deliverer, after he had told him 
 that they contained gold under the pitch. Pyr- 
 rhias upon this ofiered the sacrifice of a bull to 
 the old man, and retained him in his house, 
 with every act of kindness and attention, till the 
 time of his death. Plut. in qucest. G. 
 
 Pyrrhicha, a kind of dance, said to be in- 
 vented and introduced into Greece by Pyrrhus 
 the son of Achilles. The dancers were gene- 
 rally armed. Pli7i. 7, c. 56. 
 
 Pyrrho, a philosopher of Elis, disciple to 
 Anaxarchus, and originally a painter. His 
 father's name was Plistarchus, or Pistocrates. 
 He was in continual suspense of judgment, he 
 doubted of every thing, never made any con- 
 clusions, and when he had carefully examined 
 a subject, and investigated all its parts, he con- 
 cluded by still doubting of its evidence. This 
 manner of doubting in the philosopher has been 
 called Pyrrhonyism, and his disciples have re- 
 ceived the appellation of skeptics, inquisitors, 
 examiners, &c. He pretended to have acquired 
 an uncommon dominion over opinion and pas- 
 sions. The former of these virtues he called 
 ataraxia, and the latter matriopathia ; and so 
 far did he carry his want of common feeling 
 and sympathy, that he passed with unconcern 
 near a ditch in whichfhis master Anaxarchus 
 had fallen, and where he nearly perished. As 
 he showed so much indifference in every thing, 
 and declared that life and death were the same 
 thing, some of his disciples asked him, why he 
 did nothurry himself out of the world: Because, 
 says he, there is no difference between life and 
 death. When he walked in the streets he never 
 looked" behind or moved from the road of a 
 chariot, even in its most rapid course; and, in- 
 deed, as some authors remark, this indifference 
 for his safety often exposed him to the g'reatest 
 and most imminent dangers, from which he 
 was saved by the interference of his friends who 
 followed him. He flourished B. C. 304, and 
 
PY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PY 
 
 died at the advanced age of 90. He left no 
 writings behind him. His countrymen were 
 so partial to him, that they raised statues to his 
 memory, and exempted all the philosophers of 
 Elis from taxes. Diog. 9. — Cic. de Oral. 3, c. 
 Vl.—Aul. Gel. 11, c. b.—Paus. 6, c. 24. 
 
 Pyrrhus, {yid. Neoptolimus,) I. a king of 
 Epirus, descended from Achilles, by the side of 
 his mother, and from Hercules by that of his 
 father, and son of ^acides and Phthia. He was 
 saved when an infant, by the fidelity of his ser- 
 vants, from the pursuits of the enemies of his 
 father,who had been banished from his kingdom, 
 and he was carried to the court of Glautias, king 
 of Illyrium, who educated him with great ten- 
 derness. Cassander, king of Macedonia, wished 
 to despatch him, as he had so much to dread 
 from him ; but Glautias not only refused to de- 
 liver him up into the hands of his enemy, but 
 he even went with an army, and placed him on 
 the throne of Epirus, though only 12 years of 
 age. About five years after, the absence of 
 Pyrrhus, to attend the nuptials of one of the 
 daughters of Glautias, raised new commotions. 
 The monarch was expelled from the throne by 
 Neoptolemus, who had usurped it after the 
 death of iEacides ; and being still without re- 
 sources, he applied to his brother-in-law Deme- 
 trius for .assistance. He accompanied Deme- 
 trius at the battle of Ipsus, and fought there with 
 all the prudence and intrepidity of an experi- 
 enced general. He afterwards passed into 
 Egypt, where, by his marriage with Antigone, 
 the daughter of Berenice, he soon obtained a 
 sufficient force to attempt the recovery of his 
 throne. He was successful in the undertaking ; 
 but to remove all causes of quarrel, he took the 
 usurper to share with him the royalty, and some 
 time after he put him to death under pretence 
 that he had attempted to poison him. In the 
 subsequent years of his reign Pyrrhus engaged 
 in the quarrels which disturbed the peace of the 
 Macedonian monarchy, he marched against 
 Demetrius, and gave the Macedonian soldiers 
 fresh proofs of his valour and activity. By dis- 
 simulation he ingratiated himself in the minds 
 of his enemy's subjects, and when Demetrius 
 laboured under a momentary illness, Pyrrhus 
 made an attempt upon the crown of Macedonia, 
 which, if not then successful, soon after render- 
 ed him master of the kingdom. This he shared 
 with L3'-simachus for seven months, till the 
 jealousy of the Macedonians, and the ambition 
 of his colleague, obliged him to retire. Pyrrhus 
 was meditating new conquests, when the Taren- 
 tines invited him to Italy to assist them against 
 the encroaching power of Rome. He gladly 
 accepted the invitation, but his passage across 
 the Adriatic proved nearly fatal, and he reach- 
 ed the shores of Italy after the loss of the greatest 
 part of his troops in a storm. At his entrance 
 into Tarentum,.B. C. 280, he began to reform 
 the manners of the inhabitants, and by introdu- 
 cing the strictest discipline among their troops, 
 to accustom them to bear fatigue and to despise 
 dangers. In the first battle which he fought 
 with the Romans he obtained the victory, but 
 for this he was more particularly indebted to 
 his elephants, whose bulk and uncommon ap- 
 pearance astonished the Romans and terrified 
 their cavalry. The number of the slain was 
 equal on both sides, and the conqueror said that 
 
 such another victory would totally ruin him. 
 He also sent Cineas, his chief minister, to 
 Rome, and though victorious, he sued for peace. 
 These offers of peace were refused, and when 
 Pyrrhus questioned Cineas, about the manners 
 and the character of the Romans, the sagacious 
 minister replied, that their senate was a vene- 
 rable assembly of kings, and that to fight against 
 them was to attack another Hydra. A second 
 battle was fought near Asculum, but the slaugh- 
 ter was so great, and the valour so conspicuous 
 on both sides, that the Romans and their ene- 
 mies reciprocally claimed the victory as their 
 own. Pyrrhus still continued the war in favour 
 of the Tarentines, when he was invited into 
 Sicily by the inhabitants, who laboured under 
 the yoke of Carthage and the cruelty of their 
 own petty tyrants. His fondness of novelty soon 
 determined him to quit Italy, he left a garrison 
 at Tarentum, and crossed over to Sicily, where 
 he obtained two victories over the Carthagini- 
 ans, and took many of th§ir towns. He was for 
 a while successful, and formed the project of 
 invading Africa ; but soon his popularity van- 
 ished, his troops became insolent, and he be- 
 haved with haughtiness, and showed himself 
 oppressive, so that his return to Italy was deem- 
 ed a fortunate event for all Sicily. He had no 
 sooner arrived at Tarentum than he renewed 
 hostilities with the Romans with great acrimo- 
 ny, but when his army of 80,000 menjiad been 
 defeated by 20,000 of the enemy under Curius, 
 he left Italy with precipitation, B. C. 274, 
 ashamed of the enterprise, and mortified by the 
 victories which had been obtained over one of 
 the descendants of Achilles. In Epirus he be- 
 gan to repair his military character by attacking 
 Antigonus, who was then on the Macedonian 
 throne. He gained some advantages over his 
 enemy, and was at last restored to the throne of 
 Macedonia. He afterwards marched against 
 Sparta, at the request of Cleonymus, but when 
 all his vigorous operations were insufficient 
 to take the capital of Laconia, he retired to 
 Argos, where the treachery of Aristeus invited 
 him. The Argives desired him to retire, and 
 not to interfere in the affairs of their republic, 
 which were confounded by the ambition of two 
 of their nobles. He complied with their wishes, 
 but in the night he marched his forces into the 
 town, and might have made himself master of 
 the place had he not retarded his progress by 
 entering it with his elephants. The combat 
 that ensued was obstinate and bloody ; and the 
 monarch, to fight with more boldness, and to 
 encounter dangers with more facility, exchang- 
 ed his dress. He was attacked by one of the 
 enemy, but as he was going to run him through 
 in his own defence, the mother of the Argive, 
 who saw her son's danger from the top of a 
 house, threw down a tile and brought Pyrrhus 
 to the ground. His head was cut off and car- 
 ried to Antigonus, who gave his remains a 
 magnificent funeral, and presented his ashes to 
 his son Helenus, 272 years before the Christian 
 era. Pyrrhus has been deservedly commended 
 for his talents as a general ; and not only his 
 friends, but also his enemies, have been warm 
 in extolling him; and Annibal declared, that 
 for experience and sagacity the kins: of Epirus 
 was the first of commanders. He bad chosen 
 Alexander the Great as a model, and in every 
 579 
 
PY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PY 
 
 thing he wished not only to imitate, but to 
 surpass him. In the art of war none were 
 superior to him ; he not only made it his 
 study as a general, but he even wrote many 
 books on encampments, and the different ways 
 of training up an army ; and whatever he 
 did was by principle and rule. Pyrrhus mar- 
 ried many wives, and all for political reasons ; 
 besides Antigone, he had Lanassa the daughter 
 of Agathocles, as also a daughter of Auioleon 
 king of Pseonia. His children, as his biographer 
 observes, derived a warlike spirit from their 
 father, and when he was asked by one to which 
 of them he should leave the kingdom of Epirus, 
 he replied, To him who has the sharpest sword. 
 uElian. Hist. an. 10. — Plut. in vitd.-^Justin. 
 17, &c.—Liv. 13 and U.—Horat. 3, od. 6 
 
 II. A king of Epirus, son of Ptolemy, murder- 
 ed by the people of Ambracia. His daughter, 
 called Laudamia, orDeidamia, succeeded him. 
 
 Paus. III. A son of Daedalus. 
 
 Pythagoras, I. a celebrated philosopher, born 
 at Samos. His father, Mnesarchus, was a per- 
 son of distinction, and therefore the son receiv- 
 ed that education which was most calculated to 
 enlighten his mind and invigorate his body. 
 Like his contemporaries, he was early made 
 acquainted with poetry and music ; eloquence 
 and astronomy became his private studies, and 
 in gymnastic exercises he often bore the palm 
 for strength and dexterity. He first made him- 
 self known in Greece, at the Olympic games, 
 where he obtained, in the 18th year of his age, 
 the prize for wrestling ; and, after he had been 
 admired for the elegance and the dignity of his 
 person, and the brilliancy of his understanding, 
 he retired into the east. In Egypt and Chaldea 
 he gained the confidence of the priests, and 
 learned from them the artful policy, and the 
 symbolic writings, by which they governed the 
 princes as well as the people ; and after he had 
 spent many years in gathering all the informa- 
 tion which could be collected from antique tra- 
 ditions, concerning the nature of the gods and 
 the immorality of the soul, Pythagoras revisit- 
 ed his native island. The tyranny of Polycrates 
 at Samos disgusted the philosopher, who was a 
 great advocate for national independence ; and 
 though he was the favourite of the tyrant, he re- 
 tired from the island, and a second time assisted 
 at the Olympic games. His fame was too well 
 known to escape notice; he was saluted in the 
 public assembly by the name of Sophist, or wise 
 man ; but he refused the appellation, and was 
 satisfied with that of Philosopher, or the friend 
 of wisdom. " At the Olympic games," said he, 
 in explanation of this new appellation he wish- 
 ed to assume, " some are attracted with the de- 
 sire of obtaining crowns and honours, others 
 come to expose their different commodities to 
 sale, while curiosity draws a third class, and 
 the desire of contemplating whatever deserves 
 notice in that celebrated assembly; thus, on 
 the more extensive theatre of the world, while 
 many struggle for the glory of a name, and 
 many pant for the advantages of fortune, a 
 few, and indeed but a few, who are neither de- 
 sirous of money, nor amlDitious of fame, are 
 sufficiently gratified to be spectators of the 
 wonder, the hurry, and the magnificence of the 
 scene." From Olympia, the philosopher visited 
 the republics of Elis and Sparta, and retired to 
 580 
 
 Magna Greecia, where he fixed his habitation 
 in the town of Crotona, about the 40th year of 
 his age. Here he founded a sect which has 
 received the name of the Italian ; and he soon 
 saw himself surrounded by a great number of 
 pupils, which the recommendation of his 
 mental, as well as his personal accomplish- 
 ments, had procured. His skill in music and 
 medicine, and his knowledge of mathematics 
 and of natural philosophy, gained him friends 
 and admirers ; and amidst the voluptuousness 
 that prevailed among the inhabitants of Cro- 
 tona, the Samian sage found his instructions 
 respected, and his approbation courted: the 
 most debauched and effeminate were pleased 
 with the eloquence and the graceful delivery 
 of the philosopher, who boldly upbraided them 
 for their vices, and called them to more virtu- 
 ous and manly pursuits. These animated ha- 
 rangues were attended with rapid success, and 
 a reformation soon took place in the morals and 
 the life of the people of Crotona. The females 
 were exhorted to become modest, and they left 
 off their gaudy ornaments ; the youths were 
 called away from their pursuits of pleasure, 
 and instantly they forgot their intemperance, 
 and paid to their parents that submissive at- 
 tention and deference which the precepts of 
 Pythagoras required. As to the old, they were 
 directed no longer to spend their time in amass- 
 ing money, but to improve their understanding, 
 and to seek that peace and those comforts of 
 mind which frugality, benevolence, and phi- 
 lanthropy alone can produce. The sober and 
 religious behaviour of the philosopher strongly 
 recommended the necessity and importance of 
 these precepts. Pythagoras was admired for 
 his venerable aspect ; his voice was harmonious, 
 his eloquence persuasive, and the reputation he 
 had acquired by his distant travels, and by 
 being crowned at the Olympic games, was great 
 and important. He regularly frequented the 
 temples of the gods, and paid his devotion to 
 the divinity at an early hour ; he lived upon 
 the purest and most innocent food, he clothed 
 himself like the priests of the Egyptian gods, 
 and by his continual purifications and regular 
 offerings, he seemed to be superior to the rest of 
 mankind in sanctity. These artful measures 
 united to render him an object, not only of re- 
 verence but of imitation. To set himself at a 
 greater distance from his pupils, a number of 
 years was required to try their various dis- 
 positions, but the most talkative were not per- 
 mitted to speak in the presence of their master 
 before they had been his auditors for five 
 years ; and those who possessed a natural taci- 
 turnity were allowed to speak after a probation 
 of two years. When they were capable of re- 
 ceiving the secret instructions of the philoso- 
 pher, they were taught the use of ciphers and 
 hieroglyphic writings; and Pythagoras might 
 boast that his pupils could correspond together, 
 though in the most distant regions, in un- 
 known characters ; and by the signs and words 
 which they had received^ they could discover, 
 though strangers and barbarians, those that 
 had been educated in the Pythagorean school. 
 So great was his authority among his pupils, 
 that to dispute his word was deemed a crime, 
 and the most stubborn were drawn to coin- 
 cide with the opinions of their opponents, 
 
PY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PY 
 
 when they helped their arguments by the words 
 of the master said so, an expression which be- 
 came proverbial in jurare in verba magistri. 
 The great influence which the philosopher pos- 
 sessed in his school was traxisferred to the 
 world ; the pupils divided the applause and the 
 approbation of the people with their venerated 
 master, and in a short time, the rulers and the 
 legislators of all the principal towns of Greece, 
 Sicily, and Italy, boasted in being the disciples 
 of Pythagoras. The Samian philosopher was 
 the first who supported the doctrine of metemp- 
 sychosis, or transmigration of the soul into dif- 
 ferent bodies ; and those notions he seemed to 
 have imbibed among the priests of Egypt, or in 
 the solitary retreats of the Brachmans, More 
 strenuously to support his chimerical system, 
 he declared he recollected the different bodies 
 his soul had animated before that of the son 
 of Mnesarchus. He remembered to have been 
 jEthalides, the son of Mercury ; to have assisted 
 the Greeks during the Trojan war, in the char- 
 acter of Euphorbus; ( Vid. Euphorbus,) to have 
 been Hermotimus ; afterwards a fisherman ; and 
 last of all, Pythagoras. He forbade his dis- 
 ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he 
 supposed them to have been produced from the 
 same putrefied matter from which, at the crea- 
 tion of the world, man was formed. In his 
 theological system, Pythagoras supported that 
 the universe was created from a shapeless heap 
 of passive matter, by the hands of a powerful 
 being, who himself was the mover and soul of 
 the world, and of whose substance the souls of 
 mankind were a portion. He considered 
 numbers as the principles of every thing, and 
 perceived in the universe, regularity, corre- 
 spondence, beauty, proportion, and harmony, as 
 intentionally produced by the creator. In his 
 doctrines of morality, he perceived in the 
 human mind propensities common to us with 
 the brute creation ; and besides these, and the 
 passions of avarice and ambition, he discovered 
 the nobler seeds of virtue, and supported that 
 the most ample and perfect gratification was to 
 be found in the enjoyment of moral and intel- 
 lectual pleasures. The thoughts of the past he 
 considered as always present to us, and he be- 
 lieved that no enjoyment could be had where 
 the mind was disturbed by consciousness of 
 guilt or fears about futurity. This opinion 
 induced the philosopher to recommend to his 
 followers a particular mode of education. The 
 tender years of the Pythagoreans were employ- 
 ed in continual labour, in study, in exercise, 
 and repose ; and the philosopher maintained 
 his well-known and important maxim, that 
 many things, especially love, are best learned 
 late. In a more advanced age the adult was 
 desired to behave with caution, spirit, and pa- 
 triotism, and to remember that the community 
 and civil society demanded his exertions, and 
 that the good of the public, and not his own 
 private enjoyments, were the ends of his crea- 
 tion. From lessons like these, the Pythago- 
 reans were strictly enjoined to call to mind, and 
 carefully to review, the actions, not only of the 
 present, but of the preceding days. In their 
 acts of devotion they early repaired to the most 
 solitary places of the mountains, and after they 
 had examined their private and public conduct, 
 and conversed with themselves, they joined in 
 
 the company of their friends, and early refresh- 
 ed their body with light and frugal aliments. 
 Their conversation was of the most innocent 
 nature ; political or philosophic subjects were 
 discussed with propriety, but without warmth ; 
 and, after the conduct of the following day was 
 regulated, the evening was spent with the same 
 religious ceremony as the morning, in a strict 
 and impartial self-examination. From such 
 regularity, nothing but the most salutary conse- 
 quences could arise; and it will not appear 
 wonderful that the disciples of Pythagoras were 
 so much respected and admired as legislators, 
 and imitated for their constancy, friendship, and 
 humanity. The authors that lived in, and after 
 the age of Alexander, have rather tarnished 
 than brightened the glory of the founder of the 
 Pythagorean school, and they have obscured 
 his fame by attributing to him actions which 
 were dissonant with his character as a man 
 and a moralist. To give more weight to his 
 exhortations, as some writers mention, Pytha- 
 goras retired into a subterraneous cave, where 
 his mother sent him intelligence of every thing 
 which happened dujing his absence. After a 
 certain number of months he again reappeared 
 on the earth, with a grim and ghastly counte- 
 nance, and declared, in the assembly of the 
 people, that he was returned from hell. From 
 similar exaggerations it has been asserted that 
 he appeared at the Olympic games with a 
 golden thigh, and that he could write in letters 
 of blood whatever he pleased on a looking- 
 glass, and that by setting it opposite to the 
 moon, when full, all the characters which were 
 on the glass became legible on the moon's disk. 
 They also support, that, by some magical words, 
 he tamed a bear, stopped the flight of an eagle, 
 and appeared on the same day and at the same 
 instant in the cities of Crotona and Metapon- 
 tum, &c. The time and the place of the death 
 of this great philosopher are unknown ; yet 
 many suppose that he died at Metapontum, 
 about 497 years before Christ : and so great was 
 the veneration of the people of Magna Graecia 
 for him, that he received the same honours as 
 were paid to the immortal gods, and his house 
 became a sacred temple. Succeeding ages 
 likewise acknowledged his merits; and when 
 the Romans, A. U. C. 411, were commanded 
 by the oracle of Delphi to erect a statue to the 
 bravest and wisest of the Greeks, the distin- 
 guished honour was conferred on Alcibiades 
 and Pythagoras. Pythagoras had a daughter, 
 called Damo. There is now extant a poetical 
 composition ascribed to the philosopher, and 
 called the golden verses of Pythagoras, which 
 contains the greatest part of his doctrines and 
 moral precepts; but many support that it is a 
 supposititious composition, and that the true 
 name of the writer was Lysis. Pythagoras 
 distinguished himself also by his discoveries in 
 geometry, astronomy, and mathematics ; and it 
 is to him that the world is indebted for the de- 
 monstrations of the 47th proposition of the first 
 book of Euclid's elements, about the square 
 of the hypothenuse. It is said that he was so 
 elated after making the discovery, that he made 
 an offering of a hetacorab to the gods; but the 
 sacrifice was undoubtedly of small oxen, made 
 with wax, as the philosopher was ever an enemy 
 to shedding the blood of all animals. His sys- 
 581 
 
PY 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 PY 
 
 tern of the universe, in which he placed the sun 
 in the centre, and all the planets moving in 
 elliptical orbits round it, was deemed chimerical 
 and improbable, till the deep inquiries and the 
 philosophy of the 16th century proved it, by the 
 most accurate calculations, to be true and in- 
 contestable. Diogenes, Porphyry, lamblicus, 
 and others, have written an account of his life, 
 but with more erudition, perhaps, than veracity. 
 Cic. de Nat. D. 1, c. 5. — Tusc. 4, c. 1. — Diog. 
 &c. S.—Hygin. fab. \l^.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 60, 
 &LC.— Plato.— Plin. 34, c. 6.—Gell. 9.—lam- 
 
 blic. — Porphyr. — Plut. II. A soothsayer of 
 
 Babylon, who foretold the death of Alexander 
 and of Hephsestion, by consulting the entrails 
 
 of victims. III. A tyrant of Ephesus. 
 
 IV. One of Nero's wicked favourites. 
 
 Pytheas, I. an archon at Athens. II. A 
 
 native of Massilia, famous for his knowledge of 
 astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and geo- 
 graphy. He also distinguished himself by his 
 travels ; and with a mind that wished to seek 
 information in every corner of the earth, he 
 advanced far into the northern seas, and dis- 
 covered the island of Thule, and entered that 
 then unknown sea which is now called the 
 Baltic. His discoveries in astronomy and 
 geography Avere ingenious, and, indeed, modern 
 navigators have found it expedient to justify 
 and accede to his conclusions. He was the 
 first who established a distinction of climate by 
 the length of days and nights. He wrote dif- 
 ferent treatises in Greek, which have been lost, 
 though some of them were extant in the begin- 
 ning of the fifth century. Pytheas lived, accor- 
 ding to some, in the age of Aristotle. Strah. 2, 
 
 &c. — Plin. 37. III. An Athenian rhetorician 
 
 in the age of Demosthsnes, who distinguished 
 himself by his intrigues, rapacity, and his oppo- 
 sition to the measures of Demosthenes, of whom 
 he observed that his orations smelt of the lamp. 
 Pytheas joined Antipater after the death of 
 Alexander the Great. His orations were de- 
 void of elegance, harsh, unconnected, and dif- 
 fuse ; and from this circumstance he has not 
 been ranked among the orators of Athens. 
 jElian. V. H. 7, c. l.—Plut. in. Dem. (^ Polit.pr. 
 
 Pythes, a native of Abdera in Thrace, son 
 of Andromache, who obtained a crown at the 
 Olympian games. Plin. 34, c. 7. — Pans. 6, c. 14. 
 
 IPytheus, a Lydian, famous for his riches in 
 the age of Xerxes. He kindly entertained the 
 monarch and all his army when he was march- 
 ing on his expedition against Greece, and ofier- 
 ed him to defray the expenses of the whole war. 
 Xerxes thanked him with much gratitude, and 
 promisedto give bim whatever he should require. 
 Pytheus asked him to dismiss his son from the 
 expedition : upon which the monarch ordered 
 the young man to be cut in two, and one half 
 of the body to be placed on the right hand of 
 the way, and the other on the left, that his army 
 might march between them. Plut. de mul. 
 virt. — Herodot. 
 
 Pythia, the priestess of Apollo at Delphi. 
 She delivered the answer of the god to such as 
 came to consult the oracle, and was supposed 
 to be suddenly inspired by the sulphurous va- 
 pours which issued from the hole of a subter- 
 raneous cavity within the temple, over which 
 she sat bare on a three-legged stool, called a 
 tripod. In the stool was a small aperture, 
 582 
 
 through which the vapour was exhaled by the 
 priestess, and at this divine inspiration, her eyes 
 suddenly sparkled, her hair stood on end, and 
 a shivering ran all over her body. In this con- 
 vulsive state she spoke the oracles of the god, 
 often with loud bowlings and cries, and her ar- 
 ticulations were taken down by the priest and 
 set in order. Sometimes the spirit of inspira- 
 tion was more gentle, and not always violent ; 
 yet Plutarch mentions one of the priestesses 
 who was thrown into such excessive fury, that 
 not only those that consulted the oracle, but 
 also the priests that conducted her to the sacred 
 tripod, and attended her during the inspiration, 
 were terrified and forsook the temple ; and so 
 violent was the fit, that she continued for some 
 days in the most agonizing situation, and at last 
 died. The Pythia, before she placed herself 
 on the tripod, used to wash her whole body, and 
 particularly her hair, in the waters of the foun- 
 tain Castalis, at the foot of mount Parnassus. 
 She also shook a laurel-tree that grew near the 
 place, and sometimes eat the leaves with which 
 she crowned herself The priestess was origi- 
 nally a virgin, but the institution was changed 
 when Echecrates, a Thessalian, had ofiered 
 violence to one of them, and none- but women 
 who were above the age of fifty were permitted 
 to enter upon that sacred ofiice. They always 
 appeared dressed in the garments of virgins, to 
 intimate their purity and modesty ; and they 
 were solemnly bound to observe the strictest 
 laws of temperance and chastity, that neither 
 fantastical dresses nor lascivious behaviour 
 might bring the ofiice, the religion, or the sanc- 
 tity of the place into contempt. There was 
 originally but one Pythia, besides subordinate 
 priests, and afterwards two were chosen, and 
 sometimes more. The most celebrated of all 
 these is Phemonoe, who is supposed by some to 
 have been the first who gave oracles at Delphi. 
 The oracles were always delivered in hexame- 
 ter verses, a custom which was some time after 
 discontinued. The Pythia was consulted only 
 one month in the year, about the spring. It 
 was always required that those who consulted 
 the oracle should make large presents to Apollo, 
 and from thence arose the opulence, splendour, 
 and the magnificence of that celebrated temple 
 of Delphi. Sacrifices were also offered to the 
 divinity, and if the omens proved unfavourable, 
 the priestess refused to give an answer. There 
 were generally five priests who assisted at the 
 offering of the sacrifices, and there was also 
 another who attended the Pythia, and assisted 
 her in receiving the oracle. Vid. Delphi, Ora- 
 culum. Pans. 10, c. 5. — Died. 16. — Strab. 6 
 and 9. — Justin. 24, c. 5. — Plut. de orat. def. — 
 
 Eurip. in Ion. — Chrysost. Games celebrated 
 
 in honour of Apollo near the temple of Del- 
 phi. They were first instituted, according to 
 the more received opinion, by Apollo himself, in 
 commemoration of the victory which he had ob- 
 tained over the serpent Python, from which 
 they received their name ; though others main- 
 tain that they were first established by Aga- 
 memnon, or Diomedes, or by Amphictyon, or 
 lastly, by the council of the Amphiciyons, B. C. 
 1263. They were originally celebrated once in 
 nine years, but afterwards every fifth year, on 
 the second year of every Olympiad, according 
 to the number of the Parnassian nymphs who 
 
au 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 au 
 
 congratulated Apollo after his victory. The 
 gods themselves were originally among the 
 combatants; and, according to some authors, 
 the first prizes were won by Pollux, in boxing ; 
 Castor, in horseraces ; Hercules, in the pan- 
 cratium ; Zetes, in fighting with the armour ; 
 Calais, in running ; Telamon, in wrestling ; and 
 Peleus, in throwing the quoit. These illustrious 
 conquerors were rewarded by Apollo himself, 
 who was present, with crowns and laurel. Some 
 however observe, that it was nothing but a 
 musical contention, in which he who sung best 
 the praises of Apollo obtained the prize, which 
 was presents of gold or silver, which were af- 
 terwards exchanged for a garland of the palm- 
 tree or of the beach leaves. It is said that 
 Hesiod was refused admission to these games 
 because he was not able to play upon the harp, 
 which was required of all such as entered the 
 lists. The songs which were sung were called 
 nvdiKOL vojxoi, the Pythian modes, divided into five 
 parts, which contained a representation of the 
 fight and victory of Apollo over Python ; avaK- 
 pitaig, the preparation for the fight; ejxiTEipa, the 
 first attempt ; KaraKehevcrnog, taking breath and 
 collecting courage ; lajxPoi kui SaKrv)^otj the insult- 
 ing sarcasms of the god over his vanquished 
 enemy ; cvpiyyes, an imitation of the hisses of the 
 serpent ; just as he expired under the blows of 
 Apollo. A dance was also introduced ; and in 
 the 48th Olympiad, the Amphictyons, who pre- 
 sided over the games, increased the number of 
 musical instruments by the addition of a flute, 
 but as it was more particularly used in funeral 
 songs and lamentations, it was soon rejected as 
 unfit for merriment, and the festivals which 
 represented the triumph of Apollo over th^ 
 conquered serpent. The Romans, according 
 to some, introduced them into their city, and 
 called them Apollinares ludi. Paus. 10, c. 13 
 and Sl.—Strab. 9.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. Ul.—Plin. 
 "I.—Liv. 25. 
 
 Pythocles, an Athenian, descended from 
 Aratus. It is said, that on this account, and for 
 his instruction, Plutarch wrote the life of Aratus. 
 
 Python, a native of Byzantium, in the age 
 of Philip of Macedonia. He was a great fa- 
 vourite of the monarch, who sent him to Thebes, 
 when that city, at the instigation of Demos- 
 thenes, was going to take arms against Philip. 
 Plut. in Dem. — Diod. 
 
 Pythonice, an Athenian prostitute, greatly 
 honoured by Harpalus, whom Alexander some 
 time before had intrusted with the treasures of 
 Babylon. He married her ; and, according to 
 some, she died the very moment that the nup- 
 tials were going to be celebrated. He raised her 
 a splendid monument on the road which led 
 from Athens to Eleusis, which cost him 30 
 talents, Diod. 17. — Paus. 1. — Athen. 13, &c. 
 
 a 
 
 QuADRiGARius, CI. Claudius, composed an- 
 nals of Rome in twenty-four books, which, 
 though now almost entirely lost, were in exist- 
 ence as late as the end of the 12th century, be- 
 ing referred to bv John of Salisbury in his book 
 De Nugis Curialibus. Some passages, however, 
 are still preserved, particularly the account of 
 the defiance by the gigantic Gaul, adorned with 
 a chain, to the whole Roman army, and his com- 
 
 bat with Titus Manlius, afterwards surnamed 
 Torquatus, from this chain which he took from 
 his antagonist. " Who the enemy was," says 
 Au. Gellius, " of how great and formidable 
 stature, how audacious the challenge, and in 
 what kind of battle they fought, Q,. Claudius 
 has told with much purity and elegance, and 
 in the simple unadorned sweetness of ancient 
 language. There is likewise extant from these 
 Annals the story of the consul CI. Fabius Max- 
 imus making his father, who was then procon- 
 sul, alight from his horse when he came out to 
 meet him. We have also the letter of the 
 Roman consuls, Fabricius and Gl. Emilius, to 
 Pyrrhus, informing him of the treachery of his 
 confidant, Nicias, Avho had oflfered to the Ro- 
 mans to make away with his master for a re- 
 ward. The Annals of duadrigarius must at 
 least have brought down the history to the civil 
 wars of Marius and Sylla, since, in the nine- 
 teenth book,the author details the circumstances 
 of the defence of the Piraeus against Sylla, by 
 Archelaus, the prefect of Mithridates. As to the 
 style of these Annals, AulusGellius reports,that 
 they were written in a conversational manner." 
 Q,u.EST0REs, two ofQccrs at Rome, first crea- 
 ted A. U. C. 269. They received their name, 
 a qucerendo, because they collected the revenues 
 of the state, and had the total management of 
 the public treasury. The quaestorship was the 
 first office which could be had in the State. It 
 was requisite that the candidates should be 24 
 or 25 years of age, or, according to some, 27. 
 In the year 332 U. C. two more were added to 
 the others, to attend the consuls, to take care of 
 the pay of the armies abroad, and sell the plun- 
 der and booty which had been acquired by con- 
 quest. These were called Peregrini, whilst 
 the others, whose employment was in the city, 
 received the name of Urbani. When the Ro- 
 mans were masters of all Italy, four more were 
 created, A. U. C. 439, to attend the procon- 
 suls and proprsetors in their provinces, and to 
 collect all the taxes and customs which each 
 particular district owed to the republic. They 
 were called Provinciates. Sylla, the dictator, 
 created 20 quaestors, and J. Csesar 40, to fill up 
 the vacant seats in the senate; from whence it 
 is evident that the quaestors ranked as senators 
 in the senate. The quaestors were always ap- 
 pointed by the senate at Rome, and if any per- 
 son was appointed to the quaestorship without 
 their permission, he was only called Proqnastor. 
 The quaestores urbani were apparently of more 
 consequence than the rest, the treasury was in- 
 trusted to their care, they kept an account of 
 all receipts and disbursements, and tlie Roman 
 eagles or ensigns were always in their possession 
 when the armies were not on an expedition. 
 They required every general before he triumph- 
 ed, to tell them, upon his oath, that he had given 
 a just account of the number of the slain on 
 both sides, and that he had been saluted impe- 
 rator by the soldiers, a title which every com- 
 mander generally received from his army after 
 he had obtained a victory, and which was after- 
 wards confirmed and approved by the senate. 
 The city quaestors had also the care of the am- 
 bassadors; they lodged and received them, and 
 some time after, when Augustus was declared 
 emperor, they kept the decrees of the senate, 
 which had been before intrusted with the ediles 
 583 
 
au 
 
 HlSTORY,&c. 
 
 au 
 
 and the tribunes. This gave rise to two new 
 offices of trust and honour, one of which was 
 QucBstor palatii, and the other quastor principis 
 or augusti, sometimes called candidatus princi- 
 pis. The tent of the quaestor in the camp was 
 called qucBstorium. It stood near that of the 
 general. Varro. de L. L. 4. — Liv. 4, c. 43. — 
 Dio. 43. 
 
 GtuiNCTius, (T.) I. a Roman consul who gain- 
 ed some victories over the iEqui and the Volsci, 
 and obtained a triumph for subduing Prajneste. 
 II. A Roman consul when Annibal invad- 
 ed Italy. 
 
 duiNDEciMviRi, an order of priests whom 
 Tarquin the proud appointed to take care of 
 the Sibylline books. They were originally 
 two, but afterwards the number was increased 
 to ten, to whom Sylla added five more, whence 
 their name. Vid. Decemviri and Duumviri. 
 
 GluiNau ATRIA, a festival in honour of Minerva 
 at Rome, which continued during five days. 
 The beginning of the celebration was the 
 I8th of March. The first day sacrifices and 
 oblations were presented, but, however, without 
 the efiusion of blood. On the second, third and 
 fourth days, shows of gladiators were exhibited, 
 and on the fifth day there was a solemn proces- 
 sion through the streets of the city. On the 
 days of the celebration, scholars obtained holy- 
 days, and it was usual for them to offer prayers 
 to Minerva for learning and wisdom, which the 
 goddess patronised; and on their return to 
 school, they presented their master with a gift, 
 which has received the name of Minerval. 
 They were much the same as the Panatheneea 
 of the Greeks. Plays were also acted and dis- 
 putations were held on subjects of literature. 
 They received their names from the j^re days 
 which were devoted for their celebration. 
 
 CtuiNauENNALEs LuDi, gamcs celebrated by 
 the Chians in honour of Homer every fifth 
 year. There were also some games among the 
 Romans which bore this name. They are the 
 same as the Actian games. Vid. Actia. 
 
 GluiNTiLiANUs, (Marcus Fabius,) a celebrated 
 rhetorician born in Spain. He opened a school 
 of rhetoric at Rome, and was the first who ob- 
 tained a salary from the state as being a public 
 teacher. After he had remained twenty years 
 in this laborious employment, and obtained the 
 merited applause of the most illustrious Ro- 
 mans, not only as a preceptor but as a pleader 
 of the bar, Q,uintilian, by the permission of the 
 emperor Domitian retired to enjoy the fruits of 
 his labours and industry. In his retirement he 
 assiduously dedicated his time to the study of 
 literature, and wrote a treatise on the causes of 
 the corruption of eloquence. Some time after, 
 at the pressing solicitation of his friends, he 
 wrote the insiitntiones oratorica, the most per- 
 fect and complete system of oratory extant. 
 He was appointed preceptor to the two young 
 princes whom Domitian destined for his suc- 
 cessors on the throne ; but the pleasures which 
 the rhetorician received from the favours and 
 the attention of the emperor, and from the suc- 
 cess which his writings met in the world, were 
 imbittered by the loss of his wife and of his two 
 sons. It is said that Cluintilian was poor in his 
 retirement, and that his indigence was relieved 
 by the liberality of his pupil, Pliny the younger. 
 He died A. D. 95. His institutions were dis- 
 584 
 
 covered in the 1415th year of the Christian era, 
 in the old tower of a m<3nastery of St. Gal, by 
 Poggio Bracciolini, a native of Florence. The 
 best editions of Gluintilian are those of Gesner, 
 4to, Gotting. 1738; of L, Bat. 8vo, cum noiis 
 variorum, 1665 ; of Gibson, 4to, Oxon, 1693 ; 
 and that of Rollin, republished in 8vo. London, 
 1792. 
 
 CluiNTiLius Varus, a Roman governor of 
 Syria. Vid. Varus. 
 
 GluiNTiLLUs, (M. Arelius Claudius,) a brother 
 of Claudius, who proclaimed himself emperor, 
 and 17 days after destroyed himself by opening 
 his veins in a bath, when he heard that Aure- 
 lian was marching against him, about the 270th 
 year of the Christian era, 
 
 CluiNTus CuRTius RuFus, a Latin historian, 
 who flourished, as some suppose, in the reign of 
 Vespasian or Trajan, He has rendered him- 
 self known by his history of the reign of Alex- 
 ander the Great. The history was divided into 
 10 books, of which the two first, the end of the 
 fifth, and the beginning of the sixth, are lost. 
 The work is admired for the purity of the style. 
 It is, however, blamed for great anachronisms, 
 and glaring mistakes in geography as well as 
 history. Freinshemius has written a supple- 
 ment to Curtius, from all the different aiithors 
 who have employed their pen in writing an 
 account of Alexander, and of his Asiatic con- 
 quests. Some suppose that the historian is the 
 same with that Curtius Rufus, who lived in the 
 age of Claudius, under whom he was made 
 consul. This Rufus was born of an obscure 
 family, and he attended a Roman quaestor in 
 Africa, when he was met at Adrumetum by a 
 woman above human shape, in the middle of 
 the day, who told him that the day should come 
 in which he should govern Africa with consular 
 power. He repaired to Rome, where he gain- 
 ed the favours of the emperor, obtained consular 
 honours, and at last retired as proconsul to 
 Africa, where he died. The best edition of 
 Curtius are those of Elzevir, 8vo. Amsl, 1673 ; 
 or of Snakenburg, 4to. L. Bat. 1724; and of 
 Barbou, 12mo. Paris, 1757. Tacit. Ann. 11, c. 
 23, &c. 
 
 duiRiNALiA, festivals in honour of Romulus, 
 surnamed Cluirinus, celebrated on the 13th of 
 the calends of March. 
 
 duiRiNUs, (Sulpitius,) a Roman consul, bom 
 at Lanuvium. Though descended of an obscure 
 family, he was raised to the greatest honours by 
 Augustus. He was appointed governor of Sy- 
 ria,and was afterwards made preceptor to Caius, 
 the grandson of the emperor. He married 
 Emilia Lepida,the grand-daughter of Sylla and 
 Pompey, but some time after, he shamefully 
 repudiated her. He died A. D. 22. Tacit. 
 Ann. 3, &c. 
 
 QuiRiTES, a name given to the Roman citi- 
 zens, because they admitted into their city the 
 Sabines, who inhabited the town of Cures, 
 and who on that account were called Quirites. 
 After this union, the two nations were indis- 
 criminately and promiscuously called by that 
 name. It is, however, to be observed, that the 
 word was confined to Rome, and not used in 
 the armies, as we find some of the generals 
 applying it only to such of their soldiers as they 
 dismissed or "disgraced. Even some of the . 
 emperors appeased a sedition by calling their 
 
RE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 RH 
 
 rebellious soldiers by the degrading appellation 
 of Cluirites. Sueton. Ccbs. 70. — Lamprid. 53. — 
 Lucan. 5, v. 558. — Horat. 4, od. 14, v. 1. — Varro. 
 de L. L. 4:.—Liv. 1, c. 13.— Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 479. 
 
 Rabirius, (C.) I. a Roman knight, who lent 
 an immense sum of money to Ptolemy Auletes, 
 king of Egypt. The monarch afterwards not 
 only refused to repay him, but even confined 
 him, and endangered his life. Rabirius escaped 
 from Egypt with difficulty, but at his return to 
 Rome he was accused by the senate of having 
 lent money to an African prince for unlawful 
 purposes. He was ably defended by Cicero, 
 and acquitted with difficulty. Cic. pro Rah.- 
 
 II. A Latin poet, in the age of Augustus, who 
 wrote, besides satires and epigrams, a poem on 
 the victory which the emperor had gained over 
 Antony at Actium. Seneca has compared him 
 to Virgil for elegance and majesty, but Q.uin- 
 
 lilian is not so favourable to his poetry. III. 
 
 An architect in the reign of Domiiian, who 
 built a celebrated palace for the emperor, of 
 which the ruins are still seen at Rome. 
 
 Regillianus, d. Nonius, a Dacian, who en- 
 tered the Roman armies, and was raised to the 
 greatest- honours under Valerian. He was 
 elected emperor by the populace, who were 
 dissatisfied with Gallienus, and was soon after 
 murdered by his soldiers, A. D. 262. 
 
 Regulus, I. (M. Attilius,) a consul during 
 the first Punic war. He reduced Brundusium, 
 and in his second consulship he took 64 and 
 sunk 30 galleys of the Carthaginian fleet on the 
 coast of Sicily. Afterwards he landed in Afri- 
 ca, and so rapid was his success, that in a short 
 time he defeated three generals, and made him- 
 self master of about 200 places of consequence 
 on the coast. The Carthaginians sued for 
 peace, but the conqueror refused to grant it, and 
 soon after he was defeated in a battle by Xan- 
 thippus, and 30,000 of his men were left on the 
 field of battle, and 15,000 taken prisoners. 
 Regulus was in the number of the captives, and 
 he was carried in triumph to Carthage. He 
 was afterwards sent by the enemy to Rome, to 
 propose an accommodation and an exchange of 
 prisoners; and if his commission was unsuc- 
 cessful, he was bound by the most solemn oaths 
 to return to Carthage without delay. When he 
 came to Rome, Regulus dissuaded his country- 
 men from accepting the terms which the enemy 
 proposed, and when his opinions had had due 
 influence on the senate, Regulus retired to 
 Carthage agreeable to his engagements. The 
 Carthaginians were told that their offers of 
 peace had been rejected at Rome by the means 
 of Regulus, and therefore they prepared to 
 punish him with the greatest severity. His 
 eyebrows were cut, and he was exposed for 
 some days to the excessive heat of the meridian 
 snn, and afterwards confined in a barrel, whose 
 sides were every where filled with large iron 
 spikes, till he died in the greatest agonies. His 
 sufferings were heard at Rome, and the senate 
 permitted his widow to inflict whatever pun- 
 ishment she pleased on some of the most illus- 
 trious captives of Carthage who were in their 
 hands. She confined them also in presses filled 
 with sharp iron points, and was so exquisite in 
 
 Part II,— 4 E 
 
 her cruelty, that the senate at last interfered, 
 and stopped the barbarity of her punishments. 
 Regulus died about 251 years before Christ. 
 Sil. 6, V. 319.— i^or. 2, c. X— Horat. 3, od. 5. 
 —Cic. de Off. 1, c. \3.— Val.Max. 1, c. 1, 1. 9, 
 
 c. 2. — Liv. ep. 16. II. Memraius, a Roman, 
 
 made governor of Greece by Caligula. While 
 Regulus was in his province, the emperor wish- 
 ed to bring the celebrated statue of Jupiter 
 Olympius, by Phidias, to Rome ; but this was 
 supernaturally prevented, and, according to an- 
 cient authors, the ship which was to convey it 
 was destroyed by lightning, and the workmen 
 who attempted to remove the statue were terri- 
 fied away by sudden noises. Dio. Cass. 
 
 Remijlus Sylvius, a king of Alba, destroyed 
 by lightning on account of his impiety. Ovid. 
 Trist. 4, V. 50. 
 
 Remuria, festivals established at Rome by 
 Romulus, to appease the manes of his brother 
 Remus. They were afterwards called Lemu- 
 ria, and celebrated yearly. 
 
 Remus, the brother of Romulus, was exposed, 
 together with him, by the cruelty of his grand- 
 father. In the contest between the two brothers 
 about building a city, Romulus obtained the 
 preference, and Remus, for ridiculing the rising 
 walls, was put to death by his brother's orders, 
 or by Romulus himself Vid. Romulus. The 
 Romans were afflicted with a plague after this 
 murder, upon which the oracle was consulted, 
 and the manes of Remus appeased by* the insti- 
 tution of the Remuria. Ovid. 
 
 Rhadamistus, a son of Pharnasmanes, king 
 of Iberia. He married Zenobia, the daughter 
 of his uncle Mithridates, king of Armenia, and 
 some time after put him to death. He was put 
 to death by his father for his cruelties, about the 
 year 52 of the Christian era. 7''acit. Ann. 13, 
 c. 37. 
 
 Rhampsinitus, an opulent king of Egypt, who 
 succeeded Proteus. He built a large tower 
 with stones, at Memphis, where his riches were 
 deposited, and of which he was robbed by the 
 artifice of the architect, who had left a stone in 
 the wall easily moveable, so as to admit a plun- 
 derer. Herodot. 2, c. 121, &c, 
 
 Rhamses, or Ramises, a powerful kin 2: of 
 Egypt, who, with an army of 700,000 men, con- 
 quered Ethiopia, Libya, Persia, and other east- 
 ern nations. In his reign, according to Pliny, 
 Troy was taken. Some authors consider him 
 to be the same as Sesostris. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 
 60.— PZm. 36, c. 8. 
 
 Rhascuporis, a king ofitf'hrace, who invaded 
 the possessions of Coty^and was put to death 
 by order of Tiberius, &c. Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 64. 
 
 Rhesus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 RmANUs, a Greek poet of Thrace, originally 
 a slave. He wrote an account of the war be- 
 tween Sparta and Messenia, which continued 
 for twenty years ; as also a history of the prin- 
 cipal revolutions and events which had taken 
 place in Thessaly. Of this poetical composi- 
 tion nothing but a few verses are extant. He 
 flourished about 200 years before the Christian 
 era. Paus. 4, c. 6. 
 
 RmMOTACLEs,a king ofThrace, who revolted 
 from Antony to Augustus. He boasted of his 
 attachment to the emperor's person at an enter- 
 tainment, upon which Augustus said, prodv- 
 tionem, avw, vroditares vern odi. 
 585 
 
RO 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 RO 
 
 Rhodope, or Rhodopis, a celebrated courte- 
 zan of Greece, who was fellow-servant with 
 jEsop at the court of a king of Samos. She 
 was carried to Egypt by Xanthus, and her 
 liberty was at last bought by Charajces of Mity- 
 lene, the brother of Sappho, who was enamour- 
 ed of her, and who married her. She sold her 
 favours at Naucratis, where she collected so 
 much money, that, to render her name immor- 
 tal, she consecrated a number of spits in the 
 temple of Apollo at Delphi; or, according to 
 others, erected one of the pyramids of Egypt. 
 iElian says, that as Rhodope was one day bath- 
 ing herself, an eagle carried away one of her 
 sandals, and dropped it near Psammetichus, 
 king of Egypt, at Memphis. The monarch 
 was struck with the beauty of the sandal, strict 
 inquiry was made to find the owner, and Rho- 
 dope, when discovered, married Psammetichus. 
 Herodot. 2, c. 134, &c.' — Ovid. Heroid. 15. — 
 jElian. V. H. 13, c. 33. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Rhcetus, a king of the Marubii, who married 
 a woman called Casperia. to whom Archemo- 
 rus, his son by a former wife, oiFered violence. 
 After this incestuous attempt, Archemorus fled 
 to Turnus, king of the Rutuli. Virg. ^n. 10, 
 V. 388. 
 
 Rhosaces, a Persian, killed by Clitus, as he 
 was going to stab Alexander at the battle of the 
 Granicus. Curt. 8, c. 1. 
 
 Rhynthon, a dramatic writer of Syracuse, 
 who flourished at Tarentum, where he wrote 38 
 plays. Authors are divided with respect to the 
 merit of his compositions and the abilities of the 
 writer. Vid. Rhinthon. 
 
 Romulus, a son of Mars and Ilia, grandson 
 of Numitor, king of Alba, was born at the 
 same birth with Remus. These two children 
 were thrown into the Tiber by order of Amu- 
 lius, who usurped the crown of his brother Nu- 
 mitor ; but they were preserved, and, according 
 to Florus, the river stopped its course, and a 
 she- wolf came and fed them with her milk till 
 they were found by Faustulus, one of the king's 
 shepherds, who educated them as his own chil- 
 dren. When they knew their real origin, the 
 twins, called Romulus and Remus, put Amu- 
 lius to death, and restored the crown to their 
 grandfather Numitor. They afterwards under- 
 took to build a city, and, to determine which of 
 the two brothers should have the management 
 of it, they had recourse to omens and the flight 
 of birds. Remus went to mount Aventine, 
 and Romulus to mount Palatine. Remus saw 
 first a flight of six vultures, and soon after 
 Romulus twelve ; and, therefore, as the number 
 was greater, he began to lay the foundations of 
 the city, and marked with a furrow the place 
 where he wished to erect the walls ; but their 
 sienderness was ridiculed by Remus, who leap- 
 ed over them with the greatest contempt. This 
 irritated Romulus, and Remus was immedi- 
 ately put to death, either by the hand of his 
 brother or one of the workmen. When the walls 
 were built, the city was without inhabitants ; 
 but Romulus, by making an asylum of a sacred 
 grove, soon collected a multitude of fugitiv3s, 
 foreigners, and criminals, whom he received as 
 his lawful subjects. Yet, however numerous 
 these might be, they were despised by the neigh- 
 bouring inhabitants, and none were willing to 
 form matrimonial connexions with them. But 
 586 
 
 Romulus obtained by force what was denied to 
 his petitions. The Romans celebrated games 
 in honour of the god Consus, and forcibly car- 
 ried away all the females who had assembled 
 there to be spectators of these unusual exhibi- 
 tions. A violent engagement was begun in the 
 middle of the Roman forum ; but the Sabines 
 were conquered, or, according to Ovid, the two 
 enemies laid down their arms when the women 
 had rushed between the two armies, and by their 
 tears and entreaties raised compassion in the 
 bosoms of their parents and husbands. The 
 Sabines left their original possessions, and came 
 to live in Rome, where Tatius, their king, 
 shared the sovereign power with Romulus. 
 Afterwards Romulus divided the lands which 
 he had obtained by conquest ; one part was re- 
 served for religious uses, to maintain the priests, 
 to erect temples, and to consecrate altars ; the 
 other was appropriated for the expenses of the 
 state ; and the third part was equally distrib- 
 uted among his subjects, who were divided 
 into three classes or tribes. The most aged and 
 experienced, to the number of 100, were also 
 chosen, whom the monarch might consult in 
 matters of the highest importance, and from 
 their age they were called senators, and from 
 their authority patres. The whole body of the 
 people were also distinguished by the name of 
 patricians and plebeians, patron and client, who 
 by mutual interest were induced io preserve the 
 peace of the state, and to promote the public 
 good. Some time after, Romulus disappeared 
 as he was giving instructions to the senators, 
 and the eclipse of the sun, which happened at 
 that time, was favourable to the rumour which 
 asserted that the king had been taken up to hea- 
 ven, 714 B. C. after a reign of 39 years. This 
 was further confirmed by J. Proculus, one of the 
 senators, who solemnly declared, that as he re- 
 turned from Alba he "had seen Romulus in a 
 form above human, and that he had directed him 
 to tell the Romans to pay him divine honours 
 under the name of Quirinus, and to assure 
 them that their city was doomed one day to 
 become the capital of the world. This report 
 was immediately credited, and the more so as 
 the senators dreaded the resentment of the peo- 
 ple, who suspected them of having offered him 
 violence. A temple was raised to him, and a 
 regular priest, called F%amen Quirinalis, was 
 appointed to offer him sacrifices. Romulus 
 was ranked by the Romans among the 12 great 
 gods, and it is not to be wondered that he re- 
 ceived such distinguished honours, when the 
 Romans considered him as the founder of their 
 city and empire, and the son of the god of war. 
 He is generally represented like his father, so 
 much that it is difficult to distinguish them. 
 The fable of the two children of Rhea Sylvia 
 being nourished by a she-wolf, arose from Lupa, 
 Faustulus's wife, having brought them up. 
 Vid. Acca. Dionys. Hal. 1 and 2. — Liv. 1, c. 
 4, &.C.— Justin. 43, c. 1 and 2.—Flor. 1, c. 1.— 
 Plut. in Romul. — Val. Max. 3, c. 2, 1. 5, c. 3. — 
 Plin. 15, c. 18, Sic—Virg. JEn. 2, v. 342, 605. 
 — Ovid. Met. 14, v. 616 and 845. Fast. 4, «&c. 
 —Horat. 3, od. Z.—Juv. 18, v. 272. 
 
 Romulus Sylvtos, or Alladius, (Momyllus 
 Augustulus,) the last of the emperors of the 
 western empire of Rome. His country was 
 conquered, A. D. 476, 'by the Heruli, under 
 
RXJ 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SA 
 
 Odoacer, who assumed the name of king of 
 Italy. 
 
 RoMUs, I. a son of jEneas, by Lavinia. Some 
 
 suppose that he was the founder of Rome. 
 
 II. A son of ^mathion, sent by Diomedes to 
 Italy, and also supposed by some to be the 
 founder of Rome. 
 
 RosciA Lex, de theairis, by L. Roscius Otho, 
 the tribune, A. U. C. 685. It required that 
 none should sit in the first 14 seats of the, 
 theatre, if they were not in possession of 400 
 sestertia, which was the fortune required to be 
 a Roman knight. 
 
 Roscius, (Ct.) I. a Roman actor, born at La- 
 nuvium, so celebrated on the stage, that every 
 comedian of excellence and merit has received 
 his name. His eyes were naturally distorted, 
 and he always appeared on the stage with a 
 mask, but the Romans obliged him to act his 
 characters without, and they overlooked the 
 deformities of his face, that they might the bet- 
 ter hear his elegant pronunciation, and be de- 
 lighted with the sweetness of his voice. He 
 was accused on suspicion of dishonourable 
 practices; but Cicero, who had been one of his 
 pupils, undertook his defence, and cleared him 
 of the malevolent aspersions of his enemies, in 
 an elegant oration still extant. Roscius wrote 
 a treatise, in which he compared, with great 
 success and much learning, the profession of 
 the orator with that of the comedian. He died 
 about 60 years before Christ. Horat. 2, ep. 1. 
 — Quintil. — Cic. pro Ros. de Oral. 3, de Div. 
 
 1, &c. Tusc. 3, &c.—Plut. in Cic. II. Sex- 
 
 tus, a rich citizen of Ameria, murdered in the 
 dictatotship of Sylla. His son, of the same 
 name, was accused of the murder, and elo- 
 quently defended by Cicero, in an oration still 
 extant, A. U. C. 673. Cic. pro S. Roscio Amer. 
 
 RoxANA, I. a Persian woman, taken prisoner 
 by Alexander. The conqueror became ena- 
 moured of her and married her. She behaved 
 with great cruelty after Alexander's death, and 
 she was at last put to death by Cassander's 
 order. She was daughter of Darius, or, ac- 
 cording to others, of one of his satraps. Curt. 
 
 8, c. 4, 1. 10, c. 6.—Plut. in Alex. II. A wife 
 
 of Mithridates the Great, who poisoned herself 
 
 RuFUs, ( Vid. Quintius), one of the ancestors 
 of Sylla, degraded from the rank of a senator, 
 because ten pounds weight of gold was found 
 in his house. 
 
 RupiLius, I. an officer surnamed Rex, for his 
 authoritative manners. He was proscribed by 
 Augustus, and fled to Brutus. Horat. 1, sat. 7, 
 
 V. 1. II. A writer, whose treatises dejiguris 
 
 sententiarum, &c., were edited by Runken. 8vo. 
 L. Bat. 1786. 
 
 RusTicus, L. Jdn. Arulenus, a man put to 
 death by Domitian. He was the friend and 
 preceptor of Pliny the younger, who praises his 
 abilities; and he is likewise commended by 
 Tacitus, 16, H. c. 26.—Plin. 1, ep. H.—Suet. 
 in Doni- 
 
 RuTiLius RuFUs, (P.) I. a Roman consul in 
 the age of Sylla, celebrated for his virtues and 
 writings. When Sylla had banished him from 
 Rome he retired to Smyrna, amidst the accla- 
 mations and praises of the people ; and when 
 some of his friends wished him to be recalled 
 home by means of a civil war, he severely re- 
 primanded them, and said that he-wished rather 
 
 to see his country blush at his exile than to 
 plunge it into distress by his return. He was 
 the first who taught the Roman soldiers the 
 principles of fencing, and by thus mixing dex- 
 terity with valour, rendered their attacks more 
 certain and more irresistible. During his ban- 
 ishment he employed his time in study, and 
 wrote a history of Rome in Greek, and an 
 account of his own life in Latin, besides many 
 other works. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 563. — Seneca de 
 Benef. — Cic. in Brut, de Orat. 1, c. 53. — Vol. 
 
 Max. 2, c. 3, 1. 6, c. ^.—Paterc. 2, c. 9. 
 
 II. Claud. Numantianus, a poet of Gaul in the 
 reign of Honorius. According to some, he 
 wrote a poem on mount ^tna. He wrote also 
 an Itinerary, published by Burman in the poetas 
 Latini minores, L. Bat. 4to. 1731. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sabachus, or Sabacon, a king of ^Ethiopia, 
 who invaded Egypt, and reigned there after the 
 expedition of the king of Amasis, After a 
 reign of fifty years he was terrified by a dream, 
 and retired into his own kingdom. Herodot. 2, 
 c. 137, &c. 
 
 Sabina, Julia, a Roman matron, who mar- 
 ried Adrian. She is celebrated for her private 
 as well as public virtues. Adrian treated her 
 with the greatest asperity, though he had re- 
 ceived from her the imperial purple ; and the 
 empress was so sensible of his unkindness, 
 that she boasted in his presence that she had 
 disdained to make him a father, lest his children 
 should become more odious and more tyrannical 
 than he himself was. The behaviour of Sabina 
 at last so exasperated Adrian, that he poisoned 
 her, or, according to some, obliged her to de- 
 stroy herself. The emperor at that time la- 
 boured under a mortal disease, and therefore 
 he was the more encouraged to sacrifice Sabina 
 to his resentment, that she might not survive 
 him. Divine honours were paid to her mem- 
 ory. She died after she had been married 
 38 years to Adrian, A. D. 138. 
 
 Sabini. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Sabinus Aulus, I. a Latin poet intimate with 
 Ovid. He wrote some epistles and elegies, in 
 the number of which were mentioned an epistle 
 from iEneas to Dido, from Hippolytus to Phae- 
 dra, and from Jason to Hipsipyle, from De- 
 mophoon to Phyllis, from Paris to CEnone, 
 from Ulysses to Penelope ; the three last of 
 which, though said to be his composition, are 
 
 spurious. Ovid. Am. 2, el. 18, v. 27. II. A. 
 
 man from whom the Sabines received their 
 name. He received divine honours after 
 death, and was one of those deities whom 
 jEneas invoked when he entered Italy. He 
 was supposed to be of Lacedaemonian origin. 
 
 Virg. JSti. 7, V. 171. III. Julius, an officer, 
 
 who proclaimed himself emperor in the be- 
 ginning of Vespasian's reign. He was soon 
 after defeated in a battle ; and, to escape from 
 the conqueror, he hid himself in a subterrane- 
 ous cave, with two faithful domestics, where he 
 continued unseen for nine successive years. 
 His wife found out his retreat, and spent her 
 time with him, till her frequent visits to the 
 cave discovered the place of his concealment. 
 He was dragged before Vespasian, and by his 
 orders put to death though his friends inter- 
 587 
 
SA 
 
 mSTORY, &c. 
 
 3A 
 
 ested themselves in his cause, and his wife en- 
 deavoured to raise the emperor's pity by show- 
 ing him the twins she had brought forth in 
 
 their subterraneous retreat. IV. Titius, a 
 
 Roman senator, shamefully accused and con- 
 demned by Sejanus. His body, after execution, 
 ^vas dragged through the streets of Rome, and 
 treated with the greatest indignities. His dog 
 constantly followed the body, and when it was 
 thrown into the Tiber, the faithful animal 
 plunged in after it, and was drowned. Plin. 8, 
 
 c. 40. V. Poppaeus, a Roman consul, who 
 
 presided above 24 years over McEsia, and ob- 
 tained a triumph for his victories over the bar- 
 barians. He was a great favourite of Augustus 
 
 and of Tiberius. Tacit. Ann. VI. Flavins, 
 
 a brother of Vespasian, killed by the populace. 
 He was well known for his fidelity to Vitellius. 
 He commanded in the Roman armies 35 years, 
 
 and was governor of Rome for 12. VII. A 
 
 friend of Domitian. VIII. A Roman who 
 
 attempted to plunder the temple of the Jews. 
 
 IX. A friend of the emperor Alexander, 
 
 X. A lawyer. 
 
 Saburanus, an officer of the praetorian guards. 
 When he was appointed to this office by the 
 emperor Trajan, the prince presented him with 
 a sword, saying. Use this loeapon in my service 
 so long as my commands are just ; but turn it 
 against my own breast whenever 1 become cruel 
 or malevolent. 
 
 Sabus, the same as Sabinus. Vid. Sabinus. 
 
 Sacadas, a musician and poet of Argos, 
 who obtained three several times the prize at 
 the Pythian games. Plut. de mus. — Paus. 6, 
 c. 14. 
 
 Sachata Lex, militaris, A. U. C. 411, by 
 the dictator Valerius Cojvus, as some suppose, 
 enacted that the name of no soldier which had 
 been entered in the muster roll should be struck 
 out but by his consent, and that no person who 
 had been a military tribune should execute the 
 office of ductor ordinum. 
 
 Sacrum Bellum, a name given to the wars 
 carried on concerning the temple of Delphi. 
 The first began B. C. 448, and in it the Athe- 
 nians and Lacedaemonians were auxiliaries on 
 opposite sides. The second war began 357 B. 
 C. and w^as finished nine years after by Philip 
 of Macedonia, who destroyed all the cities of 
 thePhocians. Vid. Phocis. 
 
 Sadales, a son of Cotys, king of Thrace, 
 who assisted Pompey with a body of 500 horse- 
 men. Cces. Bell. G. 3.— Cic. Ver. 1. 
 
 Sadyates, one of the Mermnadae, Vv^ho reign- 
 ed in LydJa 12 years after his father Gyges. 
 He made war against the Milesians for six 
 years. Herodot. 1, c. 16, &c. 
 
 Saleius, a poet of great merit in the age of 
 Domitian, yet pinched by poverty, though born 
 of illustrious parents, and distinguished by pu- 
 rity of manners and integrity of mind. Juv. 7, 
 V. SO.— Quint. 10, c. 1. 
 
 Salii, a college of priests at Rome instituted 
 in honour of Mars, and appointed by Numa, to 
 take care of the sacred shields called Ancylia, 
 B. C. 709. Vid. Ancyle. They were twelve 
 in number, the three elders among them had the 
 superintendence of all the rest; the first was 
 called prcesul, the second vates, and the third 
 magister. Their number was afterwards dou- 
 bled by Tullus Hostilius, after he had obtained 
 588 
 
 a victory over the Fidenaies, in consequence of 
 a vow which he had made to Alars. The Salii 
 were all of patrician families, and the office was 
 very honourable. The first of March was the 
 day on which the Salii observed their festivals 
 in honour of Mars. They r\^ere generally dress- 
 ed in a short scarlet tunic, of which only the 
 edges were seen ; they wore a large purple co- 
 loured belt about the waist, which was fastened 
 with brass buckles. They had en their heads 
 round bonnets, with two corners standing up, and 
 they wore in their right hand a small rod, and 
 in their left a small buckler. In the observation 
 of their solemnity they first offered sacrifices, 
 and afterwards went through the streets dancing 
 in measured motions, sometimes all together, 
 or at other times separately, while musical in- 
 struments were playing beforet iiem. They 
 placed their body in different attitudes, and 
 struck with their rods the shields which they 
 held in their hands. They also sung hymns in 
 honour of the gods, particularly of Mars, Juno, 
 Venus, and Minerva, and they were accom- 
 panied in the chorus by a certain number of vir- 
 gins, habited like .themselves, and called Salice. 
 The Salii instituted by Numa were called Pa- 
 latini, in contradistinction from the others, be- 
 cause they lived on mount Palatine, and offered 
 their sacrifices there. Those that were added 
 by Tullus were called Collini, Agonales, or 
 Quirinales, from a mountain of the same name, 
 where they had fixed their residence. Their 
 name seems to have been derived a saliendo, or 
 saltando, because, during their festivals, it was 
 particularly requisite that they should leap and 
 dance. Their feasts and entertainments were 
 uncommonly rich and sumptuous, whence dapes 
 saliares is proverbially applied to such repasts 
 as are most splendid and costly. It was usual 
 among the Romans, when they declared war^ 
 for the Salii to shake their shields with great 
 violence, as if to call upon the god Mars to 
 come to their assistance. Liv. 1, c. 20. — Varro 
 de L. L. 4, c. 15.— Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 381.— Dio- 
 nys. 3.—Flor. 1, c. 2, &c.— Virg. JEn. 8, v. 285. 
 
 Salinator, a surname common to the family 
 of the Livii and others. 
 
 Salius, an Acarnanian, at the games exhibit- 
 ed by iEneas in Sicily, and killed in the wars 
 with Turnus. It is said by some that he taught 
 the Latins those ceremonies, accompanied with 
 dancing, which afterwards bore his name in the 
 appellation of the Salii. Virg. JEn.b, v. 298, 
 1. 10, V. 753. 
 
 Sallustius, I. (Crispus), has been generally 
 considered as the first among the Romans who 
 merited the title of historian. This celebrated 
 writer M^asborn at Amiternum, in the territory 
 of the Sabines, in the year 668. He received 
 his education at Rome, and, in his early youth, 
 appears to have been desirous to devote himself 
 to literary pursuits. But it was not easy for 
 one residing in the capital to escape the conta- 
 gious desire of military or political distinction. 
 At the age of twenty-seven, he obtained the 
 situation of quaestor, which entitled him to a 
 seat in the senate, and about six years afier- 
 w^ards he was elected tribune of the people. 
 While in this office, he attached himself to the 
 fortunes of Csesar, and along with one of his 
 colleagues of the tribunate, conducted the pro- 
 secution against Milo for the murder of Clo- 
 
-SA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SA 
 
 dius. In the year 704, he was excluded from 
 the senate, on pretext of immoral conduct, but 
 more probably from the violence of the patrician 
 party, to which he was opposed. Aulas Gel- 
 lius, on the authority of Varro's treatise, Pius 
 aut de Pace^ informs us that he incurred this 
 disgrace in consequence of being surprised in 
 an intrigue with Fausta,the wife of Milo, by the 
 husband, who made him be scourged by his 
 slaves. It has been doubted, however, by mod- 
 ern critics, whether it was the historian Sal- 
 lust who was thus detected and punished, or his 
 nephew, Crispus Sallustius, to whom Horace 
 has addressed the second ode of the second book. 
 It seems, indeed, unlikely, that in such a cor- 
 rupt age, an amour with a woman of Fausta's 
 abandoned character, should have been the real 
 cause of his expulsion from the senate. After 
 undergoing this ignominy, which, for the pre- 
 sent, baffled all his hopes of preferment, he 
 quilted Rome, and joined his patron, Cassar, in 
 Gaul. He continued to follow the fortunes of 
 that commander, and, in particular, bore a share 
 in the expedition to Africa, where the scattered 
 remains of Pompey's party had united. That 
 region being finally subdued, Sallust was left by 
 Caesar as praetor of Numidia ; and about the 
 same time he married Terentia, the divorced 
 wife of Cicero. He remained only a year in 
 his government, but during that period he en- 
 riched himself by despoiling the province. On 
 his return to Rome, he was accused by the Nu- 
 mjdians, whom he had plundered, but escaped 
 With impunity, by means of the protection of 
 Caesar, and was quietly permitted to betake 
 himself to a luxurious retirement with his ill- 
 gotten wealth. He chose for his favourite re- 
 treat a villa at Tibur, which had belonged to 
 Caesar ; and he also built a magnificent palace 
 in the suburbs of Rome, surrounded by delight- 
 ful pleasure-grounds, which were afterwards 
 well known and celebrated by the name of the 
 Gardens of Sallust. The Sallustian palace and 
 gardens became, after the death of their original 
 proprietor, the residence of successive empe- 
 rors. Augustus chose them as the scene of 
 his most sumptuous entertainments. The taste 
 of Vespasian preferred them to the palace of 
 the Csesars. Even the virtuous Nerva, and 
 stern Aurelian, were so attracted by their beauty, 
 that, while at Rome, they were their constant 
 abode. In his urban gardens, or villa at Tibur, 
 Sallust passed the close of his life, dividing his 
 time between literary avocations and the soci- 
 ety of his friends — among whom he numbered 
 Lucullus, Messala, and Cornelius Nepos. Such 
 having been his friends and studies, it seems 
 highly improbable that he indulged in that ex- 
 cessive libertinism which has been attributed to 
 him, on the erroneous supposition that he was 
 the Sallust mentioned by Horace in the first 
 book of his Satires. The subject of Sallust's 
 character is one which has excited some inves- 
 tigation and interest, and on which very dif- 
 ferent opinions have been formed. That he 
 was a man of loose morals is evident ; and it 
 cannot be denied that he rapaciously plundered 
 his province, like other Roman governors of 
 the day. But it seems doubtful if he was that 
 monster of iniquity he has been sometimes rep- 
 resented. He was extremely unfortunate in the 
 first permanent notice taken of his character 
 
 by his contemporaries. The decided enemy of 
 Pompey and his faction, he had said of that cele- 
 brated chief, in his general history, that he was 
 a man " oris probi, animo inverecundo." Le- 
 naeus, the freedman of Pompey, avenged his 
 master, by the most virulent abuse of his enemy, 
 in a work which should rather be regarded as 
 a frantic satire than an historical document. 
 Of the injustice which he had done to the life 
 of the historian we may, in some degree, judge, 
 from what he said of him as an author. He 
 called him, as we learn from Suetonius, " Nebu- 
 lonem, vita scriplisque monstrosum; praeterea, 
 priscorum Catonisque incruditissimum furem." 
 The life of Sallust, by Asconius Pedianus, 
 which was written in the age of Augustus, and 
 might have acted, in the present day, as a cor- 
 rective, or palliative, of the unfavourable im- 
 pressions produced by this injurious libel, has 
 unfortunately perished ; and the next work on 
 the subject now extant is professedly rhetorical 
 declamation against the character of Sallust, 
 which was given to the world in the name of 
 Cicero, but was not written till long after the 
 death of that orator, and is now generally as> 
 signed by critics, to a rhetorician, in the reign of 
 Claudius, called Porcius Latro. The calumnies 
 invented or exaggerated by Lenseus, and prop- 
 agated in the scholiastic theme of Porcius 
 Latro, have been adopted by Le Clerc, professor 
 of Hebrew at Amsterdam, and by Professor 
 Meisner, of Prague, in. their respective accounts 
 of the life of Sallust. His character has re- 
 ceived more justice from the prefatory Memoir 
 and Notes of De Brosses, his French transla- 
 tor, and from the researches of Wieland in 
 Germany. The first book of Sallust was the 
 Conspiracy of Catiline. There exists, however, 
 some doubt as to the precise period of its com- 
 position. The general opinion is, that it was 
 written immediately after the author went out 
 of office as tribune of the people, that is, in 
 the year 703 : and the composition of the M- 
 gurthine War, as well as of his general history, 
 are fixed by Le Clerc between that period and 
 his appointment to the praetorship of Numidia. 
 The subjects chosen by Sallust form two of the 
 most important and prominent topics in the his- 
 tory of Rome. The periods, indeed, which he 
 describes, were painful, but they were interest- 
 ing. Full of conspiracies, usurpations, and 
 civil wars, they chiefly exhibit the mutual rage 
 and iniquity of imbittered factions, furious 
 struggles between the patricians and plebeians, 
 open corruption in the senate, venality in the 
 courts of justice, and rapine in the provmces. 
 This state of things, so forcibly painted by Sal- 
 lust, produced the conspiracy, and even in some 
 degree formed the character of Catiline: but 
 it was the oppressive debts of individuals, the 
 temper of Sylla's soldiers, and the absence of 
 Pompev with his army, which gave a possibil- 
 ity, and even prospect of success to a plot which 
 affected the vital existence of the common- 
 wealth, and which, although arrested in its com- 
 mencement,- was one of those violent shocks 
 which hasten the fall of a state. The History 
 of the Jugurthine War, if not so important or 
 menacing: to the vital interests and immediate 
 safety of Rome, exhibits a more extensive field 
 of action, and a greater theatre of war. No 
 prince, except Mithridates, gave so much era- 
 589 
 
SA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SA 
 
 ployment to the arms of the Romans. In the 
 course of no war in which they had ever been 
 engaged, not even the second Carthaginian, 
 were the people more desponding, and in none 
 were they more elated with ultimate success. 
 Nothing can be more interesting than the ac- 
 count of the vicissitudes of this contest. The 
 endless resources and hair-breadth escapes of 
 Jugurtha — his levity, his fickle, faithless dispo- 
 sition, contrasted with the perseverance and 
 prudence of the Roman commander, Metellus, 
 are all described in a manner the most vivid 
 and picturesque. In general, Sallust's painting 
 of character is so strong, that we almost foresee 
 how each individual will conduct himself in 
 the situation in which he is placed. Tacitus 
 attributes all the actions of men to policy — to 
 refined, and sometimes imaginary views ; but 
 Sallust, more correctly, discovers their chief 
 springs in the passions and dispositions of indi- 
 viduals. Besides the Conspiracy of Catiline 
 and the Jugurthine War, which have been pre- 
 served entire, and from which our estimate of 
 the merits of Sallust must be chiefly formed, he 
 was author of a civil and military history of the 
 republic, in five books, entitled, Historia rerwrn 
 in Repvblica Romana Geslarum. This work, 
 inscribed to Lucullus, the son of the celebrated 
 commander of that name, was the mature fruit 
 of the genius of Sallust, having been the last 
 history he composed. It included, properly 
 speaking, only a period of thirteen years — 
 extending from the resignation of the dictator- 
 ship by Sylla, till the promulgation of the Ma- 
 nilian law, by which Pompey was invested 
 with authority equal to that which Sylla had 
 relinquished, and obtained, with unlimited 
 power in the East, the command of the army 
 destined to act against Mithridates. This pe- 
 riod, though short, comprehends some of the 
 most interesting and luminous points which 
 appear in the Roman Annals. During this in- 
 terval, and almost at the same moment, the 
 republic was attacked in the East by the most 
 powerful and enterprising of themonarchswith 
 whom it had yet waged war ; in the West, by 
 one of the most skilful of its own generals; 
 and in the bosom of Italy, by its gladiators and 
 slaves. This work also was introduced by two 
 discourses — the one presenting a picture of the 
 government and manners of the Romans, from 
 the origin of their city to the commencement of 
 the civil wars, the other containing a general 
 view of the dissensions of Marius and Sylla ; 
 so that the whole book may be considered as 
 connecting the termination of the Jugurthine 
 war and the breaking out of Catiline's conspi- 
 racy. The loss of this valuable production is 
 the more to be regretted, as all the accounts of 
 Roman history which have been written, are 
 defective during the interesting period it com- 
 prehended. Nearly 700 fragments belonging 
 to it have been amassed, from scholiasts and 
 grammarians, by De Brosses, the French trans- 
 lator of Sallust ; but they are so short and un- 
 connected, that they merely serve as land- 
 marks, from which we may conjecture what 
 subjects were treated of, and what events were 
 recorded. The only parts of the history which 
 have been preserved in any degree entire, are 
 four orations and two letters. Pomponius Lae- 
 tus discovered the orations in a JVIS. of the 
 590 
 
 Vatican, containing a collection of speeches 
 from Roman history. The first is an oration 
 pronounced against Sylla by the turbulent 
 Marcus iEmilius Lepidus ; who (as is well 
 known) being desirous, at the expiration of 
 his year, to be appointed a second time consul, 
 excited, for that purpose, a civil war, and ren- 
 dered himself master of a great part of Italy. 
 The second oration, which is that of Lucius 
 Philippus, is an invective against the treason- 
 able attempt of Lepidus, and was calculated to 
 rouse the people from the apathy with which 
 they beheld proceedings that were likely to 
 terminate in the total subversion of the gov- 
 ernment. The third harangue was delivered 
 by the tribune Licinius; it was an effort of 
 that demagogue to depress the patrician and 
 raise the tribunitial power, for which purpose 
 he alternately flatters the people and reviles the 
 senate. The oration of Marcus Cotta is un- 
 questionably a fine one. He addressed it to the 
 people, during the period of his consulship, in 
 order to calm their minds, and allay their re- 
 sentment at the bad success of public affairs, 
 which, without any blame on his part, had late- 
 ly, in many respects, been conducted to an un- 
 prosperous issue. Of the two letters which are 
 extant, the one is from Pompey to the senate, 
 complaining, in very strong terms, of the defi- 
 ciency in the supplies for the army which he 
 commanded in Spain against Sertorius; the 
 other is feigned to be addressed from Mithrida- 
 tes to Arsaces, king of Parthia, and to be writ- 
 ten when the aflfairs of the former monarch 
 were proceeding unsuccessfully. It exhorts 
 him, nevertheless, with great eloquence and 
 power of argument, to join him in an alliance 
 against the Romans : for this purpose, it places 
 in a strong point of view that unprincipled po- 
 licy, and ambitious desire of universal empire 
 —all which could not, without this device of an 
 imaginary letter by a foe, have been so well 
 urged by a national historian. It concludes 
 with showing the extreme danger which the 
 Parthians would incur from the hostility of the 
 Romans, should they succeed in finally subju- 
 gating Pontus and Armenia. The only other 
 fragment, of any length, is the description of a 
 splendid entertainment given to Metellus, on 
 his return, after a year's absence, to his govern- 
 ment of Farther Spain. It appears, from several 
 other fragments that Sallust had introduced, on 
 occasion of the Mifliridaticwar, a geographical 
 account of the shores and countries bordering 
 on the Euxine, in the same manner as he enters 
 into a topographical description of Africa in 
 his history of the Jugurthine war. This part 
 of his work has been much applauded by 
 ancient writers for exactness and liveliness ; 
 and is frequently referred to, as the highest au- 
 thority, by Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and other 
 geographers. Besides his historical works, 
 there exist two political discourses, concerning 
 the administration of the governmont, in the 
 form of letters to Juliui» Caesar, which have 
 generally, though not on sufficient grounds, 
 been attributed to the pen of Sallust. The best 
 editions of Sallust are those of Anthon, New- 
 York, 1836 ; of Haverkamp, 2 vols. 4to. Amst. 
 1742 ; and of Edinburgh, 12mo. 1755. Quintil. 
 10, c. l.—Suet. da Gram, in Cas.— Martial. 14, 
 ep. 191. II. A nephew of the historian by 
 
SA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SA 
 
 whom he was adopted. He imitated the mod- 1 
 eration of Maecenas, and remained satisfied 
 with the dignity of a Roman knight, when he 
 could have made himself powerful by the fa- 
 vours of Augustus and Tiberius. He was very 
 effeminate and luxurious. Horace dedicated 
 
 2, od. 2, to him. Tacit. Ann. 1. — Plin. 34. 
 
 III. Secundus Promotus, a native of Gaul, very 
 intimate with the emperor Julian, He is re- 
 markable for his integrity and the soundness of 
 his counsels. Julian made him prefect of Gaul. 
 There is also another Sallust, called Se- 
 cundus^ whom some have improperly confound- 
 ed with Promotus. Secundus was also one of 
 Julian's favourites, and was made by him pre- 
 fect of the East. He conciliated the good graces 
 of the Romans by the purity of his morals, his 
 fondness for discipline, and his religious prin- 
 ciples. After the death of the emperor Jovian, 
 he was universally named by the officers of the 
 Roman empire to succeed to the imperial 
 throne ; but he refused ihis great though dan- 
 gerous honour, and pleaded infirmities of body 
 and old age. The Romans wished upon this 
 to invest his son with the imperial purple, but 
 Secundus opposed it, and observed that he was 
 too young to support the dignity, 
 
 Salonika, a celebrated matron, who married 
 the emperor Gallienus, and distinguished herself 
 by her private as well as public virtues. She 
 was a patroness of all the fine arts , and to her 
 clemency, mildness and benevolence, Rome was 
 indebted some time for her peace and prosperity. 
 She accompanied her husband in some of his 
 expeditions, and often called him away from 
 the pursuits of pleasure to make war against 
 the enemies of Rome. She was put to death 
 by the hands of the conspirators, who also as- 
 sassinated her husband and family about the 
 year 268 of the Christian era, 
 
 Saloninus, I. a son of Asinius Pollio, He 
 received his name from the conquest of Sa- 
 lona, by his father. Some suppose that he is 
 the hero of Virgil's fourth eclogue, in which 
 the return of the golden age is so warmly and 
 beautifully anticipated. II. P. Licinius Cor- 
 nelius, a son of Gallienus, by Salonina, sent into 
 Gaul, there to be taught the art of war. He 
 remained there some time, till the usurper 
 Posthumius arose and proclaimed himself em- 
 peror. Saloninus was upon this delivered up to 
 his enemy, and put to death in the 10th year of 
 his age. 
 
 Salvian, one of the fathers of the 5th centu- 
 ry, of whose works the best edition is the 12mo. 
 Paris, 1684, 
 
 Salvius, a flute-player saluted king by the 
 rebellious slaves of Sicily in the age of Marius. 
 He maintained for some time war against the 
 Romans, 
 Samnites, Vid. Part I. 
 Sanchoniathon, a Phcsnician historian, bom 
 at Berytus, or, according to others, at Tyre. 
 He flourished a few years before the Trojan 
 war, and wrote, in the language of his country, 
 a history in nine books, in which he amply 
 treated of the theology and antiquities of Phe- 
 nicia and the neighbouring places. It was 
 compiled from the various records found in 
 cities, and the annals which were usually kept 
 in the temples of the gods among the ancients. 
 This history was translated into Greek by Philo, 
 
 a native of Byblus, who lived in the reign of 
 the emperor Adrian. Some few fragments of 
 this Greek translation are extant. Some, how- 
 ever, suppose them to be spurious, while others 
 contend that they are true and authentic. 
 
 Sandrocottds, an Indian of a mean origin. 
 His impertinence to Alexander was the begin- 
 ning of his greatness ; the conqueror ordered him 
 to be seized, butSandrocottus fled away, and at 
 last dropped down overwhelmed with fatigue. 
 As he slept on the ground, a lion came to him 
 and gently licked the sweat from his face. This 
 uncommon tamen ess of the animal appeared su- 
 pernatural to Sandrocottus, and raised his am- 
 bition. He aspired to the monarchy, and after 
 the death of Alexander he made himself mas- 
 ter of a part of the country which was in the 
 hands of Seleucus. Justin. 15, c. 4. 
 
 Sannyrion, a tragic poet of Athens, He 
 composed many dramatic pieces, one of which 
 was called lo, and another Danae. Athens. 9. 
 
 Sapor, a king of Persia, who succeeded his 
 father Artaxerxes about the 238th year of the 
 Christian era. Naturally fierce and ambitious, 
 Sapor wished to increase his paternal domin- 
 ions by conquest ; and as the indolence of the 
 emperors of Rome seemed favourable to his 
 views, he laid waste the provinces of Mesopo- 
 tamia, Syria, and Cilicia ; and he might have 
 become master of all Asia, if Odenatus had 
 not stopped his progress. If Gordian attempted 
 to repel him, his efibrts were weak, and Philip, 
 who succeeded him on the imperial throne, 
 bought the peace of Sapor with money. Va- 
 lerian, who was afterwards invested with the 
 purple, marched against the Persian monarch, 
 but he was defeated and taken prisoner, Ode- 
 natus no sooner heard that the Roman emperor 
 was a captive in the hands of Sapor, than he 
 attempted to release him by force of arms. The 
 forces of Persia were cut to pieces, the wives 
 and the treasures of the monarch fell into the 
 hands of the conqueror, and Odenatus pene- 
 trated, with little opposition, into the very heart 
 of the kingdom. Sapor, soon after this defeat, 
 was assassinated by his subjects, A. D. 273, 
 after a reign of 32 years. He was succeeded 
 by his son, called Hormisdas. Marcellin. &c. 
 
 The 2d of that name succeeded his father 
 
 Hormisdas on the throne of Persia. He was 
 as great as his ancestor of the same name ; 
 and by undertaking a war against the Romans, 
 he attempted to enlarge his dominions, and to 
 add the provinces on the west of the Euphrates 
 to his empire. His victories alarmed the Ro- 
 man emperors, and Julian would have perhaps 
 seized him in the capital of his dominions, if 
 he had not received a mortal wound. Jovian, 
 who succeeded Julian, made peace with Sapor ; 
 but the monarch, always restless and indefatiga- 
 ble, renewed hostilities, invaded Armenia, and 
 defeated the emperor Valens. Sapor died A. 
 D. 308, after a reign of 70 years, in which he 
 had often been the sport of fortune. He was 
 succeeded by Artaxerxes, and Artaxerxes by 
 Sapor the third, a prince who died after a reign 
 of five years, A. D. 389, in the age of Theodo- 
 sius the Great. Marcellin. &c. 
 
 Sappho, or Sapho, celebrated for her beauty, 
 her poetical talents, and her amorous disposi- 
 tion, was born in the island of Lesbos, about 
 600 years before Christ. Her father's name, 
 .591 
 
SA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SC 
 
 according to Herodotus, was Seaman dronymus, 
 or, according to others, Symon, or Semus, or 
 Etarchus, and her mother's name was Cleis. 
 She conceived such a passion for Phaon, a 
 youth of Mitylene, that upon his refusal to 
 gratify her desires, she threw herseJf into the 
 sea from mount Leucas. She had composed 
 nine books in lyric verses, besides epigrams, 
 elegies, &c. Of all these compositions nothing 
 now remains but two fragments. Her com- 
 positions were all extant in the age of Horace, 
 The Lesbians were so sensible of the merits of 
 Sappho, that after her death they paid her 
 divine honours, and raised her temples and 
 altars, and stamped their money with her 
 image. The Sapphic verse has been called 
 after her name. Ovid. Heroid. 15. Trist. 2. v. 
 ^Qb.—Horat. 2, Od. l3.—HerodoL 2, c. 135.— 
 Stat. 5. Sylv. 3, v. 155.— ^lian. V. H. 12, c. 
 18 and 29.— Plin. 22, c. 8. 
 
 Sardanapalus, the 40th and last king of As- 
 syria, celebrated for his luxury and volup- 
 tuousness. His effeminacy irritated his officers; 
 Bolesis and Arsaces conspired against him, 
 and collected a numerous force to dethrone 
 him. The rebels were defeated in three suc- 
 cessive battles, but at last Sardanapalus was 
 beaten and besieged in the city of Ninus for 
 two years. When he despaired of success, he 
 burned himself in his palace, with his eunuchs, 
 concubines, and all his treasures ; and the em- 
 pire of Assyria was divided among the con- 
 spirators. This famous event happened B. C. 
 820, according to Eusebius ; though Justin and 
 others, with less probability, place it 80 years 
 earlier. Sardanapalus was made a god after 
 death. Herodot, 2, c. 150.— Diod. 2.—Strab. 
 U.—Cic. TiLSC. 5, c. 35. 
 
 Sarpedon. Vid. Part III, 
 
 Saturnalia, festivals in honour of Saturn ; 
 celebrated the 16th or the 17th, or, according to 
 others, the 18th of December. Some suppose 
 that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome 
 in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory 
 obtained over the Sabines ; while others sup- 
 port that Janus first instituted them in gratitude 
 to Saturn, from whom he had learned agricul- 
 ture. Others suppose that they were first cele- 
 brated in the year of Rome 257, after a victory 
 obtained over the Latins by the dictator of 
 Posthumius. The Saturnalia were originally 
 celebrated only for one day, but afterwards the 
 solemnity continued for 3, 4, 5, and at last for 
 7 days. The celebration was remarkable for 
 the liberty which universally prevailed. The 
 slaves were permitted to ridicule their masters, 
 and to speak with freedom upon every subject. 
 It was usual for friends to make presents one 
 to another. In the sacrifices the priests made 
 their offerings with their heads uncovered, a 
 custom which was never observed at other 
 festivals. Sencc. ep. 18. — Cato. de R. R. 57. — 
 Sueton. in Vesp. 19. — Cic. ad Attic. 5, ep. 20. 
 
 Saturninus, (P. Sempronius,) I. a general of 
 Valerian, proclaimed emperor in Eg)rpt by his 
 troops. His integrity, his complaisance and 
 affability, had gained him the affection of the 
 people ; but his fondness of ancient discipline 
 provoked his soldiers, who wantonly murdered 
 
 him in the 43d year of his age, A. D. 262. 
 
 IT. Sextius Junius, a Gaul, intimate Avith Aure- 
 lian. The emperor esteemed him greatly, not 
 592 
 
 only for his private virtues, but for his abilities 
 as a general. He was saluted emperor at Alex- 
 andria, and compelled by the clamorous army 
 to accept of the purple. Probus, who was then 
 emperor, marched his forces against him, and 
 besieged him m Apamea, where he destroyed 
 himself when unable to make head against his 
 powerful adversary. III. Appuleius, a tri- 
 bune of the people, who raised a sedition atRom e, 
 intimidated the senate, and tyrannised for three 
 years. Meeting at last with opposition, he seiz- 
 ed the capitol. but being induced by the hopes 
 ofa reconciliation to trust himself amidst the 
 people, he was suddenly torn to pieces. His 
 sedition has received the name oi Appuleiana 
 
 in the Roman annals. Flor. IV. Lucius, 
 
 a seditious tribune, who supported the oppres- 
 sion of Marius. He was at last put to death 
 on account of his tumultuous disposition. Plut. 
 
 in Mario. — Flor. 5. c. 16. V. Pompeius, a 
 
 writer in ihe reign of Trajan. He was greatly 
 esteemed by Pliny, who speaks of him with 
 great warmth and approbation as an historian, 
 a poet, and an orator, Pliny always consulted 
 the opinion of Saturninus before he published 
 his compositions. 
 
 Satyrus, I. a Rhodian, sent byhis country- 
 men to RomCj when Eumenes had accused some 
 of the allies of intentions to favour the interest 
 
 of Macedonia against the republic. 11. A 
 
 peripatetic philosopher and historian, who 
 
 flourished B. C. 148. III. A tyrant of Hera- 
 
 clea, 346 B. C. IV. An architect who, to- 
 gether with Petus, is said to have planned and 
 built the celebrated tomb which Artemisia had 
 erected to the memory of Mau solus, and which 
 became one of the wonders of the world. The 
 honour of erecting it is ascribed to others. 
 
 Saxones. Vid. Part I. 
 
 ScANTiLLA, the wife of Didius Julianus. It 
 was by her advice that her husband bought the 
 empire which was exposed to sale at the death 
 of Pertinax. 
 
 Scapula, a native of Corduba, who defended 
 the town against Csesar, after the battle of 
 Munda. When he saw that all his efforts were 
 useless against the Roman general, he destroyed 
 himself Cas. Bell. H. 33. 
 
 Scatinia Lex de pudicitio,, by C. Scatinius 
 Aricinus, the tribune, was enacted against such 
 as prostituted themselves to any unnatural ser- 
 vice. The penalty was originally a fine, but 
 it was afterwards made a capital crime under 
 Augustus, It is sometimes called Scantinia, 
 from a certain Scantinius upon whom it was 
 first executed. 
 
 Scaurus, I. (M. ^railius,) a Roman consul, 
 who distinguished himself by his eloquence at 
 the bar, and by his successes in Spain in the 
 capacity of commander. He was sent against 
 Jugurtha, and some time after accused of suf- 
 fering himself to be bribed by the Numidian 
 prince. Scaurus conquered the Ligurians, and 
 in his censorship he built the Milvian bridge 
 at Rome, and began to pave the road, which 
 from him was called the iEmilian. He was 
 originally very poor. He wrote some books, 
 and among these a history of his own life, all 
 now lost. His son of the same name, made 
 himself known by the large theatre he built 
 during his edileship. Scaurus married Murcia. 
 Cic. in Brut.— Val. Max. 4, c. A.— Plin. 34, c. 
 
sc 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SC 
 
 7, 1. 36, c. 2. II. A Roman of consular dig- 
 nity. "When the Cimbri invaded Italy, the son 
 of Scaur us behaved with great cowardice, upon 
 which the father sternly ordered him never to 
 appear again in the field of battle. The se- 
 verity of this command renderedyoung Scaurus 
 melancholy, and he plunged a sword into his 
 own heart, to free himself from farther igno- 
 miny. III. Aurelius, a Roman consul taken 
 
 prisoner by the Gauls. He was put to a cruel 
 death because he told the king of the enemy 
 not to cross the Alps to mvade Italy, which was 
 
 universally deemed unconquerable. IV. M. 
 
 iEmilius, a man in the reign of Tiberius, ac- 
 cused of adultery with Livia, and put to death. 
 He was an eloquent orator, but very lascivious 
 
 and debauched in his morals. V. Teren- 
 
 tius, a Latin grammarian. He had been precep- 
 tor to the emperor Adrian. A, Gellius. 11, c. 15. 
 
 SciPiADiE, a name applied to the two Scipios, 
 who obtamed the surname of Africanus, from 
 the conquest of Carthage. Virg. JEn. v. 843. 
 
 SciPio, a celebrated family at Rome, who ob- 
 tained the greatest honours in the republic. 
 The name seems to be derived from scipio, 
 which signifies a stick, because one of the fami- 
 ly had conducted his blind father, and had been 
 to him as a stick. The Scipios were a branch 
 of the Cornelian family. The most illustrious 
 were — I. P. Corn, a man made master of horse 
 
 by Camillus, &c. II. A Roman dictator. 
 
 III. L. Cornel, a consul, A. U. C. 454, 
 
 who defeated the Etrurians near Volaterra. 
 
 IV. Another consul, A. U. C. 493. V. 
 
 Cn. surnamed Asina, was consul A. U. C. 492. 
 and 498. He was conquered in his first consul- 
 ship in a naval battle, and lost 17 ships. The 
 following year he took Aleria in Corsica, and 
 defeated Hanno, the Carthaginian general, in 
 Sardinia. He also took 200 of the enemy's 
 ships, and the city of Panormum in Sicily. He 
 
 was father to Publius and Cneus Scipio. 
 
 VI. Publius, in the beginning of the second 
 Punic war, was sent with an army to Spain to 
 oppose Annibal ; but when he heard that his 
 enemy had passed over into Italy, he attempted, 
 by his quick marches and secret evolutions, to 
 stop his progress. He was conquered by An- 
 nibal near the Ticinus, where his son saved his 
 life. He again passed into Spain, where he 
 obtained some memorable victories over the 
 Carthaginians and the inhabitants of the coun- 
 try. His brother Cneus shared the supreme 
 command with him, but their great confidence 
 proved their ruin. They separated their armies, 
 and soon after Publius was furiously attacked 
 by the two Asdrubals and Mago, who com- 
 manded the Carthaginian armies. The forces 
 of Publius were too few to resist with success 
 the three Carthaginian generals. Tho Ro- 
 mans were cut to pieces, and their commander 
 was left on the field of battle. No sooner had 
 the enemy obtained this victory than they im- 
 mediately marched to meet Cneus Scipio, whom 
 the revolt of 30,000 Celtiberians had weakened 
 and alarmed. The general, who was already 
 apprized of bis brother's death, secured an emi- 
 nence, where he was soon surrounded on all 
 sides. After desperate acts of valour he was 
 left among the slain, or, according to some, he 
 fled into a tower, where he was burnt with some 
 of his friends by the victorious enemy. Liv. 
 Part II.— 4 P 
 
 21, &,c.—Polyb. i.—Mor. 2, c. 6, Scc—Eutrop. 
 3, c. 8, &c. VII. Publius Cornelius, sur- 
 named Africanus, was son of Publius Scipio, 
 who was killed in Spain. He first distinguish- 
 ed himself at the battle of Ticinus, where he 
 saved his father's life by deeds of unexampled 
 valour and boldness. The battle of CanntB 
 which proved so fatal to the Roman arms, in- 
 stead of disheartening Scipio, raised his ex- 
 pectations, and he no sooner heard that some 
 of his desperate countrymen wished to abandon 
 Italy, and to fly from the insolence of the con- 
 queror, than with sword in hand he obliged 
 them to swear eternal fidelity to P^ome, and to 
 put to immediate death the first man who at- 
 tempted to retire from his country. In his 21st 
 year Scipio was made an edile, an honourable 
 office, which was never given but to such as had 
 reached their 27th year. Some time after, the 
 Romans were alarmed by the intelligence that 
 the commanders of their forces in Spain, Pub- 
 lius and Cneus Scipio, had been slaughtered, 
 and immediately young Scipio was appointed 
 to avenge the death of his father and of his 
 uncle, and to vindicate the military honour of 
 the republic. It was soon known how able he 
 was to be at the head of an army ; the various 
 nations of Spain were conquered, and in four 
 years the Carthaginians were banished from 
 that part of the continent, and the whole prov- 
 ince became tributary to Rome ; n^ew Carthage 
 submitted in one day, and in a battle 54,000 of 
 the enemy were left dead on the field. After 
 these signal victories, Scipio w^as recalled to 
 Rome, which still trembled at the continual 
 alarms of Annibal, who was at their gates. 
 The conqueror of the Carth&ginians in Spain 
 was looked upon as a proper general to en- 
 counter Annibal in Italy ; but Scipio opposed 
 the measures which his countrymen wished to 
 pursue, and he declared in the senate that if 
 Annibal was to be conquered, he must be con- 
 quered in Africa. These bold measures were 
 immediately adopted, though opposed by the 
 eloquence, age, and experience of the great 
 Fabiu-s, and Scipio was empowered to conduct 
 the war on the coasts of Africa. With the 
 dignity of consul he embarked for Carthage. 
 Success attended his arms, his conquests were 
 here as rapid as in Spain; the Carthaginian 
 armies were routed, the camp of the crafty 
 Asdrubal was set on fire during the night, and 
 his troops totally defeated. These repeated 
 losses alarmed Carthage ; Annibal, who was 
 victorious at the gates of Rome, was instantly 
 recalled to defend the walls of his country, and 
 the two greatest generals of the age met each 
 other in the field. This celebrated battle was 
 fought near Zama. About 20,000 Carthagi- 
 nians were slain, and the same number made 
 prisoners- of war, B. C. 202. Only 200 of the 
 Romans were killed. The battle was decisive ; 
 the Carthaginians sued for peace, which Scipio 
 granted on the most severe and humiliating 
 terms. The conqueror, after this returned to 
 Rome, where he was received with the most 
 unbounded applause, honoured with a triumph, 
 and dignified with the appellation of Africanus, 
 He offended the populace, however, in wishing 
 to distinguish the senators from the rest of the 
 people at the public exhibitions ; and when he 
 canvassed for the consulship for two of his 
 I 593 
 
sc 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SO 
 
 friends, he had the mortification to see his ap- 
 plication slighted. He retired from Rome, no 
 longer to be spectator of the ingratitude of 
 his countrymen ; and in the capacity of lieu- 
 tenant he accompanied his brother against An- 
 tiochus, king of Syria. In this expedition his 
 arms were attended with usual success, and 
 the Asiatic monarch submitted to the conditions 
 which the conquerors dictated. At his return 
 to Rome, Africanus found the malevolence of 
 his enemies still unabated. Cato, his inveterate 
 rival, raised seditions against him and the Pe- 
 tilii, two tribunes of the people, accused the 
 conqueror of Annibal of extortion in the prov- 
 inces of Asia, and of living in an indolent and 
 luxurious manner. Scipio condescended to an- 
 swer to the accusation of his calumniators ; the 
 first day was spent in hearing the different 
 charges, but when he again appeared on the 
 second day of his trial, the accused interrupt- 
 ed his judges, and exclaimed, Tr^wnes and 
 fellow-citizens, on this day, this very day, did 
 1 conquer Annibal and the Carthaginians : come, 
 therefore, with me, Romans ; let us go to the capi- 
 tol, and there return our thanks to the immortal 
 gods for the victories which have attended our 
 arms. These words had the desired eflfect ; all 
 the assembly followed Scipio, and the tribunes 
 were left alone in the seat of judgment. Yet 
 when this memorable day was past, Africanus 
 was a third time summoned to appear ; but he 
 had retired to his country-house at Liternum. 
 The accusation, however, was stopped when 
 one of the tribunes, formerly distinguished for 
 his malevolence against Scipio, rose to defend 
 him, and declared in the assembly, that it re- 
 flected the highest disgrace on the Roman peo- 
 ple that the conqueror of Annibal should be 
 exposed to the malice and envy of disappointed 
 ambition. Some time after, Scipio died in the 
 place of his retreat, about 184 years before 
 Christ, in the 48th year of his age ; and so 
 great an aversion did he express, as he expired, 
 for the depravity of the Romans and the in- 
 gratitude of their senators, that he ordered his 
 bones not to be conveyed to Rome. They were 
 accordingly inhumated at Liternum, where his 
 wife Emilia, the daughter of Paulus .^milius, 
 who fell at the battle of Cannae, raised a mau- 
 soleum on his tomb, and placed upon it his 
 statue, with that of the poet Ennius, who had 
 been the companion of his peace and of his re- 
 tirement. If Scipio was robbed during his life- 
 time of the honours which belonged to him as a 
 conqueror of Africa, he was not forgotten when 
 dead. The Romans viewed his character with 
 reverence ; with raptures they read of his war- 
 like actions, and Africanus was regarded in the 
 following age as a pattern of virtue, of inno- 
 cence, courage, and liberality. As a general, the 
 fame and the greatness of his conquests explain 
 his character; and indeed we hear that Annibal 
 declared himself inferior to no general that ever 
 lived except Alexander the Great, and Pyrrhus 
 king of Epirus ; and when Scipio asked him 
 what rank he would claim if he had conquered 
 him, the Carthaginian general answered. If I 
 had conquered you, Scipio, 1 would call myself 
 greater than the conqueror of Darius and the ally 
 of tlie Tarentines. As an instance of Scipio's 
 continence, ancient authors have recorded that 
 he refused to see a beautiful princess that had 
 594 
 
 fallen into his hands after the taking of New 
 Carthage ; and that he not only restored her in- 
 violate to her parents, but also added immense 
 presents for the person to whom she was betroth- 
 ed. It was to the artful complaisance of A frica- 
 nus that the Romans owed their alliance with 
 Masinissa, king of Numidia, and also that with 
 King Syphax. The friendship of Scipio and 
 Laslius is well known. Polyb. 6. — Plut. — Flor. 
 2, c. 6. — Cic. in Brut. &c. — Eutrop. II. Lu- 
 cius Cornelius, surnamed Asiaticus, accompa- 
 nied his brother Africanus in his expeditions in 
 Spain and Africa. He was rewarded with the 
 consulship, A. U. C. 562, for his services to the 
 state, and he was empowered to attack Antio- 
 chus, king of Syria, who had declared war 
 against the Romans. Lucius was accompanied 
 in this campaign by his brother Africanus ; and 
 by his own valour, and the advice of the con- 
 querors of Annibal, he routed the enemy in a 
 battle near the city of Sardis. Peace was soon 
 after settled by the submission of Antiochus, 
 and the conqueror, at his return home, obtained 
 a triumph, and the surname of Asiaticus. He 
 did not, however,, long enjoy his prosperity. 
 Cato, after the death of Africanus, turned his 
 fury against Asiaticus, and the two -Petilii, his 
 devoted favourites, presented a petition to the 
 people, in which they prayed that an inquiry 
 might be made to know what money had been 
 received from Antiochus and his allies. The 
 petition was instantly received, and Asiaticus 
 was summoned to appear before Terentius Cu- 
 leo, who was on this occasion created praetor. 
 The judge, who was an inveterate enemy to the 
 family of the Scipios, soon found Asiaticus, with 
 his two lieutenants, and his quaestor, guilty of 
 having received, the first 6000 pounds weight 
 of gold and 480 pounds weight of silver, and the 
 others nearly an equal sum, from the monarch 
 against whom, in the name of the Roman people, 
 they were enjoined to make war. Immediately 
 they were condemned to pay large fines ; but 
 while the others gave security, Scipio declared 
 that he had accounted to the public for all the 
 money that he had brought from Asia, and 
 therefore that he was innocent. For this obsti- 
 nacy he was dragged to prison, but his cousin 
 Nasica pleaded his cause before the people, and 
 the praetor instantly ordered the goods of the 
 prisoner to be seized and confiscated. The 
 sentence was executed, but the effects of Scipio 
 were insufficient to pay the fine, and it was the 
 greatest justification of his innocence, that 
 whatever was found in his house had never been 
 in the possession of Antiochus or his subjects. 
 This, however, did not totally liberate him, he 
 was reduced to poverty, and refused to accept 
 the offers of his friends and of his clients. Some 
 time after he was appointed to settle the dis- 
 putes between Eumenes and Seleucus, and at his 
 return, the Romans, ashamed of their severity 
 towards him, rewarded his merit with such un- 
 common liberality, that Asiaticus was enabled 
 to celebrate games in honour of his victory over 
 Antiochus, for ten successive davs, at his own 
 
 expense. Liv. 38, c. 55, &c.— Eutrop. 4. 
 
 III. Nasica, was son of Cneus Scipio and cous- 
 in to Scipio Africanus. He was refused the 
 consulship, though supported by the interest 
 and the fame of the conqueror of Annibal, 
 Afterwards, having obtained it, he conquered 
 
sc 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SG 
 
 the Boii, and gained a triumph. He was also 
 successful in an expedition which he undertook 
 in Spain. When the statue of Cybele was 
 brought to Rome from Phrygia,the Roman sen- 
 ate delegated one of their body, who was the 
 most remarkable for the innocence of his life, to 
 go and meet the goddess in the harbour of Ostia. 
 Nisica was the object of their choice. He dis- 
 tinguished himself by the active part he took in 
 confuting the accusations laid against the twO' 
 Scipios, Africanus and Asiaticus. There was 
 also another of the same name, who distinguish- 
 ed himself by his enmity against the Gracchi, 
 to whom he was nearly related. Pater c. 2, c. 
 
 1, &.c.—Flor. 2, c. \b.—Liv. 29, c. 14. &c. 
 
 IV. Publ. iEmilianus, son of Paulus, the con- 
 queror of Perseus, was adopted by the son of 
 Scipio Africanus. He received, the same sur- 
 name as his grandfather, and was called Afri- 
 canus the younger, on account of his victories 
 over Carthage. iEmilianus first appeared in 
 the Roman armies under his father, and after- 
 wards distinguished himself as a legionary tri- 
 bune in the Spanish provinces. He passed into 
 Africa to demand a reinforcement from King 
 Masinissa, the ally of Rome ; and he was the 
 spectator of a long and bloody battle which was 
 fought between that monarch and the Carthagi- 
 nians, and which soon produced the third Punic 
 war. Some time after iEmilianus was made 
 edile, and next appointed consul, though under 
 the age required for that important office. The 
 surname which he had received from his grand- 
 father he was doomed lawfully to claim as his 
 own. He was empowered to finish the war with 
 Carthage, and as he was permitted by the senate 
 to choose his colleague, he took with him his 
 friend Lselius, whose father of the same name 
 had formerly enjoyed the confidence and shared 
 the victories of the first Africanus. The siege 
 of Carthage was already begun, but the opera- 
 tions of the Romans were not continued with 
 vigour. Scipio had no sooner appeared before 
 the walls of the enemy than every communica- 
 tion with the land was cut off"; and, that they 
 might not have the command of the sea, a stu- 
 pendous mole was thrown across the harbour 
 with immense labour and expense. All the 
 inhabitants, without distinction of rank, age, or 
 sex, employed themselves without cessation to 
 dig another harbour, and to build and equip ano- 
 ther fleet. In a short time, in spite of the vigil- 
 ance and activity of ^Emilianus, the Romans 
 were astonished to see another harbour formed, 
 and 50 galleys suddenly issuing under sail, 
 ready for the engagement. This unexpected 
 fleet, by immediately attacking the Roman 
 ships, might have gained the victory, but the 
 delay of the Carthaginians proved fatal to their 
 cause, and the enemy had sufficient time to 
 prepare themselves. Scipio soon got possession 
 of a small eminence in the harbour, and by his 
 subsequent operations, he broke open one of the 
 gates of the city, and entered the streets, where 
 he made his way by fire and sword. The sur- 
 render of about 50,000 men was followed by the 
 reduction of the citadel, and the total submission 
 of Carthage, B. C. 147. The captive city was 
 vset on fire, and though Scipio was obliged to 
 demolish its veiy walls to obey the orders of the 
 Romans, yet he wept bitterly over the melan- 
 choly and tragical scene; and in bewailing the 
 
 miseries of Carthage, he expressed his fears lest 
 Rome, in her turn, in some future age, should 
 exhibit such a dreadful conflagration. The re- 
 turn of iEmilianus to Rome was that of another 
 conqueror of Annibal; and, like him, he was 
 honoured with a magnificent triumph, and re- 
 ceived the surname of Africanus. He was 
 chosen consul a second time, and appointed to 
 finish the war which the Romans had hitherto 
 carried on without success against Numantia. 
 The fall of Numantia was more noble than that 
 of the capital of Africa, and the conqueror of 
 Carthage obtainedthe victory only when the ene- 
 mies had been consumed by famine or by self- 
 destruction, B. C. 133. From his conquests in 
 Spain, iEmilianus was honoured with a second 
 tri;imph, and with the surname of Numantinus. 
 Yet his popularity was short, and, by telling the 
 people that the murder of their favourite, his 
 brother-in-law Gracchus, was lawful, Scipio 
 incurred the displeasure of the tribunes, and 
 was received with hisses. His firmness, how- 
 ever, silenced the murmurs of the assembly, 
 and some time after he retired from the clam- 
 ours of Rome to Caieta, where, with his friend 
 Laelius, he passed the rest of his time in inno- 
 cent pleasures and amusements. Though fond 
 of retirement and literary ease, yet Scipio often 
 interested himself in the affairs of the state. His 
 enemies accused him of aspiring to the dictator- 
 ship, and the clamours were most k)ud against 
 him when he had opposed the Sempronian law, 
 and declared himself the patron of the inhabi- 
 tants of the provinces of Italy. This active 
 part of Scipio was seen with pleasure by the 
 friends of the republic, and not only the senate, 
 but also the citizens, the Latins, and neighbour- 
 ing states, conducted their illustrious friend 
 and patron to his house. It seemed also the 
 universal wish that the troubles might be quiet- 
 ed by the election of Scipio to the dictatorship, 
 and many presumed that that honour would be 
 on the morrow conferred upon him. In this, 
 however, the expectations of Rome were frus- 
 trated, Scipio was found dead in his bed to the 
 astonishment of the world ; and those who in- 
 quired for the causes of this sudden death per- 
 ceived violent marks on his neck, and concluded 
 that he had been strangled, B. C. 128. This 
 assassination, as it was then generally believed, 
 was committed by the triumvirs, Papirius Car- 
 bo, C. Gracchus, and Fulvius Flaccus, who 
 supported the Sempronian law, and by his wife 
 Sempronia, who is charged with having intro- 
 duced the murderers into his room. No inqui- 
 ries were made after the authors of his death ; 
 Gracchus was the favourite of the mob, and the 
 only atonement which the populace made for 
 the death of Scipio was to attend his funeral, 
 and to show their concern by their cries and 
 loud lamentations, ^milianus, like his grand- 
 father, was fond of literature, and he saved from 
 the flames of Carthage many valuable composi- 
 tions, written by Phoenician and Punic authors. 
 In the midst of his greatness he died poor, and 
 his nephew, Q.. Fabius Maximus, who inherited 
 his estate, scarce found in his house thirty-two 
 pounds weight of silver, and two and a half of 
 gold. His liberality to his brother and to his 
 sisters deserves the greatest commendations; 
 and, indeed, no higher encomium can be passed 
 upon his character, private as well as public, 
 595 
 
SE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SE 
 
 than the words of his rival Metellus, who told 
 his sons, at the death of Scipio, to go and attend 
 the funeral of the greatest man that ever lived 
 or should live in Rome. Liv, 44, &c. — Cic. de 
 Senect. Orat. in Brut. &c. — Polyb. — Appian. 
 
 —Paterc. 1, c. 12, &.q.—FIoi\ V. A son of 
 
 the first Africanus, taken captive by Antiochus, 
 king of Syria, and restored to his father without 
 a ransom. He adopted as his son young ^Emil- 
 ianus, the son of Paulus jEmilius, who was 
 afterwards surnamed Africanus. Like his fa- 
 ther Scipio, he distinguished himself by his 
 fondness for literature and his valour in the 
 Roman armies. VI. Metellus, the father-in- 
 law of Pompey, appointed commander in Ma- 
 cedonia. He was present at the battle of Phar- 
 salia, and afterwards retired to Africa with 
 Cato. He was defeated by Caesar at Thapsus. 
 
 Plut. VII. Salutio,a mean person in Caesar's 
 
 army in Africa. The general appointed him 
 his chief commander, either to ridicule him, or 
 because there was an ancient oracle that de- 
 clared that the Scipios would ever be victorious 
 in Africa. Plut. VIII. L. Cornelius, a con- 
 sul who opposed Sylla. He was at last deserted 
 by his army and proscribed. 
 
 Sgopas, I. an architect and sculptor of Ephe- 
 sus, for some time employed in making the 
 mausoleum which Artemisia raised to her hus- 
 band. One of his statues of Venus was among 
 the antiquities with which Rome was adorned. 
 Scopas lived about 430 years before Christ, 
 
 Paus. 1, c, 43, &c. Horat. 4, Od. 8.— Virg. 
 
 9, c. 9.—Plin. 34, c. 8. 1. 36, c. 5. II. An 
 
 ^tolian, who raised some forces to assist Pto- 
 lemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt, against his 
 enemies Antiochus and his allies. He after- 
 w^ards conspired against the Egyptian monarch, 
 and was put to death, B. C. 196. 
 
 ScoRDisci, and ScoRDisciE. Vid. Part III. 
 ScRiBONiA, a daughter of Scribonius, who 
 married Augustus after he had divorced Clau- 
 dia, He had by her a daughter, the celebrated 
 Julia. Scribonia was some time after repudi- 
 ated that Augustus might marry Livia, She 
 had been married twice before she became the 
 wife of the emperor, Sueton. in Aug. 62. 
 
 ScYLAx, a geographer and mathematician of 
 Caria, in the age of Darius, son of Hystaspes, 
 about 550 years before Christ. He was com- 
 missioned by Darius to make discoveries in the 
 East, and after a journey of 30 months he visited 
 Eg5rpt. Some suppose that he was the first who 
 invented geographical tables. The latest edition 
 of the Periplus of Scylax, is that of Gronovius, 
 4to. L. Bat. 1591.— Herodot. 4, c. U.—Strab. 
 
 ScYLLis and Dipcenus, statuaries of Crete, 
 before the age of Cyrus, king of Persia. They 
 were said to be sons and pupils of Daedalus, and 
 they established a school at Sicyon, where they 
 taught the principles of their profession. Paus. 
 — Plin.36, c, 4. 
 
 ScYLURus, a monarch who left 80 sons. He 
 called them to his bedside as he expired, and 
 by enjoining them to break a bundle of sticks 
 tied together, and afterwards separately, he con- 
 vinced them that when aliogether firmly united 
 their power would be insuperable, but if ever 
 disunited, they would fall an easy prey to their 
 enemies, Plut. de garr. 
 
 Sejantjs, jEliijs, a native of Vulsinum in 
 Tuscany, who distinguished himself in the court 
 596 
 
 of Tiberius. His father's name was Seius 
 Strabo, a Roman knight, commander of the 
 praetorian guards. His mother was descended 
 from the Junian family. Sejanus first gained 
 the favour of Caius Caesar, the grandson of Au- 
 gustus, but afterwards he attached himself to 
 the interest and the views of Tiberius, who then 
 sat on the imperial throne. The emperor, while 
 he distrusted others, communicated his greatest 
 secrets to his fawoiing favourite. Sejanus im- 
 proved his confidence, and when he had found 
 that he possessed the esteem of Tiberius, he 
 next endeavoured to become the favourite of the 
 soldiers and of the senate. As commander of 
 the praetorian guards he was the second man in 
 Rome, and in that important office he made use 
 of every mean artifice to make himself beloved. 
 His affability and condescension gained him 
 the hearts of the common soldiers, and by ap- 
 pointing his own favourites and adherents to 
 places of trust and honour, all the officers and 
 centurions of the army became devoted to his 
 interest. The views of Sejanus in this were 
 well knov/n ; yet to advance with more success, 
 he attempted to gain the affection of the sena- 
 tors. In this he met with no opposition. A 
 man who had the disposal of places of honour 
 and dignity, and who had the command of the 
 public money, cannot but be a favourite of 
 those who are in need of his assistance. It is 
 even said that Sejanus gained to his views all 
 the wives of the senators by a private and most 
 secret promise of marriage to each of them 
 whenever he had made himself independent 
 and sovereign of Rome. Yet, however success- 
 ful with the best and noblest families in the 
 empire, Sajanus had to combat numbers in the 
 house of the emperor ; but these seeming obsta- 
 cles were soon removed. All the children and 
 grandchildren of Tiberius were sacrificed to the 
 ambition of the favourite under various pre- 
 tences ; and Drusus, the son of the emperor, by 
 striking Sejanus, made his destruction sure 
 and inevitable. Livia, the wife of Drusus, was 
 gained by Sejanus, and, though the mother of 
 many children, she was prevailed upon to assist 
 her adulterer in the murder of her husband, and 
 she consented to marry him when Drusus was 
 dead. No sooner was Drusus poisoned, than 
 Sejanus openly declared his wish to marry Li- 
 via. This was strongly opposed by Tiberius ; 
 and the emperor, by recommending Germanicns 
 to the senators for his successor, rendered Se- 
 janus bold and determined. He was more ur- 
 gent in his demands; and when he could not 
 gain the consent of the emperor, he persuaded 
 him to retire to solitude from the noise of Rome 
 and the troubles of the government. Tiberius, 
 naturally fond of ease and luxury, yielded to 
 his representations, and retired to Campania, 
 leaving Sejanus at the head of the empire. 
 This was highly gratifying to the favourite, 
 and he was now without a master. Prudence 
 and moderation might have made him what he 
 wished to be, but he offended the whole empire 
 when he declared that he was emperor of Rome, 
 and Tiberius only the dependant prince of the 
 island of Cipreae, where he had retired. Ti- 
 berius was upon this fully convinced of the de- 
 signs of Sejanus, and when he had been in- 
 formed that his favourite had had the meanness 
 and audacity to ridicule him by introducing him 
 
SE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SE 
 
 on the stage, the emperor ordered him to be 
 accused before the senate. Sejanus was de- 
 serted by all his pretended friends as soon as by 
 fortune; and the man who aspired to the em- 
 pire, and who called himself the favourite of the 
 people, the darling of the praetorian guards, 
 and the companion of Tiberius, was seized 
 without resistance, and the same day strangled 
 in prison, A. D. 31. His remains were ex- 
 posed to the fury and insolence of the populace,- 
 and afterwards thrown into the Tiber. His 
 children and all his relations were involved in 
 his ruin, and Tiberius sacrificed to his resent- 
 ment and suspicions all those who were even 
 connected with Sejanus, or had shared his fa- 
 vours and enjoyed his confidence. Tacit. 3, 
 Ann. &c. — Dio. 58. — Suet, in Tib. 
 
 Seius, Cn. a Roman who had a famous horse, 
 ot large size and uncommon beauty. He was 
 put to death by Antony, and it was observed, 
 that whoever obtained possession of his horse, 
 which was supposed to be of the same race as 
 the horses of Diomedes destroyed by Hercules, 
 and which was called Sejanus equus, became 
 unfortunate, and lost all his property, with every 
 member of his family. Hence arose the proverb, 
 ille homo habet Sejanum equum, applied to such 
 as were oppressed with misfortunes. Au. Gel- 
 lius, 3,- c. 9. 
 
 Seius Strabo, the father of Sejanus, was a 
 Roman knight, and commander of the praetorian 
 guards. 
 
 Selene, the wife of Antiochus, king of Syria, 
 put to death by Tigranes, king of Armenia. 
 She was daughter of Physcon, king of Egypt, 
 and had first married her brother Lathurus, 
 according to the custom of her country, and 
 afterwards by desire of her mother, her other 
 brother Gryphus. At the death of Gryphus, 
 she had married Antiochus, surnamedEusebes, 
 the son of Antiochus Cyzicenus, by whom she 
 had two sons. According to Appian, she first 
 married the father, and after his death, his son 
 Eusebes. Appian. Syr. &c. 
 
 SeleucidjE, a surname given to those mo- 
 narchs who sat on the throne of Syria, which 
 was founded by Seleucus the son of Antiochus, 
 from whom the word is derived. The era of 
 the Seleucidse begins with the taking of Babylon 
 by Seleucus, B. C. 312, and ends at the con- 
 quest of Syria by Pompey, B. C. 65. The order 
 in which these monarchs reigned is shown in 
 the account of Syria. Vid. Syria. 
 
 Seleucus, 1st, one of the captains of Alexan- 
 der the Great, surnamed Nicator or VictoriouSy 
 was son of Antiochus. After the king's death 
 he received Babylon as his province ; but his 
 ambitious views, and his attempt to destroy 
 Eumenes as he passed through his territories, 
 rendered him so unpopular that he fled for 
 safety to the court of his friend Ptolemy, king 
 of Egypt. He was soon after enabled to re- 
 cover Babylon, which Antigonas had seized in 
 his absence, and he increased his dominions by 
 the immediate conquest of Media, and some of 
 the neighbouring provinces. When he had 
 strengthened himself in his empire, Seleucus 
 imitated the example of the rest of the generals 
 of Alexander, and assumed the title of inde- 
 pendent monarch. He afterwards made war 
 against Antigonus, with the united forces of 
 Ptolemy, Gassander, and Lysimachus ; and 
 
 after this monarch had been conquered and 
 slain, his territories were divided among his 
 victorious enemies. When Seleucus became 
 master of Syria, he built a city there, which he 
 called Antioch, in honour of his father, and 
 made it the capital of his dominions. He also 
 made war against Demetrius and Lysimachus, 
 though he had originally married Stratonice, 
 the daughter of the former, and had lived in 
 the closest friendship with the latter. Seleucus 
 was at last murdered by one of his servants, 
 called Ptolemy Ceraunus, a man on whom he 
 bestowed the greatest favours. According to 
 Arrian, Seleucus was the greatest and most 
 powerful of the princes who inherited the 
 Macedonian empire after the death of Alexan- 
 der. His benevolence has been commended ; 
 and it has been observed, that he conquered not 
 to enslave nations, but to make them more 
 happy. He founded no less than 34 cities in 
 different parts of his empire, which he peopled 
 with Greek colonies, whose national industry, 
 learning, religion, and spirit, were communi- 
 cated to the indolent and luxurious inhabitants 
 of Asia. Seleucus was a great benefactor to 
 the Greeks, he restored to the Athenians the 
 library and statues which Xerxes had carried 
 away from their city when he invaded Greece, 
 and among them were those of Harmodius and 
 Aristogiton. Seleucus was murdered 280 years 
 before the Christian era, in the 32d''year of his 
 reign, and the 78th, or, according to others, the 
 73d year of his age, as he was going to conquer 
 Macedonia, where he intended to finish his days 
 in peace and tranquillity in that province where 
 he was born. He was succeeded by Antiochus 
 Soter. Justin. 13, c. 4, 1. 15, c. 4, 1. 16, c. 3, 
 &c. — Plut. in Dem. — Plin. 6, c. 17. — Paus. 8, 
 
 c. 51. — Joseph. Ant. 12. The 2d, surnamed 
 
 Callinicus, succeeded his father Antiochus 
 Theus on the throne of Syria. He attempted 
 to make war against Ptolemy, king of Egypt, 
 but his fleet was shipwrecked in a violent 
 storm, and his armies soon after conquered by 
 his enemy. He was at last taken prisoner by 
 Arsaces, an oflicer who made himself powerful 
 by the dissensions which reigned in the house 
 of the Seleucidffi, between the two brothers, 
 Seleucus and Antiochus ; and after he had been 
 a prisoner for some time in Parthia, he died of 
 a fall from his horse, B. C. 226, after a reign of 
 20 years. Seleucus had received the surname 
 of Pogon, from his long beard, and that of Cal~ 
 Zmicws, ironically to express his very unfortu- 
 nate reign. He had married Laodice, the sis- 
 ter of one of his generals, by whom he had two 
 sons, Seleucus and Antiochus, and a daughter 
 whom he gave in marriage to Mithridates king 
 of Pontus. Strab. 16. — Justin. 27. — Appian. de 
 
 Syr. The 3d, succeeded his father Seleucus 
 
 2d, on the throne of Syria, and received the 
 surname of Ceraunus, by antiphrasis, as he was 
 a very weak, timid, and irresolute monarch. 
 He was murdered by two of his oflicers after a 
 reign of three years, B. C. 223, and his brother 
 Antiochus, though only 15 years old, ascended 
 the throne and rendered himself so celebrated 
 that he acquired the name of the Great. Appian. 
 •The 4th, succeeded his father Antiochus 
 
 the Great, on the throne of Syria. He was sur- 
 named Philopator, or, according to Josephus, 
 Soter. His empire had been weakened by the 
 597 
 
SE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SE 
 
 Romans when he became monarch, and the 
 yearly tribute of a thousand talents to these 
 victorious enemies concurred in lessening his 
 power and consequence among nations. Seleu- 
 cus was poisoned after a reign of 12 years, B. 
 C. 175. His son Demetrius had been sent to 
 Rome, there to receive his education, and he 
 became a prince of great abilities. Strab. 16. — 
 
 Justin. 32. — Appian The 5th, succeeded his 
 
 father Demetrius Nicator on the throne of 
 Syria, in the 20th year of his age. He was put 
 to death in the first year of his reign by Cleo- 
 patra^ his mother, who had also sacrificed her 
 husband to her ambition. He is not reckoned 
 by many historians in the number of the Syrian 
 
 monarchs. The 6th, one of the Seleucidse, 
 
 son of Antiochus Gryphus, killed his uncle 
 Antiochus Cyzicenus, who wished to obtain the 
 crown of Syria. He was some time after ban- 
 ished from his kingdom by Antiochus Pius, son 
 of Cyzicenus, and fled to Cilicia, where he was 
 burnt in a palace by the inhabitants, B. C. 93. 
 
 Appian. — Joseph. A prince of Syria to 
 
 whom the Egyptians offered the crown of 
 which they had robbed Auletes. Seleucus ac- 
 cepted it, but he soon disgusted his subjects, and 
 received the surname of Cybiosactes, or Scul- 
 lion, for his meanness and avarice. He was at 
 last murdered by Berenice, whom he had mar- 
 ried. 
 
 Semirams, a celebrated queen of Assyria, 
 daughter of the goddess Derceto by a young 
 Assyrian. She was exposed in a desert, but 
 her life was preserved by doves for one whole 
 year, till Simmas, one of the shepherds of Ni- 
 nus, found her and brought her up as his own 
 child. Semiramis, when grown up, married 
 Menones, the governor of Niniveh, and accom- 
 panied him to the siege of Bactra, where, by 
 her advice and prudent directions, she hastened 
 the king's operations and took the city. These 
 eminent services, but chiefly her uncommon 
 beauty, endeared her to Ninus. The monarch 
 asked her of her husband, and oflTered him 
 instead, his daughter Sosana ; but Menones, 
 who tenderly loved Semiramis, refused, and 
 and when Ninus had added threats to entrea- 
 ties, he hung himself. No sooner was Me- 
 nones dead, than Semiramis, who was of an 
 aspiring soul, married Ninus, by whom she 
 had a son called Ninyas. Ninus was so fond 
 of Semiramis, that at her request he resigned 
 the crown to her, and commanded her to be 
 proclaimed queen and sole emperess of Assyria. 
 Of this, however, he had cause to repent; Se- 
 miramis put him to death, the better to establish 
 herself on the throne ; and when she had no 
 enemies to fear at home, she began to repaii* 
 the capital of her empire, and by her means, 
 Babylon became the most superb and magnifi- 
 cent city in the world. She visited every pjart 
 of her dominions, and left every where im- 
 mortal monuments of her greatness and be- 
 nevolence. To render the roads passable and 
 communications easy, she hollowed mountains 
 and filled up valleys ; and water was conveyed 
 at a great expense, by large and convenient 
 aqueducts, to barren deserts and unfruitful 
 plains. She was not less distinguished as a war- 
 rior; many of the neighbouring nations were 
 conquered; and when Semiramis was once 
 told, as she was dressin? her hair, that Babylon 
 598 
 
 had revolted, she left her toilet with precipita- 
 tion, and, though only half dressed, she re- 
 fused to have the rest of her head adorned 
 before the sedition was quelled and tranquillity 
 re-established. Semiramis has been accused of 
 licentiousness, and some authors have ob- 
 served, that she regularly called the strongest 
 and stoutest men in her army to her arms, and 
 afterwards put them to death that they might 
 not be living witnesses of her incontinence. Her 
 passion for her son was also unnatural, and it 
 was this criminal propensity which induced 
 Ninyas to destroy his mother with his own 
 hands. Some say that Semiramis was changed 
 into a dove after death, and received immortal 
 honours in Assyria. It is supposed that she 
 lived about 1965 years before the Christian era, 
 and that she died in the 62d year of her age 
 and the 25th of her reign. Many fabulous re- 
 ports have been propagated about Semiramis, 
 and some have declared that for gome time she 
 disguised herself and passed for her son Ninyas, 
 Val.Max. 9, c. 3.—Herodot. 1, c. 18i.—Diod. 2. 
 —Mela. 1, c. 3.— Strab. b.—PaUrc. 1, c. 6.— 
 Justin. l,c. 1, &c.. — Propert. 3, el. 11, v. 21. — 
 Plut. de Fort. &c. — Ovid. Amor. 1, el. 5, v. 11, 
 Met. 4, V. b'^.—Marcell. 14, c. 6. 
 
 Sempronia, I. a Roman matron, mother of 
 the two Gracchi, celebrated for her learning, 
 
 and her private as well as public virtues. 11. 
 
 Also a sister of the Gracchi, who is accused of 
 having assisted the triumvirs Carbo, Gracchus, 
 and Flaccus, to murder her husband, Scipio 
 African us the younger. The name of Sempro- 
 nia was common to the female descendants of 
 the family of the Sempronii, Gracchi, and 
 Scipios. 
 
 Sempronia Lex de magistratihus, by C. Sem- 
 pronius Gracchus, the tribune, A. tJ. C. 630, 
 ordamed that no person who had been legally 
 deprived of a magistracy for misdemeanors, 
 should be capable of bearing an office again. 
 This law was afterwards repealed by the author. 
 Another, de civitate, by the same, A. U 
 
 C. 630. It ordained that no capital judgment 
 should be passed over a Roman citizen without 
 the concurrence and authority of the senate. 
 There were also some other regulations includ- 
 ed in this law. Another, de comitiis, by the 
 
 same, A. U. C. 635. It ordained that in giving 
 their votes, the centuries should be chosen by 
 lot, and not give it according to the order of 
 
 their classes. Another de comitiis, by the 
 
 same, the same year, which granted to the Latin 
 allies of Rome, the privilege of giving their 
 votes at elections, as if they were Roman citi- 
 zens. Another, de provinciis, by the same, 
 
 A. U. C. 630. It enacted that the senators 
 should be permitted, before the assembly of the 
 consular comitia, to determine as they pleased 
 the particular provinces which should be 
 proposed to the consuls, to be divided by lot, 
 and that the tribunes should be deprived of the 
 power of interposing against a decree of the 
 
 senate. Another, called Agraria prima, by 
 
 T. Sempronius Gracchus, the tribune, A. U. C, 
 620. It confirmed the lex agraria Licinia, 
 and enacted that all such as were in possession 
 of more lands than that law allowed, should 
 immediately resign them to be divided among 
 the poorer citizens. Three commissioners were 
 appointed to put this law into execution, and its 
 
SE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SE 
 
 consequences were so violent, as it was directly- 
 made against the nobles and senators, that it 
 
 cost the author his life. Another, called 
 
 Agrarian altera^ by the same. It required that 
 all the ready money which was found in the 
 treasury of Attalus, king of Pergamus, who had 
 left the Romans his heirs, should be divided 
 among the poorer citizens of Rome, to supply 
 them with all the various instruments requisite 
 in husbandry, and that the lands of that monarch- 
 should be farmed by the Roman censors, and 
 the money drawn from thence should be di- 
 vided among the people. Another, /rw7»e7i- ! 
 
 taria^ byC. Sempronius Gracchus. It required 
 that a certain quantity of corn should be dis- j 
 tributed among the people, so much to every in- 
 dividual, for which it was required that they 
 should only pay the trifling sum of a semissis 
 and a triens. Another, de usurd, by M. Sem- 
 pronius, the tribune, A. U. C. 560. It ordained 
 that in lending money to the Latins and the 
 allies of Rome, the Roman laws should be ob- 
 served as well as among the citizens. Ano- 
 ther, de judicibiis, hy the tribune C. Sempronius, 
 A. U. C. 630. It required that the right of judg- 
 ing, which had been assigned to the senatorian 
 order by Romulus, should be transferred from 
 them to the Roman knights. Another, mili- 
 tarise by the same, A. U. C. 630. It enacted that 
 the soldiers should be clothed at the public ex- 
 pense without any diminution of their usual pay. 
 It also ordered that no person should be obliged 
 to serve in the army before the age of 17. 
 
 Sempronius, I. (A. Atratinus,) a senator 
 who opposed the Agrarian law, which was pro- 
 posed by the consul Cassius soon after the elec- 
 tion of the tribunes. II. L. Atratinus, a con- 
 sul, A. U. C. 311, He was one of the first 
 censors with his colleague in the consulship, Pa- 
 pirius. III. Caius, a consul, summoned be- 
 fore an assembly of the people because he had 
 fought with ill success against the Volsci. 
 
 IV, Sophus, a consul against the ^qui. He 
 also fought against the Picentes, and during the 
 engagement there wels a dreadful earthquake. 
 The soldiers were terrified, but Sophus encour- 
 aged them, and observed that the earth trem- 
 bled only for fear of changing its old masters. — 
 
 V. A man who proposed a law that no person 
 should dedicate a temple or altar without the 
 previous approbation of the magistrates, A. U, 
 C, 449. He repudiated his wife because she 
 had gone to see a spectacle without his permis- 
 sion or knowledge. VI. A legionary tribune, 
 
 who led away from Cannas the remaining part 
 of the soldiers who had not been killed by the 
 Carthaginians. He was afterwards consul, and 
 fought in the field against Annibal with great 
 success. He was killed in Spain. VII. Ti- 
 berius Longus, a Roman consul, defeated by the 
 
 •Carthaginians, in an engagement which he had 
 begun against the approbr.tion of his colleague 
 C. Scipio, He afterwards obtained victories 
 
 over Hanno and the Gauls. VIII. Tiberius 
 
 Gracchus, a consul who defeated the Carthagi- 
 nians and the Campanians. He was afterwards 
 betrayed by Fulvius, a Lucanian, into the hands 
 of the Carthaginians, and was killed, after he 
 had made a long and bloody resistance against 
 the enemy. Hannibal showed great honour to 
 his remains ; a funeral pile was raised at the 
 head of the camp, and the enemy's cavalry 
 
 1 walked round it in solemn procession. IX. 
 
 I The father of the Gracchi. Vid. Gracchus. 
 
 Senatus, the chief counsel of the state among 
 the Romans, The members of this body, called 
 : senatores, on account of their age, and patres, 
 ; on account of their authority, were of the great- 
 I est consequence in the republic. The senate 
 I was first instituted by Romulus, to govern the 
 j city, and to preside over the affairs of the state 
 I during his absence. The senators whom Romu- 
 j lus created were a hundred, to whom he after- 
 ; wards addedthe same number when the Sabines 
 had migrated to Rome. Tarquin the ancient 
 made the senate consist of 300, and this number 
 remained fixed for a long time. After the ex- 
 pulsion of the last Tarquin, whose tyranny had 
 thinned the patricians as well as the plebeians, 
 164 new senators were chosen to complete the 
 300 ; and as they were called conscripts, the 
 senate ever afterwards consisted of members 
 who were denominated patres and conscripti. 
 The number continued to fluctuate during the 
 times of the republic, but gradually increased to 
 700, and afterwards to 900 under Julius Caesar, 
 who filled the senate with men of every rank and 
 order. Under Augustus the senators amounted 
 to 1000, but this number was reduced to 300, 
 which being the cause of complaints, induced 
 the emperor to limit the number to 600. The 
 place of a senator was always bestowed upon 
 merit ; the monarchs had the privilege of choos- 
 ing the members, and after the expulsion of the 
 Tarquins it was one of the rights of the consuls, 
 till the election of the censors, who from their 
 office seemed most capable of making choice 
 of men whose characters were irreproachable. 
 Sometimes the assembly of the people elected 
 senators, but it was only upon some extraordi- 
 nary occasions ; there was also a dictator chosen 
 to fill up the number of the senate after the bat- 
 tle of Cannas. Only particular families were 
 admitted into the senate ; and when the plebe- 
 ians were permitted to share the honours of the 
 state, it was then required that they should be 
 born of free citizens. It was also required that 
 the candidates should be knights before their 
 admission into the senate. They were to be 
 above the age of 25, and to have previously 
 passed through the inferior offices of quaestor, 
 tribttne of the people, edile, praetor, and consul. 
 Some, however, suppose that the senators whom 
 Romulus chose were all old men ; yet his suc- 
 cessors neglected this, and often men who were 
 below the age of 25 were admitted by courtesy 
 into the senate. The dignity of a senator could 
 not be supported without the possession of 80,000 
 sesterces, or about 7000Z, English money ; and 
 therefore such as squandered away their money, 
 and whose fortune was reduced below this sura, 
 were generally struck out of the list of senators. 
 This regulation was not made in the first age of 
 the republic, when the Romans boasted of their 
 poverty. The senators were not permitted to 
 be of any trade or profession. They were dis- 
 tinguished from the rest of the people by their 
 dress ; they wore the laticlave, half boots of a 
 black colour, with a crescent or silver buckle in 
 the form of a C ; but this last honour was con- 
 fined only to the descendants of those hundred 
 senators who had been elected by Romulus, as 
 the letter C seems to imply. They had the sole 
 right of feasting publiclv in the capital in cere- 
 599 
 
S£ 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SE 
 
 monial habits ; they sat in curule chairs, and at 
 the representation of plays and public specta- 
 cles they were honoured with particular seats. 
 Whenever they travelled abroad, even on their 
 own business, they were maintained at the 
 public expense, and always found provisions for 
 themselves and their attendants ready prepared 
 on the road ; a privilege that was generally 
 termed free legaiio7i. On public festivals they 
 wore ihe pratexta, or long white robe with pur- 
 ple borders. The right of convocating the sen- 
 ate belonged only to the monarchs ; and after 
 the expulsion of the Tarquins, to the consuls, 
 the dictator, master of the horse, governor of 
 Rome, and tribunes of the fjeople ; but no magis- 
 trate could exercise this privilege except m the 
 absence of a superior officer, the tribunes ex- 
 cepted. The time of meeting was generally 
 three times a month, on the calends, nones, and 
 ides. Under Augustus they were not assem- 
 bled on the nones. It was requisite that the 
 place where they assembled should have been 
 previously consecrated by the augurs. This 
 was generally in the temple of Concord, of Ju- 
 piter Capitolinus, Apollo, Castor and Pollux, 
 &c., or in the Curiae called Hostilia, Julia Pom- 
 peia, &c. When audience was given to foreign 
 ambassadors, ihe senators assembled without 
 the walls of the city, either in the temples of 
 Bellona or of Apollo ; and the same ceremony as 
 to their meeting was also observed when they 
 transacted business with their generals. To 
 render their decrees valid and authentic, a cer- 
 tain number of members was requisite, and such 
 as were absent without some proper cause, were 
 always fined. In the reign of Augustus, 400 
 senators were requisite to make a senate. No- 
 thing was transacted before sunrise or after 
 sunset. In their office the senators were the 
 guardians of religion, they disposed of the pro- 
 vinces as they pleased, they prorogued the as- 
 semblies of the people, they appointed thanks- 
 givings, nominated their ambassadors, distribu- 
 ted the public money, and, in short, had the 
 management of every thing political or civil in 
 the republic, except the creating of magistrates, 
 the enactment of laws, and the declarations of 
 war or peace, which was confined to the as- 
 semblies of the people. Rank was always re- 
 garded in their meetings ; the chief magistf ates 
 of the state, such as the consuls, the prsetors, 
 and censors, sat first; after these the inferior 
 magistrates, such as the ediles and quaestors ; 
 and, last of all, those that then exercised no 
 office in the state. Their opinions were origi- 
 nally collected, each according to his age ; but 
 when the office of censor was instituted, the 
 opinion of the princeps senatus, or the person 
 whose name stood first on the censor's list, was 
 first consulted, and afterwards those who were 
 of consular dignity, each in their respective 
 order. In the age of Cicero the consuls elect 
 were first consulted ; and in the age of Caesar, 
 he was permitted to speak first till the end of 
 the year, on whom the consul had originally 
 conferred that honour. Under the emperors, 
 the same rules were observed, but the consuls 
 were generally consulted before all others. 
 When any public matter was introduced into 
 the senate, which was always called referre ad 
 senatum, any senator whose opinion was asked, 
 was permitted to speak upon it as long as he 
 €00 
 
 pleased, and on that account it was often usual 
 for the senators to protract their speeches till it 
 was too late to determine. When the question 
 was put, they passed to the side of that speaker 
 whose opinion they approved, and a majority of 
 votes was easily collected without the trouble of 
 counting the numbers. This mode of proceed- 
 ing was called pediJ)us in alicujus sententiam. 
 ire, and therefore on that account, the senators 
 who had not the privilege of speaking, but only 
 the right of giving a silent vote, such as bore 
 some curule honours, and on that account were 
 permitted to sit in the senate, but not to deliber- 
 ate, were denominated ^et^arii senator es. After 
 the majority had been known, the matter was 
 determined, and the senatus consultum was im- 
 mediately written by the clerks of the house, at 
 the feet of the chief magistrates, and it was 
 signed by all the principal members of the 
 house. When there was not a sufficient number 
 of members to make a senate, the decision was 
 called senatus auctoritas, but it was of no con- 
 sequence if it did not afterwards pass into a 
 senatus consultum. The tribunes of the peo- 
 ple, by the word- veto, could stop the debates, 
 and the decrees of the assembled senate, as 
 also any one who was of equal authority with 
 him who had proposed the matter. The sena- 
 tus consulta were left in the custody of the con- 
 suls, who suppress or preserve them ; but about 
 the year of Rome 304, they were always depo- 
 sited in the temple of Ceres, and afterwards in 
 the treasury, by the ediles of the people. The 
 degradation of the senators was made by the 
 censor, by omitting their name when he called 
 over the list of the senate. This was called 
 praterire. A senator could be again introduced 
 into the senate if he could repair his character, 
 or fortune, which had been the causes why the 
 censor had lawfully called him unqualified. 
 The meeting of the senate was often sudden, 
 except the particular times already mentioned, 
 upon any emergency. After the death of J. 
 Caesar they were not permitted to meet on the 
 ides of March, which were c2\\ed parricidium, 
 because on that day the dictator had been assas- 
 sinated. The sons of the senators, after they 
 had put on the toga virilis, were permitted to 
 come into the senate, but this was afterwards 
 limited. Vid. Papirius. The rank and au- 
 thority of the senators, which were so conspic- 
 uous in the first ages of the republic, and 
 which caused the minister of Pyrrhus to de- 
 clare that the Roman senate was a venerable 
 assembly of kings, dwindled into nothing un- 
 der the emperors. Men of the lowest charac- 
 ter were admitted into the senate ; the emperors 
 took pleasure in robbing this illustrious body 
 of their privileges and authority ; and the sena- 
 tors themselves by their meanness and servility, 
 contributed, as much as the tyranny of the sove- 
 reign, to diminish their own consequence ; and 
 by applauding the follies of a Nero and the 
 cruelties of a Domitian, they convinced the 
 world that they no longer possessed sufficient 
 prudence or authority to be consulted on mat- 
 ters of weight and importance. In the election 
 of successors to the imperial purple after Au- 
 gustus, the approbation of the senate was con- 
 sulted; but it was only a matter of courtesy, 
 and the concurrence of a body of men was 
 little regarded who were without power, and 
 
SE 
 
 HISTORY, doc. 
 
 SE 
 
 under the control of a mercenary army. The 
 title of Clarissimus was given to the senators 
 under the emperors, and indeed this was the 
 only distinction they had in compensation for 
 the' loss of their independence. The senate 
 was abolished by Justinian, 13 centuries after 
 its first institution by Romulus. 
 
 Seneca, M. Ann^us, a native of Corduba in 
 Spain, who married Helvia, a woman of Spain, 
 by whom he had three sons, Seneca the philo- 
 sopher, Annseus Novatus, and Annaeus Mela, 
 the father of the poet Lucan. Seneca made 
 himself known by some declamations of which 
 he made a collf/^.tion from the most celebrated 
 orators of the age, and from that circumstance, 
 and for distinction, he obtained the appellation 
 of declamator. He left Corduba and went to 
 Rome, where he became a Roman knight. His 
 son, L. Annaeus Seneca, who was born about 
 six years before Christ, was early distinguished 
 by his extraordinary talents. He was taught 
 eloquence by his father, and received lessons in 
 philosophy from the best and most celebrated 
 stoics of the age. As one of the followers of 
 the Pythagorean doctrines, Seneca observed 
 the most reserved abstinence, and in his meals 
 never ate the flesh of animals; but this he 
 abandoned at the representation of his father, 
 when Tiberius threatened to punish some Jews 
 and Egyptians, who abstained from certain 
 meats. In the character of a pleader, Seneca 
 appeared with great advantage ; but the fear 
 of Caligula, who aspired to the name of an 
 eloquent speaker, and who consequently was 
 jealous of his fame, deterred him from pursuing 
 his favourite study, and he sought a safer em- 
 ployment in canvassing for the honours and 
 offices of the state. He was made qusester, but 
 the aspersions which were thrown upon him on 
 account of a shameful amour with Julia Livilla, 
 removed him from Rome, and the emperor ban- 
 ished him for some time into Corsica. During 
 his banishment, the philosopher wrote some 
 spirited epistles to his mother, remarkable for 
 elegance of language and sublimity ; but he 
 soon forgot his philosophy, and disgraced him- 
 self by his flatteries to the emperor, and in 
 wishing to be recalled, even at the expense of 
 his innocence and character. The disgrace of 
 Messalina at Rome, and the marriage of Agrip- 
 pina with Claudius, proved favourable to Sen- 
 eca, and after he had remained five years in 
 Corsica, he was recalled by the emperess to take 
 care of the education of her son Nero, who was 
 destined to succeed to the empire. In the hon- 
 ourable duty of preceptor, Seneca gained ap- 
 plause, and as long as Nero followed his advice, 
 Rome enjoyed tranquillity, and believed her- 
 self safe and happy under the administration 
 of the son ofAgrippina. Some, however, are 
 clamorous against the philosopher, and observe 
 that Seneca initiated his pupil in those vices 
 which disgraced him as a monarch and as a 
 man. This may be the language of malevo- 
 lence or the insinuation of jealousy. In the 
 corrupted age of Nero, the preceptor had to 
 withstand the clamours of many wicked and 
 profligate ministers, and if he had been the fa- 
 vourite of the emperor, and shared his pleasures, 
 his debauchery, and extravagance, Nero would 
 not perhaps have been so anxious of destroving 
 a man v-hose example, from vicious inclina- 
 
 Paut II.— 4 G 
 
 tions, he could not follow, and whose salutaiy 
 precepts his licentious associates forbade him to 
 obey. Seneca was too well acquainted with the 
 natural disposition of Nero to think himself 
 secure ; he had been accused of having amassed 
 the most ample riches, and of having built 
 sumptuous houses and adorned beautiful gar- 
 dens, during the four years in which he had 
 attended Nero as a preceptor, and therefore he 
 desired his imperial pupil to accept of the riches 
 and the possessions which his attendance on his 
 person had procured, and to permit him to retire 
 to solitude and study. Nero refused, and Sen- 
 eca, to avoid further suspicions, kept himself 
 at home for .some time as if labouring under a 
 disease. In ihe conspiracy of Piso, which hap- 
 pened some time after, Seneca's name was 
 mentioned byNatalis, and Nero ordered him to 
 destroy himself He was at table with his wife 
 Paulina and two of his friends when the mes- 
 senger from Nero arrived. He heard the words 
 which commanded him to destroy himself with 
 philosophical firmness. As for his wife, he 
 attempted to calm her emotions, and when she 
 seemed resolved to die with him, he said he was 
 glad to find his example followed with so much 
 constancy. Their veins were opened at the 
 same moment, but the life of Paulina was pre- 
 served, and Nero, who was partial to her, or- 
 dered the blood to be stopped, and from that 
 moment, according to some authors, the philo- 
 sopher's wife seemed to rejoice that she could 
 still enjoy the comforts of life. Seneca's veins 
 bled but slowly, and the conversation of his 
 dying moments was collected by his friends. 
 To hasten his death he drank a dose of poison, 
 but it had no effect ; and therefore he ordered 
 himself to be carried into a hot bath, to accele- 
 rate the operation of the draught, and to make 
 the blood flow more freely. This was attended 
 with no better success, and as the soldiers were 
 clamorous, he was carried into a stove, and 
 suffocated by the steam, on the 12th of April, 
 in the 65th year of the Christian era, in his 53d 
 year. His body was burnt without pomp or 
 funeral ceremony, according to his will, which 
 he had made when he enjoyed the most un- 
 bounded favours of Nero. The compositions 
 of Seneca were numerous, and chiefly on moral 
 subjects. He is so much admired for his re- 
 fined sentiments and virtuous precepts, for his 
 morality, his constancy, and his innocence of 
 manners, that St, Jerome has not hesitated to 
 rank him among Christian writers. His st}^le 
 is nervous, it abounds with ornaments, and 
 seems well suited to the taste of the age in 
 which he lived. His treatises are de ird, Sa 
 consolatione, de providentid, de tranquillhnte 
 animi, de dementia, de sapientis constantid, 
 de otis sapientis, de brevitate vita, de beneficiis, 
 de vitd beatd, besides his naturales quastioms, 
 Indus in Claudivm, moral letters, &c. There 
 are also some tragedies ascribed to Seneca. 
 Cluintilian supposes that the Medea is his com- 
 position, and, according to others, Troas and 
 the Hippolytus were also written by him, and 
 the Agamemnon, Hercules, fur ens Thyestes 4* 
 Hercules in Oeta, by his father, Seneca the de- 
 claimer. The best editions of Seneca are those 
 of Antwerp, fol. 1615, and of Gronovius, 3 
 vols. Amsf , 1672 ; and those of his tragedies, 
 are that of Schroder, 4to. Delph. 1728, and 
 601 
 
SE 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 SE 
 
 the 8vro. of Gronovius, L. Bat. 1682. Tacit. 
 Ann. 12, &c. — Dio. — Sueton. in Ner. &c. — 
 Quintil. 
 
 Sentia Lex, de senatu, by C. Sentius, the 
 consul, A. U. C. 734, enacting the choosing of 
 proper persons to fill up the number of senators. 
 
 Sentius, Cn. a writer in the reign of the 
 emperor Alexander, of whose life he wrote an 
 account in Latin, or, according to others, in 
 Greek. 
 
 Septerion, a festival observed once in nine 
 years at Delphi, in honour of Apollo. It was 
 a representation of the pursuit of Python by 
 Apollo, and of a victory obtained by the god. 
 
 Septimius, I. (Tit.) a Roman knight, distin- 
 guished by his poetical compositions, both lyric 
 and tragic. He was intimate with Augustus 
 as well as Horace, who has addressed the 6 of 
 
 his 2 ZiZ>. of Odes to him.- II. A native of 
 
 Africa, who distinguished himself at Rome as a 
 poet. He wrote, among other things, a hymn 
 in praise of Janus. Only 11 of his verses are 
 preserved. M. Terent. — CriniUis in vita. 
 
 Segiuani. Vid. Part. I. 
 
 Serapio, a Greek poet, who flourished in the 
 age of Trajan. He was intimate with Plutarch. 
 
 Serenus Samonicus, a physician in the age 
 of the emperor Severus andCaracalla. There 
 remains a poem of his composition on medi- 
 cine, the last edition of which is that of 1706, in 
 8vo. Amst. 
 
 Sergius, one of the names of Catiline. 
 
 A military tribune at the siege of Veii. The 
 family of the Sergii was patrician, and branched 
 out into the several families of the Fidenates, 
 Sili, Catilincp, Natta, OcellcE, and Planci. 
 
 Serranus, a surname given to Cincinnatus, 
 because he was found sowing his fields when 
 told that he had been elected dictator. Some 
 however suppose that Serranus was a different 
 person from Cincinnatus. Plin. 18, c. 3. — 
 
 Liv. 3, c. 26.— Virg. JEn. 6, v. 844. A poet 
 
 of some merit in Domitian's reign. Juv. 7, v. 80. 
 
 Sertorius, CluTNTOs, a Roman general, son 
 of Cluintus and Rhea, born at Nursia. His 
 first campaign was under the great Marius, 
 against the Teutones and Cimbri. He had the 
 misfortune to lose one eye in the first battle he 
 fought. When Marius and Cinna entered 
 Rome and slaughtered all their enemies, Serto- 
 rius accompanied them, but he expressed his 
 sorrow and concern at the melancholy death of 
 so many of his countrymen. He afterwards 
 fled for safety into Spain, when Sylla had pro- 
 scribed him, and in this distant province he be- 
 haved himself with so much address and valour 
 that he was looked upon as the prince of the 
 country. He instituted public schools, and 
 educated the children of the country in the 
 polite arts, and the literature of Greece and 
 Rome. He had established a senate, over which 
 he presided with consular authority, and the 
 Romans who followed his standard, paid equal 
 reverence to his person. He pretended to hold 
 commerce with heaven by means of a white 
 hind which he had tamed with great success, 
 and which followed him every where, even in 
 the field of battle. The success of Sertorius in 
 Spain, and his popularity among the natives, 
 alarmed the Romans. They sent some troops 
 to oppose him, but with little success. Four 
 armies were found insufficient to crush, or even 
 602 
 
 hurt Sertorius ; and Pompey and Metellus, who 
 never engaged an enemy without obtaining the 
 victory, where driven with dishonour from the 
 field. But the favourite of the Lusitanians 
 was exposed to the dangers which usually at- 
 tend greatness. Perpenna, one of his ofiicers, 
 who was jealous of his fame, and tired of a su- 
 perior, conspired against him. At a banquet 
 the conspirators began to open their intentions 
 by speaking with freedom and licentiousness 
 in Ihe presence of Sertorius, whose age and 
 character had hitherto claimed deference from 
 others. Perpenna overturned a glass of wine 
 as a signal to the rest of the conspirators, and 
 immediately Antonius, one of his officers, stab- 
 bed Sertorius, and the example was followed 
 by all the rest, 73 years before Christ. Serto- 
 rius has been commended for his love of justice 
 and moderation. The flattering description he 
 heard of the Fortunate Islands when he passed 
 into the west of Africa, almost tempted him to 
 bid adieu to the world. Plut. in vita. — Pater c. 
 2, c. 30, &c. — Flor. 3, c. 21, &c. — Appian. de 
 Civ.— Val. Max. 1, c. 2, 1. 7, c. S.—Eutrop. — 
 Aul. Gell. 15, c. 22. 
 
 Servilia, I. a sister of Cato of Utica, greatly 
 enamoured of J. Caesar, though her brother was 
 one of the most inveterate enemies of her lover. 
 To convince Caesar of her affection, she sent 
 him a letter filled with the most tender expres- 
 sions of regard for his person. The letter was 
 delivered to Caesar in the senate-house, while 
 they were debating about punishing the asso- 
 ciates of Catiline's conspiracy; and when Cat(^ 
 saw it, he exclaimed that it was a letter from 
 the conspirators, and insisted immediately on 
 its being made public. Upon this Caesar gave 
 it to Cato, and the stern senator had no sooner 
 read its contents, than he threw it back with the 
 words of, take it, drunkard. From the intimacy 
 which existed between Servilia and Caesar, 
 some have supposed that the dictator was the 
 father of M. Brutus. Plut. in Cces. — C. ISlep. 
 
 in Attic. II. Another sister of Cato, who 
 
 married Silanus. Id. III. A daughter of 
 
 Trasea, put to death by order of Nero, with her 
 father. Her crime was the consulting of ma- 
 gicians, only to know what would happen in 
 her family. 
 
 Servilia Lex de pecuniis repetundis, by C. 
 Servilius the praetor, A. U. C. 653. It punished 
 severely such as were guilty of peculation and 
 extortion in the provinces. Its particulars are 
 
 not precisely known. Another, de judicibus, 
 
 by Q,. Servilius Caepio, the consul, A. U. C. 
 648. It divided the right of judging between 
 the senators and the equites, a privilege which, 
 though originally belonging to the senators, had 
 been taken from them and given to the equites. 
 Another, de civitate, by C. Servilius, or- 
 
 dained that if a Latin accused a Roman sena- 
 tor, so that he was condemned, the accuser 
 should be honoured with the name and the pri- 
 vileges of a Roman citizen. Another, Agra- 
 
 ria, by P. Servilius RuUus, the tribune, A. U. C. 
 690. It required the immediate sale of certain 
 houses and lands which belonged to the people, 
 for the purchase of others in a different part of 
 Italy. It reported that ten commissioners should 
 be appointed to see it carried into execution, but 
 Cicero prevented its passing into a law by the 
 three orations which he pronoimced against it^ 
 
SE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SE 
 
 Servilius CIdintus, I. a Roman, who in his 
 
 dictatorship defeated the jEqui. II. Publius, 
 
 a consul, who supported the cause of the people 
 against the nobles, and obtained a triumph in 
 spite of the opposition of the senate, after de- 
 feating the Volsc.i. He afterwards changed his 
 opinions, and very violently opposed the people, 
 
 because they had illiberally treated him. III. 
 
 A proconsul killed at the battle of Cannae by 
 
 Annibal. IV. Ahala, a master of horse to 
 
 the dictator Cincinnatus. When Maelius re- 
 fused to appear before the dictator, to answer 
 the accusations which were brought against him 
 on suspicion of his aspiring to tyranny, Ahala 
 slew him in the midst of the people whose pro- 
 tection he claimed. Ahala was accused for this 
 murder, and banished, but his sentence was af- 
 terwards repealed. He was raised to the dic- 
 tatorship. V. Publius, a proconsul of Asia 
 
 during the age of Mithridates. He conquered 
 Isauria, for which service he was surnamed 
 
 Isauricus, and rewarded with a triumph. 
 
 VI. Geminus, a Roman consul, who opposed 
 
 Annibal with success. VII. Nonianus, a 
 
 Latin historian, who wrote a history of Rome 
 in the reign of Nero. There were more than 
 one writer of this name, as Pliny speaks of a 
 Servilius remarkable for his eloquence and 
 learning ; and Cluintilian mentions another also 
 
 illustrious for his genius and literary merit. 
 
 VIII. Casca, one of Csesar's murderers. 
 
 The family of the Servilii was of patrician 
 rank, and came to settle at Rome after the de- 
 struction of Alba, where they were promoted 
 to the highest offices of the state. To the seve- 
 ral branches of this family were attached the 
 different surnames of Ahala, Axilla, Priscus, 
 CcBfiOy Structus, Geminus, Pulex, Vatia, Casca, 
 'Fidenas, Longus, and Tucca. 
 
 Servius Tcllius, I. the sixth king of Rome, 
 was son of Ocrisia, a slave of Cprniculum, by 
 TuUius, a man slain in the defence of his coun- 
 try against the Romans. Ocrisia was given by 
 Tarquin to Tanaquil, his wife, and she brought 
 up her son in the king's family, and added the 
 name of Servius to that which he had inherited 
 from his father to denote his slavery. Young 
 Servius was educated in the palace of the mon- 
 arch with great care, and, though originally a 
 slave, Tarquin gave him his daughter in mar- 
 riage. His own private merit and virtues re- 
 commended him to notice not less than the 
 royal favours, and Servius, become the favourite 
 of the people and the darling of the soldiers by 
 his liberality and complaisance, was easily rais- 
 ed to the throne on the death of his father-in- 
 law. Rome had no reason to repent of her 
 choice. Servius endeared himself still more as 
 a warrior and as a legislator. He defeated the 
 Veientes and the Tuscans, and by a proper act 
 of policy he established the census. He in- 
 creased the number of the tribes, he beautified 
 and adorned the city, and enlarged its bounda- 
 ries by taking within its walls the hills Cluiri- 
 nalis, Viminalis, and Esquilinus, That he 
 might not seem to neglect the worship of the 
 gods, he built several temples to the goddess of 
 fortune, to whom he deemed himself particu- 
 larly indebted for obtaining the kingdom. He 
 also built a temple to Diana on mount Aven- 
 tine, and raised himself a palace on the hill 
 Esquilinus. Servius married his two daugh- 
 
 ters to the grandsons of his father-in-law ; the 
 elder to Tarquin, and the younger to Aruns. 
 This union, as might be supposed, tended to 
 insure the peace of his family ; but if such were 
 his expectations, he was unhappily deceived. 
 The wife of Aruns, naturally fierce and impet- 
 uous, murdered her own husband to unite her- 
 self to Tarquin, who had likewise assassina- 
 ted his wife. These bloody measures were no 
 sooner pursued, than Servius was murdered by 
 his own son-in-law, and his daughter Tullia 
 showed herself so inimical to filial gratitude 
 and piety, that she ordered her chariot to be 
 driven over the mangled body of her father, 
 B. C, 534, His death was universally lament- 
 ed, and the slaves annually celebrated a festival 
 in his honour, in the temple of Diana, on mount 
 Aventine, the day that he was murdered. Tar- 
 quinia, his wife, buried his remains privately, 
 and died the following day. Liv. 1, c. 41. — 
 Dionys. Hal. 4. — Flor. 1, c. 6. — Cic. de Div. 1, 
 c. 53, — Val. Max. 1, c. 6. — Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 
 
 601. II. Sulpitius, an orator in the age of 
 
 Cicero and Hortensius. He was sent as am- 
 bassador to M. Antony, and died before his re- 
 turn. Cicero obtained a statue for him from the 
 senate and the Roman people, which was raised 
 in the Campus Martius. Besides orations, he 
 wrote verses, which were highly censured for 
 their indelicacy. His works are lost. Cic. in 
 Brut. Phil. &c. — Plin. 5, ep. 3, 
 
 Sesostris, a celebrated king of lEgypt some 
 ages before the Trojan war. His father order- 
 ed all the children in his dominions who were 
 born on the same day with him to be publicly 
 educated, and to pass their youth in the com- 
 pany of his son. This succeeded in the highest 
 degree, and Sesostris had the pleasure to find 
 himself surrounded by a number of faithful 
 ministers and active warriors, whose education 
 and intimacy with their prince rendered them 
 inseparably devoted to his interest. When 
 Sesostris had succeeded on his father's throne, 
 he became ambitious of military fame, and af- 
 ter he had divided his kingdom into 36 different 
 districts, he marched at the bead of a numerous 
 army to make the conquest of the world. Libya; 
 ^Ethiopia, Arabia, with all the islands of the 
 Red Sea, were conquered ; and the victorious 
 monarch marched through Asia, and penetrated 
 farther into the east than the conqueror of Da- 
 rius. He also invaded Europe, and subdued the 
 Thracians ; and that the fame of his conquests 
 might long survive him, he placed columns in 
 the several provinces he had subdued ; and 
 many ages after, this pompous inscription was 
 read in many parts of Asia, Sesostris, the king 
 of kings, has conquered this territory by his o.rvis. 
 At his return home the monarch employed his 
 time in encouraging the fine arts, and in im- 
 proving the revenues of his kingdom. He 
 erected 100 temples to the gods for the victories 
 he had obtained, and mounds of earth were 
 heaped up in several parts of Egypt, where 
 cities were built for the reception of the inhabi- 
 tants duringthe inundations ol the Nile. Some 
 canals were also dug near Memphis, to facili- 
 tate navigation and the communication of one 
 province with another. In his old age Sesos- 
 tris, grown infirm and blind, destroyed himself, 
 after a reign of 44 years, according to some. 
 His mildness towards the conquered has been 
 603 
 
SE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SE 
 
 admired, while some have upbraided him for 
 his cruelty and insolence in causing his chariot 
 to be drawn by some of the monarchs whom he 
 had conquered. The age of Sesostris is so re- 
 mote from every authentic record, that many 
 have supported that the actions and conquests 
 ascribed to this monarch are uncertain and 
 totally fabulous. Herodot. 2, c. 102, &c.-^Diod. 
 l.— Val. Flucc. 5, V. 419.— PZm. 33, c. 3.— 
 Lnican. 10, v. 216.—Strab. 16. 
 
 Sethon, a priest of Vulcan, who made him- 
 self king of Egypt after the death of Anysis. 
 He was attacked by the Assyrians an ddeliver- 
 ed from this powerful enemy by an immense 
 number of rats, which in one night gnawed 
 their bow strings and thongs, so that on the 
 morrow their arms were found to be useless. 
 From this wonderful circumstance Sethon had 
 a statue which represented him with a rat in his 
 hand, with the inscription of Whoever fixes his 
 eyes upon me, let him be pious. Herod. 2, c. 141. 
 
 Severus, I. (Lucius Septimius,) a Roman 
 emperor, born at Leptis in Africa, of a noble 
 family. He gradually exercised all the offices 
 of the state, and recommended himself to the 
 notice of the world by an ambitious mind and a 
 restless activity, that could, for the gratification 
 of avarice, endure the most complicated hard- 
 ships. After the murder of Pertinax, Severus 
 resolved to remove Didius Julianus, who had 
 bought the imperial purple when exposed to sale 
 by the pretorians, and therefore he proclaimed 
 himself emperor on the borders of Illyricum, 
 where he was stationed against the barbarians. 
 To support himself in this bold measure, he 
 took as his partner in the empire Albinus, who 
 was at the head of the Roman forces in Britain, 
 and immediately marched towards Rome, to 
 crush Didius and his partisans. He was re- 
 ceived as he advanced through the country with 
 universal acclamations, and Julianus was assas- 
 sinated by his own soldiers. The reception of 
 Severus at Rome was sufficient to gratify his 
 pride ; the streets were strewed with flowers, 
 and the submissive senate were ever ready to 
 grant whatever honours or titles the conqueror 
 claimed. In professing that he had assumed 
 the purple only to avenge the death of the vir- 
 tuous Pertinax, Severus gained many adhe- 
 rents, and was enabled not only to disarm, but 
 to banish the pretorians, whose insolence and 
 avarice were become alarming not only to the 
 citizens but to the emperor. But while he was 
 victorious at Rome, Severus did not forget that 
 there was another competitor for the imperial 
 purple. Pescennius Niger was in the East at 
 the head of a powerful army, and with the 
 name and ensigns of Augustus. Many obstinate 
 battles were fought between the troops and of- 
 ficers of the imperial rivals, till, on the plains 
 of Issus, which had been above five centuries 
 before covered with the blood of the Persian 
 soldiers of Darius, Niger was totally ruined by 
 the loss of 20,000 men. The head of Niger was 
 cut off and sent to the conqueror, who punished 
 in a most cruel manner all the partisans of his 
 unfortunate rival, Severus afterwards pillaged 
 Byzantium, which had shut her gates against 
 him ; and after he had conquered several na- 
 tions in the East, he returned to Rome, resolved 
 to destroy Albinus, with whom he had hitherto 
 reluctantly shared the imperial power. He 
 604 
 
 attempted to assassinate him by his emissaries; 
 but wlien this had failed of success, Severus 
 had recourse to arms, and the fate of the empire 
 was again decided on the plains of Gaul, Albi- 
 nus was defeated, and the conqueror was so 
 elated with the recollection that he had now no 
 longer a competitor for the purple, that he in- 
 sulted the dead body of his rival, and ordered 
 it to be thrown into the Rhone, after he had 
 suffered it to putrify before the door of his tent, 
 and to be torn to pieces by his dogs. The family 
 and adherents of Albinus shared his fate; and 
 the' return of Severus to the capital rivalled 
 the bloody triumphs of Marius and Sylla. The 
 richest of the citizens were sacrificed, and their 
 money became the property of the emperor. 
 The wicked Commodus received divine hon- 
 ours, and his murderers were punished in the 
 most wanton manner. Tired of the inactive 
 life he had led in Rome, Severus marched into 
 the East, with his two sons Caracalla and Geta, 
 and with uncommon success made himself 
 master of Selucia, Babylon, andCtesiphon; and 
 advanced without opposition far into the Par- 
 thian territories. .From Parthia the emperor 
 marched towards the more southern provinces 
 of Asia; after he had visited the tomb of 
 Pompey the Great, he entered Alexandria ; 
 and granted a senate to this celebrated city. 
 The revolt of Britain recalled him from the 
 East. After he had reduced it under his power, 
 he built a wall across the northern parts of the 
 island, to defend it against the frequent inva- 
 sions of the Caledonians. Hitherto successful 
 against his enemies, Severus now found the 
 peace of his family disturbed, Caracella at- 
 tempted to murder his father as he weis conclud- 
 ing a treaty of peace with the Britons ; and the 
 emperor was so shocked at the undutifulness of 
 his son, that on his return home he called him 
 into his presence, and after he had upbraided 
 him for his ingratitude and perfidy, he offered 
 him a drawn sword, adding, If you are so am- 
 bitious of reigning alone, now imbrue your hands 
 in the blood of your father, and let not the eyes of 
 the loorld be loitness of yotcr want of filial ten- 
 derness. If these words checked Caracalla, 
 yet he did not show himself concerned ; and 
 Severus, worn out with infirmities, which the 
 gout and the uneasiness of his mind increased, 
 soon after died, exclaiming he had been 
 every thing man could wish, but that he was 
 then nothing. Some say that he wished to 
 poison himself, but that when this was denied, 
 he eat to great excess, and soon after expired at 
 York, on the fourth of February, in the 211th 
 year of the Christian era, in the 66th year of his 
 age, after a reign of 17 years 8 months and 3 
 days. Severus has been so much admired for 
 his military talents, that some have called him 
 the most warlike of the Roman emperors. As a 
 monarch he was cruel, and it has been observed 
 that he never did an act of humanity or forgave 
 a fault. In his diet he was temperate, and he 
 always showed himself an open enemy to pomp 
 and splendour. He loved the appellation of a 
 man of letters, and he even composed a history 
 of his own reign, which some have praised for 
 its correctness and veracity. Dio. — Herodian. 
 
 — Victor, &c. II. Alexander, (Marcus Au- 
 
 relius,) a native of Phoenicia, adopted by He- 
 liogabalus. His father's name was Genesius 
 
S£ 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 gl 
 
 Marcianus, and his mother's Julia Mammaea, 
 and he received the surname of Alexander be- 
 cause he was bom in a temple sacred to Alex- 
 ander the Great. He was carefully educated, 
 and his mother, by paying particular attention 
 to his morals and the character of his preceptors, 
 preserved him from licentiousness. At the 
 death ofHeliogabalus, who had been jealous of 
 his virtues, Alexander, though only in the 14th 
 year of his age, was proclaimed emperor, and 
 his nomination was approved by the shouts of 
 the army and the congratulations of the senate. 
 He had not been long on the throne before the 
 peace of the empire was disturbed by the incur- 
 sions of the Persians. Alexander marched into 
 the east without delay, and soon obtained a 
 decisive victory over the barbarians. At his re- 
 turn to Rome he was honoured with a triumph, 
 but the revolt of the Germans soon after called 
 him away from the indolence of the capital. 
 His expedition in Germany was attended with 
 some success, but the virtues and the amiable 
 qualities of Alexander were forgotten in the 
 stern and sullen strictness of the disciplinarian. 
 His soldiers, fond of repose, murmured against 
 his severity ; their clamours were fomented by 
 the artifice of Maximinus, and Alexander was 
 murdered in his tent, after a reign of 13 years 
 and 9 days, on the 18th of March, A. D." 235. 
 His mother Mammsea shared his fate with all 
 his friends ; but this was no sooner known than 
 the soldiers punish 3d with immediate death all 
 such as had been concerned in the murder, ex- 
 cept Maximinus. Alexander has been admired 
 for his many virtues, and every historian, ex- 
 cept Herodian, is bold to assert, that if he had 
 lived the Roman empire might soon have been 
 freed from those tumults and abuses which con- 
 tinually disturbed her peace, and kept the lives 
 of her emperors and senators in perpetual 
 alarms. His severity in punishing offences "was 
 great ; and such as had robbed the public, were 
 they even the most intimate friends of the em- 
 peror, were indiscriminately sacrificed to the 
 tranquillity of the state which they had vio- 
 lated. The great offices of the state which had 
 before his reign been exposed to sale, and oc- 
 cupied by favourites, were now bestowed upon 
 merit ; and Alexander could boast that all his 
 officers Vv^ere men of trust and abilities. He 
 M^as a patron of literature, and he dedicated the 
 hours of relaxation to the study of the best 
 Greek and Latin historians, orators, and poets ; 
 and in the public schools which his liberality 
 and the desire of encouraging learning had 
 founded, he often heard with pleasure and sa- 
 tisfaction the eloquent speeches and declama- 
 tions of his subjects. The provinces were well 
 supplied with provisions, and Rome was em- 
 bellished w^ith many stately buildings and mag- 
 nificent porticos. AUx. vit. — Herodian, — Zosim. 
 
 — Victor. HI. Flavins Valerius, a native of 
 
 lUyricum, nominated Ceesar by Galerius. He 
 was put to death by Maximianus, A. D. 307. 
 
 IV. Julius, a governor of Britain under 
 
 Adrian. V. Libius, a man proclaimed em- 
 peror of the West, at Ravenna, after the death 
 of Majorianus. He was soon after poisoned. 
 
 VI, Lucius Cornelius, a Latin poet in the 
 
 age of Augustus, for some time employed in 
 
 the judicial proceedings of the forum. VII. 
 
 Cassius, an orator, banished into the island of 
 
 Crete by Augustas, for his illiberal language 
 He was banished 17 years, and died in Seri- 
 phos. He is commended as an able orator, yet 
 declaiming with more warmth than prudence. 
 His writings were destroyed by order of the 
 
 senate. Siiet. in Oct. — Quint. VIII. Sul- 
 
 pitius, an ecclesiastical historian, who died 
 A. D. 420. The best of his works is hi.s His- 
 toria Sac7-a, from the creation of the world to 
 the consulship of Stilicho, of which the style is 
 elegant, and superior to that of the age in which 
 he lived. The best edition is in 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 Patavii. 1741. IX. Aquilius, a native of 
 
 Spain, who wrote an account of his own life in 
 the reign of the emperor Valens. X. A ce- 
 lebrated architect employed in building Nero's 
 golden palace at Rome, after the burning of 
 that city. 
 
 Seuthes, a name common to several of the 
 Thracian princes. 
 
 Sextia LicTNiA Lex, de Magistratibus, by C. 
 Licinius and L. Sextius, the tribunes, A. U. C. 
 386. It ordained that one of the consuls should 
 be elected from among the plebeians. Ano- 
 ther, de religione, by the same, A. U. C. 385. 
 It enacted that a decemvirate should be chosen 
 from the patricians and plebeians instead of the 
 decemviri sacri faciundis. 
 
 Septilius, a governor of Africa, who ordered 
 Marius when he landed there to depart imme- 
 diately from his province. Marius ^heard this 
 with some concern, and said to the messenger, 
 Go and tell your master that you have seen the 
 exiled Marius sitting on the ruins of Carthage. 
 Plut. in Mar. 
 
 Sextius, I. (Lucius,) was remarkable for his 
 friendship with Brutus ; he gained the confi- 
 dence of Augustus, and was consul. Horace, 
 who was in the number of his friends, dedicat- 
 ed 1 od. 4, to him. II. The first plebeian 
 
 consul. III. One of the sons of Tarquin. 
 
 Vid. Tarquinius. 
 
 Sextds, a praenomen given to the sixth son 
 
 of a family. 1. A son of Pompey the Great. 
 
 Vid. Pompeius. II. A stoic philosopher, born 
 
 at Chseronaea in Boeotia. Some suppose that he 
 was Plutarch's nephew. He was preceptor to 
 M. Aurelius and L. Verus. III. A philoso- 
 pher in the age of Antoninus. He was one of 
 the followers of the doctrines of Pyrrho. Some 
 of his works are still extant. The best edition 
 of the treatise of Sextus Pompeius Festus de ver- 
 borum, significations, is that of Arast. 4to. 1699. 
 
 Sibylla. Vid. Part III. 
 
 SicAMBRi, or Sygambri. Vid. Part I. 
 
 SicANi. Vid. Part I. 
 
 S1CH.EUS, called also Sicharbas and Akerbas, 
 was a priest of the temple of Hercules in Phoe- 
 nicia. His father's name was Plisthenes. He 
 married Elisa the daughter of Belus, and sister 
 of king Pygmalion, better known by the name 
 of Dido. He was so rich that his brother-in- 
 law murdered him to obtain his possessions. 
 This murder Pygmalion endeavoured to con- 
 ceal from his sister Dido ; but the shade of Si- 
 chaeus appeared to Dido, and advised her to fly 
 from Tyre, after she had previously secured 
 some treasures which Avere concealed in an 
 obscure and unknown place. According to 
 Justin, Acerbas was the uncle of Dido. Virg. 
 JEn. 1. V. 847, ^c.—Patcrc. 1, c. 6.— Justin. 
 18, c. 4. 
 
 605 
 
SI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 'BI 
 
 SiciNius Dentatds, (L.) I. a tribune of Rome, 
 celebrated for his valour and the honours he 
 obtained in the field of battle during the period 
 of 40 years in which he was engaged in the 
 Roman armies. He was present in 121 battles : 
 he obtained 14 civic crowns ; 3 mural crowns, 8 
 crowns of gold ; 83 golden collars ; 60 brace- 
 lets ; 18 lances ; 23 horses with all their orna- 
 ments, and all as the reward of his uncom- j 
 mon services. He could show the scars of 451 
 wounds, which he had received all in his breast, j 
 particularly in opposing the Sabines when they j 
 took the capitol. The popularity of Sicinius ! 
 became odious to Appius Claudius, who wished 
 to make himself absolute at Rome, and there- 
 fore, to remove him from the capital, he sent 
 him to the army, by which, soon after his ar- 
 rival, he was attacked and murdered. Of 100 
 men who were ordered to fall upon him, Sici- 
 nius killed 15 and wounded 30. For his un- 
 common courage Sicinius has been called the 
 
 Roman Achilles. Val. Max. 3, c. 2. Dionys. 
 
 8. II. Vellutus, one of the first tribunes in 
 
 Rome. He raised cabals against Coriolanus, 
 and was one of his accusers. Plut. in Cor. 
 III. Sebinus, a Roman general, who de- 
 feated the Volsci. 
 
 SiouLi. Vid. Part I. 
 
 SiDONius Caius Sollius Apollinaris, a Chris- 
 tian writer, born A. D. 430. He died in the 
 52d year of his age. There are remaining of 
 his composition some letters, and different 
 poems, consisting chiefly of panegyrics on the 
 great men of his time, of which the best edition 
 is that of Labbseus, Paris, 4to. 1652. Virg. 
 jEn. 1, V. 682. 
 
 SiLANUs, (D.) I. a son of T. Manlius, Tor- 
 quatus, accused of extortion in the management 
 of the province of Macedonia. The father him- 
 self desired to hear the complaints laid against 
 his son, and after he had spent two days in ex- 
 amining the charges of the Macedonians, he 
 pronounced, on the third day, his son guilty of 
 extortion, and unworthy to be called a citizen 
 of Rome. He also banished him from his pre- 
 sence, and so struck was the son at the severity 
 of his father, that he hanged himself on the fol- 
 lowing night. Liv.M. — Cic.de Finib. — Val. 
 
 Max. 5, c. 8. -II. C. Junius, a consul under 
 
 Tiberius, accused of extortion, and banished to 
 the island of Citheraea. Tacit. II. A pro- 
 praetor in Spain, who routed the Carthaginian 
 
 forces there while Annibal was in Italy. IV. 
 
 Turpilius, a lieutenant of Metellus against Ju- 
 gurtha. He was accused by Marius, though 
 totally mnocent, and condemned by the malice 
 
 of his judges. V. Lucius, a man betrothed 
 
 to Octavia, the daughter of Claudius. Nero 
 took Octavia away from him, and on the day of 
 her nuptials Silanus killed himself. 
 
 SiLius Italicus, (C.) I. a Latin poet, who was 
 originally at the bar, where he for some time 
 distinguished himself, till he retired from Rome 
 more particularly to consecrate his time to 
 study. He was consul the year that Nero was 
 murdered. Pliny has observed, that when Tra- 
 jan was invested with the imperial purple, Silius 
 refused to come to Rome and congratulate him 
 like the rest of his fellow-citizens, a neglect 
 which was never resented by the emperor. 
 Silius was in possession of a house where Ci- 
 cero had lived, and another in which was the 
 606 
 
 tomb of Virgil. The birth-day of Virgil was 
 yearly celebrated with unusual pomp and so- 
 lemnity by Silius ; and for his partiality, not 
 only to the memory, but to the compositions, of 
 the Mantuan poet, he has been called the ape of 
 Virgil. Silius starved himself while labouring 
 under an imposthume, which his physicians 
 were unable to remove, in the beginning of 
 Trajan's reign, about the 75th year of his age. 
 There remains a poem of Italicus on the se- 
 cond punic war, divided into 17 books, greatly 
 commended by^ Martial. The moderns have 
 not been so favourable in their opinions con- 
 cerning its merit. He has every where imitated 
 Virgil, but with little success. Silius was a 
 great collector of antiquities. His son was ho- 
 noured with the consulship during his life-time. 
 The best editions of Italicus will be found to 
 be Drakenborch's in 4to. Utr. 1717, and that 
 of Cellarius, 8vo. Lips. IG95.— Mart. 11, ep. 49, 
 
 &c. II. Caius, a man of consular dignity, 
 
 greatly loved by Messalina for his comely ap- 
 pearance and elegant address. Messalina 
 obliged him to divorce his wife that she might 
 enjoy his ccmpanj without intermission. Silius 
 was forced to comply, though with great re- 
 luctance, and he was at last put to death for 
 the adulteries which the emperess obliged him to 
 commit. Tacit. — Sv£t. — Dio. 
 
 Simon, a currier of Athens, whom Socrates 
 often visited on account of his great sagacity 
 and genius. He collected all the information 
 he could receive from the conversation of the 
 philosopher, and afterwards published it with 
 his own observations in 33 dialogues. He was 
 the first of the disciples of Socrates who at- 
 tempted to give an account of the opinions of 
 his master. These dialogues were extant in 
 the age of the biographer Diogenes, who has 
 preserved their title. Diog. 2, c. 14. 
 
 SiMoNiDEs, a celebrated poet of Cos, who 
 flourished 538 years B. C. His father's name 
 was Leoprepis, or Theoprepis. He wrote ele- 
 gies, epigrams, and dramatical pieces, esteemed 
 for their elegance and sweetness, and composed 
 also epic poems. Simonides was universally 
 courted by the princes of Greece and Sicily, 
 and, according to one of the fables of Phaedrus, 
 he was such a favourite of the gods, that his 
 life was miraculously preserved in an entertain- 
 ment when the roof of the house fell upon all- 
 those who were feasting. He obtained a poeti- 
 cal prize in the 80th year of his age, and he 
 lived to his 90th year. The people of Syracuse, 
 who had hospitably honoured him when alive, 
 erected a magnificent monument to his memory. 
 Simonides, according to some, added the four 
 letters v, w, I, ^, to the alphabet of the Greeks. 
 Some fragments of his poetry are extant. Ac- 
 cording to some, the grandson of the elegiac 
 poet of Cos was called Simonides. He flourish- 
 ed a few years before the Peloponnesian war, 
 and was the author of some books of invention, 
 genealogies, &c. Qintil. 10, c. 1. — Phadr. 4, 
 fab. 21 and 'M.—Horat. 2, Od. 1, v. 3S.—Horat. 
 5, c. 102.— Czc. de Orat. &c.—Arist.— Pindar. 
 Isth. %—Catull. 1, ep. 39.—LMcan. de Macrob. — 
 jElian. V. H. 8, c. 2. 
 
 SiMPLicius, a Greek commentator on Aris- 
 totle, whose works were all edited in the 16th 
 century, and the latter part of the 15th, but 
 without a Latin version. 
 
SI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SO 
 
 SiNON, a son of Sisyphus, who accompanied 
 the Greeks to the Trojan war, and there dis- 
 tinguished himself by his cunning and fraud, 
 and his intimacy with Ulysses. When the 
 Greeks had fabricated the famous wooden horse, 
 Sinon went to Troy with his hands bound be- 
 hind his back, and by the most solemn protesta- 
 tions, assured Priam that the Greeks were gone 
 from Asia, and that they had been ordered to 
 sacrifice one of their soldiers to render the wind 
 favourable fo their return, and that because the 
 lot had fallen upon him, at the instigation of 
 Ulysses he had fled away from their camp, not 
 to be cruelly immolated. These false assertions 
 were immediately credited by the Trojans, and 
 Sinon advised Priam to bring into his city the 
 wooden horse which the Greeks had left behind 
 them, and to consecrate it to Minerva. His 
 advice was followed, and Sinon, in the night, 
 to complete his perfidy, opened the sides of the 
 horse, from which issued a number of armed 
 Greeks, who surprised the Trojans and pilla- 
 ged their city. Dares Phryg. — Homer. Od. 8, 
 V. 492, 1. 11, V. b'il.— Virg.Mn. 2, v. 79, &.Z.— 
 Pans. 10, c. 27.— Q. Smyrn. 12, &c. 
 
 SiSAMNEs, a judge flayed alive for his par- 
 tiality, by order of Cambyses, His skin was 
 nailed on the bench of the other judges to in- 
 cite them to act with candour and impartiality. 
 Herodot. 5, c. 25. 
 
 SisENNA, (L.) I. an ancient historian among 
 the Romans, 91 B. C. He was the friend of 
 Macer, and coeval with Antias and Gluadriga- 
 rius; but he far excelled his contemporaries, 
 as well as predecessors, in the art of historical 
 narrative. He was of the same family as Sylla, 
 the dictator, and was descended from that Si- 
 senna who was praetor in 570. In his youth he 
 practised as an orator, and is characterized by 
 Cicero as a man of learning and wit, but of no 
 great industry or knowledge in business. In 
 more advanced life he was praetor of Achaia, 
 and a friend of Atticus. Vossius says his his- 
 tory commenced after the taking of Rome by 
 the Gauls, and ended with the wars of Marius 
 and Sylla. Now, it is possible that he may 
 have given some sketch of Roman affairs from 
 the burning of the city by the Gauls, but it is 
 evident he had touched slightly on these early 
 portions of the history, for though his work 
 consisted of twenty, or, according to others, of 
 twenty-two books, it appears from a fragment 
 of the second, which is still preserved, that he 
 had there advanced as far in his narrative as 
 the SocialWar,which broke out in the year 663. 
 The greater part, therefore, I suspect, was de- 
 voted to the history of the civil wars of Marius ; 
 and indeed Velleius Paterculus calls his work 
 Ofus Belli Civilis Sullani. The great defect 
 of his history consisted, it is said, in not being 
 written with sufficient political freedom, at least 
 concerning the character and conduct of Sylla, 
 which is regretted by Sallust in a passage bear- 
 ing ample testimony to the merits of Sisenna in 
 other particulars. Cicero, while he admits his 
 superiority over his predecessors, adds, that he 
 was far from perfection, and complains that 
 there was something puerile in his Annals, as 
 if he had studied none of the Greek historians 
 but Clitarchus. I have quoted these opinion.s, 
 since we must now entirely trust to the senti- 
 ments of others in the judgment which we 
 
 form of the merits of Sisenna ; for although the 
 fragments which remain of his history are more 
 numerous than those of any other old Latin an- 
 nalists, being about 150, they are also shorter and 
 more unconnected. Indeed, there are scarcely 
 two sentences any where joined together. Ovid. 
 Trist. 2, V. 443.— Cic. in Brut. 64 and 67.— 
 
 Pater c. 2, c. 9. II. Corn, a Roman, who, on 
 
 being reprimanded in the senate for the ill con- 
 duct and depraved manners of his wife, accused 
 publicly Augustus of unlawful commerce with 
 
 her. Dio. 54. The family of the Cornelii 
 
 and Apronii received the surname of Sisenna. 
 
 SisiGAMBis, or SisYGAMBis, the mother of Da- 
 rius, the last king of Persia. She was taken 
 prisoner by Alexander the Great, at the battle 
 of Issus, with the rest of the royal family. The 
 conqueror treated her with uncommon tender- 
 ness and attention ; he salated her as his own 
 mother, and what he had sternly denied to the 
 petitions of his favourites and ministers, he of- 
 ten granted to the intercession of Sisygambis. 
 The regard of the queen for Alexander was un- 
 common, and, indeed, she no sooner heard that 
 he was dead, than she killed herself, unwilling 
 to survive the loss of so generous an enemy; 
 though she had seen with less concern the fall 
 of her son's kingdom, the ruin of his subjects, 
 and himself murdered by his servants. She had 
 also lost, in one day, her husband and 80 of her 
 brothers, whom Ochus had assassinated to make 
 himself master of the kingdom of Persia. Curt. 
 4, c. 9, 1. 10, c. 5. 
 
 Sisyphus, a son of M. Antony, who was born 
 deformed, and received the name of Sisyphus, 
 because he was endowed witli genius and an 
 excellent understanding. Horat. 1, sat. 3, v. 
 47. Vid. Part III. 
 
 SiTius, a Roman, who assisted Caesar in Af- 
 rica with great success. He was rewarded with 
 a province of Numidia. Sallust. Jug. 21. 
 
 Smerdis, a son of Cyrus, put to death by or- 
 der of his brother Cambyses. As his execution 
 was not public, and as it was only known to 
 one of the officers of the monarch, one of the 
 Magi of Persia, who was himself called Smer- 
 dis, and who greatly resembled the deceased 
 prince, declared himself king at the death of 
 Cambyses. After he had reigned for six months 
 with universal approbation, seven noblemen of 
 Persia conspired to dethrone him, and when this 
 had been executed with success, they chose one 
 of their number to reign in the usurper's place, 
 B. C. 521. This was Darius, the son of Hys- 
 taspes. Herodot. 3, c. 30. — Justin. 1, c. 9. 
 
 Socrates, I. the most celebrated philosopher 
 of all antiquity, was a native of Athens. His 
 father, Sophfoniscus, was a statuary, and his 
 mother, Phenarete, was by profession a midwife. 
 For some time he followed the occupation of his 
 father, and some have mentioned the statue of 
 the Graces, admired for their simplicity and 
 elegance, as the work of his own hands He 
 was called away from thisemplo5Tnentby Crito, 
 who admired his genius and courted his friend- 
 ship. Philosophy soon became the study of So- 
 crates, and under Archelaus and Anaxagoras 
 he laid the foundation of that exemplary virtue 
 which succeeding ages have ever loved and ven- 
 erated. He appeared, like the rest of his coun- 
 trymen, in the field of battle ; he fought with 
 boldness and intrepidity, and to his courage two 
 60-? 
 
so 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SO 
 
 of his friends and disciples, Xenophon and Al- 
 cibiades, owed the preservation of their life. 
 But the character of Socrates appears more con- 
 spicuous as a philosopher and moralist than as 
 that of a warrior. He was fond of labour, he 
 inured himself to suffer hardships, and he ac- 
 quired that serenity of mind and firmness of 
 countenance which the most alarming dangers 
 could never destroy, or the most sudden calami- 
 ties alter. If he was poor, it was from choice, 
 and not the effects of vanity or tlie wish of ap- 
 pearing singular. He bore injuries with pa- 
 tience, and the insults of malice or resentment 
 he not only treated with contempt, but even re- 
 ceived with a mind that expressed some con- 
 cern, and felt compassion for the depravity of 
 human nature. So single and so venerable a 
 character was admired by the most enlightened 
 of the Athenians. Socrates was attended by a 
 number of illustrious pupils, whom he instruct- 
 ed by his exemplary life as M^ell as by his doc- 
 trines. He had no particular place where to 
 deliver his lectures, but as the good of his coun- 
 trymen, and the reformation of their corrupted 
 morals, and not the aggregation of riches, was 
 the object of his study, he was present every 
 where, and drew the attention of his auditors 
 either in the groves of Academus, the Lyceum, 
 or on the banks of the Ilyssus. He spoke with 
 freedom on every subject, religious as well as 
 civil, and had the courage to condemn the vio- 
 lence of his countrymen, and to withstand the 
 torrent of resentment by which the Athenian 
 generals were capitally punished for not bury- 
 ing the dead at the baitle of Arginusae. This 
 Independence of spirit, and that visible supe- 
 riority of mind and genius over the rest of his 
 countrymen, created many enemies to Socrates ; 
 but as his character was irreproachable and his 
 doctrines pure, the voice of malevolence was 
 silent. Yet Aristophenes undertook, in his 
 comedy of the Clouds, to ridicule the venerable 
 character of Socrates on the stage ; and when 
 once the way was open to calumny and defa- 
 mation, the fickle and licentious populace paid 
 no reverence to the philosopher whom they had 
 before regarded as a being of a superior order. 
 When this had succeeded, Melitus stood forth 
 to criminate him, together with Anitus and 
 Lycon, and the philosopher was summoned be- 
 fore the tribunal of the five hundred. He was 
 accused of corrupting the Athenian youth, of 
 making innovations in the religion of the 
 Greeks, and of ridiculing the many gods which 
 the Athenians worshipped. Lysias, one of the 
 most celebrated orators of the age, composed 
 an oration in a laboured and pathetic style, 
 which he offered to his friend to be pronounced 
 as his defence in the presence of his judges. 
 Socrates read it, but after he had praised the 
 eloquence and the animation of the whole, he 
 rejected it, as neither manly nor expressive of 
 fortitude. In his apology he spoke with great 
 animation, and confessed that while others 
 boasted that they were acquainted with every 
 thing, he himself knew nothing. The whole 
 discourse was full of simplicity and noble gran- 
 deur. He modestly said, that what he possessed 
 was applied for the service of the Athenians ; it 
 was his wish to make his fellow-citizens happy, 
 and it was a duty be performed by the special 
 command of the gods, who$e authority, said he 
 608 
 
 emphatically to his judges, / regard more iha/i 
 yours. Such language from a man who was 
 accused of a capital crime astonished and ir- 
 ritated the judges. Socrates was condemned, 
 but only by a majority of three voices ; and 
 when he was demanded, according to the spirit 
 of the Athenian laws, to pass sentence on 
 himself, and to mention the death he preferred, 
 the philosopher said, For my attempts to teach 
 the Athenian youth justice and moderation^ and 
 to render the rest of my countrymen more lutppy, 
 let me be maintained at the pid)lic expense the 
 remaining years of my life in the Prylaneum^ 
 a.n honour^ O Athenians, lohich 1 deserve more 
 than the victors of the Olympic games. They 
 make their countrymeii more happy in appear- 
 ance^ but 1 have made you so in reality. This 
 exasperated the judges in the highest degree, 
 and he was condemned to drink hemlock. 
 Upon this he addressed the court, and more 
 particularly the judges who had decided in his 
 favour in a pathetic speech. He told them that 
 to die was a pleasure, since he was going to hold 
 converse with the greatest heroes of antiquity ; 
 he recommended, to their paternal care his 
 defenceless children, and as he returned to the 
 prison, he exclaimed : 1 go to die, you to live ; 
 but which is the best the Divinity alone can know. 
 The solemn celebration of the Delian festivals 
 ( Vid. Delia,) prevented his execution for thirty 
 days, and during that time he was confined in 
 the prison and loaded with irons. His friends, 
 and particularly his disciples, were his constant 
 attendants; he discoursed with them upon dif- 
 ferent subjects with all his usual cheerfulness 
 and serenity. He reproved them for their sor- 
 row, and when one of them was uncommonly 
 grieved because he was to suffer though inno- 
 cent, the philosopher replied. Would you then 
 have me die guilty ? With this composure he 
 spent his last days ; he continued to be a pre- 
 ceptor till the moment of his death, and instruct- 
 ed his pupils on questions of the greatest im- 
 portance ; he told them his opinions in support 
 of the immortality of the soul, and reprobated 
 with acrimony the prevalent custom of suicide. 
 He disregarded the intercession of his friends, 
 and when it was in his power to make his 
 escape out of prison, he refused it, and asked 
 with his usual pleasantry, where he could 
 escape death ; W7tere, says he to Crito, who had 
 bribed the gaoler, and made his escape certain, 
 where shall 1 fly to avoid the irrevocable doom 
 passed on all mankind 7 When the hour to drink 
 the poison was come, the executioner presented 
 him the cup with tears in his eyes. Socrates- 
 received it with composure, and after he had 
 made a libation to the gods, he drank it with 
 an unaltered countenance, and a few moments 
 after he expired. Such was the end of a man 
 whom the uninfluenced answer of the oracle 
 of Delphi had pronounced the wisest of man- 
 kind. Socrates died 40O years before Christ, 
 in the 70th year of his age. He was no sooner 
 buried than the Athenians repented of their 
 cruelty, his accusers were universally despised 
 and shunned, one suffered death, some were 
 banished, and others, with their own hands, 
 put an end to their life. The actions, sayings, 
 and opinions of Socrates have been faithfully 
 recorded by two of the most celebrated of his 
 pupils, Xenophon and Plato , and every thing 
 
so 
 
 HISTORY, &0. 
 
 SO 
 
 which relates to the life and circumstances of 
 this great philosopher is now minutely known. 
 To his poverty, his innocence, and his example, 
 the Greeks were particularly indebted for their 
 greatness and splendour; and the learning which 
 was universally disseminated by his pupils, gave 
 the whole nation a consciousness of their supe- 
 riority over the rest of the world, not only in the 
 polite arts, but in the more laborious exercises, 
 ■which their writings celebrated. The philoso- 
 phy of Socrates forms an interesting epoch in 
 the history of the human mind. The son of 
 Sophroniscus derided the more abstruse inqui- 
 ries and metaphysical researches of his prede- 
 cessors, and by first introducing moral philoso- 
 phy,he induced mankind to consider themselves, 
 their passions, their opinions, their duties, ac- 
 tions, and faculties. From this it was said that 
 the founder of the Socratic school drew philo- 
 sophy down from heaven upon the earth. The 
 portrait usually drawn of Socrates, and the his- 
 torical importance attributed to him appear to 
 be at irreconcilable variance. "With him most 
 •writers make a new period to begin in the his- 
 tory of Greek philosophy, which manifestly 
 implies that he breathed a new spirit and char- 
 acter into those intellectual exertions of his 
 countrymen, which we comprehend under the 
 name of philosophy ; so that they assume a 
 new form under his hands, or at least that he 
 immediately widened their range. But if we 
 inquire how the same writers described So- 
 crates as an individual, we are informed that 
 he did not at all busy himself with the physical 
 investigations which constituted a main part of 
 Greek philosophy, but rather withheld others 
 from them ; and that, even with regard to m.oral 
 inquiries, which were those in which he en- 
 gaged the deepest, he did not by any means 
 aim at reducing them into a scientific shape, 
 and that he established no fixed principle for 
 this more than for any other branch of human 
 knowledge. The base of his intellectual con- 
 stitution was rather religious than speculative ; 
 his exertions rather those of a good citizen for 
 the improvement of the people, and especially 
 of the young, than those of a philosopher ; in 
 short, he is represented as a virtuoso in the 
 exercise of sound common sense, and of that 
 strict integrity and mild philanthropy with 
 which it is always associated in an uncorrupted 
 mind. All this, however, tinged with a slight 
 air of enthusiasm. But these are not qualities 
 which could have produced the conspicuous 
 and permanent effects on the philosophical ex- 
 ertions of a people already far advanced in in- 
 tellectual culture. The question then is, what 
 must Socrates have been to give Plato an in- 
 ducement and a right to exhibit him as he has 
 done in his dialogues, and thus lead us to the 
 inference that he must have had a strictly phi- 
 losophical basis in his composition so far as he 
 is recognized by Plato as the author of his 
 philosophical life, and is therefore to be regard- 
 ed as the first vital movement of Greek philo- 
 sophy in its advanced stage, and that he can 
 only be entitled to that place by an element 
 which, though properly philosophical, was 
 foreign to the preceding period. The charac- 
 ter which is peculiar to the post Socratic philo- 
 sophy beginning with Plato, is the co-existence 
 and inter-communion of the three branches 
 Part II.— 4 H 
 
 of knowledge— dialectics, physics, and ethics. 
 This distinction separates the two periods very 
 definitely. In the earlier period, the idea of 
 science, as such, was not the governing idea, 
 and had even become a distinct subject of con- 
 sciousness, as it became in the second. Hence 
 the main business every where is to distinguish 
 knowledge from opinion ; hence the precision 
 of scientific language ; hence the peculiar prom- 
 inence of dialectics, which have no other object 
 than the idea of science ; things not compre- 
 hended even by the Eleatics in the same way 
 as by the Socratic schools, since the former still 
 make the idea of Being the starting point ra- 
 ther than that of knowledge. Now this waking 
 of the idea of science and its earliest manifest- 
 ations must have been, in the first instance, 
 what constituted the philosophical basis in So- 
 crates ; and for this reason he is justly regard- 
 ed as the founder of that later Greek philosophy 
 which, in its whole essential form, together 
 with its several variations, was determined by 
 that idea. The actions of men furnished ma- 
 terials also for his discourse ; to instruct them 
 was his aim, and to render them happy was the 
 ultimate object of his daily lessons. From prin- 
 ciples like these, which were enforced by the 
 unparalleled example of an affectionate hus- 
 band, a tender parent, a warlike soldier, and a 
 patriotic citizen in Socrates, soon aflerthe cele- 
 brated sects of the Platonists, the Peripatetics, 
 the Academics, Cyrenaics, Stoics, &c. arose, 
 Socrates never wrote for the public eye, yet 
 many support that the tragedies of his pupil, 
 Euripides, were greatly composed by him. A 
 physiognomist observed, in looking in the face 
 of the philosopher, that his heart was the most 
 depraved, immodest, and corrupted that ever 
 was in the human breast. This nearly cost the 
 satirist his life, but Socrates upbraided his dis- 
 ciples, who wished to punish the physiogno- 
 mist, and declared that his assertions were true, 
 but that all his vicious propensities had been 
 duly corrected and curbed by means of reason. 
 Socrates made a poetical version of iEsop's 
 fables while in prison. Laert. — Zenoph. — Pla- 
 to. — Pans. 1, c. 22. — Plut. de op. Phil. &c. — 
 Cic. de Oral. 1, c, 54. — Tusc. 1, c. 41, &c. — 
 
 Val. Max. 3, c. 4. II. Aleaderof the Achse- 
 
 ans at the battle of Cunaxa. He was seized 
 
 and put to death by order of Artaxerxes. 
 
 III. A scholiast, born A. D. 380, at Constanti- 
 nople. He wrote an ecclesiastical history from 
 the year 309, where Eusebius ended, down to 
 440, with great exactness and judgment, of 
 which the best edition is that of Reading, fol. 
 Cantab. 1720. 
 
 SoEMtAS, (Julia,) mother of the emperor He- 
 liogabaluSj.was made president of a senate of 
 women, which she had elected to decide the 
 quarrels, and the affairs of the Roman matrons. 
 She at last provoked the people by her debauch- 
 eries, extravagance, and cruelties, and was 
 murdered with her son and family. She was a 
 native of Apamea; her father's name was Ju- 
 lius Avilus, and her mother's Masa. Her sister 
 Julia Mammaea married the emperor Septi- 
 mius Severus. 
 
 SoGDiANUs, a son of Artaxerxes Longimanus, 
 
 who murdered his elder brother, king Xerxes, 
 
 to make himself master of the Persian throne. 
 
 He was but seven months in possession of the 
 
 609 
 
so 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 60 
 
 crown. His brother Ochus, who reigned under 
 the name of Darius Nothus, conspired against 
 him, and suffocated him in a tower full of warm 
 ashes. 
 
 SoLiNus, (C. Julius,) a grammarian at the 
 end of the first century, who wrote a book call- 
 ed Polyhistor, which is a collection of historical 
 remarks and geographical annotations on the 
 most celebrated places of every country. He 
 has been called Pliny's ape, because he imitated 
 that well-known naturalist. The last edition of 
 the Polyhistor is that of Norimb. ex editione 
 Salmasii. 1777. 
 
 Solon, one of the seven wise men of Greece, 
 was born at Sal amis and educated at Athens. 
 His father's name was Euphorion, or Exeche- 
 stides, one of the descendants of king Codrus, 
 and by his mother's side he reckoned among his 
 relations the celebrated Pisistratus. After he 
 had devoted part of his time to philosophical 
 and political studies, Solon travelled over the 
 greatest part of Greece ; but at his return home 
 he was distressed with the dissensions which 
 were kindled among his countrymen. All fixed 
 their eyes upon Solon as a deliverer, and he 
 was unanimously elected archon and sovereign 
 legislator. He might have become absolute, 
 but he refused the dangerous office of king of 
 Athens, and in the capacity of lawgiver he be- 
 gan to make a reform in every department. 
 The complaints of the poor citizens found re- 
 dress, all debts were remitted, and no one was 
 permitted to seize the person of his debtor if 
 unable to make a restoration of his money. 
 After he had made the most salutary regula- 
 tions in the state, and bound the Athenians by a 
 solemn oath that they would faithfully observe 
 his laws for the space of 100 years, Solon re- 
 signed the office of legislator, and removed him- 
 self from Athens. He visited Egypt, and in the 
 court of Croesus, king of Lydia, he convinced 
 the monarch of the instability of fortune, and 
 told him, when he wished to know whether he 
 was not the happiest of mortals, that Tellus, 
 an Athenian, who had always seen his country 
 in a flourishing state, who had seen his chil- 
 dren lead a virtuous life, and who had himself 
 fallen in defence of his country, was more en- 
 titled to happiness than the possessor of riches 
 and the master of empires. After ten years' 
 absence Solon returned to Athens, but he had 
 the mortification to find the greatest part of his 
 regulations disregarded by the factious spirit of 
 his countrymen and the usurpation of Pisistra- 
 tus. Not to be longer a spectator of the divi- 
 sions that reigned in his country, he retired to 
 Cyprus, where he died at the court of king Phi- 
 locyprus, in the 80th year of his age, 558 years 
 before the Christian era. The salutary conse- 
 quences of the laws of Solon can be discovered 
 in the length of time they were in force in the 
 republic of Athens. For above 400 years they 
 flourished in full vigour, and Cicero, who was 
 himself a witness of their benign influence, 
 passes the highest encomiums upon the legisla- 
 tor, whose superior wisdom framed such a code 
 of regulations. It was the intention of Solon to 
 protect the poorest citizens, and by dividing the 
 whole body of the Athenians into four classes, 
 three of which were permitted to discharge the 
 most important offices and magistracies of the 
 state, and at last to give their opinion in the as- 
 610 
 
 semblies, but not have a share in the distinctions 
 and honours of their superiors, the legislator 
 gave the populace a privilege which, though at 
 first small and inconsiderable, soon rendered 
 them masters of the republic and of all the af- 
 fairs of government. He made a reformation 
 in the Areopagus, he increased the authority of 
 the members, and permitted them yearly to in- 
 quire how every citizen maintained himself, 
 and to punish such as lived in idleness, and 
 were not employed in some honourable and lu- 
 crative profession. He also regulated the Pry- 
 tan eum, and fixed the number of its judges to 
 400. The sanguinary laws of Draco were all 
 cancelled, except that against murder; and the 
 punishment denounced against every offender 
 was proportioned to his crime. But Solon made 
 no law against parricide or sacrilege. The 
 former of these crimes, he said, was too hor- 
 rible to human nature for a man to be guilty of 
 it, and the latter could never be committed, 
 because the history of Athens had never fur- 
 nished a single instance. Such as had died in 
 the service of their country were buried with 
 great pomp, and their family was maintained 
 at the public expense ; but such as had squan- 
 dered away their estates, such as refused to 
 bear arms in defence of their country, or paid 
 no attention to the infirmities and distress of 
 their parents, were branded with infamy. The 
 laws of marriage were newly regulated. To 
 speak with ill language against the dead as well 
 as the living, was made a crime, and the legis- 
 lator wished that the character of his fellow- 
 citizens should be freed from the aspersions of 
 malevolence and envy. A person who had no 
 children was permitted to dispose of his estates 
 as he pleased, and the females were not allow- 
 ed to be extravagant in their dress or expenses. 
 To be guilty of adultery was a capital crime. 
 These celebrated laws were engraved on seve- 
 ral tables ; and that they might be better known 
 and more familiar to the Athenians, they were 
 written in verse. The indignation which So- 
 lon expressed on seeing the tragical represent- 
 ations of Thespis is well known; and he sternly 
 observed, that if falsehood and fiction were 
 tolerated on the stage, they would soon find their 
 way among the common occupations of men. 
 According to Plutarch, Solon was reconciled 
 to Pisistratus, but this seems to be false, as the 
 legislator refused to live in a country where the 
 privileges of his fellow-citizens were trampled 
 upon by the usurpation of a tyrant. ( Vid. Ly. 
 curgus.) Plut. in Sol. — Herodot. 1, c. 29 — 
 Diog. 1. — Pans. 1, c. 40. — Cic. 
 
 SoNCHis, an Egyptian priest in the age of 
 Solon. It was he who told that celebrated phi- 
 losopher a number of traditions, particularly 
 about the Atlantic isles, which he represented 
 as more extensive than the continent of Africa 
 and Asia united ; one of which disappeared, as 
 it is said, in one day and one night. Plut. in 
 Isid. &c. 
 
 SoPATER, a philosopher of Apamea, in the 
 age of the emperor Constantine. He was one 
 of the disciples of lamblicus, and after his death 
 he was at the head of the Platonic philoso- 
 phers. 
 
 Sophocles, I. Colonus, a beautiful village 
 little more than a mile from Athens, gave birth 
 to Sophocles in the second year of the seventy^ 
 
. so 
 
 HISTORY. &c. 
 
 SO 
 
 first Olympiad, B. C. 495. He was conse- 
 quently thirty years junior to iEschylus and 
 fifteen senior to Euripides. Sophilus, his father, 
 a man of opulence and respectability, bestowed 
 upon his son a careful education in all the lite- 
 rary and personal accomplishments of his age 
 and country. The powers of the future dra- 
 matist were developed, strengthened, and re- 
 fined by a careful instruction in the principles 
 of music and poetry ; whilst the graces of a 
 person, eminently handsome, derived fresh ele- 
 gance and ripened into a noble manhood amidst 
 the exercises of the palaestra. The garlands 
 which he won, attested his attainments in both 
 these departments of Grecian education. A 
 still more striking proof of his personal beauty 
 and early proficiency is recorded in the fact, 
 that when, after the battle of Salamis, the po- 
 pulation of Athens stood in solemn assembly 
 round the trophy raised by their valour, So- 
 phocles, at the age of sixteen, was selected 
 to lead with dance and lyre the chorus of 
 youths, who performed the paean of their coun- 
 try's triumph. The commencement of his dra- 
 matic career was marked not more by its suc- 
 cess than the singularity of the occasion on 
 which his first tragedy appeared. The bones 
 of Theseus had been solemnly transferred by 
 Cimon from their grave in the isle of Scyros to 
 Athens. An eager contest between the the tra- 
 gedians of the day ensued. Sophocles, then in 
 his twenty- fifth year, ventured to come iforward 
 as one of the candidates ; amongst whom was 
 the veteran iEschylus, now for thirty years the 
 undoubted master of the Athenian stage. Party 
 feeling excited such a tumult among the spec- 
 tators, that the archon, Aphepsion, had not bal- 
 lotted the judges, when Cimon advanced with 
 his nine fellow generals to offer the customary 
 libations to Bacchus. No sooner were these 
 completed, than detaining his colleagues, he 
 directed them to take with him the requisite 
 oath, and then seat themselves as judges of the 
 performance. Before this self-constituted tri- 
 bunal Sophocles exhibited his maiden drama, 
 and by their decision was proclaimed first vic- 
 tor. This remarkable triumph was an earnest 
 of the splendid career before him. From this 
 event, before Christ 468, to his death, before 
 Christ 405, during a space of three and sixty 
 years, he continued to compose and exhibit. 
 Twenty times did he obtain the first prize, 
 still more frequently the second; and never 
 sank to the third. An accumulation of success, 
 which left the victories of his two great rivals 
 far behind, -^schylus won but thirteen dra- 
 matic contests. Euripides was still less for- 
 tunate. — Such a continuation of poetic exertion 
 and triumph is the more remarkable from the 
 circumstance, that the powers of Sophocles, so 
 far from becoming dulled and exhausted by 
 these multitudinous efforts, seem to have con- 
 tracted nothing from labour and age save a 
 mellower tone, a more touching pathos, a sweet 
 and gentle character of thought and expression. 
 The life of Sophocles, however, was not alto- 
 gether devoted to the service of the muses. In 
 his fifty-seventh year he was one of the ten 
 generals,with Pericles and Thucydides amongst 
 his colleagues ; and served in the war against 
 Saraos. But his military talents were probably 
 of no high order ; and his generalship added no 
 
 brilliancy to his dramatic fame. At a more ad- 
 vanced age he was appointed priest to Alon, one 
 of the ancient heroes of his country; an oflfice 
 more suited to the peaceful temper of Sophocles. 
 In the civil duties of an Athenian citizen, he 
 doubtless took a part. Nay, in extreme age, we 
 find him one of the committee of ten rrpdPov'Xoi, 
 appointed in the progress of the revolution 
 brought about by Pisander to investigate the 
 state of affairs and report thereon to the people 
 assembled on the hill of Colonus, his native 
 place ; and there, as Trp6,8ov\os, he assented with 
 characteristic easiness of temper to the esta- 
 blishment of oligarchy under the council of 
 four hundred, " as a bad thing, but the least 
 pernicious measure which circumstances al- 
 lowed." The civil dissensions and external 
 reverses, which marked the concluding years 
 of the Peloponnesian war, must have fallen 
 heavily upon the mind of one whose chief de- 
 light was in domestic tranquillity, and who re- 
 membered that proud day of Salaminian tri- 
 umph, in which he bore so conspicuous a part. 
 His sorrows, as a patriotic citizen, were aggra- 
 vated by the unnatural conduct of his own 
 family. Jealous at the old man's affection for 
 a grandchild by a second wife, an elder son, 
 or sons, endeavoured to deprive him of the 
 management of his property, on the ground of 
 dotage and incapacity. The only refutation 
 which the father produced, was to read before 
 the court his CEdipus at Colonus, a piece which 
 he had just composed ; or, according to others, 
 that beautiful chorus only, in which he cele- 
 brates the loveliness of his favourite residence. 
 The admiring judges instantly arose, dismissed 
 the cause, and accompanied the aged poet to 
 his house with the utmost honour and respect. 
 Sophocles was spared the misery of witnessing 
 the utter overthrow of his declining country. 
 Early in the year 405 B.C., some months be- 
 fore the defeat of iEgospotami put the finish- 
 ing stroke to the misfortunes of Athens, death 
 came gently upon the venerable old man, full 
 of years and glory. The accounts of his death 
 are very diverse ; all tending to the marvel- 
 lous, Ister and Neanthes state that he was 
 choked by a grape ; Satyrus makes him expire 
 from excessive exertion in reading aloud a long 
 paragraph out of the Antigone; others ascribe 
 his death to extreme joy at being proclaimed 
 the tragic victor. Not content with the singu- 
 larity of his death, the ancient recorders of his 
 life add prodigy to his funeral also. He died 
 when the Athenians were cooped up within 
 their walls, and the Lacedemonians were in 
 possession of Decelea, the place of his family 
 sepulture. Bacchus twice appeared in a vision 
 to Lysander, the Spartan general, and bid him 
 allow the interment ; which accordingly took 
 place with all due solemnity. Ister states, more- 
 over, that the Athenians passed a decree, to ap- 
 point an annual sacrifice to so admirable aman. 
 Seven tragedies alone remain out of the great 
 number which Sophocles composed ; 3''et among 
 these seven we probably possess the most 
 splendid productions of his genius. The per- 
 sonal character of Sophocles, without rising 
 into spotless excellence or exalted heroism, was 
 honourable, calm, and amiable. In his younger 
 days he seems to have been addicted to intem- 
 perance in love and wine. And a saying of 
 611 
 
so 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SO 
 
 his, recorded by Plato, Cicero, and Athenaeus, 
 whilst it confirms the charge just mentioned, 
 would also imply that years had cooled the tur- 
 bulent passions of his youth: " T thank old 
 age," said the poet, " for delivering me from 
 the tyranny of my appetites." Yet even in his 
 later days, the charms of a Theoris and an 
 Archippe are reported to have been too power- 
 ful for the still susceptible dramatist. Aristo- 
 phanes, who in his Ranae manifests so much 
 respect for Sophocles, then just dead, had, four- 
 teen years before accused him of avarice ; an 
 imputation, however, scarcely reconcileable 
 with all that is known or can be inferred re- 
 specting the character of Sophocles. The old 
 man, who was so absorbed in his art as to incur 
 a charge of lunacy from the utter neglect of his 
 affairs, could hardly have been a miser. A 
 kindly and contented disposition, however 
 blemished with intemperance in pleasures, was 
 the characteristic of Sophocles : a characteristic 
 which Aristophanes himself so simply and yet 
 so beautifully depicts in that smgle line, 
 
 'O J' EVKoXos fXEv evda8\ evKoXos J' eke'i. — Ran. 82. 
 
 It was Sophocles who gave the last improve- 
 ments to the form and exhibition of tragedy. 
 To the two performers of >ffischylus he added 
 a third actor ; a number which was never after- 
 wards increased. Under his directions the 
 effect of theatric representation was heightened 
 by the illusion of scenery carefully painted and 
 duly arranged. The choral parts were still 
 farther curtailed, and the dialogue carried out 
 to its full development. The odes themselves 
 are distinguished by their close connexion with 
 the business of the play, the correctness of their 
 sentiments, and the beauty of their poetry. His 
 language, though at times marked by harsh 
 metaphor and perplexed construction, is pure 
 and majestic, without soaring into the gigantic 
 phraseology of iEschylus on the one hand, or 
 sinking into the common-place diction of Euri- 
 pides on the other. His management of a sub- 
 ject is admirable. No one understood so well 
 the artful envelopment of incident, the secret 
 excitation of the feelings, and the gradual 
 heightening of the interest up to the final crisis, 
 when the catastrophe bursts forth in all the 
 force of overwhelming terror or compassion. 
 Such was Sophocles ; the most perfect in dra- 
 matic arrangement, the most sustained in the 
 even flow of dignified thought, word, and tone, 
 among the tragic triumvirate. As characteris- 
 tic of this poet, the ancients have praised that 
 native sweetness and gracefulness, on account 
 of which they call him the Attic Bee. Who- 
 ever has penetrated into the feeling of this pe- 
 culiarity, may flatter himself that the spirit for 
 antique art has arisen within him ; for modern 
 sensibility, very far from being able to fall in 
 with that judgment, would be more likely to 
 find in the Sophoclean tragedy, both in respect 
 of the representation of bodily suflfering, and in 
 the sentiments and arrangements, much that is 
 unsufferably austere. In proportion to the great 
 fertility of Sophocles, considering that accord- 
 ing to some accounts he wrote a hundred and 
 thirty pieces, (of which, however, the gramma- 
 rian Aristophanes declared seventeen not to be 
 genuine,) and eighty, according to the most 
 moderate statements, little, it must be owned, 
 612 
 
 has remained to us, for we have but seven of 
 them. But chance has taken good care of us, 
 for among this number are some which the 
 ancients considered his most excellent master- 
 pieces, as the Antigone, and Electra, and both 
 those on CEdipus; they have also come down 
 to us tolerably free from mutilation, and with 
 the text uncorrupted. By modern critics the 
 King CEdipus and the Philoctetes have been 
 admired, but without reason, above all the rest ; 
 the former, for the artificial complication of the 
 plot, in which the horrible catastrophe, which 
 keeps the curiosity ever on the stretch, (a rare 
 occurrence, this, in the Greek tragedies,) is 
 brought on inevitably by a series of connected 
 causes ; the latter for its masterly delineation of 
 character, and the beautiful contrasts between 
 the three principal figures, together with the 
 simple structure of the piece, in which, notwith- 
 standing there are so few persons, all is deduced 
 from the truest motives. But the tragedies of 
 Sophocles, collectively, are each one of them 
 resplendent with its own peculiar excellences. 
 In the Antigone, we have heroism exhibited 
 in the most purely feminine character ; in the 
 Ajax, the manly sense of honour in all its 
 strength; in the Trachinian Women, (or, as 
 we should call it, the dying Hercules,) the 
 female levity of Dejanira is beautifully atoned 
 for by her death and the sufferings of Her- 
 cules are depicted in a worthy manner; the 
 Electra is distinguished by energy and pathos ; 
 in the CEdipus at Colonos, the predominant 
 character is a most touching mildness, and an 
 extreme gracefulness is diifused over the 
 whole. To weigh the comparative merits of 
 these pieces I will not venture : but I own I 
 cherish a preference for the last-mentioned, 
 because it seems to me to be most expres- 
 sive of the personal character of Sophocles. 
 As this piece is devoted to the glory of 
 Athens in general and of his birth-place in 
 particular, he seems to have laboured on 
 it with particular aifection. The least usu- 
 ally understood are the Ajax and Antigone. 
 The reader cannot conceive why these plays 
 run on so long after what we are accustomed to 
 call the catastrophe. The story of CEdipus is 
 perhaps of all the fate-fables of ancient mytho- 
 logy, the most ingenious. The diflference be- 
 tween the characters of -^schylus and Sopho- 
 cles, nowhere shows itself more strikingly than 
 in the Eumenides, and the CEdipus at Colonos, 
 as these two pieces were composed with similar 
 intentions. In both of them the object is to set 
 forth the glory of Athens, as the holy habitation 
 of justice and of mild humanity, and the crimes 
 of foreign hero-families, after suffering their 
 punishment are to find their final atonement in 
 this domain through a higher mediation, while 
 it is also prophesied, that lasting welfare shall 
 thence accrue to the Attic people. In the pa- 
 triotic and free-spirited iEschylus this is effect- 
 ed by a judicial procedure ; in the pious Sopho- 
 cles, bv a religious one ; and this, indeed, is the 
 death-devotion of CEdipus, when, bowed down 
 as he is by the consciousness of involuntary 
 guilt, and by long misery, the gods thereby, as 
 it were, finally clear up his honour, as though, 
 in the fearful example given in his person, they 
 did not intend to afflict him in particular, but . 
 only wished to give a severe lesson to mankind 
 
so 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 €0 
 
 in general. Sophocles, to whom the whole 
 course of life is one continued worship, delights 
 to throw all possible lustre on its last moment, 
 as though it were that of a higher solemnity, 
 and thus he inspires an emotion of quite a dif- 
 ferent kind from that which is excited by the 
 thought of mortality in general. There are 
 two plays of Sophocles which, agreeably to the 
 Greek way of thinking, refer to the sacred rites 
 of the dead and the importance of burial : in 
 the Antigone, the whole action turns upon this, 
 and in the Ajax, this alone gives a satisfactory 
 conclusion to the piece. The ideal of the fe- 
 male character in the Antigone, is marked by 
 great severity ; so much so, that this alone would 
 be sufficient to neuiralize all those mawkish 
 conceptions of Greek character, which have 
 lately become so much the mode. Her indig- 
 nation at Ismene's refusal to take a part in her 
 daring resolution ; the manner in which she 
 afterwards rejects Ismene, when, repenting of 
 her weakness, she offers to accompany her 
 heroic sister to death, borders on harshness; 
 her silence and her speeches against Creon, 
 whereby she provokes him to execute his tyran- 
 nous resolution, are a proofof unshaken manly 
 courage. But the poet has found out the secret 
 of revealing the loving womanly character in 
 one single line, where to the representations of 
 Creon, that Polynices died the foe of his coun- 
 try, she replies, 
 
 ov Toi avve^deiv dWa ffVn<pi\£Tv eipvv. 
 
 At first sight the chorus in the Antigone may 
 seem weak, accommodating itself, as it does, 
 without contradiction, to the tyrannous com- 
 mands of Creon, and not once attempting a 
 favourable representation in behalf of the young 
 heroine. But it is necessary that she should 
 stand all alone in her resolution and its accom- 
 plishment, that she may appear in all her dig- 
 nity; she must find no stay, no hold. It is 
 quite otherwise in the Electra, where it was fit 
 that the chorus should take as eager and en- 
 couraging a part with the two principal charac- 
 ters, inasmuch as there are powerful moral 
 feelings opposed to their design, while others 
 spur them on to it ; whereas in the deed of Anti- 
 gone there is no such variance, but she is to be 
 withheld by merely exterior terrors. After the 
 completion of the deed, and the suffering en- 
 dured for it, there yet remains the chastisement 
 of insolence, and retribution for the destruction 
 of Antigone : nothing less than the utter ruin 
 of Creon's whole family, and his own despair 
 can be a worthy death-ofifering for the sacrifice 
 of a life so costly. To Grecian feelings it would 
 have been impossible to look upon the poem as 
 properly closed by the death of Antigone, with- 
 out any atoning retribution. The case is the 
 same with the Ajax. His arrogance, which is 
 punished with dishonourable phrensy, is atoned 
 for by the deep shame which drives him even 
 to self-murder. As Ajax, in the feeling of in- 
 delible shame, flings away his life in the haste 
 of a vehement resolve, so Philoctetes bears its 
 wearisome burden through years of suffering 
 with persevering endurance. As Ajax is en- 
 nobled by his despair, so is Philoctetes by his 
 constancy. The play of " The Trachinian 
 Women" seems so far inferior in value to the 
 rest which have come down to us, that we could 
 
 wish to find something that would favour the 
 conjecture, that this tragedy was composed in 
 the age, indeed, and in the school of Sophocles, 
 but by his son lophon, and was erroneously 
 attributed to the father. There are several 
 suspicious circumstances not only in its struc- 
 ture and plan, but also in the style of writing; 
 different critics have already remarked, that the 
 needless soliloquy of Dejanira at the opening, 
 has not the character of the Sophoclean pro- 
 logues. Even if, upon the whole, the maxims 
 of this poet are observed, it is but a superficial 
 observance; the deep mind of Sophocles is 
 wanting. But as the genuineness of the piece 
 was never doubted by the ancients, as even 
 Cicero confidently quotes the sufferings of Her- 
 cules from this drama, as from a work of Sopho- 
 cles, we must perhaps be content to say, that 
 the tragedian has in this one instance remained 
 below his usual elevation. The best editions 
 of Sophocles are those of Capperonier, 2 vols. 
 4to. Paris, 1780 ; of Glasgow, 2 vols. 12mo, 
 1745; of Geneva, 4to. 1603; and that by 
 Brunck, 4 vols. 8vo. 1786. Cic. in Cat. de Div. 
 1, c. 25. — Phit. in Cim. &c. — Quintil. 1, c. 10, 
 1. 10, c. l.— Val. Max. 8, c. 7, 1. 9, c. l2.—PHn. 
 
 7, c. 53. — Athen. 10, &c. II. The grandson 
 
 of the great tragedian, exhibited the CEdipus 
 Coloneus of his grandfather, Olymp. 94th, 4, B. 
 C. 401. He first contended in his own name, 
 Olymp. 96, B. C. 396. 
 
 SoPHONisBA, a daughter of Asdrubal, the 
 Carthaginian, celebrated for her beauty. She 
 married Syphax, aprince of Numidia, and when 
 her husband was conquered by the Romans and 
 Masinissa, she fell into the hands of the enemy. 
 Masinissa became enamoured' of her, and mar- 
 ried her. This behaviour displeased the Ro- 
 mans; and Scipio, who at that time had the 
 command of the armies of the republic in Africa, 
 rebuked the monarch severely, and desired him 
 to part with Sophonisba. This was an arduous 
 task for Masinissa; yet he dreaded the Ro- 
 mans. He entered Sophonisba's tent with tears 
 in his eyes, and told her, that as he could not 
 deliver her from captivity and the jealousy of 
 the Romans, he recommended her, as the strong- 
 est pledge of his love and affection for her per- 
 son, to die like the daughter of Asdrubal. 
 Sophonisba obeyed, and drank with unusual 
 composure and serenity the cup of poison 
 which Masinissa sent to her, about 203 years 
 before Christ. Liv. 30, c. 12, &e. — Sallust. de 
 Jug. — Justin. 
 
 Sopm^oN, a comic poet of Syracuse, son of 
 Agathocles and Damasyllis, His compositions 
 were so universally esteemed, that Plato is said 
 to have read them with rapture. Val. Max. 8, 
 c. 7. — Quintil. 1, c. 10. 
 
 SoPHRONiscus, the father of Socrates. 
 
 SosiBius, I. a grammarian of Laconia, B. C. 
 255. He was a great favourite of Ptolemy Phi- 
 lopator, and advised him to murder his brother, 
 and the queen his wife, called Arsinoe. He 
 lived to a great age, and was on that account 
 called Polychronos. He was afterwards per- 
 mitted to retire from the court, and spend the 
 rest of his days in peace and tranquillity, after 
 he had disgraced the name of minister by the 
 most abominable crimes, and the murder of 
 many of the royal family. His son of the same 
 name was preceptor to king Ptolemy Epipha- 
 613 
 
so 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 W 
 
 nes. II. The preceptor of Britannicus, the 
 
 son. of Claudius. Tacit. A. 11, c. 1. 
 
 SosicLEs, a native of Syracuse, composed 
 seventy-three tragedies, and was seven times 
 victor. He lived during the reigns of Philip of 
 Macedon and his son Alexander. 
 
 SosicRATEs, a noble senator among the 
 Achffians, put to death because he wished his 
 countrymen to make peace with the Romans. 
 ' SosiGENEs, I. an Egyptian mathematician, 
 who assisted J. Caesar in regulating the Roman 
 
 calendar. Suet. — Diod. — Plin. 18, c. 25. 
 
 II. A commander of the fleet of Eumenes. 
 Pol'i/cEri. 
 
 Sosii, celebrated booksellers at Rome in the 
 age of Horace, 1, ep. 20, v. 2. 
 
 SosiLus, a Lacedaemonian, in the age of An- 
 nibal. He lived in great intimacy with the Car- 
 thaginian, taught him Greek, and wrote the 
 history of his life. C. Nep. in Annib. 
 
 SosiPATER, a grammarian, in the reign of 
 Honorius. He published five books of observa- 
 tions on grammar. 
 
 SosisTRATus, a tyrant of Syracuse, in the age 
 of Agathocles. He invited Pyrrhus into Sicily, 
 and afterwards revolted from him. He was at 
 last removed by Hermocrates. Polycen. 1. 
 
 SosTHENEs, a general of Macedonia, who 
 flourished B. C. 281. He defeated the Gauls 
 under Brennus, and was killed in the battle. 
 Justin. 24, c. 5. 
 
 SoTADEs, a Greek poet of Thrace. He wrote 
 verses against Philadelphus Ptolemy, for which 
 he was thrown into the sea in a cage of lead. 
 He was called Cinadus, not only because he 
 was addicted to the abominable crime which 
 the surname indicates, but because he wrote a 
 poem in commendation of it. Some suppose, 
 that, instead of the word Socraticos, in the 2d 
 satire, verse the 10th of Juvenal, the word Sota- 
 dicos should be inserted, as the poet Sotades, 
 and not the philosopher Socrates, deserved the 
 appellation of Cinaedus. Obscene verses were 
 generally called Sotadea carmina from him. 
 They could be turned and read different ways 
 without losing their measure or sense, such as 
 the following, which can be read backwards : — 
 
 RomOy tibi subito motibus ibit amor. 
 
 Si bene te tua laus tazat, sua laute tenebis. 
 
 Sole medere pede, ede, perede melos. 
 
 Quintil. 1, c. 8, 1, 9, c. 4. — Plin. 5, ep. 3. — 
 Anson, ep. 17, v. 29. 
 
 SoTER, a surname of the first Ptolemy. 
 
 It was also common to other monarchs. 
 
 SoTERiA, days appointed for thanksgivings 
 and the offerings of sacrifices for deliverance 
 from danger. One of these was observed at 
 Sicyon, to commemorate the deliverance of that 
 city from the hands of the Macedonians by 
 Aratus. 
 
 SoTERiEcus, a poet and historian, in the age of 
 Diocletian. He wrote a panegyric on that em- 
 peror, as also a life of Apollonius Thyanaeus. 
 His works, greatly esteemed, are now lost, ex- 
 cept some few fragments preserved by the scho- 
 liast of Lycophron. 
 
 SoTioN, a grammarian of Alexandria, pre- 
 ceptor to Seneca, B. C. 204. Senec. ep. 49 
 and 58. 
 
 SozoMEN, an ecclesiastical historian, who 
 died 450 A. D. His historv extends from the 
 614 ' 
 
 year 324 to 439, and is dedicated to Theodo- 
 sius the yoimger, being written in a style of 
 inelegance and mediocrity. The best edition 
 is that of Reading, fol. Cantab. 1720, 
 
 Spartacus, I. a king of Bosphorus, who died 
 B. C. 433. His son and successor of the same 
 name died B. C. 407. II. A Thracian shep- 
 herd, celebrated for his abilities, and the victo- 
 ries he obtained over the Romans. Being one of 
 the gladiators wno were kept at Capua in the 
 house of Lentulus, he escaped from the place of 
 his confinement with 30 of his companions, and 
 took up arms against the Romans. He soon, 
 found himself with 10,000 men equally resolute 
 with himself, and, though at first obliged to hide 
 himself in the woods and solitary retreats of 
 Campania, he soon laid waste the country ; and 
 when his followers were increased by additional 
 numbers, and better disciplined, he attacked the 
 Roman generals in the field of battle. Two 
 consuls and other officers were defeated with 
 much loss ; and Spartacus, superior in counsel 
 and abilities, appeared more terrible, though 
 often deserted by his fickle attendants. Cras- 
 sus was sent against him, but this celebrated 
 general at first despaired of success. A bloody 
 battle was fought, in which, at last, tlie gladia- 
 tors were, defeated. Spartacus behaved with 
 great valour ; when wounded in the leg he 
 fought on his knees, covering himself with his 
 buckler in one hand, and using his sword with 
 the other ; and when at last he fell, he fell upon 
 a heap of Romans whom he had sacrificed to 
 his fury, B. C. 71. In this battle no less than 
 40,000 of the rebels were slain, and the war to- 
 tally finished. Flor. 3, c. 20.—Liv. 95.— Eu- 
 trop. 6, c. 2. — Plut. in Crass. — Pater c. 2, c. 30 
 — Appian. 
 
 Spartianos jElius, a Latin historian, who 
 wrote the lives of all the Roman emperors from 
 J. Ceesar to Diocletian. He dedicated them to 
 Diocletian, to whom, according to some, he was 
 related. Of these compositions, only the life 
 of Adrian, Verus, Didius Julianus, Septimus 
 Severus, Caracalla, and Geta, are extant, pub- 
 lished among the Scriptores Historiae Augustae. 
 Spartianus is not esteemed as an historian or 
 biographer. 
 
 Speusippus, an Athenian philosopher, neph- 
 ew, as also successor, of Plato. His father's 
 name was Eurymedon, and his mother's,Potone. 
 He presided in Plato's school for eight years, 
 and disgraced himself by his extravagance. 
 Plato attempted to check him, but to no purpose. 
 He died of the lousy sickness, or killed himself 
 according to some accounts, B. C. 339. Plid. 
 in Lys. — Diog. 4. — Val. Max. 4, c. 1. 
 
 Spintharus, a Corinthian architect, who built 
 Apollo's temple at Delphi. Pans. 10, c. 5. 
 
 Spinther, a Roman consul. He was one of 
 Pompey's friends, and accompanied him at the 
 battle of Pharsalia, where he betrayed his mean- 
 ness by contending for the possession of Caesar's 
 offices and gardens before the action. Plut. 
 
 Spurina, a mathematician and astrologer, 
 who told J. Csesar to beware of the ides of 
 March. As he went to the senate-house on the 
 morning of the ides, Caesar said to Spurina, IVie 
 ides are at last come. Yes, replied Spurina, but 
 not yet past. Caesar was murdered a few mo- 
 ments after. Suet, in Cas. 81.— Val. Max. I 
 and 8. 
 
ST 
 
 HISTORY, &o. 
 
 ST 
 
 Spurius, a praBnomen common to many of the 
 
 Romans. One of Ceesar's murderers. 
 
 Larlius, a Roman, who defended the bridge over 
 the Tiber against Porsenna's army. 
 
 Staberius, L. a friend of Pompey, set over 
 Apollonia, which he was obliged to yield to 
 Caesar because the inhabitants favoured his 
 cause. CcBsar. B. G. 
 
 Staseas, a peripatetic philosopher, engaged 
 to instruct young M. Piso in philosophy. Cic. , 
 in Oral. 1, c. 22. 
 
 Stasiorates, a statuary and architect in the 
 wars of Alexander, who offered to make a sta- 
 tue of mount Athos, which was rejected by the 
 conqueror. 
 
 Stasileus, an Athenian, killed at the battle 
 of Marathon. He was one of the ten praetors. 
 
 Statilius, I. a young Roman, celebrated for 
 his courage and constancy. He was an in- 
 veterate enemy to Caesar, and when Cato mur- 
 dered himself, he attempted to follow his ex- 
 ample, but was prevented by his friends. The 
 conspirators against Caesar wished him to be in 
 the number, but the answer which he gave dis- 
 pleased Brutus. He was at last killed by the 
 
 army of the triumvirs. Pint. II. Lucius, 
 
 one of the friends of Catiline. He joined in his 
 conspiracy, and was put to death. Cic. Cat. 2. 
 
 III. A young general in the war which the 
 
 Latins undertook against the Romans. He was 
 killed with 25,000 of his troops. 
 
 Statira, I. a daughter of Darius, who mar- 
 ried Alexander. The conqueror had formerly 
 refused her, but when she had fallen into his 
 hands at Issus, the nuptials were celebrated 
 with uncommon splendour. No less than 9000 
 persons attended, to each of whom Alexander 
 gave a golden cup to be offered to the gods. Sta- 
 tira had no children by Alexander. She was 
 cruelly put to death by Roxana after the con- 
 queror's death. Justin. 12, c. 12. II. A sis- 
 ter of Darius, the last king of Persia. She also 
 became his wife, according to the manners of 
 the Persians. She died after an abortion in 
 Alexander's camp, where she was detained as a 
 prisoner. She was buried with great pomp by 
 
 the conqueror. Pint, in Alex. III. A wife 
 
 of Artaxerxes Mnemon, poisoned by her 
 mother-in-law, queen Parysatis. Plxil. in Art. 
 Statius, I. (Csecilius,) a comic poet in the 
 age of Ennius. He was a native of Gaul, and 
 originally a slave. His latinity was bad, yet he 
 acquired great reputation by his comedies. He 
 
 died a little after Ennius. Cic. de cen. II. 
 
 Annaeus, a physician, the friend of the philoso- 
 pher Seneca. Tacit. A. 15, c. 64. III. P. 
 
 Papinius, a poet, born at Naples in the reign of 
 the emperor Domitian. His father's name was 
 Statius, of Epirus, and his mother's, Agelina. 
 Statius has made himself known by two epic 
 poems, the ThebaAs in 12 books, and the Achil- 
 leis in two books, which remained unfinished 
 on account of his premature death. There 
 are, besides, other pieces composed on several 
 subjects, which are extant, and well known 
 under the name of Sylva, divided into four 
 books. The two epic poems of Statius are 
 dedicated to Domitian, whom the poet ranks 
 among the gods. They were universally ad- 
 mired in his age at Rome, but the taste of the 
 times was corrupted, though some of the mod- 
 erns have called them inferior to no Latin com- 
 
 positions except Virgil's, The style of Statius 
 is bombastic and affected ; he often forgets the 
 poet to become the declaimer and the historian. 
 In his Sylvcs, which were written generally ex- 
 tempore, are many beautiful expressions and 
 strokes of genius. Statius, as some suppose, 
 was poor, and he was obliged to maintain him- 
 self by writing for the stage. None of his dra- 
 matic pieces are extant. Martial has satirised 
 him; and what Juvenal has written in his 
 praise some have interpreted as an illiberal re- 
 flection upon him. Statius died about the 100th 
 year of the Christian era. The best editions of 
 his works are that of Barthius, 2 vols, 4to. Cyg. 
 1664, and that of the Variorum, 8vo. L. Bat. 
 1671 ; and that of the Thebais, separate, that of 
 Warrington, 2 vols. 12mo. 1778. 
 
 Stenocrates, an Athenian, who conspired to 
 murder the commander of the garrison which 
 Demetrius had placed in the citadel. Polycen. 5. 
 
 Stephanus, a Greek writer of Byzantium, 
 known for his dictionary giving an account of 
 the towns and places of the ancient world, of 
 which the best edition is that of Gronovius, 2 
 vols. fol. L. Bat. 1694. 
 
 Stersichorus, a lyric Greek poet of Himera, 
 in Sicily. He was originally called Tisias. and 
 obtained the name of Stersichorus from the al- 
 terations he made in music and dancing. His 
 compositions were written in the Doric dialect, 
 and comprised in 26 books, allnowjost, except 
 a few fragments. Some say he lost his eye- 
 sight for writing invectives against Helen, and 
 that he received it only upon making a recanta- 
 tion of what he had said. He was the first in- 
 ventor of that fable of the horse and stag, which 
 Horace and some other poets have imitated, and 
 this he wrote to prevent his countrymen from 
 making an alliance with Phalaris. According 
 to some he was the first who wrote an epithala- 
 mium. He flourished 556 B. C. and died at 
 Catana in the 85th year of his age. Isocrat. 
 in Hel. — Aristot. rhet. — Strab. 3. — L/u.cian. in 
 Macr. — Cic. in Verr. 3, c. 35. — Pint, de Mus. 
 — Quintil. 10, c. l.—Paus. 3, c. 19, 1. 10, c. 26. 
 
 Sthenelus, is coupled by Aristotle with 
 Cleophon, as instances of too low a style. His 
 compositions appear to have been dull and 
 uninteresting ; for which fault we find him 
 ridiculed by Aristophanes in a fragment of the 
 Gerytade : — 
 
 a. Ka\ TTwf tyu) SSeveXoU ^ayoifx av p^fiara J 
 B. £tf i'|of SjjiffaiTTOnevos t] \evkovs a'Xai. 
 
 Harpocration likewise informs us that he was 
 attacked by another comic writer as a plagiary. 
 Vid. Part III. 
 
 Stilicho, a general of the emperor Theodo- 
 sius the Great. He behaved with much cour- 
 age, but under the emperor Honorius he showed 
 himself turbulent and disaffected. As being of 
 barbarian extraction, he wished to see the Ro- 
 man provinces laid desolate by his countrymen, 
 but in this he Avas disappointecl. Honorius dis- 
 covered his intrigues, and ordered him to be 
 beheaded about the year of Christ 408. His 
 family were involved in his ruin. Claudian has 
 been loud in his praises, and Zosimus, Hist. 5, 
 denies the truth of the charges laid against him. 
 
 Stilpo, a celebrated philosopher of Megara, 
 who flourished 336 years before Christ, and was 
 greatly esteemed by Ptolemy Soter. He was 
 615 
 
ST 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 STJ 
 
 naturally addicted to riot and debauchery, but 
 he reformed his manners when he opened a 
 school at Megara. He was universally re- 
 spected, his school was frequented, and Deme- 
 trius, when he plundered Megara, ordered the 
 house of the philosopher to be left safe and un- 
 molested. It is said that he intoxicated himself 
 when about to die, to alleviate the terrors of 
 death. He was one of the chiefs of the stoics. 
 Plut. in Dem. — Diog. 2. — Setieca. de Const. 
 
 SxoBiEus, a Greek writer, who flourished A. 
 D. 405. His work is valuable for the relics of 
 ancient literature he has preserved. The best 
 edition is that of Aurel. Allob. fol. 1609. 
 
 Stoigi, a celebrated sect of philosophers, 
 founded by Zeno of Citium. They received 
 the name from the portico, groa, where the philo- 
 sopher delivered his lectures. They preferred 
 virtue to every thing else, and whatever was 
 opposite to it they looked upon as the greatest 
 of evils. They required, as well as the disci- 
 ples of Epicurus, an absolute command over 
 the passions, and they supported that man alone, 
 in the present state of his existence, could attain 
 perfection and felicity. They encouraged sui- 
 cide, and believed that the doctrine of future 
 punishments and rewards was unnecessary to 
 excite or intimidate their followers. Vid. Zeno. 
 
 Strabo, a name among the Romans, given 
 to those whose eyes were naturally deformed or 
 distorted. Pompey's father was distinguished 
 
 by that name. A native of Araasia, on the 
 
 borders of Cappadocia, who flourished in the 
 age of Augustus and Tiberius. He first stu- 
 died under Xenarchus, the peripatetic, and 
 afterwards warmly embraced the tenets of the 
 stoics. Of all his compositions nothing re- 
 mains but his geography, divided into 17 books, 
 a work justly celebrated for its elegance, purity, 
 the erudition and universal knowledge of the 
 author. It contains an account, in Greek, of 
 the most celebrated places of the world, the 
 origin, the manners, religion, prejudices, and 
 government of nations ; the foundation of cities, 
 and the accurate history of each separate pro- 
 vince. Strabo travelled over great part of the 
 world in quest of information, and to examine 
 with the most critical inquiry not only the situ- 
 ation of the places, but also the manners of the 
 inhabitants, whose history he meant to write. 
 In the two first books the author wishes to show 
 the necessity of geography ; in the 3d he gives 
 a description of Spain ; in the 4th, of Gaul and 
 the British Isles. The 5th and 6th contain an 
 account of Italy and the neighbouring islands ; 
 the 7th, which is mutilated at the end, gives a 
 full description of Germany, and the country of 
 the Getas, Illyricum, Taurica Chersonesus, and 
 Epirus. The affairs of Greece and the adjacent 
 islands are separately treated in the 8th, 9th, 
 and 10th ; and in the four next, Asia within 
 mount Taurus ; and in the 15th and 16th, Asia 
 without Taurus, India, Persia, Syria, and Ara- 
 bia ; the last book gives an account of Egypt, 
 iEthiopia, Carthage, and other places of Africa. 
 Among the books of Strabo which have been 
 lost, were historical commentaries. This cele- 
 brated geographer died A. D. 25. The best 
 editions of his geography are those of Cassau- 
 bon, fol. Paris, 1620 ; of Amst. 2 vols. fol. 1707. 
 
 Strato, or Straton, I. a king of the island 
 Aradus, received into alliance by Alexander. 
 616 
 
 of Antigo- 
 
 Curt. 4, c. 1. II. A king of Sidon, depend- 
 ant upon Darius. Alexander deposed him be- 
 cause he refused to surrender. Cm I. ii. 
 
 III. A. philosopher of Lampsacus, disciple and 
 successor in the school of Theophrg^tus, about 
 289 years before the Christian era. He applied 
 himself with uncommon industry to the study 
 of nature, and was surnamed PMsicus, and af- 
 ter the most mature investigations, he supported 
 that nature was inanimate, and that there was 
 no God but nature. He was appointed preceptor 
 to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who not only revered 
 his abilities and learning, but also rewarded his 
 labours with unbounded liberality. He wrote 
 difl'erent treatises, all now lost. Diog. 5. — Cic. 
 
 Acad. 1, c. 9, 1. 4, c. 38, &c. IV. A native 
 
 of Epirus, very intimate with Brutus, the mur- 
 derer of Caesar. He killed his friend at his 
 
 own request V. A rich Orchomenian, who 
 
 destroyed himself because he could not obtain 
 in marriage a young woman of Haliartus. Plut. 
 
 Stratonice, I. a daughter of Ariarathes, king 
 of Cappadocia, who married Eumenes, king 
 of Pergamus, and became mother of Attains. 
 
 Strab. 13. II. A. daughter of Demetrius Po- 
 
 liorcetes, who married Seleucus, king of Syria 
 Antiochus, her husband's son, by a former wife, 
 became enamoured of her, and married her 
 with his father's consent, when the physicians 
 had told him that if he did not comply his son's 
 health would be impaired. Plut. in Dem. — 
 
 Val. Max. 5, c. 7. 11. The wife 
 
 nus, mother of Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 
 Strophius, a son of Crisus, king of Phocis. 
 He married asister of Agamemnon, called An- 
 axibia, or Astyochia, or according to others, 
 Cyndragora, by whom he had Pylades, cele- 
 brated for his friendship with Orestes. After 
 the murder of Agamemnon by Clytemnestra 
 and iEgysthus, the king of Phocis educated, at 
 his own house, with the greatest care, his neph- 
 ew, whom Electra had secretly removed from 
 the dagger of his mother and her adulterer. 
 Orestes was enabled by means of Strophius to 
 revenge the death of 'his father. Paus. 2, c. 
 29.— Hygin. fab. 1, 17. 
 
 SuETONros, I. (C. Paulinus,) the first Roman 
 general who crossed mount Atlas with an army, 
 of which expedition he wrote an account. He 
 presided over Britain, as governor for about 20 
 years, and was afterwards made consul. He 
 forsook the interest of Otho, and attached him- 
 self to Vitellius. II. C. Tranquillus, a Latin 
 
 historian, son of a Roman knight of the same 
 name. He was favoured by Adrian, and be- 
 came his secretary, but he was afterwards ban- 
 ished from court for want of attention and 
 respect to the emperess Sabina. In his retire- 
 ment Suetonius enjoyed the friendship and 
 correspondence of Pliny the younger, and dedi- 
 cated his time to study. He wrote a history of 
 the Roman kings, divided into three books ; a 
 catalogue of all the illustrious men of Rome ; a 
 book on the games and spectacles of the Greeks, 
 &c. which are all now lost. The only one of 
 his compositions extant is the lives of the twelve 
 first Caesars, and Bome fragments of his cata- 
 logue of celebrated grammarians. Suetoniu.^, 
 in his lives, is praised for his impartiality and 
 correctness. His expressions, however, are 
 often too indelicate ; and it has been justly ob- 
 served, that while he exposed the deformities of 
 
su 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 SY 
 
 the Caesars, he wrote with all the licentiousness \ 
 and extravagance with which they lived. The ; 
 best editions of Suetonius are those of Pitiscus, i 
 4to. 2 vols. Leovard, 1714; that of Oudendorp, ■ 
 2 vols. 8vo. L. Bat. 1751 ; and that of Ernesti, 
 8vo. Lips, 1775. Plin. 1, ep. 18, 1, 5, ep. 11, &c. , 
 
 SuEvi. Vid. Part I. j 
 
 SuFFENUs, a Latin poet in the age of Catul- 
 lus. He wEis but of moderate abilities, but I 
 puffed up with a high idea of his own excel--, 
 lence, and therefore deservedly exposed to the 
 ridicule of his contemporaries. Catull. 22. | 
 
 SuiDAS, a Greek writer, who flourished A. D. i 
 1 100. The best edition of his excellent Lexicon 
 is that of Kuster, 3 vols. fol. Cantab. 1705. 
 
 SuLPiTiA, I. a daughter of Paterculus, who 
 married Fulvius Flaccus. She was so famous 
 for her chastity, that she consecrated a temple 
 to Venus Verticordia, a goddess who was im- 
 plored to turn the hearts of the Roman women 
 
 to virtue. Plin. 7, c. 35. 11. A poetess m 
 
 the age of Domitian, against whom she wrote a 
 poem because he had banished the philosophers 
 from Rome. This composition is still extant. 
 She had also written a poem on conjugal af- 
 fection, commended by Martial, ep. 35, now lost. 
 III. A daughter of Serv. Sulpitius, men- 
 tioned in the fourth book of elegies falsely at- 
 tributed to Tibullus. 
 
 SuLPiTiA Lex, militaris, by C. Sulpitius, the 
 tribune, A. U. C.665, invested Marius with the 
 full power of the war against Mithridates, of 
 
 which Sylla was to be deprived. Another, 
 
 de senatu. by Servius Sulpicius, the tribune, A. 
 U. C. 665. It required that no senators should 
 
 own more than 2000 drachmae. Another, de 
 
 civitate, by P. Sulpicius the tribune, A. U. C. 
 665. It ordered that the new citizens who com- 
 posed the eight tribes lately created, should be 
 divided among the 35 old tribes, as a greater 
 
 honour. Another, called also Sempronia de 
 
 religione, by P. Sulpicius Saverrio and P. Sem- 
 pronius Sophus, consuls, A. U. C. 449. It for- 
 bade any person to consecrate a temple or altar 
 without the permission of the senate and the 
 majority of the tribunes. Another, to em- 
 power the Romans to make war against Philip 
 of Macedonia. 
 
 Sulpitius, or Sulpicius, an illustrious family 
 
 at Rome, of whom the most celebrated are 
 
 I. Peticus, a man chosen dictator against the 
 Gauls. His troops mutinied when first he took 
 the field, but soon after he engaged the enemy 
 
 and totally defeated them. Liv. 7. IT. Se- 
 
 verrio, a consul who gained a victory over the 
 
 ^qui. Id. 9, c. 45. III. C. Paterculus, a 
 
 consul sent against the Carthaginians. He 
 conquered Sardinia and Corsica, and obtained 
 a complete victory over the enemy's fleet. He 
 was honoured with a triumph at his return to 
 
 Rome. Id. 17. IV. Spurius, one of the three 
 
 commissioners whom the Romans sent to col- 
 lect the best laws which could be found in the 
 different cities and republics of Greece. Id. 3, 
 c. 10. V. One of the first consuls who re- 
 ceived intelligence that a conspiracy was form- 
 ed in Rome to restore the Tarquins to power, 
 &c. VI. P. Galba, a Roman consul, who sig- 
 nalized himself greatly during the war which 
 his countrymen waged against the Achseans and 
 
 the Macedonians. VII. Pablius, one of the 
 
 associates of Marius, well known for his in- 
 
 Pakt II.— 4 I 
 
 frigues and cruelty. He made some laws in 
 favour of the allies of Rome, and he kept about 
 3000 young men in continual pay, whom he 
 called his anti-senatorial band, and with these he 
 had often the impertinence to attack the consul 
 in the popular assemblies. He became at last so 
 seditious, that he was proscribed by Sylla's ad- 
 herents, and immediately murdered. His head 
 was fixed on a pole in the rostrum, where he 
 had often made many seditious speeches in the 
 capacity of tribune. Liv. 77. VIII. A Ro- 
 man consul who fought against Pyrrhus,and de- 
 feated him. IX. C. Longus, a Roman con- 
 sul who defeated the Samnites, and killed 30,000 
 of their men. He obtained a triumph for this 
 celebrated victor)\ He was afterwards made 
 dictator to conduct a war against the Etrurians. 
 
 X. Rufus, a lieutenant of Caesar in Gaul. 
 
 XL Gall us, a celebrated astrologer in the 
 
 age of Paulus. He accompanied the consul in 
 his expedition against Perseus, and told the Ro- 
 man army that the night before the day on which 
 they were to give the enemy battle there would 
 be an eclipse of the moon. This explanation 
 encouraged the soldiers, which, on the contrary, 
 would have intimidated them if not previously 
 acquainted with the causes of it. Sulpitius was 
 universally regarded, and he was honoured a 
 few years after with the consulship. Liv. 44, 
 
 c. 31.— Plin. 2, c. 12. XII. Apollinaris, a 
 
 grammarian in the age of the emperor M. Au- 
 relius. He left some letters, and a few gram- 
 matical observations now lost. Cic. — Li . — 
 Plut. — Flor. — Eutrop. 
 
 SuovETAURiLiA, a sacrificc among the Ro- 
 mans which consisted of the immolation of a 
 sow (sus), a sheep (ovis), and a bull (taurus), 
 whence the name. It was generally observed 
 every fifth year. 
 
 SuRENA, a powerful officer in the armies of 
 Orodes, king of Parthia. His family had the 
 privilege of crowning the kings of Parthia. He 
 was appointed to conduct the war against the 
 Romans, and to protect the kingdom of Parthia 
 against Crassus, who wished to conquer it. He 
 defeated the Roman triumvir, and after he had 
 drawn him perfidiously to a conference, he or- 
 dered his head to be cut off. He afterwards 
 returned to Parthia, mimicking the triumphs of 
 the Romans. Orodes ordered him to be put to 
 death, B. C. 52. Surena has been admired for 
 his valour, his sagacity as a general, and his 
 prudence and firmness in the execution of his 
 plans ; but his perfidy, his effeminate manners, 
 and his lasciviousness, have been deservedly 
 censured. Polycen. 7. — Plut. in Crass. 
 
 SusARioN, a Greek poet of Megara, who is 
 supposed with Dolon to be the inventor of com- 
 edy, and to have first introduced it at Athens on 
 a moveable stage, B. C. 562. 
 
 Syagrus, an ancient poet, the first who wrote 
 on the Trojan war. He is called Sagaris by 
 Diogenes Laertius, who adds that he lived in 
 Homer's age of whom he was the rival. JElian. 
 V. H. 14, c.21. 
 
 S7LLA, T. (L. Cornelius,) a celebrated Roman 
 of a noble family. The poverty of his early 
 years was relieved by the liberality of Nicopolis, 
 who left him heir to a large fortune ; and, with 
 the addition of the immense wealth of his mo- 
 ther-in-law, he soon appeared one of the most 
 opulent of the Romans. He first entered the 
 617 
 
SY 
 
 HISTORY, &e. 
 
 SY 
 
 army under Marius, whom he accompanied in 
 Numidia in the capacity of queestor. He ren- 
 dered himself conspicuous in military affairs ; 
 and Bocchus, one of the princes of Numidia, de- 
 livered Jugurtha into his hands for the Roman 
 consul. The rising fame of Sylla gave umbrage 
 to Marius, who was always jealous of an equal 
 as well as of a superior; but the ill language 
 which he might use rather mflamed than ex- 
 tinguished the ambition of Sylla. He left the 
 conqueror of Jugurtha, and carried arms under 
 Catulus. Some time after he obtained the prae- 
 torship, and was appointed by the Roman senate 
 to place Ariobarzanes on the throne of Cappa- 
 docia against the views and interest of Mithri- 
 dates, king of Pontus. This he easily effected ; 
 one battle left him victorious, and before he 
 quitted the plains of Asia, the Roman praetor 
 had the satisfaction to receive in his camp the 
 ambassadors of thekingof Parthia, who wished 
 to make a treaty of alliance with the Romans. 
 Sylla received them with haughtiness, and be- 
 haved with such arrogance, that one of them 
 exclaimed, Surely this man is master of the 
 world, or doomed to be such! At his return to 
 Rome he was commissioned to finish the war 
 with the Marsi, and when this was successfully 
 ended, he was rewarded with the consulship in 
 the 50th year of his age. In this capacity he 
 wished to have the administration of the Mithri- 
 datic war ; but he found an obstinate adversary 
 in Marius, and he attained the summit of his 
 wishes only when he had entered Rome sword 
 in hand. Afler he had slaughtered all his ene- 
 mies, set a price upon the head of Marius, and 
 put to death the tribune Sulpilius, who had 
 continually opposed his views, he marched to- 
 wards Asia, and disregarded the flames of dis- 
 cord which he left behind him unextinguished. 
 Mithridates was already master of the greatest 
 part of Greece ; and Sylla, when he reached 
 the coast of Peloponnesus, was delayed by the 
 siege of Athens and of the Pirseus, His ope- 
 rations were carried on with vigour, and when 
 he found his money fail, he made no scruple to 
 take the riches of the temples of the gods to 
 bribe his soldiers and render them devoted to 
 his service. His boldness succeeded, the Piraeus 
 surrendered ; and the conqueror, as if struck 
 with reverence at the beautiful porticoes where 
 the philosophic followers of Socrates and Plato 
 had often disputed, spared the city of Athens, 
 which he had devoted to destruction, and for- 
 gave the living for the sake of the dead. Two 
 celebrated battles, at Chaeronaea and Orchome- 
 nos, rendered him master of Greece. He crossed 
 the Hellespont, and attacked Mithridates in the 
 very heart of his kingdom. The artful mon- 
 arch, who well knew the valour and persever- 
 ance of his adversary, made proposals of peace ; 
 and Sylla, whose interest at home was then 
 decreasing, did not hesitate to put an end to a 
 war which had rendered him master of so much 
 territory, and which enabled him to return to 
 Rome like a conqueror, and to dispute with his 
 rival the sovereignty of the republic with a vic- 
 torious army. Murasna was left at the head of 
 the Roman forces in Asia, and Sylla hastened 
 to Italy. In the plains of Campania he was 
 met by a few of his adherents, whom the suc- 
 cess of his rivals had banished from the capital ; 
 and he was soon informed, that if he wished to 
 618 
 
 contend with Marius, he must encounter fifleen 
 generals, followed by 25 well-disciplined le- 
 gions. In these critical circumstances he had 
 recourse to artifice, and while he proposed 
 terms of accommodation to his adversaries, he 
 secretly strengthened himself, and saw with 
 pleasure his armies daily increase by the re- 
 volt of soldiers whom his bribes or promises 
 had corrupted. Pompey embraced his cause, 
 and marched to his camp with three legions. 
 Soon after he appeared in the field with ad- 
 vantage ; the confidence of Marius decayed 
 with his power, and Sylla entered Rome like a 
 tyrant and a conqueror. The streets were daily 
 filled with dead bodies, and 7000 citizens, lo 
 whom the conqueror had promised pardon, were 
 suddenly massacred in the circus. The senate, 
 at that time assembled in the temple of Bellona, 
 heard the shrieks of their dying countrymen ; 
 and when they inquired into the cause of it, 
 Sylla coolly replied, They are only a few rebels 
 whom I have ordered to be chastised. If this 
 had been the last and most dismal scene, Rome 
 might have been called happy ; but it was only 
 the beginning of her misfortunes, each succeed- 
 ing day exhibited a greater number of slaugh- 
 tered bodies ; and when one of the senators had 
 the boldness to ask the tyrant when he meant to 
 stop his cruelties, Sylla, with an air of uncon- 
 cern, answered, that he had not yet determined, 
 but that he would take it into his consideration. 
 The slaughter was continued, and a list of such 
 as were proscribed daily stuck up in the public 
 streets. No less than 4700 of the most power- 
 ful and opulent were slain, and Sylla wished 
 the Romans to forget his cruelties in aspiring to 
 the title of perpetual dictator. In this capacity, 
 he made new laws, abrogated such as were in- 
 imical to his views, and changed every regula- 
 tion where his ambition was obstructed. After 
 he had finished whatever the most absolute sove- 
 reign may do, Sylla abdicated the dictatorial 
 power, and retired to a solitary retreat at Puteoli, 
 where he spent the rest of his days, if not in 
 literary ease and tranquillity, yet far from the 
 noise of arms, in the midst of riot and debauch- 
 ery. The companions of his retirement were the 
 most base and licentious of the populace, and 
 Sylla took pleasure still to wallow in volup- 
 tuousness, though on the verge of life and cov- 
 ered with infirmities. His intemperance has- 
 tened his end, his blood was corrupted, and an 
 imposthume was bred in his bowels. He at last 
 died in the s:reatest torments, of the lousy dis- 
 ease, about 78 years before Christ, in the 60th 
 year of his age; and it has been observed, that, 
 like Marius, on his death-bed, he wished to 
 drown the stings of conscience and remorse by 
 continual intoxication. His funeral was very 
 magnificent ; his body was attended by the sen- 
 ate and the vestal virgins, and hymns were 
 sung to celebrate his exploits and to honour his 
 memory. A monument was erected in the field 
 of Mars, on which appeared an inscription 
 written by himself, in which he said, the good 
 services he had received from his friends, and 
 the injuries of his enemies, had been returned 
 with unexampled usury. The character ol 
 Sylla is that of an ambitious, dissimulating, ty- 
 rannical, and resolute commander. Sylla has 
 been commended for the patronage he gave to 
 the arts and sciences. He btought from Asia 
 
6Y 
 
 HISTORY, &C, 
 
 TA 
 
 the extensive library of Apellicon, the peri- 
 patetic philosopher, in which were the works of 
 Aristotle and Theophrastus ; and he himself 
 composed 22 books of memoirs concerning 
 himself. These memoirs were meant to have 
 been dedicated to Lucullus, on condition that 
 he should arrange and correct them. Syila was 
 employed on them the evening before his death, 
 and concluded them by relating, that on the 
 preceding night he had seen in a dream one of. 
 his children, who had died a short while before, 
 and who, stretching out his hand, showed to 
 him his mother Metella, and exhorted him 
 forthwith to leave the cares of life, and hasten 
 to enjoy repose along with them in the bosom of 
 eternal rest. " Thus" adds the author, who 
 accounted nothing so certain as what was signi- 
 fied to him in dreams, " I finish my days, as 
 "was predicted to me by the Chaldeans, who 
 announced that I should surmount en\7- itself 
 by my glory, and should have the good fortune 
 to fall in tlie full blossom of my prosperity." 
 These memoirs were sent by Epicadus, the 
 freedman of Sylla, to Lucullus, in order that 
 he might put to them the finishing hand. If 
 preserved, they would have thrown much light 
 on the most important affairs of Roman history, 
 as they proceeded from the person who must, 
 of all -others, have been the best informed con- 
 cerning them. They are quoted by Plutarch 
 as authority for many curious facts, as — that in 
 the great battle by which the Cimbrian invasion 
 was repelled, the chief execution was done in 
 that quarter where Sylla was stationed ; the 
 main body, under Marius, having been misled 
 by a cloud of dust, and having in consequence 
 wandered about for a long time without finding 
 the enemy. Plutarch also mentions that, in 
 these Commentaries, the author contradicted 
 the current story of his seeking a refuge during 
 a tumult at the commencement of the civil wars 
 with Marius, in the house of his rival, who, it 
 had been reported, sheltered and dismissed him 
 in safetj'. Besides their importance for the his- 
 tory of events, the Memoirs of Sylla must have 
 been highly interesting, as developing, in some 
 degree, the most curious character in Roman 
 history, " In the loss of his Memoirs," says 
 Blackwell, in his usual inflated style, " the 
 strongest draught of human passions, in the 
 highest wheels of fortune and sallies of power, 
 is for ever vanished. The character of Caesar, 
 though greater, was less incomprehensible than 
 that of Sylla ; and the mind of Augustus, though 
 unfathomable to his contemporaries, has been 
 sounded by the long line of posterity ; but it is 
 difficult to analyse the disposition which inspir- 
 ed the inconsistent conduct of Sylla. Gorged 
 with power, and blood, and vengeance, he seems 
 to have retired from what he chiefly coveted, 
 as if surfeited ; but neither this retreat, nor 
 old age, could mollify his heart ; nor could dis- 
 ease, or the approach of death, or the remem- 
 brsmce of his past life, disturb his tranquillity. 
 No part of his existence was more strange than 
 its termination ; and nothing can be more sin- 
 gular than that he, who, on the day of his de- 
 cease, caused, in mere wantonness, a provincial 
 magistrate to be strangled in his presence, 
 should, the night before, have enjoyed a dream 
 so elevated and tender. It is probable that the 
 Memoirs were well written, in point of style, 
 
 as Sylla loved the arts and sciences, and was 
 even a man of some learning, though Caesar is 
 reported to have said, on hearing his literary 
 acquirements extolled, that he must have been 
 but an indifferent scholar who had resigned a 
 dictatorship. — Cic. in Verr. &c. — C. Nep. in 
 Att.—Paterc. 2, c. 17, &c.—Liv. 75, &c.—Paus. 
 1, c. 20.—Fior. 3, c. 5, &c., 1. 4, c. 2, &c.— Val. 
 Max. 12, &c.—Polyb. 5.— Justin. 37 and 38.— 
 
 Eutro-p. 5, c. 2. — Plut. in vita. II. A nephew 
 
 of the dictator, who conspired against his coun- 
 try because he had been deprived of his consul- 
 ship for bribery. 
 
 Syncellus, one of the Byzantine histo- 
 rians, whose works were edited in fol. Paris, 
 1652. 
 
 Synesids, a bishop of Cyrene, in the age of 
 Theodosius the younger, as conspicuous for his 
 learning as his piety. He wrote 155 epistles, be- 
 sides other treatises in Greek, in a style pure and 
 elegant, and bordering much upon the poetic. 
 The last edition is in 8vo. Paris, 1605 ; inferior, 
 however, to the editio princeps by Petavius, fol. 
 Paris, 1612, The best edition of Synesius de 
 febribus is that of Bernard, Amst. 1749. 
 
 Syphax, a king of the Masaesyli in Libya, 
 who married Sophronisba, the daughter of As- 
 drubal, and forsook the alliance of the Romans 
 to join himself to the interest of his father-in- 
 law and of Carthage. He was conquered in a 
 battle by Masinissa, the ally of Jlome, and 
 given to Scipio, the Roman general. The con- 
 queror carried him to Rome, where he adorned 
 his triumph. Syphax died in prison, 201 years 
 before Christ, and his possessions were given to 
 Masinissa. According to some, the descend- 
 ants of Syphax reigned for some time over a 
 part of Numidia, and continued to make oppo- 
 sition to the Romans. Liv. 24, &c. — Plut. in 
 Scip.—Flor. 2, c. e.—Poh/b.—ltal. 16, v. 171 
 and 118.— Ovid. Fast. 6, v." 769. 
 
 Syracosia, festivals at Syracuse, celebrated 
 during ten days, in which women were busily 
 
 employed in offering sacrifices. Another, 
 
 yearly observed near the lake of Syracuse, 
 where, as they supposed, Pluto had disappeared 
 with Proserpine. 
 
 Sysimethres, a Persian satrap, who had two 
 children by his mother, an incestuous commerce 
 tolerated % the laws of Persia, He opposed 
 Alexander with 2000 men, but soon surrender- 
 ed. He was greatly honoured by the conqueror. 
 Curt. 8, c. 4. 
 
 Sysinas, the elder son of Datames, who re- 
 volted from his father to Aitaxerxes. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tabellari^ Leges, laws made by suffrages 
 delivered upon tables (labellcg) and not viva voce. 
 There were four of these laws, the Gabinia lex, 
 A. U, C. 614, by Gabinius ; the Cassia, by Cas- 
 sius, A, U. C. 616; the Papiria. by Carbo, A. 
 U. C. 622; and the Ccelia, by Caelius, A. U. C. 
 646. Cic. de Leg. 3, c. 16. 
 
 Tacfarinas, a Numidian, who commanded 
 an army against the Romans in the reign of 
 Tiberius. He had formerly served in the Ro- 
 man legions, but in the character of an enemy 
 he displayed the most inveterate hatred against 
 his benefactor. After he had severally defeated 
 the officers of Tiberius, he was at last routed 
 619 
 
TA 
 
 HISTORY, &©. 
 
 TA 
 
 and killed on the field of battle, fighting with un- 
 common fury, by Dolabella. Tacit. Ann. 2, &c. 
 
 Tachos, or Tachus, a king of Egypt, in the 
 reign of Artaxerxes Ochus, against whom he 
 sustained a long war. He was assisted by the 
 Greeks, but his confidence in Agesilaus, king of 
 Lacedaemon, proved fatal to him. Chabrias, 
 the Athenian, had been intrusted with the fleet 
 of the Egyptian monarch, and Agesilaus was 
 left with the command of the mercenary army. 
 The Lacedaemonian disregarded his engage- 
 ments, and by joining with Nectanebus, who 
 had revolted from Tachus, he ruined the affairs 
 of the monarch, and obliged him to save his life 
 by flight. Some observe that Agesilaus acted 
 wich that duplicity to avenge himself upon Ta- 
 chus, who had insolently ridiculed his short and 
 deformed stature. The expectations of Tachus 
 had been raised by the fame of Agesilaus ; but 
 when he saw the lame monarch, he repeated, on 
 the occasion, the fable of the mountain which 
 brought forth a mouse ; upon which Agesilaus 
 replied with asperity, though he called him a 
 mouse, yet he soon should find him to be a lion. 
 C. Nep. in Ages. 
 
 Tacitus, I. (C. Cornelius,) a celebrated Latin 
 historian , born in the reign of Nero. His father 
 was a Roman knight, who had been appointed 
 governor of Belgic Gaul. The native genius 
 and the rising talents of Tacitus were beheld 
 with rapture by the emperor Vespasian, and, as 
 he wished to protect and patronize merit, he 
 raised the young historian to places of trust and 
 honour. The succeeding emperors were not 
 less partial to Tacitus, and Domitian seemed to 
 forget his cruelties when virtue and innocence 
 claimed his patronage. Tacitus was honoured 
 with the consulship, and he gave proofs of his 
 eloquence at the bar, by supporting the cause 
 of the injured Africans against the proconsul 
 Marius Priscus, and in causing him to be con- 
 demned for his avarice and extortion. The 
 friendly intercourse of Pliny and Tacitus has 
 often been admired ; and many have observed, 
 that the familiarity of these two great men arose 
 from similar principles,and a perfect conformity 
 of manners and opinions. Yet Tacitus was as 
 much the friend of a republican government as 
 Pliny was an admirer of the imperial power, 
 and of the short-lived virtues of his patron Tra- 
 jan. Pliny gained the hearts of his adherents 
 by affability, and all the elegant graces which 
 became the courtier and the favourite, while 
 Tacitus conciliated the esteem of the world by 
 his virtuous conduct, which prudence and love 
 of honour ever guided. The friendship of Ta- 
 citus and of Pliny almost became proverbial. 
 The time of Tacitus was not employed in tri- 
 vial pursuits, the orator might have been now 
 forgotten if the historian had not flourished. 
 Tacitus wrote a treatise on the manners of the 
 Germans, a composition admired for the fidelity 
 and exactness with which it is executed, though 
 some have declared that the historian delineated 
 manners and customs with which he was not 
 acquainted, and which never existed. His life 
 of Cn. Julius Agricola, whose daughter he had 
 married, is celebrated for its purity, elegance, 
 and the many excellent instructions and impor- 
 tant truths which it relates. His history of the 
 Roman emperors is imperfect ; of the 28 years 
 of which it treated, that is, from the 69th to the 
 620 
 
 96th year of the Christian era, nothing remains 
 but the year 69 and part of the 70th. His An- 
 nals were the most extensive and complete of 
 his works. The history of the reign of Tibe- 
 rius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero, was treated 
 with accuracy and attention ; yet we are to 
 lament the loss of the history of the reign of 
 Caius, and the beginning of that of Claudius. 
 Tacitus had reserved for his old age the history 
 of the reign of Nerva and Trajan, and he also 
 proposed to give to the world an account of the 
 interesting administration of Augustus; but 
 these important subjects never employed the pen 
 of the historian ; and, as some of the ancients 
 observe, the only compositions of Tacitus were 
 contained in 30 books, of which we have now 
 left only 16 of his annals and five of his history. 
 The style of Tacitus has always been admired 
 for peculiar beauties ; the thoughts are great, 
 and every thing is treated with precision and 
 dignity, yet many have called him obscure, be- 
 cause he was fond of expressing his ideas in 
 few words. This was the fruit of experience 
 and judgment ; the history appears copious and 
 diffuse, while the annals, which were written in 
 his old age, are less flowing as to style, more 
 concise, and more heavily laboured." 'His Latin 
 is remarkable for being pure and classical. In 
 his biographical sketches he displays an un- 
 common knowledge of human nature, he paints 
 every scene wdth a masterly hand, and gives 
 each object its proper size and becoming co- 
 lours. Afl^airs of importance are treated with 
 dignity, the secret causes of events and revolu- 
 tions are investigated, and the historian every 
 where shows his reader that he was a lover of 
 truth, and an inveterate enemy to oppression. 
 The history of the reign of Tiberius is his mas- 
 ter-piece: the deep policy, the dissimulation, 
 and various intrigues of this celebrated prince, 
 are painted with all the fidelity of the historian. 
 It is said that the emperor Tacitus, who boasted 
 in being one of the descendants of the historian, 
 ordered the works of his ancestor to be placed 
 in all public libraries, and directed that ten co- 
 pies, well ascertained for accuracy and exact- 
 ness, should be yearly written, that so great and 
 so valuable a work might not be lost. Some 
 ecclesiastical writers have exclaimed against 
 Tacitus for the partial manner in which he 
 speaksof the Jews and Christians; but it should 
 be remembered that he spoke the language of 
 the Romans, and that the peculiarities of the 
 Christians could not but draw upon them the 
 odium and the ridicule of the Pagans, and the 
 imputation of superstition. Among the many 
 excellent editions of Tacitus, these may pass 
 for the best; that of Rome, fol. 1515; that in 
 8vo. 2 vols. L. Bat 1673 ; that in usura Del- 
 phini, 4 vols. 4to. Paris, 1682 ; that of Lips. 2 
 vols. 8vo. 1714 ; of Gronovius, 2 vols. 4to. 1721 ; 
 that of Brotier, 7 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1776 ; that 
 of Ernesti, 2 vols. 8vo. Lips, 1777; and Bar- 
 
 bou's, 3 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1760. II. M. 
 
 Claudius, a Roman, chosen emperor by the 
 senate after the death of Aurelian. He would 
 have refused this important and dangerous 
 oflice, but the pressing solicitations of the se- 
 nate prevailed, and in the 70th year of his age 
 he complied with the wishes of his countrymen, 
 and accepted the purple. The time of his 
 administration was very popular, the good of 
 
TA 
 
 HISTORY, &G. 
 
 TA 
 
 the people was his care, and as a pattern of 
 moderation, economy, temperance, regularit}', 
 and impartiality, Tacitus found no equal. He 
 abolished the several brothels which, under the 
 preceding reigns, had filled Rome with licen- 
 tiousness and obscenity ; and by ordering all 
 the public baths to be shut at sunset, he pre- 
 vented the commission of man)'' irregularities 
 which the darkness of the night had hitherto 
 sanctioned. The senators under Tacitus seem- 
 ed to have recovered their ancient dignity and 
 long-lost privileges. They were not only the 
 counsellors of the emperor, but they even seem- 
 ed to be his masters ; and when Florianus, the 
 brother-in-law of Tacitus, was refused the con- 
 sulship, the emperor said that the senate, no 
 doubt, could fix upon a more deserving object. 
 As a warrior, Tacitus is inferior to few of the 
 Romans ; and during a short reign of about 
 six months, he not only repelled the barbarians 
 who had invaded the territories of Rome in 
 Asia, but he prepared to make war against the 
 Persians and Scythians. He died in Cilicia, as 
 he was on his expedition, of a violent distem- 
 per, or, according to some, he was destroyed by 
 the secret dagger of an assassin, on the l3th of 
 April, in 276th year of the Christian era. 
 Tacitus has been commended for his love of 
 learning ; and it has been observed, that he 
 never passed a day without consecrating some 
 part of his time to reading or writing. He has 
 been accused of superstition ; and authors have 
 recorded that he never studied on the second 
 day of each month, a day which he deemed 
 inauspicious and unlucky. Tacit, vita. — 
 Zozim. ' 
 
 Talthybids, a herald in the Grecian camp 
 during the Trojan war, the particular minister 
 and friend of Agamemnon. He brought away 
 Briseis from the tent of Achilles by order of his 
 master. Talthy bins died at Egium, in Achaia. 
 Hormr. II. 1, v. 320, &c.— Paws. 7. c.23. 
 
 Tamos, a native of Memphis, made governor 
 of Ionia by young Cyrus. After the death of 
 Cyrus, Tamos fled into Egypt, where he was 
 murdered on account of his immense treasures, 
 Diod. 14. 
 
 Tanaquil, called also Caia CcBcilia, was the 
 wife of Tarquin, the 5th king of Rome. She 
 was a native of Tarquinia, where she married 
 Lucumon, better known by the name of Tar- 
 quin, which he assumed after he had come to 
 Rome at the representation of his wife, whose 
 knowledge of augury promised him something 
 uncommon. Her expectations were not frus- 
 trated ; her husband was raised to the throne, 
 and she shared with him the honours of royalty. 
 After the murder of Tarquin, Tanaquil raised 
 her son-in-law Servius Tullius to the throne, 
 and insured him the succession. She distin- 
 .guished herself by her liberality; and the Ro- 
 mans in succeeding ages had such a veneration 
 for her character, that the embroidery she had 
 made, her girdle, as also the robe of her son-in- 
 law, which she had worked with her own hands, 
 were preserved with the greatest sanctity. Ju- 
 venal bestows the appellation of Tanaquil on 
 all such women as were imperious and had the 
 command of their husbands. Liv. 1, c. 34, &c. 
 —Diovvs. Hal. 3, c. b9.—Flor. 1, c. 5 and 8 — 
 llal. 13, V. 818. 
 
 Tantalus. Vid. Part TIL 
 
 Tanusius Germinus, a Latin historian, inti- 
 mate with Cicero. Seneca. 93. — Suet. Cces. 9. 
 
 Tarpa, Spurius Msetius, a critic at Rome in 
 the age of Augustus. He was appointed with 
 four others in the temple of Apollo, to examine 
 the merit of every poetical composition which 
 was to be deposited in the temple of the Muses. 
 In this office he acted with great impartiality, 
 though many taxed him with want of candour. 
 All the pieces that were represented on the Ro- 
 man stage had previously received his appro- 
 bation. Horat. 1, Sat. 10, v. 38. 
 
 Tarpeia, the daughter of Tarpeius, the go- 
 vernor of the citadel of Rome, promised to open 
 the gates of the city to the Sabines provided 
 they gave her their gold bracelets, or, as she ex- 
 pressed it, what they carried on their left hands. 
 Tatius, the king of the Sabines, consented, and 
 as he entered the gates, to punish her perfidy, 
 he threw not only his bracelet but his shield 
 upon Tarpeia. His followers imitated his ex- 
 ample, and Tarpeia was crushed under the 
 weight of the bracelets and shields of the Sabine 
 army. She was buried in the capitol, which 
 from her has been called the Tarpeian rock, 
 and there afterwards many of the Roman mal- 
 efactors were thrown down a deep precipice. 
 Plut. in Rom. — Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 261. Amor. I, 
 el. 10, V. 50. — Liv. I, c. 11. — Propert. 4, el. 4. 
 
 Tarpeia Lex, was enacted A. U. C. 269, by 
 Sp. Tarpeius, to empower all the magistrates of 
 the republic to lay fines on oSenders. This 
 power belonged before only to the consuls. The 
 fine was not to exceed two sheep and thirty oxen. 
 
 Tarperis, Sp. the governor of the citadel of 
 Rome under Romulus. His descendants were 
 called Montani and Capitolini. 
 
 Tarquinia, I. a daughter of Tarquinius Pris- 
 cus. who married Servius Tullius. When her 
 husband was murdered by Tarquinius Super- 
 bus, she privately conveyed away his body by 
 night, and buried it. This preyed upon her 
 mind, and the following night she died. Some 
 have attributed her death to excess of grief, or 
 suicide; while others, perhaps more justly, 
 have suspected Tullia, the wife of young Tar- 
 quin, with the murder. II. A vestal virgin, 
 
 who, as some suppose, gave the Roman people 
 a large piece of land, which was afterwards 
 called the Campus Martius. 
 
 Tarquinius Priscus, I. the 5th king of Rome, 
 was son of Demaratus, a native of Greece. His 
 first name was Lucumon, but this he changed 
 when, by the advice of his wife Tanaquil, he 
 had come to Rome, He called himself Lucius, 
 and assumed the surname of Tarquinius, be- 
 cause born in the town of Tarquinii, in Etruria. 
 At Rome he distinguished himself so much by 
 his liberality and engaging manners, that Ancus 
 Martius, the reigning monarch, nominated him, 
 at his death, the guardian of his children. This 
 was insufficient to gratify the ambition of Tar- 
 quin ; the princes were young, and an artful 
 oration delivered to the people, immediately 
 transferred the crown of the deceased monarch 
 to the head of Lucumon. The people had every 
 reason to be satisfied with their choice. Tar- 
 quin reigned with moderation and popularity. 
 He increased the number of the senate, and 
 made himself friends by electing 100 new sena- 
 tors from the plebeians, whom he distinguished, 
 by the^appellat'on of Patres minorum, gevtium, 
 621 
 
TA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TA 
 
 from those of the patrician body, who were call- 
 ed Patres majorum gentium. The glory of the 
 Roman arms, which was supported with so 
 much dignity by the former monarchs, was not 
 neglected in this reign, and Tarquin showed 
 that he possessed vigour and military prudence 
 in the victories which he obtained over the 
 united forces of the Latins and Sabines, and in 
 the conquest of the 12 nations of Etruria. He 
 repaired, in the time of peace, the walls of the 
 capital; the public places were adorned with 
 elegant buildings and useful ornaments ; and 
 many centuries after, such as were spectators 
 of the stately mansions and golden palaces of 
 Nero,viewed, wiih more admiration and greater 
 pleasure, the more simple, though not less mag- 
 nificent, edifices of Tarquin. He laid the 
 foundations of the capitol, and to the industry 
 and the public spirit of this monarch, the Ro- 
 mans were indebted for their aqueducts and 
 subterraneous sewers, which supplied the city 
 with fresh and wholesome water, and removed 
 all the filth and ordure, which in a great capi- 
 tal too often breed pestilence and diseases, Tar- 
 quin was the first who introduced among the 
 Romans, the custom to canvass for oflices of 
 trust and honour ; he distinguished the mon- 
 arch, the senators, and other inferior magis- 
 trates, with particular robes and ornaments, and 
 ivory chairs at spectacles ; and the hatchets car- 
 ried before the public magistrates were by his 
 order surrounded with bundles of sticks, to strike 
 more terror, and to be viewed with greater reve- 
 rence. Tarquin was assassinated by the two 
 sons of his predecessor, in the 80lh year of his 
 age, 38 of which he had sat on the throne, 578 
 years before Christ. Dionys. Hal. 3, c. 59. — 
 Val. Max. 1, c. 4, 1. 3. c. 2.— i^or. 1, c. 5, &c. 
 
 ^Liv. 1, c. ^h—Virg. jE%. 6, v. 817. II. 
 
 The second Tarquin, surnamed Superbus from 
 his pride and insolence, was grandson of Tar- 
 quinius Priscus. He ascended the throne of 
 Rome after his father-in-law Servius Tullius, 
 and was the seventh and last king of Rome. He 
 married Tullia the daughter of Tullius, and it 
 was at her instigation that he murdered his fa- 
 ther-in-law an d seized the kingdom. The crown 
 which he had obtained with violence, he en- 
 deavoured to keep by a continuation of tyranny. 
 Unlike his royal preciecessors, he paid no regard 
 to the decisions of the senate or the approbation 
 of the public assemblies. The public treasury 
 was soon exhausted by the coniinual extrava- 
 gance of Tarquin, and to silence the murmurs 
 of his subjects, he resolved to call their attention 
 to war. He was successful in his military ope- 
 rations ; the neighbouring cities submitted ; but 
 while the siege of Ardea was continued, the 
 wantonness of the son of Tarquin at Rouie for 
 ever stopped the progress of his arms ; and the 
 Romans, whom a series of barbarity and oppres- 
 sion had hitherto provoked, no sooner saw the 
 virtuous Lucretia stab herself, not to survive the 
 loss of her honour, ( Vid. I/ucretia,) than the 
 whole city and camp arose with indignation 
 against the monarch. The gates of Rome were 
 shut against him, and Tarquin was for ever ba- 
 nished from his throne, in the year of Rome 244. 
 Unable to find support from even one of his sub- 
 jects, Tarquin retired among the Etrurians, who 
 attempted in vain to replace him on his throne. 
 The republican government was established at 
 €22 
 
 Rome, and all Italy refused any longer to sup- 
 port the cause of an exiled monarch against a 
 nation, who heard the name of Tarquin, of king, 
 and tyrant, mentioned with equal horror and 
 indignation. Tarquin died in the 90th year of 
 his age, about 14 years after his expulsion from 
 Rome. He had reigned about 25 years. Though 
 Tarquin appeared so odious among the Ro- 
 mans, his reign was not without its share of 
 glory ; his conquests were numerous; to beau- 
 tify the buildings and porticos at Rome was his 
 wish ; and with great magnificence and care 
 he finished the capitol which his predecessor of 
 the same name had begun. He also bought the 
 Sibylline books which the Romans consulted 
 with such religious solemnity. Vid. Sibylla. 
 Cic. pro Rob. (^ Tus. 2, c. 21.—Liv. 1, c. 46, 
 &c. — Dionys. Hal. 3, c. 48, &c. — Flor. 1, c. 7 
 and Q.—Plin. 8, c. 4.1.— Pint.— Val. Max. 8, c. 
 U.—Ovid. Fast. 2, v. mi.— Virg. jEn. 6, v. 
 
 817. — Eufrop. III. Collatinus, one of the 
 
 relations of Tarquin the Proud, who married 
 
 Lucretia. Vid. Collatinus. IV. Sextius, 
 
 the eldest son of Tarquin the Proud, who ren- 
 dered himself known by a variety of adventures. 
 When his father besieged Gabii, young Tar- 
 quin publicly declared that he was" at variance 
 with the monarch, and the report was the more 
 easily believed when he came before Gabii with 
 his body all mangled and bloody with stripes. 
 This was an agreement between the father and 
 the son, and Tarquin had no sooner declared 
 that this proceeded from the tyranny and op- 
 pression of his father, than the people of Gabii 
 intrusted him with the command of their armies, 
 fully convinced that Rome could never have a 
 more inveterate enemy. When he had thus 
 succeeded, he despatched a private messenger 
 to his father, but the monarch gave no answer 
 to be returned to his son. Sextius inquired 
 more particularly about his father, and when, 
 he heard from the messenger that when the 
 message was delivered, Tarquin cut off with a 
 stick the tallest poppies in his garden, the son 
 followed the example by putting to death the 
 most noble and powerful citizens of Gabii. The 
 town soon fell into the hands of the Romans. 
 The violence which some time after Tarquin- 
 ius offered to Lucretia, was the cause of his 
 father's exile and the total expulsion of his 
 family from Rome. Vid. Lnicretia. Sextius 
 was at last killed, bravely fighting in a bat- 
 tle, during the war which the Latins sustained 
 against Rome in the attempt of re-establish- 
 ing the Tarquins on their throne. Ovid. Fast. 
 
 — Liv. V. A Roman senator, who was 
 
 accessary to Catiline's conspiracy, 
 
 Tatian, one of the Greek fathers, A. D, 172. 
 The best edition of his works is that of Worth, 
 8vo. Oxon. 1700. 
 
 Tatienses, a name given to one of the tribes 
 of the Roman people by Romulus, in honour of 
 Tatius, king of the Sabines. The Tatienses, 
 who were partly the ancient subjects of the king 
 of the Sabines, lived on mount Capitolinus and 
 Gluirinalis. 
 
 TiTius, (Titus,) king of Cures, among the 
 Sabines, made war against the Romans after the 
 rape of the Sabines. The gates of the city were 
 betrayed into his hands by Tarpeia, and the 
 army of the Sabines advanced as far as the Ro- 
 man forum, where a bloody battle was fought. 
 
TE 
 
 HISTORY, &Q. 
 
 TE 
 
 The cries of the Sabine virgins at last stopped the 
 fury of the combatants, and an agreement was 
 made between the two nations. Talius con- 
 sented to leave his ancient possessions, and with 
 his subjects of Cures to come and live in Rome, 
 which, as stipulated, was still permitted to bear 
 the name of its founder, whilst the inhabitants 
 adopted the name of Gluiriies, in compliment to 
 the new citizens. After he had for six years 
 shared the royal authority with Romulus, in the 
 greatest union, he was murdered ai Lanuvium, 
 B.C. 742, for an act of cruelty to the ambassa- 
 dors of the Laarentes. This was done by order 
 of his royal colleague, according to some au- 
 thors. Liv. 1, c. 10, &c. — Plui. in Rom. — Cic. 
 pro Balb'.— Ovid. Met. 14, v.80i.—Flor. 1. c. I. 
 
 Taurus, I. (Titus Statilius,) a consul, distin- 
 guished by his intimacy with Augustus, as well 
 as by a theatre which he built, and the triumph 
 he obtained after a prosperous campaign in 
 Africa. He was made prefect of Italy by his 
 
 imperial friend. II. A proconsul of Africa, 
 
 accused by Agrippina, who wished him to be 
 condemned that she might become mistress of 
 his gardens. Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 59. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Taxilus, or Taxiles, I. a king of Taxila, in 
 the age of Alexander, called also Omphis. He 
 submitted to the conqueror, who rewarded him 
 with great liberaliiy. Diod. 17. — Plut. in Alex. 
 
 —.Elian. V. H. 5, c. &.— Curt. 8, c. 14. II. 
 
 A general of Mithridates, who assisted Arche- 
 laus against the Romans in Greece. He was 
 afterwards conquered by Murasna, the lieuten- 
 ant of Sylla. 
 
 Techmessa, the daughter of a Phrygian 
 prince, called by some Teuthras, and by others 
 Teleutas. When her father was killed in war 
 by Ajax, son of Telamon, the young princess 
 became the property of the conqueror, and by 
 him she had a son called Eurysaces. Sophocles, 
 in one of his tragedies, represents Techmessa 
 as moving her husband to pity by her tears and 
 entreaties when he wished lo stab himself 
 Horat. 2, Od. 1, v. 6. — Dictya. Crei. — Sophocl, 
 in Ajax. 
 
 Tectamus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Tectosages, or Tectosag^. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Tegula, p. LiciN. a comic poet, who flour- 
 ished B. C. 198. 
 
 Telamon, a king of the island of Salamis, 
 son of iEacus and Endis, He was a brother to 
 Peleus, and father to Teucer and Ajax, who on 
 that account is often called Telamonius heros. 
 He fled from Megara, his native country, after 
 he had accidentally murdered his brother Pho- 
 cus, in playing with the quoit, and he sailed to 
 the island of Salamis, where he soon after mar- 
 ried Glauce, the daughter of Cychreus, the king 
 of the place. At the death of his father-in-law, 
 who had no male issue, Telamon became king 
 of Salamis. He accompanied Jason in his ex- 
 pedition to Colchis, and was arm-bearer to Her- 
 cules, when that hero took Laomedon prisoner 
 and destroyed Troy. Telamon was rewarded 
 by Hercules for his services with the hand of 
 Hesione, whom the conqueror had obtained 
 among the spoils of Troy, and with her he re- 
 turned to Greece. He also married Periboea, 
 whom some called Eribcea. Ovid. Met. 13, v. 
 151. — Sophocl. inAj. — Pindar. Isthm. 6. — Stat. 
 Tkeh. 6. — Apollod. 1, 2, &c. — Paus. in Cor, — 
 ^ygin. fab. 97, «&c. 
 
 ' Telchines, a people of Rhodes, said to have 
 been originally from Crete. They were the in- 
 ventors of many useful arts, and, according to 
 Diodorus, passed for the sons of the sea. They 
 were the first who raised statues to the gods. 
 They had the power of changing themselves 
 into whatever shape they pleased, and according 
 to Ovid they could poison and fascinate all ob- 
 jects with their eyes, and cause rain and hail 
 .to fall at pleasure. The Telchinians insulted 
 Venus, for which the goddess inspired them 
 with a sudden fury, so that they committed the 
 grossest crimes, and ofiered violence even to 
 their own mothers. Jupiter destroyed them all 
 by a deluge. Diod.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 365, «fec. 
 
 Telecles, or Teleglus, I. a Lacedaemonian 
 king, of the family of the Agidae, who reigned 
 forty years, B. C. 813. Herodot. 7, c. 205.— 
 
 Paus. 3, c. 2. 11. A philosopher, disciple of 
 
 Lacidas, B. C. 214. 
 
 Telecliles, an Athenian comic poet in the 
 age of Pericles, one of whose plays, called the 
 Amphictyons, is mentioned by ancient authors. 
 Plui. in Nicid. — Athen. 8. 
 
 Telegonus, I. a son of Ulysses and Circe, 
 born in the island of -^aea, where he was edu- 
 cated. When arrived to the years of manhood, 
 he went to Ithaca to make himself known to his 
 father, but he was shipwrecked on the coast, 
 and, being destitute of provisions, he plundered 
 some of the inhabitants of the island. Ulysses 
 and Telemachus came to defend the property 
 of their subjects against this unknown invader ; 
 a quarrel arose, and Telegonus killed his father 
 without kncAving who he was. He afterwards 
 returned to his native country, and, according 
 la Hyginus, he carried thither his father's body, 
 where it was buried. Telemachus and Pene- 
 lope also accompanied him in his return, and 
 soon after the nuptials of Telegonus and Pene- 
 lope were celebrated by order of Minerva. Pe- 
 nelope had by Telegonus a son called Italus, 
 who gave his name to Italy. Telegonus found- 
 ed Tusculum and Tiber or Praeneste, in Italy, 
 and according to some he left one daughter, 
 called Mamilia, from whom the patrician fam- 
 ily of the Mamilii at Rome were descended. 
 Horat. 3, od. 29, v. S.—Ovid. Fast. 3 and 4. 
 lyist. 1, el. 1. — Plut. in Par. — Hygin. fab. 
 
 121.— Diod. 7. II. A son of Proteus, killed 
 
 by Hercules. Apollod. III. A king of Egypt, 
 
 who married lo after she had been restored to 
 her original form by Jupiter. Id. 
 
 Telemachus, a son of Ulysses and Penelope. 
 He was still in the cradle when his father went 
 with the rest of the Greeks lo the Trojan war. 
 At the end of this celebrated war, Telemachus, 
 anxious to see his father, went to seek him, and 
 as the place of his residence and the cause of 
 his long absence were then unknown, he visited 
 the court of Menelaus and Nestor to obtain in- 
 formation. He afterwards returned to Ithaca, 
 where the suitors of his mother Penelope had 
 conspired to murder him, but he avoided their 
 snares, and, by means of Minerva, he discover- 
 ed his father, who had arrived in the island 
 two days before him, and was then in the house 
 of Eumaeus. With this faithful servant and 
 Ulysses, Telemachus concerted how to deliver 
 his mother from the importunities of her suitors, 
 and it was effected with success. After the 
 death of his father, Telemachus went to the 
 623 
 
TE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TE 
 
 island of ^aea, where he married Circe, or ac- 
 cording to others, Cassiphone, the daughter of 
 Circe, by whom he had a son called Latinus. 
 He some time after Ijiad the misfortune to kill 
 his mother-in-law Circe, and fled to Italy, where 
 he founded Clusium, Telemachus was accom- 
 panied in his visit to Nestor and Menelaus by 
 the goddess of wisdom under the form of Men- 
 tor. It is said that when a child, Telemachus 
 fell into the sea, and that a dolphin brought him 
 safe to shore after he had remained some time 
 under water. From this circumstance Ulysses 
 had the figure of a dolphin engraved on the seal 
 which he wore in his ring, Hygin. fab. 95 and 
 nb.— Ovid. Heroid. 1, v. 98.—Horat. 1 ep. 7, 
 V. 41. — Homer. Od. 2, &c. — Licophr. in Cass. 
 
 Telephus, (L. Verus,) wrote a book on the 
 rhetoric of Homer, as also a comparison of that 
 poet with Plato, and other treatises, all lost. 
 Vid. Part III. 
 
 Telesilla, a lyric poetess of Argos, who 
 bravely defended her country against the Lace- 
 daemonians, and obliged them to raise the siege. 
 A statue was raised to her honour in the temple 
 of Venus. Pans. 2, c. 20. 
 
 Telesinus, a general of the Samnites, who 
 joined the interest of Marius, and fought against 
 the generals of Sylla. He marched towards 
 Rome, and defeated Sylla with great loss. He 
 was afterwards routed in a bloody battle, and 
 left in the number of the slain, after he had given 
 repeated proofs of valour and courage. Plut. 
 in Mar. &c. 
 
 Tellias, a famous soothsayer of Elis, in the 
 age of Xerxes. He was greatly honoured in 
 Phocis, where he had settled, and the inhabit- 
 ants raised him a statue in the temple of Apollo 
 at Delphi. Pans. 10, v. l.— Herodot. 8, c. 27. 
 
 Tellus, a poor man, whom Solon called hap- 
 pier than Croesus, the rich and ambitious king 
 of Lydia, Tellus had the happiness to see a 
 strong and healthy family of children, and at 
 last to fall in the defence of his country Hero- 
 dot. 1, c. 30. 
 
 Temenus, a son of Aristomachus, was the 
 first of the Heraclidse who returned to Pelopon- 
 nesus with his brother Ctesiphontes in the reign 
 of Tisamenes, king of Argos. Temenus made 
 himself master of the throne of Argos, from 
 which he expelled the reigning sovereign. Af- 
 ter death he was succeeded by his son-in-law 
 Deiphon,who had married his daughter Hyrne- 
 tho, and his succession was in preference to his 
 own son. Apollod, 2, c. 7. — Paus. 2, c. 18 and 19. 
 Tenes, a son of Cycnus and Proclea. He 
 was exposed on the sea on the coast of Troas, 
 by his father, who credulously believed his wife 
 Philonome, who had fallen in love with C}'^cnus 
 and accused him of attempts upon her virtue, 
 when he refused to gratify her passion. Tenes 
 arrived safe in Leucophrys, which he called 
 Tenedos, and of which he became the sove- 
 reign. Some time after, Cycnus discovered the 
 guilt of his wife Philonome, and as he wished 
 to be reconciled to his son whom he had so 
 grossly injured, he went to Tenedos. But when 
 he had tied his ship to the shore, Tenes cut off 
 the cable with a hatchet, and suffered his father's 
 ship to be tossed about by the sea. From this 
 circumstance the hatchet of Tenes is become 
 proverbial to intimate a resentment that cannot 
 De pacified. Some, however, suppose that the 
 624 
 
 proverb arose from the severity of a law made 
 by a king of Tenedos against adultery, by which 
 the guilty were both put to death by a hatchet. 
 The hatchet of Tenes was carefully preserved 
 at Tenedos, and afterwards deposited by Peri- 
 clytus, son of Eutymachus, in the temple of 
 Delphi, where it was still seen in the age of 
 I Pausanias. Tenes, as some suppose, was killed 
 by Achilles, as he defended his country against 
 the Greeks, and he received divine honours 
 after death. His statue at Tenedos was carried 
 away by Verres. Strab. 13. — Pans. 10, c. 14. 
 Tennes, a king of Sodon, who, when his 
 country was besieged by the Persians, burnt 
 j himself and the city together, B. C. 351. 
 j Terentia, I. the wife of Cicero. She became 
 j mother of M. Cicero, and of a daughter called 
 i Tulliola. Cicero repudiated her, because she 
 I had been faithless to his bed when he was ba- 
 j nisbed in Asia. Terentia married Sallust, Cice- 
 ro's enemy, and afterwards Messala Corvinus. 
 \ She lived to her 103d, or, accordingto Pliny, to 
 her 117th year. Plut. in Cic.— Val. Max. 8, c. 
 
 13.— C'ic. ad Attic. 11, ep. 16, &c. II. The 
 
 wife of Msecenas, with whom it is said that 
 Augustus carried on an intrigue. This beau- 
 tiful, but capricious woman was the sister of 
 Proculeius, so eminent for his fraternal love, as 
 also of Licinius Muraena, who conspired against 
 Augustus ; and she is supposed by some, though 
 we think erroneously, to be the Licymnia whom 
 Horace celebrates for her personal charms and 
 accomplishments, and for the passion with 
 which she had inspired his patron. The extra- 
 vagance and bad temper of this fantastical, yet 
 lovely woman, were sources of perpetual cha- 
 grin and uneasiness to her husband. Though 
 his existence was embittered by her folly and 
 capriccj he continued during his whole life to 
 be the dupe of the passion which he entertained 
 for her. He could neither live with nor with- 
 out her ; he quarrelled with her, and was recon- 
 ciled, almost every day, and put her away one 
 moment, and take her back the next, which has 
 led Seneca to remark, that he was married a 
 thousand times, yet never had but one wife. 
 Terentia vied in personal charms with the em- 
 peress Livia, and is said to have gained the 
 affections of Augustus. She accompanied her 
 husband and the emperor on an expedition to 
 Gaul, in the year 738, which, at the time, was 
 reported to have been undertaken in order that 
 Augustus might enjoy her society without 
 attracting the notice or animadversions of the 
 capital. Msecenas was not courtier enough to 
 appear blind to the infidelities of Terentia, or 
 to sleep for the accommodation of the emperor, 
 as the senator Galba is said to have slumbered 
 for the minister. The umbrage Maecenas took 
 at the attentions paid by his master to Terentia, 
 is assigned by Dio Cassius as the chief cause of 
 that decline of imperial favour which Maecenas 
 experienced about four years previously to his 
 death. Others have supposed, that it was not 
 the intrigue of Augustus with Terentia which 
 diminished his influence, but a discovery made 
 by the emperor, that he had revealed to his wife 
 some circumstances concerning the conspiracy 
 in which her brother Mursena had been engaged 
 Terentia Lex, called also Cassia, frurnen^ 
 taria, by M. Terentius Varro Lucullus and C. 
 Cassius, A. U. C. 680. It ordered that the same 
 
TE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TE 
 
 price should be given for all com bought in the 
 provinces, to hinder the exactions of the quaes- 
 tors. -Another, by Terentius the tribune, A. 
 
 U. C. 291, to elect five persons to define the 
 power of the consuls, lest they should abuse the 
 public confidence by violence or rapine, 
 
 Terentianus, I. a Roman, to whom Longi- 
 
 nus dedicated his treatise on the sublime. ^11. 
 
 Maurus, a writer who flourished A. D. 240. 
 The last edition of his treatise de Uteris, Sylla- 
 bis, tf" metris Horatii, is by Mycillus, Francof 
 8vo. 1584. Martial. 1, ep, 70. 
 
 Terentius Publius, I. This celebrated dra- 
 matist, the delight and ornament of the Roman 
 stage, was born at Carthage about the 560th 
 year of Rome. In what manner he came or 
 was brought hither is uncertain. He was, in 
 early youth, the freedman of one Terentius 
 Lucanus in that city, whose name has been per- 
 petuated only by the glory of his slave. After 
 he had obtained his freedom, he became the 
 friend of Laelius, and of the younger Scipio 
 Africanus. His Andria was not acted till the 
 year 587 — two years, according to the Eusebian 
 Chronicle, after the death of Csecilius ; which 
 unfortunately throws some doubi on the agree- 
 able anecdote recorded by Donatus, of his in- 
 troduction, in a wretched garb, into the house 
 of Cascilius, in order to read his comedy to 
 that poet, by whom, as a mean person, he was 
 seated on a low stool, till he astonished him 
 with the matchless grace and elegance of the 
 Andria, when he was placed on the couch, and 
 invited to partake the supper of the veteran 
 dramatist. After he had given six comedies 
 to the stage, Terence left Rome for Greece, 
 whence he never returned. The manner of 
 his death, however, is altogether uncertain. 
 According to one report, he perished at sea, 
 while on his voyage from Greece to Italy, 
 bringing with him a hundred and eight come- 
 dies, which he had translated from Menander ; 
 according to other accounts, he died in Ar- 
 cadia for grief at the loss of those comedies, 
 which he had sent before him by sea to Rome. 
 In whatever way it was occasioned, his death 
 happened when he was at the early age ofthir- 
 ty-four, and in the year 594 from the building 
 of the city. Andria, — acted in 587, is the first 
 in point of time, and is usually accounted the 
 first in merit, of the productions of Terence. 
 Like most of his other comedies, it has a double 
 plot. It is compounded of the Andrian and 
 Perinthian of Menander ; but it does not ap- 
 pear that Terence took his principal plot from 
 one of those Greek plays, and the under-plot 
 from the other. He employed both to form his 
 chief fable ; and added the characters, on which 
 the under-plot is founded, from his own inven- 
 tion, or from some third play now unknown to 
 us. The long narrative with which the Andria, 
 like several other plays of Terence, commences, 
 and which is a component part of the drama 
 itself, is beautiful in point of style, and does not 
 fail to excite our interest concerning the charac- 
 ters. This play has been imitated in the Ati- 
 driemve of Baron, the celebrated French actor. 
 The Latin names are preserved in the dramatis 
 personcE, and the first, second, and fifth acts, have 
 been nearly translated from Terence. Steele's 
 Conscious Lovers is the best imitation of the An- 
 dria. Eumtchus. — Though, in modern times, 
 
 Part II.— 4 K 
 
 the Andria has been the most admired play ol 
 Terence, in Rome the Eunuchus was by much 
 the most popular of all his performances, and 
 he received for it 8000 sesterces, the greatest 
 reward which poet had ever yet obtained. In 
 the Andria, indeed, there is much grace and 
 delicacy, and some tenderness; but the Eunu- 
 chus is so full of vivacity and fire, as almost to 
 redeem its author from the well-known censure 
 of Caesar, that there was no vis comica in his 
 dramas. The chief part of the Eunuchus is 
 taken from a play of the same title by Menan- 
 der; but the characters of the parasite and cap- 
 tain have been transferred into it from another 
 play of Menander, called Kolax. There was 
 an old play, too, by Neevius, founded on the 
 Kolax; but Terence, in his prologue, denies 
 having been indebted to this performance. 
 There is an Italian imitation of the Eunuchus 
 in La Talanta, a comedy by Aretine, in which 
 the courtesan, who gives the name to the play, 
 corresponds with Thais, and her lover Orfinio 
 to Phcedria — the characteristic dispositions of 
 both the originals being closely followed in the 
 copy. There is more Ivhricity in the Ennuchus 
 of Terence than in any other of his perform- 
 ances ; and hence, perhaps, it has been selected 
 by Fontaine as the most suitable drama for his 
 imitation. His Euimque, as he very justly re- 
 marks in his advertisement prefixed, "n'est 
 qu'une mediocre copie d'un excellent original." 
 The only English imitation of the Eunuchus is 
 Bellamira, or the Mistress, an unsuccessful com- 
 edy, by Sir Charles Sedley, first printed in 1687. 
 Heautontimorumenos. — The chief plot of this 
 play, which we think, on the whole, the least 
 happy effort of Terence's imitation, and which, 
 of all his plays, is the most foreign from our 
 manners, is taken, like the last-mentioned 
 drama, from Menander. It derives its Greek 
 appellation from the voluntary punishment in- 
 flicted on himself by a father, who, having 
 driven his son into banishment by excess of 
 severity, avenges him, by retiring to the coun- 
 try, where he partakes only of the hardest fare, 
 and labours the ground with his own hands. 
 The deep parental distress, however, of Mene- 
 demus, with which the play opens, forms but an 
 inconsiderable part of it, as the son, Clinia, re- 
 turns in the second act, and other incidents of 
 a comic cast are then interwoven with the drama. 
 The poet being perhaps aware that the action 
 of this comedy was exceptionable, and that the 
 dramatic unities were not preserved in the most 
 rigid sense of the term, has apparently exerted 
 himself to compensate for these deficiencies by 
 the introduction of many beautiful moral max- 
 ims : and by that purity of style, which distin- 
 guishes all his productions, but which shines, 
 perhaps, most brightly in the Heautontimoru- 
 menos. That part of the plot of this comedy, 
 where Clitopho's mistress is introduced as 
 Clinia's mistress, into the house of both the old 
 men, has given rise to Chapman's comedy, All 
 Fooles, which was first printed in 1605, 4to. and 
 was a favourite production in its day. Adelphi. 
 — The principal subject of this drama is usually 
 supposed to have been taken from Menander's 
 Adelphoi; but it appears that Alexis, the uncle 
 of Menander, also wrote a comedy, entitled 
 Adelphoi ; so that perhaps the elegant Latin 
 copy may have been as much indebted to the 
 625 
 
TE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TE 
 
 •ancle's as to the nephew's performance, for the 
 delicacy of its characters and the charms of 
 its dialogue. We are informed, however, in 
 the prologue, that the part of the drama in 
 which the music girl is carried off from the 
 pander, has been taken from the Synapothne^ 
 contes of Diphilus. That comedy, though the 
 version is now lost, had been translated by Plau- 
 tus, under the title of Commorientes. He had 
 left out the incidents, however, concerning the 
 music girl, and Terence availed himself of this 
 omission to interweave them with the principal 
 plot of his delightful drama. The Adelphi 
 is also the origin of Shadwell's comedy, the 
 Squire of Alsatia. Spence, in his Anecdotes, 
 says, on the authority of Dennis the critic, that 
 the story on which the Squire of Alsatia was 
 built, was a true fact. That the whole plot is 
 founded on fact, we think very improbable, as it 
 coincides most closely with that of the Adelphi. 
 In Cumberland's Choleric Man, the chief char- 
 acters, though he seems to deny it in his dedi- 
 catory epistle to Detraction, have also been 
 traced after those of the Adelphi. Hecijra. — 
 Several of Terence's plays can hardly be ac- 
 counted comedies, if by that term be understood, 
 dramas which excite laughter. They are in 
 what the French call genre serieux, and are 
 perhaps the origin of the comedie larmoyante. 
 The events of human life for the most part, are 
 neither deeply distressing nor ridiculous ; and, 
 in a dramatic representation of such incidents, 
 the action must advance by embarrassments and 
 perplexities, which, though below tragic pathos, 
 are not calculated to excite merriment. Diderot, 
 who seems to have been a great student of the 
 works of Terence, thinks the Hecyra, or Moth- 
 er-in-law, should be classed among the serious 
 dramas. It exhibits no buffoonery, or tricks of 
 slaves, or ridiculous parasite, or extravagant 
 braggart captain ; buL contains a beautiful and 
 delightful picture of private life, and those dis- 
 tresses which " ruffle the smooth current of do- 
 mestic joy." Phormio — like the last-mentioned 
 play, was taken from the Greek of Apollodorus, 
 who called it Epidicazomenos. Terence named 
 it Phormio, from a parasite whose contrivances 
 form the groundwork of the comedy, and who 
 connects its double plot. It is curious that this 
 play, which Donatus says is founded on pas- 
 sions almost too high for comedy, should have 
 given rise to the most fanciful of all Moliere's 
 productions, Les Fourberies dc Scapin, a cele- 
 brated, though at first an unsuccessful play, 
 where, contrary to his usual practice, he has 
 burlesqued rather than added dignity to the in- 
 cidents of the original from which he borrowed. 
 From the above sketches some idea may have 
 been formed of Terence's plots, most of which 
 were taken from the Greek stage, on which he 
 knew they had already pleased. He has given 
 proofs, however, of his taste and judgment, in 
 the additions and alterations made on those bor- 
 rowed subjects ; and, had he lived an age later, 
 when all the arts were in full glory at Rome, 
 and the empire at its height of power and 
 splendour, he would have found domestic sub- 
 jects sufficient to supply his scene with interest 
 and variety, and would no longer have account- 
 ed it a greater merit — *' Grsecas transferre quam 
 proprias scribere." Terence was a more rigid 
 observer than his Roman predecessors of the 
 626 
 
 unities of time and place. But though he has 
 perhaps too rigidly observed the unities of time 
 and place, in none of his dramas, with a single 
 exception, has that of plot been adhered to. 
 The simplicity and exact unity of fable in the 
 Greek comedies would have been insipid to a 
 people not thoroughly instructed in the genuine 
 beauties of the drama. Such plays are of too 
 thin contexture to satisfy the somewhat gross 
 and lumpish taste of a Roman audience. The 
 Latin poets, therefore, bethought themselves of 
 combining two stories into one, and this junc- 
 tion, which we call the double plot, by affording 
 the opportunity of more incidents, and a greater 
 variety of action, best contributed to the grati- 
 fication of those whom they had to please. 
 But of all the Latin comedians, Terence ap- 
 pears to have practised this art the most assid- 
 uously. Next to the management of the plot, 
 the characters and manners represented are the 
 most important points in a comedy ; and in 
 these Terence was considered by the ancients 
 as surpassing all their comic poets. The style 
 of wit and humour must of course correspond 
 with that of the characters and manners. Ac- 
 cordingly the plays of Terence are not much 
 calculated to excite ludicrous emotions, and 
 have been regarded as deficient in comic force. 
 Among all the Latin writers, from Ennius to 
 Ausonius, we meet with nothing so simple, so 
 full of grace and delicacy — in fine, nothing that 
 can be compared to the comedies of Terence 
 for elegance of dialogue — presenting a con- 
 stant flow of easy, genteel, unaffected discourse, 
 which never subsides into vulgarity or gross- 
 ness, and never rises higher than the ordinary 
 level of polite conversation. After having con- 
 sidered the plays of Plautus and of Terence, 
 one is naturally led to institute a comparison 
 between these two celebrated dramatists. The 
 improvement of the times brought the works of 
 Terence to perfection and maturity, as much 
 as his own genius. It is evident that he was 
 chiefly desirous to recommend himself to the 
 approbation of a select few, who were possessed 
 of true wit and judgment, and the dread of 
 whose censure ever kept him within the bounds 
 of correct taste ; while the sole object of Plautus, 
 on the other hand, was to excite the merri- 
 ment of an audience of little refinement. If, 
 then, we merely consider the intrinsic merit of 
 their productions, without reference to the cir- 
 cumstances or situation of the authors, stiU 
 Plautus will be accounted superior in that vi- 
 vacity of action, and variety of incident, which 
 raise curiosity, and hurry on the mind to the 
 conclusion. We delight, on the contrary, to 
 linger on every scene, almost on every sentence, 
 of Terence. Sometimes there are chasms in 
 Plautus's fables, and the incidents do not prop- 
 erly adhere. — in Terence, all the links of the 
 action depend on each other. Plautus has 
 more variety in his exhibition of characters and 
 manners, but his pictures are often overcharged, 
 while those of Terence are never more highly 
 coloured than becomes the modesty of nature, 
 Plautus's sentences have a peculiar smartness, 
 which conveys the thought with clearness, and 
 strikes the imagination strongly, so that the 
 mind is excited to attention, and retains the 
 idea with pleasure ; but they are often forced 
 and affected, and of a description little used in 
 
TE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TE 
 
 the commerce of the world; whereas every 
 word of Terence has direct relation to the busi- 
 ness of life and the feelings of mankind. The 
 language of Plautus is more rich and luxu- 
 riant than that of Terence, but is far from be- 
 ing so equal, uniform, and chaste. It is often 
 stained with vulgarily, and sometimes swells 
 beyond the limits of comic dialogue, while that 
 of Terence is puro simillimus amni. The 
 verses of Plautus are, as he himself calls them, 
 numeri innumeri ; and Herman declares, that, 
 at least, as now printed omni vitiorum genere 
 abundant. Terence attends more to elegance 
 and delicacy in the expression of passion — 
 Plautus to comic expression. In fact, the 
 great object of Plautus seems to have been to 
 excite laughter among the audience, and in 
 this object he completely succeeded ; but for its 
 attainment he has sacrificed many graces and 
 beauties of the drama. There are two sorts of 
 humour — one consisting in words and action, 
 the other in matter. Now Terence abounds 
 chiefly in the last species, Plautus in the first ; 
 and the pleasantries of the older dramatist, 
 which were so often flat, low, or extravagant, 
 finally drew down the censure of Horace, 
 while his successor was extolled by that poetical 
 critic as the most consummate master of dra- 
 matic art. " In short," says Crusius, " Plautus 
 is more gay, Terence more chaste — the first 
 has more genius and fire, the latter more man- 
 ners and solidity. Plautus excels in low 
 comedy and ridicule, Terence in drawing just 
 characters, and maintaining them to the last. 
 The plots of both arc useful, but Terence's are 
 more apt to languish, whilst Plautus's spirit 
 maintains the action with vigour. His inven- 
 tion was greatest; Terence's art and manage- 
 ment. Plautus gives the stronger, Terence a 
 more elegant delight. Plautus appears the bet- 
 ter comedian of the two, as Terence the finer 
 poet. The former has more compass and va- 
 riety, the latter more regularity and truth, in his 
 characters, Plautus shone most on the stage ; 
 Terence pleases best in the closet. Men of re- 
 fined taste would prefer Terence ; Plautus 
 diverted both patrician and plebeian." The best 
 editions of Terence are those of Westerhovius, 
 2 vols. 4to. Amst. 1726 ; of Edin. 12mo, 1758 ; 
 of Cambridge, 4to. 1723 ; Hawkey's, 12rao. 
 Dublin, 1745; and that of Zeunius, 8vo. Lips. 
 1774. Cic. ad Attic. 7, ep. 3. — Paterc. 1, c. 17. 
 — Quintil. 10, c. 1. — Horat. 2, ep. 1, v. 59, 
 
 II. Culeo, a Roman senator, taken by the Car- 
 thaginians and redeemed'by Africanus. When 
 Africanus triumphed, Culeo followed his cha- 
 riot with a pileus on his head. He was some 
 time after appointed judge between his deliverer 
 and the people of Asia, and had the meanness 
 to condemn him and his brother Asiaticus, 
 
 though both innocent. Liv. 30, c. 45. III. 
 
 A consul with .^milius Paulus at the battle of 
 Cannae. He was the son of a butcher, and 
 had followed for some time the profession of 
 his father. He placed himself totally in the 
 power of Hannibal by making an improper 
 distribution of his army. After he had been 
 defeated, and his colleague slain, he retired to 
 Canusium, with the remains of his slaughtered 
 countrymen, and sent word to the Roman sen- 
 ate of his defeat. He received the thanks of 
 this venerable body, because he had engaged 
 
 the enemy, however improperly, and not 
 despaired of the affairs of the republic. He 
 was offered the dictatorship, which he declined. 
 
 Pint.— Liv. 22, &c. IV. Marcus, a friend 
 
 of Sejanus, accused before the senate for his 
 intimacy with that discarded favourite. He 
 made a noble defence, and was acquitted. 
 Tacit. Ann. 6. 
 
 Terminalta, annual festivals at Rome, ob- 
 'served in honour of the god Terminus, in the 
 month of February. It was then usual for peas- 
 ants to assemble near the principal landmarks 
 which separate their fields, and after they had 
 crowned them with garlands and flowers, to 
 make libations of milk and wine, and to sacri- 
 fice a lamb or a young pig. They were ori- 
 ginally established by Numa, and though at 
 first it was forbidden to shed the blood of vic- 
 tims, yet in process of time landmarks were 
 plentifully sprinkled with it. Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 
 641.— Cic. Phil. 12, c. 10. 
 
 Terpander, a lyric poet and musician of 
 Lesbos, 675 B.C. It is said that he appeased a 
 tumult at Sparta by the melody and sweetness 
 of his notes. He added three strings to the lyre, 
 which before his time had only four. jElian. 
 V. H. 12, c. 60.— Pint, de Mus. 
 
 Tertia, a sister of Brutus, who married 
 Cassius. She was also called Tertulla and 
 Jicnia. Tacit. A. 3, c. 76. — Suet, in Cces. 50. — 
 Cic. ad B. 5 and 6, ad Att. 15, ep. 11, X. 16, ep. 20. 
 
 Tertullianus, (J. Septimius Florens,) a 
 celebrated Christian writer of Carthage, who 
 flourished A. D. 196. He was originally a Pa- 
 gan, but afterwards embraced Christianity, of 
 which he became an able advocate by his wri- 
 tings, which showed that he was possessed of a 
 lively imagination, impetuous eloquence,elevat- 
 ed style, and strength of reasoning. The most 
 famous and esteemed of his numerous works 
 are, his Apology for the Christians and his Pre- 
 scriptions. The best edition of Teriullian is 
 that of Semlerus, 4 vols. Bvo. Hal. 1770 ; and 
 of his Apology, that of Havercamp, Bvo. L. 
 Bat. 1718. 
 
 Tetricus, a Roman senator, saluted emperor 
 in the reign of Aurelian. He was led in triumph 
 by his successful adversary, who afterwards 
 heaped the most unbounded honours upon him 
 and his son of the same name. 
 
 Teucer, I. a king of Phrygia, son of the Sca- 
 mander by Idea. According to some authors, 
 he was the first who introduced among his sub- 
 jects the worship of Cybele and the dances of 
 the Corybantes. The country where he reigned 
 was from him called Teucria, and his subjects 
 Teucri. His daughter Batea married Darda- 
 nus, a Samothracian prince, who succeeded him 
 in the government of Teucria. Apollod. 3, c'. 
 
 \^.— Virg. Mn. 3, v. 108. II. A son of 
 
 Telamon, king of Salamis, by Hesione, the 
 daughter of Laomedon. He was one of He- 
 len's suiters, and accordingly accompanied the 
 Greeks to the Trojan war, where he signalized 
 himself by his valour and intrepidity. It is said 
 that his father refused to receive him into his 
 kingdom, because he had left the death of his 
 brother Ajax unrevenged. This severity of the 
 father did not dishearten the son ; he left Sa- 
 lamis, and retired to Cyprus, where, with the 
 assistance of Belus, king of Sidon, he built a 
 town which he called Salamis, after his native 
 627 
 
TH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TH 
 
 country. He attempted to no purpose to reco- 
 ver the island of Salamis after his father's death. 
 He built a temple to Jupiter in Cyprus, on 
 which a man was annually sacrificed till the 
 reign of the Antonines. Some suppose that 
 Teucer did not return to Cyprus, but that, ac- 
 cording to a less received opinion, he went to 
 settle in Spain, where new Carthage was after- 
 wards built, and thence into Galatia. Homer. 
 11. 1, V. 281.— Fir^. Mn. 1, v. ^'i'i.— Afollod. 
 3, c. V^.—Pmis. 2, c. 29. — Jn$tin. 44, c. 3.— 
 
 Pater c. 1, c. 1. III. One of the servants of 
 
 Phalaris of Agrigentum. 
 
 Teuta, a queen of Illyricum, B. C. 231, who 
 ordered some Roman ambassadors to be put to 
 death. This unprecedented murder was the 
 cause of a war, which ended in her disgrace. 
 Flor. 2, c. b.-^Plin. 34, c. 6. 
 
 Teuthras. Vid.FaTt III. 
 
 Thais, a famous courtesan of Athens, who 
 accompanied Alexander in his Asiatic con- 
 quests, and gained such an ascendant over him, 
 that she made him burn the royal palace of 
 Persepolis. After Alexander's death, she mar- 
 ried Ptolemy, king of Egypt. Menander celebra- 
 ted her charms, both mental andpersonal,which 
 were of a superior nature, and on this account 
 ishe is called Menandrea by Propert. 2, el. 6. — 
 Ovid, de Art. Am. 3, v. 604, de Rem. Am. v. 
 W^.—Pliit. in Alex.—Juv. 3, v. ^'i.—Athen. 13, 
 c. 13. 
 
 Thalassius, a beautiful young Roman, in the 
 reign of Romulus. At the rape of the Sabines 
 one of these virgins appeared remarkable for 
 beauty and elegance, and her ravisher, afraid of 
 many competitors, exclaimed, as he carried her 
 away, that it was for Thalassius. The name 
 of Thalassius was no sooner mentioned than 
 all were eager to preserve so beautiful a prize 
 for him. Their union was attended with so 
 much happiness, that it was ever after usual at 
 Rome to make use of the word Thalassius at 
 nuptials, and to wish those that were married 
 the felicity of Thalassius. He is supposed by 
 some to be the same as Hymen, as he was made 
 a deity. Plut. in Rom. — Martial. 3, ep. 92. — 
 Liv. 1, c. 9. 
 
 Thales, I. one of the seven wise men of 
 Greece, born at Miletus in Ionia. He was de- 
 scended from Cadmus; his father's name was 
 Examius, and his mother's Cleobula. Like the 
 rest of the ancients, he travelled in quest of 
 knowledge, and for some time resided in Crete, 
 Phoenicia, and Egypt. Under the priests of 
 Memphis he was taught geometry, astronomy, 
 and philosophy, and enabled to measure, with 
 exactness, the vast height and extent of a pyra- 
 mid merely by its shadow. His discoveries in 
 astronomy were great and ingenious ; he was 
 the first who calculated with accuracy a solar 
 eclipse. He discovered the solstices and equi- 
 noxes, he divided the heavens into five zones, 
 and recommended the division of the year into 
 365 days, which was universally adopted by the 
 Egyptian philosophy. Like Homer, he looked 
 upon water as the principle of every thing. 
 He was the founder of the Ionic sect, which 
 distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse 
 speculations under the successors and pupils 
 of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, 
 Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and Archelaus, the 
 master of Socrates. Thales was never mar- 
 628 
 
 ried; and when his mother pressed him to 
 choose a wife, he said he was too young. The 
 same exhortations were afterwards repeated, 
 but the philosopher eluded them by observing 
 that he was then too old to enter the matrimo- 
 nial state. He died in the 96th year of his 
 age, about 548 years before the Christian era. 
 His compositions on philosophical subjects are 
 lost, Herodot. 1, c. 7. — Plato. — Diog. 1. — 
 
 Cic. de Nat. D. &c. II. A lyric poet of 
 
 Crete, intimate with Lycurgus. He prepared, 
 by his rhapsodies, the minds of the Spartans to 
 receive the rigorous institutions of his friend, 
 and inculcated a reverence for the peace of 
 civil society. 
 
 Thalestria, or Thalestris, a queen of the 
 Amazons, who, accompanied by 300 women, 
 came 35 days' journey to meet Alexander in 
 his Asiatic conquests, to raise children by a 
 man whose fame was so great, and courage so 
 uncommon. Curt. 6, c. 5. — Slrab. 11. — Justin. 
 2, c. 4. 
 
 Thalyssia, Greek festivals, celebrated by the 
 people of the country in honour of Ceres, to 
 whom the first fruits were regularly offered. 
 Schol. Theocr. 5. 
 
 Thamyras, or Thamyris. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Thargelia, festivals in Greece, in honour of 
 Apollo and Diana. They lasted two days, 
 and the youngest of both sexes carried olive 
 branches, on which were suspended cakes and 
 fruits. Athen. 12. 
 
 Thasius, or Thrasius, a famous soothsayer 
 of Cyprus, who told Busiris, king of Egypt, 
 that to stop a dreadful plague which afflicted 
 his country he must ofier a foreigner to Jupiter. 
 Upon this the tyrant ordered him to be seized 
 and sacrificed to the god, as he was not a native 
 of Egypt. Ovid, de Art. Am. 1, v. 549. 
 
 Theagenes, an athlete of Thasos, famous 
 for his strength. His father's name was Ti- 
 mosthenes, a ^friend of Hercules. He was 
 crowned above a thousand times at the public 
 games of the Greeks, and became a god after 
 death. Paus. 6, c. 6 and 11. — Plut. 
 
 Theages, a Greek philosopher, disciple of 
 Socrates. Plato. — Mlian. V. H. 4, &c. 
 
 Theano, I. the wife of Metapontus, son of 
 Sisyphus, presented twins to her husband when 
 he wished to repudiate her for her barrenness. 
 The children were educated with the greatest 
 care, and some time afterwards Theano herself 
 became mother of twins. When they were 
 grown up she encouraged them to murder the 
 supposititious children, who were to succeed to 
 their father's throne in preference to them. 
 They were both killed in the attempt, and the 
 father, displeased with the conduct of Theano, 
 repudiated her to marry the mother of the chil- 
 dren whom he had long considered as his own. 
 
 Hygin. fab. 186. II. A daughter of Cisseus. 
 
 sister to Hecuba, who married Antenor, and 
 was supposed to have betrayed the Palladium 
 to the Greeks, as she was priestess of Minerva. 
 Homer. 11. 6, v. ^98.— Paus. 10, c. 21.—Dictys 
 Cret. 5, c. 8. III. The wife of the philoso- 
 pher Pythagoras, daughter of Pythanax of 
 Crete, or, according to others, of Brontinus of 
 
 Crotona. Diog. 8, c. 42. IV. A priestess 
 
 of Athens, daughter of Menon, who refused to 
 pronounce a curse upon Alcibiades when he 
 was accused of having mutilated all the statues 
 
TH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TH 
 
 of Mercury. Plut. V. The mother of Pau- 
 
 sanias. She was the first, as it is reported, who 
 brought a stone to the entrance of Minerva's 
 temple, to shut up her son when she heard of his 
 crimes and perfidy to his country. Polyan. 8. 
 
 Themison, I. a famous physician of Laodi- 
 cea, disciple to Asclepiades. He was founder 
 of a sect called methodists, because he wished 
 to introduce methods to facilitate the learning 
 and the practice of physic. He flourished in 
 the Augustan age. Plin. 29, c. 1. — Juv. 10. 
 
 II. One of the generals and ministers of 
 
 Antiochus the Great. He was born at Cyprus. 
 JElian. V. H. 2, c. 41. 
 
 Themistius, a celebrated philosopher of 
 Paphlagonia, in the age of Constantius, greatly 
 esteemed by the Roman emperors, and called 
 Euphrades, the fine speaker, from his eloquent 
 and commanding delivery. He was made a 
 Roman senator, and always distinguished for 
 his liberality and munificence. His school was 
 greatly frequented. He wrote, when young, 
 some commentaries on Aristotle, fragments of 
 which are still extant, and 33 of his orations. 
 The best edition of Themistius is that of Har- 
 duin, fol. Paris, 1684. 
 
 Themisto. Vid. Part III. 
 
 TherdstScles, I. a celebrated general, born 
 at Athens. His father's name was Neocles, 
 and his mother's Euterpe, or Abrotonum, a na- 
 tive of Halicarnassus, or of Thrace, or.Acarna- 
 nia. The beginning of his youth was marked 
 by vices so flagrant, and an inclination so incor- 
 rigible, that his father disinherited him. This, 
 which might have disheartened others, roused 
 the ambition of Themistocles, and the protec- 
 tion which he was denied at home, he sought in 
 courting the favours of the populace, and in 
 sharing the administration of public affairs. 
 When Xerxes invaded Greece, Themistocles 
 was at the head of the Athenian republic, and 
 in this capacity the fleet was entrusted to his 
 care. While the Lacedsemonians under Leo- 
 nidas were opposing the Persians at Thermo- 
 pylae, the naval operations of Themistocles, and 
 the combined fleet of the Peloponnesians were 
 directed to destroy the armament of Xerxes and 
 to ruin his maritime power. The obstinate 
 wish of the generals to command the Grecian 
 fleet might have proved fatal to the interest of 
 the allies, had not Themistocles freely relin- 
 quished his pretensions, and, by nominating his 
 rival Eurybiades master of the expedition, 
 shown the world that his ambition could stoop 
 when his country demanded his assistance. 
 The Persian fleet was distressed at Artemisium 
 by a violent storm, and the feeble attack of the 
 Greeks; but a decisive battle had never been 
 fought, if Themistocles had not used threats 
 and entreaties, and even called religion to his 
 aid, and the favourable answers of the oracle to 
 second his measures. The Greeks, actuated by 
 different views, were unwilling to make head by 
 sea against an enemy whom they saw victorious 
 by land, plundering their cities, and destroying 
 all by fire and sword ; but before they were 
 dispersed, Themistocles sent intelligence of 
 their intentions to the Persian monarch. Xer- 
 xes, by immediately blocking them with his 
 fleet in the bay of Salamis, prevented their 
 escape; and while he wished to crush them all 
 at one blow, he obliged them to fight for their 
 
 safety, as well as for the honour of their coun- 
 try. This battle, which was fought near the 
 island of Salamis, B. C. 480, was decisive ; the 
 Greeks obtained the victory, and Themistocles 
 the honour of having destroyed the formidable 
 navy of Xerxes. Further to insure the peace 
 of his country, Themistocles informed the Asi- 
 atic monarch that the Greeks had conspired to 
 cut the bridge which he had built across the 
 Hellespont, and to prevent his retreat into Asia. 
 This met with equal success ; Xerxes hastened 
 away from Greece, and while he believed, on 
 the words of Themistocles, that his return 
 would be disputed, he left his forces without a 
 general, and his fleets an easy conquest to the 
 victorious Greeks. These signal services to his 
 country endeared Themistocles to the Athe- 
 nians, and he was universally called the most 
 warlike and most courageous of all the Greeks 
 who fought against the Persians. He was re- 
 ceived with the most distinguished honours, and 
 by his prudent administration Athens was soon 
 fortified with strong walls, her Piraeus was re- 
 built, and her harbours were filled with a nu- 
 merous and powerful navy, which rendered her 
 the mistress of Greece. Yet in the midst of 
 that glory the conqueror of Xerxes incurred the 
 displeasure of his countrymen, which had 
 proved so fatal to many of his illustrious pre- 
 decessors. He was banished from the city, and 
 after he had sought in vain a safe retreat among 
 the republics of Greece and the barbarians of 
 Thrace, he threw himself into the arms of a 
 monarch whose fleets he had defeated, and 
 whose father he had ruined. Artaxerxes, the 
 successor of Xerxes, received the illustrious 
 Athenian with kindness ; and though he had 
 formerly set a price upon his head, yet he made 
 him one of his greatest favourites, and bestow- 
 ed three rich cities upon him, to provide him 
 with bread, wine, and meat. Such kindness 
 from a monarch, from whom he perhaps ex- 
 pected the most hostile treatment, did not alter 
 the sentiments of Themistocles. He still re- 
 membered that Athens gave him birth, and, 
 according to some writers, the wish of not in- 
 juring his country, and therefore his inability 
 of carrying on war against Greece, at the re- 
 quest of Artaxerxes, obliged him to destroy 
 himself by drinking bull's blood. The manner 
 of his death, however, is uncertam ; and while 
 some aflirm that he poisoned himself, others 
 declare that he fell a prey to a violent distemper 
 in the city of Magnesia, where he had fixed 
 his residence, while in the dominions of the 
 Persian monarch. His bones were conveyed 
 to Attica, and honoured with a magnificent 
 tomb by the Athenians, who began to repent too 
 late of their cruelty to the saviour of his coun- 
 try. Themistocles died in the 65th year of his 
 age, about 449 years before the Christian era. 
 He has been admired as a man naturally cour- 
 ageous, of a disposition fond of activity, ambi- 
 tious of glory and enterprise. Blessed with a 
 provident and discerning mind, he seemed to 
 rise superior to misfortunes, and in the midst of 
 adversity, possessed of resources which could 
 enable him to regain his splendour, and even 
 to command fortune. Plut. <^ C. Nep. in vita. 
 —Pans. 1, c. 1. 8, c. 52.— JElian. V. H. 2, c. 12, 
 
 1. 9, c. 18, 1. 13, c. 40. II. A writer, some of 
 
 whose letters are extant. 
 629 
 
TH 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 TH 
 
 Themistogenes, a historian of Syracuse, in 
 the age of Artaxerxes Mnemon. He wrote on 
 the wars of Cyrus the younger, a subject ably 
 treated afterwards by Xenophon. 
 
 Theoclymenus, a soothsayer of Argolis, de- 
 scended from Melampus. His father's name 
 was Thestor, He foretold the speedy return of 
 Ulysses to Penelope and Telemachus. Homer. 
 Od. 15, V. 225, &c.—Hygin. fab. 128. 
 
 Theocritus, I. a Greek poet, who flourished 
 at Syracuse, in Sicily, 282 B. C. His father's 
 name was Praxagoras or Simichus, and his mo- 
 ther's, Philina. He lived m the age of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, whose praises he sung and whose 
 favours he enjoyed. Theocritus distinguished 
 himself by his poetical compositions, of which 
 30 idyllia and some epigrams are extant, writ- 
 ten in the Doric dialect, and admired for their 
 beauty, elegance, and simplicity. Virgil, in his 
 eclogues, has imitated and often copied him. 
 Theocritus has been blamed for the many inde- 
 licate and obscene expressions which he uses, 
 and while he introduces shepherds and peasants, 
 with all the rusticity and ignorance of nature, 
 he often disguises their character by making 
 them speak on high and exalted subjects. It is 
 said he wrote some invectives against Hiero, 
 king of Syracuse, who ordered him to be stran- 
 gled. He also wrote a ludicrous poem, called 
 Syrinx, and placed his verses in such order that 
 they represented the pipe of the god Pan. The 
 best editions of Theocritus are Warton's, 2 vols. 
 4to. Oxon. 1770; that of Heinsius, 8vo. Oxon. 
 1699 ; that of Valkenaer, Svo. L.' Bat. 1781 ; 
 and that of Reiske, 3 vols. 4to. Lips. 1760. 
 
 Quintil, 10, c. 1. — Laert. 5. II. A Greek 
 
 historian of Chios, who wrote an account of 
 Lybia. Plut. 
 
 Theodectes, a Greek orator and poet of 
 Phaselis, in Pamphylia, son of Aristander and 
 disciple of Isocrates. He wrote 50 tragedies, 
 besides other works now lost. He had such a 
 happy memory, that he could repeat with ease 
 whatever verses were spoken in his presence. 
 When Alexander passed through Phaselis, he 
 crowned with garlands the statue that had been 
 erected to the memory of the deceased poet. 
 Cic. Tusc. 1, c. 24, in Oral. 51, &,c.—Plut.— 
 Quintil. 
 
 Theodora, L a daughter-in-law of the empe- 
 ror Maximian, who married Constantius. 
 
 11. A daughter of Constantine. III. A wo- 
 man who, from being a courtesan, became em- 
 Eeress to Justinian, and distinguished herself 
 y her intrigues and enterprises. The name 
 
 of Theodora is common to the emperesses of 
 the East in a later period. 
 
 Theodoretus, one of the Greek fathers, who 
 flourished A. D. 425, whose works have been 
 edited, 5 vols. fol. Paris, 1642, and 5 vols, Halaj, 
 1769 to 1774. 
 
 Theodoritds, a Greek ecclesiastical histo- 
 rian, whose works have been best. edited by 
 Reading, fol. Cantab. 1720. 
 
 Theodorus, I. a Syracusan, of great authority 
 among his countrymen, who severely inveighed 
 
 against the tyranny of Dionysius. II. A 
 
 philosopher, disciple to A ristippus. He denied 
 the existence of a god. He was banished from 
 Cyrene, and fled to Athens, where the friend- 
 ship of Demetrius Phalereus saved him from 
 the accusations which were carried to the Are- 
 630 
 
 opagus against him. Some suppose that he 
 was at last condemned to death for his impiety, 
 
 and that he drank poison. III. A preceptor 
 
 to one of the sons of Antony, whom he betrayed 
 
 to Augustus. IV. A consul in the reign of 
 
 Honorius. Claudian wrote a poem upon him, 
 in which he praises him with great liberality. 
 
 V. A secretary of Valens. He conspired 
 
 against the emperor, and was beheaded. 
 
 VI. A man who compiled a history of Rome. 
 Of this nothing but his history of the reigns of 
 
 Congtantine and Constantius is extant. VII. 
 
 A Greek poet, in the age of Cleopatra. He 
 wrote a book of metamorphosis, which Ovid 
 
 imitated, as some suppose. VIII. An artist 
 
 of Samos, about 700 years B. C. He was the 
 first who found out the art of melting iron, with 
 
 which he made statues. IX. A Greek writer, 
 
 called also Prodromus. The time in which he 
 lived is unknown. There is a romance of his 
 composition extant, called the amours of Rho- 
 danthe and Dosicles. The only edition of 
 which was by Gaulminus, Svo. Paris, 1625. 
 
 Theodosius Flavius, a Roman emperor, sur- 
 named Magnus, from the greatness of his ex- 
 ploits. He was invested with the imperial pur- 
 ple by Gratian, and appointed over Thrace and 
 the eastern provinces, which had been in the 
 possession of Valentinian. The first years of 
 his reign were marked by different conquests 
 over the barbarians. The Goths were defeated 
 in Thrace, and 4000 of their chariots, with an 
 immense number of prisoners of both sexes, 
 were the reward of the victory. This glorious 
 campaign intimidated the inveterate enemies 
 of Rome; they sued for peace and treaties of 
 alliance were made with distant nations, who 
 wished to gain the favours and the friendship 
 of a prince whose military virtues were so con- 
 spicuous. Some conspiracies were formed 
 against the emperor, but Theodosius totally 
 disregarded them ; and while he punished his 
 competitors for the imperial purple, he thought 
 himself sufficiently secure in the love and the 
 aflfeetion of his subjects. His reception at Rome 
 was that of a conqueror ; he triumphed over the 
 barbarians, and restored peace in every part of 
 the empire. He died of a dropsy, at Milan, in 
 the 60th year of his age, after a reign of 16 years, 
 the 17th of January, A. D. 395. His body was 
 conveyed to Constantinople, and buried by his 
 son Arcadius in the tomb of Constantine. 
 Theodosius was the last of the emperors who 
 was the sole master of the whole Roman em- 
 pire. He left three children, Arcadius and 
 Honorius, who succeeded him, and Pulcheria. 
 Theodosius has been commended by ancient 
 writers, as a prince blessed with every virtue, 
 and debased by no vicious propensity. Though 
 master of the world, he was a stranger to that 
 pride and arrogance which too often disgrace 
 the monarch ; he was affable in his behaviour, 
 benevolent, and compassionate ; and it was his 
 wish to treat his subjects as he himself was 
 treated when a private man and a dependant. 
 Men of merit were promoted to places of trust 
 and honour, and the emperor was fond of pa- 
 tronising the cause of virtue and learning. 
 His zeal as a follower of Christianity has been 
 applauded bv all the ecclesiastical writers, and 
 it was the wish of Theodosius to support the 
 revealed religion, as much by his example, 
 
TH 
 
 HISTORY, (fee. 
 
 TH 
 
 meekness, and Christian charity, as by his edicts 
 and ecclesiastical institutions. His want of 
 clemency, however, in one instance, was too 
 openly betrayed, and when the people of Thes- 
 salonica had, unmeaningly perhaps, killed one 
 of his officers, the emperor ordered his soldiers 
 to put all the inhabitants to the sword, and no 
 less than 6000 persons, without distinction of 
 rank, age, or sex, were cruelly butchered in that 
 town in the space of three hours. This violence 
 irritated the ecclesiastics, and Theodosius was 
 compelled by St. Ambrose to do open penance 
 in the church, and publicly to make atonement 
 for an act of barbarity which had excluded him 
 from the bosom of the church and the com- 
 munion of the faithful. In his private character 
 Theodosius was an example of soberness and 
 temperance, his palace displayed becoming 
 grandeur, but still with moderation. He never 
 indulged luxury or countenanced superfluities. 
 He was fond of bodily exercise, and never gave 
 himself up to pleasure and enervating enjoy- 
 ments. The laws and regulations which he 
 introduced in the Roman empire were of the 
 most salutary nature. Socrat. 5, &c. — Zosim. 
 4, &c. — Ambros. Augustin. Claudian. &c. 
 
 The 2d, succeeded his father Arcadius as em- 
 peror of the western Roman empire, though 
 only in • the eighth year of his age. He was 
 governed by his sister Pulcheria, and by his 
 ministers and eunuchs, in whose hands was the 
 disposal of the offices of state, and all places of 
 trust and honour. He married Eudoxia, the 
 daughter of a philosopher called Leontius, a 
 woman remarkable for her virtues and piety. 
 The territories of Theodosius were invaded by 
 the Persians, but the emperor soon appeared at 
 the head of a numerous force, and the two 
 hostile armies met on the frontiers of the empire. 
 The consternation was universal on both sides ; 
 without even a battle the Persians fled, and no 
 less than 100,000 were lost in the waters of the 
 Euphrates. Theodosius raised the siege of 
 Nisibis, where his operations failed of success, 
 and he averted the fury of the Huns and Van- 
 dals by bribes and promises. He died on the 
 29th of July, in the 49th year of his age, A. D. 
 450, leaving only one daughter, Licinia Eu- 
 doxia, whom he had married to the emperor 
 Valentinian 3d. The carelessness and inat- 
 tention of Theodosius to public affairs are well 
 known. He signed all the papers that were 
 brought to him, without even opening them or 
 reading them, till his sister apprized him of his 
 negligence, and rendered him more careful and 
 diligent, by making him sign a paper in which 
 he delivered into her hands Eudoxia his wife 
 as a slave and menial servant. The laws and 
 regulations which were promulgated under 
 him, and selected from the most useful and sal- 
 utary institutions of his imperial Theodosian 
 code. Theodosius was a warm advocate for 
 the Christian religion, but he has been blamed 
 for his partial attachment to those who opposed 
 
 the orthodox faith. Zosim. — Soc. &c. A 
 
 mathematician of Tripoli, who flourished 75 
 B. C. His treatise called Sphserica, is best 
 
 edited by Hunt, 8vo. Oxon. 1707. A Roman 
 
 general, father of Theodosius the Great; he 
 died A. D. 376. 
 
 Theodotxjs, I. an admiral of the Rhodians, 
 sent by his countrymen to make a treaty with 
 
 the Romans. II. A native of Chios, who, as 
 
 preceptor and counsellor of Ptolemy, advised 
 the feeble monarch to murder Pompey. He 
 carried the head of the unfortunate Roman to 
 Caesar, but the resentment of the conquerorwas 
 such that the mean assassin fled ; and, after a 
 wandering and miserable life in the cities of 
 Asia, he was at last put to death by Brutus. 
 
 Plut. in Brut. <^ Pomp. III. A governor of 
 
 Bactriana in the age of Antiochus, who revolted 
 and made himself king, B. C. 250. 
 
 Theognis, a Greek poet of Megara, who 
 flourished about 549 years before Christ. He 
 wrote several poems, of which only a few sen- 
 tences are now extant, quoted by Plato and 
 other Greek historians and philosophers, and 
 intended as precepts for the conduct of human 
 life. The morals of the poet have been cen- 
 sured as neither decorous nor chaste. The best 
 edition of Theognis is that of Blackwall, 12mo. 
 
 London. 1706. There was also a tragic poet 
 
 of the same name, whose compositions were so 
 lifeless and inanimated,that they procured him 
 the name of Chion or snow. 
 
 Theomnestus, I. a rival of Nieias in the ad- 
 ministration of public affairs at Athens. Strab. 
 
 14. II. An Athenian philosopher, among the 
 
 followers of Plato's doctrines. He had Brutus, 
 Caesar's murderer, among his pupils. 
 
 Theophanes, I. a Greek historian, born at 
 Mitylene. He was very intimate with Pompey, 
 and from his friendship with the Roman general 
 his countrymen derived many advantages. 
 After the battle of Pharsalia he advised Pom- 
 pey to retire to the court of Egypt. Cic. pro 
 
 Arch. (^ Paterc. — Plut. in Cic. <^ Pomp. 
 
 II. His son, M. Pompeius Theophanes, was 
 made governor of Asia, and enjoyed the inti- 
 macy of Tiberius. — The only edition of The- 
 ophanes, the Byzantine historian, is at Paris, 
 fol. 1649. 
 
 Theophrastus, a native of Eresus, in Lesbos, 
 son of a fuller. He studied under Plato, and 
 afterwards under Aristotle, whose friendship 
 he gained, and whose warmest commendations 
 he deserved. His original name was Tyrtamus, 
 but this the philosopher made him exchange 
 for that of Euphrastus, to imitate his excellence 
 in speaking, and afterwards for that of TTie- 
 ophrastus, which he deemed still more expres- 
 sive of his eloquence, the brilliancy of his 
 genius, and the elegance of his language. 
 After the death of Socrates, when the malevo- 
 lence of the Athenians drove all the philo- 
 sopher's friends from the city, Theophrastus 
 succeeded Aristotle in the Lyceum, and ren- 
 dered himself so conspicuous, that in a short 
 time the number of his auditors was increased 
 to two thousand. Not only his countrymen 
 courted his applause, but kings and princes 
 were desirous of his friendship ; and Cassan- 
 der and Ptolemy, two of the most powerful of 
 the successors of Alexander, regarded him with 
 more than usual partiality. Theophrastus com- 
 posed many books, and Diogenes has enume- 
 rated the titles of above 200 treatises, which he 
 wrote with great elegance and copiousness. 
 About 20 of these are extant, among which are 
 his history of stones, his treatise on plants, on 
 the winds, on the signs of fair weather, &c. 
 and his Characters, an excellent moral treatise, 
 which was begun in the 99th year of his age. 
 631 
 
TH 
 
 HISTORY, &e. 
 
 TH 
 
 He died, loaded with years and infirmities, in 
 ihe 107th year of his age, B. C. 288, lamenting 
 the shortness of life, and complaining of the 
 partiality of nature in granting longevity to the 
 crow and to the stag, but not to man. To his care 
 we are indebted for the works of Aristotle, 
 which the dying philosopher intrusted to him. 
 The best edition of Theophrastus is that of 
 Heinsius, fol. L. Bat. 1613; and of his Charac- 
 ters, that of Needham, 8vo. Cantab. 1712, and 
 that of Fischer, 8vo. Coburg. 1763. Cic. Tiisc. 
 3, c. 28. in Brut. c. 31. m Orat. 19, &c.—Strab. 
 13. — Diog. in vita. — Mlian. V. H.2, c. 8, 1. 34, 
 C.20, 1. 8, c. 12.— Quintil. 10, c. l.—Plut. ad- 
 colot. 
 
 Theopompus, I. a king of Sparta, of the family 
 of the Proclidae, who succeeded his father Ni- 
 cander, and distinguished himself by the many 
 new regulations he introduced. He created the 
 Ephori, and died after a long and peaceful reign, 
 B. C. 723. While he sat on the throne the 
 Spartans made war against Messenia. Plut. 
 
 in Lye. — Paus. 3, c. 7. II. A famous Greek 
 
 historian, of Chios, disciple of Isocrates, who 
 flourished B. C. 354. All his compositions are 
 lost, except a few fragments quoted by ancient 
 writers. He is compared to Thucydides and 
 Herodotus as an historian, yet he is severely 
 censured for his satirical remarks and illiberal 
 reflections. He obtained a prize in which his 
 master was a competitor, and he was liberally 
 rewarded for composing the best funeral oration 
 in honour of Mausolus. His father's name 
 was Damasistratus. Dionys. Hal. I. — Plut. in 
 Lys. — C. ISep. 7. — Paus. 6, c. 18. — Quintil. 10, 
 
 c. 1. III. An Athenian, who attempted to 
 
 deliver his countrymen from the tyranny of 
 
 Demetrius. Polyan. 5. IV. A comic poet 
 
 in the age of Menander. He wrote 24 plays, 
 all lost. V. A son of Demaratus, who ob- 
 tained several crowns at the Olympic games. 
 
 Paus. 6, c. 10. VI. An orator and historian 
 
 of Cnidus, very intimate with J. Ceesar. Strab. 
 
 14. VII. A Spartan general, killed at the 
 
 battle of Tegyra. VIII. A philosopher of 
 
 Cheronsea, in the reign of the emperor Philip. 
 
 Theophylactus, Simocatta, I. a Byzantine 
 historian, whose works were edited fol. Paris. 
 
 1647. II. One of the Greek fathers, who 
 
 flourished A. D. 1070. His works were edited 
 at Venice, 4 vols. 1754 to 1763. 
 
 Theoxena, a noble lady of Thessaly, who 
 threw herself into the sea when unable to es- 
 cape from the soldiers of King Philip, who pur- 
 sued her. Liv. 40, c. 4. 
 
 Theoxenia, a festival celebrated in honour 
 of all the gods in every city of Greece, but es- 
 pecially at Athens. Games were then observed, 
 and the conqueror who obtained the prize, re- 
 ceived a large sum of money, or, according to 
 others, a vest beautifully ornamented. — The 
 Dioscuri established a festival of the same name, 
 in honour of the gods who had visited them at 
 one of their entertainments, 
 
 Theramenes, an Athenian philosopher and 
 general in the age of Alcibiades. His father's 
 name was Agncn. He was one of the 30 
 tyrants of Athens, but he had no share in the 
 cruelties and oppressions which disgraced their 
 administration. He was accused by Critias, 
 one of his colleagues, because he opposed their 
 views, and he was condemned to drink hemlock, 
 632 
 
 though defended by his own innocence and the 
 friendly intercession of the philosopher Socra- 
 tes. He drank the poison with great compo- 
 sure, and poured some of it on the ground with 
 the sarcastical exclamation of. This is to the 
 health of Critias. This happened about 404 
 years before the Christian era. Theramenes, 
 on account of the fickleness of his disposition, 
 has been called Gothurnus, a part of the dress 
 used both by men and women. Cic. de Orat. 
 3, c. 16. — Plut. in Alcib. d^c. — C. Nep. 
 
 Theron, a tyrant of Agrigentum, w^ho died 
 472 B. C. He was a native of Boeotia, and 
 son of iEnesidamus, and he married Demarete, 
 the daughter of Gelon of Sicily. Herodot. 7. — 
 Pind. Olymp. 2. 
 
 Thersander, a son of Polynices and Argia. 
 He accompanied the Greeks to the Trojan war, 
 but he was killed in Mysia by Telephus, before 
 the confederate army reached the enemy's coun- 
 try. Virg. Mn. 2, v. "H&l.—Apollod. 3, c. 7. 
 
 Thersites, the most deformed of the Greeks 
 during the Trojan war. He was fond of ridi- 
 culing his fellow-soldiers, particularly Aga- 
 memnon, Achilles, and Ulysses. Achilles 
 killed him with one blow of his fist, because he 
 laughed at his mourning the death of Penthe- 
 silea. Ovid, ex Pont. 4, el. 13, v. 15. — Apollod. 
 1, c. S.— Homer. 11. 2, v. 212, &c. 
 
 Theseis, a poem written by Codrus, contain- 
 ing an account of the life and actions of The- 
 seus, and now lost. Juv. 1, v. 2. 
 
 Theseus, king of Athens, and son of ^geus, 
 by jEthra the daughter of Pittheus, was one of 
 the most celebrated of the heroes of antiquity. 
 He was educated at Troezene in the house of 
 Pittheus, and as he was not publicly acknow- 
 ledged to be the son of the king of Athens, he 
 passed for the son of Neptune. When he came 
 to years of maturity, he was sent by his mother 
 to his father, and a sword was given to him, by 
 which he might make himself known to -ffigeus 
 in a private manner. Vid. yEgeus. His jour- 
 ney to Athens was not across the sea, as it was 
 usual with travellers, but Theseus determined 
 to signalize himself in going by land and en- 
 countering difliculties. The road which led 
 from TroEzenc to Athens was infested with rob- 
 bers and wild beasts, and rendered impassable ; 
 but these obstacles were easily removed by the 
 courageous son of iEgeus. At Athens, how- 
 ever, his reception was not cordial; Medea lived 
 there with iEgeus, and as she knew that her 
 influence would fall to the ground if Theseus 
 was received in his father's house, she attempt- 
 ed to destroy him before his arrival was made 
 public. JEgeus was himself to give the cup of 
 poison to this unknown stranger at a feast, but 
 the sight of his sword on the side of Theseus 
 reminded him of his amours with JEthra. He 
 knew him to be his son, and the people of Athens 
 were glad to find that this illustrious stranger, 
 who had cleared Attica from robbers and pirates, 
 was the son of their monarch. The Pallanti- 
 des, who expected to succeed their uncle ^geus 
 on the throne, as he apparently had no children, 
 attempted to assassinate Theseus, but they fell 
 a prey to their own barbarity, and were all put 
 to death by the young prince. The bull of 
 Marathon next engaged the attention of The- 
 seus. The labour seemed arduous, but he 
 caught the animal alive, and after he had led it 
 
TH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TH 
 
 through the streets of Athens, he sacrificed it 
 to Minerva, or the god of Delphi. After this, 
 Theseus went to Crete, among the seven chosen 
 youths whom the Athenians yearly sent to be 
 devoured by the Minotaur. The wish to de- 
 liver his country from so dreadful a tribute en- 
 gaged him to undertake this expedition. He was 
 successful by means of Ariadne, the daughter 
 of Minos ,who was enamoured of him, and after 
 he had escaped from the labyrinth with a clew 
 of thread, and killed the Minotaur, ( Vid Mino- 
 taurus,) he sailed from Crete, with the six boys 
 and seven maidens whom his victory had equal- 
 ly redeemed from death. In the island of Naxos, 
 where he was driven by the winds, he had the 
 meanness to abandon Ariadne, to whom he was 
 indebted for his safety. The rejoicings w^hich 
 his return might have occasioned at Athens, 
 were interrupted by the death of ^geus, who 
 threw himself into the sea when he saw his 
 son's ship return with black sails, which was 
 the signal of ill success. Vid. JEgeus. His 
 ascension on his father's throne was univer- 
 sally applauded, B. C. 1235. The Athenians 
 were governed with mildness, and Theseus 
 made new regulations and enacted new laws. 
 The number of the inhabitants of Athens was 
 increased by the liberality of the monarch, reli- 
 gious worship was attended with more than 
 usual solemnity, a court was instituted which 
 had the care of all civil affairs, and Theseus 
 made the government democratical, while he 
 reserved for himself only the command of the 
 armies. The fame which he had gained by his 
 victories and policy, made his alliance courted ; 
 butPirifhous, king of the Lapithas, alone wish- 
 ed to gain his friendship, by meeting him in the 
 field of battle. He invaded the territories of 
 Attica, and when Theseus had marched out to 
 meet him, the two enemies, struck at the sight 
 of each other, rushed between their two armies 
 to embrace one another in the most cordial and 
 affectionate manner, and from that time began 
 the most sincere and admired friendship, which 
 has become proverbial. Theseus was present 
 at the nuptials of his friend, and was the most 
 eager and courageous of the Lapithae in the de- 
 fence of Hippodamia and her female aitendants 
 against the brutal attempts of the Centaurs. 
 When Pirithous hadlostHippodamia,he agreed 
 with Theseus, whose wife Phaedra was also 
 dead, to carry away some of the daughters of 
 the gods. Their first attempt was upon Helen, 
 the daughter of Leda, and after they had ob- 
 tained this beautiful prize, they cast lots, and 
 she became the property of Theseus. The 
 Athenian monarch intrusted her to the care of 
 his mother -^thra, at Aphidnoe, till she was of 
 nubile years ; but the resentment of Castor and 
 Pollux soon obliged him to restore her safe into 
 their hands. Helen, before she reached Sparta, 
 became mother of a daughter by Theseus ; but 
 this tradition, confirmed by some ancient my- 
 thologists, is confuted by others, who affirm, that 
 she was bat nine years old when carried away 
 by the two royal friends, and Ovid introduces 
 her in one of his epistles, saying, Ezcepto redii 
 passa timore nihil. Some time after, Theseus 
 assisted his friend in procuring a wife, and 
 they both descended into the infernal regions 
 to carry away Proserpine. Pluto, apprised of 
 their intentions, stopped them. Pirithous was 
 Part IT.— 4 L 
 
 placed on his father's wheel, and Theseus was 
 tied to a huge stone, on which he had set to lesc 
 himself. Virgil represents him in this eternal 
 state of punishment, repeating to the shades in 
 Tartarus the words of Disciie justitiam moniii, 
 et own teinnere divos. Apollodorus, however, 
 and others declare, that he was not long detain- 
 ed in hell ; when Hercules came to steal the dog 
 Cerberus, he tore him away from the stone, but 
 . with such violence that his skin was left behind. 
 The same assistance was given to Pirithous, 
 and the two friends returned upon the earth by 
 the favour of Hercules, and the consent of the 
 infernal deities, not, however, without suffering 
 the most excruciating torments. During the 
 captivity of Theseus in the kingdom of Pluto, 
 Mnestheus, one of the descendants of Erech- 
 theus, ingratiated himself into the favour of the 
 people of Athens, and obtained the crown in 
 preference to the children of the absent mon- 
 arch. At his return, Theseus attempted to eject 
 the usurper, but to no purpose. The Athenians 
 had forgotten his many services, and he retired 
 with great mortification to the court of Lyco- 
 medes, king of the island of Scyros, After 
 paying him much attention, Lycomedes, either 
 jealous of his fame, or bribed by the presents of 
 Mnestheus, carried him to a high rock, on pre- 
 tence of showing him the extent of his domin- 
 ions, and threw him down a deep precipice. 
 Some suppose that Theseus inadv^ertently fell 
 down this precipice, and that he was crushed 
 to death without receiving any violence from 
 Lycomedes. The children of Theseus, after 
 the death of Mnestheus, recovered the Athenian 
 throne, and that the memory of their father 
 might not be without the honoiirs due to a hero, 
 they brought his remains from Scyros, and gave 
 them a magnificent burial. They also raised 
 him statues and a temple, and festivals and 
 games were publicly instituted to commemorate 
 the actions of a hero who had rendered such 
 services to the people of Athens. These festi- 
 vals were still celebrated, with original solem- 
 nity, in the age of Pausanias and Plutarch, 
 about 1200 years after the death of Theseus. 
 The historians disagree from the poets in their 
 accounts about this hero, and they all suppose, 
 that, instead of attempting to carry away the 
 wife of Pluto, the two friends wished to seduce 
 a daughter of Aidoneus, king of the Molossi. — 
 This daughter, as they say, bore the name of 
 Proserpine, and the dog which kept the gates of 
 the palace, was called Cerberus, and hence, per- 
 haps, arises the fiction of the poets. Pirithous 
 was torn to pieces by the dog, but Theseus was 
 confined in prison, from whence he made his 
 escape, some- time after, by the assistance of 
 Hercules. Some authors place Theseus and 
 his friend in the number of the Argonauts, but 
 they were both detained, either in the infernal 
 regions, or in the country of the Molossi, in the 
 time of Jason's expedition to Colchis. PlvL in 
 vitd.—Apollod. ^.—Hygin. fab. 14 and 79.— 
 Paus. 1. c. 2, &c.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 433. lb. 
 412. Fast. 3, v. 473 and 491. Heroid.—Diod. 
 1 and \.—LALcan, 2, v. 612. Homer. Od. 21, 
 V, '2.93.—Hesiod. in Scut. Herc.—jElian. V. H. 
 4, c. b.—Stat. Theb. 5, v. A'^^.—Propert. 3.— 
 Ladant. ad Theb. Stat.—Philost. Icon. 1.— 
 Flacc. 2.—Apollon. l.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. 617.-^ 
 Semca. in Hivpol.—Stot. Achill. 1. 
 G33 
 
TH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TH 
 
 Thesmophora, a surname of Ceres, as law- 
 giver, in whose honour festivals were instituted 
 called Thesmophoria. The Thesmophoria were 
 instituted by Triptolemus, or, according to some, 
 by Orphus or the daughters of Danaus. The 
 greatest part of the Grecian cities, especially 
 Athens, observed them with great solemnity. 
 The worshippers were freeborn women, whose 
 husbands were obliged to defray the expenses 
 of the festival. They were assisted by a priest, 
 called iTC(pavri(popos, because he carried a crown 
 on his head. There were also certain virgins 
 who officiated, and were maintained at the 
 public expense. The freeborn women were 
 dressed in white robes to intimate their spotless 
 innocence ; they were charged to observe the 
 strictest chastity during three or five days be- 
 fore the celebration, and during the four days of 
 the solemnity; and on that account it was usual 
 for them to strew their bed with agnus castus. 
 They were also charged not to eat pomegran- 
 ates, or to wear garlands on their heads, as 
 the whole was to be observed with the greatest 
 signs of seriousness and gravity, without any 
 display of wantonness or levity. It was, how- 
 ever, usual to jest at one another, as the goddess 
 Ceres had been made to smile by a merry ex- 
 pression when she was sad and melancholy for 
 the recent loss of her daughter Proserpine. 
 Three days were required for the preparation, 
 and upon the lllh of the month called Pyanep- 
 sion, the women went to Eleusis, carrying books 
 on their heads, in which the laws which the 
 goddess had invented were contained. On the 
 14th of the same month the festival began, on 
 the 16th day a fast was observed, and the wo- 
 men sat on the ground in token of humiliation. 
 It was usual during the festival to offer prayers 
 to Ceres, Proserpine, Pluto, and Calligenia, 
 whom some suppose to be the nurse or favourite 
 maid of the goddess of corn, or perhaps one of 
 her surnames. There were some sacrifices of 
 a mysterious nature, and all persons whose 
 offence was small were released from confine- 
 ment. Such as were initiated at the festivals 
 of Eleusis assisted at the Thesmophoria, The 
 place of highpriest was hereditary in the fam- 
 ily of Eumolpus. Ovid. Met. 10, v. 43L JP'ast. 
 4, V. 619. — Apollod. 1, c. 4. — Virg. Mn. 4, v. 
 58. — Sophod. in (Edip. Col. — Clem. Alex. 
 
 Thesmothet^, a name given to the last six 
 archons among the Athenians, because they 
 took particular care to enforce the laws, and to 
 see justice impartially administered. They 
 were at that time nine in number. 
 
 Thespis, a Greek poet of Attica, supposed by 
 some to be the inventor of tragedy, 536 years 
 before Christ. His representations were very 
 rustic and imperfect. He went from town to 
 town upon a cart, on which was erected a tem- 
 porary stage, where two actors, whose faces 
 were daubed with the lees of wine, entertained 
 the audience with choral songs, <S:c. Solon was 
 a great enemy to his dramatic representations. 
 Horat. Art. P. ^l&.—Diog. 
 
 Thespius. Fid. Part III. 
 
 Theutis, or Teuthis, a prince of a town of 
 the same name in Arcadia, who went to the 
 Trojan war. He quarrelled with Agamemnon 
 at Aulis, and when Minerva, under the form of 
 Melas, son of Ops, attempted to pacify him, he 
 struck the goddess and returned home. Some 
 634 
 
 say that the goddess afterwards appeared to him 
 and showed him the wound which he had given 
 her in the thigh, and that he died soon after. 
 Paus. 8, c. 28. 
 
 Thimbron, a Lacedaemonian general, chosen 
 to conduct a war against Persia. He was re- 
 called, and afterwards reappointed. He died 
 B. C. 391. Diod. 17. 
 
 Thoas. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Thomyris, called also Tamyris, Tameris, 
 Thamyris, and Tomeris, was queen of the Mas- 
 sagetas. After her husband's death she marched 
 against Cyrus, who wished to invade her terri- 
 tories, cut his army to pieces, and killed him 
 on the spot. The barbarous queen ordered the 
 head of the fallen monarch to be cut off and 
 thrown into a vessel full of human blood, with 
 the insulting words of satia te sanguine quern 
 sitisti. Her son had been conquered by Cyrus 
 before she marched herself at the head of her 
 armies. Herodot. 1, c. 205. — Justin. 1, c. 8. 
 Tibull,ie]. 1, V. 143. 
 
 Thoria Lex, agraria, by Sp. Thorius, the 
 tribune. It ordained that no person should pay 
 any rent for the land which he possessed. It 
 also made some regulations about grazing and 
 pastures. Cic. in Brut. 
 
 Thraskas, or Thrasius, (Poetus,) a stoic 
 philosopher of Patavium, in the age of Nero, 
 famous for his independence and generous sen- 
 timents ; he died A. D. 66. Juv. 5, v. 36.— 
 Mart. 1. ep. 19.— Tacit. A. 15, c. 16. 
 
 Thrasideus, succeeded his father Theron as 
 tyrant of Agrigentum. He was conquered by 
 Hiero, and soon after put to death, Diod. 11. 
 
 Thraso, a favourite of Hieronymus, who 
 espoused the interest of the Romans. He was 
 
 put to death by the tyrant. The character of 
 
 a captain in Terence. 
 
 Thrasybulus, a famous general of Athens, 
 who began the expulsion of the 30 tyrants of 
 his country, though he was only assisted by 30 
 of his friends. His efforts were attended with 
 success, B. C. 401, and the only reward he re- 
 ceived for this patriotic aciion, was a crown 
 made with two twigs of an olive branch; a 
 proof of his own disinterestedness and of the 
 virtues of his countrymen. The Athenians 
 employed a man whose abilities and humanity 
 were so conspicuous, and Thrasybulus was 
 sent with a powerful fleet to recover their lost 
 power in the JEgean, and on the coast of Asia. 
 After he had gained many advantages, this 
 great man was killed in his camp by the inhab- 
 itants of Aspendus, whom his soldiers had 
 plundered without his knowledge, B. C. 391. 
 Diod. 14. — C. Nep. in vita.— Cic. Phil. — Val. 
 Max. 4, c. 1. 
 
 Thrasyllus, I. a man of Attica, so disorder- 
 ed in his mind that he believed all the ships 
 which entered the Piraeus to be his own. He 
 was cured by means of his brother, whom he 
 liberally reproached for depriving him of that 
 happy illusion of mind. JElian. V. H. 4, c. 
 
 25. 11. A general of the Athenians in the 
 
 age of Alcibiades, with whom he obtained a 
 
 victory over the Persians. Thucyd. 8. III. 
 
 A Greek Pythagorean philosopher and mathe- 
 matician, who enjoyed the favour and the friend- 
 ship of Augustus and Tiberius. Suet, in Tib. 
 
 Thrasymachus, a native of Carthage, who 
 became the pupil of Isocrates and of Plato. 
 
TH 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TH 
 
 Though he was a public teacher at Athens, he 
 suffered for want of bread, and at last hanged 
 himself Juv. 7, v. 204. 
 
 Thrasymedes, I. a son of Nestor, king of 
 Pylos, by Anaxibia, the daughter of Bias. He 
 was one of the Grecian chiefs during the Tro- 
 ian war. Hygin. fab. 27. — Paus. 2, c. 26 
 
 II. A son of Philomelus, who carried away a 
 daughter of Pisistratus, whom he married. 
 
 Polycen. 5. 
 
 Thucydides, I. a celebrated Greek historian, 
 Dorn at Athens. His father's name was Oiorus, 
 and among his ancestors he reckoned the great 
 Miltiades. His youth was distinguished by an 
 eager desire to excel in the vigorous exercises 
 and gymnastic amusements, which called the 
 attention of his contemporaries, and when he 
 had reached the years of manhood, he appeared 
 in the Athenian armies. During the Pelopon- 
 nesian war he was commissioned by his coun- 
 trymen to relieve Amphipolis ; but the quick 
 march of Brasidas, the Lacedaemonian general, 
 defeated his operations; and Thucydides, un- 
 successful in his expedition, was banished from 
 Athens. This happened in the eighth year of 
 this celebrated war, and in the place of his 
 banishment the general began to write an im- 
 partial history of the important events which 
 had happened during his administration, and 
 which still continued to agitate the several states 
 of Greece. This famous history is continued 
 only to the 21st year of the war, and the re- 
 maining part of the time till the demolition of 
 the walls of Athens, was described by the pen 
 of Theopompus and Xenophon. Thucydides 
 wrote in the Attic dialect, as possessed of more 
 vigour, purity, elegance, and energy. He spared 
 neither time nor money to procure authentic 
 materials; and the Athenians, as well as their 
 enemies, furnished him with many valuable 
 communications, which contributed to throw 
 great light on the different transactions of the 
 war. His history has been divided into eight 
 books, the last of which is imperfect, and sup- 
 posed to have been M'ritten by his daughter. 
 The character of this interesting history is well 
 known, and the noble emulation of the writer 
 will ever be admired, who shed tears when he 
 heard Herodotus repeat his history of the Per- 
 sian wars at the public festivals of Greece, The 
 historian of Halicarnassus has been compared 
 with the son of Oiorus, but each has his pecu- 
 liar excellence. Sweetness of style, grace, and 
 elegance of expression, may be called the char- 
 acteristics of the former ; while Thucydides 
 stands unequalled for the fire of his descriptions, 
 the conciseness, and, at the sometime, the strong 
 and energetic matter of his narratives. His re- 
 lations are authentic, as he himself was inter- 
 ested in the events he mentions ; his impartiality 
 is indubitable, as he nowhere betrays the least 
 resentment against his countrj^men, and the 
 factious partisans of Cleon, who had banished 
 him from Athens. Many have blamed the his- 
 torian for the injudicious distribution of his sub- 
 ject, and while, for the sake of accuracy, the 
 whole is divided into summers and winters, the 
 thread of the history is interrupted, the scene 
 continually shifted ; and the reader, unable to 
 pursue events to the end, is transported from 
 Persia to Peloponnesus, or from the walls of 
 Syracuse to the coast of Corcyra. The ani- 
 
 mated harangues of Thucydides have been uni- 
 versally admired ; he found a model in Herodo- 
 tus, but he greatly surpassed the original; and 
 succeeding historians have adopted with suc- 
 cess, a peculiar mode of writing which intro- 
 duces a general addressing himself to the pas> 
 sions and feelings of his armies. The history 
 of Thucydides was so admired, that Demos- 
 thenes, to perfect himself as an orator, tran- 
 "scribed it eight different times, and read it 
 with such attention, that he could almost repeat 
 it by heart. Tliucydides died at Athens, where 
 he had been recalled from his exile, in his 80th 
 year, 391 years before Christ. The best edi- 
 tions of Thucydides are those of Duker, fol. 
 Amst. 1731 ; of Glasgow, 12mo. 8 vols. 1759 ; 
 of Hudson, fol. Oxon. 1696 ; and the 8vo. of 
 Bipont. 178S. Cic. de Oral. 6ic.—Diod. 12.— 
 Dionys. Hal. de Tkuc.—^Elian. V. H. 12, c. 50. 
 
 — Qidniil. II. A son of Milesias, in the age 
 
 of Pericles. He was banished for his opposi- 
 tion to the measures of Pericles, &c. 
 
 Thyestes, a son of Pelops and Hippodamia, 
 and grandson of Tantalus, offered violence to 
 jErope, the wife of his brother Atreus, because 
 he refused to take him as his colleague on the 
 throne of Argos. This was no sooner known 
 than Atreus divorced ^rope, and banished 
 Thyestes from his kingdom ; but soon after, the 
 more effectually to punish his infidelity, he ex- 
 pressed a wish to be reconciled to him, and re- 
 called him to Argos. Thyestes was received by 
 his brother at an elegant entertainment, but he 
 was soon informed that he had been feeding 
 upon the flesh of one of his own children. This 
 Atreus took care to communicate to him by 
 showing him the remains of his son's body. 
 This action appeared so barbarous, that, accord- 
 ing to the ancient mylhologists, the sun changed 
 his usual course not to be spectator of so bloody 
 a scene. Thyestes escaped from his brother, 
 and fled to Epirus. Some time after, he met 
 his daughter Pelopeia in a grove sacred to Mi- 
 nerva, and he offered her violence without 
 knowing who she was. This incest, however, 
 according to some, was intentionally committed 
 by the father, as he had been told by an oracle 
 that the injuries he had received from Atreus 
 would be avenged by a son born from himself 
 and Pelopeia. The daughter, pregnant by her 
 father, was seen by her uncle Atreus and mar- 
 ried., and some time after she brought into the 
 world a son, whom she exposed in the woods. 
 The life of the child was preserved by goats; 
 he Avas called ^gysthus, and presented in his 
 mother, and educated in the family of Atreus. 
 When grown to years of maturity, the mother 
 gave her son iEgysthus a sword, which she had 
 taken from her unknown ravisher in the grove 
 of Minerva, with hopes of discovering who he 
 was. Meantime, Atreus, intent to punish his 
 brother, sent Agamemnon and Menelaus to pur- 
 sue him, and when at last they found him, he 
 was dragged to Argos, and thrown into a close 
 prison. >Egysthus was sent to murder Thve.^- 
 tes, but the father recollected thp swoid which 
 was raised to stab him, and a few questions con- 
 vinced him that his assassin was his ovm son. 
 Pelopeia was present at this discovery, and 
 when she found that she had committed incest 
 with her father, she asked JEgysthus to let her 
 examine the sword, and immediate! v plunged 
 635 
 
TI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TI 
 
 It into her own breast. JEgysthus rushed from 
 the prison to Atreus, with the bloody weapon, 
 and murdered him near an altar, as he wished 
 to offer thanks to the gods on the supposed death 
 of Thyestes. At the death of Atreus, Thyestes 
 was placed on his brother's throne by ^gysthus, 
 from which he was soon after driven by 
 Agamemnon and Menelaus. He retired from 
 Argos, and was banished into the island of 
 Cythera by Agamemnon, where he died. Apol- 
 lod. 2, c. 4. Sofhocl. in Ajax. — Hygin. fab. 86, 
 &c.— Ovid. in lb. Sb9.—LMcan. 1, v. 544, 1. 7, 
 V. 451. — Senec. in Thijest. 
 
 Thymqetes, I. a king of Athens, son of 
 Oxinthas, the last of the descendants of Theseus 
 who reigned at Athens, He was deposed be- 
 cause he refused to accept a challenge sent by 
 Xanthus, king of Boeotia, and was succeeded 
 by a Messenian, B. C. 1128, who repaired the 
 honour of Athens by fighting the BcEotian king. 
 
 Pans. 2, c. 18. II. A Trojan prince, v/hose 
 
 wife and son were put to death by order of 
 Priam. It was to revenge the king's cruelty 
 that he persuaded his countrymen to bring the 
 Avooden horse within their city. He was son of 
 Laomedon, according to some. Virg. jEri. 2, 
 v. 32. — Dictys Cret. 4, c. 4. 
 
 Tiberius, I. (Claudius Drusus Nero,) a Ro- 
 man emperor after the death of Augustus, de- 
 scended from the family of the Claudii. In his 
 early years he commanded popularity by enter- 
 taining the populace with magnificent shows 
 and fights of gladiators, and he gained some 
 applause in the funeral oration which he pro- 
 nounced over his father, though only nine years 
 old. His first appearance in the Roman armies 
 was under Augustus, in the war against the 
 Cantabri, and afterwards, in the capacity of 
 general, he obtained victories in different parts 
 of the empire, and was rewarded with a tri- 
 umph. Yet, in the midst of his glory, Tiberius 
 fell under the displeasure of Augustus, and re- 
 tired to Rhodes, where he continued for seven 
 years as an exile, till by the influence of his 
 mother Livia with the emperor, he was recalled. 
 His return to Rome was the most glorious ; he 
 had the command of the Roman armies in 
 Illyricum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, and seem- 
 ed to divide the sovereign power with Augustus. 
 At the death of the celebrated emperor, Tibe- 
 rius, who had been adopted, assumed the reins 
 of government; and while with dissimulation 
 and affected modesty he wished to decline the 
 dangerous office, he found time to try the 
 fidelity of his friends, and to make the greatest 
 part of the Romans believe that he was invested 
 with the purple, not from his own choice, but 
 by the recommendation of Augustus and the 
 urgent entreaties of the Roman senate. The 
 beginning of his reign seemed to promise tran- 
 quillity to the world ; Tiberius was a watchful 
 guardian of the public peace, he was the friend 
 of justice, and never assumed the sounding 
 titles which must disgust a free nation ; but he 
 was satisfied to say of himself that he was the 
 master of his slaves, the general of his soldiers, 
 and the father of the citizens of Rome. That 
 seeming moderation, however, which was but 
 the fruit of the deepest policy, soon disappeared, 
 and Tiberius was viewed in his real character. 
 His ingratitude to his mother Livia, to whose 
 intrigues he was indebted for the purple, his 
 63G 
 
 cruelty to his wife Julia, and his tyrannical 
 oppression and murder of many noble senators, 
 rendered him odious to the people, and sus- 
 pected even by his most intimate favourites. 
 The armies mutinied in Pannonia and Ger- 
 many, but the tumults were silenced by the 
 prudence of the generals and the fidelity of the 
 officers, and the factious demagogues were 
 abandoned to punishment. This acted as a 
 check upon Tiberius in Rome ; he knew from 
 thence, as his successors experienced, that his 
 power was precarious, and his very existence 
 in perpetual danger. He continued, as he had 
 begun, to pay the greatest deference to the sen- 
 ate ; all libels against him he disregarded, and 
 observed, that in a free city the thoughts and 
 the tongue of every man should be free. The 
 taxes were gradually lessened, and luxury re- 
 strained by the salutary regulations, as well as 
 by the prevailing example and frugality of the 
 emperor. While Rome exhibited a scene of 
 peace and public tranquillity, the barbarians 
 were severally defeated on the borders of the 
 empire, and Tiberius gained new honours by 
 the activity and valour of Germanicus and his 
 other faithful lieutenants. Yet the triumphs of 
 Germanicus were beheld with jealousy. Tibe- 
 rius dreaded his power, he was envious of his 
 popularity, and the death of that celebrated 
 general in Antioch was, as some suppose, ac- 
 celerated by poison and the secret resentment 
 of the emperor. Not only his relations and 
 friends, but the great and opulent were sacri- 
 ficed to his ambition, cruelty, and avarice ; and 
 there was scarce in Rome one single family 
 that did not reproach Tiberius for the loss of a 
 brother, a father, or a husband. He at last 
 retired to the island of Capreas, on the coast of 
 Campania, where he buried himself in unlaw- 
 ful pleasures. The care of the empire was in- 
 trusted to favourites, among whom Sejanas for 
 a while shone with uncommon splendour. In 
 his solitary retreat the emperor proposed re- 
 wards to such a,> invented new pleasures, or 
 could produce fresh luxuries. He forgot his 
 age as well as his dignity, and disgraced him- 
 self by the most unnatural vices and enor- 
 mous indulgences which can draw a blush, 
 even on the countenance of the most debauched 
 and abandoned. While the emperor was lost 
 to himself and the world, the provinces were 
 harassed on every side by the barbarians, 
 and Tiberius found himself insulted by those 
 enemies whom hitherto he had seen fall pros- 
 trate at his feet with every mark of submis- 
 sive adulation. At last, grown weak and 
 helpless through infirmities, he thought of his 
 approaching dissolution ; and as he well knew 
 that Rome could not exist without a head, 
 he nominated as his successor Caius Cali- 
 gula. Many might inquire why a youth na- 
 turally so vicious and abandoned as Caius 
 was chosen to be the master of an extensive 
 empire ; but Tiberius wished his own cruelties 
 to be forgotten in the barbarities which might 
 be displayed in the reign of his successor, whose 
 natural propensities he had well defined, in say- 
 ing of Caligula, that he bred a serpent for the 
 Roman people, and a Phaeton for the rest of the 
 empire. Tiberius died at Misenum, the Ifith of 
 March, A. D, 37, in the 78th year of his age, 
 after a reign of 22 years, 6 months, and 26 days. 
 
TI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TI 
 
 Caligula was accused of having hastened his 
 end by suffocating him. The joy was universal 
 when his death was known ; and the people of 
 Rome, in the midst of sorrow, had a moment 
 to rejoice, heedless of the calamities which 
 awaited them in the succeeding reigns. The 
 body of Tiberius was conveyed to Rome, and 
 burnt with great solemnity. A funeral oration 
 was pronounced by Caligula, who seemed to 
 forget his benefactor while he expatiated on the 
 praises of Augustus, Germanicus, and his own. 
 The character of Tiberius has been examined 
 with particular attention by historians, and his 
 reign is the subject of the most perfect and ele- 
 gant of all the compositions of Tacitus. When 
 a private man, Tiberius was universally esteem- 
 ed ; when he had no superior, he was proud, 
 arrogant, jealous, and revengeful. If he found 
 his military operations conducted by a warlike 
 general, he affected moderation and virtue ; but 
 when he got rid of the powerful influence of a 
 favourite, he was tyrannical and dissolute. If, 
 as some observed, he had lived in the times of 
 the R.oman republic, he might have been as 
 conspicuous as his great ancestors; but the 
 sovereign power lodged in his hand rendered 
 him vicious and oppressive. Yet, though he 
 encouraged informers and favoured flattery, he 
 blushed" at the mean servilities of the senate, 
 and derided the adulation of his courtiers, who 
 approached him, he said, as if they approached 
 a savage elephant. He was a patron of learning, 
 he was an eloquent and ready speaker, and 
 dedicated some part of his time to study. He 
 Avrote a lyric poem, entitled, A Complaint on 
 the Death of Lucius Cassar, as also some Greek 
 pieces, in imitation of some of his favourite 
 authors. He avoided all improper expressions, 
 and all foreign words he totally wished to 
 banish from the Latin tongue. As instances of 
 his humanity, it has been recorded that he was 
 uncommonly liberal to the people of Asia Mi- 
 nor, whose habitations had been destroyed by 
 a violent earthquake, A. D. 17. One of hib- 
 officers wished him to increase the taxes, Ao, 
 said Tiberius, a good shepherd must shear, not 
 flay his sheep. The senators wished to call the 
 month of November, in which he was born, by 
 his name, in imitation of J. Cassar and Augus- 
 tus, in the months of July and August; but this 
 he refused, saying, What will you do, conscript 
 fathers, if you have thirteen Ccesars? Like the 
 rest of the emperors, he received divine hon- 
 ours after death, and even during his life. It 
 has been wittily observed by Seneca, that he 
 never was intoxicated but once all his life, for 
 he continued in a perpetual state of intoxication 
 from the time he gave himself to drinking till 
 the last moment of his life. Sv^ton. invita, &c. 
 
 — Tacit. Ann. 6, &c. — Dion. Cass. II. A 
 
 friend of Julius Caesar, whom he accompanied 
 in the war of Alexandria. Tiberius forgot 
 the favours he had received from his friend ; 
 and when he was assassinated, he wished all 
 his murderers to be publicly rewarded. 
 
 III. One of the Gracchi. Vid. Gracchus. 
 
 IV. Sempronius, a son of Drusus and Li- 
 via, the sister of Germanicus, put to death 
 
 by Caligula. V. A son of Brutus, put to 
 
 death by his father because he had conspired 
 with other young noblemen to restore Tar- 
 quin to his throne. — —VI. A Thracian, made 
 
 emperor of Rome in the latter ages of the em- 
 pire. 
 
 TiBULLUs, Aulus Albius, is the earliest and 
 most admired of the Roman elegiac poets. 
 His birth may be conjectured to have occurred 
 between the years 695 and 700. It has often 
 been remarked, that few of the great Latin 
 poets, orators, or historians, were born at Rome, 
 and that, if the capital had always confined 
 'the distinction of Romans to the ancient fami- 
 lies within the walls, her name would have 
 been deprived of some of its noblest ornaments. 
 Tibullus, however, is one of the exceptions, as 
 his birth, in whatever year it may have hap- 
 pened, unquestionably took place in the capital, 
 He was descended of an equestrian family, of 
 considerable wealth and possessions, though 
 little known or mentioned in the history of their 
 country. His father had been engaged en the 
 side of Pompey in the civil wars, and died soon 
 after Caesar had finally triumphed over the 
 liberties of Rome. It is said, but without any 
 sufficient authority, that Tibullus himself was 
 present at Philippi along with his friend Mes- 
 sala, in the ranks of the republican army. He 
 retired in early life to his paternal villa near 
 Pedum, (now Zagarola,) a town in the ancient 
 Latian territory, and only a few miles distant 
 from Praeneste. In his youth he had tasted the 
 sweets of affluence and fortune, but the ample 
 patrimony which he inherited from "his ances- 
 tors, was greatly diminished by the partitions of 
 land made to the soldiers of the triumvirs. 
 Dacier and other French critics have alleged, 
 that he was ruined by his own dissipation and 
 extravagance, which has been -denied by Vul- 
 pius and Broukhusius, the learned editors and 
 commentators of Tibullus, with the same eager- 
 ness as if their own fame and fortune had de- 
 pended on the question. The partition of the 
 lands in Italy was probably the chief cause of 
 his indigence ; but we think it not unlikely, that 
 his own extravagance may have contributed to 
 his early difficulties. He utters his complaints 
 of the venality of his mistresses and favourites 
 in terms which show that he had already suf- 
 fered from their rapacity. Nevertheless, he 
 expresses himself as if prepared to part with 
 every thing to gratify their cupidity. It seems 
 probable, that no part of the land, of which Ti- 
 bullus had been deprived, was restored to him, 
 as we find not in his elegies a single expression 
 of gratitude or compliment, from which it might 
 be conjectured that Augustus had atoned to him 
 for the wrongs of Octavius. It is evident, how- 
 ever, that he was not reduced to extreme want. 
 Tibullus himself complains indeed of poverty, 
 but the poverty of the Latin poets is pretty well 
 defined byBroukhusius, "Fortunamediocris cui 
 nihil deest," and nearly the same notion of it is 
 communicated to us by Tibullus in his first ele- 
 gy. It might even be inferred from a distich in 
 a subsequent elegy, that his chief paternal seat 
 had been preserved to him ; and Horace, in a 
 complimentary epistle, written long after the 
 partition of the lands, says, that the gods had 
 bestowed on him wealth, and the art of enjoy- 
 ing it. Ilis friendship for Messala, and per- 
 haps some hope of improving his moderate and 
 diminished fortune, induced him to attend that 
 celebrated commander in various military ex 
 peditions. It would appear that he had acconj 
 637 
 
TI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TI 
 
 panied him in not less than three. Messala, 
 being intrusted by the emperor with an extra- 
 ordinary command in the East, requested Ti- 
 buUus to accompany him, and to this proposal 
 our poet, though it would appear with some re- 
 luctance, at length consented. He had not, 
 however, been long at sea, when his health suf- 
 fered so severely, that he was obliged to be put 
 on shore at an island, which Tibullus names by 
 its poetical appellation of Phseacia, but which 
 was then commonly called Corcyra, (now Cor- 
 fu.) He recovered from this dangerous sick- 
 ness, and as soon as he was able to renew his 
 voyage, he joined Messala, and travelled with 
 him through Syria, Cilicia, and Egypt. Hav- 
 ing returned to Italy, he again retired to his 
 farm at Pedum, where, though he occasionally 
 visited the capital, he chiefly resided during the 
 remainder of his life. Tibullus was endued 
 with elegant manners, and a handsome person, 
 which often procured him the love, though they 
 could not always secure the constancy, of the 
 fair. With Delia, he seems to have been at 
 one time successful, but she forsook him for a 
 husband or a more favoured lover ; and his for- 
 tune does not appear to have been sufficient to 
 obtain for him the good graces of the rapacious 
 Nemesis. While he thus bowed at the shrine 
 of beauty, he at the same time drew closer his 
 connexion with the most learned and polite of 
 his countrymen, as Valgius, Macer, and Hor- 
 ace. Tibullus' enjoyment of this sort of life 
 was considerably impaired by the state of his 
 health, which had continued to be delicate ever 
 since the illness with which he was attacked at 
 Corcyra. His existence was protracted till 734, 
 and his death, which happened in that year, 
 v/as deplored by Ovid in a long elegiac poem. 
 The events and circumstances of the life of Ti- 
 bullus have exercised a remarkable influence 
 on his writings. Those occurrences to which 
 he v/as exposed tended to give a peculiar turn 
 to his thoughts, and a peculiar colouring to his 
 language. He fell on the evil days of his coun- 
 try. The Roman fair of the highest rank had 
 become alike licentious and venal; and the 
 property of those ancient possessors of the 
 Italian soil, who had adhered to the republican 
 party, was divided by unprincipled usurpers 
 among their rapacious soldiery. Unhappy in 
 love, and less prosperous in fortune, than in 
 early youth he had reason to anticipate, all 
 that he utters on these topics is stamped with 
 such reality, that no reader can suspect for a 
 moment, either that his complaints were bor- 
 rowed from Greek sources, or were the mere 
 creations of fancy. His inability to procure 
 either the advantages of fortune or delights of 
 contentment, is the source of constant struggle 
 and disappointment. Hence the irritability, 
 melancholy, and change ableness of his temper. 
 Such circumstances in the life, and such fea- 
 tures in the character, of Tibullus, will, we 
 think, be found explanatory and illustrative of 
 much which we find in his elegies. These 
 elegies have been divided by German writers 
 into Erotic, Rural, Devotional, and Panegyri- 
 cal. The compositions evidently most adapted 
 to the genius of Tibullus, are poems not merely 
 written in ele?:iac verse, but which answer to 
 our understanding of the word Elegy, in the 
 subject and sentiments. The tone of complaint 
 638 
 
 best accords with his soul. Like the nightin- 
 gale, his most mournful notes are his sweetest, 
 and melancholy feelings are those which he 
 expresses most frequently, as well as with most 
 truth and beauty. His first composition was 
 to celebrate the virtues of his friend Messala, 
 but his more favourite study was writing love 
 verses in praise of his mistresses Delia and 
 Plautia, of Nemesis and Neaera ; and in these 
 elegant eifusions he showed himself the most 
 correct of the Roman poets. As he had es- 
 poused the cause of Brutus, he lost his posses- 
 sions when the soldiers of the triumvirate were 
 rewarded with lands ; but he might have re- 
 covered them if he had condescended, like Vir- 
 gil, to make his court to Augustus. Four books 
 of elegies are the only remaining pieces of his 
 composition. They are uncommonly elegant 
 and beautiful, and possessed with so much 
 grace and purity of sentiment, that the writer is 
 deservedly ranked as the prince of elegiac poets. 
 Tibullus was intimate with the literary men of 
 his age, and he for some time had a poetical 
 contest with Horace, in gaining the favours of 
 an admired courtesan. Ovid has written a 
 beautiful elegy on the death of his friend. The 
 poems of Tibullus are generally published 
 with those of Propertius and Catullus, of which 
 the best editions are, that of Vulpius, Petavii, 
 1737, 1749, 1755 ; that of Barbou, 12mo..Paris, 
 1754; and that by Heyne, 8vo. Lips. 1776. 
 Ovid. 3, Am. el. 9, T^rist. 2, v. AiL—Horat. 1, 
 ep. 4, 1. 1, od. 33, v. 1. — Quintil. 10, c. 1. 
 
 TicinA, a Roman poet a few years before the 
 age of Cicero, who wrote epigrams, and praised 
 his mistress Metella under the fictitious name 
 of Perilla. Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 433. 
 
 TiGELLiNus, a Roman celebrated for his in- 
 trigues and perfidy in the court of Nero, He 
 was appointed judge at the trial of the conspir- 
 ators who had leagued against Nero, for which 
 he was liberally rewarded with triumphal hon- 
 ours. He afterwards betrayed the emperor, 
 and was ordered to destroy himself, 68 A. D. 
 Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 12.—Plut.—Juv. 1. 
 
 TiGRANEs, I. a king of Armenia, who made 
 himself master of Assyria and Cappadocia. 
 He married Cleopatra, the daughter of Mith- 
 ridates, and by the advice of his father-in-law, 
 he declared war against the Romans. He de- 
 spised these distant enemies, and even ordered 
 the head of the messenger to be cut off who 
 first told him that the Roman general was bold- 
 ly advancing towards his capital. His pride, 
 however, was soon abated, and though he or- 
 dered the Roman consul LucuUus to be brought 
 alive into his presence, he fled with precipitation 
 from his capital, and was soon after defeated 
 near mount Taurus. This totally disheartened 
 him, he refused to receive Mithridates into his 
 palace, and even set a price upon his head. His 
 mean submission to Pompey, the successor of 
 Lucullus in Asia, and a bribe of 60,000 talents, 
 insured him on his throne, and he received a 
 garrison in his capital, and continued at peace 
 with the Romans. His second son of the same 
 name revolted against him, and attempted to 
 dethrone him with the assistance of the king of 
 Parthia, whose daughter he had married. This 
 did not succeed, and the son had recourse to the 
 Romans, bv whom he was put in possession of 
 Sophene, while the father remained quiet on 
 
Tl 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 Tl 
 
 the throne of Armenia. The son was after- 
 wards sent in chains to Rome for his insolence 
 to Pompey. Cic. pro Man. — Val. Max. 5, c. 
 5. — Paterc. 2, c. 33 and 37. — Justin. 40, c. 1 
 
 and 2. — Plut. in Luc. Povip. &c. II. A king 
 
 of Armenia in the reign of Tiberius. He was 
 
 put to death. Tacit. 6, Ann. c. 40. III. One 
 
 of the royal family of the Cappadocians, chosen 
 by Tiberius to ascend the throne of Armenia. 
 
 TiM^A, the wife of Agis, king of Sparta, 
 was debauched by Alcibiades, by whom she had 
 a son. This child was rejected in the succes- 
 sion to the throne, though Agis on his death- 
 bed, declared him to be legitimate. Plut. in Ag. 
 
 TiM^us, I, a friend of Alexander, who came 
 to his assistance when he was alone surrounded 
 by the Oxydracee. He w^as killed in the en- 
 counter. Curt. 9, c. 5. II. An historian of 
 
 Sicily, who flourished about 262 B.C. and died 
 in the 96th year of his age. His father's name 
 was Andromachus. He w-as banished from 
 Sicily by Agathocles. His general liislory of 
 Sicily, and that of the wars of Pyrrhus, were 
 in general esteem, and his authority was great, 
 except when he treated of Agathocles. All his 
 compositions are lost. Plut. in, Nic. — Cic. de 
 
 Or at. — Diod. 5. — C. Nep. III. A writer who 
 
 published some treatises concerning ancient 
 philosophers. Diog. in Emp. IV. A Py- 
 thagorean philosopher, born at Locris. He 
 followed the doctrines of the founder of the 
 metempsychosis, but in some parts of his sys- 
 tem of the world he differed from him. He 
 wrote a treatise on the nature and the soul of 
 the world, in the Doric dialect, still extant. 
 Plato in' Tim.— Plut. 
 
 TiMAGORAS, an Athenian, capitally punished 
 for paying homage to Darius, according to the 
 Persian manner of kneeling on the ground, 
 when he was sent to Persia as ambassador. 
 Val. Max. 6, c. 3. — Suidas. 
 
 TiMANTHEs, a painter of Sicy on, in the reign 
 of Philip, the father of Alexander the Great. 
 In his celebrated painting of Iphigenia going to 
 be immolated, he represented all the attendants 
 overwhelmed with grief; but his superior 
 genius, by covering the face of Agamemnon, 
 left to the conception of the imagination the deep 
 sorrows of the father. He obtained a prize, for 
 which the celebrated Parrhasius was a compet- 
 itor. This was in painting an Ajax with all 
 the fury which his disappointments could occa- 
 sion when deprived of the arms of Achilles. 
 Cic. de Orat. — Val. Max. 8, c. 11. — jElian. V. 
 H. 9, c. 11. 
 
 TiMARCHUs, I. a philosopher of Alexandria, 
 intimate with Lamprocles, the disciple of So- 
 crates. Diog. II. A rhetorician, who hung 
 
 himself when accused of licentiousness by 
 
 ^schines. III. An officer in ^tolia, who 
 
 burnt his ships to prevent the flight of his com- 
 panions, and to insure himself the victor)'. 
 Polyccn. 5. 
 
 TiMASiTHEUs, a prince of Lipara, who obliged 
 a number of pirates to spare some Romans, who 
 were going to make an offering of the spoils of 
 Veii to the god of Delphi. The Roman senate 
 lewarded him very liberally, and 137 years 
 after, when the Carthaginians were dispos- 
 sessed of Lipari, the same generosity was nobly 
 extended to his descendants in the island. 
 Diod, 14. — Plut. in Cam. 
 
 TiMESius, a native of Clazomense, who began 
 to build Abdera. He was prevented by the 
 Thracians, but honoured as a hero at Abdera. 
 Hcrodot. 1, c. 168. 
 
 TiMocLEA, a Theban lady, sister to Theage- 
 nes, who was killed at Cheronsea. One of Alex- 
 ander's soldiers offered her violence, after which 
 she led her ravisherto a well, and while he be- 
 lieved that immense treasures were concealed 
 'there, Timoclea threw him into it. Alexander 
 commended her virtue, and forbade his soldiers 
 to hurt the Theban females. Plut. in Alex. 
 
 TiMocLES, was one of the earlier poets of the 
 new comedy. He weis the contemporary of 
 Demosthenes, whom he attacks in a fragment 
 of the "H,ow£f, for a disinclination to peace; 
 and in another, the A/jAoj, he accuses him of 
 receiving bribes from Harpalus, the unfaithful 
 treasurer of Alexander. 
 
 TiMocRATEs, I. a Greek philosopher of un- 
 common austerity. II. A Syracusan, who 
 
 married Arete when Dion had been banished 
 into Greece, by Dionysius. He commanded 
 the forces of the t)'rant. 
 
 TiMocREON, a comic poet of Rhodes, who 
 obtained poetical, as w'ell as gymnastic prizes 
 at Olympia. He lived about 476 years before 
 Christ, distinguished for his voracity, and also 
 for his resentment against Simonides and The- 
 mistocles. The following epitaph was written 
 on his grave : — ■* 
 
 Multa bibens, et multa varans, mala dinique 
 
 dicens 
 Multis, hicjaceo Timocreon Rhodius. 
 
 TiMOLEON, a celebrated Corinthian, son of 
 Timodemus and Demariste. He was such an 
 enemy to tyranny, that he did not hesitate to 
 murder his own brother Timophanes when he 
 attempted, against his representations, to make 
 himself absolute in Corinth. This was viewed 
 with pleasure by the friends of liberty; but the 
 mother of Timoleon conceived the most invete- 
 rate aversion for her son, and for ever banished 
 him from her sight. This proved painful to 
 Timoleon ; a settled melancholy dwelt upon his 
 mind, and he refused to accept of any offices in 
 the state. When the Syracusans, oppressed 
 with the tyranny of Dionysius the younger, and 
 of the Carthaginians, had solicited the assist- 
 ance of the Corinthians, all looked upon Timo- 
 leon as a proper deliverer ; but all applications 
 would have been disregarded, if one of the 
 magistrates had not awakened in him the sense 
 of natural liberty. Timoleon, says he, if yon, 
 accept of the command of this expedition, we rcill 
 believe that you have killed a tyrant ; but if not, 
 we cannot but call you your brother^s murderer. 
 This had due effect, and Timoleon sailed for 
 Syracuse with ten ships, accompanied by about 
 1000 men. The Carthaginians attempted to 
 oppose him, but Timoleon eluded their vigi- 
 lance, loetas, who had the possession of the 
 city, was defeated, and Dionysius, who despair- 
 ed of success, gave himelf up into the hands of 
 the Corinthian general. This success gained 
 Timoleon adherents in Sicily, many cities, 
 which hitherto had looked upon him as an im- 
 postor, claimed his protection, and when he was 
 at last master of Syracuse by the total over- 
 throw of Icetas and of the Carthaginians, he 
 razed the citadel which had been the seat of 
 G39 
 
Tl 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TI 
 
 tyranny, and erected on the spot a common 
 hall, Syracuse was almost destitute of inhab- 
 itants, and at the solicitation of Timoleon, a 
 Corinthian colony was sent to Sicily ; the lands 
 were equally divided among the citizens, and 
 the houses were sold for a thousand talents, 
 which were appropriated to the use of the state, 
 and deposited m the treasury. When Syracuse 
 was thus delivered from tyranny, the conqueror 
 extended his benevolence to the other states of 
 Sicily, and all the petty tyrants were reduced 
 and banished from the island. A code of sal- 
 utary laws ,was framed for the Syracusans ; 
 and the armies of Carthage, which had at- 
 tempted again to raise commotions in Sicily, 
 were defeated, and peace was at last re-estab- 
 lished. The gratitude of the Sicilians was 
 shown every where to their deliverer. Timo- 
 leon was received with repeated applause in the 
 public assemblies, and though a private man, 
 unconnected with the government, he continued 
 to enjoy his former influence at Syracuse : his 
 advice was consulted on matters of importance, 
 and his authority respected. He ridiculed the 
 accusations of malevolence, and when some 
 informers had charged him with oppression he 
 rebuked the Syracusans who were going to put 
 the accusers to immediate death. A remarkable 
 instance of his providential escape from the 
 dagger of an assassin has been recorded by one 
 of his biographers. As he was going to offer 
 a sacrifice to the gods after a victory, two as- 
 sassins, sent by the enemies, approached his 
 person in disguise. The arm of one of the 
 assassins was already lifted up, when he was 
 suddenly stabbed by an unknown person, who 
 made his escape from the camp. The other 
 assassin, struck at the fall of his companion,, 
 fell before Timoleon, and confessed, in the 
 presence of the army, the conspiracy that had 
 been formed against his life. The unknown 
 assassin was meantime pursued, and when he 
 was found, he declared that he had committed 
 no crime in avenging the death of a beloved 
 father, whom the man he had stabbed had mur- 
 dered in the town of Leontini. Inquiries were 
 made, and his confessions were found to be 
 true. Timoleon died at Syracuse, about 337 
 years before the Christian era. His body re- 
 ceived an honourable burial in a public place 
 called from him Timoleonteum ; but the tears 
 of a grateful nation were more convincing 
 proofs of the public regret, than the institution 
 of festivals, and games yearly to be observed 
 on the day of his death. C. Nep. & Plut. in 
 vita. — PolijcBn. 5, c. 3. — Diod. 16. 
 
 TiMOMACHus, a painter of Byzantium in the 
 age of Sylla and Marius. His paintings of 
 Medea murdering her children, and his Ajax, 
 were purchased for 80 talents by J. Caesar, and 
 deposited in the temple of Venus at Rome. 
 Plin. 35, c. n. 
 
 TiMON, I. anal ive of Athens, called Misan- 
 thrope, for his unconquerable aversion to man- 
 kind and all society. He was fond of Apeman- 
 tus, another Athenian, whose character was 
 similar to his own, and he said that he had 
 some partiality for Alcibiades, because he was 
 one day to be his country's ruin. Once he went 
 into the public assembly, and told his country- 
 men, that he had a fig-tree on which many had 
 ended their life with a halter, and that as he was 
 640 
 
 going to cut it down to raise a building on the 
 spot, he advised all such as were inclined to 
 destroy themselves, to hasten and go and hang 
 themselves in his garden. Plut. in Ale. &c. — 
 
 Lucian. in Tim. — Pans. 6, c. 13. II. A 
 
 Greek poet, son of Timachus, in the age of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus. He wrote several dra- 
 matic pieces, all now lost, and died in the 90th 
 year of his age. Diog. — Athen. 6 and 13. 
 
 TiMOPHANES, a Corinthian, brother to Timo- 
 leon. He attempted to make himself tyrant of 
 his country by means of the mercenary soldiers 
 with whom he had fought against the Argives 
 and Cleomenes. Timoleon wished to convince 
 him of the impropriety of his measures, and 
 when he found him unmoved, he caused him 
 to be assassinated. Plut. & C. Nep. in Tim. 
 
 TiMOTHEUS, I. a poet and musician of Miletus, 
 son of Thersander or Philopolis, He was re- 
 ceived with hisses the first time he exhibited as 
 musician in the assembly of the people, and 
 further applications would have totally been 
 abandoned, had not Euripides discovered his 
 abilities, and encouraged him to follow a pro- 
 fession in which he afterwards gained so much 
 applause. He received the immense sum of 1000 
 pieces of gold from the Ephesians, because he 
 had composed a poem in honour of Diana. He 
 died about the 90th year of his age, two years 
 before the birth of Alexander the Great. There 
 was also another musician of Boeotia in the age 
 of Alexander, often confounded with the mu- 
 sician of Miletus, He was a great favourite 
 of the conqueror of Darius. Cic. de Leg. 2, c. 
 15. — Pans. 3, c. 12.- — Plut. de music, de fort. 
 
 &c. II. An Athenian general, son of Conon. 
 
 He signalized himself by his valour and mag- 
 nanimity, and showed that he was not inferior 
 to his great father in military prudence. He 
 seized Corcyra, and obtained several victo- 
 ries over the Thebans, but his ill success in one 
 of his expeditions disgusted the Athenians, and 
 Timotheus, like the rest of his noble predeces- 
 sors, was fined a large sum of money. He re- 
 tired to Chalcis, where he died. He was so 
 disinterested, that he never appropriated any of 
 the plunder to his own use, but after one of his 
 expeditions he filled the treasury of Athens 
 with 1200 talents. Some of the ancients, to in- 
 timate his continual successes, have represented 
 him sleeping by the side of Fortune, while the 
 goddess drove cities into his net. He was inti- 
 mate with Plato, at whose table he learned tem- 
 perance and moderation, Athen. 10, c. 3. — 
 Pans. 1, c. 29.— Plut. in Syll. &c.—yElian. V. 
 
 H. 2, c, 10 and 18, 1. 3, c, 16.— C. Nep. III. 
 
 A Greek statuary. Pans. 1, c. 32. IV. A 
 
 tyrant of Heraclea, who murdered his father. 
 JDiod. 16, V. A king of the Sapsei. 
 
 TiRiDATEs, I. a king of Parthia after the ex- 
 pulsion ofPhraates by his subjects. He was 
 soon after deposed, and fled to Augustus in 
 
 Spain, Horat. 1, Od. 26. II. A man made 
 
 king of Parthia by Tiberius, after the death of 
 Phraates, m opposition to Artabanus. Tacit. 
 Ann. 6, &c. III. A keeper of the royal trea- 
 sures at Persepolis, who offered to surrender to 
 
 Alexander the Great, Curt. 5, c, 5, &c. 
 
 IV, A king of Armenia in the reign of Nero. 
 
 Tiro, (Tullius,) afreedman of Cicero, great- 
 ly esteemed by his master for his learning and 
 good qualities. It is said that he invented short- 
 
TI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TI 
 
 hand writing among the Romans. He wrote 
 the life of Cicero, and other treatises now lost. 
 Cic. ad Att. &c. 
 
 TisAMENEs, or TisAMENUs, I. a son of Orestes 
 and Hermione, thedaughter of Mene]aus,who 
 succeeded on the throne of Argos and Lacedae- 
 mon. The Heraclidse entered his kingdom in 
 the third year of his reign, and obliged him to 
 retire with his family into Achaia. He was 
 some time after killed in a battle against the 
 lonians, near Helice. Apollod. 2, c. 7. — Pans. 
 
 3, c. 1, 1. 7, c. 1. II. A king of Thebes, son 
 
 of Thersander and grandson of Polynices. The 
 furies, who continually persecuted the house of 
 CEdipus, permitted him to live in tranquillity, 
 but they tormented his son and successor Aute- 
 sion, and obliged him to retire to Doris. Paus. 
 3, c. 5, 1. 9, c. 6. 
 
 TisARCHUs, a friend of Agathocles, by whom 
 he was murdered, &c. Polycen. 5. 
 
 TisiAs, an ancient philosopher of Sicily, con- 
 sidered by some as the inventor of rhetoric, &c. 
 Cic. de inv. 2, c. 2. Orat. 1, c. 18. 
 
 TissAPHERNES, a satrap of Persia, commander 
 of the forces of Artaxerxes at the battle of Cu- 
 naxa against Cyrus. It was by his valour and 
 intrepidity that the king's forces gained the 
 victory, and for this he obtained the daughter of 
 Artaxerxes in marriage, and all the provinces 
 of which Cyrus was governor. His popularity 
 did not long continue, and the king ordered him 
 to be put to death, when he had been conquered 
 by Agesilaus, 395 B. C. C. Nep. 
 
 TiTHENiDiA, a festival of Sparta in which 
 nurses, nQnvat, conveyed male infants, intrusted 
 to their charge, to the temple of Diana, where 
 they sacrificed young pigs. 
 
 TiTHRADSTEs, a Persian satrap, B. C. 395, 
 ordered to murder Tissaphernes by Artaxerxes. 
 He succeeded to the offices which the slaugh- 
 tered favourite enjoyed. He was defeated by 
 
 the Athenians under Cimon. The name 
 
 was common to some of the superior officers of 
 state in the court of Artaxerxes. Plut. — C. 
 Nep. in Dot. i^ Conon. 
 
 TiTiA Lex de magistratihus, by P. Titius, 
 the tribune, A. U. C. 710. It ordained that a 
 triumvirate of magistrates should be invested 
 with consular power to preside over the repub- 
 lic for five years. The persons chosen were 
 
 Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus. Another, 
 
 deprovinciis, which required that the provincial 
 quaestors, like the consuls and praetors, should 
 receive their provinces by lot. 
 
 TiTiANA Flavia, the wife of the emperor 
 Pertinax, disgraced herself by her debaucheries 
 and incontinence. After the murder of her 
 husband she was reduced to poverty, and spent 
 the rest of her life in an obscure retreat. 
 
 TiTiANUs, (Attil.) a noble Roman, put to 
 death A. D. 156, by the senate, for aspiring to 
 the purple. He was the only one proscribed 
 during the reign of Antoninus Pius. 
 
 TiTH, priests of Apollo at Rome, who observ- 
 ed the flight of doves, and drew omens from it. 
 Varro de L. L. 4, c. 15. — Lmcan. 1, v. 602. 
 
 TiTros Proculus, (Septimius,) a poet in the 
 Augustan age, who distinguished himself by 
 his lyric and tragic compositions, now lost. 
 Horat. 1, ep. 3, v. 9. 
 
 TiTORMUS, a shepherd of iElolia, called an- 
 other Hercules on account of his prodigious 
 
 Part IL— 4 M 
 
 strength. He was stronger than his contempo- 
 rary, Milo of Crotona, as he could lift on his 
 shoulders a stone which the Crotonian moved 
 but with difficulty. jElia7i,. V. H. 12, c. 22.— 
 Herodot. 6, c. 127. 
 
 Titus Vespasianus, son of "Vespasian and 
 Flavia Domitilla, because known by his valour 
 in the Roman armies, particularly at the siege 
 of Jerusalem. In the 79th year of the Christian 
 -era he was invested with the imperial purple, 
 and the Roman people had every reason to ex- 
 pect in him the barbarities of a Tiberius and 
 the debaucheries of a Nero. While in the house 
 of Vespasian, Titus had been distinguished for 
 his extravagance and incontinence, his attend- 
 ants were the most abandoned and dissolute, 
 and it seemed that he wished to be superior to 
 the rest of the world in the gratification of every 
 impure desire, and in every unnatural vice. Yet 
 he became a model of virtue, and abandoned his 
 usual profligacy ; and Berenice, whom he had 
 loved with uncommon ardour, even to render 
 himself despised by the Roman people, was dis- 
 missed from his presence. When raised to the 
 throne he thought himself bound to be the fa- 
 ther of his people, the guardian of virtue, and 
 thepatron of liberty. All informers were banish- 
 ed from his presence, and even severely punish- 
 ed. A reform was made in the judicial proceed- 
 ings, and trials were no longer permitted to be 
 postponed for years. To do good to his subjects 
 was the ambition of Titus, and it was at the re- 
 collection that he had done no service, or grant- 
 ed no favour one day, that he exclaimed in the 
 memorable words of My friends, I have lost a 
 day! Two of the senators conspired against 
 his life, but the emperor disregarded their at- 
 tempts, he made them his friends by kindness, 
 and, like another Nerva, presented them with a 
 sword to destroy him. During his reign Rome 
 was three days on fire, the towns of Campania 
 were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius, and 
 the empire was visited by a pestilence which 
 carried away an infinite number of inhabitants. 
 In this time of public calamity the emperor's 
 benevolence and philanthropy were conspicu- 
 ous. Titus comforted the afflicted as a father ; 
 he alleviated their distresses by his liberal boun- 
 ties ; and, as if they were but one family, he 
 exerted himself for the good and preservation 
 of the whole. The Romans, however, had not 
 long to enjoy the favours of a magnificent prince. 
 Titus was taken ill, and as he retired into the 
 country of the Sabines to his father's house, his 
 indisposition was increased by a burning fever. 
 He lifted his eyes to heaven, and with modest 
 submission, complained of the severity of fate, 
 which removed him from the world when young, 
 where he had been employed in making a grate- 
 ful people happy. He died the 13th of Septem- 
 ber, A. D. 81, in the 41st year of his age, after 
 a reign of two years, two months, and twenty 
 days. After him Domitian ascended the throne, 
 not without incurring the suspicion of having 
 hastened his brother's end by ordering him to 
 be placed, during his agony, in a tub full of 
 snow, where he expired. Domitian has also 
 been accused of raising commotions, and of 
 making attempts to dethrone his brother ; but 
 Titus disregarded them, and forgave the of- 
 fender. Some authors have reflected with 
 severity upon the cruelties which Titus exer- 
 641 
 
TR 
 
 HISTORY, &C. 
 
 TR 
 
 sised against the Jews, but thougli certainly a 
 disgrace to the benevolent features of his char- 
 acter, we must consider him as an instrument 
 in the hands of Providence, exerted for the 
 punishment of a wicked and infatuated people. 
 Joseph. B. J. 7, c. 16, &c — Suetonius. — Dio. 
 &c. 
 
 Titus Tatius, 1. a king of the Sabines. 
 Vid. Tatius. II. Livius, a celebrated his- 
 torian. Vid. Livius. III. A son of Junius 
 
 Brutus, put to death by order of his father, for 
 conspiring to restore the Tarquins. 
 
 Tlepolemus, one of Alexander's generals, 
 who obtained Carmania at the general division 
 of the Macedonian empire. Diod. 18. 
 
 ToLus, a man whose head was found in dig- 
 ging for the foundation of the capitol, in the 
 reign of Tarquin, whence the Romans con- 
 cluded that their city should become the head 
 or mistress of the world. 
 
 ToNEA, a solemnity observed at Samos. It 
 was usual to carry Juno's statue to the sea- 
 shore, and to offer cakes before it, and after- 
 wards to replace it again in the temple. This 
 was in commemoration of the theft of the Tyr- 
 rhenians, who attempted to carry away the 
 statue of the goddess, but were detained in the 
 harbour by an invisible force. 
 
 Trabea. The plays of GLuintus Trabea, sup- 
 posed to belong chiefly to the class called Toga- 
 tcB, are frequently cited by the grammarians, 
 and are mentioned with approbation by Cicero. 
 The name of Trabea was made use of in a well- 
 known deception practised on Joseph Scaliger 
 by Muretus. Scaliger piqued himself on his 
 faculty of distinguishing the characteristic 
 styles of ancient writers. In order to entrap 
 him, Muretus showed him some verses, pre- 
 tending that he had received them from Ger- 
 many, where they had been transcribed from an 
 ancient MS. attributed to CI. Trabea. Scaliger 
 was so completely deceived, that he afterwards 
 cited these verses, as lines from the play of 
 Harpace^ by Q,. Trabea, in the first edition of 
 his Commentary on Varro's Dialogues De Re 
 Rustica, in order to illustrate some obscure ex- 
 pression of his author — " Cluis enim," says he, 
 " tam aversus a Musis, tamque humanitatis ex- 
 pers, qui horum publicatione offendatur." Mu- 
 retus, not content with this malicious trick, 
 afterwards sent him some other verses, to which 
 he affixed the name of Atlius, expressing, but 
 more diffusely, the same idea. Scaliger, in his 
 next edition of Varro, published them, along 
 with the former lines, as fragments from the 
 CEnomaus, a tragedy by Attius, and a plagia- 
 rism from Trabea — observing at the end of his 
 note, " Fortasse de hoc nimis," Muretus said 
 nothing for two years ; but, at the end of that 
 period, he published a volume of his own Latin 
 poems, and, along with them, under the title 
 Afficta TrabecB, both sets of verses which he 
 had thus palmed on Scaliger for undoubted 
 remnants of antiquity. The whole history of 
 the imposture was fully disclosed in a note: both 
 poems, it was acknowledged, were versions of a 
 fragment, attributed by some to Menander,and 
 by others to Philemon, beginning — Ei ra 6aKpva 
 hiiiv, K. T. X. They have been also translated 
 into Latin by Naugerius. 
 
 Trachalus, M. Galerius, a consul in the 
 reign of Nero, celebrated for his eloquf nee as 
 642 
 
 an orator, and for a majestic and com'manding 
 aspect. Quintil. — Tacit. 
 
 Trajanus, I. (M. Ulpius Crinitus,) a Roman 
 emperor, born at Iialica in Spain. Nerva 
 adopted him as his son, invested him during his 
 lifetime with the imperial purple, and gave him 
 the name of Caesar and of Germanicus. A 
 little time after Nerva died, and the election of 
 Trajan to the vacant throne was confirmed by 
 the unanimous rejoicings of the people, and the 
 free concurrence of the armies on the confines 
 of Germany and the banks of the Danube. 
 All the actions of Trajan showed a good and 
 benevolent prince, whose virtues truly merited 
 the encomiums which the pen of an elegant and 
 courteous panegyrist has paid. The barbarians 
 continued quiet, and the hostilities which they 
 generally displayed at the election of a new 
 emperor, whose military abilities they distrust- 
 ed, were not few. Trajan, however, could not 
 behold with satisfaction and unconcern the in- 
 solence of the Dacians, who claimed from the 
 Roman people a tribute which the cowardice of 
 Domitian had offered. The sudden appearance 
 of the emperor on the frontiers awed the bar- 
 barians to peace, but Decebalus, their warlike 
 monarch, soon began hostilities by violating 
 the treaty. The emperor entered the enemy's 
 country by throwing a bridge across the rapid 
 streams of the Danube, and a battle was fought, 
 in which the slaughter was so great, that in the 
 Roman camp linen was wanted to dress the 
 wounds of the soldiers. Trajan obtained the 
 victory, and Decebalus, despairing of success 
 destroyed himself, and Dacia became a prov- 
 ince of Rome. That the ardour of the Roman 
 soldiers in defeating their enemies might not 
 cool, an expedition was undertaken into the 
 East, and Parthia threatened with immediate 
 war. Trajan passed through the submissive 
 kingdom of Armenia, and by his well-directed 
 operations made himself master of the provinces 
 of Assyria and Mesopotamia. The return of 
 the emperor towards Rome was hastened by in- 
 disposition, he stopped at Cilicia, and in the 
 town of vSelinus, which afterwards was called 
 Trajanopolis, and a few days afterwards ex- 
 pired, in the beginning of August, A. D. 117, 
 after a reign of 19 years, 6 months, and 15 days, 
 in the 64th year of his age. He was succeeded 
 on the throne by Adrian, whom the emperess 
 Plotina introduced to the Roman armies as the 
 adopted son of her husband, Trajan was fond 
 of popularity, and he merited it. The sound- 
 ing titles of Optimus, and the father of his 
 country, were not unworthily bestowed upon a 
 prince who was equal to the greatest generals 
 of antiquity, and who, to indicate his affability, 
 and his wish to listen to the just complaints of 
 his subjects, distinguished his palace by the 
 inscription of the public palace. Like other 
 emperors, he did not receive with an air of un- 
 concern the homage of his friends ; but rose 
 from his seat and went cordially to salute them. 
 He refused the statues which the flattery of fa- 
 vourites wished to erect to him, and he ridiculed 
 the follies of an enlightened nation, that could 
 pay adoration to cold inanimate pieces of 
 marble. His public entry into Rome gained 
 him the hearts of the people ; he appeared on 
 foot, and showed himself an enemy to parade 
 and an ostentatious equipage. When in his 
 
TR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TR 
 
 Camp, he exposed himself to the fatigues of 
 war like the meanest soldier, and crossed the 
 most barren deserts and extensive plains on 
 foot, and in his dress and food displayed all the 
 simplicity which once gained the approbation 
 of the Romans in their countryman Fabricius, 
 He had a select number of intimates, whom he 
 visited with freedom and openness, and at 
 whose tables he partook many a moderate re- 
 past, without form or ceremony. His confi- 
 dence, however, in the good intentions of others, 
 was, perhaps, carried to excess. His favourite 
 Sura had once been accused of attempts upon 
 his life, but Trajan disregarded the informer, 
 and as he was that same day invited to the 
 house of the supposed conspirator, he went 
 thither early. To try farther the sincerity of 
 Sura, he ordered himself to be shaved by his 
 barber, to have a medicinal application made 
 to his eyes by the hand of his surgeon, and to 
 bathe together with him. The public works of 
 Trajan are also celebrated, he opened free and 
 easy communications between the cities of his 
 provinces, he planted many colonies, and fur- 
 nished Rome with all the corn and provisions 
 which could prevent a famine in the time of 
 calamity. It was by his directions that the ar- 
 chitect Apollodorus built that celebrated column 
 which is still to be seen at Rome under the name 
 of Trajan's column. The area on which it 
 stands was made by the labours of men, and 
 the height of the pillar proves that a large hill 
 144 feet high was removed at a great expense, 
 A. D. 114, to commemorate the victories of the 
 reigning.prince. His persecutions of the Chris- 
 tians were stopped by the interference of the 
 humane Pliny; but he was unusually severe 
 upon the Jews, who had barbarously murdered 
 200.000 of his subjects, and even fed upon the 
 flesh of the dead. His vices have been obscure- 
 ly seen, through a reign of continued splendour 
 and popularity, yet he is accused of inconti- 
 nence and many unnatural indulgences. He 
 was too much addicted to drinking, and his 
 wish to be styled lord has been censured by 
 those who admired the dissimulated moderation 
 and the modest claims of an Augustus. Plin. 
 Paneg. &c. — Dio. Cass. — Eutrop. — Ammian. 
 
 — Spariian. — Joseph. Bell. J. — Victor. II. 
 
 The father of the emperor, who likewise bore 
 the name of Trajan, was honoured with the 
 consulship and a triumph, and the rank of a 
 patrician by the emperor Vespasian. 
 
 Trebatius Testas, (C.) a man banished by 
 Julius Caesar for following the interests of Pom- 
 pey, and recalled by the eloquence of Cicero. 
 He was afterwards reconciled to Csesar. Tre- 
 batius was not less distinguished for his learn- 
 ing than for his integrity, his military experi- 
 ence and knowledge of law. He wrote nine 
 books on religious ceremonies, and treatises on 
 civil law ; and the verses that he composed 
 proved him a poet of no inferior consequence. 
 Horat.% Sat. 1, v. 4. 
 
 Trebelltanus, C. Annius, a pirate who pro- 
 claimed himself emperor of Rome A. D. 264. 
 He was defeated and slain in Isauria by the 
 lieutenants of Gallienus. 
 
 Trebellienus Rufus, a praetor appointed 
 governor of the children of King Cotys by Ti- 
 berius. 
 
 TREBELLros PoLLio, a Latin historian who 
 
 wrote an account of the lives of the emperors. 
 The beginning of this history islost; part of the 
 reign of Valerian, and the life of the two Gal- 
 lieni, with the 30 tyrants, are the only frag- 
 ments remaining. He flourished A. D. 305. 
 
 Trebonia Lex, de provinciis, by L. Trebo- 
 nius the tribune, A. U. C. 698. It gave Casar 
 the chief command in Gaul for five years longer 
 than was enacted by the Vatinian law, and in 
 'this manner prevented the senators from recal- 
 ling or superseding him. Another, by the 
 
 same, on the same year, conferred the command 
 of the provinces of Syria and Spain on Cassius 
 
 and Pompey for five years. Dio. Cass. 39. 
 
 Another, by L. Trebonius the tribune, A. U. C. 
 305, which confirmed the election of the tri- 
 bunes, in the hands of the Roman people. Liv. 
 3 and 5. 
 
 Trebonius, Caius, one of Csesar's friends, 
 made, through his interest, praetor and consul. 
 He was afterwards one of his benefactor's mur- 
 derers. He was killed by Dolabella at Smyrna. 
 Cces. Bell. 5, c. ll.—Cic. in Phil. 11, c. 2.— 
 Paterc. 56 and &d.—Liv. W^.— Dio. 4.1.— Ho- 
 rat. 1, Sat.i, v. 114. 
 
 Triarius, (C.) a friend of Pompey. He had 
 for some time the care of the war in Asia 
 against Milhridates, whom he defeated, and by 
 whom he was afterwards beaten. He was 
 killed in the civil wars of Pompey and Caesar. 
 Cccsar. Bell. Civ. 3, c. 5. * 
 
 Tribuni Plebis, magistrates at Rome, cre- 
 ated in the year U. C. 261, when the people 
 after a quarrel with the senators had retired to 
 mons Sacer. The two first were C. Licinius 
 and L. Albinus, but their number was soon, 
 after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, 
 which remained fixed; Their oflice was annual, 
 and as the first had been created on the 4th of 
 the ides of December, that day was ever after 
 chosen for the election. Their power, though 
 at first small, and granted by the patricians to 
 appease the momentary seditions of the popu- 
 lace, soon became formidable, and the senators 
 repented too late of having consented to elect 
 magistrates, who not only preserved the rights 
 of the people, but could summon assemblies, 
 propose laws, stop the consultations of the sen- 
 ate, and even abolish their decrees by the word 
 Veto. Their approbation was also necessary to 
 confirm the senatus consulta, and this was done 
 by affixing the letter T. under it. If any irreg- 
 ularity happened in the state, their power was 
 almost absolute ; they criticised the conduct of 
 all the public magistrates, and even dragged a 
 consul to prison if the measures he pursued 
 were hostile to the peace of Rome. The dicta- 
 tor alone was "their superior, but when that ma- 
 gistrate was elected, the office of tribune was 
 not, like that of all other inferior magistrates, 
 abolished while he continued at the head of the 
 state. The people paid them so much defer- 
 ence, that their person was held sacred, and 
 thence they were always called Sacrosancli. 
 To strike them was a capital crime, and to in- 
 terrupt them while they spoke in the assemblies, 
 called for the immediate interference of power. 
 The marks by which they were distinguished 
 from other magistrates were not very conspi- 
 cuous. They wore no particular dress, only a 
 beadle, called viator, marched before them. 
 They never sat in the senate, though, some time 
 643 
 
TR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TR 
 
 after, their office entitled them to the rank of 
 senators. Yet great as their power might ap- 
 pear, they received a heavy wound from their 
 number, and as their consultations and reso- 
 lutions were of no effect if they were not all 
 "unanimous, the senate often took advantage of 
 their avarice, and by gaining one of them by 
 bribes, they, as it were, suspended the authority 
 of the rest. The office of tribune of the people, 
 though at first deemed mean and servile, was 
 afterwards one of the first steps that led to more 
 honourable employments, and as no patrician 
 was permitted to canvass for the tribuneship, 
 we find many that descended among the plebe- 
 ians to exercise that important office. From the 
 power with which they were at last invested by 
 the activity, the intrigues, and continual appli- 
 cations of those who were in office, they became 
 almost absolute in the state ; and it has been 
 properly observed, that they caused far greater 
 troubles than those which they were at first 
 created to silence. Sylla, when raised to the 
 dictatorship, gave a fatal blow to the authority 
 of the tribunes, and by one of his decrees they 
 were no longer permitted to harangue and 
 inflame the people ; they could make no laws ; 
 no appeal lay to their tribunal, and such as 
 had been tribunes, were not permitted to solicit 
 for the other offices of the state. This disgrace, 
 however, was but momentary ; at the death of 
 the tyrant, the tribunes recovered their privi- 
 leges by means of Cotta and Pompey the Great. 
 The office of tribune remained in full force till 
 the age of Augustus, who, to make himself 
 more absolute, and his person sacred, conferred 
 the power and office upon himself, whence he 
 was called tribunitid potestate donatus. His suc- 
 cessors on the throne imitated his example, and 
 as the emperor was the real and official tribune, 
 such as were appointed to the office were mere- 
 ly nominal, without power or privilege. Under 
 Constantine the tribuneship was totally abolish- 
 ed. The tribunes were never permitted to sleep 
 out of the city, except at the Feria Latin^E, 
 when they went with other magistrates to offer 
 sacrifices upon a mountain near Alba. Their 
 houses were always open, and they received 
 every complaint, and were ever ready to redress 
 the wrongs of their constituents. Their au- 
 thority was not extended beyond the walls of 
 
 the city. There were also other officers who 
 
 bore the name of tribunes, such as the tribuni 
 militum or militares, who commanded a divi- 
 sion of the legions. They were empowered to 
 decide all quarrels that might arise in the army, 
 they took care of the camp, and gave the watch- 
 word. There were only three at first chosen by 
 Romulus, but the number was at last increased 
 to six in every legion. After the expulsion of 
 the Tarquins, they were chosen by the consuls, 
 but afterwards the right of electing them was 
 divided between the people and the consul. 
 They were generally of senatorian and eques- 
 trian families, and the former were called 
 laticlavii, and the latter angusticlavii, from 
 their peculiar dress. Those that were chosen 
 by the consuls were called Rutuli, because the 
 right of the consuls to elect them was confirmed 
 by Rutulus; and those elected by the people 
 were called Comitiati, because chosen in the 
 Comitia. They wore a golden ring, and were 
 in office no longer than six months. When the 
 644 
 
 consuls were elected, it was usual to choose 14 
 tribunes from the knights, who had served five 
 years in the array, and who were called juniores, 
 and ten from the people who had been in ten 
 
 campaigns, who were called seniores. There 
 
 were also some officers called tribuni militum 
 consulari potestate elected instead of consuls, A. 
 U. C. 310. They were only three originally, but 
 the number was afterwards increased to six, 
 or more, according to the will and pleasure 
 of the people and the emergencies of the 
 state. Part of them were plebeians, and the 
 rest of patrician families. When they had sub- 
 sisted for about 70 years, not without some in-, 
 terruption, the office was totally abolished, as the 
 plebeians were admitted to share the consulship, 
 and the consuls continued at the head of the 
 
 state till the end of the commonwealth. 
 
 The tribuni cohortium prcetorianarum were in- 
 trusted with the person of the emperor, which 
 
 they guarded and protected. The tribiini 
 
 cerarii were officers chosen from among the 
 people, who kept the money which was to be 
 applied to defray the expenses of the army. 
 The richest persons were always chosen, as 
 much money was requisite for the pay of the 
 soldiers. They were greatly distinguished in 
 the state, and they shared with the senators and 
 Roman knights the privileges of judging. They 
 were abolished by Julius Caesar, but Augustus 
 re-established them, and created 200 more, to 
 
 decide causes of smaller importance. The 
 
 tribuni celerum had the command of the guard 
 which Romulus chose for the safety of his per- 
 son. They were 100 in number, distinguished 
 for their probity, their opulence, and their no- 
 bility. The tribuni voluptatum were com- 
 missioned to take care of the amusements which 
 were prepared for the people, and that nothing 
 might be wanting in the exhibitions. This 
 office was also honourable. 
 
 Triclaria, a yearly festival celebrated by the 
 inhabitants of three cities in Ionia, to appease 
 the anger of Diana TrtcZana, whose temple had 
 been defiled by Menalippus and Cometho. It 
 was usual to sacrifice a boy and a girl, but this 
 barbarous custom was abolished by Eurypilus. 
 The three cities were Aroe, Messatis, and 
 Anthea. whose united labours had erected the 
 temple of the goddess. Paus. 7, 19. 
 
 Triumviri reipublica constituendce, were three 
 magistrates, appointed equally to govern the 
 Roman state with absolute power. These 
 officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- 
 pendence of the Roman people, and became 
 celebrated for their different pursuits, their am- 
 bition, and their various fortunes. The first 
 triumvirate, B. C. 60, was in the hands of Julius 
 Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who, at the ex- 
 piration of their office, kindled a civil war. 
 The second and last triumvirate, B. C. 43, was 
 under Augustus, M. Antony, and Lepidus, and 
 through them the Romans totally lost their 
 liberty. The triumvirate was in full force at 
 Rome for the space of about 12 years. — There 
 were also officers who were called triumvirii 
 capitales, created A. U. C. 464. They took 
 cognizance of murders and robberies, and every 
 thing in which slaves were concerned. Crimi- 
 nals under sentence of death were intrusted to 
 their care, and they had them executed accord- 
 ing to the commands of the praetors. The 
 
TR 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TR 
 
 triumviri noclurni watched over the safety of 
 Rome in the night time, and in case of fire were 
 ever ready lo give orders, and to take the most 
 
 efifeciual measures to extinguish it. The 
 
 triumviri agrarii had the care of colonies that 
 were sent to settle in different parts of the em- 
 pire. They made a fair division of the lands 
 among the citizens, and exercised over the new 
 colony all the power which was placed in the 
 hands of the consuls at Rome. The trium- 
 viri monetales were masters of the mint, and 
 had the care of the coin, hence their office was 
 generally intimated by the following letters of- 
 ten seen on ancient coins and medals : IIIVIR. 
 A. A. A. F. F. i. e. triumviri auro, argento, 
 cBre Jiando^ feriendo. Some suppose that they 
 were created only in the age of Cicero, as those 
 who were employed before them were called 
 Denariorum fiandorum curatorcs. The tri- 
 umviri senatus legendi were appointed to name 
 those that were most worthy to be made sena- 
 tors from among the plebeians. They were first 
 chosen in the age of Augustus, as before this 
 privilege belonged to the kings, and afterwards 
 devolved upon the consuls, and the censors, A. 
 
 U. C. 310. The triumviri mensarii were 
 
 chosen in the second Punic war, to take care 
 of the coin and prices of exchange. 
 
 Trogus Pompeius, was bom in the country 
 of the Vocontii in Gaul, now Dauphiny. He 
 derived his second name from the great Pom- 
 pey, who had bestowed on his grandfather the 
 rights of Roman citizenship, in the time of the 
 war with Sertorius, His father, however, de- 
 serted the fortunes of the patron of his family, 
 and became a secretary of Julius Caesar. His 
 work consisted of forty-four books, and was 
 entitled Historice Philippicce, et Totius Mundi 
 Origines, et Terra. Situs. It was called His- 
 toria Philippica, because the greater part re- 
 lated to the history of the Macedonian empire, 
 founded by Philip, father of Alexander. But, 
 though this was the principal subject, the author 
 contrived, in the form of episodes or introduc- 
 tions, to connect with it the history of most 
 other nations, from the first king of Assyria to 
 his own time. The book itself has perished, 
 but we possess an abridgment of it by Justin, 
 who lived in the time of the Antonines, and 
 whose epitome was probably the cause of the 
 original work having been neglected and lost. 
 The abbreviator has selected the facts which 
 he conceived would prove most interesting, and 
 had passed over those which he thought could 
 affi^rd neither entertainment nor instruction in 
 the way of example. He has unfortunately 
 omitted a great deal of topographical informa- 
 tion, which probably appeared to him little 
 amusing or useful, but which would have been 
 of much interest in modem times, on account 
 of our present imperfect knowledge of ancient 
 geography. Several dissertations have lately 
 been written conceming the sources whence 
 Trogus Pompeius derived the facts of this uni- 
 versal history. Its first six books, which are 
 introductory, and relate to the Assyrians, Per- 
 sians, and ancient Greeks, previous to the time 
 of Philip, were in a great measure compiled 
 from Herodotus, and Ctesiasthe Cnidian. The 
 four following books, which contained the life 
 of Philip, were translated from Theopompus of 
 Chios, who wrote a complete history of that 
 
 monarch. The account of the reign of Alexan- 
 der has been so much mutilated in the epitome 
 of Justin, that the critics find it almost impossi- 
 ble to discover what authorities have been prin- 
 cipally followed. For the wars of Alexander's 
 successors, Trogus chiefly consulted Jerome of 
 Cardia, and Phylarchus. The six books, from 
 the 30th to the 36th, which comprehended the 
 campaigns of the Romans in Greece, against 
 the Achaians and Macedonians, and in Syria 
 against Antiochus, have been extracted from 
 Polybius. From a comparison of the epitome 
 of Justin with some fragments of Posidonius of 
 Rhodes, preserved by Athenaeus, it appears that 
 he had been the chief guide of Trogus, for the 
 histories of Mithridates, the Ptolemies of Egypt, 
 the Parthians and Jews, which were related in 
 the six following books. The digression con- 
 cerning the Jews is full of mistakes and con- 
 fusion. Every one is aware of the erroneous 
 notions entertained with regard to this race in 
 the days of Augustus, and even in the age of 
 Tacitus ; and Justin, at whatever period he may 
 have lived, has been at no pains to correct the 
 errors of the work which he abridges. That 
 part of the last two books which relates the an- 
 cient history of Rome, has been copied from 
 Diodes the Peparethian, who was also the 
 tainted authority to which Fabius Pictor un- 
 fortunately trusted, and from which have flow- 
 ed all the fables conceming Mars, 'the Vestal 
 Virgin, the Wolf, and Romulus and Remus. 
 
 Trojani Ludi, games instituted by .^neas, 
 or his son Ascanius, to commemorate the death 
 of Anchises, and celebrated in the circus of 
 Rome. Boys of the best families, dressed in a 
 neat manner, and accoutred with suitable arms 
 and weapons, were permitted to enter the list. 
 Sylla exhibited them in his dictatorship, and 
 under Augustus they were observed with un- 
 usual pomp and solemnity. A mock fight on 
 horseback, or sometimes on foot, was exhibited. 
 The leader of the party was called princeps jji- 
 ventutis, and was generally the son of a senator, 
 or the heir apparent to the empire. Virg. JEn. 
 5, V. 602. — Sueton. in Cces. and in Aug. — Plut. 
 in Syll. 
 
 Troilus, a son of Priam and Hecuba, killed 
 by Achilles during the Trojan war. Apollod. 
 3, c. \'2.—Horat. 2, ed. 9, v. \Q.— Virg. Mn. 1, 
 V. 474. 
 
 Trophonius, a celebrated architect, son of 
 Erginus, king of Orchomenos in Boeotia. He 
 built Apollo's temple at Delphi, with the assist- 
 ance of his brother Agamedes, and when he 
 demanded of the god a reward for his trouble, 
 he was told by the priestess to wait eight days, 
 and to live during that time with all cheerful- 
 ness and pleasure. When the days were pass- 
 ed, Trophonius and his brother were found 
 dead in their bed. According to Pausanias, 
 however, he was swallowed up alive in the 
 earth; and when afterwards the country was 
 visited by a great drought, the Boeotians were 
 directed to apply to Trophonius for relief, and 
 to seek him at Lebadea, where he gave oracles 
 in a cave. They discovered this cave by 
 means of a swarm of bees, and Trophonius told 
 them how to ease their misfortunes. The cave 
 of Trophonius became one of the most celebra- 
 ted oracles of Greece. Many ceremonies were 
 required, and the suppliant was obliged to make 
 645 
 
1'U 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 TU 
 
 particular sacrifices, to anoint his body with 
 oil, and to bathe in the waters of certain rivers. 
 He was to be clothed in a linen robe, and with 
 a cake of honey in his hand, he was directed to 
 descend into the cave by a narrow entrance, 
 from whence he returned backwards, after he 
 had received an answer. He was always pale 
 and dejected at his return, and thence it became 
 proverbial to say of a melancholy man, that he 
 had consulted the oracle of Trophonius. There 
 were annually exhibited games in honour of 
 Trophonius at Lebadea. Paus. 9, c. 37, &c. — 
 Cic. Tusc. 1, c. 41.—PluL—Plin. 34, c. 7.— 
 JElian. V. H. 3, c. 45. 
 
 Tros, a son of Ericthonius, king of Troy, 
 who married Calirrhoe, the daughter of the 
 Schamander, by whom he had Ilus, Assaracus, 
 and Ganymedes. He made war against Tan- 
 talus, king of Phrygia, whom he accused of 
 having stolen away the youngest of his sons. 
 The capital of Phrygia was called Troja from 
 him, and the country itself Troas. Virg. 3, G. 
 V. ZQ.— Homer. 11. 20, v. ^\d.—Apollod. 3, c. 12. 
 
 TRYPmoDoRUs, a Greek poet and gramma- 
 rian of Egypt, in the 6th century, who wrote a 
 poem in 24 books on the destruction of Troy, 
 from which he excluded the a in the -first book, 
 the /? in the second, and the y in the third, &c. 
 
 TuBERO, Q.. ^Lius, a Roman consul, son-in- 
 law to Paulusthe conqueror of Perseus. He is 
 celebrated for his poverty, in which he seemed 
 to glory, as well as the rest of his family. Six- 
 teen of the Tuberos, with their wives and chil- 
 dren, lived in a small house, and maintained 
 themselves with the produce of a little field, 
 which they cultivated with their own hands. 
 The first piece of silver plate that entered the 
 house of Tubero, was a small cup, which his 
 father-in-law presented to him after he had con- 
 quered the king of Macedonia. 
 
 TuccA, Plautius, a friend of Horace and 
 Virgil. He was, with Varus and Plotius, order- 
 ed by Augustus, as some report, to revise the 
 ^neid of Virgil, which remained uncorrected 
 on account of the premature death of the poet, 
 Horat. 1, Sat. 5, v, 40. Sat. 19, v. 84. 
 
 TuLLiA, I. a daughter of Servius Tullius, king 
 of Rome. She married Tarquin the Proud, 
 after she had murdered her first husband Aruns, 
 and consented to see Tullius assassinated that 
 Tarquin might be raised to the throne. It is 
 said that she ordered her chariot to be driven 
 over the body of her aged father, which had 
 been thrown, all mangled and bloody, in one of 
 the streets of Rome. She was afterwards ban- 
 ished from Rome with her husband. Ovid, in 
 
 Ih. 363. II. Another daughter of Servius 
 
 Tullius, who married Tarquin the Proud. She 
 was murdered by her own husband, that he 
 might marry her ambitious sister of the same 
 name. 
 
 TuLLiA Lex, desenatu, byM. Tullius Cicero, 
 A. U. C. 689, enacted that those who had a li- 
 hero. legatio granted them by the senate should 
 hold it no more than one year. Such senators 
 as had a libera legatio travelled through the 
 provinces of the empire without any expense, 
 as if they were employed in the affairs of the 
 
 state. Another, de ainbitu, by the same, the 
 
 same year. It forbade any person, two years 
 
 before he canvassed for an office, to exhibit a 
 
 show of gladiators, unless that case had de- 
 
 64G 
 
 volved upon him by will. Senators guilty of 
 the crime of amMius, were punished with the 
 aqua et ignis interdictio for ten years, and the 
 penalty inflicted on the commons was more se- 
 vere than that of the Calpurnian law. 
 
 TuLLioLA, or TuLLiA, a daughter of Cicero 
 by Terentia. She married Caius Piso, and af- 
 terwards Furius Crassipes, and lastly P. Corn. 
 Dolabella. With this last husband she had 
 every reason to be dissatisfied. Dolabella was 
 turbulent, and consequently the cause of much 
 grief, to Tullia and her father. Tullia died in 
 childbed, about 44 years before Christ. Cicero 
 was so inconsolable on this occasion, that some 
 have accused him of an unnatural partiality for 
 his daughter. According to a ridiculous story 
 which some of the moderns report, in the age 
 of Pope Paul 3d, a monument was discovered 
 on the Appian road, with the superscription of 
 TulliolcB jilice mece. The body of a woman was 
 found in it, which was reduced to ashes as soon 
 as touched; there was also a lamp burning, 
 which was extinguished as soon as the air 
 gained admission there, and which was sup- 
 posed to have been" lighted above 1500 years. 
 Cic. — Pint, in Cic. 
 
 TuLLUs, I. (Hostilius.) the third king of Rome 
 after the death of Numa. He was of a war- 
 like and active disposition, and signalized him- 
 self by his expedition against the people of Alba, 
 whom he conquered, and whose city he de- 
 stroyed after the famous battle of the Horatii 
 and Curiatii. He afterwards carried his arms 
 against the Latins and the neighbouring states 
 with success, and enforced reverence for ma- 
 jesty among his subjects. He died with all his 
 faniily about 640 years before the Christian era, 
 after a reign of 32 years. The manner of his 
 death is not precisely known. According to ihe 
 most probable accounts he was murdered by 
 Ancus Martins. Flor. 1, c. 3. — Dionys. Hal. 3, 
 c. \.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. SU.—Liv. 1, c. 22.— 
 
 Plut. II. Lucius Volcatius, stood in the same 
 
 relation to Propertius, of a patron and friend, as 
 Messala to Tibullusand Ovid. He was nephew 
 of that Lucius Volcatius Tullus who was con- 
 sul in the year 687, and who is mentioned by- 
 Cicero, in his orations against Catiline, and his 
 letters to Atticus. At the commencement of 
 the civil wars, the elder Tullus espoused the 
 cause of Julius Ceesar. His nephew, who was 
 then a youth, followed the same party; and 
 having steadfastly adhered to the fortunes of the 
 adopted son, he became consul along with Au- 
 gustus in 720, the year preceding the consulship 
 of Messala and the battle of Actium. After 
 that victory, he was employed in various for- 
 eign expeditions, and spent much of his time 
 in Greece and Asia Minor. He possessed, 
 however, a delightful villa in Italy, surrounded 
 with woods, and situated on the banks of the 
 Tiberf betwixt Rome and Ostia, at which he 
 occasionally resided, in great splendour and 
 luxury. If we may believe a flattering poet, 
 he had never yielded, even in youth, to the 
 fascinations of love, but had devoted his whole 
 existence to the service of his country. Tullus 
 lived to an advanced age, having survived Mae- 
 cenas, whom he had long rivalled as a patron 
 of literature, and, after his death, almost sup- 
 plied his place. He is now chiefly known as 
 the friend of Propertius, who has addressed to 
 
VA 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 VA 
 
 him many of his elegies, expressing devoted 
 attachment, and confiding to him the story of 
 his unfortunate loves. 
 
 TuRNus, a king of the Rutuli, son of Daunus 
 and Venilia. He made war against iEneas, and 
 attempted to drive him away from Italy, that 
 he might not marry the daughter of Latinus, 
 who had been previously engaged to him. His 
 eflforts were attended with no success, though 
 supported with great courage and a numerous 
 army. He was conquered, and at last killed in 
 a single combat by uEneas. He is represented 
 as a man of uncommon strength. Virg. Mn. 
 7, V. 56, &LC.— Tibull. 2. el. 5, v. 49.— Ovid. 
 Fast.. A, V. 879. Met. 14, v. 451. 
 
 TuRULLius, one of Caesar's murderers. 
 
 TuTiA, a vestal virgin, accused of inconti- 
 nence. She proved herself to be innocent by 
 carrying water from the Tiber to the temple of 
 Vesta in a sieve, after a solemn invocation to 
 the goddess, Lw. 20. 
 
 T-y CUIUS, a celebrated artist of Hyle in Boeo- 
 lia, who made Hector's shield, which was cov- 
 ered with the hides of seven oxen. Ovid. Fast. 
 3, V. 823.— >S'^ra^'. 9.— Homer. 11. 7, v. 220. 
 
 Tydeus. Vid. Part III. 
 
 Tyrannion, I. a grammarian of Pontus, in- 
 timate with Cicero. His original name was 
 Theopbrastus, and he received that of Tyran- 
 nion from his austerity to his pupils. He was 
 taken by Lucullus, and restored to his liberty 
 by Mursena. He opened a school in the house 
 of his friend Cicero, and enjoyed his friendship. 
 He was extremely fond of books, and collected 
 a iibrary.of about 30,000 volumes. To his care 
 and industry the world is indebted for the pre- 
 servation of Aristotle's works. II. There 
 
 was also one of his disciples called Diodes, who 
 bore his name. He was a native of Phoenicia, 
 and was made prisoner in the war of Augustus 
 and Antony. He was bought by Dymes, one 
 of the emperor's favourites, and afterwards by 
 Terentia, who gave him his liberty. He wrote 
 68 different volumes, in one of which he proved 
 that the Latin tongue was derived from the 
 Greek, and another in which Homer's poems 
 were corrected, &c. 
 
 Tyrt^us, a Greek elegiac poet, born in At- 
 tica, son of Archimbrotus. In the second Mes- 
 senian war the Lacedaemonians were directed 
 by the oracle to apply to the Athenians for a 
 general, if they wished to finish their expedition 
 with success, and they were contemptuously 
 presented with Tyrtseus. The poet animated 
 the Lacedaemonians with martial songs, just as 
 they wished to raise the siege of Ithome, and 
 inspired them with so much courage that they 
 defeated the Messenians. For his services he 
 was made a citizen of Lacedaemon, and treated 
 with great attention. Of the compositions of 
 Tyrtaeus nothing is extant but the fragments of 
 four or five elegies. He flourished about 684 
 B. C. Justin. 2, c. 5. — Strab. 8. — Aristot. Polit. 
 5, c. l.—Horat. de Art. p. i(y2.—jElian. V. H. 
 12, c. 50. — PaiJ^. 4, c. 6, &c. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vacatione {lex de), was enacted concerning 
 the exemption from military service, and con- 
 tained this very remarkable clause, nisi bellum 
 Gallicum ezoriat^Lr, in which case the priests 
 
 themselves were not exempted from service. 
 This can intimate how apprehensive the Ro- 
 mans were of the Gauls, by whom their city had 
 once been taken. 
 
 Valens, I, (Flavins,) a son of Gratian, born 
 in Pannonia. His brother Valentinian took him 
 as his colleague on the throne, and appointed 
 him over the eastern parts of the Roman em- 
 pire. The bold measures, and the threats of the 
 rebel Procopius, frightened the new emperor ; 
 and, if his friends had not intervened, he would 
 have willingly resigned all his pretensions to the 
 empire, which his brother had intrusted to his 
 care. By permitting some of the Goths to settle 
 in the provinces of Thrace, and to have free 
 access to every part of the country, Valens en- 
 couraged them to make depredations on his 
 subjects, and to disturb their tranquillity. His 
 eyes were opened too late ; he attempted to re- 
 pel them, but he failed in the attempt. A bloody 
 battle was fought, in which the barbarians ob- 
 tained some advantage, and Valens was hurried 
 away by the obscurity of the night, and the' 
 affection of his soldiers for his person, into a 
 lonely house which the Goths set on fire. Va- 
 lens, unable to make his escape, was burnt alive, 
 in the 50th year of his age, after a reign of 15 
 years, A. D. 378. He put to death all such of 
 his subjects whose name began by Theod, be- 
 cause he had been informed, by hi^s favourite 
 astrologers, that his crown would devolve upon 
 the head of an officer whose name began with 
 these letters. Valens did not possess any of the 
 qualities which distinguish a great and power- 
 ful monarch. He was illiterate, and of a dis- 
 position naturally indolent and' inactive. Yet, 
 though fond of ease, he was acquainted with 
 the character of his officers, and preferred none 
 but such as possessed merit. He was a great 
 friend of discipline, a pattern of chastity and 
 temperance, and he showed himself always 
 ready to listen to the just complaints of his sub- 
 jects, though he gave an attentive ear to flattery 
 and malevolent informations. Ammian. &c. 
 II. Valerius, a pro-consul of Achaia, who 
 
 proclaimed himself emperor of Rome, when 
 Marcian, who had been invested with the pur- 
 ple in the East, attempted to assassinate him. 
 He reigned only six months, and was murdered 
 
 by his soldiers, A. D. 261. III. Fabius, a 
 
 friend of Vitellius, whom he saluted emperor 
 in opposition to Otho. He was greatly honour- 
 ed by Vitellius, &c. 
 
 Valentinianus I. a son of Gratian, raised 
 to the imperial throne by his merit and valour. 
 He kept the western part of the empire for him- 
 self, and appointed over the East his brother Va- 
 lens. He gave the most convincing proof of 
 his military valour in the victories which he 
 obtained over the barbarians in the provinces 
 of Gaul, the deserts of Africa, or on the banks 
 of the Rhine and the Danube. The insolence 
 of the Cluadi he punished with great severity: 
 While he spoke to them in warmth, he broke a 
 blood-vessel and fell lifeless on the ground. 
 He was conveyed into his palace by his attend- 
 ants, and soon" after died, suffering the greatest 
 agonies, violent fits, and contortions of his limbs, 
 on the 17th of November, A. D. 375. He was 
 then in the 55th year of his age, and had reign- 
 ed 12 years. He was naturally of an irascible 
 disposition, and he gratified his pride in ex- 
 647 
 
V^A 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 VA 
 
 pressing a contempt for those who were his 
 equals in military abilities, or who shone for 
 gracefulness or elegance of address. Amviian. 
 
 About six days after the death of Valen- 
 
 tinian, his second son, Valentinian the second, 
 was proclaimed emperor, though only five years 
 old. He succeeded his brother Gratian, A. D. 
 383, but his youth seemed to favour dissension, 
 and the attempts and the usurpations of rebels. 
 He was robbed of his throne by Maximus, four 
 years after the death of Gratian ; and in this 
 helpless situation he had recourse to Theodo- 
 sius, who was then emperor of the East. He 
 was successful in his applications ; Maximus 
 was conquered by Theodosius, and Valentinian 
 entered Rome in triumph, accompanied by his 
 benefactor. He was some time after strangled 
 by one of his officers, a native of Gaul, called 
 Arbogastes, in whom he had placed too much 
 confidence. Valentinian reigned nine years. 
 This happened the 15th of May, A. D. 292, at 
 Vienne, one of the modern towns of France. 
 He has been commended for his many virtues, 
 and the applause which the populace bestowed 
 upon him was bestowed upon real merit. He 
 was fond of imitating the virtues and exemplary 
 life of his friend and patron Theodosius, and if 
 he had lived longer, the Romans might have 
 
 enjoyed peace and security. Valentinian the 
 
 third, was son of Constantius and Placidia, the 
 daughter of Theodosius the Great, and there- 
 fore, as related to the imperial family, he was 
 saluted emperor in his youth, and publicly ac- 
 knowledged as such in Rome, the 3d of Octo- 
 ber, A. D. 423, about the 6th year of his age. 
 He was at first governed by his mother and 
 the intrigues of his generals and courtiers ; and 
 when he came to years of discretion, he dis- 
 graced himself by violence, oppression, and in- 
 continence. He was murdered in the midst of 
 Rome, A. D. 454, in the 36th year of his age 
 and 31st of his reign, by Petronius Maximus, 
 to whose life he had offered violence. The 
 vices of Valentinian the third were conspic- 
 uous; every passion he wished to gratify at 
 the expense of his honour, his health, and 
 character; and as he lived without one single 
 act of benevolence or kindness, he died lament- 
 ed by none. He was the last of the family of 
 Theodosius. 
 
 Valeria, I. a sister of Publicola, who advised 
 the Roman matrons to go and deprecate the re- 
 sentment of Coriolanus. Plut. in Cor. II. 
 
 A daughter of Publicola, given as a hostage to 
 Porsenna by the Romans. She fled from the 
 enemy's country with Cloelia, and swam across 
 
 the Tiber. Plut. de Virt. Mul. III. A 
 
 daughter of Messala, sister of Hortensius, who 
 
 married Sylla. IV. The wife of the emperor 
 
 Valentinian. V. The wife of the emperor 
 
 Galerius, &c. 
 
 Valeria Lex, de provocatione, by P. Vale- 
 rius Poplicola, the sole consul, A. U. C. 243. 
 It permitted the appeal from a magistrate to the 
 people, and forbade the magistrates to punish a 
 citizen for making the appeal. It further made 
 it a capital crime for a citizen to aspire to the 
 sovereigrnty of Rome, or to exercise any office 
 without the choice and approbation of the peo- 
 ple. Val. Max. 4, c. 1. — Liv. 2, c. 8. — Dion. 
 Hal. 4. Another, de debitoribus, by Vale- 
 rius Flaccus. It required that all creditors 
 648 
 
 should discharge their debtors on receiving a 
 
 fourth part of the whole sum. Another, by 
 
 M, Valerius Corvinus, A. U. C. 453, which 
 confirmed the first Valerian law, enacted by 
 
 Poplicola. Another called also Horatia, by 
 
 L. Valerius and M. Horalius the consuls, A. 
 U. C. 304. It revived the first Valerian law, 
 which under the triumvirate had lost its force. 
 
 Another, de magistratibus, by P. Valerius 
 
 Poplicola, sole consul, A. U. C. 243. It created 
 two quaestors to take care of the public treasure, 
 which was for the future to be kept in the tem- 
 ple of Saturn. Plut. in Pop. — Liv. 2. 
 
 Valebianus, Publius Licinius, a Roman, 
 proclaimed emperor by the armies in Rhsetia, 
 A. D. 254. The virtues which shone in him 
 when a private man, were lost when he ascend- 
 ed the throne. He was cowardly in his opera- 
 tions, and, though acquainted with war and the 
 patron of science, he seldom acted with pru- 
 dence, or favoured men of true genius and me- 
 rit. He took his son Gallienus as his colleague 
 in the empire, and showed the malevolence of 
 his heart by persecuting the Christians whom 
 he had for a while" tolerated. He also made 
 war against the Goths and Scythians ; -but in an 
 expedition which he undertook against Sapor, 
 king of Persia, his arms were attended with ill 
 success. He was conquered in Mesopotamia, 
 and when he wished to have a private confer- 
 ence with Sapor, the conqueror seized his per- 
 son, and carried him in triumph to his capital, 
 where he exposed him, and in all the cities of 
 his empire, to the ridicule and insolence of his 
 subjects. When the Persian monarch mounted 
 on horseback, Valerian served as a footstool, 
 and the many other insults which he suffered 
 excited indignation even among the courtiers of 
 Sapor. The monarch at last ordered him to be 
 flayed alive, and salt to be thrown over his 
 mangled body, so that he died in the greatest 
 torments. His skin was tanned, and painted 
 in red ; and that the ignominy of the Roman 
 people might be lasting, it was nailed in one of 
 the temples of Persia. Valerian died in the 
 71st year of his age, A. D. 260, after a reign of 
 seven years. 
 
 Valerius Publius, I. a celebrated Roman, 
 surnamed Poplicola for his popularity. He was 
 very active in assisting Brutus to expel the 
 Tarquins, and he was the first that took an 
 oath to support the liberty and independence of 
 his country. Though he had been refused the 
 consulship, and had retired with great dissatis- 
 faction from the direction of affairs, yet he re- 
 gard ed the public opinion, and when the jea- 
 lousy of the Romans inveighed against the 
 towering appearance of his house, he acknow- 
 ledged the reproof, and in making it lower, the 
 showed his wish to be on a level with his fellow- 
 citizens, and not to erect what might be con- 
 sidered as a citadel for the oppression of his 
 country. He was afterwards honoured with 
 the consulship, on the expulsion of Collatinus, 
 and he triumphed over the Etrurians after he 
 had gained the victory in the battle in which 
 Brutus and the sons of Tarquin had fallen. 
 Valerius died after he had been four times con- 
 sul, and enjoyed the popularity, and received the 
 thanks and gratitude, which people redeemed 
 from slavery and oppression usually pay to their 
 I patrons and deliverers. He was so poor that 
 
VA 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 VA 
 
 his body was buried at the public expense. The 
 Roman matrons mourned his death a whole 
 year. Pint, in vita. — Flor. 1, c. 9. — Liv. 3, c. 
 8, &c. II. Corvinus, a tribune of the sol- 
 diers under Camillus. When the Roman army 
 were challenged by one of the Senones remark- 
 able for his strength and stature, Valerius un- 
 dertook to engage him, and obtained an easy 
 victory, by means of a crow that assisted him, 
 and attacked the face of the Gaul ; whence 
 his surname of Corvinus. Valerius triumphed 
 over the Etrurians, and the neighbouring states 
 that made war against Rome, and was six 
 times honoured with the consulship. He died 
 in the 100th year of his age, admired and re- 
 gretted for many private and public virtues. 
 Val. Max. 8, c. \^.—Liv. 7, c.27, &c.—Plnt. in 
 Mar. — Cic. in Cat. III. Antias, an excel- 
 lent Roman historian often quoted, and particu- 
 larly by Livy. IV. Flaccus, a consul with 
 
 Cato, whose friendship he honourably shared. 
 He made war against the Insubres and Boii, 
 
 and killed 10,000 of the enemy. V. Marcus 
 
 Corvinus Messala, a Roman made consul with 
 Augustus. He distinguished himself by his 
 learning as well as military virtues. He lost 
 his memory about two years before his death, 
 and, according to some, he was even ignorant 
 of his "own name. Sueton. in Aug. — Cic. in 
 
 Brut. VI. Soranas, a Latin poet in the age 
 
 of Julius Caesar, put to death for betraying a 
 secret. He acknowledged no god but the soul 
 
 of the universe. VII. Maximus, a brother of 
 
 Poplicola. VIII. A Latin historian, who 
 
 carried arms under the sons of Pompey. He 
 dedicated his time to study, and wrote an ac- 
 count of all the most celebrated sayings and 
 actions of the Romans, and other illustrious 
 persons, which is still extant, and divided into 
 nine books. It is dedicated to Tiberius. Some 
 have supposed that he lived after the age of 
 Tiberius, from the want of purity and elegance 
 which so conspicuously appear in his writings, 
 unworthy of the correctness of the golden age 
 of the Roman literature. The best editions of 
 Valerius are those of Torrenius, 4to. L. Bat. 
 1726, and of Vorstius, 8vo. Berolin, 1672.- — 
 IX. Marcus, a brother of Poplicola, who de- 
 feated the army of the Sabines m two battles. 
 He was honoured with a triumph, and the Ro- 
 mans, to show their sense of his great merit, 
 built him a house on mount Palatine at the 
 
 public expense. X. Potitus, a general who 
 
 stirred up the people and army against the de- 
 cemvirs, and Appius Claudius in particular. 
 He was chosen consul, and conquered the Volsci 
 and jEqui. XI. Flaccus, a Roman, inti- 
 mate with Cato the censor. He was consul 
 with him, and cut off an army of 10,000 Gauls 
 in one battle. He was also chosen censor, and 
 
 prince of the senate, &c. XII. A Latin 
 
 poet who floiirished under Vespasian. He 
 wrote a poem in eight books on the Argonautic 
 expedition, but it remained unfinished on ac- 
 count of his premature death. The Argonauts 
 were there left on the sea in their return home. 
 Some critics have been lavish in their praises 
 upon Flaccus, and have called him the second 
 poet of Rome after Virgil. His poetry, how- 
 ever, is deemed by some frigid and languishing, 
 and his style uncouth and inelegant. The best 
 editions of Flaccus are those of Burman, L- 
 Part II.— 4 N 
 
 Bat. 1724, and 12mo. Utr. 1702. XIII. 
 
 Asiaticus, a celebrated Roman, accused of 
 having murdered one of the relations of the 
 emperor Claudius. He was condemned by the 
 intrigues of Messalina, though innocent, and he 
 opened his veins and bled to death. Tacit. Ann. 
 
 Valgids, Rufus, a Roman poet in the Au- 
 gustan age, celebrated for his writings. He 
 was very intimate with Horace. Tibull. 3, 1. 
 4, V. 180.— Horat. 1, Sat. 10, v. 82. 
 
 Vannius, a king of the Suevi, banished un- 
 der Claudius, &c. Tacit. Ann. 22, c. 29. 
 
 Varia Lex, de Civitate, by Cl. Varius Hy- 
 brida. It punished all such as were suspected 
 of having assisted or supported the people of 
 Italy in their petition to become free citizens of 
 Rome. Cic. pro Mil. 36, in Brut. 56, 88, &c. 
 
 Varius, or Varus, Lucius, was one of the 
 most eminent poets of the Augustan age. He 
 had been present in his youth at the battle of 
 Philippi, and had afterwards joined Sextus 
 Pompey in Sicily. Nevertheless, he was pa- 
 tronised by Maecenas, to whose notice he first 
 introduced Horace ; and he accompanied that 
 minister on his celebrated journey to Brundi- 
 sium. Previous, indeed, to the appearance of 
 the jEneid, he was considered as ihe first epic 
 poet of Rome, or at least equal to Valgius. At 
 the time when Virgil was chiefly known as a 
 pastoral poet, Horace says of him : — 
 
 -Forte epos acer, 
 
 Ut nemo, Varius ducit — 
 
 and he also considered him as the writer who 
 was most worthy to celebrate in heroic verse the 
 exploits of Agrippa, At a subsequent period, 
 when Virgil had become more distinguished, he 
 mentions Varius along with him as representa- 
 tive of the best class of poets in the Augustan 
 age. His eminence as an epic poet, and bis 
 friendship with Virgil procured him the dis- 
 tinction of being appointed by Augustus along 
 with Tucca to revise the JEneid, and bring it 
 before the public. Varius was the author of a 
 panegyric on Augustus; but it was probably 
 some longer work which procured him such 
 celebrity as an epic poet, though it is not known 
 what was the name or subject of this produc- 
 tion. It is somewhat remarkable, however, that 
 Gluintilian, in his review of the Latin poets, in 
 the tenth book of his Institutes, does not men- 
 tion Varius as an epic writer, and only alludes 
 to him as the author of the tragedy called Thy- 
 estes, which he says was equal to any composi- 
 tion of the Greek poets. Horat. 4, sat. 5, v, 40. 
 Varro, I. (M. Terentius,) a Roman consul, 
 defeated at Cannae by Annibal. Vid. Teren- 
 tius. II. Was born in the 637ih year of 
 
 Rome, and was descended of an ancient sena- 
 torial family. It is probable that his youth, and 
 even the greater part of his manhood, were 
 spent in literary pursuits, and in the acquisition 
 of that stupendous knowledge, which has pro- 
 cured to him the appellation of the most learn- 
 ed of the Romans, since his name does not ap- 
 pear in the civil or military history of his coun- 
 try, till the year 680, when he was consul along 
 with Cassius Varus, In 686, he served under 
 Pompey, in his war against the pirates, in 
 which he commanded the Greek ships. To 
 the fortunes of that chief he continued firmlv 
 attached, and was appointed one of his lieuten- 
 649 
 
VA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 VA 
 
 ants m Spain, along with Afranius and Petreius, 
 at the commencement of the war with Caesar. 
 Hispania Ulterior was specially confided to his 
 protection, and two legions were placed under 
 his command. Afier the surrender of his col- 
 leagues in Hither Spain, Caesar proceeded in 
 person against him. Varro appears to have 
 been little qualified to cope with such an adver- 
 sary. One of the legions deserted in his own 
 sight, and his retreat to Cadiz, where he had 
 meant to retire, having been cut off, he surren- 
 dered at discretion, with the other, in the vicin- 
 ity of Cordova. From that period he despaired 
 of the salvation of the republic, or found, at 
 least, that he was not capable of saving it ; for 
 although, after receiving his freedom from 
 Csesar, he proceeded to Dyrrachium, to give 
 Pompey a detail of the disasters which had oc- 
 curred, he left it almost immediately for Rome. 
 On his return to Italy he withdrew from all 
 political concerns, and indulged himself during 
 the remainder of his life in the enjoyment of 
 literary leisure. The only service he performed 
 for Csesar, was that of arranging the books 
 which the dictator had himself procured, or 
 which had been acquired by those who preced- 
 ed him in the management of public affairs. 
 He lived during the reign of Csesar in habits 
 of the closest intimacy with Cicero ; and his 
 feelings, as well as conduct, at this period, re- 
 sembled those of his illustrious friend, who, in 
 all his letters to Varro, bewails, with great 
 freedom, the utter ruin of the state, and proposes 
 that they should live together, engaged only in 
 those studies which were formerly their amuse- 
 ment, but were then their chief support. The 
 site of Varro's villa was visited by Sir R. C, 
 Hoare, who says, that it stood close to Casinum, 
 now St. Germano : some trifling remains still 
 indicate its site ; but its memory, he adds, will 
 shortly survive only in the page of the historia,n. 
 After the assassination of Caesar, this residence, 
 along with almost all the wealth of Varro,which 
 was immense, was forcibly seized by Marc 
 Antony. Its lawless occupation by that profli- 
 gate and blood-thirsty triumvir, on his re- 
 turn from his dissolute expedition to Capua, 
 is introduced by Cicero into one of his philip- 
 ics, and forms a topic of the most eloquent 
 and bitter invective. Antony was not a person 
 to be satisfied with robbing Varro of his prop- 
 erty. At the formation of the memorable tri- 
 umvirate, the name of Varro appeared in the 
 list of the proscribed, among those other friends 
 of Pompev whom the clemency of Csesar had 
 spared. This illustrious and blameless indi- 
 vidual had now passed the age of seventy ; 
 and nothing can afford a more strikins: proof 
 of the sanguinary spirit which guided the 
 councils of the triumvirs, than their devoting 
 to the dagger of the hired assassin a man 
 equally venerable by his years and charac- 
 ter, and who ought to have been protected, 
 if not by his learned labours, at least by his re- 
 tirement, from such inhuman persecution. But, 
 though doomed to death as a friend of law and 
 liberty, his friends contended with each other 
 for the dangerous honour of saving him. Cale- 
 nus having obtained the preference, carried him 
 to his country-house, were Antony frequently 
 came, without suspecting that it contained a 
 proscribed inmate. Here Varro remained con- 
 650 
 
 cealed till a special edict was issued by the con- 
 sul, M. Plancus, under the triumviral seal, ex- 
 cepting him and Messala Corvinus from the 
 general slaughter. But though Varro thus 
 passed in security the hour of danger, he was 
 unable to save his library, which was placed in 
 the garden of one of his villas, and fell into the 
 hands of an illiterate soldiery. After the battle 
 of Actium, Varro resided in tranquillity at 
 Rome till his decease, which happened in 7*27, 
 when he was ninety years of age. The tragical 
 deaths, however, of Pompey and Cicero, with 
 the loss of others of his friends, — the ruin of his 
 country — the expulsion from his villas — and 
 the loss of those literary treasures which he had 
 stored up as the solace of his old age, and the 
 want of which would be doubly felt by one who 
 wished to devote all his time to study, — cast a 
 deep shade over the concluding days of this il- 
 lustrious scholar. His wealth was restored by 
 Augustus, but his books could not be supplied. 
 It is not improbable, that the dispersion of this 
 library, which impeded the prosecution of his 
 studies, and prevented the composition of such 
 works as required reference and consultation, 
 ma)'' have induced Varro to employ the remain- 
 ing hours of his life in delivering those precepts 
 of agriculture, which had been the result of 
 long experience, and which needed only remin- 
 iscence to inculcate. It was some time after 
 the loss of his books, and when he had nearly 
 reached the age of eighty, that Varro composed 
 the work on husbandry, as he himself testifies 
 in the introduction. The first of the three books, 
 which this agricultural treatise comprehends, 
 is addressed to Fundanius, and is devoted to 
 rules for the cultivation of land, whether for 
 the production of grain, pulse, olives, or vines, 
 and the establishment necessary for a well- 
 managed and lucrative farm; excluding from 
 consideration what is strictly the business of 
 the grazier and shepherd, rather than of the 
 farmer. The subject of agriculture, strictly 
 so called, having been discussed in the first 
 book, Varro proceeds in the second, addressed 
 to Niger Turranus, to treat of the care of flocks 
 and cattle, (De Rs Pecuaria). The knowledge 
 which he here communicates is the result of 
 his own observations, blended with the inform- 
 ation he had received from the great pasturers 
 of Epirus, at the time when he commanded the 
 Grecian ships on its coast, in Pompey 's naval 
 war with the pirates. As in the former book 
 the instruction is delivered in the shape of dia- 
 logfue. This book concludes with what forms 
 the most profitable part of pasturage — the diary 
 and sheep-shearing. The third book, which is 
 by far the most interesting and best written in 
 the work, treats de villicis paslionibus, which 
 means the provisions, or moderate luxuries, 
 which a plain farmer may procure, independent 
 of tillage or pasturage, — as the poultry of his 
 barn-yard — the trouts in the stream, by which 
 his farm is bounded — and the game, which he 
 may enclose in parks, or chance to take on days 
 of recreation. If others of the agricultural wri- 
 ters have been more minute with regard to the 
 construction of the villa itself, it is to Varro we 
 are chiefly indebted for what lights we have 
 received concerning: its appertenances, as war- 
 rens, aviaries, and fish-ponds. The work De 
 Lingua Latina, though it has descended to us 
 
VA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 VA 
 
 incomplete, is by much the most entire of Var- 
 ro's writings, except the Treatise on Agricul- 
 ture. It is on account of this philological pro- 
 duction, that Aulus Gellius ranks him among 
 the grammarians, who form a numerous and 
 important class in the history of Latin litera- 
 ture. They were called grammatici by the 
 Romans — a word which would be better ren- 
 dered philologers than grammarians. We find 
 in the work De Lingua Latina, which was 
 written during the winter preceding Caesar's 
 death, the same methodical arrangement ihat 
 marks the treatise De Re Rustica. It is not cer- 
 tain whether the Libri De Similitudine Verbo- 
 rum, and those De Utilitate Sermonis, cited by 
 Priscian and Charisius as philological works 
 of Varro, were parts of his great production, 
 De Lingua Latina^ or separate compositions. 
 There was a distinct treatise, however, De 
 Sermone Latino, addressed to Marcellus, of 
 which a very few fragments are preserved by 
 Aalus Gellius. The critical works of this 
 universal scholar, were entitled, De Proprietate 
 Scriptorum — De Poeiis — De Poematis — Thea- 
 treales, sive de Actionibus Scenicis — De Scenicis 
 Originibus — De Plautinis Comadiis — De Plau- 
 tinis QucEstionibus — De CompositioneSatirarum 
 — Rhetoricorum Libri. These works are prais- 
 ed or mentioned by Gellius, Nonius Marcellus, 
 and Diomedes ; but almost nothing is known 
 of their contents. Somewhat more may be 
 gathered concerning. Varro's mythological or 
 theological works, as they were much studied, 
 and very frequently cited by the early fathers, 
 particularly St. Augustine and Lactantius. Of 
 these the chief is the treatise De Cultu Deorum, 
 noticed by St. Augustine in his seventh book, 
 De Civitate Dei, where he says that Varro con- 
 siders God to be not only the soul of the world, 
 but the world itself. In this work he also treat- 
 ed of the origin of hydromancy, and other 
 superstitious divinations. Sixteen books of the 
 treatise De Rerum Humanarum et Divinarum 
 Antiquitatibus, addressed to Julius Csesar, as 
 Pontifex Maximus, related to theological, or 
 at least what we might call ecclesiastical sub- 
 jects. This work, which is said to have 
 chiefly contributed to the splendid reputation 
 of Varro, was extant as late as the beginning 
 of the fourteenth century. Plutarch, in his 
 life of Romulus, speaks of Varro as a man 
 of all the Romans most versed in history. The 
 historical and political works are the Annates 
 Libri — Belli Punici Secundi Liber — De Ini- 
 tiis Urhis Roma/na. — De Gente Populi Roma- 
 ni — Libri de Familiis Trojanis, which last 
 treated of the families that followed -^enas into 
 Italy. With this class we may rank the Heb- 
 domadwm, sive de Jmuginibus Libri, containing 
 the panegyrics of 700 illustrious men. There 
 was a picture of each, with a legend or verse 
 under it, like those in the children's histories 
 of the kinsfs of England. That annexed to the 
 portrait of Demetrius Phalereus, who had up- 
 wards of 300 brazen statues erected to him by 
 the Athenians, is still preserved: — 
 
 " Hie Demetrius csneis tot aptus est 
 Quot luces habet annus absolutus." 
 
 There were seven pictures and panegyrics in 
 each book, whence the whole work has been 
 called Hebdomades. Varro has adopted the 
 
 superstitious notions of the ancients concerning 
 particular numbers, and the number seven 
 seems speically to have commanded his vene- 
 ration. Th^re were in the world seven won- 
 ders — there were seven wise men among the 
 Greeks — there were seven chariots in the Cir- 
 censian games — and seven chiefs were chosen 
 to make war on Thebes: all which he sums up 
 with remarking, that he himself had then en- 
 ,tered his twelfth period of seven years, on 
 which day he had written seventy times seven 
 books, many of which, in consequence of his 
 proscription, had been lost in the plunder of 
 his library. The treatise entitled Sisenna, sive 
 de Historia, was a tract on the composition of 
 history, inscribed to Sisenna, the Roman histo- 
 rian, who wrote an account of the civil wars of 
 Marius and Sylla. It contained, it is said, 
 many excellent precepts with regard to the ap- 
 propriate style of history, and the accurate 
 investigation of facts. But the greatest service 
 rendered by Varro to history was his attempt to 
 fix the chronology of the world. Censorinus 
 informs us that he was the first who regulated 
 chronology by eclipses. The philosophical 
 writings of Varro are not numerous ; but his 
 chief work of that description, entitled De Phi- 
 losophia Liber, appears to have been very com- 
 prehensive. St. Augustine informs us that 
 Varro examined in it all the various sects of 
 philosophers, of which he enumerated upwards 
 of 280. The sect of the old academy was that 
 which he himself followed, and its tenets he 
 maintained in opposition to all others. It is 
 not certain under what class Varro's Novem- 
 libri Diciplinarum should be ranked, as it 
 probably comprehended instructive lessons in 
 the whole range of arts and sciences. One of 
 the chapters, according to Vitruvius, was on 
 the subject of architecture. Varro derived 
 much notoriet}^ from his satirical compositions. 
 His Tricarenus or Tricipitina, was a satiric 
 history of the triumvirate of Csesar, Pompey, 
 and Crassus. Much pleasantry and sarcasm 
 were also interspersed in his books entitled 
 Logistorici; but his most celebrated production 
 in that line was the satire which he himself en- 
 titled Menippean. It was so called from the 
 c3micMenippus of Gadara, a city in Syria, who, 
 like his countr}Tman Meleager, was in the habit 
 of expressing himself jocularly on the most 
 grave and important subjects. He was the 
 author of a Symposium, in the manner of Xe- 
 nophon. His writings were interspersed with 
 verses, parodied from Homer and the tragic 
 poets, or ludicrously applied for the purpose of 
 burlesque. It is not knovpii, however, that he 
 wrote any professed satire. Besides the works 
 of Varro abovementioned, there is a miscella- 
 neous collection of sentences or maxims which 
 have been attributed to him, though it is not 
 known in what part of his numerous writings 
 they were originally introduced. Barthius 
 found seventeen of these sentences in a MS. of 
 the middle age, and printed them in hi.? Adver- 
 saria. Schneider afterwards discovered, in the 
 Speculum Historiale of Vincent de Beauvais, 
 a monk of the thirteenth century, a much more 
 ample collection of them, which he has insert- 
 ed in his edition of the Scriptores rei Rusticce. 
 They consist of moral maxims in the style of 
 those preserved from the Mimes of Publius Sy- 
 G51 
 
VA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 VE 
 
 ras, and had doubtless been culled as flowers 
 from the works of Varro, at a time when the 
 immense garden of taste and learning, which 
 he planted, had not yet been laid waste by the 
 hand of time, or the spoiler. The best edition 
 of Varro is that of Dordrac, 8vo. 1619. Cic. in 
 
 Acad. &c. — Quintil. III. Attacinus, a native 
 
 of Gaul in the age of J. Caesar. He translated 
 into Latin verse the Argonautica of Apollonius 
 Rhodius, with great correctness and elegance. 
 He also wrote a poem entitled de Bello Sequa- 
 nico, besides epigrams and elegies. Some frag- 
 ments of his poetry are still extant. He failed 
 in his attempt to write satire. Horat. 1, sat. 10, 
 V. 46. — Ovid. Ann. 1, v. 15. — Quintil. 10, c. 1. 
 
 Varus, CtuiNTiLicrs, I. a Roman proconsul, 
 descended from an illustrious family. He was 
 appointed governor of Syria, and afterwards 
 made commander of the armies in Germany. 
 He was surprised by the enemy, under Armi- 
 nius, a crafty and dissimulating chief, and his 
 army was cut to pieces. When he saw that 
 every thing was lost, he killed himself, A. D. 10, 
 and his example was followed by some of his 
 officers. His head was afterwards sent to Au- 
 gustus at Rome by one of the barbarian chiefs, 
 as also his body; and so great was the influ- 
 ence of his defeat upon the emperor, that he 
 continued for whole months to show all the 
 marks of dejection and of deep sorrow, often 
 exclaiming, " O Varus, restore me my legions. ^^ 
 The bodies of the slain were left in the field of 
 battle, where they were found six years after 
 by Germanicus, and buried with great pomp. 
 His avarice was conspicuous ; he went poor to 
 Syria, whence he returned loaded with riches. 
 Horat. 1, od. '2,i.— Pater c. 2, c. Wl.—Flor. 4, 
 
 c. 12. — Virg. Ed. 6. II. A son of Varus, 
 
 who married a daughter of Germanicus. Ta- 
 cit. Ann. 4, c. 6. III. The father and grand- 
 father of Varus, wht) was killed in Germany, 
 slew themselves with their own swords, the 
 one after the battle of Philippi, and the other 
 
 in the plains of Pharsalia. IV. duintinius, 
 
 a friend of Horace and other great men in the 
 Augustan age. He was a good judge of poetry, 
 and a great critic, as Horace, Art. P. 438, seems 
 to insinuate. The poet has addressed the 18th 
 ode of his first book to him, and in the 24th he 
 mourns pathetically his death. Some suppose 
 this Varus to be the person killed in Germany, 
 while others believe him to be a man who de- 
 voted his time more to the muses than to war. 
 Vid. Varius. V. Lucius, an Epicurean phi- 
 losopher, intimate with J. Caesar. Some sup- 
 pose that it was to him that Virgil inscribed his 
 sixth eclogue. He is commended by Quintil. 
 
 6, c. 3, 78. VI. Alfrenus, a Roman, who, 
 
 though originally a shoemaker, became consul, 
 and distinguished himself by his abilities as an 
 orator. He was buried at the public expense, 
 an honour granted to few, and only to persons 
 of merit. Horat. 1, sat. 3. 
 
 Vantinids, I. an intimate friend of Cicero, 
 once distinguished for his enmity to the orator. 
 He hated the people of Rome for their great 
 vices and corruption, whence excessive hatred 
 became proverbial in the words Vatinianum 
 
 Odium. Catull. 14, v. 3. II. A shoemaker, 
 
 ridiculed for his deformities and the oddity of 
 his character. He was one of Nero's favourites, 
 and he surpassed the rest of the courtiers in 
 652 
 
 flattery, and in the commission of every impious 
 deed. Large cups, of no value, are called Vati- 
 niani from him, because he used one which was 
 both ill-shaped and uncouth. Tacit. Ann. 13, 
 c. M.—Juv.—Mart. 14, ep. 96. 
 
 Vedius Pollio. Vid. Pollio. 
 
 Vegetius, a Latin writer, who flourished B. 
 C. 386. The best edition of his treatise de Re 
 Militari, together with Modestus, is that of 
 Paris, 4to. 1607. 
 
 Velleius, I. (Paterculus,) a Roman histo- 
 rian, descended from an equestrian family of 
 Campania. He was at first a military tribune 
 in the Roman armies, and for nine years served 
 under Tiberius in the various expeditions which 
 he undertook in Gaul and Germany. Velleius 
 wrote an epitome of the history of Greece and 
 of Rome, and of other nations of the most re- 
 mote antiquity ; but of this authentic composi- 
 tion there remain only fragments of the history 
 of Greece and Rome from the conquest of Per- 
 seus, by Paulus, to the 17th year of the reign 
 of Tiberius, in two books. It is a judicious 
 account of celebrated men and illustrious cities ; 
 the historian is happy in his descriptions and 
 accurate in his dates ; his pictures are true, and 
 his narrative lively and interesting. The whole 
 is candid and impartial till the reign of the Cae- 
 sars, when the writer began to be influenced by 
 the presence of the emperor, or the power of his 
 favourites. Paterculus is deservedly censured 
 for his invectives against Cicero and Pompey, 
 and his encomiums on the cruel Tiberius and 
 the unfortunate Sejanus. Some suppose that 
 he was involved in the ruin of this disappointed 
 courtier, whom he had extolled as a pattern of 
 virtue and morality. The best editions of Pa- 
 terculus are those of Ruhnkenius, 8vo. 2 vols, 
 L. Bat. 1779; of Barbou, Paris, 12mo. 1777; 
 
 and of Burman, 8vo. L. Bat. 1719. II. 
 
 Caius, the grandfather of the historian of that 
 name, was one of the friends of Livia. He 
 killed himself when old and unable to accom- 
 pany Livia in her flight. 
 
 Veneti. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Ventidius, Bassus, a native of Picenum, 
 born of an obscure family. When Asculum 
 was taken, he was carried before the triumphal 
 chariot of Pompeius Strabo, hanging on his 
 mother's breast. A bold, aspiring soul, aided 
 by the patronage of the family of Caesar, raised 
 him from the mean occupation of a chairman 
 and muleteer to dignity in the state. He dis- 
 played valour in the Roman armies, and grad- 
 ually arose to the offices of tribune, praetor, high- 
 priest, and consul. He made war against the 
 Parthians, and conquered them in three great 
 battles, B. C. 39. He was the first Roman ever 
 honoured with a triumph over Parthia, He 
 died greatly lamented by the all Roman people, 
 and was buried at the public expense. Plut. 
 in Anton. — Juv. 7, v, 199. 
 
 Veranius, a governor of Britain under Nero. 
 He succeeded Didius Gallus. Tacit. 14, Ann. 
 
 Vercingetorix, a chief of the Gauls in the 
 time of Caesar. He was conquered and led in 
 triumph, &c. Ccssar. Bell G. 7. c. 4.—Flor. 
 3, c. 10. 
 
 Verginius, one of the officers of the Roman 
 troops in Germany, who refused the absolute 
 power which his soldiers offered to him. Tacit. 
 1, Hist. c. a 
 
VE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 VE 
 
 Verres, C. a Roman, who governed the 
 province of Sicily as praetor. The oppression 
 and rapine of which he was guilty while in of- 
 fice, so ofiended the Sicilians, that they brought 
 an accusation against him before the Roman 
 senate. Cicero undertook the cause of the 
 Sicilians, and pronounced those celebrated ora- 
 tions which are still extant. Verres was de- 
 fended by Hortensius, but as he despaired of the 
 success of his defence, he left Rome without 
 waiting for his sentence, and lived in great afflu- 
 ence in one of the provmces. He was at last 
 killed by one of the soldiers of Antony the tri- 
 umvir, about 26 years after his voluntary exile 
 from the capital. Cic. in Ver. — Plin. 34, c, 2. 
 Lactant. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Verrics Flaccus, a freedman and gram- 
 marian, famous for his powers in instructing. 
 He was appointed over the grandchildren of 
 Augustus, and also distinguished himself by 
 his writings. Gell. 4, c. 5. — Suet, in Gram. 
 
 Verrids Flaccus, a Latin critic, B, C. 4, 
 whose works have been edited with Dacier 
 and Clerk's notes, 4to. Amst. 1699. 
 
 Verulanus, a lieutenant under Corbulo, who 
 drove away Tiridates from Media, &c. Tacit. 
 Aim. 14, c. 26. 
 
 Verus, I. (Lucius Ceionius Commodus,) a 
 Roman- emperor, son of .^lius and Domitia 
 Lucilla. He was adopted in the 7th year of his 
 age, by M. Aurelius, at the request of. Adrian, 
 and he married Lucilia, the daughter of his 
 adopted father, who also took him as his col- 
 league on the throne. He was sent by M. Au- 
 relius to oppose the barbarians in the East. His 
 arms were attended with success, and he obtain- 
 ed a victory over the Parthians. He was hon- 
 oured with a triumph at his return home, and 
 soon after he marched with his imperial col- 
 league against the Marcomanni in Germany. 
 He died in this expedition of an apoplexy, in the 
 39th year of his age, after a reign of eight years 
 and some months. His body was brought back 
 to Rome, and buried by M. Aurelius with great 
 pomp and solemnity. Verus has been greatly 
 censured for his debaucheries. At one enter- 
 tainment alone, where there were no more than 
 12 guests, the emperor spent no less than six 
 millions of sestersces, or about 32,200Z. sterling. 
 In his Parthian expedition Verus did not check 
 his vicious propensities ; for four years he left 
 the care of the war to his officers, while he re- 
 tired to the voluptuous retreats of Daphne, and 
 the luxurious banquets ofAntioch. His fond- 
 ness for a horse has been faithfully recorded. 
 The animal had a statue of gold, and when 
 dead, the emperor to express his sorrow, raised 
 him a magnificent monument on mount Vati- 
 can. II. L. Annseus, a son of the emperor 
 
 Aurelius, who died in Palestine. III. The 
 
 father of the emperor Verus. He was adopted 
 by the emperor Adrian, but, like his son, he 
 disgraced himself by his debaucheries and ex- 
 travagance. He died before Adrian. 
 
 Vespasianus, (Titus Flavins,) a Roman em- 
 peror, descended from an obscure family at 
 Reate. He was honoured with the consulship 
 as a reward for his private merit and his public 
 services. He accompanied Nero into Greece, 
 but he offended the prince by falling asleep 
 while he repeated one of his poetical composi- 
 tions. This momentary resentment of the em- 
 
 peror did not prevent Vespasian from being sent 
 to carry on a war against the Jews. His opera- 
 tions were cro\\Tied wiih success j many oi the 
 cities of Palestine surrendered, and Vespasian 
 began the siege of Jerusalem, This was, how- 
 ever, achieved by the hands of his son Titus, 
 Eind the death of Vitellius and the affection of 
 his soldiers hastened his rise, and he was pro- 
 claimed emperor at Alexandria. The choice of 
 the army was approved by every province of the 
 empire ; but Vespasian did not betray any signs 
 of pride at so sudden and so unexpected an ex- 
 altation, and though once employed in the mean 
 office of a horse doctor, he behaved, when in- 
 vested with the imperial purple, with all the 
 dignity which became a successor of Augustus. 
 In the beginning of his reign Vespasian attempt- 
 ed to reform the manners of the Romans. He 
 repaired the public buildings, embellished the 
 city, and made the great roads more spacious 
 and convenient. After he had reigned with 
 great popularity for 10 years, Vespasian died, 
 A. D. 79, in the 70th year of his age. He was 
 the first Roman emperor who was succeeded by 
 his own son on the throne. Vespasian has been 
 admired for hisgreat virtues. When the king of 
 Parthia addressed him with the superscription of 
 Arsaces, king of kings, to Flavins Vespasianus, 
 the emperor, no way dissatisfied, answered him 
 again in his own words, Flavins Vespasianus, 
 to Arsaces, king of kings. To men oi learning 
 and merit Vespasian was very liberal ; one 
 hundred thousand sesterces were annually ex- 
 pended to encourage and promote the arts and 
 sciences. Sueton. in vita. — Tacit. Hist. 4. 
 
 Vestales, priestesses among the Romans, 
 consecrated to the service of Vesta, as their 
 name indicates. This office was very ancient, 
 as the mother of Romulus was one of the ves- 
 tals, ^neas is supposed to have first chosen 
 the vestals, Numa first appointed four, to which 
 Tarquin added two. They were always chosen 
 by the monarchs, but after the expulsion of the 
 Tarquins, the highpriest was intrusted with the 
 care of them. As they were to be virgins, they 
 were chosen yoimg, from the age of six to ten; 
 and if there was not a sufficient number that 
 presented themselves as candidates for the office, 
 twenty virgins were selected, and they upon 
 whom the lot fell were obliged to become priest- 
 esses. Plebeians as well as patricians were 
 permitted to propose themselves, but it was re- 
 quired that they should be without blemish or 
 deformity. For thirty years they were to re- 
 main in the greatest continence ; the ten first 
 years were spent in learning the duties of the 
 order, the ten following were employed in dis- 
 charging them with fidelity and sanctity, and 
 the ten last in instructing such as had entered 
 the noviciate. When the thirty years were 
 elapsed they were permitted to marry, or, if they 
 still preferred celibacy, they waited upon the 
 rest of the vestals. The employment of the 
 vestals was to take care that the sacred fire of 
 Vesta was not extinguished, for if it ever hap- 
 pened, it was deemed the prognostic of great 
 calamities to the state. In such a case all was 
 consternation at Rome, and the fire was again 
 kindled by glasses with the rays of the sun. 
 Another equally particular charge of the vestals 
 was to keep a sacred pledge, on which depended 
 the very existence of Rome, which, according 
 653 
 
YE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 VI 
 
 to some, was the palladium of Troy. The 
 privileges of the vestals were great, they had 
 the most honourable seats at public games and 
 festivals, a lictor with the fasces always pre- 
 ceded them when they walked in public, they 
 were carried in chariots when they pleased, and 
 they had the power of pardoning criminals 
 when led to execution if they declared that their 
 meeting was accidental. Their declarations in 
 trials were received without the formality of an 
 oath, they were chosen as arbiters in causes of 
 moment, and in the execution of wills ; and so 
 great was the deference paid them by the ma- 
 gistrates, as well as by the people, that the con- 
 suls themselves made way for them, and bowed 
 their fasces when they passed before them. To 
 insult them was a capital crime, and whoever 
 attempted to violate their chastity was beaten to 
 death with scourges. If any of them died while 
 in office, their body was buried within the walls 
 of the city, an honour granted to few. Such of 
 the vestals as proved incontinent were punished 
 in the most rigorous manner. Numa ordered 
 them to be stoned, but Tarquin the elder dug a 
 hole under the earth, where a bed was placed 
 with a little bread, wine, water, and oil, and a 
 lighted lamp, and the guilty vestal was stripped 
 of the habit of her order, and compelled to de- 
 scend into the subterraneous cavity, which was 
 immediately shut, and she was left to die through 
 hunger. For the space of one thousand years, 
 during which the order continued established, 
 from the reign of Numa, only eighteen were 
 punished for the violation of their vow. The 
 vestals were abolished by Theodosius the Great, 
 and the fire of Yesta extinguished. The dress 
 of the vestals was peculiai* ; they wore a white 
 vest with purple borders, a white linen surplice 
 called linteum superum, above which was a 
 great purple mantle which flowed to the ground, 
 and which was tucked up when they offered 
 sacrifices. They had a close covering on their 
 head, called insula, from which hung ribands, 
 or vitt(Z. Their manner of living was sump- 
 tuous, as they were maintained at the public 
 expense. Liv. 2, &c. — Plut. in Num. &c. — 
 Val. Max. 1, c. l.—Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 30.— 
 Flor. 1. — Propert. 4, el. 11. — Tacit. 4, c. 10. 
 
 Yestalta, festivals in honour of Yesta. ob- 
 served at Rome on the 9th of June. Banquets 
 were then prepared before the houses, and meat 
 was sent to the vestals to be offered to the gods, 
 millstones were decked with garlands, and 
 the asses that turned them were led round the 
 city covered with garlands. The ladies walked 
 in the procession barefooted, to the temple of 
 the goddess, and an altar was erected to Jupiter 
 surnamed Pistor. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 305. 
 
 Yettius, (Sp.) I. a Roman senator, who was 
 made interrex at the death of Romulus till the 
 election of another king. He nominated Nu- 
 ma, and resigned his office. Plut. in Num. 
 
 II. Cato, one of the officers of the allies 
 
 in the Marsian war. He defeated the Romans, 
 
 and was at last betrayed and murdered. HI. 
 
 A Roman knight who became enamoured of a 
 young female at Capua, and raised a tumult 
 amongst the slaves who proclaimed him king. 
 He was betrayed by one of his adherents, upon 
 which he laid violent hands on himself. 
 
 Yeturia, the mother of Coriolanus. She was 
 solicited bv all the Roman njatrons to go to her 
 654 
 
 son with lier daughter-in-law, and entreat him 
 not to make war against his country. She went 
 and prevailed over Coriolanus, and for her ser- 
 vices to the state, the Roman senate ofiered to 
 reward her as she pleased. She only asked to 
 raise a temple to the goddess of female fortune, 
 which was done on the very spot where she had 
 pacified her son. Liv. 2, c. 40. — Dionys. Hal, 
 7, &c. 
 
 Yeturius, Vid. Mamurius, a consul defeated 
 by the Samnites, and obliged to pass under the 
 yoke with great ignominy. 
 
 YjfiTUs, L. a Roman, who proposed to open a 
 communication between the Mediterranean and 
 the German ocean, by means of a canal. He 
 was put to death by order of Nero. 
 
 YiBius, a Roman who refused to pay any at- 
 tention to Cicero when banished, though he had 
 received from him the most unbounded fa- 
 vours. 
 
 YicTOR, Sext. AuRELros, a writer in the age 
 of Constantius. He gave the world a concise 
 history of the Roman emperors, from the age of 
 Augustus to his own time, or A. D. 360. He 
 also wrote an abridgment of the Roman history 
 before the age of Julius Caesar, which is now 
 extant, and ascribed by different authors to C. 
 Nepos, to Tacitus, Suetonius, Pliny, &c. Yic- 
 tor was greatly esteemed by the emperors, and 
 honoured with the consulship. The best edi- 
 tions of Yictor are that of Pitiscus, 8vo. Utr. 
 1696, and that of Artuzenius^ 4to. Amst. 1733. 
 
 YiCTORiNA, a celebrated matron who placed 
 herself at the head of the Roman armies, and 
 made war against the emperor Gallienus. Her 
 son Yictorinus, and her grandson of the same 
 name, were declared emperors ; but when they 
 were assassinated, Yictorina invested with the 
 imperial purple one of her favourites called 
 Tetricus. She was some time after poisoned, 
 A. D. 269, and, according to some, by Tetricus 
 himself. 
 
 Yictorinus, a Christian writer, who com- 
 posed a worthless epic poem on the death of the 
 seven children mentioned in the Maccabees, and 
 distinguished himself more by the active part 
 he took in his writings against the Arians, 
 
 YiLLiA Lex, annalis or annaria, by L. Yil- 
 lius the tribune, A, U. C. 574, defined the 
 proper age required for exercising the office of 
 a magistrate, 25 years for the queestorship, 27 
 or 28 for the edileship or tribuneship, for the 
 office of prastor 30, and for that of consul 43. 
 Liv. 11, c. 44. 
 
 YiNCENTius, one of the Christian fathers, A. 
 D. 434, whose works are best edited by Balu- 
 zius, Paris, 1669. 
 
 YiNDEx Julius, a governor of Gaul, who re- 
 volted against Nero, and determined to deliver 
 the Roman empire from his tyranny. He was 
 followed by a numerous army, but at last de- 
 feated by one of the emperor's generals. When 
 he perceived that all was lost, he laid violent 
 hands upon himself, 68. A. D. Sueton. in Gall. 
 — Tacit. Hist. 1, c. 61.— Plin. 9, ep. 19. 
 
 YiNDicius, a slave, who discovered the con- 
 spiracy which some of the most noble of the 
 Roman citizens had formed to restore Tarquin 
 to his throne. He was amply rewarded, and 
 made a citizen of Rome. Liv. 2, c. 5. — Plut. 
 in Popl. 
 
 YiNNius, Asella, a servant of Horace, to whom 
 
VI 
 
 HISTORY, «&c. 
 
 VI 
 
 ep. 13 is addressed as injunctions how to deliver 
 to Augustus some poems from his master. 
 
 ViPSANiA, a daughter of M. Agrippa, mother 
 of Drusus. She was the only one of Agrippa's 
 daughters who died a natural death. She was 
 married to Tiberius when a private man, and 
 when she had been repudiated, she married 
 Asinius Gallus. Tacit. A. 1, c. 12, 1. 3, c. 19. 
 
 ViRGiLius Maro, Publ. There exist but few 
 authentic materials from which we can col- 
 lect any circumstances concerning the life of 
 this poet. We possess only some scattered re- 
 marks of ancient commentators or gramma- 
 rians, and a Life by Donatus, of very dubious 
 authority. It appears that Virgil's father was a 
 man of low birth, and that, at one period of his 
 life, he was engaged in the meanest employ- 
 ments. According to some authorities, he was 
 a potter or brick-maker ; and according to 
 others, the hireling of a travelling merchant, 
 called Magus or Mains. He so ingratiated him- 
 self, however, with his master, that he received 
 his daughter Maia in marriage, and was in- 
 trusted with the charge of a farm, which his 
 father-in-law had acquired in the vicinity of 
 Mantua, Our poet was the offspring of these 
 humble parents ; and was born in the year of 
 Rome 684, at the village of Andes (now Pietola), 
 which lies at a few miles' distance from Man- 
 tua. The cradle of illustrious men, like the 
 origin of celebrated nations, has been frequently 
 surrounded with the marvellous. Hence, the 
 dream of his mother Maia, that she had 
 brought forth a branch of laurel, and the pro- 
 digy of the swarm of bees which lighted on the 
 lips of the infant. The studies of Virgil com- 
 menced at Cremona, where he remained till 
 he assumed the toga virilis ; and to this day 
 the inhabitants of Cremona pretend to show a 
 house, in the street of St. Bartholomew, in 
 which Virgil resided when a youth. At the age 
 of sixteen, he removed to Milan, and shortly 
 afterwards to Naples, where he laid the foun- 
 dation of that multifarious learning which 
 shines so conspicuously in the jEneid, and 
 which he employed with such judgment, as 
 richly to merit the eulogy of Macrobius — 
 "Virgilius quern nullius unquam disciplinae 
 error involvit." During his residence in this 
 city, he perused the most celebrated Greek 
 "writers, being instructed in their language and 
 literature by Parthenius Nicenus, well known 
 as the author of a collection of amatory tales, 
 which he wrote for the use of Cornelius Gallus, 
 in order to furnish him with materials for ele- 
 gies and other poems. Virgil likewise carefully 
 read the Greek historians, particularly Thucy- 
 dides, and he studied the Epicurean system of 
 philosophy under Syro, a celebrated teacher of 
 that sect. But medicine and mathematics were 
 the sciences to which he was chiefly addicted; 
 and to this early tincture of geometrical know- 
 ledge may, perhaps, in some degree, be ascribed 
 his ideas of luminous order and masterly ar- 
 rangement, and that regularity of thought, as 
 well as exactness of expression, by which all 
 his writings are distinguished. The battle of 
 Modena was fought in 711, and the triumvi- 
 rate, having been shortly afterwards formed, 
 Vedius Pollio was appointed, on the part of 
 Antony, to the command of the district in which 
 the farm of Virgil lay, Pollio, who was a noted 
 
 extortioner, levied enormous contributions from 
 the inhabitants of the territory intrusted to his 
 care ; and in some instances, when the pecu- 
 niary supplies failed, he drove the ancient colo- 
 nists from their lands, and settled his veterans 
 in their place. He was fond, however, of po- 
 etry, and was a generous protector of literary 
 men. The rising genius of Virgil had now 
 begun to manifest itself His poetic talents, 
 ■and amiable manners, recommended him to the 
 favour of Pollio ; and so long as that chief con- 
 tinued in the command of the Mantuan district, 
 he was relieved from all exaction, and protect- 
 ed in the peaceable possession of his property. 
 But the tranquillity which he enjoyed under the 
 protection of Pollio was of short duration. Pre- 
 viously to the battle of Philippi, the triumvirs 
 had promised to their soldiers the land belong- 
 ing to some of the richest towns in the empire. 
 Cremona had unfortunately espoused the cause 
 of Brutus, and thus peculiarly incurred the ven- 
 geance of the victorious party. But as lis ter- 
 ritory was not found adequate to contain the 
 veteran soldiers ofthetriumvirs,amongstwhom 
 it had been divided, the deficiency was supplied 
 from the neighbouring district of Mantua, in 
 which the farm of Virgil lay. Pollio, being a 
 zealous partisan of Antony, and supporting the 
 party of his brother and Fulvia, who unsuc- 
 cessfully opposed the division of the lands, had 
 it probably no longer in his power to protect 
 Virgil from the aggressions of the soldiery. He 
 was dispossessed under circumstances of pecu- 
 liar violence, and which even threatened danger 
 to his personal safety ; being compelled on one 
 occasion, to escape from the fury of the centu- 
 rion Arrius, by swimming the Mincius. He 
 had the good fortune, however, to obtain the 
 favour of Alphenus Varus, with whom he had 
 studied philosophy at Naples, under Syro the 
 Epicurean, and who now either succeeded 
 Pollio in the command of the district, or was 
 appointed by Augustus to superintend in that 
 quarter the division of the lands. Under his 
 protection Virgil twice repaired to Rome, where 
 he was favourably received not only by Msece- 
 nas, but Augustus himself, from whom he pro- 
 cured the restoration of the patrimony of which 
 he had been deprived. This happened in the 
 commencement of the year 714 ; and during the 
 course of that season, in gratitude for the fa- 
 vours he had received, he composed his eclogue 
 entitled TitAjrus, in which he introduces two 
 shepherds, one of whom laments the distraction 
 of the times, and complains of the aggressions 
 of the soldiery, while the other rejoices for the 
 recovery of his farm, and promises ever to 
 honour as a god the youth who had restored it. 
 The situation of Virgil's residence was low and 
 humid, and the climate chill at certain seasons 
 of the year. His delicate constitution, and the 
 pulmonary complaints with which he was af- 
 fected, induced him, about the year 714 or 715, 
 when he had reached the age of thirty, to seek 
 a warmer sky. To this change, it may be 
 conjectured, he \vas farther instigated b,y his 
 increasing celebrity, and the extension of his 
 poetic fame. His countrymen were captivated 
 by the perfect novelty of pastoral composition, 
 and by the successful boldness with which Vir- 
 gil had transferred the sweet Sicilian strains to 
 a language which, before his attempt, must 
 C55 
 
VI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 VI 
 
 have appeared, from its harshness and severity, 
 but little adapted to be a vehicle for the softness 
 of rural description, or the delicacy of amorous 
 sentiment, and which had scarcely yet been 
 polished or refined to the susceptibility of such 
 smooth numbers as the pastoral muse demand- 
 ed. The bucolics, accordingly, were relished 
 and admired by all classes of his contempora- 
 ries. So universal was their popularity, that 
 the philosophic eclogue of Siknus, soon after 
 its composition, was publicly recited in the the- 
 atre by Cytheris, a celebrated mi ma, who was 
 then the mistress of Aniony and Cornelius Gal- 
 lus, and who, in her earlier years, had touched 
 the heart of Brutus. On quitting his paternal 
 fields, Virgil first proceeded to the capital. 
 Here his private fortune was considerably aug- 
 mented by the liberality of Maecenas ; and such 
 was the favour he possessed with his patron, 
 that we find him, soon after his arrival at Rome, 
 mtrodiicing Horace to the notice of the minister, 
 and attending him, alone with that poet, on a 
 political mission to Brundisium. At the period 
 when Virgil enjoyed so much honour and pop- 
 ularity in the capital, Naples was a favourite 
 retreat of illustrious and literary men — the 
 " studio florentes ignobilis oti," who longed to 
 jjrosecute in repose light and agreeable studies. 
 There Virgil retired, about 717, when in the 
 33d year of his age ; and he continued during 
 the remainer of his life, to dwell chiefly in that 
 city, or at a delightful villa which he possessed 
 in the Campania Felix, in the neighbourhood 
 of Nola, ten miles east from Naples, — leading 
 a life which may be considered as happy, when 
 compared with the fate of the other great epic 
 poets. Homer, Tasso, and Milton, in whom the 
 mind or the vision was darkened. About the 
 time when he first went to reside at Naples, he 
 commenced his Georgics, by order of Maecenas, 
 and continued, for the seven following years, 
 closely occupied with the composition of that 
 inimitable poem. During this long period, he 
 was accustomed to dictate a number of verses 
 in the morning, and to spend the rest of the 
 day in revising and correcting them, or reducing 
 them to a smaller number — comparing himself 
 in this respect, to a she bear, which licks her 
 misshapen offspring into proper form and pro- 
 portion. It was not till he had finished this 
 subject with unrivalled success that he presum- 
 ed to write the iEneid. This poem, which oc- 
 cupied him till his death, was commenced in 
 724, the same year in which he had completed 
 the Georgics, After he had been engaged for 
 some time in its composition, the greatest curi- 
 osity and interest concerning it began to be felt 
 at Rome. A work, it was generally believed, 
 was in progress which would eclipse the fame 
 of the Iliad; and the passage which describes 
 the shield of .^neas, appears to have been seen 
 by Propertius. Augustus himself at length 
 became desirous to read the poem, so far as it 
 had been carried ; and, in the year 729, while 
 absent from Rome on a military expedition 
 against the Cantabrians, he wrote to the author 
 from the extremity of his empire, intreating to 
 be allowed a perusal of it. Macrobius had pre- 
 served one of Virgil's answers to Augustus: — 
 " I have of late received from you frequent let- 
 ters. With regard to my iEneas, if, by Her- 
 cules, it were worth your listening to, I should 
 
 willingly send it. But so vast is the undertak- 
 ing, that I almost appear to myself to have com- 
 menced such a work from some defect in judg- 
 ment or understanding ; especially since, as you 
 know, other and far higher studies are required 
 for such a performance." Having brought the 
 ^Eneid to a conclusion, but not to the perfection 
 which he wished to bestow on it, Virgil, con- 
 trary to the advice and wish of his friends, re- 
 solved to travel into Greece, that he might cor- 
 rect and polish this great production at leisure, 
 in that land of poetic imagination. Virgil pro- 
 ceeded directly to Athens, where he commenced 
 the revisal of his epic poem, and added the 
 magnificent introduction to the third book ot 
 the Georgics. — He had been thus engaged for 
 some months at Athens, when Augustus arrived 
 in that city, on his return to Italy, from a pro- 
 gress through his eastern dominions. The 
 arrival of Augustus, however, induced him to 
 shorten his stay, and to embrace the opportu- 
 nity of returning to Italy in the retinue of the 
 emperor. But the hand of death was already 
 upon him. From his youth he had been of a 
 delicate constitution ; and as age advanced, he 
 was afflicted with frequent headaches, asthma, 
 and spitting of blood. Even the climate of 
 Naples could not preserve him from frequent 
 attacks of these maladies, and their worst symp- 
 toms had increased during his residence in 
 Greece. The vessel in which he embarked 
 with the emperor, touched at Megara, where 
 he was seized with great debility, and languor. 
 When he again went on board, his distemper 
 was so increased by the motion and agitation of 
 the vessel, that he expired a few days after he 
 had landed at Brundisium, on the southeastern 
 coast of Italy. His death happened in the year 
 734, when he was in the fifty-first year of his 
 age. When he felt its near approach, he order- 
 ed his friends, Varius and Ploiius Tucca, who 
 were then with him, to burn ihe ^neid, as an 
 imperfect poem. Augustus, however, inter- 
 posed to save a work, which he no doubt fore- 
 saw would at once confer immortality on the 
 poet, and on the prince who patronised him. It 
 was accordingly intrusted to Varius and Tucca, 
 with a power to revise and retrench, but with 
 a charge that they should make no additions ; 
 a command which they so strictly observed, as 
 not to complete even the hemistichs, which had 
 been left imperfect. Virgil bequeathed the 
 greater part of his wealth, which was consider- 
 able, to a brother. The remainder was divided 
 among his patrons, Maecenas and his friends 
 Varius and Tucca, Before his death he had 
 also commanded that his bones should be car- 
 ried to Naples, where he had lived so long and 
 so happily. This order was fulfilled under 
 charge of Augustus himself. The excellence 
 of Virgil's eclogues appears to have been re- 
 garded by his countrymen as precluding all at- 
 tempts of a similar description, for no swains 
 were taught, by any subsequent poet, to touch 
 the rustic pipe till Calpurnius ventured his 
 feeble efforts in the latest ages of Roman lite- 
 rature. The poem, entitled the Georgics, which, 
 in succession of time, was the next work of 
 Virgil, is as remarkable for majesty and mag- 
 nificence of diction, as the eclogues are for 
 sweetness and harmony of versification. It is 
 the most complete, elaborate, and finished poem, 
 
VI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 VI 
 
 in the Latin, or perhaps any other language ; 
 and though the choice of subject, and the sit- 
 uations, afforded less expectation of success 
 than the pastorals, so much has been achieved 
 by art and genius, that the author has chiefly 
 exhibited himself as a poet on topics where it 
 was most difficult to appear as such. Rome, 
 from its local situation, was not well adapted for 
 commerce ; and from the time of Romulus to 
 that of C^sar, agriculture had been the chief 
 care of the Romans. Its operations were con- 
 ducted by the greatest statesmen, and its pre- 
 cepts inculcated by the profoundest scholars. 
 The long continuance, however, and cruel rav- 
 ages of the civil wars, had now occasioned an 
 almost general desolation. Italy was, in a great 
 measure, depopulated of its husbandmen. The 
 soldiers by whom the lands were newly occu- 
 pied, had too long ravaged the fields to think of 
 cultivating them ; and, in consequence of the 
 farms lying waste, a famine and insurrection 
 had nearly ensued. In these circumstances 
 Maecenas resolved, if possible, to revive the 
 decayed spirit of agriculture, to recall the lost 
 habits of peaceful industry, and to make rural 
 improvement, as it had been in former times, 
 the prevailing amusement among the great: 
 and he wisely judged, that no method was so 
 likely to contribute to these important objects, 
 as a recommendation of agriculture by all the 
 insinuating charms of poetry. At his sugges- 
 tion, accordingly, Virgil commenced his Geor- 
 gics, which was thus in some degree under- 
 taken from a political motive, and with a view 
 to promote the welfare of his country. But 
 though written with a patriotic object — by order 
 of a Roman statesman — and on a subject pecu- 
 liarly Roman, the imitative spirit of Latin poetry 
 still prevailed, and the author could not avoid 
 recurring even in his Georgics to a Grecian 
 model. A few verses on the signs and prognos- 
 tics of weather have been translated from the 
 PhcBnomena of Aratus. But the WorJcs and 
 Days of Hesiod is the pattern which he has 
 chiefly held in view. In reference to his imi- 
 tation of this model, he himself stiles his Geor- 
 gics an Ascreisan poem ; and he appears, indeed, 
 to have been a sincere admirer of the ancient 
 bard. We come now to the jEneid, a work 
 ■which belongs to a nobler class of poetry than 
 the Georgics, and is perhaps equally perfect in 
 its kind. It ranks, indeed, in the very highest 
 order, and it was in this exalted species that 
 Virgil was most fitted to excel. No one who 
 has read the Mneid, and studied the historical 
 character of Augustus, or the early events of 
 his reign, can doubt that iEneas is an allegorical 
 representation of that emperor. Warburton 
 has attempted to prove, in his Divine Legation 
 of Moses, that the descent of ^neas to the in- 
 fernal regions is a figurative description of an 
 initiation into' the Eleusinian mysteries. The 
 author has, no doubt, pursued the allegory too 
 far, and has wrought up some fanciful coinci- 
 dences. But in many steps of the hero's prog- 
 ress through the three estates of the dead, he 
 has successfully shown the exact conformity of 
 his adventures with the trials undergone by the 
 initiated. Now, it is matter of historical record, 
 that, during a residence at Athens, Augustus 
 passed through all the mysteries and ceremonies 
 "which the Grecian priesthood had instituted, to 
 Part II.— 4 O 
 
 confirm the doctrine of a future state of rewards 
 and punishments ; but he highly respected the 
 secrecy of these rites, and hence Virgil was 
 obliged to cover the whole with a thick veil of 
 allegory. Turnus is Antony. It is remarkable, 
 that during the most abject age of court flattery, 
 a certain tenderness was shown by the Latin 
 poets towards the character of this implacable 
 but Roman enemy of Augustus. This feeling 
 is observable in the writings of Horace, who, 
 in his political odes, casts all the odium on 
 Cleopatra, but spares her infatuated lover. In 
 like manner, none of the darker shades of dis- 
 position are thrown into the character of Tur- 
 nus. He is represented as a bold though some- 
 what rude warrior, and an ardent lover ; and 
 his defects are concealed, as those of Antony in 
 some degree were, by frankness, generosity, and 
 the lustre of a daring courage. Evander, the 
 ancient friend of Anchises, and ally of ^neas, 
 typifies the old Caesar cans who joined the party 
 of Augustus against Antony ; Achates is Agrip- 
 pa; Lavinia — Livia; Latinus — Lepidus ; and 
 the furious Amata is Fulvia, who, by her tur- 
 bulent spirit, incensed the people against Caesar, 
 and excited the Perugian war. We should be 
 sorry to think that Virgil meant to represent 
 Cicero by the wretched declaimer Drances ; 
 but his enmity to Turnus, who is Antony, gives 
 plausibility to the conjecture. The features of 
 his character may not correspond with those of 
 Cicero's, but they have some analogy to those 
 which the calumnies of the age attributed to 
 him. Besides the well-known and authentic 
 works of Virgil, several poems still exist, which 
 are very generally ascribed to him, but which, 
 from their inferiority, are supposed to be the 
 productions of his early youth. Of these the 
 longest is the Culex, which has been translated 
 by Spenser, under the title of Virgil's Gnat. 
 There can be no doubt, from two epigrams of 
 Martial, that there was a poem called Culex, 
 which had been written by Virgil. But it may 
 be questioned if the Culex, to which Martial 
 alludes, be the same with the poem under that 
 name which we now possess. The Culex, which 
 still appears in some of the editions of Virgil, 
 is not without passages of considerable merit, 
 but it exhibits few marks of the taste and judg- 
 ment of Virgil. The subject of the Culex may 
 be considered as partly pastoral and partly mock 
 heroic ; but the mockery is of a gentle and del- 
 icate description, and much real beauty and 
 tenderness break out amid the assumed so- 
 lemnity. By far the finest, and probably the 
 most genuine, passage of the poem, is that near 
 the beginning, in which the author describes 
 the goatherd leading out his flocks to their pas- 
 ture, and in which he descants on the pleasures 
 of a country life. As amended by Heyne, and 
 cleared from the interpolations of the scholiasts, 
 we may find in it the germe of those flowers of 
 song, which afterwards expanded to such ma- 
 turity and perfection in the Georgics. The Ciris, 
 a poem of the same doubtful authenticity with 
 the Culex, and which some commentators have 
 attributed to Cornelius Gallus, records the well- 
 known mythological fable of Scylla, daughter 
 of Nisus; who, having become enamoured of 
 Minos, the enemy of her father, cut off from 
 her parent's head the fatal lock which preserved 
 his kingdom. In detestation of the act, Minos, 
 C57 
 
VI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 VI 
 
 on his voyage home from Crete to Megara, 
 fastened her to the side of his vessel, and thus 
 dragged her along through the sea, to the utter 
 amazement of Tethys and the seanymphs, who 
 betray much curiosity on the occasion. She is 
 at length relieved by her transformation into 
 the bird called Ciris, from which the poem de- 
 rives its title. From the Ciris, Spenser, who had 
 translated the Culex, imitated a long passage, 
 which constitutes part of the Legend of Brito- 
 mart, in the third book of the Fairy Queen. The 
 conversations between Britomart and her nurse 
 Glauce, who presses her to reveal the object 
 of her passion, as also the incantations em- 
 ployed by the beldam, correspond closely with 
 the discourse between Scylla and Carme, and 
 the enchantments of the latter. The Moretum 
 would certainly be a curious and interesting 
 production, could it be authenticated as the 
 work of Virgil, or even of Septimius Serenus, 
 to whom Wernsdorff has ascribed it, and who 
 flourished at Rome during the reigns of the 
 Flavian family. Its subject is one concerning 
 which few relics have descended to us from an- 
 tiquity. It gives an account of the occupations 
 and everyday life of an Italian peasant, and, 
 so far as it goes, every thing is related with the 
 greatest minuteness ; but the employments only 
 of the morning are recorded. The Copa merely 
 contains an invitation from a hostess, who was 
 a native of Syria, to pass the hours merrily in 
 a place of entertainment which she kept beyond 
 the gates of Rome : but a good-humoured drink- 
 ing song, by the majestic author of the Georgics 
 and jE7ieid, is in itself a curiosity. A few of 
 the lines, though some barbarisms of expressions 
 occur, are also written with considerable spirit, 
 and present not an uninteresting picture of the 
 manners that prevailed in those hostels which 
 stood beyond the walls of the city, on the banks 
 of the Tiber or shore of Ostia. We here learn 
 what were the usual preparations of a Syrian 
 hostess two thousand years ago on the banks 
 of the Tiber; and it is said, that, at this day, 
 the bread and the wine, the mulberries, grapes, 
 vine leaves, and chestnuts, are the ordinary 
 luxuries and enjoyments of similar places of 
 entertainment now existing in Italy. Among 
 the very numerous and excellent editions of 
 Virgil, these few may be collected as the best ; 
 that of Masvicius, 2 vols, 4to. Leovardiae, 1717; 
 Baskerville, 4to. Birmingham, 1757; of the 
 Variorum, in 8vo. L. Bat. 1661 ; of Heyne, 
 4 vols. 8vo. Lips. 1767; of Edinburgh, 2 vols. 
 12mo. 1755 ; and of Glasgow, 12mo. 1758. 
 
 II. Caius, a praetor of Sicily, who, when Cicero 
 was banished, refused to receive the exiled 
 orator, though his friend, for fear of the resent- 
 ment of Clodius. Cic. ad Q. Frater. 
 
 Virginia, a daughter of the centurion L. Vir- 
 ginius. Appius Claudius, the decemvir, became 
 enamoured of her, and attempted to remove her 
 from the place where she resided. She was 
 claimed by one of his favourites as the daughter 
 of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with 
 the authority of judge, had pronounced the sen- 
 tence, and delivered her into the hands of his 
 friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent 
 proceedings, arrived from the camp. The father 
 demanded to see his daughter, and when this 
 request was granted, he snatched a knife and 
 plunged it into Virginia's breast, exclaiming, 
 658 
 
 This is all, my dearest daughter, lean give thee, 
 to preserve thy chastity f ram, the lust and violence 
 of a tyrant. No sooner was the blow given, 
 than Virginius ran to the camp with the bloody 
 knife in his hand. The soldiers were astonish- 
 ed and incensed, not against the murderer, but 
 the tyrant that was the cause of Virginia's 
 death, and they immediately marched to Rome. 
 Appius was seized, but he destroyed himself in 
 prison, and prevented the execution of the law. 
 Spurius Oppius, another of the decemvirs, who 
 had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed him- 
 self also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favourite 
 of Appius, was put to death, and the decem viral 
 power abolished, about 449 years before Christ. 
 Liv. 3, c. 44, &C.—JUV. 10, v. 294. 
 Virginius, I. the father of Virginia, made 
 
 tribune of the people. Vid. Virginia. II. 
 
 A tribune of the people, who accused Q,. Cseso, 
 the son of Cincinnatus. He increased the num- 
 ber of the tribunes to ten, and distinguished 
 himself by his seditions against the patricians. 
 Ill, Another tribune, in the age of Camil- 
 
 lus, fined for his opposition to a law which pro- 
 posed going to Veil." IV. Caius, a praetor of 
 
 Sicily, who opposed the entrance of Cicero into 
 his province, though under many obligations to 
 
 the orator. Some read Virgilius. V. One 
 
 of the generals of Nero in Germany. He made 
 war against Vindex, and conquered him. He 
 was treated with great coldness by Galba, whose 
 interest he had supported with so much success. 
 He refused ail dangerous stations,, and, though 
 twice offered the imperial purple, he rejected it 
 with disdain. Plut. 
 
 ViRiATHus, a mean shepherd of Lusitania, 
 who gradually rose to power, and by first head- 
 ing a gang of robbers, saw himself at last fol- 
 lowed by a numerous army. He made war 
 against the Romans with uncommon success, 
 and for 14 years enjoyed the envied title of pro- 
 tector of public liberty in the provinces of Spain. 
 Many generals were defeated, and Pompey him- 
 self was ashamed to find himself beaten. Csepio 
 was at last sent against him. But his despair 
 of conquering him by force of arms, obliged him 
 to have recourse to artifice, and he had the 
 meanness to bribe the servants of Viriathus to 
 murder their master, B. C. 40. Flor. 2, c. 17. 
 — Val. Max. 6, c. 4. — Liv. 52 and 54. 
 
 ViRiDOMARUs, a young man of great power 
 among the Mdim. Csesar greatly honoured 
 him, but he fought at last against the Romans. 
 Cas. Bell. G. 7, c. 39, &c. 
 
 ViTELLius AuLUs, I. a Roman, raised by his 
 vices to the throne. He was descended from 
 one of the most illustrious families of Rome, 
 and as such he gained an easy admission to the 
 palace of the emperors. The greatest part of his 
 youth was spent at Capreas, where his willing- 
 ness and compliance to gratify the most vicious 
 propensities of Tiberius, raised his father to the 
 dignity of consul and governor of Syria. The 
 applause he gained in this school of debauchery 
 was too flattering to allow Vitelliusto alter his 
 conduct, and no longer to be one of the votaries 
 of vice. Caligula was pleased with his skill in 
 driving a chariot. Claudius loved him because 
 he was a great gamester, and he recommended 
 himself to the favours of Nero by wishing him 
 10 sing publicly in the crowded theatre. He 
 [ did not fall with his patrons, like the other fa- 
 
VI 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 UL 
 
 vourites, but the death of an emperor seemed to 
 raise him to greater honours. He passed through 
 all the honours of the state, and gained the sol- 
 diery by donations and liberal promises. He 
 was at the head of the Roman legions in Ger- 
 many when Otho was proclaimed emperor, and 
 the exaltation of his rival was no sooner heard 
 in the camp, than he was likewise invested 
 with the purple by his soldiers. He accepted 
 with pleasure the dangerous office, and instant- 
 ly marched against Otho. Three battles were 
 fought, and in all Vitellius was conquered. A 
 fourth, however, in the plains between Mantua 
 and Cremona left him master of the field and 
 of the Roman empire. Vitellius feasted four 
 or five times a day. The most celebrated of his 
 feasts was that with which he was treated by 
 his brother Lucius. The table, among other 
 meats, was covered with two thousand different 
 dishes of fish, and seven thousand of fowls ; 
 and so expeusive was he in every thing, that 
 above seven millions sterling were spent in 
 maintaining his table in the space of four 
 months : and Josephus has properly observed, 
 that if Vitellius had reigned long, the great 
 opulence of all the Roman empire would have 
 been found insufficient to defray the expenses 
 of his banquets. This extravagance, which 
 delighted the favourites, soon raised the indig- 
 nation of the people. Vespasian was proclaim- 
 ed emperor by the army, and his minister Pri- 
 mus was sent to destroy the imperial glutton. 
 Vitellius concealed himself under the bed of 
 the porter of his palace, but this obscure retreat 
 betrayed him ; he was dragged naked through 
 the streets, his hands were tied behind his back, 
 and a drawn sword was placed under his chin 
 to make him lift his head. After suffi;ring the 
 greatest insults from the populace, he was at 
 last carried to the place of execution, and put 
 to death with repeated blows. His head was 
 cut off and fixed to a pole, and his mutilated 
 body dragged with a hook and thrown into the 
 Tiber, A. D. 69, after a reign of one year, ex- 
 cept 12 days. Siiet. — Tacit. Hist. 2. — Eutrop. 
 
 — Dio. — Plut. II. Lucius, the father of the 
 
 emperor, obtained great honours by his flattery 
 to the emperors. He was made governor of 
 Syria, and in. this distant province he obliged 
 the Parthians to sue for peace. His adulation 
 to Messalina, is well known, and he obtained, 
 as a particular favour, the honourable office of 
 pulling off the shoes of the emperess. Suet. 
 
 III. Publius, an uncle of the emperor of 
 
 that name. He was accused under Nero of at- 
 tempts to bribe the people with money from the 
 treasury against the emperor. He killed him- 
 self before his trial. IV. A son of the em- 
 peror Vitellius, put to death by one of his 
 
 father's friends. Some of the family of the 
 
 Vitellii conspired with the Aquilii and other 
 illustrious Romans, to restore Tarquin to his 
 throne. Their conspiracy was discovered by 
 the consuls, and they were severely punished. 
 Plut. 
 
 ViTRUvsus, M. PoLLio, a celebrated architect 
 in the age of Augustus, born at Formiae. He is 
 known only by his writings, and nothing is re- 
 corded in history of his life or private charac- 
 ter. He wrote a treatise on bis profession, 
 which he dedicated to Augustus, and it is the 
 only book on architecture, now extant, written 
 
 by the ancients. In this work he shows that 
 he was master of his profession. The best edi- 
 tion of Vitruvius is that of De Laet, Amst. 1649. 
 
 Ulpianus Domitius, a lawyer in the reign of 
 Alexander Severus, of whom he became the 
 secretary and principal minister. He raised a 
 persecution against the Christians, and was at 
 last murdered by the praitorian guards, of which 
 he had the command, A. D. 226. There are 
 some fragments of his compositions on civil 
 law still extant. The Greek commentaries of 
 Ulpian on Demosthenes were printed in fol. 
 1527, apud Aldum. 
 
 Ulysses, a king of the islands of Ithaca and 
 Dulichium, son of Anticlea and Laertes, or, 
 according to some, of Sisyphus. Vid. Sisyphus 
 and Anticlea. He became, like the other prin- 
 ces of Greece, one of the suiters of Helen ; but 
 as he despaired of success in his applications, 
 on account of the great number of his compet- 
 itors, he solicited the hand of Penelope, the 
 daughter of Icarius. The rape of Helen, 
 however, by Paris, did not long permit him to 
 remain in his kingdom, and as he was bound to 
 defend her against every intruder, he was sum- 
 moned to the war with the other princes of 
 Greece. Pretending to be insane, not to leave 
 his beloved Penelope, he yoked a horse and a 
 bull together, and ploughed the seashore, Avhere 
 he sowed salt instead of corn. This dissimula- 
 tion was soon discovered, and Pdamedes, by 
 placing before the plough of Ulysses, his infant 
 son Telemachus, convinced the world that the 
 father was not mad who had the providence to 
 turn away the plough from the furrow not to 
 hurt his child. Ulysses was therefore obliged 
 to go to the war, but he did not forget him who 
 had discovered his pretended insanity. Vid. 
 Palamedes. During the Trojan war, the king 
 of Ithaca was courted for his superior prudence 
 and sagacity. By his means Achilles was dis- 
 covered among the daughters of Lycomedes, 
 king of Scja'os, ( Vid. Achilles,^ and Philoctetes 
 was induced to abandon Lemnos, and to fight 
 the Trojans with the arrows of Hercules. Vid. 
 Philoctetes. He was not less distinguished for 
 his activity and valour. With the assistance 
 of Diomedes, he murdered Rhesus, and slaugh- 
 tered the sleeping Thracians in the midst of 
 their camp, {Vid. Rhesus and Dolon,) and h-e 
 introduced himself into the city of Priam, and 
 carried away the Palladium of the Trojans. 
 Vid. Palladium. For these eminent services 
 he was universally applauded by the Greeks, 
 and he was rewarded with the arms of Achilles, 
 which Ajax had disputed with him. After the 
 Trojan war, Ulysses embarked on board his 
 ships to return to Greece, but he was exposed to 
 a number of misfortunes before he reached 
 his native country. He was thrown by the 
 winds upon the coasts of Africa, and visited 
 the country of the Lotophagi, and of the Cy- 
 clops in Sicily. Polyphemus, who was the king 
 of the Cyclops, seized Ulysses with his com- 
 panions, five of whom he devoured, ( Vid. Poly- 
 phemus,^ but the prince of Ithaca intoxicated 
 him and put out his eye, and at last escaped from 
 the dangerous cave where he was confined, by 
 tying himself under the belly of the sheep of the 
 Cyclops when led to pasture. In JEolia he met 
 with a friendly reception, and iEolus gave him, 
 confined in bags, all the winds which could ob- 
 659 
 
UL 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 VU 
 
 struct his return to Ithaca, but the curiosity of 
 his companions to know what the bags contain- 
 ed, proved nearly fatal. The winds rushed 
 with impetuosity, and all the fleet was destroyed 
 except the ship which carried Ulysses. From 
 thence he was thrown upon the coasts of the 
 Laestrigones, and of the island Mdea., where the 
 magician Circe changed all his companions 
 into pigs for their voluptuousness. He escaped 
 their fate by means of an herb which he had re- 
 ceived from Mercury, and after he had obliged 
 the magician by force of arms to restore his 
 compaiiiions to their original shape, he yielded 
 to her charms, and made her mother of Telego- 
 nus. He visited the infernal regions, and con- 
 sulted Tiresius how to regain his country in 
 safety ; and, after he had received every neces- 
 sary information, he returned on earth. He 
 passed along the coasts of the Sirens unhurt, 
 by the directions of Circe, (Vid. Sirenes,) and 
 escaped the whirlpools and shoals of Scylla and 
 Charybdis. On the coasts of Sicily, his compan- 
 ions stole and killed some oxen that were sacred 
 to Apollo, for which the god destroyed the ships, 
 and all were drowned except Ulysses, who saved 
 himself on a plank, and swam to the island of 
 Calypso, in Ogygia. There, for seven years, he 
 forgot Ithaca, in the arms of the goddess, by 
 whom he had two children. The gods at last 
 interfered, and Calypso, by order of Mercury, 
 suifered him to depart after she had furnished 
 him with a ship, and every thing requisite for a 
 voyage. He had almost reached the island of 
 Corcyra, when Neptune, still mindful that his 
 son Polyphemus had been robbed of his sight 
 by the perfidy of Ulysses, raised a storm and 
 sunk his ship. Ulysses swam with difficulty to 
 the island of the Phseacians, where the kindness 
 of Nausica, and the humanity of her father. 
 King Alcinous, entertained him for a while. 
 He related the series of his misfortunes to the 
 monarch, and at last, by his benevolence, he 
 was conducted in a ship to Ithaca. The Phaea- 
 cians laid him on the seashore as he was asleep, 
 and Ulysses found himself safely restored to 
 his country, after a long absence of 20 years. 
 He was well informed that his palace was be- 
 sieged by a number of suiters, who continually 
 disturbed the peace of Penelope, and therefore 
 he assumed the habit of a beggar, by the advice 
 of Minerva, and made himself known to his 
 son, and his faithful shepherd Eumaeus. With 
 them he took measures to re-establish himself 
 on his throne ; he went to the palace, and was 
 personally convinced of the virtues and of the 
 fidelity of Penelope. Before his arrival was 
 publicly known, all the importuning suiters were 
 put to death, and Ulysses restored to the peace 
 and bosom of his family. Vid. Laertes, Pene- 
 lope, Telemachus, Eumaus. He lived about 
 sixteen years after his return, and was at last 
 killed by his son Telegonus, who had landed 
 in Ithaca with the hopes of making himself 
 known to his father. This unfortunate event 
 had been foretold to him by Tiresias, who 
 assured him that he should die by the violence 
 of something that was to issue from the bosom 
 of the sea. Vid. Telegonus. According to 
 some authors, Ulysses went to consult the oracle 
 of Apollo, after his return to Ithaca, and he had 
 the meanness to seduce Erippe, the daughter of 
 a king of Epirus, who had treated him with 
 6G0 
 
 great kindness, Erippe had a son by him whom 
 she called Euryalus. When come to years of 
 puberty, Euryalus was sent to Ithaca by his 
 mother ; but when Ulysses returned, he put to 
 immediate death his unknown son, on the crim- 
 ination of Penelope, his wife, who accused him 
 of attempts upon her virtue. The adventures 
 of Ulysses, on his return to Ithaca from the 
 Trojan war, are the subject of Homer's Odys- 
 sey. Homer. II. <f Od.— Virg. JEn. 2, 3, &c. 
 —Dictys Cret. 1, &c.— Ovid. Met. 13.— He- 
 roid. 1. — Hygin. fab. 201, &c. — Apollod. 3, c. 
 IQ.—Paus. 1, c. 17 and 22, 1. 3, c. 12, 1. 7, c. 4. 
 —jElian. V. H. 13, c. 12.— Horat. 3, Od. 29, 
 V. 8.—Parthen. Erot. 3.—Plut.—Plin. 35.— 
 Tzetz. ad Lye. 
 
 Undecemviri, magistrates at Athens, to 
 whom such as were publicly condemned were 
 delivered to be executed. C. Nep. in Phoc. 
 
 VocoNiA Lex, de testamentis, by Q,. Voconius 
 Saxa, the tribune, A. U. C. 584, enacted that 
 no woman should be left heiress to an estate, 
 and that no rich person should leave by his will 
 more than the fourth part of his fortune to a 
 woman. This step. was taken to prevent the 
 decay of the noblest and most illustrious of the 
 families of Rome. This law was abrogated by 
 Augustus. 
 
 VoLOGESES, a name common to many of the 
 kings of Parthia, who made war against the 
 Roman emperors. Tacit. 12, Ann. 14. 
 
 VoLsci. Vid. Part I. 
 
 VoLUMNius, (T.) I. a Roman, famous for his 
 friendship towards M. Lucullus, whom M. 
 Antony had put to death. His great lamenta- 
 tions were the cause that he was dragged to the 
 triumvir, of whom he demanded to be conducted 
 to the body of his friend, and there to be put to 
 death. His request was easily granted. Liv. 
 124, c. 20. II. An Etrurian, who wrote tra- 
 gedies in his native language. III. a consul, 
 
 who defeated the Samnites and the Etrurians. 
 
 Liv. 9. IV. A friend of M. Brutus. He 
 
 wrote an account of his death and of his actions, 
 from which Plutarch selected some remarks. 
 
 VoLusius, I. a poet of Patavia, who wrote, 
 like Ennius, the annals of Rome in verse. 
 
 Seneca, ep. 93. — Catull. 96, v. 7. II. Satur- 
 
 ninus, a governor of Rome, who died in the 
 93d year of his age, beloved and respected un- 
 der Nero. Tacit. Ann. 13. 
 
 VoLUX, a son of Bacchus, whom the Romans 
 defeated. Sylla suspected his fidelity. Sallust. 
 Jug. 105. 
 
 VoNoNEs, I. a king of Parthia, expelled by 
 his subjects, and afterwards placed on the 
 throne of Armenia. Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 14. 
 II. Another, king of Armenia. III. A 
 
 man made king of Parthia by Augustus. 
 
 Vopiscus, a native of Syracuse, 303 A. D. 
 who wrote the life of Aurelian, Tacitus, Flo- 
 rianus, Probus, Firmus, Carus, &c. He is one 
 of the six authors who are called Historic 
 AugustcB scriptores, but he excels all others in 
 his style, although we look in vain for the 
 purity of the Augustan age. 
 
 VoTiENus MoNTANUS, a man of learning, 
 banished to one of the Baleares for his malevo- 
 lent reflections upon Tiberius. Ovid has cele- 
 brated him as an excellent poet. Tacit. Ann. 
 4, c. 42. 
 
 VuLCANALiA, festivals in honour of Vulcan 
 
XA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 XE 
 
 brought to Rome from Praeneste, and observed 
 in the month of August. The streets were illu- 
 minated, fires kindled every where, and animals 
 thrown into the flames, as a sacrifice to the deity. 
 
 Varro. de L. L. 5. Dion. Ual. 1. — Columell. 
 
 IQ.—Plin. 18, c. 13. 
 
 VuLCAMus, Tarentianus, a Latin historian, 
 who wrote an account of the life of the three 
 Gordiaus, &c. 
 
 VuLCATius, I. a Roman knight, who con- 
 spired with Piso against Nero, &c. Tacit. 
 
 II. a senator in the reign of Diocletian, who at- 
 tempted to write a history of all such as had 
 reigned at Rome. Of his works nothing is ex- 
 tant but an account of Avidius Cassius, who 
 revolted in the East during the reign of M. Au- 
 relius, which some ascribe to Spartianus. 
 
 VuLso, I. a Roman consul who invaded Af- 
 rica with Regulus. II. Another consul. He 
 
 had the provinces of Asia while in oflice, and 
 triumohed over the Galaiians. 
 
 Xanthica, a festival observed by the Mace- 
 donians in the month called Xanthicus, the same 
 as April. It was then usual to make a lustration 
 of the army with great solemnity. 
 
 Xant&us, a Greek historian of Lydia, who 
 wrote an account of his country, of which some 
 fragments remain. Dionys. Hal. 
 
 Xantippe, the w^ife of Socrates, remarkable 
 for her ill humour and peevish disposition, 
 which are become proverbial. Some suppose 
 that the philosopher was acquainted with her 
 moroseness and insolence before he married 
 her, and that he took her for his wife to try his 
 patience, and inure himself to the malevolent 
 reflections of mankind. She continually tor- 
 mented him with her impertinence; and one 
 day, not satisfied with using the most bitter in- 
 vectives, she emptied a vessel of dirty water on 
 his head, upon which the philosopher coolly ob- 
 served, after thunder there generaUy falls rain. 
 uElian. V. H. 7, c. 10, 1. 9, c. 7, 1. 11, c. 12.— 
 Diog. in Socrat. 
 
 Xantippus, I. a Lacedaemonian general, who 
 assisted the Carthagmians in the first Punic 
 war. He defeated the Romans, 256 B, C. and 
 took the celebrated Regulus prisoner. Such 
 signal services deserved to be rewarded, but the 
 Carthaginians looked with envious jealousy 
 upon Xantippus, and he retired to Corinth after 
 he had saved them from destruction. Some au- 
 thors support that the Carthaginians ordered him 
 to be assassinated, and his body to be thro-uii 
 into the sea, as he was returning home ; while 
 others say that they had prepared a leaky ship 
 to convey him to Corinth, which he artfully 
 avoided. Liv. 18 and 28, c. 43. — Appian. de 
 Pun. II. An Athenian general, who defeat- 
 ed the Persian fleet at Mycale with Leotychides. 
 A statue was erected to his honour in the citadel 
 of Athens. He made some conquests in Thrace, 
 and increased the power of Athens. He was 
 father to the celebrated Pericles by Agariste the 
 niece of Clisthenes, who expelled the Pisistra- 
 tidae from Athens. Paus. 3, c. 7, 1. 8, c. 52. 
 
 III. A son of Pericles, who disgraced his 
 
 father by his disobedience, his ingratitude, and 
 his extravagance. He died of the plague in 
 the Peloponnesian war. Pint. 
 
 Xenarchus, I. a peripatetic philosopher of 
 Seleucia, who taught at Alexandria and at 
 Rome, and was intimate with Augustus, Strab. 
 
 14. II. A praetor of the Achsean league, 
 
 who wished to favour the interest of Perseus, 
 king of Macedonia, against the Romans. 
 
 Xeniades, a Corinthian, who went to buy 
 Diogenes the cynic when sold as a slave. He 
 asked him what he could do "? upon which the 
 "Cynic answered, Command freem&n. This no- 
 ble answer so pleased Xeniades, that he gave 
 the cjTiic his liberty, and intrusted him with 
 the care and education of his children. Diog. 
 — Gell.% c. 18. 
 
 Xenocles, a tragic writer, who obtained four 
 times a poetical prize, in a contention in which 
 Euripides was competitor, either through the 
 ignorance or by the bribery of his judges. The 
 names of his tragedies which obtained the vic- 
 tory, were (Edipus, Lycaon,Bacchae, Athamas 
 Satyricus, against the Alexander, Palamedes, 
 Trojani, and Sisyphus Satyricus, of Euripides. 
 His grandson bore also the name of Xenocles, 
 and excelled in tragical compositions. uElian. 
 V. H. 2, c. 8. 
 
 Xenocrates, I. an ancient philosopher, bom 
 at Chalcedon, and educated in the school of Pla- 
 to, whose friendship he gained and whose ap- 
 probation he merited. Though of a dull and 
 sluggish disposition, he supplied the defects of 
 nature by unwearied attention and industry, and 
 was at last found capable of succeeding in the 
 school of Plato after Speusippus, about 339 years 
 before Christ. He was remarkable as a disci- 
 plinarian, and he required that his pupils should 
 be acquainted with mathematics before they 
 came under his care, and he even rejected some 
 who had not the necessary qualification, saying 
 that they had not yet found the key of philoso- 
 phy. He did not only recommend himself to his 
 pupils by precepts, but more powerfully by ex- 
 ample ; and since the wonderful change he had 
 made upon the conduct of one of his auditors, 
 (Vid. Polemon,) his company was as much 
 shunned by the dissolute and extravagant, as it 
 was courted by the virtuous and the benevolent. 
 Philip of Macedon attempted to gain his con- 
 fidence with money, but with no success. Alex- 
 ander in this imitated his father, and sent some 
 of his friends with 50 talents for the philoso- 
 pher. They were introduced, and supped with 
 Xenocrates. The repast was small, frugal, and 
 elegant without ostentation. On the morrow, the 
 officers of Alexander wished to pay down the 
 50 talents, but the philosopher asked them whe- 
 ther they had not perceived from the entertain- 
 ment of the preceding day, that he was not in 
 want of money : Tell your master, said he, to 
 keep his money, he has more people to maintain 
 than 1 have. Yet, not to offend the monarch, 
 he accepted a small sum, about the 200th part 
 of one talent. His character was not less con- 
 spicuous in every other particular, and he has 
 been cited as an instance of virtue from the fol- 
 lowins: circumstance : Lais had pledged herself 
 to forfeit an immense sum of money if she did 
 not triumph over the virtue of Xenocrates. She 
 tried everv art, but in vain ; and she declared at 
 last that she had not lost her money, as she had 
 pledged herself to conquer a human being, not a 
 lifeless stone; Though so respected and admir- 
 ed, yet Xenocrates was poor, and he was drag- 
 €61 
 
XE 
 
 HISTORY, &a 
 
 XE 
 
 ged to prison because he was unable to pay a 
 small tribute to the state. He was delivered 
 from confinement by one of his friends. His 
 integrity was so well known, that when he ap- 
 peared in the court as a witness, the judges dis- 
 pensed with his oath. He died B. C. 314, in 
 his 82d year, after he had presided in the acad- 
 emy for above 25 years. It is said that he fell 
 in the night with his head into a basin of water, 
 and that he was suffocated. He had written 
 above 60 treatises on different subjects, all now 
 lost. He acknowledged no other deity but hea- 
 ven and the seven planets. — Diog. — Cic. ad 
 Attic. 10, ep. 1, &c. Tusc. 5, c. Z%—Val. Max. 
 
 2, c. 10. — L/iician. II. A physician in the 
 
 age of Nero, not in great esteem. His Greek 
 treatise, de alimento ex aquatilibus, is best edit- 
 ed by Franzius, Lips. 8vo. 1774. 
 
 Xenophanes, I. a Greek philosopher of Colo- 
 phon, disciple of Archelaus, B. C. 535. He 
 wrote several poems and treatises, and founded 
 a sect which was called the Eleatic, in Sicily. 
 Wild in his opinions about astronomy, he sup- 
 posed that the siars were extinguished every 
 morning and rekindled at night ; that eclipses 
 were occasit)ned by the temporary extinction of 
 the sun; that the moon was inhabited, and 18 
 times bigger than the earth ; and that there were 
 several suns and moons for the convenience of 
 the different climates of the earth. He further 
 imagined that God and the world were the same, 
 and he credited the eternity of the universe ; 
 but his incoherent opinion about the divinity 
 raised the indignation of his countrymen, and 
 he was banished. He died very poor when 
 about 100 years old, Cic. quasi. 4, c. 37, de Div. 
 1, c. 3, de Nat. D. 1, c. 11. — Lactant. Div. Inst. 
 
 3, c. 23. II. One of the ministers of Philip, 
 
 who went to Annibal's camp, and made a treaty 
 of alliance between Macedonia and Carthage. 
 
 Xenophilus, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
 who lived to his 170th year, and enjoyed all his 
 faculties to the last. He wrote upon music, and 
 thence he was called the musician. L/ucian. de 
 Macrob.—PUn. 7, c. bO.— Val. Max. 8, c. 13. 
 
 Xenophon, I. an Athenian, son of Gryllus, 
 celebrated as a general, an historian, and a phi- 
 losopher. In the school of Socrates he received 
 those instructions and precepts which after- 
 wards so eminently distinguished him at the 
 head of an army, in literary solitude, and as 
 the father of a family. He was invited by 
 Proxenus, one of his intimate friends, to accom- 
 pany Cyrus the younger in an expedition against 
 his brother Artaxerxes, king of Persia ; but he 
 refused to comply without previously consult- 
 ing his venerable master, and inquiring into 
 the propriety of such a measure. Socrates 
 strongly opposed it, and observed, that it might 
 raise the resentment of his countrymen, as 
 Sparta had made an alliance with the Persian 
 monarch; but, however, before he proceeded 
 further, he advised him to consult the oracle of 
 Apollo. Xenophon paid due deference to the 
 injunctions of Socrates, but as he was ambi- 
 tious of glory, and eager to engage in a distant 
 expedition, he hastened with precipitation to 
 Sardis, where he was introduced to the young 
 prince, and treated with great attention. In the 
 army of Cyrus, Xenophon showed that he was 
 a true disciple of Socrates, and that he had 
 been educated in the warlike city of Athens. 
 662 
 
 After the decisive battle in the plains of Ca- 
 naxa, and the fall of young Cyrus, the prudence 
 and vigour of his mind were called into action. 
 The ten thousand Greeks who had followed 
 the standard of an ambitious prince, were now 
 at the distance of above 600 leagues from their 
 native home, in a country surrounded on every 
 side by a victorious enemy, without money, 
 without provisions, and without a leader. Xe- 
 nophon was selected from among the officers 
 to superintend the retreat of his countrymen, 
 and though he was often opposed by malevo- 
 lence and envy, yet his persuasive eloquence 
 and his activity convinced the Greeks, that no 
 general could extricate them from every diffi- 
 culty better than the disciple of Socrates. This 
 celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; 
 the Greeks returned home after a march of 
 1155parasangs, or leagues, which was perform- 
 ed in 215 days, after an absence of 15 months. 
 Tho whole perhaps might now be forgotten, 
 or at least but obscurely known, if the great 
 philosopher who planned it, had not employed 
 his pen in describing the dangers which he 
 escaped, and the difficulties which he surmount- 
 ed. He was no sooner returned froni Cunaxa, 
 than he sought new honours in following the 
 fortune of Agesilaus in Asia. He enjoyed his 
 confidence, he fought under his standard, and 
 conquered with him in the Asiatic provinces, 
 as well as at the battle of Coronas a. His fame, 
 however, did not escape the aspersions of jea- 
 lousy ; he was publicly banished from Athens 
 for accompanying Cyrus against his brother, 
 and being now without a home, he retired to 
 Scillus, a small town of the Lacedaemonians, in 
 the neighbourhood of Olympia, In this soli- 
 tary retreat he dedicated his, time to literary 
 pursuits, and as he had acquired riches in his 
 Asiatic expeditions, he began to adorn and va- 
 riegate by the hand of art, for his pleasure and 
 enjoyment, the country which surrounded Scil- 
 lus. He built a magnificent temple to Diana, 
 in imitation of that of Ephesus, and spent part 
 of his time in rural employments, or in hunt- 
 ing in the woods and mountains. His peace- 
 ful occupations, however, were soon disturbed: 
 a war arose between the Lacedaemonians and 
 Elis ; the sanctity of Diana's temple, and the 
 venerable age of the philosopher, who lived in 
 the delightful retreats of Scillus, were disre- 
 garded ; and Xenophon, driven by the ^Elians 
 from his favourite spot, where he had com- 
 posed and written for the information of pos- 
 terity and honour of his country, retired to the 
 city of Corinth. In this place he died, in the 
 90th year of his age, 359 years before the Chris- 
 tian era. The works of Xenophon are nume- 
 rous; he wrote an account of the expedition of 
 Cyrus, called the Anabasis, and as he had no 
 inconsiderable share in the enterprise, his de- 
 scriptions must be authentic, as he was himself 
 an eyewitness. Many, however, have accused 
 him of partiality. His Cyropcedia, divided into 
 eight books, has given rise to much criticism ; 
 and while some warmly maintain that it is a 
 faithful account of the "life and the actions of 
 Cyrus the Great, and declare that it is supported 
 by the authority of scripture, others as vehe- 
 mently deny its authenticity. According to the 
 opinions of Plato and of Cicero, the Cyropsedia 
 of Xenophon was a moral romance, and they 
 
XE 
 
 HISTORY, &c 
 
 XB 
 
 support, that the historian did not so much write 
 what Cyrus had been, as what every good and 
 virtuous monarch ought to be. His Hellenica 
 were written as a continuation of the history of 
 Thucydides; and in his Memorabilia of So- 
 crates, and in his Apology^ he has shown him- 
 self, as Valerius Maximus observes, a perfect 
 master of the philosophy of that great man. 
 These are the most famous of his compositions, 
 besides which there are other small tracts ; his 
 eulogium given on Agesilaus, his oeconomics on 
 the duties of domestic life, the dialogue entitled 
 Hiero, in which he happily describes and com- 
 pares the misery which attended the tyrant 
 with the felicity of a virtuous prince ; a treatise 
 on hunting, the symposium of the philosophers, 
 on the government of Athens and Sparta, a 
 treatise on the revenues of Attica, &c. The 
 simplicity and the elegance of Xenophon's dic- 
 tion have procured him the name of the Athe- 
 nian muse and the bee of Greece ; and they have 
 induced Gluintilian to say, that the graces dic- 
 tated his language, and that the goddess of per- 
 suasion dwelt upon his lips. His sentiments, 
 as to the divinity and religion, were the same as 
 those of the venerable Socrates ; he supported 
 the immortality of the soul, and exhorted his 
 friends to cultivate those virtues which insure 
 the happiness of mankind with all the zeal and 
 fervour of a Christian. He has been quoted as 
 an instance of tenderness and resignation to 
 providence. As he was offering a sacrifice, he 
 was informed that Grjdlus, his eldest son, had 
 been killed at the battle of Mantinea. Upon 
 this he tore the garland from his head ; but when 
 he was told that his son had died like a Greek, 
 and had given a mortal wound to Epaminondas, 
 the enemy's general, he replaced the flowers on 
 his head, and continued the sacrifice, exclaim- 
 ing that the pleasure he derived from the valour 
 of his son was greater than the grief which his 
 unfortunate death occasioned. The best edi- 
 tions of Xenophon are those of Leunclavius, 
 fol. Francof 1596 ; of Ernesti, 4 vols. 8vo. Lips. 
 1763 ; and the Glasgow edition, 12Dao. of the 
 Cyropasdia, 1767 ; the expedition of Cyrus, 
 1764 ; the Memorabilia, 1761 ; and the histoiy 
 of Greece, 1762 ; and likewise the edition of 
 Zeunius, published at Leipsic, in 8vo. in 6 vols. 
 between the years 1778 and 1791. Cic. in Orat. 
 19.— FaZ. Max. 5, c. 10.— Quintil. 10, c. 2.— 
 JElian. V. H. 3, c. 13, 1. 4, c. b.—Diog. in 
 Xenoph. — Seneca. II. a writer in the begin- 
 ning of the fourth century, known by his Greek 
 romance in five books, De Amoribus Anthice 
 AbrocomcB, published in 8vo. and 4to. by Coc- 
 
 ceius, Lond. 1726. III. A physician of the 
 
 emperor Claudius, born in the island of Cos, 
 and said to be descended from the Asclepiades. 
 He enjoyed the emperor's favours, and through 
 him the people of Cos were exempt from all 
 taxes. He had the meanness to poison his ben- 
 efactor at the instigation of Agrippina. Tacit. 
 12, Ann. c. 61 and 67. 
 
 Xerxes, I. succeeded his father Darius on 
 the throne of Persia, and though but the second 
 son of the monarch, he was preferred to his elder 
 brother, Artabazanes. The causes alleged for 
 this preference were, that Artabazanes was the 
 son of Darius when a private man, and that 
 Xerxes was bom after his father had been rais- 
 ed on the Persian throne, of Atossa, the daughter 
 
 of Cyrus. Xerxes continued the warlike pre- 
 paraiions of his father, and added the revolted 
 kingdom of Egypt to his extensive possessions. 
 He afterwards invaded Europe, and entered 
 Greece with an army, which, together with the 
 numerous retinue of servants, eunuchs, and wo- 
 men, that aUended it, amounted to no less than 
 5,283,220 souls. This multitude was stopj)ed 
 at Thermopylae, by the valour of 300 Spartans 
 'under King Leonidas. Xerxes, astonished that 
 such a handful of men should dare to oppose his 
 progress, ordered some of his soldiers to bring 
 them alive into his presence ; but for three suc- 
 cessive days the most valiant of the Persian 
 troops were repeatedly defeated in attempting 
 to execute the monarch's injunctions, and the 
 courage of the Spartans might perhaps have 
 triumphed longer, if a Trachinian had not led a 
 detachment to the top of the mormtain, and sud- 
 denly fallen upon the devoted Leonidas. The 
 king himself nearly perished upon this occa- 
 sion ; and it has been reported, that in the night, 
 the desperate Spartans sought, for a while, the 
 royal tent, which they found deserted, and wan- 
 dered through the Persian army, slaughtering 
 thousands before them. The battle of Ther- 
 mopylee was the beginning of the disgrace of 
 Xerxes ; the more he advanced, it was to ex- 
 perience new disappointments, his fleet was de- 
 feated at Artemisium and Salamis, and though 
 he burnt the deserted city of Athens, and trusted 
 to the artful insinuations of Themistocles, yet 
 he found his millions unable to conquer a na- 
 tion that was superior to him in the knowledge 
 of war and maritime affairs. Mortified with 
 the ill success of his expedition; and apprehen- 
 sive of imminent danger in the enemy's coun- 
 try, Xerxes hastened to Persia, and in 30 days 
 he marched over all that territory which before 
 he had passed, with much pomp and parade, in 
 the space of six months. Mardonius, the best 
 of his generals, was left behind with an army of 
 300,000 men, and the rest that had survived the 
 ravages of war, of famine, and pestilence, fol- 
 lowed their timid monarch into Thrace. When 
 he reached the Hellespont, Xerxes found the 
 bridge of boats which he had erected there 
 totally destroyed by the storms, and he crossed 
 the straits in a small fishing vessel. Restored 
 to his kingdom and safety, he forgot his dan- 
 gers, his losses, and his defeats, and gave him- 
 self up to riot and debauchery. His indolence 
 and luxurious voluptuousness offended his 
 subjects, and Artabanus, the captain of his 
 guards, conspired against him and murdered 
 him in his bed, in the 21st year of his reign, 
 about 464 years before the Christian era. 
 The personal accomplishments of Xerxes have 
 been commended by ancient authors; and 
 Herodotus observes, that there was not one 
 man, among the millions of his army, that 
 was equal to the monarch in comeliness or 
 stature, or that was as worthy to preside over a 
 great and extensive empire. The picture is 
 finished, and the character of Xerxes completely 
 known, when we hear Justin exclaim, that the 
 vast armament which invaded Greece was with- 
 out a head. Xerxes has been cited as an in- 
 stance of humanity. When he reviewed his 
 millions from a stately throne in the plains of 
 Asia, he suddenly shed a torrent of tears on the 
 recollection that the multitude of men he sa^jr 
 663 
 
ZA 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ZE 
 
 before his eyes, in one hundred years should be 
 no more. His pride and insolence have been 
 deservedly censured ; he ordered chains to be 
 thrown into the sea, and the waves to be whip- 
 ped, because the first bridge he had laid across 
 the Hellespont had been destroyed by a storm. 
 He cut a channel through mount Athos, and 
 saw his fleet sail in a place which before was 
 dry ground. The very rivers were dried up 
 by his army as he advanced towards Greece, 
 and the cities which he entered reduced to 
 want and poverty. Herodot. 1, c. 183, 1. 7, c. 2, 
 &,c.—Diod. 11.— Strab. d.—jElian. 3, V. H. 25. 
 — Justin. 2, c. 10, &c. — Pans. 3, c. 4, 1. 8, c. 46. 
 — iMcan. 2. V. 672. — Plut. in Them. &c. — Vol. 
 Max. — Isocrat. in Panath. — Seneca, de Const. 
 
 Sap. 4. The II. succeeded his father Arta- 
 
 xerxes Longimanus on the throne of Persia, 425 
 B. C. and was assassinated in the first year of 
 his reign by his brother Sogdianus. 
 
 Zacynthus, a native of Boeotia, who accom- 
 panied Hercules when he went into Spain to 
 destroy Geryon. At the end of the expedition 
 he was intrusted with the care of Geryon's 
 flocks by the hero, and ordered to conduct them 
 to Thebes. As he went on his journey, he was 
 bit by a serpent, and some time after died. His 
 companions carried his body away, and buried 
 it in an island of the Ionian sea, which from 
 that time was called Zacynthus. The island of 
 Zacynthus, now called Zante, is situated at the 
 south of Cephallenia, and at the west of the Pe- 
 loponnesus. It is about 60 miles in circumfe- 
 rence. Liv. 26, c. 2i.—Plin. 4, c. 12.— Strab. 
 2 and S.—Mela. 2, c. l.— Homer. Od. 1, v. 246, 
 1. 9, V. 2^.— Ovid, de Art. Am. 2, v. 432.— Pans. 
 4, c. 23.— Virg. Mn. 3, v. 270. 
 
 Zaleucus, a lawgiver of the Locrians, in Ita- 
 ly, and one of the disciples of Pythagoras, 550 
 B. C. He was very humane, and at the same 
 time very austere, and he attempted to enforce 
 the laws more by inspiring shame than dread. 
 He had decreed that a person guilty of adultery 
 should lose both his eyes. His philosophy was 
 called to a trial when he was informed that his 
 son was an adulterer. He ordered the law to 
 be executed; the people interfered, but Zaleu- 
 cus resisted, and rather than violate his own 
 institutions, he commanded one of his own 
 eyes, and one of those of his son, to be put out. 
 This made such an impression upon the people, 
 that while Zaleucus presided over the Locrians, 
 no person was again found guilty of adultery. 
 Val. Max. 1, c. 2, 1. 6, c. 5, — Cic. de Leg. 2, c, 
 6, ad Attic, 6, ep. l.—Mlian. V. H. 2, c. 37, 1. 3, 
 c. 17, I. 13, c. 24.— Strab. 6. 
 
 Zamolxis, or Zalmoxis, a slave and disciple 
 of Pythagoras. He accompanied his master in 
 Egypt, and afterwards retired into the country 
 of the Getge, which had given him birth. He 
 began to civilize his countrymen ; and the more 
 easily to gain reputation, he concealed himself 
 for three years in a subterraneous cave, and af- 
 terwards made them believe that he was just 
 raised from the dead. Some place him before 
 the age of Pythagoras. After death he received 
 divine honours. Died. — Herodot. 4, c. 19, &c. 
 
 Zarbienus, a petty monarch of Asia, who 
 
 was gained to the interest of the Romans by one 
 
 664 
 
 of the officers of Lucullus. Tigranes put him 
 to death for his desertion, and his funeral was 
 celebrated with great magnificence by the Ro- 
 man general. Plut. in Lmc. 
 
 Zebina, Alexander, an imposter, who usurp- 
 : ed the throne of Syria at the instigation of Pto- 
 ! lemy Physcon, 
 
 i Zeno, I. a philosopher of Elia or Velia, in Ita- 
 ! ly, the disciple, or according to some, the adopt- 
 j ed son of Parmenides, and the supposed inventor 
 of dialectic. His opinions about the universe, 
 the unity, incomprehensibility, and immutabi- 
 lity of all things, were the same with those of 
 Xenophanes and the rest of the Eleatic philoso- 
 phers. It is said that he attempted to deliver 
 his country from the tyranny of Nearchus. His 
 plot was discovered, and he was exposed to the 
 most excruciating torments to reveal the names 
 of his accomplices ; but this he bore with un- 
 paralleled fortitude, and, not to be at last con- 
 quered by tortures, he cut off" his tongue with his 
 teeth, and spit it into the face of the tyrant. 
 Some say that he was pounded alive in a mor- 
 tar, and that in the midst of his torments he 
 called to Nearchus, "as if to reveal something of 
 importance; the tyrant approached, him, and 
 Zeno, as if willing to whisper to him, caught 
 his ear with his teeth, and bit it off". Cic. Tusc. 
 2, c. 22, de Nat. D. 3, c. 2,3.—Diod. in Frag.— 
 
 Val. Max. 3, c. Z.—Diog. 9. II. The founder 
 
 of the sect of the stoics, born at Ctium, in the 
 island of Cyprus. The first part of his life was 
 spent in commercial pursuits, but he was soon 
 called to more elevated employments. As he 
 was returning from Phoenicia, a storm drove his 
 ship on the coast of Attica, and he was ship- 
 wrecked near the Piraeus. He entered the house 
 of a bookseller, and, to dissipate his melancholy 
 reflections he began to read. The book was 
 written by Xenophon, and the merchant was so 
 captivated by the eloquence and beauties of the 
 philosopher, that from that time he renounced 
 the pursuits of a busy life, and applied himself to 
 the study of philosophy. Ten years were spent 
 in frequenting the school of Crates, and the same 
 number under Stilpo,Xenocrates, and Polemon. 
 Perfect in every branch of knowledge, and im- 
 proved from experience as well as observation, 
 Zeno opened a school at Athens, and soon saw 
 himself attended by the great, the learned, and 
 the powerful. His followers were called Stoics, 
 because they received the instruction of the 
 philosopher in the portico called sroa. He was 
 so respected during his lifetime, that the Athe- 
 nians publicly decreed him a brazen statue, and 
 a crown of gold, and engraved their decree, to 
 give it more publicity, on two columns in the 
 academy, and in the Lyceum. His life v/as an 
 example of soberness and moderation, his man- 
 ners were austere, and to his temperance and 
 regularity he was indebted for the continual 
 flow of health which he always enjoyed. After 
 he had taught publicly for 48 years, he died in 
 the 96th year of his age, B. C. 264, He was 
 buried in that part of the city called Ceramicus, 
 where the Athenians raised him a monument. 
 The founder of the stoic philosophy shone be- 
 fore his followers as a pure example of imitation. 
 He wished to live in the world asif nothing was 
 properly his own ; he loved others, and his af- 
 fections were extended even to his enemies. He 
 felt a pleasure in being kind, benevolent, and 
 
ZE 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ZE 
 
 attentive ; and he found that these sentiments of i 
 pleasure were reciprocal. He saw a connexion 
 and dependance in the universe, and perceived i 
 that from thence arose the harmony of civil so- i 
 ciety. the tenderness of parents, and filial grat- 1 
 itude. In the attainment of virtue the goods | 
 of the mind were to be preferred to those of the j 
 body, and when that point was once gained, ! 
 nothing could equal our happiness and perfec- ' 
 tion ; and the stoic would view with indifference-' 
 health or sickness, riches or poverty, pain and 
 pleasure, which could neither move nor influ- 
 ence the serenity of his mind. Zeno recom- ; 
 mended resignation ; he knew that the laws of j 
 the universe cannot be changed by man, and 
 therefore he wished that his disciples should 
 not in prayer deprecate impending calamities, i 
 but rather beseech Providence to grant them | 
 fortitude to bear the severest trials with pleas- 
 ure and due resignation to the will of Heaven. ' 
 An arbitrary command over the passions was 1 
 one of the rules of stoicism, to assist our friends 
 in the hour of calamity was our duty, but to 
 give way to childish sensations was unbecoming ; 
 our nature. Pity, therefore, and anger were [ 
 to be banished from the heart, propriety and 
 decorum were to be the guides in every thing, 
 and the external actions of men were the best 
 indications of their inward feelings, their secret 
 inclinations, and their character. It was the 
 duty of the stoic to study himself; in the evening 
 he was enjoined to review with critical accuracy 
 the events of the day, and to regulate his fu- 
 ture conduct with more care, and always to find 
 an impartial witness within his own breast. 
 Such were the leading characters of the stoic 
 philosophy, whose followers were so illustrious, 
 so perfect, and so numerous, and whose effects 
 were productive of such exemplary virtues in 
 the annals of the human mind. Zeno in his 
 maxims used to say, that with virtue men could 
 live happy under the most pressing calamities. 
 He said that nature had given us two ears, 
 and only one mouth, to tell us that we ought to 
 listen more than speak. He compared those 
 whose actions were dissonant with their pro- 
 fessions to the coin of Alexandria, which ap- 
 peared beautiful to the eye though made of the 
 iDasest metals. He acknowledged only one God, 
 the soul of the universe, which he conceived to 
 be the body, and therefore believed that those 
 two together united, the soul and the body, 
 formed one perfect animal, v/hich was the god 
 of the stoics. Amongst the mo3t illustrious 
 followers of his doctrine, and as the most re- 
 spectable writers, may be mentioned Epictetus, 
 Seneca, the emperor Antoninus, &c. Cic. Acad. 
 1, c. 12, de Nat. D. 1, c. 14, 1. 2, c. 8 and 24, 1. 
 3, c. 24, pro. Mur. de Orat. 32, &LC.—Finib.— 
 Seweca. — Epictetus. — Arrian. — Mlian. V. H. 9, 
 c. 26. — Diog. III. An Epicurean philoso- 
 pher of Sidon, who numbered among his pupils 
 Cicero, Pomponius Atticus, Cotta, Pompev, &c. 
 
 Cic. de Nat. D. 1, c. 21 and 34. IV. A 
 
 rhetorician, father to Polemon, who was made 
 king of Pontus. The son of Polemon, who was 
 king of Armenia, was also called Zeno. StraJb. 
 
 12. — Tacit. Ann. 2, c. 56. V, A native of 
 
 Lepreos, son of Calliteles, crowned at the 
 Olympic games and honoured with a statue in 
 the grove of Jupiter and at Olympia. Paiis. 6, 
 c. 15. The name of Zeno was common to 
 
 Part II.— 4 P 
 
 some of the Roman emperors on the throne of 
 Constantinople, in ihe 5th and 6th centuries. 
 
 ZenobiA; I. a queen of Iberia, wife of Rha- 
 damistus. She accompanied her husband when 
 he was banished from his kingdom by the Ar- 
 menians, but as she was unable to follow him 
 on account of her pregnancy, she entreated him 
 to murder her. Rhadamistus long hesitated, 
 but fearful of her falling into the hands of his 
 enemy, he obeyed, and threw her body into the 
 Araxes. Her clothes kept her upon the surface 
 of the water, where she was found by some 
 shepherds, and as the wound was not mortal, 
 her life was preserved, and she was carried to 
 Tiridates, who acknowledged her as queen. 
 Tacit. Ann. 12, c. 51. II. Septimia, a cele- 
 brated princess of Palmyra, who married Ode- 
 natus, whom Gallienus acknowledged as his 
 partner on the Roman throne. After the death 
 of her husband, which, according to some au- 
 thors, she is said to have hastened, Zenobia 
 reigned in the East as regent of her infant chil- 
 dren, who were honoured with the title of Cee- 
 sars. She assumed the name of Augusta, and 
 she appeared in imperial robes, and ordered 
 herself to be styled the queen of the East. The 
 troubles w^hich at that time agitated the western 
 parts of the empire prevented the emperor from 
 checking the insolence and ambition of this 
 princess, w^ho boasted to be sprung from the 
 Ptolemies of Egypt, Aurelian was no sooner 
 invested with the imperial purple than he march- 
 ed into the East, determined to punish the pride 
 of Zenobia. He well knew her valour, and he 
 was not ignorant that, in her wars against the 
 Persians, she had distinguished herself no less 
 than Odenatus. She was the mistress of the 
 East, Egypt acknowledged her power, and all 
 the provinces of Asia Minor were subject to her 
 command. "When Aurelian approached the 
 plains of Syria, the Palmyrean queen appeared 
 at the head of 700,000 men. She bore the la- 
 bours of the field like the meanest of her soldiers, 
 and walked on foot fearless of danger. Two 
 battles were fought ; the courage of the queen 
 gained the superiority, but an imprudent evolu- 
 tion of the Palmyrean cavalry ruined her cause; 
 and while they pursued with spirit the flying 
 enemy, the Roman infantry suddenly fell upon 
 the main body of Zenobia's army, and the de- 
 feat was inevitable. The queen fled to Palmyra, 
 determined to support a siege. Aurelian fol- 
 lowed her, and after he had almost exhausted 
 his stores, he proposed terms of accommodation, 
 which were rejected with disdain by the war- 
 like princess. Her hopes of victory, however, 
 soon vanished, and though she harassed the Ro- 
 mans night and day by continual sallies from 
 her walls, and the working of her military en- 
 gines, she despaired of success when she heard 
 that ihe armies which were marching to her 
 relief from Armenia, Persia, and the East, had 
 partly been defeated and partlybribed from her 
 allegiance. She fled from Palmyra in the night ; 
 but Aurelian, who was apprized of her escape, 
 pursued her, and she was caught as she was 
 crossing the river Euphrates. She was brought 
 into the presence of Aurelian, and though the 
 soldiers were clamorous for her death, she was 
 reserved to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. 
 She was treated with great humanity, and Au- 
 relian gave her large possessions near Tibur, 
 665 
 
Z£ 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ZO 
 
 where she was permitted to live the rest of her 
 days in peace, with all the grandeur and majesty 
 which became a queen of the East and a warlike 
 princess. Her children were patronised by the 
 emperor, and married to persons of the first dis- 
 tinction at Rome. Zenobia has been admired 
 not only for her military abilities, but also for 
 her literary talents. She was acquainted with 
 every branch of useful learning, and spoke with 
 fluency the language of the Egyptians, the 
 Greeks, and the Latins. She composed an 
 abridgment of the history of the oriental nations, 
 and of Egypt, which was greatly commended 
 by the ancients. She received no less honour 
 from the patronage she afforded to the cele- 
 brated Longinus, who was one of her favourites, 
 and who taught her the Greek tongue. She 
 has also been praised for her great chastity and 
 her constancy, though she betrayed too often 
 her propensities to cruelty and intoxication 
 when in the midst of her officers. She fell into 
 the hands of Aurelian about the 273d year of 
 the Christian era. Aur. Vict. — Zos., &c. 
 
 Xenocles, was the shortest of the dwarfish 
 sons of Carcinus. With Philocles andTheog- 
 nis he is thus introduced, in an exemplification 
 of Mnesilochus : — 
 
 h 6l Sevo^fXtjjf ojv KUKos KaKus TToicT. — Thesmoph. 
 169. 
 
 He is mentioned with still more disrespect in 
 the Bancs, (v. 86.) 
 
 'UpaK'Xjjs. h Se ^evoK\eTis ; 
 
 At6vv(TOs. £^6\oiTO vfi Aia. 
 
 Yet this contemptible poet carried off" from Eu- 
 ripides the tragic garland, Olymp. 91st, 2, B. C. 
 415. In the Pax, Aristophanes applies the term 
 [jiri^avoSicpag to the family. From the Scholiast 
 it appears that Xenocles was celebrated for 
 introducing machinery and stage shows, espe- 
 cially in the ascent or descent of his gods. 
 From the two lines in the Nubes, quoted above, 
 we may infer that the father, Carcinus, was, 
 like his son, fond of introducing the deities. 
 
 Zenodorus, a sculptor in the age of Nero. 
 He made a statue of Mercury, as also a colos- 
 sus for the emperor, which was 110 or 120 feet 
 high, and which was consecrated to the sun. 
 The head of this colossus was some time after 
 broken by Vespasian, who placed there the 
 head of an Apollo surrounded with seven beams, 
 each of which was seven feet and a half long. 
 From this famous colossus, the modern coli- 
 seum, whose ruins are now so much admired 
 at Rome, took its name. Plin. 34, c. 7. 
 
 Zenopotus, I. a native of TrcEzene, who 
 wrote a history of Umbria. Dion. Hal. 2 
 
 II. A grammarian of Alexandria, in the age of 
 Ptolemy Soter, by whom he was appointed to 
 take care of the celebrated library of Alexan- 
 dria. He died B. C. 245. 
 
 Zeuxidamus, a king of Sparta, of the family 
 of the Proclidae. He was father of Archidamus, 
 and grandson of Theopompus, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son Archidamus. Pans. 3, c. 7. 
 
 Zeuxidas, a praetor of the Achsean league, 
 deposed because he had proposed to his coun- 
 trymen an alliance with the Romans. 
 
 Zedxis, a celebrated painter, born at Hera- 
 clea, which some suppose to be the Heraclea 
 of Sicily. He flourished about 468 years before 
 G6G 
 
 the Christian era, and was the disciple of Apol- 
 lodorus, and contemporary with Parrhasius. 
 In the art of painting, he not only surpassed all 
 his contemporaries, but also his master, and be- 
 came so sensible, and at the same time so proud, 
 of the value of his pieces, that he refused to 
 sell them, observing that no sum of money, 
 however great, was sufficient to buy them. His 
 most celebrated paintings were his Jupiter, sit- 
 ting on a throne surrounded by the gods ; his 
 Hercules, strangling the serpents in the presence 
 of his affrighted parents ; his modest Penelope; 
 and his Helen, which was afterwards placed in 
 the temple of Juno Lacinia, in Italy. This last 
 piece he had painted at the request of the peo- 
 ple of Crotona, and thai he might not be with- 
 out a model, they sent him the most beautiful 
 of their virgins. Zeuxis examined their naked 
 beauties, and retained five, from whose elegance 
 and graces united, he conceived in his mind 
 the form of the most perfect woman in the 
 universe, which his pencil at last executed with 
 wonderful success. His contest with Parrha- 
 sius is well known ; ( Vid. Parrhasius,) but 
 though he represented nature in such perfection, 
 and copied all her beauties with such exactness, 
 he often found himself deceived. He painted 
 grapes, and formed an idea of the goodness of 
 his piece from the birds which came to eat the 
 fruit on the canvass. But he soon acknowledged 
 that the whole was an ill-executed piece, as the 
 figure of the man who carried the grapes was 
 not done with sufficient expression to terrify the 
 birds. According to some, Zeuxis died from 
 laughing at a comical picture he had made of 
 an old woman. Cic. de Inv. 2, c. 1. — Plut. in 
 Par. &c. — Quintil. 
 
 ZoiLUs, a sophist and grammarian of Amphi- 
 polis, B. C. 259. He rendered himself known 
 by his severe criticisms on the works of Isocrates 
 and Plato, and the poems of Homer, for which 
 he received the name of Homer omastix, or the 
 chastiser of Homer. He presented his criticisms 
 to Ptolemy Philadelphus, but they were rejected 
 with mdignation, though the author declared 
 that he starved for want of bread. Some say 
 that Zoilus was cruelly stoned to death, or ex- 
 posed on a cross, by order of Ptolemy ; while 
 others support that he was burnt alive at Smyr- 
 na. The name of Zoilus, is generally applied 
 to austere critics. The works of this unfortu- 
 nate grammarian are lost. JElian. V. H. 11, 
 c. 10. — Dionys. Hal.— Ovid, de Rem. Am. 266. 
 
 ZoPYRUs, I. a Persian, son of Megabyzus, 
 who, to show his attachment to Darius, the son 
 of Hystaspes, while he besieged Babylon, cut 
 off his ears and nose, and fled to the enemy, 
 telling them that he had received such a treat- 
 ment from his royal master because he had 
 advised him to raise the siege, as the city was 
 impregnable. This was credited by the Baby- 
 lonians, and Zopyrus was appointed com- 
 mander of all their forces. When he had totally 
 gained their confidence, he betrayed the city 
 into the hands of Darius, for which he was 
 liberally rewarded. The regard of Darius for 
 Zopyrus could never be more strongly express- 
 ed than what he used often to say, that he had 
 rather have Zopyrus not mutilated than twenty 
 Babylons. Herodot. 3, c. 154, &c.—Plut. in 
 Apoph. re^. 3.— Justin. 1, c. 10. H. A physi- 
 cian, in the age of Mithridates. He gave the 
 
zo 
 
 HISTORY, &c. 
 
 ZO 
 
 monarch a descriptioD of an antidote which 
 would prevail against all sorts of poisons. The 
 experiment was tried upon criminals, and suc- 
 ceeded. 
 
 Zoroaster, a king of Bactria, supposed to 
 have lived in the age of Ninus, king of Assyria, 
 some time before the Trojan war. According 
 to Justin, he first invented magic, or the doc- 
 trines of the Magi, and rendered himself known 
 by his deep and acute researches in philosophy, 
 the origin of the world, and the study of astron- 
 omy. He was respected by his subjects and 
 contemporaries for his abilities as a monarch, a 
 lawgiver, and a philosopher ; and though many 
 of his doctrines are puerile and ridiculous, yet 
 his followers are still found in numbers in the 
 wilds of Persia and the extensive provinces of 
 India, Like Pythagoras, Zoroaster admitted 
 no visible object of devotion, except fire, which 
 he considered as the most proper emblem of a 
 supreme being ; which doctrines seem to have 
 been preserved by Numa in the worship and 
 ceremonies he instituted in honour of Vesta. 
 According to some of the moderns, the doc- 
 trines, the laws, and regulations of this cele- 
 brated Bactrian are still extant, and they have 
 been lately introduced in Europe, in a French 
 translation, by M. Anquetil. The age of Zo- 
 
 roaster is so little known, ihat some speak of 
 two, three, four, and even six lawgivers of that 
 name. Some authors, who support that two 
 persons only of this name flourished, described 
 the first as an astronomer, living in Babylon, 
 2459 years B. C, whilst the era of the other, 
 who is supposed to have been a native of Per- 
 sia, and the restorer of the religion of the 
 Magi, is fixed 589, and by some 519 years B. 
 C. Justin. 1, c. 1. — August, de Civ. 21, c. 14. 
 —Oros. l.—Plin. 7, c. 10, 1. 30, c. 1. 
 
 ZosiMus, an officer in the reign of Theodo- 
 sius the younger, about the year 410 of the 
 Christian era. He wrote the history of the 
 Roman emperors in Greek, from the age of 
 Augustus to the beginning of the fifth century, 
 of which only the five first books, and the be- 
 ginning of the sixth, are extant. In the first of 
 these he is very succinct in his account from the 
 time of Augustus to the reign of Diocletian, but 
 in the succeeding he becomes more diffuse and 
 interesting. His composition is written with 
 elegance, but not much fidelity ; and the author 
 showed his malevolence against the Christians 
 in his history of Constantine and some of his 
 successors. The best editions of Zosimus are 
 that of Cellarius, 8vo. Jense, 1728, and that of 
 Reitemier, Svo. Lips. 1784. 
 667 
 
PART in. 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AG 
 
 Abaris, a Scythian, son of Seuthes, in the 
 age of Croesus or the Trojan war, who receiv- 
 ed a flying arrow from Apollo, with which he 
 gave oracles, and transported himself wherever 
 he pleased. He is said to have returned to the 
 Hyperborean countries from Athens without 
 eating, and to have made the Trojan Palladium 
 with the bones of Pelops, Some suppose that 
 he wrote treatises in Greek ; and it is reported, 
 that there is a Greek manuscript of his epistles 
 to Phalaris in the library of Augsburg. But 
 there were probably two persons of that name. 
 Herodot. 4, c. ZQ.—Strab. l.—Paus. 3, c. 13. 
 
 Abas, I. a son of Metanira, or Melaninia, 
 changed into a lizard for laughing at Ceres. 
 
 Ovid. Met. 5, fab. 7. 11. The 11th king of 
 
 Argos, son of Belus, some say of Lynceus and 
 Hypermnestra, was famous for his genius and 
 valour. He was father to Proetus and Acrisius, 
 by Ocalea, and built Abae. He reigned 23 
 years, B. C. 1384. Pans. 2, c. 16, 1. 10, c. 35.— 
 Hygin. 170, &.c.—Apollod. 2, c. 2. Vid. Parts 
 I. and II. 
 
 Abderus, a man of Opus in Locris, armour- 
 bearer to Hercules, torn to pieces by the mares 
 of Diomedes, which the hero had intrusted to 
 his care when going to war against the Bis- 
 tones. Hercules built a city, which, in honour 
 of his friend, he called Abdera. Apollod. 2, c. 
 5. — Philostrat. 2, c. 25. 
 
 Abrota, the wife of Nisus, the youngest of 
 the sons of ^geus. As a monument to her 
 chastity, Nisus, after her death, ordered the gar- 
 ment which she wore to become the models of 
 fashion in Megara. Plut. Qucest. Grac. 
 
 Abseus, a giant, son of Tartarus and Terra, 
 Hygin. Prcef. fab. 
 
 Arsvrtus, a son of iEetes, king of Colchis, 
 and Hypsea. His sister Medea, as she fled 
 away with Jason, tore his body to pieces, and 
 strewed his limbs in her father's way to stop 
 his pursuit. Some say that she murdered him 
 in Colchis ; others, near Istria. It is said by 
 others that he was not murdered, but that he 
 arrived safe in Illyricum. The place where he 
 was killed has been called Tomos, and the river 
 adjoining to it Absyrtos. Lucan. 3, v. 190. — 
 Strab. 7. — Hygin. fab. 23. — Apollod. 1, c. 9. — 
 Flacc. 8, v. 261.— Ovid. Trist. 3 el. 9.—Cic. de 
 Nat. D. 3, c. 19.— Plin. 3, c. 21 and 26. 
 
 Agagallis, I. a nymph, mother of Philander 
 
 and Phylacis by Apollo. These children were 
 
 exposed to the wild b'easts in Crete ; but a goat 
 
 gave them her milk, and preserved their life. 
 
 668 
 
 AC 
 
 Pans. 10, c. 16. II. A daughter of Minos, 
 
 mother of Cydon, by Mercury, and of Am- 
 phithemis by Apollo. Pans. 8, c. b3.—Apollon. 
 4, V. 1493. 
 
 AcADEMus, an Athenian, who discovered to 
 Castor and Pollux where Theseus had conceal-r 
 ed their sister Helen, for which they amply re- 
 warded him. Plut. in Thes. 
 
 AcALLE, a daughter of Minos andPasiphae. 
 Apollod. 3, c. 1. 
 
 AcAMAs, son of Theseus and Phaedra, went 
 with Diomedes to demand Helen from the Tro- 
 jans after her elopement from Menelaus. In 
 his embassy he had a son, called Munitus, by 
 Laodice, the daughter of Priam. He was con- 
 cerned in the Trojan war, and afterwards built 
 the town of Acamentum, in Phrygia, and on 
 his return to Greece called a tribe after his own 
 name at Athens. Paus. 10, c. 26. — Q. Calab. 
 m— Hygin. 108. 
 
 AcANTHA, a nymph loved by Apollo, and 
 changed into the flower Acanthus. 
 
 AcASTus, son of Pelias, king of Thessaly, by 
 Anaxibia, married Astydamia or Hippolyte, 
 who fell in love with Peleus, son of iEacus, 
 when in banishment at her husband's court. 
 Peleus, rejecting the addresses of Hippolyte, 
 was accused before Acastus of attempts upon 
 her virtue, and soon after, at a chase, exposed 
 to wild beasts. Vulcan, by order of Jupiter, 
 delivered Peleus, who returned to Thessaly, 
 and put to death Acastus and his wife. Vid. 
 Peleus and Astydamia. — Ovid. Met. 8, v. 306. 
 —Heroid. 13, v." 'ih.— Apollod. 1, c. 9, &c. 
 
 AccA Laurentia, the wife of Faustulus, 
 shepherd of king Numitor's flocks, who brought 
 up Romulus and Remus, who had been exposed 
 on the banks of the Tiber. Diomjs. Hal. 1, 
 c. \S.—Liv. 1, c. 4:.—Aul. Gell. 6, c. 7. Vid. 
 Part II. 
 
 AcEsius, a surname of Apollo, in Elis and 
 Attica, as god of medicine. Paus. 6, c. 24. 
 
 Achel6ides, a patronymic given to the Si- 
 rens as daughters of Achelous. Ovid. Met. 5, 
 fab. 15. 
 
 Achel6us, the son of Oceanus or Sol, by 
 Terra or Tethys, god of the river of the same 
 name in Epiras. As one of the numerous 
 suiters of Dejanira, daughter of (Eneus, he 
 entered the lists against Hercules, and being 
 inferior, changed himself into a serpent, and 
 afterwards into an ox. Hercules broke oflf one 
 of his horns, and Achelous being defeated, re- 
 tired in disgrace into his bed of waters. The 
 
AC 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AD 
 
 broken horn was taken up by the nymphs, and 
 filled with fruits and flowers ; and after it had 
 for some time adorned the hand of the con- 
 queror, it was presented to the goddess of 
 Plenty. Some say that he was changed into a 
 river after the victory of Hercules. This river 
 is said by some to have sprung from the earth 
 after the deluge, Herodot. 2, c. 10.— Strab. 10. 
 Vid. Part I. 
 Achilles. Vid. Part II. 
 AciDALiA, a surname of Venus, from a foun- 
 tain of the same name in Bceotia, sacred to her. 
 The Graces bathed in the fountain. Virg. JEn. 
 1, v. 12Q.— 0vid. Fast. 4, v. 468. 
 
 Acis, a shepherd of Sicily, son of Faunus 
 and the nymph Simaethis. Galataea passionate- 
 ly loved him ; upon which his rival, Polyphe- 
 mus, through jealousy, crushed him to "death 
 with a piece of a broken rock. The gods chang- 
 ed Acis into a stream which rises from mount 
 ^tna. Ovid. Met. 13. fab. 8. 
 
 AcMONiDEs, one of the Cyclops. Ovid. Fast. 
 4, V. 288. 
 
 AccETES, the pilot of the ship whose crew 
 found Bacchus asleep, and carried him away. 
 As they ridiculed the god, they were changed 
 into sea monsters, but Acoetes was preserved. 
 Ovid. Met. 3, fab. 8, &c. 
 
 AcoNTEUs, a famous hunter, changed into a 
 stone by the head of Medusa, at the nuptials of 
 Perseus and Andromeda. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 201. 
 AcoNTiDs, a youth of Cea, who, when he 
 went to Delos to see the sacrifices of Diana, fell 
 in love with Cydippe, a beautiful virgin, and 
 being unable to obtain her, on account of the 
 obscurity of his origin, wrote these verses on 
 an apple, which he threw into her bosom : — 
 
 Juro tibi sanctce per mystica sacra Diana 
 
 Me tibi venturam comitem, sponsamque futuram. 
 
 Cydippe read the verses, and being compelled 
 by the oath she had inadvertently made, mar- 
 ried Acontius. Ovid. Her. ep. 20. 
 
 AcR.Ei, a surname of Diana, from a temple 
 built to her by Melampus, on a mountain near 
 Argos. A surname of Juno. Paus. 2, c. 17. 
 
 AcRisius, son of Abas, king of Argos, by 
 Ocalea, daughter of Mantineus. He was born 
 at the same birth as Proetus, with whom it is 
 said that he quarrelled even in his mother's 
 womb. After many dissensions Proetus was 
 driven from Argos. Acrisius had Danae by 
 Eurydice, daughter of Lacedsemon ; and being 
 told by an oracle that his daughter's son would 
 put him to death, he confined Danae in a 
 brazen tower, to prevent her becoming a 
 mother. She, however, became pregnant, by 
 Jupiter, changed into a golden shower; and 
 though Acrisius ordered her, and her infant 
 called Perseus, to be exposed on the sea, yet 
 they were saved ; and Perseus soon after be- 
 came so famous for his actions, that Acrisius, 
 anxious to see so renowned a grandson, went 
 to Larissa. Here Perseus, wishing to show his 
 skill in throwing a quoit, killed an old man, who 
 proved to be his grandfather, whom he knew 
 not, and thus the oracle was unhappily fulfilled. 
 Acrisius reigned about 31 years. Hys;in. fab. 
 ^.—Ovid. Met. 4, fab. \&.—Horat. 3, od. 16.— 
 Apollod. 2, c. 2, &c.—Paus. 2, c. 16, Sic.— Vid. 
 Danae, Perseus, Polydectes. 
 
 ActjI^on, a famous huntsman, son of Aris- 
 
 tajus and Autonoe daughter of Cadmus, whence 
 he is called Autoneius keros. He saw Diana and 
 her attendants bathing near Gargaphia, for 
 which he was changed into a stag, and devour- 
 ed by his own dogs. Paus. 9, c. 2.— Ovid. 
 Met. 3, fab. 3. 
 
 ACT.EUS, a powerful person, who made him- 
 self master of a part of Greece, which he called 
 Attica. His daughter Agraulos married Ce- 
 erops, whom the Athenians called their first 
 king, though Actaeus reigned before him. Paus. 
 1, c. 2 and 14. 
 
 AcTis, son of Sol, went from Greece into 
 Egypt, where he taught astrology, and founded 
 Heliopolis. Diod. 5. 
 
 Actor, I. a companion of Hercules in his 
 
 expedition against the Amazons. II. The 
 
 father of Menoetius by iEgina, whence Patro- 
 clus is called Actorides. Ovid. Trist. 1, el. 8. 
 
 III. The father of Eurytus, and brother of 
 
 Augeas. Apollod. 2, c. 7. 
 
 Actorides, two brothers, so fond of each 
 other, that, in driving a chariot, one generally 
 held the reins and the other the whip ; whence 
 they are represented with two heads, four feet, 
 and one body. Hercules conquered them. Pin- 
 dar. 
 
 Adad, a deity among the Assyrians, supposed 
 to be the sun. 
 
 Adamant^a, Jupiter's nurse in Crete, who 
 suspended him in his cradle to a tree, that he 
 might be found neither in the earth, tlie sea, nor 
 in heaven. To drown the infant's cries, she 
 had drums beat, and cymbals sounded, around 
 the tree. Hygin. fab. 139. 
 
 Addephagia, a goddess of the Sicilians. 
 JElian. 1, V. H. c. 27. 
 
 Ades. Vid. Hades. 
 
 Admeta, daughter of Eurystheus, was priest- 
 ess of Juno's temple at Argos. 
 
 Admetds, son of Pheres and Clymene, king 
 of Pheree, in Thessaly. Apollo, banished from 
 heaven, is said to have tended his flocks for 
 nine years, and to have obtained from the 
 Parcae, that Admetus should never die if 
 another person laid down his life for him, 
 which his wife Alceste did, devoting herself 
 voluntarily to death. Admetus was one of the 
 Argonauts, and was at the hunt of the Calydo- 
 nian boar. Pelias promised his daughter in 
 marriage only to him who could bring him a 
 chariot drawn by a lion and a wild boar ; and 
 Admetus effected this by the aid of Apollo, and 
 obtained Alceste's hand. Senec. in Medea. — 
 Hy^in. fab. 50, 51 & 2^^.— Ovid, de Art. Am. 
 ^.—Apollod. 1, c. 8 & 9, &c. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Adonis, son of Cinyras, by Myrrha, {vid. 
 Myrrha,) was .the favourite of Venus. He was 
 fond of hunting, and at last received a mortal 
 bite from a wild boar which he had wounded, 
 and Venus changed him into a flower called 
 anemony. Proserpine is said to have restored 
 him to life, on condition that he should spend 
 six months with her and the rest of the year 
 with Venus. This implies the alternate return 
 of summer and winter. Adonis is often taken 
 for Osiris, because the festivals of both were 
 often begun with mournful lamentations, and 
 finished with a revival of joy, as they were re- 
 turning to life again. Adonis had temples raised 
 to his memory, and is said by some to have been 
 beloved by Apollo and Bacchus. Apollod. 3, c. 
 669 
 
^a 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 MQ 
 
 U.—Propert. 2, el. 13, v. b3.— Virg. Eel. 10, v. 
 IS— Bion. in Adon.—Hygin. 58, 164, 248, &c. 
 — Ovid. Met. 10, fab, \Q.—Musa\is de Her.— 
 Pans. 2, c. 20, 1. 9, c. 41. 
 
 Adrastia, I. a daughter of Jupiter and Ne- 
 cessity. She IS called by some Nemesis, and is 
 the punisher of injustice. The Egyptians placed 
 her above the moon, whence she looked down 
 
 upon the actions of men. Strab. 13. II. A 
 
 daughter of Melisseus, to whom some attribute 
 the nursing of Jupiter. She is the same as 
 Adrasta. Apol. 1, c. 1. 
 Adrastus. Vid. Part II. 
 tEa, a huntress, changed into an island of the 
 same name by the gods, to rescue her from 
 the pursuit of her lover, the river Phasis. It 
 had a town called ^a, which was the capital 
 of Colchis. Flacc. 5, v. 420. 
 
 jEacds, son of Jupiter by iEgina, daughter 
 of Asopus, was king of the island of CEnopia, 
 which he called by his mother's name. A pes- 
 tilence having destroyed all his subjects, he en- 
 treated Jupiter to re-people his kingdom ; and 
 according to his desire, all the ants which were 
 in an old oak were changed into men, and called 
 by jEacus myrmidons, from nvpun^., an ant. — 
 iEacus married Endeis, by whom he had Tela- 
 mon and Peleus. He afterwards had Phocus 
 by Psamathe, one of the Nereids. He was a 
 man of such integrity that the ancients have 
 made him one of the judges of hell, with Minos 
 and Rhadamanthus. Horat. 2, od. 13, 1. 4. od. 
 S.—Paus. 1, c. 44, 1. 2, c. 29.— Ovid. Met. 7, 
 fab. 25, 1. 13, V. 2b.—Propert. 4, el. 12.— Pint, 
 de consol. ad Apoll. — ApoUod. 3, c. 12. — Diod. 4. 
 Mm, or Mea.. Vid. JEa. 
 JEcHMACORAS, a son of Hercules and Phyl- 
 lone, daughter of Alcimedon, by whom he was 
 exposed with his mother, to wild beasts, and 
 miraculously saved by Hercules. Pans. 8, 12. 
 JEdon, daughter of Pandarus, married Ze- 
 thus, brother to Amphion, by whom she had a 
 son called Itylus. — She was so jealous of her 
 sister Niobe, because she bad more children 
 than herself, that she resolved to murder the 
 elder, who was educated with Itylus. She by 
 mistake killed her own son, and was changed 
 into a goldfinch as she attempted to kill herself. 
 Homer. Od. 19, v. 518. 
 
 jEeta, or ^ETES, king of Colchis, son of 
 Sol and Perseis, daughter of Oceanus, was 
 father of Medea, Absyrtus, and Chalciope by 
 Idya, one of the Oceanides. He killed Phryxus, 
 son of Athamas, who had fled to his court on a 
 golden ram. This murder he committed to 
 obtain the fleece of the golden ram. The Ar- 
 gonauts came against Colchis, and recovered 
 the golden fleece by means of Medea, though 
 it was guarded by bulls that breathed fire, and 
 by a venemous dragon. Their expedition has 
 been celebrated by all the ancient poets. Vid. 
 Jason, Medea, and Phryxus. ApoUod. 1, c. 9. 
 — Ovid. Met. 7, fab. 1, &c.—Paus. 2 c. 3. — 
 Justin. 43, c. 2. — Flacc. and Orpheus in Ar- 
 gon. 
 Mgjeon, I. one of Lycaon's fifty sons. Apol- 
 
 lod. 3, c. 8. II. The son of Coelus, or of 
 
 Pontus and Terra, the same as Briareus. It is 
 supposed that he was a notorious pirate, chiefly 
 residing at ^ga, whence his name ; and that 
 the fable about his one hundred hands arises 
 from his having one hundred men to manage 
 670 
 
 his oars in his piratical excursions. Virg. j:En. 
 10, V. bQb.—Hesiod. Th: Wd.— Homer. IL. 10, v. 
 AQA.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 10. 
 
 ^geria. Vid. Egeria. 
 
 jEgesta, the daughter of Hippotes, and mo- 
 ther of ^gestus, called Acestes. Virg. jEn. 
 1, V. 554. Vid. Part I. 
 
 ^Egeus, king of Athens, son of Pandion, 
 being desirous of having children, went to con- 
 sult the oracle, and in his return, stopped at 
 the court of Pittheus, king of Troezene, who 
 gave him his daughter ^thra in marriage. 
 He left her pregnant, and told her, that if she 
 had a son, to send him to Athens as soon as he 
 could lift a stone under w^hich he had concealed 
 his sword. By this sword he was to be known 
 to -Egeus, who did not wish to make any public 
 discovery of a son, for fear of his nephews, the 
 Pallantides, who expected his crown. jEthra 
 became mother of Theseus, whom she accord- 
 ingly sent to Athens with his father's sword. 
 At that time iEgeus lived with Medea, the di- 
 vorced wife of Jason. When Theseus came to 
 Athens, Medea attempted to poison him ; but he 
 escaped, and upon showing ^geus the sword 
 he wore, discovered himself to be his son. 
 When Theseus returned from Crete, after the 
 death of the Minotaur, he forgot, agreeable to 
 the engagement made with his father, to hoist 
 up white sails as a signal of his success; 
 and iEgeus, at the sight of black sails, con- 
 cluding that his son was dead, threw himself 
 from a high rock into the sea ; which from him, 
 as some suppose, has been called the iEgean. 
 JEgeus reigned forty-eight years, and died B. C. 
 1235. He is supposed to have first introduced 
 into Greece the worship of Venus Urania, to 
 render the goddess propitious to his wishes in 
 having a son. Vid. Theseus, Minotaurus, and 
 Medea. ApoUod. 1, c. 8, 9, 1. 3, c. 15. — Paus. 
 1, c. 5, 22, 38, 1. 4, c. 2.—Plut. in Thes.— 
 Hygin. fab. 37, 43, 79, and 173. 
 
 JEgiale, one of Phaeton's sisters, changed 
 into poplars, and their tears into amber. They 
 are called Heliades. 
 
 tEgialeus, I. son of Adrastus by Amphitea 
 or Demoanassa, was one of the Epigoni. They 
 all returned home safe, except ^gialeus, who 
 was killed. Paus. 1, c. 43, 44, 1. 2, c. 20, 1. 9, c. 
 5. — ApoUod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 7. — -II. The same 
 as Absyrtus, brother to Medea. Justin. 42, c. 
 3. Cic. de Nat. D. 2.— Diod. 4. 
 
 .-Egina, daughter of Asopus, had .^acus by 
 Jupiter, changed into a flame of fire. Some say 
 that she was changed by Jupiter into the island 
 which bears her name. Plm. 4, c. 12. — Strab. 
 8.— Mela, 2, c. 1.— ApoUod. 1, c. 9, L 3, c. 12.— 
 Paus. 2, c. 5 and 29. Vid. Part I. 
 
 iEoiScHus, a surname of Jupiter, from his 
 being brought up by the goat Amalthaea, and 
 using her skin, instead of a shield, in the war 
 of the Titans. Diod. 5. 
 
 iEciPAN, a name of Pan, because he had 
 goat's feet, 
 
 ^gis, the shield of Jupiter, ai:o rrn atyos, a 
 goafs skin. Jupiter gave this shield to Pallas, 
 who placed upon it Medusa's head, which turn- 
 ed into stones all those who fixed their eyes 
 upon it. Virg. jEn. 8, v. 352 and 435. 
 
 ^GisTHUs. Vid. Part II. 
 
 .^GLEjthe youngest daughter of -ffisculapius 
 and Lampetia. 
 
MS 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AG 
 
 .^GOBOLUSj a surname of Bacchus at Potnia, 
 in. Boeotia. 
 
 jEgoceros, or Capricornus, an animal into 
 which Pan transformed himself when flying 
 before Typhon, in the war with the giants. Ju- 
 piter made him a constellation. Lucret. 1, v. 613. 
 
 ^Egypanes, a fabulous country in the middle 
 of Africa, said to be inhabited by monsters. 
 Mda, 1, c. 4 and 8. 
 
 jEgyptus, son of Belus, and brother to Da- 
 naus, gave his 50 sons in marriage to the 50 
 daughters of his brother. He was killed by his 
 niece Polyxena. Vid. Danaus, Danaides, Lijn- 
 ceus. ^gyptus was king, after his father, of 
 a part of Africa, which from him has been 
 called iEgyptus. Hygin. fab. 168, 170. — Apol- 
 lod. 2, c. 1. — Ovid. Beroid. 14. — Pans. 7, c. 21, 
 Vid. Part I. 
 
 -Ello, one of the Harpies (from atXXa tem- 
 pestas.) Fiac. 4, v. A50.—Hesiod. Th. 267.— 
 Ovid. Met. 13, v. 710. 
 
 iELTjRus, (<z cat,) a deity worshipped by the 
 Egyptians; and, after death, embalmed, and 
 buried in the city of Bubastis. Herodot. 2, c. 
 m, &c.—Diod. l.—Cic. de Nat.D. \.—A. Gell. 
 20, c. l.—Plut. in Pr. 
 
 .^NEAS. Vid. Part II. 
 
 .^OLUs, the king of storms and winds, was 
 the son of Hippotas. He reigned over ^olia; 
 and because he was the inventor of sails, and 
 a great astronomer, the poets have called him 
 the god of the wind. The name seems to be 
 derived from aio\os, various, because the winds 
 over which he presided are ever varying — 
 There were tM'^o others, a king of Etruria, father 
 to Macareus and Canace, and a son of Helle- 
 nus, often confounded with the god of the winds. 
 The last married Enaretta, by whom he had 
 seven sons and five daughters. Apollod. 1, c. 7. 
 —Homer. Od. 10, v. I.— Ovid. Met. II, v. 478, 
 1. 14, V. 224. — Apollon. 4, Argon. — Flacc. 1, v, 
 bm.—Diod. 4 and b.— Virg. jEn. 1, v. 56, &c. 
 
 ^PYTUs. Vid. Part II. 
 
 iEscuLAPiiJs, son of Apollo, by Coronis, or, 
 as some say, by Larissa, daughter of Phlegias, 
 was god of medicine. The god, in a fit of anger, 
 destroyed Coronis with lightning, but saved the 
 infant from her womb, and gave him to be 
 educated to Chiron, who taught him the art of 
 medicine. Some authors say that Coronis 
 exposed her child near Epidaurus. A goat of 
 the flocks of Aresthanas gave him her milk, 
 and the dog who kept the flock stood by him to 
 shelter him from injury. He was found by the 
 master of the flock, who went in search of his 
 stray goat, and saw his head surrounded with 
 resplendent rays of light. JEsculapius was 
 physician to the Argonauts, and considered so 
 skilled in the medicinal power of plants, that 
 he was called the inventor, as well as the god of 
 medicine. He restored many to life, of which 
 Pluto complained to Jupiter, who struck jEscu- 
 lapius with thunder. He received divine hon- 
 ours after death, chiefly at Epidaurus, Perga- 
 mus, Athens, Smyrna, &c. Goats, bulls, lambs, 
 and pigs were sacrificed on his altars; and the 
 cock and the serpent were sacred to him. ^s- 
 culapius was represented with a large beard, 
 holding in his hand a stafi", round which was 
 wreathed a serpent; his other hand was sup- 
 ported on the head of a serpent. He married 
 Epione, by whom he had two sons, famous for 
 
 their skill in medicine, Machaon and Podalirus; 
 and four daughters, of whom Hygiea, goddess 
 of health, is the most celebrated. Some have 
 supposed that he lived a short time after the 
 Trojan war. Hesiod makes no mention of him. 
 Homer. H. 4, v. 193. Hymn, in JEscul. — Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. 10. — Apollon. 4. Argon. — Hygm. fab. 
 49.— Ovid. Met. 2, fab. 8.— Pans. 2, c. 11 and 
 27, 1. 7, c. 23, &c.—Diod. 4.— Pindar, Pyth. 3. 
 ■^Lmcan. Dial, de Saltat. — Val. Max. 1, c. 8. 
 — Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 22, says there were three 
 of this name : the 1st, a son of Apollo, wor- 
 shipped in Arcadia ; 2d, a brother of Mercury ; 
 3d, a man who first taught medicine. 
 
 jEson, son of Cretheus, was born at the same 
 birth as Pelias. He succeeded his father in 
 the kingdom of lolchos, but was soon exiled by 
 his brother. He married Alcimeda, by whom 
 he had Jason, whose education he intrusted to 
 Chiron, being afraid of Pelias. When Jason 
 was grown up, he demanded his father's king- 
 dom from his uncle, who gave him evasive an- 
 swers, and persuaded him lo go in quest of the 
 golden fleece. At his return, Jason found his 
 father very infirm ; and Medea, at his request, 
 drew the blood from ^son's veins, and refilled 
 them with the juice of certain herbs which she 
 had gathered, and immediately the old man re- 
 covered the vigor and bloom of youth. Some 
 say that iEson killed himself by drinking bull's 
 blood, to avoid the persecution of PeMas. Diod. 
 A.— Apollod. 1, c. 9.— Ovid. Met. 7, v. 285.— 
 Hygin. fab. 12. 
 
 ^THALiDES, a herald, son of Mercury, to 
 whom it was granted to be amongst the dead 
 and the living at stated times. Apollon. Argon. 
 
 1, V. 641. 
 
 ^THLius, a son of Jupiter by Protogenia, was 
 father of Endymion. Apollod. 1, c. 7. 
 
 ^THON, a horse of the sun. Ovid. Met. 2, 
 fab. 1. of Pallas. Virg. ^n. 11, v. 89. 
 
 Mtbha, daughter of Pitheus, king of Troe- 
 zene, and mother of Theseus. She was carried 
 away by Castor and Pollux, when they recov- 
 ered their sister Helen, w^hom Theseus had 
 stolen and intrusted to her care. She went with 
 Helen to Troy. Homer. 11. 3, v. 144. — Paus. 
 
 2, c. 31, 1. 5, c. 19.— Hygin. fab. 37 and 79. 
 PMt. in Thes.— Ovid. Her. 10. v. 131. 
 
 ^THusA, a daughter of Neptune by Amphi- 
 trite, or Alcyone, mother by Apollo of Eleu- 
 there and two sons. Paus. 9, c. 20. 
 
 ^TOLUs. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Agamemnon. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Aganippe. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Agave, daughter of Cadmus and Herraione, 
 married Echion, by whom she had Pentheus. 
 She is said to have killed her husband in cele- 
 brating the orgies of Bacchus. She received di- 
 vine honours after death, because she had con- 
 tributed to the education of Bacchus. Theocrit. 
 26.— Ovid. Met. 3, v. 1'25.—Lucan. 1, v. 574. 
 —Stat. Theb. 11, v. Z\8.— Apollod. 3, c. 4. 
 
 Agelaus, a son of Hercules and Omphale, 
 from which Croesus was descended. — Apollod. 
 2, c. 7. 
 
 Agenor, king of Phoenicia, son of Neptune 
 and Libya, and brother to Belus. He married 
 Telephassa, by whom he had Cadmus, Phoenix, 
 Cilix, and Europa. Hygin. fab. 6. Ital. 1, v. 
 15, 1. 17, V. bS.— Apollod. 2, c. 1, 1. 3, c. 1. 
 
 Aglaia. Vid. Charites. 
 (371 
 
AL 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AL 
 
 Aglauros, or Agraulos, daughter of Erech- 
 theus, the oldest king of Athens, was changed 
 into a stone by Mercury. Some make her a 
 daughter of Cecrops. Vid. Herse. Ovid. Met. 
 2, fab. 13. 
 
 Agno, one of the nymphs who nursed Ju- 
 piter. She gave her name to a fountain on 
 mount Lycseus. When the priest of Jupiter, 
 after a prayer, stirred the waters of this foun- 
 tain with a bough, a thick vapour arose, which 
 was soon dissolved into a plentiful shower. 
 Pans. 8, c. 31, &c. 
 
 Agonius, a Roman deity, who presided over 
 the actions of men. Vid. Agonalia, Part 11. 
 
 Agor5;a, a name of Minerva at Sparta. 
 Poms. 3, c. 11. 
 
 Agoreus, a surname of Mercury among the 
 Athenians, from his presiding over the markets. 
 Paus. 1, c. 15. 
 
 Agre, one of Actaeon's dogs. Ovid. Met. 3, 
 V. 213. 
 
 Agrius, son of Parthaon, drove his brother 
 CEneus from the throne. He was afterwards 
 expelled by Diomedes, the grandson of CEneus, 
 upon which he killed himself Hysin. fab. 175 
 and ^\2.— Apollod. 1, c. 1.— Homer. 11. 14, v. 117. 
 
 Agyleus, and Agyieus, from ayvia, a street, 
 a surname of Apollo, because sacrifices were 
 offered to him in the public streets of Athens. 
 Horat. 4, od. 6. 
 
 Ajax. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Aius LocuTius, a deity to whom the Romans 
 erected an altar from the following circum- 
 stance : one of the common people, called Cedi- 
 tius, informed the tribunes, that as he passed 
 one night through one of the streets of the city, 
 a voice more than human, issuing from above 
 Vesta's temple, told him that Rome would soon 
 be attacked by the Gauls. His information was 
 neglected, but his veracity was proved by the 
 event ; and Camillus, after the conquest of the 
 Gauls, bull a temple to that supernatural voice 
 which had given Rome warning of the ap- 
 proaching calamity, under the name of Aius 
 Locutius. 
 
 Aljea, a surname of Minerva in Pelopon- 
 nesus. Her festivals are also called Alaea, 
 Paus. 8, c. 4, 7. 
 
 Ala LA, the goddess of war, sister to Mars. 
 Plut. de glor. Athen. 
 
 Alastor, one of Pluto's horses when he car- 
 ried away Proserpine. Claud. d£ Rapt. Pros. 
 1, V. 286. 
 
 Albion, son of Neptune by Amphitrite, came 
 into Britain, where he established a kingdom, 
 and first introduced astrology and the art of 
 building ships. He was killed at the mouth of 
 the Rhone with stones thrown by Jupiter, be- 
 cause he opposed the passage of Hercules. 
 Mela, 2, c. 5. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Algous, I. a son of Androgens, who went 
 with Hercules into Thrace, and was made king 
 
 of part of the country. Apollod. 2, c. 5. II. 
 
 A son of Perseus, father of Amphitryon and 
 Anaxo. Apol. 2, c. 4. — Paus. 8, c. 14. Vid. 
 Part II. 
 
 Alcathous, I. a son of Pelops, who being 
 suspected of murdering his brother Chrysippus, 
 came to Megara, where he killed a lion, which 
 had destroyed the king's son. He succeeded to 
 the kingdom of Megara, and, in commemora- 
 tion of his services, festivals, called Alcathoia, 
 672 
 
 were instituted at Megara. Paus. 1, c. 4, &c, 
 
 II. A Trojan, who married Hippodamia, 
 
 daughter of Anchises. He was killed in the 
 Trojan war by Idomeneus. Homer. 11. 12, v. 93. 
 
 Alceste, or Alcestis, daughter of Pelias and 
 Anaxibia, married Admetus. She, with her 
 sisters, put to death her father, that he might 
 be restored to youth and vigour by Medea, who, 
 however, refused to perform her promise. Upon 
 this, the sisters fled to Admetus, who married 
 Alceste. They were soon pursued by an army, 
 headed by their brother Acastus; and Ad- 
 metus being taken prisoner was redeemed from 
 death by the generous ofier of his wife, who 
 was sacrificed in his stead to appease the shades 
 of her father. Some say that Alceste lay down 
 her life for her husband, when she had been told 
 by an oracle that he could never recover from a 
 disease except some one of his friends died in 
 his stead. According to some authors, Hercu- 
 les brought her back from hell. Vid. Admetus. 
 Juv. 6, V. 651. — Apollod. 1, c. 9.— Paus. 5, c. 17. 
 — Hygin. fab. 251. — Eurip. in Alcest. 
 
 Algides, a name of Hercules, from his 
 strength, aXKOi, or from his grandfather Alcaeus. 
 
 AlcidJce, the mother of Tyro, by Salmo> 
 neus. Apollod. 2, c. 9. 
 
 ALCiMEnE, the mother of Jason, by ^son. 
 Place. 1, V. 296. 
 
 Alcinoe, a daughter of Sthenelus son of 
 Perseus. Apollod. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Alcinous. Vid. Part II, 
 
 Alcippe, I. a daughter of the god Mars 
 
 and Agraulos. Apollod. 3, c. 14. II. The 
 
 wife of Metion, and mother to Eupalamus. Id. 
 3, c. 16.- — III. The daughter of CEnomaus, 
 and wife of Evenus, by whom she had Marpes- 
 sa. Virg. Eel. 7. 
 
 Alcithoe, a Theban woman, who ridiculed 
 the orgies of Bacchus. She was changed into 
 a bat, and the spindle and yarn with which she 
 worked, into a vine and ivy. Ovid. Met. 4, fab. 1. 
 
 Alcm^on, I. was son of the prophet Amphia- 
 raus and Eriphyle. His father going to the 
 Theban war, where, according to an oracle, he 
 was to perish, charged him to revenge his death 
 upon Eriphyle, who had betrayed him. Vid. 
 Eriphyle. As soon as he heard of his father's 
 death, he murdered his mother, for which crime 
 the furies persecuted him till Phlegeus purified 
 him, and gave him his daughter Alphesiboea in 
 marriage. Acmaeon gave her the fatal collar 
 which his mother had received to betray his fa- 
 ther, and afterwards divorced her, and married 
 Callirhoe, the daughter of Achelous, to whom 
 he promised the necklace he had given to Al- 
 phesiboea. When he attempted to recover it, 
 Alphesibcea's brothers murdered him on ac- 
 count of the treatment he had shown their sis- 
 ter, and left his body a prey to dogs and wild 
 beasts. AlcmaBon's children by Callirhoe re- 
 venged their father's death by killing his mur- 
 derers. Vid. Alphesiboea, Amphiaraus. Paus. 
 5, c. 17, 1. 6, c. 18, 1. 8, c. 2i.—PIut. de Exil.— 
 Apollod. 3, c. l.—Hvgin. fab. 73 and 245.— 
 Stat. Theb. 2 and "i.—Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 44. 
 
 Met. 9, fab. 10. II. A son of JSgyptus, the 
 
 husband of Hippomedusa. Apollod. 
 
 Algmena, was daughter of Electryon, king 
 of Argos, by Anaxo, whom Plut. de Reb. Grac. 
 calls Lysidice, and Diod. 1. 2, Eurymede. Her 
 father promised his crown and his daughter to 
 
AL 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AL 
 
 Amphitryon, if he would revenge the death of 
 his sons, who had been all killed, except Licym- 
 nius, by the Teleboans, a people of jEtolia. 
 While Amphitryon was gone against the ^Eto- 
 lians, Jupiter introduced himself to Alcmena as 
 her husband. When the time of her delivery 
 was at hand, Juno, influenced by jealousy, em- 
 ployed Lucina to prolong her travails, until Ni- 
 cippe, the wife of Sthenelus, should bring forth ; 
 that her son Eurystheus, enjoying the privilege 
 which Jupiter had in this case conferred on 
 priority of birth, might control the destiny of 
 his rival. At length, Alcmena brought forth 
 twins, Hercules, son of Jupiter, and Iphiclus, 
 son of Amphitryon. After Amphitryon's death, 
 Alcmena married Rhadamanthus, and retired 
 to Ocalea in BcEotia. This marriage, accord- 
 ing to some authors, was celebrated in the 
 island of Leuce. The people of Megara said 
 that she died in her way from Argos to Thebes, 
 and that she was buried in the temple of Jupi- 
 ter Olympius, Pans. 1, c. 41, 1. 5, c. 18, 1. 9, c. 16. 
 — Plut.in Thes. tf« RoTmU. — Homer. Od. 11, IL 
 19. — Pindar. Pyth. 9. — Lnician. Dial. Deor. — 
 Diod. 4. — Hygin. fab. 29. — Apollod. 2, c. 4, 7, 1. 
 3, c. 1. — Plant, in Amphit. — Herodot. 2, c. 43 
 and 45.- Vid. Amphitryon^ Hercules^ Eurys- 
 theus. 
 
 Alcon, L a famous archer, who one day saw 
 his son attacked by a serpent, and aimed at him 
 so dexterously that he killed the reptile without 
 
 hurting his son. II. A son of Mars. III. 
 
 A son of Amycus. These two last were at the 
 chase of the Calydonian boar. Hygin. fab. 173. 
 
 Alcyone, or Halcyone, I. daughter of ^Eo- 
 lus, married Ceyx, who was drowned as he was 
 going to Claros to consult the oracle. On the 
 death of her husband Ceyx, who was drowned, 
 she threw herself into the sea, and was chang- 
 ed into the bird which bears her name, and 
 which the ancient poets feigned brooded over 
 its young upon the waters and kept them calm. 
 Virg. G. 1, V. ^9^.— Apollod. 1, c. l.— Ovid. 
 
 Met. 11, fab. 10.— Hygin. fab. 65. II. One 
 
 of the Pleiades, daughter of Atlas. She had 
 Arethusaby Neptune, and Eleutheraby Apollo. 
 She, with her sisters, was changed into a con- 
 stellation. Vid. Pleiades. Paus. 2, c. 30, 1. 3, 
 
 c. 18. — Apollod. 3, c. 10. — Hygin. fab. 157. 
 
 III. The daughter of Evenus, carried away by 
 Apollo after her marriage. Her husband pur- 
 sued the ravisher with bows and arrows, but 
 was not able to recover her. Upon this her pa- 
 rents called her Alcyone, and compared her fate 
 to that of the wife of Ceyx, Homer. 11. 9, v. 558. 
 
 Alcyoneus, a giant, killed by Hercules. His 
 daughters, mourning his death, threw them- 
 selves into the sea, and were changed into al- 
 cyons by Amphitrite. Claudian. de Bap. Pros. 
 — Apollod. 1, c. 6. 
 
 Alea, a surname of Minerva, from lier tem- 
 ple, built by Aleus, son of Aphidas, at Tegaea, 
 in Arcadia. The statue of the goddess, made 
 of ivory, was carried by Augustus to Rome. 
 Paus. 8, c. 4 and 46. 
 
 Alecto. Vid. Eumenides. 
 
 Alector, succeeded his father Anaxagoras 
 in the kingdom of Argos, and was father to 
 Iphis and Capaneus. Paus. 2, c. 18. — Apollod. 
 3, c. 6. 
 
 Alectryon, a vouth by whose neglect the 
 favours which Venus accorded to Mars were 
 
 Part III.— 4 a 
 
 discovered by the gods. Mars was so incensed 
 that he changed Alectryon into a cock, which, 
 still mindful of his neglect, early announces 
 the approach of the sun. Lucian. in Alect. 
 
 Aletes, a son of iEgisthus, murdered by 
 Orestes. Hygin. fab. 122. 
 
 Alexanor, a son of Machaon, who built in 
 Sicyon a temple to his grandfather jEsculapius, 
 and received divine honours after death. Paus. 
 2, c. 11. 
 
 Alexicacus, a surname given to Apollo by 
 the Athenians, because he delivered them from 
 the plague during the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 Alirrothius, a son of Neptune. Hearing 
 that his father had been defeated by Minerva, 
 in his dispute about giving a name to Athens, 
 he went to the citadel, and endeavoured to cut 
 down the olive which had sprung from the 
 ground, and given the victory to Minerva; but 
 in the attempt he missed his aim, and cut his 
 own legs so severely that he instantly expired. 
 
 Aloeus, a giant, son of Titan and Terra. 
 He married Iphimedia, by whom Neptune had 
 the twins Othus and Ephiallus. Aloeus edu- 
 cated them as his own, and from that circum- 
 stance they have been called Aloides. They 
 made war against the gods, and were killed by 
 Apollo and Diana. They grew up nine inches 
 ever}"- month, and were only nine years oldAvhen 
 they undertook their war. They built the town 
 of Ascra, at the foot of mount Heljcon. Pau^. 
 9, c. 29.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. bQ2.— Homer. 11. 5, 
 Od. 11. 
 
 Aloides and Aloid.e, Vid. Aloeus. 
 
 Alpheia, a surname of Diana in Elis. 
 
 A surname of the nymph Arethusa, because 
 loved by the Alpheus, Ovid. Met. 5, v. 487. 
 
 Alphesibcea, daughter of the river Phlegeus, 
 married Alcmseon, son of Amphiaraus. Vid, 
 Alcmcson. 
 
 Alpheus. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Alth.ea, daughter of Thestius and Eury- 
 themis, married CEneus, king of Calydon, by 
 whom she had many children, among whom 
 was Meleager. She killed herself in her grief 
 for his death, which in a moment of passion 
 she had occasioned. 
 
 Alth5:menes, a son of Creteus, king of 
 Crete. Hearing that either he or his brothers 
 were to be their father's murderers, he fled to 
 Rhodes, where he made a settlement to avoid 
 becoming a parricide. After the death of all 
 his other sons, Creteus went after his son Al- 
 thasmenes ; when he landed in Rhodes, the 
 inhabitants attacked him, supposing him to be 
 an enemy, and he was killed by the hand of 
 his own son. When Althaemenes knew that he 
 had killed his father, he entreated the gods to 
 remove him, and the earth immediately opened 
 and swallowed him up. Apollod. 3, c. 2. 
 
 Alyceus, son of Sciron, was killed by The- 
 seus. A place in Megara received its name 
 from him. Plut. in TJws. 
 
 Amalth^ea, I. daughter of Melissus, king of 
 Crete, fed Jupiter with goat's milk. Hence 
 some authors have called her a goat, and have 
 maintained that Jupiter, to reward her kind- 
 nesses, placed her in heaven as a constellation, 
 and gave one of her horns to the nymphs who 
 had taken care of his infant years. This horn 
 was called the horn of plentj^, and had the power 
 to give the nymphs whatever they desired. 
 673 
 
AM 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AM 
 
 Diod. 3, 4 and 5.— Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 113.— Strab. 
 
 10.— Hygin. fab. V39.—Paus. 7, c. 26. II. 
 
 A Sibyl of Cumae, called also Hierophile and 
 Demophile. She is supposed to be the same 
 who brought nine books of prophecies to Tar- 
 quin, king of Rome, «&c.. Varro. — Tibul. 2, el. 
 
 5, V. 67. Vid. Sibylla. 
 
 Amanus, or Omanus, a Persian deity, in 
 honour of whom a yearly festival (the Saca) 
 was celebrated at Zela, in Cappadocia ; or, ac- 
 cording to others, in Pontus. The rites of his 
 worship were performed daily, with the singing 
 of hymns, &c., by the Magi before his altar, 
 which was erected on a hill called Pyraethea, 
 and which, protected by an enclosure, bore the 
 eternal fire. He was considered as the emblem 
 of Mythras or the Sun. Strab. 11. — Millin. 
 
 Amaracus, an officer of Cinyras, changed 
 into marjoram. 
 
 Amastrus, one of the auxiliaries of Perses, 
 against ^etes, king of Colchis, killed by Ar- 
 gus, son of Phryxus. Flacc. 6, v. 544. 
 
 Amata. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Amaz5nes, or Amazonides, a community of 
 women, according to an old tradition, who per- 
 mitted no men to reside among them, fought 
 under the conduct of a queen, and long consti- 
 tuted a formidable state. They had intercourse 
 with the men of the neighbouring nations mere- 
 ly for the sake of perpetuating their community. 
 The male children they sent back to their fa- 
 thers, but they brought up the females to war, 
 and burned off the right breast, that this part 
 of the body might not impede them in the use 
 of the bow. From this circumstance they were 
 called Amazons^ (a non^ et [xa^a, mamma,) i. e., 
 wanting a breast. The ancients enumerate 
 three nations of Amazons: — 1. The African, 
 who made great conquests under their queen 
 Myrena, but were afterwards extirpated by 
 Hercules. — 2. The Asiatic, the most famous of 
 all, who dwelt in Pontus, on the river Ther- 
 modon. Themiscyra was their capital. These 
 once made war on all Asia, and built Ephesus. 
 Their queen, Hippolyta, was vanquished by 
 Hercules. They attacked Attica in the time of 
 Theseus. They came to the assistance of Troy 
 under their queen Penthesilea, who was killed, 
 as some writers declare, by Achilles. About 
 330 B. C. their queen, Thalestris, made a visit 
 to Alexander of Macedon, soon after which 
 they disappear from history. — 3. The Scythian, 
 a branch of the Asiatic. They attacked the 
 neighbouring Scythians, but afterwards con- 
 tracted marriages with them, and went further 
 into Sarmatia, where they hunted and made 
 war in company with their husbands. As 
 regards the existence of the Amazons, Vid. 
 Justin, and, above all, Cesarotti, who has ex- 
 pressly treated of this subject in a dissertation 
 which accompanies his first translation of the 
 Iliad ; respecting their use in fable, Vid Ariosto 
 ril furioso, Canto XIX. — Encyclopedia Amer. — 
 Millin. — Justin. 2, c. 4. — Curt. 6, c. 5. — Plin. 
 
 6, c. 7, 1. 14, c. S.—Herodot. 4, c. WQ.— Strab. 
 W.—Paus. 7, c. 2.—Plut. in Thes. 
 
 Amazonius, a surname of Apollo at Lacedse- 
 mon. 
 
 Ambulli, a surname of Castor and Pollux in 
 Sparta. 
 
 Ameles, a river of hell, whose waters no 
 vessel could contain. Plut. 10, de Rep. 
 674 
 
 Amimone, or Amymone, a daughter of Da- 
 naus, changed into a fountain which is near 
 Argos, and flows into the lake Lerna. Ovid. 
 Met. 2, V. 240. 
 
 Amithaon, or Amythaon, was father to Me- 
 lampus, the famous prophet. Stat. Theb. 3,v. 451. 
 
 Ammon. Vid. Hammon. 
 
 Ammonia, a name of Juno in Elis, as being 
 the wife of Jupiter Ammon. Paus. 5, c. 15. 
 
 Amphiaraus, son of Oicleus, or, according to 
 others, of Apollo, by Hypermnestra, was at the 
 chase of the Calydonian boar, and accompanied 
 the Argonauts in their expedition. He was fa- 
 mous for his knowledge of futurity, and thence 
 he is called by some son of Apollo. He married 
 Eriphyle, the sister of Adrastus, king of Argos, 
 by whom he had two sons, Alcmseon and Am- 
 philochus. When Adrastus, at the request of 
 Polynices, declared war against Thebes, Am- 
 phiaraus secreted himself, not to accompany his 
 brother-in-law in an expedition in which he 
 knew he was to perish. But Eriphyle, who knew 
 where he had concealed himself, was prevailed 
 upon to bertay him by Polynices, who gave her, 
 as a reward for her perfidy, a golden necklace 
 set with diamonds. Amphiaraus being thus dis- 
 covered, went to the war, but previously charged 
 his son Alcmseon, to put to death his mother 
 Eriphyle, as soon as he was informed that he 
 was killed. The Theban war was fatal to the 
 Argives, and Amphiaraus was swallowed up 
 in his chariot by the earth, as he attempted to 
 retire from the battle. The news of his death 
 was brought to Alcmseon, who immediately 
 executed his father's command, and murdered 
 Eriphyle. Amphiaraus received divine honours 
 after death, and had a celebrated temple and 
 oracle at Oropos in Attica. His statue was made 
 of white marble, and near his temple was a 
 fountain, whose waters were ever held sacred. 
 They only who had consulted his oracle, or had 
 been delivered from a disease, were permitted 
 to bathe in it, after which they threw pieces of 
 gold and silver into the stream. Those who 
 consulted the oracle of Amphiaraus first puri- 
 fied themselves, and abstained from meat for 
 24 hours, and three days from wine, after which 
 they sacrificed a ram to the prophet, and spread 
 the skin upon the ground, upon which they slept 
 in expectation of receiving in a dream the an- 
 swer of the oracle. Plutarch de orat. defect. 
 mentions, that the oracle of Amphiaraus was 
 once consulted in the time of Xerxes, by one of 
 the servants of Mardonius, for his master, who 
 was then with an army in Greece ; and that the 
 servant, when asleep, saw in a dream the priest 
 of the temple,who upbraided him, and drove him 
 away, and even threw stones at his head when 
 he refused to comply. This oracle was verified 
 in the death of Mardonius, who was actually 
 killed by the blow of a stone he received on the 
 head. Cic. de Div. 1, c, 40. — Philostr. in vit. 
 Apollon. 2, c. II.— Hom£r. Od. 15, v. 243, &c. 
 —Hygin. fab. 70, 73, 128 and IbO.—Diod. 4.— 
 Ovid. 9, fab. 10.— Pans. 1, c, 34, 1. 2, c. 37, 1. 
 9, c. 8 and 19.— ^schyl. Sept. ante TVieb. 
 Apollod. 1, c. 8 and 9, 1, 3, c. 6, Slc— Strab. 8. 
 
 AMPmARAiDEs, a patronymic of Alcmaeon, as 
 being son of Amphiaraus, Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 43. 
 
 Amphictyon, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, 
 reigned at Atherts after Cranaus, and first at- 
 tempted to give the interpretation of dreams 
 
AM 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AN 
 
 and lo draw omens. Some say that the deluge 
 happened in his age. Justin. 2, c. 6. Vid. 
 Pan II. 
 
 AMPmDAMUs, I. one of the Argonauts. Flac. 
 
 1, V. 376. II. A s on of Busiris, killed by 
 
 Hercules. Apollod. 2, c. 5. 
 
 Amphilochus, a son of Amphiaraus and Eri- 
 phyle. After the Trojan war he left Argos, 
 his native country, and built Amphilochus, a 
 town of Epirus. Strab. 7. — Paiis. 2, c. 18, 
 
 Amphinomus, and Anapius. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Amphion, I. was son of Jupiter, by Antiope, 
 daughter of Nycteus. Amphion was born at 
 the same birth as Zethus, on mount Citheron, 
 where Antiope had fled to avoid the resentment 
 of Dirce ; and the two children were exposed in 
 the woods, but preserved by a shepherd. Vid. 
 Antiope. When Amphion grew up, he culti- 
 vated poetry, and made such an uncommon pro- 
 gress in music, that he is said to have been the 
 inventor of it, and to have built the walls of 
 Thebes at the sound of his lyre. Mercury 
 taught him music, and gave him the lyre. He 
 was the first who raised an altar to this god. 
 Zethus and Amphion united to avenge the 
 wrongs which their mother had suffered from 
 the cruelties of Dirce. Horner. Od. 11. — Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. 5 and 10.— Pans. 6, c. 6, 1. 6, c. 20, 1. 
 9, c. 5 and 17. — Propert. 3, el. 15. — Ovid, de 
 Art. Am. 3, v. 323.— Horat. 3, od. 11. Art. 
 
 Poet. r.39i.—Stat. Theb. 1, v. 10. II. A son 
 
 of Jasus, king of Orchomenos, by Persephone, 
 daughter of Mius. He married Niobe, daughter 
 of Tantalus, by whom he had many children, 
 among whom was Chloris, the wife of Neleus, 
 He has been confounded by mythologists with 
 the son of Antiope, though Homer in his Odys- 
 sey speaks of them both, and distinguishes them 
 beyond contradiction. Upon the death of his 
 wife and children, Amphion destroyed himself 
 Homer. Od. 11, v. 261 and 282.— jElian. V. H. 
 
 12, V. 36.— Ovid. Met. 6, fab. 5. III. One of 
 
 the Argonauts. Hygin. fab. 14. 
 
 Amphipyros, a surname of Diana, because 
 she carries a torch in both her hands. Sophocles, 
 in Trach. 
 
 AMpmsB^NA, a two-headed serpent in the 
 deserts of Libya, whose bite was venomous and 
 deadly. Lnican. 9, v. 719. 
 
 Amphissa, or Tssa, a daughter of Macareus, 
 beloved by Apollo. She gave her name to a 
 city of the Locri Ozolse, in which was a temple 
 of Minerva. Liv. 37, c. 5. — Ovid. Met. 15, v. 
 703. — Lmcom. 3, V. 172. 
 
 Amphitrite, I. daughter of Oceanus and Te- 
 thys, married Neptune, though she had made a 
 vow of perpetual celibacy. She had by him 
 Triton, one of the sea deities. She had a statue 
 at Corinth in the temple of Neptune. She is 
 sometimes called Salatia, and is often taken for 
 the sea itself Varro. de. L. L. 4. — Hesiod. 
 Theog. 930. — Apollod. 3. — Claudian. de Rapt. 
 
 Pros. 1, V. lOi.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 14. II. 
 
 One of the Nereides. 
 
 Amphitryon, a Theban prince, son of Alcaeus 
 and Hipponome. His sister Anaxo had mar- 
 ried Electryon, king of Mycenae, whose sons 
 were killed in battle by the Teleboans. Elect- 
 tryon had promised his crown, and daughter 
 Aicmena, to him who could revenge the death 
 of his sons upon the Teleboans ; and Amphi- 
 tryon offered himself, and was received, on con- 
 
 dition that he should not approach Aicmena be- 
 fore he had obtained a victory. Jupiter, who 
 was captivated with the charms of Aicmena, 
 borrowed the features of Amphitryon, when he 
 was gone to the war, and introduced himself to 
 Electryon's daughter, as her husband returned 
 victorious. Alemena became pregnant of Her- 
 cules, by Jupiter, and of Iphiclus by Amphitryon 
 after his return. Vid. Aicmena. When Am- 
 'phitryon returned from the war, he brought 
 back to Electryon, the herds which the Tele- 
 boans had taken from him. One of the cows 
 having strayed from the rest, Amphitryon, to 
 bring them together, threw a stick, which struck 
 the horns of the cow, and rebounded with such 
 violence upon Electryon, that he died on the 
 spot. After this accidental murder, Sthenelus, 
 Electryon's brother, seized the kingdom of My- 
 cenae, and obliged Amphitryon to leave Argolis, 
 and retire to Thebes with Aicmena. Creon, 
 king of Thebes, purified him of the murder. 
 Apollod. 2, c. 4.— Virg. ^n. 8, v. 213.— Pro- 
 pert. 4, el. 10, v. 1. — Hesiod. in Soiot. Hercul, — 
 Hygin. fab. 29. — Pans. 8, c. 14. 
 
 Amulius. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Amyous, I. a son of Neptune by Melia, or 
 Bithynis according to others, king of the Be- 
 bryces. He was famous for his skill in the 
 management of the cestus, and he challenged 
 all strangers to a trial of strength. When the 
 Argonauts, in their expedition, stopped on his 
 coasts, he treated them with great kindness, 
 and Pollux accepted his challenge, and killed 
 him when he attempted to overcome him by 
 fraud. Apollon. 2. Argon. — Theocrit. Id. 22. 
 
 — Apollon. 1, c. 9. II. A son of Ixion, and 
 
 the cloud. Ovid. Met. 12, v. 245. 
 
 Amymone, daughter of Danaus and Europa, 
 married Enceladus, son of Egyptus, whom she 
 murdered the first night of her nuptials. It was 
 said that she was the only one of the fifty sis- 
 ters who was not condemned to fill a leaky tub 
 with water in hell. Neptune carried her away, 
 and in the place where she stood, he raised a 
 fountain, by striking a rock. The fountain has 
 been called Amymone. Propert. 2, el. 26, v. 
 56. — Apollod. 2. — Strai. 8. — Ovid. Amor. 1, v. 
 415.— Hygin. fab. 169. 
 
 Amyntor, a king of Argos, son of Phras- 
 tor. He deprived his son Phoenix of his eyes, 
 to punish him for the violence he had offered 
 to Clytia, his concubine. Hygin. fab. 173. — 
 Ovid. Met. 8, v. 301.— Apollod. 3.— Homer. 
 11.9. 
 
 Amythaon, son of Cretheus, king of lol- 
 chos, by Tyro. He married Idomene, by whom 
 he had Bias and Melampus. After his father's 
 death, he established himself in Messenia, with 
 his brother Neleus, and re-established or regu- 
 lated the Olympic games. Apollod. 1. — Homer. 
 Od. 11. 
 
 Anaitis, a goddess of Armenia. The fes- 
 tivals of the deity were called Sacarum Festa , 
 and when they were celebrated, both sexes as- 
 sisted at the ceremony, and inebriated them- 
 selves to such a degree that the whole was con- 
 cluded by a scene of the greatest lasciviousness 
 and intemperance. They were first instituted 
 by Cyrus, when he marched against the Sacae, 
 that he might detain the enemy by the novelty 
 and sweetness of food to which they were 
 unaccustomed, and thus easily destroy them 
 675 
 
AN 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AN 
 
 Sir ah. 11. Diana is also worshipped under 
 
 this name by the Lydians. Plin. 33, c. 4. 
 
 Anaphe. V'id. Part I. 
 
 Anausis, one of Medea's suiters, killed by 
 Styrus. Val. Mace. 6, v. 43. 
 
 Anax, a son of Coelus and Terra, father to 
 A sterius, from whom Miletus has been called 
 Anactoria. Pans. 1, c. 36, 1. 7, c. 2. 
 
 Anaxarete, a girl of Salamis, whose lover, 
 Iphis, hung himself at her door. She saw this 
 sad spectacle without emotion or pity, and was 
 changed into a stone. Ovid. Met. 14, v, 748, 
 
 Anaxibia, L a sister of Agamemnon, mother 
 of seven sons and two daughters by Nestor, 
 Paiii. 2,c. 29. II. A daughter of Bia, broth- 
 er to the physician Melampus. She married 
 Pelias, king of lolchos, by whom she had Acas- 
 tus, and four daughters, Pisidice, Pelopea. 
 Hippothoe, and Alceste, Apollod. 1, c, 9. — She 
 is called daughter of Dymas by Hygin. fab. 14. 
 
 Anceus, I. the son of Lycurgus and Antinoe, 
 was in the expedition of the Argonauts. He 
 was at the chase of the Calydonian boar, in 
 which he perished. Hygin. fab. 173 and 248. — 
 
 Ovid. Met. 8. II, The son of Neptune and 
 
 Astypalaea. He went with the Argonauts, and 
 succeeded Typhis as pilot of the ship Argo, 
 He reigned in Ionia, where he married Samia, 
 daughter of the Maeander, by whom he had 
 four sons, Perilas, Enudas, Samus, Alithersus, 
 and one daughter called Parthenope. Orpheus. 
 Argon. He was once told by one of his ser- 
 vants, whom he pressed with hard labour in his 
 vineyard, that he never would taste of the pro- 
 duce of his vines. He had already the cup in 
 his hand, and called the prophet to convince him 
 of his falsehood ; when the servant, yet firm in 
 his prediction, uttered this well-known proverb : 
 
 HoXXa jxera^v TreXei KvXiKog Kai ■^ei'KEog aKpov. 
 
 Multa cadunt inter calicem supremaque labra. 
 
 And that very moment Anceus was told that a 
 wild boar had entered his vineyard ; upon which 
 he threw down the cup, and ran to drive away 
 the wild beast. He was killed in the attempt. 
 
 Anchemolus. Vid. Part II, 
 
 Anchialus, a god of the Jews, as some sup- 
 pose, in Martial's epigrams, 11 ep. 95. 
 
 Anchises. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Anchurus, a son of Midas, king of Phrygia. 
 When the earth had opened and swallowed up 
 many buildings, the oracle declared that it 
 would never close if Midas did not throw into it 
 whatever he had most precious. Anchurus, 
 thinking himself the most precious of his fa- 
 ther's possessions, leaped into the earth, which 
 closed immediately over his head, Midas 
 erected there an altar of stones to Jupiter, and 
 that altar was the first object which he turned 
 into gold when he had received his fatal gift from 
 the gods. This unpolished lump of gold exist- 
 ed still in the age of Plutarch, Plut. in Parall. 
 
 Ancile, and Ancyle, a sacred shield, which, 
 according to the Roman authors, fell from 
 heaven in the reign of Numa, when the Roman 
 people laboured under a pestilence. Upon the 
 preservation of this shield depended the fate of 
 the Roman empire, and therefore Numa ordered 
 eleven of the same size and form to be made, 
 that if ever any attempt was made to carry 
 them away, the plunderer might find it difficult 
 ♦o distinguish the true one. They were made 
 676 
 
 with such exactness, that the king promised 
 Veterius Mamurius, the artist, whatever re- 
 ward he desired. Vid. Mamurius. They were 
 kept in the temple of Vesta, and an order of 
 priests was chosen to watch over their safety. 
 These priests were called Salii, and were 
 twelve in number ; they carried every year, on 
 the first of March, the shields in a solemn pro ■ 
 cession round the walls of Rome, dancing and 
 singing praises to the god Mars. This sacred 
 festival continued three days, during which iT 
 was deemed unfortunate to undertake any ex- 
 pedition ; and Tacitus in 1 Hist, has attrilDuted 
 the unsuccessful campaign of the emperor Otho 
 against Vitellius to his leaving Rome during 
 the celebration of the Ancyliorum festum. 
 These two verses of Ovid explain the origin 
 of the word Ancyle, which is applied to these 
 shields : — 
 
 Idqiie ancyle vocat^ quod ah omni parte red- 
 sum est, 
 
 Quemque notes oculis, angulus omnis abest. 
 Fast. 3, V, 377, &c. 
 
 Varro. de L. L. 5, c,-6. — Val. Max. 1, c. 1, — 
 Juv. 2, V. 124. — Plut. in Num. — Virg, JEn. 8, 
 V. 664. — Dionys. Hal. 2. — Liv. 1, c. 20, 
 
 ANDRiEMON, I. the father of Thoas, Hygin. 
 
 fab. 97. II. The son-in-law and successor of 
 
 QEneus. Apollod. 1, 
 
 Androclea, a daughter of Antipcenus of 
 Thebes, She, with her sister Alcida, sacrificed 
 herself in the service of her country, when the 
 oracle had promised the victory to her country- 
 men, who were engaged in a war against Or- 
 chomenos, if any one of noble birth devoted 
 himself for the glory of his nation. Hercules, 
 who fought on the side of Thebes, dedicated to 
 them the image of a lion in the temple of Diana. 
 Paus. 9, c. 17. 
 
 Androgeus, son of Minos and Pasiphae, was 
 famous for his skill in wrestling. He over- 
 came every antagonist at Athens, and became 
 such a favourite of the people, that iEgeus, king 
 of the country, grew jealous of his popularity, 
 and caused him to be assassinated as he was 
 going to Thebes. Some say that he was killed 
 by the wild bull of Marathon. The Athenians 
 established festivals, by order of Minos, in hon- 
 our of his son, and called them Androgeia. 
 Hygin. fab, 41. — Diod. 4, — Virg. JEn. 6, v, 20. 
 — Paus. 1, c. 1 and 27. — Apollod. 2, c 5, 1, 3, c. 
 1 and 15. — Plut. m Thes. 
 
 Androc4Yn^, a fabulous nation of Africa, 
 beyond the Nasamones. iMcret. 5, v, 837. — 
 Plin. 7, c. 2. 
 
 Andromache. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Andromeda, a daughter of Cepheus, king of 
 ^Ethiopia, by Cassiope. Neptune drowned the 
 kingdom, and sent a sea-monster to ravage the 
 country, because Cassiope had boasted herself 
 fairer than Juno and the Nereides, and nothing 
 could stop his resentment if Andromeda was not 
 exposed to the sea-monster. She was accord- 
 ingly tied naked on a rock, and at the moment 
 that the monster was going to devour her, Per- 
 seus, who returned through the air from the 
 conquest of the Gorgons, saw her, and was cap- 
 tivated with her beauty. He changed the sea- 
 monster into a rock, by showing him Medusa's 
 head, and untied Andromeda and married her. 
 He had by her many children, among whom 
 
AN 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AN 
 
 were Sthenelus, Ancseus, and Electryon, The 
 marriage of Andromeda with Perseus was op- 
 posed by Phineus, who, after a bloody battle, 
 was changed into a stone by Perseus, Some 
 say that Minerva made Andromeda a constella- 
 tion in heaven after her death, Vid. Medusa, 
 Perseus. Hygin. fab. 64. — Cic. de Nat. D. 2. c, 
 A2.—Apollod. % c. 4.— M«mZ. 5, v. 533.— Pro- 
 per^. 3, el. 21. — According to Pliny, 1, 5, c. 31, 
 it was at Joppa,, in Judsea, that Andromeda was 
 tied on a rock. He mentions that the skeleton 
 of the huge sea monster, to which she had been 
 exposed, was brought to Rome by Scaurus, and 
 carefully preserved. 
 
 Anguitia, a wood in the country of the 
 Marc*, between the lake Fucinus and Alba. 
 Serpents, it is said, could not injure the inhabi- 
 tants, because they were descended from Circe, 
 whose power over these venemous creatures 
 has been much celebrated. Sil. 8. — Virg.^Tln. 
 7, V. 759. 
 
 Anigrus. Vid. Part I, 
 
 Anna, a goddess, in whose honour the Ro- 
 mans instituted festivals. She was, according 
 to some, the daughter of Belus and sister of 
 Dido, who, after her sister's death, fled from 
 Carthage, which Jarbas had besieged, and came 
 to Italy, where vEneas met her and gave her an 
 honourable reception. But Lavinia, the wife of 
 .ffineas, was jealous of the tender treatment 
 which was shown to Anna, and meditated her 
 rain. Anna was apprized of this by her sister 
 in a dream, and fled to the river Numicus, of 
 which she became a deity, and ordered the in- 
 habitants of the country to call her Anna Pe- 
 renna, because she would remain for ever under 
 the waters. Her festivals were performed with 
 many rejoicings, and the females often, in the 
 midst of their cheerfulness, forgot their natural 
 decency. They were introduced into Rome, 
 and celebrated the 15th of March. The Ro- 
 mans generally sacrificed to her, to obtain a long 
 and happy life : and hence the words Annate 
 and Perennare. Some have supposed Anna to 
 be the moon, quia mensibus impleat annum ; 
 others call her Themis, or lo, the daughter of 
 Inachus, and sometimes Maia. Another more 
 received opinion maintains that Anna was a 
 woman of Bovillse, who, when the Roman pop- 
 ulace had fled from the city to mount Sacer, 
 brought them cakes every day : for which the 
 Romans, when peace was re-established,decreed 
 immortal honours to her whom they called Pe- 
 renna, ab perennitate cuUiis, and who, as they 
 supposed, was become one of their deities. 
 Ovid. Fast. 3, V. 653, &c.—Sil.S, v, 19.— Virg. 
 jEn. 4, V. 9, 20, 421 and 500. 
 
 ANT.EA, the wife of Proteus, called also Ste- 
 noba?a. Homer. 11. 
 
 Ant5;us, a giant of Libya, son of Terra and 
 Neptune. He was so strong in wrestling, that 
 he boasted that he would erect a temple to his 
 father with the sculls of his conquered antago- 
 nists, Hercules attacked him, and as he re- 
 ceived new strength from his mother as often as 
 he touched the ground, the hero lifted him up 
 in the air, and squeezed him to death in his 
 arms, Lucan. 4, v, b^S.—Stat 6. Theb. v, 893, 
 —Juv. 3, V. 88. 
 Antenor, Vid. Part II, 
 Antjeros, {avTi epoi, against love,) a son of 
 Mars and Venus. He was not, as the deriva- 
 
 tion of his name implies, a deity that presided 
 over an opposition to love, but he was the god 
 of mutual love and of mutual tenderness. Ve- 
 nus had complained to Themis, that her son 
 Cupid always continued a child, and was told, 
 that if he had another brother, he would grow 
 up in a short space of time. As soon as Ante- 
 rosAvasborn, Cupid felt his strength increase 
 and his wings enlarge ; but if ever his brother 
 was at a distance from him, he found himself 
 reduced to his ancient shape. From this cir- 
 cumstance it is seen that return of passion gives 
 vigour to love. The altar, however, which was 
 erected to this deity at Elis, was dedicated to 
 him, not as the god of mutual love, but as the 
 avenger of love unrequited. The Athenians 
 also ascribed to him similar attributes, as did 
 probably all the other Grecian states on the 
 first introduction of his worship, Cic. de Nat. — 
 Paits. Alt. 30, and jElian. 23. Anteros had a 
 temple at Athens raised to his honour, when 
 Meles had experienced the coldness and disdain 
 of Timagoras, whom he passionately esteemed, 
 and for whom he had killed himself Vid. 
 Meles. Cupid and Anteros are often repre- 
 sented striving to seize a palm-tree from one 
 another. They were always painted in the 
 Greek academies, to inform the scholars that it 
 is their immediate duty to be grateful to their 
 teachers, and to reward their trouble with love 
 and reverence. Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c, 23. — Paus. 
 1, c. 30, 1. 6, c, 23. Vid. Part II, 
 
 Antheas, a son of Eumelus, killed in at- 
 tempting to sow corn from the chariot of Trip- 
 tolemus, drawn by dragons, Paus. 7, c. 18, 
 
 ANxmus, {flowery^ a name of Bacchus wor- 
 shipped at Athens. He had also a statue at 
 Patrae, 
 
 Anthores, a companion of Hercules, who 
 followed Evander and settled in Italy, He was 
 killed in the war of Turnus against iEneas. 
 Virg. Mn. 10, v, 778, 
 
 ANTmiopoPHAGi, a people of Scythia, that fed 
 on human flesh. They lived near the country 
 of the Messagetas, Plin. 4, c, 12, 1, 6, c. 30. — 
 Mela, 2, c. 1. 
 
 Anticlea, a daughter of Diodes, who mar- 
 ried Machaon, the son of jEsculapius, by whom 
 she had Nicomachus and Gorgasus, Pans. 4, 
 c. 30, Vid. Part II, 
 
 Antigone, a daughter of Laomedon, She 
 was the sister of Priam, and was changed into 
 a stork for comparing herself to Juno. Ovid. 
 Met. 6, V. 93. Vid. Part II. 
 
 ANTiLocmjg, I, a king of Messenia, II. 
 
 The eldest son of Nestor by Eurydice. He 
 went to the Trojan war with his father, and was 
 killed by Memnon, the son of Aurora, Homer. 
 Od. 4. — Ovid. Heroid. says he was killed by 
 Hector, Vid. Part II, 
 
 ANTiMAcmjs, Vid. Part II 
 
 Antinoe, a daughter of Pelius, Apollod. \. 
 — Paiis. 8, c, 11. 
 
 Antinous, a native of Ithaca, son of Eupei- 
 thes, and one of Penelope's suiters. He was 
 brutal and cruel in his manners, and excited 
 his companions to destroy Telemachus, whose 
 advice comforted his mother Penelope. When 
 Ulysses returned home he came to the palace 
 in a beggar's dress, and begged for bread, which 
 Antinous refused, and even struck him. After 
 Ulysses had discovered himself to Telemachus 
 677 
 
AN 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AP 
 
 and Eumaeus, he attacked the suiters, who were 
 ignorant who he was, and killed Antinous 
 among the first. Homier. Od. 1, 16, 17, and 22. 
 Vid. Part II. 
 
 Antiope, I. daughter of Nycteus, king of 
 Thebes, by Polyxo, was beloved by Jupiter, 
 who, to deceive her, changed himself into a 
 satyr. She fled to mount Githaeron, where she 
 brought forth twins, Amphion and Zethus. 
 After this she fled to Epopeus, king of Sicyon, 
 who married her. Some say that Epopeus car- 
 ried her away. Lycus killed Epopeus, and re- 
 covered Antiope, whom he loved, and married, 
 though his niece. His first wife, Dirce, was 
 jealous of his new connexion ; and Antiope 
 was delivered into her hands, and confined in a 
 prison, where she was daily tormented. After 
 many years' imprisonment she escaped, and 
 went after her sons, who undertook to avenge 
 her wrongs upon Lycus and his wife. They 
 took Thebes, put the king to death, and tied 
 Dirce to the tail of a wild bull, who dragged her 
 till she died. Bacchus changed her into a foun- 
 tain, and deprived Aniiope of the use of her 
 senses. In this forlorn situation she wandered 
 all over Greece, and at last found relief from 
 Phocus, son of Ornytion, who cured her of her 
 disorder, and married her. Hyginus, fab. 7, 
 says that Antiope was divorced by Lycus, and 
 that after her repudiation she became pregnant 
 by Jupiter. Meanwhile Lycus married Dirce, 
 who suspected Antiope and imprisoned her. 
 Antiope, however, escaped from her confine- 
 ment, and brought forth on mount Githaeron. 
 Some authors have called her daughter of Aso- 
 pus, because she was born on the banks of that 
 river. The Scholiast on Apollon. 1, v. 735, main- 
 tains that there were two persons of the name, 
 one the daughter of Nycteus, and the other ol 
 Asopus, and mother of Amphion and Zethus. 
 Pans. 2, c. 6, 1. 9, c. 11.— Ovid. 6. Met. v. 110. 
 — ApoUod. 3, c. 5. — Propert. 3, el. 15. — Ham. 
 O^, 11, V. 2b9.—Hygin. fab. 7, 8, and 155. 
 
 II. A daughter of Mars, queen of the Amazons, 
 taken prisoner by Hercules, and given in mar- 
 riage to Theseus. She is also called Hippolyte. 
 
 Vid. Hippolyte. III. A daughter of ^olus, 
 
 mother of BoBotus and Hellen, by Neptune. Hy- 
 gin. fab. 157. 
 
 Antiphates, I. a king of the Lsestrygones, 
 descended from Lamus, who founded Formiae. 
 Ulysses, returning from Troy, came upon his 
 coasts, and sent three men to examine the coun- 
 try. Antiphates devoured one of them and 
 pursued the others, and sunk the fleet of Ulysses 
 with stones, except the stiip in which Ulysses 
 
 was. Ovid. Met. 14, v. 232. II. A son of 
 
 Sarpedon. Virg. Mn. 9, v. 696. III. The 
 
 grandfather of Amphiaraus. Homer. Od. 
 
 Anubis, an Egyptian deity, represented un- 
 der the form of a man with the head of a dog. 
 His worship was introduced from Egypt into 
 Greece and Italy. He is supposed by some to 
 be Mercury, because he is sometimes represent- 
 ed wath a cad^iceus. Some make him brother of 
 Osiris, some his son by Nephthys, the wife of 
 Typhon, Diod. 1. — iMcan. 8, v. 331. — Ovid. 
 Met. 9, V. 686. — Plut. de Bid. and Osirid. — 
 Herodot. 4.— Virg. Mn. 8, v. 698. The worship 
 ot Anubis, however, was not confined to Egypt ; 
 and even in the latter periods of the Roman 
 empire, not much more than a century before 
 678 
 
 the official recognition of Ghristianity, and at 
 least 180 years after the preaching of St. Paul 
 at Rome, the emperor performed in public the 
 offices of highpriest of Anubis. 
 
 Aon, a son of Neptune, who came to Euboea 
 and Bceotia, from Apulia, when he collected 
 the inhabitants into cities and reigned over them. 
 They were called Acnes, and the country Aonia, 
 from him. 
 
 AoRis, I. a famous hunter, son of Aras, king 
 of Gorinth. He was so fond of his sister Ara- 
 thyrgea, that he called part of the country by 
 
 her name. Pans. 2, c. 12. II. The wife of 
 
 Neleus, called more commonly Chloris. Id. 9, 
 c. 36. 
 
 Apharetus, fell in love with Marpessa, 
 daughter of (Enomaus, and carried her away. 
 
 Aphareus, a king of Messenia, son of Pe- 
 rieres and Gorgophone, who married Arene 
 daughter of CEbalus, by whom he had three 
 sons. Paus. 3, c. 1. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Aphrodite, the Graecian name of Venus, 
 from a(Ppos, froth, because Venus is said to have 
 been born from the froth of the ocean. Hesiod. 
 Th. Idb.—Plin. 36, c. 5. 
 
 Apis, I. one of the ancient kings of Pelopon- 
 nesus, son of Phoroneus and Laodice. Some 
 say that Apollo was his father, and that he was 
 king of Argos, while others call him king of 
 Sicyon, and fix the time of his reign above 200 
 years earlier. He was a native of Naupactum, 
 and descended from Inachus. He received 
 divine honours after death, as he had been mu- 
 nificent and humane to his subjects ; and the 
 country where he reigned was called Apia. 
 Some, among whom is Varro and St. Augus- 
 tine, have imagined that Apis went to Egypt 
 with a colony of Greeks, and that he civilized 
 the inhabitants and polished their manners, for . 
 w^hich they made him a god after death, and 
 paid divine honours to him under the name of 
 Serapis. JEschyl. in Suppl. — August, de Civ. 
 Dei, 18, c. 5. — Paus. 2, c. 5. — ApoUod. 2, c. 1. 
 
 II. A son of Jason, born in Arcadia ; he was 
 
 killed by the horses of iEtolus. Poms. 5, c. 1. 
 
 Vid. Part I. III. A god of the Egyptians, 
 
 worohipped under the form of an ox. Some 
 say that Isis and Osiris are the deities worship- 
 ped under this name, because during their 
 reign they taught the Egyptians agriculture. 
 The Egyptians believed that the soul of Osiris 
 was really departed into the ox, because that 
 animal had been of the most essential service 
 in the cultivation of the ground, which Osiris 
 had introduced into Egypt. The ox that was 
 chosen was always distinguished by particular 
 marks ; his body was black ; he had a square 
 white spot upon the forehead, the figure of an 
 eagle upon the back, a knot under the tongue 
 like a beetle, the hairs of his tail were double, 
 and his right side was marked with a whitish 
 spot, resembling the crescent of the moon. 
 The festival of Apis lasted seven days. The 
 ox was conducted to the banks of the Nile with 
 much ceremony, and if he had lived to the 
 time when their sacred books allowed, they 
 drowned him in the river, and embalmed his 
 body, and buried it in solemn state in the city 
 of Memphis. After his death, which sometimes 
 was natural, the greatest cries and lamentations 
 were heard in Egypt, as if Osiris was just dead; 
 the priests shaved their heads, which was a sign 
 
AP 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AP 
 
 of the deepest mourning. This continued till 
 another ox appeared with the proper character- 
 istics to succeed as the deity, which was follow- 
 ed with the greatest acclamations, as if Osiris 
 was returned to life. This ox, which was found 
 to represent Apis, was left 40 days in the city 
 of the Nile before he was carried lo Memphis, 
 during which time none but women were per- 
 mitted to appear before him, and this they per- 
 formed, according to their super.stitious notions, 
 in a wanton and indecent manner. There 
 was also an ox worshipped atHeliopolis, under 
 the name of Mnevis ; some supposed that he 
 was Osiris, but others maintain that the Apis 
 of Memphis was sacred to Osiris, and Mnevis 
 to Isis. When Cambyses came into Egypt, the 
 people were celebrating the festivals of Apis with 
 every mark of joy and triumph, which the con- 
 queror interpreted as an insult upon himself. 
 He called the priests of Apis, and ordered the 
 deity himself to come before him. When he 
 saw that an ox was the object of their venera- 
 tion, and the cause of such rejoicings, he 
 wounded it on the thigh, ordered the priests to 
 be chastised, and commanded his soldiers to 
 slaughter such as were found celebrating such 
 riotous festivals. The god Apis had generally 
 two stables, or rather temples. If he eat from 
 the hand, it was a favourable omen ; but if he 
 refused the food that was offered him, it was 
 interpreted as unlucky. From this,. Germani- 
 cus, when he visited Egypt, drew the omens of 
 his approaching death. When his oracle was 
 consulted, incense was burnt on an altar, and 
 a piece of money placed upon it, after which 
 the people that wished to know futurity applied 
 their ear to the mouth of the god and immedi- 
 ately retired, stopping their ears till they had 
 departed from the temple. The first sounds that 
 were heard were taken as the answer of the 
 oracle to their questions. Paus. 7, c. 22. — 
 Herodot. 2 and 3.—Plin. 8, c. 38, &,c.—Strab. 
 l.—Plut. in Isid. and Osir. — Apollod. 1, c. 7. 1. 
 2, c. l.~Mela, 1, c. 9.—Plin. 8, c. 39, &c.— 
 Strab. l.—Mlian. V. H. 4 and 6.—Diod. 1. 
 Apis is universally allowed to have been a 
 symbol of the Nile and its fertilizing influence 
 upon the soil ; and because it was believed that 
 the inundations of that river were greatly af- 
 fected by the operation of the moon, it was 
 required that her emblem, the crescent, should 
 designate the ox who was to be invested with 
 the title and honours of Apis. For the same 
 reason, according to ^lian, the rejoicings that 
 attended the celebration of his rites commenced 
 with the commencing increase of the river. 
 This always occurred when the sun was in a 
 particular sign ; whence the inhabitants attrib- 
 uted, also, in part to his influence the fertility 
 that succeeded. Apis was, therefore, likewise 
 a symbol of the sun, and of consequence, no less 
 sacred to Osiris than to Isis his wife. When 
 the worship of Serapis superseded that of Osiris, 
 the ox Apis became, in like manner, conse- 
 crated to him. 
 
 Apisaon. Vid. Part II, 
 
 Apollo son of Jupiter, and Latona, called 
 also Phcebus, is often confounded with the sun. 
 According to Cicero, 3, de Nat. Deor. there 
 Were four persons of this name. The first was 
 son of Vulcan, and the tutelary god of the 
 Athenians. The second wasson of Corybas, 
 
 and was born in Crete, for the dominion of 
 which he disputed even Avith Jupiter himself. 
 The third was son of Jupiter and Latona, and 
 came from the nations of the Hyperboreans 
 to Delphi. The fourth was born in Arcadia, 
 and called Nomion, because he gave laws to the 
 inhabitants. To the son of Jupiter and Latona 
 all the actions of the others seem to have been 
 attributed. The Apollo, son of Vulcan, was the 
 same as the Orus of the Egyptians, and was the 
 most ancient, from whom the actions of the 
 others have been copied. The three others 
 seem to be of Grecian origin. The tradition 
 that the son' of Latona was born in the floating 
 island of Delos, is taken from the Egyptian 
 mythology, which asserts that the son of Vul- 
 can, which is supposed to be Orus, was saved 
 by his mother Isis from the persecution of Ty- 
 phon, and intrusted to the care of Latona, who 
 concealed him in the island of Chemmis. When 
 Latona was pregnant by Jupiter, Juno, who 
 was ever jealous of her husband's amours, raised 
 the serpent Python to torment Latona, who was 
 refused a place to give birth to her children, 
 till Neptune, moved at the severity of her fate, 
 raised the island of Delos from the bottom of 
 the sea, where Latona brought forth Apollo 
 and Diana. Apollo was the god of the fine 
 arts, ofmedicine, music, poetry, and eloquence ; 
 of all which he was deemed the inventor. He 
 was the only one of the gods whose* oracles were 
 in general repute over the world. When his 
 son jEsculapius had been killed with the thun- 
 ders of Jupiter, for raising the dead to life, 
 Apollo, in his resentment, killed the Cyclops 
 who had fabricated the thunderbolts. Jupiter 
 was incensed at this act of violence, and he 
 banished Apollo from heaven. The exiled 
 deity came to Admetus, king of Thessaly, and 
 hired himself to be one of his shepherds, in 
 which ignoble employmeat he remained nine 
 years ; from which circumstance he was called 
 the god of shepherds, and at his sacrifices a wolf 
 was generally offered, as the enemy of the sheep- 
 fold. During his residence at Thessaly, he re- 
 warded the tender treatment of Admetus. He 
 gave him a chariot, drawn by a lion and a bull, 
 with which he was able to okain in marriage 
 Alceste the daughter of Pel ias; and, soon after, 
 the Parcae granted, at Apollo's request, that 
 Admetus might be redeemed from death if 
 another person laid down his life for him. He 
 assisted Neptune in building the walls of Troy ; 
 and when he was refused the promised reward 
 from Laomedon, the king of the country, he 
 destroyed the inhabitants by a pestilence. As 
 soon as he was born, Apollo destroyed with 
 arrows the serpent Python, whom Juno had 
 sent to persecute Latona ; hence he was called 
 Pythius. He was not the inventor of the lyre, 
 as some have imagined, but Mercury gave it 
 him, and received as a reward the famous ca- 
 duceus with which Apollo was wont to drive the 
 flocks of Admetus. He received the surnames 
 of Phoebus, Delius, Cynthius, Pasan, Delphi- 
 cus, Nomius, Lycius, Clarius, Ismenius, Vul- 
 turius, Smintheus, &c., for reasons which are 
 explained under those words. Apollo is gene- 
 rally represented with long hair, and the Ro- 
 mans were fond of imitating his figure; and 
 therefore in their youth they were remarkable 
 for their fine head of hair, which they cut short 
 679 
 
AP 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AP 
 
 at the age of seventeen or eighteen ; he is al- 
 ways represented as a tall beardless young man, 
 with a handsome shape, holding in his hand a 
 bow, and sometimes a lyre; his head is gene- 
 rally surrounded with beams of light. He was 
 the deity who, according to the notions of the 
 ancients, inflicted plagues, and in that moment 
 he appeared surrounded with clouds His wor- 
 ship and power were universally acknowledged: 
 he had temples and statues in every country, 
 particularly in Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His 
 statue, which stood upon mount Actium, as a 
 mark to mariners to avoid the dangerous coasts, 
 was particularly famous, and it appeared a great 
 distance at sea. Augustus, before the battle of 
 Actium, addressed himself to it for victory. 
 The griffin, the cock, the grasshopper, the wolf, 
 the crow, the swan, the hawk, the olive, the 
 laurel, the palm-tree, &c., were sacred to him ; 
 and in his sacrifices, wolves, hawks, bullocks, 
 and lambs were immolated to him. As he 
 presided over poetry he was often seen on mount 
 Parnassus with the nine muses. His most fa- 
 mous oracles were at Delphi, Delos, Claros, 
 Tenedos, Cyrrha, and Patara. His most splen- 
 did temple was at Delphi, where every na- 
 tion and individual made considerable presents 
 when they consulted the oracle. Augustus, 
 after the battle of Actium, built him a temple 
 on mount Palatine, which he enriched with a 
 valuable library. He had a famous Colossus in 
 Rhodes, which was one of the seven wonders of 
 the world. Apolla has been taken for the sun ; 
 but it may be proved by different passages in 
 the ancient writers, that Apollo, the Sun, Phoe- 
 bus, and Hyperion, were all diflferent characters 
 and deities, though confounded together. Ovid. 
 Met. 1, fab. 9 and 10, 1. 4. fab. 3, &.Q..—Pa%s. 
 2, c. 7, 1. 5, c. 7, 1. 7, c. 20, 1. 9, c. 30, &c.—Hy- 
 gin. fab. 9, 14, 50, 93, 140, 161, 202, 203, &c.— 
 Stat. 1. Theb. d60.— Tibull. 2, cl. S.—Plut. de 
 Amor. — Horn. 11. cf* Hymn, in Apoll. — Virg. 
 ^En. 2, 3, &c. G. 4, v. 323.— Horat. 1, od. 10. 
 — Lucian. Dial. Mer. tf Vulc. — Propert. 2, el. 
 28. — Callimach. in Apoll. — Apollod. 1, c. 3, 4 
 and 9, 1. 2, c. 5, 1. 3, c. 5, 10 and \2.— Virg. Mn. 
 
 10, V, 171. Also a temple of Apollo upon 
 
 mount Leucas, which appeared at a great dis- 
 tance at sea, and served as a guide to mariners, 
 and reminded them to avoid the dangerous 
 rocks that were along the coast. Virg. JEn. 3, 
 V. 275. Vid. Leucothoe, Daphne, Issa, Coronis, 
 Clym^ne, Niobe, Hyacinthus, Marsyas, <^c. 
 
 Apomyios. Vid. Jupiter. 
 
 AposTROPmA, a surname of Venus in Boeotia, 
 who was distinguished under these names, 
 Venus, Urania, Vulgaria, and Apostrophia. 
 The former was the patroness of a pure and 
 chaste love ; the second of carnal and sensual 
 desires : and the last incited men to illicit and 
 unnatural gratifications, to incests and rapes. 
 Venus Apostrophia was invoked by the The- 
 bans, that they might be saved from such un- 
 lawful desires. She is the same as the Verti- 
 cordia of the Romans. Pans. 9, c. 16. — Vol. 
 Max. 8, c. 15. 
 
 Appiades, a name given to these five deities, 
 Venus, Pallas, Vesta, Concord, and Peace, be- 
 cause a temple was erected to them near the 
 Appian roads. The name was also applied to 
 ttiose courtesans at Rome who lived near the 
 temple of Venus by the Appiae, Aquae, and 
 680 
 
 the forum of J. Cassar. Ovid, de Art. Am. 3, 
 V. 452. 
 
 AauARius, one of the signs of the zodiac, 
 rising in January, and setting in February. 
 Some suppose that Ganymede was changed into 
 this sign. Virg. G. 3, v. 304. 
 
 Arabs, and Arabus, a son of Apollo and 
 Babylone, who first invented medicine, and 
 taught it in Arabia, which is called after his 
 name. Plin. 7, c. 56. 
 
 Arachne, a woman of Colophon, daughter 
 to Idmon, a dier. She challenged Minerva to 
 a trial of skill with the needle, and represented 
 on her work the amours of Jupiter with Euro- 
 pa, Antiope, Leda, Asteria, Danae, Alcmene, 
 s&c. ; but though her piece was perfect and mas- 
 terly, she was defeated by Minerva, and hang- 
 ed herself in despair, and was changed into a 
 spider by the goddess. Ovid. Met. 6, fab. 1, &c. 
 
 Arcesius, son of Jupiter, was grandfather to 
 Ulysses. Ovid. Met. 13, v. 144. 
 
 Arghander, father-in-law to Danaus. He- 
 rodot. 2, c. 98. 
 
 Arche, one of the muses, according to Cicero. 
 
 Archelaus, a son of Electryon and Anaxo. 
 Apollod. 2. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Archemorus, or Opheltes, son of- Lycurgus, 
 king of Nemse, in Thrace, by Eurydice. Ac- 
 cording to Statins, the Nemaean games were in- 
 stituted in honour of Archemorus. Vid. Hyp- 
 sipyle. 
 
 Argheptolemus. Vid: Part II. 
 
 ARcmA, one of the Oceanides, wife to Ina- 
 chus. Hygin. fab. 143, 
 
 Architts, a name of Venus, worshipped on 
 mount Libanus. 
 
 Ardalus, a son of Vulcan, said to have 
 been the first who invented the pipe. He gave 
 ii to the muses, who on that account have been 
 called Ardalides and Ardaliotides. Paus. 2, c. 31. 
 
 Arduine, the goddess of hunting among the 
 Gauls ; represented with the same attributes as 
 the Diana of the Romans. 
 
 Areta, a daughter of Rhexenor, descended 
 from Neptune, who married her uncle Alci- 
 I nous, by whom she had Nausicaa. Hoyner. Od. 
 7 and S.— Apollod. 1. 
 
 Arethijsa, a nymph of Elis, daughter of 
 Oceanus, and one of Diana's attendants. As 
 she returned one day from hunting, she sat 
 near the Alpheus, and bathed in the stream. 
 The god of the river was enamoured of her, 
 and he pursued her over the mountains and all 
 the country, when Arethusa implored Diana, 
 who changed her into a fountain. The Alpheus 
 immediately mingled his streams with hers, and 
 Diana opened a secret passage under the earih 
 and under the sea, where the waters of Arethu- 
 sa disappeared, and rose in the island of Orty- 
 gia, near Syracuse, in Sicily. The river Al- 
 pheus followed her also under the sea, and rose 
 also in Ortygia ; so that, as mythologists relate, 
 whatever is thrown into the Alpheus, in Elis, 
 rises again, after some time, in the fountain 
 Arethusa, near Syracuse. Ovid. Met. 5, fab. 
 \0.—Athen. l.—Paus. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Argathona, a huntress of Cios in Biihynia, 
 whom Rhesus married before he went to the 
 Trojan war. When she heard of his death she 
 died in despair. — Parthen. Erotic, c. 36. 
 
 Argia. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Argiope, a nymph of mount Parnassus, 
 
AR 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AR 
 
 mother of Thamyris, by Philammon, the son of 
 Apollo. Pans. 4, c. 38. 
 
 Argiphontes, a surname given to Mercury, 
 because he killed the hundred-eyed Argus by 
 order of Jupiter. 
 
 Argiva, a surname of Juno, worshipped at 
 Argos. She had also a temple at Sparta, con- 
 secrated to her by Eurydice, the daughter of 
 Lacedaemon. Paus. 4, c. 13. — Virg. Mn. 3, v. 
 547. 
 
 Argo, the name of the ship which carried 
 Jason and his 54 companions to Colchis, when 
 they resolved to recover the golden fleece. The 
 derivation of the word Argo has been often dis- 
 puted. Some derive it from Argos, ihe person 
 who first proposed the expedition, and who built 
 the ship. Others maintain that it was built at 
 Argos, whence its name. Cicero, Tusc. 1, c. 
 c. 20, calls it Argo, because it carried Grecians, 
 commonly called Argives. Diod. 4, derives the 
 word from apyoi, which signifies swift. Ptole- 
 my says, but falsely, that Hercules built the 
 ship, and called it Argo, after a son of Jason, 
 v.'ho bore the same name. The ship Argo had 
 50 oars. According to many authors, she had 
 a beam on her prow, cut in the forest of Dodona 
 by Minerva, which had the power of giving 
 oracles to the Argonauts. This ship was the 
 first that ever sailed on the sea, as some report. 
 After the expediiion was finished, Jason order- 
 ed her to be drawn aground at the Isthmus of 
 Corinth, and consecrated her to the god of the 
 sea. The poets have made her a constellation 
 in heaven. Hygm. fab. 14, A. P. 2, c. 37. — 
 Catull. de Nupt. Pel. <^ Thet.— Val. Place. 1, 
 V. 93, &c. — PhcBdr. 4, fab. 6. — Seneca in Medea. 
 — Apollon. Argon. — Apollod. — Cic. de Nat. D. 
 — Plin. 7, c. 56. — Manil. 1. 
 
 Argonautje, a name given to those ancient 
 heroes who went with Jason on board the ship 
 Argo to Colchis, about 89 years before the tak- 
 ing of Troy, or 1263 B. C. The causes of this 
 expedition arose from the following circum- 
 stance: — Athamas king of Thebes, had mar- 
 ried Ino, the daughter of Cadmus, whom he di- 
 vorced to marry Nephele, by whom he had two 
 children, Phryxus and Helle. As Nephele 
 was subject to certain fits of madness, Athamas 
 repudiated her, and took a second time Ino, by 
 whom he had soon after two sons, Learchus 
 and Melicerta. As the children of Nephele 
 were to succeed to their father by right of birth. 
 Ino conceived an immortal hatred against them! 
 and she caused the city of Thebes to be visited 
 by a pestilence, by poisoning all the grain which 
 had been sown in the earth. Upon this the 
 oracle was consulted ; and as it had been cor- 
 rupted by means of Ino, the answer was that 
 Nephele's children should be immolated to the 
 gods. Phryxus was apprized of this, and he 
 immediately embarked with his sister Helle, 
 and fled to the court of iEetes, king of Colchis, 
 one of his near relations. In the voyage Helle 
 died, and Phryxus arrived safe at Colchis, and 
 was received with kindness by the king. The 
 poets have embellished the flight of Phryxus, 
 by supposing that he and Helle fled through 
 the air on a ram which had a golden fleece and 
 wings, and was endowed with the faculties of 
 speech. As they were going to be sacrificed, 
 the ram took them on his back, and instantly 
 disappeared in the air. On their way Helle 
 
 Part III.— 4 R 
 
 was giddy, and fell into that part of the sea 
 which from her was called the Hellespont. 
 When Phryxus came to Colchis, he sacrificed 
 the ram to Jupiter, or, according to others, to 
 Mars, to whom he also dedicated the golden 
 fleece. He soon after married Chalciope, the 
 daughter of iEetes ; but his father-in-law envied 
 him the possession of the golden fleece, and 
 therefore to obtain it he murdered him. Some 
 time after this event, when Jason, the son of 
 iEson, demanded of his uncle Pelias the crown 
 which he usurped, ( Vid. Pelias^ Jason., jEson.) 
 Pelias said that he would restore it to him, pro- 
 vided he avenged the death of their common 
 relation Phryxus, whom ^Eetes had basely mur- 
 dered in Colchis. Jason , who was in the vigour 
 of youth, and of an ambitious soul, cheerfully 
 undertook the expedition, and embarked with 
 all the young princes of Greece in the ship Argo. 
 They stopped at the island of Lemnos, where 
 they reiliained two years, and raised a new race 
 of men from the Lemnian women who had 
 murdered their husbands. Vid. Hypsipyle. 
 After they had left Lemnos, they visited Samo- 
 thrace, where they offered sacrifices to the gods, 
 and thence passed to Troas and to Cyzicum. 
 Here they met with a favourable reception from 
 Cyzicus, the king of the country. The night 
 after their departure, they were driven back by 
 a storm again on the coast of Cyzicum, and the 
 inhabitants, supposing them to be their enemies, 
 the Pelasgi, furiously attacked *them. In this 
 nocturnal engagement the slaughter was great, 
 and Cyzicus was killed by the hand of Jason, 
 who, to expiate the murder he had ignorantly 
 committed, buried him in a magnificent man- 
 ner, and ofiered sacrifices to the mother of 
 the gods, to whom he built a temple on mount 
 Dyndymus. From Cyzicum they visited Be- 
 brycia, otherwise called Bithynia, where Pol- 
 lux accepted the challenge of Amycus, king of 
 the country, in the combat of the cestus, and 
 slew him. They were driven from Bebrycia 
 by a storm, to Salmydessa, on the coast of 
 Thrace, where they delivered Phineus, king of 
 the place, from the persecution of the harpies. 
 Phineus directed their course through the Cya- 
 nean rock or the Symplegades, {Vid. Cyanecs,) 
 and they safely entered the Euxine sea. They 
 visited the country of the Mariandinians, where 
 Lycus reigned, and lost two of their compan- 
 ions, Idmon, and Typhis their pilot. After 
 they had left this coast, they were driven upon 
 the island of Arecia, where they found the 
 children of Phryxus, whom ^etes, their grand- 
 father, had sent to Greece to take possession of 
 their father's kingdom. From this island they 
 at last arrived safe at ^a, the capital of the Col- 
 chis. Jason explained the cause of his voyage 
 to -^etes ; but the conditions on which he was 
 to recover the golden fleece were so hard, that 
 the Argonauts must have perished in the at- 
 tempt, had not Meda, the king's daughter, 
 fallen in love with their leader. She had a 
 conference with Jason, and after mutual oaths 
 of fidelity in the temple of Hecate, Medea 
 pledged herself to deliver the Argonauts from 
 her father's hard conditions, if Jason married 
 her, and carried her with him to Greece. He 
 was to tame two bulls, which had brazen feet 
 and horns, and which vomited clouds of fire 
 and smoke, and to tie them to a plough made of 
 681 
 
AR 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AR 
 
 adamant stone, and to plough a field of two acres 
 of ground never before cultivated. After this 
 he was to sow in the plain the teeth of a dragon, 
 from which an armed multitude were to rise upj 
 and to be all destroyed by his hands. This 
 done, he was to kill an ever-watchfal dragon, 
 "which was at the bottom of the tree on which 
 the golden fleece was suspended. All these la- 
 bours were to be performed in one day ; and 
 Medea's assistance, whose knowledge of herbs, 
 magic, and potions, was unparalleled, easily 
 extricated Jason from all danger, to the aston- 
 ishment and terror of his companions, and of 
 JKetes, and the people of Colchis, who had as- 
 sembled to be spectators of this wonderful ac- 
 tion. He tamed the bulls with ease, ploughed 
 the field, sowed the dragon's teeth, and when 
 the armed men sprang from the earth, he threw 
 a stone in the midst of them, and they imme- 
 diately turned their weapons one against the 
 other, till they all perished. After this he went 
 to the dragon, and by means of enchanted 
 herbs, and a draught which Medea had given 
 him, he lulled the monster to sleep, and obtain- 
 ed the golden fleece, and immediately set sail 
 with Medea. He was soon pursued by Absyr- 
 tus, the king's son, who came up to them, and 
 was seized and murdered by Jason and Medea. 
 The mangled limbs of Absyrtus were strewed 
 in the way through which ^etes was to pass, 
 that his farther pursuit might be stopped. After 
 the murder of Absyrtus, they entered the Palus 
 Maeotis ; and by pursuing their course towards 
 the left, according to the foolish account of poets 
 who were ignorant of geography, they came to 
 the island Peucestes, and to that of Circe. Here 
 Circe informed Jason that the cause of all his 
 calamities arose from the murder of Absyrtus, 
 of which she refused to expiate him. Soon af- 
 ter, they entered the Mediterranean by the 
 columns of Hercules, and passed the straits of 
 Charybdis and Scylla, where they must have 
 perished, had not Tethys, the mistress of Pe- 
 leus, one of the Argonauts, delivered them. 
 They were preserved from the Sirens by the 
 eloquence of Orpheus, and arrived in the island 
 of the Phseacians, where they met the enemy's 
 fleet, which had continued their pursuit by a 
 different course. It was therefore resolved that 
 Medea should be restored, if she had not been 
 actually married to Jason; but the wife of Al- 
 cinous, the king of the country, being appointed 
 umpire between the Colchians and Argonauts, 
 had the marriage privately consummated by 
 night, and declared that the claims of JEetes 
 to Medea were now void. From Pheeacia 
 the Argonauts came to the bay of Ambracia, 
 whence they were driven by a storm upon the 
 coast of Africa, and, after many disasters, at last 
 came in sight of the promontory of Melea, in 
 the Peloponnesus, where Jason was purified of 
 the murder of Absyrtus, and soon after arrived 
 safe in Thessaly. Apollonius Rhodius gives 
 another account equally improbable. He says 
 that they sailed from the Euxine up one of the 
 mouths of the Danube, and that Absyrtus pur- 
 sued them by entering another mouth of the 
 river. After they had continued their voyage 
 for some leagues, the waters decreased, and they 
 were obliged to carry the ship Argo across the 
 country to the Adriatic, upwards of 150 miles. 
 Here they met with Absyrtus, who had pur- 
 682 
 
 sued the same measures, and conveyed his 
 ships in like manner over the land. Absyrtus 
 was immediately put to death; and soon after 
 the beam of Dodona ( Vid. Argo) gave an ora- 
 cle, that Jason should never return home if he 
 was not previously purified of the murder. Upon 
 this they sailed to the island of ^a, where 
 Circe, who was the sister of iEetes, expiated 
 him without knowing who he was. There is a 
 third tradition, which maintains, that they re- 
 turned to Colchis a second time, and visited 
 many places of Asia. This famous expedition 
 has been celebrated in the ancient ages of the 
 world ; it has employed the pen of many writers, 
 and among the historians, Diodorus Siculus, 
 Strabo, Apollodorus, and Justin ; and among 
 the poets, Onomacritus, more generally called 
 Orpheus, Apollonius Rhodius, Pindar, and 
 Valerius Flaccus, have extensively given an 
 account of its most remarkable particulars. 
 The number of the Argonauts is not exactly 
 known. Apollodorus and Diodorus say that 
 they were 54. Tzetzes admits the number of 
 50, but Apollodorus mentions only 45. The 
 following list is drawn from the various authors 
 who have made mention of the Argonautic ex- 
 pedition. Jason, son of ^son, as is well known, 
 was the chief. His companions were Acastus, 
 son of Pelias, Actor, son of Hippasus, Adme- 
 tus, son of Pheres, ^sculapius, son of Apollo, 
 -ffitalides, son of Mercury and Eupoleme, Al- 
 menus, son of Mars, Amphiaraus, son of 
 OEcleus, Amphidamus, son of Aleus, Amphion, 
 son of Hyperasius, Anceus, a son of Lycurgus, 
 and another of the same name, Areus, Argus, 
 the builder of the ship Argo, Argus, son of 
 Phryxus, Armenus, Ascalaphus, son of Mars, 
 Asterion, son of Cometes, Asterius, son of Ne- 
 leus, Augoas, son of Sol, Atalahta, daughter of 
 Schceneus, disguised in a man's dress, Autoly- 
 cus, son of Mercury, Azorus, Buphagus, Butes, 
 son of Teleon, Calais, son of Boreas, Canthus, 
 son of Abas, Castor, son of Jupiter, Ceneus, son 
 of Elatus, Cepheus, son of Aleus, Cius, Cly- 
 tius, and Iphitus, sons of Eurythus, Coronus, 
 Deucalion, son of Minos, Echion, oon of Mer- 
 cury and Antianira, Ergynus, son of Neptune, 
 Euphemus, son of Neptune and Macionassa, 
 Eribotes, Euryalus, son of Cisteus, Eurydamas 
 and Eurythion, sons of Iras, Eurytus, son of 
 Mercury, Glaucus, Hercules, son of Jupiter, 
 Idas, son of Aphareus, lalmenus, son of Mars, 
 Idman, son of Abas, lolaus, son of Iphiclus, 
 Iphiclus, son of Thestius, Iphiclus, son of Phi- 
 lacus, Iphis, son of Alector, Lynceus, son of 
 Aphareus, Iritus, son of Naubolus, Laertes, son 
 of Arcesius, Laocoon, Leodatus, son of Bias, 
 Leitus, son of Alector, Meleager, son of CEne- 
 us, Mencetius, son of Actor, Mopsus, son of 
 Amphycus, Nauplius, son of Neptune, Neleus, 
 the brother of Peleus, Nestor, son of Neleus, 
 Oileus. the father of Ajax, Orpheus, son of 
 CEager, Palemon, son of ^tolius, Peleus and 
 Teiamon,sons of iEacus, Periclimenes, son of 
 Neleus, Peneleus, son of Hipalmus, Philocte- 
 tes, son of Paean, Phlias, Pollux, son of Jupiter, 
 Polyphemus, son of Elates, Pceas, son of Thau- 
 macus, Phanus, son of Bacchus, Phalerus, son 
 of Alcon, Phocas and Priasus, sons of Ceneus, 
 one of the Lapithse, Talaus, Tiphus, son of 
 Aginus, Staphilus, son of Bacchus, two of the 
 name of Iphitus, Theseus, son of iEgeus, with 
 
AR 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AS 
 
 his friend Pirithous. Among these iEscula- 
 pius was physician, and Typhis was pilot. 
 
 Argus, I. a son of Arestor, whence lie is often 
 called Arestorides. He married Ismene, the 
 daughter of the Asopus. As he had a hun- 
 dred eyes, of which only two were asleep at one 
 time, Juno set him to watch lo, whom Jupiter 
 had changed into a heifer ; but Mercury, by 
 order of Jupiter, slew him by lulling all his 
 eyes asleep with the sound of his lyre. Jujio 
 put the eyes of Argus on the tail of the peacock, 
 a bird sacred to her divinity. Moschus, Idyl. — 
 Ovid. Met. 1, fab. 12 and I'^.—Propert. 1, v. 685, 
 
 &c. el. 3.—Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 2, c. 1. II. A 
 
 son of Danaus, who built the ship Argo. Id. 
 
 14. III. A son of Jupiter andNiobe, the first 
 
 child which the father of the gods had by a 
 mortal. He built Argos, and married Evadne, 
 
 the daughter of Strymon. Id. 145. IV. A 
 
 dog of Ulysses, who knew his master after an 
 absence of 20 years. Homer. Od. 17, v. 300. 
 
 Argynnis, a name of Venus, which she re- 
 ceived from Argynnus, a favourite youth of 
 Agamemnon, who was dro\\Tied in the Cephi- 
 sus. Propert. 3, el. v. 52. 
 
 Argyra. Vid. Selimmts. 
 
 Ariadne, daughter of Minos 2d, king of 
 Crete, by Pasiphae, fell in love with Theseus, 
 who was shut up in the labyrinth to be devour- 
 ed by the Minotaur, and gave him a clew of 
 thread, by which he extricated himself from 
 the difficult windings of his confinement. Af- 
 ter he had conquered the Minotaur, he carried 
 her away according to the promise he had made, 
 and married her ; but when he arrived at the 
 island of Naxos he forsook her, though she was 
 already pregnant, and repaid his love with the 
 most endearing tenderness. Ariadne, upon 
 being abandoned by Theseus, hung herself, 
 according to some ; but Plutarch says that she 
 lived many years after. According to some 
 writers, Bacchus loved her after Theseus had 
 forsaken her, and gave her a crown of seven 
 stars, which, after her death, was made a con- 
 stellation. The Argives showed Ariadne's 
 tomb, and wher one of their temples was re- 
 paired, her ashes were found in an earthen urn. 
 Homer, Od. 11, v. 320, says, that Diana de- 
 tained Ariadne at Naxos. Plut. in Thes. — 
 Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 2. Heroid. 10. De Art. Am. 
 2, Fast. 3, V. AQ2.—Catull. de Nupt. Pel. <^ 
 Thet. ep. 6l.--Hygin. fab. 14, 43, 210.— Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. 1. 
 
 Aricia, an Athenian princess, niece to Mge- 
 us, whom Hippolytus married after he had 
 been raised from the dead by ^sculapius. 
 Ovid. Met. 15, v. 544.— Virg. Mn. 7, v. 762, &c. 
 ' Arion, I, a famous lyric poet and musician, 
 son of Cyclos, of Methymna, in the island of 
 Lesbos. He went into Italy with Periander, 
 tyrant of Corinth, where he obtained immense 
 riches by his profession. Some time after he 
 wished to revisit his native country ; and the sail- 
 ors of the ship in which he embarked resolved 
 to murder hira,to obtain the riches which he was 
 carrying to Lesbos. Arion, seeing them inflex- 
 ible in their resolutions, begged that he might 
 be permitted to play some melodious tune ; and 
 as soon as he had finished it, he threw himself 
 into the sea. A number of dolphins had been 
 attracted round the ship by the sweetness of his 
 music:, and it is said that one of them carried 
 
 him safe on his back to Taenarus, whence he 
 hastened to the court of Periander, who ordered 
 all the sailors to be crucified at their return. 
 Hygin. fab. I'^^.—HerodoL 1, c. 23 and 24.— 
 ji^lian. de Nat. An. 13, c. 45. — Ital. 11. Propert. 
 
 2, el. 26, V. 17. — Plut. in Symp. II. A horse, 
 
 sprung from Ceres and Neptune, which had the 
 power of speech, the feet on the right side like 
 those of a man, and the rest of the body like a 
 horse. Arion was brought up by the Nereides, 
 who often harnessed him to his father's chariot, 
 which he drew over the sea with uncommon 
 swiftness. Neptune gave him to Copreus, who 
 presented him to Hercules. Adrastus, king of 
 Argos, received him as a present from Hercules, 
 and with this wonderful animal he won the prize 
 at the Nemaean games. Pans. 8, c. 25. — Pro- 
 pert. 2, el. 34, v. 37. — Apollod. 3, c, 6. 
 
 Arist^ds, son of Apollo and the nymph 
 Cyrene, was born in the deserts of Libya, and 
 brought up by the Seasons, and fed upon nec- 
 tar and ambrosia. His fondness for hunting 
 procured him the surname of Nomus and Agre- 
 us. After he had travelled over the greatest 
 part of the world, Aristseus came to settle in 
 Greece, where he married Autonoe, the daugh- 
 ter of Cadmus, by whom he had a son called 
 Actaeon. He fell in love with Eurydice, the 
 wife of Orpheus, and pursued her in the fields. 
 She was stung by a serpent that lay in the grass, 
 and died, for which the gods destroyed all the 
 bees of Aristgeus. He succeeded, however, in 
 appeasing the manes of Eurydice by the in- 
 struction of Proteus, and his bees were restored 
 to him. Some authors say, that Aristaeus had 
 the care of Bacchus when young, and that he 
 was initiated in the mysteries of this god. 
 Aristaeus went to live on mount Haemus, where 
 he died. He was, after death, worshipped as 
 a demi-god, Aristaeus is said to have learned 
 from the nymphs the cultivation of olives, and 
 the management of bees, &c. which he com- 
 municated to the rest of mankind. Virg. G. 
 4, V. 3ll.—Diod. 4.— Justin. 13, c. l.— Ovid. 
 Fast. 1, V. 363. — Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 18. — Paus. 
 10, c. 11. —Hygin. fab. 161, 181, ^1.— Apollod. 
 
 3, c. 4. — Herodot. 4, c. 4, &c. — Polycen. 1, c. 24. 
 Artemisia. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Arueris, a god of the Egyptians, son of Isis 
 and Osiris. According to some accounts, Osiris 
 and Isis were married together in their mother's 
 womb, and Isis was pregnant of Arueris before 
 she was born. 
 
 Ardntius, I. a Roman who ridiculed the rites 
 of Bacchus, for which the god inebriated him 
 to such a degree that he ofl^ered violence to his 
 
 daughter Medullina. Plut. in Parall. II. 
 
 A man who wrote an account of the Punic wars 
 in the style of Sallust, in the reign of Augustus. 
 
 Tacit. Ann. 1. — Senec. ep. 14. III. Another 
 
 Latin writer. Senec. de Benef. 6. IV. Pa- 
 
 terculus. Vid. Phalaris. Plut. in Parall. 
 
 V. Stella, a poet descended of a consular family 
 in the age of Domitian. 
 
 AscALAPHDs, I. a son of Mars and Astyoche, 
 who was among the Argonauts, and went to the 
 Trojan war at the head of the Orchomenians, 
 with his brother lalmenus. He was killed by 
 Deiphobus. Homer. 11. 2, v. 13, 1. 9, v. 82, 1 
 
 13, Yt 518, II. A son of Acheron by Gorgyra 
 
 or Orphne. When Ceres had obtained from 
 
 Jupiter her daughter's freedom and return upon 
 
 663 
 
AS 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AT 
 
 earth, provided she had eaten nothing in -the 
 kingdom of Pluto, Ascalaphus discovered that 
 she had eaten some pomegranates from a tree ; 
 upon which Proserpine was so displeased with 
 Ascalaphus, that she sprinkled water on his 
 head, and immediately turned him into an owl. 
 Afollod. 1, c, 5, 1. 2, c. 5.— Ovid. Met. 5, fab. 8. 
 
 AscANius. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Asius, a son of Dymas, brother of Hecuba. 
 He assisted Priam in the Trojan war, and was 
 killed by Idomeneus. Homer. 11. 2, v. 342, 1. 
 12, V. 95, 1. 13, V. 384. 
 
 Asopus, a son of Neptune, who gave his 
 name to a river of Peloponnesus. Three of his 
 daughters are particularly celebrated, ..Egina, 
 Salamis, and Ismene. Apollod. I, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 
 l^—Paus. 2, c. 12. 
 
 AsPLEDON, a son of Neptune by the nymph 
 Midea. He gave his name to a city of Boeotia, 
 ■whose inhabitants went to the Trojan war. 
 Homer. II. 2, v. \S.—Paus. 9, c. 38. 
 
 AssARACUs. Vid. Part II. 
 
 AsTARTE, a powerful divinity of Syria, the 
 same as the Venus of the Greeks, the daughter 
 of Uranus, and mother of the seven Titanides. 
 She had a famous temple at Hierapolis in Syria, 
 which was served by 300 priests, who were al- 
 ways employed in offering sacrifices. She is 
 said to have consecrated a star which had fallen 
 from heaven in the city of Tyre, the brilliancy 
 of which gave light to her temple. Astarte has 
 been identified with other goddesses. In the sa- 
 cred writings she is called Ashtoreth, the god- 
 dess of the Sidonians, to which people, with the 
 other Phoenicians, she was an original deity. 
 Being also the wife of Adonis, she is considered 
 to be the same as Isis, the wife of the Egyptian 
 Osiris, because Adonis and Osiris are the same. 
 She was worshipped wiih peculiar veneration 
 and with the greatest pomp at Ascalon. Lucian. 
 de Dea Syria. — Cic. de Nal. D. — Judges xi. 5 
 and 33. 
 
 AsTERiA, I. a daughter of Ceus, one of the 
 Titans, by Phoebe, daughter of CgbIus and Ter- 
 ra. She married Perses, son of Crius, by whom 
 she had the celebrated Hecate. She enjoyed 
 for a long time the favour of Jupiter, under the 
 form of an eagle ; but falling under his displea- 
 sure, she was changed into a quail, called Ortyx 
 by the Greeks ; whence the name of Oriygia, 
 given to that island in the Archipelago where 
 she retired. Ovid. Met. 6, fab. 4. — Hygin. fab. 
 
 58.— Apollod. 1, c. 2, &c. II. One" of the 
 
 daughters of Atlas, mother of CEnomaus, king 
 of Pisa. Hygin. fab. 250. 
 
 AsTERioN, and Asterius, I. a river god, fa- 
 ther of Eubop?, Prosymna, and Acrsea, who 
 murdered the goddess Juno. Paus. 2, c. 17. 
 
 II. A son of Minos 2d, king of Crete, by 
 
 Pasiphae. He was killed by Theseus, though 
 he was thought the strongest of his age. Apol- 
 lod orus supposes him to be the same as the fa- 
 mous Minotaur. According to some, Asterion 
 was son of Teutamus, one of the descendants 
 of ^olus; and they say that he was surnamed 
 Jupiter, because he had carried awav Europa, 
 by whom he had Minos the 1st. Diod. 4. — 
 Apollod. 3. — Paws. 2, c. 31. 
 
 Aster5pe, and Asteropea, I. one of the Plei- 
 ades, who were beloved by the gods and most 
 illustrious heroes, and made constellations after 
 
 death. II, A daughter of Pelias, king of 
 
 C84 
 
 lolchos, who assisted her sisters to kill her la- 
 ther, whom Medea promised to restore to life. 
 Her grave was seen in Arcadia in the lime of 
 Pausaiiias, 8, c. 11. 
 
 Asterop^us, a king of Paeonia, son of Pe- 
 legon. He assisted Priam in the Trojan war, 
 and was killed, after a brave resistance, by 
 Achilles. Homer. II. 17, &c. 
 
 AsTR^A, a daughter of Ast/aeus, king of Ar- 
 cadia, or, according to oihers, of Titan, Saturn's 
 brother, by Aurora. Some jnake her daughter 
 of Jupiier and Themis, and others consider her 
 the same as Rhea, wife of Saturn. She was 
 called Justice^ of which virtue she was the god- 
 dess. She lived upon the earth, as the poets 
 mention, during the golden age, which is often 
 called the age of Astrea ; but the wickedness 
 and impiety of mankind drove her to heaven in 
 the brazen and iron ages, and she was placed 
 among the constellations of the zodiac under 
 the name of Virgo. She is represented as a 
 virgin, with a stern but majestic countenance, 
 holding a pair of scales in one hand and a 
 sword in the other. Senec. in Octav. — Ovid. 
 Met. 1, V. UO.—Arat. 1. Phcenom. v. 98.— iEfc- 
 siod. — Theog. 
 
 AsTYAGE, a daughter of Hypseus, who mar- 
 ried Periphas, by whom she had some children, 
 among whom was Aption, the father of Ixion. 
 
 AsTYANAX. Vid. Part II. 
 
 AsTYCRATiA, I. the daughter of -^olus. Ho- 
 mer. II. II. A daughter of Amphion and 
 
 Niobe. 
 
 AsTYDAMiA, or Astyadamia, I. a daughter of 
 Amyntor, king of Orchomenos, in Boeotia, mar- 
 ried Acastus, son of Pelias, who was king of 
 lolchos. Vid. Peleus. She is called by some 
 Hippolyte, and by others Cretheis. Apollod. 3. 
 
 c. 13. — Pindar. Mem. 4. It. A daughter of 
 
 Ormenus, carried away by Hercules, by whom 
 she had Tlepolemus. Ovid. Heroid. 9, v. 50. 
 
 AsTYLUs, one of the centaurs, who had the 
 knowledge of futurity. He advised his brothers 
 not to make war against the Lapithse. Ovid. 
 Mel. 12, V. 338. 
 
 AsTYNOME, I. a daughter of Amphion. 
 
 II. Of Talaus. Hygin. Vid. CJiryses. 
 
 AsTYocHE, and Astyoghia, I. a daughter of 
 Actor, who had by Mars, Ascalaphus and lal- 
 menus, who were at the Trojan war. Homer. 
 
 II. 2, V. 20. II. A daughter of Amphion and 
 
 Niobe. Apollod. 3, c. 4. III. A daughter of 
 
 the Simois, who married Erichthonius. Id. 3, 
 
 c. 12. IV. The wife of Strophius, sister to 
 
 Agamemnon. Hygin. 
 
 Atalanta, a daughter of Schosneus, king ot 
 Scyros. According to some she was the daugh- 
 ter of Jasus or Jasius, by Clymene; but others 
 say that Men ali on was her father. This un- 
 certainty as to the name of her father, has led 
 some mythologists to maintain that there were 
 two persons of that name. Atalanta was born 
 in Arcadia, and, according to Ovid, she deter- 
 mined to live in perpetual celibacy ; but her 
 beauty gained her many admirers, and to free 
 herself from their importunities, she proposed to 
 run a race with them. They were to run with- 
 out arms, and she was to carry a dart m her 
 hand. Her lovers were to start first, and who- 
 ever arrived at the goal before her, would be 
 made her husband; but all those whom she 
 overtook, were to be killed by the dart with 
 
AT 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 AT 
 
 •wMch she had armed herself. Many of her 
 suiters perished in the attempt, till Hippomenes, 
 the son of Macareus, proposed himself as her 
 admirer. Venus had presented him with three 
 golden apples from the garden of the Hespe- 
 rides, or, according to others, from an orchard in 
 Cyprus ; and as soon as he had started in the 
 course, he artfully threw down the apples at 
 some distance one from the other. While Ata- 
 lanta stopped to gather the apples, Hippomene^g 
 hastened on his course, arrived first at the goal, 
 and obtained Atalanta in marriage. These two 
 lovers, impatient to consummate their nuptials, 
 entered the temple ofCybele; and the goddess 
 was so offended at their impiety, that she chang- 
 ed them into two lions. Apollodorus says that 
 Atalanta's father was desirous of raising male 
 issue, and that therefore she was exposed to wild 
 beasu as soon as born. She was, however, 
 suckled by a she-bear, and preserved by shep- 
 herds. She killed two centaurs, Hyleus and 
 Rhecus, who attempted her virtue. She was 
 present at the hunting of the Calydonian boar, 
 which she first wounded, and received the head 
 as a present from Meleager,who was enamoured 
 of her. She was also at the games instituted in 
 nonour of Pelias, where she conquered Peleus. 
 Apollod. 1, c. 8, 1. 3, c. 9, &c. — Pans. 1, c. 36, 
 45, &c.—Hygin. fab. 99, 174, 185, 210.— .Elian. 
 V. H. n.—Diod. 4.— Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 4, 1. 10, 
 fab. 11. — Euripid. in Phceniss. 
 
 Atargatis, a divinity among the Syrians, 
 represented as a Siren. She is considered by 
 some the same as Venus, honoured by the As- 
 syrians under the name of Astarte. Sir ah. 16. 
 
 Ate; the goddess of evil, and daughter of Ju- 
 piter. She raised such jealousy and sedition in 
 heaven among the gods, that Jupiter banished 
 her for ever from heaven, and sent her to dwell 
 on earth, where she incited mankind to wicked- 
 ness, and sowed commotions among them, Ho- 
 mer. 11. 19. She is the same as the Discord of 
 the Latins, 
 
 Athamas, a king of Thebes, in Boeotia, was 
 son of tEoIus. He married Themisto, whom 
 some call Nephele, and Pindar, Demotice, and 
 by her he had Phryxus and Helle. Some time 
 after, on pretence that Nephele was subject to 
 fits of madness, be married Ino, the daughter of 
 Cadmus, by whom he had two sons, Learchus 
 and Melicerta. Ino became jealous of the chil- 
 dren of Nephele; because they were to ascend 
 their father's throne in preference to her own, 
 therefore she resolved to destroy them ; but they 
 escaped from her fury to Colchis, on a golden 
 jam. Vid. Phryxus and ArgonuutcB. Accord- 
 ing to the Greek scholiast of Lycophron, v. 22, 
 Ino attempted to destroy the corn of the coun- 
 try ; and the soothsayer, at her instigation, told 
 Athamas, that before the earth would yield its 
 usual increase, he must sacrifice one of the chil- 
 dren of Nephele to the gods. The credulous 
 father led Phryxus to the altar, where he was 
 saved by Nephele. The prosperity of Ino was 
 displeasing to Juno, more particularly because 
 she was descended from Venus. The goddess 
 therefore sent Tisiphone, one of the furies, to 
 the house of Athamas, who became inflamed 
 with such sudden fury, that he took Ino to be a 
 lioness, and her two children to be whelps. In 
 this fit of madness he snatched Learchus from 
 her, and killed him ; upon which Ino fled with 
 
 Meliceria, and with him in Her arms, she threw 
 herself into the sea, and was changed into a sea 
 deity, called Leucothoe. After this, Athamas 
 recovered his senses ; and as he was without 
 children, he adopted Coronus and Aliartus, the 
 sons of Thersander his nephew. Hygin. fab. 
 1, 2, 5, '229.— Apollod. 1, c. 7 and 9.- Ovid. Met. 
 4, V. 467, &c. Fast. 6, v. 489.— P«ws. 9, c. 34. 
 
 Athena, the name of Minerva among the 
 Greeks ; and also among the Egyptians, before 
 Cecrops had introduced the worship of the god- 
 dess into Greece. Paus. 1, c, 2. 
 
 ATLANTmEs, the daughters of Atlas, seven 
 in number, Maia, Electra, Taygeta, Asterope, 
 Merope, Alcyone, and Celaeno. They married 
 some of the gods and most illustrious heroes, 
 and their children were founders of many na- 
 tions and cities. The Atlantides were called 
 nymphs, and even goddesses, on account of 
 their great intelligence and knowledge. The 
 name of Hesperides was also given ihem on 
 account of their mother Hespens. They were 
 made constellations after death. Vid. Pleiades. 
 
 Atlantis, a celebrated fabulous island, men- 
 tioned by the ancients, of which the supposed 
 situation is unknown. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Atlas, one of the Titans, son of Japetus 
 and Clymene, one of the Oceanides. He was 
 brother to Epimetheus, Prometheus, and Me- 
 noetius. His mother's name, according to Apol- 
 lodorus, was Asia. He married Pleione, daugh- 
 ter of Oceanus, or Hesperis, according to 
 others, by whom he had seven daughters, called 
 Atlantides. Vid. Atlantides. He was king of 
 Mauretania, and master of a thousand flocks 
 of every kind, as also of beautiful gardens, 
 abounding in every species of fruit, which he 
 had intrusted to the care of a dragon, Perseus, 
 after the conquest of the Gorgons, passed by 
 the palace of Atlas, and demanded hospitality. 
 The king, who was informed by an oracle of 
 Themis that he should be dethroned by one of 
 the descendants of Jupiter, refused to receive 
 him, and even offered him violence. Perseus, 
 who was unequal in strength, showed him Me- 
 dusa's head, and Atlas was instantly changed 
 into a large mountain. This mountain, which 
 runs across the deserts of Africa, east and 
 west, is so high that the ancients have imagin- 
 ed that the heavens rested on its top, and that 
 Atlas supported the world on his shoulders, 
 Hyginus says that Atlas assisted the giants in 
 their wars against the gods, for which Jupiter 
 compelled him to bear the heavens on his shoul- 
 ders. The fable that Atlas supported the hea- 
 vens on his back, arises from his fondness for 
 astronomy, and his often frequenting elevated 
 places and mountains, whence he might observe 
 the heavenly bodies. The daughters of Atlas 
 were carried away by Busiris, king of Egypt, 
 but redeemed by Hercules, who received as a 
 reward from the father the knowledge of astron- 
 omy, and a celestial globe. This knowledge 
 Hercules communicated to the Greeks; whence 
 the fable has further said, that he eased for 
 some time the labours of Atlas, by taking upon 
 his shoulders the weight of the heavens. Ac- 
 cording to some authors there were two other 
 persons of that name, a k'ng of Italy, father of 
 Electra, and a king of Arcadia, father of Maia, 
 the mother of Mercury, Virg. Mn. 4, v. 481. 
 1, 8, V. 186.— OrzU Met. 4, fab. M.—Diod. 3. • 
 685 
 
AU 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 BA 
 
 Lucan. 9, v, 667, &c. — Val. Place. 5. — Hygin. 
 83, 125, 155, 157, 192.—Aratus in Astron.— 
 Apollod. I. — Hesiod. Theog. v. 508, &c. 
 
 Atrax, a son of ^Etolus, or, according to 
 others, of the river Peneus. He was king of 
 Thessaly, and built a town which he called 
 Atrax or Atracia. He was father to Hippoda- 
 mia, who married Pirithous, and whom we 
 must not confound with the wife of Pelops, who 
 bore the same name. Propert. 1, el. 8, v. 25. — 
 Slat. 1. Theb. v. 106.— Ovid. Met. 12, v. 209. 
 
 Atreus. Vid. Part II, 
 
 Atropos. Vid. ParccB. 
 
 Atys, I. a youth to whom Ismene, the daugh- 
 ter of CEdipus, was promised in marriage. He 
 was killed by Tydeus before his nuptials. Stat. 
 
 Theb. 8, v. 598. II. A son of Limniace, the 
 
 daughter of the river Ganges, who assisted 
 Cepheus in preventing the marriage of Andro- 
 meda, and was killed by Perseus with a burn- 
 ing log of wood. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 47. III. 
 
 Vid. Part II., article Catullus. 
 
 AvENTiNUs, a son of Hercules, by Rhea, who 
 assisted Turnus against iEneas,and distinguish- 
 ed himself by his valour. Virg. ^En. 7, v, 657. 
 
 AuGA, and Auge, and Augea, daughter of 
 Aleus, king of Tegea, by Neaera. Vid. Telephus. 
 
 Augias, and Augeas, son of Eleus or Elius, 
 was one of the Argonauts, and afterwards as- 
 cended the throne of Elis. He had an immense 
 number of oxen and goats, and the stables in 
 which they were kept had never been cleaned, 
 so that the task seemed an impossibility to any 
 man. Hercules undertook it on promise of re- 
 ceiving as a reward the tenth part of the herds 
 of Augias, or something equivalent. The hero 
 changed the course of the river Alpheus, or, ac- 
 cording to others, of the Peneus, which imme- 
 diately carried away the dung and filth from the 
 stables. Augias refused the promised recom- 
 pense, on pretence that Hercules had made use 
 of artifice, and had not experienced any labour 
 or trouble ; and he further drove his own son 
 Phyleus from his kingdom, because he support- 
 ed the claims of the hero. The refusal was a 
 declaration of war. Hercules conquered Elis, 
 put to death Augias, and gave the crown to 
 Phyleus. Pausanias says, 5, c. 2 and 3, that 
 Hercules spared the life of Augias for the sake 
 of his son, and that Phyleus went to settle in 
 Dulichium ; and that at the death of Augias, 
 his other son, Agasthenes, succeeded to the 
 throne. Augias received, after his death, the 
 honours Avhich were generally paid to a hero. 
 Augias has been called the son of Sol, because 
 Elius signifies the sun. The proverb of Au- 
 gean stable is now applied to an impossibility. 
 Hijgin. fab. 14, 30, Ibl.—Plin. 17, c. 9.— 
 Strab. 8.— Apollod. 2. 
 
 Aurora, a goddess, daughter of Hyperion 
 and Thia or Thea, or, according to others, of 
 Titan or Terra, Some say that Pallas, son of 
 Crius, and brother to Perses, was her father; 
 hence her surname of Pallantias. She married 
 Astrseus, and was mother of the Winds, the 
 Stars, &c. Her amours with Tithonus and 
 Cephalus are also famous; by the former she 
 hati Memnon, and iEmathion, and Phaeton by 
 the latter, Vid. Cephalus and Tithonis. She 
 had also an intrigue with Orion, whom she car- 
 ried to the island of Delos, where he was killed 
 by Diana's arrows. Aurora is generally repre- 
 686 
 
 sented by the poets drawn in a rose-coloured 
 chariot, and opening with her rosy fingers the 
 gates of the east, pouring the dew upon the 
 earth, and making the flowers grow. Her cha- 
 riot is generally drawn by white horses, and she 
 is covered with a veil, Nox and Somnus fly 
 before her, and the constellations of heaven dis- 
 appear at her approach. She always sets out be- 
 fore the sun, and is the forerunner of his rising. 
 The Greeks call her Eos, Homer. 11. 8, Od. 10. 
 Hymn, in Vener. — Ovid. Met. 3,9, 15. — Apollod. 
 1, 3.— Virg. jEn. 6, v 535.— Varro. de L. L. 5, 
 &.C. — Hesiod. Theog. — Hygin. prcBf. fab, 
 
 AusoN, a son of Ulysses and Calypso, from 
 whom the Ausones, a people of Italy, are de- 
 scended, 
 
 AusTER, one of the winds blowing from the 
 south, whose breath was pernicious to flowers 
 as well as to health. He was parent of rain. 
 Virg. Ed. 2, v. 58. Vid. Venti. 
 
 AuTOCTHONEs. Vid. Part II. 
 
 AuTOLYcus, a son of Mercury by Chione, a 
 daughter of Deedalion. He was one of the Ar- 
 gonauts. His craft as a thief has been greatly 
 celebrated. He stole the flocks of his neigh- 
 bours, and mingled them with his own, after 
 he changed their marks. He did the same to 
 Sisyphus son of iEolus; but Sisyphus was as 
 crafty as Autolycus, and he knew his own oxen 
 by a mark whichJie had made under their feet. 
 Autolycus was so pleased with the artifice of 
 Sisyphus, that he immediately formed an inti- 
 macy with him, and even permitted him freely 
 to enjoy the company of his daughter Anticlea. 
 Hygin. fab, 200, &c.— Ovid. Met. 1, fab. 8,— 
 Apollod. 1, — Homer. Od. 14, 
 
 AuTOMEDON, a son of Dioreus, he went to the 
 Trojan war with ten ships. He was the cha- 
 rioteer of Achilles, after whose death he served 
 Pyrrhus in the same capacity. Homer. 11. 9, 
 16, &.c.— Virg. Mn. 2, v. 477. 
 
 AuTONOE, I. a daughter of Cadmus, who 
 married Aristae us, by whom she had Actseon, 
 often called Autoneius heros. The death of her 
 son ( Vid. Actaon) was so painful to her, that 
 she retired from Boeotia to Megara, where she 
 soon after died. Paus. 1, c. M.— Hygin. fab. 
 
 119.— Ovid. Met. 3, v. 720. II. One of the 
 
 Danaides, Apollod. 2, 
 
 AzAN, a son of Areas, king of Arcadia, by 
 Erato, one of the Dryades. He divided his fa- 
 ther's kingdom with his brothers Aphidas and 
 Elatus, and called his share Azania. There 
 was in Azania a fountain called Clitorius, 
 whose waters gave a dislike for wine to those 
 who drank them. Vitruv. 8, c. 3, — Ovid. Met, 
 15, V, 322.— Paus. 8, c. 4. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bacchiad^, a Corinthian family descended 
 from Bacchia, daughter of Dionysius. In their 
 nocturnal orgies, they, as some report, tore to 
 pieces Actseon, son of Melissus, which so en- 
 raged the father, that before the altar he en- 
 treated the Corinthians to revenge the death of 
 his son, and he immediately threw himself into 
 the sea. Upon this the Bacchiadae were banished, 
 and went to settle in Sicily, between Pachvnum 
 and Pelorus. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 401. —Strab. 8. 
 
 Bacchus, was son of Jupiter and Semele, 
 the daughter of Cadmus. After she had en- 
 
BA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 BA 
 
 joyed the company of Jupiter, Semele was de- 
 ceived, and perislied by the artifice of Juno. 
 This goddess assumed the shape of Beroc, Se- 
 mele's nurse, and persuaded her that she ought 
 to beg of Jupiier to come to her with the same 
 majesty as he courted the embraces of Juno. 
 The artifice succeeded, and when Jupiter prom- 
 ised his mistress whatever she asked, Semele 
 required him to visit her with all the divinity of 
 a god. Jupiter was unable to violate his oath, 
 and Semele, unable to bear the majesty of Jupi- 
 ter, was consumed and reduced to ashes. The 
 child, of which she had been pregnant for seven 
 months, was with difficulty saved from the 
 flames, and put in his father's thigh, where he 
 remained the full time he naturally was to have 
 been in his mother's womb. From this circum- 
 stance Bacchus has been called Bimaier. Ac- 
 cording to some, Dirce, a nymph of the Ache- 
 lous, saved him from the flames. Ovid says, 
 that after his birth he was brought up by his 
 aunt Ino, and afterwards intrusted to the care 
 of the nymphs of Nysa. Lucian supposes that 
 Mercury carried him, as soon as born, to the 
 nymphs of Nysa ; and Apollonius says, that he 
 was carried by Mercury to a nymph in the 
 island of Euboe a, whence he was driven by the 
 power of Juno, who was the chief deity of the 
 place.- Some support that Naxos can boast of 
 the place of his education, under the nymphs 
 Philia, Coronis, and Clyda. Pausanias relates 
 a tradition which prevailed in the town of Bra- 
 siae in Peloponnesus; and accordingly mentions 
 that Cadmus, as soon as he heard of his daugh- 
 ter's amours, shut her up, with her child lately 
 born, in a coffer, and exposed them on the sea. 
 The coffer was carried safe by the waves to the 
 coast of Brasise; but Semele was found dead 
 and the child alive. Semele was honoured with 
 a magnificent funeral, and Bacchus properly 
 educated. This diversity of opinion shows 
 that there were many of the same name. Dio- 
 dorus speaks of three, and Cicero of a greater 
 number ; but among them all, the son of Jupiter 
 and Semele seems to have obtained the merit 
 of the rest. Bacchus is the Osiris of the Egyp.^ 
 tians, and his history is drawn from the Egyp- 
 tian traditions concerning that ancient king. 
 Bacchus assisted the gods in their war against 
 the giants, and was cut to pieces ; but the son 
 of Semele was not then born: this tradition, 
 therefore, is taken from the history of Osiris, 
 who was killed by his brother Typhon, and 
 the worship of Osiris has been introduced by 
 Orpheus into Greece under the name of Bac- 
 chus. In his youth he was taken asleep in the 
 island of Naxos, and carried awav by some 
 mariners, whom he changed into dolphins, ex- 
 cept the pilot, who had expressed some concern 
 at his misfortune. His expedition into the East 
 is most celebrated. He marched at the head of 
 an army composed of men as well as of women, 
 all inspired with divine fury, and armed with 
 thyrsuses, cymbals, and other musical instru- 
 ments. The leader was drawn in a chariot by 
 a lion and a tiger, and was accompanied by Pan 
 and Silenus, and all the satyrs. His conquests 
 were easy and without bloodshed ; the people 
 easily submitted, and gratefully elevated to the 
 rank of a god the hero who taught them the use 
 of the vine, the cultivation of the earth, and the 
 manner of making honey. Amidst his benevo- 
 
 lence to mankind, he was relentless in punishing 
 all want of respect to his divinity ; and the 
 punishment he inflicted on Pentheus, Agave, 
 Lycurgus, &c., is well known. He has received 
 the names of Liber, Bromius, Lyaeus, Evan, 
 Thyonaeus, Psilas, &c., which are mostly de- 
 rived from the places where he received ado- 
 ration, or from the ceremonies observed in his 
 festivals. As he was the god of vintage, of 
 wine, and of drinkers, he is generally repre- 
 sented crowned with vine and ivy leaves, with 
 a thyrsus in his hand. His figure is that of an 
 effeminate young man, to denote the joy which 
 commonly prevails at feasts ; and sometimes 
 that of an old man, to teach us that wine taken 
 immoderately will enervate us, and consume 
 our health, render us loquacious and childish 
 like old men, and unable to keep secrets. The 
 panther is sacred to him, because he went in his 
 expedition covered with the skin of that beast. 
 The magpye is also his favourite bird, because 
 in his triumphs people were permitted to speak 
 with boldness and liberty. Bacchus is some- 
 times represented like an infant, holding a 
 thyrsus and cluster of grapes, with a horn. He 
 often appears naked, and riding upon the 
 shoulders of Pan, or in the arms of Silenus, 
 who was his foster-father. He also sits upon a 
 celestial globe, bespangled with stars, and is 
 then the same as the Sun or Osiris of Egypt. 
 The festivals of Bacchus, generally called 
 Orgies, Bacchanalia, or Dionysia, were intro- 
 duced into Greece from Egypt by Danaus and 
 his daughters. The infamous debaucheries 
 which arose from the celebration of these fes- 
 tivals are well known. Vid. Dionysia. The 
 amours of Bacchus are not numerous. He 
 married Ariadne, after she had been forsaken 
 by Theseus in the island of Naxos ; and by 
 her he had many children, among whom were 
 Ceranus, Thoas, CEnopion, Tauropolis, &c. 
 According to some, he was the father of Hy- 
 menseus, whom the Athenians made the god 
 of marriage. The Egyptians sacrificed pigs to 
 him before the doors of their houses. The fir- 
 tree, the yew-tree, the fig-tree, the ivy, and the 
 vind, were sacred to him ; and the goat was 
 generally sacrificed to him on account of the 
 great propensity of that animal to destroy the 
 vine. According to Pliny, he was the first who 
 ever wore a crown. His beauty is compared 
 to that of Apollo; and, like him, he is repre- 
 sented with fine hair loosely flowing down his 
 shoulders, and he is said to possess eternal 
 youth. Sometimes he has horns, either because 
 he taught the cultivation of the earth with oxen, 
 or because Jupiter, his father, appeared to him 
 in the deserts of Libya under the shape of a 
 ram, and supplied his thirsty army with water. 
 Bacchus went down to hell to recover his mo- 
 ther, -whom Jypiter willingly made a goddess, 
 under the name of Thyone. The three per- 
 sons of the name of Bacchus, whom Diodorus 
 mentions, are, the one who conquered the In- 
 dies, and is surnamed the bearded Bacchus ; a 
 son of Jupiter and Proserpine, who was repre- 
 sented with horns ; and the son of Jupiter and 
 Semole, called the Bacchus of Thebes. Those 
 mentioned by Cicero are, a son of Proserpine ; 
 a son of Nisus, who built Nysa ; a son of Ca- 
 prius, who reigned in the Indies; a son of Ju- 
 piter and the moon ; and a son of Thyone and 
 687 
 
BE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 BI 
 
 Nisus. Cic. de Nat. D. 2 and Z.—Paus. 2, c. 
 22, 37, 1. 3, c. 24, 1. 5, c. 19, Sic.—Herodot. 1, c. 
 150, 1. 2, c. 42, 48, 49.—PluL in Isid. <^ Osir. 
 — Diod. 1, 3, &c. — Orpheus in Dionys. — Apol- 
 lod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 4, &c.—Ovid. Met. fab. 3, &c. 
 Amor. 3, 1. 3, Fast. 3, v. 715. — Hygin. fab. 155, 
 167, &c.—Plin. 7, c. 56, 1. 8, c. 2, 1. 36, c. 5.— 
 Homer. 11. 6. — Lact. de fals. Rel. 1, c. 22. — Virg. 
 G. 2, &c. — Euripid. in Bacch. — lAccian. de Sa- 
 crif. de Baccho. in dial. Deor. — Appvzn. in 
 Cyneg. — Philostrat. 1, Icon. c. 50. — Senec. in 
 Chor. (Edip.— Martial. 8, ep. 26, 1. 14, ep. 107. 
 
 Basilea, a daughter of Coelus and Terra, 
 who was mother of all the gods. Diod. 3. 
 
 BatIa, a daughter of Teucer, who married 
 Dardanus, Apollod. 3, c. 10. 
 
 Battus, a shepherd of Pylos, who promised 
 Mercury that he would not discover his having 
 stolen the flocks of Admetus, which Apollo tend- 
 ed. He violated his promise, and was turned 
 into apumice stone. Ovid. Met. 2, v. 702. 
 
 Baubo, a woman who received Ceres when 
 she sought her daughter all over the world, and 
 gave her some water to quench her thirst. Ovid. 
 Met. 5, fab. 7. 
 
 Baucis, an old woman of Phrygia, who,-with 
 her husband Philemon, lived in a small cottage, 
 in a, penurious manner, when Jupiter and 
 Mercury travelled in disguise over Asia. The 
 gods came to the cottage, where they received 
 the best things it afforded ; and Jupiter was so 
 pleased with their hospitality, that he metamor- 
 phosed their dwelling into a magnificent tem- 
 ple, of which Baucis and her husband were 
 made priests. After they had lived happy to 
 an extreme old age, they died both at the same 
 hour, according to their request to Jupiter, that 
 one might not have the sorrow of following the 
 other to the grave. Their bodies were changed 
 into trees before the doors of the temple. Ovid. 
 Met. 8, V. 631, &c. 
 
 Bbrbryce, a daughter of Danaus, who is 
 said to have spared her husband. Most authors, 
 however, attribute that character of humanity 
 to Hypermnestra. Vid. Danaides. 
 
 Belenus, a divinity of the Gauls, the same 
 as the Apollo of the Greeks and the Orus of 
 the Egyptians. 
 
 Belides, a surname given to the daughters 
 of Belus. Ovid. Met. 4, v. 463. 
 
 Belides, a name applied to Palemedes, as 
 descended from Belus. Virg. jEn. 2, v. 82. 
 
 Belisama, the name of Minerva among the 
 Gauls, signifying queen of heaven. Cces. Bell. 
 Gall. 6. 
 
 Beller5phon, son of Glaucus, king of 
 Ephyre, bv Eurymede, was at first called Hip- 
 ponous. The murder of his brother, whom 
 some call Alcimenus or Beller, procured him 
 the name of Bellerophon, or murderer of Bel- 
 ler. After this murder, Bellerophon fled to the 
 court of Proetus, king of Argos. As he was of 
 a handsome appearance, the king's wife, called 
 Antgeaor Stenoboee, fell in love with him; and 
 as he slighted her passion, she accused him be- 
 fore her husband of attempts upon her virtue, 
 Proetus, unwilling to violate the laws of hospi- 
 tality, by punishing Bellerophon, sent him 
 away to his father-in-law, Jobates, king of Ly- 
 cia, and gave him a letter, in which he begged 
 the king to punish with death a man who had 
 so dishonourably treated his daughter. From 
 688 
 
 that circumstance, all letters which are of an 
 unfavourable tendency to the bearer, have been 
 called letters of Bellerophon. Jobates, to satisfy 
 his son-in-law, sent Bellerophon to conquer a 
 horrible monster, called Chimsera, in which 
 dangerous expedition he hoped, and was even 
 assured, he must perish. Vid. Chimcera. But 
 the providence of Minerva supported him, and 
 with the aid of the winged horse Pegasus, he 
 conquered the monster and returned victori- 
 ous. After this, Jobates sent him against the 
 Solymi, in hopes of seeing him destroyed; but 
 he obtained another victory, and conquered af- 
 terwards the Amazons, by" the king's order. At 
 his return from this third expedition, he was 
 attacked by a party sent against him by Jobates ; 
 but he destroyed all his assassins, and convin- 
 ced the king that innocence is always protected 
 by the gods. Upon this Jobates no longer 
 sought to destroy his life, but gave him his 
 daughter in marriage, and made him hissucces- 
 sor on the throne of Lycia, as he was without 
 male issue. Some authors have supported that 
 he attempted to fly to heaven upon the horse 
 Pegasus, but that Jupiter sent an insect, which 
 stung the horse, and threw down the rider, who 
 wandered upon the earth in the greatest melan- 
 choly and dejection till the day of his death, 
 one generation before the Trojan war. Belle- 
 rophon had two sons, Isander, who was killed 
 in his war against the Solymi, and Hippolo- 
 chus, who succeeded to the throne after his 
 death, besides one daughter, called Hippoda- 
 mia, who had Sarpedon by Jupiter. The wife 
 of Bellerophon is called Philonoe by Apollo- 
 dorus, and Achemone by Homer, Homer. II. 6, 
 V. 156, &.C.—JUV. 10.— Apollod. 2, c. 3, 1. 3, c. 
 I.— Hygin. fab. 157 and 243. P. A. 2, c. 18.— 
 Hesiod. Theog. v. 325. — Horat. 4, od. 11, v. 
 "HQ.—Paus. 9, c. 31. 
 
 Belus. Vid. Part 11. 
 
 Bergion and Albion, two giants, sons of 
 Neptune, who opposed Hercules as he attempt- 
 ed to cross the Rhone, and were killed with 
 stones from heaven. Mela, 2, c. 5. 
 
 Beroe, I. an old woman of Epidaurus, nurse 
 to Semele. Juno assumed her shape when she 
 persuaded Semele not to grant her favours to 
 Jupiter if he did not appear in the majesty of a 
 
 god. Ovid Met. 3, v. 278. II. The wife of 
 
 Doryclus, whose form was assumed by Iris at 
 the instigation of Juno, when she advised the 
 Trojan women to burn the fleet of ^neas in 
 
 Sicily. Virg. ^n. 5, v. 620, III. One of 
 
 the Oceanides, attendant upon Gyrene, Virg. 
 G. 4, V. 341. 
 
 BiA, a daughter of Pallas by Styx, Apollod. 
 1, c. 1. 
 
 Bianor, I. a son of Tiberius and Manto, the 
 daughter of Tiresi as, who received the surname 
 of Ocnus, and reigned over Etruria. He built 
 a town, which he called Mantua, after his 
 mother's name. His tomb was seen in the age 
 of Virgil on the road between Mantua and 
 
 Andes. Virg. Ed. 9, v. 60. II. A centaur, 
 
 killed by Theseus. Ovid Met. 12, v. 342. 
 
 Bias, son of Amythaon and Idomene, was 
 king of Argos, and brother to the famous sooth- 
 sayer Melampus. He fell in love with Perone, 
 daughter of Neleus, king of Pylos \ but the fa- 
 ther refused to give his daughter in marriage 
 before he received the oxen of Iphiclus. Me* 
 
BO 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 BU 
 
 lampus, at his brother's request, went to sieze 
 the oxen, and was caught in the fact. He, 
 however, one year after, received his liberty 
 from Iphiclus, who presented him with his oxen 
 as a reward for his great services. Bias re- 
 ceived the oxen from his brother, and obliged 
 Neleus to give him his daughter in marriage. 
 Homer. Od. 11.— Pans. 2, c. 6 and 18,. 1. 4, c. 
 3i.—ApoUod. 1, c. 9. 
 
 BiFORMis, {hvo forms,) a surname of Bac- 
 chus and Janus. Bacchus received it because 
 he changed himself into an old woman to fly 
 from the persecution of Juno, or perhaps be- 
 cause he was represented sometimes as a young, 
 and sometimes as an old man. 
 
 BiFRONS, a surname of Janus, because he 
 was represented with two faces among the Ro- 
 mans, as acquainted with the past and future. 
 Virg. jEn. 7, v, 180. 
 
 BiMATER, a surname of Bacchus, which sig- 
 nifies that he had favo mothers, because, when 
 he was taken from his mother's womb, he was 
 placed in the thigh of his father Jupiter. Ovid. 
 Met. 4, V. 12. 
 
 BrsTON, son of Mars and Callirhoe, built 
 Bisto?iia, in Thrace, whence the Thracians are 
 often called Bistones. Herodot. 7, c. 110. — 
 Plin. 4, c. 14. — lAican. 7, v. 569. 
 
 BoLiNA, a virgin of Achaia, who rejected the 
 addresses of Apollo, and threw herself into the 
 sea to avoid his importunities. The god made 
 her immortal. There is a city which bears her 
 name in Achaia. Pans. 7, c. 23. 
 
 Bona Dea, a name given to Ops, Vesta, 
 CybeLe, Rhea, by the Greeks ; and by the Latins, 
 to Fauna, or Fuata, This goddess was so 
 chaste, that no man but her husband saw her 
 after her marriage; from which reason, her 
 festivals were celebrated only in the night by 
 the Roman matrons in the houses of the high- 
 est officers of the state, and all the statues of 
 men were carefully covered with a veil where 
 the ceremonies were observed. In the latter 
 ages of the republic, however, the sanctity of 
 these mysteries was profaned by the intrusion 
 of men. Juv. 6, v. 313. — Propert. 4, el. 10, v. 
 ^b.— Ovid. de Art. Am. 3, v. 637. 
 
 Bonus Eventus, a Roman deiiy, whose wor- 
 ship was first introduced by the peasants. He 
 was represented holding a cup in his right hand, 
 and in his left, ears of corn, Varro de R. R. 
 I.— Plin. 34, c. 8. 
 
 Bootes, a northern constellation near the 
 Ursa Major, also called Bubulcus and Arcto- 
 phylax. Some suppose it to be Icarus, the father 
 of Erigone, who was killed by shepherds for 
 inebriating them. Others maintain that it is 
 Areas, whom Jupiter placed in heaven. Ovid. 
 Fast. 3, V. 405.— Ctc. de Nat. D. 2, c. 42, 
 
 Booths, and Bcgotus, a son of Neptune and 
 Melanippe, exposed by his mother, but preserv- 
 ed by shepherds. Hygin. fab. 186. 
 
 BoREADES, the descendants of Boreas, who 
 long possessed the supreme power and the 
 priesthood in the island of the Hyperboreans. 
 Diod. 1 and 2. 
 
 Boreas, the name of the north wind blowing 
 from ihe Hyperborean mountains. According 
 to the poets he was son of Astraeus and Aurora, 
 but others make him son of the Strymon. He 
 was passionately fond of Hyacinthiis, {Vid. 
 JHyacinthus,) and carried away Orithyia, who 
 
 Part III.— 4S 
 
 refused to receive his addresses, and by her. he 
 had Zetes and Calais, Cleopatra and Chione. 
 He was worshipped as a deity, and represented 
 with wings and white hair. The Athenians 
 dedicated altars to him, and to the winds, when 
 Xerxes invaded Europe. Homer. 11. 20, v. 222. 
 —Hesiod. TKeog. v. Ti^.—Apollod. 3, c. 15.— 
 Herodot. 7, c. 189.— O-yt^. Met. 6, v. 700. 
 
 BRANcmALES, a surname of Apollo. 
 
 Branchus, a youth of Miletus, son of Smi- 
 crus, beloved by Apollo, who gave him the 
 power of prophecy. He gave oracles at Didyme, 
 which became inferior to none of the Grecian 
 oracles, except Delphi, and which exchanged 
 the name of Didymean for that of Branchidse. 
 The temple, according to Strabo, was set on fire 
 by Xerxes, who took possession of the riches it 
 contained, and transported the people into 
 Sogdiana, where they built a city, which was 
 afterwards destroyed by Alexander. Strab. 15. 
 — Stat. Theb, 3, v. 479, — Lucan. de Domo. 
 
 Brjareus, I, a famous giant, son of Coelus 
 and Terra, who had 100 hands and 50 heads, 
 and was called by men jJEgeon, and only by the 
 gods, Briareus. When Juno, Neptune, and 
 Minerva conspired to dethrone Jupiter, Bria- 
 reus ascended the heavens, and seated himself 
 next to him, and so terrified the conspirators by 
 his fierce and threatening looks, that they de- 
 sisted. He assisted the giants in the war against 
 the gods, and was thrown under jnount .^tr.a, 
 according to some accounts. Hesiod. Theog. v. 
 UQ.—Apollod. 1, c. \.~-Horn.er. 11. 1, v. 403. 
 
 Virg. Mn. 6, v. 287, 1. 18, v. 565. II. A 
 
 Cyclop, made judge between Apollo and Nep- 
 tune, in their dispute about the isthmus and 
 promontory of Corinth. He gave the former 
 to Neptune, and the latter to Apollo. Paus. 
 2, c. 1. 
 
 Briseis. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Brises. Vid. Part 11. 
 
 Beiseus, a surname of Bacchus, from his 
 nurse Brisa, or his temple at Brisa, a promon- 
 tory at Lesbos. Per sins, 1, v. 76. 
 
 Britomartis, I. a beautiful nymph of Crete, 
 daughter of Jupiter and Charme, who devoted 
 herself to hunting, and became a great favourite 
 of Diana. She was loved by Minos, who pur- 
 sued her so closely, that, to avoid his importu- 
 nities, she threw herself into the sea. Pans. 2, 
 c. 30, 1. 3, c. 14. II. A surname of Diana. 
 
 Brizo, the goddess of dreams, worshipped in 
 Del OS. 
 
 Bromius, I, a surname of Bacchus, from 
 £iO£|U£tv,/re7i(^(?re, alluding to the groans which 
 Semele uttered when consumed by Jupiter's 
 
 11.- 
 
 -II. A 
 
 son 
 
 of 
 
 Ovid. Met. 
 
 fire. Ovid. Met. 4, v, 
 ^gyptus, • Apollod. 2, c. 1, 
 
 Bromus, one of the centaurs 
 12, V. 459. 
 
 Brontes, {thunder,) one of the Cyclops. 
 Virg. Mn. 8, v. 425. 
 
 Brotheus, a son of Vulcan and Minerva, 
 who burned himself to avoid the ridicule to 
 which his deformity subjected him. Ovid. Met. 
 5, V. 517. 
 
 BucoLioN, I. a king of Arcadia, after Laias. 
 
 Pans. 8, c. 5. II. A son of Laomedon and 
 
 the nymph Calybe. III. A son of Hercules 
 
 and Prazithea. He was also called Bucolus. 
 IV. A son of Lycaon, king of Arcadia. 
 
 Apollod. 2 and 3. 
 
 689 
 
GA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CA 
 
 BuNEA, a surname of Juno, 
 
 BuNus, a son of Mercury and Alcidamea, 
 who obtained the government of Corinth when 
 jEetes went to Colchis. He built a temple to 
 Juno. Paus. 2, c. 3 and 4. 
 
 BuPHAGUs, I. a son of Japetus and Thorn ax, 
 killed by Diana, whose virtue he had attempted. 
 A river of Arcadia bears his name. Paus. 8, 
 
 c. 24. II. A surname of Hercules, given 
 
 him on account of his gluttony, 
 
 BuRA, a daughter of Jupiter, or, according to 
 others, of Ion and Helice, from whom B^lra or 
 Buris, once a flourishing city in the bay of Co- 
 rinth, received its name, Ovid. Met. 15, v. 293, 
 — Paus. 7, c. 25. — Strab. 1 and 8. — Diod. 15, 
 
 BusiRis, a king of Egypt, son of Neptune 
 and Libya, or Lysianassa, who sacrificed all 
 foreigners to Jupiter with the greatest cruelty. 
 When Hercules visited Egypt, Busiris carried 
 him to the altar bound hand and foot. The 
 hero soon disentangled himself, and offered the 
 tyrant his son Amphidamas, and the ministers 
 of his cruelty on the altar. 
 
 BuTEs, I. one of the descendants of Amycus, 
 king of the Bebryces, very expert in the combat 
 of the cestus. He came to Sicily, where he was 
 received by Ly caste, by whom he had a son 
 called Eryx. Lycaste, on account of her beauty, 
 was called Venus ; hence Eryx is often called 
 the son of Venus. Virg. jEn. 5, v. 372, 
 
 II. A son of Pandion and Zeuxippe, priest of 
 Minerva and Neptune. He married Chthonia, 
 daughter of Erechtheus. Apollod. 3, c. 14, &c. 
 III. An arm-bearer to Anchises, and after- 
 wards to Ascanius. Apollo assumed his shape 
 when he descended from heaven to encourage 
 Ascanias to fight. Butes was killed by Tur- 
 nus. Virg. JEn. 9, v. 647, 1. 12, v, 632, 
 
 Byblia, a name of Venus, 
 
 Byblis, a daughter of Miletus and Cyanea, 
 Some say that Caunus became enamoured of 
 her; and others report, that he fled from his 
 sister's importunities, who sought him all over 
 Lycia and Caria, and at last sat down all bathed 
 in tears, and was changed into a fountain of the 
 same name, Ovid, de Art. Am. 1, v, 284. — Met. 
 9, V. ibl.—Hygin. fab. 2i3.—Paus. 7, c. 5. 
 
 Byzas, a son of Neptune, king of Thrace, 
 from whom it is said Byzantium received its 
 name. Diod. 4. 
 
 C. 
 
 Caanthds, a son of Oceanus and Tethys. 
 He was ordered by his father to seek his sister 
 Malia, whom Apollo had carried away, and he 
 burnt in revenge the ravisher's temple near the 
 Isthmus, He was killed for his impiety by the 
 god, and a monument raised to his memory. 
 Paus. 9, c. 10. 
 
 Cabarnos, a deity worshipped at Paros. 
 His priests were called Cabarni. 
 
 Cabiri, variously considered as ancient in- 
 habitants of Boeotia, sacred priests, and deities. 
 Some report that Prometheus,one of the Cabiri, 
 received Ceres when in quest of Proserpine ; 
 that she intrusted to him and his son a secret, 
 which they religiously kept. Hence the Cabiric 
 mysteries. When the Cabiri were dispersed 
 by the Epigoni, at the time of the Theban ex- 
 pedition, the few survivors united and became 
 priests of Ceres. Others identify the Cabiri 
 690 
 
 with the Curetes, Corybantes, and Dactyli ; to 
 which Faber adds the Dioscuri, Anactes, and 
 Telchin^s. This writer considers the Cabiri 
 as the same with the Arkite Titans, or the 
 family of Noah. They were likewise denomi- 
 nated Lares and Penates. Hence Virgil unites 
 the Penates with the Magni Dii, or Cabiri, and 
 describes Augustus as bringing them into the 
 naval battle of Actium. Another title by which 
 the Cabiri were known, was that of the Manes ; 
 while their mother was supposed to have been 
 called Mania. According to Faber, Mania is 
 the Noetic ark ; and the Manes, however their 
 history may have been corrupted, are no other 
 than the patriarch and his family. Nonnus 
 represents the Cabiri as sons of Vulcan, and 
 Acusilaus, the Argive, aflirms that Casmilus, 
 or Mercury, was the son of Vulcan and Cabira, 
 and the father of the three Cabiri, from whom 
 were born the three Cabirides ; and lastly, Phe- 
 recydes mentions that the three Cabiri and the 
 three Cabirides were the offspring of Vulcan 
 and Cabira, the daughter of Proteus. Hero- 
 dotus aflirms that the worship of the Cabiri was 
 brought to Samothrace by the Pelasgi. Traces 
 of the Cabiric worship are found in Phoenicia, 
 Rome, (where were altars to the Cabiri in the 
 Circus Maximus,) and other parts of Europe 
 and Asia. Faber^s Cabiri. — Millin. Strabo. 10, 
 —Nonni. Dionys. H.—jEn. 3, 11, 8, 678, — 
 Berod. 2. 
 
 Cabiria, a surname of Ceres. 
 
 Cacus, a famous robber, son of Vulcan and 
 Medusa, represented as a three-headed monster, 
 and as vomiting flames. He resided in Italy. 
 He plundered the neighbouring country ; and 
 when Hercules returned from the conquest of 
 Geryon, Cacus stole some of his cows, and 
 dragged them backwards into his cave to pre- 
 vent discovery. Hercules departed without 
 perceiving the theft ; but his oxen having lowed, 
 were answered by the cows in the cave of Ca- 
 cus, and the hero became acquainted with the 
 loss he had sustained. He ran to the cave, at- 
 tacked Cacus, and strangled him in his arms, 
 though vomiting fire and smoke. Hercules 
 erected an altar to Jupiter Servetor, in com- 
 memoration of this victory ; and an annual fes- 
 tival was instituted by the inhabitants in honour 
 of the hero who had delivered them from such 
 a public calamity. Ovid. 1, Past. v. 551. — 
 Virg. Mn. 8, v. 194. — Propert. 4, el. 10. — Juv. 
 5, 125. — Liv. 1, c. 7. — Dionys. Hal. 1, c. 9. 
 
 Cadmus, son of Agenor, king of PhcEnicia, 
 by Telephassa or Agriope, was ordered by his 
 father to go in quest of his sister Europa, whom 
 Jupiter had carried away, and be was never to 
 return to Phoenicia if he did not bring her back. 
 As his search proved fruitless, he consulted the 
 oracle of Apollo, and was ordered to build a 
 city where he should see a young heifer stop in 
 the grass, and to call the country Boeotia. He 
 found the heifer according to the directions of 
 the oracle ; and as he wished to thank the god 
 by a sacrifice, he sent his companions to fetch 
 water from a neighbouring grove. The waters 
 were sacred to Mars, and guarded by a dragon, 
 which devoured all the Phoenician's attendants. 
 Cadmus, tired of their seeming delay, went to 
 the place, and saw the monster still feeding on 
 their flesh. He attacked the dragon, and over- 
 came it by the assistance of Minerva, and 
 
c^ 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CA 
 
 sowed the teeth in a plain, upon which armed ' 
 men suddenly rose up from the ground. He 
 threw a stone in the midst of them, and they 
 instantl}'- turned their arms one against the 
 other, till all perished except five, who assisted 
 him in building his city. Soon after he mar- 
 ried Hermoine, the daughter of Venus, with 
 whom he lived in the greatest cordiality, and by 
 whom he had a son, Polydorus, and four daugh- 
 ters, Ino, Agave, Autonoe, and Semele. Juijo 
 persecuted those children ; and their well- 
 known misfortunes so distracted Cadmus and 
 Hermoine, that they retired to Illyricum, loaded 
 with grief and infirm with age. They entreat- 
 ed the gods to remove them from the misfortunes 
 of life, and they were immediately changed into 
 serpents. Some explain the dragon's fable, by 
 supposing that it was a king of the country 
 whom Cadmus conquered by war; and the 
 armed men rising from the field, is no more than 
 men armed with brass, according to the am- 
 biguous signification of a PhcEnician word. 
 Cadmus was the first who introduced the use of 
 letters into Greece ; but some maintain that the 
 alphabet which he brought from Phoenicia was 
 only different from that which is used by the 
 ancient inhabitants of Greece. This alphabet 
 consisted only of 16 letters, to which, afterwards, 
 8 others were added. Vid. Simonides, Epi- 
 charmus, and Palamedes. The worship of 
 many of the Egyptian and PhcEnician deities 
 was also introduced by Cadmus,whb is supposed 
 to have come into Greece 1493 years before the 
 Christian era, and to have died 61 years after. 
 According to those who believe that Thebes 
 was built at the sound of Amphion's lyre, Cad- 
 mus built only a small citadel, which he called 
 Cadmea, and laid the foundations of a city 
 which was finished by one of his successors. 
 Ovid. Met. 3, fab. 1, 2, &c.—Herodot. 2, c. 49, 
 1. 4, c. Ul.—Hygin. fab. 6, 76, 155, &c.—Diod. 
 1, &c. — Paus. 9, c, 5, &c. — Ilesiod. Theog. v. 
 937, &c. 
 
 Caduceus, a rod entwined at one end by 
 two serpents, in the form of two equal semicir- 
 cles. It was the attribute of Mercury and the 
 emblem of power, and it had been given him by 
 Apollo in return for the lyre. Various inter- 
 pretations have been put upon the two serpents 
 round it. Some suppose them to be a symbol 
 of Jupiter's amours with Rhea, when these two 
 deities transformed themselves into snakes. 
 Others say that it originates from Mercury's 
 having appeased the fury of two serpents that 
 were fighting, by touching them with his rod. 
 Prudence is generally supposed to be repre- 
 sented by these two serpents, and the wings are 
 the symbol of diligence; both necessary in the 
 pursuit of business and commerce, which Mer- 
 cury patronised. With ii Mercury conducted to 
 the infernal regions the souls of the dead, and 
 could lull-to sleep, and even raise to life a dead 
 person. Virg. Mn. 4, v. 242. — Horat. 1, od. 10. 
 
 CfficuLUS, a son of Vulcan, conceived, as 
 some say, by his mother, when a spark of fire 
 fell into her bosom. He was called Caeculus 
 because his eyes were small. After a life spent 
 in plundering and rapine, he built Prseneste; 
 but being unable to find inhabitants, he im- 
 plored Vulcan to show whether he really was 
 his father. Upon this a flame suddenly shone 
 among a multitude who were assembled to see 
 
 some spectacle, and they were immediately per- 
 suaded to become the subjects of Ceeculus. Virg. 
 jEn.l, V. 680, says, that he was found in the fire 
 by shepherds, and on that account called son of 
 Vulcan, who is the god of fire. 
 
 C^NEUs, one of the Argonauts. ApoUod. 1, 
 c. 9. 
 
 C.ENIS, a Thessalian woman, daughter of 
 Elatus, who obtained from Neptune the power 
 to change her sex, and to become invulnerable. 
 She also changed her name, and was called 
 Caneus. In the wars of the Lapithae against 
 the centaurs, she offended Jupiter, and was 
 overwhelmed with a huge pile of wood, and 
 changed into a bird. Ovid. Met. 12, v. 172 and 
 479. — Virg. ^n. 6, v. 448, says, that she re- 
 turned again to her pristine form. 
 
 C ALOHAS, a celebrated soothsayer, son of 
 Thestor. He accompanied the Greeks to Troy, 
 in the office of highpriest ; and he informed 
 them that that city could not be taken without 
 the aid of Achilles, that their fleet could not 
 sail from Aulis before Iphigenia was sacrificed 
 to Diana, and that the plague could not be stop- 
 ped in the Grecian army before the restoration 
 ofChryseisto her father. He told them also 
 that Troy could not be taken before ten years' 
 siege. He had received the power of divination 
 from Apollo. Calchas was informed that as 
 soon as he found a man more skilled than him- 
 self in divination, he must perish ; and this 
 happened near Colophon, after the Trojan war. 
 He was unable to tell how many figs were in 
 the branches of a certain fig-tree; and when 
 Mopsus mentioned the exact number, Calchas 
 died through grief Vid. Mopsus. Homer. II. 
 1, V. 69. — JEschyl. in Agam. — Eurip. in Iphig. 
 — Paus. 1, c. 43. 
 
 Calchinia, a daughter of Leucippus. She 
 had a son by Neptune, who inherited his grand- 
 father's kingdoni of Sicyon. Paus. 2, c. 5. 
 
 Caliadne, the wife of Egyptus. ApoUod. 2, 
 c. 1. 
 
 Calliope, one of the muses, daughter of Ju- 
 piter and JVlnemosyne, who presided over elo- 
 quence and heroic poetry. She is said to be 
 the mother of Orpheus by Apollo, and Horace 
 supposes her able to play on any musical instru- 
 ment. She was represented with a trumpet in 
 her right hand, and with books in the other, 
 which signified that her office was to take no- 
 tice of the famous actions of heroes, as Clio was 
 employed in celebrating them ; and she held 
 the three most famous epic poems of antiquity, 
 and appeared generally crowned with laurels. 
 She settled the dispute between Venus and 
 Proserpine, concerning Adonis, whose compa- 
 ny these two goddesses wished both perpetually 
 to enjoy. Hesiod. Theog. — ApoUod. 1, c. 3. — 
 Horat. od. 
 
 Callirhoe, I. a daughter of the Scamander, 
 who married Troas, by whom she had Ilus, Ga- 
 nymede, and Assaracus. II. A daughter of 
 
 Oceanus and Tethys^ mother of Echidna, Or- 
 
 thos, and Cerberus, by Chrysaor, Hesiod. 
 
 III. A daughter of Lycus, tyrant of Libya, 
 who kindly received Diomedes at his return 
 from Troy. He abandoned her, upon which 
 
 she killed herself.- IV. A daughter of the 
 
 Achelous, who married Alcmseon. Vid. Alc- 
 mcBon. Paus. 8, c. 24. 
 
 Callisto, and Calisto, called also Helice 
 691 
 
CA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CA 
 
 was daughter of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, and 
 one of Diana's attendants. She had a son by 
 Jupiter, called Areas. Juno, who was jealous 
 of Jupiter, changed Calisto into a bear ; but the 
 god, apprehensive of her being hurt by the 
 huntsmen, made her a constellation of heaven, 
 with her son Areas, under the name of the bear. 
 Ovid. Met. 2, fab. 4, &L(i.—Apollod. 3, c. 8.— 
 Hygin. fab. 176 and 111.— Pans. 8, c. 3. 
 
 Calyce, I. a daughter of jEoIus, son of He- 
 lenus and Enaretta, daughter of Deimachus. 
 She had Endymion, king of Elis, by Ethlius, 
 the son of Jupiter. Apollod. 1, c. 7. — Paus. 5, 
 
 c. 1. II. A Grecian girl, who fell in love 
 
 with a youth called Evathlus. As she was 
 unable to gain the object of her love, she threw 
 herself from a precipice. This tragical story 
 was made into a song by Stesichorus, and was 
 still extant in the age of Athenaits, 14. 
 
 Calydonius, a surname of Bacchus. 
 
 Calypso, one of the Oceanides, or one of 
 the daughters of Atlas, according to some, was 
 goddess of silence, and reigned in the island 
 of Ogygia, whose situation and even existence 
 is doubted. When Ulysses was shipwrecked 
 on her coasts, she received him with great hos- 
 pitality, and offered him immortality if he would 
 remain with her as a husband. The hero re- 
 fused, and after seven years' delay, he was per- 
 mitted to depart from' the island by order of 
 Mercury, the messenger of Jupiter. During 
 his stay, Ulysses had two sons by Calypso, 
 Nausithous and Nausinous. Vid. Ogygia,' Fari 
 I. Homer. Od. 7 and 15. — Hesiod. Theog. v. 
 ^GO.— Ovid. de Pont. 4, ep. 18. Amor. 2, el. 
 ll.—Propert. 1, el. 15. 
 
 Camilla, queen of the Volsci, was daughter 
 of Metabus and Casmilla, She was educated 
 in the woods, inured to the labours of hunting, 
 and fed upon the milk of mares. Her father 
 devoted her, when young, to the service of 
 Diana. When she was. declared queen, she 
 marched at the head of an array, and, accom- 
 panied by three youthful females of equal cour- 
 age as herself, to assist Turnus against jEneas, 
 where she signalized herself by the numbers 
 that perished by her hand. She was so swift 
 that she could run, or rather fly, over a field of 
 corn without bending the blades, and make her 
 way over the sea without wetting her feet. She 
 died by a wound she had received from Aruns. 
 Virg. Mn. 7, v. 803, 1. 11. v. 435. 
 
 Camiro and Clytia, two daughters of Pan- 
 darus of Crete, When their parents were 
 dead, they were left to the care of Venus; 
 who, with the other goddesses, brought them 
 up with tenderness, and asked Jupiter to grant 
 them kind husbands. Jupiter, to punish upon 
 them the crime of their father, who was acces- 
 sary to the impiety of Tantalus, ordered the 
 harpies to carry them away and deliver them to 
 the furies. Paus. 10, c. 30. — Homer. Od. 20. v. <o^. 
 
 Camcbn^, a name given to the muses, from 
 the sweetness and melody of their songs, a cantu 
 amazno, or, according to Varro, from carmen. 
 Varro. de L. L. 5, c. 7. 
 
 Campe, kept the 100 handed monsters con- 
 fined in Tartarus. Jupiter killed her, because 
 she refused to give them their liberty to come 
 to his assistance against the Titans. Hesiod. 
 Theog. ^Qd.— Apollod. 1, c. 2. 
 
 Canens, anymph, called also Venilia, daugh- 
 692 
 
 ter of Janus and wife of Picas, king of the Lau- 
 rentes. When Circe had changed her husband 
 into a bird, she lamented him so much that she 
 pined away, and was changed into a voice. She 
 was reckoned as a deity by the inhabitants. 
 Ovid. Met. 14, fab. 9. 
 
 Capaneus, a noble Argive, son of Hippo- 
 nous and Astinome, and husband to Evadne. 
 He was so impious, that when he went to the 
 Theban war, he declared that he would take 
 Thebes even in spite of Jupiter. Such con- 
 tempt provoked the god, who struck him dead 
 with a thunderbolt. His body was burnt sepa- 
 rately from the others, and his wife threw her- 
 self on the burning pile to mingle her ashes 
 with his. It is said that jEsculapius restored 
 him to life, Ovid. Met. 9, v. iQ\.—Stat. Theb. 
 3, &c. — Hygin. fab. 68 and 70. — Euripid. in 
 Phmniss. and Supp. — JEschil. Sept. ante Theb. 
 
 CA.PRIC0RNUS, a sign of the zodiac, in which 
 appear 28 stars in the form of a goat, supposed 
 by the ancients to be the goat of Amalthasa, 
 which fed Jupiter with her milk. Some main- 
 tain that it is Pan, who changed himself into a 
 goat when frightened at the approach of Ty- 
 phon. When the sun enters this sign it is the 
 winter solstice, or the longest night in the year. 
 Manil. 2 and i.—Horat. 2, od, 17, v. 19.— Hy- 
 gin. fab. 196. P. A. 2, c. 28, 
 
 Car, a son of Manes, who married Callirhoe, 
 daughter of the Meeander. Caria received its 
 name from him. Herodot. 1, c, 171, 
 
 Carmanor, a Cretan, who purified Apollo of 
 slaughter. Pans. 2, C; 30. 
 
 Carme, a nymph, daughter of Eubulus and 
 mother of Britomartis by Jupiter. She was one 
 of Diana's attendants. Paus. 2, c. 30. 
 
 Carmelus, a god among the inhabitants ot 
 mount Carmel, situate between Syria and Ju- 
 dasa. His worship was peculiar in this, that 
 neither temple nor image was erected to his 
 divinity, which was yet held in the greatest 
 respect. Tacit. Hist. 2, c. 18. — Sueton. Vesp. 5. 
 
 Carmenta, and Carmentis, a prophetess of 
 Arcadia, mother of Evander, with whom she 
 came to Italy, and was received bv King Fau- 
 nus, about 60 years before the Trojan war. 
 Her name was Nicostrata, and she received 
 that of Carmentis from the wildness of her looks 
 when giving oracles, as if carens mentis. She 
 was the oracle of the people of Italy during 
 her life, and after death she received divine 
 honours. She had a temple at Rome, and the 
 Greeks offered her sacrifices under the name of 
 Themis. Ovid Fast. 1, v, 467, 1. 6. v. 530.— 
 Plut. in Romul. — Virg. jEn.S,Y. 339. — Liv. 
 5, c. 47. 
 
 Carnj^, and Cardinea, a goddess at Rome, 
 who presided over hinges, as also over the en- 
 trails and secret parts of the human body. She 
 was originally a nymph, called Grane, whom 
 Janus ravished, and, for the injury, he gave 
 her the power of presiding over the exterior 
 of houses, and removing all noxious birds from 
 the doors. The Romans offered her beans, ba- 
 con, and vegetables, to represent the simplicity 
 of their ancestors. Ovid. Fa'st. 6, v. 101, &c. 
 
 Carpo, a daughter of Zephyrus, and one of 
 the Seasons. She was drowned in the Maean- 
 der. Paus. 9, c. 35. 
 
 Carpophora, a name of Ceres and Proser- 
 pine, in Tegea. Paus. S, c. 53. 
 
CA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CE 
 
 Cassiupe, and Cassiopea, I. married Ce- 
 plieus, king of ^Ethiopia, by whom she had An- 
 dromeda. She boasted herself to be fairer than 
 the Nereides ; upon which Neptune, at the re- 
 quest of these nymphs, punished the insolence 
 of Cassiope, and sent a huge sea monster to 
 ravage Ethiopia. Vid. Androineda. Cassiope 
 was made a southern constellation, consisting 
 of 13 stars called Cassiope. Vid. Part I. Cic. 
 de Nat. D. 2, c. ^i.—Apollod. 2, c. ^.—Ovid. 
 Met. 4, V. l^S.—Propert. 1, el. 17, v. 3. 
 
 Cassandra. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Castor and Pollox, were twin brothers, 
 sons of Jupiter, by Leda, the wife of Tyndarus, 
 king of Sparta. The manner of their birth is 
 uncommon. Jupiter, who was enamoured of 
 Leda, changed himself into a beautiful swan, 
 and desired Venus to metamorphose herself 
 into an eagle. After this transformation the 
 goddess pursued the god with apparent ferocity, 
 and Jupiter fled for refuge into the arms of 
 Leda, who was bathing in the Eurotas, and nine 
 months after brought forth two eggs, from one of 
 which came Pollux and Helena ; and from the 
 other, Castor and Clytemnestra. The two 
 former were the offspring of Jupiter, and the 
 latter were believed to be the children of Tyn- 
 darus. Some suppose that Leda brought forth 
 only'one egg, from which Castor and Pollux 
 sprung. Mercury, immediately after their birth, 
 carried the two brothers to Pallena, where they 
 were educated; and as soon as they had arrived 
 to years of maturity they embarked with Jason 
 to go in quest of the golden fleece. In this ex- 
 pedition both behaved with superior courage ; 
 Pollux conquered and slew Amycus in the com- 
 bat of the cestus, and was ever after reckoned 
 the god and patron of boxing and wrestling. 
 Castor distinguished himself in the manage- 
 ment of horses. The brothers cleared the Hel- 
 lespont, and the neighbouring seas, from pirates, 
 after their return from Cokhis ; from which 
 circumstance they have been always deemed the 
 friends of navigation. During the Argonautic 
 expedition, in a violent storm, two flames of fire 
 were seen to play round the heads of the sons 
 of Leda, and immediately the tempest ceased 
 and the sea was calmed. From this occurrence 
 their power to protect sailors has been more 
 firmly credited, and the two mentioned fires, 
 which are very common in storms, have since 
 been known by the name of Castor and Pollux; 
 and when they both appeared, it was a sign of 
 fair weather, but if only one was seen, it prog- 
 nosticated storms, and the aid of Castor and 
 Pollux was consequently solicited. Castor and 
 Pollux made war against the Athenians to re- 
 cover their sister Helen, whom Theseus had 
 carried away ; and from their clemency to the 
 conquered they acquired the surname oiAnaces, 
 or benefactors. They were initiated in the sa- 
 cred mysteries of the Cabiri, and in those of 
 Ceres ofEleusis. They were invited to a feast 
 when Lynceus and Idas were going to celebrate 
 their marriage with Phcebe and Talaria, the 
 daughters of Leucippus, who was brother to 
 Tyndarus. Their behaviour after this invita- 
 tion was cruel. They became enamoured of 
 the two women whose nuptials they were to 
 celebrate, and resolved to carry them away and 
 marry them. This violent step provoked L>m- 
 ceus and Idas ; a battle ensued, and Castor kill- 
 
 ed Lynceus, and was killed by Idas. Pollux re- 
 venged the death of his brother by killing Idas; 
 and as he was immortal, and tenderly attached 
 to his brother, he intreated Jupiter to restore 
 him to life, or to be deprived himself of immor- 
 tality. Jupiter permitted Castor to share the 
 immortality of his brother ; and consequently, 
 as long as the one was upon earth, so long was 
 the other detained in the infernal regions, and 
 they alternately lived and died every day ; or, 
 according to others, every six months. This act 
 of fraternal love Jupiter rewarded by making 
 the two brothers constellations in heaven, under 
 the name of Gemini^ which never appear to- 
 gether; but when one rises the other sets, and 
 so on alternately. Castor made Talaria mother 
 of Anogon, and Phoebe had Mnesileus by Pol- 
 lux. They received divine honours after death, 
 and were generally called Dioscuri, sons of 
 Jupiter. White lambs were more particularly of- 
 fered on their altars, and the ancients were fond 
 of swearing by the divinity of the Dioscuri, by 
 the expressions oiMdepol and jEcastor. Among 
 the ancients, and especially among the Romans, 
 there prevailed many public reports, at different 
 timeS; that Castor and Pollux had made their 
 appearance to their armies; and, mounted on 
 white steeds, had marched at the head of their 
 troops and furiously attacked the enemy. Their 
 surnames were many, and they lyere generally 
 represented mounted on two white horses, arm- 
 ed with spears, and riding side by side, with 
 their heads covered with a bonnet, on whose top 
 glittered a star. Ovid. Met. 6, v, 109. Fast. 
 
 5, V. 701. Am. 3, el. 2, v. b^.~Hygin. fab. 
 77 and 78. — Homer. Hymn, in Jov. vuer. — 
 Eurip. in Helen. — Plut. in Thes. — Virg. A^n. 
 
 6, V. \2l.—Manil. Arg. 2.—Liv. 2.—Dionys. 
 Hal. 6. — Justin. 20, c. 3. — Hot at. 2, Sat. 1, v. 
 "m.—Flor. 2, c. 12.— Ctc de Nat. D. 2, c. 2.— 
 Apollon. 1. — Apollod. 1, c. 8, 9, 1. 2, c. 4, 1. 3, c. 
 
 U.—Paus. 3, c. 24, 1. 4, c. 3 and 27. A friend 
 
 of iEneas, who accompanied him into Italy. 
 Virg. jE7i. 10, V. 124. Vid. Part IT. 
 
 Caunus, a son of Miletus and Cyane. He 
 was passionately fond of, or, according to others, 
 he was tenderly beloved by his sister Byblis. 
 He retired to Caria, where he built a city called 
 by his own name. Vid. Byblis. Ovid. Met. 9, 
 fab. 11. Fi^. Parti. 
 
 Cedreatis, the name of Diana among the 
 Orchoraenians, because her images were hung 
 on lofty cedars. 
 
 Cel^no, I, one of the daughters of Atlas. 
 
 Ovid. 4, Fast. v. 173. II. One of the harpies, 
 
 daughter of Neptune and Terra. Virg. JEn. 3, 
 V. 245. 
 
 Celeus, a king ofEleusis, father to Triptole- 
 mus by Metanira. He gave a kind reception 
 to Ceres, who taught his son the cultivation of 
 the earth. Vid. Triptolemus. His rustic dress 
 became a proverb. The invention of several 
 agricultural instruments, made of osiers, is at- 
 tributed to him. Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 508, 1. 5, v. 
 296.— FtV^. G. 1, V. 165.—Apollon. 1, c. 5.— 
 Pans. 1, c. 14, 
 
 Cei.mus, a man who nursed Jupiter, by whom 
 he was greatly esteemed. He was changed 
 into a magnet stone for saying that Jupiter was 
 mortal. Ovid. Met. 4, v. 281. 
 
 Centadri, a people of Thessaly, half men 
 and half horses. This fable of the existence of 
 693 
 
CE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 dis 
 
 the Centaurs, monsters supported upon the four 
 legs of a horse, arises from the ancient people 
 of Thessaly having tamed horses, and having 
 appeared to the neighbours mounted on horse- 
 back, a sight very uncommon at that time, and 
 which, when at a distance, seems only one body, 
 and consequently one creature. Some derive 
 the name ano aov Kcvreiv ravpovs, goading bulls, 
 because they went on horseback after their bulls 
 which had strayed, or because they hunted wild 
 bulls with horses. Some of the ancients have 
 maintained, that monsters like the Centaurs 
 can have existed in the natural course of things. 
 Plutarch in Sympos, mentions one seen by Pe- 
 riander, tyrant of Corinth ; and Pliny 7, c. 3, 
 says, that he saw one embalmed in honey, which 
 had been brought to Rome from Egypt in the 
 reign of Claudius. The battle of the Centaurs 
 with the Lapithas is famous in history. Ovid 
 has elegantly described, it, and it has also em- 
 ployed the pen of Hesiod, Valerius Flaccus, 
 &c., and Pausanias in Eliac, says, it was repre- 
 sented in the temple of Jupiter, at Olympia, and 
 also at Athens, by Phidias and Parrhasius ac- 
 cording to Pliny, 36, c. 5. The origin of this 
 battle was a quarrel at the marriage of Hippo- 
 damia with Pirithous, where the Centaurs, in- 
 toxicated with wine, behaved with rudeness to 
 the women that were present. Such an insult 
 irritated Hercules, Theseus, and the rest of the 
 Lapithas, who defeated the Centaurs, and obliged 
 them to leave their country and retire to Ar- 
 cadia. Here their insolence was a second time 
 punished by Hercules, who, when he was going 
 to hunt the boar of Erymanthus, was kindly 
 entertained by the Centaur Pholus, who gave 
 him wine which belonged to the rest of the 
 Centaurs, but had been given them on condition 
 of their treating Hercules with it whenever he 
 passed through their territory. They resented 
 the liberty which Hercules took with their wine, 
 and attacked him with fury. The hero de- 
 fended himself with his arrows, and defeated 
 his adversaries, who fled for safety to the Cen- 
 taur Chiron. Chiron had been the preceptor 
 of Hercules, and therefore they hoped that he 
 would desist in his presence. Hercules, though 
 awed at the sight of Chiron, did not desist, but, 
 in the midst of the engagement, he wounded 
 his preceptor in the knee, who, in the excessive 
 pain he suffered, exchanged immortality for 
 death. The death of Chiron irritated Hercu- 
 les the more, and the Centaurs that were pre- 
 sent were all extirpated by his hand. The most 
 celebrated of the Centaurs were Chiron, Eu- 
 rytus, Amycus, Gryneus, Caumas, Lycidas, 
 Arneus, Medon, Rhoetus, Pisenor, Mermeros, 
 Pholus, &c. Diod. i.— Tzetzes CUl. 9.— Hist. 
 237. — Hesiod. in Suet. Hercul. — Homer. 11. tf* 
 Od.— Ovid. Met. 12.—Strab. 9.—Paus. 5, c. 10, 
 &c.—^lian. V. H. 11, c. 2.—Apollod. 2, c. 3, 1. 
 5._nr^. ^71. 6, V. 2S6.—Hygin. fab. 33 and 
 G2.— Pindar, Pyth. 2. 
 
 Cephalus, I. son of Deioneus, king of Thes- 
 saly, by Diomede, daughter of Xuthus, married 
 Procris, daughter of Erechtheus, king of 
 Athens. Aurora fell in love with him, and car- 
 ried him away ; but he refused to listen to her 
 addresses, and was impatient to return to Pro- 
 cris. The goddess sent him back ; and to try 
 the fidelity of his wife, she made him put on a 
 different form, and he arrived at the house of 
 694 
 
 Procris in the habit of a merchant. Procris 
 was deaf to every offer ; but she suffered her- 
 self to be seduced by the gold of this stranger, 
 who discovered himself the very moment the^t 
 Procris had yielded up her virtue. This cir- 
 cumstance so ashamed Procris, that she fled 
 from her husband, and devoted herself to hunt- 
 ing in the island of Eubcea, where she was ad- 
 mitted among the attendants of Diana, who 
 presented her with a dog always sure of his 
 prey, and a dart which never missed its aim and 
 always returned to the hands of its mistress of 
 its own accord. After this Procris returned in 
 disguise to Cephalus, who was willing to dis- 
 grace himself by some unnatural concessions to 
 obtain the dog and the dart of Procris. Procris 
 discovered herself at the moment that Cephalus 
 showed himself faithless, and a reconciliation 
 was easily made between them. They loved 
 one another with more tenderness than before, 
 and Cephalus received from his wife the pre- 
 sents of Diana. As he was particularly fond 
 of hunting, he every morning early repaired to 
 the woods, and after much toil and fatigue, laid 
 himself down in the cool shade, and earnestly 
 called for Aura, or the refreshing breeze. This 
 ambiguous, word was mistaken for the name of 
 a mistress; and some informer reported to the 
 jealous Procris that Cephalus daily paid a visit 
 to a mistress, whose name was Aura. Procris 
 too readily believed the information, and secret- 
 ly followed her husband into the woods. Ac- 
 cording to his daily custom, Cephalus retired 
 to the shade, and called after Aura, At the 
 name of Aura, Procris eagerly lifted up her 
 head to see her expected rival. Her motion 
 occasioned a rustling among the leaves of the 
 bush that concealed her ; and as Cephalus lis- 
 tened, he thought it to be a wild beast, and he 
 let fly his unerring dart. Procris was struck 
 to the heart, and instantly expired in the arms 
 of her husband, confessing that ill-grounded 
 jealousy was the cause of her death. Accord- 
 ing to Apollodorus there were two persons of 
 the name of Cephalus ; one, son of Mercury 
 and Herse, carried away by Aurora, with whom 
 he dwelt in Syria, and by whom he had a son 
 called Tithonus. The other married Procris, 
 and was the cause of the tragical event men- 
 tioned above. Cephalus was father of Arcesius 
 by Procris, and of Phaeton, according to Hesiod, 
 by Aurora. Ovid. Met. 7, fab. 26. — Hygin. 
 fab. 189.— Apollod. 3, c. 15, 
 
 Cepheus, I. a king of .Ethiopia, father of 
 Andromeda, by Cassiope, He was one of the 
 Argonauts, and was changed into a constella- 
 tion after his death. Ovid. Met. 4, v. 669, 1. 5, 
 V. 12. — Paus. 4, c. 35, 1. 8, c, 4. — Apollod. 1, c. 
 9, 1. 2, c. 1, 4 and 7, 1, 3, c, 9, mentions one, 
 son of Aleus, and another, son of Belus. The 
 former he makes king of Tegea, and father of 
 Sterope ; and says, that he, with his twelve 
 sons, assisted Hercules in a war against Hip- 
 poconn, where they were killed. The latter He 
 calls king of JEihiopia, and father of Andro- 
 meda. II. A son of Lycurgus, present at the 
 
 chase of the Calydonian boar. Apollod. 1, c, 8. 
 
 CEPmsiADES, apatronymicofEteocles.son of 
 Andreus and Evippe, from the supposition of his 
 being the son of the Cephisus. Paus. 9, c. 34. 
 
 Cerberus, a dog of Pluto, the fruit of Echid- 
 na's union with Typhon. He had 50 heads, 
 
CE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CH 
 
 according to Hesiod, and three, according to 
 other mythologists. He was stationed at the 
 entrance of hell, as a watchful keeper, to pre- 
 vent the living from entering the infernal re- 
 gions, and the dead from escaping from their 
 confinement. Orpheus lulled him to sleep with 
 his lyre ; and Hercules dragged him from hell 
 when he went to redeem Alceste. Virg. JEn. 
 5, V. 134, 1. 6, V. 411.— Homer. Od. 11, v. 622. 
 — Paus. 2, c. 31, 1. 3, c. 25.— Hesiod. Thecfg. 
 312.— Tibull. 1, el. 10, v. 35. 
 
 Cercyon, and Cercyones, a king of Eleusis, 
 son of Neptune, or, according to others, of Vul- 
 can. He obliged all strangers to wrestle with 
 him ; and as he was a dexterous wresiler, they 
 were easily conquered and put to death. After 
 many cruelties, he challenged Theseus in wrest- 
 ling, and he was conquered and put to death 
 by his antagonist. Ovid. Met. 7, v. 439. — 
 Hygin. fab. 187. — Plut. in Thes. — Pans. 1, c. 
 5 and 39. 
 
 Ceres, the goddess of corn and of harvests, 
 was daughter of Saturn and Vesta. She had 
 a daughter by Jupiter, whom she called Phere- 
 phata, fruit-bearing, and afterwards Proser- 
 pine. This daughter was carried away by Plu- 
 to as she was gathering flowers in the plains 
 near Enna. The rape of Proserpine was griev- 
 ous Co Ceres, who sought her all over Sicily ; 
 and when night came, she lighted two torches 
 in the flames of Mount iEtna, to continue her 
 search by night all over the world. She at last 
 found her veil near the fountain Cyane ; but 
 no intelligence could be received of the place 
 of her concealment, till at last the nymph Are- 
 thusa informed her that her daughter had been 
 carried away by Pluto. During the inquiries 
 of Ceres for her daughter, the cultivation of 
 the earth was neglected, and the ground be- 
 came barren ; therefore, to repair the loss which 
 mankind had suffered by her absence, the god- 
 dess went to Attica, which was become the most 
 desolate country in the world, and instructed 
 Triptolemus, of Eleusis, in every thing which 
 concerned agriculture. She taught him how 
 to plough the ground, to sow and reap the corn, 
 to make bread, and to take particular care of 
 fruit trees. After these instructions, she gave 
 him her chariot, and commanded him to travel 
 all over the world, and communicate his know- 
 ledge of agriculture to the rude inhabitants, who 
 hitherto lived upon acorns and the roots of the 
 earth. Vid. Triptolemus. Her beneficence to 
 mankind made Ceres respected. Sicily was 
 supposed to be the favourite retreat of the god- 
 dess ; and Diodorus says, that she and her 
 daughter made their first appearance to man- 
 kind in Sicily, which Pluto received as a nup- 
 tial d6wry from Jupiter when he married Pro- 
 serpine. The Sicilians made a yearly sacrifice 
 to Ceres, every man according to his abilities ; 
 and the fountain of Cyane, through which Plu- 
 to opened himself a passage with his trident, 
 when carrying away Proserpine, was publicly 
 honoured with an offering of bulls, and the 
 blood of the victims was shed in the waters of 
 the fountain. Besides these, other ceremonies 
 were observed in honour of the goddess who 
 had so peculiarly favoured the island. The 
 commemoration of the rape was celebrated 
 about the beginning of the harvest, and the 
 search of Ceres at the time that corn is sown 
 
 in the earth. The latter festival continued six 
 successive days. Attica, which had been so 
 eminently distinguished by the goddess, grate- 
 fully remembered her favours in the celebration 
 of the Eleusinian mysteries. Vid. Eleusinia. 
 Ceres also performed the duties of a legislator, 
 and the Sicilians found the advantages of her 
 salutary laws ; hence her surname of Thesmo- 
 phora. She is the same as the Isis of the Egyp- 
 tians, and her worship, it is said, was first 
 brought into Greece by Erechtheus. In their 
 sacrifices the ancients offered Ceres a pregnant 
 sow, as that animal often injures and destroys 
 the productions of the earth. While the corn 
 was yet in grass, they offered her a ram, after 
 the victim had been led three times round the 
 field. Ceres was represented with a garland 
 of ears of corn on her head, holding in one 
 hand a lighted torch, and in the other a poppy, 
 which was sacred to her. She appears as a 
 countr5'^-woman mounted on the back of an ox, 
 and carrying a basket on her left arm, and hold- 
 ing a hoe ; and sometimes she rides in a chariot 
 drawn by winged dragons. She was supposed 
 to be the same as Rhea, Tellus, Cybele, Bona 
 Dea, Berecynthia, &c. The Romans paid her 
 great adoration, and her festivals were yearly 
 celebrated by the Roman matrons in the month 
 of April, during eight days. They always 
 bore lighted torches in commemoration of the 
 goddess; and whoever came to these festivals 
 without a previous initiation, was punished 
 with death. Ceres is metaphorically called bread 
 and corn, as the word Bacchus is frequently 
 used to signify wine. Apollod. 1, c. 5, 1. 2, c. 
 1, 1. 3, c. 12 and U.-Paus.- 1, c. 31, 1. 2, c. 34, 
 1. 3, c. 23, 1. 8, c. 25, &.c.—Diod. 1, &c.— Hesiod. 
 Theog.— Ovid. Fast. 4, v. All— Met. fab. 7, 8, 
 &c. — Claudian. de Rapt. Pros. — Cic. in Verr. — 
 Callimach. inCer. — Z/it'.29and31. — Stat. Theb, 
 12.— Dionys. Hal. 1, c. 3'6.— Hygin. P. A. 2. 
 
 Ceto, a daughter of Pontus and Terra, who 
 married Phorcys, by whom she had the three 
 Gorgons, &c. Hesiod. Theog. v. 237. — Lnican. 
 9, V. 646. 
 
 Ceus, and Cjeus, I. a son of CcbIus and Terra, 
 who married Phoebe, by whom he had Latona 
 and Asteria. Hesiod. Theog. v. 135. — Virg. 
 
 Mn. 4, V. 179. II. The father of Troezene. ' 
 
 Homer. II. 2, v. 354. 
 
 Ceyx, a king of Trachinia, son of Lucifer 
 and husband of Alcyone. He was drowned as 
 he went to consult the oracle of Claros. His 
 wife was apprized of his misfortune in a dream, 
 and found his dead body washed on the sea- 
 shore. They were both changed into birds 
 called Alcyons. Vid. Alcyone. Ovid. Met. 1, 
 V. 587. — Paus. 1, c. 32. According to Apollod. 
 1, c. 7, 1. 2. c. 7, the husband of Alcyone and the 
 king of Trachinia were two different persons. 
 
 Chales, a herald of Busiris, put to death by 
 Hercules. Apollod. 2, c. 5. 
 
 Chalciope, I. a daughter of jEetes, king of 
 Colchis, who married Phryxus, son of Athamas, 
 who had fled to her father's court for protec- 
 tion. She had some children by Phryxus, and 
 she preserved her life from the avarice and cru- 
 elty of her father, who had murdered her hus- 
 band to obtain the golden fleece. Ovid. Heroid. 
 
 17, V. 232.— Hygin. fab. 14, &c. II. The 
 
 daughter of Rhexenor, who married iEgeus. 
 Apollod. 3, c. 1, 
 
 695 
 
CH 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CH 
 
 Chalcon, a Messenian, who reminded Anti- 
 lochus, son of Nestor, to beware of the Ethio- 
 pians, by whom he was to perish. 
 
 Chaos, a rude and shapeless mass of matter, 
 and confused assemblage of inactive elements, 
 which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the 
 formation of the world, and from which the 
 universe was formed by the hand and power of 
 a superior being. This doctrine was first 
 established by Hesiod, from whom the succeed- 
 ing poets have copied it ; and it is probable that 
 it was obscurely drawn from the account of 
 Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- 
 choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to 
 the siege of Troy. Chaos was deemed by some 
 as one of the oldest of the gods, and invoked as 
 one of the infernal deities. Virg. ^n. 4, v. 
 510.— Ovid. Met. 1, fab. 1. 
 
 Charites, and GRATiiE, the Graces, daughters 
 of Venus by Jupiter or Bacchus, are three in 
 number, Aglaia, ' Thalia, and Euphrosyne. 
 They were the constant attendants of Venus, 
 and they were represented as three young, 
 beautiful, and modest virgins, all holding one 
 another by the hand. They presided over kind- 
 ness and all good offices, and their worship was 
 the same as that of the nine muses. They 
 were' generally represented naked, because 
 kindnesses ought to be done with sincerity and 
 candour. The moderns explain the allegory of 
 their holding their hands joined, by observing, 
 that there ought to be a perpetual and never- 
 ceasing intercourse of kindness and benevo- 
 lence among friends. Their youth denotes the 
 constant remembrance that we ought ever to 
 have of kindnesses received; and their virgin 
 purity and innocence teach us, that acts of 
 benevolence ought to be done without any ex- 
 pectations of restoration, and that we ought 
 never to suffer others or ourselves to be guilty 
 of base or impure favours. Homer speaks only 
 of two Graces. 
 
 Charon, a god of hell,.son of Erebus and 
 Nox, who conducted the souls of the dead in a 
 boat over the river St3'-x and Acheron, to the 
 infernal regions for an obolus. Such as had 
 not been honoured with a funeral were not per- 
 mitted to enter his boat without previously wan- 
 dering on the shore for one hundred years. If 
 any living person presented himself to cross the 
 Stygian lake, he could not be admitted before 
 he showed Charon a golden bough, which he 
 had received from the Sibyl ; and Charon was 
 imprisoned for one year, because he had ferried 
 over, against his own will, Hercules, without 
 this passport. Charon is represented as an old 
 robust man, with a hideous countenance, long 
 white beard, and piercing eyes. His garment 
 is ragged and filthy, and his forehead is covered 
 with wrinkles. As all the dead were obliged 
 to pay a small piece of money for their admis- 
 sion, it was always usual among the ancients to 
 place under the tongue of the deceased a piece 
 of money for Charon. This fable of Charon 
 and his boat is borrowed from the Egyptians, 
 whose dead were carried across a lake, where 
 sentence was passed on them, and, according to 
 their good or bad actions, they were honoured 
 with a splendid burial, or left unnoticed in the 
 open air. Vid. Acherusia. Diod. 1. — Senec. in 
 Her. Fur. act. 3, v. 165.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. 296, 
 &c. Vid. Part TI. 
 
 6ro 
 
 Charybdis. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Chelone, a nymph changed into a tortoise 
 by Mercury, for not being present at the nup- 
 tials of Jupiter and Juno, and condemned to per- 
 petual silence for having ridiculed these deities. 
 
 Chelonis, a daughter of Leonidas, king of 
 Sparta, who married Cleombrotus. She accom- 
 panied her father, whom her husband had ex- 
 pelled, and soon after went into banishment 
 with her husband, who had in his turn been ex- 
 pelled by Leonidas. Plut. in Agid. tf- Cleorn. 
 
 CniMiERA, I. a celebrated monster, sprung 
 from Echidna and Typhon, which had three 
 heads, that of a lion, of a goat, and a dragon, 
 and continually vomited flames. The fore parts 
 of its body were those of a lion, the middle was 
 that of a goat, and the hinder parts were those 
 of a dragon. It generally lived in Lycia, about 
 the reign of Jobates, by whose orders Bellero- 
 phon, mounted on the horse Pegasus, overcame 
 it. This fabulous tradition is explained by the 
 recollection that there was a burning mountain 
 in Lycia, called Chimaera, whose top was the 
 resort of lions on account of its desolate wilder- 
 ness ; the middle, which was fruitful, was cov- 
 ered with goats ; and at the bottom the marshy 
 ground abounded with serpents. Bellerophon 
 is said to have conquered theChimaera, because 
 he first made his habitation on that mountain. 
 Plutarch says that it is the captain of some 
 pirates, who adorned their ship with the images 
 of a lion, a goat, and a dragon. From the union 
 of the Chimaera with Orthos, sprung the Sphinx, 
 and the lion of Nemsea. Hovier. 11. 6, v. 181. 
 —Hesiod. Theog. v. 'i2%—Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 2, 
 c. 2.—lMcret. 5, v. 903.— Oui<^. 9, Met. v. 646. 
 
 — Virg. Mn. 6, v. 288. II. One of the ships 
 
 in the fleet of iEneas. Virg. Mn. 5, v. 118. 
 
 Chione, I. a daughter of Dasdalion, of whom 
 Apollo and Mercury became enamoured. She 
 became mother of Philammon and Autolycus, 
 the former of whom, as being son of Apollo, 
 became an excellent musician ; and the latter 
 was equally notorious for his robberies, of which 
 his father Mercury was the patron. Chione 
 grew so proud of her commerce with the gods, 
 that she even preferred her beauty to that of 
 Diana, for which impiety she was killed by the 
 goddess and changed into a hawk. Ovid. Met. 
 
 11, fab. 8. II. A daughter of Boreas and 
 
 Orithyia, who had Eumolpusby Neptune. She 
 threw her son into the sea, but he was preserved 
 by his father. Apollod. 3,.c. 15. — Pans. 1. c. 38. 
 
 Chiron, a centaur, half man and half a 
 horse, son of Phil^ra and Saturn, was famous 
 for his knowledge of music, medicine, and 
 shooting. He taught mankind the use of plants 
 and medicinal herbs ; and he instructed, in all 
 the polite arts, the greatest heroes of his age ; 
 such as Achilles, JEsculapius, Hercules, Jason, 
 Peleus, Eneas, &c. He was wounded in the 
 knee by a poisoned arrow, by Hercules, in his 
 pursuit of the centaurs. As the wound was in- 
 curable, and the cause of the most excruciating 
 pains, Chiron begged Jupiter to deprive him of 
 immortality. His prayers were heard, and he 
 was placed by the gods among the constella- 
 tions, under the name of Sagittarius. Hesiod. 
 in Scuto. — Homer. 11. 11. — Pans. 3. c. 18, 1. 5, 
 c. 19, 1. 9, c. ^\.— Ovid. Met.% v. 616.— Apollod. 
 2, c. 5, 1. 3, c. 13.— Horat. epod. 13. 
 
 Chlor, a surname of Ceres at Athens. Her 
 
CI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CL 
 
 yearly festivals called Chloeia, were celebrated 
 with much mirth and rejoicing, and a ram was 
 always sacrificed to her. The name of Chloe 
 is supposed to bear the same signification as 
 Flaxa, so often applied to the goddess of corn. 
 The name, from its signification, (%Xv;7, herba 
 virens) has generally been applied to women 
 possessed of beauty and simplicity, 
 
 Chloris, I. the goddess of flowers, who mar- 
 ried Zephyrus. She is the same as Flora. 
 Ovid. Fast. 5. — II, A daughter of Amphion, 
 son of Jasus and Persephone, who married Ne- 
 leus, king of Pylos, by whom she had one 
 daughter and twelve sons, who all, except Nes- 
 tor, were killed by Hercules, Homer. Od. 11, 
 V. 280.— Pans. 2, c. 21, 1. 9, c. 36. 
 
 Chonnidas, a man made preceptor to The- 
 seus, by his grandfather Pittheus, king of Tros- 
 zene. The Athenians instituted sacrifices to 
 him for the good precepts he had inculcated 
 into his pupil. Plut. m Tkes. 
 
 Chronds, the Greek name of Saturn, or Time, 
 in whose honour festivals, called Chronia, were 
 yearly celebrated by the Rhodians and some of 
 the Greeks, 
 
 Chrysaor, a son of Medusa and Neptune. 
 Some report that he sprung from the blood of 
 Medusa, armed with a golden sword., whence 
 his name xpi;o-of aop. He man led Callirhoe, 
 one of the Oceanides,by whom he hadGeryon, 
 Echidna, and the Chimasra. Hesiod. Theog. 
 V 295. 
 
 Chrysaoreus, a surname of Jupiter, from his 
 temple at Stratonice, where all the Carians as- 
 sembled upon any public emergency. Strab. 4. 
 
 Chryses. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Chrysippus, I. a natural son of Pelops, high- 
 ly favoured by his father, for which Hippoda- 
 mia, his step-mother, ordered her own sons, 
 Atreus and Thyestes, to kill him, and to throw 
 his body into a well, on account of which they 
 were banished. Some say that Hippodamia's 
 sons refused to murder Chrysippus, and that she 
 did it herself Hygin. fab. 85. — Plato, de Leg. 
 6. — Apollod. 3, c. 5. — Paus. 6, c. 20. 
 
 Chthonia, a surname of Ceres, from a tem- 
 ple built to her by Chthonia, at Hermione. She 
 had a festival there called by the same name, 
 and celebrated every summer. During the cele- 
 bration, the priests of the goddess marched in 
 procession, accompanied by the magistrates and 
 a crowd of women and boys in white apparel, 
 with garlands of flowers on their heads. Be- 
 hind was dragged an untamed heifer, just taken 
 from the herd. "When they came to the temple, 
 the victim was let loose, and four old women, 
 armed with scythes, sacrificed the heifer. A 
 second, a third, and a fourth victim, was in a 
 like manner despatched by the old women ; and 
 it was observable that they all fell on the same 
 side. Paus. 2, c. 35. 
 
 CiLTX, a son of Phoenix, or, according to He- 
 rodotus, of Agenor, who, after seekmg in vain 
 his sister Europa, settled in a country to which 
 he gave the name of Cilicia. Apollod. 3, c. 1, 
 —Herodol. 7, c. 91. 
 
 Cinaradas, one of the descendants of Ciny- 
 ras, who presided over the ceremonies of Venus 
 at Paphos. Tacit. 2. Hist. c. 3. 
 
 CiNxiA, a surname of Juno, who presided 
 over marriages, and was supposed to untie the 
 girdle of new brides. 
 
 Part III.— 4 T 
 
 Cinyras, a king of Cyprus, son of Paphus, 
 who married Cenchreis, by whom he had a 
 daughter called Myrrha. Cinyras, according 
 to some, stabbed hiinself. He was so rich, that 
 his opulence, like that of Croesus, became pro- 
 verbial. Ovid. Met. 10, fab. 9.— Plut. in Parall. 
 —Hygin. fab. 242, 248, &c. 
 
 Circe, a daughter of Sol and Perseis, cele- 
 biated for her knowledge in magic and veno- 
 mous herbs. She was sister to ^etes, king of 
 Colchis, and Pasiphse, the wife of Minos. She 
 married a Sarmatian prince of Colchis, whom 
 she murdered to obtain his kingdom. She was 
 expelled by her subjects, and carried by her fa- 
 ther upon the coasts of Italy, in an island called 
 ^aea. Ulysses, at his return from the Trojan 
 war, visited the place of her residence ; and all 
 his companions, who ran headlong into pleasure 
 and voluptuousness, were changed by Circe's 
 potions into filthy swine. Ulysses, who was 
 fortified against all enchantments by an herb 
 called moly^ which he had received from. Mer- 
 cury, went to Circe, and demanded, swoid in 
 hand, the restoration of his companions to their 
 former state. She complied, and loaded the hero 
 with pleasures and honours. In this voluptuous 
 retreat, Ulysses had by Circe one son called 
 Telegonus, or two, according to Hesiod, called 
 Agrius and Latinus. For one whole year 
 Ulysses forgot his glor}' in Circe's arms, and at 
 his departure, the nymph advised him to descend 
 into hell, and consult the manes of Tiresias 
 concerning the fates that attended him. Circe 
 showed herself cruel to Scylla her rival, and to 
 Picus. Vid. Scylla and Picus. Ovid. Met. 14, 
 fab. 1 and 5. — Horat. 1, ep. 2, 1. 1. od. 17. — Virg. 
 Ed. 8, V. 10.— JEn. 3, v. 386, 1.'7, v. 10, &c.— 
 Hygin. fab. 125. — Apollon. 4. Arg. — Homer. 
 Od. 10, V. 136, &c. — Apollod. 1, c. 9.— Hesiod. 
 Th. 956— Strab. 5. 
 
 Claviger, a surname of Janus, from his be- 
 ing represented with a key. Ovid, Fast. 1, v. 
 228. Hercules received also that surname, as 
 he was armed with a club. Ovid. Met. 15, v. 284. 
 
 Cleodoxa, a daughter of Niobe and Am- 
 phion, changed into a stone as a punishment 
 for her mother's pride. Apollod. 3, c. 5. 
 
 Clio, I. the first of the Muses, daughter of 
 Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided over 
 history. She is represented crowned with lau- 
 rels, holding in one hand a trumpet, and a book 
 in the other. Sometimes she holds a plectrum 
 or quill with a lute. Her name signifies hon- 
 our and reputation, (k-Xeo?, gloria;) and it was 
 her oflice faithfully to record the actions of 
 brave and illustrious heroes. She had Hya- 
 cintha by Pierus, son of Magnes. She was also 
 mother of Hymenseus, and lalemus, according 
 to others. Hesiod. Tkeog. v. 75. — Apollod. 1, c. 
 
 3. — Strab. 14. II. One of Cyrene's nymphs. 
 
 Virg. G. 4, V. 341. 
 
 Clite, the wife of Cyzicus, who hung her- 
 self when she saw her husband dead. Apollon. 
 1. — Orpheus. 
 
 Cloacina, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
 over the Cloacse. Some suppose her to be Ve- 
 nus, whose statue was found in the Cloaca, 
 whence the name. The Cloacae were large 
 receptacles for the filth and dung of the whole 
 city, begun by Tarquin the Elder, and finished 
 by Tarquin the Proud. They were built all 
 under the city: so that, according to an expres- 
 G97 
 
CO 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CO 
 
 sion of Pliny, Rome seemed to be suspended 
 between heaven and earth. The building was 
 so strong, and the stones so large, that though 
 they were continually washed by impetuous tor- 
 rents, they remained unhurt during above 700 
 years. There were public officers chosen to 
 take care of the Cloacee, called Curalores Cloa- 
 carum urbis. Liv. 3, c. 48. — Plin. 5, c. 29. 
 
 Clotho, the youngest of the three Parcae, 
 daughter of Jupiter and Themis, or, according 
 to Hesiod, of Night, was supposed to preside 
 over the moment that we are born. She held 
 the distaff in her hand, and span the thread of 
 life, whence her name, (/cXweetj/, to spin.) She 
 was represented wearing a crown with seven 
 stars, and covered with a variegated robe. Vid. 
 Parcce. Hesiod. Theog. v. 218. — Apollod. 1, c. 3. 
 
 Cluacina, a name of Venus, whose statue 
 was erected in that place where peace was made 
 between the Romans and Sabines, after the 
 rape of the virgins., Vid. Cloacina. 
 
 Clusius, the surname of Janus when his 
 temple was shut. Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 130. 
 
 Clymene, I. a daughter of Oceanus and Te- 
 thys, who married Japetus, by whom she had 
 Atlas, Prometheus, Menoetius, and Epimetheus. 
 
 Hesiod. Theog. II. The mother of Phaeton 
 
 by Apollo. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 756. III. The 
 
 mother of Homer. Id. 10, c. 24. IV. A 
 
 female servant of Helen, who accompanied her 
 mistress to Troy, when she eloped with Paris. 
 Ovid. Heroid. 17, v. ^^1.— Homer. 11. 3, v. 144. 
 
 Clymeneides, a patronymic given to Phae- 
 ton's sisters, who were daughters of Clymene. 
 
 Clytemnestra, a daughter of Tyndarus, 
 king of Sparta, by Leda. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Clytia, or Clytie, I. a daughter of Oceanus 
 and Tethys, beloved by Apollo. She was de- 
 serted by her lover, and pined away, and was 
 changed into a flower, commonly called a sun- 
 flower, which still turns its head towards the 
 sun in h is course , as in pledge of her love. Ovid. 
 Met. 4, fab. 3. &c. II. A daughter of Am- 
 
 phidamus, mother of Pelops, by Tantalus.- 
 III. A concubine of Amyntor, son of Phrastor, 
 whose calumny caused Amyntor to put out the 
 
 eyes of his falsely-accused son Phoenix. IV. 
 
 A daughter of Pandarus. 
 
 CocALUS, a king of Sicily, who hospitably 
 received Daedalus when he fled before Minos. 
 When Minos arrived in Sicily the daughters 
 of Cocalus destroyed him. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 
 '■H^l.—Diod. 4. 
 
 CcBLUs, or Uranus, an ancient deity, sup- 
 posed to be the father of Saturn, Oceanus, Hy- 
 perion, &c. He was son of Terra, whom he 
 afterwards married. The number of his chil- 
 dren, according to some, amounted to forty-five. 
 They were called Titans, and were so closely 
 confined by their father, that they conspired 
 against him, and were supported by their moth- 
 er, who provided them with a scythe. Saturn 
 armed himself with this scythe, and deprived 
 his father of the organs of generation, as he 
 was going to unite himself to Terra. From 
 the blood which issued from the wound sprang 
 the giants, furies, and nymphs. The mutilated 
 parts were thrown into the sea, and from them, 
 and the foam which they occasioned, arose 
 Venus, the goddess of beauty. Hesiod. &c. 
 
 CoMETHO, a daughter of Pterilaus, who de- 
 prived her father of a golden hair in his head. 
 698 
 
 upon which depended his fate. She was put to 
 death by Amphitryon for her perfidy. 4?'oZ.2,c.4. 
 
 CoMus, the god of revelry, feasting, and noc- 
 turnal entertainments. During his festivals 
 men and women exchanged each other's dress. 
 He was represented as a young and drunken 
 man, with a garland of flowers on his head, 
 and a torch in his hand, which seemed falling. 
 He is more generally seen sleeping upon his 
 legs, and turning himself when the heat of the 
 falling torch scorched his side. Phil. 2. Icon. 
 — Plut. QucBSt. Bom. 
 
 Concordia, the goddess of peace and concord 
 at Rome, to whom Camillus first raised a tem- 
 ple in the capitol, where the magistrates often 
 assembled for the transaction of public business. 
 She had, besides this, other temples and statues, 
 and was addressed to promote the peace and 
 union of families and citizens. Plut. in Camil. 
 — Plin. 33, c. 1. — Cic.pro Domo. — Ovid. Fast. 
 1, V. 639, 1. 6, V. 637. 
 
 CoNiSALTUs, a god worshipped at Athens, 
 with the same ceremonies as Priapus at Lamp- 
 sacus. Strab. 3. 
 
 CoNNiDAS. Vid Chonnidas. 
 
 Consentes, the name which the Romans 
 gave to the twelve superior gods, the D'ii majo" 
 rum gentium: The word signifies as much as 
 consentie7ites, that is, who consented to the de- 
 liberations of Jupiter's council. They were 
 twelve in number, whose names Ennius has 
 briefly expressed in these lines : — 
 
 Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus,Mars, 
 Mercuri^iSf Jovi, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo. 
 
 Varro, de R. R. 
 
 CoNstJs, a deity at Rome, who presided over 
 councils. His temple was covered in the Mexi- 
 mus Circus, to show that councils ought to be 
 secret and inviolable. Some suppose that it is 
 the same as Neptunus Equestris. Romulus in- 
 stituted festivals to his honour, called Consu- 
 alia, during the celebration of which the Ro- 
 mans carried away the Sabine women. Vid. 
 Consuales Ludi, Part II. Plut. in Rom. — Au- 
 son. 69, and eleg. de far. R. 19. — Dionys. Hal. 1. 
 — Idv. 1, c. 9. 
 
 Coon, the eldest son of Antenor, killed by 
 Agamemnon. Homer. 11. 
 
 CopiA, the goddess of plenty; among the 
 Romans, represented as bearing a horn filled 
 with grapes, fruit, &c. 
 
 Copreus, a son of Pelops, who fled to Mycenae 
 at the death of Iphitus. Apollod. 2, c. 5. 
 
 Core, a daughter of Ceres, the same as Pro- 
 serpine. Festivals, called Coreia, were insti- 
 tuted to her honour in Greece. 
 
 CoREsus, a priest of Bacchus, at Calydon in 
 Boeotia, who was deeply enamoured of the 
 nymph Callirhoe, who treated him with dis- 
 dain. He complained to Bacchus, who visited 
 the country with a pestilence. The Calydo- 
 nians were directed by the oracle to appease 
 the god by sacrificing Callirhoe on his altar. 
 The nymph was led to the altar, and Coresus, 
 who was to sacrifice her, forgot his resentment 
 and stabbed himself Callirhoe, conscious of her 
 ingratitude to the love of Coresus, killed herseli 
 on the brink of a fountain, which afterwards 
 bore her name. Paus. 7, c. 21. 
 
 CoRiA, a surname of Minerva among the 
 Arcadians. Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 23. 
 
CR 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CU 
 
 CoRCEBUs, a hero of Argolis, who killed a 
 serpent called Pcene, sent by Apollo to avenge 
 Argos, and placed by some authors in the num- 
 ber of the faries. His country was afflicted 
 with the plague, and he consulted the oracle of 
 Delphi, which commanded him to build a tem- 
 ple, where a tripod, which was given him, 
 should fall from his hands. Paus. 1, y. 43. 
 Fi^. Part II. 
 
 CoRONis, I. a daughter of Phlegyas, loved fey 
 Apollo. She became pregnant by her lover, 
 who killed her on account of her criminal par- 
 tiality to Ischys the Thessalian. The child 
 was preserved and called ^Esculapius ; and the 
 mother, after death, received divine honours, 
 and had a statue at Sicyon, in her son's temple, 
 which was never exposed to public view. Poms. 
 
 2, c. 26. II. The daughter of Coronaeus, 
 
 king of Phocis, changed into a crow by Miner- 
 va, when flying before Neptune. Ovid. Met. 
 
 2, V. 543., III. One of the daughters of Atlas 
 
 and Pleione. 
 
 CoRoNUs, I. a son of Apollo. Paus. 2, c. 5. 
 
 II. A son of Phoroneus, king of the Lapi- 
 
 ihae. Diod. 4. 
 
 CoRYBANTEs, the priests of Cybele, called 
 also Galli. In the celebration of their festivals 
 they beat their cymbals, and behaved as if de- 
 lirious. They first inhabited on mount Ida, 
 and from thence passed into Crete, and secretly 
 brought up Japiter. Some suppose that they 
 received their name from Corobas, son of Jasus 
 and Cybele, who first introduced the rites of 
 his mother into Phrygia. There was a festival 
 at Cnossus, in Crete, called Corybantica, in 
 commemoration of the Corybantes, who there 
 educated Jupiter. Vid. Curetes. Paus. 8, c. 
 Tt.—Diod. b.—Horal. 1, od. 16.— Virg. Mn. 9, 
 V. 617, 1. 10, V. 250. 
 
 CoRYCiDEs, the nymphs who inhabited the 
 foot of Parnassus. The name is often applied 
 to the muses. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 320. 
 
 CoRYMBiFfeR, a surname of Bacchus, from 
 his wearing a crown of corymbi, certain berries 
 that grow on the ivy. Ovid. 1. Past. v. 393. 
 
 CoRYTUs, a king of Etruria, father to Jasius, 
 whom Dardanus is said to have put to death to 
 obtain the kingdom. 
 
 CoTTus, a giant, son of Ccelus and Terra, 
 who had 100 hands and 50 heads. Hesiod. 
 Theog. V. 147. 
 
 C0TYL.EUS, a surname of iEsculapius, wor- 
 shipped on the borders of the Eurotas. His 
 temple was raised by Hercules. Paus. 3, c. 19. 
 
 CoTYTTO, the goddess of all debauchery, 
 whose festivals, called Cotyttia, was celebrated 
 by the Athenians, Corinthians, Thracians, <fec., 
 during the night. Her priests were called Bap- 
 tce. A festival of the same name was observed 
 in Sicily, where the votaries of the goddess car- 
 ried about boughs hung with cakes and fruit, 
 which it was lawful for any person to pluck off. 
 It was a capital punishment to reveal whatever 
 was seen or done at these sacred festivals, and 
 it cost Eupolis his life for an unseasonable re- 
 flection upon them. The goddess Cotytto is 
 suoposed to be the same as Proserpine or Ceres. 
 Horat. epod. 17, v. 5S.—Juv. 2, v. 91. 
 
 Creon, I. a king of Corinth, was son of Sisy- 
 phus. He promised his daughter Glauce to 
 Jason, who repudiated Media. To revenge 
 the success of her rival, Medea sent her for a 
 
 present a gown covered with poison. Glauce 
 put it on, and was seized with sudden pains. 
 Her body took fire, and she expired in the 
 greatest torments. The house also was con- 
 sumed by the fire, and Creon and his family 
 shared Glauce's fate. Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 7. 
 — Eurip. in Med. — Hygin. fab. 25. — Diod. 4. 
 II. A son of Menoetius, brother to Jocasta, 
 
 the wife and mother of CEdipus. At the death 
 of Laius, who had married Jocasta, Creon as- 
 cended the vacant throne of Thebes. Vid. Ete- 
 odes. Creon was afterwards killed by Theseus, 
 who had made war against him at the request 
 of Adrastus, because he refused burial to the 
 Argives. Vid. Eteocles^ Polyiiices, Adra,stus, 
 GEdipus. Apollod. 3, c. 56, &c. — Paus. 1, c. 39, 
 1. 9, c. 5, &c. — Stat, in Theb. — Sophocl. in 
 Antig. — Diod. 1 and 4. 
 
 Greontiades, a son of Hercules by Megara, 
 daughter of Creon, killed by his father because 
 he had slain Lycus. 
 
 Cretheis, the wife of Acastus, king of lol- 
 chos,who fell in love with Peleus, son of iEacus. 
 She is called by some Hippolyte, or Astidamia. 
 Pindar. Nem. 4. 
 
 Cretheus, a son of ^olus, father of .^on, by 
 Tyro, his brother's daughter. Apol. 1, c. 7, &c. 
 
 Creusa, a daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. 
 As she was going to marry Jason, who had di- 
 vorced Medea, she put on a poisoned garment, 
 which immediately set her body on fire, and 
 she expired in the most excruciating torments. 
 She had received this gown as a gift from Me- 
 dea, who wished to take that revenge upon the 
 infidelity of Jason. Some call her Glauce. Vid. 
 Part II. Ovid, de Art. Am. 1, v. 335. 
 
 Crimissus, was a Trojan prince, who exposed 
 his daughter on the sea, rather than suffer her 
 to be devoured by the sea-monster which Nep- 
 tune sent to punish the infidelity of Laomedon. 
 Vid. Laomedon. The daughter came safe to 
 the shores of Sicily. Crimissus, some time af- 
 ter, went in search of his daughter, and was so 
 disconsolate for her loss, that the gods changed 
 him into a river in Sicily, and granted him the 
 power of metamorphosing himself into v/hat- 
 ever shape he pleased. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Crocus, a beautiful youth, enamoured of the 
 nymph Smilax. He was changed into a flower 
 of the same name, on account of ihe impatience 
 of his love, and Smilax was metamorphosed 
 into a yew-tree. Ovid. 4, Met. v. 283. 
 
 Crotopus, a king of Argos, son of Agenor, 
 and father toPsamathe, the mother of Linus by 
 Apollo. Ovid, in lb. 480. 
 
 Crotds, a son of Eumene, the nurse of the 
 Muses. He devoted his life to the labours of 
 the chase, and after death Jupiter placed him 
 among the constellations, under the name of 
 Sagittarius. Paus. 9, c. 29. 
 
 CupiDo, a celebrated deity among the an- 
 cients, god of love, and love itself. There are 
 different traditions concerning his parents. Ci- 
 cero mentions three Cupids ; one, son of Mer- 
 cury and Diana ; another, son of Mercury and 
 Venus ; and the third, of Mars and Venus. 
 Plato mentions two ; Hesiod, the most ancient 
 theogonist, speaks only of one, who, as he says, 
 was produced at the same time as Chaos and 
 the Earth. There are, according to the more 
 received opinions, two Cupids, one of whom is 
 a lively ingenious youth, son of Jupiter and 
 699 
 
CY 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CY 
 
 Venus ; whilst the other, son of Nox and Ere- 
 bus, is distinguished by debauchery and riotous 
 disposition, Cupid is represented as a winged 
 infant, naked, armed with a bow and quiver full 
 of arrows. On gems, and all other pieces of 
 antiquity, he is represented as amusing himself 
 with some childish diversion. Sometimes he 
 appears driving a hoop, throwing a quoit, play- 
 ing with a nymph, catching a butterfly, or try- 
 ing to burn with a torch ; sometimes, like a con- 
 queror, he marched triumphantly with a hel- 
 met on his head, a spear on his shoulder, and a 
 buckler on his arm. His power was generally 
 known by his riding on the back of a lion, or 
 on a dolphin, or breaking to pieces the thunder- 
 bolts of Jupiter. Among the ancients he was 
 worshipped with the same solemnity as his mo- 
 ther Venus; and as his influence was extended 
 over the heavens, the sea, and the earth, and 
 even the empire of the dead, his divinity was 
 universally acknowledged, and vows, prayers, 
 and sacrifices were daily offered to him. Ac- 
 cording to some accounts, the union of Cupid 
 with Chaos gave birth to men ; and all the ani- 
 mals which inhabit the earth, and even the gods 
 themselves, were the offspring of love before the 
 foundation of the w^orld. Cic. de Nat. D. 3. — 
 Ovid. Met. 1, fab. 10.— Hesiod. Theog. v. 121, 
 Sic.-^Oppian. Hali.^. Cyneg.^. — Biooi. Idyll. 
 3. — Mosclius. — Eurip. in Hippol. — Theocrit. 
 Idyll. 3, 11, &c. 
 
 CuRETEs, by some considered the same as the 
 Cabiri, Corybantes, &c. Vid. Cabiri. Strabo 
 informs us, that the Curetes and Corybantes, 
 whether gods, genii, demigods, or the servants 
 of the gods, were the attendants of Rhea or 
 Cybele ; as the Fauns, Bacchantes, and other 
 rural deities, formed the escort of Bacchus. 
 Some writers are of opinion that, besides the 
 Curetes above described, there were others in 
 Phrygia, who were only servants in the wor- 
 ship of Cybele ; and who, on solemn occasions 
 imitated the ceremonies of the Corybantes, 
 thus commemorating their actions. The most 
 important achievement of the Corybantes was 
 that of having rescued the infant Jove from 
 Saturn, by drowning his cries with a noise pro- 
 duced by beating their shields with their swords. 
 Hence originated the Pyrrhic dance, in which 
 the later Curetes honoured the goddess, not 
 only by striking their shields, but by moving 
 with measured steps, and swaying the head to 
 and fro. The effect was heightened by the 
 drawing of the crests upon their helmets. Lu- 
 cretius, in describing the dance, distinguishes 
 between the ancient and later Curetes. Their 
 number is variously reported. Those who iden- 
 tify them with the JDioscuri, make them two in 
 number; others three, five, eleven ; and some 
 extend their number to fifty-two. Faher's Ca- 
 biri. Millin. 
 
 Cyane, a nymph of Sicily, who endeavoured 
 to assist Proserpine when she was carried away 
 by Pluto. The god changed her into a foun- 
 tain now called Pisme, a few miles from Syra- 
 cuse. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 112 
 
 Cybebe, a name of Cybele. 
 
 Cybele, a goddess, daughter of Coelus and 
 Terra, and wife of Saturn. She is supposed to 
 be the same as Ceres, Rhea, Ops, Vesta, Bona 
 Mater, Magna Mater, Berecynthia.Dindymene, 
 &c. According to Diodorns she was the daugh- 
 700 
 
 ter of a Lydian prince called Menos, by his wife 
 Dindymene ; and he adds, that as soon as she 
 was born she was exposed on a mountain. She 
 was preserved and suckled by some of the wild 
 beasts of the forest, and received the name of 
 Cybele from the mountain where her life had 
 been preserved. The attachment of Cybele to 
 Atys is often dwelt upon by the poets of anti- 
 quity. In Phrygia, her festivals were observed 
 wiih the greatest solemnity. Her priests, called 
 Corybantes, Galli, &c., were obliged to qualify 
 themselves for her service after the manner of 
 Atys.' In the celebration of the festivals they 
 imitated the manners of madmen, and filled the 
 air with dreadful shrieks and bowlings, mixed 
 with the confused noise of drums, tabrets, buck- 
 lers, and spears. This was in commemoration 
 of the sorrow of Cybele for the loss of her 
 favourite Atys. Those who consider Atys as 
 typical of the sun, see, in the rites of Cybele 
 and her attachment to Atys, a representation of 
 the relation which existed between the Sun 
 and Earth. Faber refers the fable of Cybele 
 and Atys to the Helio-Arkite worship; so that, 
 according to him, Rhea or Cybele is a new 
 personification of the lunar Ark ; hence the 
 mysteries of Rhea were immediately connected 
 with those of Bacchus or Noah ; and hence, 
 too, the alternate lamentations and rejoicing at 
 the rites of Cybele, on account of the supposed 
 death and revival of Bacchus or Adonis, who 
 by the Phrygians was styled Atys, and by the 
 Egyptians Osiris. Cybele was generally repre- 
 sented as a robust woman, far advanced in her 
 pregnancy, to intimate the fecundity of the earth. 
 She held keys in her hand, and her head was 
 crowned with rising turrets, and sometimes with 
 the leaves of an oak. She sometimes appears 
 riding in a chariot drawn by two tame lions ; 
 Atys follows by her side, carrying a ball in his 
 hand, and supporting himself upon a fir-tree, 
 which is sacred to the goddess. Sometimes 
 Cybele is represented with a sceptre in her 
 hand, with her head covered with a tower. 
 From Phrygia the worship of Cybele passed 
 into Greece, and was solemnly established at 
 Eleusis, under the name of the Eleusinian mys- 
 teries of Ceres. The Romans, by order of the 
 Sibylline books, brought the statue of the god- 
 dess from Pessinus into Italy ; and when the 
 ship which carried it had run on a shallow bank 
 of the Tiber, the virtue and innocence of Clau- 
 dia were vindicated in removing it with her 
 girdle. It is supposed that the mysteries of 
 Cvbele were first known about 1580 years B. C. 
 The Romans were particularly superstitious in 
 washing every year, on the 6th of the calends 
 of April, the shrine of this goddess in the wa- 
 ters of the river Almon. Vid. Atys, Eleusis, 
 Rhea, Corybantes, Galli, &c. Augustin. de Civit. 
 D. &c. — Lactant. — Inician. in Dea Sur. — Diod. 
 S.— Virg. ^n. 9, v. 617, 1. 10, v. 252.— Lvcan. 
 1, V. 566.— Ovid. Trist. 4, v. 210 and 361.— 
 Plut. de Loquac. — Cic. ad Attic. — C(d. Rhod. 
 8, c. 17, &c. 
 
 Cychreus, a son of Neptune and Salamis. 
 After death he was honoured as a god in Sala- 
 mis and Attica. Paus. 1, c. 35. — Plut. in Tlies. 
 —ApoJlod. 3, c. 12. 
 
 Cyclopes, a certain race of men of gigantic 
 stature, supposed to be the sons of Coelus and 
 Terra. They had but one eye in the middle of 
 
CY 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 DiE 
 
 the forehead ; whence their name {KVK\og, cir- 
 cules, (oip oculus.) They were three in number, 
 according to Hesiod, called Arges, Brontes, and 
 Steropes. Their number was greater according 
 to other mythologists, and, in the age of Ulysses, 
 Polyphemus was their king. Vid. Polyphemus. 
 They inhabited the western part of the island 
 of Sicily ; and because they were uncivilized 
 in their manners, the poets speak of them as 
 men-eaters. The tradition of their having only 
 one eye originates from their custom of wear- 
 ing small bucklers of steel, which covered their 
 faces, and had a small aperture in the middle, 
 which corresponded exactly to the eye. From 
 their vicinity to Mount vEtna, they have been 
 supposed to be the workmen of Vulcan, and to 
 have fabricated the thunderbolts of Jupiter. 
 The most solid walls and impregnable fortresses 
 were said, among the ancients, to be the work 
 of the Cyclops, to render them more respecta- 
 ble ; and we find that Jupiter was armed with 
 what ihey had fabricated, and that the shield of 
 Pluto, and the trident of Neptune, were the 
 produce of their labour. The Cyclops were 
 reckoned among the gods, and we find a temple 
 dedicated to their service at Corinth, where 
 sacrifices were solemnly offered. Apollo de- 
 stroyed them all, because they had made the 
 thunderbolts of Jupiter with which his son 
 ^sculapius had been killed. From the differ- 
 ent accounts given of the Cyclops by the an- 
 cients, it may be concluded that they were all 
 the same people, to whom various functions 
 have been attributed, which cannot be reconciled 
 one to the other without drawing the pencil of 
 fiction 'or mythology. Apollod. 1, c. 1 and 2. — 
 Homer. Od. 1 and 9. — Hesiod. Theog. v. 140. — 
 Theocrit. Id. 1, &c.—SCrab. Q.— Virg. G. 4, v. 
 170. ^n. 6, V. 639, 1. 8, v. 418, &c. 1. 11, v. 
 263.— Oui<^. Met. 13, v. 780, 1. 14, v. 249. 
 
 Cycnus, I. a son of Mars, by Pelopea, killed 
 by Hercules. The manner of his death pro- 
 voked Mars to such a degree, that he resolved 
 severely to punish his murderer, but he was 
 prevented by the thunderbolts of Jupiter. Hy- 
 gin. fab. 31 and 261. — Hesiod. in Scut. Here. 
 
 II. A son of Neptune, invulnerable in every 
 
 part of his body, Achilles fought against him ; 
 but when he saw that his darts were of no ef- 
 fect, he threw him on the ground and smothered 
 him. He stripped him of his armour, and saw 
 him suddenly changed into a bird of the same 
 
 name. Ovid. Met. 12, fab. 3, III. A son of 
 
 Sthenelus, king of Liguria. He was deeply 
 afflicted at the death of his friend and relation 
 Phaeton, and in the midst of his lamentations 
 he was metamorphosed into a swan. Ovid. Met. 
 2, V. ZQl.— Virg. Mn. 10, v. 189.— Paws. 1, c. 30. 
 
 Cyllarus, the most beautiful of all the Cen- 
 taurs, passionately fond of Hylonome. They 
 perished both at the same time, Ooid. 12, Met. 
 V. 408. 
 
 Cyllene, the mother of Lvcaon, by Pelasgus. 
 Apollod. 3, c. 9. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Cylleneius, a surname of Mercury, from 
 his being" born on the mountain Cyllene. 
 
 Cymothoe, one of the Nereides, represenled 
 by Virg. Mn. 1, v. 148, as assisting the Trojans 
 with Triton, after the storm with which jEoIus, 
 at the request of Juno, had afflicted the fleet. 
 
 Cynosura, a nymph of Ida in Crete. She 
 nursed Jupiter who changed her into a^tar 
 
 which bears the same name. It is the same as 
 the Ursa Minor, Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 107. 
 
 Cynthia, a surname of Diana, from mount 
 Cynlhus, where she was born. 
 
 CYNTmus, a surname of Apollo, from mount 
 Cynthus, 
 
 Cyparissus, a youth, son of Telephus of Cea, 
 beloved by Apollo, He killed a favourite stag 
 of Apollo, for which he was so sorry that he 
 pined away and was changed by the god into 
 a cypress tree, Virg. JSn. 3, v. 680. — Ovid. 
 Met 10, V. 121, 
 
 Cyrene, the daughter of the river Peneus, 
 of whom Apollo became enamoured. He car- 
 ried her to that part of Africa which is called 
 Cyrenaica, where she brought forth Aristseus. 
 She is called by some daughter of Hypseus, 
 king of the Lapiihae, and son of the Peneus. 
 Virg. G. 4, V. 321. — Justin. 13, c, 7, — Pindar. 
 Pyth. 9. Vid. Part I. 
 
 CYTHER.EA, a sumamc of Venus. 
 
 Cyzicus, a son of CEneus and Stilba, who 
 reigned in Cyzicus. Vid. Argonautce. Apollod. 1, 
 c. 9. — Place. — Apollon. — Orpheus. Vid. Part I. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dagtyli, a name given to the priests of Cy- 
 bele, which some derives fxoxn 6aKTv\oi^ finger, 
 because they were ten, the same number as the 
 fingers of the hand. Paus. 1, c. 8, 
 
 D^DALioN, a son of Lucifer, brother to Ceyx 
 and father of Philonis. He was so afflicted at 
 the death of Philonis, whom Diana had put to 
 death, that he threw himself down from the top 
 of mount Parnassus, and was changed into a 
 falcon by Apollo. Ovid. Met. 11, v. 295. 
 
 Djsdalus, an Athenian, son of Eupalamus, 
 descended from Erechtheus, king of Athens, 
 He was the most ingenious artist of his age, 
 and to him we are indebted for the invention 
 of the wedge, the axe, the wimble, the level, 
 and many other mechanical instruments, and 
 the sails of ships. He made statues which 
 moved of themselves, and seemed to be endow- 
 ed with life. Talus, his sister's son, promised 
 to be as great as himself, by the ingenuity of his 
 inventions; and therefore, from envy, he threw 
 him down from a window and killed him. Af- 
 ter the murder of this youth, Daedalus, with his 
 son Icarus, fled from Athens to Crete, where 
 Minos, king of the country, gave him a cordial 
 reception. Daedalus made a famous labyrinth 
 for Minos, and assisted Pasiphae, the queen, to 
 gratify her unnatural passion for a bull. For 
 this action Daedalus incurred the displeasure 
 of Minos, who ordered him to be confined in 
 the labyrinth which he had constructed. Here 
 he made himself wings with feathers and wax, 
 and carefully fitted them to his body, and to 
 that of his son, who was the companion of his 
 confinement. They took their flight in the air 
 from Crete ; but the heat of the sun melted the 
 wax on the wings of Icarus, whose flight was 
 too high, and he fell into that part of the ocean 
 which from him has been called the Icarian Sea. 
 The father, by a proper management of his 
 wings, alighted at Cumae, where he built a tem- 
 ple to Apollo, and thence directed his course 
 to Sicily, where he was kindly received by Co- 
 calus, who reigned over part of the country. 
 He left many monuments of his ingenuity in 
 "701 
 
DA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 DA 
 
 Sicily, which still existed in the age of Diodorus 
 Siculus. He was despatched by Cocalus, who 
 was afraid of the power of Minos, who had de- 
 clared war against him because he had given 
 an asylum to Daedalus. The flight of Daedalus 
 from Crete, with wings, is explained by observ- 
 ing that he was the inventor of sails, which in 
 his age might pass at a distance for wings. 
 Pans. 1, 7 din&d.—Diod. 4.— Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 
 3. Heroid. 4. De Art. Am. 2. Trist. 3, el. 4.— 
 Hygin. fab. 40. — Virg. Mn. 6, v. 14. — Apollod. 
 3, c. 1, &c.— Hero dot. 1, c. 170. 
 
 Damasistratus, a king of Plaeta, who buried 
 Laius. Apollod. 3, c. 5. 
 
 Damia, a surname of Cybele. 
 
 Danace, the name of the piece of money 
 which Charon required to convey the dead over 
 the Styx. Suidas. 
 
 Danae, 1. the daughter of Acrisius, king of 
 Argos, by Eurydice. She was confined in a 
 brazen tower by her father, who had been told 
 by an oracle that' his daughter's son would put 
 him to death. His endeavours to prevent Danae 
 •from becoming a mother proved fruitless; and 
 Jupiter, who was enamoured of her, introduced 
 himself to her bed by changing himself into a 
 golden shower. From his embraces Danae had 
 a son, with whom she was exposed on the sea 
 by her father. The wind drove the bark which 
 carried her to the coasts of the island of Seri- 
 phus, where she was saved by some fishermen, 
 and carried to Polydectes, king of the place, 
 whose brother, called Dictys, educated the child, 
 called Perseus, and tenderly treated the mother. 
 Polydectes fell in love with her ; but as he was 
 afraid of her son, he sent him to conquer the 
 Gorgons, pretending that he wished Medusa's 
 head to adorn the nupiials which he was going 
 to celebrate with Hippodamia, the daughter of 
 CEnomaus. When Perseus had victoriously 
 finished his expedition, he retired to Argos with 
 Danae, to the house of Acrisius, whom he inad- 
 vertently killed. Some suppose that it was Prce- 
 tus, the brother of Acrisius, who introduced 
 himself to Danae in the brazen tower ; and in- 
 stead of a golden shower, it was maintained 
 that the keepers of Danae were bribed by the 
 gold of her seducer. Virgil mentions that 
 Danae came to Italy with some fugitives of 
 Argos, and that she founded a city called Ardea. 
 Ovid. Met. 4, v. 611. Art. Am. 3, v. 415. Amor. 
 2, el. 19,v.'21. —Horat. 3, od. l6.—Ho7ner. 11. 14, 
 V. 319.— Apollod. 2, C.2 and 4..— Stat. Theb. 1, v. 
 
 2bb.— Virg. JEn. 7, v. 410. II. A daughter 
 
 of Danaus, to whom Neptune offered violence. 
 
 Danaides, the fifty daughters of Danaus king 
 of Argos. When their uncle ^gyptus came 
 from Egypt with his fifty sons, they were pro- 
 mised in marriage to their cousins ; but before 
 the celebration of their nuptials, Danaus, who 
 had been informed by an oracle that he was to 
 be killed by the hands of one of his sons-in-law, 
 made his daughters solemnly promise that they 
 would destroy their husbands. They were 
 provided with daggers by their father, and all, 
 except Hypermnestra, stained their hands with 
 the blood of their cousins the first night of 
 their nuptials; and as a pledge of their obe- 
 dience to their father's injunctions, they pre- 
 sented him each with the head of the murdered 
 sons of ^gyptus. Hypermnestra was sum- 
 moned to appear before her father, and answer 
 702 
 
 for her disobedience in suffering her husband, 
 L)mceus, to escape ; but the unanimous voice 
 of the people declared her innocent, and in 
 consequence of her honourable acquittal, she 
 dedicated a temple to the goddess of Persuasion. 
 The sisters were purified of this murder by 
 Mercury and Minerva, by order of Jupiter : but 
 according to the more received opinion, they 
 were condemned to severe punishment in hell, 
 and were compelled to fill with water a vessel 
 full of holes, so that the water ran out as soon 
 as poured into it, and therefore their labour was 
 infinite and their punishment eternal. The 
 heads of the sons of JEgyptus were buried at 
 Argos ; but their bodies were left at Lerna, 
 where the murder had been committed. Apol- 
 lod. 2, c. 1.— ^o'm^.3,od. II.— Strab. 8.— Pans. 
 2, c. 16.— Hygin. fab. 168, &c. 
 
 Danaus, a son of Belus and Anchinoe, who, 
 after his father's death, reigned conjointly with 
 his brother iEgyptus on the throne of Egypt. 
 Some time after, a difference arose between the 
 brothers, and Danaus set sail with his fifty 
 daughters in quest of a settlement. He visited 
 Rhodes, where he jconsecrated a statue to Mi- 
 nerva, and arrived safe on the coast of Pelopon- 
 nesus, w^here he was hospitably received by 
 Gelanor, king of Argos. Gelanor had lately 
 ascended the throne, and the first years of his 
 reign were marked with dissensions with his 
 subjects. Danaus took advantage of Gelanor's 
 unpopularity, and obliged him to abdicate the 
 crown. In Gelanor, the race of the Inachidce. 
 was extinguished, and in Danaus the Belides 
 began to reign at Argos. Some authors say 
 that Gelanor voluntarily resigned the crown to 
 Danaus, on account of the wrath of Neptune 
 who had dried up all the waters of Argolis to 
 punish the impiety of Inachus. The success 
 of Danaus invited the fifty sons of vEgyptus 
 to embark for Greece. They were kindly re- 
 ceived by their uncle, who, either apprehensive 
 of their number, or terrified by an oracle which 
 threatened his ruin by one of his sons-in-law, 
 caused his daughters, to whom they were prom- 
 ised in marriage, to murder them the first night 
 of their nuptials. His fatal orders were exe- 
 cuted, but Hypermnestra alone spared the life 
 of Lynceus. Vid. Danaides. Danaus at first 
 persecuted Lynceus with unremitted fury, but 
 he was afterwards reconciled to him, and he 
 acknowledged him for his son-in-law and suc- 
 cessor, after a reign of 50 years. He died 
 about 1425 years before the Christian era, and 
 after death he was honoured with a splendid 
 monument in the town of Argos, which still 
 existed in the age of Pausanias. According to 
 JEschylus, Danaus left Egypt not to be present 
 at the marriage of his daughters with the sons 
 of his brother, a connexion which he deemed 
 unlawful and impious. The ship in which Da- 
 naus came to Greece was called Armais, and 
 was the first that had ever appeared there. It 
 is said that the use of pumps was first introduced 
 into Greece by Danaus. Apollod. 2, c. 1. — Pqus. 
 2, c, 19. — Hygin. fab. 168, &c. — Herodot. 2, c, 
 91, &c. 7, c.'94. 
 
 Daphne, I. a daughter of the river Peneus, or 
 of the Ladon, by the goddess Terra, of whom 
 Apollo became enamoured. This passion had 
 been raised by Cupid, with whom Apollo, proud 
 of his late conquest over the serpent Python, 
 
DA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 DB 
 
 had disputed the power of his darts. Daphne 
 heard with horror the addresses of the god, and 
 endeavoured to remove herself from his impor- 
 tunities by flight. Apollo pursued her; and 
 Daphne, fearful of being caught, entreated the 
 assistance of the gods, who changed her into a 
 laurel. Apollo crowned his head with the leaves 
 of the laurel, and for ever ordered that that tree 
 should be sacred to his divinity. Some say that 
 Daphne was admired by Leucippus, son of 
 CEnomaus, king of Pisa, who, to be in her com- 
 pany, disguised his sex, and attended her in 
 the woods in the habit of a huntress. Leucippus 
 gained Daphne's esteem and love ; but Apollo, 
 who was his powerful rival, discovered his sex, 
 and Leucippus was killed by the companions of 
 Diana. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 452, &c. — Parthen. 
 Erotic, c. 15. — Paus. 8, c. 20. II. A daugh- 
 ter of Tiresias, priestess in the temple of Del- 
 phi, supposed by some to be the same as Manto, 
 She was consecrated to the service of Apollo 
 by the Epigoni, or, according to others, by the 
 goddess Tellus. She was called Sibyl, on ac- 
 count of the wildness of her looks and expres- 
 sions when she delivered oracles. Her oracles 
 were generally in verse, and Homer, according 
 to some accounts, has introduced much of her 
 poetry in his compositions. Diod. 4. — Paus. 
 10, C..5. 
 
 Daphnis, a shepherd of Sicily, son of Mer- 
 cury by a Sicilian nymph. He was educated by 
 the nymphs. Pan taught him to sing and play 
 upon the pipe, and the muses inspired him with 
 the love of poetry. It is supposed he was the 
 first who wrote pastoral poetry, in which his 
 successor Theocritus so happily excelled. He 
 was extremely fond of hunting; and at his 
 death, five of his dogs, from their attachment 
 to him, refused all aliments and pined away. 
 From the celebrity of this shepherd, the name 
 of Daphnis has been appropriated by the poets, 
 ancient and modern, to express a person fond 
 of rural employments, and of the peaceful in- 
 nocence which accompanies the tending of 
 flocks. jElian. V. H. 10, c. IS.— Diod. 4. 
 
 Dardanus, a son of Jupiter and Electra, who 
 killed his broiher Jasius to obtain the kingdom 
 of Etruria after the death of his reputed father 
 Corytus, and fled to Samothrace, and thence to 
 Asia Minor, where he married Batia,the daugh- 
 ter of Teucer, king of Teucria. After the 
 death of his father-in-law he ascended the 
 throne, and reigned 62 years. He built the city 
 of Dardania, and was reckoned the founder of 
 the kingdom of Troy. He was succeeded by 
 Erichthonius. According to some, Corybas, his 
 nephew, accompanied him to Teucria, where 
 he introduced the worship of Cybele. Darda- 
 nus taught his subjects to worship Minerva ; 
 and he gave them two statues of the goddess, 
 one of which is well known by the name of 
 Palladium. . Virg. Mn. 3, v. l&l.—Paus. 7, c. 
 4. — Hys^in. fab. 155 and 275. — Afollod. 3. — 
 Homer^ll. 20. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Daulis, a nymph from whom the city of 
 Daulis in Phocis, anciently called Anacris, re- 
 ceived its name. It was there that Philomela 
 and Procne made Tereus eat the flesh of his 
 son ; and hence the nightingale, into which 
 Philomela was changed, is often called Daulias 
 avis. Ovid. ep. 15, v. 154. — Strab. 9. — Paus. 10, 
 €. 4.—Ptol. 3, c. 15.— Lw. 32, c. IS.— Plin. 4, c. 3. 
 
 Daunus, a son of Pilumnus and Danae. He 
 came from Illyricum into Apulia, where he 
 reigned over part of the country, which from 
 him was called Daunia, and he was still on the 
 throne when Diomedes came to Italy. Ptol. 3, 
 c. I.— Mela, 2, c. 4.— Strab. 5. 
 
 Decelus, a man who informed Castor and 
 Pollux that their sister, whom Theseus had 
 carried away, was concealed at Aphidnae. 
 Herodot. 9, c. 73. 
 
 Dejanira, a daughter of CEneus, king of 
 ^tolia. Her beauty procured her many ad- 
 mirers, and her father promised to give her in 
 marriage to him only who proved to be the 
 strongest of his competitors. Hercules obtain- 
 ed the prize, and married Dejanira, by whom 
 he had three children, the most known of whom 
 is Hyllus. As Dejanira was once travelling 
 with her husband, they were stopped by the 
 swollen streams of the Even us, and the centaur 
 Nessus, offered Hercules to convey her safe to 
 the opposite shore. The hero consented ; but 
 no sooner had Nessus gained the bank, than he 
 attempted to offer violence to Dejanira, and to 
 carry her away in the sight of her husband. 
 Hercules, upon this,aimed, from the other shore, 
 a poisoned arrow at the seducer, and mortally 
 wounded him. Nessus, as he expired, wished 
 to avenge his death upon his murderer ; and 
 he gave Dejanira his tunic, which was covered 
 with blood, poisoned and infected by the arrow, 
 observing, that it had the power of reclaiming 
 a husband from unlawful loves. Dejanira ac- 
 cepted the present ; and when Hercules proved 
 faithless to her bed, she sent him the centaur's 
 tunic, which instantly caused his death. Vid. 
 Hercules. Dejanira was so disconsolate at the 
 death of her husband, which she had ignorantly 
 occasioned, that she destroyed herself. Ovid. 
 Met. 8 and 9. — Diod. 4, — Senec. in Hercul. — 
 Hygin. fab. 34. 
 
 Deidamia, I. a daughter of Lycomedes, king 
 of Scyros, She bore a son called Pyrrhus, or 
 Neoptolemus, to Achilles, who was disguised at 
 her father's court in women's clothes, under the 
 name of Pyrra. Propert. 2, el. 9. — Apollod. 3. 
 
 c. 13. II. A daughter of Adrastus, king of 
 
 Argos, called also Hippodamia. 
 
 Deimachus, a son of Neleus and Chloris, was 
 killed, with all his brothers, except Nestor, by 
 Hercules. Apollod. 1, c. 9. 
 
 Deioneus, a king of Phocis, who married 
 Diomede, daughter of Xuthus, by whom he had 
 Dia. He gave his daughter Dia in marriage to 
 Ixion, who promised to make a present to his 
 father-in-law. Deioneus accordingly visited the 
 house of Ixion, and was thrown into a large 
 hole, filled with burning coals, by his son-in- 
 law. Hygin. fab. 48 and 241. — Apollod. 1, c. 
 7 and 9,1 2, c. 4. 
 
 Deiopeia, a nymph, the fairest of all the four- 
 teen nymphs that attended upon Juno. The 
 goddess promised her in marriage to ^olus, 
 the god of the winds, if he would destroy the 
 fleet of iEneas, which was sailing for Italy 
 Virg. jEn. 1 , v. 75. 
 
 Deiphobe, a Sibyl of Cum3e,daughter of Glau- 
 cus. It is supposed that she led ^Eneas to the in- 
 fernal regions. Vid. Sibylla. Virg. JEn.6,Y.36. 
 
 Deiphobus, a son of Hippolytus, who purified 
 Hercules after the murder of Iphitus. Apollod, 
 2, c. 6. Vid. Part IL 
 
 703 
 
DE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY, 
 
 DE 
 
 Deiphon, a brother of Triptolemus, son of 
 Celeus and Metanira. When Ceres travelled 
 over the world, she stopped at his father's court, 
 and undertook to nurse him and bring him up. 
 To reward the hospitality of Celeus, the goddess 
 began to make his son immortal, and every 
 evening she placed him upon burning coals to 
 purify him from whatever mortal particles he 
 still possessed. The uncommon growth of 
 Deiphon astonished Metanira, who wished to 
 see what Ceres did to make him so vigorous. 
 She was frightened to see her son on burning 
 coals, and the shrieks that she uttered disturbed 
 the mysterious operations of the goddess, and 
 Deiphon perished in the flames, Apollod. 1, c. 5. 
 
 Deipyle, a daughter of Adrastus, who mar- 
 ried Tydeus, by whom she had Diomedes. 
 Apollod. 1, c. 8. 
 
 Delia, a surname of Diana, because she w^as 
 born in Delos. Virg. EcL 3, v. 67. 
 
 Delius, a surname of Apollo, because he was 
 born in Delos. 
 
 DsLPmcus, a surname of Apollo, from the 
 worship paid to his divinity at Delphi. 
 
 Delphus, a son of Apollo, who built Delphi, 
 and consecrated it to his father. The name of 
 his mother is differently mentioned. She is 
 called by some, Celeeno, by others, Meleene, 
 daughter of Cephis, and by others Thyas, 
 daughter of Cast alius, the first Vv^ho was priest- 
 ess to Bacchus. Hygin. 161. — Pmts. 10, c. 6. 
 
 Democoon. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Demodice, the wife of Cretheus, king of lol- 
 chos. Some call her Biadice, or Tyro. Hygin. 
 P. A. 2, c. 20. 
 
 Demodochus, a musician at the court of Alci- 
 nous, who sang, in the presence of Ulysses, the 
 secret amours of Mars and Venus, &c. Homer. 
 Od. 8, V. Ai.—Plut. de Mus. 
 
 Demophile, a name given. to the Sibyl of 
 Cumge, who, as it is supposed by some, sold the 
 Sibylline books to Tarquin. Varro apud Lact. 
 1, c. 6. 
 
 Demophoon, son of Theseus and Phaedra, 
 was king of Athens, B. C. 1182, and reigned 
 33 years. At his return from the Trojan war 
 he visited Thrace, where he was tenderly re- 
 ceived and treated by Phyllis. He retired to 
 Athens, and forgot the kindness and love of 
 Phyllis, who hanged herself in despair. Ovid. 
 Heroid. 2. — Paus. 10, c. 55. 
 
 Deois, a name given to Proserpine from her 
 mother Ceres, who was called Deo. This 
 name Ceres received, because when she sought 
 her daughter all over the world, all wished her 
 success in her pursuits, with the word J>7£(?, in- 
 venies ; a (5??w, invenio. Ovid. Met. 6, v. 114. 
 
 Derceto, and Dercetis, a goddess of Syria, 
 called also Atergatis, whom some suppose to be 
 the same as Astarte. She was represented as a 
 beautiful woman above the waist, and the lower 
 part terminated in a fish's tail. According to 
 Diodorns, Venus, whom she had offended, made 
 her passionately fond of a young priest, remark- 
 able for the beauty of his features. She had a 
 daughter by him, and became so ashamed of her 
 incontinence, that she removed her lover,expos- 
 ed thefruit of her amour, and threw herself into 
 a lake. Her body was transformed into a fish, 
 and her child was preserved and called Semira- 
 mis. As she was chiefly worshipped in Syria, 
 and represented like a fish, the Syrians ancient- 
 704 
 
 ly abstained from fishes. Those who believe 
 they can find in the sacred writings the arche- 
 type of all mythology, consider this Decerto to 
 be a personification of the lunar ark, and the 
 continual reference to aquatic animals as proof 
 of an analogy too strong for mere coincidence. 
 Fab. Cab. — Lucian. de Dea Ser. — Plin. 5, c. 
 13.— Ovid. Met. 4, v. ii.—Diod. 2. 
 
 Deucalion, a son of Prometheus, who mar- 
 ried Pyrrha, the daughter of Epimetheus. He 
 reigned over part of Thessaly, and in his age 
 the whole earth was overwhelmed with a deluge, 
 Theimpiety of mankind had irritated Jupiter, 
 who resolved to destroy mankind. Prometheus 
 advised his son to make himself a ship, and by 
 thismeans he saved himself and his wifePyrrha. 
 This vessel was tossed about during nine suc- 
 cessive days, and at last stopped on the top of 
 mount Parnassus, where Deucalion remained 
 till the waters had subsided. As soon as the 
 waters had retired from the surface of the earth, 
 Deucalion and his wife went to consult the ora- 
 cle of Themis, and were directed to repair the 
 loss of mankind by throwing behind them the 
 bones of their grandmother. This was nothing 
 but the stones of the earth ; and, after some hesi- 
 tation about the meaning of the oracle, they 
 obeyed. The stones thrown by Deucalion be- 
 came men, and those of Pyrrha, women. Ac- 
 cording to Justin, Deucalian was not the only 
 one who escaped from the universal calamity. 
 Many saved their lives by ascending the high- 
 est mountains, or trusting themselves in small 
 vessels to the mercy of the waters. This de- 
 luge, which chiefly happened in Thessaly, ac- 
 cording to the relation of some writers, was pro- 
 duced by the inundation of the waters of the 
 river Peneus, whose regular course w^as stopped 
 by an earthquake near mount Ossa and Olym- 
 pus. According to Xenophon there were no 
 less than five deluges. The first happened un- 
 der Ogyges, and lasted three months. The se- 
 cond, which was in the age of Hercules and 
 Prometheus, continued but one month. During 
 the third, which happened in the reign of ano- 
 ther Ogyges, all Attica was laid waste by the 
 waters. Thessaly was totallj'' covered by the 
 waters during the fourth, which happened in 
 the age of Deucalion. The last was during the 
 Trojan war, and its effects were severely felt by 
 the inhabitants of Egypt. There prevailed a 
 report in Attica, that the waters of Deucalion's 
 deluge had disappeared through a small aper- 
 ture, about a cubit wide, near Jupiter Olympus's 
 temple; and Pausanias, who saw it, further 
 adds, that a yearly offering of flour and honey 
 was thrown into it with religious ceremony. 
 The deluge of Deucalion, so much celebrated 
 in ancient history is supposed to have happened 
 1503 years B. C. Deucalion had two sons by 
 Pyrrha, Hellen, called by some son of Jupiter, 
 and Amphictyon, king of Attica, and also a 
 daughter, Protogenea, who became mother of 
 ^thlius by Jupiter. The history of Deucalion, 
 his birthplace, his adventures, and his name, 
 have formed the subject of much learned ar- 
 gument. Some conduct him from the Pelopon- 
 nesus into Thessaly, whence they send forth 
 his children to colonize the regions which have 
 since become classic ; others, with abundant 
 evidence, trace his march into Europe from 
 Asia, and infer the Caucasian origin of the Eu- 
 
DI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 DI 
 
 ropean Greeks from the emigration of this no- 
 torious personage. Etymology establishes his 
 connection with the mysteries of the early 
 Arkite superstitions, and analogy converts him 
 into the great Jewish patriarch. In such con- 
 fusion it cannot be unsafe to consider Deucalion 
 as a mythological personage, and to suspect that 
 his descendants, Dorus, JEoIus, &c., are later 
 names than Doris and jEolia. The flood, how- 
 ever, which is said in his time to have desolated 
 Thessaly, may serve, by the aid of geologfcal 
 investigations, in fixing the period of the early 
 populating of Greece ; and was, perhaps, among 
 the last of those great catastrophes which form, 
 as it were, eras in the geological revolutions of 
 the earth. The opinions, of Banier and Malte 
 Brun, though not altogether in accordance, are 
 both highly worthy of consideration. The 
 former supposes that about 884 years after the 
 "universal deluge, in consequence of an earth- 
 quake in those parts, the Peneus became ob- 
 structed at its mouth, and its waters, being 
 greatly increased by rains that had fallen be- 
 fore, the country on its banks (according to 
 Aristotle, the region of Dodona and of the Ache- 
 lous) was inundated. The latter attributes the 
 natural appearance of those regions to the shift- 
 ing nature of the soil, which exposes it to con- 
 tinual changes on the surface, in consequence 
 of its tendency to sink. Find. 9, Olymp. — Ovid. 
 Mel. 1, fab. S.—Heroid. 45, v. \&l.—Apollod. 1, 
 c. 7. — Pans. 1, c. 10, 1. 5, c. S.—Juv. 1, v. 81. — 
 Hygin. fab. 153. — Justin. 2, c. 6. — Diod. 5. — 
 Lucian. de Dea Syria. 
 
 DiA, a daughter of Deion, mother of Pirithous 
 by Ixion. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Diana, was the goddess of hunting. A.ccord- 
 ing to Cicero, there were three of this name : a 
 daughter of Jupiter and Proserpine, who be- 
 came mother of Cupid; a daughter of Jupiter 
 and Latona ; and a daughter of Upis and Glauce. 
 The second is the most celebrated, and to her 
 all the ancients allude. She was born at the 
 same birth els Apollo ; and she obtained from 
 her father the permission to live in perpetual ce- 
 libacy, and to preside over the travails of wo- 
 men. To shun the society of men, she devoted 
 herself to hunting, and obtained the permission 
 of Jupiter to have for her attendants 60 of the 
 Oceanides, and 20 other nymphs, all of whom, 
 like herself, abjured the use of marriage. She 
 IS represented with a bent bow and quiver, and 
 attended with dogs, and sometimes drawn in a 
 chariot by two white stags. Sometimes she ap- 
 pears with wings, holding a lion in one hand 
 and a panther in the other, with a chariot drawn 
 by two heifers, or two horses of different col- 
 ours. She is represented taller by the head 
 than her attendant nymphs, her face has some- 
 thing manly, her legs are bare, well shaped and 
 .strong, and her feet are covered with a buskin, 
 worn by huntresses among the ancients. Diana 
 received many surnames, particularly from the 
 places where her worship was established, and 
 from the functions over which she presided. 
 She was called Lucina, Ilythia, or Juno Pronu- 
 ba, when invoked by women in childbed; and 
 Trivia when worshipped in the cross-ways, 
 where her statues were generally erected. She 
 was supposed to be the same as the moon, and 
 Proserpine or Hecate, and from that circum- 
 stance she was called Triformis; and some of 
 
 Part III.— 4U 
 
 her statues represented her with three heads, 
 that of a horse, a dog, and a boar. Her power 
 and functions under these three characters have 
 been beautifully expressed in these two verses 
 
 Terret, lustrat, agit, Proserpina, Jjuna^Diana 
 Ima, suprema, feras, sceptro, fulgore, sagittd 
 
 She was also called Agrotera, Orthia, Tau- 
 rica, Delia, Cynthia, Aricia, &c. She was sup 
 posed to be the same as the Isis of the Egyp- 
 tians, whose worship was introduced into 
 Greece with that of Osiris, under the name of 
 Apollo. When Typhon waged war against the 
 gods, Diana is said to have metamorphosed 
 herself into a cat, to avoid his fury. The god- 
 dess is generally known in the figures that re- 
 present her by the crescent on her head, by the 
 dogs which attend her, and by her hunting ha- 
 bit. The most famous of her temples was that 
 of Ephesus, which was one of the seven won- 
 ders of the world. Vid. Ephesus. She was 
 there represented with a great number of breasts, 
 and other symbols, which signified the earth or 
 Cybele. The inhabitants of Taurica were par- 
 ticularly attached to the worship of this god- 
 dess, and they cruelly ofiered on her altar all 
 the strangers that were shipwrecked on their 
 coasts. Her temple in Aricia was served by a 
 priest who had always murdered his predeces- 
 sor, and the Lacedeemonians yearly offered her 
 human victims till the age of Lycurgus, who 
 changed this barbarous custom* for the sacrifice 
 of flagellation. The Athenians generally offer- 
 ed her goats, and others a white kid, and some- 
 times a boar pig, or an ox. Among plants the 
 poppy and the ditamy were sacred to her. She, 
 as well as her brother Apollo, had some oracles, 
 among which those of Egypt, Cilicia, and Ephe- 
 sus, are the most known. Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 155. 
 Met.3, V. 156, 1. 7, v. 94 and 194, &c.—Cic. de 
 Nat. D. 3.—Horat. 3, od. 22.— Virg. G. 3, v. 
 302. Mn. 1, V. b()b.— Homer. Od. b.—Paus. 8, 
 c. 31 and 31.—CatuU.—Stat. 3, Silv. 1, v. 57.— 
 Apollod. 1, c. 4, &c,, 1. 3, c. 5, &c. 
 
 DicTYNNA, a nymph of Crete, who first in- 
 vented hunting nets. She was one of Diana's 
 attendants, and for that reason the goddess is 
 often called Dictynnia. There was a festival 
 at Sparta in honour of Diana, called Dictynnia. 
 She is said to have given name to mount Dicte. 
 Pans. 2, c. 30, 1. 3, c. 12. 
 
 DicTYs, a king of the island of Seriphus, 
 son of Magnes and Nais. He married the 
 nymph Clyraene, and was made king of Seri- 
 phus by Perseus, who deposed Polydectes, be- 
 cause lie behaved with wantonness to Danae. 
 Vid. Polydectes. Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 2, c. 4. 
 Vid. Part" II. 
 
 DiDYMiEus, a surname of Apollo. 
 
 DiESPiTER, a surname of Jupiter, as being 
 the father of light. 
 
 Dn, the divinities of the ancient inhabitants 
 of the earth were very numerous. They were 
 endowed with understanding, and were actuat- 
 ed by the same passions which daily afflict the 
 human race ; and those children of superstition 
 were appeased or provoked as the imperfect be- 
 ing which gave them birth. Their wrath was 
 mitigated by sacrifices and incense ; and some- 
 time.^ human victims bled to expiate a crime 
 which superstiMon alone supposed to exist. The 
 sun, from its powerful influence and animating 
 705 
 
DI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 DO 
 
 nature, first attracted the notice and claimed the 
 adoration of the uncivilized inhabitants of the 
 earth. The moon also was honoured with sacri- 
 fices and addressed in prayers ; and after im- 
 mortality had been liberally bestowed on all the 
 heavenly bodies, mankind classed among their 
 deities the brute creation, and the cat and the 
 sow shared equally with Jupiter himself, the 
 father of gods and men, the devout veneration 
 of their votaries. This immense number of 
 deities have been divided into different classes, 
 according to the will and pleasure of the my- 
 thologists. The Romans, generally speaking, 
 reckoned two classes of the gods, the dii ma- 
 jorum gentium, or dii consulenteSy and the dii 
 minorum gentium. The former were twelve 
 in number, six males and six females. Vid. 
 Consentes. In the class of the latter were ranked 
 all the gods who were worshipped in different 
 parts of the earth. Besides these, there were 
 some called dii selecti, sometimes classed with 
 the twelve greater gods ; these were Janus, Sa- 
 turn, the Genius, the Moon, Pluto, and Bac- 
 chus. There were also some called demi-gods, 
 that is, who deserved immortality by the great- 
 ness of their exploits, and for their uncommon 
 services to mankind. Among these were Pri- 
 apus, Vertumnus, Hercules, and those whose 
 parents were some of the immortal gods. Be- 
 sides these, there were some called topici, 
 whose worship was established at particular 
 places, such as Isis in Egypt, Astarte in Syria, 
 Uranus at Carthage, &c. In process of time, 
 also, all the passions and the moral virtues were 
 reckoned as powerful deities ; and temples were 
 raised to a goddess of concord, peace, &c. Ac- 
 cording to the authority of Hesiod, there were 
 no less than 30,000 gods that inhabited the 
 earth, and were guardians of men, all sub- 
 servient to the power of Jupiter. To these 
 succeeding ages have added an almost equal 
 number ; and indeed they were so numerous, 
 and their functions so various, that we find 
 temples erected and sacrifices offered to un- 
 known gods. It is observable, that all the 
 gods of the ancients have lived upon earth as 
 mere mortals ; and even Jupiter, who was 
 the ruler of heaven is represented by the my- 
 Ihologists as a helpless child ; and we are 
 acquainted with all the particulars that attend- 
 ed the birth and education of Juno. In pro- 
 cess of time, not only good and virtuous men, 
 •who had been the patrons of learning and the 
 supporters of liberty, but also thieves and pirates, 
 were admitted among the gods; and the Roman 
 senate courteously granted immortality to the 
 most cruel and abandoned of their emperors. 
 
 DiOGENiA, a daughter of the Cephisus, who 
 married Erechtheus. Apollod. 
 
 DioMEDEs, a king of Thrace, son of Mars 
 and Gyrene, who fed his horses with human 
 flesh. It was one of the labours of Hercules to 
 destroy him ; and accordingly the hero, attended 
 with some of his friends, attacked the inhuman 
 tyrant, and gave him to be devoured by his own 
 horses whom he had fed so barbarously. Diod. 
 4—Paus. 3. c. 18— Apol. % c. 5. Vid. Part II. 
 
 DioN^A, a surname of Venus, supposed to 
 be the daughter of Jupiter and Dione. 
 
 DioNE, a nymph, daughter of Nereus and 
 Doris. She was mother of Venus, by Jupiter, 
 according to Homer and others. Hesiod, how- 
 706 
 
 ever gives Venus a different origin. Venus is 
 herself sometimes called Dione. Virg. 3, Mn. 
 V. Vd.— Homer. 11. 5,v. 381.— .Stei.l, Sylv.\ v.86. 
 
 DioNYsius, a surname of Bacchus. 
 
 Dioscuri, or sons of Jupiter, a name given 
 to Castor and Pollux. There were festivals in 
 their honour, called Dioscuria, celebrated by 
 the people of Corcyra, and chiefly by the La- 
 cedaemonians. They were observed with much 
 jovial festivity. The people made a free use of 
 the gifts of Bacchus, and diverted themselves 
 with sports, of which wrestling matches always 
 made a part. 
 
 DiRjE, the daughters of Acheron and Nox, 
 who persecuted the souls of the guilty. They 
 are the same as the Furies, and some suppose 
 that they are called Furies in hell, Harpies on 
 earth, and Dirse in heaven. They were rep- 
 resented as standing near the throne of Jupiter, 
 in an attitude which expressed their eagerness 
 to receive his orders, and the power of torment- 
 ing the guilty on earth with the most excrucia- 
 ting punishments. Vir. Ailn. 4, v. 473, i. 8, v. 701. 
 
 Dirge. Vid. Amphion, Aviiope. 
 
 DiRPHYA, a surname of Juno, from Dirphya, 
 a mountain of Boeotia, where the goddess had 
 a temple. 
 
 Dis, a god of the Gauls, the same as Pluto 
 the god of hell. The inhabitants of Gaul sup- 
 posed themselves descended from that deity. 
 CcBS. Bell. G. 6.— Tacit. 4, Hist. c. 84, 
 
 DiscoRDiA, a malevolent deity, daughter of 
 Nox, and sister to Nemesis, the Parcse, and 
 Death. She was driven from heaven by Ju- 
 piter, because she sowed dissensions among the 
 gods, and was the cause of continued quarrels. 
 When the nuptials of Peleus and Thetis were 
 celebrated, the goddess of discord was not in- 
 vited, and this seeming neglect so irritated her, 
 that she threw an apple into the midst of the 
 assembly of the gods with the inscription of 
 detur pulchriori. This apple was the cause of 
 the ruin of Troy, and of infinite misfortunes to 
 the Greeks. Vid. Paris. She is represented 
 with a pale ghastly look, her garment is torn, 
 her eyes sparkle with fire, and in her bosom 
 she holds a dagger concealed. Her head is 
 generally entwined with serpents, and she is 
 attended by Bellona. She is supposed to be the 
 cause of all the dissensions, murders, wars, and 
 quarrels, which arise upon earth, public as well 
 as private. Virg. jEn. 8, v, 702. — Hesiod. 
 Theogn. 225. — Petronius. 
 
 DiTHYRAMBUs, a sumamc of Bacchus, whence 
 the hymns sung in his honour were called 
 Dithyrambics. Horat. 4, od. 2. 
 
 Divi, a name chiefly appropriated to those 
 who were made gods after death, such as heroes 
 and warriors, or the Lares and Penaies, and 
 other domestic gods. 
 
 DoDONA. Vid. Part I 
 
 DoLON, a Trojan, son of Eumedes, famous 
 for his swiftness. Being sent by Hector to spy 
 the Grecian camp by night, he was seized by 
 Diomedes and Ulysses, to whom he revealed 
 the situation, schemes, and resolutions of his 
 countrymen, with the hopes of escaping with 
 his life. He was put to death by Diomedes as 
 a traitor. Homer. II. 10, v. 3U.— Virg. jEn. 12. 
 V. 349, &c. 
 
 DoMiDucus, a god who presided over mar- 
 riage. Juno also was called Domiduca, from 
 
DR 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 EC 
 
 the power she was supposed to have in mar- 
 riages. 
 
 Doris, a goddess of the sea, daughter of 
 Oceanus and Tethys. She married her brother 
 Nereus, by whom she had 50 daughters called 
 Nereides. Her name is often used to express 
 the sea itself. Propert. 1, el. 17, v. 25. — Virg. 
 Ed. 10.— Hesiod. Theog. 240. 
 
 DoRUS. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Drances, a friend of Latinus, remarkable 
 for his weakness and eloquence. He showed 
 himself an obstinate opponent to the violent 
 measures which Turnus pursued against the 
 Trojans. Some have imagined that the poet 
 wished to delineate the character and the elo- 
 quence of Cicero under this name. Virg. Jin. 
 11, V. 122. 
 
 Drom^us, a suroame of Apollo in Crete. 
 
 DRUiDiE, the ministers of religion among the 
 ancient Gauls and Britons. They were divided 
 into different classes, called the Bardi, Eubages, 
 the Vates, the Semnothei, the Sarronides, and 
 the Samothei. They were held in the greatest 
 veneration by the people. Their life was aus- 
 tere and recluse from the world ; their dress 
 was peculiar to themselves, and they generally 
 appeared with a tunic which reached a little 
 below the knee. As the chief power was lodged 
 in their hands, they punished as they pleased, 
 and could declare war and make peace at their 
 option. Their power was extended not only 
 over private families, but they could depose ma- 
 gistrates, and even kings, if their actions in any 
 manner deviated from the laws of the state. 
 They had the privilege of naming the magis- 
 trates which annually presided over their cities ; 
 and the kings were created only with their ap- 
 probation. They were intrusted with the edu- 
 cation of youth, and all religious ceremonies, 
 festivals, and sacrifices, were under their pecu- 
 liar care. They taught the doctrine of the me- 
 tempsychosis, and believed the immortality of 
 the soul. They were professionally acquainted 
 with the art of magic, and from their knowledge 
 of astrolog)'', they drew omens, and saw futurity 
 revealed before their eyes. In their sacrifices 
 they often immolated human victims to their 
 gods ; a barbarous custom, which continued long 
 among them, and which the Roman emperors 
 atternpted to abolish to little purpose. The 
 power and privileges which they enjoyed were 
 beheld with admiration by their countrymen, 
 and as their office was open to every rank and 
 every station, there were many who daily pro- 
 posed themselves as candidates to enter upon 
 this important function. The rigour, however, 
 and severity of a long noviciate deterred many, 
 and few were willing to attempt a labour which 
 enjoined them, during 15 or 20 years, to load 
 their memory with the long and tedious max- 
 ims of druidical religion. Their name is deri- 
 ved from the Greek word Jf)i)f, an oak^ because 
 the woods and solitary retreats were the places 
 of their residence. Ccbs. Bell. G. 6, c. 13. — 
 Plin. 16, c. AA.—Diod. 5. 
 
 Dryades, and Hamadryades, a number of 
 wood nymphs. The former class presided over 
 the forests at large, through which they roamed, 
 but the latter were attached individually to the 
 trees. Every forest had its Dryad and every 
 tree its Hamadryad, which, being born with its 
 birth and growing with its growth, became ex- 
 
 tinct by its decay. Oblations of milk, oil, and 
 honey, were offered to them, and sometimes 
 the votaries sacrificed a goat. Virg. G. 1, v. 11. 
 
 Dryas, I. a son of Hippolocus, who was fa- 
 ther to Lycurgus. He went with Eteocles to the 
 Theban war, where he perished. Stat. Theb. 8, 
 
 V. 355. II. A son of Mars^ who went to the 
 
 chase of the Calydonian boar. Apol. 2, c. 8. 
 
 III. A daughter of Faunus, who so hated the 
 sight of men that she never appeared in public. 
 
 Dryope, I. a woman of Lemnos, whose shape 
 Venus assumed, to persuade all the females of 
 the island to murder the men. i^acc. 2, v. 174. 
 II. Avirginof CEchalia, whom Andraemon 
 
 married after she had been ravished by Apollo. 
 She became mother of the Amphisus, who, 
 when scarce a year old, was with his mother 
 changed into a lotus, Ovid. Met. 10, v. 331. 
 III. A nymph of Arcadia, mother of Pan 
 
 by Mercury, according to Homer, hymn, in Pan. 
 Dusii, some deities among the Gauls. August, 
 de C. D. 15, c. 23. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eanes, a man supposed to have killed Patro- 
 clus, and to have fled to Peleus in Thessaly. 
 Strab. 9. 
 
 Eanus, the name of Janus among the ancient 
 Latins. 
 
 Ebon, a name given to Bacchiis by the people 
 of Neapolis. Macrob. 1, c. 18. 
 
 Echidna, a celebrated monster, sprung from 
 the union of Chrysaor with Callirhoe,the daugh- 
 ter of Oceanus. She is represented as a beauti- 
 ful woman in the upper parts of the body, but 
 as a serpent below the waist. She was mother, 
 by Typhon, of Orthos, Geryon, Cerberus, the 
 H3'dra, &c. According to Herodotus, Hercules 
 had three children by her, Agathyrsus, Gelonus, 
 and Scytha. Herod. 3, c. 108. — Hesiod. Theog. — 
 Apol. 2.— Pans. 8, c, 18.— Ovid, Met. 9, v, 158. 
 
 Echion, I. one of those men who sprung from 
 the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus. He was 
 one of the five who survived the fate of his 
 brothers, and assisted Cadmus in building the 
 city of Thebes, Cadmus rewarded his services 
 by giving him his daughter Agave in marriage. 
 He was father of Pentheus by Agave. He 
 succeeded his father-in-law on the throne of 
 Thebes, as some have imagined, and from that 
 circumstance Thebes has been called Echionia:, 
 and the inhabitants Echionida. Ovid. Met. 3, 
 
 V. Sn.— TVist. 5, el. 5, v. 53. II. A son of 
 
 Mercury and Antianira, who was the herald 
 of the Argonauts. Place. 1, v. iOO. 
 
 EcHioNiDEs, a patronymic given to Pentheus 
 as descended from Echion. Ovid. Met. 3. 
 
 Echo, a daughter of the Air and Tellus, who 
 chiefly resided in the vicinity of the Cephisus. 
 She was one of Juno's attendants, and became 
 the confident of Jupiter's amours. Her loqua- 
 city, however, dis'pleased Jupiter ; and she was 
 deprived of the power of speech by Juno, and 
 only permitted to answer to the questions which 
 were put to her. Pan had formerly been one 
 of her admirers, but he never enjoyed her fa- 
 vours. Echo, after she had been punished by 
 Juno, fell in love with Narcissus, and, on being 
 despised by him, she pined away, and was 
 changed into a stone, which still retained the 
 power of voice. Ovid. Met. 3, v. 358. 
 707 
 
EL 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 EP 
 
 Eetion. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Egeria, a nymph of Aricia, in Italy, where 
 Diana was particularly worshipped. Egena 
 was courted by Numa, and, according to Ovid, 
 she became his wife. This prince frequently 
 visited her ; and that he might more success- 
 fully introduce his laws and new regulations 
 into the state, he solemnly declared, before the 
 Roman people, that they were previously sanc- 
 tified and approved by the nymph Egeria. 
 Ovid says that Egeria was so disconsolate at 
 the death of Numa, that she melted into tears, 
 and was changed into a fountain by Diana. 
 She is reckoned by many as a goddess who 
 presided over the pregnancy of women ; and 
 some maintain that she is the same as Lucina, or 
 Diana. Liv. 1, c. 19.— Ovid. Met. 15, v. 547.— 
 Virg. Mn. 7, v. lib.— Martial, 2, ep. 6, v. 16. 
 
 EioNEUs, a Thracian, father to Rhesus. Id.lQ. 
 
 Elagabalus. Vid Heliogabalus. 
 
 ELAPHi.asA, a surname of Diana in Elis. Paus. 
 G, c. 22. 
 
 Electra, one of the Oceanides, wife of At- 
 las, and mother of Dardanus, by Jupiier. Ovid. 
 Fast. 4, V. 31. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Electryon, a king of Argos, son of Perseus 
 and Andromeda. He was brother to Alcaeus, 
 whose daughter Anaxo he married, and by her 
 he had several sons and one daughter, Alcmene. 
 Vid. Amphitryon and Alcmena. Apollod. 2, c. 
 4. — Palis. 
 
 Eleleus, a surname of Bacchus, from the 
 word eXeXeu, which the Bacchanals loudly re- 
 peated during his festivals. His priestesses 
 were in consequence called Eleleis-ides. Ovid. 
 Met. 4, V. 15. 
 
 Elephenor, son of Chalcedon, was one of 
 Helen's suiters. Homer. II. 2, v. 47. 
 
 Eleuther, I. a son of Apollo. II. One of 
 
 the Curetes, from whom a town of Bceotia, and 
 another in Crete, received their name. Pans. 
 9, c. 2 and 19. 
 
 Eleutho, a surname of Juno Lucina. Pin- 
 dar. Oh/mp. 6. 
 
 Eligius, a surname of Jupiter, worshipped on 
 mount Aventine. Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 328. 
 
 Elpenor, one of the companions of Ulysses, 
 changed into a hog by Circe's potions, and af- 
 terwards restored to his former shape. He fell 
 from the top of a house where he was sleeping, 
 and was killed. Ovid. Met. 14, v. 252.— Ho- 
 mer. Od. 10, V. 552, 1. 11, V. 51. 
 
 Elysium, and Elysii Campi, a place or island 
 in the infernal regions, where, according to the 
 mythology of the ancients, the souls of the vir- 
 tuous were placed after death. The employ- 
 ment of the heroes who dwelt in those regions 
 of bliss were various ; the manes of Achilles 
 are represented as waging war with wild beasts, 
 while the Trojan chiefs are innocently exerci- 
 sing themselves in managing horses or in han- 
 dling arms. To these innocent amusements 
 some poets have added continual feasting and 
 revelry, and they suppose that the Elysian fields 
 were filled with all the incontinence and volup- 
 tuousness which could gratify the low desires 
 of the debauchee. The Elysian fields were, 
 according to some, in the Fortunate Islands on 
 the coast of Africa, in the Atlantic. Others 
 place them in the island of Leuce; and, accord- 
 ing to the authority of Virgil, they were situate 
 in Italy. According to Lucian they were near 
 
 708; 
 
 the moon, or in the centre of the earth accord- 
 ing to Plutarch. Virg. jEn. 6, v. 638. — Hom^r. 
 Od.4.—Pindar.— TiAull.l,el 3, v. ol.—Ldi- 
 cian. — Plut. de Consul. 
 
 Emathion, a son of Titan and Aurora, who 
 reigned in Macedonia. The country was called 
 Emathia from his name. Some suppose that 
 he was a famous robber, destroyed by Hercules. 
 Ovid. Met. 5, v. ^\2.— Justin. 7, c. 1. 
 
 Enceladus, a son of Titan and Terra, the 
 most powerful of all the giants who conspired 
 against Jupiter. He was struck by Jupiter's 
 thunders, and overwhelmed under mount ^t- 
 na. Some suppose that he is the same as Ty- 
 phon. According to the poets, the flames of 
 ^tna proceeded from thebreath of Enceladus ; 
 and as often as he turned his w^eary side, the 
 whole island of Sicily felt the motion and shook 
 from its very foundations. Virg. JEn. 3, v. 
 578, &c. 
 
 Endeis, a nymph, daughter of Chiron. She 
 married iEacus king of Egina, by whom she 
 had Peleus and Telamon. Paus. 2, c. 29. — 
 Apollod. 3, c. 12. 
 
 Endymion, a shepherd, son of iEthlius and 
 Calyce. It is said that he required of Jupiter to 
 grant to him to be always young, and to sleep 
 as much as he would ; whence came the pro- 
 verb of Endymionis somnum dormire, to express 
 a long sleep. Diana weis so struck with his 
 beauty, that she came down from heaven every 
 night to enjoy his company. Endymion married 
 Chromia, daughter of Itonus, or, according to 
 some, Hyperipna, daughter of Areas, by whom 
 he had three sons, Paeon, Epeus, and iEolus, 
 and a daughter called Eurydice ; and so little 
 ambitious did he show himself of sovereignty, 
 that he made his crown the prize of the best 
 racer among his sons, an honourable distinction 
 which was gained by Epeus. The fable of En- 
 dymion's amours with Diana, or the moon, 
 arises from his knowledge of astronomy ; and 
 as he passed the night on some high mountain, 
 to observe the heavenly bodies, it has been re- 
 ported that he was courted by the moon. Some 
 suppose that there were two of that name, the 
 son of a king of Elis, and the shepherd or as- 
 tronomer of Caria. The people of Heraclea 
 maintained that Endymion died on moimt Lat- 
 mos, and the Eleans pretended to show his 
 tomb at Olvmpia in Peloponnesus. Propert. 
 2, el. 15.— Cic. Tusc. l.—Juv. 10.— Theocrit. 
 3.— Paus. 5, c. 1, 1. 6, c. 20. 
 
 Ennosigjeus, terra concussor, a surname of 
 Neptune. Hes. Theog. 
 
 Entellus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Enyo, a sister of Mars, called by the Latins 
 Bellona, supposed by some to be the daughter 
 of Phorcys and Ceto. Jfal. 10, v. 203. 
 
 Eos, the name of Aurora among the Greeks, 
 whence the epithet Eous is applied to all the 
 eastern parts of the world. Ovid. East. 3, v. 
 406. A. A. 3, V. 537, 1. 6, v. 478.— Hr^'. G. I, 
 V.288, 1. 2,v. 115. 
 
 Epaphus, a son of Jupiter and lo, who found- 
 ed a city in Egypt, which he called Memphis, 
 in honour of his wife, who was the daughter 
 of the Nile. He had a daughter called Libya,, 
 who became mother of ^gyptus and Danaus 
 by Neptune. He was worshipped as a god at 
 Memphis. Herodot.2,c. 153.— Ovid. Met. 1, 
 v. 699, &c. 
 
ER 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ER 
 
 Epeus, I. a son of Endymion, brother to Pae- 
 on, who reigned in a part of Peloponnesus. 
 His subjects were called from him Epi. Paus. 
 
 5, c. 1. II. A son of Panopeus, who was 
 
 the fabricator of the famous wooden horse 
 which proved the ruin of Troy. Virg. JS?i. 
 2, V. 264.— Justin. 20, c. 2.— Paus. 10, c. 26. 
 
 EpfflALTES, or Ephialtus. Vid. Aloeus, Part 
 
 n. 
 
 Epicaste, I. a name of Jocasta, the mother 
 
 and wife of OEdipus. Paus. 9, c. 5. II. A 
 
 daughter of Mge\is, mother of Thestalus by 
 Hercules. 
 
 Epid6t.e. certain deities who presided over 
 the birth and growth of children, and were 
 known among the Romans by the name of Dii 
 averrunci. They were worshipped by the La- 
 cedaemonians, and chiefly invoked by those who 
 were persecuted by the ghosts of the dead, &c. 
 Paus. 2, c. 17, &c. 
 
 Epigoni. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Epimetheus, a son of Japetus and Clymene, 
 one of the Oceanides, who inconsiderately mar- 
 ried Pandora, by whom he had Pyrrha, the wife 
 of Deucalion. Epimetheus was changed into a 
 monkey by the gods, and sent into the island of 
 Piihacusa. Apol. 1, c. 2 and 7. — Hyg. fab. — Hes. 
 Theog. Vid. Prometheus and Pandora. 
 
 Epiocmjs, a son of Lycurgus, who received 
 divine honours in Arcadia, 
 
 Epopeus, I. a son of Neptune and Canace, 
 who came from Thessaly to Sicyon, and carried 
 away Antiope, daughter of Nycteus, king of 
 Thebes. This rape was followed by a war, in 
 which Nycteus and Epopeus were both killed. 
 
 Paus. 2, c. 6. — Apol. 1, c. 7, &c. II. A son 
 
 of Aloeus, grandson to Phoebus. He reigned at 
 
 Corinth. Paus. 2, c. 1 and 3. III. one of 
 
 the Tyrrhene sailors who attempted to abuse 
 Bacchus. Ovid Met. 3, v. 619. Vid. jEnaria. 
 
 Erato, one of the Muses, who presided over 
 lyric, tender, and amorous poetry. She is 
 represented as crowned with roses and myrtle, 
 holding in her right hand a lyre, and a lute in 
 her left, musical instruments of which she is 
 considered by some as the invenCress. Love is 
 sometimes placed by her side holding a lighted 
 flambeau, while she herself appears with a 
 thoughtful, but oftener with a gay and anima- 
 ted look. She was invoked by lovers, especially 
 in the month of April, which among the Ro- 
 mans, was more particularly devoted to love. 
 Apollod. 10.— Virg. Mn. 7, v. 31.— Ovid, de 
 Art. Am. 2, v, 425. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Erebus, a deity of hell, son of Chaos and 
 Darkness. He married Night, by whom he 
 had the light and the day. The poets often 
 used the word Erebus to signify hell itself, and 
 particularly that part where dwelt the souls of 
 those who had lived a virtuous life, from whence 
 they passed into the Elysian fields, Cic. de Nat. 
 D. 3, c. 17.— Hr^. Mn. 4, v. 26. 
 
 Erechtheus, a son of Pandion 1st, was the 
 sixth king of Athens. He was father of Ce- 
 crops 2d, Metion, Pandorus, and four daugh- 
 ters, Creusa, Orithya, Procris, and Othonia,by 
 Praxithea. In a war against Eleusis he sacri- 
 ficed Othonia, called also Chthonia, to obtain a 
 victory which the oracle promised for such a 
 sacrifice. In that war he killed Eumolpus, Nep- 
 tune's son, who was the general of the enemy, 
 for which he was struck with thunder by Jupi- 
 
 ter, at Neptune's request. Some say that he 
 was drowned in the sea. After death he re- 
 ceived divine honours at Athens. He reigned 
 50 years, and died B. C. 1347. According to 
 some accounts he first introduced the mysteries 
 of Ceres at Eleusis. Ovid. 6, v. 877. — Paus. 
 2, c. 25, — Apollod. 3, c, 15. — Cic. pro Sezt. 21. 
 ^Tusc. 1, c. 48.— Nat. D. 3, c. 15. 
 
 Erginus, a king of Orchomenos, son of Cly- 
 menus. He obliged the Thebans to pay him a 
 yearly tribute of 100 oxen, because his father had 
 been killed by a Theban. Hercules attacked 
 his servants, who came to raise the tribute, and 
 mutilated them, and he afterw^ards killed Er- 
 ginus, who attempted to avenge their death by 
 invading Boeotia wath an army. Paus. 9, c. 17. 
 
 Erginntjs, a man made master of the ship Ar- 
 go by the Argonauts, after the death of Typhis. 
 
 Erichthonius, I. the fourth king of Athens. 
 He was very deformed, and had the tails of ser- 
 pents instead of legs. Minerva placed him in 
 a basket, which she gave to the daughters of 
 Cecrops, with strict injunctions not to examine 
 its contents. Vid. Hcrse. Erichthon was young 
 when he ascended the throne of Athens. He 
 reigned 50 years, and died B. C, 1437. The 
 invention of chariots is attributed to him, and 
 the manner of harnessing horses to draw them. 
 He was made a constellation after death, under 
 the name of Bootes. Ovid Met. 2, v. 553. — 
 Hygin. fab, 166. — Apollod. 3, c.« 14. — Paus. 4. 
 
 c. 2.— Firo-. a. 3, V. 113. II. A son of Dar- 
 
 danus who reigned in Troy, and died 1374 B. 
 C, after a long reign of about 75 years. Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. 10. 
 
 Erigone, I. a daughter of Icarius, who hung 
 herself when she heard that her father had 
 been killed by some shepherds whom he had in- 
 toxicated. She was made a constellation, now 
 known under the name of Virgo. Ovid. Met. 
 6, i^h.4.—Stat. 11. Thcb.Y.Q44.— Virg. G. 1, 
 V. 33.— ^^oZ. 3, c. U.—Hyg. fab. 1 and 24. Vid. 
 
 Part II. II. A daughter of jEgysthus and 
 
 Clytemnestra, priestess of Diana in Attica. 
 
 Erinnys, I. the Greek name of the Eumeni- 
 des. The word signifies the /i^ry of tlie mind, 
 eoig vov?. Vid. Eumenides. Virg. JE71. 2, v. 
 337. II. A surname of Ceres. 
 
 Eriphyle, a sister of Ad rastus, king of Argos, 
 who married Amphiaraus. She was daughter 
 of Talaus and Lysimache. Vid. Amphiaraus. 
 
 Eris, the goddess of discord among the 
 Greeks. She is the same as the Discordia of 
 the Latins. Vid. Discordia. 
 
 Erisicthon, a Thessalian, son of Triops, 
 who derided Ceres and cut down her groves. 
 This impiety irritated the goddess, who afllicted 
 him with continual hunger. He squandered 
 all his possessions to gratify the cravings of his 
 appetite, and at last he devoured his own limbs 
 for want of food. His daughter Metra had the 
 power of transforming herself into whatever 
 animal she pleased, and she made use of that 
 artifice to maintain her father, who sold her, 
 afier which she assumed another shape and 
 became again his property. Ovid. Met. fab, 18. 
 
 Eros. Vid. Cupido, and Part II. 
 
 Erse. Vid. Herse. 
 
 Erycina, a surname of Venus, from mount 
 Eryx, where she had a temple. She was also 
 worshipped at Rome under this appellation. 
 Ovid. Fast. 4, v. Ql\.—Horat. 1. Od. 2, v. 33. 
 709 
 
EV 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 EU 
 
 Eryx, a son of Butes and Venus, who, rely- 
 ing upon his strength, challenged all strangers 
 to fight with him in the combat of the cestus. 
 Hercules accepted his challenge after many 
 had yielded to his superior dexterity, and Eryx 
 was killed in the combat, and buried on the 
 mountain which bears his name in Sicily, and 
 on which he had built a temple to Venus, 
 Virg. Mn. 5, v. 402. 
 
 Eteocles, a son of (Edipus and Jocasta, 
 After his father's death, it was agreed between 
 him and his brother Polynices, that they should 
 both share the royalty, and reign alternately 
 each a year. Eteocles, by right of seniority, first 
 ascended the throne, but after the first year of 
 his reign was expired, he refused to give up the 
 crown to his brother according to their mutual 
 agreement. Polynices, resolving to punish such 
 an open violation of a solemn engagement, 
 went to implore the assistance of Adrastus, king 
 of Argos. He received that king's daughter in 
 marriage, and was soon after assisted with a 
 strong army, headed by seven famous generals. 
 These hostile preparations were watched by 
 Eteocles, who on his part did not remain inac- 
 tive. He chose seven brave chiefs to oppose 
 the seven leaders of the Argives, and stationed 
 them at the seven gates of the city. He placed 
 himself against his brother Polynices, and he 
 opposed Menalippus to Tydeus, Polyphonies to 
 Capaneus, Megareus to Eteoclus, Hiperbius to 
 ParthenopsBus, and Lasthenes to Amphiaraus. 
 Much blood was shed in light and unavailing 
 skirmishes, and it was at last agreed between 
 the two brothers that the war should be decided 
 by single combat. They both fell in an engage- 
 ment conducted with the most inveterate fury 
 on either side ; and it is even said that the ashes 
 of these two brothers, who had been so inimical 
 one to the other, separated themselves on the 
 burning pile, as if, even after death, sensible of 
 resentment and hostile to reconciliation. Stat. 
 Theb. — Apollod. 3, c, 5, &c.—JEschyl. Sept. 
 ante Theb. — Eurip. in Phanis. — Pans. 5, c. 9, 
 1. 9, c. 6. 
 
 Eteoclus, one of the seven chiefs of the army 
 of Adrastus in his expedition against Thebes, 
 celebrated for his valour, for his disinterested- 
 ness and magnanimity. He was killed by Me- 
 gareus, the son of Creon, under the walls of 
 Thebes. Eurip. — Apollod. 3, c, 6. 
 
 Evadne, a daughter of Iphis or Iphicles, of 
 Argos, who slighted the addresses of ApoJlo, 
 and married Capaneus, one of the seven chiefs 
 who went against Thebes. When her hus- 
 band had been struck with thunder by Jupiter 
 for his blasphemies and impiety, and his ashes 
 had been separated from those of the rest of the 
 Argives, she threw herself on his burning pile 
 and perished in the flames, Virs;. Mn. 6, v. 447. 
 Propert. I, el, 15, v, 21.— Stat. Theb. 12, v, 800, 
 
 Evan, a surname of Bacchus, which he re- 
 ceived from the wild ejaculation of Evan! 
 Evan I by his priestesses. Ovid. Met. 4, v, 15. 
 — Virg. Mn. 6, v. 517. 
 
 EvANDER, Vid. Part IT. 
 
 E VERES, a son of Peteralaus, the only one of 
 his family who did not perish in a battle against 
 Electryon. Apollod. 2, 
 
 Evius, a surname of Bacchus, given him in 
 the war of the giants against Jupiter. Horat. 2, 
 Oi.ll,v. 17. 
 
 710 
 
 EvipPE, the mother of the Pierides, who were 
 changed into magpies. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 303. 
 
 Evippus, a son of Thestius, king of Pleuron, 
 killed by his brother Iphiclus in the chase of the 
 Calydonian boar. Apollod. 1, c. 7. 
 
 EuM^us. Vid. Part II. 
 
 EuMELus, I, a son of Admetus, kingof Pherae 
 in Thessaly. He went to the Trojan war, and 
 had the fleetest horses in the Grecian army. 
 He distinguished himself in the games made in 
 
 honour of Patroclus. Homer. E. 2 and 23. 
 
 II, A man contemporary with Triptolemus, of 
 whorn he learned the art of agriculture. Paus. 
 7, c. 18. Vid. Part II. 
 
 EuMENiDES, a name given to the Furies by 
 the ancients. They sprang from the drops of 
 blood which flowed from the wound which 
 Coelus, received from his son Saturn. Accord- 
 ing to others they were daughters of the earth, 
 and conceived from the blood of Saturn. Some 
 make them daughters of Acheron and Night, 
 or Pluto and Proserpine, or Chaos and Terra, 
 according to Sophocles ; or, as Epimenides 
 reports, of Saturn and Evonyme. According 
 to the most received opinions they were three 
 in number, Tisiphone, Megara, and Alecto, to 
 which some add Nemesis. Plutarch "mentions 
 only one, called Adrasta, daughter of Jupiter 
 and Necessity, They were supposed to be the 
 ministers of the vengeance of the gods, and 
 therefore appeared stern and inexorable ; al- 
 ways employed in punishing the guilty upon 
 earth as well as in the infernal regions. They 
 inflicted their vengeance upon eairth by wars, 
 pestilence, and dissensions, and by the secret 
 stings of conscience ; and in hell they punished 
 the guilty by continual flagellation and torments. 
 They were also called FurioB, Erinnyes, and 
 DircB, and the appellation of Eiimenides, which 
 signifies benevolence and compassion, they re- 
 ceived after they had ceased to prosecute Ores- 
 tes, who in gratitude oflfered them sacrifices, 
 and erected a temple in honour of their divin- 
 ity. Their worship was almost universal, and 
 people presumed not to mention their names 
 or fix their eyes upon their temples. They 
 were honoured with sacrifices and libations, 
 and in Achaia they had a temple, which, when 
 entered by any one guilty of crime, suddenly 
 rendered him furious, and deprived him of the 
 use of his reason. In their sacrifices the vota- 
 ries used branches of cedar and of alder, haw- 
 thorn, saffron, and juniper; and the victims 
 were generally turtle doves and sheep, with 
 libations of wine and honey. They were gen- 
 erally represented with a grim and frightful 
 aspect, with a black and bloody garment, and 
 serpents wreathing round their heads instead 
 of hair. They held a burning torch in one 
 hand and a whip of scorpions in the other, and 
 were always attended by terror, rage, paleness, 
 and death. In hell they were seated around 
 Pluto's throne, as the ministers of his ven- 
 geance. MscJi. in Eum. — Soph, in (Edip. Col. 
 
 EuMOLPUs, a king of Thrace, son of Nep- 
 tune and Chione. He was thrown into the 
 sea by his mother, who wished to conceal her 
 shame from her father. Neptune saved his 
 life, and carried him into .Ethiopia, where he 
 was brought up by Amphitrite, and afterwards 
 by a woman of the country, one of whose 
 daughters he married. An act of violence to 
 
EU 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 EU 
 
 his sister-in-law obliged him to leave ^Ethiopia, 
 and he fled to Thrace with his son Ismarus, 
 where he married the daughter of Tegyrius, 
 the king of the countr)^ This connexion with 
 the royal family rendered him ambitious ; he 
 conspired against his father-in-law, and fled, 
 when the conspiracy was discovered, to Attica, 
 where he was initiated in the mysteries of 
 Ceres of Eleusis, and made Hierophantes or 
 high priest. He was afterwards reconciled to 
 Tegyrius, and inherited his kingdom. He made 
 war against Erechtheus, the king of Athens, 
 who had appointed him to the office of high- 
 priest, and perished in battle. His descendants 
 were also invested with the priesthood, which 
 remained for about 1200 years in that family. 
 Vid. EumolpidcB. Apollod. 2, c. 5, &c. — Hygin. 
 fab. 13.— Diod. b.—Paus. 2, c. 14. 
 
 EvocATio. There were among the ancients 
 three species of Evocations : 1st, by magic to 
 call up the dead ; 2d, to withdraw, in cases of 
 siege, &c., the protecting deity of the place be- 
 sieged; and 3d, to enforce the presence and vi- 
 sible appearance of any divinity. Of these the 
 first was practised in the remotest period ; with 
 the Hebrews it was among the things prohibited 
 by the first lawgiver, and with the Greeks the 
 early poet Orpheus is reputed the introducer, 
 if not the inventor. In the time of Homer it 
 was permitted to perform them openly, and as a 
 profession. The most illustrious instances 
 among the classic nations were, the Evocation 
 of Eurydice by Orpheus, in Thrace, whence 
 the fable perhaps of his descent into hell ; the 
 Evocation of Tiresias by Ulysses, in the coun- 
 try of the Cimmerians ; and the less historical 
 conference of ^neas with the shade of Anchi- 
 ses. In Jewish history the Evocation of Samuel 
 may be placed beside the most famous of the 
 above. The following form of invocation of 
 the second kind is preserved in Macrobius : — 
 *' If there be to Carthage a protecting god or 
 goddess, I pray and beseech ye great gods, who 
 have taken into your care this city, to abandon 
 these habitations, these temples, and these sa- 
 cred places ; to forget them, to fill them with 
 terror, and to withdraw to Rome and to our peo- 
 ple. May our dwellings, our temples, and our 
 sacred ofierings find favour before you. Let it 
 appear that you are my protectors, the protectors 
 of the Roman people and of my soldiers. If you 
 do this, I pledge myself to found temples and to 
 institute games in your honour. ^^ Of the third 
 species of evocation, by which the presence of 
 some deity was to be brought from any place 
 over which he exercised a tutelar guardianship, 
 to another in which his votary chanced to be, the 
 still extant hymns attributed to Orpheus and 
 Homer, those of Callimachus, the Carmen Se- 
 culare of Horace and others, remain as a spe- 
 cimen. Horn. Od. — Virg. yEn. — Macrob. Sat. — 
 Hor. Carm. 2, 1, and note, Anthonys edition. — 
 Callim. 
 
 EuPALAMUS, the father of Daedalus and of 
 Matiadusa. Apollod. 3, c. 15. 
 
 EuPEiTHEs, a prince of Ithaca, father to An- 
 tinous. In the former part of his life he had 
 fled before the vengeance of the Thresprotians, 
 whose territories he had laid waste in the pur- 
 suit of some pirates. During the absence of 
 Ulysses he was one of the most importuning 
 lovers of Penelope. Homer. Od. 16. 
 
 EuPHEMus, a son of Neptune and Europa, 
 who was among the Argonauts, and the hunt- 
 ers of the Calydonian boar. He was so swift 
 and light that he could run over the sea with- 
 out scarce wetting his feet. Pindar. Pyth. 4. 
 — Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Paus. 5, c. 17. 
 
 EoPHORBUs. Vid. Part II. 
 
 EupHROSYNA. Vid. Charites. 
 
 EuROPA, a daughter of Agenor, king of Phoe- 
 nicia and Telephassa. Jupiter became enam- 
 oured of her, and, assuming the shape of a 
 bull, mingled with the herds of Agenor, while 
 Europa, with her female attendants, were ga- 
 thering flowers in the meadows. Europa ca- 
 ressed the beautiful animal, and at last had the 
 courage to sit upon his back. The god took 
 advantage of her situation, and with precipi- 
 tate steps retired towards the shore, and crossed 
 the sea with Europa on his back, and arrived 
 safe in Crete. She became the mother of Mi- 
 nos, Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthus. After this 
 distinguished amour with Jupiter, she married 
 Asterius, king of Crete. This monarch seeing 
 himself without children by Europa, adopted 
 the fruit of her amours with Jupiter, and al- 
 ways esteemed Minos, Sarpedon, and Rhada- 
 manthus as his own children. Some suppose 
 that Europa lived about 1552 years before the 
 Christian era. Ovid. Met. 2, fab. 13.—Mosch. 
 Idyl.— Apollod. 2, c. 5, 1. 3, c. 1. Vid. Part L 
 
 EuROTAs, a son of Lelex, father to Sparta, 
 who married Lacedaemon. He was one of the 
 first kings of Laconia, and gave his name to the 
 river which flows near Sparta. Apollod. 3, c. 
 16.— Paws. 3, c. 1. Vid. Part I. 
 
 EuRYALUs. Vid. Nisus, Part II. 
 
 EtJRYBiADES, a Spartan, general of the Gre- 
 cian fleet at the battles of Artemisium and Sa- 
 lamis against Xerxes. He has been charged 
 with want of courage, and with ambition. He 
 offered to strike Themistocles when he wished 
 to speak about the manner of attacking the Per- 
 sians, upon which the Athenian said. Strike 
 me, but hear me. Herodot. 8, c. 2, 74, &c. — 
 Plut.in Them. — C. Nep. in Them. 
 
 Edryclea, a beautiful daughter of Ops of 
 Ithaca. Laertes bought her for 20 oxen, and 
 gave her his son Ulysses to nurse, and treated 
 her with much tenderness and attention. Ho- 
 mer. Od. 19. 
 
 Eurydice. Vid. Orpheus, and Part II. 
 
 EuRYLOcHCS, one of the companions of Ulj's- 
 ses, the only one who did not taste the potions 
 of Circe. His prudence, however, forsook him 
 in Sicily, where he carried away the flocks sa- 
 cred to Apollo, for which sacrilegious crime he 
 was shipwrecked. Homer. Od. 10, v. 205, 1. 12, 
 V. 195.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 287. 
 
 EuRYNOMUs, one of the deities of hell. Paus. 
 10, c. 28. 
 
 EuRYSTHEUs, a king of Argos and Mycena5, 
 son of Sthenelusand Nicippe, the daughter of 
 Pelops. Juno hastened his birth by two months, 
 that he might come into the world before Her- 
 cules, the son of Alcmena, as the younger of the 
 two was doomed, by order of Jupiter, to be sub- 
 servient to the will of the other. Vid. Alcmeva. 
 This natural right was cruelly exercised by Eu- 
 rystheus, who was jealous of the fame of Hercu- 
 les; and who, to destroy so powerful a relation, 
 imposed upon him the most dangerous and un- 
 common enterprises, well known by the name 
 711 
 
FA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PL 
 
 of the twelve labours of Hercules. The suc- 
 cess of Hercules in achieving those perilous la- 
 bours alarmed Eurystheus in a greater degree, 
 and he furnished himself with a brazen vessel, 
 where he might secure himself a safe retreat in 
 case of danger. After the death of Hercules, 
 Eurystheus renewed his cruelties against his 
 children, and made war against Ceyx, king of 
 Trachinia, because he had given them support 
 and treated them with hospitality. He was 
 killed inihe prosecution of this war by Hyllus, 
 the son of Hercules. His head was sent to 
 Alcmena, the mother of Hercules, who, mind- 
 ful of the cruelties which her son had suffered, 
 insulted it, and tore out the eyes with the most 
 inveterate fury. Eurystheus was succeeded on 
 the throne of Argos by Atreus, his nephew. 
 Hygin. fab. 30 and 32. — Apollod. 2, c. 4, &c. — 
 Fans. 1, c. 33, 1. 3, c. 6.— Ovid. Met. 9, fab. 6. 
 — Virg. jEn.8, v. 292. 
 
 EuRYTmoN, and Eurytion, a centaur whose 
 insolence to Hippodamia was the cause of the 
 quarrel between the Lapithae and Centaurs at 
 the nuptials of Pyrithous. Ovid. Met. 12. — 
 Pans. 5, c. 10. — Hesiod. Theog, 
 
 Edrytis, {idos,) a patronymic of lole, daugh- 
 ter of Eurytus. Ovid. Met. 9, fab. 11. 
 
 Eurytus, a king of (Echalia, father to lole. 
 He offered his daughter to him who shot a bow 
 better than himself Hercules conquered him, 
 and put him to death because he refused him 
 his daughter as the prize of his victory. Apol- 
 lod. 2, c. 4 and 7. 
 
 Euterpe, one of the Muses, daughter to Ju- 
 piter and Mnemosyne, She presided over mu- 
 sic, and was looked upon as the invenlress of 
 the flute and of all wind instruments. She is 
 represented as crowned with flowers, and hold- 
 ing a flute in her hand. Some mythologists 
 attributed to her the invention of tragedy, more 
 commonly supposed to be the production of 
 Melpomene. Vid. Muses. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fama, (fame,) was worshipped by the an- 
 cients as a powerful goddess, and generally 
 represented blowing a trumpet, &c. 
 
 Fauna, a deity among the Romans, daughter 
 of Picus, and originally called Marica. Her 
 marriage with Faunus procured her the name 
 of Fauna, and her knowledge of futurity that of 
 Fatua and Fatidico.. It is said that she never 
 saw a man after her marriage with Faunus, and 
 that her uncommon chastity occasioned her be- 
 ing ranked among the gods after death. She 
 is the same, according to some, as Bona Mater. 
 Some mythologists accuse her of drunkenness, 
 and say that she expired under the blows of her 
 husband , for an immoderate use of wine. Virg. 
 JEn. 7, V. 47, &c, — Varro. — Justin. 43, c. 1, 
 
 Fauni, certain rural deities, inhabiting, for 
 the most part, the fields, and having the human 
 figure, but with pointed ears and with the tail 
 of a goat. They formed always a part of the 
 train of Bacchus, together with the Sylvani and 
 Satyrs. Vise. Mus. Pio. Clem. The peasants 
 offered them a lamb or a kid with great so- 
 lemnity. Virg. G. 1, V. 10. — Ovid. Met. 6, 
 V. 392. 
 
 Faunus, a son of Picus, who is said to have 
 reigned in Italy about 1300 years B. C. His 
 712 
 
 bravery as well as wisdom have given rise to the 
 tradition that he was son of Mars. He raised 
 a temple in honour of the god Pan, called, by 
 the Latins, Lupercus, at the foot of the Palatine 
 hill, and he exercised hospitality towards stran- 
 gers with a liberal hand. His great popularity, 
 and his fondness for agriculture, made his sub- 
 jects revere him as one of their country deities 
 after death. He was represented with all the 
 equipage of the satyrs, and was consulted la 
 give oracles. Dionys. 1, c. 7. — Virg. JEn. 7, v. 
 47, 1, 8, V. 314, 1. 10, V. b5.—Horat. 1, od. 17. 
 
 Faustulus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Februus, a god at Rome, who presided over 
 purifications, sometimes considered to be the fa- 
 ther of Pluto, but by most mythologists thought 
 to be Pluto himself 
 
 Feretrius, a surname of Jupiter, in which 
 he received the dedication of the Spolia opima. 
 Romulus, who first consecrated to him these 
 Spolia, built a temple to Jupiter Feretrius, 
 which was enlarged by Ancus Martins, and 
 restored, at the request of Atticus, by Augustus. 
 Liv. 1, 10. — Pint, in Rom. — C. ISep. in Att. — 
 Propert. 4, 9. 
 
 Feronia, a goddess worshipped in Italy. She 
 presided over woods and groves, and her tem- 
 ple was common to the Latins and the Sabines. 
 There the manumitted slaves received the tes- 
 timonials of their enfranchisement. Some have 
 supposed her to be Juno, and others call her the 
 mother of Herilus, who was slain by Evander. 
 The name is derived a ferendo., because she 
 gave assistance to her votaries, or perhaps from 
 the town Feronia, near mount Soracte, where 
 she had a temple. It was usual to make a yearly 
 sacrifice to her, and to vi^ash the face and hands 
 in the waters of the sacred fountain which flow- 
 ed near her temple. It is said that those who 
 were filled with the spirit of this goddess could 
 walk barefooted over burning coals without 
 receiving any injury from the flames. The 
 goddess had a temple and a grove about three 
 miles from Anxur, and also another in the dis- 
 trict of Capena. Liv. 33, c. 26. — Virg. jEn. 7, 
 V. 697 and QQQ.— Varro. deL. L. 4, c. 10.— Ital. 
 IS.-StraA. b.—Horat. 1. Sat. 5, v. 24. 
 
 Fides, the goddess of faith, oaths, and hon- 
 esty, worshipped by the Romans, Numa was 
 the first who paid her divine honours. 
 
 FiDius Dius, a divinity by whom the Romans 
 generally swore. He was also called Sancus or 
 Sanctus and Semipater, and he was solemnly 
 addressed in prayers the 5th of June, which 
 was yearly consecrated to his service. Some 
 .suppose him to be Hercules. Ov. Fast. 6, 
 V. 213, —Va.r. de L. L. 4, c. 10.— Dion. Hal. 2 
 and 9. 
 
 Flora, the goddess of flowers and gardens 
 among the Romans, the same as the Chloris of 
 the Greeks. Some suppose that she was origin- 
 ally a common courtesan, who left to the Ro- 
 mans the immense riches which she had ac- 
 quired by prostitution and lasciviousness, in 
 remembrance of which a yearly festival was 
 instituted in her honour. She was worshipped 
 even among the Sabines, long before the founda- 
 tion of Rome,and likewise among thePhoceans, 
 who built Marseilles long before the existence 
 of the capital of Italy. Tatius was the first who 
 raised her a temple in the city of Rome. It is 
 said that she married Zephyrus, and that she 
 
FU 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 GA 
 
 received from him the privileges^ of presiding 
 over flowers, and of enjoying perpetual youth. 
 Vid. Floralia. She was represented as crowned 
 with flowers, and holding in her hand the horn 
 of plenty. Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 135, &c. — Varro 
 de R. R. 1. — Lactant. 1, c. 20. 
 
 Fornax, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
 over the baking of bread. Her festivals, called 
 Fornacalia^ were first instituted by Numa, 
 Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 525. 
 
 FoRTUNA, a powerful deity among the an- 
 cients, daughter of Oceanus, according to Ho- 
 mer, or one of theParcae, according to Pindar. 
 She was the goddess of fortune, and from her 
 hand were derived riches and poverty, pleasures 
 and misfortunes, blessings and pains. She was 
 worshipped in different parts of Greece, and in 
 Achaia ; her statue held the horn of plenty in 
 one hand, and had a winged Cupid at its feet. 
 In Boeotia she had a statue which represented 
 her as holding Plutus, the god of riches, iji her 
 arms, to intimate that fortune is the source 
 whence wealth and honours flow. The Ro- 
 mans paid particular attention to the goddess of 
 Fortune, and had no less than eight temples 
 erected to her honour in their city. Tullus 
 Hostilius was the first who built her a temple, 
 and from that circumstance it is easily known 
 when her worship was first introduced among 
 the Romans. Her most famous temples in Italy 
 was at Antium, in Latium, where. presents and 
 offerings were regularly sent from every part of 
 the country. Fortune has been called Phere- 
 polis, the protectress of cities, Acrea, from the 
 temple of Corinth on an eminence, aKpo?. She 
 was called Prenestine at Prseneste, in Italy, 
 "where she had also a temple. Besides she was 
 worshipped among the Romans under different 
 names, such as Female fortune, Virile fortune, 
 Equestrian, Evil, Peaceful, Virgin, &c. On 
 the 1st of April, which was consecrated to Ve- 
 nus among the Romans, the Italian widows and 
 marriageable virgins assembled in the temple of 
 Virile fortune, and, after burning incense and 
 stripping themselves of their garments, they en- 
 treated the goddess to hide from the eyes of their 
 husbands whatever defects there might be on 
 their bodies. The goddess of fortune is repre- 
 sented on ancient monuments with a horn of 
 plenty, and sometimes two, in her hands. She 
 is blindfolded, and generally holds a wheel m 
 her hand as an emblem of her inconstancy 
 Sometimes she appears with wings, and treads 
 upon the prow of a ship, and holds a rudder 
 in her hand. Dionys. Hal. 4. — Ovid. Fast. 6, 
 V. 569. Plut. de fort. Rom. and in Cor.—Cic. 
 de Div. 2. — Liv. 10. — Augustin. de Civ. D. 4. — 
 Flor. 1. — Val. Max. 1, c. 5. — Lucan. 2, &c. 
 
 Fraus, a divinity worshipped among the Ro- 
 mans, daughter of Orcus and Night. She pre- 
 sided over treachery, &c. 
 
 Fulgora; a goddess at Rome who presided 
 over lightning. She was addressed to save her 
 votaries from the effects of violent storms of 
 thunder. Aug. de Civ. D. 6, c. 10. 
 
 FuRrjE, the three daughters of Nox and 
 Acheron, or of Pluto and Proserpine, according 
 to some. Vid Eumenides. 
 
 FuRiNA, the goddess of robbers, worshipped 
 at Rome. Some say that she is the same as 
 the Furies. Her festivals were called Furina- 
 lia. Cic. de Nat. 'i. c. 8. — Varro. de L. L. 5, c. 3. 
 
 Part III.— 4 X 
 
 G. 
 
 Galanthis, a servant maid of Alcmena. 
 When Juno resolved to retard the birth of Her- 
 cules, and hasten the labours of the wife of 
 Sthenelus, she solicited the aid of Lucina, who 
 immediately repaired to the house of Alcmena, 
 and, in the form of an old woman, sat near the 
 door and uttered some magical words, which 
 served to prolong the labours of Alcmena. Alc- 
 mena had already passed some days in the most 
 excruciating torments, when Galanthis ran out 
 of the house, and with a countenance expressive 
 of joy, informed the old woman that her mis- 
 tress had just brought forth. Lucina, at the 
 words, rose from her posture, and that instant 
 Alcmena was safely delivered. The laugh 
 which Galanthis raised upon this made Lucina 
 suspect that she had been deceived. She seized 
 Galanthis by the hair, and threw her on the 
 ground ; and while she attempted to resist, she 
 was changed into a weazel. The Boeotians 
 paid great veneration to the weazel, which, as 
 they supposed, facilitated the labours of Alc- 
 mena. JElian. H. Anim. 2. — Ov. Met. 9, fab. 6, 
 
 Galatea, and Galath^ea, a sea-nymph, 
 daughter of Nereus and Doris. She was pas- 
 sionately loved by the Cyclops Polyphemus, 
 whom she treated with coldness and disdain ; 
 while Acis, a shepherd of Sicily, enjoyed her 
 unbounded affection. The happiness of these 
 two lovers was disturbed by the jealousy of the 
 Cyclops, who crushed his rival to pieces with 
 a piece of a broken rock while he sat in the 
 bosom of Galata^a. Galataea was inconsolable 
 for the loss of Acis, and as she could not re- 
 store him to life, she changed him into a foun- 
 tain. Ov. Met. 13. V. 789.— Virg. JSn. 9, v. 103. 
 
 Gamelia, a surname of Juno, as Gamelius was 
 of Jupiter, on account of their presiding over 
 marriages. Vid. Part 11. 
 
 Ganymede, a goddess, better known by the 
 name of Hebe. She was worshipped under 
 this name in a temple at Philus, in Peloponne- 
 sus. Pans. 2, c. 13. 
 
 Ganymedes, a beautiful youth of Phrygia, 
 son of Tros, and brother to Ilus and Assaracus. 
 According to Lucian, he was son of Dardanus. 
 He was taken up to heaven by Jupiter as he 
 was hunting, or rather tending his father's 
 flocks on mount Ida, and he became the cup- 
 bearer of the gods in the place of Hebe. Some 
 say that he was carried away by an eagle. He 
 is generally represented sitting on the back of a 
 flying eagle in the air. Pans. 5, c. 24. — Ho- 
 mer, n. 20, V. 231.— Fir^. ^n. 5, v. 252.— 
 Ovid. Met. 10, v. Wo.—Horat. 4, od. 4. The 
 fable of the rape of Ganymedes has given oc- 
 casion to much remark in its interpretation, but 
 it seems that we may easily interpret it, as so 
 many other acts of violence committed in those 
 ages, when piracy was no dishonest occupation, 
 have been interpreted, and Ganymedes may 
 have been but the captive of some powerful 
 prince, or pirate, most probably Tantalus, king 
 of Lydia. At all events, it can hardly be neces- 
 sary,as certain learned writers of the present day 
 have done, to assure the reader that Jupiter did 
 not carry off the young Trojan, and that Gany- 
 mede's pouring out wine to the gods is a fable. 
 
 Garamas, a king of Liby^a, whose daughter 
 was mother of Ammon by Jupiter. 
 713 
 
GI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CfL 
 
 Gelanor, a king of Argos, who succeeded his 
 father, and was deprived of his kingdom by Da- 
 naus the Egyptian. Pans. 2, c. 16. Vid. DaTiaus. 
 
 Gemini, a sign of the zodiac, which represents 
 Castor and Pollux, the twin sons of Leda. 
 
 Genius. Vid. Damon. 
 
 Geryon, and Geryones, a celebrated mon- 
 ster, born from the union of Chrysaor with Cal- 
 lirhoe, and represented by the poets as having 
 three bodies and three heads. He lived in the 
 island of Gades, where he kept numerous flocks, 
 which were guarded by a two-headed dog, 
 called Orthos, and by Eurythion. Hercules, 
 by order of Eurystheus, went to Gades, and 
 destroyed Geryon, Orthos, and Eurythion, and 
 carried away all his flocks and herds to Tiryn- 
 thus. Hedod. Theog. ISl.— Virg. JEn. 7, v. 
 661, 1. 8, V. 202.— Hal 1, v, 211.—ApoUod. 2.— 
 Lucret. 5, v. 28. 
 
 GiGANTEs, the sons of Coelus and Terra, 
 who, according to Hesiod, sprang from the 
 blood of the wound which Coelus received from 
 his son Saturn ; whilst Hyginus calls them 
 sons of Tartarus and Terra. They are rep- 
 resented as men of uncommon stature, with 
 strength proportioned to their gigantic size. 
 Some of them, as Cottus, Briareus, and Gyges, 
 had 50 heads and 100 arms, and serpents in- 
 stead of legs. They were of a terrible aspect, 
 their hair hung loose about their shoulders, and 
 their beard was suffered to grow untouched. 
 Pallene and its neighbourhood was the place of 
 their residence. The defeat of the Titans, with 
 whom they are often ignorantly confounded, 
 and to whom they were nearly related, incensed 
 them against Jupiter, and they all conspired to 
 dethrone him. The god was alarmed, and 
 called all the deities to assist him against a pow- 
 erful enemy, who made use of rocks, oaks, and 
 burning woods for their weapons, and who had 
 already heaped mount Ossa upon Pelion, to 
 .^cale with more facility the walls of heaven. 
 At the sight of such dreadful adversaries, the 
 gods fled with the greatest consternation into 
 Egypt, where they assumed the shape of differ- 
 ent animals to screen themselves from their 
 pursuers. Jupiter, however, remembered that 
 they were not invincible, provided he called a 
 mortal to his assistance ; and, by the advice of 
 Pallas, he armed his son Hercules in his cause. 
 "With the aid of this celebrated hero, the giants 
 were soon put to flight and defeated. Some 
 were crushed to pieces under mountains or 
 buried in the sea ; and others were flayed alive, 
 or beaten to death with clubs. Vid. Enceladus, 
 Aloides, Porphi/rion, Typhon, Otus, T^taiies, 
 &c. The existence of giants has been support- 
 ed by all the writers of antiquity, and received 
 as an undeniable truth. Homer tells us, that 
 Tityus, when extended on the ground, covered 
 nine acres ; and that Polyphemus eat two of 
 the companions of Ulysses at once, and walked 
 along the shores of Sicily, leaning on a staff" 
 which might have served for the mast of a ship. 
 The Grecian heroes, during the Trojan war, 
 and Turnus in Italy, attacked their enemies by 
 throwing stones, which four men of the suc- 
 ceeding ages would be unable to move. Plu- 
 tarch alsomentions, in support of their gigantic 
 stature, that Sertorius opened the grave of An- 
 taeus in Africa, and found a skeleton which 
 measured six cubits in length. Apollod. 1, c. 6. 
 714 
 
 —Pans. 8, c. 2, &c.—Ovid. Met. 1, v. 151.— 
 Plut. in Sertor. — Hygin. fab. 28, «&c. — Hotmt. 
 Od. 7 and IQ.— Virg G. 1, v. 280. JEn. 6, v. 
 580. If the accounts of the giants be not, with 
 other portions of the heathen mythology, an 
 unfounded fable, they probably relate to some 
 physical phenomena, or to some of the early 
 convulsions of nature; in like manner as the 
 mysteries of the worship of Osiris and Isis are 
 supposed to have concealed, in the adventures 
 of those deities, the laws and relations of the 
 heavenly bodies, and their influence on the 
 fertilizing inundations of the Nile. 
 
 Glaucopis, a surname of Minerva, from the 
 blueness of her eyes. Homer. — Hesiod. 
 
 Glaucus, I. a son of Hippolochus, the son of 
 Bellerophon. He assisted Priam in the Trojan 
 war, and had the simplicity to exchange his 
 golden suit of armour with Diomedesfor an iron 
 one, whence came the proverb of Glauciet Dio- 
 medes permutatio, to express a foolish purchase. 
 He behaved with much courage and was killed 
 by Ajax. Virg. JSn. 6, v. 483.— Martial. 9, ep. 
 
 96. — Homer. 11. 6. II. A fisherman of An- 
 
 thedon, in Boeotia, son of Neptune and Nais, 
 or, according to others, of Polybius, the son of 
 Mercury. As he was fishing, he observed that 
 all the fishes which he laid on the grass receiv- 
 ed fresh vigour as they touched the ground, and 
 immediately escaped from him by leaping into 
 the sea. He attributed the cause of it to the 
 grass, and, by tasting it, he found himself sud- 
 denly moved with a desire of living in the sea. 
 Upon this he leaped into the water, and was 
 made a sea deity by Ocean us and Tethus, at the 
 request of the gods. After this transformation 
 he became enamoured of the Nereid Scylla, 
 whose ingratitude was severely punished by 
 Circe. Vid. Scylla. Ovid. Mel. 13, v. 905, 
 &c. — Hygin. fab. 199. — Athen. 7. — Apollon. 1. 
 — Diod. 4. — Aristot. de Rep. Del. — Pans. 9, c. 
 
 22. III. A son of Sisyphus, king of Corinth, 
 
 by Merope,the daughter of Atlas, born at Pot- 
 nia, a village of Boeotia. His mares tore his 
 body to pieces as he returned from the games 
 which Adrastus had celebrated in honour of his 
 father. He was buried at Potnia. Hygin. 
 fab. 250.— Fir^. G. 3, v. Z^l.-Afollod. 1 and 
 
 2. IV. A son of Minos the 2d, and Pasi- 
 
 phae, who was smothered in a cask of honey. 
 Minos confined the soothsayer Polyidus with 
 the dead body, and told him that he never 
 would restore him his libertyif hedid not restore 
 it to life. Polyidus was struck with the king's 
 severity, but while he stood in astonishment, a 
 serpent suddenly came towards the body and 
 touched it. Polyidus killed the serpent, and im- 
 mediately a second came, who seeing the other 
 without motion or signs of life, disappeared, 
 and soon after returned with a certain herb in 
 his mouth. This herb he laid on the body of 
 the dead serpent, who was immediately restored 
 to life. Polyidus, who had attentively consider- 
 ed what passed, seized the herb, and with it 
 rubbed the body of the dead prince, who was 
 instantly raised to life. Minos received Glau- 
 cus with gratitude, but he refused to restore 
 Polyidus to liberty before he taught his son the 
 art of divination and prophecy. He consented 
 with great reluctance, and when he was at last 
 permitted to return to Argolis, his native coun- 
 try, he desired his pupil to spit in his mouth. 
 
GO 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 HA 
 
 Glaucus consented, and from that moment he 
 forgot all the knowledge of divination and heal- 
 ing which he had received from the instruction 
 of Polyidus. Hyginus ascribes the recovery of 
 Glancus to iEsculapius. Apollod. 2, c. 3. — 
 
 Hygin. 136 and 251, &c. V. A son of 
 
 Epytus, who succeeded his father on the throne 
 of Messenia, about 10 centuries before the Au- 
 gustan age. He introduced the worship of Ju- 
 piter among the Dorians, and was the first who 
 offered sacrifices toMachaon, the son of ^scu- 
 lapius. Pans. 4, c. 3. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Gnossis, and Gnossia, an epithet given to 
 Ariadne, because she lived, or was born at 
 Gnossus. The crown which she received from 
 Bacchus, and which was made a constellation, 
 is called Gnossia Stella. Virg. G. 1, v. 222. 
 
 GoNiADEs, nymphs in the neighbourhood of 
 the river Cytherus. ■ Strab. 8. 
 
 GoRDius. Vid. Part II. 
 
 GoRGo, the name of the ship which carried 
 PerseuSj after he had conquered Medusa. Vid. 
 Part II. 
 
 GoRGONEs, three celebrated sisters, daughters 
 of Phorcys and Ceto, whose names were Sthe- 
 no, Euryale, and Medusa, all immortal except 
 Medusa. According to the mythologists, their 
 hairs were entwined with serpents, their hands 
 were of brass, their wings of the colour of gold, 
 their body was covered with impenetrable 
 scales, and their teeth were as long as the tusks 
 of a wild boar, and they turned to stones all 
 those on whom they fixed their eyes. Medusa 
 alone had serpents in her hair, according to 
 Ovid, and this proceeded from the resentment 
 of Minerva, in whose temple Medusa had gra- 
 tified the passion of Neptune, who was enam- 
 oured of the beautiful colour of her locks, 
 which the goddess changed into serpents. Ac- 
 cording to some authors, Perseus, when he 
 went to the conquest of the Gorgons, was armed 
 with an instrument like a scythe by Mercury, 
 and provided with a looking-glass by Minerva, 
 besides winged shoes, and a helmet of Pluto, 
 which rendered all objects clearly visible and 
 open to the view, while the person who wore it 
 remained totally invisible. With weapons like 
 these Perseus obtained an easy victory ; and 
 after his conquest returned his arms to the dif- 
 ferent deities whose favours and assistance he 
 had so recently experienced. The head of Me- 
 dusa remained in his hands; and after he had 
 finished all his laborious expeditions, he gave it 
 to Minerva, who placed it on her aegis, with 
 which she turned into stones all such as fixed 
 their e^-'es upon it. It is said, that after the con- 
 quest of the Gorgons, Pertheus took his flight 
 in the air towards Ethiopia; and that the 
 drops of blood which fell to the ground from 
 Medusa's head were changed into serpents, 
 which have ever since infested the sandy de- 
 serts of Libya. The horse Pegasus also arose 
 from the blood of Medusa, as well as Chrysaor 
 with his golden sword. The residence of the 
 Gorgons was beyond the ocean towards the west, 
 according to Hesiod. iEschylus makes them 
 inhabit the eastern parts of Scythia ; and Ovid, 
 as the most received opinion, supports that they 
 lived in the inland parts of Libya, near the lake 
 of Triton or the gardens of the Hesperides. 
 Diodorus and others explain the fable of the 
 Gorgons, by supposing that they were a warlike 
 
 race of women near the Amazons, whom Per- 
 seus, with the help of a large array, totally de- 
 stroyed. Hesiod. Theog. (^ Scut. — Apollon. 4. 
 — Apollod. 2, c. 1 and 4, &c. — Homer. 11. 5 and 
 11. — Virg. jEn. 6, &.c.—Diod. 1 and i.—Paus. 
 2, c. 20, &c. — yEschyl. Prom. Act. 4. — Pindar. 
 Pyth. 7 and 12. Oiymp. 3.— Ovid. Met. 4, v. 
 618, &c. — Pal<£phat. de Phorcyn. 
 
 GoRGONiA, a surname of Pallas, because Per- 
 seus, armed with her shield, had conquered the 
 Gorgon who had polluted her temple with Nep- 
 tune. 
 
 GoRGOPHONE, a daughter of Perseus and An- 
 dromeda, who married Perieres, king of Mes- 
 senia, by whom she had Aphareus and Leucip- 
 pus. After the death of Perieres, she married 
 CEbalus, who made her mother of Icarus and 
 Tyndarus. She is the first whom the mytholo- 
 gists mention as having had a second husband. 
 Pans. 4, c. 2. — Apollod. 1, 2 and 3. 
 
 Gradivus, a surname of Mars among the 
 Romans, perhaps from KpaSaivsiv, brandishing 
 a spear. Though he had a temple without the 
 walls of Rome, and though Numa had estab- 
 lished the Salii, yet his favourite residence was 
 supposed to be among the fierce and savage 
 Thracians and Getae, over whom he particu- 
 larly presided. Virg, ^En. 3, v. 35. — Homer. 
 ll.—Liv. 1, c. 20, 1. 2, c. 45. 
 
 GRATiiE. Vid. Ckarites. 
 
 Gyges, or Gyes, a, son of Coalus and Terra, 
 represented as having 50 heads and a hundred 
 hands. He, with his brothers, made war against 
 the gods, and was afterwards punished in Tar- 
 tarus. Vid. Part II. Ovid, l^ist. 4, el. 7, v. 18. 
 
 Gyn^cothcenas, a name of Mars at Tegea, 
 on account of a sacrifice offered by the women 
 without the assistance of the men, who were 
 not permitted to appear at this religious cere- 
 mony. Paus. 8, c. 48. 
 
 H 
 
 Hades, or Ades, a name given to Pluto ; also 
 to the infernal regions. 
 
 H^MON, a Theban youth, son of Creon, who 
 was so captivated with the beauty of Antigone, 
 that he killed himself on her tomb when he 
 heard that she had been put to death by his fa- 
 ther's orders. Propert. 2, el. 8, v. 21. 
 
 Haljesus, and Halesds, a son of Agamem- 
 non by Briseis or Clytemnestra. When he 
 was driven from home he came to Italy, and 
 settled on mount Massicus in Campania, where 
 he built Falisci, and afterwards assisted Turnus 
 against -^Eneas. He was killed by Pallas. Virg. 
 Mn. 7, V. 724, 1. 10, v. 352. 
 
 Halirrhotitjs, a son of Neptune and Eur)''te, 
 who ravished Alcippe, daughter of Mars, be- 
 cause she slighted his addresses. This violence 
 offended Mars, and he killed the ravisher. Nep- 
 tune cited Mars to appear before the tribunal 
 of justice to answer for the murder of his son. 
 The cause was tried at Athens, in a place which 
 has been called from thence Areopagus, (ujo;;?, 
 Mars, andjrayoj, village,) and the murderer was 
 acquitted. Apollod. 3, c. 14. — Paus. 1, c. 21, 
 
 Hamadryades. This word is derived from 
 ajia simul, and Spvg quercus. Virg. Eel. 10, — 
 Ovid. Met. 1, v, 647. Vid. Dry ades. 
 
 Hammon, or Ammon, a surname of Jupiter 
 in Libya. It is related that BaQchus, being on 
 715 
 
HA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 HE 
 
 the point of dying with thirst, when traversing 
 the Libyan deserts, invoked the aid of Jupiter. 
 Thereupon a ram appeared, and, stamping out 
 the ground, opened a spring in the sand. This 
 ram he acknowledged to be Jupiter, and there- 
 fore built a temple to him, giving him the appel- 
 lation of Ammon, or the Sandy. This temple 
 was situated in the Oasis of Siwah. Alexander 
 the Great, upon visiting it, was declared by the 
 priests a son of the deity. Vid. Part I. Millm. 
 
 Harcalo, a man famous for his knowledge 
 of poisonous herbs, &c. He touched the most 
 venomous serpents and reptiles without receiv- 
 ing the smallest injury. Sil. 1, v. 406. 
 
 Harmonia, or Hermnoiea, {Vid. Hermione,) 
 a daughter of Mars and Venus, who married 
 Cadmus. It is said that Vulcan, to avenge 
 the infidelity of her mother, made her a present 
 of a vestment died in all sorts of crimes, which 
 in some measure inspired all the children of 
 Cadmus with wickedness and impiety. Paus. 
 9, c. 16, &c. 
 
 Harmonides, a Trojan beloved by Minerva. 
 He built the ships in which Paris carried away 
 Helen. Homer. U. 5. 
 
 Harpai^ion, a son of Pylasmenes king of 
 Paphlagonia, who assisted Priam during the 
 Trojan war, and was killed by Merion. Ho- 
 mer. 11. 13, V. 643. 
 
 Harpalyce, I. the daughter of Harpalycus, 
 king of Thrace. Her mother died when she 
 was but a child, and her father fed her with the 
 milk of cows and mares, and inured her early 
 to sustain the fatigues of hunting. When her 
 father's kingdom was invaded by Neoptolemus, 
 the son of Achilles, she repelled and defeated 
 the enemy with manly courage. The death of 
 her father, which happened soon after in a sedi- 
 tion, rendered her disconsolate ; she fled the 
 society of mankind, and lived in the forests 
 upon plunder and rapine. Every attempt to 
 secure her proved fruitless, till her great swift- 
 ness was overcome by intercepting her with a 
 net. After death the people of the country dis- 
 puted their respective rights to the possessions 
 which she acquired by rapine, and they soon 
 after appeased her manes by proper oblations 
 on her tomb. Virg. Mn. 1, v. 321. — Hygin. 
 
 fab. 163 and 252. II. A mistress of Iphiclus, 
 
 son of Thestius. She died through despair on 
 seeing herself despised by her lover. This 
 mournful story was composed in poetry, in the 
 form of a dialogue called Harpalyce. Athen. 14. 
 
 Harpocrates, a divinity supposed to be the 
 same as Orus, the son of Isis, among the Egyp- 
 tians. He is represented as holding one of his 
 fingers on his mouth, and from thence he is 
 called the god of silence, and intimates that the 
 mysteries of religion and philosophy ought 
 never to be revealed to the people. The Ro- 
 mans placed his statues at the entrance of their 
 temples. Catull. 75. — Varro. de L. L. 4, c. 10. 
 
 Harpyl^, winged monsters, who had the face 
 of a woman, the body of a vulture, and had 
 their feet and fingers armed with sharp claws. 
 They were three in number, Aello, Ocypete, 
 and Celeno, daughters of Neptune and Terra. 
 Thev were sent by Juno to plunder the tables 
 of Phineus, whence they were driven to the 
 islands called Strophades by Zethe? and Calais. 
 They emitted an infectious smell, and spoiled 
 whatever they touched by their filth and excre- 
 716 
 
 ments. They plundered ^neas during his voy- 
 age towards Italy, and predicted many of the 
 calamities which attended him, Virg. ^En. 3, 
 V. 212, 1. 6, V. 2S9.—Hesiod. Theog. 265. 
 
 Hebe, the daughter of Jupiter and Juno. As 
 she was fair, and always in the bloom of youth, 
 she was called the goddess of youth, and made 
 by her mother cup-bearer to all the gods. She 
 M'^as dismissed from her office by Jupiter, and 
 Ganymedes, his favourite, succeeded her as cup- 
 bearer. She was employed by her mother to 
 prepare her chariot, and to harness her peacocks 
 whenever requisite. "When Hercules was 
 raised to the rank of a god, he was reconciled 
 to Juno by marrying her daughter Hebe, by 
 whom he had two sons, Alexiaris and Anicetus. 
 As Hebe had the power of restoring gods and 
 men to the vigour of youth, she, at the instance 
 of her husband, performed that kind office to 
 lolas his friend. Hebe was worshipped at Si- 
 cyon, under the name of Dia, and at Rome 
 under the name of Juventas. She is represent- 
 ed as a young virgin crowned with flowers, and 
 arrayed in a variegated garment. Paus. 1, c. 
 19, 1. 2, c. 12.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 400. Fast. 9, 
 V. 16.—Apollod. 1, c. 3", 1. 2, c. 7. 
 
 Hecate, a daughter of Perses and Asterias, 
 the same as Proserpine or Diana. She was 
 called Luna in heaven, Diana on earth, and 
 Hecate or Proserpine in hell, whence her name 
 of Diva triformis, tergemina, triceps. She was 
 supposed to preside over magic and enchant- 
 ments, and was generally represented like a 
 woman with three heads, that of a horse, a dog, 
 or a boar ; and sometiines she appeared with 
 three different bodies, and three different faces, 
 only with one neck. Dogs, lambs, and honey, 
 were generally offered to her, especially in high 
 ways and cross roads, whence she obtained the 
 name of Trivia. Her power was extended over 
 heaven, the earth, sea, and hell; and to her 
 kings and nations supposed themselves indebt- 
 ed for their prosperity. Ovid. 7, Met. v. 94. — 
 Hesiod. Theog.— Hor'at. 3, od. 22.— Paus. 2, c. 
 22.— Virg Mn. 4, v. 511, 
 
 Hector. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Hecuba. Vid. Part 11. 
 
 Helena. Fi<^. Part II. 
 
 Helenus, Vid. Part II. 
 
 Heliades, the daughters of the Sun and 
 Clymene, They were three in number, Lam- 
 petie, Phaetusa, and Lampethusa ; or seven, 
 according to Hygin : Merope, Helie, Mg\e, 
 Lampetie, Phoebe, iEtheria, and Dioxippe. 
 They were so afflicted at the death of their 
 brother Phseton, ( Vid. Phaton,) that they were 
 changed by the gods into poplars, and their tears 
 into precious amber, on the banks of the river 
 Po. Ovid. Met. 2, v. SiO.- Hygin. fab. 154. 
 
 Helicaon. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Heltce, a star near the north pole, generally 
 called Ursa Major. It is supposed to receive its 
 name from the town of Helice, of which Calisto, 
 who was changed into the Great Bear, was an 
 inhabitant. Lucan. 2, v. 237. 
 
 HelTconiades, a name given to the Muses, 
 because they lived upon mount Helicon, which 
 was sacred to them. 
 
 Helle. Vid. Argonauta. 
 
 Hellen, son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, 
 reigned in Phthiotis about 1495 years before 
 the Christian era, and gave the name of Hel- 
 
HE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 HE 
 
 enians to his subjects. He had, by his wife 
 Orseis, three sons ; ^olius, Dorus, and Xuthus, 
 who gave their names to the three dilFerent na- 
 tions, known under the name of ^olians, Dori- 
 ans, and lonians. These last derive their name 
 from Ion, son of Xuthus, and from the difler- 
 ence, either of expression or pronunciation, in 
 their respective languages, arose the different 
 dialects well known in the Greek language. 
 Pau$. 3, c. 20, 1. 7, c. l.—Diod. 5. 
 
 Hemathion, a son of Aurora and Cephalus, 
 or Tithonus. Apollod. 3. 
 
 Hemithea, a daughter of Cycnus and Pro- 
 clea. She was so attached to her brother Te- 
 nes, that she refused to abandon him when his 
 father Cycnus exposed him on the sea. They 
 were carried "by the wind to Tenedos, where 
 Hemithea long enjoyed tranquillity, till Achil- 
 les, captivated by her charms, offered her vio- 
 lence. She was rescued from his embrace by 
 her brother Tenes, who was instantly slaughter- 
 ed by the offended hero. Hemithea could not 
 have been rescued from the attempts of Achilles, 
 had not the earth opened and swallowed her af- 
 ter she had fervently entreated the assistance of 
 the gods. Vid. Tenes. Pffl%s. 10, c. 14. — DiodA. 
 
 Hera, the name of Juno among the Greeks. 
 
 Herceius, an epithet given to Jupiter. Ovid, 
 lb. 286.—lAican. 9, v. 979. 
 
 Hercijles, a celebrated hero, who, after death, 
 was ranked among the gods, and received divine 
 honours. According to the ancients there were 
 many persons of the same name. Diodorus 
 mentions three, Cicero six, and some authors 
 extend the number to no less than forty-three. 
 Of all- these the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, 
 generally called the Theban, is the most cele- 
 brated, and to him, as may easily be imagined, 
 the actions of the others have been attributed. 
 Hercules was brought up at Tirynthus ; or, ac- 
 cording to Diodorus, at Thebes, and before he 
 had completed his eighth month, the jealousy 
 of Juno, intent upon his destruction, sent two 
 snakes to devour him. The child, not terrified 
 by the sight of the serpents, boldly seized them 
 in both his hands and squeezed them to death, 
 while his brother Iphiclus alarmed the house 
 with his frightful shrieks. Vid Iphiclus. He 
 was early instructed in the liberal arts, and 
 Castor, the son of Tyndarus, taught him how 
 to fight, Eurytus how to shoot with a bow and 
 arrows, Autolycus to drive a chariot, Linus to 
 play on the lyre, and Eumolpus to sing. He, 
 like the rest of his illustrious contemporaries, 
 soon after became the pupil of the centaur 
 Chiron, and under him he perfected and ren- 
 dered himself the most valiant and accomplish- 
 ed of the age. In the 18th year of his age he 
 resolved to deliver the neighbourhood of mount 
 Cithasron from a huge lion which preyed on 
 the flocks of Amphitryon, his supposed father, 
 and which laid waste the adjacent country. 
 He went to the court of Thespius, king of Thes- 
 pis, who shared in the general calamity, and 
 he received there a tender treatment, and was 
 entertained during fifty days. The fifty daugh- 
 ters of the king became all mothers by Hercu- 
 les during his stay at Thespis. After he had 
 destroyed the lion of mount Cithi3eron, he de- 
 liveredl his country from the annual tribute of 
 a hundred oxen which it paid to Erginus. 
 Vid. Erginus. Such public services became 
 
 universally known, and Creon, who then sat 
 on the throne of Thebes, rewarded the patri- 
 otic deeds of Hercules by giving him his daugh- 
 ter in marriage, and intrusting him with the 
 government of his kingdom. As Hercules, by 
 the will of Jupiter, was subjected to the power 
 of Eurystheus, {Vid Eurystheus,) and obliged 
 to obey him in every respect, Eurystheus, ac- 
 quainted with his successes and rising power, 
 ordered him to appear at Mycenae and perform 
 the labours which, by priority of birth, he was 
 empowered to impose upon him. Hercules 
 refused, and Juno, to punish his disobedience, 
 rendered him so delirious that he killed his 
 own children by Megara, supposing them to be 
 the offspring of Eurystheus. Vid Megara. 
 When he recovered the use of his senses, he 
 was so struck with the misfortunes which had 
 proceeded from his insanity, that he concealed 
 himself, and retired from the society of men 
 for some time. He afterwards consulted the 
 oracle of Apollo, and was told that he must 
 be subservient for twelve years to the will of 
 Eurystheus, in compliance with the commands 
 of Jupiter ; and that after he had achieved the 
 most celebrated labours, he should be reckoned 
 in the number of the gods. So plain and ex- 
 pressive an answer determined him to go to 
 Mycenae, and to bear with fortitude whatever 
 gods or men imposed upon him. Eurystheus 
 seeing so great a man totally subjected to him, 
 and apprehensive of so powerful an enemy, 
 commanded him to achieve a number of en- 
 terprises, the most difficult and arduous ever 
 known, generally called the 12 labours of Her- 
 cules. The favours of the gods had completely 
 armed him when he undertook his labours. He 
 had received a coat of arms and helmet from 
 Minerva, a sword from Mercury, a horse from 
 Neptune, a shield from Jupiter, a bow and ar- 
 rows from Apollo, and from Vulcan a golden 
 cuiras and brazen buskin, with a celebrated 
 club of brass, according to the opinion of some 
 writers, but more generally supposed to be of 
 wood, and cut by the hero himself in the forest 
 
 of Nemaea. The first labour imposed upon 
 
 Hercules by Eurystheus, was to kill the lion of 
 Nemaea, which ravaged the country ^ear My- 
 cenas. The hero, unable to destroy him with 
 his arrows, boldly attacked him with his club, 
 pursued him to his den, and after a close and 
 sharp engagement he choked him to death. 
 He carried the dead beast on his shoulders to 
 Mycenae, and ever after clothed himself with 
 the skin. Eurystheus was so astonished at the 
 sight of the beast, and at the courage of Her- 
 cules, that he ordered him never to enter the 
 gates of the city when he returned from his 
 expeditions, but to wait for his orders without 
 the walls. He even made himself a brazen 
 vessel, into which he retired whenever Her- 
 cules returned. The second labour of Her- 
 cules was to destroy the Lernaean hydra, which 
 had seven heads according to Apollodorus, 50 
 according to Simonides, and 100 according to 
 Diodorus. This celebrated monster he attacked 
 with his arrows, and soon after he came to a 
 close engagement, and by means of his heavy 
 club he destroved the heads of his enemy. But 
 this was productive of no advantage ; for as 
 soon as one head was beaten to pieces by the 
 club, immediatelv two sprang up, and the labour 
 717 
 
HE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 HE 
 
 of Hercules would have remained unfinished 
 had not he commanded his friend lolas to burn, 
 with a hot iron, the root of the head which he 
 had crushed to pieces. This succeeded, ( Vid. 
 Hydra,) and Hercules became victorious, 
 opened the belly of the monster, and dipped his 
 arrows in the gall to render the wounds which 
 he gave fatal and incurable. He was or- 
 dered in his third labour t^^ bring alive and un- 
 hurt into the presence of Eurystheus a stag, 
 famous for its incredible swiftness, its golden 
 horns, and brazen feet. This celebrated ani- 
 mal frequented the neighbourhood of CEnoe, 
 and Hercules was employed for a whole year 
 in continually pursuing it, and at last he caught 
 it in a trap, or when tired, or, according to 
 others, by slightly wounding it and lessening its 
 swiftness. As he returned victorious, Diana 
 snatched the goat from him, and severely 
 reprimanded him for molesting an animal 
 which was sacred to her. Hercules pleaded 
 necessity, and by representing the commands 
 of Eurystheus, he appeased the goddess and ob- 
 tained the beast. The fourth labour was to 
 
 bring alive to Eurystheus a wild boar which 
 ravaged the neighbourhood of Erymanthus. In 
 this expedition he destroyed the centaurs, ( Vid. 
 Centauri,) and caught the boar by closely pur- 
 suing him through the deep snow. Eurystheus 
 was so frightened at the sight of the boar, that, 
 according to Diodorus, he hid himself in his 
 brazen vessel for some days. In his fifth la- 
 bour Hercules was ordered to clean the stables 
 of Augias, where 3000 oxen had been confined 
 
 for many years. Vid. Augias. For his sixth 
 
 labour he was ordered to kill the carnivorous 
 birds which ravaged the country near the lake 
 Stymphalis in Arcadia. Vid. Stymphalis.' 
 
 In his seventh labour he brought alive into 
 Peloponnesus, a prodigious wild bull which laid 
 waste the island of Crete.- In his eighth la- 
 bour he was employed in obtaining the mares 
 of Diomedes, which fed upon human flesh. He 
 killed Diomedes, and gave him to be eaten by 
 his mares, which he brought to Eurystheus, 
 They were sent to mount Olympus by the king 
 of Mycenae, where they were devoured by the 
 wild beasts ; or, according to others, they were 
 consecrated to Jupiter, and their breed still ex- 
 isted in the age of Alexander the Great, For 
 
 his ninth labour he was commanded to obtain 
 the girdle of the queen of the Amazons. Vid. 
 
 Hippolite. In his tenth labour he killed the 
 
 monster Geryon,king of Gades, and brought to 
 Argos his numerous flocks which fed upon 
 
 human flesh. Vid. Geryon. The eleventh 
 
 labour was to obtain apples from the garden 
 
 of the Hesperides. Vid. Hesperides. The 
 
 twelfth and last, and most dangerous of his 
 labours, was to bring upon the earth the three- 
 headed dog Cerberus. This was cheerfully 
 undertaken by Hercules, and he descended into 
 hell by a cave on mount Taenarus, He was 
 permitted by Pluto to carry away his friends 
 Theseus and Pirithous, who were condemned 
 to punishment in hell ; and Cerberus also was 
 granted to his prayers, provided he made use of 
 no arms, but only force, to drag him away, 
 Hercules, as some report, carried him back to 
 hell after he had brought him before Eurys- 
 theus. Besides these arduous labours, which 
 the jealousy of Eurystheus imposed upon him, 
 "718 
 
 he also achieved others of his own accord, 
 equally great and celebrated. Vid. Cacus, An- 
 taus, Busiris, Eryx, &c. He accompanied the 
 Argonauts to Colchis before he delivered him- 
 self up to the king of Mycenae. He assisted 
 the gods in their wars against the giants, and 
 it was through him alone that Jupiter obtained 
 a victory. Vid. Gigantes. He conquered 
 Laomedon, and pillaged Troy. Vid. Laomedon. 
 When lole, the daughter of Eurytus, king of 
 QEchalia, of whom he was deeply enamoured, 
 was refused to his entreaties, ne became the 
 prey of a second fit of insanity, and he mur- 
 dered Iphitus, the only one of the sons of Eu- 
 rytus who favoured his addresses to lole. Vid. 
 Iphitus. He was some time after purified of 
 the murder, and his insanity ceased ; but the 
 gods persecuted him more, and he was visited 
 by a disorder which obliged him to apply to 
 the oracle of Delphi for relief. The coldness 
 with which the Pythia received him, irritated 
 him, and he resolved to plunder Apollo's temple, 
 and carry away the sacred tripod. Apollo op- 
 posed him, and a severe conflict was begun, 
 which nothing but the interference of Jupiter 
 with his thunderbolts could have prevented. He 
 was upon this told by the oracle that he must be 
 sold as a slave, and remain three years in the 
 most abject servitude to recover from his dis- 
 order. He complied : and Mercury, by order 
 of Jupiter, conducted him to Omphale, queen of 
 Lydia, to whom he was sold as a slave. Here 
 he cleared all the country from robbers ; and 
 Omphale, who was astonished at the greatness 
 of his exploits, restored him to liberty, and mar- 
 ried him. Hercules had Agelaus, and Lamon 
 according to others, by Omphale, from whom 
 Croesus, king of Lydia, was descended. He be- 
 came also enamoured of one of Omphale's fe- 
 male servants, by whom he had Alceus. After 
 he had completed the years of his slavery, he 
 returned to Peloponnesus, where he re-establish- 
 ed on the throne of Sparta, Tyndarus, who had 
 been expelled by Hippocoon. He became one 
 of Dejanira's suiters, and married her, after he 
 had overcome all his rivals. Vid. Achelous. 
 He was obliged to leave Calydon, his father-in- 
 law's kingdom, because he had inadvertently 
 killed a man with a blow of his fist, and it was 
 on account of this expulsion that he was not 
 present at the hunting of the Calydonian boar. 
 From Calydon he retired to the court of Ceyx, 
 king of Trachinia. In his way he was stopped 
 by the swollen streams of the Evenus, where 
 the centaur Nessus attempted to offer violence 
 to Dejanira, under the perfidious pretence of 
 conveying her over the river. Hercules perceiv- 
 ed the distress of Dejanira, and killed the cen- 
 taur, who, as he expired, gave her a tunic, 
 which, as he observed, had the power of re- 
 calling a husband from unlawful love. Vid. 
 Dejanira. Ceyx, king of Trachinia, received 
 him and his wife with great marks of friend- 
 ship, and purified him of the murder he had 
 committed at Calydon. Hercules was still 
 mindful that he had once been refused the hand 
 of lole ; he therefore made war against her 
 father Eurytus, and killed him with three of his 
 sons. lole fell into the hands of her father's 
 murderer, and found that she was loved by Her- 
 cules as much as before. She accompanied him 
 to mount CEta, where he was going to raise an 
 
HE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 HE 
 
 altar, and ofler a solemn sacrifice to Jupiter. As 
 he had not then the tunic in which he arrayed 
 himself to offer a sacrifice, he sent Lichas to 
 Dejanira in order to provide himself a proper 
 dress. Dejanira, informed of her husband's 
 tender attachment to lole, sent him a filter, or 
 more probably the tunic which she had received 
 from Nessus, and Hercules, as soon as he had 
 put it on, fell into a desperate distemper, and 
 found the poison of the Lernsean hydra pene- 
 trate through his bones. He attempted to pull 
 off the fatal dress, but it was too late ; and in 
 the midst of his pains and tortures he inveighed 
 in the most bitter imprecations against the cred- 
 ulous Dejanira, the cruelty of Eurystheus, and 
 the jealousy and hatred of Juno. As the distem- 
 per was incurable, he implored the protection 
 of Jupiter, and gave his bow and arrows to Phi- 
 loctetes, and erected a large burning pile on the 
 top of mount QEta. He spread on the pile the 
 skin of the Nemaean lion, and laid down upon 
 it as on a bed, leaning his head on his club. Phi- 
 loctetes, or, according to others, Pa^an or Hyl- 
 lus, was ordered to set fire to the pile, and the 
 hero saw himself on a sudden surrounded with 
 the flames, without betra3^ingany marks of fear 
 or astonishment. Jupiter saw him from heaven, 
 and told the surrounding gods that he would 
 raise- to the skies the immortal parts of a hero 
 who had cleared the earth from so many mon- 
 sters and tyrants. The gods applauded Jupi- 
 ter's resolution, the burning pile was suddenly 
 surrounded with a dark smoke, and after the 
 mortal parts of Hercules were consumed, he 
 was carried up to heaven in a chariot drawn 
 by four horses. Some loud claps of thunder 
 accompanied his elevation, and his friends, 
 unable to find either his bones or ashes, showed 
 their gratitude to his memory by raising an al- 
 tar where the burning pile had stood. Menoe- 
 tius, the son of Actor, offered him a sacrifice of 
 a bull, a wild boar, and a goat, and enjoined 
 the people of Opus yearly to observe the same 
 religious ceremonies. His worship soon be- 
 came as universal as his fame ; and Juno, who 
 had once persecuted him with such inveterate 
 fury, forgot her resentment, and gave him her 
 daughter Hebe in marriage. Hercules has re- 
 ceived many surnames and epithets, either 
 from the place where his worship was establish- 
 ed, or from the labours which he achieved. His 
 temples were numerous and magnificent, and 
 his divinity revered. The Phoenicians offered 
 quails on his altars, and as it was supposed that 
 he presided over dreams, the sick and infirm 
 were sent to sleep in his temples, that they 
 might receive in their dream the agreeable 
 presages of their approaching recovery. The 
 white poplar was particularly dedicated to his 
 service. Hercules is generally represented na- 
 ked, with strong and well-proportioned limbs; 
 he is sometimes covered with the skin of the 
 Nemaean lion, and holds a knotted club in his 
 hand, on which he often leans. Diod. 1 and 4. 
 — Cic. de Nat. D. 1, &c. — Apollod. 1 and 2. — 
 Paus. 1, 3, 5, 9 and 10. — H"siod. in Scut. Here. 
 &c.—Hygin. fab. 29, 32, Sz-Z.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 
 236, &.c.—Eer. 9, Amor. Trist. &c.— Homer. 11. 
 8, &c. — Theocrit.'^A. — Eurip. in Here. — Virg. 
 JEn. 8, V. 294. — Lucan. 3 and 6. — Apollon. 2.— 
 Dionys. Hal. 1. — Sophocl. in Trachin. — Plut. 
 in Ampkit. — Senec. in Here, furent. <f« (Et. — ■ 
 
 Plin. 4, c. 6, 1. n, &c.—Philost. Icon. % c. 5.— 
 Herodot. 1, c. 7, 1. 2, c. 42, &c.— Quint. Smym. 
 6, V. 207, &c. — Callim. Hym. in Dian. — Pindar. 
 Olymph. od. S.—Ital. 1, v. 438.— Stat. 2. Theb. v. 
 564. — Mela, 2, c. 1. — Lnician. — Dial. — Lactanl. 
 defals. Rel. — Strai. 3, &c, — Herat. Od. Sat. &c. 
 
 Hercyna, a nymph who accompanied Ceres 
 as she travelled over the world. A river in 
 Boeolia bore her name. Paus. 9, c. 39. 
 
 Herilus, a king of Prseneste, son of the 
 nymph Feronia. As he had three lives, he was 
 killed three times by Evander. Vir. Mn. 8, v. 563. 
 
 Hermaphroditus, a son of Venus and Mer- 
 cury, educated on mount Ida by the Naiades. 
 At the age of 15 he began to travel to gratify his 
 curiosity. When he came to Caira, he bathed 
 himself in a fountain, and Salmacis, the nymph 
 who presided over it. became enamoured of him, 
 and attempted to seduce him. Hermaphroditus 
 continued deaf to all entreaties and offers; and 
 Salmacis endeavouring to obtain by force what 
 was denied to prayers, closely em.braced him, 
 and entreated the gods to make them two but one 
 body. Her prayers were heard, and Salmacis 
 and Hermaphroditus, now two in one body, still 
 preserved the characteristics of both their sexes. 
 Hermaphroditus begged the gods that all who 
 bathed in that fountain might become effemi- 
 nate. Ovid. Met. 4, v. Sil.—Hygin. fab. 271. 
 
 Hermes, the name of Mercury among the 
 Greeks. Vid. Mercurius. 
 
 Hermione, a daughter of Mars and Venus, 
 who married Cadmus. The gods, except Juno, 
 honoured their nuptials with their presence, and 
 she received as a present, a rich veil and a 
 splendid necklace which had been made by 
 Vulcan. She was changed into a serpent with 
 her husband Cadmus, and placed in the Elysian 
 fields. Vid. Har mania. Apollod. S. — Ovid. Met. 
 4, fab. 13. Vid. Parts I and II. 
 
 Heroes, the name which was given by the 
 ancients to such as were born from a god, or to 
 such as had signalized themselves by their ac- 
 tions, and seemed to deserve immortality by the 
 service they had rendered their country. The 
 heroes which Homer describes, such as Ajax, 
 Achilles, &c. were of such prodigious strength, 
 that they could lift up and throw stones which 
 the united force of four or five men of his age 
 could not have moved. The heroes were sup- 
 posed to be interested in the affairs of mankind 
 after death, and they were invoked with much 
 solemnity. As the altars of the gods were 
 crowded with sacrifices and libations, so the 
 heroes were often honoured with a funeral 
 solemnity, in which their great exploits were 
 enumerated. 
 
 Herse, a- daughter of Cecrnps, king of 
 Athens, beloved by Mercury. The god dis- 
 closed his love to Aglauros, Herse's sister, in 
 hopes of procuring an easy admission to Herse ; 
 but Aglauros, through jealousy, discovered the 
 amour. Herse became mother of Cephalus by 
 Mercury, and, after death, she received divine 
 honours at Athens. Ovid. Met. 2, v. 559, &c. 
 
 Hertha, and Herta, a goddess among the 
 Germans, supposed to be the same as the earth. 
 She had a temple and a chariot dedicated to her 
 service, in a lemote island, and was supposed to 
 visit the earth at stated times, when her cominsr 
 was celebrated with the greatest rejoicings and 
 festivity. Tacit, de Germ. 
 719 
 
EL 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 JEP 
 
 Hesione, a daughter of Laomedon, king of 
 Troy, by Stryrao, the daughter of the Scaman- 
 der. It fell to her lot to be exposed to a sea- 
 monster, to whom the Trojans yearly presented 
 a marriageable virgin, to appease the resent- 
 ment of Apollo and Neptune, whom Laomedon 
 had offended, but Hercules promised to deliver 
 her, provided he received as a reward six beau- 
 tiful horses. Laomedon consented, and Hercu- 
 les attacked the monster just as he was going 
 to devour Hesione, and he killed him with his 
 club. Laomedon, however, refused to reward 
 the hero's services ; and Hercules, incensed at 
 his treachery, besieged Troy, and put the king 
 and all his family to the sword, except Podarces, 
 or Priam, who had advised his father to give 
 the promised horses to his sister's deliverer. 
 The conqueror gave Hesione in marriage to his 
 friend Telamon, who had assisted him during 
 the war, and he established Priam upon his fa- 
 ther's throne. Homer, II. 5, v. 638. — Diod. 4. 
 Apollod. 2, c. 5, &c:—Ovid. Met. 11, v. 212. 
 
 Hesperides, three celebrated nymphs, daugh- 
 ters of Hesperus. Apollodorus mentions four, 
 JEgle, Erythia, Vesta, and Arethusa; andDio- 
 dorus confounds them with the Atlantides, and 
 supposes that they were the same number. 
 They were appointed to guard the golden ap- 
 ples which Juno gave to Jupiter on the day of 
 their nuptials ; and the place of their residence, 
 placed beyond the ocean by Hesiod, is more 
 universally believed to be near mount Atlas in 
 Africa, according to Apollodorus. This cele- 
 brated place or garden abounded with fruits 
 of the most delicious kind, and was carefully 
 guarded by a dreadful dragon which never 
 slept. It was one of the labours of HerculesJto 
 procure some of the golden apples of the Hes- 
 perides. These were brought to Eurystheus, 
 and afterwards carried back by Minerva into 
 the garden of the Hesperides, as they could be 
 preserved in no other place. Hercules is some- 
 times represented gathering the apples, and the 
 dragon, which guarded the tree, appears bowing 
 down his head, as having received a mortal 
 wound. This monster, as it is supposed, was 
 the offspring of Typhon, and it had a hundred 
 heads and as many voices. This number, 
 however, is reduced by some to only one head. 
 Those that attempt to explain mythology, ob- 
 serve that the Hesperides were certain persons 
 who had an immense number of flocks; and that 
 the ambiguous word uri^ov, which signifies an 
 apple, and a sheep, gave rise to the fable of the 
 golden apples of the Hesperides. Diod. 4. — 
 Ovid. Met. 4, V. 637, &c. 1.9, v. 90.— Hi/^in. fab. 
 :iO.—Apol. 3, c. 5.— Hesiod. Theog. v. 215, &c. 
 
 Hesperus, I. a son of Japetus, brother to At- 
 las. He came to Italy, and the country received 
 the name of Hesperia from him, according to 
 some accounts. He had a daughter called Hes- 
 peris, who married Atlas, and became mother 
 of seven daughters, called Atlantides or Hespe- 
 rides. Diod. 4. II. The name of Hesperus 
 
 was also applied to the planet Venus, when it 
 appeared after the setting of the sun. It was 
 called Phosphorus or L/ucifer when it preceded 
 the sun. Cic. de J^at. D. 2, c. 2. — Senec. de 
 Hippol. 749. Id. in Med. 71. 
 
 Hesus, a deity among the Gauls, the same as 
 the Mars of the Romans. iMcan. 1, v. 445. 
 Hierax, a youth who awoke Argus to inform 
 720 
 
 him that Mercury was stealing lo^ Mercury 
 killed him, and changed him into a bird of prey. 
 Apollod. 2, c. 1. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Hilaria, a daughter of Leucippus and Phi- 
 lodice. As she and her sister Phoebe were going 
 to marry their cousins Lynceus and Idas, they 
 were carried away by Castor and Pollux, who 
 married them. Hilaria had Anagon by Castor, 
 and she, as well as her sister, obiained, after 
 death, the honours which were generally paid 
 to heroes. Apollod. 3. — Propert. 1, el. 2, v. 16. 
 —Pans. 2, c. 22, 1. 3, c. 19. 
 
 HiPPius, a surname of Neptune, from his 
 having raised a horse (tTTTroj) from the earth in 
 his contest with Minerva, concerning the giving 
 a name to Athens. 
 
 HippocENTAURi, a race of monsters who 
 dwelt in Thessaly. Vid. Ceniauri. 
 
 HippocooN, a son of CEbalus, brother to 
 Tyndarus. He was put to death by Hercules 
 because he had driven his brother from the king- 
 dom of Lacedaemon. He was at the chase of 
 the Calydonian boar. Diod. 4. — Apollod. 2, &c. 
 1. 3, c. 10.— Paws. Lacon.— Ovid. Met. 8, v. 314. 
 
 Hippodame, and Hippodamia, I. a daughter 
 of OEnomaus, king of Pisa, in Elis, who mar- 
 ried Pelops, son of Tantalus. Her father re- 
 fused to marry her, except to him who could 
 overcome him in a chariot race. As the beauty 
 of Hippodamia was greatly celebrated, many 
 courted her, and accepted her father's condi- 
 tions, though death attended a defeat. Thir- 
 teen had already been conquered, and forfeited 
 their lives, when Pelops came from Lydia and 
 entered the lists. He previously bribed Myrti- 
 lus, the charioteer of CEnomaus, and ensured 
 himself the victory. Hippodamia became mo- 
 ther of Atrens and Thyestes, and it is said 
 that she died of grief for the death of her fa- 
 ther, which her guilty correspondence with Pe- 
 lops and Myrtilus had occasioned. Virg. G. 3, 
 V, 7. — Hygin. fab. 84 and 253. — Pans. 5, c. 14, 
 &.c.—Diod. 4. — Ovid. Heroid. 8 and 17. Vid. 
 (Enomaus. — II. A daughter of Adrastus, king 
 of Argos, who married Pirithous, king of the 
 Lapithse. The festivity which prevailed on the 
 day of her marriage was interrupted by the at- 
 tempts of Eurytus to offer her violence. Vid. 
 pirithous. She is called Ischomache by some, 
 and Deidamia by others. Ov)id. Met. 12. — 
 Plut. in Thes. 
 
 HiPPOLOCHUs, I. a son of Bellerophon, father 
 to Glaucu?,who commanded the Lycians during 
 
 the Trojan war. II. A son of Glaucus also 
 
 bore the same name. Homer. 11. 6, v. 119. 
 
 HippoLYTE, a queen of the Amazons, given 
 in marriage to Theseus by Hercules, who had 
 conquered her, and taken away her girdle by 
 order of Eurystheus. Vid. Hercules. She ha3 
 a son by Theseus, called Hippyolytus. Plut. in 
 Thes. — Propert. 4, el. 3. Vid. Acastus. 
 
 HippSlytds, a ^on of Theseus and Hippo- 
 Ivte, famous for his virtues and his misfortunes. 
 Temples were raised to his memory, particu- 
 larly at Troezene, where he received divine 
 honours. According to some accounts, Diana 
 restored him to life. Vid. Phadra, and Part II. 
 HippoMEDON, a son of Nisimaclms and My- 
 thidice, who was one of the seven chiefs who 
 went against Thebes. He was killed by Isma- 
 rus, son of Acastus. Apol. 3, c. 6. — Paus. 2, c. 36. 
 HippoMENES. Vid. Atalanta. 
 
HY 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 HY 
 
 HiPPoNA, a goddess who presided over horses. 
 Her statues were placed in horses' stables. Juv. 
 8, V. 157. 
 
 HippoTHoox, a son of Neptune and Alope, 
 daughter of Cercyon, exposed in the woods by 
 his mother, that her amours with the god might 
 be concealed from her father. Her shame was 
 discovered, and her father ordered him to be put 
 to death. Neptune changed her into a fountain, 
 and the child was preserved by mares ; whence 
 his name, and when grown up, placed on his 
 grandfather's throne by the friendship of The- 
 seus. Hygin. fab. 187. — Pans. 1, c. 38. 
 
 Honor, a virtue worshipped at Rome. Her 
 first temple was erected by Scipio Africanus, 
 and another was afterwards built by Claudius 
 Marcellus. Cic. de Nat. D. 2, c. 23. 
 
 HoRA, a goddess at Rome, supposed to be 
 Hersilia, who married Romulus. She was said 
 to preside over beauty. Ovid. Met. 14, v. 851. 
 
 HoR^, three sisters, daughters of Jupiter and 
 Themis, according to Hesiod, called Eunomia, 
 Dice, and Irene. They were the same as the 
 seasons who presided over the spring, summer, 
 and winter, and were represented by the poets 
 as opening the gates of heaven and of Olympus. 
 Homer. U. 5, v. 749. — Paiis. 5, c. 11. — Hesiod. 
 Theog. V. 902. 
 
 HoRTA, a divinity among the Romans, who 
 presided over youth, and patronised all exhorta- 
 tions to virtue and honourable deeds. She is 
 the same as Herselia. 
 
 HoRUs, a son of Isis, one of the deities of the 
 Egyptians. 
 
 HqspiTALis, a surname of Jupiter among the 
 Romans, as the god of hospitality, 
 
 Hyacinthus, a son of Amyclas and Diomede, 
 greatly beloved by Apollo and Zephyrus. He 
 returned the former's love, and Zephyrus, in- 
 censed at his coldness and indifference, resolv- 
 ed to punish his rival. As Apollo, who was 
 intrusted with the education of Hyacinthus, 
 once played at quoit, with his pupil, Zephy- 
 rus blew the quoit, as soon as it was thrown 
 by Apollo, upon the head of Hyacinthus, and 
 he was killed by the blow. Apollo was so dis- 
 consolate at the death of Hyacinthus, that he 
 changed his blood into a flower, which bore his 
 name, and placed his body among the constella- 
 tions. The Spartans also established yearly 
 festivals in honour of the nephew of their king. 
 Pans. 3, c. 19.— Ovid. Met. 10, v. 185, &c.— 
 Apollod. 3, &c. 
 
 Hyades, five daughters of Atlas, king of 
 Mauretania, who were so disconsolate at the 
 death of their brother Hyas, who had been kill- 
 ed by a wild boar, that they pined away and 
 died. They became stars after death, and were 
 placed near Taurus, one of the 12 signs of the 
 zodiac. They received the name of Hyades 
 from their brother Hyas. Their names are 
 Phaola, Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, and Po- 
 Ivxo. To these some have added Thione and 
 Prodice, and they maintained that they were 
 daughters of Hyas and iEthra, one of the 
 Oceanides. Euripides calls them daughters of 
 Erechtheus. The ancients supposed that the 
 rising and setting of the Hyades was always at- 
 tended with much rain, whence the name (vu) 
 pluo.) Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 165. — Hygin. fab. 182. 
 — Eurip. in Ion. 
 
 Hyas, a son of Atlas, of Mauretania, by 
 
 Part III.-4 Y 
 
 ^thra. He was killed in an attempt to rob a 
 lioness of her whelps. Some say that he died 
 by the bite of a serpent, and others that he was 
 killed by a wild boar. Vid. Hyades. Hygin. 
 fab. 192.— Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 170. 
 
 Hydra, a celebrated monster, which infested 
 the neighbourhood of the lake Lerna in Pelo- 
 ponnesus. It was the fruit of Echidna's union 
 with Typhon. It had a hundred heads ac- 
 cording to Diodorus ; fifty, according to Simo- 
 nides ; and nine according to the more received 
 opinion of Apollodorus, Hygin lus, &c. As soon 
 as one of these heads was cut off, two imme- 
 diately grew up if the wound was not stopped 
 by fire. It was one of the labours of Hercules to 
 destroy this dreadful monster, and this he easily 
 effected with the assistance of lolaus, who ap- 
 plied a burning iron to the wounds, as soon as 
 one head was cut off. The conqueror dipped 
 his arrows in the gall of the hydra, and, from 
 that circumstance, all the wounds which he 
 gave proved incurable and mortal. Hesiod. 
 Theog. — Apollod. 2, c. 5. — Pans. 5, c. 17. — 
 Ovid. Met. 9, v. 69.—Horat. 4, ob. 4, v. 61.— 
 Virg. Mn. 6, v. 276, 1. 7, v. 658. 
 
 HYGEfA, or Hygiea, the goddess of health, 
 daughter of iEsculapius, held in great venera- 
 tion among the ancients. Her statues repre- 
 sented her with a veil, and the matrons usually 
 consecrated their locks to her. She was also 
 represented on monuments as a young woman, 
 holding a serpent in one hand, and in the other 
 a cup, out of which the serpent sometimes 
 drank. According to some authors, Hygeia is 
 the same as Minerva, who received that name 
 from Pericles, who erected her a statue, because 
 in a dream she had told him the means of 
 curing an architect, whose assistance he want- 
 ed to build a temple. PUd. in Pericl.—Paus. 
 1, c. 23. 
 
 Hylas, a son of Thiodamas, king of Mysia, 
 and Menodice, stolen away by Hercules, and 
 carried on board the ship Argo to Colchis. On 
 the Asiatic coast the Argonauts landed to take 
 a supply of fresh water ; and Hylas, following 
 the example of his companions, went to the 
 fountain with a pitcher, and fell into the water 
 and was drowned. The poets have embellished 
 this tragical stor}', by saying, that the nymphs 
 of the river, enamoured of the beautiful Hylas, 
 carried him away; and that Hercules, discon- 
 solate at the loss of his favourite youth, filled 
 the woods and mountains with his complaints, 
 and, at last, abandoned the Argonautic expedi- 
 tion to go and seek him. Apol. 1, c. 9. — Hygin. 
 fab. 14. 211.— Virg. Ed. 6.—Propert. 1, el. 20. 
 
 Hyllus, a son of Hercules and Dejanira, 
 who, soon after his father's death, married lole. 
 He, as well as his father, was persecuted by the 
 envy of Eurystheus, and obliged to fly from the 
 Peloponnesus. The Athenians gave a kind re- 
 ception to Hyllus and the rest of the Heraclidae, 
 and marched against Eurystheus. Hyllus ob- 
 tained a victory over his enemies, and killed 
 with his own hand Eurystheus, and sent his 
 head to Alcmena, his grandmother. Some time 
 after he attempted to recover the Peloponnesus 
 with the Heraclidae, and was killed in single 
 combat by Echeraus, king of Arcadia. Vid. 
 Heradida, Hercules. Herodot. 7, c. 204, &c. 
 —Sf.rnb. 9.—Diod. A.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 270. 
 Vid. Part I. 
 
 721 
 
HY 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 M 
 
 Hylonome, the wife of Cyllaras, who killed 
 herself the moment her hiisband was murdered 
 by the Lapithse. Ovid. Met. 13, v. 405. 
 
 Hymen^us, and Hymen, the god of marriage 
 among the Greeks, was son of Bacchus and 
 Venus, or, according to others, of Apollo and 
 one of the muses. Hymenaeus, according to 
 the more received opinions, was a young Athe- 
 nian of extraordinary beauty,bui ignoble origin. 
 He became enamoured of the daughter of one 
 of the richest and noblest of his countrymen, 
 and, as the rank and elevation of his mistress 
 removed him from her presence and conver- 
 sation, he contented himself to follow her 
 wherever she went. In a certain procession, 
 in which all the matrons of Athens went to 
 Eleusis, Hymenaeus, to accompany his mistress, 
 disguised himself in woman's clothes, and join- 
 ed the religious troop. His youth, and the 
 fairness of his features, favoured his disguise. 
 A great part of the procession was seized by 
 the sudden arrival of some pirates, and Hyme- 
 naeus, who shared the captivity of his mistress, 
 encouraged his female companions, and assassi- 
 nated their ravishers while they were asleep. 
 Immediately after this, Hymenasus repaired to 
 Athens, and promised to restore to liberty the 
 matrons who had been enslaved, provided he 
 was allowed to marry one among them who was 
 the object of his passion. The Athenians con- 
 sented, and Hymenaeus experienced so much 
 felicity in his marriage state that the people of 
 Athens instituted festivals in his honour, and 
 solemnly invoked him at their nuptials, as the 
 Latins did their Thalassius. Hymen was 
 generally represented as crowned with flowers, 
 chiefly with marjoram or roses, and holding a 
 burning torch in one hand, and in the other a 
 vest of purple colour. It was supposed that he 
 always attended at nuptials ; for, if not, matri- 
 monial connexions were fatal, and ended in the 
 most dreadful calamities ; and hence people ran 
 about calling aloud, Hymen! Hymen! &c. 
 Ovid. Medea. Met. 12, v. ^l^.— Virg.AHn. 1, 
 &.c.— Catull. ep. 62. 
 
 Hyperion, a son of Coelus and Terra, who 
 married Thea, by whom he had Aurora, the 
 sun and moon. Hyperion is often taken by 
 the poets for the sun itself. Herod. Theog. — 
 Apollod. 1, c. 1 and 2. — Homer, hymn, ad Ap. 
 
 Hypermnestra. Vid. Danaides. 
 
 Hypsipyle, a queen of Lemnos, daughter of 
 Thoas and Myrine. During her reign, Venus, 
 whose altars had been universally slighted, 
 punished the Lemnian women, and rendered 
 their mouths and breath so extremely offensive 
 to the smell, that their husbands abandoned 
 them, and gave themselves up to some female 
 slaves, whom they had taken in the war against 
 Thrace. This contempt was highly resented 
 by all the women of Lemnos, and they resolved 
 on revenge, and all unanimously put to death 
 their male relations, Hypsipyle alone excepted, 
 who spared the life of her faiher Thoas. Soon 
 after this cruel murder, the Argonauts landed 
 at Lemnos, in their expedition to Colchis and 
 remained for some time in the island. During 
 their stay the Argonauts rendered the Lemnian 
 women mothers; and Jason, the chief of the 
 Argonautic expedition, left Hypsipyle pregnant 
 at his departure, and promised her eternal fideli- 
 ty. Hypsipyle brought twins, Euneus and Ne- 
 732 
 
 brophonus, whom some have called Deiphilus 
 or Thoas, Jason forgot his vows and promises 
 to Hypsipyle, and the unfortunate queen was 
 soon after forced to leave her kingdom by the 
 Lemnian women, who conspired against her 
 life, still mindful that Thoas had been preserved 
 by means of his daughter. Hypsipyle, in her 
 flight, was seized by pirates, and sold to Lycur- 
 gus, king of Nemeea. She was intrusted with 
 the care of Archemorus, the son of Lycurgus j 
 and when the Argives marched against Thebes, 
 they met Hypsipyle, and obliged her to show 
 them a fountain, where they might quench their 
 thirst. To do this more expeditiously, she laid 
 down the child on the grass, and in her absence 
 he was killed by a serpent. Lycurgus attempted 
 to revenge the death of his son, but Hypsipyle 
 was screened from his resentment by Adrastus, 
 the leader of the Argives. Ovid. Heroid. 6. — 
 Apollon. 1. — Stat. 5. — Theb. — FV,ac. 2. — ApoUod. 
 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. &.—Hygin. fab. 15, 74, &c. 
 
 I. 
 
 Iacchus, a surname of Bacchus, ah la^^i-Vy 
 from the noise and shouts which the bacchanals 
 raised at the festivals of this deity. Virg. Eel. 
 
 6, G. 1, V, 166.— Ovid. Met. 4, 15. Some 
 
 suppose him to be a son of Ceres ; because in 
 the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries, the 
 word Iacchus was frequently repeated. Herodot. 
 8, c. 65. — Pans. 1, c, 2. 
 
 Ialmenus, a son of Mars and Astyoche, who 
 went to the Trojan war with his brother Asca- 
 laphus, with 30 ships, at the head of the inhab- 
 itants of Orchomenos and Aspledon, in Boeotia. 
 Pans. 9, c. Zl.— Homer. II. 2, v. 19. 
 
 Iambe, a servant maid of Metanira, wife of 
 Celeus, king of Eleusis, who tried to exhilarate 
 Ceres when she travelled over Attica in quest 
 of her daughter Proserpine, From the jokes 
 and stories which she made use of, free and 
 satirical verses have been cdiWedi Iambics. Apol- 
 lod. 1, c, 5. 
 
 Iamid^, certain prophets among the Greeks, 
 descended from lamus, a son of Apollo, who re- 
 ceived the gift of prophecy from his father, which 
 remained among his posterity. Pans. 6, c. 2. 
 
 Janus, the most ancient king who reigned in 
 Italy. He was a native of Thessaly, and son of 
 Apollo, according to some. He came to Italy, 
 where he planted a colony and built a small 
 town on the river Tiber, which he called Jani- 
 culum. Some authors make him son of Coelus 
 and Hecate ; and others make him a native of 
 Athens. During his reign, Saturn, driven from 
 heaven by his son Jupiter, came to Italy, where 
 Janus received him with much hospitality, and 
 made him his colleague on the throne. Janus 
 is represented with two faces, because he was 
 acquainted with the past and the future ; or, 
 according to others, because he was taken fur 
 the sun, who opens the day at his rising, and 
 shuts it at his setting. Some statues represented 
 Janus with four heads. He sometimes appeared 
 with a beard, and sometimes without. In reli- 
 gious ceremonies, his name was always invoked 
 the first, because he presided over all gates and 
 avenues, and it is through him only that prayers 
 can reach the immortal gods. From that cir- 
 cumstance he often appears with a key in his 
 right hand , and a rod in his left. Sometimes he 
 
JA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 JA 
 
 holds the number 300 in one hand, and in the 
 other 65, to show that he presides over the year, 
 of which the first month bears his name. Some 
 suppose that he is the same as the world, or Cce- 
 lus ; and from that circumstance they call him 
 Eanus, ab eundo, because of the revolution of 
 the heavens. He was called by different names, 
 such as Conslvius a consorendo, because he pre- 
 sided over generation ; Quirinus or Martialis, 
 because he presided over war. He is also calleii 
 Fakdcius ^ Clausuis, because the gales of his 
 temples were opened during the time of war 
 and shut in time of peace. He was chiefly wor- 
 shipped among the Romans,where he had many 
 temples, some erected to Janus Bifrons, others 
 to Janus Gluad rifrons. The temples of Cliiadri- 
 frons were built with four equal sides, with a 
 door and three windows on each side. The four 
 doors were the emblems of the four seasons of 
 the year, and the three windows in each of the 
 sides the three months in each season, and all 
 together, the twelve months of the year. Janus 
 was generally represented in statues as a young 
 man. After death, Janus was ranked among 
 the gods, for his popularity, and the civilization 
 which he had introduced among the wild in- 
 habitants of Italy, His temple, which was al- 
 ways open in time of war, was shut onl)'' three 
 times during above 700 years, under Numa, 
 234 B. C, and under Augustus ; and during 
 that long period of time, the Romans were con- 
 tinually employed in war. Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 
 65, &c.— Virg. JEn. 7, v. 607, — Varro de L. L. 
 1. — Macrob. Sat. 1, 
 
 Japetus, a son of Coelus or Titan, by Terra, 
 who married Asia, or, according to others, 
 Clymene, by whom he had Atlas, MencEtius, 
 Prometheus, and Epimetheus, The Greeks 
 looked upon him as the father of all mankind, 
 and therefore from his antiquity old men were 
 frequently called Japeti. His sons received the 
 patronymic of Impetionides. Ovid. Met. 4,v. 631. 
 —Hesiod. Theog. 136 and 508.— A^oZZo^. 1, c. 1. 
 
 Iapyx, a son of Daedalus, who conquered a 
 part of Italy, which he called lapj/gia. Ovid. 
 Met. 14, V. 458, Vid. Part I, 
 
 Iarbas, a son of Jupiter and Garamantis, 
 king of Gaetulia, from which Dido bought land 
 to build Carthage, He courted Dido, but the 
 arrival of -/Eneas prevented his success, and the 
 queen, rather than marry Iarbas, destroyed 
 herself. Vid. Dido. Virg. Mn. 4, v. 36, &s.— 
 Justin. 18, c. 6. — Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 552. 
 
 Iasion, and Iasius, a son of Jupiter and Elec- 
 tra, oneof the Atlan tides, who reigned over part 
 of Arcadia, where he diligently applied himself 
 to agriculture. He married the goddess Cybele, 
 or Ceres, and all the gods were present at the 
 celebration of his nuptials. He had by Ceres 
 two sons, Philomelusand Plutus, towhora some 
 have added a third, Corybas, who introduced 
 the worshi-p) and mysteries of his mother in 
 Phrygia. He had also a daughter, whom he 
 exposed as soon as born, saying that he would 
 raise only male children. The child, who was 
 suckled by a she-bear and preserved, rendered 
 herself famous afterwards, under the name of 
 Atalanta. Iasion was killed with a thunderbolt 
 of Jupiter, and ranked among the gods after 
 death by the inhabitants of Arcadia. Hes. The. 
 910.— Virg. ^n. 3, v. im.—Hyg. Poet. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Jason, a celebrated hero, son of Alcimede, 
 
 daughter of Phylacus, by ^son the son of Cre- 
 theus, and Tyro the daughter of Salmoneus. 
 Tyro, before her connexion with Cretheus the 
 son of iEolus, had two son, Pelias and Neleus, 
 by Neptune, iEson was king of lolchos, and 
 at his death the throne was usurped by Pelias, 
 and ^son, the lawful successor, was driven to 
 retirement and obscurity. The education of 
 young Jason was intrusted to the care of the 
 centaur Chiron, and he was removed from the 
 presence of the usurper, who had been informed 
 by an oracle that one of the descendants of 
 JEoIus would dethrone him. After he had made 
 the most rapid progress in every branch of sci- 
 ence, Jason left the centaur, and by his advice 
 went to consult the oracle. He was ordered to 
 go to lolchos, his native country, covered with 
 the spoils of a leopard, and dressed in the gar- 
 ments of a Magnesian. In his journey he was 
 stopped by the inundation of the river Evenus 
 or Enipeus, over which he was carried by Juno, 
 who had changed herself into an old woman. 
 In crossing the streams he lost one of his san- 
 dals, and at his arrival at lolchos, the singularity 
 of his dress and the fairness of his complexion 
 attracted the notice of the people, and drew a 
 crowd around him in the market place, Pelias 
 came to see him with the rest, and as he had 
 been warned oy the oracle to beware of a man 
 who should appear at lolchos with one foot bare 
 and the other shod, the appearanc? of Jason, who 
 had lost one of his sandals, alarmed him. His 
 terrors were soon augmented. Jason, accom- 
 panied by his friends, repaired to the palace of 
 Pelias, and boldly demanded the kingdom which 
 he had unjustly usurped. The boldness and 
 popularity of Jason intimidated Pelias; he was 
 unwilling to abdicate the crown, and yet he fear- 
 ed the resentment of his adversary. As Jason 
 was young and ambitious of glory, Pelias, at 
 once to remove his immediate claims to the 
 crown, reminded him that ^etes, king of Col- 
 chis, had severely treated and inhumanly mur- 
 dered their common relation Phryxus. He ob- 
 served that such a treatment called aloud for 
 punishment, and that the undertaking would be 
 accompanied with much glory and fame. He 
 farther added, that his old age had prevented 
 him from avenging the death of Phryxus, and 
 that if Jason would undertake the expedition, 
 he would resign to him the crown of lolchos, 
 when he returned victorious from Colchis. 
 Jason readily accepted the proposal which 
 seemed to promise such military fame, Vid. 
 ArgonautcR. After this celebrated conquest he 
 immediately set sail for Europe with Medea, 
 who had been instrumental in his preservation. 
 Jason's partiality for Glauce,the daughter of the 
 king of Corinth, afterwards disturbed their mat- 
 rimonial happiness, and Medea was divorced 
 that Jason might more freely indulge his amo- 
 rous propensities. This infidelity was severely 
 revenged by Medea, ( Vid.Glauce,) who destroy- 
 ed her children in the presence of their father. 
 Vid. Medea. After his separation from Me- 
 dea, Jason lived an unsettled and melancholy 
 life. As he was one day reposing himself hy 
 the side of the ship which had carried him to 
 Colchis, a beam fell upon his head, and he was 
 crushed to death. This tragical event had been 
 predicted to him before by Medea, according to 
 the relation of some authors. Some say that he 
 723 
 
ID 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 IL 
 
 afterwards returned to Colchis, where he seized 
 the kingdom and reigned in great security. Eu- 
 rip.in Med.— Ovid. Met. 1, fab. 2,3, &c.—Diod. 
 4. — Pans. 2 and 3. — Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Cic. de 
 Nat. 3.— Ovid. Trist. 3, el. 9.—Strab. 7.— 
 ApoU. — Mace. — Hygin. 5, &c. — Pindar. 3, Nfm. 
 — Justin. 42, c. 2, &c. — Seiiec.inMed. — Tzetz. 
 adiAjcopK. 115, &c. — Atheu. 13. Vid. Part II. 
 IcARius, I, an Athenian, father of Erigone. 
 He gave wine to some peasants, who drank it 
 with the greatest avidity, ignorant of its intox- 
 icating nature. They were soon deprived of 
 their reason, and the fury and resentment of 
 their friends and neighbours were immediately 
 turned upon Icarius, who perished by their 
 hands. After death he was honoured with 
 public festivals, and his daughter was led to 
 discover the place of his burial by means of his 
 faithful dog Mosra. Erigone hung herself in 
 despair, and was changed into a constellation 
 called Virgo. Icarius was changed into the 
 star Bootes, and the dog McEra into the star 
 Canis. Hygin. fab. 130. — Apollod. 3, c. 14, 
 
 II. A son of CEbalus of Lacedeemon. He gave 
 his daughter Penelope in marriage to Ulysses 
 king of Ithaca, but he was so tenderly attached 
 to her, that he wished her husband to settle at 
 Lacedaemon, Ulysses refused, and when he 
 saw the earnest petitions of Icarius, he told 
 Penelope, as they were going to embark, that 
 she might choose freely either to follow him to 
 Ithaca, or to remain with her father. Penelope 
 blushed in the deepest silence, and covered her 
 head with her veil. Icarius upon this permit- 
 ted his daughter to go to Ithaca, and immediate- 
 ly erected a temple to the goddess of modesty, 
 on the spot where Penelope had covered her 
 blushes with her veil. Homer. Od. 16, v. 435. 
 Icarus, a son of Daedalus, who, with his fa- 
 ther, fled with wings from Crete to escape the 
 resentment of Minos. His flight being too high, 
 proved fatal to him ; the sun melted the wax 
 which cemented his wings, and he fell into that 
 
 Eart of the JEgean Sea which was called after 
 is name. Vid. Dcedalus. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 178. 
 
 IcELOs, one of the sons of Somnus, who 
 changed himself into all sorts of animals, 
 "whence the name (fj^eXo? similis). Ovid. Met. 
 11, V. 640. 
 
 Ida, a nymph of Crete, who went into Phry- 
 gia, where she gave her name to a mountain of 
 that country. Virg. jEn. 8, v. 177. Vid. Part I. 
 
 lD^A,the surname of Cybele, because she was 
 worshipped on mount Ida. Lkcret. 2, v. 611. 
 
 Idas, a son of Aphareus and Arane, famous 
 for his valour and military glory. He was 
 among the Argonauts, and married Marpessa, 
 the daughter of Evenus, king of iEtolia. Mar- 
 pessa was carried away by Apollo, and Idas 
 pursued his wife's ravish er with bows and ar- 
 rows, and obliged him to restore her. Vid. 
 Marpessa. According to Apollodorus, Idas 
 with his brother Lynceus associated with Pol- 
 lux and Castor to carry away some flocks; but 
 when they had obtained a sufficient quantity 
 of plunder, they refused to divide it into equal 
 shares. This provoked the sons of Leda ; Lyn- 
 ceus was killed by Castor, and Idas, to revenge 
 his brother's death, immediately killed Castor, 
 and in his turn perished by the hand of Pollux. 
 According to Ovid and Pausanias, ihe quarrel 
 between the sons of Leda and those of Apha- 
 734 
 
 reus arose from a more tender cause : Idas and 
 Lynceus, as they say, were going to celebrate 
 their nuptials with Phoebe and Hilaira, the two 
 daughters of Leucippus ; but Castor and Pollux, 
 who had been invited to partake the common 
 festivity, offered violence to the brides and car- 
 ried them away. Idas and Lynceus fell in the 
 attempt to recover their wives. Homer. 11. 9. — 
 Hygin. fab. 14, 100, &c.— Ovid. Past. 5, v. 700. 
 — Apollod. 1 and 3. — Pans. 4, c. 2 and 1. 5, c. 18. 
 
 Idea, or Id.ea, I. a daughter of Dardaniis, 
 who became the second wife of Phineus, king 
 of Bithynia, and abused the confidence reposed 
 
 in her by her husband. Vid. Phineus. II. 
 
 The mother of Teucer by Scamander. Apol. 
 
 Idmon, son of Apollo and Asteria, or, as some 
 say, of Cyrene, was the prophet of the Argo- 
 nauts. He was killed in hunting a wild boar 
 in Bithynia, where his body received a magni- 
 ficent funeral. He had predicted the time and 
 manner of his death. Apollod. 1, c, 9. — Orph. 
 
 Idomeneus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Ilaira, a daughter of Leucippus, carried 
 away with her sister Phoebe, by the sons of 
 Leda, as she w^as going to be married, &c. 
 
 Ilia, or Rhea, a daughter of Numitor, king 
 of Alba, consecrated by her uncle Amulius to 
 the service of Vesta, which required perpetual 
 chastity, that she might not become a mother to 
 d ispossess him of his crown . He was, however, 
 disappointed ; violence was offered to Ilia, and 
 she brought forth Romulus and Remus, who 
 drove the usurper from his throne, and restored 
 the crown to their grandfather Numitor, its 
 lawful possessor. Ilia was buried alive by 
 Amulius for violating the laws of Vesta; and 
 because her tomb was near the Tiber, some 
 suppose that she married the god of that river. 
 Horat. 1, od. 2.— Virg. jEn. 1, v. 211.— Ovid. 
 Past. 2, 598. 
 
 Iliades, I. a surname given to Romulus, as 
 
 son of Ilia. Ovid. II. A name given to the 
 
 Trojan women. Virg. JEn. 1, v. 484. 
 
 Ilione, the eldest daughter of Priam, who 
 married Polymnester, king of Thrace. Virg. 
 Mn. 1, V. 657. 
 
 Ilithyia, a goddess, called also Juno Lucina. 
 Some suppose her to be the same as Diana. 
 She presided over the travails of women; and 
 in her temple at Rome, it was usual to carry a 
 small piece of money as an oflfering. This cus- 
 tom was first established by Servius Tullius, 
 who, by enforcing it, was enabled to know the 
 exact number of the Roman people. Hesiod. Th. 
 i50.— Homer. 11. 11, od. \9.— Apollod. 1 and 2. 
 — Horat. carm. scecul. — Ovid. Met. 9, v. 283. 
 
 Illyrius, a son of Cadmus and Hermione, 
 from whom Illyricum received its name. Apol. 
 
 Ilus, I. the fourth king of Troy, was son of 
 Tros by Callirhoe. He married Eurydice the 
 daughter of Adrastus, by whom he had Themis, 
 who married Capys, and Laomedon the father 
 of Priam. He built, or rather embellished, the 
 city of Ilium, called also Troy from his father 
 Tros. Jupiter gave him the Palladium, a cele- 
 brated statue of Minerva, and promised that 
 as long as it remained in Troy, so long would 
 the town remain impjegnable. When the tem- 
 ple of Minerva was in flames, Ilus rushed into 
 the middle of the fire to save the Palladium, for 
 which action he was deprived of bis sight by the 
 goddess, though he recovered it some time after. 
 
JO 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 IP 
 
 ■Homer. ll.—Strab. Vi.—Apol 3, c. 12.— Ovid. 
 
 Fast. 4, V. 33, 1. 6, v. 419. II. A name of As- 
 
 •canius, while he was at Troy, Virg,^n.l,v.212. 
 
 iNACHiDEf?, I. a patronymic of Epaphus, as 
 grandson of Inachus. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 704. 
 II. And of Perseus, descended from Ina- 
 chus. Id. 4, fab. 11. 
 
 Inachus, a son of Oceanus and Tethys, fa- 
 ther of lo, and also of Phoroneus and iEgialeus. 
 He founded the kingdom of Argos, and was 
 succeeded by Phoroneus, B.C. 1807, and gave 
 his name to a river of Argos, of which he be- 
 came the tutelar deity. He reigned 60 years. 
 Virg. G. 3, V. Ibl.—Apollod. 2, c. 2.— Pans. 2, 
 c. 15. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Indigetes, a name given to those deities who 
 were worshipped only in some particular places, 
 or who were become gods from men, as Her- 
 cules, Bacchus, &c. Some derive the word 
 from inde and geniti, born at the same place 
 where they received their worship, Virg. G. 
 1, V. 4QS.--Ovid. Met. 14, v. 608. 
 
 Ino, a daughter of Cadmus and Harraonia. 
 Vid. Alhamas. 
 
 lo, daughter of Inachus, or, according to 
 others, of Jasus or Pirenes, was priestess to 
 Juno at Argos, Jupiter became enamoured of 
 her ; but Juno, jealous of his intrigues, discover- 
 ed the object of his affection, and surprised him 
 in the company of lo, though he had shrouded 
 himself in all the obscurity of clouds and thick 
 mists. Jupiter changed his mistress into a beau- 
 tiful heifer; and the goddess, who well knew 
 the fraud, obtained from her husband the ani- 
 mal whose beauty she had condescended to 
 comrriend, Juno commanded the hundred-eyed 
 Argus to watch the heifer ; but Jupiter, anxious 
 for the situation of lo, sent Mercury to destroy 
 Argus, and to restore her to liberty, Vid. Ar- 
 gus, lo, freed from the vigilance of Argus, 
 was now persecuted by Juno, who sent one of 
 the furies, or rather a malicious insect, to tor- 
 ment her. She wandered over the greatest part 
 of the earth, and crossed over the sea, till at last 
 she stopped on the banks of the Nile, still ex- 
 posed to the unceasing torments of Juno's in- 
 sect. Here she entreated Jupiter to restore her 
 to her ancient form; and when the god had 
 changed her from a heifer into a woman, she 
 brought forth Epaphus. Afterwards she mar- 
 ried Telagonus, king of Egypt, or Osiris, ac- 
 cording to others ; and she treated her subjects 
 with such mildness and humanity, that, after 
 death, she received divine honours, and was 
 worshipped under the name of Isis. Accord- 
 ing to Herodotus, lo was carried away by Phoe- 
 nician merchants, who wished to make reprisals 
 for Europa, who had been stolen from them hy 
 the Greeks. Some suppose that lo never came 
 to Egypt. She is sometimes called Phoronis, 
 from her brother Phoroneus. Oind. Met. 1, v. 
 'lis.— Pans: 1, c. 25, 1. 3, c. IS.— Moschus.— 
 Apollod. 2, c. i.— Virg. ^n. 7, Y.1^9.—Hygin. 
 fab. 145. 
 
 loBATEs, and Jobates, a king of Lycia, father 
 of Stenobssa, the wife of Proetus, king of Argos, 
 He was succeeded on the throne by Bellerophon, 
 to whom she had given one of her daughters, 
 called Philonoe, in marriage. Vid. Bellero- 
 phon. Apollod. 2, c. 2. — Hygin. fab, 57. 
 
 JocASTA, a daughter of Menoeceus, who mar- 
 ried Laius, king of Thebes, by whom she had 
 
 CEdipus. She afterwards married herson (Edi- 
 pus, without knowing who he was, and had by 
 him ^teocles, Polynices, &c. Vid. Laius, 
 (Edipus. When she discovered that she had 
 married her own son, and had been guilty of 
 incest, she hanged herself in despair. She is 
 called Epicasta by some mythologists. Stat. 
 Theb. 8, v. 42. — Senec. and Sophocl. in (Edip. — 
 Apol. 3, c. 5. — Hyg. fab. &&, &c. — Homer. Od. 11. 
 
 loLAS, or loLAUs, a son of Iphiclus, king of 
 Thessaly, who assisted Hercules in conquering 
 the hydra, and burnt with a hot iron the place 
 where the heads had been cut off, to prevent 
 the growtli of others. He was restored to his 
 youth and vigour by Hebe, at the request of his 
 friend Hercules, Some time afterwards, lolas 
 assisted the Heraclidae against Eurystheus, and 
 killed the tyrant with his own hand. Accord- 
 ing to Plutarch, lolas had a monument in Boeo- 
 tia and Phocis, where lovers used to go and 
 bind themselves by the most solemn oaths of 
 fidelity, considering the place as sacred to love 
 and friendship. According to Diodorus and 
 Pausanias, lolas died and was buried in Sar- 
 dinia, where he had gone to make a settlement 
 at the head of the sons of Hercules, by the fifty 
 daughters of Thespius. Ovid. Met. 9, v, 399. 
 —Apollod. 2, c. A.— Pans. 10, c, 17, 
 
 loLE, a daughter of Eurytus, king of OEcha- 
 lia. Her father promised her in marriage to 
 Hercules, but he refused to perform his engage- 
 ments, and lole was carried away by force. 
 Vid. Eurytus. It was to extinguish the love 
 of Hercules for lole, that Dejanira sent him 
 the poisoned tunic which caused his death, Vid. 
 Hercules and Dejanira. After the death of 
 Hercules, lole married his son Hyllus, by De- 
 janira. Apollod. 2, c. l.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 270. 
 
 Ion, a son of Xuthus and Creusa, daughter 
 of Erechtheus, who married Helice, the daugh- 
 ter of Selinus, king of iEgiale. He succeeded 
 on the throne of his father-in-law, and built a 
 city, which he called Helice, on account of his 
 wife. His subjects from him received the name 
 of lonians, and the country that of Ionia. Vid. 
 lones and Ionia. Apollod. 1, c, 7, — Paus. 7, c. 
 l.—Strah. l.—Herodot. 7, c, 94, 1, 8, c, 44-. 
 Vid. Part II. 
 
 Iphiclus, or Iphicles, I. a son of Amphitry- 
 on and Alcmena, born at the same birth with 
 Hercules. As these two children were together 
 in the cradle, Juno, jealous of Hercules, sent 
 two large serpents to destroy him. At the sight 
 of the serpents, Iphicles alarmed the house ; 
 but Hercules, though not a year old, boldly 
 seized them, one in each hand, and squeezed 
 
 them to death. Apol. 2, c. 4. — Theocrit. II. 
 
 A king of Phylace, in Phthiotis, son of Phyla- 
 cus and Clymene. Vid. Melampus. He was 
 father to Pordace and Protesilaus. Homer. Od. 
 11, II. n.— Apollod. 1, c. 9.— Paus. 4, c. 36. 
 
 Ifhigenia, a daughter of Agamemnon and 
 Clytemnestra. When the Greeks, going to the 
 Trojan war, were detained by contrary winds 
 at Aulis, they were informed by one of the 
 soothsayers, that, to appease the gods, they 
 must sacrifice Iphigenia, Agamemnon's daugh- 
 ter, to Diana. As Iphigenia was tenderly loved 
 by her mother, the Greeks sent for her on pre- 
 tence of giving her in marriage to Achilles. 
 Clytemnestra gladly permitted her departure, 
 and Iphigenia came to Aulis: here she saw the 
 725 
 
IP 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 IS 
 
 bloody preparations for the sacrifice ; she im- 
 plored the forgiveness and protection of her fa- 
 ther, but tears and entreaties were unavailing. 
 Calchas took the knife in his hand, and, as he 
 was going to strike the fatal blow, Iphigenia 
 suddenly disappeared, and a goat of uncommon 
 size and beauty was found in her place for the 
 sacrifice. This supernatural change animated 
 the Greeks, the wind suddenly became favour- 
 able, and the combined fleet set sail from Aulis. 
 Iphigenia's innocence had raised the compas- 
 sion of the goddess on whose altar she was going 
 to be sacrificed, and she carried her to Taurica, 
 where she intrusted her with the care of her 
 temple. In this sacred of&ce Iphigenia weis 
 obliged, by the command of Diana, to sacrifice 
 all the strangers which came into that country. 
 Many had already been ofiered as victims on the 
 bloody altar, when Orestes and Pylades came 
 to Taurica. Their mutual and unparalleled 
 friendship, ( Vid. Pylades and Ores^s,) disclosed 
 to Iphigenia that one of the strangers whom she 
 was going to sacrifice was her brother ; and, 
 upon this, she conspired with the two friends to 
 fly from the barbarous country, and carry away 
 the statue of the goddess. They successfully 
 effected their enterprise, and murdered Thoas, 
 who enforced the human sacrifices. According 
 to some authors, the Iphigenia who was sacri- 
 ficed at Aulis was not a daughter of Agamem- 
 non, but a daughter of Helen by Theseus. Ho- 
 mer does not speak of the sacrifice of Iphigenia, 
 though very minute in the description of the 
 Grecian forces, adventures, &c. The statue of 
 Diana, which Iphigenia brought away, was af- 
 terwards placed in the grove of Aricia, in Italy. 
 Pans. % c. 22, 1. 3, c. \Q.—Ovid. Met. 12, 
 V. Zl.— Virg. JEn.2, v. IIQ.—Mschyl.—Eurip. 
 
 Iphinoe, one of the principal women of Lem- 
 nos, who conspired to destroy all the males of 
 the island after their return from a Thracian 
 expedition. Flacc. 2, v. 163. 
 
 Iphis, I. son of Alector, succeeded his father 
 on the throne of Argos. He advised Polyni- 
 ces, who wished to engage Amphiaraus in the 
 Theban war, to bribe his wife Eriphyle, by giv- 
 ing her the golden collar of Harmonia. This 
 succeeded, and Eriphyle betrayed her husband. 
 Apollod. 3. — Flacc. 1, 3, and 7. II. A beau- 
 tiful youth of Salamis, of ignoble birth. Vid. 
 
 Anaxarete. III. A daughter of Ligdus and 
 
 Telethusa, of Crete. When Telethusa was 
 pregnant, Ligdus ordered her to destroy her 
 child if it proved a daughter, because his 
 poverty could not afibrd to maintain a useless 
 charge. The severe orders of her husband 
 alarmed Telethusa, and she would have obey- 
 ed, had not Isis commanded her in a dream to 
 spare the life of her child. Telethusa brought 
 forth a daughter, which was given to a nurse, 
 and passed for a boy under the name of Iphis. 
 Ligdus continued ignorant of the deceit, and 
 when Iphis was come to the years of puberty, 
 her father resolved to give her in marriage to 
 lanthe, the beautiful daughter of Telestes. A 
 day to celebrate the nuptials was appointed, but 
 Telethusa and her daughter were equally anxi- 
 ous to put off'the marriage ; and, w^hen all was 
 unavailing, they implored the assistance of Isis, 
 by whose advice the life of Iphis had been pre- 
 served. The goddess was moved, she changed 
 the sex of Iphis, and. on the morrow, the nup- 
 72C 
 
 tials were consummated with the greatest re- 
 joicings. Ovid. Met.' 9, v. 666, «&c. 
 
 IpmTus, a son of Eurytus, king of (Echalia. 
 When Autolycus stole away the oxen of Eury- 
 tus, Iphitus was sent in quest of them, and, in 
 his search, he met with Hercules, whose good 
 favours he had gained by advising Eurytus to 
 give lole to him in marriage. Hercules assisted 
 Iphitus in seeking the lost animals ; but when 
 he recollected the ingratitude of Eurytus, he 
 killed Iphitus by throwing him down from the 
 walls of Tiryn thus. Homer. Od. 21. — Apollod. 
 2,c.6.' H^. Part II. 
 
 Irene, I. a daughter of Cratinus the painter. 
 
 Plin. 35, c. 11. II. One of the seasons among 
 
 the Greeks, called by the moderns Horse. Her 
 two sisters were Dia and Eunomia, all daugh- 
 ters of Jupiter and Themis, Apollod. 1, c. 3. 
 
 Iris, a daughter of Thaumas and Electra, 
 one of the Oceanides, messenger of the gods, 
 and more particularly of Juno. Her ofiice was 
 to cut the thread which seemed to detain the 
 soul in the body of those that were expiring. 
 She is the same as the rainbow, and from that 
 circumstance she is represented with wings, 
 with all the beautiful and variegated colours of 
 the rainbow, and appears sitting behind Juno, 
 ready to execute her commands. She is like- 
 wise described as supplying the clouds with 
 water to deluge the world. Hesiod. Theog. v. 
 2&Q.— 0vid. Met. 1, v. 271, and seq. 1. 4, v. 481. 
 1. 10, V, 585.— Fir^, M%. 4, v. 694, Vid. Part I. 
 
 Isis, a celebrated deity of the Egyptians, 
 daughter of Saturn and Rhea, according toDio- 
 dorus of Sicily. Some suppose her to be the 
 same as lo. According to some traditions men- 
 tioned by Plutarch, Isis married her brother 
 Osiris, and was pregnant by him even before she 
 had left her mother's womb. These two an- 
 cient deities, as some authors observe, compre- 
 hended all nature and all the gods of the hea- 
 thens. Isis was the Venus cf Cyprus, the 
 Minerva of Athens, the Cybele of the Phry- 
 gians, the Ceres of Eleusis, the Proserpine of 
 Sicily, the Diana of Crete, the Bellona of the 
 Romans, &c. Osiris and Isis reigned conjoint- 
 ly in Egypt, but the rebellion of Typhon, the 
 brother of Osiris, proved fatal to this sovereign. 
 Vid. Osiris and Typhon. The ox and cow 
 were the symbols of Osiris and Isis, because 
 these deities, while on earth, had diligently ap- 
 plied themselves in cultivating the earth, Vid. 
 Apis. As Isis was supposed to be the moon 
 and Osiris the sun, she was represented as 
 holding a globe in her hand, with a vessel full 
 of ears of corn. The Egyptians believed that 
 the yearly and regular inundations of the Nile 
 proceeded from the abundant tears which Isis 
 shed for the loss of Osiris, whom Typhon had 
 murdered. This word Isis, according to some, 
 signifies ancient, and, on that account, the in- 
 scription of the statues of the goddess were 
 often in these words : lam all that has been, that 
 shall be, and none among mortals has hitherto 
 taken off my veil. The worship of Isis was 
 universal in Egypt ; the priests were obliged to 
 observe perpetual chastity, their head was 
 closely shaved, and they always walked bare- 
 footed, and clothed themselves in linen gar- 
 ments. They never eat onions, they abstained 
 from salt with their meat, and were forbidden 
 to eat the flesh of sheep and of hogs. During 
 
JXJ 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 JU 
 
 the night they were employed in continual de- 
 votion near the statue of the goddess. Cleo- 
 patra, the beautiful queen of Egjrpt, was wont 
 to dress herself like this goddess, and affected to 
 be called a second Isis. Cic. de Div. 1. — Plut. 
 de hid. tf« Osirid. — Diod. 1. — Dionys. Hal. 1. — 
 Herodoi. 2, c. 59. — Dacan. 1, v. 831. 
 
 IsMENE, a daughter of (Edipus and Jocasta, 
 who, when her sister Antigone had been con- 
 demned to be buried alive by Creon, for giving 
 burial to her brother Polynices against the ty- 
 rant's positive orders, declared herself as guilty 
 as her sister, and insisted upon being equally 
 punished with her. This instance of generosity 
 was strongly opposed by Antigone, who wished 
 not to see her sister involved in her calamities. 
 Sophocl. in Antig. — Apollod. 3, c. 5. 
 
 IsMENius, a surname of Apollo, at Thebes, 
 where he had a temple on the borders of the 
 Ismenus. 
 
 IsMENUs, a son of Apollo and Melia, one of 
 the Nereides, who gave his name to the Ladon, 
 a river of BcEotia, near Thebes, falling into the 
 Asopus, and thence into the Euripus. Paus. 
 9, c. 10. 
 
 IssE, a daughter of Macareus, the son of 
 Lycaon. She was beloved by Apollo, who to 
 obtain her confidence changed himself into the 
 form of a shepherd to whom she was attached. 
 This metamorphosis of Apollo was represented 
 on the web of Arachne. Ovid. Met. 6, v. 124. 
 
 Italus, I. a son of Telegonus. Hygin: fab. 
 127. — —II. An Arcadian prince, who came to 
 Italy, where he established a kingdom called 
 after him. It is supposed that he received divine 
 honours after death, as ^neas calls upon him 
 among the deities to whom he paid his adoration 
 when he entered Italy. Virg. jEn. 7, v. 178. 
 
 Itonus, akingofThessaly, son of Deucalion, 
 who first invented the manner of polishing 
 metals. lAican. 6, v. 402. 
 
 Itys. Vid. Philomela. 
 
 ItJLUs. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Juno, a celebrated deity among the ancients, 
 daughter of Saturn and Ops. She was sister 
 to Jupiter, Pluto, Neptune, Vesta, Geres, &c. 
 She was born at Argos, or, according to others, 
 in Samos, and was intrusted to the care of the 
 Seasons, or, as Homer and Ovid mention, to 
 Oceanus and Tethys. At the nuptials of Jupi- 
 ter and Juno, the gods, all mankind, and all the 
 brute creation, attended. By her marriage with 
 Jupiter, Juno became the queen of all the gods, 
 and mistress of heaven and earth. Her conju- 
 gal happiness, however, was frequently disturb- 
 ed by the numerous amours of her husband, and 
 she showed herself jealous and inexorable in 
 the highest degree. Her severity to the mis- 
 tresses and illegitimate children of her husband 
 was unparalleled. Juno had some children by 
 Jupiter. According to Hesiod, she was mother 
 of Mars, Hebe, and Ilithya, or Lucina ; and, 
 besides these, she brought forth Vulcan, with- 
 out having any commerce with the other sex. 
 According to others, it was not Vulcan, but 
 Mars, or Hebe, whom she brought forth in this 
 manner. The daily and repeated debaucheries 
 of Jupiter at last provoked Juno to such a de- 
 gree, that she retired to Eubcea, and resolved for 
 ever to forsake his bed. Jupiter produced a re- 
 conciliation, after he had applied to Citheeron for 
 advice, and after he had. obtained forgiveness 
 
 by fraud and artifice. Vid. Dadala. This 
 reconciliation, however cordial it might appear, 
 was soon dissolved by new offences ; and, to 
 stop the complaints of the jealous Juno, Jupiter 
 had often recourse to violence and blows. He 
 even punished the cruelties which she had ex- 
 ercised upon his son Herctiles, by suspending 
 her from the heavens by a golden chain, and 
 tying a heavy anvil to her feet. This punish- 
 ment rather irritated than pacified Juno. She 
 resolved to revenge it, and she engaged some of 
 the gods to conspire against Jupiter, and to im- 
 prison him, but Thetis delivered him from this 
 conspiracy by bringing to his assistance the 
 famous Briareus. Apollo and Neptune were 
 banished from heaven for joining in the con- 
 spiracy, though some attribute their exile to 
 different causes. The worship of Juno was uni- 
 versal, and even more than that of Jupiter, ac- 
 cording to some authors. Her sacrifices were 
 offered with the greatest solemnity. She was 
 particularly worshipped at Argos, Samos, Car- 
 thage, and afterwards at Rome. The ancients 
 generally offered on her altars a ewe lamb and 
 a sow the first day of every month. No cows 
 were ever immolated to her, because she as- 
 sumed the nature of that animal when the gods 
 fled into Egypt in their war with the giants. 
 Among the birds, the hawk, the goose, and par- 
 ticularly the peacock, often called Junonia avis, 
 ( Vid. Argus,) were sacred to her. The dittany, 
 the poppy, and the lily, were her favourite 
 flowers. As Juno's power was extended over 
 all the gods, she often made use of the goddess 
 Minerva as her messenger, and even had the 
 privilege of hurling the thunder of Jupiter when 
 she pleased. Her temples were numerous, the 
 most famous of which were at Argos, Olympia, 
 &c. At Rome no woman of debauched charac- 
 ter was permitted to enter her temple, or even 
 to touch it. The surnames of Juno are various; 
 they are derived either from the functions or 
 things over which she presided, or from the 
 places where her worship was established. She 
 was the queen of the heavens ; she protected 
 cleanliness, and presided over marriage and 
 child-birth, and particularly patronised the most 
 faithful and virtuous of the sex, and severely 
 punished incontinence and lewdness in matrons. 
 She was the goddess of all power and empire, 
 and she was also the patroness of riches. She 
 is represented sitting on a throne with a diadem 
 on her head, and a golden sceptre in her right 
 hand. Some peacocks generally sat by her, and 
 a cuckoo often perched on her sceptre ; while 
 Iris behind her displayed the thousand colours 
 of her beautiful rainbow. She is sometimes 
 carried through the air in a rich chariot drawn 
 by peacocks. The Roman consuls, when they 
 entered upon office, were always obliged to offer 
 her a solemn sacrifice. The Juno of the Ro- 
 mans was called Matrona or Romana. She 
 was generally represented as veiled from head 
 to foot, and the Roman matrons always imitated 
 this manner of dressing themselves, and deemed 
 it indecent in any married women to leave any 
 part of her body but her face uncovered. She 
 has received the surname of Samia, Argiva, 
 Telchinia, Imbrasia, Acrea, Cithaeroneia, Bu- 
 nea, Ammonia, Fluonia, Anthea, Tropeia.Par- 
 thenos, Teleia, Zera, Ilithyia, Lucinia, Pronu- 
 ba, Pupulonia, Sospita, Moneta, Curis, Februa, 
 727 
 
JU 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 IX 
 
 Opigenia, &c. Cic. de Nat. D. 2. — Paus, 2, 
 &c. — Apollod. 1, 2, 3. — Apollon. l.~ Argon. — 
 Horn. II. 1, &c.— Virg. JEn. 1, &LZ.—Herodot. 
 I, 2, 4, &:c.—SU. l.—Diomjs. Hal. l.—Liv. 23, 
 24, 27, &c.— Ovid. Met. 1, &c.—Fast. b.—Plut. 
 qucest. Rom. — Tibnll. 4, el. 13. — Athen. 15. — 
 Plin.U. 
 
 Jupiter, the most powerful of all the gods of 
 the ancients. According to Varro there were 
 no less than 300 persons of that name ; Diodo- 
 rus mentions two; and Cicero three, two of 
 Arcadia and one of Crete. To that of Crete, 
 who passed for the son of Saturn and Ops, the 
 actions of the rest have been attributed. Ac- 
 cording to the opinion of the mythologisls, Ju- 
 piter was saved from destruction by his mother, 
 and intrusted to the care of the Corybantes. 
 Saturn, who had received the kingdom of the 
 world from his brother Titan on condition of 
 not raising male children, devoured all his sons 
 as soon as born ; but Ops, oifended at her hus- 
 band's cruelty, secreted Jupiter and gave a stone 
 to Saturn, which he devoured on the supposition 
 that it was a male child. Jupiter was educated 
 in a cave on mount Ida, in Crete, and fed upon 
 the milk of the goat Amalthaea, or upon honey, 
 according to others. He received the name of 
 Jupiter, quasi juvans pater. His cries were 
 drowned by the noise of cymbals and drums, 
 which the Corybantes beat at the express com- 
 mand of Ops. Vid. Corybantes. As soon as 
 he was a year old, Jupiter found himself suf- 
 ficiently strong to make war against the Titans, 
 who had imprisoned his father because he had 
 brought up male children. The Titans were 
 conquered, and Saturn set at liberty by the 
 hands of his son, Saturn, however, soon after, 
 apprehensive of the power of Jupiter, conspired 
 against his life, and was, for this treachery, 
 driven from his kingdom and obliged to fly for 
 safety into Latium. Jupiter divided with his 
 brothers the empire of the world. He reserved 
 for himself the kingdom of heaven, and gave 
 the empire of the sea to Neptune, and that of 
 the infernal regions to Pluto. He married 
 Metes,Themis, Euronyme, Ceres, Mnemosyne, 
 Latona, and Juno, ( Vid. Juno,) and became a 
 Proteus to gratify his passions. His children 
 were also numerous as well as his mistresses. 
 According to Apollodorus, 1, c. 3, he was father 
 of the Seasons, Irene, Eunomia, the Fates, Clo- 
 the, Lachesis, and Atropos, by Themis; of 
 Venus, by Dione; of the Graces, Aglaia, Eu- 
 phrosyne, and Thalia, by Eurynome, the daugh- 
 ter of Oceanus ; of Proserpine, by Styx ; of the 
 nine Muses, by Mnemosyne, &c. Vid. Niobe, 
 Laodamia, Pyrrha, Protogenia, Electra, Maia, 
 Semele, &c. The worship of Jupiter was uni- 
 versal ; he was the Ammon of the Africans, 
 the Belus of Babylon, the Osiris of Egypt, &c. 
 His surnames were numerous, many of which 
 he received from the place or function over 
 which he presided. He was severally called 
 Jupiter Feretrius, Inventor, Elicius, Apomyos, 
 Capitolinus, Latialis, Pistor, Sponsor, Herceus, 
 Anxurus, Victor, Maximus, Optimos, Olym- 
 pius, Fluvialis, &c. The worship of Jupiter 
 surpassed that of the other gods in solemnity. 
 His altars were not, like those of Saturn and 
 Diana, stained with the blood of human victims, 
 but be was delighted with the sacrifice of goats, 
 sheep, and white bulls. The oak was sacred 
 728 
 
 to him, because he first taught mankind to live 
 upon acorns. He is generally represented as 
 sitting upon a golden or ivory throne, holding, 
 in one hand, thunderbolts, just ready to be hurl- 
 ed, and, in the other, a sceptre of cypress. His 
 looks express majesty, his beard flows long and 
 neglected, and the eagle stands with expanded 
 wings at his feet. He is sometimes represented 
 with the upper parts of his body naked, and 
 those below the waist carefully covered, as if 
 to show that he is visible to the gods above, but 
 that he is concealed from the sight of the in- 
 habitants of the earth. Jupiter had several 
 oracles, the most celebrated of which were at 
 Dodona, and Ammon in Libya. As Jupiter was 
 the king and father of gods and men, his power 
 was extended over the deities, and every thing 
 was subservient to his will, except the Fates. 
 From him mankind received their blessings and 
 their miseries ; and they looked upon him as 
 acquainted with every thing past, present, and 
 future. He was represented at Olympia with 
 a crown like olive branches, his mantle was 
 variegated with different flowers, particularly 
 the lily, and the eagle-perched on the top of the 
 sceptre which he held in his hand. The Cre- 
 tans represented Jupiter without ears, to signify 
 that the sovereign master of the world ought 
 not to give a partial ear to any particular per- 
 son, but be equally candid and propitious to all. 
 At Lacedsemon he appeared with four heads, 
 that he might seem to hear with greater readi- 
 ness the different prayers and solicitations which 
 were daily poured to him from every part of the 
 earth. Paus. 1, 2, &c. — Liv. 1, 4, 5, &c. — 
 niod. 1 and 3.— Homer. Id. 1, 5, &c. Od. 1, 4,&c. 
 — Hymn, ad Jov. — Orpheus. — Callimac. Jov. — 
 Pindar. Olymp. 1, 3, 5. — Apollon. 1, &c. — Hes- 
 iod. Theog. in Scut. — Here. Oyer, et Dies.—Ly- 
 cophron. in Cass. — Virg. JEn. 1, 2, &c., G. 3. — 
 Ovid' Met. 1, fab. 1, &c.—Horat. 3, od. 1, &c. 
 
 JuTURNA, a sister of Turnus, king of the Ru- 
 tuli. She heard with contempt the addresses 
 of Jupiter, or, according to others, she was 
 not unfavourable to his passion, so that the god 
 rewarded her love with immortality. She was 
 afterwards changed into a fountain of the same 
 name near the Numicus, falling into the Tiber. 
 The waters of that fountain were used in sacri- 
 fices, and particularly in those of Vesta. They 
 had the power to heal diseases. Varro de L. 
 L. 1, c. 10.— Ovid. Fast. 1, v.708, 1. 2, v. 585.-- 
 Virg. Mn. 12, v. 139.— Cic. Cluent. 36. 
 
 JuvENTAS, or JuvENTUs, a goddcss at Rome, 
 who presided over youth and vigour. She is 
 the same as the Hebe of the Greeks, represent- 
 ed as a beautiful nymph, arrayed in variegated 
 garments. Liv. 5, c. 54, 1. 21, c. 62, 1. 36, c. 
 3&.— Ovid. ex Pont. 1, ep. 9, v. 12. 
 
 IxioN, a king of Thessaly, son of Plilegas, 
 or, according to Hyginus, of Leontes, or, ac- 
 cording to Diodorus, of Antion, by Perimela, 
 daughter of Amythaon. He married Dia, 
 daughter of Eioneus or Deioneus, and promised 
 his father-in-law a valuable present for the 
 choice he had made of him to be his daughter's 
 husband. Unwilling, however, to fulfil his 
 promises, he invited his father-in-law to a feast 
 at Larissa, the capital of his kingdom, and 
 when Deioneus was come, according to the ap- 
 pointment, he threw him into a pit which he had 
 previously filled with wood and burning coals. 
 
LA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 LA 
 
 This premeditated treachery so irritated the 
 neighbouring princes, that all of them refused 
 to perform the usual ceremonies by which a man 
 was then purified of murder, and Ixion was 
 shurmed and despised by all mankind. Jupiter 
 had compassion upon him, and carried him to 
 heaven, and introduced him at the tables of the 
 "gods. Here he became enamoured of Juno, 
 who was willing to gratify his passion, though, 
 according to others, she informed Jupiter of the 
 attempt on her virtue. Jupiter made a cloud in 
 the shape of Juno, and carried it to the place 
 where Ixion had appointed to meet Juno. Ixion 
 was caught in the snare, and from his embrace 
 with the cloud, he had the Centaurs, or, accord- 
 ing to others, Centaurus. Vid. Centauri. Ju- 
 giter, displeased with the insolence of Ixion 
 anishedhim from heaven ; but when he heard 
 that he had seduced Juno, the god struck him 
 with his thunder, and ordered Mercury to tie 
 him to a wheel in hell which continually whirls 
 round. The wheel was perpetually in motion, 
 therefore the punishment of Ixion was eternal. 
 Diod. 4. — Hygin. fab. 62. — Pindar. 2. — Pyth. 
 2.— Virg. G. 4, V. 484.— ^7t. 6, v. mi.— Ovid. 
 Met. 12, V. 210 and 2>m.—Philostr. Ic. 2, c. 3.— 
 Lactant. in Th. 2. 
 
 L. 
 
 Labdacides, a name given to CEdipus, as 
 descended from Labdacus. 
 
 Labdacus, a son of Polydorus by Nycteis, 
 the daughter of Nycteus, king of Thebes. His 
 father and mother died during his childhood, 
 and he was left to the care of Nycteus, who at 
 his death left his kingdom in the hands of Ly- 
 cus, with orders to restore it to Labdacus as 
 soon as of age. He was father to Laius. It 
 is unknown whether he ever sat on the throne 
 of Thebes, According to Statins, his father's 
 name was Phoenix. His descendants were 
 called Labdacides. Stat. Theh. 6, v. 451. — Apol. 
 3, c. 5. — Pans. 2, c. 6, 1. 9, c. 5, 
 
 Labradeijs, a surname of Jupiter in Caria. 
 The word is derived from labrys, which in the 
 language of the country signifies a hatchet, 
 which Jupiter's statue held in his hand. Plut. 
 
 Labyrinthus, a building whose numerous 
 passages and perplexing windings render the 
 escape from it difiicult, and almost impracti- 
 cable. There were four very famous among 
 the ancients, one near the city of Crocodiles or 
 Arsinoe, another in Crete, a third at Lemnos, 
 and a fourth in Italy, built by Porsenna. That 
 of Egypt was the most ancient, and Herodotus, 
 who saw it, declares that the beauty and the art 
 of the building were almost beyond belief It 
 was built by twelve kings, who at one time 
 reigned in Egypt, and it was intended for the 
 place of their burial, and to commemorate the 
 actions of their reign. It was divided into 12 
 halls, or according to Pliny, into 16, or as Strabo 
 mentions, into 27. The halls were vaulted 
 according to the relation of Herodotus. They 
 had each six doors, opening to the north, and the 
 same number to the south, all surrounded by 
 one wall. The edifice contained 3000 chambers, 
 1500 in the upper part, and the same . number 
 below. She chambers above were seen by 
 Herodotus, and astonished him beyond concep- 
 tien, but he was not permitted to see those be- 
 
 Part III. 4 Z 
 
 low, where were buried the holy crocodiles and 
 the monarchs whose munificence had raised the 
 edifice. The roofs and walls were incrusted 
 with marble, and adorned with sculptured 
 figures. The halls were surrounded with 
 stately and polished pillars of white stone, and, 
 according to some authors, the opening of the 
 doors was artfully attended with a terrible 
 noise, like peals of thunder. The labyrinth of 
 Crete was built by Deedalus, in imitation of that 
 of Egypt, and it is the most famous of all in 
 classical history. It was the place of confine- 
 ment for Daedalus himself, and the prison of the 
 Minotaur. According to Pliny, the labyrinth 
 of Lemnos surpassed the others in grandeur and 
 magnificence. It was supported by forty col- 
 umns of uncommon height and thickness, and 
 equally admirable for their beauty and splen- 
 dour. Mela. 1, c. 9.—Plin. 36, c. IS.—Strab. 
 10.— Diod. l.—Herodot. 2, c. U8.— Virg. JEn. 
 5, V. 588. 
 
 Laced^mon, a son of Jupiter and Taygeta, 
 the daughter of Atlas, who married Sparta, the 
 daughter of Eurotas, by whom he had Amyclas 
 and Eurydice, the wife of Acrisius. He was 
 the first who introduced the worship of the 
 Graces in Laconia, and who first built them a 
 temple. From Lacedaemon and his wife, the 
 capital of Laconia was called Lacedaemon and 
 Sparta. Apollod. 3, c. 10. — Hygin. fab, 155. — 
 Pans. 3, c. 1. Vid. Part I. , 
 
 Lachesis. Vid. ParccB. 
 
 Laertes. Vid. Parts I. and II. 
 
 LjEstrygones, the most ancient inhabitants 
 of Sicily. Some suppose them to be the same 
 as the people of Leontium,, and to have been 
 neighbours to the Cyclops. They fed on hu- 
 man flesh, and when Ulysses came on their 
 coasts, they sunk his ships and devoured his 
 companions. Vid. Antiphates. They were of 
 a gigantic stature, according to Homer, who 
 however does not mention their country, but 
 only speaks of Lamus as their capital. A colo- 
 ny of them, as some suppose, passed over into 
 Italy, with Lamus at their head, where they 
 built the town of Formiae, whence the epithet 
 of LcEstrygonia is often used for that of For- 
 miana. Plin. 3, c. 5. — Ovid. Met. 14, v. 233, 
 &c. Fast. 4. ex Pont. 4, ep. 10. — Tzetz. in 
 Dycophr. v. 662 and 818. — Homer Od. 10. v. 
 Sl.—Sil. 7, V. 276. 
 
 Laiades, a patronymic of CEdipus, son of 
 Laius. Ovid. Met. 6, fab. 18. 
 
 Laius, a son of Labdacus, who succeeded to 
 the throne of Thebes, which his grandfather 
 Nycteus had left to the care of his brother Lycus 
 till his grandson came of age. He was driven 
 from his kingdom by Amphion and Zethus, who 
 were incensed against Lycus for the indignities 
 which Antiope had suffered. He was after- 
 wards restored, and married Jocasta, the daugh- 
 ter of Creon. Vid. CEdipus. Sophocl. in (Edip. 
 — Hygin. 9 and 66. — Diod. 4. — Apollod. 3, c. 5. 
 — Pans. 9, c. 5 and 26.^ — Plut. d£ Curios. 
 
 Lamta and Auxesia, two deities of Crete, 
 whose Avorship was the same as at Eleusis. 
 The Epidaurians made them two statues of an 
 olive tree given them by the Athenians, pro- 
 vided they came to offer a sacrifice to Minerva 
 at Athens, Paus. 2, c, 30, &c. 
 
 LAMiiG, certain monsters of Africa, who had 
 the face and breast of a woman, and the rest of 
 729 
 
LA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 LA 
 
 the body like that of a serpent. They allured 
 strangers to come to them, that they might de- 
 vour them ; and though ihey were not endowed 
 with the faculty of speech, yet their hissings was 
 pleasing and agreeable. Some believe them to 
 be witches, or rather evil spirits, who, under the 
 form of a beautiful womein, enticed young chil- 
 dren and devoured them. According to some, 
 the fable of the Laraiae is derived from the 
 amours of Jupiter with a certain beautiful wo- 
 men called Lamia, whom the jealousy of Juno 
 rendered deformed, and whose children she de- 
 stroyed ; upon which Lamia became insane, and 
 so desperate that she eat up all the children that 
 came in her way. They are also called Le- 
 mures. Vid. Lemures. Philostr. in Ap. — Ho- 
 rat. Art. Poet. v. 340. — Plut. de Curios. — Dion. 
 
 Lampetia, I, a daughter of Apollo and Neae- 
 ra. She, with her sister Phsetusa, guarded her 
 father's flocks in Sicily when Ulysses arrived 
 on the coasts of that island. The companions 
 of Ulysses, impelled by hunger, paid no regard 
 to their sanctity, but carried away and killed 
 some of the oxen. They then embarked on 
 board their ships, but here the resentment of 
 Jupiter followed them. A storm arose, and they 
 all perished except Ulysses, who saved himself 
 on the broken piece of a mast. Homer. Od. 12, 
 
 V. 119. — Propert. 3, el. 12. II. According 
 
 to Ovid. Met. 2, v. 349, Lampetia is one of the 
 Heliades, who was changed into a poplar tree 
 at the death of her brother Phaeton. 
 
 Lampeto, and Lampedo, a queen of the 
 Amazons, who boasted herself to be the daugh- 
 ter of Mars. She gained many conquests in 
 Asia, where she founded several cities. She 
 was surprised afterwards by a band of barba- 
 rians, and destroyed with her female attendants. 
 Justin. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Lamus, I. a king of the Lsestrygones, who is 
 supposed by some to have founded Pormise in 
 Italy. The family of the Lamise at Rome was, 
 according to the opinion of some, descended 
 
 from him. Hot at. 3, od. 17. II. A son of 
 
 Hercules and Omphale, who succeeded his mo- 
 ther on the throne of Lydia. Ovid. Heroid. 9, 
 v. 54. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Laocoon, a son of Priam and Hecuba, or, 
 according to others, of Antenor, or of Capys. 
 As being priest of Apollo, he was commissioned 
 by the Trojans to offer a bullock to Neptune to 
 render him propitious. During the sacrifice, two 
 enormous serpents issued from the sea and at- 
 tacked Laocoon's two sons, who stood next to 
 the altar. The father immediately attempted 
 to defend his sons, but the serpents falling upon 
 him squeezed him in their complicated wreaths, 
 so that he died in the greatest agonies. This 
 punishment was inflicted upon him for his te- 
 merity in dissuadingthe Trojansto bring into the 
 city the fatal wooden horse which theGreekshad 
 consecrated to Minerva, as also for his impiety 
 in hurling a javelin against the sides of the 
 horse as it entered within the walls. Hyginus 
 attributes this to his marriage against the con- 
 sent of Apollo, or, according to others, for his 
 polluting the temple, by his commerce with his 
 wife Antiope, before the statue of the god. 
 Virg. JEn. 2, v. 41 and 201.— Hygin. fab. 135. 
 Laodamas, I. a son of Alcinous, king of the 
 Pheeacians, who offered to wrestle with Ulysses 
 while at his father's court. Ulysses, mindful 
 730 
 
 of the hospitality of Alcinous, refused the chal- 
 lenge of Laodamas. Homer. Od. 7, v. 170. 
 
 II. A son of Eteocles, king of Thebes. Paus. 
 9, c. 15. 
 
 Laodamia, I. a daughter of Acastus and As- 
 tydamia, who married Protesilaus, the son of 
 Iphiclus, king of a part of Thessaly. When 
 she heard that he had fallen by the hand of 
 Hector, to keep alive the memory of a husband 
 whom she had tenderly loved, she ordered a 
 wooden statue to be made and regularly placed 
 in her bed. Iphiclus ordered the wooden image 
 to be burned, in hopes of dissipating his daugh- 
 ter's grief. He did not succeed. Laodamia 
 threw herself into the flames with the image, 
 and perished. This circumstance has given oc- 
 casion to fabulous traditions related by the poets, 
 which mention, that Protesilaus was restored to 
 life, and to Laodamia, for three hours ; and that 
 when he was obliged to return to the infernal 
 regions, he persuaded his wife to accompany 
 him. Virg. Mn. 6, v. 447. — Ovid. Her. ep. 13. 
 
 — Hygin. fab. 104. — Propert. 1, el. 19. -TI. 
 
 A daughter of Bellerophon by Achemone, the 
 daughter of king lobates. She had a son by 
 Jupiter, called Sarpedon. She dedicated her- 
 self to the service of Diana, and hunted with 
 her ; but her. haughtiness proved fatal to her, 
 and she perished by the arrows of the goddess. 
 Homer. II. 6, 12 and 16. 
 
 Laodice, a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
 who became enamoured of Acamas, son of 
 Theseus, when he came with Diomedes from 
 the Greeks to Troy with an embassy to demand 
 the restoration of Helen. She afterwards mar- 
 ried Helicaon son of Antenor, and Telephus 
 king of Mysia. Some call her Astyoche. Ac- 
 cording to the Greek scholiast of Lycophron, 
 Laodice threw herself from the top of a tower 
 and was killed when Troy was sacked by the 
 Greeks. Dictys Cret. 1. — Paus. 13, c. 26. — 
 Homer. 11. 3 and 6. II. A daughter of Aga- 
 memnon, called also Electra. Homer. 11. 9. 
 Vid. Part II. 
 
 Laodocus, a son of Antenor, whose form 
 Minerva borrowed, to advise Pandarus to break 
 the treaty which subsisted between the Greeks 
 and Trojans. Homer. 11. 4. 
 
 Laogoras, a king of the Dryopes, who ac- 
 customed his subjects to become robbers. He 
 plundered the temple of Apollo at Delphi, and 
 was killed by Hercules. Apol. 2, c. 7. — Diod. 4. 
 
 Laomedon, son of Ilus, king of Troy, mar- 
 ried Stry mo, called by some Placia, or Leucippe, 
 by whom he had Podarces, afterwards known 
 by the name of Priam, and Hesione. He built 
 the walls of Troy, and was assisted by Apollo 
 and Neptune, whom Jupiter had banished from 
 heaven, and condemned to be subservient to 
 the will of Laomedon for one year. When the 
 walls were finished, Laomedon refused to re- 
 ward the labours of the gods, and soon after his 
 territories were laid waste by the god of the 
 sea, and his subjects were visited by a pestilence 
 sent by Apollo. He was put to death bv Her- 
 cules after a reign of 29 years. Vid. Hesione. 
 Homer. 11. 21,— Virg. Mn. Sand 9.— Ovid. Met. 
 11, fab. 6.—Apollod. 2, c. 5.— Paus. 7, c. 20.— 
 Horat. 3, od. 3.— Hygin. 89. 
 
 Laothoe, a daughter of Altes, a king of the 
 Leleges, who married Priam,and became mother 
 of Lycaon and Polydorus. Homer. II. 21, v. 85. 
 
LA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 LA 
 
 Laphria, a surname of Diana at Patrae, in 
 Acliaia, where she had a temple, with a statue 
 of gold and ivory, which represented her in the 
 habit of a huntress. The statue was made by 
 Menechmus and Soidas, two artists of celebrity. 
 This name was given to the goddess from La- 
 phirus, the son of Delphus, who consecrated the 
 statue to her. There was a festival of the god- 
 dess there, called also Laphria, of which Paus. 
 7j c. 18, gives an account. 
 
 Lapith^, a people of Thessaly. Vid. La- 
 pithus. 
 
 Lapithus, a son of Apollo, by Stilbe. He 
 was brother to Centaurus, and married Orsi- 
 nome, daughter of Euronymus, by whom he 
 had Phorbas and Periphas. The name of La- 
 piiha was given to the numerous children of 
 Phorbas and Periphas, or rather to the inhabi- 
 tants of the country of which they had obtained 
 the sovereignty. The chief of the Lapithae as- 
 sembled to celebrate the nuptials of Pirithous, 
 one of their number, and among them were 
 Theseus, Dryas, Hopleus, Mopsus, Phalerus, 
 Exadius, Prolochus, Titaresius, &c. The Cen- 
 taurs were also invited to partake the common 
 festivity, and the amusements would have been 
 harmless and innocent, had not one of the in- 
 toxicated Centaurs oifered violence to Hippo- 
 damia, the wife of Pirithous. The Lapithae 
 resented the injury, and the Centaurs supported 
 their companions, upon which the .quarrel be- 
 came universal, and ended in blows and slaugh- 
 ter. Many of the Centaurs were slain, and at 
 last were obliged to retire. Vid. Centauri. 
 The invention of bits and bridles for horses is 
 attributed to the Lapithae. Virg. G. 3, v. 115. 
 Mn. 6, V. 601, 1. 7, v. ^Qo.— Ovid Met. 12, v. 530, 
 1. 14, V. 670. — Hesiod. in Scut. — Diod. 4. — Find. 
 2.—Pyth.—Strab. 9.— Stat. Tkeb. 7, v. 304. 
 
 Lara, or Laranda, one of the Naiads, daugh- 
 ter of the river Almon, in Latium, famous for 
 her beauty and her loquacity, which her parents 
 long endeavoured to correct, but in vain. She 
 revealed to Juno the amours of her husband 
 Jupiter with Juturna, for which the god cut off 
 her tongue, and ordered Mercury to conduct 
 her to the infernal regions. Lara became 
 mother of two children, to whom the Romans 
 have paid divine honours, according to the 
 opinion of some, under the name of Lares. 
 Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 599. 
 
 Lares, gods of inferior power at Rome, who 
 presided over houses and families. They were 
 two in number, sons of Mercury by Lara. Vid. 
 Lara. In process of time their power was ex- 
 tended not only over houses, but also over the 
 country and sea; and we find Lares Urbaniio 
 preside over the cities, F'o.miliares over houses, 
 Rustici over the couniry, Compitales over 
 cross roads, Marini over the sea, Viales over 
 the roads, Paiellarii, &c. According to the 
 opinion of some, the worship of the gods Lares, 
 ■who are supposed to be the same as the manes, 
 arises from the ancient custom, among the Ro- 
 mans and other nations, of burying their dead 
 in their houses, and from their belief that their 
 spirits continually hovered over the houses for 
 the protection of its inhabitants. The statues 
 of the Lar'^s, resembling monkeys, and covered 
 ■with the skin of a dog, were placed in a niche 
 behind the doors of the houses, or around the 
 hearths. At the feet of the Lares was the 
 
 figure of a dog barking, to intimate their care 
 and vigilance. Incense was burnt on their 
 altars, and a sow was also offered on particular 
 days. Their festivals were observed at Rome 
 in the month of May, when their statues were 
 crowned with garlands of flowers, and offerings 
 of fruit presented. The word Lares seems to 
 be derived from the Etruscan word Lars, which 
 signifies conductor or leader. Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 
 ]29. — Juv. 8, V. 8. — Plut. in Qucest. Bom. — 
 Varro de L. L. 4, c. lO.—Horat. 3, od. 23.— 
 Plant, in Aid. d^ Cist. 
 
 Larva, a name given to wicked spirits. The 
 word itself signifies a mask. Vid. Lemures. 
 
 Latialis, a surname of Jupiter, who was 
 worshipped by the inhabitants of Latium upon 
 mount Albanus at stated times. The festivals, 
 which were first instituted by Tarquin the 
 Proud, lasted 15 days. Liv. 21. Vid. Ferice 
 LatincB. 
 
 Latinus, I. a son of Faunus by Marica, king 
 of the Aborigines in Italy, who from him were 
 called Latini. He married Amata, by whom he 
 had a son and a daughter. Vid. JSneas. 
 
 II. A son of Sylvius ^neas, surnamed also 
 Sylvius. He was the 5th king of the Latins, 
 and succeeded his father. He was father to 
 Alba his successor. Dion. 1, c. 15. — Liv. 2, c. 3. 
 
 Latobius, the god of health among the Co- 
 rinthians. 
 
 Latois, a name of Diana, as being the daugh- 
 ter of Latona. 
 
 Latona, a daughter of Coeus the Titan and 
 Phoebe, or, according to Homer, of Saturn. 
 She was admired for her beauty, and celebrated 
 for the favours which she .granted to Jupiter. 
 Juno, always jealous of her husband's amours, 
 made Latona the object of her vengeance, and 
 sent the serpent Python to disturb her peace and 
 prosecute her. Latona wandered from place to 
 place in the time of her pregnancy, continually 
 alarmed for fear of Python. She was driven 
 from heaven, and Terra, influenced by Juno, 
 refused to give her a place where she might 
 find rest and bring forth. Neptune, moved with 
 compassion, struck with his trident, and made 
 immoveable the island of Delos, which before 
 wandered in the iEgean, and appeared some- 
 times above, and sometimes below, the surface 
 of the sea. Latona, changed into a quail by 
 Jupiier, came to Delos, where she resumed her 
 original shape, and gave birth to Apollo and 
 Diana, leaning against a palm tree or an olive. 
 Her repose was of short duration ; Juno dis- 
 covered the place of her retreat, and obliged her 
 to fly from Delos. She wandered over the great- 
 est part of the world ; and in Caria, where her 
 fatigue compelled her to stop, she was insulted 
 and ridiculed by peasants of whom she asked 
 for water while they were weeding a marsh. 
 Their refusal and insolence provoked her, and 
 she entreated Jupiter to punish their barbarity. 
 They were all changed into frogs. Her beauty 
 proved fatal to the giant Tityus, whom Apollo 
 and Diana put to death. Vid. IHtyus. At 
 last, Latona became a powerful deity, and saw 
 her children receive divine honours. Her wor- 
 ship was generally established where her chil- 
 dren received adoration, particularly at Arg-os, 
 Delos, &c., where she had temples. She had 
 an oracle in Egypt, celebrated for the true de- 
 cisive answers which it gave. Diod. 5. — He- 
 731 
 
LE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 LE 
 
 fodoL 2, c. 155.— Paws. 2 and 3.— Homer. U. 21. 
 — Hymn, in Ap. <^ Dian. — Hesiod. Theog. — 
 ApoLlod. 3, c. 5 and \Q.—Ovid. Met. 6, v. 160. 
 — Hygin. fab. 140. 
 
 Laverna, the goddess of thieves and dis- 
 honest persons at Rome. She did not only pre- 
 side over robbers, called from her Laverniones, 
 but she protected such as deceived others, or 
 formed their secret machinations in obscurity 
 and silence. Her worship was very popular, 
 and the Romans raised her an altar near one 
 of the gates of the city, which, from that cir- 
 cumstance, was called the gate of Laverna. 
 She was generally represented by a head with- 
 out a body. Horab. 1, ep. 16, v. 60. — Varro de 
 L. L. 4. 
 
 Lavinia, a daughter of king Latinus and 
 Amata. She was betrothed to her relation King 
 Turn us, but because the oracle ordered her fa- 
 ther to marry her to a foreign prince, she was 
 given to jEneas after the death of Turnus. At 
 her husband's death she was left pregnant ; and 
 being fearful of the tyranny of Ascanius, her 
 son-in-law, she fled into the woods, where she 
 brought forth a son called ^neas Sylvius. 
 Dionys. Hal. 1. — Virg. jEn. 6 and 7. — Ovid. 
 Met. 14, V. bOl.—Liv. 1, c. 1. 
 
 Lausos, I, a son of Numitor, and brother of 
 Ilia. He was put to death by his uncle Arau- 
 lius, who usurped his father's throne. Ovid. 
 
 Fast. 4, V. 54. II. A son of Mezentius, 
 
 king of the Tyrrhenians, killed by ^neas in 
 the war which his father and Turnus made 
 against the Trojans. Virg. JSn. 7, v. 649, 1. 10, 
 V. 426, &c. 
 
 Learchus, a son of Athamas and Ino. Vid. 
 Athamas. 
 
 Leda, a daughter of king Thespius and Eu- 
 rythemis, who married Tyndarus, king of Spar- 
 ta. Vid. CoMor. Some mythologists attribute 
 her amour with Jupiter to Nemesis ; and they 
 further mention, that Leda was intrusted wdth 
 the education of the children which sprang from 
 the eggs brought forth by Nemesis. Vid. He- 
 lena. To reconcile this diversity of opinions, 
 others maintain that Leda received the name of 
 Nemesis after death. Homer and Hesiod make 
 no mention of the metamorphosis of Jupiter 
 into a swan, whence some have imagined that 
 the fable was unknown to these two ancient 
 poets, and probably invented since their age. 
 Apollod. 1, c. 8, 1. 3, c. \Q.— Ovid. Met. 6, v. 109. 
 — Hesiod. 17, v. 55. — Hygin. fab. 77. — Isocr. in 
 Hel. — Homer. Od. 11. — Eurip. in Hel. 
 
 Lelaps, I. a dog that never failed to seize 
 and conquer whatever animal he was ordered to 
 pursue. It was given to Procris by Diana, and 
 Procris reconciled herself to her husband by pre- 
 senting him with that valuable present. Ac- 
 cording to some, Procris had received it from 
 Minos, as a reward for the dangerous wounds 
 of which she had cured him. Hi/gin. fab. 128. 
 
 Ovid. Met. 7, V. 111.— Pans. 9," c. 19. TI. 
 
 One of Actaeon's dogs. Ovid. Met. 3, v. 211. 
 
 Lemures, the manes of the dead. The an- 
 cients suppose that the souls, after death, wan- 
 dered all over the world, and disturbed the peace 
 of its inhabitants. The good spirits were called 
 Lares familiares, and the evil ones were known 
 by the name of Larv(Z, or Lemures. They 
 terrified the good, and continually haunted the 
 wicked and impious; and the Romans had the 
 732 
 
 superstition to celebrate festivals in their honour, 
 called Leviuria, or Lemuralia, in the month of 
 May. They were first instituted by Romulus 
 to appease the manes of his brother Remus, 
 from whom they were called Remuria, and by 
 corruption, Lemuria. These solemnities con- 
 tinued three nights, during which the temples 
 of the gods were shut, and marriages prohibited. 
 It was usual for the people to throw black beans 
 on the graves of the deceased, or to Durn them, 
 as the smell was supposed to be insupportable 
 to them. They also muttered magical words, 
 and, by beating kettles and drums, ihey be- 
 lieved that the ghosts would depart, and no 
 longer come to terrify their relations upon earth. 
 Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 421, &c. — Horat. 2, ep. 2, v. 
 "^m.—Persius 5, v. 185. 
 
 Len^eus, a surname of Bacchus, from 'Xrivn^, 
 a winepress. There was a festival called Le^ 
 ncea, celebrated in his honour, in which the ce- 
 remonies observed at the other festivals of the 
 god chiefly prevailed. There were, besides, poet- 
 ical contentions, &c. Pans. — Virg. G. 2, v. 4. 
 M7i. 4. V. 201.— Ovid. Met. 4, v. 14. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Leos, a son of Orpheus, who immolated his 
 three daughters for the good of Athens. Vid. 
 Leocorion. 
 
 Lestrygones. Vid. Lcsstrygones. 
 
 Lethe, I. one of the rivers of hell, whose wa- 
 ters the souls of the dead drank after they had 
 been confined for a certain space of time in Tar- 
 tarus. It had the power of making them forget 
 whatever they had done, seen, or heard before, 
 
 as the name implies, }^T}dri, oblivion. II. Lethe 
 
 is a river of Africa, near the Syrtes, which 
 runs under the ground, and some time after 
 rises agam; whence the origin of the fable 
 
 of the Lethean streams of oblivion. III. 
 
 Another in Boeotia, whose waters were drunk 
 by those who consulted the oracle of Tropho- 
 nius. Lucan. 9, v. 355. — Ovid. Trist. 4, el. 1, 
 V, 47.— Virg. G. 4, v. 545. yEn. 6, v. 714.— 
 Ital. 1, V. 235, 1. 10, V. 555.— Pans. 9, c. 39.— 
 Horat. 4, od. 7, v. 27. 
 
 Levana, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
 over the action of the person who took up from 
 the ground a newly-born child after it had been 
 placed there by the midwife. This was gen- 
 erally done by the father, and so religiously 
 observed was this ceremony, that the legiti- 
 macy of a child could be disputed without it. 
 
 Ledge, I. a small island in the Euxine Sea, of 
 a triangular form, between the mouths of the 
 Danube and the Borysthenes. According to 
 the poets, the souls of the ancient heroes were 
 placed there as in the Elysian fields, where they 
 enjoyed perpetual felicity, and reaped the repose 
 to which their benevolence to mankind, and 
 their exploits during life, seemed to entitle them. 
 From that circumstance it has been often called 
 the island of the blessed, &c. According to 
 some accounts, Achilles celebrated there his 
 nuptials with Iphigenia, or rather Helen, and 
 shared the pleasures of the place with the 
 manes of Ajax, &c. Strab.2. — Mela, 2, c. 7. — 
 
 Ammian. 22.— Q. Calah. 3, v. 773. II. One 
 
 of the Oceanides, whom Pluto carried into his 
 kingdom. 
 
 Ledcippe, I. a brother of Tyndarus, king of 
 Sparta, who married Philodice, daughter of 
 Inachus, by whom he had two daughters,^ Hi- 
 lair a and Phoebe, known by the patronymic of 
 
LI 
 
 ^rVTHOLOGY. 
 
 LI 
 
 Leucippides. They were carried away by their 
 cousins Castor and Pollux, as they were going 
 to celebrate their nuptials with L>ticus and 
 Idas. Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 701. — Apollod. 3, c. 
 
 10, &c.—Paus. 3, c. 17 and 26. II. A son 
 
 of Xanthus, descended from Bellerophon. He 
 became deeply enamoured of one of his sisters. 
 Some time alter the father resolved to give his 
 daughter in marriage to a Lycian prince. The 
 future husband was informed that the daughter 
 of Xanthus secretly entertained a lover, and he 
 communicated the intelligence to the father. 
 Xanthus upon this secretly watched his daugh- 
 ter, and when Leucippus had introduced him- 
 self to her bed, the father, in his eagerness to 
 discover the seducer, occasioned a little noise in 
 the room. The daughter was alarmed, and as 
 she attempted to escape, she received a mortal 
 woimd from her father, who took her to be the 
 lover. Leucippus came to her assistance, and 
 stabbed his father in the dark, without knowing 
 who he was. This accidental parricide obliged 
 Leucippus to fly from his country. He came to 
 Crete, where the inhabitants refused to give him 
 an asylum when acquainted with the atrocious- 
 ness of his crime, and he at last came to Ephe- 
 sus, where he died in the greatest misery and 
 
 remorse. Hermesianax apud ParLhen. c. 5. 
 
 III. A son of CEnomaus, who became enamour- 
 ed of Daphne, and to obtain her confidence dis- 
 guised himself in a female dress, and attended 
 his mistress as a companion. He gained the 
 afiections of Daphne by his obsequiousness and 
 attention, but his artifice at last proved fatal 
 through the influence and jealousy of his rival 
 Apollo ; for when Daphne and her attendants 
 were bathin g in the Ladon , the sex of Leu cippus 
 was discovered, and he perished by the darts of 
 the females. Parthen. Erot. c.l5. — Paus. 8, c. 20. 
 Leucothoa, or Leucothea, I. the wife of 
 Athamas, changed into a sea deity. Vid. Ino. 
 She was called Mutura by the Romans, who 
 raised her a temple, where all the people, parti- 
 cularly women, offered vows for their brother's 
 children. They did not entreat the deity to 
 protect their own children, because Ino had Deen 
 unfortunate in hers. No female slaves were 
 permitted to enter the temple, or if their curi- 
 osity tempted them to transgress this rule, they 
 were beaten away with the greatest severity. 
 To this supplication for other people's children, 
 Ovid alludes in these lines, Fast. 6: — 
 
 Non tamen hanc, pro stripe sua pia mater adorat, 
 Ipsa parum felix visafuisse parens. 
 
 II. A daughter of king Orchamus, by Eury- 
 
 nome. Apollo became enamoured of her, when 
 Clytia, who tenderly loved Apollo, and was 
 jealous of his amours with Leucothoe, discover- 
 ed the whole intrigue to her father, who ordered 
 his daughter to be buried alive. The lover, 
 unable to save her from death, sprinkled nectar 
 and ambrosia on her tomb, which penetrating 
 as far as the body, changed it into a beautiful 
 tree, which bears the frankincense. Ovid. Met. 
 4, V. 196. Vid. Part I. 
 
 LiBENTiNA, a surname of Venus, who had a 
 temple at Rome, where the young women used 
 to dedicate the toys and childish amusements 
 of their youth when arrived at nubile years. 
 Varro de L. L. 5, c. 6. 
 
 Liber, a surname of Bacchus, which signifies 
 
 free. He received this name from his delivering 
 some cities of Bceotia from slavery, or, accord- 
 ing to others, because wine, of which he was the 
 patron, delivered mankind from their cares, and 
 made them speak wath freedom and unconcern. 
 The word is often used for wine itself. Senec. 
 de tro.nq. anivi. 
 
 Libera, I. a goddess, the same as Proserpine. 
 
 Cic. in Ver. 4, c. 48. II. A name given to 
 
 Ariadne by Bacchus, or Liber, when he had 
 married her. Ovid. Fast. 3, v. 513. 
 
 LiBERTAS, a goddess of Rome, who had a 
 temple on mount Aventine, raised by T. Grac- 
 chus, and improved and adorned by Pollio with 
 maay elegant statues and brazen columns, and 
 a gallery in which were deposited the public acts 
 of the state. She was represented as a woman 
 in a light dress, holding a rod in one hand and 
 a cap in the other, both signs of independence, 
 as the former was used by the magistrates in the 
 manumission of slaves, and the latter was worn 
 by slaves who were soon to be set at liberty. 
 Sometimes a cat was placed at her feet, as this 
 animal is very fond of liberty, and impatient 
 when confined. Liv. 24, c. 16, 1. 25, c. 7. — 
 Ovid. Trist. 3, el. 1, v. 12.— Plut. in Grac— 
 Dio. Cas. 44. 
 
 Libitina, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
 over funerals. According to some she is the 
 same as Venus, or rather Proserpine. Servius 
 Tullius first raised her a temple at* Rome, where 
 every thing necessary for funerals were exposed 
 to sale, and where the registers of the dead 
 were usually kept, Dionys. Hal. 4. — Liv. 40, 
 c. 19.— FaZ. Max. 5, c. 2.— Plut. Qua;st. Rom.— 
 From the name of the goddess, those who took 
 charge of funerals at Rome were called Libi- 
 tinarii. Plutarch considers the question why 
 the Romans made the same goddess under the 
 name of Venus in the one instance, and of 
 Libitina in the other, preside over the period of 
 birth and also of death ; and thinks that th^y 
 desired to suggest thereby the brevity of life. 
 With the same intention the Greeks had at 
 Delphi an image of Venus Epitymbia (E-jto/x- 
 I3ta). Servius Tullius, with a view of ascer- 
 taining the number of deaths which occurred 
 annually, enacted that a piece of money should 
 be deposited in the temple on occasion of ever}' 
 funeral. Millivi. — Plut. — Dionys. Hal. 
 
 Libya, a daughter of Epaphus and Cassi- 
 opea, who became mother of Agenor and Belus 
 by Neptune. Apollod. 2, c. 1, 1. 3, c. 1. — Pa^is. 
 1, 44. Vid. Part I. 
 
 LicHAS, a servant of Hercules, who brought 
 him the poisoned tunic from Dejanira. He was 
 thrown by his master into the sea with great 
 violence, and changed into a rock in the Eu- 
 boean Sea. Ovid. Met. 9, v. 211. 
 
 LicYMMDs, a son of Electryon and brother 
 of Alcmena. He was so infirm in his old age, 
 that when he walked he was ahvays supported 
 by a slave. Triptolemus, son of Hercules, see- 
 ing the slave inattentive to his duty, threw a 
 stick at him, which unfortunately killed Licym- 
 nius. The murderer fled to Rhodes. Apollod. 2, 
 c. 7. — Diod. 5. — Homer. 11. 2. — Pind. Olymp. 7. 
 
 Linus, " was the son of Urania by Amphi- 
 marus, the son of Neptune. The renown which 
 he acquired for his skill in music was superior 
 not only to that of his contemporaries, but to 
 that of all his predeces«;ors ; and he is said to 
 733 
 
LU 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 LY 
 
 have been slain by Apollo for attempting to 
 compare his skill in singing with that of the 
 god. Indeed the death of Linus was lamented 
 by every barbarous nation; and among the 
 E^ptians there is a song which the Greeks call 
 Lmus : for this song is denominated by the 
 Egyptians Maneroon. But the Greeks, and 
 among these Homer, mention this song as Gre- 
 cian. For Homer, being well acquainted with 
 the misfortune of Linus, says that Vulcan re- 
 presented, among others things, in the shield of 
 Achilles, a boy playing on a harp, and singing 
 the fate of Linus : — 
 
 * To these a youth awakes the warbling strings, 
 Whose tender lay the fate of Linus sings.'' 
 
 But Pamphus, who composed the most ancient 
 hymns for the Athenians, says, that grief for 
 the death of Linus increased to that degree, 
 that he came to be called Oitolinos, or lamenta- 
 ble Linus. And afterwards the Lesbian Sappho, 
 having learned the name Oitolinos from the 
 verses of Pamphus, celebrates in her poems 
 Adonis and Oitolinos. The Thebans, too, boast 
 that Linus was buried in their country ; and 
 they say, that after the loss of the Greeks at 
 Chaeronea, Philip the son of Amyntas, in «on- 
 sequence of a vision in a dream, brought the 
 bones of Linus to Macedonia ; and afterwards, 
 from another dream, carried back the bones to 
 Thebes. The covering however of this tomb, 
 and every thing else belonging to it, have, they 
 say, been obliterated through length of time. 
 The Thebans likewise assert, that there was a 
 junior Linus, the son of Israenius; and that 
 when but a boy he was slain by Hercules, 
 whom he instructed in music." Pausanius. 
 " However, neither the Linus, the son of Am- 
 phimarus, nor he who was the son of Ismenius, 
 composed any thing in verse ; or, if they did, 
 it has not been transmitted to posterity. Ac- 
 cording to Suidas, he was a poet of Chalcis, 
 and the first that brought the knowledge of let- 
 ters from PhcEnicia to Greece. He taught Her- 
 cules letters, and is said to have ranked as the 
 prince of lyric poets. Two fragments are all 
 the remains of his works at present." Tdylor. 
 
 LiRioPE, one of the Oceanides, mother of 
 Narcissus by the Cephisus. Ovid. Met. 3, v. 311. 
 
 LissA, the name of a fury whom Euripides 
 introduces on the stage as conducted by Iris, at 
 the command of Juno, to inspire Hercules with 
 that fatal rage which ended in his death. 
 
 LoTis, or Lotos, a beautiful nymph, daugh- 
 ter of Neptune. To save herself from the im- 
 portunities of Priapus, she implored the gods, 
 who changed her into a tree called Lotus, con- 
 secrated to Venus and Apollo. Ovid. Met. 9, v. 
 348. 
 
 LoTOPHAGi, a people on the coast of Africa 
 near the Syrtes. They received this name from 
 their living upon the lotus. Ulysses visited their 
 country at his return from the Trojan war. 
 Herodot. 4, c. 177. — Strab. 17. — Mela, 1, c. 7. — 
 Plin. 5, c. 7, 1. 13, c. 17. 
 
 LuA, a goddess at Rome, who presided over 
 things which were purified by lustrations, 
 whence the name (a luendo.) She is supposed 
 to be the same as Ops or Rhea. 
 
 Lucifer, the name of the planet Venus, or 
 morning star. It is called iMcifer, when ap- 
 pearing in the morning before the sun : but 
 734 
 
 when it follows it, and appears some time after 
 its setting, it is called Hesperus. According to 
 some mythologists, Lucifer was son of Jupiter 
 and Aurora. 
 
 LuciNA, a goddess, daughter of Jupiter and 
 Juno, or, according to others, of Latona. As her 
 mother brought her into the world without pain, 
 she became the goddess whom women in labour 
 invoked, and she presided over the birth of 
 children. She receives this name either from 
 lucus or from lux, as Ovid explains it : — 
 
 Gratia LucincB, dedit hac tibi nomine lucus ; 
 Aut quia principium tu, Dea, lucis habes. 
 
 Some suppose her to be the same as Diana and 
 Juno, because these two goddesses were also 
 sometimes called Lucina, and presidefl over the 
 labours of women. She is called' Ilythia by the 
 Greeks. She had a famous temple at Rome, 
 raised A. U. C. 396. Varr. de L. L. i.—Cic. 
 de J^at. D. 2, c. 21.— Ovid. Fast. 2, v, 449.— 
 Horat, Carm. Sec. 
 
 LtJNA, (the moon,) was daughter of Hyperion 
 and Terra, and was the same, according to some 
 mythologists, as Diana. She was worshipped 
 by the ancient inhabitants of the earth with 
 with many superstitious forms and ceremonies. 
 It was supposed that magicians and enchanters, 
 particularly those of Thessaly, had an uncon- 
 trollable power over the moon, and that they 
 could draw her down from heaven at pleasure 
 by the mere force of their incantations. Her 
 eclipses, according to their opinion, proceeded 
 from thence; and, on that account, it was usual 
 to beat drums and cymbals, to ease her labours, 
 and to render the power of magic less efiectual. 
 Ovid. Met. 12, v. 263, &.(i.— Tibull. 1, el. 8, v. 
 2\.—Hesiod. Theog.— Virg. Eel. 8, v. 69. 
 
 LuPA. {a she-wolf,) was held in great venera- 
 tion at Rome, because Rom.ulus and Remus, 
 according to an ancient tradition, were suckled 
 and preserved by one of these animals. This 
 fabulous story arises from the surname of Lupa, 
 which was given to the wife of the shepherd 
 Faustulus, to whose care and humanity these 
 children owed their preservation. Ovid. Fast. 
 2, V. 415. — Plut. in Romul. 
 
 Ly^us, a surname of Bacchus. It is derived 
 from 'Xvciv, solvere, because wine, over which 
 Bacchus presides, gives freedom to the mind, 
 and delivers it from all cares and melancholy. 
 Horat. ep. 9. — Lucan. 1, v. 675. 
 
 Lycaon, I. the first king of Arcadia, son of 
 Pelasgus and Meliboea. He built a town called 
 Lycosuraonthetop of mount Lycaeus, in honour 
 of Jupiter. He had many wives, by whom he 
 had a daughter called Calisto, and fifty sons. 
 He was succeeded on the throne by Nyctimus, 
 the eldest of his sons. He lived about 1820 
 years before the Christian era. Apollod. 3. — 
 Hygin. fab. I16.—Catul. ep. 16.— Pans. 8, c. 2, 
 
 &c. IT. Another king of Arcadia, celebrated 
 
 for his cruelties. He was changed into a wolf 
 by Jupiter, because he offered human victims 
 on the altars of the god Pan. Some attribute 
 this metamorphosis to another cause. The sins 
 of mankind, as they relate, were become so 
 enormous, that Jupiter visited the earth to 
 punish wickedness and impiety. He came to 
 Arcadia, where the people began to pay proper 
 adoration to his divinity. Lycaon, however, 
 to try the divinity of the god, served up human 
 
LY 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 MA 
 
 flesh on his table. This impiety so irritated 
 Jupiter, that he immediately destroyed the house 
 of Lycaon, and changed him into a wolf. Ovid. 
 Met. 1, V. 198, &c. — These two monarchs are 
 often confounded together, though no less than 
 
 an age elapsed between their reigns. III. A 
 
 son of Priam and Laothoe. He was taken by 
 Achilles, and carried to Lemnos, whence he 
 escaped. He was afterwards killed by Achilles 
 in the Trojan war. Homer. 11. 21, &c. 
 
 Lycastus, I. a son of Minos I. He was fa- 
 ther of Minos II. by Ida, the daughter of Cory- 
 
 bas. Diod. 4. II. A son of Minos and Phi- 
 
 lonome, daughter of Nyctimus. He succeeded 
 his father on the throne of Arcadia. Paus. 8, 
 c. 3 and 4. 
 
 Ltcius, an epithet given to Apollo from his 
 temple in Lycia, where he gave oracles, parti- 
 cularly at Patara, where the appellation of py- 
 cicB sortes was given to his answers. Virg. 
 jEn. 4, v. 346. 
 
 Lycomedes, a king of Scyros, an island in 
 the .^gean Sea, son of Apollo and Parthenope. 
 He was secreily intrusted with the care of 
 youQg Achilles, whom his mother Thetis had 
 disguised in woman's clothes, to remove him 
 from the Trojan war, where she knew he must 
 unavoidably perish. Lycomedes has rendered 
 himself famous for his treachery to Theseus. 
 Plut. in Thes. — Paus. 1, c. 17, 1. 7, c. 4. — Apol. 
 3, c. 13. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Lycurgus, a king of Thrace. He drove 
 Bacchus out of his kingdom, and abolished his 
 worship, for which impiety he was severely 
 punished by the gods. He put his own son 
 Dryas to death in a fury, and he cut off his own 
 legs, mistaking them for vine boughs. He was 
 put to death in the greatest torments by his sub- 
 jects, who had been informed by the oracle that 
 they should not taste wine till Lycurgus was no 
 more. This fable is explained by observing, 
 that the aversion of Lycurgus for wine, over 
 which Bacchus presided, arose from the filthi- 
 ness and disgrace of intoxication, and therefore 
 the monarch wisely ordered all the vines of his 
 dominions to be cut down, that himself and his 
 subjects might be preserved from the extrava- 
 gance and debauchery which are produced by 
 too free a use of wine. Hygin. fab. 132. — 
 Homer. 11. 6, v. 130. — Avollod. 3, c. 5. — Ovid. 
 Met. 4, V. 22.— Hr^. jEn.3, v. U.—Horat. 2, 
 od. 19. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Lycus, I. a king of Boeotia, successor to his 
 brother Nycteus, who left no male issue. He 
 was intrusted with the government only during 
 the minority of Labdacus, the son of the daugh- 
 ter of Nycteus, He was farther enjoined to 
 make war against Epopeus, who had carried 
 away by force Antiope, the daughter of Nyc- 
 teus, He was successful in this expedition, re- 
 covered Antiope and married her. Vid. An- 
 tiope. Paus. 9, c. 5. — Apollod. 3. c. 5, II. A 
 
 king of Libya, who sacrificed whatever stran- 
 gers came upon his coast. When Diomedes, at 
 his return from the Trojan war, had been ship- 
 wrecked there, the tyrant seized him and con- 
 fined him. He, however, escaped by means of 
 Callirhoe, the tyrant's daughter, who was en- 
 amoured of him, and who hung herself when 
 she saw herself deserted, III. A son of Nep- 
 tune by Celaeno, made king of a part of Mysia 
 by Hercules. He offered violence to Megara, 
 
 the wife of Hercules, for which he was killed 
 by the incensed hero, Lycus gave a kind re- 
 ception to the Argonauts, Apollod. 3, c. 10. — 
 Hygin. fab. 18, 31, 32, 137. Vid. Parts I. and 11. 
 
 Lydus, Vid. Part II, 
 
 Lygodesma, a surname of Diema at Sparta, 
 because her statue was brought by Orestes from 
 Taurus,shielded round with osiers, Paus.3,c.l6. 
 
 Lynceus, I, son of Aphareus, was among the 
 hunters of the Calydonian boar, and one of the 
 Argonauts, He was so sharpsighted, that, as 
 it is reported, he could see through the earth. 
 He stole some oxen with his brother Idas, and 
 they were both killed by Castor and Pollux 
 when they were going to celebrate their nuptials 
 with the daughters of Leucippus, Apollod. 1 
 and 3. — Hygin. fab. — Paus. 4, c, 2, — Ovid. 
 
 Met. 3, V. 303.—Apollon. Arg. 1. -11. A son 
 
 of jEgyptus, who married Hypermnestra, the 
 daughter of Danaus. His life was spared by 
 the love of his wife, Vid. Danaides. He made 
 war against his father-in-law, dethroned him 
 and seized his crown. Some say that Lynceus 
 was reconciled to Danaus, and that he succeed- 
 ed him after his death, and reigned forty-one 
 years. Apollod. 2, c. 1. — Paus. 2, c, 16, 19, 25. 
 Ovid. Heroid. 14. 
 
 Lyncus, Lynceus, or Lynx, a cruel king of 
 Scythia, or, according to others, of Sicily. He 
 received with feigned hospitality, Triptolemus, 
 whom Ceres had sent all over the world to 
 teach mankind agriculture ; an'd as he was 
 jealous of his commission, he resolved to mur- 
 der this favourite of the gods in his sleep. As 
 he was going to give the deadly blow to Trip- 
 tolemus, he was suddenly changed into a lynx, 
 an animal which is the emblem of perfidy and 
 ingratitude. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 650. 
 
 LysidIce, a daughter of Pelops and Hippoda- 
 mia, who married Mastor, the son of Perseus 
 and Andromeda. Apol. 2, c, i.—Paus. 8, c, 14. 
 
 M. 
 
 Macaria, I. a daughter of Hercules and De- 
 janira. After the death of Hercules, Eurys- 
 tkeus made war against the Heraclidse, whom 
 the Athenians supported, and the oracle decla- 
 red that the descendants of Hercules should ob- 
 tain the victory if any one of them devoted him- 
 self to death. This was cheerfully accepted by 
 Macaria, who refused to endanger the life of the 
 children of Hercules by suffering the victim to 
 be drawn by lot, and the Athenians obtained a 
 victory. Great honours were paid to the patri- 
 otic Macaria, and a fountain of Marathon was 
 
 called by her name, Paus. 1, c, 32, II. An 
 
 ancient name of Cyprus. 
 
 Macedo, 1. a son of Osiris, who had a share 
 in the divine honours which were paid to his 
 father. He was represented clothed in a wolf's 
 skin, for which reason the Egyptians held that 
 animal in great veneration. Diod. 1. — Plut. 
 
 in Isid. et Os. II. A man who gave his 
 
 name to Macedonia. Some supposed him to be 
 the same as the son or general of Osiris, whilst 
 others considered him as the grandson of Deu- 
 calion by the mother's side. Diod. 1, 
 
 Machaon, a celebrated phvsician, son of 
 
 iEsculapius and brother to Podalirus. He 
 
 went to the Trojan war with the inhabitants of 
 
 Trica, Ithome, and (Echalia, According to 
 
 735 
 
MA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 MA 
 
 some, he was king of Messenia. As physician 
 to the Greeks, he healed the wounds which 
 they received during the Trojan war, and was 
 one of those concealed in the wooden horse. 
 Some suppose that he was killed before Troy 
 by Eurypylus, the son of Telephus. He receiv- 
 ed divine honours after death, and had a tem- 
 ple to Messenia. Homer. 11. 2, &c. — Ovid, ex 
 Pont. 3, ep. 4. — Quint. Smyr.6, v. 409. — Virg. 
 jEn. 2, V. 263 and 426. 
 
 MiEONiD.SE, a name given to the Muses, be- 
 cause Homer, their greatest and worthiest fa- 
 vourite, was supposed to be a native of Mseonia. 
 
 Magnes, a young man, who found himself 
 detained by the iron nails which were under his 
 shoes as he walked over a stone mine. This 
 was no other than the magnet, which received 
 its name from the person who had been first 
 sensible of its power. Some say that Magnes 
 was a slave of Medea, whom that enchantress 
 changed into a magnet. Orph. de lapul. 10, v. 7. 
 
 Maia, I. a daughter of Atlas and Pleione, 
 mother of Mercury by Jupiter. She was one 
 of the Pleiades, the most luminous of the seven 
 sisters. Apollod. 3, c. 10. — Virg. jEn. 1, v. 
 301. II. A surname of Cybele. 
 
 Majestas, a goddess among the Romans, 
 daughter of Honour and Reverence. Ovid. 5, 
 Fast. 5, V. 25. 
 
 Mallophora, {Icznani ferens,^ a surname un- 
 der which Ceres had a temple at Megara, be- 
 cause she had taught the inhabitants the utility 
 of wool, and the means of tending sheep to ad- 
 vantage. This temple is represented as so old 
 in the age of Pausanias, that it was falling to 
 decay. Pans. 1, c. 44. 
 
 Manes, a name generally applied by the 
 ancients to the souls when separated from the 
 body. They were reckoned among the infernal 
 deities, and generally supposed to preside over 
 the burying places, and the monuments of the 
 dead. They were worshipped with great solem- 
 nity, particularly by the Romans, The augurs 
 always invoked them when they proceeded to 
 exercise their sacerdotal offices. Virgil intro- 
 duces his hero as sacrificing to the infernal dei- 
 ties, and to the Manes, a victim whose blood 
 was received in a ditch. The word Manes is 
 supposed to be derived from Mania, who was 
 by some reckoned the mother of those tremen- 
 dous deities. Others derive it from manare, 
 quod per omnia (ztherea terrenaque manabant, 
 because they filled the air, particularly in the 
 night, and were intent to molest and disturb 
 the peace of mankind. Some say that manes 
 comes from manis, an old Latin word which 
 signified good or propitious. The word manes 
 is differently used by ancient authors ; some- 
 times it is taken for the infernal regions, and 
 sometimes it is applied to the deities of Pluto's 
 kingdom ; whence the epitaphs of the Romans 
 were always superscribed with D. M. Dis Ma- 
 nibus, to remind the sacrilegious and profane, 
 not to molest the monuments of the dead, which 
 were guarded with such sanctity. Propert. 1, 
 el. \9.— Virg. 4, G. v. 469. Mn. 3, SLC.—Horat. 
 1, Sat. 8, V. 28. 
 
 Mania, a goddess, supposed to be the mother 
 of the Lares and Manes. 
 
 Mannus, the son of Tuisto, both famous di- 
 vinities among the Germans, Tac. de Germ.c.'2. 
 
 Mantineus, the father of Ocalea, who mar- 
 736 
 
 ried Abas the son of Lynceus and Hypermnes- 
 tra. Apollod. 2, c. 9. 
 
 Manto, a daughter of the prophet Tiresias, 
 endowed with the gift of prophecy. She was 
 made prisoner by the Argives when the city of 
 Thebes fell into their hands, and as she was the 
 worthiest part of the booty, the conquerors sent 
 her to Apollo, the god of Delphi, as the most 
 valuable present they could make. Manto, often 
 called Daphne, remained for some time at Del- 
 phi, where she officiated as priestess, and where 
 she gave oracles. From Delphi she came to 
 Glares, in Ionia, where she established an ora- 
 cle of Apollo. Here she married Rhadius, the 
 sovereign of the country, by whom she had a 
 son called Mopsus, Manto afterwards visited 
 Italy, where she married Tiberinus the king of 
 Alba, or, as the poets mention, the god of the 
 river Tiber, From this marriage sprang Ocnus, 
 who built a town in the neighbourhood, which, 
 in honour of his mother, he called Mantua. 
 Manto, according to a certain tradition, was so 
 struck at the misfortunes which afflicted Thebes, 
 her native country, that she gave way to her sor- 
 sow and was turned into a fountain. Some sup- 
 pose her to be the same who conducted ^Eneas 
 into hell, and who sold the Sibylline- books to 
 Tarquin the Proud, She received divine hon- 
 ours after death, Virg. Mn. 1, v, 199, 1. 10, 
 V, l^'d.— Ovid. Met. 6, V, Ibl.—Diod. 4..—Apol. 
 
 3, c, l.—Strab. 14 and \Q.—Paus. 9, c. 10 and 
 33, 1. 7, c. 3. 
 
 Marianus, a surname given to Jupiter, from 
 a temple built to his honour by Marius. It was 
 in this temple that the Roman senate assembled 
 to recall Cicero, a circumstance communicated 
 to him in a dream. Val. Max. 1, c. 7. 
 
 Marica, a nymph of the river Liris, near 
 Minturnse. She married King Faunus, by 
 whom she had King Latinus, and she was after- 
 wards called Fauna and Fatua, and honoured 
 as a goddess. A city of Campania bore her 
 name. Some suppose her to be the same as 
 Circe. Virg. JEn. 7, v. n.—Liv. 27, c. 37. 
 
 Maron, I. a son of Evanthes, highpriesl of 
 Apollo, in Africa, when Ulysses touched upon 
 
 the coast. Homer. Od. 9, v. 179. II. An 
 
 Egyptian who accompanied Osiris in his con- 
 quests, and built a city in Thrace, called from 
 him Maronea. Mela, 2, c. 2. — Diod. 1. 
 
 Marpesia, a celebrated queen of the Ama- 
 zons, who waged a successful war against the 
 inhabitants of mount Caucasus. The mountain 
 was called Marpesius Mans, from its female 
 conqueror. Justin. 2, c. 4. — Virg. JSn. 6. 
 
 Marpessa, a daughter of the Evenus, who 
 married Idas, by whom she had Cleopatra, the 
 wife of Meleager. Marpessa was tenderly loved 
 by her husband; and when Apollo endeavoured 
 to carry her away, Idas followed the ravisher 
 with a bow and arrows, resolved on revenge. 
 Apollo and Idas were separated by Jupiter, 
 who permitted Marpessa to go with that of the 
 two lovers whom she most approved of She 
 returned to her husband. Homer. 11. 9, v. 549. 
 —Ovid. Met. S, V. 305.— Apollod. 1, c. l.—Paus. 
 
 4, c. 2, 1. 5, c. 18. 
 
 Mars, a god of war among the ancients, was 
 the son of Jupiter and Juno, according to He- 
 siod. Homer, and all the Greek poets, or of Juno 
 alone, according to Ovid. Vid. Jurw. The 
 education of Mars was intrusted by Juno to the 
 
MA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ME 
 
 god Priapus, who instructed him in dancing and 
 every manly exercise. His trial before the 
 celebrated court of the Areopagus, according 
 to the authority x)f some authors, for the murder 
 of Hallirhoiius, forms an interesting epoch in 
 history. Vid. Areopagitce. The amours of 
 Mars and Venus are greatly celebrated. In the 
 wars of Jupiter and the Titans, Mars was seized 
 by Otus and Ephialtes, and confined for fifteen 
 months, till Mercury procured him his liberty. 
 His worship was not very universal among the 
 ancients; his temples were not numerous in 
 Greece, but in Rome he received the most un- 
 bounded honours, and the warlike Romans 
 were proud of paying homage to a deity whom 
 they esteemed as the patron of their city, and 
 the father of the first of their monarchs. His 
 most celebrated temple at Rome was built by 
 Augustus after the battle of Philippi. It was 
 dedicated to Mars ultor, or the avenger. His 
 priests among the Romans were called Salii ; 
 they were first instituted by Numa. Mars was 
 generally represented in the naked figure of an 
 old man, armed with a helmet, a pike, and a 
 shield. Sometimes he appeared in a military 
 dress, and with a long flowing beard, and some- 
 limes without. He generally rode in a chariot 
 drawn by furious horses, which the poets call 
 Flight and Terror. His altars were stained 
 with the blood of the horse, on account of his 
 warlike spirit, and of the wolf, on account of his 
 ferocity. Magpies and vultures were also of- 
 fered to him, on account of their greediness and 
 voracity. The Scythians generally offered him 
 asses, and the people of Caria, dogs. The 
 weed called dog-grass was sacred to him, be- 
 cause it grows, ab it is commonly reported, in 
 places which are fit for fields of battle, or where 
 the ground has been stained with the eflusion 
 of human blood. The surnames of Mars are 
 not numerous. He was called Gradivus, Ma- 
 vors, duirinus, Salisubsulus, among the Ro- 
 mans. The Greeks called him Ares, and he 
 was the Enyalus of the Sabines, the Camulus 
 of the Gauls, and the Mamers of Carthage. 
 Mars was father of Cupid, Anteros, and Har- 
 monia, by the goddess Venus. He had Ascala- 
 phus and lalmenus by Astyoche ; and Thes- 
 tius, by Demonice, the daughter of Agenor. 
 Besides these, he was the reputed father of 
 Romulus, CEnomaus, &c. He presided over 
 gladiators, and was the god of hunting, and of 
 whatever exercises or amusements have some- 
 thing manly and warlike. Among the Romans 
 it was usual for the consul, before he went on 
 an expedition, to visit the temple of Mars, where 
 he offered his prayers, and in a solemn manner 
 shook the spear which was in the hand of the 
 statue of the god, at the same time exclaiming, 
 " Marsviliga ! god of war, watch over thesafe- 
 tv of this city." Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 231. Trist. 
 2, V. 925.-^ Hygin. fab. 148.— Virg. G. 4, v. 346. 
 Mn. 8, V. 701. — Lucian. in Electr. — Varro de 
 L. L. 4, c. \0.— Homer. Od. 1, 11. b.— Place. 6. 
 — Apollod. 1, &c. — Hesiod. Theog. — Pindar. 
 od, 4, Pyth. — Quint. Smyr. 14. — Paus. 1, c. 21 
 and ^.—Juv. 9, v. 102. 
 
 Marsyas, a celebrated piper of Celeenee in 
 Phrygia, son of Olympus, or of Hyagnis, or 
 CEagrus. He was so skilful in playing on the 
 flute, that he is generally deemed the inventor of 
 it. According to the opinion of some he found 
 
 Part III.— 5 A 
 
 it when Minerva had thrown it aside on account 
 of the distortion of her face when she played 
 upon it. Marsyas was enamoured of Cybele, 
 and he travelled with her as far asNysa, where 
 he had the imprudence to challenge Apollo to a 
 trial of his skill as a musician. The god ac- 
 cepted the challenge, and it was mutually agreed 
 that he who was defeated should be flayed alive 
 by the conqueror. The Muses, or, according to 
 Diodorus, the inhabitants of Nysa,were appoint- 
 ed umpires. Each exerted his utmost skill, and 
 the victory, with much difficulty, was adjudged 
 to Apollo. The god, upon this, tied his antago- 
 nist to a tree and flayed him alive. The death 
 of Marsyas was universally lamented ; the 
 Fauns, Satyrs, and Dryads, wept at his fate, 
 and from their abundant tears arose a river of 
 Phrygia, well known by the name of Marsyas. 
 In independent cities among the ancients the 
 statue of Marsyus was generally erected in the 
 forum, to represent the intimacy which subsist- 
 ed between Bacchus and Marsyas, as the em- 
 blems of liberty. It was also erected at the en- 
 trance of the Roman forum, as a spot where 
 usurers and merchants resorted to transact 
 business, being principally intended in terro- 
 rem litigatorum ; a circumstance to which 
 Horace seems to allude, 1 Sat. 6, v. 120. At 
 Celsenas, the skin of Marsyas was shown to 
 travellers for some time ; it was suspended in 
 the public place in the form of a bladder or a 
 foot-ball. Hygin. fab 165. — Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 
 707. Met. 6, fab. l.—Diod. Z.—ltal. 8, v. 50a 
 —Plin. 5. c. 29, 1. 7, c. b^.—Paus. 10, c. 30.— 
 Apollod. 1, c. 4. Vid. Parts I, and 11. 
 
 Matuta, a deity among the Romans, the 
 same as the Leucothoe of the Greeks. She was 
 originally Ino, who was changed into a sea 
 deity, {Vid. Ino axid Leucothoe,) and she was 
 worshipped by sailors as such at Corinth in a 
 temple sacred to Neptune. Only married wo- 
 men and freeborn matrons were permitted to 
 enter her temples at Rome, where they gene- 
 rally brought the children of their relations in 
 their arms. Liv. 5, &c. — Cic. de Nat. D. 3, v. 19. 
 
 Mechaneds, a surname of Jupiter. He had 
 a statue near the temple of Ceres at Argos, and 
 there the people swore, before they went to the 
 Trojan war, either to conquer or to perish. 
 Paus. 2, c. 22. 
 
 Mecisteds, I. a son of Echius or Talaus, was 
 one of the companions of Ajax. He was killed 
 
 by Polydamas. Homer. 11. 6, v. 28, &c. II. 
 
 A son of Lycaon. Apollod. 
 
 Medea, a celebrated magician, daughter of 
 TEetes, king of Colchis. Her mother's name, 
 according to the more received opinion of He- 
 siod and Hyginus, was Idyia, or, according to 
 others, Ephyre, Hecate, Asterodia, Antiope, 
 and Neraea, She was the niece of Circe. When 
 Ja.son came to Colchis in quest of the golden 
 fleece. Meda became enamoured of him, and 
 it was to her well-directed labours that the Ar- 
 gonauts owed their preservation. Vid. Argo- 
 naut(S. When Jason reached lolchos, his na- 
 tive country, the return and victories of the Ar- 
 gonauts were celebrated with universal rejoic- 
 ings; but JEson, the father of Jason, was un- 
 able to assist at the solemnity on account of the 
 infirmities of his age, Medea, at her husband's 
 request, removed the weakness of .^son, and 
 by drawing away the blood from his veins and 
 737 
 
ME 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ME 
 
 filling them again with the juice of certain herbs, 
 she restored to him the vigour and sprightliness 
 of youth. The daughters ofPelias were also 
 desirous to see their father restored by the same 
 power. They accordingly killed him of their 
 own accord, and boiled his flesh in a caldron, 
 but Meda refused to perform the same friendly 
 offices to Pelias which he had done to iEson, 
 and he was consumed by the heat of the fire, 
 and even deprived of a burial. This action 
 greatly irritated the people of lolchos, and Me- 
 dea, with her husband, fled to Corinth to avoid 
 the resentment of an offended populace. Here 
 they lived for ten years with much conjugal 
 tenderness; but the love of Jason for Glauce, the 
 king's daughter, soon interrupted their mutual 
 harmony, and Medea was divorced. Medea 
 revenged the infidelity of Jason by causing the 
 death of Glauce and the destruction of her fam- 
 ily. Vid. Glauce. This action was followed 
 by another still more atrocious. Medea killed 
 two of her children in their father's presence, 
 and when Jason attempted to punish the bar- 
 barity of the mother, she fled through the air 
 upon a chariot drawn by winged dragons. 
 From Corinth, Medea came to Athens, where, 
 after she had undergone the nocessary purifica- 
 tion of her murder, she married king ^geus, 
 and gave birth to a son who was called Medus. 
 Soon after, when Theseus wished to make him- 
 self known 10 his father, (Vid. ^geics,) Medea, 
 jealous of his fame and fearful of his power, 
 attempted to poison him at a feast which had 
 been prepared for his entertainment. Her at- 
 tempts, however, failed of success, and the sight 
 of the sword, which Theseus wore by his side, 
 convinced ^Egeus that the stranger, against 
 whose life he had so basely conspired, was no 
 less than his own son. The father and the son 
 were reconciled, and Medea, to avoid the 
 punishment which her wickedness deserved, 
 mounted her fiery chariot, and disappeared 
 through the air. She came to Colchis, where 
 according to some, she was reconciled to Jason, 
 who had sought her in her native country after 
 her su'dden departure from Corinth. She died 
 at Colchis, as Justin mentions, when she had 
 been restored to the confidence of her family. 
 After death, she married Achilles in the Ely- 
 sian fields, according to the traditions mention- 
 ed by Simonides. The murder of Mermerus 
 and Pheres, the youngest of Jason's children by 
 Medea, is not attributed to their mother, ac- 
 cording to iElian, but the Corinthians them- 
 selves assassinated them in the temple of Juno 
 Acrsea. Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Hygin. fab. 21, 22, 
 23, &c. — Plut in Thes. — Dioni/s. Perieg. — 
 Julian. V. H. 5, c. 21.— Pans. 2, c. 3, 1. 8, c. 1. 
 — Euripid. in Med. — Diod. 4. — Ovid. Met. 7, 
 fab. 1, in Med.—Strab. l.—Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 
 19. — Apollon. Arg. 3, &c. — Orpheus. — Flacc. — 
 Jjiican. 4, V. 556, 
 
 Medesicaste, a daughter of Priam, who mar- 
 ried Imbrius, son of Mentor, who was killed by 
 Teucer during the Trojan war. Homer. 11. 13, 
 V. Y12.— Apollod. 3. 
 
 Meditrina, the goddess of medicine, whose 
 festivals, called Meditrinalia, were celebrated 
 at Rome the last day of September, when they 
 made offerings of fruits. Varro de L. L. 5, c. 3. 
 
 Medusa, I. one of the three Gorgons, daugh- 
 ter of Phorcys and Ceto. She was the only 
 738 
 
 one of the Gorgons who was subject to mortal- 
 ity. She is celebrated for her personal charms 
 and the beauty of her locks. Neptune became 
 enamoured of her, and obtained her favours in 
 the temple of Minerva. This violation of the 
 sanctity of the temple provoked Minerva, and 
 she changed the beautiful locks of Medusa, 
 which had inspired Neptune's love, into ser- 
 pents. According to Apollodorus and others, 
 Medusa and her sisters came into the world with 
 snakes on their heads instead of hair, with yel- 
 low wings and brazen heads. Their body was 
 also covered with impenetrable scales, and their 
 very looks had the power of killing or turning 
 to stones. Perseus rendered his name immortal 
 by the conquest of Medusa. He cut off her head, 
 and the blood that dropped from the wound 
 produced the innumerable serpents that infest 
 Africa. The conqueror placed Medusa's head 
 on the Eegis of Minerva, which he had used in 
 his expedition. The head still retained the same 
 petrifying power as before, as it was fatally 
 known in the court of Cepheus. Vid. Andro- 
 meda. Some suppose that the Gorgons were 
 a nation of women, whom Perseus conquered. 
 Vid. Gorgones. Apollod. 2, c. 4. — Hesiod. Theog. 
 — Ovid. Met. 4, v. 618.— iMcan. 9, v.'624.— 
 
 Apollon. i. — Hygin. fab. 151. II. A daughter 
 
 of Priam. III. A daughter of Sthenelus. 
 
 Apollod. 
 
 Meg^ra, one of the Furies, daughter of Nox 
 and Acheron. The name is derived from 
 jxeyaiptiv invidere, and she is represented as em- 
 ployed by the gods like her sisters to punish 
 the crimes of mankind, by visiting them with 
 diseases, with inward torments, and with 'death. 
 Virg. yEn. 12, v. 846. Vid. Eumenides. 
 
 Megale, the Greek name of Cybele, the 
 mother of the gods, whose festivals were called 
 Megalesia. 
 
 Meganira, the wife of Celeus, king of Eleu- 
 sis, in Attica. She was mother to Triptolemus, 
 to whom Ceres, as she travelled over Attica, 
 taught agriculture. She received divine hon- 
 ours after death, and she had an altar raised 
 to her, near the fountain where Ceres had first 
 been seen when she arrived at Attica. Paus. 
 1, c. 39. 
 
 Megara, the daughter of Creon, king of 
 Thebes, given in marriage to Hercules because 
 he had delivered the Thebans from the ty- 
 ranny of the Orchomenians. Vid. Erginus. 
 When Hercules went to hell by order of Eu- 
 rystheus, violence was offered to Megara by 
 Lycus, a Theban exile, and she would have 
 yielded to her ravisher, had not Hercules re- 
 turned that moment and punished him with 
 death. This murder displeased Juno, and she 
 rendered Hercules so delirious, that he killed 
 Megara and the three children he had by her 
 in a fit of madness, thinking them to be wild 
 beasts. Some say that Megara did not perish 
 by the hand of her husband, but that he after- 
 wards married her to his friend lolas. The 
 names of Megara's children by Hercules v/ere 
 Creontiades, Therimachus, and Deicoon. Hy- 
 gin. fab. 82. — Senec. in Here. — Apollod. 2, c. 6. 
 — Diad. 4. 
 
 Melampus, a celebrated soothsayer and phy- 
 sician of Argos, son of Amythaon, and Ido- 
 menea, or Dorippe. He lived at Pylos, in Pe- 
 loponnesus. His servants once killed two large 
 
ME 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ME 
 
 serpents who had made their nests at the bot- 
 tom of a large oak, and Melampus paid so much 
 regard to these two reptiles, that he raised a 
 burning pile and burned them upon it. He also 
 took particular care of their young ones, and 
 fed them with milk. Some time after this the 
 young serpents crept to Melampus as he slept 
 on the grass near the oak ; and, as if sensible 
 of the favours of their benefactor, they wan- 
 tonly played around him, and softly licked his 
 scars. This awoke Melampus, who was 
 astonished at the sudden change which his 
 senses had undergone. He found himself ac- 
 quainted with the chirping of the birds, and 
 with all their rude notes as they flew around 
 him. He look advantage of this supernatural 
 gift, and soon made himself perfect in the 
 knowledge of futurity, and Apollo also in- 
 structed him in the art of medicine. He had 
 soon after the happiness of curing the daughters 
 of Proetus, by giving them ellebore, which, 
 from this circumstance, has been called me- 
 lampodium, and as a reward for his trouble he 
 married the eldest of these princesses. Vid. 
 Pratides. The tyranny of his uncle Neleus, 
 king of Pylos, obliged him to leave his native 
 country, and PrcEtus, to show himself more 
 sensible of his services, gave him part of his 
 kingdom, over which he established himself 
 About this lime the personal charms of Pero, 
 the daughter of Neleus, had gained many ad- 
 mirers, but the father promised his daughter 
 only to him who brought into his hands the oxen 
 of Iphiclus. Bias, who was also one of her ad- 
 mirers, engaged his brother Melampus to steal 
 the oxen, and deliver them to him, Melampus 
 was caught in the attempt and imprisoned ; but 
 he taught the childless Iphiclus how to become 
 a father, and not only obtained his liberty, but 
 also the oxen, and with them he compelled Ne- 
 leus to give Pero in marriage to Bias. A severe 
 distemper, which had rendered the women of 
 Argos insane, was totally removed by Me- 
 lampus ; and Anaxagoras, who then sat on the 
 throne, rewarded his merit by giving him part 
 of his kingdom, where he established himself, 
 and where his posterity reigned during six 
 successive generations. He received divine 
 honours after death, and temples were raised to 
 his memory. Hovier. Od. 11, v. 287, 1. 15, v. 
 255. — Herodot. 2 and 9. — Apollod. 2, c. 2. — 
 Pmis. 2, c. 18, 1. 4, c. ^.— Virg. G. 3, v. 550. 
 
 Melampyges, a surname of Hercules, from 
 the black and hairy appearance of his back, &c. 
 
 Melanippe, I. a daughter of ^olus, who had 
 two children by Neptune, for which her father 
 put out both her eyes, and confined her in a 
 prison. Her children, who had been exposed 
 and preserved, delivered her from confinement, 
 and Neptune restored her to her eyesight. 
 She afterwards married Metapontus. Hygin. 
 fab. 186. — ^11. A nymph who married Itonus, 
 son of Amphictyon, by whom she had Boeotus, 
 who gave his name to Boeotia. Paus. 9, c. 1. 
 
 Melanippus, I. a priest of Apollo, at Gyrene, 
 killed by the tyrant Nicocrates. Polycen. 8. 
 
 II. A son oif Astacus, one of the Theban 
 
 chiefs who defended the gates of Thebes 
 against the army of Adrastus, king of Argos, 
 and was killed by Amphiaraus. Vid. Tydeus. 
 Apollod. 1, c. 8.—jEschyl. ante Theb. — Paus. 9, 
 c. 18. — ■■ — III. A son of Mars, who became 
 
 enamoured of Cometho, a priestess of Diana 
 Triclaria. For violation of the sanctity of the 
 place, the two lovers soon after perished by a 
 sudden death, and the country was visited by a 
 pestilence, which was stopped only after the of- 
 fering of a human sacrifice by the direction of 
 the oracle. Paus. 7, c. 19. 
 
 Meleager, a celebrated hero of antiquity, son 
 of CEneus, king of..Etolia, by Althaea, daughter 
 of Thestius. The Parcae were present at the 
 moment of his birth, and predicted his future 
 greatness. Clolho said, that he would be brave 
 and courageous ; Lachesis foretold his uncom- 
 mon strength, and Atropos declared that he 
 should live as long as that firebrand, which was 
 on the fire, remained entire and unconsumed. 
 Althaea no sooner heard this than she snatched 
 the stick from the fire, and kept it with the 
 most jealous care, as the life of her son was 
 destined to depend upon its preservation. The 
 fame of Meleager increased with his years ; he 
 signalized himself in ihe Argonautic expedition, 
 and afterwards delivered his country from the 
 neighbouring inhabitants, who made war against 
 his father, at the instigation of Diana, whose 
 altars CEneus had neglected. Vid. (Eneus. 
 No sooner were they destroyed, than Diana 
 punished the negligence of CEneus by a greater 
 calamity. She sent a huge wild boar, which 
 laid waste all the country, and seemed invinci- 
 ble on account of its immense size. It became 
 soon a public concern, all the neighbouring 
 princes assembled to destroy this terrible ani- 
 mal, and nothing became more famous in my- 
 thological history than the hunting of the Caly- 
 donian boar. The princes, and chiefs who as- 
 sembled, and who are mentioned by mytholo- 
 gists, are Meleager, son of CEneus, Idas and 
 Lynceus, sons of Aphareus, Dryas son of Mars, 
 Castor and Pollux sons of Jupiter and Leda, 
 Pirithous son of Ixion, Thesus sonof ^Egeus, 
 Anceus and Cepheus sons of Lycurgus, Adme- 
 tus son of Pheres, Jason son of .^son, Peleus 
 and Telemon sons of ^acus, Iphicles son of 
 Amphitryon, Eurytrion son of Actor, Atalanla 
 daughter of Schoeneus, lolas the friend of Her- 
 cules, the sons of Thestius, Amphiaraus son of 
 Oileus, Protheus, Cometes, the brothers of Al- 
 thaea, Hippolhous son of Cereyon, Leucippus, 
 Adrastus, Ceneus, Phileus, Echeon, Lelex, 
 Phoenix son of Amyntor, Panopeus, Hyleus, 
 Hippasus, Nestor, Menoetius, the father of Pa- 
 troclus, Amphicides, Laertes the father of Ulys- 
 ses, and the four sons of Hippocoon. This 
 troop of armed men attacked the boar with un- 
 usual fury, and it was at last killed by Melea- 
 ger. The conqueror gave the skin and the 
 head to Atalanla, who had first wounded the 
 animal. This partiality to a woman irritated 
 the others, and particularly Toxeus and Plexip- 
 pus, the brothers of Altha?a, and they endeav- 
 oured to rob Atalanta of the honourable pres- 
 ent. Meleager defended a woman of whom he 
 was enamoured, and killed his uncles in the at- 
 tempt. Meantime, the news of this celebrated 
 conquest had already reached Calydon, and 
 Althaea went to the temple of the gods to return 
 thanks for the victory which her son had gain- 
 ed. As she went, she met the corpses of her 
 brothers that were brought from the chase, and 
 at this mournful spectacle she filled the whole 
 city with her lamentations. She was upon this 
 739 
 
ME 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ME 
 
 informed that ihey Imd been killed by Melea- 
 ger, and in the moment of her resentment, to 
 revenge the death of her brothers, she threw 
 into the fire the fatal slick on which her son's 
 life depended, and Meleager died as soon as it 
 was consumed. Homer does not mention the 
 firebrand, whence some have imagined that this 
 fable is posterior to that poet's age. But he says 
 that the death of Toxeus and Plexippus so irri- 
 tated Althaea, that she uttered the most horrible 
 curses and imprecations upon the head of her 
 son. Meleager married Cleopatra, the daughter 
 of Idas and Marpessa, as also Atalanta, accord- 
 ing to some accounts. Afollod. 1, c. 8. — Apol- 
 lon. 1, arg. 1, v. 997, 1. 3, v. blS.—Flacc. 1 and 
 G.—Pmis. 10, c. 31.— Hygin. U.— Ovid. Met. 
 8.— Homer. 11. 9. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Meleagrides, the sisters of Meleager, daugh- 
 ters of CEneus and Althaea. They were so dis- 
 consolate at the death of their brother Meleager, 
 that they refused all aliment, and were changed 
 into birds called Meleagrides. The youngest 
 of the sisters, Gorge and Dejanira, who had 
 been married, escaped this metamorphosis. 
 Apollod. 1, c. 8.— Ovid. Met. 8, v. 540.— PZwi. 
 10, c. 26. 
 
 Melicerta, Melicertes, or Melicertus, a 
 son of Athamas and Ino. Vid. Athamas. After 
 his transformation, Melicerta was known 
 among the Greeks by the name of Palaemon, 
 and among the Latins by that of Portumnus. 
 Some suppose that the Isthmian games were in 
 honour of him. Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 4. — 
 Paus. 1, c. 44. — Hygin. fab, 1 and 2. — Ovid. 
 Met. 4, V. 529, &.c.—Plut. de Symp. 
 
 Melissa, I. a daughter of Melissus, king of 
 Crete, who, with her sister Amalthaea, fed Jupi- 
 ter with the milk of goats. She first found out 
 the means of collecting honey; whence some 
 have imagined that she was changed into a bee, 
 as her name is the Greek word for that insect. 
 
 Columell. II. One of the Oceanides, who 
 
 married Inachus, by whom she had Phoroneus 
 and iEgialus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Melpomene, one of the Muses, daughter of 
 Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided over 
 tragedy. Horace has addressed the finest of his 
 odes to her, as to the patroness of lyric poetry. 
 Her garments were splendid ; she wore a bus- 
 kin, and held a dagger in one hand, and in the 
 other a sceptre and crowns. Horat. 3, od. 4. — 
 Hesiod. Theog. 
 
 Memnon, a king of Ethiopia, son of Titho- 
 nus and Aurora. He came with a body of ten 
 thousand men to assist his uncle Priam during 
 the Trojan war, where he behaved with great 
 courage, and killed Antilochus, Nestor's son. 
 The aged father challenged the -(Ethiopian 
 monarch, but Memnon refused it on account of 
 the venerable age of Nestor, and accepted that 
 of Achilles. He was killed in the combat in 
 the sight of the Grecian and Trojan armies. 
 Aurora was so disconsolate at the death of her 
 son, that she flew to Jupiter, all bathed in tears, 
 and begged the god to grant her son such hon- 
 ours as might distinguish him from other mor- 
 tals. Jupiter consented, and immediately a 
 numerous flight of birds issued from the burn- 
 ing pile on which the body was laid, and after 
 they had flown three times round the flames, 
 they divided themselves into two separate 
 bodies, and fought with such acrimony that 
 740 
 
 above half of them fell down into the fire as 
 victims to appease the manes of Memnon. 
 These birds were called Memiionides ; and it 
 has been observed by some of the ancients, that 
 they never failed to return yearly to the tomb 
 of Memnon in Troas, and repeat the same 
 bloody engagement, in honour of the hero from 
 whom they received their name. The -Ethio- 
 pians or Egyptians, over whom Memnon reign- 
 ed, erected a celebrated staiue to the honour of 
 their monarch. This statue had the wonderful 
 property of uttering a melodious sound every 
 day, at sun-rising, like that which is heard at 
 the breaking of the string of a harp when it is 
 wound up. This was effected by ihe rays of 
 the sun when they fell upon it. At the setting 
 of the sun, and in the night, the sound was lugu- 
 brious. This is supported by the testimony of 
 the geographer Strabo, who confesses himself 
 ignorant whether it proceeded from the basis 
 of the statue, or the people that were then round 
 it. This celebrated statue was dismantled by 
 order of Cambyses, when he conquered Egypt, 
 and its ruins still astonish modern travellers by 
 their grandeur and beauty. Memnon was the 
 inventor of the alphabet, according to Anti- 
 clides, a writer mentioned by Pliny, 7, c. 56, 
 Mosch. in Bion.—Ovid. Met. 13, v. 578, &c. — 
 yElian. 5, c. l.—Paus. 1, c, 42. 1. 10, c. 31.— 
 Strab. 13 and 17. — Juv. 15, v. 5. — Philostra. in 
 Apollod. — Plin. 36, c. 7. — Homer. Od. 9. — 
 Quint. Calab. — Vid. Part II. 
 
 Mena, a goddess worshipped at Rome, and 
 supposed to preside over women. She was the 
 same as Juno. According to some, the sacri- 
 fices offered to her were young puppies that still 
 sucked their mother. Aug. de Civ. D.4, c. 2. 
 —Plin. 29, c. 4. 
 
 Menalippe, I. a sister of Antiope, queen of 
 the Amazons, taken by Hercules when that 
 hero made war against this celebrated nation. 
 She was ransomed, and Hercules received in 
 exchange the arms and belt of the queen. Juv. 
 
 8, V. 229. II. A daughter of the centaur 
 
 Chiron, beloved by -Slolus, son of Hellen. She 
 v.-as changed into a mare, and called Ocyroe. 
 Some suppose that she assumed the name of 
 Menalippe, and lost that of Ocyroe. She be- 
 came a constellation after death, called the 
 horse. Some authors call her Hippe or Evippe. 
 Hygin. P. A. 2, c. 18.— Polhcx. 4. Mena- 
 lippe is a name common to other persons, but 
 it is generally spelt Melanippe by the best au- 
 thors. — Vid. Melanippe. 
 
 Menelaus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Menesteus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Menceceus, I. a Theban, father of Hippo- 
 
 nome, Jocasta, and Creon. II. A young 
 
 Theban, son of Creon. He offered himself to 
 death, when Teresias, to insure victory on the 
 side of Thebes against the Argive forces, or- 
 dered the Thebans to sacrifice one of the 
 descendants of those who sprang from the dra- 
 gon's teeth, and he killed himself near the cave 
 where the dragon of Mars had formerly re- 
 sided. The gods required this sacrifice because 
 the dragon had been killed by Cadmus, and no 
 sooner was Menceceus dead, than his country- 
 men obtained the victory. Stat. Theb. 10, v. 
 614. — Eurip. Phan. — Apollod. 3, c. 6. — Cic. 
 Tusc. 1, c. 98. — Sophocl. in Antig. 
 
 Mencetius, a son of Actor and jEginia. He 
 
ME 
 
 JMYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ME 
 
 left his mother and went to Opus, where he had, 
 by Sthenele, or, according to others, by Philo- 
 mela or Polymela, Patroclus, often called from 
 him Mencetides. Menoetius was one of the Ar- 
 gonauts. Apollod. 3, c. 24. — Homer. 11. 1, v. 
 301.—Hygin. fab. 97. 
 
 Mera, a dog of Icarius, who, by his eri:?s, 
 showed Erigone where her murdered father had 
 been thrown. Immediately after this discovery, 
 the daughter hung herself in despair, and the 
 dog pined away, and was made a constellation 
 in the heavens, known by the name of Canis. 
 Ovid. Met. 7, V. 363.—Hygin. fab. 130.— 
 ^Elian. Hist. An. 7, c. 28. 
 
 Mercurius, a celebrated god of antiquity, 
 called Hermes by the Greeks. There were no 
 less than five of this name according to Cicero : 
 a son of Coelus and Lux ; a son of Valens and 
 Coronis ; a son of the Nile ; a son of Jupiter 
 and Maid ; and another, called by the Egyptians 
 Thaut. Some add a sixth, a son of Bacchus 
 and Proserpine. To the son of Jupiter and 
 Maia the actions of all the others have been 
 probably attributed, as he is the most famous 
 and the best known. Mercury was the messen- 
 ger of the gods, and of Jupiter in particular; he 
 was the patron of travellers and of shepherds ; 
 he conducted the souls of the dead into the in- 
 fernal regions ; and not only presided over ora- 
 tors, merchants, declaimers, but he was also the 
 god of thieves, pickpockets, and all dishonest 
 persons. His name is derived a 'rfiercibus, be- 
 cause he was the god of merchandise among 
 the Latins. He was born, according to the 
 more received opinion, in Arcadia, on mount 
 Cyllene, and in his infancy he was intrusted to 
 the care of the Seasons. The day that he was 
 born, or, more probably, the following day, he 
 gave an early proof of his craftiness and dis- 
 honesty, in stealing away the oxen of Admetus 
 which Apollo tended. He gave another proof 
 of his thievish propensity, by taking also the 
 quiver and arrows of the divine shepherd; and 
 he increased his fame by robbing Neptune of 
 his trident, Venus of her girdle. Mars of his 
 sword, Jupiter of his sceptre, and Vulcan of 
 many of his mechanical instruments. Those 
 specimens of his art recommended him to the 
 notice of the gods, and Jupiter took him as his 
 messenger, interpreter, and cup-bearer in the 
 assembly of the gods. This last office he dis- 
 charged till the promotion of Ganymede. He 
 was presented by the king of heaven with a 
 wing cap called pelasus, and with wings for 
 his feet called talaria. He had also a short 
 sword, called herpe^ which he lent to Perseus. 
 He was the confidant of Jupiter's amours, and 
 he often was set to watch over the jealousy and 
 intrigues of Juno. The invention of the lyre 
 and its seven strings is ascribed to him. This 
 he gave to Apollo, and received in exchange 
 the celebrated caduceus with which the god of 
 poetry used to drive the flocks of King Adme- 
 tus. Vid. Caduceus. In the wars of the giants 
 against the gods, Mercury showed himself spir- 
 ited, brave and active. He delivered Mars from 
 the long confinement which he suflered from 
 the superior power of the Aloides. He puri- 
 fied the Danaides of the murder of their hus- 
 band ; he lied Ixion to his wheel in the infer- 
 nal regions; he destroyed the hundred-eyed 
 Argus; hesoldHecrulesto Omphale, the queen 
 
 of Lydia ; he conducted Priam to the tent of 
 Achilles, to redeem the body of his son Hec- 
 tor ; and he carried the infant Bacchus to the 
 nymphs of Nysa. Mercury had many sur- 
 names and epithets. He was called Cyllenius, 
 Tricephalos, Agoneus, &c. His children are 
 also numerous as well as his amours. He was 
 father of Autolycus, by Chione ; Cephalus, by 
 Creusa ; and of Priapus, according to some. 
 He was also father of Hermaphroditus, by Ve- 
 nus ; of Pan, by Dry ope, or Penelope. His 
 worship was w'ell established, particularly in 
 Greece, Egypt, and Italy. He was worshipped 
 at Tanagra, in Boeotia, under the name of Cri- 
 ophorus, and represented as carrying a ram on 
 his shoulders, because he delivered the inhabi- 
 tants from a pestilence by telling them to carry 
 a ram in that maimer round the walls of their 
 city. The Roman merchants yearly celebrated 
 a festival, on the 15Lh of May, in honour of 
 Mercury, in a temple near the Circus Maxi- 
 mus. A pregnant sow was then sacrificed, and 
 sometimes a calf; and particularly the tongues 
 of animals were offered. After the votaries had 
 sprinkled themselves with water with laurel 
 leaves, they offered prayers to the divinity, and 
 entreated him to be favourable to them, and to 
 forgive whatever artful measures, false oaths, or 
 falsehoods, they had used or uttered in the pur- 
 suit of gain. Sometimes Mercury appears on 
 monuments with a large cloak round his arm, 
 or tied under his chin. The chief ensigns of 
 his power and offices are his caduceus^ his peta- 
 sus, and his talaria. In Egypt, his statues rep- 
 resented him with the head of a dog ; whence 
 he was often confounded with Anubis, and re- 
 ceived the sacrifice of a stork. Offerings of 
 milk and honey were made because he was the 
 god of eloquence, whose powers were sweet 
 and persuasive. The Greeks and Romans of- 
 fered tongues to him by throwing them into the 
 fire, as he was the patron of speaking, of which 
 the tongue is the organ. Sometimes his statues 
 represent him as without arms, because, ac- 
 cording to some, the power of speech can pre- 
 vail over every thing, even without the assist- 
 ance of arms. Homer. Od. 1, &c. 11. 1, &c. — 
 Hymn, in Merc. — Lucian. in Mort. Dial. — 
 Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 667. Met. 1, 4, 11, li.— Mar- 
 tial. 9, ep. 3b.— Stat, llieb. 4.— Pans. 1, 7, 8 
 and 9. — Orpheus. — Plui. in Num. — Varro de 
 L. L. Q.—Plut. in Phad.—Liv. 2Q.— Virg. G. 
 1. yEn.. 1, V. 48. — Diod. 4 and 5. — Apollod. 1, 
 2 and 3. — Apollon. Arg. 1. — Horat. 1, od. 10. — 
 Hygin. fab. P. A. %—Tzetz. in Jjyc. 219.— 
 Cic. de Nat. D. — Lactaniius. — Philostr. 1. — 
 Icon. c. 27. — Manil. — Macrob. 1, So.t. c. 19. 
 Vid. Part II. 
 
 Meriones. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Merope, one of the Atlantides. She mar- 
 ried Sisyphus, son of ^olus, and, like her 
 sisters, was changed into a constellation after 
 death, Vid. Pleiades. It is said that in the 
 constellation of the Pleiades the star of Merope 
 appears more dim and obscure than the rest, 
 because she, as the poets observe, married a 
 mortal, while her sisters married some of the 
 gods or their descendants. Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 
 lib.— Diod. 4.— Hygin. fab. 1^2.— Apollod. 1, c. 
 9. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Mestor, I. a son of Perseus and Andromeda, 
 who married Lysidice, daughter of Pelops, by 
 741 
 
MI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 MI 
 
 whom he had Hippothoe. — —11. A son of Pte- 
 rilaus. 
 
 Metanira, the wife of Celeus, king of Eleu- 
 sis, who first taught mankind agriculture. She 
 is also called Meganira. ApoUod. 1, c. 5. 
 
 Metiadusa, a daughter of Eupalamus, who 
 married Cecrops, by whom she had Pandion. 
 ApoUod. 3, c. 15. 
 
 Metis, one of the Oceanides. She was Ju- 
 piter's first wife, celebrated for her great pru- 
 dence and sagacity above the rest of the gods. 
 Jupiter, who was afraid lest she should bring 
 forth into the world a child more cunning and 
 greater than himself, devoured her in the first 
 month of her pregnancy. Some time after this 
 adventure, the god had his head opened, from 
 which issued Minerva, armed from head to foot. 
 Hesiod. Theog. v. 890. — Hygin. 
 
 Midas, a king of Phrygia, son of Gordius or 
 Gorgias. The hospitality he showed to Silenus, 
 the preceptor of Bacchus, who had been brought 
 to him by some peasants, was liberally reward- 
 ed ; and Midas was permitted to choose what- 
 ever recompense he pleased . He demanded of 
 the god that whatever he touched might be turn- 
 ed into gold. His prayer was granted ; and 
 when the very meats which he attempted to eat 
 became gold in his mouth, he begged Bacchus 
 to take away a present which must prove so 
 fatal to the receiver. He was ordered to wash 
 himself in the river Pactolus, whose sands were 
 turned into gold by the touch of Midas. Some 
 time after this adventure, Midas had the impru- 
 dence to support that Pan was superior to Apol- 
 lo in singing and in playing upon the flute ; for 
 which rash opinion the offended god changed 
 his ears into those of an ass, to show his igno- 
 rance and stupidity. This, Midas attempted to 
 conceal from the knowledge of his subjects, but 
 one of his servants saw the length of his ears, 
 and being unable to keep the secret, and afraid 
 to reveal it, apprehensive of the king's resent- 
 ment, he opened a hole in the earth, and after 
 he had whispered there that Midas had the ears 
 of an ass, he covered the place as before, as if 
 he had buried his words in the ground. On 
 that place, as the poets mention, grew a number 
 of reeds, which, when agitated by the wind, 
 "Uttered the same sound that had been buried 
 beneath, and published to the world that Midas 
 had the ears of an ass. Some explain the fable 
 of the ears of Midas, by the supposition that he 
 kept a number of informers and spies, who were 
 continually employed in gathering every sedi- 
 tious word that might drop from the mouths of 
 his subjects. Midas, according to Strabo, died 
 of drinking bull's hot blood. This he did, as 
 Plutarch mentions, to free himself from the nu- 
 merous ill dreams which continually tormented 
 him. Midas, according to some, was son of 
 Cybele. He built a town which he called An- 
 cyrae. Ovid. Met. 11, fab. 5. — Plut. de Superst. 
 —Strab. I.— Hygin. fab. 191, ^li.—Max. Tyr. 
 30.— Pans. 1, c. i.— Val. Max. 1, c. 6.— Hero- 
 dot. 1, c. U.—jElian. V. H. 4 and 12.— Cic. de 
 Div. 1, c. 36, 1. 2, c. 31. 
 
 MiLANioN, I. a youth who became enamoured 
 of Aialanta. He is supposed by some to be the 
 same as Meleager or Hippomanes. Ovid. Art. 
 Am. 2, V. 188. II. A son of Amphidamas. 
 
 MiLEsius, a surname of Apollo. 
 
 Miletus, a son of Apollo, who fled from 
 742 
 
 Crete to avoid the wrath of Minos, whom he 
 meditated to dethrone. He came to Caria, 
 where he built a city which he called by his 
 own name. Some suppose that he only con- 
 quered a city there called Anactoria, which 
 assumed his name. They farther say, that he 
 put the inhabitants to the sword, and divided 
 the women among his soldiers. Cranea, a 
 daughter of the Mseander, fell to his share. 
 Strab. U.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. U6—Paus. 7, c. 
 2. — ApoUod. 3, c. 1. 
 
 MiNEiDES, the daughters of Minyas or Mi- 
 neus, king of Orchomenos, in Boeotia. They 
 were three in number, Leuconoe, Leucippe, 
 and Alcithoe. Ovid calls the two first Clymene 
 and Iris. They derided the orgies of Bacchus, 
 for which impiety the god inspired them with 
 an unconquerable desire of eating human flesh. 
 They drew lots which of them should give up 
 her son as food to the rest. The lot fell upon 
 Leucippe, and she gave up her son Hippasus, 
 who was instantly devoured by the three sis- 
 ters. They were changed into bats. In com- 
 memoration of the bloody crime, it was usual 
 among the Orchomenians for the high-priest, 
 as soon as the sacrifice was finished, to pursue, 
 with a drawn sword, all the women who had 
 entered the temple, and even to kill the first he 
 came up to. Ovid. Met. 4, fab. 12. — Plut. 
 QucBst. Gr. 38. 
 
 Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, war, and 
 all the liberal arts, was produced from Jupiter's 
 brain without a mother. The power of Minerva 
 was great in heaven ; she could hurl the thun- 
 ders of Jupiter, prolong the life of men, bestow 
 the gift of prophecy ; and, indeed, she was the 
 only one of all the divinities whose authority 
 and consequence were equal to those of Jupiter. 
 Her quarrel with Neptune, concerning the right 
 of giving a name to the capital of Cecropia, 
 deserves attention. The assembly of the gods 
 settled the dispute, by promising *.he preference 
 to whichever of the two gave the most useful 
 and necessary present to the inhabitants of the 
 earth. Neptune, upon this, struck the ground 
 with his trident, and immediately a horse issued 
 from the earth. Minerva produced the olive, 
 and obtained the victory by the unanimous 
 voice of the gods, who observed that the olive, 
 as the emblem of peace, is far preferable to the 
 horse, the symbol of war and bloodshed. The 
 victorious deity called the capital AthencB, and 
 became the tutelar goddess of the place. The 
 attempts of Vulcan to offer her violence proved 
 ineffectual, and her chastity was not violated, 
 though the god left on her body the marks of 
 his passion. Minerva was the first who built a 
 ship, and it was her zeal for navigation, and her 
 care for the Argonauts, which placed the pro- 
 phetic tree of Dodona behind the ship Argo 
 when going to Colchis. She w^as known among 
 the ancients by many names. She was called 
 Athena, Pallas, ( Vid. Pallas,) Parthenos, from 
 her remaining in perpetual celibacy; Tritonia, 
 because worshipped near the lake Tritonis ; 
 Glaucopis, from the blueness of her eyes ; Argo- 
 rea,from her presiding over markets; Hippia, 
 because she first taught mankind how to man- 
 age the horse ; Stratea and Area, from her 
 martial character ; Coryphagenes, because born 
 from Jupiter's brain ; Sais, because worshipped 
 at Sais, &c. Some attributed to her the inven- 
 
MI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 MI 
 
 tion of the flute, whence she was surnamed 
 Andon, Luscinia, Musica, Salpiga, &c. She, 
 as it is reported, once amused herself in play- 
 ing upon her favourite flute before Juno and 
 Venus, but the goddesses ridiculed the distor- 
 tion of her face in blowing the instrument. 
 Minerva, convinced of the justness of their re- 
 marks by looking at herself in a fountain near 
 mount Ida, threw away the musical instrument, 
 and denounced a melancholy death to him who 
 found it. Vid. Marsyas. The worship of 
 Minerva was universally established ; she had 
 magnificent temples in Egypt, Phoenicia, all 
 parts of Greece, Italy, Gaul, and Sicily. Sais, 
 Rhodes, and Athens, particularly claimed her 
 attention ; and it is even said that Jupiter 
 rained a shower of gold upon the island of 
 Rhodes, which had paid so much veneration 
 and such an early reverence to the divinity of 
 his daughter. The festivals celebrated in her 
 honour were solemn and magnificent. Vid. 
 Panathenaa. She was invoked by every artist, 
 and particularly such as worked in wood, em- 
 broidery, painting, and sculpture. It was the 
 duty of almost every member of society to im- 
 plore the assistance and patronage of a deity 
 who presided over sense, taste, and reason. 
 Hence the poets have had occasion to say : — 
 
 Ta nihil invito, dices, faciesve Minerva, 
 
 and : — 
 
 Qui beneplacarit Pallade, doctus erit. 
 
 Minerva was represented in difierent ways, ac- 
 cording to the different characters in which she 
 appeared. She generally appeared with a 
 countenance full more of masculine firmness 
 and composure than of softness and grace. In 
 one hand she held a spear, and in the other a 
 shield, with the dying head of Medusa upon it. 
 Sometimes, this Gorgon's head was on her 
 breastplate, with living serpents writhing round 
 it, as well as round her shield and helmet. In 
 most of her statues she is represented as sitting, 
 and sometimes she holds in one hand a distaff 
 instead of a spear. When she appeared as the 
 goddess of the liberal arts, she was arrayed in 
 a variegated veil, which the ancients called pep- 
 lum. Some of her statues represented her hel- 
 met with a sphinx in the middle, supported on 
 either side by griffins. In some medals, a 
 chariot drawn by four horses, or sometimes a 
 dragon or a serpent, with winding spires, appear 
 at the top of her helmet. She was partial to 
 the olive tree; the owl and the cock were her 
 favourite birds, and the dragon, among reptiles, 
 was sacred to her. The functions, offices, and 
 actions of Minerva, seem so numerous, that 
 they undoubtedly originate in more than one 
 person. Cicero speaks of five persons of this 
 name ; a Minerva, mother of Apollo; a daugh- 
 ter of the Nile, who was worshipped at Sais, in 
 Egypt ; a third, born from Jupiter's brain ; a 
 fourth, daughter of Jupiter and Coryphe ; and a 
 fifth, daughter of Pallas, generally represented 
 with winged shoes. This last put her father to 
 death because he attempted her virtue. Paus. 
 1, 2, 3, &c.—Horat. 1, od. 16, 1. 3, od. 4.— Virg. 
 jEn. 2, &c. — Strab. 6, 9 and 13. — Pkilost. Icon. 
 ^.—Ovid. Fast. 3, &c. Met. 6.—Cic. de Nat. D. 
 1, c. 15, 1. 3, c. 23, &c. — Apollod. 1, &c. — Pin^ 
 dar. Olymp. l.^Lucan. 9, v. 354. — Sophocl. 
 
 CEdip. — Homer. 11. &c. Od. Hymn, ad Pall. — 
 Diod. 5. — Hesiod. Theog. — jEsckyl. in Eum. — 
 iMcian. Dial. — Clem. Alex. Strom. 2. — Orpheus, 
 Hymn. 31. — Q. Smyrn. 14, v. 448. — Apoll. 1. — 
 Hygin. fab. IGS.—Stat. Theb. 2, v. 721, 1. 7, &c. 
 
 — Callim. in Cerer. — JElian. V. H. 12. — C. Nep. 
 in Paus. — Pint, in Lye. &c, — Thucyd. 1. — He- 
 rodot. 5. 
 
 Minos, a king of Crete, son of Jupiter and 
 Europa, who gave laws to his subjects B. C. 
 1406, which still remained in full force in the 
 age of the philosopher Plato. His justice and 
 moderation procured him the appellation of the 
 favourite of the gods, the confidant of Jupiter, 
 the wise legislator, in every city of Greece ; 
 and, according to the poets, he was rewarded 
 for his equity after death, with the office of su- 
 preme and absolute judge in the infernal regions. 
 In this capacity, he is represented sitting in the 
 middle of the shades, and holding a sceptre in 
 his hand. The dead plead their different causes 
 before him, and the impartial judge shakes the 
 fatal urn, which is filled with the destinies ol 
 mankind. He married Ithona, by whom he 
 had Lycastes, who was the father of Minos 2d. 
 Homer. Od. 19, v. IIQ.— Virg. jEn. 6, v. 432.— 
 Apollod. 3, c. 1. — Hygin. fab. 41. — Diod. 4. — 
 Horat. 1, od. 28. The 2d was a son of Ly- 
 castes, the son of Minos I. a king of Crete. He 
 married Pasiphae, the daughter of Sol and 
 Perseis, and by her he had many ^children. He 
 increased his paternal dominions by the con- 
 quest of the neighbouring islands ; but he 
 showed himself cruel in the war which he car- 
 ried on against the Athenians, who had put to 
 death his son Androgens. Vid. Androgens. He 
 took Megara by the treachery of Scylla, ( Vid. 
 Scylla,) and, not satisfied with a victory, he 
 obliged the vanquished to bring him yearly to 
 Crete seven chosen boys and the same number 
 of virgins, to be devoured by the Minotaur. 
 Vid. Minotaurus. This bloody tribute was at 
 last abolished when Theseus destroyed the 
 monster. Vid. Theseus. When Daedalus, whose 
 industry and invention had fabricated the lab)'-- 
 rinth, and whose imprudence in assisting Pa- 
 siphae, in the gratification of her unnatural 
 desires, had offended Minos, fled from the place 
 of his confinement with wings, ( Vid. Dcedalus,) 
 and arrived safe in Sicily, the incensed mon- 
 arch pursued the offender, resolved to punish 
 his infidelity. Cocalus, king of Sicily, who had 
 hospitably received Daedalus, entertained his 
 royal guest with dissembled friendship ; and 
 that he might not deliver to him a man whose 
 ingenuity and abilities he so well knew, he put 
 Minos todeath. Some say that it was the daugh- 
 ters of Cocalus who put the king of Crete to 
 death, by detaining him so long in a bath till he 
 fainted, after which they suffocated him. Minos 
 died about 35 years before the Trojan war. He 
 was father of Androgens, Glaucus, and Deuca- 
 lion, and two daughters Phaedra and Ariadne. 
 Many authors have confounded the two mon- 
 archs of this name, the grandfather and the 
 grandson; but Homer, Plutarch, and Diodorus, 
 prove plainly that they were two different 
 persons. Paus. in Ach. 4. — Plut. in Thes. — 
 Hygin. fab. 41.— Ovid. Met. 8, v. Ul.—Diod. 4. 
 
 — Virg. j^n. 6, v. 21.— Plut. in Min.—Athen. 
 Fln.cc. 14. 
 
 Minotaurus, a celebrated monster, half a man 
 743 
 
MN 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 MO 
 
 and half a bull, according to this verse of Ovid 
 A. A. 2, V. 24 :— 
 
 Semibovemque vtrum, semivirumque bovem. 
 
 It was the fruit of Pasiphae's amours. Minos 
 confined in the labyrinth a monster which con- 
 vinced the world of his wife's lasciviousness, 
 and reflected disgrace upon his family. The 
 Minotaur usually devoured the chosen young 
 men and maidens whom the tyranny of Minos 
 yearly exacted from the Athenians. Theseus 
 delivered his country from this shameful trib- 
 ute, when it had fallen to his lot to be sacri- 
 ficed to the voracity of the Minotaur, and, by 
 means of Ariadne, the king's daughter, he de- 
 stroyed the monster, and made his escape from 
 the windings of the labyrinth. Some suppose 
 that Pasiphae was enamoured of one of her 
 husband's courtiers, called Taurus, and, some 
 time after, brought twins into the world, one of 
 whom greatly resembled Minos and the other 
 Taurus. In the natural resemblance of their 
 countenance with that of their supposed fathers 
 originated their name, and consequently the fa- 
 ble of the Minotaur. Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 2.— 
 Hygin. fab. 40. — Plut. in Thes.—Palaphat. — 
 Virg. Mn. 6, v. 26. 
 
 MiNTHE, a daughter of Cocytus, loved by Plu- 
 to. Proserpine discovered her husband's amour, 
 and changed his mistress into an herb called by 
 the same name, mint. Ovid. Met. 10, v. 729. 
 
 MiNYAS, a king of BoBotia, son of Neptune 
 and Triiegonia, of Neptune and Callirhoe, or 
 of Chryses, Neptune's son, and Chrysogenia, 
 the daughter of Halmus. He married Clyto- 
 dora, by whom he had Presbon, Periclymenus, 
 and Eteoclymenus. He was father of Orcho- 
 menos, Diochithondes, and Athamas, by a sec- 
 ond marriage with Phanasora, the daughter of 
 Paon. According to Plutarch and Ovid he had 
 three daughters. Vid. Mineides. Pans. 9, c.36. — 
 Plut. Quasi. Grac. 38.—Ov.Met. 4, v. 1 and 468. 
 
 Mithras, a god of Persia, supposed to be the 
 sun, or, according to others, Venus Urania. 
 His worship was introduced at Rome, and the 
 Romans raised him altars, on which was this 
 inscription, Deo Soli Mithrce, or Soli Deo invic- 
 to MiihrcB. He is generally represented as a 
 young man, whose head is covered with a tur- 
 ban after the manner of the Persians. He sup- 
 ports his knee upon a bull that lies on the 
 ground, and one of whose horns he holds in one 
 hand, while with the other he plunges a dagger 
 into his neck. Stat. Theb. 1, v. l^.—Curt. 4, 
 c. 13. — Claudian. de Laud. Stil. I. 
 
 Mnasilus, a youth who assisted Chromis to 
 tie the old Silenus, whom they found asleep in a 
 cave. Some imagine that "Virgil spoke of Varus 
 under the name of Mnasilus. Virg. Ed. 6, v. 13. 
 
 Mnemosyne, a daughter of Ccelus and Ter- 
 ra, mother of the nine Muses, by Jupiter, who 
 assumed the form of a shepherd to enjoy her 
 company. The word Mne^aosyne signifies m^m- 
 orr/, and therefore the poets have rightly called 
 memory the mother of the Muses, because it is 
 to that mental endowment that mankind are 
 indebted for their progress in science. Ovid. 
 Met. 6, fab. 4. — Pindar. Isth. 6. — Hesiod. Theog. 
 —Apollod. 1, c. 1, &c. 
 
 Mnevis, a celebrated bull, sacred to the sun, 
 in the town ofHeliopolis. He was worshipped 
 vith the same superstitious ceremonies as Apis, 
 744 
 
 and, at his death he received the most magnifi- 
 cent funeral. He was the emblem of Osiris. 
 Diod. 1. — Plut. de Isid. 
 
 MoLORCHUs, an old shepherd near Cleonae, 
 who received Hercules wiih great hospitality. 
 The hero, to repay the kindness he received, 
 destroyed the Nemaean lion, which laid waste 
 the neighbouring country, and therefore the 
 Nemaean games, instituted on this occasion, are 
 to be understood by the words Lnicus Molorcki. 
 There were two festivals instituted in his hon- 
 our, called MalorchecB. Martial. 9, ep. 44, 1. 
 14, ep: \^.-- Apollod. 2, c. b.— Virg. G. 3, v. 19. 
 —Stat. Theb. 4, v. 160. 
 
 MoLOSsus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 MoMus, a god of pleasantry among the an- 
 cients, son of Nox, according to Hesiod. He 
 was continually employed in satirising the 
 gods, and whatever they did was freely turned 
 to ridicule. He censured the house which Mi- 
 nerva had made, because the goddess had not 
 made it moveable, by which means a bad neigh- 
 bourhood might be avoided. Venus herself was 
 exposed to his satire ; and when the sneering 
 god had found no fault in the body of the naked 
 goddess, he observed, as he retired, that the 
 noise of her feet was too loud, and greatly im- 
 proper in the goddess of beauty. These reflec- 
 tions upon the gods were the cause that Momus 
 was driven from heaven. He is generally 
 represented raising a mask from his face, and 
 holding a small figure in his hand. Hesiod. in 
 Theog. ^Lucian. in Herm. 
 
 Moneta, a surname of Juno among the Ro- 
 mans. She received it because she advised 
 them to sacrifice a pregnant sow to Cybele, to 
 avert an earthquake. Cic. dx Div. 1, c. 15. — 
 Livy says, (7, cap. 28,) that a temple was vowed 
 to Juno, under this name, by the dictator Fu- 
 rius, when the Romans waged war against the 
 Aurunci, and that the temple was raised to the 
 goddess of the senate, on the spot where the 
 house of Manlius Capitolinus had formerly 
 stood. Suidas, however, says, that Juno was 
 surnamed Moneta, from assuring the Romans, 
 when in the war against Pyrrhus they com- 
 plained of want of pecuniary resources, that 
 money could never fail to those who cultivated 
 justice. 
 
 MoNYCHus, a powerful giant, who could root 
 up trees, and hurl them like a javelin. He re- 
 ceives his name from his having the feet of a 
 horse, as the word implies. Juv. 1, v. 11. 
 
 Mopsus, I. a celebrated prophet, son of Man- 
 to and Apollo, during the Trojan war. He 
 was consulted by Amphimachus, king of Colo- 
 phon, who wished to know what success would 
 attend his arms in a war which he was going to 
 undertake. He predicted the greatest calami- 
 ties ; but Calchas, who had been a soothsayer 
 of the Greeks during the Trojan war, promised 
 the greatest success. Amphimachus followed 
 the opinion of Calchas, but the opinion of Mop- 
 sus was fully verified. This had such an effect 
 upon Calchas that he died soon after. His 
 death is attributed by some to another mortifica- 
 tion of the same nature. The two soothsayers, 
 jealous of each other's fame, came to a trial of 
 their skill in divination. Calchas first asked 
 his antagonist how many figs a neighbouring 
 tree bore ; ten thousand except one, replied 
 Mopsus, and one single vessel can contain them 
 
MU 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 MY 
 
 all. The figs were gathered, and his conjec- 
 tures were true, Mopsus now, to try his adver- 
 sary, asked him how many young ones a certain 
 pregnant sow would bring forth. Calchas con- 
 fessed his ignorance, and Mopsus immediately 
 said, that the sow would bring forth on the mor- 
 row ten young ones, of which only one should 
 be a male, all black ; and that the females should 
 all be known by their white streaks. The 
 morrow proved the veracity of his prediction, 
 and Calchas died by excess of the grief which 
 his defeat produced. Mopsus, after death, was 
 ranked among the gods ; and had an oracle at 
 Malia, celebrated for the true and decisive an- 
 swers which it gave. Strab. 9. — Paus. 7, c. 3. 
 —Armnian. 14, c. 8. — Plut. de orac. defect. 
 
 II. A son of Ampyx and Chloris, born at 
 
 Titaressa in Thessaly. He was the prophet 
 and soothsayer of the Argonauts, and died at 
 his return from Colchis by the bite of a serpent 
 in Libya. Jason erected him a monument on 
 the seashore, where afterwards the Africans 
 built him a temple where he gave oracles. He 
 has often been confounded with the son of 
 Manto, as their professions and their names 
 were alike. Hygin. fab. 14, 128, 173. — 
 Strab. 9. 
 
 Morpheus, the son and minister of the god 
 Somnus, who naturally imitated the grimaces, 
 gestures, words, and manners, of mankind. 
 He is sometimes called the god of sleep. He 
 is generally represented as a sleeping child, of 
 great corpulence, and with wings. He holds a 
 vase in one hand, and in the other are some 
 poppies. 
 
 Mors, one of the infernal deities, born of 
 Night, without a father. She was worshipped 
 by the ancients, particularly by the Lacedaemo- 
 nians, with great solemnity, and represented not 
 as an actually existing power, but as an imagi- 
 nary being. Euripides introduces her in one of 
 his tragedies on the stage. The moderns rep- 
 resent her as a skeleton armed with a scythe 
 and a cimeter. 
 
 MuLciBER, a surname of Vulcan, {a mul- 
 cendo ferrwm,^ from his occupation. Ovid Met. 
 2, V. 5. Vid. Vulcanus. 
 
 MuRTiA, or Myrtia, ( a iivpros,) a supposed 
 surname of Venus, because she presided over 
 the myrtle. This goddess was the patron of 
 idleness and cowardice. Varro de L. L. 4, 
 c.32. 
 
 Mus.E, certain goddesses, who presided over 
 poetry, music, dancing, and all the liberal arts. 
 They were daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo- 
 svne, and were nine in number ; Clio, Euterpe, 
 Thalia, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Erato, Poly- 
 hymnia, Calliope, and Urania. Some suppose 
 that there were in ancient times only three 
 Muses, Melete, Mneme, and Aoede ; others four, 
 Telxiope, Aoede, Arche, Melete. They were, 
 according to others, daughters of Pierus and 
 Antiope ; from which circumstance they are all 
 called Pierides. The name of Pierides might 
 probably be derived from mount Pierus where 
 Ihey were born. They have been called Casta- 
 tides, Aganippides, Lebethrides, Anoides, Heli- 
 coniades, &c., from the places where ihey were 
 worshipped, or over which they presided . Apol- 
 lo, who was the patron and the conductor of the 
 Muses, has received the name of Musagetes, or 
 leader of the Muses. The same surname was 
 
 Part 111.-5 B 
 
 also given to Hercules. The palm-tree, the 
 laurel, and all the fountains of Pindus, Heli- 
 con, Parnassus, &c., were sacred to the muses. 
 They were generally represented as young, 
 beautiful, and modest virgins. They were fond 
 of solitude, and commonJy appeared in differ- 
 ent attire, according to the arts and sciences 
 over which they presided. Sometimes, they 
 were represented as dancing in a chorus, to in- 
 timate the near and indissoluble connexion 
 which exists between the liberal arts and 
 sciences. The Muses sometimes appear with 
 wings, because by the assistance of wings they 
 freed themselves from the violence of Pyrenaeus. 
 The worship of the Muses was universally 
 established, particularly in the enlightened parts 
 of Greece, Thessaly, and Italy. No sacrifices 
 were ever offered to them, though no poet ever 
 began a poem without a solemn invocation to 
 the goddesses who presided over verse. There 
 were festivals instituted in their honour in 
 several parts of Greece, especially among the 
 Thespians, every fifth year. The Macedonians 
 observed also a festival in honour of Jupiter and 
 the Muses. It had been instituted by King Ar- 
 chelaus, and it was celebrated with stage plays, 
 games, and different exhibitions, which con- 
 tinued nine days, according to the number of the 
 Muses. Plut. Erot. — Pollux. JEschin. in IHtn. 
 — Paus. 9, c. 29. — Apollod. 1, c. 3. — Cic. de 
 Nat. Z>. 3, c. 21.— Hesiod. Tkeog.— Virg.JEn. 
 — Ovid. Met. 4, v. 310. — Homer. Hymn. Mus. — 
 Juv. 7. — Diod. 1. — Martial. 4, ep. 14. 
 
 Muta, a goddess who presided over silence 
 among the Romans. Ovid. Fast. 2, v. 580. 
 
 MuTtJNUs, or MuTiNus, a deity among the 
 Romans, much the same as' the Priapus of the 
 Greeks. The Roman matrons, and particularly 
 new married women, disgraced themselves by 
 the ceremonies which custom obliged them to 
 observe before the statue of this impure deity. 
 August, de Civ. D. 4, c. 9, 1. 6, c. 9. — Lactant. 
 1, c. 20. 
 
 Myagrus, or Myodes, a divinity among the 
 Egyptians, called also Achor. He was en- 
 treated by the inhabitants to protect them from 
 flies and serpents. His worship passed into 
 Greece and Italy. Plin. 10, c. 28.— Paws. 8, 
 c. 26. 
 
 Myrrha, a daughter ofCinyras, king of Cy- 
 prus, She became enamoured of her father, 
 and had a son by him, called Adonis. "When 
 Cinyras was apprized of the incest he had com- 
 mitted, he attempted to stab his daughter, and 
 Myrrha fled into Arabia, where she was chang- 
 ed into a tree called myrrh. Hygin. fab. 58 
 and 21b.— Ovid Met. 10, v. 2dQ.—Plut. in Par. 
 — Apollod. 3. 
 
 Myrtilus, a son of Mercury and Phaetusa, 
 or Cleobule, or Clymene, was arm-bearer to 
 CEnomaus, king of Pisa. He was so experi- 
 enced in riding, and in the management of 
 horses, that he rendered those of CEnomaus the 
 swiftest in all Greece. His infidelity proved 
 at last fatal to him. Vid. CEnomaus. The body 
 of Myrtilus, according to some, was carried by 
 the waves to, the seashore, where he received 
 an honourable burial, and as he was the son of 
 Mercury, he was made a constellation. Diod 
 A.— Hygin. fab. 84 and 224.— Paws, 8, c. 14.— 
 Apollon. 1. 
 
 Myscellus. Vid. Part 11. 
 745 
 
NA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 NE 
 
 N^NU, the goddess of funerals at Rome, 
 whose temple was without the gates of the city. 
 The songs which were sung at funerals were 
 also called ncenia. They were generally filled 
 with the praises of the deceased, but sometimes 
 they were so unmeaning and improper, that the 
 word became proverbial to signify nonsense. 
 Varro de Vita P. R. — Plant. — Asin. 41, c. 1, 
 V. 63. 
 
 Naiades, or Naides, certain inferior deities, 
 who presided over rivers, springs, wells, and 
 fountains. The Naiades generally inhabited 
 the country, and resorted to the woods or mea- 
 dows near the stream over which they presided, 
 whence the name {yaieiv, tojlow.) They are 
 represented as young and beautiful virgins, 
 often leaning upon an urn, from which flows a 
 stream of water. ^Egle was the fairest of the 
 Naiades, according to Virgil. They were held 
 in great veneration among the ancients, and 
 often sacrifices of goats and lambs were offered 
 to them with libations of wine, honey, and oil. 
 Sometimes they received only offerings of milk, 
 fruit, and flowers. Vid. Nymph(B. Virg. Eel. 
 6.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 328.— Homer. Od. 13. 
 
 Nais, I. one of the Oceanides, mother of 
 Chiron or Glaucus, by Magnes. Apollod. 1, c. 
 
 9. II. A nymph, mother by Bucolion of 
 
 iEgesus and Pedasus. Homer. II. 6. III. 
 
 A nymph in an island of the Red Sea, who, by 
 her incantations, turned to fishes all those who 
 approached her residence after she had admit- 
 ted them to her embraces. She was herself 
 changed into a fish by Apollo. Ovid. Met. 4, 
 V. 49, &c. 
 
 Napje^, certain divinities among the ancients, 
 who presided over the hills and woods of the 
 country. Some suppose that they were tute- 
 lary deities of the fountains and the Naiades of 
 the sea. Their name is derived from va-Kr], a 
 grove. Virg. G. 4, v. 585. 
 
 Narcea, a surname of Minerva in Elis, from 
 her temple there erected by Narcseus. 
 
 Narcissus, a beautiful youth, son of Cephi- 
 sus and the nymph Liriope, born at Thespis, in 
 Boeotia. He saw his image reflected in a foun- 
 tain, and became enamoured of it, thinking it to 
 be the nymph of the place. His fruitless at- 
 tempts to approach this beautiful object so pro- 
 voked him, that he grew desperate and killed 
 himself His blood was changed into a flower, 
 which still bears his name. The nymphs rais- 
 ed a funeral pile to burn his body, according to 
 Ovid, but they found nothing but a beautiful 
 flower. Pausanias says that Narcissus had a 
 sister as beautiful as himself, of whom he be- 
 came deeply enamoured. He often hunted in 
 the woods in her company, but his pleasure was 
 soon interrupted by her death ; and still to keep 
 afresh her memory, he frequented the groves, 
 where he had often attended her, or reposed 
 himself on the brim of a fountain, where the 
 sight of his own reflected image still awakened 
 tender sentiments. Pans. 9, c; 21. — Hygin. 
 fab. ^l\.—Ovid. Met. 3, v. 346, &c.—Philos- 
 trat. 1. 
 
 Nascio, or Natio, a goddess at Rome, who 
 presided over the birth of children. She had a 
 temple at Ardea. Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 18. 
 
 Nauplius, a son of Neptune and Amymone, 
 746 
 
 king of Euboea. He was father to the celebrated 
 Palamedes, who was so unjustly sacrificed to 
 the artifice and resentment of Ulysses, by the 
 Greeks, during the Trojan war. When the 
 Greeks returned from the Trojan war, Nauplius 
 saw them with pleasure distressed in a storm 
 on the coast of EubcEa ; and to make their dis- 
 aster still more universal, he lighted fires on 
 such places as were surrounded with the most 
 dangerous rocks, that the fleet might be ship- 
 wrecked upon the coast. This succeeded, but 
 Nauplius was so disappointed when he saw 
 Ulysses and Diomedes escape from the general 
 calamity, that he threw himself into the sea. 
 According to some mythologists, there were 
 two persons of this name, a native of Argos, 
 who went to Colchis with Jason. He was the 
 son of Neptune and Amymone. The other was 
 king of Euboea, and lived during the Trojan 
 war. He was, according to some, son of Cly- 
 tonas, one of the descendants of Nauplius, the 
 Argonaut. The Argonaut was remarkable for 
 his knowledge of sea affairs, and of astronomy, 
 He built the town of Nauplia, and sold Auge, 
 daughter of Aleus, to .King Teuthras, to with- 
 draw her from her father's resentment. Orph. 
 Argon. — Apollod. 3, c. 7. — Apollon. 1, &c. — 
 piacc. 1 and 5. — Strab. 8. — Pans. 4, c. 35. — 
 Hygin. fab. 116. 
 
 Nausicaa, a daughter of Alcinous, king of 
 the Phseaceans. She met Ulysses shipwrecked 
 on her father's coasts, and it was to her human- 
 ity that he owed the kind reception he experi- 
 enced from the king. She married, according 
 to Aristotle and Dictys, Telemachus, the son of 
 Ulysses, by whom she had a son called Persep- 
 tolis or Ptoliporthus. Homer. Od. 6. — Pans. 5, 
 c. 19.— Hvgin. fab. 126. 
 
 Nausithous, a king of the Phseaceans, father 
 to Alcinous. He was son of Neptune and 
 Periboea. Hesiod makes him son of Ulysses 
 and Calypso. Hesiod. Th. 1, c. 16. 
 
 Nadtes, a Trojan soothsayer, who comforted 
 ^neas when his fleet had been burnt in Sicily. 
 Virg. JEn. 5, v. 704. He was the progenitor 
 of the Nautii at Rome, a family to whom the 
 palladium of Troy was, in consequence of the 
 service of their ancestors, intrusted. Virg. 
 jEn. 5, V. 794. 
 
 Ne^ra, a daughter of Pereus, who married 
 Aleus, by whom she had Cepheus, Lycurgus, 
 and Auge. Apollod. 3, c. 9. — Pans. 8, c. 4. 
 
 Necessitas, a divinity who presided over the 
 destinies of mankind, and who was regarded as 
 the mother of the Parcse. Pans. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Neleus, a son of Neptune and Tyro. He 
 was brother to Pelias, with whom he was ex- 
 posed by his mother. They were preserved and 
 brought to Tyro, who had then married Cre- 
 theus, king of lolchos. After the death of Cre- 
 theus, Pelias and Neleus seized the kingdom of 
 lolchos, which belonged to jiEson, the lawful 
 son of Tj'-ro by the deceased monarch. After 
 they had "reigned for some time conjointly, Pe- 
 lias expelled Neleus from lolchos. Neleus came 
 to Aphareus, king of Messenia, who treated 
 him with kindness, and permitted him to build 
 a city, which he called Pylos. Neleus married 
 Chloris, the daughter of Amphion, by whom he 
 had a daughter and twelve sons, who were all, 
 except Nestor, killed by Hercules, together with 
 their father. Neleus promised his daughter in 
 
NE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 NE 
 
 marriage only to him who brought him the bulls 
 of Iphiclus. Bias was the successful lover. 
 Vid. Melampus. Ovid. Mel. 6, v. 418. — Pans. 
 4, c. 36.—Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 2, c. 6. 
 
 Nemesis, one of the infernal deities, daugh- 
 ter of Nox. She was the god dess of vengeance, 
 always prepared to punish impiety, and at the 
 same time liberally to reward the good and vir- 
 tuous. She is made one of the ParciE by some 
 mythologists, and is represented with a helha 
 and a wheel. The people of Smyrna were the 
 first who made her statues with wings, to show 
 with what celerity she is prepared to punish 
 the crimes of the wicked both by sea and land, 
 as the helm and the wheel in her hands inti- 
 mate. Her power did not only exist in this 
 life, but she was also employed after death to 
 find out the most effectual and rigorous means 
 of correction. Nemesis was particularly wor- 
 shipped at Rhamnus, in Attica, where she had 
 a celebrated statue, 10 cubits long, made of Pa- 
 rian marble by Phidias, or, according to others, 
 by one of his pupils. The Romans were also 
 particularly attentive to the adoration of a deity 
 Avhom they solemnly invoked, and to whom 
 they offered sacrifices before they declared war 
 against their enemies, to show the world that 
 their wars were undertaken upon the most just 
 grounds. Her statue at Rome was in the capi- 
 tol. Some suppose that Nemesis was the per- 
 son whom Jupiter deceived, and that Leda was 
 intrusted with the care of the children which 
 sprang from the two eggs. Others observe that 
 Leda obtained the name of Nemesis after death. 
 According to Pausanias, there were more than 
 one Nemesis. The goddess Nemesis was sur- 
 named Rhamnusm, because worshipped at 
 Rhamnus, and Adrasiia from the temple which 
 AdrastuSjkingof Argos, erected to her when he 
 went against Thebes to avenge the indignities 
 which his son-in-law Polynices had suffered in 
 being unjustly driven from his kingdom by 
 Eteocles. The Greeks celebrated a festival, 
 called A^emesia, in memory of deceased persons, 
 as the goddess Nemesis was supposed to de- 
 fend the relics and the memory of the dead from 
 all insult. Hygin. P. A. 2, c. 8. — Paws. 1. c. 
 23.—ApollGd. 3, c. 10.— Hesiod. Theog. 224.— 
 PZi?i. 11, c. 28, 1.36, c. 5. 
 
 Neoptolemus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Neph&le, the first wife of Athamas, king of 
 Thebes, and mother of Phryxus and Helle. 
 Vid. Athamas cf* Argonautce. She was changed 
 into a cloud, whence her name is given by the 
 Greeks to the clouds. Some call her Nebula^ 
 which word is the Latin translation of Nephele. 
 The fleece of the ram which saved the life of 
 Nephele's children, is often called the Nephe- 
 lian fleece. Apollod. 1. c. 9. — Hygin. 2, &c. — 
 Ovid. Met. 11, v. 1%.—Macc. 11, v. 56. 
 
 Nkpia, a daughter of Jasus, who married 
 Olympus, king of Mysia, whence the plains of 
 Mvsia are sometimes called JVepice campi. 
 
 Neptunus, a god, son of Saturn and Ops, 
 and brother to Jupiter, Pluto, and Juno. Nep- 
 tune shared with his brothers the empire of 
 Saturn, and received as his portion the kingdom 
 of the sea. This, however, did not seem equiv- 
 alent to the empire of heaven and earth, which 
 Jupiter had claimed, therefore he conspired to 
 dethrone him with the rest of the gods. The 
 conspiracy was discovered, and Jupiter con- 
 
 demned Neptune to build the walls of Troy. 
 Vid. Laomedon. A reconciliation was soon 
 after made, and Neptune was reinstated in all 
 his rights and privileges. Neptune disputed 
 with Minerva the right of giving a name to the 
 capital of Cecropia, but he was defeated. This 
 did not please Neptune ; he renewed, therefore, 
 the combat by disputing for Troezene, but Ju- 
 piter settled their disputes by permitting them 
 to be conjointly worshipped there, and by giving 
 the name of Polias, or the protectress of the city, 
 to Minerva, and that of king of Troezene to the 
 god of the. sea. He also disputed his right for 
 the isthmus of Corinth with Apollo ; and Bria- 
 reus, the Cyclops, who was mutually chosen 
 umpire, gave the isthmus to Neptune and the 
 promontory to Apollo. Neptune, as being god 
 of the sea, was entitled to more power than any 
 of the other gods, except Jupiter. Not only the 
 ocean, rivers, and fountains, were subject to him, 
 but he also could cause earthquakes at his plea- 
 sure, and raise islands from the bottom of the 
 sea with a blow of his trident. The worship of 
 Neptune was established in almost every part 
 of the earth, and the Libyans in particular 
 venerated him above all other nations, and 
 looked upon him as the first and greatest of the 
 gods. The Greeks and the Romans were also 
 attached to his worship, and they celebrated 
 their Isthmian games and Consualia with the 
 greatest solemnity. He was generally repre- 
 sented sitting in a chariot made of a shell, and 
 drawn by sea-horses or dolphins. Sometimes 
 he is drawn by winged horses, and holds his 
 trident in his hand, and stands up as his chariot 
 flies over the surface of the Sea. Homer repre- 
 sents him as issuing from the sea, and in three 
 steps crossing the whole horizon. In the Con- 
 sualia of the Romans, horses were led through 
 the streets finely equipped and crowned with 
 garlands, as the god, in whose honour the fes- 
 tivals were instituted, had produced the horse, 
 an animal so beneficial for the use of mankind. 
 Pans. 1, 2, &c. — Homer. E. 7, &c. — Varro de 
 L. L. i.—Cic. de Nat. D. 2, c. 26, 1. 2, c. 25.-- 
 Hesiod. Theog.— Virg. Mn. 1, v. 12, &c. 1, 2, 
 3, Sec— Apollod. 1, 2, &c.— Ovid. Met. 6, v. 117, 
 &LC.—Herodot. 2, c. 50, 1. 4, c. WS.—Macrob. 
 Saturn. 1, c. 17. — Aug. de Civ. D. 18. — Plut. in 
 Them.. — Hygin. fab. l57. — Eurip. in Phceiiiss. 
 — Place. — Apolloii. Rhod. 
 
 Nereides, nymphs of the sea, daughters of 
 Nereus and Doris. They were fifty according 
 to the greater number of the mythologists, some 
 of whose names are as follows : Amphitrlte, 
 Eudora, Galena, Glauce, Thetis, Cymothoe, 
 Mellta, Agave, Doris, &c. The Nereides were 
 Implored as the rest of the deities; they had 
 altars, chiefly on the coast of the sea, where the 
 piety of mankind made offerings of milk, oil, 
 and honey, and often of the flesh of goats. 
 When they were on the seashore they general- 
 ly resided In grottos and caves, which were 
 adorned with shells and shaded by the branches 
 of vines. Their duty was to attend upon the 
 more powerful deities of the sea, and to be sub- 
 servient to the will of Neptune. They are re- 
 presented as young and handsome virgins, sit- 
 ting on dolphins, and holding Neptune's trident 
 in tlieir hand, or sometimes garlands of flowers. 
 Orpheus Hvmn. 23. — Coiul. de Rapt. — Pel. — 
 Ovid. Met. 11. V. 361, &c.—S(at. 2, Sylv. 2, 1. 3, 
 747 
 
KI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 NO 
 
 Sylv. 1. — Paus. 2, c, 1, — Apollod. 1, c. 2 and 3. 
 —Hesiod. Theog.— Homer. 11. 18, v. 39.— PZm. 
 36, c. 5, — Hygin. &c. 
 
 Nereus, a deity of the sea, son of Oceanus 
 and Terra. He married Doris, by whom he 
 had 50 daughters, called the Nereides. Vid. 
 Nereides. Nereus was generally represented 
 as an old man, with a long flowing beard, and 
 hair of an azure colour. The chief place of his 
 residence was in the ^gean Sea, where he was 
 surrounded by his daughters, who often danced 
 in choruses round him. He had the gift of 
 prophecy, and informed those that consulted 
 him of the different fates that attended them. 
 He acquainted Paris with the consequences of 
 his elopement with Helen ; and it was by his 
 directions that Hercules obtained the golden 
 apples of the Hesperides ; but the sea-god often 
 evaded the importunities of inquirers by assum- 
 ing different shapes, and totally escaping from 
 their grasp. The word Nereus is often taken 
 for the sea itself. Nereus is sometimes called 
 the most ancient of all the gods. Hesiod. Theog. 
 — Hygin. — Homer. 11. 18. — Apollod. — Orpheus 
 Argon. — Horat. 1, od. 13. — Eurip. in Iphig. 
 
 Nesimachus, the father of Hippomedon, a 
 native of Argos, who was one ofthe seven chiefs 
 who made war against Thebes. Hygin. 70. — 
 Schol. Stat. Th. 1, V. 44. 
 
 Nessds, a celebrated centaur, son of Ixion 
 and the Cloud. He offered violence to Deja- 
 nira, whom Hercules had intrusted to his care 
 with orders to carry her across the river Evenus. 
 Vid. Dejanira. Hercules saw the distress of 
 his wife from the opposite shore of the river, 
 and immediately he let fly one of his poisoned 
 arrows, which struck the centaur to the heart. 
 Nessus, as he expired, gave the tunic he then 
 wore to Dejanira, assuring her that, from the 
 poisoned blood which had flowed from his 
 wounds, it had received the power of calling a 
 husband away from unlawful loves. Dejanira 
 received it with pleasure, and this mournful 
 present caused the death of Hercules. Vid. 
 Hercules. Apollod. 2, c. 7. — Ovid. ep. 9. — 
 Senec. in Here. fur. — Paus. 3, c. 28. — Diod. 4. 
 
 Nestor. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Nisus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Ni5be, I. a daughter of Tantalus, king of 
 Lydia, by Euryanassa or Dione. She married 
 Amphion, the son of Jasus, by whom she had 
 ten sons and ten daughters according to Hesiod, 
 or two sons and three daughters according to 
 Herodotus. Homer and Propertius say that 
 she had six daughters and as many sons; and 
 Ovid, Apollodorus, &c., according to the more 
 received opinion, support that she had seven 
 sons and seven daughters. The sons were 
 Sipylus, Minytus, Tantalus, Agenor, Phaedi- 
 mus, Damasichthon, and Ismenus; and those 
 of the daughters, Cleodoxa, Ethodae or Thera, 
 Astyoche, Phthia, Pelopia or Chloris, Asti- 
 cratea, and Ogygia. The number of her chil- 
 dren increased her pride, and she had the im- 
 prudence to prefer herself to Latona, who en- 
 treated her children to punish the arrogant 
 Niobe. Her prayers were heard, and imme- 
 diately all the sons of Niobe expired by the 
 darts of Apollo, and all the daughters, except 
 Chloris, who had married Neleus, king of Py- 
 los, were equally destroyed by Diana; and Ni- 
 obe, struck at the suddenness of her misfortunes, 
 748 
 
 was changed into a stone. The carcasses of 
 Niobe's children according to Homer, were left 
 unburied in the plains for nine successive days, 
 because Jupiter changed into stones all such as 
 attempted to inter them. On the tenth day 
 they were honoured with a funeral by the gods. 
 Homer. II. 2i.—JElian. V. H. 12, c. Z6.— Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. 5. — Ovid. Met. fab. 5. — Hygin. fab. 
 
 9.— Horat. 4, od. 6.—Propert. 2, el. 6. II. 
 
 A daughter of Phoroneus, king of Peloponne- 
 sus, by Laodice. She was beloved by Jupiter, 
 by whom she had a son called Argus, who gave 
 his name to Argia or Argolis, a country of Pe- 
 loponnesus. Paus. 2, c. 22. — Apollod. 2, c. 1, 
 1. 3, c. 8. 
 
 NisDs, a king of Megara, son of Mars, or 
 more probably of Pandfon. He inherited his 
 father's kingdom with his brothers, and received 
 as his portion the country of Megaris. The 
 peace of the brothers was interrupted by the 
 hostilities of Minos, who wished to avenge the 
 death of his son Androgens, who had been 
 murdered by the Athenians. Megara was be- 
 sieged and Attica laid waste. The fate of Nisus 
 depended totally upon- a yellow lock, which, as 
 long as it continued upon his head, according 
 to the words of an oracle, promised hini life and 
 success in his affairs. His daughter Scylla 
 (often called Nisia Virgo) saw from the walls 
 of Megara the royal besieger, and she became 
 desperately enamoured of him. To obtain a 
 more immediate interview with this object of 
 her passion, she stole away the fatal hair from 
 her father's head as he was asleep ; the town 
 was immediately taken, but Minos disregarded 
 the services of Scylla, and she threw herself into 
 the sea. The gods changed her into a lark, and 
 Nisus assumed the nature of the hawk at the 
 very moment that he gave himself death, not to 
 fall into the enemy's hands. These two birds 
 have continually been at variance with each 
 other ; and Scylla, by her apprehensions at the 
 sight of her father, seems to suffer the punish- 
 ment which her perfidy deserved. Apollod. 3, 
 c. 15.— Patis. 1, c. 19.—Strab. 9.— Ovid. Met. 
 8, V. 6, &c.— Virg. G. 1, v. 404, &c. Vid. 
 Part II. 
 
 NocTiLUCA, a surname of Diana. She had 
 a temple at Rome, on mount Palatine, where 
 torches were generally lighted in the night, 
 Varro de L. L. 4. — Horat. 4, od. 6, v. 38. 
 
 NoMius, a surname given to Apollo, because 
 he fed (vefiM pasco) the flocks of King Admetus 
 in Thessaly. Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 23. 
 
 NoRTiA, a name given to the goddess of For- 
 tune among the Etrurians. Liv. 7, c. 3. 
 
 Nox, one of the most ancient deities among 
 the heathens, daughter of Chaos. From her 
 union with her brother Erebus, she gave birth 
 to the Day and the Light. She was also the 
 mother of the Parcse, Hesperides, Dreams, of 
 Discord, Death, Momus, Fraud, &c. She is 
 called by some of the poets the mother of all 
 things, of gods as well as of men, and therefore 
 she was worshipped with great solemnitvby the 
 ancients. She had a famous statue in Diana's 
 temple at Ephesus. It was usual to offer her 
 a black sheep, as she was the mother of the 
 Furies. The cock was also offered to her, as 
 that bird proclaims the approach of day during 
 the darkness of the night. She is represented 
 as mounted on a chariot, and covered with a 
 
NY 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 DC 
 
 veil bespangled with stars. The constellations 
 generally went before her as her constant mes- 
 sengers. Sometimes she is seen holding two 
 children under her arms, one of which is black, 
 representing death, or rather night, and the 
 other white, representing sleep or day. Some 
 of the moderns have described her as a woman 
 veiled in mourning, and crowned with poppies, 
 and carried on a chariot drawn by owls and 
 bats. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 950. — Ovid. Fast. l,Ar, 
 455.— Pans. 10, c. 38.— Hesiod. Theog. 125 
 and 21-2. 
 
 NuMERiA, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
 over numbers. Aug. de Civ. D. 4, c. 11. 
 
 NuNDiNA, a goddess whom the Romans in- 
 voked when they named their children. This 
 happened the ninth day after their birth, whence 
 the name of the goddess, Nona dies. Macrob. 
 Sat. 1, c. 16. 
 
 NuRsicA, a goddess who patronised the Etru- 
 rians. Juv. 10, V. 74. 
 
 NycTELius, a surname of Bacchus, because 
 his orgies were celebrated in the night, (i/u^ 
 noZy T£\Eb)perficio.) The words Zater Nyctelius 
 thence signify wine. Seneca in (Edip. — Paus. 
 1, c. 40.— Ovid. Met. 4, v. 15. 
 
 Nycteus, I. a son of Hyrieus and Clonia. 
 
 II. A son of Chthonius. III. A son of 
 
 Neptune by Celene, daughter of Atlas, king of 
 Lesbos, or of Thebes according to the more re- 
 ceived opinion. He married a nymph of Crete 
 called Polyxo or Almathaea, by whom he had 
 two daughters, Nyctimene and Antiope. The 
 first of these disgraced herself by her criminal 
 amours, and was changed by Minerva into an 
 owl. • Nycteus made war against Epopeus, who 
 had carried away Antiope, and died of a 
 wound which he had received in an engage- 
 ment, leaving his kingdom to his brother Ly- 
 cus, whom he entreated to continue the war 
 and punish Antiope for her immodest conduct. 
 Vid. Antiope. Paus. 2, c. 6. — Hygin. fab. 157 
 and 2Q4.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 590, &c. 1. 6, v. 
 
 no, &c. 
 
 Nymphs, certain female deities among the 
 ancients. They Vv'ere generally divided into 
 two classes, nymphs of the land and nymphs 
 of the sea. Of the nymphs of the earth, some 
 presided over woods, and were called Dryades 
 and Hermadryades ; others presided over moun- 
 tains, and were called Oreades ; some presided 
 over hills and dales, and were called Napcea., 
 &c. The sea-nymphs were called Oceanides, 
 J^ereides, Naiades, Potamides, Limnades, &c. 
 These presided over the sea, over rivers, foun- 
 tains, streams, and lakes. They fixed their 
 residence not only in the sea, but also on moun- 
 tains, rocks, in woods or caverns ; and their 
 grottoes were beautified by evers:reens and 
 delightful and romantic scenes. The nymphs 
 were immortal, according to the opinion of some 
 mythologists; others supposed that, like men, 
 they were subject to mortality, though their life 
 was of long duration. They lived for several 
 thousand years, according to Hesiod, or, as 
 Plutarch seems obscurely to intimate, they lived 
 about 9720 years. The number of the nymphs 
 is not precisely known. There were above 
 3000, according to Hesiod, whose power was 
 extended over the different places of the earth, 
 and the various functions and occupations of 
 mankind. They were worshipped by the an- 
 
 cients, though not with so much solemnity as 
 the superior deities. They had no temples 
 raised to their honour, and the only ofierings 
 they received were milk, honey, oil, and some- 
 times the sacrifice of a goat. They were gen- 
 erally represented as young and beautiful vir- 
 gins, veiled up to the middle ; and sometimes 
 they held a vase, from which they seemed to 
 pour water. Sometimes they had grass, leaves, 
 and shells instead of vases. It was deemed 
 unfortunate to see them naked, and such sight 
 was generally attended by a delirium, to which 
 Propertius seems to allude in this verse, wherein 
 he speaks of the innocence and simplicity of 
 the primitive ages of the world : — 
 
 Nee fuerat nudas poena videre Deas. 
 
 The nymphs were generally distinguished by 
 an epithet which denoted the place of their resi- 
 dence; thus the nymphs of Sicily were called 
 Sicelides; those of Corycus, Corycides, &c. 
 Ovid. Met. 1, v. 320, 1. 5, v. 412, 1. 9, v. 651, &c. 
 Fast. 3, Y. 169.— Paus. 10, c. 3.— Pint, de 
 Orac. def. — Orpheus. Arg: — Hesiod. Theog. — 
 Propert. 3, el. 12. — Homer. Od. 14. 
 
 NYSiEUs, a surname of Bacchus, because he 
 was worshipped at Nysa. Propert. 3, el. 17, 
 V. 22. 
 
 Nysiades, a name given to the nyrophs of 
 Nysa, to whose care Jupiter intrusted the edu- 
 cation of his son Bacchus. Oaid. Met. 3, v. 
 314, &c. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oceanides, and Oceanitides, sea-nymphs, 
 daughters of Oceanus, from whom they received 
 their name, and of the goddess Tethys. Hy- 
 ginus mentions 16, whose names are almost all 
 different from those of Apollodorus and Hesiod, 
 which difference proceeds from the mutilation 
 of the original text. The Oceanides, as the 
 rest of the inferior deities, were honoured with 
 libations and sacrifices. Prayers were offered 
 to them, and they were entreated to protect 
 sailors from storms and dangerous tempests. 
 The Argonauts, before they proceeded to their 
 expedition, made an offering of flour, honey, 
 and oil, on the seashore, to all the deities of the 
 sea ; and sacrificed bulls to them, and entreated 
 their protection. When the sacrifice was made 
 on the seashore, the blood of the victim was re- 
 ceived in a vessel, but when it was in open sea, 
 the blood was permitted to run down into the 
 waters. "When the sea was calm the sailors 
 generally offered a lamb or a young pig, but if 
 it was agitated by the winds, and rough, a black 
 bull was deemed the most acceptable victim. 
 Homer. Od. 3. — Hnrat. — Afollod. Arg. — Virs[. 
 G. 4, V. 341.— Hesiod. Theog. 349.—ApoUod.'l. 
 
 Oceanus, a powerful deity of the sea, son of 
 Coelus and Terra. He married Tethys, by 
 whom he had the most principal rivers, such as 
 the Alpheus, Peneus, Strymon, &c., with a 
 number of daughters, who are called from him 
 Oceanides. According to Homer, Oceanus 
 was the father of all the gods, and on that ac- 
 count he received frequent visits from the rest 
 of the deities. He is generally represented as 
 an old man, with a long flowing beard, and sit- 
 ting upon the waves of the sea. He often holds 
 a pike in his hand, while ships under sail appear 
 749 
 
CED 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 CED 
 
 at a distance, or a sea-monster stands near him. 
 Oceanus presided over every part of the sea, 
 and even the rivers were subjected to his power. 
 The ancients were superstitious in their worship 
 to Oceanus, and revered with great solemnity a 
 deity to whose care they intrusted themselves 
 when going on a voyage. Hesiod. Theog. — 
 Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 81, &c. — Apollod. 1. — Cic, de 
 Nat. D. 3, c. 20.— Homer. 11. 
 
 OcNUs, a son of the Tiber and of Manto, 
 who assisted ^neas against Turnus. He built 
 a town which he called Mantua after his moth- 
 er's name. Some suppose that he is the same 
 as Bianor. Virg. Eel. 10, v. 198. 
 
 OcYPETE. Vtd. Harpice. 
 
 Odinus, a celebrated hero of antiquity, who 
 flourished about 70 years before the Christian 
 era, in the northern parts of ancient Germany, 
 or the modern kingdom of Denmark. He was 
 at once a priest, a soldier, a poet, a monarch, 
 and a conqueror. He imposed upon the cre- 
 dulity of his superstitious countrymen, and 
 made them believe that he could raise the dead 
 to life, and that he was acquainted with futu- 
 rity. When he had extended his power, and 
 increased his fame by conquest and by persua- 
 sion, he resolved to die in a different manner 
 from other men. He assembled his friends, and 
 with the sharp point of a lance he made on his 
 body nine different wounds in the form of a 
 circle, and as he expired he declared he was 
 going into Scythia, where he should become 
 one of the immortal gods. He further added, 
 that he would prepare bliss and felicity for such 
 of his countrymen as lived a virtuous life, who 
 fought with intrepidity, and who died like he- 
 roes in the field of battle. These injunctions 
 had the desired effect ; his countrymen super- 
 stitiously believed him, and always recom- 
 mended themselves to his protection whenever 
 they engaged in a battle, and they entreated him 
 to receive the souls of such as had fallen in war. 
 
 CEagrus, or CEager, the father of Orpheus 
 by Calliope. He was king of Thrace, and from 
 him mount Has m us, and also the Hebrus, one 
 of the rivers of the country, has received the 
 appellation of (Eagrius, though Servius, in his 
 commentaries, disputes the explanation of Dio- 
 dorus, by asserting that the CEagrius is a river 
 of Thrace, whose waters supply the streams of 
 the Hebrus. Ovid, in lb. 414. — Apollon. 1, 
 arg.— Virg. G. 4, v. 524.— iteZ. 5, v. 463.— 
 Diod. — Apollod. 1, c. 3. 
 
 CEax. Vid. Part TI. 
 
 CEbalus, I. a son of Argalus or Cynortas, 
 who was king of Laconia. He married Gor- 
 gophone, the daughter of Perseus, by whom he 
 had Hippocoon, Tyndarus, &c. Pans. 3, c. 1. 
 
 — Apollod. 3, c. 10. II. A son of Telon and 
 
 the nymph Sebethis, who reigned in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Neapolis in Italy. Virg. Mn.l^ 
 V. 734. 
 
 CEdipus, a son of Laius, king of Thebes, and 
 Jocasta. As being descended from Venus by 
 his father's side, (Edipus was born to be ex- 
 posed to all the dangers and the calamities 
 which Juno could inflict upon the posterity of 
 the goddess of beauty. Laius, the father of 
 CEdipus, was informed by the oracle, as soon as 
 he married Jocasta, that he must perish by the 
 hands of his son. The queen became pregnant, 
 and Laius ordered his wife to destroy her child 
 750 
 
 as soon as if came into the world. The mother 
 gave the child as soon as born to one of her 
 domestics, with orders to expose him on the 
 mountains. The servant bored the feet of the 
 child, and suspended him with a twig by the 
 heels to a tree on mount Citheeron, where he 
 was soon found by one of the shepherds of Po- 
 lybus, king of Corinth. The shepherd carried 
 him home ; and Peribcea, the wife of Polybus, 
 who had no children, educated him as her own 
 child, with maternal tenderness. The accom- 
 plishments of the infant, who was named CEdi- 
 pus on account of the swelling of his feet, (otJew 
 tumeo, Kooes pedes,) soon became the admiration 
 of the age. His companions envied his strength 
 and his address: and one of them told him 
 he was an illegitimate child. This raised his 
 doubts ; he asked Peribcea, who, out of tender- 
 ness, told him that his suspicions were ill 
 founded. Not satisfied with this, he went to 
 consult the oracle of Delphi, and was there told 
 not to return home, for if he did, he must neces- 
 sarily be the murderer of his father, and the 
 husband of his mother. This answer of the 
 oracle terrified him ; he knew no home but the 
 house of Polybus, therefore he resolved not to 
 return to Corinth, where such calamities ap- 
 parently attended him. He travelled towards 
 Phocis, and in his journey met in a narrow road 
 Laius on a chariot with his arm-bearer. Laius 
 haughtily ordered CEdipus to make way for 
 him. CEdipus refused, and a contest ensued, 
 in which Laius and his arm-bearer were both 
 killed. As CEdipus was ignorant of the quality 
 and of the rank of the men he had just killed, 
 he continued his journey, and was attracted to 
 Thebes by the fame of the Sphynx. This ter- 
 rible monster, whom Juno had sent to lay waste 
 the country, (Vid. Sphynx,) resorted in the 
 neighbourhood of Thebes, and devoured all 
 those who attempted to explain, without suc- 
 cess, the enigmas which he proposed. The ca- 
 lamity was now become an object of public 
 concern ; and as the successful explanation of 
 an enigma would end in the death of the sphynx, 
 Creon, who at the death of Laius had ascended 
 the throne of Thebes, promised his crown and 
 Jocasta to him who succeeded in the attempt. 
 The enigma proposed v/as this : What animal 
 in the morning walks upon four feet, at noon 
 upon two, and in the evening upon three 1 This 
 was left for CEdipus to explain : he came to the 
 monster and said, that man, in the morning of 
 life walks upon his hands and his feet; when 
 he has attained the years of manhood, he walks 
 upon his two legs ; and in the evening, he sup- 
 ports his old age with the assistance of a staff. 
 The monster, mortified at the true explanation, 
 dashed his head against a rock and perished. 
 CEdipus ascended the throne of Thebes, and 
 married Jocasta, by whom he had two sons, Po- 
 lynices and Eteocles, and two daughters, Ismene 
 and Antigone. Some years after, the Theban 
 territories were visited with a plague ; and the 
 oracle declared that it should cease only when 
 the murderer of King Laius was banished from 
 Boeotia. As the death of Laius had never been 
 examined, and the circumstances that attended 
 it never known, this answer of the oracle was 
 of the greatest concern to the Thebans; but 
 CEdipus, the friend of his people, resolved to 
 overcome every difficulty by the most exact in- 
 
CEN 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 (EN 
 
 quiries. His researches were successful, and 
 ne was soon proved to be the murderer of his 
 father. The melancholy discovery was render- 
 ed the more alarming, when CEdipus considered 
 that he had not only murdered his father, but 
 that he had committed incest with his mother. 
 In the excess of his grief he put out his eyes, as 
 unworthy to see the light, and banished himself 
 from Thebes, or, as some say, was banished by 
 his own sons. He retired towards Attica, Igd 
 by his daughter Antigone, and came near Co- 
 lonos, where there was a grove sacred to the 
 Furies. He remembered that he was doomed 
 by the oracle to die in such a place, and to be- 
 come the source of prosperity to the country in 
 which his bones were buried. A messenger 
 upon this was sent to Theseus, king of the 
 country, to inform him of the resolution of 
 CEdipus. When Theseus arrived, CEdipus ac- 
 quainted him, with a prophetic voice, that the 
 gods had called him to die in the place where 
 he stood ; and to show the truth of this, he walk- 
 ed himself, without the assistance of a guide, to 
 the spot where he must expire. Immediately 
 the earth opened, and CEdipus disappeared. 
 Some suppose that CEdipus had no children by 
 Jocasia, and that the mother murdered herself 
 as soon as she knew the incest which had been 
 committed. His tomb was near the Areopa- 
 gus in the age of Pausanias. Some of the an- 
 cient poets represent him in hell, as suffering 
 the punishment which crimes like his seemed 
 to deserve. According to some, the four chil- 
 dren which he had were by Euriganea, the 
 daughter of Periphas, whom he married after 
 the death of Jocasta. ApoUod.3, c. 5. — Hygin. 
 fab. ^^, «&c. — Eurip. in Phaniss.^ &c. — Sophod. 
 (Edip. Tyr. and Col. Antig., &.c.—Hesiod. 
 Theog. 1.— Homer. Od. 11, c. 210.— Pans. 9, 
 c. 5, &c. — Stat. Theh. 8, v. 642. — Senec. in 
 (Edip. — Pindar. Olymp. 2. — Diod. 4. — Athen. 6 
 and 10. 
 
 CEneus, a king of Calydon in iEtolia, son of 
 Parthaon or Portheus, and Euryte. He mar- 
 ried Althas, the daughter of Thestius, by whom 
 he had Clymenus, Meleager, Gorge, and Deja- 
 nira. After Althse's death, he married Periboea, 
 the daughter of Hipponous, by whom he had 
 Tydeus. In a general sacrifice which CEneus 
 made to all the gods upon reaping the rich pro- 
 duce of his fields, he forgot Diana; and the 
 goddess, to revenge this unpardonable neglect, 
 incited his neighbours lo take up arms against 
 him, and besides, she sent a wild boar to lay 
 waste the country of Calydonia. The animal 
 was at last killed by Meleager and the neigh- 
 bouring princes of Greece, in a celebrated chase 
 known by the name of the chase of the Caly- 
 donian boar. Some time after, Meleager died, 
 and CEneus was driven from his kingdom by the 
 sons of his brother. Agrius Diomedes, how- 
 ever, his grandson, soon restored him to his 
 throne ; but the continual misfortunes to which 
 he was exposed, rendered him melancholy. He 
 exiled himself from Calydon, and left his crown 
 to his son-in-law Andremon. He died as he 
 was going to A rgol is. His body was buried by 
 the care of Diomedes, in a town of Argolis, 
 which from him received the name of GEnoe. 
 It is reported that CEneus received a visit from 
 Bacchus, and that Bacchus permitted that wine 
 of which he was the patron should be called 
 
 among the Greeks by the name of CEneus, 
 {oivos). Hygin. fab. 129. — Apollod. 1, c. 8. — 
 Homer. 11. 9, v. 539.— Z?iorf. ^.—Paus. 2, c, 25. 
 — Ovid. Met.8,v. 510. 
 
 CEnoe, a nymph who married Sicinus the 
 son of Thoas, king of Lemnos. From her the 
 island of Sicinus has been called CEnoe. 
 
 CEnomaus, a son of Mars by Sterope, the 
 daughter of Atlas. He was king of Pisa in 
 Elis, and father of Hippodamia by Evarete, 
 daughter of Acrisius, or Eurythoa, the daughter 
 of Danaus. He was informed by the oracle that 
 he should perish by the hands of his son-in-law ; 
 therefore, as he could skilfully drive a chariot, 
 he determined to marry his daughter only to 
 him who could outrun him, on condition that all 
 who entered the list should agree to lay down 
 their life if conquered. Many had already perish- 
 ed; when Pelops, son of Tantalus, proposed 
 himself He previously bribed Myrtilus, the 
 charioteer of (Enomaus, by promising him (he 
 enjoyment of the favours of Hippodamia if he 
 proved victorious. Myrtilus gave his master an 
 old chariot, whose axle-tree broke on the course, 
 which was from Pisa to the Corinthian isthmus, 
 and CEnomaus was killed. Pelops married 
 Hippodamia, and became king of Pisa. As he 
 expired, CEnomaus entreated Pelops to revenge 
 the perfidy of Myrtilus, which was executed. 
 Apollod. 2, c. 4. — Diod. 4. — Paus. 5, c. 17, ]. 
 6, c. 11, &c. — Apollon. Rhod. 1. — Properi. 1, el. 
 2, V. 2d. — Ovid, in lb. 367. Art. Am. 2, v. 8. 
 —Heroid. 8, v. 70. 
 
 QEnone, a nymph of mount Ida, daughter of 
 the river Cebrenus in Phrygia. As she had 
 received the gift of prophecy, she foretold to Pa- 
 ris, whom she married before he was discovered 
 to be the son of Priam, that his voyage into 
 Greece would be attended with the most serious 
 consequences, and the total ruin of his country ; 
 and that he should have recourse to her medici- 
 nal knowledge at the hour of death. All these 
 predictions were fulfilled ; and Paris, when he 
 had received the fatal wound, ordered his body 
 to be carried to CEnone, in hopes of being cured 
 by her assistance. He expired as he came into 
 her presence ; and CEnone was so struck at the 
 sight of his dead body, that she bathed it with 
 her tears, and stabbed herself to the heart. She 
 was mother of Corythus by Paris, and this son 
 perished by the hand of his father when he at- 
 tempted, at the instigation of CEnone, to per- 
 suade him lo withdraw his affection from Hel- 
 en. Dictys Cret. — Ovid, de Rem. Amor. v. 
 457. — Heroid. 5. — Iju,can. 9. 
 
 CEnopion, a son of Ariadne by Theseus, or, 
 according to others, by Bacchus. He married 
 Helice, by, whom he had a daughter, called 
 Hero, or Merope, of whom the giant Orion 
 became enamoured, The father, unwilling to 
 give his daughter to such a lover, and afraid of 
 provoking him by an open refusal, evaded his 
 applications, and at last put out his eyes when 
 he was intoxicated. Some suppose that this 
 violence was offered to Orion after he had dis- 
 honoured Merope. CEnopion received the island 
 of Chios from Rhadamanthus, who had con- 
 quered most of the islands of the iEgean Sea, 
 and his tomb was still seen there in the age of 
 Pausanias. Some suppose, and with more 
 probability, that he reigned not at Chios, but at 
 ^gina, which from him was called CEnopia. 
 751 
 
OM 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 OR 
 
 Plut. in TTies. — Apollod. 1, c. 4. — Diod. — Paus. 
 7, c. 4. — ApoUon. Rhod. 3. 
 
 CEoNus, a son of Licymnius, killed at Sparta, 
 where he accompanied Hercules ; and as the 
 hero had promised Licymnius to bring back his 
 son, he burnt the body, and presented the ashes 
 to the afflicted father. From this circumstance 
 arose a custom of burning the dead among the 
 Greeks, according to the mythologists. Schol. 
 Homer. II. 
 
 Ogmius, a name of Hercules among the 
 Gauls. Lucian. in Here. 
 
 Ogyges, a celebrated monarch, the most an- 
 cient of those that reigned in Greece. He was 
 son of Terra, or, as some suppose, of Neptune, 
 and married Thebe the daughter of Jupiter, 
 He reigaed in Boeotia, which, from him is 
 sometimes called Ogygia, and his power was 
 also extended over Attica. It is supposed that 
 he was of Egyptian or Phoenician extraction ; 
 but his origin, as well as the age in which he 
 lived and the duration of his reign are so ob- 
 scure and unknown, that the epithet of Ogygian 
 is often applied to every thing of dark antiquity. 
 In the reign of Ogyges there was a deluge, 
 which so inundated the territory of Attica, that 
 they remained waste for near 200 years. This, 
 though it is very uncertain, is supposed to have 
 happened about 1764 years before the Christian 
 era, previous to the deluge of Deucalion. Ac- 
 cording to some writers, it was owing to the 
 overflowing of one of the rivers of the country. 
 The reign of Ogyges was also marked by an 
 uncommon appearance in the heavens; and, as 
 it is reported, the planet Venus changed her 
 colour, diameter, figure, and her course, Varro 
 de R. R. 3, c. 1. — Pans. 9, c. 5. — Aug. de Civ. 
 D. 18, &c. 
 
 OicLEUs, a son of Antiphates and Zeuxippe, 
 who married Hypermnestra, daughter of Thes- 
 tius, by whom he had Iphianira, Polybcea, and 
 Amphiaraus, He was killed by Laomedon 
 when defending the ships which Hercules had 
 brought to Asia when he made war against 
 Troy. Homer. Od. 15. — Diod. 4. — Apollod. 1, 
 c. 8, 1. 3, c. Q.—Paus. 6, c. 17. 
 
 OiLEUs, a king of the Locrians. His father's 
 name was Odoedocus, and his mother's Agria- 
 nome. He married Eriope, by whom he had 
 Ajax, called Oileus from his father, to discrimi- 
 nate him from Ajax the son of Telamon. He 
 had also another son, called Medon, by a courte- 
 san called Rhene. Oileus was one of the Ar- 
 gonauts. Virg. jEn. 1, v, 45. — ApoUon. 1. — 
 Hijgin. fab. 14 and 18. — Homer. U. 13 and 15. — 
 Apollod. 3. c. 10. 
 
 Olen. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Olenus, a son of Vulcan, who married Le- 
 thgea, a beautiful woman, who preferred herself 
 to the goddesses. She and her husband were 
 changed into stones by the deities. Ovid. Met. 
 10, V. 68. 
 
 Olympius, a surname of Jupiter at Olympia, 
 where the god had a celebrated temple and sta- 
 tue, which passed for one of the seven wonders 
 of the world. It was the work of Phidias. 
 Pans. 7, c. 2. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Omphale, a queen of Lydia, daughter of 
 Jardanus. She married Tmolus, who, at his 
 death, left her mistress of his kingdom. Om- 
 phale had been informed of the great exploits of 
 Hercules, and wished to see so illustrious a hero. 
 752 
 
 Her wish was soon gratified. After the murder 
 of Eurytus, Hercules fell sick, and was ordered 
 to be sold as a slave, that he might recover his 
 health and the right use of his senses. Mercu- 
 ry was commissioned to sell him, and Omphale 
 bought him and restored him to liberty. The 
 hero became enamoured of his mistress, and the 
 queen favoured his passion, and had a son by 
 him, whom some call Agelaus and others La- 
 mon. From this son were descended Gyges 
 and Croesus ; but this opinion is difierent from 
 the account which makes these Lydian mon- 
 archs spring from Alcaeus, a son of Hercules, 
 byMalis, one of the female servants of Omphale, 
 Hercules is represented by the poets as so des- 
 perately enamoured of the queen, that he spins 
 by her side among her women, while she covers 
 herself with the lion's skin, and arms herself 
 with the club of the hero, and often strikes him 
 with her sandals for the uncouth manner with 
 which he holds the distaff, &c, Ovid. Fast. 2, 
 V, 305, &c. — Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 2, c. 7. — Diod. 
 i.—Propert. 3, el. 11, v. 17, 
 
 Ops, {opis,) the daughter of Coelus and Terra, 
 the same as the Rhea of the Greeks, who mar- 
 ried Saturn, and became mother of Jupiter. 
 She was known among the ancients by the 
 different names of Cybele, Bona Dea^ Magna 
 Mater, Thya, Tellus, Proserpina, and even of 
 Juno and Minerva; and the worship which 
 was paid to these apparently several deities, was 
 offered merely to one and the same person, 
 mother of the gods. The word Ops seems to be 
 derived from Opus; because the goddess, who 
 is the same as the earth, gives nothing without 
 labour. Tatius built her a temple at Rome. 
 She was generally represented as a matron, 
 with her right hand opened, as if offering as- 
 sistance to the helpless, and holding a loaf in 
 her left hand. Her festivals were called Opa- 
 lia, &c. Varro de L. L. 4. — Dionys. Hat. 2, 
 SLC—Tibull. el, 4, v, 68.—Plin. 19, c. 6. 
 
 Orckamus, a king of Assyria, father of Leu- 
 cothoe, by Eurynome. He buried his daugh- 
 ter alive for her amours with Apollo. Ovid. 
 Met. 4, V, 212, 
 
 Orcus, one of the names of the god of hell, 
 the same as Pluto, though confounded by some 
 with Charon, He had a temple at Rome. The 
 word Orcus is generally used to signify the in- 
 fernal regions, Horat. 1, od. 29, &c, — Virg. 
 Mn. 4, V. 502, Sic— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 116, &c. 
 
 Oreades. Vid. NymphcB. 
 
 Orestes. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Orion, a celebrated giant, sprung from Jupi- 
 ter, Neptune, and Mercury. These three gods, 
 as they travelled over Boeotia, met with great 
 hospitality from Hyrieus, a peasant of the coun- 
 try, who was ignorant of their dignity and char- 
 acter. They were entertained with whatever 
 the cottage afforded ; and when Hyrieus had 
 discovered that they were gods, because Nep- 
 tune told him to fill up Jupiter's cup with wine, 
 after he had served it before the rest, the old 
 man welcomed them by the voluntary sacrifice 
 of an ox. Pleased with his piety, the gods pro- 
 mised to grant him whatever he required; and 
 the old man who had lately lost his wife, to 
 whom he had promised never to marry again, 
 desired them that, as he was childless, they 
 would give him a son without another marriage. 
 The gods consented, and Hyrieus, nine months 
 
OR 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 OR 
 
 after, found a beautiful child, whom he called 
 Urion. The name was changed into Orion, by 
 the corruption of one letter, as Ovid says, Per- 
 didit antiquum litter a prima sonwm. Orion 
 soon rendered himself celebrated, and Diana 
 took him among her attendants, and even be- 
 came deeply enamoured of him. His gigantic 
 stature, however, displeased (Enopion, king of 
 Chios, whose daughter Hero or Merope he de- 
 manded in marriage. The king, not to deny 
 him openly, promised to make him his son-in- 
 law as soon as he delivered his island from wild 
 beasts. This task, which CEnopion deemed 
 impracticable, was soon performed by Orion, 
 who eagerly demanded his reward. CEnopion, 
 on pretence of complying, intoxicated his illus- 
 trious guest, and put out his eyes on the sea- 
 shore, where he had laid himself down to sleep. 
 Orion, finding himself blind when he awoke, 
 was conducted by the sound to a neighbouring 
 forge, where he placed one of the workmen on 
 his back, and, by his directions, went to a place 
 where the rising sun was seen with the great- 
 est advantage. Here he turned his face towards 
 the luminary, and, as it is reported, he imme- 
 diately received his eyesight, and hastened to 
 punish the perfidious cruelty of CEnopion. It 
 is said that Orion was an excellent workman in 
 iron; and that he fabricated a subterraneous 
 palace for Vulcan. Aurora, whom Venus had 
 inspired with love, carried him away into the 
 island of Delos ; but Diana, who was jealous of 
 this, destroyed Orion with her arrows. Ac- 
 cording to Ovid, Orion died of the bite of a 
 scorpion, which the earth produced, to punish 
 his vanity in boasting that there was not on 
 earth any animal which he could not conquer. 
 Some say that Orion was the son of Neptune 
 and Euryale, and that he had received from his 
 father the privilege and power of walking over 
 the sea without welting his feet. Others make 
 him son of Terra, like the rest of the giants. 
 He had married a nymph, called Sida, before 
 his connexion with the family of CEnopion. 
 According to Diodorus, Orion was a celebrated 
 hunter, superior to the rest of mankind by his 
 strength and uncommon stature. He built the 
 port of Zancle, and fortified the coast of Sicily 
 against the frequent inundations of the sea, by 
 heaping a mound of earth, called Pelorum, on 
 which he built a temple to the gods of the sea. 
 After death Orion was placed in heaven, where 
 one of the constellations still bears his name. 
 The constellation of Orion, placed near the 
 feet of the bull, was composed of 17 stars, in 
 the form of a man holding a sword, which has 
 given occasion to the poets often to speak of 
 Orion's sword. As the constellation of Orion, 
 which rises about the ninth day of March, and 
 sets about the 21st of June, is generally sup- 
 posed to be accompanied, at its rising, with 
 great rains and storms, it has acquired the epi- 
 thet of aquosus, given it by Virgil. Orion was 
 buried in the island of Delos ; and the monu- 
 ment which the people of Tanagra in Bceotia 
 showed, as containing the remains of this cele- 
 brated hero, was nothing but a cenotaph. The 
 daughters of Orion distinguished themselves as 
 much as their father, and when the oracle de- 
 clared thatBoeotia should not be delivered from 
 a dreadful pestilence before two of Jupiter's 
 children were immolated on the altars, they joy- 
 Part III.— 5 C 
 
 fully accepted the offer, and voluntarily sacri- 
 ficed themselves for the good of their country. 
 Their names were Menippe and Metioche. 
 They had been carefully educated by Diana, 
 and Venus and Minerva had made them very 
 rich and valuable presents. The deities of hell 
 were struck at the patriotism of the two females, 
 and immediately two stars were seen to arise 
 from the earth, which still smoked with the 
 blood, and they were placed in the heavens in 
 the form of a crown. According to Ovid, their 
 bodies were burned by the Thebans, and from 
 their ashes arose two persons, whom the gods 
 soon after changed into constellations. Diod. 
 i.— Homer. Od. 5, v. 121, 1. 11, -v. 309.— Virg. 
 JEn. 3, v. bll.—Apollod. 1, c. 4.— Ovid. Met. 8 
 and 13. Fast. 5, &iC.—Hygin. fab. 125, and P. 
 A. 2, c. 44, &LC.—Propert. 2, el. 13.— Virg. Mn. 
 1, &c.—Horat. 2, od. 13, 1. 3, od. 4 and 27, 
 epod. 10, &c. — Lucan. 1, «&c. — Catull, de Be- 
 ren. — Palephat. 1. — Parthen. erotic. 20. 
 
 Orithyia, a daughter of Erechtheus, king of 
 Athens, by Praxiihea. She was courted and 
 carried away by Boreas, king of Thrace, as she 
 crossed the Ilissus, and became mother of Cleo- 
 patra, Chione, Zetes, and Calais. Apollon. 1. 
 — Apollod.o, c. 15. — Orpheus. — Ovid. Met. 6, v. 
 706. Fast. 5, v. 204.— Paws, 1, c. 19, 1. 5, c. 19. 
 
 Orpheus, a son of OEager, by the muse Cal- 
 liope. Some suppose him to be the son of Apol- 
 lo, to render his birth more illustrious. He re- 
 ceived a lyre from Apollo, or, according to some, 
 from Mercury, upon which he played with such 
 a masterly hand, that even the most rapid rivers 
 ceased to flow, the savage beasts of the forest 
 forgot their wildness, and the mountains moved 
 to listen to his song. The nymphs were his 
 constant companions, but Eurydice only made a 
 deep impression on the melodious musician, and 
 their nuptials v/ere celebrated. Their happi- 
 ness, however, was short ; Aristseus became en- 
 amoured of Eurydice, and as she fled from her 
 pursuer, a serpent, that was lurking in the 
 grass, bit her foot, and she died of the poisoned 
 wound. With his lyre in his hand, Orpheus 
 entered the infernal regions, and gained an easy 
 admission to the palace of Pluto. The king of 
 hell was charmed with the melody of his strains, 
 and according to the beautiful expressions of 
 the poets, the wheel of Ixion stopped, the stone 
 of Sisyphus stood still, Tantalus forgot his per- 
 petual thirst, and even the furies relented. 
 Pluto and Proserpine were moved with his sor- 
 row, and consented to restore him Eurydice, 
 provided he forbore looking behind till he had 
 come to the extremest borders of hell. The con- 
 ditions were gladly accepted, and Orpheus was 
 already insight of the upper regions of the air, 
 when he forgot his promises, and turned back 
 to look at his long lost Eurydice. He saw her, 
 but she instantly vanished from his eyes. He 
 attempted to follow her, but he was refused ad- 
 mission ; and the only comfort he could find, 
 was to sooth his grief at the sound of his musi- 
 cal instrument, in grottoes or on the mountains. 
 He totally separated himself from the society of 
 mankind ; and the Thracian women, whom he 
 had oflfended by his coldness, attacked him while 
 they celebrated the orgies of Bacchus ; and after 
 they had torn his body to pieces they threw his 
 head into the Hebrus, which still articulated the 
 words Eurydice ! Eurvdice ! as it was carried 
 753 
 
OS 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 OS 
 
 down the stream into the iEgean Sea. Orpheus 
 was one of the Argonauts, of which celebrated 
 expedition he wrote a poetical account. This 
 is doubted by Aristotle, who says, according to 
 Cicero, that there never existed an Orpheus ; 
 but that the poems which pass under his name, 
 are the compositions of a Pythagorean philoso- 
 pher named Cercops. According to some of 
 the moderns, the Argonautica, and the other 
 poems attributed to Orpheus, are the produc- 
 tion of the pen of Onomacritus, a poet who 
 lived in the age of Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. 
 Pausanias, however, and Diodorus Siculus, 
 speak of Orpheus as a great poet and musician, 
 who rendered himself equally celebrated by his 
 knowledge of the art of war, by the extent of 
 his understanding, and by the laws which he 
 enacted. Some maintain that he was killed by 
 a thunderbolt. He was buried at Pieria in 
 Macedonia, according to ApoUodorus. The 
 inhabitants of Dion boasted that his tomb was 
 in their city ; and the people of mount Libethrus, 
 in Thrace,claimed the same honour, and farther 
 observed, that the nightingales, which built their 
 nests near his tomb, sang with greater melody 
 than all other birds, Orpheus, as some report, 
 after death received divine honours ; the muses 
 gave an honourable burial to his remains, and 
 his lyre became one of the constellations in the 
 heavens. The best edition of Orpheus is that 
 ofGesner,8vo. Lips. 1764. Diod. 1, &c. — Pans. 
 1, &.C. — ApoUod. 1, c. 9, &c. — Cic. de Nat. D. 
 1, c. ^'d.—Apollon. l.— Virg. jEn. 6, v. 645. G. 
 4, v, 457, &c. — Hygin.fab. 14, &c. — Ovid. Met. 
 10, fab. 1, &c. 1. 11, fab. 1.— Plato. Polit. 10.— 
 Horat. 1, od. 13 and 35. — Orpheus. 
 
 ORTmA, a surname of Diana at Sparta. In 
 her sacrifices it was usual for boys to be whip- 
 ped. Vid. Diamastigosis, Part II, Plut. in 
 Thes., &c, 
 
 Orthrus, or Orthos, a dog which belonged 
 to Geryon, from whom and the Chimera, sprung 
 the sphynx and the Nemasan lion. He had two 
 heads, and wassprung from the union of Echid- 
 na and Typhon. He was destroyed by Hercu- 
 les. Hesiod. Theog. 310. — Afollod. 2, c. 5. 
 
 Orus, or HoRUs, one of the gods of the Egyp- 
 tians, son of Osiris and of Isis. He assisted 
 his mother in avenging his father, who had 
 been murdered by Typhon. Orus was skilled 
 in medicine ; he was acquainted with futurity, 
 and he made the good and happiness of his 
 subjects the sole object of his government. He 
 was the emblem of the sun among the Egyp- 
 tians, and he was generally represented as an 
 infant swathed in variegated clothes. In one 
 hand he held a staff, which terminated in the 
 head of a hawk, in the other a whip with three 
 thongs. Herodot. 2. — Plut. de hid. <^ Os. — 
 Diod. 1. The name is said to signify king 
 or lord. 
 
 Osiris, a great deity of the Egyptians, son 
 of Jupiter and Niobe. All the ancients great- 
 ly differ in their opinions concerning this cele- 
 brated god, but they all agree that, as king of 
 Egypt, he took particular care to civilize his 
 subjects, to polish their morals, to give them 
 good and salutary laws, and to teach them agri- 
 culture. After he had accomplished a reform 
 at home, Osiris resolved to go and spread civi- 
 lization in the other parts of the earth. He 
 left his kingdom to the care of his wife Isis, 
 754 
 
 and of her faithful minister Hermes or Mer- 
 cury. The command of his troops at home was 
 left to the trust of Hercules, a warlike officer. 
 In his expedition Osiris was accompanied by his 
 brother Apollo, and by Anubis, Macedo, and 
 Pan. His march was through Ethiopia, where 
 his army was increased by the addition of the 
 Satyrs, a hairy race of monsters, who made 
 dancing and playing on musical instruments 
 their chief study. He afterwards passed through 
 Arabia, and visited the greatest of the kingdoms 
 of Asia and Europe, where he enlightened the 
 minds of men by introducing among them the 
 worship of the gods, and a reverence for the 
 wisdom of a supreme being. At his return 
 home, Osiris found the minds of his subjects 
 roused and agitated. His brother Typhon had 
 raised seditions,and endeavoured to make him- 
 self popular. Osiris, whose sentiments were al- 
 ways of the most pacific nature, endeavoured to 
 convince his brother of his ill conduct, but he fell 
 a sacrifice to the attempt. Typhon murdered 
 him in a secret apartment, and cut his body in 
 pieces, which were divided among the asso- 
 ciates of his guilt. Typhon, according to Plu- 
 tarch, shut up his brother in a coffer and threw 
 him into the Nile. The inquiries of Isis dis- 
 covered the body of her husband on the coast of 
 Phoenicia, where it had been conveyed by the 
 waves ; but Typhon stole it as it was carrying 
 to Memphis, and he divided it among his com- 
 panions, as was before observed. This cruelty 
 incensed Isis; she revenged her husband's 
 death, and with her son Orus she defeated Ty- 
 phon and the partisans of his conspiracy. She 
 recovered the mangled pieces of her husband's 
 body, one part only excepted, which the mur- 
 derer had thrown into the sea ; and to render 
 him all the honour which his humanity deserv- 
 ed, she made as many statues of wax as there 
 were mangled pieces of his body. Each statue 
 contained a piece of the flesh of the dead 
 monarch ; and Isis, after she had summoned 
 in her presence, one by one, the priests of all 
 the different deities in her dominions, gave 
 them each a statue, intimating, that, in doing 
 that, she had preferred them to all the other 
 communities of Egypt ; and she bound them by 
 a solemn oath that they would keep secret that 
 mark of her favour, and endeavour to show 
 their sense of it by establishing a form of wor- 
 ship and paying divine honours to their prince. 
 They were further directed to choose whatever 
 animals they pleased to represent the person 
 and the divinity of Osiris, and they were en- 
 joined to pay the greatest reverence to that 
 representative of divinity, and to bury it when 
 dead with the greatest solemnity. To render 
 their establishment more popular, each sacer- 
 dotal body had a certain portion of land allotted 
 to them to maintain them, and to defray the 
 expenses which necessarily attended the sacri- 
 fices and ceremonial rites. That part of the 
 body of Osiris which had not been recovered, 
 was treated with more particular attention by 
 Isis, and she ordered that it should receive 
 honours more sol^jmn, and at the same time 
 more mysterious, than the other members. Vid. 
 Phallica. As Osiris had particularly instructed 
 his subjects in cultivating the ground, the priests 
 chose the ox to represent him, and paid the 
 most superstitious veneration to that animal. 
 
PA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PA 
 
 Vid. Apis. Osiris, according to the opinion of 
 some mythologists, is the same as the sun ; and 
 the adoration which is paid by different nations 
 to an Anubis, a Bacchus, a Dionysius, a Jupi- 
 ter, a Pan, &c., is the same as that which Osiris 
 received in the Egyptian temples. Isis also, 
 after death, received divine honours as well as 
 her husbemd, and as the ox was the symbol of 
 the sun, or Osiris, so the cow was the emblem of 
 the moon, or of Isis. Nothing can give a deafer 
 idea of the power and greatness of Osiris than 
 this inscription, Avhich has been found on some 
 ancient monuments: Saturn, the youngest of 
 of all the gods, was myfatfier ; I am Osiris, who 
 co7iducted a large and numerous army as far as 
 the deserts of India, and travelled over the great- 
 est part of the world, and visited the streams of 
 the Ister, and the remote shores of the ocean, dif- 
 fusing benevolence to all the inhabitants of the 
 earth. Osiris was generally represented with a 
 cap on his head like a mitre, with two horns ; 
 he held a stick in his hand, and in his right a 
 whip with three thongs. Sometimes he appears 
 with the head of a hawk, as that bird, by its 
 quick and piercing eyes, is a proper emblem of 
 the sun. JPlut. in Isid. and Os. — Herodot. 2, c. 
 lU.—piod. 1.— Homer. Od. 12, v. 323.— JElian. 
 de Anim. 3. — Ducan. de Dea Syr. — Plin. 8. 
 
 Otus and Ephialtes, sons of Neptune. Vid. 
 Aloides. 
 
 P^AN, a surname of Apollo, derived from 
 the word pcean, a hymn which was sung in 
 his honour, because he had killed the serpent 
 Python, which had given cause to the people 
 to exclaim, lo Pcsan! The exclamation of lo 
 Paean ! was made use of in speaking to the 
 other gods, as it often was a demonstration of 
 joy. Jnv. 6, v. ill.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 538, 1. 
 14, V. 12Q.—Lucan. 1, &c.—Strab. 18. 
 
 P.E0N, a celebrated physician, who cured the 
 wounds which the gods received during the 
 Trojan war. From him physicians are some- 
 times called Paonii, and herbs serviceable in 
 medicinal processes Pceonice herbce. Virg. Mn. 
 1, V. l&9.—Ovid. Met. 15, v. 535. 
 
 P^onIdes, a name given to the daughters of 
 Pier us, who were defeated by the Muses, be- 
 cause their mother was a native of Pasonia. 
 Ovid. Met. 5, ult.fab. 
 
 Pal^mon, or Palemon, a sea deity, son of 
 Athamas and Ino. His original name was Me- 
 licerta, and he assumed that of Palasmon after 
 he had been changed into a sea deity by Nep- 
 tune. 
 
 Palamedes. Vid. Part 11, 
 
 Palatinds. Apollo, who was worshipped 
 on the Palatine hill, was called Palatinus. His 
 temple there had been built, or rather repaired, 
 by Augustus, who had enriched it with a libra- 
 ry, valuable for the various collections of Greek 
 and Latin manuscripts which it contained, as 
 also for the Sibylline books deposited there, 
 Horat. 1, ep. 3, v. 17. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Pales, the goddess of sheepfolds and of pas- 
 tures among the Romans. She was worship- 
 ped with great solemnity at Rome, and her 
 festivals, called Palilia, were celebrated the 
 very day that Romulus began to lay the foun- 
 dation of the city of Rome. Virg. G. 3, v. 1 
 
 and 29L—Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 722, &ic.—PaUrc. 
 1, c. 8. 
 
 Palici, or Palisci, two deities, sons of Jupi- 
 ter by Thalia, whom jEschylus calls ^tna, in 
 a tragedy which is now lost, according to the 
 words of Macrobius. The god concealed her 
 in the bowels of the earth, and when the time 
 of her delivery was come, the earth opened, and 
 brought into the world two children, who re- 
 ceived the name of Palici, airo tov rraXiv iKscdai, 
 because they came again into the world from the 
 bowels of the earth. These deities were wor- 
 shipped with great ceremonies by the Sicilians, 
 and near the temple were two small lakes of 
 sulphureous water, which were supposed to 
 have sprung out of the earth at the same time 
 that they were born. Near these pools it was 
 usual to take the most solemn oaths, by those 
 who wished to decide controversies and quar- 
 rels. If any of the persons who took the oaths 
 perjured themselves, they were immediately 
 punished in a supernatural manner by the dei- 
 ties of the place, and those whose oath was sin- 
 cere departed unhurt. The Palici had also an 
 oracle, which was consulted upon great emer- 
 gencies, and which rendered the truest and most 
 unequivocal answers. In a superstitious age 
 the altars of the Palici were stained with the 
 blood of human sacrifices ; but this barbarous 
 custom was soon abolished, and the deities were 
 satisfied with their usual offerings. Virg. Mn. 
 9, V. bSb.-Ovid. Met. 5, v. 506.—Diod. 2.— 
 Macrob. Saturn. 5, c. \Q.—ltal. 14, v. 219. 
 
 Palinurus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Palladium, a celebrated statue of Pallas. It 
 was about three cubits high, and represented 
 the goddess as sitting and holding a pike in her 
 right hand, and in her left, a distaff and a spin- 
 dle. It fell down from heaven near the tent of 
 Ilus, as that prince was building the citadel of 
 Ilium, Some nevertheless suppose that it fell 
 at Pessinus in Phrygia, or, according to others, 
 Dardanus received it as a present from his 
 mother Electra. There are some authors who 
 maintain that the Palladium was made with 
 the bones of Pelops by Abaris; but Apollodo- 
 rus seems to say, that it was no more than a 
 piece of clock-work, which moved of itself On 
 its preservation depended the safety of Troy, 
 and therefore Ulysses and Diomedes were com- 
 missioned to steal it away. They effected their 
 purpose ; and if we rely upon the authority of 
 some authors, they were directed how to carry 
 it away by Helenus, the son of Priam, who 
 proved, in this, unfaithful to his country, be- 
 cause his brother Deiphobus, at the death of 
 Paris, had married Helen, of whom he was ena- 
 moured. Minerva was displeased with the vio- 
 lence which was offered to her statue, and. ac- 
 cording to Virgil, the Palladium itself appeared 
 to have received life and motion, and by the 
 flashes which started from its eyes, and its sud- 
 den springs from the earth, it seemed to show 
 the resentment of the goddess. The true Pal- 
 ladium, as some authors observe, was not car- 
 ried away from Troy by the Greeks, but only 
 one of the statues of similar size and shape, 
 which were placed near it to deceive whatever 
 sacrilegious persons attempted to steal it. The 
 Palladium, therefore, as they say, was conveyed 
 safe from Troy to Italy by ^neas, and it was 
 afterwards preserved bv the Romans with the 
 755 
 
l*A 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PA 
 
 greatest secrecy and veneration, in the temple 
 of Vesta ; a circumstance which none but the 
 vestal virgins knew. Herodian. 1, c. 14, &c. — 
 Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 422, &c. Met. 13, v. 336.— 
 Dictys Cret. 1, c. b.—Apollod. 3, c. 12. — Dionys. 
 Hal 1, &.C.— Homer. 11. lO.— Virg. JEn. 2, v. 
 166, 1. 9. V. 151. — Plut. de reb. Rom. — iMcan. 
 9. — Dares Pkryg. — Juv. 3, v. 139. 
 
 Pallantias, a patronymic of Aurora, as be- 
 ing related to the giant Pallas. Ovid. Met. 9, 
 fab. 12. 
 
 Pallantides, the 50 sons of Pallas, the son 
 of Pandion and the brother of ^geus. They 
 were all killed by Theseus, the son of ^geus 
 whom they opposed when he came to take pos- 
 session of his father's kingdom. 
 
 Pallas, (adis,) a daughter of Jupiter, the 
 same as Minerva. The goddess received this 
 name either because she killed the giant Pal- 
 las, or perhaps from the spear which she seems 
 to brandish in her hands (TraAXei) Vid. Mi- 
 nerva. 
 
 Pallas, I. one of the giants, son of Tartarus 
 and Terra. He was killed by Minerva, who 
 covered herself with his skin, whence, as some 
 suppose, she is called Pallas. Apollod. 3, c. 12. 
 
 II. A son of Crius and Eurybia, who 
 
 married the nymph Styx, by whom he had 
 Victory, Valour, &c. Hesiod. Theog. Vid. 
 Part 11. 
 
 Pan, was the god of shepherds, of huntsmen, 
 and of all the inhabitants of the country. He 
 was the son of Mercury, by Dryope, according 
 to Homer. Some give him Jupiter and Cal- 
 listo for parents ; others, Jupiter and Ybis, or 
 Oneis. Lucian, Hyginus, &c. support that he 
 was the son of Mercury and Penelope, the 
 daughter of Icarius. Some authors maintain 
 that Penelope became mother of Pan during the 
 a bsence of Ulysses in the Trojan war, and that 
 he was the offspring of all the suiters that fre- 
 quented the palace of Penelope, whence he re- 
 ceived the name of Pan, which signifies all or 
 every thing. He had two small horns on his 
 head, his complexion was ruddy, his nose flat, 
 and his legs, thighs, tail, and feet, were those of 
 a goat. The education of Pan was intrusted 
 to a nymph of Arcadia, called Sinoe ; but the 
 nurse, according to Homer, terrified at the sight 
 of such a monster, fled away and left him. He 
 was wrapped up in the skin of beasts by his 
 father, and carried to heaven, where Jupiter and 
 the gods long entertained themselves with the 
 oddity of his appearance. Bacchus was great- 
 ly pleased with him, and gave him the name of 
 Pan. The god of shepherds chiefly resided in 
 Arcadia, where the woods and the most rugged 
 mountains were his habitation. He invented 
 the flute with seven reeds, which he called Sy- 
 rinx, in honour of a beautiful nymph of the 
 same name who was changed into a reed. The 
 worship of Pan was well established, particular- 
 ly in Arcadia, where he gave oracles on mount 
 Lycseus. His festivals, called by the Greeks 
 LyccBa, were brought to Italy by Evander, and 
 they were well known at Rome by the name of 
 the Lupercalia. The worship, and the different 
 functions of Pan, are derived from the mytho- 
 logy of the ancient Egyptians. This god was 
 one of the eight great gods of the Egyptians, 
 who ranked before the other 12 gods whom the 
 Romans called Consentes. He was worshipped 
 756 
 
 with the greatest solemnity all over Egypt. His 
 statues represented him as a goat, not because 
 he was really such, but this was done for mys- 
 terious reasons. He was the emblem of fecun- 
 dity, and they looked upon him as the principle 
 of all things. His horns, as some observe, 
 represented the rays of the sun, and the bright- 
 ness of the heavens was expressed by the viva- 
 city and the ruddiness of his complexion. The 
 star which he wore on his breast was the sym- 
 bol of the firmament, and his hairy legs and feet 
 denoted the inferior parts of the earth, such as 
 the woods and plants. He appeared as a goat, 
 because, when the gods fled into Egypt in their 
 war against the giants, Pan transformed himself 
 into a goat ; an example which was immediately 
 followed by all the deities. Pan, according to 
 some is the same as Faunus, and he is the chief 
 of all the Satyrs. Plutarch mentions that, in 
 the reign of Tiberius, an extraordinary voice 
 was heard near the Echinades in the Ionian 
 Sea, which exclaimed that the great Pan was 
 dead. This was readily believed by the empe- 
 ror, and the astrologers were consulted, but 
 they were unable to explain the meaning of so 
 supernatural a voice, which probably proceeded 
 from the imposition of one of the courtiers who 
 attempted to terrify Tiberius. In Egypt, in the 
 town of Mendes which word also signifies a 
 goat, there was a sacred goat kept with the 
 most ceremonious sanctity. The death of this 
 animal was always attended with the greatest 
 solemnities ; and, like that of another Apis, be- 
 came the cause of a universal mourning. As 
 Pan usually terrified the inhabitants of the 
 neighbouring country, that kind of fear which 
 often seizes men, and which is only ideal and 
 imaginary, has received from him the name of 
 panic fear. Ovid. Fast. 1, v. 396, 1. 2, v. 277. 
 Met.\,v.Qm.— Virg. G.l,y. 17. Mn. 8, v. 
 343. G. 3, V. 392.— Juv. 2, v. U2.—Paus. 8, 
 c. 30.—ltal. 13, V. 327.— Farro de L. L.—b, c. 
 3. — Liv. I, c. 4. — Dionys. Hal. 1. — Herodot. 2, 
 c. 46 and 145, &c. — Died. 1. — Orpheus Hymn. 
 10. — Homer. Hymn, in Pan. — Lucian. Dial. 
 Merc. (^ Pan. — Apollod. 1, c. 4. 
 
 Panacea, a goddess, daughter of ^sculapius, 
 who presided over health. Jjucan. 9, v. 918, — 
 PZm. 35, c. 11, &c. 
 
 Panda, two deities at Rome, who presided 
 one over the openings of roads, and the other 
 over the openings of towns. Varro de P. R. 
 I.— A. Gell. 13, c. 22. 
 
 Pandarus, I. Vid. Part II. II. A na- 
 tive of Crete, punished with death for being ac- 
 cessary to the theft of Tantalus. What this 
 theft was is unknown. Some, however, sup- 
 pose that Tantalus stole the ambrosia and the 
 nectar from the tables of the gods to which he 
 had been admitted, or that he carried away a 
 dog which watched Jupiter's temple in Crete, 
 in which crime Pandarus was concerned, and 
 for which he suffered. Pandarus had two 
 daughters, Camiro and Clytia, who were also 
 deprived of their mother by a sudden death 
 and left without friends or protectors, Venus 
 had compassion upon them, and the goddesses 
 were all equally interested in their welfare. Ve- 
 nus wished still to make their happiness more 
 complete, and prayed Jupiter to grant them 
 kind and tender husbands. But in her absence 
 the Harpies carried away the virgins, and de- 
 
PA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PA 
 
 livered ihem to the Eamenides to share the 
 punishment which their father suffered. Paus. 
 10, c. ^Q— Pindar. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Pandarus, or Pandareus, a man who had a 
 daughter called Philomela. Some suppose him 
 to be the same as Pandion, king of Athens. 
 
 Pandemia, a surname of Venus, expressive 
 of her great power over the affections of man- 
 kind. 
 
 Pandemus^ one of the surnames of the god 
 of love among the Egyptians and the Greeks, 
 who distinguished two Cupids, one of whom 
 was the vulgar, called Pandemus, and another 
 of a purer, and more celestial origin. Plut. in 
 Erot. 
 
 Pandion, a king of Athens, son of Erich- 
 thon and Pasithea, who succeeded his father, 
 B. C. 1437. He became father of Procne and 
 Philomela, Erechtheus, and Butes. During 
 his reign there was such an abundance of corn, 
 wine, oil, that it was publicly reported that 
 Bacchus and Minerva had personally visited 
 Attica. He waged a successful war against 
 Labdacuskingof Bceotia, and gave his daugh- 
 ter Procne in marriage to Tereus, king of 
 Thrace, who had assisted him. The treatment 
 which Philomela received from her brother-in- 
 law, Terreus {Vid. Philo'nela) was the source 
 of infinite grief to Pandion, and he died, through 
 excess of sorrow, after a reign of 40 years. 
 
 Th ere was also another Pandion, son of 
 
 Cecrops, 2d, by Metiaduca, who succeeded to his 
 father, B. C. 130. He was driven from his pa- 
 ternal dominions, and fled to Pylas, king of Me- 
 gara,, who gave him his daughter Pelia in mar- 
 riage, and resigned his crown to him. Pandion 
 became father of four children, called from him 
 PandionidcB, iEgeus, Pallas, Nisus, and Ly- 
 cus. The eldest of these children recovered his 
 father's kingdom. Some authors have confound- 
 ed the two Pandions together in such an indis- 
 criminate manner, that they seem to have been 
 only one and the same person. Many believe 
 that Philomela and Procne were the daughters 
 not of Pandion the 1st, but of Pandion the 2d. 
 Ovid. Met. 6,v. 676. — Apollod. 3, c. 15. — Paus. 
 1, c. 5. — Hygin. fab. 48. 
 
 Pandora, I. a celebrated woman, the first 
 mortal female that ever lived, according to the 
 opinion of the poet Hesiod. She was made 
 with clay by Vulcan, at the request of Jupiter, 
 who wished to punish the impiety and artifice of 
 Prometheus, by giving him a wife. When this 
 woman of clay had been made by the artist, and 
 received life, all the gods vied in making her 
 presents. Venus gave her beauty and the art 
 of pleasing ; the Graces gave her the power of 
 captivating; Apollo taught her how to sing; 
 Mercury instructed her in eloquence ; and Mi- 
 nerva gave her the most rich and splendid orna- 
 ments. From all these valuable presents, which 
 she had received from the gods, the woman was 
 called Pandora, which intimates that she had 
 received every necessary ^i/^, rtav Sotpov. Jupi- 
 ter, after this, gave her a beautiful box, which 
 she was ordered to present to the man who mar- 
 ried her ; and by the commission of the god, 
 Mercury conducted her to Prometheus. The 
 artful mortal was sensible of the deceit, and as 
 he had always distrusted Jupiter, as well as the 
 rest of the gods, since he had stolen fire away 
 from the sun to animate his man of clay, he 
 
 sent away Pandora without suffering himself 
 to be captivated by her charms. His brother 
 Epimetheus was not possessed of the same pru- 
 dence and sagacity. He married Pandora, and 
 when he opened the box which she presented 
 to him, there issued from it a multitude of evils 
 and distempers which dispersed themselves all 
 over the world, and which, from that fatal mo- 
 ment, have never ceased to afflict the human 
 race. Hope was the only one who remained at 
 the bottom of the box, and it is she alone who 
 has the wonderful power of easing the labours 
 of man, and of rendering his troubles and sor- 
 rows less painful in life. Hesiod. Theog. <^ 
 Dios. — Apollod. 1, c. 7. — Pans. 1, c. 24. — Hy- 
 gin. 14. II. A daughter of Erech theus, king 
 
 of Athens. She was sister to Protogenia, who 
 sacrificed herself for her country at the begin- 
 ning of the Boeotian war. 
 
 Pandr5sos, a daughter of Cecrops, king of 
 Athens, sister to Aglauros and Herse. She 
 was the only one of the sisters who had not the 
 fatal curiosity to open a basket which Minerva 
 had intrusted to their care, {Vid. Erichiho- 
 nius,) for which a temple was raised to her near 
 that of Minerva, and a festival instituted to her 
 honour, called Pandrosia. Ovid. Met. 2. v. 738. 
 — Apollod. 3. — Paus. 1, &c. 
 
 Panomph^us, a surname of Jupiter, either 
 because he was worshipped by every nation on 
 earth, or because he heard the prayers and the 
 supplications which were addressed to him, or 
 because the rest of the gods derived from him 
 their knowledge of futurity, (nas omnis, ofxipri, 
 vox) Ovid. Met. 11, v. \3S.— Homer. 11. 8. 
 
 Panope, or Panopea, one of the Nereides, 
 whom sailors general invoked in storms. Her 
 name signifies, giving every assistance, or see- 
 ing every thing. Hesiod. Theog. ^.bl.— Virg. 
 JEn. 6, V. 825. 
 
 Panopeus, a son of Phocus and Asterodia, 
 who accompanied Amphitryon when he made 
 war against the Teleboans He was father to 
 Epeus, who made the celebrated wooden horse 
 at the siege of Troy. Poais. 2, c. 29. — Apollod. 
 2, c. 4. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Pantheus, or Panthus, a Trojan, son of 
 Othryas the priest of Apollo. When his coun- 
 try was burnt by the Greeks, he followed the 
 fortune of ^neas and was killed. Virg. jEn. 
 2. V. 429. 
 
 Paphia, a surname of Venus because the 
 goddess was worshipped at Paphos. 
 
 Paphus. Vid Pygmalion. 
 
 Parc^:, powerful goddesses, who presided 
 over the birth and the life of mankind. They 
 were three in number, Clotho, Lachesis, and 
 Atropos, daughters of Nox and Erebus, ac- 
 cording to Hesiod, or of Jupiter and Themis 
 according to the same poet in another poem. 
 Some make them daughters of the sea. Clo- 
 tho, the youngest of the sisters, presided over 
 the moment in which we are born, and held a 
 distaff in her hand ; Lachesis spun out all the 
 events and actions of our life ; and Atropos, 
 the eldest of the three, cut the thread of human 
 lile with a pair of scissors. The different func- 
 tions are well expressed in this ancient verse : 
 
 Clotho columretinet, Lachesis net, et Atropos occat. 
 
 The name of Parcse, according to Varro, is de- 
 rived a partu or parturiendo, because they pre- 
 
 757 
 
PA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PA 
 
 sided over the birth of men, and by corruption, 
 the woid par ca is formed from parta or partus, 
 but, according to Servius, they are called so by 
 Antiphrasis, quod nemini parcant. The pow- 
 er of the Parcae was great and extensive. Some 
 suppose that they were subjected to none of the 
 gods but Jupiter; while others support that 
 even Jupiter himself was obedient to their com- 
 mands; and, indeed, we see the father of the 
 gods, in Homer's Tliad, unwilling to see Patro- 
 cles perish, yet obliged by the superior power of 
 the Fates to abandon him to his destiny. Ac- 
 cording to the more received opinions, they were 
 the arbiters of the life and death of mankind, 
 and whatever good or evil befalls us in the 
 world immediately proceeds from the Fates or 
 Parcas, Some make them ministers of the king 
 of hell, and represent them as sitting at the foot 
 of his throne ; others represent them as placed 
 on radiant thrones, amidst the celestial spheres, 
 clothed in robes spangled with stars, and wear- 
 ing crowns on their heads. According to Pau- 
 sanias, the names of the Parcse were different 
 from those already mentioned. The most an- 
 cient of all, as the geographer observes, was Ve- 
 nus Urania, who presided over the birth of men ; 
 the second was Fortune ; Ilythia was the third. 
 To these some add a fourth, Proserpina, who of- 
 ten disputes with Atropos the right of cutting 
 the thread of human life. The worship of the 
 Parcse was well established in some cities of 
 Greece. They received the same worship as 
 the Furies, and their votaries yearly sacrificed to 
 them black sheep, during which solemnity the 
 priests were obliged to wear garlands of flowers. 
 The Parcae were generally represented as three 
 old women, with chaplets made with w^ool and 
 interwoven with the flowers of the Narcissus. 
 They were covered with a white robe, and fillet 
 of the same colour, bound with chaplets. One 
 of them held a distaff, another the spindle, and 
 the third was armed with scissors, with which 
 she cut the thread which her sisters had spun. 
 Their dress is differently represented by some 
 authors. Clotho appears in a variegated robe, 
 and on her head is a crown of seven stars. She 
 holds a distaff in her hand reaching from heaven 
 to earth. The robe which Lachesis wore was 
 variegated with a great number of stars, and 
 near her were placed a variety of spindles, Atro- 
 pos was clothed in black ; she held scissors in 
 her hand, with clews of thread of different 
 sizes, according to the length and shortness of 
 the lives whose destinies they seemed to con- 
 tain, Hyginus attributes to them the inven- 
 tions of these Greek letters, a, /?, n, t, v, and 
 others call them the secretaries of heaven, and 
 the keepers of the archives of eternity. The 
 Greeks call the Parcae by the different names of 
 yLoipa, aiva, Krjp, Eijiapficvri, which are cxpressivc 
 of their power and of their inexorable decrees. 
 Hesiod. Theog. tf* scut. Her. — Paus. 1, c. 40, 1. 
 3, c. 11, 1, 5, c. \b.— Homer. 11. 20. Od. 7.— 
 Theocrit. 1. — Callimach. in Dian.. — JElian. 
 Anlm. 10. — Pindar. Olymp. 10, Nem. l.—Eu- 
 Hp. in Iphig. — Plut. de facie in orbe Lunce. — 
 Hi/gin. in praef. fab. & fab. 277, — Varro. — 
 Orph. hymn. 58. — Apollon. 1, &c. — Claudian. 
 derapt. Pros. — Lycoph. & Tzetz, &c. — Horat. 
 S, od. 6, Sic— Ovid. Met. 5, v, b33.—Lucan. 3, 
 — Virg. Eel. 4, jEn. 3, &c. — Senec. in Here. 
 Fur.— Stat. Theb. 6. 
 
 758 
 
 Paris. Vid. Part II, 
 
 Parthaon, a son of Agenor and Epicaste, 
 who married Euryte, daughter of Hippodamus, 
 by whom he had many children, among whom 
 were CEneus and Sterope. Parthaon was 
 brother to Demonice, the mother of Evenus by 
 Mars, and also to Molus, Pylus, and Thestius. 
 He is called Portheus by Homer, 11. 14. — Apol- 
 lod. 1, c, l.—Hygin. fab. 129 and 239, 
 
 Parthenop^us, a son of Meleager and Ata- 
 lanta, or, according to some, of Milanion and 
 another Atalanta. He was one of the seven 
 chiefs who accompanied Adraslus the king of 
 Argos in his expedition against Thebes, He 
 was killed by Amphidicus, Apollod. 3, c. 9. — 
 Paus. 3, c. 12, 1. 9, c. 19. 
 
 Pasiphae, a daughter of the Sun and of Per- 
 seis, who married Minos king of Crete. She 
 disgraced herself by an unnatural passion, 
 which, according to some authors, she was ena- 
 bled to gratify by means of the artist Daedalus. 
 Minos had four sons by Pasiphge, Castreus. 
 Deucalion, Glaucus, and Androgeus, and three 
 daughters, Hecate, Ariadne, and Phaedra [ Vid. 
 Minotaurus.] Plato de Min. — Plut. in Thes. 
 —Apollod. 2, c. l.— Virg. Mn. 6, v, 24, Hy- 
 gin. fab, 40. — Died. 4. — Ovid. Heroid. 4, v. 57 
 and 165. 
 
 Patroclus. Vid. Part II, 
 
 Patrous, a surname of Jupiter among the 
 Greeks, represented by his statues as having 
 three eyes, which some suppose to signify that 
 he reigned in three different places, in heaven, 
 on earth, and in hell. Paus. 2, 
 
 Patulcius, a surname of Janus, which he 
 received apateo because the doors of his temple 
 were always open in the time of war. Some 
 suppose that he received it because he presided 
 over gates, or because the year began by the ce- 
 lebration of his festivals, Ovid. Fast, 1, v, 129. 
 
 Paventia, a goddess who presided over ter- 
 ror at Rome, and who was invoked to protect 
 her votaries from its effects, Aug. de civ. 4, 
 c, 11, 
 
 Pavor, an emotion of the mind which re- 
 ceived divine honours among the Romans, and 
 was considered of a most tremendous power, as 
 the ancients swore by her name in the most 
 solemn manner. Tullus Hostilius, the third 
 king of Rome, was the first who built her tem- 
 ples, and raised altars to her honour, as also to 
 Pallor, the goddess of paleness. Cic. de Nat. 
 D. 8, c. 17. 
 
 Pax, an allegorical divinity among the an- 
 cients. The Athenians raised her a statue, 
 which represented her as holding Plutus, the 
 god of wealth, in her lap, to intimate that peace 
 gives rise to prosperity and to opulence ; and 
 they were the first who erected an altar to her 
 honour after the victories obtained by Timothe- 
 us over the Lacedaemonian power, though Plu- 
 tarch asserts it had been done after the conquests 
 of Cimon over the Persians. She was represent- 
 ed among the Romans with the horn of plenty, 
 and also carrying an olive branch in her hand. 
 The emperor Vespasian built her a celebrated 
 temple at Rome, which was consumed by fire 
 in the reign of Commodus. It was customary 
 for men of learning to assemble in that temple 
 and even to deposite their writinsfs there, as in a 
 place of the greatest security. Therefore, when 
 It was burnt, not only books, but also many 
 
PE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PE 
 
 valuable things, jewels, and immense treasures, 
 were lost in the general conflagration. C. Nef. 
 in Timoth. 2, — Plut in dm. — Pans. 9, e. 16. 
 
 Peas, a shepherd, who, according to some, 
 set on fire the pile on which Hercules was 
 burnt. The hero gave him his bow and arrows, 
 Afollod. 2. 
 
 Pedasus, I. a son of Bucolion, the son of La- 
 omedon. His mother was one of the Naiads, 
 He was killed in the Trojan war by Euryalus. 
 
 Homer. iV. 6, v. 21. II. One of the four 
 
 horses of Achilles. As he was not immortal, 
 like the other three, he was killed by Sarpedon 
 Id. 16. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Pegasides, a name given to the Muses from, 
 the horse Pegasus, or from the fountain which 
 Pegasus had raised from the ground by striking 
 it with his foot. Ovid. Her. 15, v. 27. 
 
 Pegasis, a name given to CEnone by Ovid, 
 (Her. 5.) because she was daughter of the river 
 ynvyn) Cebrenus. 
 
 Pegasus, a winged horse, sprung from the 
 blood of Medusa, when Perseus had cat off her 
 head. He received his name from his being 
 born, according to Hesiod, near the sources 
 (irriyri) of the occau. As soou as born he left 
 the earth, and flew up into heaven, or rather, 
 according to Ovid, he fixed his residence on 
 mount Helicon, where, by striking the earth 
 with his foot, he raised a fountain which has 
 been called Hippocrene. He became the fa- 
 vourite of the Muses; and being afterwards 
 tamed by Neptune or Minerva, he was given to 
 Bellerophon to conquer the Chimsera. No sooner 
 was this fiery monster destroyed, than Pegasus 
 threw down his rider, because he was a mortal, 
 or rather, according to the more received opin- 
 ion, because he attempted to fly to heaven. 
 This act of temerity in Bellerophon was pu- 
 nished by Jupiter, who sent an insect to torment 
 PegEisus, which occasioned the fall of his rider. 
 Pegasus continued his flight up to heaven, and 
 was placed among the constellations by Jupiter. 
 Perseus, according to Ovid, was mounted on 
 the horse Pegasus when he destroyed the sea 
 monster which was going to devour Andromeda. 
 Hesiod. Theog.2&2.—Horat. A. od. 11, v, 20.— 
 Homer. 11. 6, v. ll^.—Apollod. 2, c. 3 and 4.— 
 Lycophr. 11.— Pans. 12, c. 3 andi.— Ovid. Met. 
 4, V. ISb.—Hygin. fab. 57. 
 
 Pelarge, a daughter of Potneus, who re-es- 
 tablished the worship of Ceres in Bceotia. She 
 received divine honours after death. Pans. 9, 
 c. 25. 
 
 Pelasgus, a son of Terra, or, according to 
 others, of Jupiter and Niobe, who reigned in 
 Sicyon, and gave his name to the ancient inha- 
 bitants of Peloponnesus. 
 
 Pelethronh, an epithet given to the Lapi- 
 thae, because they inhabited the town of Pele- 
 thronium, at the foot of mount Pel ion in Thes- 
 saly ; or because one of their number bore the 
 name of Pelethronius. It is to them that man- 
 kind are indebted for the invention of the bit 
 with which they tamed their horses with so 
 much dexterity. Virg. G. 3 v. 115. — Ovid. 
 Met. 12, V. Ab^.—lAican. 6, v. 387. 
 
 Peleus, a king of Thcssaly, son of JEacus 
 and Endeis, the daughter of Chiron. He mar- 
 ried Thetis, one of the Nereids, and was the 
 only one among mortals who married an im- 
 mortal. He was accessary to the death of his 
 
 brother Phocus, and on that account he was 
 obliged to leave his father's dominions. He 
 retired to the court of Eurytus, the son of Ac- 
 tor, who reigned at Phthia, or, according to the 
 less received opinion of Ovid, he fled to Ceyx. 
 king of Trachinia. He was purified of his 
 murder by Eurytus, with the usual ceremonies, 
 and the monarch gave him his daughter Anti- 
 gone in marriage. Some time after this, Peleus 
 and Eurytus went to the chase of the Calydonian 
 boar, where the father-in-law was accidentally 
 killed by an arrow which his son-in-law had 
 aimed at the beast. This unfortunate event 
 obliged him to banish himself from the court of 
 Phthia, and he retired to lolchos, where he was 
 purified of the murder of Eurytus, by Acastus 
 the king of the country. His residence at lol- 
 chos was short; Astydamia, the wife of Acas- 
 tus, became enamoured of him ; and when she 
 found him insensible to her passionate decla- 
 ration, she accused him of attempts upon her 
 virtue. The monarch partially believed the ac- 
 cusations of his wife; but, not to violate the 
 laws of hospitality by putting him instantly to 
 death, he ordered his officers to conduct him to 
 mount Pelion, on pretence of hunting, and there 
 to tie him to a tree, that he might become the 
 prey of the wild beasts of the place. The or- 
 ders of Acastus were faithfully obeyed ; but 
 Jupiter, who knew the innocence of his grand- 
 son Peleus, ordered Vulcan to set* him at liberty. 
 As soon as he had been delivered from danger, 
 Peleus assembled his friends to punish the ill 
 treatment which he had received from Acastus. 
 He forcibly took lolchos, drove the king from 
 his possessions, and put to death the wicked 
 Astydamia. After the death of Antigone, Pe- 
 leus courted Thetis, of whose superior charms 
 Jupiter himself had been enamoured. His pre- 
 tensions, however, were rejected, and as he was 
 a mortal, the goddess fled from him with the 
 greatest abhorrence. Peleus became more ani- 
 mated from her refusal ; he oflJered a sacrifice 
 to the gods, and Proteus informed him that to 
 obtain Thetis he must surprise her while she 
 was asleep in her grotto near the shores of 
 Thessaly. This advice was immediately fol- 
 lowed, and Thetis unable to escape from the 
 grasp of Peleus, at last consented to marry him. 
 Their nuptials were celebrated with the greatest 
 solemnity, and all the gods attended, and made 
 them each the most valuable presents. The 
 goddess of discord was the only one of the 
 deities who was not present. Vid. Discordia. 
 From the marriage of Peleus and Thetis was 
 born Achilles, whose education was early in- 
 trusted to the centaur Chiron, and afterwards 
 to PhoBnix,"theson of Amyntor. Achilles went 
 to the Trojan war at the head of his father's 
 troops, and Peleus gloried in having a son Avho 
 was superior to all the Greeks in valour and in- 
 trepidity. The death of Achilles was the 
 source of grief to Peleus; and Thetis, to com- 
 fort her husband, promised him immortality, and 
 ordered him to retire into the grottoes of the isl- 
 and of Leuce, where he would see and con- 
 verse with the manes of his son. Peleus had a 
 daughter called Potydora, by Antigone. Ho- 
 mer. 11. 9, V. 482. — Eurip. in Aiidrom. — Catul. 
 de Kupt. Pel. tf Thet.—Ovid. Heroid. 5. Fast. 
 2, Met. 11, fab. 7 and S.—Apollod. 3, c. 12.— 
 Paus. 2, c. 29.—Diod. i.—Hygin. fab. 54. 
 759 
 
PE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PE 
 
 Peliades, the daughters of Pelias. Vid. Pe- 
 lias. 
 
 Pelias, the twin brother of Neleus, was son 
 of Neptune by Tyro, the daughter of Salmo- 
 neus. His birth was concealed from the world 
 by his mother, who wished her father to be ig- 
 norant of her incontinence. He was exposed 
 in the woods, but his life was preserved by 
 shepherds, and he received the name of Pelias, 
 from a spot of the colour of lead in his face. 
 Some time after this adventure, Tyro married 
 Cretheus,sonof JEolus, king of lolchos, and be- 
 came mother of three children, of whom^son 
 was the eldest. Meantime, Pelias visited his 
 mother, and was received in her family, and 
 after the death of Cretheus, he unjustly seized 
 the Idngdom, which belonged to the children of 
 Tyro by the deceased monarch. To strength- 
 en himself in his usurpation, Pelias consulted 
 the oracle ; and when he was told to beware of 
 one of the descendants of ^olus, who should 
 come to his court with one foot shod and the 
 other bare, he privately removed the son of 
 ^son, after he had publicly declared that he 
 was dead. These precautions proved abortive. 
 Jason, the son of -Eson, who had been educated 
 by Chiron, returned to lolchos when arrived to 
 years of maturity, and boldly demanded the 
 kingdom. Pelias told him that he would vol- 
 untarily resign the crown to him if he went to 
 Colchis to avenge the death of Phryxus, the son 
 of Athamas, whom ^etes had cruelly murder- 
 ed. This was accepted by the young hero, and 
 his intended expedition was made known all 
 over Greece. Vid. Jason. During the ab- 
 sence of Jason, in the Argonautic expedition, 
 Pelias murdered ^son and all his family ; but 
 according to the more received opinion of Ovid, 
 JEson was still living when the Argon auis re- 
 turned, and was restored to the vigour of youth 
 by the magic of Medea. The daughters of Pe- 
 lias, who had received the patronymic of Pe- 
 liades^ expressed their desire to see their father's 
 infirmities vanish by the same powerful arts. 
 Medea who wished to avenge the injuries 
 which her husband Jason had received from Pe- 
 lias, raised the desires of the Peliades, by cut- 
 ting an old ram to pieces, and boiling the flesh in 
 a caldron, and afterwards turning it into a fine 
 young lamb. After they had seen this success- 
 ful experiment, the Peliades cut their father's 
 body to pieces, after they had drawn all his blood 
 from his veins, on the assurance that Medea 
 would replenish them by her incantations. The 
 limbs were immediately put into a caldron of 
 boiling water; but Medea suffered the flesh to 
 be totally consumed, and refused to give the Pe- 
 liades the promised assistance, and the bones of 
 Pelias did not even receive a burial. The Pe- 
 liades were four in number, Alceste, Pisidice, 
 Pelopea, and Hippothoe, to whom Hyginus 
 adds Medusa. Their mother's name was An- 
 axibia, the daughter of Bias or Philomache, the 
 daughter of Amphion. Alter this parricide, the 
 Peliades fled to the court of Admetus, where 
 Acastus, the son-in-law of Pelias, pursued them 
 and took their protector prisoner. The Peliades 
 died, and were buried in Arcadia. Hygin.fab. 
 12, 13 and U.— Ovid. Met.l, fab. 3' and 4.— 
 Heroid. 12, v. \^.—Paus. 8, c. \\.—Apollod. 
 T, c. 9. — Seneca in Med. — Apollod. Arg. 1. — 
 Pindar. Pyth. L—Diod. 4. 
 760 
 
 Pelopea, or Pelopia. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Pelops, a celebrated prince, son of Tantalus, 
 king of Phrygia. The mother's name was Eu 
 ryanass^,, or, according to others, Euprytone, or 
 Eurystemista, or Dione. He was murdered by 
 his father, who wished to try the divini'ty of the 
 gods who had visited Phrygia, by placing on 
 their table the limbs of his son. The gods per- 
 ceived his perfidious cruelty, and they refused to 
 touch the meat, except Ceres, whom the recent 
 loss of her daughter had rendered melancholy 
 and inattentive. She eat one of the shoulders 
 of Pelops, and therefore, when Jupiter had com- 
 passion on his fate, and restored him to life, he 
 placed a shoulder of ivory instead of that which 
 Ceres had devoured. This shoulder had an un- 
 common power, and it could heal, by its very 
 touch, every complaint, and remove every dis- 
 order. Some time after, the kingdom of Tan- 
 talus was invaded by Tros, king of Troy, on 
 pretence that he had carried away his son Gany- 
 medes. This rape had been committed by Ju- 
 piter himself; the war, nevertheless, was car- 
 ried on, and Tantalus, defeated and ruined, was 
 obliged to fly with his -son Pelops, and to seek 
 a shelter in Greece. This tradition is confuted 
 by some, who support that Tantalus did" not fly 
 into Greece, as he had been some time before 
 confined by Jupiter in the infernal regions for 
 his impiety, and therefore Pelops was the only 
 one whom the enmity of Tros persecuted. Pe- 
 lops came to Pisa, where, {Vid. (Enomaus) he 
 married Hippodamia, According to some au- 
 thors, Pelops had received some winged horses 
 from Neptune, with which he was enabled to 
 outrun (Enomaus. When he had established 
 himself on the throne of Pisa, Hippodamia's 
 possession, he extended his conquest over the 
 neighbouring countries, and from him the pen- 
 insula, of which he was one of the monarchs, 
 received the name of Peloponnesus. Pelops, 
 after death received divine honours ; and he was 
 as much revered above all the other heroes of 
 Greece, as Jupiter was above the rest of the 
 gods. He had a temple at Olympia, near that 
 of Jupiter, where Hercules consecrated to him 
 a small portion of land, and offered to him a 
 sacrifice. The place where this sacrifice had 
 been offered was religiously observed, and the 
 magistrates of the country yearly, on coming in- 
 to oflice, made there an ofiering of a black ram. 
 During the sacrifice the soothsayer was not al- 
 lowed, as at other times, to have a share of the 
 victim ; and all such as offered victims receiv- 
 ed a price equivalent to what they gave. The 
 white poplar was generally used in the sacrifi- 
 ces made to Jupiter and to Pelops. The chil- 
 dren of Pelops by Hippodamia were Pitheus, 
 Troezene, Atreus, Thyestes, &c. The lime of 
 his death is unknown, though it is universally 
 agreed that he survived for some time Hippo- 
 damia. Some suppose that the Palladium of 
 the Trojans was made with the bones of Pelops. 
 His descendants were called Pelopida. Pin- 
 dar says that Neptune took him up to heaven, 
 to become the cupbearer to the gods, from 
 which he was expelled when the impiety of Tan- 
 talus wished to make mankind partake of the 
 nectar and the entertainments of the gods. 
 Some suppose that Pelops first instituted the 
 Olympic games in honour of Jupiter, and to 
 conmiemorate the victory which he had obtain- 
 
PE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PE 
 
 ed over CEnomaus. Paus. 5. c. 1, &c. — Apol- 
 lod. 2, c. 5. — Eurip. in Iphig. — Diod. 3. — Strab. 
 8.— Mela, 1, c. 18.— Pindar. Od. l.— Virg. G. 
 3, V. l.— Ovid. Met. 6, v. 404, &c.—Hygin. fab. 
 9, 82 and 83. 
 
 Penates, certain inferior deities among the 
 Romans, who presided over houses and the do- 
 mestic afiairs of families. They were called 
 Penates, because they were generally placed in 
 the innermost and most secret parts of the house, 
 in penitissimd cBdium parte, quod, as Cicero 
 says, penitus insident. The place where they 
 stood was afterwards called Penetralia, and 
 they themselves received the name of Penetra- 
 tes. It was in the option of every master of a 
 family to choose his Penates, and therefore Ju- 
 piter and some of the superior gods are often 
 invoked as patrons of domestic affairs. Accord- 
 ing to some, the gods Penates were divided into 
 four classes ; the first comprehended all the ce- 
 lestial, the second the sea-gods, the third the 
 gods of hell, and the last all such heroes as had 
 received divine honours after death. The Pe- 
 nates were originally the names of the dead, 
 and in the early ages of Rome human sacrifices 
 were offered to them ; but Brutus, who expelled 
 the Tarquins, abolished this custom. When 
 offerings were made to them, their statutes were 
 crowned with garlands, poppies, or garlic ; and 
 besides the monthly day that was set apart for 
 their worship, their festivals were celebrated 
 during the Saturnalia. Cic. de Nat. D. 2, c. 
 27. Ver. 2. — Dionys. 1. 
 
 Penelope. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Penthesilea, a queen of theAmazons, daugh- 
 ter of Mars, by Otrera, or Orithya. She came 
 to assist Priam in the last year of the Trojan 
 war, and fought against Achilles, by whom she 
 was slain. The hero was so struck with the 
 beauty of Penthesilea, when he stripped her of 
 her arms, that he even shed tears for having 
 too violently sacrificed her to his fury. Ther- 
 sites laughed at the partiality of the hero, for 
 which ridicule he was instantly killed. The 
 death of Thersites so offended Diomedes, that 
 he dragged the body of Penthesilea out of the 
 camp, and threw it into the Scamander, It is 
 generally supposed that Achilles was enamour- 
 ed of the Amazon before he fought with her, 
 and that she had by him a son called Cayster. 
 Dictys Cret. 3 and 4. — Paus. 10, c. 31. — Q. Ca- 
 lab. l.— Virg. jEn. 1, v. 495, 1. 11, v. 662.— 
 Dares Phryg. — Lnjcophr. in Cass. 995, &c. — 
 Hygin. fab. 112, 
 
 Pentheus, son of Echion and Agave, was 
 king of Thebes in BoBotia. His refusal to ac- 
 knowledge the divinity of Bacchus was attended 
 with the most fatal consequences. He forbade 
 his subjects to pay adoration to his new god ; 
 and when the Theban women had gone out of 
 the city to celebrate the orgies of Bacchus, Pen- 
 theus, appri ed of the debauchery which at- 
 tended the solemnity, commanded his soldiers 
 ^0 destroy the whole band of the bacchanals. 
 This, however, was not executed, for Bacchus 
 inspired the monarch with the ardent desire of 
 seeing the celebration of the orgies. Accord- 
 ingly he hid himself in a wood on mount Ci- 
 thseron, from whence he could see all the cere- 
 monies unperceived. But here his curiosity 
 soon proved fatal ; he was descried by the bac- 
 chanals, and thev all rushed upon him. His 
 
 Part III.— 5 D 
 
 mother was the first who attacked him ; her ex- 
 ample was instantly followed by her two sisters, 
 Ino and Autonoe, and his body was torn to 
 pieces. Euripides introduces Bacchus among 
 his priestesses, when Pentheus was put to 
 death ; but Ovid, who relates the whole in the 
 same manner, differs from the Greek poet only 
 in saying, that not Bacchus himself, but one of 
 his priests was present. The tree on which 
 the bacchanals found Pentheus, was cut down 
 by the Corinthians, by order of the oracle, and 
 with it two statutes of the god of wine were 
 made, and placed in the forum. Hygin. fab. 
 \8L—Theocrit.2&.—Ovid. Met. 3, fab. 7,8, and 
 ^.— Virg. ^n. 4, v. 469.— Paus. 2, c. h.—Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. 5. — Euripid. in Bacch. — Senec. — 
 Phanis. & Hipp. 
 
 Perdix. Vid. Talus. 
 
 Periboea, I. the second wife of (Eneus, king 
 of Calydon, was daughter of Hipponous. She 
 
 became mother of Tideus. Hygin. fab. 69. 
 
 II. A daughter of Alcathous, sold by her father 
 on suspicion that she was courted by Telamon, 
 son of Macns, king of iEgina. She was carried 
 to Cyprus, where Telamon the founder of Sa- 
 lamis married her, and she became mother of 
 Ajax. She also married Theseus, according to 
 some. She is also called Eriboea. Paus. 1, c. 
 
 17 and ^2.— Hygin. 97. III. The wife of 
 
 Polybus, king of Corinth, who educated CEdi- 
 pus as her own child. , 
 
 Periclymenus, one of the twelve sons of 
 Neleus, brother to Nestor, killed by Hercules. 
 He was one of the Argonauts, and had re- 
 ceived from Neptune, his grandfather, the pow- 
 er of changing himself into whatever shape he 
 pleased. Apollod. — Ovid. Met. 12, v. 556. 
 
 Perigone, a woman who had a son called 
 Melanippus, by Theseus. She was daughter 
 of Synnis, the famous robber whom These^us 
 killed. She married Deioneus the son of Eu- 
 rytus, by consent of Theseus. Plut. in Thes. 
 —Paus. 10, c. 25. 
 
 Perimela, a daughter of Hippodamus, thrown 
 into the sea for receiving the addresses of the 
 Achelous. She was changed into an island in 
 the Ionian Sea, and became one of the Echi- 
 nades. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 790. 
 
 Pero, or Perone, a daughter of Neleus, king 
 of Pylos, by Chloris. Vid. Melampus. She 
 became mother of Talaus. Homer. Od. 11, v. 
 28i.—Propert. 2, el. 2, v. 11.— Paus. 4, c. 36. 
 Vid. Part II. 
 
 Persephone, called also Proserpine. Vid. 
 Proserpine. 
 
 Perseus, a son of Jupiter and Danae, the 
 daughter of Acrisius, thrown into the sea with 
 his mother. Vid. Danae. The slender boat 
 which carried Danae and her son was driven 
 by the winds upon the coasts of the island of 
 Seriphos, one of the Cyclades, where they were 
 found by a fisherman called Dictys, and carried 
 to Polydectes, the king of the place. Perseus 
 was intrusted to the care of the priest of Mi- 
 nerva's temple. His rising genius and manly 
 courage, however, soon displeased Polydectes, 
 who invited all his friends to a sumptuous en- 
 tertainment, at which it was requisite all such 
 as came should present the monarch with a 
 beautiful horse. Perseus was in the number 
 of the invited, and the more particularly so, as 
 Polydectes knew that he could not receive from 
 761 
 
PE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PE 
 
 him the present which he expected from all the 
 rest. Nevertheless Perseus, who wished not to 
 appear inferior to the others in magnificence, 
 told the king, that as he could not give him a 
 horse, he would bring him the head of Medusa, 
 the only one of the Gorgons who was subject 
 to mortality. Vid. Gorgones. Polydectes ac- 
 cepted the offer, and Perseus departed for the 
 country of those formidable monsters. Having 
 cut off the head of Medusa, he continued his 
 journey across the deserts of Liva, but the ap- 
 proach of night obliged him to alight in the ter- 
 ritories of Atlas, king of Mauretania. He went 
 to the monarch's palace, where he hoped to find 
 a kind reception by announcing himself as the 
 son of Jupiter; but in this he was disappointed. 
 Atlas recollected that, according to an ancient 
 oracle, his gardens were to be robbed of their 
 fruit by one of the sons of Jupiter, and there- 
 fore he not only refused Perseus the hospitality 
 he demanded, but he even offered violence to his 
 person. Perseus, finding himself inferior to his 
 powerful enemy, showed him Medusa's head, 
 and instantly Atlas was changed into a large 
 mountain which bore the same name in the de- 
 serts of Africa. On the morrow Perseus con- 
 tinued his flight, and as he passed across the 
 territories of Libya, he discovered, on the coasts 
 of ^Ethiopia, the naked Andromeda, exposed 
 to a sea-monster. He was struck at the sight, 
 and offered her father Cepheus to deliver her, 
 and obtained her in marriage as a reward of his 
 labours. The universal joy, however, was soon 
 disturbed. Phineus, Andromeda's uncle, enter- 
 ed the palace with a number of armed men, and 
 attempted to carry away the bride, whom he 
 had courted and admired long before the arrival 
 of Perseus. A bloody battle ensued, and Per- 
 seus must have fallen a victim to the rage of 
 Phineus, had not he defended himself at last 
 with the same arms which proved fatal to Atlas. 
 He showed the Gorgon's head to his adversa- 
 ries, and they were instantly turned to stone, 
 each in the posture and attitude in which he 
 then stood. Soon after this memorable adven- 
 ture Perseus retired to Seriphos, at the very 
 moment that his mother Danae fled to the altar 
 of Minerva to avoid the pursuit of Polydectes, 
 who attempted to offer her violence. Dictys, 
 who had saved her from the sea, and who, as 
 some say, was the brother of Polydectes, de- 
 fended her against the attempts of her enemies, 
 and therefore Perseus, sensible of his merit and 
 of his humanity, placed him on the throne of 
 Seriphos, after he had with Medusa's head 
 turned into stones the wicked Polydectes and 
 the officers who were the associates of his guilt. 
 He afterwards restored to Mercury the talaria 
 and the wings, to Pluto the helmet, to Vulcan 
 the sword, and to Minerva the shield, which 
 they had lent him to accomplish the death of 
 Medusa ; but as he was more particularly in- 
 debted to the goddess of wisdom for her assist- 
 ance and protection, he placed the Gorgon's 
 head on her shield, or rather, according to the 
 more received opinion, on her aegis. After he 
 had finished these celebrated exploits, Perseus 
 expressed a wish to return to his native coun- 
 try, and accordingly he embarked for the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, with his mother and Andromeda. 
 When he reached the Peloponnesian coasts he 
 was informed that Teutamias, king of Larissa, 
 762 
 
 W£is then celebrating funeral games in honour 
 of his father. This intelligence drew him to 
 Larissa to signalize himself in throwing the 
 quoit, of which, according to some, he was the 
 inventor. But here he was attended by an evil 
 fate, and had the misfortune to kill a man with 
 a quoit which he had thrown in the air. This 
 was no other than his grandfather Acrisius, 
 who, on the first intelligence that his grandson 
 had reached the Peloponnesus, fled from his 
 kingdom of Argos to the court of his friend and 
 ally Teutamias, to prevent the fulfilling of the 
 oracle, which had obliged him to treat his daugh- 
 ter with so much barbarity. Some suppose, 
 with Pausanias, that Acrisius had gone to La- 
 rissa to be reconciled to his grandson, whose 
 fame had been spread in every city of Greece ; 
 and Ovid maintains that the grandfather was 
 under the strongest obligation to his son-in- 
 law, as through him he had received his king- 
 dom, from which he had been forcibly driven by 
 the sons of his brother Proetus. This unfortu- 
 nate murder greatly depressed the spirits of Per- 
 seus; by the death of Acrisius he was entitled 
 10 the throne of Argos, -but he refused to reign 
 there: and to remove himself from a place which 
 reminded him of the parricide he had unfortu- 
 nately committed, he exchanged his kingdom 
 for that of Tirynthus, and the maritime coast 
 of Argolis, where Megapenthes, the son of 
 Proetus, then reigned. When he had finally 
 settled in this part of the Peloponnesus, he de- 
 termined to lay the foundations of a new city, 
 which he made the capital of his dominions, 
 and Avhich he called Mycence, because the pom- 
 mel of his sword, called by the Greeks myces, 
 had fallen there. The time of his death is un- 
 known, yet it is universally agreed that he re- 
 ceived divine honours like the rest of the an- 
 cient heroes. He had statues at Mycenas and 
 in the island of Seriphos, and the Athenians 
 raised him a temple, in which they consecrated 
 an altar in honour of Dictys, who had treated 
 Danae and her infant son with so much pater- 
 nal tenderness. The Egyptians also paid par- 
 ticular honour to his memory, and asserted that 
 he often appeared among them wearing shoes 
 two cubits long, which was always interpreted 
 as a sign of fertility. Perseus had by Andro- 
 meda, Alceus, Sthenelus, Nestor, Electryon, 
 and Gorgophone; and after death, according to 
 some mythologists, he became a constellation in 
 the heavens. Herodot. 2, c. 91. — Apollod. 2. c. 
 4, &iC.—Paus. 2, c. 16 and 18, 1. 3, c. 17. &c. 
 —Apollon. Arg.A,^. Ibm.—ltal. 9, v. 442.— 
 Ovid. Met. 4, fab. 16, 1. 5, fab. 1, &c. — LMcan. 
 9, V. 668.— fl?/^m. fab. &^.—Hesiod. Theog. 
 270, (f- Scut.. Herc.—Pind. Pyth. 7. (^ Olymp. 
 3. — Ital. 9. — Propert. 2. — Athen. 13. — Horner. 
 U. 14. — Tzetz.inLycoph. 17. 
 
 Pertunda, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
 over the consummation of marriage. Her sta- 
 tue was generally placed in the bridal chamber. 
 Varro. apud. Aug. Civ. D. 6, c. 9. 
 
 Peteus, a son of Orneus, and grandson of 
 Erechtheus. He reigned in Attica, and be- 
 came father of Menestheus, who went with the 
 Greeks to the Trojan war. He is represented 
 by some of the ancients as a monster, half a 
 man and half a beast. Apollod. 3, c. 10. — 
 Paus. 10, c. 35. 
 
 Phjea, a celebrated sow which infested (he 
 
PH 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PH 
 
 neighbourhood of Crorayon. It was destroyed 
 by i'heseus,as he was travelling from Trcezene 
 to Athens to make himself known to his father. 
 Some suppose that the boar of Calydon sprang 
 from this sow. Phasa, according to some authors, 
 was no other than a woman who prostituted her- 
 self to strangers, whom she murdered and after- 
 wards plundered. Plut. in Thes. — Strab. 8. 
 
 Phjedra, a daughter of Minos andPasiphae, 
 who married Theseus, by whom she became 
 mother of Acamas and JDemophoon. Venus 
 inspired Phaedra with an unconquerable passion 
 for Hippolyius the son of Theseus, by the ama- 
 zon Hippolyte ; and in the absence of Theseus, 
 she addressed Hippolytus with all the impa- 
 tience of lo7e. Hippolytus rejected her with 
 horror and disdain ; but Phaedra, incensed on 
 account of the reception she had met. resolved 
 to punish his coldness and refusal. At the re- 
 turn of Theseus she accused Hippolytus of at- 
 tempts upon her virtue. The credulous father 
 listened to the accusation, and, without hearing 
 the defence of Hippolytus, he banished him 
 from his kingdom, and implored Neptune, who 
 had promised to grant three of his requests, to 
 punish him in some exemplary manner. As 
 Hippolytus fled from Athens, his horses were 
 suddenly terrified by a huge sea-monster, which 
 Neptune had sent on the shore. He was drag- 
 ged through precipices and over rocks, and was 
 trampled under the feet of his horses, and crush- 
 ed under the wheels of his chariot. When 
 the tragical end of Hippolytus was known at 
 Athens, Phaedra confessed her crime, and hung 
 herself in despair, unable to survive one whose 
 death her guilt had occasioned. The death of 
 Hippolytus, and the infamous passion of Phse- 
 dra, are the subject of one of the tragedies of 
 Euripides and of Seneca. Phaedra was buried 
 at Troezene, where her tomb was still seen in 
 the age of the geographer Pausanias, near the 
 temple of Venus, which she had built to render 
 the goddess favourable to her passion. There 
 was near her tomb a myrtle, whose leaves were 
 all full of small holes, and it was reported, that 
 Phaedra had done this with a hair pin, when the 
 vehemence of her passion had rendered her 
 melancholy and almost desperate. She was 
 represented in a painting in Apollo's temple at 
 Delphi as suspended by a cord, and balancing 
 herself in the air, while her sister Ariadne stood 
 near to her and fixed her eyes upon her ; a deli- 
 cate idea, by which the genius of the artist inti- 
 mated her melancholy end. Plut. in T/ies. — 
 Pans. 1, c. 22, 1. 2, c. 32.—Diod. 4.—Hygin. 
 fab. 47 and 243. — Eurip. ■^n Senec. d^ in Hip- 
 pol. — Virg. JEn. 6, v. 445. — Ovid. Heroid. 4. 
 
 Ph^nna, one of the two Graces worshipped 
 at Sparta, together with her sister Clita. La- 
 cedaemon first paid them particular honours. 
 Pans. 9, c. 35. 
 
 Phaeton, a son of the sun, or Phoebus, and 
 Clymene, one of the Oceanides. He was son 
 of Cephalus and Aurora according to Hesiod 
 and Pausanias, or of Tithonus and Aurora ac- 
 cording to Apollodorus. He is, however, more 
 generally acknowledged to be the son of Phoe- 
 bus and Clymene. When Epaphus, the son of 
 lo, told him, to check his pride, that he was not 
 the son of Phoebus, Phaeton resolved to know 
 his true origin, and, at the instigation of his 
 mother, he visited the palace of the sun. He 
 
 begged Phoebus, that if he really were his father, 
 he would give him incontestable proofs of his pa- 
 ternal tenderness and convince the world of his 
 legitimacy. Phoebus swore by the Styx that 
 he would grant him whatever he required, and 
 no sooner was the oath uttered than Phaeton 
 demanded of him to drive his chariot for one 
 day. Phoebus represented the dangers to which 
 it would expose him, but in vain ; and, as the 
 oath was inviolable and Phaeton unmoved, the 
 father instructed his son how he was to proceed 
 in his way through the regions of the air. His 
 explicit directions were forgotten, or little at- 
 tended to ; and no sooner had Phaeton received 
 the reins from his father, than he betrayed his 
 ignorance and incapacity to guide the chariot. 
 The flying horses became sensible of the confu- 
 sion of their driver, and immediately departed 
 from their usual track. Phaeton repented too 
 late of his rashness, and already heaven and 
 earth were threatened with a universal confla- 
 gration, when Jupiter, who had perceived the 
 disorder of the horses of the sun, struck the 
 rider with one of his thunderbolts, and hurled 
 him headlong from heaven into the river Po. 
 His body, consumed with fire, was found by the 
 nymphs of the place, and honoured with a de- 
 cent burial. His sister mourned his unhappy 
 end, and were changed into poplars by Jupiter. 
 Vid. Phaetoniiades. According to the poets, 
 while Phaeton was unskilfully driving the cha- 
 riot of his father, the blood of the Ethiopians 
 was dried up, and their skin became black, a 
 colour which is still preserved among the great- 
 est part of the inhabitants of the torrid zone. 
 The territories of Libya were also parched up, 
 according to the same tradition, on account of 
 their too great vicinity to the sun ; and ever 
 since, Africa, unable to recover her original 
 verdure and fruitfulness, has exhibited a sandy 
 country and uncultivated waste. According to 
 those who explain this poetical fable. Phaeton 
 was a Ligurian prince who studied astronomy, 
 and in whose age the neighbourhood of thePo 
 was visited with uncommon heats. The horses 
 of the sun are called Phaeiontis equi, either be- 
 cause they were guided by Phaeton, or from the 
 Greek word {<pae6wv^) which expresses the splen- 
 dour and lustre of that luminary. Virg. JEn. 
 5, V. 105.— Hesoid. Theog. 985.— Ori^. Met.X, 
 fab. 17, I. 2, fab. 1, &c.—Apollon. 4, Arg.—Ho~ 
 rat. 4, od. 11. — Senec. in Medea. — Apollod. — 
 Hygin. fab. 156. 
 
 Phaetontiades. or Phaetontides, the sisters 
 of Phaeton. 
 
 Phaon, a boatman of Mitylene, in Lesbos. 
 He received a small box of ointment from Ve- 
 nus, who had presented herself to him in the 
 form of an old woman, to be carried over into 
 Asia ; and as soon as he had rubbed himself 
 with what the box contained, he became one 
 of the most beautiful men of his age. Many 
 were captivated with the charms of Phaon, and, 
 among others, Sappho, the celebrated poetess. 
 Mlian. V. H. 12.— Ovid. Heroid. 2l.—Pala- 
 pJiat. de in. c. 49. — Athen. — Lucian. in Sim. &. 
 Polistr. 
 
 Phegeus, or Phlegeus, a priest of Bacchus, 
 the father of Alphesiboea, who purified Alc- 
 maeon of his mother's murder, and gave him 
 his daughter in marriage. Vid. AlcmcBon. Ovid^ 
 Met. 9, V. 412. 
 
 763 
 
PH 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PH 
 
 Pherjeus, a surname of Jason, as being a 
 native of Pherae. 
 
 Pherephate, a surname of Proserpine, from 
 the production of corn. 
 
 Pheres, I. a son of Cretheus and Tyro, who 
 built Pheras in Thessaly, where he reigned. 
 He married Clymene, by whom he had Adme- 
 
 lus and Lycurgus. Apollod. II. A son of 
 
 Medea, stoned to death by the Corinthians on 
 account of the poisonous clothes which he had 
 given to Glance, Creon's daughter. Paus. 2, 
 c. 3. 
 
 PiiERETiAS, a patronymic of Admetus, son of 
 Pheres. Ooid. Met. 8, v. 291. 
 
 PmL5:trs, I. a son of Ajax by Lyside, the 
 daughter of Coronus, one of the Lapithae. 
 Miltiades, as some suppose, was descended from 
 
 him. II. A son of Augeas, who upbraided 
 
 his father for not granting what Hercules justly 
 claimed for cleaning his stables. Vid. Augeas. 
 He was placed upon his father's throne by Her- 
 cules. Apollod. 2. 
 
 Philoctetes. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Philolads, a son of Minos, by the nymph 
 Paria, from whom the island of Paros receiv- 
 ed its name. Hercules put him to death be- 
 cause he had killed two of his companions. 
 Apollod. 3, c. 1. 
 
 Philomache, the wife of Pelias, king of lol- 
 chos. According to some writers she was daugh- 
 ter to Amphion, king of Thebes, though she is 
 more generally called Anaxibia, daughter of 
 Bias. Apollod. 1. 
 
 Philomela, a daughter of Pandion, king of 
 Athens and sister to Procne, who had married 
 Tereus king of Thrace. Procne prevailed upon 
 her husband to go to Athens, and bring her 
 sister to Thrace. Tereus obeyed his wife's in- 
 junctions, but he had no sooner obtained Pan- 
 dion's permission to conduct Philomela to 
 Thrace, than he became enamoured of her. 
 He dismissed the guards, whom the suspicions 
 of Pandion had appointed to watch his conduct, 
 and he offered violence to Philomela, and after- 
 wards cut off her tongue that she might not be 
 able to discover his barbarity and the indigni- 
 ties which she had suffered. He confined her 
 also in a lonely castle ; and after he had taken 
 every precaution to prevent a discovery, he re- 
 turned to Thrace, and told Procne that Philo- 
 mela had died by the way. Procne, at this sad 
 intelligence, put on mourning for the loss of 
 Philomela ; but a year had scarcely elapsed be- 
 fore she was secretly informed that her sister 
 was not dead. Philomela, during her captivity, 
 described on a piece of tapestry her misfortunes 
 and the brutality of Tereus, and privately con- 
 veyed it to Procne. She was then going to ce- 
 lebrate the orgies of Bacchus when she received 
 it ; she disguised her resentment, and as during 
 the festivals of the god of wine, she was per- 
 mitted to rove about the country, she hastened 
 to deliver her sister Philomela from her confine- 
 ment, and concerted with her on the best mea- 
 sures of punishing the cruelty of Tereus. She 
 murdered her son Itys, who was in the sixth 
 year of his age, and served him up as food be- 
 fore her husband during the festival. Tereus, 
 in the midst of his repast, called for Itys, but 
 Procne immediately informed him that he was 
 then feasting on his flesh, and that instant Phi- 
 lomela, by throwing on the table the head of 
 764 
 
 Itys, convinced the monarch of the cruelty of 
 the scene. He drew his swOrd to punish Proc- 
 ne and Philomela, but as he was going to stab 
 them to the heart, he was changed into a hoopoe, 
 Philomela into a nightingale, Procne, into a 
 swallow, and Itys into a pheasant. This tra- 
 gical scene happened at Daulis in Phocis ; but 
 Pausanias and Strabo,who mentioned the whole 
 of the story, are silent about the transformation ; 
 and the former observes that Tereus, after this 
 bloody repast, fled to Megara, where he de- 
 stroyed bimself The inhabitants of the place 
 raised a monument to his memory, where they 
 offered yearly sacrifices, and placed small peb- 
 bles instead of barley. It was on this monu- 
 ment that the birds called hoopoes were first 
 seen ; hence the fable of his metamorphosis. 
 Procne and Philomela died through excess of 
 grief and melancholy; and as the nightingale 
 and swallow's voice is peculiarly plaintive and 
 mournful, the poets have embellished the fable, 
 by supposing that the two unfortunate sisters 
 were changed into birds. Apollod. 3, c. 14.- — 
 Paus. 1, c. 42, 1. 10, c. 4. — Hygin. fab. 45. — 
 Strab. 9.— Ovid. Met. &, fab. 9 and lO.~Virg. 
 G. 4, V. 15 and 511. 
 
 Philonoe, a daughter of lobates, king of 
 Lycia, who married Bellerophon. Apollod. 2. 
 Philonome, I. a daughter of Nyctimus, king 
 of Arcadia, who threw into the Erymanthus 
 two children whom she had by Mars. The 
 children were preserved, and afterwards as- 
 cended their grandfather's throne. Plut. in 
 
 Per. II. The second wife of Cycnus, the 
 
 son of Neptune. She became enamoured of 
 Tennes, her husband's son by his first wife, 
 Proclea ; and when she accused him of attempts 
 upon her virtue, Cycnus believed the accusa- 
 tion, and ordered Tennes to be thrown into the 
 sea, &c. Paus. 10, c. 14. 
 
 Philyra, one of the Oceanides, who was met 
 by Saturn in Thrace, and by whom he had a 
 son, half a man and half a horse, called Chiron, 
 Philyra was so ashamed of giving birth to such 
 a monster, that she entreated the gods to change 
 her nature. She was metamorphosed into the 
 linden tree, called by her name among the 
 Greeks. Hygin. fab. 138. 
 
 Phineus, I. a son of Agenor, king of Phoe- 
 nicia, or of Neptune, who became king of 
 Thrace, or, as the greater part of the mytholo- 
 gists support, of Bithynia. He married Cleo- 
 patra, the daughter of Boreas, whom some call 
 Cleobula, by whom be had Plexippus and Pan- 
 dion. After the death of Cleopatra, he married 
 Idaea, the daughter of Dardanus. Idsea, jea- 
 lous of Cleopatra's children, accused them of 
 attempts upon their father's life and crown, and 
 they were immediately condemned by Phineus 
 to be deprived of their eyes. This cruelty was 
 soon after punished by the gods ; Phineus sud- 
 denly became blind, and the Harpies were sent 
 by Jupiter to keep him under continual alarm, 
 and to spoil the meats which were placed on 
 his table. He was, some time after, delivered 
 from these dangerous monsters by his brothers- 
 in-law, Zetes and Calais, who pursued them as 
 far as the Strophades. He also recovered his 
 sight by means of the Argonauts, whom he had 
 received with great hospitality, and instructed 
 in the easiest and speediest way by which they 
 could arrive in Colchis. The second wife of 
 
PH 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PH 
 
 Phineus is called by some Dia, Enrytia, Danae, 
 and IdoLhea. Phineus was killed by Hercules 
 Arg. 2.—Apollod. 1. c. 9, 1. 3, c. Ib.—Diod. 4. 
 
 — Hygin. fab. 19. — Orplieus. — Place. II. 
 
 The brother of Cepheus, king of ^Ethiopia. 
 He was going to marry his niece Andromeda, 
 when her father Cepheus was obliged to give 
 her up to be devoured by a sea-moster to ap- 
 pease the resentment of Neptune. Vid. Per- 
 seus. ApoLlod. 2, c. 1 and 4. — Ovid. Met: 5, 
 fab. 1 and 2. — Hygin. fab. 64. 
 
 Phlegyas, a son of Mars by Chryse, daugh- 
 ter of Halmus, was king of the Lapithae in 
 Thessaly. He was father of Ixion and Coro- 
 nis, to whom Apollo offered violence. When 
 the father heard that his daughter had been so 
 abused, he marched an army against Delphi, 
 and reduced the temple of the god to ashes. 
 This was highly resented ; Apollo killed Phle- 
 gyas, and placed him in hell, where a huge stone 
 hangs over his head, and keeps him in contin- 
 ual alarms by its appearance of falling every 
 moment. Paus. 9, c. 36. — Apollod. 3, c. 5. — 
 Pind. Pyth. 3. — Ovid. Mel. 5, v. 87. — Servius 
 ad Virg. jEn. 6, v. 618. 
 
 Phobetor, one of the sons of Somnus, and 
 his principal minister. His office was to assume 
 the shape of serpents and wild beasts, to inspire 
 terror in the minds of men, as his name inti- 
 mates, {(po0e(i)). The other two ministers of 
 Somnus werePhantasia and Morpheus. Ovid. 
 Met. 11, V. 640. 
 
 Phobos, son of Mars, and god of terror 
 among the ancients, was represented with a 
 lion's head, and sacrifices were offered to him 
 to deprecate his appearance in armies. Plut. 
 in erot. 
 
 Phcebas, a name applied to the priestess of 
 Apollo's temple at Delphi. Jjiican. 5, v. 128, 
 &c. 
 
 Phoebe, I. a name given to Diana, or the 
 moon, on account of the brightness of that lu- 
 minary. She became, according to Apollodo- 
 rus, mother of Asteria and Latona. Vid. Di- 
 ana. II. A daughter of Leucippus and Phi- 
 
 lodice, carried away with her sister Hilaira,by 
 Castor and Pollux,'as she was going to marry 
 one of the sons of Aphareus. Vid. Lucippi- 
 des. Apollod. 2, c. 10.— Paus. 2, c. 22. 
 
 Phcbbigena, a surname of ^sculapius, &c. 
 as being descended from Phoebus. Virg. JEn. 
 V. 773. 
 
 Phcebus, a name given to Apollo or the sun. 
 This word expresses the brightness and splen- 
 dour of that luminary (0o(/?os.) Vid. Apollo. 
 
 Phcenix. Vid. Part II, A son of Agenor, 
 by a nymph who was calledTelephassa, accord- 
 ing to Apollodorus and Moschus, or according 
 to others, Epimedusa, Perimeda, or Agriope. 
 He was, like his brothers, Cadmus and Cilix, 
 sent by his father in pursuit of his sister Euro- 
 pa, whom Jupiter had carried away under the 
 form of a bull, and when his inquiries proved 
 unsuccessful, he settled in a country, which, ac- 
 cording to some, was from him called Phoenicia. 
 From him, as some suppose, the Carthaginians 
 were called Posni. Apollod. 3. — Hygin. fab. 178. 
 
 Pholds, one of the Centaurs, son of Silenus 
 and Melia, or, according to others, of Ixion and 
 the Cloud. He kindly entertained Hercules 
 •^hen he was going against the boar of Eryman- 
 thus, but he refused to give him wine, as that 
 
 which he had belonged to the rest of the Cen- 
 taurs. Hercules, upon this, without ceremony, 
 broke the casks and drank the wine. The smell 
 of the liquor drew the Centaurs from the neigh- 
 bourhood to the house of Pholus, but Hercules 
 stopped them when they forcibly entered the hab- 
 itation of his friend, and killed the greatest part 
 of them. Pholus gave the dead a decent fune- 
 ral, but he mortally wounded himself with one 
 of the arrows which were poisoned with the ven- 
 om of the hydra, and which he attempted to 
 extract from the body of one of the Centaurs. 
 Hercules, unable to cure him, buried him when 
 dead, and called the mountain where his remains 
 were deposited by the name of Pholoe. Apol- 
 lod. I.— Paus. ^.— Virg. G. 2, v. 456. Mn. 8, 
 V. 294. — Diod. 4. — Ital. 1. — Jjucan. 3, 6 and 7. 
 —Stat. Theb. 2. 
 
 Phorbas, a son of Lapithus, who married 
 Hyrmine, the daughter of Epeus, by whom he 
 had Actor. Pelops, according to Diodorus, 
 shared his kingdom with Phorbas, who also, says 
 the same historian,established himself atRhodes. 
 at the head oi' a colony from Elis and Thessaly, 
 by order of the oracle, which promised, by his 
 means only, deliverance from the numerous ser- 
 pents which infested the island, Diod. 2. — Paus. 
 5, c. 1. 
 
 Phorcus, or Phorcys, a sea-deity, son of Pon- 
 tus and Terra, who married his sister Ceto, by 
 whom he had the Gorgons, the dragon that kept 
 the apples of the Hesperides, and other monsters. 
 Hesiod. Theogn. — Apollod. 
 
 Phoroneus, the god of a river of Peloponne- 
 sus, of the same name. He was son of the river 
 Inachus by Melissa, and he was the second king 
 of Argos. He married a nymph called Cerdo, 
 or Laodice, by whom he had Apis, from whom 
 Argolis was called Apia, and Niobe, the first 
 woman of whom Jupiter became enamoured. 
 Phoroneus taught his subjects the utility of laws, 
 and the advantages of a social life and of friend- 
 ly intercourse, whence the inhabitants of Argo- 
 lis are often called Phoroncei. Pausanias relates 
 that Phoroneus, with the Cephisus, Asterion, 
 and Inachus, were appointed as umpires in the 
 quarrel between Neptune and Juno concerning 
 their right of patronising Argolis. Juno gained 
 the preference; upon which Neptune, in a fit of 
 resentment, dried up all the four rivers, whose 
 decision he deemed partial. He afterwards re- 
 stored them to their dignity and consequence. 
 Phoroneus was the first who raised a temple to 
 Juno. He received divine honours after death. 
 His temple still existed at Argos, under Anto- 
 ninus the Roman emperor. Paus. 2, c. 15, &c. 
 —Apollod. 2, c, 1.— Hygin. fab. 143. 
 
 Phryxus, a son of Athamas, king of Thebes, 
 by Nepliele. Vid. Argonautcs. 
 
 Phyleus, a son of Augeas. He was placed 
 on his father's throne by Hercules. 
 
 Phyllis, a daughter of Sithon, or, according 
 to others, of Lycurgus, king of Thrace, who 
 hospitably received Demophoon the son of The- 
 seus, who, at his return from the Trojan war, 
 had stopped on her coasts. She became ena- 
 moured of him, and did not find him insensible 
 to her passion. After some months of mutual 
 tenderness and aflfection, Demophoon set sail for 
 Athens, where his domestic affairs recalled him. 
 He promised faithfully to return as soon as a 
 month was expired ; but either his dislike for 
 765 
 
PI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PI 
 
 Phyllis, or the irreparable situation of his affairs, 
 obliged him to violate his engagement, and the 
 queen, grown desperate on account of his ab- 
 sence, hanged herself, or, according to others 
 threw herself down a precipice into the sea, and 
 perished. Her friends raised a tomb over her 
 body, where there grew up certain trees, whose 
 leaves, at a particular season of the year, sud- 
 denly became wet, as if shedding tears for the 
 death of Phyllis. According to an old tradition 
 mentioned by Servius, Virgil's commentator, 
 Phyllis was changed by the gods into an almond 
 tree, which is called Phylla by the Greeks. 
 Some days after this metamorphosis, Demo- 
 phoon revisited Thrace, and when he heard of 
 the fate of Phyllis, he ran and clasped the tree, 
 which, though at that time stripped of its leaves, 
 suddenly shot forth and blossomed, as if still sen- 
 sible of tenderness and love. The absence of 
 Demophoon from the house of Phyllis has given 
 rise to a beautiful epistle of Ovid, supposed to 
 have been written by the Thracian queen about 
 the fourth month after her lover's departure. 
 Ovid. Heriod. 2. de Art. Am. 2, v. 353. Trist. 
 9, An.—Hygin. fab. 59. 
 
 Phyllius, a young Boeotian, uncommonly 
 fond of Cygnus, the son of Hyria, a woman of 
 BcEotia. Cygnus slighted his passion, and told 
 him, that to obtain a return of affection, he must 
 previously destroy an enormous lion, take alive 
 two large vultures, and sacrifice on Jupiter's al- 
 tars a wild bull that infested the country. This 
 he easily effected by means of artifice, and by the 
 advice of Hercules he forgot his partiality for 
 the son of Hyria. Ovid. Met. 7, v. 372.— M- 
 cand in Heter. 3. 
 
 PicuMNUs, and Pildmnus, different names of 
 a deity at Rome, who presided over the auspi- 
 ces that were required before the celebration of 
 nuptials. Pilumnus was supposed to patronise 
 children. The manuring of lands was first in- 
 vented by him, from which reason he is called 
 Sterquilinius. Pilumnus is also invoked as the 
 god of bakers and millers, as he is said to have 
 first invented how to grind corn. Turnusboast- 
 ed of bein g one of h is lin eal descendants. Virg. 
 uEn. 9, V. 4. — Varro. 
 
 Pious, a king of Latium, son of Saturn, who 
 married Venilia, who is also called Canens, by 
 whom he had Faunus. He was tenderly loved 
 by the goddess Pomona, and he returned a mu- 
 tual afifection. As he was one day hunting in 
 the woods, he was met by Circe, who became 
 deeply enamoured ofhim, and who changed him 
 into a woodpecker, called by the name of picus 
 among the Latins. His wife Venilia was so 
 disconsolate when informed of his death, that 
 she pined away. Some suppose that Picus was 
 the son of Pilumnus, and that he gave out pro- 
 phecies to this subjects, by means of a favourite 
 woodpecker; from which circumstance origin- 
 ated the fable of his being metamorphosed into 
 a bird. Virg. yEw. 7, v. 48, 171, &.c.—Ovid. 
 Met. 14, V. 320, &c. 
 
 PiERiDEs, I. a name given to the Muses, 
 either because they were born in Pieria, inThes- 
 saly, or because they were supposed by some to 
 be the daughters of Pierus, a king of Macedo- 
 nia, who settled in Boeotia. II. Also the 
 
 daughters of Pierus, who challenged the Muses 
 to a trial in music, in which they were conquer- 
 ed, and changed to magTJies. It may, perhaps 
 766 
 
 j be supposed that the victorious Muses assumed 
 the name of the conqnered daughters of Pierus 
 and ordered themselves to be called Pierides 
 in the same manner as Minerva was called 
 Pallas because she had killed the giant Pallas. 
 Ovid. Met. 5, V. 300. 
 
 Pierus, a rich man of Thessaly, whose nine 
 daughters, called Pierides, challenged the Mu- 
 ses, and were changed into magpies when con- 
 quered. Paus. 9, c. 29. 
 
 PiETAs, a deity among the Romans. Acilius 
 Glabrio first erected a temple to this new di- 
 vinity, oh the spot where a woman had fed with 
 her own milk her aged father, who had been 
 imprisoned by order of the senate, and deprived 
 of all aliment. Cic. de Div. 1. — Vol. Max. 5, 
 c. A.—Plin. 7, c. 36. 
 
 Pilumnus. Vid. Hicumnus. 
 
 PiNARius and Potitius, two old men of Ar- 
 cadia, who came with Evander to Italy. They 
 were instructed by Hercules, who visited the 
 court of Evander, how they were to offer sacri- 
 fices to his divinity, in the morning, and in the 
 evening, immediately at sunset. The morning 
 sacrifice they punctually performed, but on the 
 evening, Potitius was obliged to offer the sacri- 
 fice alone, as Pinarius neglected to cometill af- 
 ter the appointed time. This negligence offend- 
 ed Hercules, and he ordered, that for the future, 
 Potitius and his descendants should preside over 
 the sacrifices, but that Pinarius, with his poste- 
 rity should wait upon the priests as servants 
 when the sacrifices were annually offered to 
 him on mount Aventine. This was religiously 
 observed till the age of Appius Claudius, who 
 persuaded the Potitii, by a large bribe, to dis- 
 continue their sacred office, and to have the 
 ceremony performed by slaves. For this neg- 
 ligence, as the Latin authors observe, the Poti- 
 tii were deprived of sight, and the family be- 
 came, a little time after, totally extinct. Liv. 1, 
 c.l.— Virg. jEn. 8, v. 269, &.C.— Victor de 
 orig. 8. 
 
 PiON, one of the descendants of Hercules, 
 who built Pionia, near the Caycus in Mysia. 
 It is said that smoke issued from his tomb as of- 
 ten as sacrifices were offered to him. Paus. 9, 
 c. 18. 
 
 PiRENE, I. a daughter of Danaus. II. A 
 
 daughter of CEbalaus, or, according to others, 
 of the Achelous. She had by Neptune two sons, 
 called Leches and Cenchrius, who gave their 
 name to two of the harbours of Corinth. Pirene 
 was so disconsolate at the death of her son Cen- 
 chrius, who had been killed by Diana, that she 
 pined aAvay, and was dissolved, by her continual 
 weeping, into a fountain of the same name, 
 which was still seen at Corinth in the age of 
 Pausanias. The fountain Pirene was sacred to 
 the Muses, and, according to some, the horse 
 Pegasus was then drinking some of its waters 
 when Bellerophon took it to go and conquer the 
 Chimsera. Paus. 2, c. S.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 240. 
 
 PiRiTHOUs, a son of Ixion and the Cloud, or, 
 according to others, of Dia, the daughter of 
 Deioneus. Some make him son of Dia, by Ju- 
 piter. He married Hippodamia. Vid. Theseus. 
 
 PisTOR, a surname given to Jupiter by the 
 Romans, signifying bdker^ because, when their 
 city was taken by the Gauls, the god persuaded 
 them to throw down loaves from the Tarpeian 
 hill where they were besieged, that the enemy 
 
PL 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PL 
 
 might from thence suppose that they were not 
 in want of provisions, though, in reality, they 
 were near surrendering through famine. This 
 deceived the Gauls, and they soon afler raised 
 the siege. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 350, 394, dec. 
 
 PiTHO, called also Suada, the goddess of per- 
 suasion among the Greeks and Romans, sup- 
 posed to be the daughter of Mercury and Venus. 
 A caduceus, as a symbol of persuasion, appears 
 at her feet, with the writings of Demosthenes 
 and Cicero, the two most celebrated among the 
 ancients, who understood how to command the 
 attention of their audience, and to rouse and 
 animate their various passions. 
 
 PiTHYs, a nymph beloved by Pan. Boreas 
 dashed her against a rock, and she was changed 
 into a pine tree. 
 
 PiTTHEus, a king of Trcezene in Argolis, son 
 of Pelops and Hippodamia. He was univer- 
 sally admired for his learning, wisdom, and 
 application ; he publicly taught in a school at 
 Troezene, and even composed a book, which 
 was seen by Pausanias the geographer. He 
 gave his daughter ^thra in marriage to M- 
 geus, king of Athens, and he himself took par- 
 ticular care of the youth and education of his 
 grandson Theseus. He was buried at Troezene, 
 which he had founded, and on his tomb were 
 seen, for many ages, three seats of white mar- 
 ble, on which he sat, with two other judges, 
 whenever he gave laws to his subjects or set- 
 tled their disputes. Paus. 1 and 2. — Plut. in 
 Th^s.-^Strab. 8. 
 
 Pi.EioNE, one of the Oceanides, who married 
 Atlas, king of Mauretania, by whom she had 
 twelve daughters, and a son called Hyas. Seven 
 of the daughters were changed into a constella- 
 tion called Pleiades, and the rest into £in other 
 called Hyades. Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 84. 
 
 Plemneus, a king of S icy on, son of Peratus. 
 His children always died as soon as born, till 
 Ceres pitying his misfortune, offered herself as 
 a nurse to his wife. The child lived by the care 
 and protection of the goddess, and Plemneus 
 was no sooner acquainted with the dignity of 
 his nurse than he raised her a temple. Paus. 
 2, c. 5 and IL 
 
 Pleuron. Vid. Part IL 
 
 Plexippus, a son of Thestius, brother to Al- 
 thaea, the wife of CEneus. Vid. Althcea and 
 Meleager. 
 
 Pluto, a son of Saturn and Ops, inherited 
 his father's kingdom with his brothers, Jupiter 
 and Neptune. He received as his lot the king- 
 dom of hell, and whatever lies under the earth, 
 and as such he became the god of the infernal 
 regions, of death and funerals. From his func- 
 tions, and the place he inhabited, he received 
 different names. He was called Dis, Hades or 
 Ades, Orcus, &c. As the place of his residence 
 was obscure and gloomy, all the goddesses re- 
 fused to marry him ; but he determined to obtain 
 by force what was denied to his solicitations. 
 As he once visited the island of Sicily, after a 
 violent earthquake, he saw Proserpine, the 
 daughter of Ceres, gathering flowers in the 
 plaiiis of Enna, with a crowd of female attend- 
 ants. He became enamoured of her, and im- 
 mediately carried her away upon his chariot 
 drawn by four horses. To make this retreat 
 more unknown, he opened himself a passage 
 through the earth, by striking it with his trident 
 
 in the lake of Cyane in Sicily, or, according to 
 others, on the borders of the Cephisusin Attica. 
 Proserpine called upon her attendants for help, 
 but in vain ; and she became the wife of her 
 ravisher and the queen of hell. Pluto is gene- 
 rally represented as holding a trident with two 
 teeth; he has also keys in his hand, to intimate 
 that whoever enters his kingdom can never re- 
 turn. He is looked upon as a hardhearted and 
 inexorable god, with a grim and dismal counte- 
 nance ; and for that reason no temples were 
 raised to his honour as to the rest of the superior 
 gods. Black victims, and particularly a bull, 
 were the only sacrifices which were offered to 
 him, and their blood was not sprinkled on the 
 altars, or received in vessels, as at other sacri- 
 fices, but it was permitted to run down into the 
 earth, as if it were to penetrate as far as the 
 realms of the god. The Syracusans yearly sa- 
 crificed to him black bulls, near the fountain of 
 Cyane, where, according to the received tradi- 
 tions, he had disappeared with Proserpine. 
 Among plants, the cypress, the narcissus, and 
 the maiden-hair, were sacred to him, as also eve- 
 ry thing which was deemed inauspicious, parti- 
 cularly the number two. According to some of 
 the ancients, Pluto sat on a throne of sulphur, 
 from which issued the rivers Lethe, Cocytus, 
 Phlegethon, and Acheron. The dog Cerberus 
 watched at his feet, the harpies hovered round 
 him, Proserpine sat on his left hand, and near 
 to the goddess stood the Eumenides, with their 
 heads covered with snakes. The Parcae occu- 
 pied the right, and they each held in their hands 
 the symbols of their office, the distaff, the spin- 
 dle, and the scissors. Pluto is called by some 
 the father of the Eumenides. During the war 
 of the gods and the Titans, the Cyclops made 
 a helmet, which rendered the bearer invisible, 
 and gave it to Pluto. Perseus was armed with 
 it when he conquered the Gorgons. Hesiod. 
 Theog. — Homer. IL. — Apollod. 1, &c. — Hygin. 
 fab. 155. P. A. 2.— Stat. Theb. S.—Diod. 3.— 
 Ovid. Met. 5, fab. 6.— Paus. 2, c. 36.— Orpheus. 
 Hymn. 17, &.c.—Cic. de Nat. D.2. c. 26.— Pla- 
 to de Rep. — Euripid. in Med. Hippol. — jEschyl. 
 in Pres. Prom. — Varro L. L. 4. — Catull. ep.'S. 
 — Virg. G. 4, V. 502. Mn. 6, v. 273, I. 8, v. 
 2%.—Lucan. 6, v. llb.—Horat. 2, od. 3 and 18. 
 — Senec. in Her. fur. 
 
 Plutds, son of Jasion or Jasius, by Ceres, 
 the goddess of corn, has been confounded by 
 many of the mythologists with Pluto, though 
 plainly distinguished from him as being the god 
 of riches. He was brought up by the goddess 
 of peace, and on that account Pax was repre- 
 sented at Athens as holding the god of wealth 
 in her lap. The Greeks spoke of him as of a 
 fickle divinity. They represented him as blind, 
 because he distributed riches indiscriminately ; 
 he was lame,because he came slow and gradual- 
 ly; but had wings, to intimate that he flew 
 away with more velocity than he approached 
 mankind. L/acian. in Tim. Paus. 9, c. 16 
 and 26. — Hygin. P. A. — Aristoph. in Plut. 
 Diod. b.— Hesiod. Th. 910.— Dion. Hal. 1, c. 53. 
 
 Pluvius, a surname of Jupiter as god of rain. 
 He was invoked by that name among the Ro- 
 mans, whenever the earth was parched up by 
 continual heat, and was in want of refreshmg 
 showers. He had an altar in the temple on the 
 capitoL TibvZl. 1, el. 7, v. 26. 
 767 
 
PO 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PO 
 
 PoDALiRius, a son of JEsculapius and Epi- 
 one. He was one of the pupils of the Centaur 
 Chiron, and he made himself under him such 
 a master of medicme, that during the Trojan 
 war, the Greeks invited him to their camp, to 
 stop a pestilence which had baffled the skill of 
 all their physicians. Some, however, suppose 
 that he went to the Trojan war, not in the ca- 
 pacity of a physician in the Grecian army, but 
 as a warrior, attended by his brother Machaon, 
 in 30 ships with soldiers from CEcalia, Ithome, 
 and Trica. At his return from the Trojan war, 
 Podalirius was shipwrecked on the coast of Ca- 
 ria, where he cured of the falling sickness and 
 married a daughter of Damcetas, the king of the 
 place. He fixed his habitation there, and built 
 two towns, one of which he called Syrna, by 
 the name of his wife. The Carians, after his 
 death, built him a temple, and paid him divine 
 honours. Dictys Cret. — Q. Smyrn. 6 and 9. — 
 Ovid, de Art. Am. 2.— TrUt. el. 6.— Pans. 3. 
 
 Pollux, a son of Jupiter by Leda the wife 
 of Tyndarus. He was brother to Castor. Vid. 
 Castor. 
 
 PoLYBius, or PoLYBus, a king of Corinth, 
 who married Periboea, whom some have called 
 Merope. He was son of Mercury by Chtho- 
 nophyle, the daughter of Sicyon, king of Sicyon, 
 He permitted his wife, who had no children to 
 adopt and educate as her own son, CEdipus, 
 who had been found by his shepherds exposed 
 in the woods. He had a daughter called Lysia- 
 nassa, whom he gave in marriage to Talaus, 
 son of Bias, king of Argos. As he had no male 
 child, he left his kingdom to Adrastus, who had 
 been banished from his throne, and who had 
 fled to Corinth for protection. Hygin. fab. 66. 
 Paus. 2, c. 6. — Apollod. 3, c. 5. — Seneca in 
 (Edip. 812. 
 
 PoLYBOTEs, one of the giants who made war 
 against Jupiter. He was killed by Neptune, 
 w^ho crushed him under a part of the island of 
 Cos, as he was walking across the Mgewa.. 
 Paus. 1, c. 2. — Hygin. in pr a fab. 
 
 PoLYBUs, a king of Corinth. Vid. Polybius. 
 
 PoLYCAON, a son of Lelex, who succeeded 
 his brother Myles. He received divine honours 
 after death, with his wife Messene, at Lace- 
 dsemon, where he had reigned. Paus. 4, c. 1, 
 &c. 
 
 PoLYDAMAs. Vid. Part II. 
 
 PoLYDECTES, a SOU of Magncs, king of the 
 island of Seriphos. He received with great 
 kindness Danae and her son Perseus, who had 
 been exposed on the sea by Acrisius. Vid. 
 Perseus, He took particular care of the edu- 
 cation of Perseus ; but when he became ena- 
 moured of Danae, he removed him from his 
 kingdom,apprehensive of his resentment. Some 
 time after he paid his addresses to Danae, and 
 when she rejected him, he prepared to offer her 
 violence. Danae fled to the altar of Minerva 
 for protection, and Dictys, the brother of Poly- 
 dectes, who had himself saved her from the sea- 
 waters, opposed her ravisher, and armed him- 
 self in her defence. At this critical moment 
 Perseus arrived, and with Medusa's head he 
 turned into stones Polydectes and the associ- 
 ates of his guilt. The crown of Seriphos was 
 given to Dictys, who had shown himself so ac- 
 tive in the cause of innocence. Ovid. Met. 5, 
 V. 'im.— Hygin. fab. 63, &c. 
 768 
 
 PoLYDoEA, I. a daughter of Peleus, king of 
 Thessaly, by Antigone, the daughter of Eury- 
 tion. She married the river Sperchius, by whom 
 she had Mnestheus. Apollod. II. A daugh- 
 ter of Meleager, king of Calydon, who married 
 Protesilaus. She killed herself when she heard 
 that her husband was dead. The wife of Pro- 
 tesilaus is more commonly called Laodamia. 
 Vid. Protesilaus. Paus. 4, c. 2. 
 
 PoLYDORUS. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Polyhymnia, and Polymnia, one of the 
 Muses, daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. 
 She presided over singing and rhetoric, and 
 was deemed the inventress of harmony. She 
 was represented veiled in white, holding a 
 sceptre in her left hand, and with her right 
 raised up, as if ready to harangue. She had a 
 crown of jewels on her head. Hesiod. Theog. 
 75 and 915. — Plut. in Symp. — Horat. 1, od. 1. 
 — Ovid. Fast. 5, v. 9 and 53. 
 
 PoLYMEDE, a daughter of Autolycus, w^ho 
 married iEson, by whom she had Jason. She 
 survived her husband only a few days. Apol- 
 lod. 1, c. 13. 
 
 PoLYMNESTOR. Vid. Part II. 
 
 PoLYNiCEs, a son of CEdipus and Jocasta. 
 Vid. Eteocles. 
 
 PoLYPEMON, Procrustes. Ovid calls him fa- 
 ther of Procrustes. Vid. Procrustes. 
 
 Polyphemus, a celebrated Cyclops, king of 
 all the Cyclops in Sicily, and son of Neptune 
 and Thoosa, the daughter of Phorcys. He is 
 represented as a monster of strength, of a tall 
 stature, and one eye in the middle of the fore- 
 head. He fed upon human flesh, and kept his 
 flocks on the coast of Sicily, when Ulysses, at 
 his return from the Trojan war, was driven 
 there. The Grecian prince, with twelve of his 
 companions, visited the coast, and were seized 
 by the Cyclops, who confined them in his cave, 
 and daily devoured two of them. Ulysses would 
 have shared the fate of his companions, had he 
 not intoxicated the Cyclops, and put out his 
 eye with a firebrand while he was asleep. Po- 
 lyphemus was awakened by the sudden pain, he 
 stopped the entrance of his cave, but Ulysses 
 made his escape by creeping between the legs 
 of the rams of the Cyclops, as they were led out 
 to feed on the mountains. Polyphemus became 
 enamoured of Galataea, but his addresses were 
 disregarded, and the nymph shunned his pre- 
 sence. The Cyclops was more earnest ; and 
 when he saw Galatsea surrender herself to the 
 pleasures of Acis, he crushed his rival with a 
 piece of a broken rock. Theocrit. 1. — Ovid. 
 Met. 13, V. 112.— Homer. Od. 19.— Eurip. in 
 Cyclop. — Hygin. fab. 125. — Virg. JEn. 3, v. 
 619, &c. 
 
 PoLYXENA. Vid. Part II. 
 
 PoLYxo, a priestess of Apollo's temple in 
 Lemnos. She was also nurse to Q.ueen Hypsi- 
 pyle. It was by her advice that the Lemnian 
 women murdered all their husbands. Apol- 
 lon. 1. — Place. 2. — Hygin. fab. 15. Vid. Part 
 II. 
 
 Pomona, a nymph at Rome, who was sup- 
 posed to preside over gardens, and to be the 
 goddess of all sorts of fruit-trees. She had a 
 temple at Rome, and a regular priest called Fla- 
 mens Pomonalis, who offered sacrifices to her 
 divinity for the preservation of fruit. Many of 
 the gocfs of the country endeavoured to gain her 
 
PR 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PR 
 
 affection, but she received their addresses with 
 coldness. Vertumnus was the only one who, 
 by assuming different shapes, 'and introducing 
 himself into her company, under the form of an 
 old woman, prevailed upon her to break her 
 vow of celibacy and to marry him. This deity 
 was unknown among the Greeks. Ovid. Met. 
 14, V. 628, &.c.—Festus de V. sig. 
 
 PoMPiLUs, a fisherman of Ionia, He carried 
 into Miletus, Ocyroe, the daughter of Chesias, 
 of whom Apollo was enamoured ; but before he 
 had reached the shore, the god changed ihe boat 
 into a rock, Pompilius into a fish of the same 
 name, and carried away Ocyroe. Plin. 6, c. 
 29, 1. 9, c. 15, 1. 32, c. 11. 
 
 PoNTus, an ancient deity, the same as Ocean- 
 us. ApoUod. 1, c- 2. 
 
 Prophyrion, a son of Ccelus and Terra, one 
 of the giants who made war against Jupiter. 
 He was so formidable, that Jupiter, to conquer 
 him, inspired him with love for Juno, and while 
 the giant endeavoured to obtain his wishes, he, 
 with the assistance of Hercules, overpowered 
 him. Horat. 3, od. 4.— Mart. 13, ep. 78.— 
 ApoUod. 1, c. 6. 
 
 PoRus, the god of Plenty at Rome, He was 
 son of Metis or Prudence. Plato. Vid. Part. 
 
 II, 
 
 PcsTVERTA, a goddess at Rome, who pre- 
 sided over the painful travails of women. Ovid. 
 Fast. 1, V. 633, 
 
 Praxidace, a goddess among the Greeks, 
 who presided over the execution of enterprises, 
 and who punished all evil actions, Paus. 9, c. 
 33. 
 
 Praxis, a surname of Venus at Megara. 
 Paus. 1, c. 43. 
 
 Praxithea, a daughter of Phrasimus and 
 Diogenea. She married Erechtheus, king of 
 Athens, by whom she had Cecrops, Pandarus, 
 and Metion, and four daughters, Precis, Creu- 
 sa Chthonia, aud Crithyia. ApoUod. 3, c, 15. 
 
 Priapus, an obscene deity among the ancients, 
 son of Venus by Mercury or Adonis; or, 
 according to the more received opinion, by- 
 Bacchus. He was born at Lampsacus. Pri- 
 apus was so deformed in all his limbs, by means 
 of Juno, that the mother, ashamed to have given 
 birth to such a monster, ordered him to be ex- 
 posed on the mountains. His life, however, 
 was preserved by shepherds. He soon became 
 a favourite of the people of Lampsacus, but was 
 at length expelled by the inhabitants on account 
 of his licentiousness. This violence was pun- 
 ished by the son of Venus, who was recalled, 
 and temples erected to his honour. Festivals 
 were also celebrated ; and the people, naturally 
 idle and indolent, gave themselves up to every 
 impurity during the celebration. His worship 
 was also introduced in Rome ; but the Romans 
 revered him more as god of orchards and 
 gardens than as the patron of licentiousness. 
 A crown, painted with different colours, was 
 offered to him in the spring, and in the summer a 
 garland of ears of corn . He is generally repre- 
 sented with a human face and the ears of a 
 goat ; he holds a stick in his hand, with which 
 he terrifies birds, as also a club to drive away 
 thieves, and a scythe to prune the trees, and cut 
 down corn. He was crowned with the leaves 
 of the vine, and sometimes with laurel or rocket. 
 IPriapus is often distinguished by the epithet of 
 
 Part III.— 5 E 
 
 phaUus, fascinus, JtyphaUus, or rtiber, or rubi- 
 cundus. CatuU. ep. 19 and 20. — Column. 2, de 
 Cult/tort. — Horat. 1, sat. 1. — TibtUl. 1, el. 1, v. 
 18.— Ovid. Fast. I. v. 415, 1. 6, v. 319,— Fir^. 
 Ed. 7, V. 33, G. 4. v. Ul.—Paus. 9, c. 31.— 
 Hygin. fab. 190.— Diod. 1, 
 
 Procne, a daughter of Pandion, king of 
 Athens, by Zeuxippe. She married Tereus 
 king of Thrace, by whom she had a son called 
 Itylus, or Itys, Vid. Pkilomela. 
 
 Procris, a daughter of Erechtheus, king of 
 Athens. She married Cephalus. Vid. Cepha- 
 lus. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 435. 
 
 Procrustes, a famous robber of Attica, killed 
 by Theseus, near the Cephisus. He lied tra- 
 vellers on a bed, and if their length exceeded 
 that of the bed, he used to cut it off, but if they 
 were shorter he had them stretched to make 
 their length equal to it. He is called by some 
 Damastes and Polypemon. Ovid. Heroid. 2, 
 V. 59. Met. 7, v. 4^.— Paus. in Thes. 
 
 Prcetides, the daughters of Prcetus, king of 
 Argolis, were three in number, Lysippe, Iphi- 
 noe, Iphianassa. They became insane for neg- 
 lecting the worship of Bacchus, or, according 
 to others, for preferring themselves to Juno, and 
 they ran about the fields believing themselves to 
 be cows, and flying away not to be harnessed 
 to the plough or to the chariot. Prcetus applied 
 to Melampus to cure his daughters of their in- 
 sanity, but he refused to employ him when he 
 demanded the third part of his kingdom as a 
 reward. This neglect of Proetus was punished, 
 the insanity became contagious, and the mon- 
 arch at last promised Melampus two parts of 
 his kingdom and one of his daughters, if he 
 would restore them and the Argian women to 
 their senses. Melampus consented, and after 
 he had wrought the cure, he married the most 
 beautiful of the Prcetides. Some have called 
 them Lysippe, Ipponoe, and Cyrianassa. Apol- 
 lod. 2, c. ^.— Virg. Ed. 6, v. 48.— Ovid. Met. 
 15. — Ladant. ad Stat. Theb. 1 and 3, 
 
 Prcetus, Vid. Part II. 
 
 Prometheus, a son of lapetus by Clymene, 
 one of the Oceanides, He was brother to Atlas, 
 Menoetius, and Epimetheus ; and surpassed all 
 mankind in cunning and fraud. He sacrificed 
 two bulls, and filled their skins, one with the 
 flesh and the other with the bones, and asked 
 the father of the gods which of the two he pre- 
 ferred as an offering. Jupiter became the dupe 
 of his artifice, and chose the bones ; and from 
 that time the priests of the temples were ever 
 after ordered to burn the whole victims on the 
 altars, the flesh and the bones altogether. To 
 punish Prometheus and the rest of mankind, 
 Jupiter took fire away from the earth, but the 
 son of lapetus climbed the heavens by the assist- 
 ance of Minerva, and stole fire from the chariot 
 of the sun, which he brought down upon the 
 earth at the end of a ferula. This provoked 
 Jupiter the more ; he ordered Vulcan to make 
 a woman of clay, and after he had given her 
 life, he sent her to Prometheus, with a box of 
 the richest and most valuable presents which he 
 had received from the gods. Vid. Pandora. 
 Prometheus, who suspected Jupiter, took no 
 notice of Pandora or her box, but he made his 
 brother Epimetheus marry her; and the god, 
 now more irritated, ordered Mercury, orVulcan 
 according to ^schylus. to carry this artful mor- 
 769 
 
PR 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 PS 
 
 tal to mount Caucasus, and there tie him to a 
 rock, where, for 30,000 years, a vulture was to 
 feed upon his liver, which was never diminished 
 though continually devoured. He was deliv- 
 ered from this painful confinement about thirty 
 years afterwards by Hercules, who killed the 
 bird of prey. According to Apollodorus, Pro- 
 metheus made the first man and woman that 
 ever were upon the earth, with clay, which he 
 animated by means of the fire which he had 
 stolen from heaven. On this account, therefore, 
 the Athenians raised him an altar in the grove 
 of Academus, where they yearly celebrated 
 games in his honour. Hesiod. Theog. 510 and 
 550. — Apollod. 1 and 2. — Pans. 1, c. 30, 1. 5, c. 
 11. — Hygin. fab. 144. — ^schyl. in Prom. — 
 Virg. Ed. 6.— Ovid. Met. 1, v. 82.— Horat. 1, 
 od. 3. — Seneca in Med. 823. 
 
 Pronuba, a surname of Juno, because she 
 presided over marriages. Virg. yEw, 4, v. 166. 
 
 PROPCBT\'DEs,some women of Cyprus, severely 
 punished by Venus, whose divinity they had 
 despised. The poets have feigned that they 
 were changed into stones, on account of their 
 insensibility to every virtuous sentiment. Jus- 
 tin. 18, c. b.—Ovid. Met. 10, v. 238. 
 
 Propylea, a surname of Diana. She had a 
 temple at Eleusis in Attica. 
 
 Prosclystius, a surname of Neptune among 
 the Greeks. Pans. 2. 
 
 Proserpina, a daughter of Ceres by Jupiter, 
 called by the Greeks Persephone. Proserpine 
 made Sicily the place of her residence, and 
 delighted herself with the beautiful views, the 
 flowery meadows, and limpid streams, which 
 surrounded the plains of Enna. In this solitary 
 retreat, as she amused herself wiih her female 
 attendants in gathering flowers, Pluto carried 
 her away into the infernal regions, of which 
 she became the queen. Ceres soon learned 
 from the nymph Arethusa that her daughter 
 had been carried away by Pluto, and imme- 
 diately she repaired to Jupiter, and demanded 
 of him to punish the ravisher. Jupiter said that 
 she might return on earth if she had not taken 
 any aliment in the infernal regions. Her re- 
 turn, however, was impossible. Proserpine, as 
 she walked in the Elysian fields, had gathered 
 a pomegranate from a tree and eaten it, Jupi- 
 ter to appease the resentment of Ceres, and 
 sooth her grief, permitted that Proserpine should 
 remain six months with Pluto in the infernal 
 regions, and that she should spend the rest of 
 the year with her mother on earth. As queen 
 of hell and wife of Pluto, Proserpine presided 
 over the death of mankmd ; and, according to 
 the opinion of the ancients, no one could die, if 
 the goddess herself, or Atropos, her minister, 
 did not cut off" one of the hairs from the head. 
 From this superstitious belief, it was usual to 
 cut off" some of the hair of the deceased, and to 
 strew it at the door of the house, as an oflfering 
 for Proserpine. The Sicilians were very par- 
 ticular in their worship to Proserpine, and as 
 they believed that the fountain Cyane had risen 
 from the earth at the very place where Pluto 
 had opened himself a passage, they annually 
 sacrificed there a bull, of which they suffered 
 the blood to run into the water. Proserpine 
 was universally worshipped by the ancients, 
 and she was known by the dififerent names of 
 Theogamia. Libitina, Hecate, Jmio inferna. 
 770 
 
 Anthesphoria, &c. Plut. in Luc. — Paus. 8, c. 
 37, 1. 9, c. 31.— Ovid. Met, b, fab. 6. Fast. ^^ 
 V. 417.— Fir^-. ^n. 4, v. 698. 1. 6, v. 138.— 
 Strab. 7. — Diod. 5. — Cic. in Verr. 4. — Hygin. 
 fab. 146. — Hesiod. Theog. — Apollod. 1, c. 3. — 
 Orpheus. Hymn. 28. — Claudian. de Rapt. Pros. 
 
 Protesilaus, a king of part of Thessaly, 
 son of Iphiclus, originally called lolaus, grand- 
 son of Phylacus, and brother to Alcimede, the 
 mother of Jason. He married Laodamia, the 
 daughter of Acastus, and, some time after, he 
 departed- with the rest of the Greeks for the 
 Trojan war with 40 sail. He was the first of 
 the Greeks who set foot on the Trojan shore, 
 and, as such, he was doomed by the oracle to 
 perish ; therefore he was killed, as soon as he 
 had leaped from his ship, by ^neas or Hector. 
 Homer has not mentioned the person who kill- 
 ed him. Vid. Laodamia. Protesilaus has re- 
 ceived the patronymic of Phijlacides, either 
 because he was descended from Phylacus,or be- 
 cause he was a native of Phylace. He was bu- 
 ried on the Trojan shore, and, according to Pli- 
 ny, there were near his tomb certain trees which 
 grew to an extraordinary height, which, as soon 
 as they could be discovered and seen from Troy, 
 immediately withered and decayed, and after- 
 wards grew up again to their former height, and 
 suffered the same vicissitude. Homer. II. 2, v. 
 20b.— Ovid. Met. 12, fab. l.—Heroid. 13, v. 
 11.— Propert. 1, el. 19.— Hygin. fab. 103, &c. 
 
 Proteus, a sea-deity, son of Oceanus and 
 Tethys, or, according to some, of Neptune and 
 Phoenice. He had received the gift of prophecy 
 from Neptune, because he had tended the mon- 
 sters of the sea ; and from his knowledge of 
 futurity mankind received the greatest services,. 
 He usually resided in the Carpathian Sea, and 
 like the rest of the gods, he reposed himself on 
 the seashore, where such as wished to consult 
 him generally resorted. He was difficult of 
 access, and when consulted he refused to give 
 answers, by immediately assuming different 
 shapes, and, if not properly secured in fetters, 
 eluding the grasp in the form of a tiger or a 
 lion, or disappearing in a flame of fire, a whirl- 
 wind, or a rushing stream. Aristaeus and Men- 
 elaus were in the number of those who consult- 
 ed him, as also Hercules. Some suppose that 
 he was originally king of Egypt, known among 
 his subjects by the name of Cetes; and they as- 
 sert that he had two sons, Telegonus, and Poly- 
 gonus, who were both killed by Hercules. He 
 had also some daughters, among whom were 
 Cabira, Eidothea, and Rhetia. Homer. Od. 4, 
 V. 360.— Ovid. Met. 8, fab. 10. Am. el. 12, v. 
 36.— Hesiod. Theog. v. 2A3.— Virg. G. 4, v. 387. 
 —Hygin. fab. 1 18.— Herodot. 2, c. 112.— Diod. 1. 
 
 Protogenea, a daughter of Calydon, by 
 iEolia the daughter of Amythaon. She had a 
 son called Oxillus by Mars. Apollod. 1. 
 
 Protogenia, I. a daughter of Deucalion and 
 Pyrrha. She was beloved by Jupiter, by whom 
 she had iEthlius, the father of Endymion. 
 Apollod. 1, c. 7. — Paus. 5, c. 1. Hygin. fab. 
 155. II. Another. Vid. Protogenea. 
 
 Psamathe, I. one of the Nereides, mother of 
 Phocus by iEacus, king of ^gina. Apollod. 
 3, c. 12.— Ovid. Met. 11, v. 398.— Flacc.v. 364. 
 II. Adaughter of Crotopus, king of Argos. 
 
 She became mother of Linus by Apollo, and, 
 to conceal her shame from her father she ex- 
 
PY 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 RE 
 
 posed her shild, which was found by dogs and 
 torn to pieces. Pans. 1, c. 43. 
 
 Psyche, a nymph whom Cupid married. Ve- 
 nus pal her to death because she had robbed the 
 world of her son ; but Jupiter at the request of 
 Cupid, granted immortality to Psyche. The 
 word signifies the soul, and this personification 
 of Psyche, first mentioned by Apuleius, is pos- 
 terior to the Augustan age, though still it is 
 connected with ancient mythology. Psyche is 
 generally represented with the wings of a but- 
 terfly, to intimate the lightness of the soul, of 
 which the butterfly is the symbol. 
 
 PuDiciTiA, a goddess who, as her name im- 
 plies, presided over chastity. She had two tem- 
 ples at Rome. Festus. de V. sig. — Liv. 10, c. 7. 
 
 PYGMiEi, a nation of dwarfs, in the extremest 
 parts of India, or, according toothers, in Mihio- 
 pia. Some authors affirm that they were no 
 more than one foot high, and that they built 
 their houses with egg-shells. Aristotle says 
 that they lived in holes under the earth, and 
 that they came out in the harvest-time with 
 hatchets to cut down the corn as if to fell a 
 forest. They went on goats and lambs of pro- 
 portionable stature to themselves, to make war 
 against certain birds whom some call cranes, 
 which came there yearly from Scythia to plun- 
 der them. They were originally governed by 
 Gerana, a princess, who was changed into a 
 crane, for boasting herself fairer than Juno. 
 Ovid. Met. 6, v. 90.— Homer. 11. Z.—Strab. 7. 
 — AHst. Anim. 8, c. 12.- — Juv. 13, v. 186. — 
 Plin. 4, &c. — Mela, 3, c. 8. — Siiet. in Aug. 83. 
 — Philostr Icon. 2, c. 22, mentions that Her- 
 cules once fell asleep in the deserts of Africa, 
 aftef he had conquered Antaeus, and that he 
 was suddenly awakened by an attack which 
 had been made upon his body by an army of 
 these Liliputians, who discharged their arrows 
 with great fury upon his arms and legs. The 
 hero, pleased with their courage, wrapped the 
 greatest number of them in the skin of the 
 Nemsean lion, and carried them to Eurystheus, 
 to whom the art and the hatred of Juno had 
 rendered him subject. 
 
 Pygmalion, Vid. Part II. 
 
 Pylades, Vid. Part 11. 
 
 Pyracmon, one of Vulcan's workmen in the 
 forges of mount ^tna. The name is derived 
 from two Greek words, which signify fire and 
 an anvil. Virg. Mn. 8, v. 42.5. 
 
 Pyramus, a youth of Babylon, who became 
 enamoured of Thisbe, a beautiful virgin, who 
 dwelt in the neighbourhood. The flame w^as 
 mutual, and the two lovers, whom their parents 
 forbad to marry, regularly received each other's 
 addresses through the chink of a wall which 
 separated their houses. After the most solemn 
 vows of sincerity, they both agreed to elude the 
 vigilance of their friends, and to meet one an- 
 other at the tomb of Ninus, under a white mul- 
 berry tree, without the walls of Babylon. Thisbe 
 came first to the appointed place, but the sudden 
 arrival of a lioness frightened her away; and 
 as she fled into a neighbouring cave, she 
 dropped her veil, which the lioness found and 
 besmeared with blood. Pyramus soon arrived ; 
 he found Thisbe's veil all bloody, and conclud- 
 ing that she had been torn to pieces by the wild 
 beasts of the place, he stabbed himself with his 
 sword. Thisbe, when her fears were vanished, 
 
 returned from the cave, and at the sight of the 
 dying Pyramus, she fell upon the sword which 
 still reeked with his blood. This tragical scene 
 happened under a white mulberry tree, which, 
 as the poets mention, was stained with the blood 
 of the lovers, and ever after bore fruit of the 
 colour of blood. Ovid. Met. 4, v. 55, &c. — 
 Hygin. fab. 243. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Pyren^os, a king of Thrace, who, during a 
 shower of rain, gave shelter in his house to the 
 nine Muses, and attempted to ofier them vio- 
 lence. The goddesses upon this took to their 
 wings and flew away. Pyrenseus, who attempted 
 to follow them, as if he had wings, threw him- 
 self down from the top of a tower and was 
 killed. Ovid. Met. 5, v. 274. 
 
 Pyrene, I. a daughter of Bebrycius, king of 
 the southern parts of Spam. Hercules offered 
 violence to her before he went to attack Geryon, 
 and she brought into the world a serpent, which 
 so terrified her that she fled into the woods, 
 where she was torn to pieces by wild beasts. 
 
 II. A nymph, mother of Cycnus by Mars. 
 
 Apollod. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Pyrodes, a son of Cilix, said to be the first 
 who discovered, and applied to human purposes, 
 the fire concealed in flints. Plin. 7, c. 56. 
 
 Pyrrha, a daughter of Epimethus and Pan- 
 dora, v/ho married Deucalion, the son of 
 Prometheus, who reigned in Thessaly. Vid. 
 Deucalion. Pyrrha became mother of Am- 
 phictyon, Hellen, and Protogenea, by Deuca- 
 lion, Ovid. Met. 1, v. 350, &c. — Hygin. fab. 
 VSi.—Apollon. Rhod. 3, v. 1085. 
 
 Pythius, a surname of Apollo, which he had 
 received for his having conquered the serpent 
 Python, or because he was worshipped at Del- 
 phi ; called also Pytho, Macrob. 1, sat. 17. — 
 Propert. 2, el. 23, v, 16. 
 
 Python, a celebrated serpent, sprung from 
 the mud and stagnated waters which remained 
 on the surface of the earth after the deluge of 
 Deucalion. Some, however, suppose that it 
 was produced from the earth by Juno, and sent 
 by the goddess to persecute Latona. Apollo, 
 as soon as he was born, attacked the monster 
 and killed him with his arrows, and in comme- 
 moration of the victory which he had obtained, 
 he instituted the celebrated Pythian games. 
 Strab. S.—Paus. 2, c. 7, 1. 10, c. 6.— Hygin.— 
 Ovid. Met. 1, v. 438, &c.—Lucian. 5, v, 134. 
 
 a 
 
 ClUADRATUs, a surname given to Mercury, 
 because some of his statues were square. The 
 number 4, according to Plutarch, was sacred 
 to Mercury, because he was born on the 4th day 
 of the month, Plut. in Sympos. 9. 
 
 CluADRiFRONs, or Q.UADRICEPS, a sumame of 
 Janus, because he was represented with four 
 heads. He had a temple on the Tarpeian 
 rock, raised by L, Catulus. 
 
 CluiRiNus, a surname of Mars among the 
 Romans, This name was also given to Romu- 
 lus when he had been made a god by his super- 
 stitious subjects. Ovid. Past. 2, v. 475, 
 
 R. 
 
 Rediculus, a deity, whose name is derived 
 from the word redire, (to return.) Vid. Mdi- 
 culcB Redicula, Part I. 
 
 771 
 
RH 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 SA 
 
 Rhacius, a Cretan prince, the first of that 
 nation who entered Ionia with a colony. He 
 seized ClaroSjOf which he became the sovereign. 
 He married Manto, the daughter of Tiresias, 
 who had been seized on his coasts. Paus. 7, c. 3. 
 
 Rhadamanthus, a son of Jupiter and Europa. 
 He was born in Crete, which he abandoned 
 about the 30th year of his age. He passed into 
 some of the Cyclades, where he reigned with 
 so much justice and impartiality, that the an- 
 cients have said he became one of the judges 
 of hell, and that he was employed in the infer- 
 nal regions in obliging the dead to confess their 
 crimes, and in punishing them for their offences. 
 Rhadamanthus reigned not only over some of 
 the Cyclades, but over many of the Greek cities 
 of Asia. Paus. 8, c. bS.— Ovid. Met. 9, v. 435. 
 — Diod. 5. — Plato. — Homer. 11. 4, v. 564. — 
 Virg. Mn. 6, v. 566. 
 
 Rhamnusia, a name of Nemesis. 
 
 Rhea, I. a daughter of Coelus and Terra, who 
 married Saturn, by whom she had Vesta, Ce- 
 res, Juno, Pluto, Neptune, &c. Her husband, 
 however, devoured them all as soon as born, as 
 he had succeeded to the throne with the solemn 
 promise that he would raise no male children, 
 or, according to others, because he had been in- 
 formed by an oracle that one of his sons would 
 dethrone him. To stop the cruelty of her hus- 
 band, Rhea consulted her parents, and was ad- 
 vised to impose upon him, or perhaps to fly into 
 Crete. Accordingly, when she brought forth, 
 the child was immediately concealed, and Sa- 
 turn devoured up a stone which his wife had 
 given him as her own child. The fears of Sa- 
 turn were soon proved to be well founded. A 
 year after, the child, whose name was Jupiter, 
 became so strong and powerful, that he drove 
 his father from his throne. Rhea has been 
 confounded by the mythologists with some of 
 the other goddesses, and many have supposed 
 that she was the same divinity that received 
 adoration under the var^'ous names of Bona 
 Dea, Cybele, Dindymena, Magna Mater, Ce- 
 res, Vesta, Titgea, and Terra, Tellus, and Ops. 
 Vid. Cybele, Ceres, Vesta, &c. Rhea, after the 
 expulsion of her husband from his throne, fol- 
 lowed him to Italy, where he established a king- 
 dom. Her benevolence in this part of Europe 
 was so great, that the golden age of Saturn is 
 often called the age of Rhea. Hesiod. Theog. 
 — Orpheus, in Hymn. — Homer, ib. — Mschyl. 
 Prom. — Euripid. Bacc. <^ Elect. — Ovid. East. 
 
 4, V. 191.—Apollod. 1, c. 1, &c. II. Svlvia, 
 
 ihe mother of Romulus and Remus. She is 
 also called Ilia. Vid. Ilia. 
 
 Rhesus, a king of Thrace, son of the Stry- 
 mon and Terpsichore, or, according to others, 
 of Eioneus by Euterpe. After many warlike 
 exploits and conquests in Europe, he marched 
 to the assistance of Priam, king of Troy, against 
 the Greeks. He was expected with great im- 
 patience, as an ancient oracle had declared that 
 Troy should never be taken if the horses of 
 Rhesus drank the waters of the Xanthus, and 
 fed upon the grass of the Trojan plains. This 
 oracle was well known to the Greeks, and 
 therefore two of their best generals, Diomedes 
 and Ulysses, were commissioned bv the rest to 
 intercept the Thracian prince. The Greeks 
 entered his camp in the night, slew him, and 
 carried away his horses to their camp. Homer. 
 772 
 
 11. IQ.—Dictys Cret. 2.--ApoUod. I, c. 3.— Virg. 
 jEn. 1, V. ^13.— Ovid. Met. 13, v. 98. 
 
 Rhoebus, a horse of Mezentius, w4iom his 
 master addressed with the determination to 
 conquer or die when he saw his son Lausus 
 brought lifeless from the battle. This beautiful 
 address is copied from Homer, where likewise 
 Achilles addresses his horses. Virg. JEn. 10, 
 V. 861. 
 
 RoBiGO, or RuBiGO, a goddess at Rome, par- 
 ticularly worshipped by husbandmen, as she 
 presided over corn. Her festivals, called Ro- 
 bigalia, 'were celebrated on the 25th of April, 
 and incense was offered to her, as also the en- 
 trails of a sheep and a dog. She was entreated 
 to preserve the corn from blights. Ovid. Fast. 
 
 4, V. 2n.— Virg. G. 1, V. \b\.— Varro de L. L. 
 
 5, de R. R. 1, c. 1. 
 Romulus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sabazius, a surname of Bacchus, as also of 
 Jupiter. Cic. de Nat. D. 3, c. 'i^.—Arnob. 4. 
 
 Salamis, a daughter of the river Asopus, by 
 Methone. Neptune became enamoured of her, 
 and carried her to an island of the iEgean, 
 which afterwards bore her name, and where she 
 gave birth to Cenchreus. Diod. 4. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Salmoneus, a king of Elis, son of jEoIus and 
 Enarette, who married Alcidice, by whom he 
 had Tyro. He wished to be called a god, and 
 to receive divine honours from his subjects; 
 therefore, to imitate the thunder, he" used to 
 drive his chariot over a brazen bridge, and 
 darted burning torches on every side, as if to 
 imitate the lightning. This impiety provoked 
 Jupiter. Salmoneus was struck with a thun- 
 derbolt, and placed in the infernal regions near 
 his brother Sisyphus. Homer. Od. 11, v. 235. 
 — Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Hygin. fab. 60. — Diod. 4. — 
 Virg. JEn. 6, v. 585. 
 
 Salus, the goddess of health at Rome, wor- 
 shipped by the Greeks under the name of 
 Hygieia. Liv. 9 and 10. 
 
 Sancus, Sangus, or Sanctus, a deity of the 
 Sabines, introduced among the gods of Rome 
 under the name of Dius Fidius. According to 
 some, Sancus was father to Sabus, or Sabinus, 
 the first king of the Sabines. Ital. 8, v. 421. — 
 Varro. de L. L. 4, c. 10.— Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 213. 
 
 Saron, a king of Troezene, unusually fond of 
 hunting. He was drowned in the sea, where 
 he had swam for some miles in pursuit of a stag. 
 He was made a sea-god by Neptune, and divine 
 honours were paid to him by the Troezenians. 
 It was customary for sailors to offer him sacri- 
 fices before the<y embarked. That part of the 
 sea where he was drowned, was called Saroni- 
 cus Sinus. Saron built a temple to Diana at 
 Troezene, and instituted festivals to her honour, 
 called from himself Saronia. Paus. 2, c. 30. — 
 Mela, 2, c. S.—Strab. 8. 
 
 Sarpedon, I. a son of Jupiter, by Europa, the 
 daughter of Agenor. He banished himself from 
 Crete, after he had in vain attempted to make 
 himself king in preference to his elder brother 
 Minos, and he retired to Caria, where he built 
 the town of Miletus. He went to the Trojan 
 war to assist Priam against the Greeks, where 
 he was attended by his friend and companion 
 Glaucus. He was at last killed by Patroclus, 
 
^A 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 SE 
 
 after he had made a great slaughter of the ene- 
 my, and his body, by order of Jupiter, was con- 
 veyed to Lycia, by Apollo, where his friends 
 and relations paid him funeral honours, and 
 raised a monument to perpetuate his valour. 
 According to some mythologists, the brother 
 of King Mmos, and the prince who assisted 
 Priam, were two different persons. This last 
 was king of Lycia, and son of Jupiter by Lao- 
 damia, the daughter of Bellerophon, and liv^d 
 about a hundred years after the age of the son 
 of Europa. Apollod. 3, c. 1. — Herodot. 1, c. 
 
 ll^i.Strab. 12.— Homer. E. 16. II. A son 
 
 of Neptune, killed by Hercules for his barba- 
 rous treatment of strangers. Vid. Part I, 
 
 Satdrnius, a name given to Jupiter, Pluto, 
 and Neptune, as being the sons of Saturn. 
 
 Saturnus, a son of CobIus, or Uranus, by 
 Terra, called also Titea, Thea, or Titheia. He 
 was naturally artful, and by means of his mo- 
 ther, revenged himself on his father, and for 
 ever prevented him from increasing the num- 
 ber of his children, whom he had treated with 
 unkindness and confined in the infernal regions. 
 After this, the sons of Coelus were restored to 
 liberty, and Saturn obtained his father's king- 
 dom by the consent of his brother, provided he 
 did not bring up any male children. Pursuant 
 to this agreement, Saturn always devoured his 
 sons as soon as born, because, as some observe, 
 he dreaded from them a retaliation of his un- 
 kindness to his father, till his wife Rhea, unwil- 
 ling to see her children perish, concealed from 
 her husband the birth of Jupiter, Neptune, and 
 Pluto, and instead of the children, she gave him 
 large stones, which he immediately swallowed 
 without perceiving the deceit. Titan was some 
 time after informed that Saturn had concealed 
 his male children, therefore he made war 
 against him, dethroned and imprisoned him 
 with Rhea; and Jupiter, who was secretly edu- 
 cated in Crete, was no sooner grown up, than 
 he flew to deliver his father, and to replace him 
 on his throne. Saturn, unmindful of his son's 
 kindness, conspired against him when he heard 
 that he raised cabals against him ; but Jupiter 
 banished him from his throne, and the father 
 fled for safety into Italy, where the country re- 
 tained the name of Latium, as being the place 
 of his concealment (lateo). Janus who was then 
 king of Italy, received Saturn with marks of 
 attention, he made him his partner on the 
 throne ; and the king of heaven employed him- 
 self in civilizing the barbarous manners of the 
 people of Italy, and in teaching them agricul- 
 ture and the useful and liberal arts. His reign 
 there was so mild and popular, so beneficent 
 and virtuous, that mankind have called it the 
 golden age, to intimate the happiness and tran- 
 quillity which the earth then enjoyed. The wor- 
 ship of Saturn was not so solemn or so univer- 
 sal as that of Jupiter. It was usual to offer 
 human victims on his altars ; but this barba- 
 rous custom was abolished by Hercules, who 
 substituted small images of clay. In the sac- 
 rifices of Saturn, the priest always perform- 
 ed the ceremony with his bead uncovered, 
 which was unusual at other solemnities. The 
 god is generally represented as an old man 
 bent through age and infirmity. He holds a 
 scythe in his right hand , with a serpent which 
 bites its own tail, which is an emblem of time 
 
 and of the revolution of the year. In his left 
 hand he holds a child, which he raises up as 
 if instantly to devour it. Tatius, king of 
 the Sabines, first built a temple to Saturn on 
 the Capitoline hill, a second was afterwards 
 added by Tullus Hostilius, and a third by the 
 first consuls. On his statues were generally 
 hung fetterSjin commemoration of the chains he 
 had worn when imprisoned by Jupiter. From 
 this circumstance all slaves that obtained their 
 liberty generally dedicated their fetters to him. 
 During the celebration of the Saturnalia, the 
 chains were taken from the statues, to intimate 
 the freedom and the independence which man- 
 kind enjoyed during the golden age. One of 
 his temples at Rome was appropriated for the 
 public treasury, and it was there ^Jso that the 
 names of foreign ambassadors were enrolled. 
 Hesiod. Theog. — Apollod. I, c. 1. — Virg. jEn. 
 8, V. 2\9.— Pates. 8, c. 8.— Tibull. el. 3, v. 35. 
 —Homer. 11— Ovid. Fast. 4, v. \dl.—Met. 1, 
 V. 123. 
 
 Satyri, demi-gods of the country, whose 
 origin is unknown. They are represented like 
 men, but with the feet and the legs of goats,short 
 horns on the head, and the whole body covered 
 with thick hair. They chiefly attended upon 
 Bacchus, and rendered themselves known in 
 his orgies by their riot and lasciviousness. The 
 first fruits of eveiy thing were generally offered 
 to them. The Romans promiscuously called 
 them Fauni Panes, and Sylvani. It is said 
 that a Satyr was brought to Sylla, as that 
 general returned from Thessaly. The monster 
 had been surprised while asleep in a cave ; but 
 his voice was inarticulate when brought into 
 the presence of the Roman general, and Sylla 
 was so disgusted with it, that he ordered it to be 
 instantly removed. The monster answered in 
 every degree the description which the poets 
 and painters have given of the Satyrs. Pans. 
 1, c. 2^.— Pint, in Syll.— Virg. Eel 5, v. 13.— 
 Ovid. Heroid. 4, v. 171. 
 
 Saurus, a famous robber of Elis, killed by 
 Hercules. Pans. 6, c. 21. 
 
 ScAMANDER, a son of Corybas and Demodice, 
 who brought a colony from Crete into Phrygia, 
 and settled at the foot of mount Ida, where he 
 introduced the festivals of Cybele and the 
 dances of the Corybantes. He, some time after, 
 lost the use of his senses, and threw himself 
 into the river Xanthus, which ever after bore 
 his name. His son-in-law Teucer succeeded 
 him in the government of the colony. He had 
 two daughters, Thymo and Callirhoe. Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. 12.—Diod. 4. Vid. Part I. 
 
 SciASTEs, a surname of Apollo at Laceds- 
 mon, from -the village Scias, where he was 
 particularly worshipped. Lycoph. 562. Tzetzes. 
 loco. 
 
 SciNis, a cruel robber, who tied men to the 
 boughs of trees, which he had forcibly brought 
 together, and which he aflerwards unloosened 
 so that their limbs were torn in an instant from 
 their body. Ovid. Met. 7, v. 440. 
 
 SciRON, a celebrated thief in Attica, who 
 plundered the inhabitants of the country, and 
 threw them down from the highest rock into 
 the sea, after he had obliged them to wait upon 
 him and to wash his feet. Theseus attacked 
 him, and treated him as he treated travellers. 
 According to Ovid, the earth as well as the sea 
 773 
 
sc 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ■ SE 
 
 refused to receive the bones of Sciron, which 
 remained for some time suspended in the air, 
 rill they were changed into large rocks called 
 Scironia Saxa, situate between Megara and 
 Corinth. There was a road near them which 
 bore the name of Sciron, naturally small and 
 narrow, but afterwards enlarged by the emperor 
 Adrian. Some suppose thai Ino threw herself 
 into the sea from one of these rocks. Sciron 
 had married the daughter of Cychreus a king of 
 Salamis. He was brother-in-law to Telamon, 
 the son of jiEacus, Ovid. 7, Met. v. 444, He- 
 roid. 2, V. m.—Strab. 9.— Mela, 2, c. 13.— Plin. 
 
 2, c. 47. — Diod. 4. — Hygin. fab. 38. — Propert. 
 
 3, el. 14, V. 12.— Pans. 1, c. U.—Senec. N. D. 
 5, c. 17. 
 
 ScTLLA, T, a daughter of Nisus, king of Me- 
 gara, who became enamoured of Minos, as 
 that monarch besieged her father's capital. To 
 make him sensible of her passion, she informed 
 him that she would deliver Megara into his 
 hands if he promised to marry her. Minos 
 consented, and as the prosperity of Megara de- 
 pended on a golden hair which was on the head 
 of Nisus, Scylla cut it off as her father was 
 asleep, and from that moment the sallies of the 
 Megarians were unsuccessful, and the enemy 
 easily became masters of the place. Scylla was 
 disappointed in her expectations, and Minos 
 treated her with such contempt and ridicule, 
 that she threw herself from a tower into the 
 sea, or, according to other accounts, she was 
 changed into a lark by the gods, and her father 
 into a hawk. Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 393. — Paus. 
 2, c. 3i.— Propert. 3, el. 19, v. 21.— Hygin, fab. 
 198.— Virg. G. 1, v. 405, &c. II. A daugh- 
 ter of Typhon, or, as some say, of Phorcys, 
 who was greatly loved by Glaucus, one of the 
 deities of the sea. Scylla scorned the addresses 
 of Glaucus, and the god, to render her more 
 propitious, applied to Circe, whose knowledge 
 of herbs and incantations was universally ad- 
 mired. Circe no sooner saw him than she be- 
 came enamoured of him, and, instead of giving 
 him the required assistance, she attempted to 
 make him forget Scylla, but in vain. To pun- 
 ish her rival, Circe poured the juice of some 
 poisonous herbs into the waters of the fountain 
 where Scylla bathed, and no sooner had the 
 nymph touched the place, than she found every 
 part of her body below the waist, changed into 
 frightful monsters, like dogs, which never 
 ceased barking. The rest of her body assumed 
 an equally hideous form. She found herself 
 supported by twelve feet, and she had six dif- 
 ferent heads, each with three rows of teeth. 
 This sudden metamorphosis so terrified her, 
 that she threw herself into that part of the sea 
 which separates the coast of Italy and Sicily, 
 where she was changed into rocks, which con- 
 tinued to bear her name, and which were ixni- 
 versally deemed by the ancients very dangerous 
 to sailors. During a tempest the waves are 
 described by modern navigators as roaring 
 dreadfully when driven into the rough and un- 
 even cavities of the rock. Homer. Od. 12, v. 
 85.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. 66, Sac— Paus. 2, c. 34. 
 
 — Hygin. fab. 199. Some authors, as Pro- 
 
 pert'.A, el. 4, v. 39, and Virg. Eel. 4, v. 74, with 
 Ovid. Fast. 4, v. 500, have confounded the 
 daughter of Typhon with the daughter of 
 Nisus. Virg. ^n. 3, v. 424, &c. 
 774 
 
 Scythes, or Scytha, a son of Jupiter by a 
 daughter of Tellus. Half his body was that 
 of a man, aud the rest that of a serpent. He 
 became king of a country which he called 
 Scythia. Diod. 2. 
 
 Segetia, a divinity at Rome, invoked by the 
 husbandmen that the harvest might be plenti- 
 ful. Aug. de Civ. D. 4, c. Q.—Macrob. 1, c. 16. 
 —Paus. 18, c. 2. 
 
 Selimnus, a shepherd of Achaia, who, for 
 some time, enjoyed the favours of the nymph 
 Argyra without interruption. Argyra was at 
 last disgusted with her lover, and the shep- 
 herd died through melancholy, and was chang- 
 ed into a river of the same name. Argyra 
 was also changed into a fountain, and mingled 
 her waters with those of the Selimnus. Paus. 
 7, c. 23. 
 
 Semele, a daughter of Cadmus by Hermione, 
 the daughter of Mars and Venus. She was 
 tenderly beloved by Jupiter, and after death 
 was honoured with immortality under the name 
 of Thyone. Some, however, suppose that she 
 remained in the infernal regions till Bacchus, 
 her son, was permitted, to bring her back. Vid. 
 Bacchus. There were in the temple of Diana, 
 at Troezene, two altars raised to the infernal 
 gods, one of which was over an aperture through 
 which, as Pausanias reports, Bacchus returned 
 from hell with his mother. Semele was particu- 
 larly worshipped at Brasiae, in Laconia, where, 
 according to a certain tradition, she had been 
 driven by the winds with her son, after Cadmus 
 had exposed her on the sea on account of her 
 incontinent amour with Jupiter, The mother 
 of Bacchus, though she received divine hon- 
 ours, had no temples ; she had a statue in a 
 temple of Ceres, at Thebes, in Bceotia. Paus. 
 3, c. 24, 1. 9, c. b.—Hesiod. I'heog.-Homer. 11. 
 14, v. 323. — Orpheus. Hymn. — Eurip. in Bacch. 
 —Avollod. 3, c. ^.—Ovid. Met. 3, v. 254. Fast. 
 3, V? l\b.—Diod. 3 and 4, 
 
 Semones, inferior deities of Rome, not in the 
 number of the great gods. Among these were 
 Faunus, the Satyrs, Priapus, Vertumnus, Ja- 
 nus, Pan, Silenus, and all such illustrious he- 
 roes as had received divine honours after death. 
 The word seems to be the same as semi ho- 
 m%e.s,because they were inferior to the supreme 
 gods, and superior to men, Ovid. Fast. 6,v. 213. 
 
 Semosancius, one of the gods of the Romans, 
 among the Indigetes, or such as were born and 
 educated in their country. 
 
 Serapis, one of the Egyptian deities, sup- 
 posed to be the same as Osiris. He had a mag- 
 nificent temple at Memphis, another very rich 
 at Alexandria, and a third at Canopus. The 
 worship of Serapis was introduced at Rome by 
 the emperor Antoninus Pius, A. D. 146, and 
 the mysteries celebrated on the 6th of May, but 
 with so much licentiousness that the senate 
 were soon after obliged to abolish it. Herodo- 
 tus, who speaks in a very circumstantial man- 
 ner of the deities, and "of the religion of the 
 Egyptians, makes no mention of the god Sera- 
 pis. Apollodorus says it is the same as the 
 bull Apis. Paus. 1, c. 18, 1. 2, c. U.— Tacit. 
 Hist. 4, c. 83.—Strab. 11.— Martial. 9, ep. 30. 
 Though Serapis was a deity long known to 
 the Egyptians, his worship was not formally in- 
 troduced into Egypt until Ptolemy Soter caused 
 his statue to be transported from Pontus, and 
 
SI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 SI 
 
 placed in a magnificent temple erected by him 
 to receive it in Alexandria. In his minute ac- 
 count of the Egyptian religion, &c., Herodotus 
 makes no mention of Serapis, nor is he found 
 in any of the remains of antiquity of unmixed 
 Egyptian origin. He belongs, therefore, we 
 may presume, to the Alexandrian era, and 
 unites the Greek with the Egyptian mythology. 
 Sibylla, certain women inspired by heaven, 
 who flourisked in different parts of the world. 
 Their number is unknown. Plato speaks of 
 one, others of two,Pliny of three,^lian of four, 
 and Varro of ten, an opinion which is univer- 
 sally adopted by the learned. These ten Sibyls 
 generally resided in the following places,Persia, 
 Libya, Delphi, Cumae in Italy, Erythrsea, Sa- 
 mos, Cumae in Molia, Marpessa on the Helles- 
 pont, Ancyra in Phrygia, and Tiburtis. The 
 most celebrated of the Sibyls is that of Cumae 
 in Italy, whom some have called by the different 
 names of Amalthsea, Demophile, Herophile, 
 Daphne, Manto, Phemonoe, and Deiphobe. It 
 is said that Apollo became enamoured of her, 
 and that, to make her sensible of his passion, 
 he offered to give her whatever she should ask. 
 The Sibyl demanded to live as many years as 
 she had grains of sand in her hand, but unfor- 
 tunately forgot to ask for the enjoyment of the 
 health, vigour, and bloom of which she was 
 then in possession. The god granted her her 
 request, but she refused to gratify the passion of 
 her lover, though he offered her perpetual youth 
 and beauty. Some time after she became old 
 and decrepit, her form decayed, melancholy, 
 paleness and haggard looks succeeded to bloom 
 and cheerfulness. She had already lived about 
 seven hundred years when ^neas came to 
 Italy ; and, as some have imagined, she had 
 three centuries more to live before her years 
 were as numerous as the grains of sand which 
 she had in her hand. She gave iEneas instruc- 
 tions how to find his father in the infernal re- 
 gions, and even conducted him to the entrance 
 of hell. It was usual in the Sibyl to write her 
 prophecies on leaves, which she placed at the 
 entrance of her cave, and it required particular 
 care in such as consulted her to take up these 
 leaves before they were dispersed by the wind, 
 as their meaning then became incomprehensi- 
 ble. According to the most anthentic historians 
 of the Roman republic, one of the Sibyls came 
 to the palace of Tarquin the Second, with nine 
 volumes, which she offered to sell for a very 
 high price. The monarch disregarded her, and 
 she immediately disappeared, and soon after 
 returned, when she had burned three of the 
 volumes. She asked the same price for the re- 
 maining six books ; and when Tarquin refused 
 to buy them, she burned three more, and still 
 persisted in demanding the same sum of money 
 for the three that were left. This extraordinary 
 behaviour astonished Tarquin ; he bought the 
 books, and the Sibyl instantly vanished, and 
 never after appeared to the world. These 
 books were preserved with great care by the 
 monarch, and called the SibylliTie verses. A 
 college of priests was appointed to have the 
 care of them ; and such reverence did the Ro- 
 mans entertain for these prophetic books, that 
 they were consulted with the greatest solem- 
 nity, and only when the state seemed to be in 
 danger. When the capitol was burnt in the 
 
 troubles of Sylla, the Sibylline verses, which 
 were deposited there, perished in the conflagra- 
 tion ; and to repair the loss which the republic 
 seemed to have sustained, commissioners were 
 immediately sent to different parts of Greece, 
 to collect whatever verses could be found of the 
 inspired writings of the Sibyls. The fate of 
 these Sibylline verses, which were collected 
 after the conflagration of the capitol, is un- 
 known. There are now eight books of Sibyl- 
 line verses extant, but they are universally 
 reckoned spurious. They speak so plainly of 
 our Saviour, of his sufferings, and of his death, 
 as even to surpass far the sublime prediction 
 of Isaiah in description ; and therefore from 
 this very circumstance it is evident that they 
 were composed in ihe second century, by some 
 of the followers of Christianity, who wished to 
 convince the heathens of their error, by assist- 
 ing the cause of truth with the arms of pious 
 artifice. The word Sibyl seems to be derived 
 from aiov .Police for Atoj Jovis, and l3ov\ri con- 
 silium. Plut. in Phced. — JElian. V. H. 12, c. 
 35.— Pans. 10, c. 12, &c:—Diod. 4.— Ovid. 
 Met. 14, V. 109 and 140.— Hr^-. jEn. 3, v. 445, 
 1. 6, V. 36.—Lucan. 1, v. b&^.—Plin. 13, c. 13. 
 — Flor. 4, c. 1. — Sallust. — Cic. Caiil. 3. — Vol. 
 Max. 1, c. 1, 1. 8, c. 15, &c. 
 
 SiCH^us. Vid. Part II. 
 
 SiLENTJs, a demi-god, who became the nurse, 
 the preceptor, and attendant of the god Bac- 
 chus. He was, as some suppose, son of Pan, 
 or, according to others, of Mercury or of Terra. 
 Malea in Lesbos was the place of his birth. 
 After death he received divine honours,and had 
 a temple in Elis. Silenus is generally repre- 
 sented as a fat and jolly old man, riding on an 
 ass, crowned with flowers, and always intoxi- 
 cated. He was once found by some peasants in 
 Phrygia, after he had lost his way and could 
 not follow Bacchus, and he was carried to King 
 Midas, who received him with great attention. 
 He detained him for ten days, and afterwards 
 restored him to Bacchus, for which he was re- 
 warded with the power of turning into gold 
 whatever he touched. Some authors assert that 
 Silenus was a philosopher, who accompanied 
 Bacchus in his Indian expedition, and assisted 
 him by the soundness of his counsels. From 
 this circumstance, therefore, he is often intro- 
 duced speaking with all the gravity of a philoso- 
 pher concerning 'the formation of the world and 
 the nature of things. The Fauns in general, 
 and the Satyrs, are often called Sileni. Pans. 
 3, c. 25,1. 9, c. 2i.—PMlosi. 23.— Ovid. Met. 
 i.—Hygin. fab. 191.— Diod. 3, &c.—Cic. Tiisc. 
 1, c. 4:8.—jElimi. V. H. 3, c. IS.— Virg. Ed. 
 6, V. 13. 
 
 SiLYANUs, a rural deity, son of an Italian 
 shepherd. He is generally represented as halt 
 a man and half a goat. According to Virgil, he 
 was son of Picus, or, as others report, of Mars, 
 or according to Plutarch, of Valeria Tuscula- 
 naria. The worship of Silvanus was establish- 
 ed only in Italy, where, as some authors have 
 imagined, he reigned in the age of Evander. 
 This deity was sometimes represented, holding 
 a cypress in his hand, on account of his regard 
 for a beautiful youth, called Cyparissus, who 
 was changed into a tree of the same name. 
 Silvanus presided over gardens and limits, and 
 he is often confounded with the Fauns, Satyrs, 
 775 
 
SI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 SO 
 
 and Silenus. Plut. in Parall. — Virg. Ed. 10. 
 G. 1, V. 20, 1. 2, V. A92.—jElian. Anim. 6, c. 42. 
 Ovid. Met. 10. — Horat. ep. 2. — Dionys. Hal. 
 Vid. Part II. 
 
 SiNOE, a nymph of Arcadia, who brought up 
 Pan. 
 
 Simon. Vid. Part II. 
 
 SiNoPE, a daughter of the Asopus by Me- 
 thone. She was beloved by Apollo, who car- 
 ried her away to the borders of the Euxine Sea, 
 in Asia Minor, where she gave birth to a son 
 called Syrus. Diod. 4. Vid. Part I. 
 
 SiHENEs, sea-nymphs who charmed so much 
 with their melodious voice, that all forgot their 
 employments to listen with more attention, and 
 at last died for want of food. They were 
 daughters of the Achelous, by the muse Cal- 
 liope, or, according to others, by Melpomene or 
 Terpsichore. They were three in number, 
 called Parthenope, Ligeia, and Leucosia, or, 
 according to others, Molpe, Aglaophonos, and 
 Thelxiope or Thelxione, and they usually lived 
 in a small island near cape Pelorus in Sicily, 
 According to Ovid, they were so disconsolate at 
 the rape of Proserpine, that they prayed the gods 
 to give them wings that they might seek her in 
 the sea as well as by land. The Sirens were 
 informed by the oracle, that as soon as any per- 
 sons passed by them without suffering them- 
 selves to be charmed by their songs, they should 
 perish ; and their melody had prevailed in call- 
 ing the attention of all passengers, till Ulysses, 
 informed of the power of their voice by Circe, 
 stopped the ears of his companions with wax, 
 and ordered himself to be tied to the mast of his 
 ship, and no attention to be paid to his com- 
 mands should he wish to stay and listen to the 
 song. Upon this artifice of Ulysses, the Sirens 
 were so disappointed that they threw themselves 
 into the sea and perished. Some authors say 
 that the Sirens challenged the Muses to a trial 
 of skill in singing, and that the latter proved 
 victorious, and plucked the feathers from the 
 wings of their adversaries, with which they 
 made themselves crowns. The place where 
 the Sirens destroyed themselves was afterwards 
 called Sirenis, on the coast of Sicily. Virgil, 
 however, ^En. 6, v. 864, places the Sirenum 
 Scopuli on the coast of Italy, near the island of 
 Caprea. The Sirens are often represented 
 holding, one a lyre, a second a flute, and the 
 third singing. Pans. 10, c. 6.— Homer. Od. 12, 
 V. 167. — Strab. 6. — Ammian. 29, c. 2. — Hygin. 
 fab. lAl.—Apollod. 2, c. A.— Ovid. Met. 5, v. 
 555, de Art. Am. 3, v. ^W.—Ital. 12, v, 33. 
 
 Sisyphus, a brother of Athamas and Salmo- 
 neus, son of JEolus and Enaretta, the most 
 crafty prince of the heroic ages. He married 
 Merope, the daughter of Atlas, or, according 
 to others, of Pandareus, by whom he had sev- 
 eral children. He built Ephyre, called after- 
 wards Corinth. It is reported that Sisyphus, 
 mistrusting Autolycus, who stole the neighbour- 
 ing flocks, marked his bulls under the feet, 
 and when they had been carried away by the 
 dishonesty of his friend, he confounded and 
 astonished the thief by selecting from his nu- 
 merous flocks those bulls, which by the mark 
 he knew to be his own. After his death, Sisy- 
 phus was condemned in hell, to roll to the top 
 of a hill a large stone, which had no sooner 
 reached the summit than it fell back into the 
 776 
 
 plain with impetuosity, and rendered his pun- 
 ishment eternal. The causes of this rigorous 
 sentence are variously reported. Some attri- 
 bute it to his continual depredations in the 
 neighbouring country, and his cruelty in laying 
 heaps of stones on those whom he had plun- 
 dered, and suffering them to expire in the most 
 agonizing torments. Others, to the insult offered 
 to Pluto, in chaining death in his palace, and 
 detaining her till Mars, at the request of the 
 king of hell, went to deliver her from confine- 
 ment. . Others suppose that Jupiter inflicted this 
 punishment because he told Asopus where his 
 daughter iEgina had been carried away by her 
 ravisher. The more followed opinion however 
 is, that Sisyphus, on his death-bed, entreated his 
 wife to leave his body unburied ; and when he 
 came into Pluto's kingdom, he received the per- 
 mission of returning upon earth to punish this 
 seeming negligence of his wife, but, however, 
 on promise of immediately returning. But he 
 was no sooner out of the infernal regions, than 
 he violated his engagements ; and when he was 
 at last brought back to hell by Mars, Pluto, to 
 punish his want of fidelity, condemned him to 
 roll a huge stone to the top of a mountain. The 
 institution of the Pythian games is attributed by 
 some to Sisyphus. To be of the blood of Sisyphus 
 was deemed disgraceful among the ancients. 
 Homer. Od. 11, v. 592.— Hr^. uEn. 6, v. 616.— 
 Ovid. Met. 4, v. 459, 1. 13, v. 32. Fast. 4, v. 
 175, in Ibid. 191. — Paus. 2, &c. — Horat. 2, od. 
 14, V. 20. Vid. Part IT. 
 
 Smilax. Vid. Crocus. 
 
 Smintheus, one of the surnames of Apollo in 
 Phrygia, where the inhabitants raised him a 
 temple because he had destroyed a number of 
 rats that infested the country. These rats were 
 called (TuivBai, in the language of Phrygia, 
 whence the surname. There is another story 
 similar to this related by the Greek scholiast of 
 Homer. 11. 1, v. Z^.— Strab. 13.— Ovid. Met. 12, 
 V. 585. 
 
 Sol, (the sun,) was an object of veneration 
 among the ancients. It was particularly wor- 
 shipped by the Persians, under the name of 
 Mithras; and was the Baal or Bel of the 
 Chaldeans, the Belphegor of the Moabites, the 
 Moloch of the Canaanites, the Osiris of the 
 Egyptians, and the Adonis of the Syrians, The 
 Massagetae sacrificed horses to the sun on ac- 
 count of their swiftness. According to some 
 of the ancient poets, Sol and Apollo were two 
 different persons. Apollo, however, and Phoe- 
 bus and Sol, are universally supposed to be the 
 same deity. 
 
 SoMNUs, son of Erebus and Nox, was one of 
 the infernal deities, and presided over sleep. 
 His palace, according to some mythologists, is 
 a dark cave where the sun never penetrafes. 
 At the entrance are a number of poppies and 
 somniferous herbs. The god himself is repre- 
 sented as asleep on a bed of feathers with black 
 curtains. The dreams stand by him, and Mor- 
 pheus, as his principal minister, watches to 
 prevent the noise from awaking him. The 
 Lacedaemonians always placed the image of 
 Somnus near that of death. Hesiod. Theog. — 
 Horn. 11. U.— ViTg.JE:7i.6,y.893.—Ovid.Met.n. 
 
 SoPHAX, a son of Hercules and Tinga, the 
 widow of Antseus, who founded the kingdom 
 of Tingis, in Mauretania, and from whom were 
 
ST 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ST 
 
 descended Diodorus, and Juba, king of Maure- 
 tania. Strab. 3. 
 
 SoRGE, a daughter of QEneus, king of Caly- 
 don, by ^ihea, daugiiter of Thestius. She 
 married Andremon, and was mother of Oxilus. 
 Apollod. 1 and 2. 
 
 SospiTA, a surname of Juno in Latium. Her 
 most famous temple was at Lanuvium. She 
 had also two at Rome, and her statue was cov- 
 ered with a goat-skin, with a buckle, &c. Liv. 
 3, 6, 8, &c. — Festus. de V. sig. 
 
 Soxms, an Egyptian name of the constella- 
 tion called Sirius, which received divine hon- 
 ours in that country. 
 
 Sparta, or Sparti, a name given to those 
 men who sprang from the dragon's teeth which 
 Cadmus sowed. They all destroyed one an- 
 other, except five, who survived, and assisted 
 Cadmus in building Thebes. 
 
 Spherus, an arm-bearer of Pelops, son of 
 Tantalus. He was buried in a small island 
 near the isthmus of Corinth, which from him 
 was called Spheria. Paus. 5, c. 10. 
 
 Sphinx, a monster which had the head and 
 breasts of a woman, the body of a dog, the tail 
 of a serpent, the wings of a bird, the paws of a 
 lion, and a human voice. It sprang from the 
 union of Orthos with the Chimcera, or of Ty- 
 phon with Echidna. The Sphinx had been sent 
 into the neighbourhood of Thebes by Juno, who 
 wished to punish the family of Cadmus, which 
 she persecuted with immortal hatred, and it laid 
 this part of Boeotia under continual alarms by 
 proposing enigmas, and devouring the inhabi- 
 tants if unable to explain them. In rhe midst 
 of their consternation the Thebans were told by 
 the oracle, that the Sphinx would destroy her- 
 self as soon as one of the enigmas she proposed 
 was explained. In this enigma she wished to 
 know what animal walked on four legs in the 
 morning, two at noon, and three in the evening. 
 Upon this Creon, king of Thebes, promised his 
 crown, and his sister Jocasta in marriage, to 
 him Tvho could deliver his country from the 
 monster by a successful explanation of the 
 enigma. It was at last happily explained by 
 (Edipus, who observed that man walked on his 
 hands and feet when young or in the morning 
 of life, at the noon of life he walked erect, and 
 in the evening of his days he supported his in- 
 firmities upon a stick. Vid. CEdipus. The 
 Sphinx no sooner heard this explanation than 
 she dashed her head against a rock, and imme- 
 diately expired. Some mythologists wish to un- 
 riddle the fabulous traditions about the Sphinx, 
 by the supposition that one of the daughters of 
 Cadmus, or Lams, infested the country of 
 Thebes by her continual depredations, because 
 she had been refused a part of her father's 
 possessions. The lion's paw expressed, as they 
 observed, her cruelty, the body of the dog her 
 lasciviousness, her enigmas the snares she laid 
 for strangers and travellers, and her wings the 
 despatch she used in her expeditions. Plut. — 
 Hesiod. Theos. v. 326. — Hygin. fab. 68. — Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. 5.—DiodA.— Ovid.inlb. 318.—Strab. 
 9. — Sophocl. in (Edip. tyr. 
 
 Stator, a surname of Jupiter, given him by 
 Romulus, because he stopped (sto) the flight of 
 the Romans in a battle against the Sabines. 
 The conqueror erected him a temple under that 
 name. Liv. 1, c. 12. 
 
 Part III.— 5 F 
 
 Stellio, a youth turned into an elf by Ceres, 
 because he derided the goddess, who drank with 
 avidity when tired and afflicted in her vain pur- 
 suit of her daughter Proserpine. Ovid. Met. 
 5, V. 445. 
 
 Stenobcba, or Sthenobcea. Vid. Bellerophon. 
 
 Stentor, one of the Greeks who went to the 
 Trojan war. His voice alone was louder than 
 that of 50 men together. Homer E. 5, v. 784. 
 — Juv. 13, V. 112. 
 
 Sterope, I. one of the Pleiades, daughters of 
 Atlas. She married CEnomaus, king of Pisae, 
 
 by whom she had Hippodamia, &c. II. A 
 
 daughter of Parthaon, supposed by some to be 
 the mother of the Sirens. 
 
 Sthenelus, I. a king of Mycenas, son of Per- 
 seus and Andromeda. He married Nicippe, 
 the daughter of Pelops, by whom he had two 
 daughters, and a son called Eurystheus. Sthe- 
 nelus made war against Amphitryon, who had 
 killed Electryon and seized his kingdom. He 
 fought with success, and took his enemy pris- 
 oner, whom he transmitted to Eurystheus. Ho- 
 
 iner. 11. 19, v. 91.— Apollod. 2, c. 4. II. A son 
 
 of Capaneus. He was one of the Epigoni, and 
 of the suiters of Helen. He went to the Trojan 
 war, and was one of those who were shut up in 
 the wooden horse, according to Virgil. Paus. 
 
 2, c. 18.— Hr^. .En. 2 and 10. III. A son 
 
 of Androgens, the son of Minos. Hercules 
 
 made him king of Thrace. Apellod. 2, c. 5. 
 
 IV. A king of Argos, who succeeded his father 
 
 Crotopus. Paus. 2, c. 16. V. A son of Actor, 
 
 who accompanied Hercules in his expedition 
 against the Amazons. He was killed by one 
 
 of these females. VI. A son of Melas, killed 
 
 by Tydeus. Apollod. 1, c. 8. 
 
 Stilbe, or Stilbia, a daughter of Penneus, 
 by Creusa, who became mother of Centaurus 
 and Lapithus, by Apollo. Diod. 4. 
 
 Strenija, a goddess at Rome, who gave vigour 
 and energy to the weak and indolent. Aug. de 
 Civ. D. 4, c. 11 and 16. 
 
 STROPmus. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Stymphalus, a king of Arcadia, son of Ela- 
 tus and Laodice. He made war against Pelops, 
 and was killed in a truce. Apollod. 3, c. 9. — 
 Paus. 8, c. 4. Vid. Part I. 
 
 SrYRtis, a king of Albania, to whom iEetes 
 promised his daughter Medea in marriage, to 
 obtain his assistance against the Argonauts. 
 Flacc. 3, V. 497, 1. 8, v. 358. 
 
 Styx, I. a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. 
 She married Pallas, by whom she had three 
 daughters, Victory. Strength, and Valour. Hes- 
 iod^ Theog. 363 and 3M.— Apollod. 1, c. 2. 
 
 II. A celebrated river of hell, round which 
 
 it flows nine times. According to some writers, 
 the Styx was a small river of Nonacris, in Ar- 
 cadia, whose waters were so cold and venomous 
 that they proved fatal to those who tasted them. 
 Among' others, Alexander the Great is men- 
 tioned as a victim to their fatal poison, in conse- 
 quence of drinkmg them. They even consum- 
 ed iron, and broke all vessels. The wonderful 
 properties of this water suggested the idea that 
 it was a river of hell, especially when it disap- 
 peared in the earth a little below its fountain 
 head. The gods held the waters of the Styx in 
 such veneration that they always swore by 
 them ; an oath which was inviolable. If any of 
 the gods had perjured themselves, Jupiter obli- 
 777 
 
TA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 TE 
 
 ged them to drink tlie waters of the Styx, which 
 lulled them for one whole year into a senseless 
 stupidity; for the nine following years they 
 were deprived of the ambrosia and the nectar 
 of the gods, and after the expiration of the 
 years of their punishment, they were restored 
 to the assembly of the deities, and to all their 
 original privileges. It is said that this venera- 
 tion was shown to the Styx, because it received 
 its name from the nymph Styx, who with her 
 three daughters assisted Jupiter in his war 
 against the Titans. Hesiod. Theog. v. 384, 
 115.— Homer. Od. 10, v. b\2.—Herodot. 6, c. 
 l^.— Virg. JEn. 6, v. 323, 439, &c.—Apollod. 
 1, c. 3.— Ovid. Met. 3, v. 29, &.c.—Lucan. 6, v. 
 378, &c.—Paus. 8, c. 17 and 18.— Curt. 10, c. 10. 
 
 SuADA, the goddess of persuasion, called Pi- 
 tho by the Greeks. She had a form of worship 
 established to her honour first by Theseus, She 
 had a statue in the temple of Venus Praxis at 
 Megara. Cic. de el. Or at. 15. — Paus. 1, c. 22 
 and 43, 1. 9, c. 35. 
 
 SuMMANUs, a surname of Pluto, as prince of 
 the dead, summus manium. He had a tem- 
 ple at Rome, erected during the wars with 
 Pyrrhus, and the Romans believed that the 
 thunderbolts of Jupiter were in his power 
 during the night. Cic. de Div. — Ovid. Fast. 
 6, V. 731. 
 
 Sylvia. Vid. Rhea. 
 
 Sylvius. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Syrinx, a nymph of Arcadia, daughter of the 
 river Laodon. Pan became enamoured of her, 
 but Syrinx escaped, and at her own request 
 was changed by the gods into a reed called 
 Syrinx by the Greeks. The god made himself 
 a pipe with the reeds into which his favourite 
 nymph had been changed. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 
 &^\.— Martial. 9, ep. 63. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tages, a son of Genius, grandson of Jupiter, 
 was the first who taught the 12 nations of the 
 Etrurians the science of augury and divination. 
 It is said that he was found by a Tuscan plough- 
 man in the form of a clod, and that he assumed 
 a human shape to instruct this nation, which 
 became so celebrated for their knowledge of 
 omens and incantations. Cic. de Div. 2, c. 23. 
 —Ovid. Met. 15, v. bb^.-Uican. 1, v. 673. 
 
 Talaus, a son of Bias and Pero, father of 
 Adrastus by Lysimache. He was one of the 
 Argonauts. Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 6. 
 
 Talus, a youth, son of the sister of Daedalus, 
 who invented the saw, compasses, and other 
 mechanical instruments. His uncle became 
 jealous of his growing fame, and murdered him 
 privately ; or, according to others, he threw him 
 down from the citadel of Athens. Talus was 
 changed into a partridge by the gods. He is 
 also called Calus, Acalus, Perdix, and Taliris. 
 Apollod. 3, c. 1. — Paus. 1, c. 21. — Ovid. Met.S. 
 
 Tantalides, I. a patronymic applied to the 
 descendants of Tantalus, such as Niobe, Her- 
 
 mione, &c. II. Agamemnon and Menelaus, 
 
 as grandsons of Tantalus, are called Tantalidce 
 frates. Ovid. Heroid. 8, v. 45 and 122. 
 
 Tantalus, a king of Lydia, son of Jupiter, 
 
 bv a nymph called Pluto. He was father of 
 
 Niobe, Pelops, &c., by Dione, one of the Atlan- 
 
 tides, called by some Euryanassa. Tantalus is 
 
 778 
 
 represented by the poets as punished in hell 
 with an insatiable thirst, and placed up to the 
 chin in the midst of a pool of water, which, how- 
 ever, flows away as soon as he attempts to taste 
 it. There hangs also above his head, a bough, 
 richly loaded with delicious fruits ; which, as 
 soon as he attempts to seize, is carried away 
 from his reach by a sudden blast of wind. Ac- 
 cording to some mythologists, his punishment 
 is to sit under a huge stone, hung at some dis- 
 tance over his head, and as it seems every mo- 
 ment ready to fall, he is kept under continual 
 alarms and never-ceasing fears. The causes 
 of this eternal punishment are variously ex- 
 plained. Some declare that is was inflicted upon 
 him because he stole a favourite dog, which Ju- 
 piter had intrusted to his care to keep his tem- 
 ple in Crete. Others say that he stole away the 
 nectar and ambrosia from the tables of the gods. 
 when he was admitted into the assemblies of 
 heaven, and that he gave it to mortals on earth. 
 Others support that this proceeds from his cruel- 
 ty and impiety in killing his son Pelops, and in 
 serving his limbs as food before the gods, whose 
 divinity and power he wished to try, when they 
 had stopped at his house as they passed over 
 Phrygia. There were also others who impute 
 it to his carrying away Ganymedes. Pindar. 
 Olymp. 1. — Homer. Od. 11, v. 581. — Cic. Tusc. 
 
 1, c. 5, 1. 4, c. 16. — Eurip. in Iphig. — Propert. 
 
 2, el. 1, V. 66.—Horat. 1, Sat. 1, v. 68. 
 Taranis, a name of Jupiter among the 
 
 Gauls, to whom human sacrifices were offered. 
 Lucan. 1, v. 446. 
 
 Taraxippus, a deity worshipped at Elis. His 
 statue was placed near the race-ground, and his 
 
 Erotection was implored that no harm might 
 appen to the horses during the games. Paus. 
 6, c. 20, &c. — Dionys. Hal. 2. 
 
 Tartarus, (pi. a, orum,) one of the regions 
 of hell, where, according to the ancients, the 
 most impious and guilty among mankind were 
 punished. It was surrounded with a brazen 
 wall, and its entrance was continually hidden 
 from the sight by a cloud of darkness, which is 
 represented three times more gloomy than the 
 obscurest night. According to Hesiod, it was a 
 separate prison, at a greater distance from the 
 earth, than the earth is from the heavens. Vir- 
 gil says that it was surrounded by three impen- 
 etrable walls, and by the impetuous and burn- 
 ing streams of the river Phlegethon. The en- 
 trance is by a large and lofty tower, whose gates 
 are supported by columns of adamant, which 
 neither gods nor men can open. It was the 
 place where Ixion, Tityus, the Danaides, Tan- 
 talus, Sisyphus, &c. were punished, according 
 to Ovid. Hesiod. Theog. v. 120.—Sil. 13, v. 
 591.— Virg. jEn. Q.— Homer. Od. \l.—Ovid. 
 Mel. 4, fab. 13. 
 
 Taurica, a surname of Diana, because she 
 was worshipped by the inhabitants of Taurica 
 Chersonesus. 
 
 Taurus, an officer of Minos, king of Crete. 
 Vid. Minotaurus. He was vanquished by 
 Theseus in the games which Minos exhibited 
 in Crete. Plut. in Thes. 
 
 Tectamus, son of Dorus, grandson of Hel- 
 len, the son of Deucalion, went to Crete with 
 thcjEtolians and Pelasgians, and reigned there. 
 He had a son called Asterius, by the daughter 
 of Cretheus. 
 
TE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 TE 
 
 TelamOxV. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Tjelchinu, a sarname of Minerva at Teu- 
 messa in Bceotia, where she had a temple. 
 
 Paus. 9, c. 19. Also a surname of Juno in 
 
 Rhodes, where she had a statue at lalysus, rais- 
 ed by the Telchinians, who settled there. 
 
 Also an ancient name of Crete, as the place 
 from whence the Telchines of Rhodes were de- 
 scended. Stat. 6, Sylv. 6, v. 47. 
 
 Telchinius, a surname of Apollo among the 
 Rhodians. Diod. 5. 
 
 Telchis, a son of Europs, the son of ^gia- 
 leus. He was one of the first kings of the Pe- 
 loponnesus. 
 
 Teleg5nus, a king of Egypt, who married lo 
 after she had been restored to her original form 
 by Jupiter. Apollod. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Telemachus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Telemus, a Cyclops, who was acquainted 
 "With futurity. He foretold to Polyphemus all 
 the evils which he some time after suffered from 
 Ulysses. Ovid. Met. 13, v. 771. 
 
 Telephassa, the mother of Cadmus, Phoe- 
 nix, and Clix, by Agenor. She died in Thrace, 
 as she was seeking her daughter Europa, whom 
 Jupiter had carried away. Apollod. 3, c. 1 
 and 4. 
 
 Telephus, a king of Mysia, son of Hercules 
 and" Auge, the daughter of Aleus. He was ex- 
 posed as soon as born on mount Parthenius, but 
 his life was preserved by a goat, and by some 
 shepherds. According to Apollodorus, he was 
 exposed, not on a mountain, but in the temple 
 of Minerva, at Tegea, or, according to a tradi- 
 tion mentioned by Pausanias, he was left to the 
 mercy of the waves with his mother, by the 
 cruelty of Aleus, and carried by the winds to 
 the mouth of the Caycus, where he was found by 
 Teuthras, king of the country, who married, or 
 rather adopted as his daughter, Auge, and edu- 
 cated her son. Some, however, suppose, that 
 Auge fled to Teuthras to avoid the anger of her 
 father on account of her amour with Hercules. 
 Yet others declare that Aleus gave her to Nau- 
 plius to be severely punished for her inconti- 
 nence ; and that Nauplius, unwilling to injure 
 her, sent her to Teuthras, king of Bithynia, by 
 whom she was adopted. Telephus, according 
 to the more received opinions, was ignorant of 
 his origin, and he was ordered by the oracle, if 
 he wished to know his parents, to go to Mysia. 
 Obedient to this injunction, he came to Mysia, 
 where Teuthras offered him his crown and his 
 adopted daughter Auge in marriage, if he would 
 deliver his country from the hostilities of Idas, 
 the son of Apharous. Telephus readily com- 
 plied, and at the head of the Mysians he soon 
 routed the enemy and received the promised re- 
 ward. As he was going to unite himself to 
 Auge, the sudden appearance of an enormous 
 serpent separated the two lovers; Auge implor- 
 ed the assistance of Hercules, and was soon in- 
 formed by the god that Telephus was her own 
 son. When this was known, the nuptials were 
 not celebrated, and Telephus, some time after, 
 married one of the daughters of King Priam. 
 As one of the sons of the Trojan monarch,, Te- 
 lephus prepared to assist Priam against the 
 Greeks, and with heroic valour he attacked 
 them when they had landed on his coast. The 
 carnage was great andTelephus was victorious, 
 when Bacchus, who protected the Greeks, sud- 
 
 denly raised a vine from the earth, which en- 
 tangled the feet of the monarch, and laid him 
 flat on the ground. Achilles immediately rushed 
 upon him, and wounded him so severely that he 
 was carried away from the battle. The wound 
 was mortal, and Telephus was informed by the 
 oracle, that he alone who had inflicted it could 
 totally cure it. Upon this, applications were 
 made to Achilles, but in vain ; the hero observ- 
 ed that he was no physician, till Ulysses, who 
 knew that Troy could not be taken without the 
 assistance of one of the sons of Hercules, and 
 who wished to make Telephus the friend of the 
 Greeks, persuaded Achilles to obey the direc- 
 tions of the oracle. Achilles consented, and as 
 the weapon which had given the wound could 
 alone cure it, the hero scraped the rust from the 
 point of his spear, and by applying it to the sore, 
 gave it immediate relief. It is said that Tele- 
 phus showed himself so grateful to the Greeks 
 that he accompanied them to the Trojan war, 
 and fought with them against his father-in-law. 
 Hij£;in. fab. 101.— Paws, 8, c. 48.— Apollod. 2, 
 c. 7, &L(i.—Mlian. V. H. 12, c. 42.— Diod. 4. 
 
 — Ovid. Fast, 
 Plin. 
 
 Telethusa. 
 
 Teleute, a 
 
 1, el. 1, &c. — Philostr. her. — 
 
 Venus among the 
 
 Vid. Iphis. 
 surname of 
 Egyptians. Plut. de Is. <^ Os. 
 
 Tellus, a divinity, the same as the Earth, the 
 most ancient of all the gods after Chaos. She 
 was mother by Coelus of Oceanus, Hyperion, 
 Ceus, Rhea, Japetus, Themis, Saturn, Phoebe, 
 Tethys, &c. Tellus is the same as the divinity 
 who is honoured under the several names of 
 Cybele, Rhea, Vesta, Cere^, Tithea, Bona Dea, 
 Proserpine, &c. She was generally represented 
 in the character of Tellus, as a woman with 
 many breasts, distended with milk, to express 
 the fecundity of the earth. She also appeared 
 crowned with turrets, holding a sceptre in one 
 hand and a key in the other, while at her feet 
 was lying a tame lion without chains, as if to 
 intimate that every part of the earth can be 
 made fruitful by means of cultivation . — Hesiod. 
 Tlieog. V. 130.— Hr^. JEn.l, v. 131 .—Apollod. 
 1, c. 1. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Telphusa, a nymph of Arcadia, daughter of 
 the Ladon, who gave her name to a town and 
 fountain of that place. The waters of the foun- 
 tain Telphusa were so cold, that Tiresias died 
 by drinking them. Diod. 4. — Strab. 9. — Iajco- 
 phron. 1040. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Temenites, a surname of Apollo, which he 
 received at Teraenos, a small place near Syra- 
 cuse, where he was worshipped. Cic. in Verr. 
 
 Tenes. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Tereus, a king of Thrace, son of Mars and 
 Bistonis. He married Progne, the daughter of 
 Pandion, king of Athens, whom he had assisted 
 in a war against Megara. Vid. Philomela. 
 
 Termerus, a robber of Peloponnesus, who 
 killed people by crushing their heads against 
 his owTi. He was slain by Hercules in the 
 same manner. Plut. in Thes. 
 
 Terminalis, a surname of Jupiter, because 
 he presided over the boundaries and lands of 
 individuals, before the worship of the god Ter- 
 minus was introduced. Dionys. Hal. 2. 
 
 Termincts, a divinity at Rome, who was.-^up- 
 posed to preside over bounds and limits, and to 
 punish all unlawful usurpation of land. His 
 779 
 
TH 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 TH 
 
 ■worship was at first introduced at Rome by Nu- 
 ma, who persuaded his subjects that the limits 
 of their lands and estates were under the imme- 
 diate inspection of heaven. His temple was on 
 the Tarpeian rock, and he was represented with 
 a human head without feet or arms to intimate 
 that he never moved, wherever he was placed. 
 The people of the country assembled once a 
 year with their families, and crowned with gar- 
 lands and flowers the stones which separated 
 their different possessions, and offered victims 
 to the god who presided over their boundaries. 
 It is said that when Tarquin the Proud wished 
 to build a temple on the Tarpeian rock to Ju- 
 piter, the god Terminus refused to give way, 
 though the other gods resigned their seats with 
 cheerfulness; whence Ovid has said: — 
 
 Restitit, et mo.gno cum Jove templa tenet. 
 
 Dionys. Hal. 2.— Ovid. Fast. 2, v. QH.—Plut. 
 in Num. — Liv. 5. — Virg. jEn. 9. 
 
 Terpsichore, one of the Muses, daughter of 
 Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided over 
 dancing, of which she was reckoned the inven- 
 tress, as her name intimates, and with which 
 she delighted her sisters. She is represented 
 like a young virgin crowned with laurel, and 
 holding in her hand a musical instrument. 
 Juv. 7, V. 35. — Apollod. 1. — Eustat. in 11. 10. 
 
 Terra, one of the most ancient deities in my- 
 thology, wife of Uranus, and mother of Ocea- 
 nus, the Titans, Cyclops, Giants, Thea, Rhea, 
 Themis, Phosbe, Thetys, and Mnemosyne. By 
 the Air she had Grief, Mourning, Oblivion, 
 Vengeance, &c. According to Hyginus, she is 
 the same as Tellus. Vid. Tellus. 
 
 Terror, an emotion of the mind, which the 
 ancients have made a deity, and one of the 
 attendants of the god Mars, and of Bellona. 
 
 Tethys, the greatest of the sea-deities, was 
 wife of Oceanus, and daughter of Uranus and 
 Terra. She was mother of the chiefest rivers 
 of the universe, such as the Nile, the Alpheus, 
 the Maeander, Simois, Peneus, Evenus, Sca- 
 mander, &c., and about 3000 daughters, called 
 Oceanides, Tethys is confounded by some my- 
 thologists with her grand-daughter Thetis, the 
 wife of Peleus and the mother of Achilles. 
 The word Tethys is poetically used to express 
 the sea. Apollod. \,c. 1, &c. — Virg. G. 1, v. 
 "il.— Ovid. Met. 2, v. 509, 1. 9, v. A^Q.—Fast. 2, 
 V. 191. — Hesiod. Theogu. v. 336. — Homer. II. 
 14, V. 302. 
 
 Teucer. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Teutas, or Teutates, a name of Mercury 
 among the Gauls. The people offered human 
 victims to this deity. Lmcan. 1, v. 445. — Casar. 
 Bell. G. 
 
 Teuthras, a king of Mysia, on the borders 
 oftheCaycus. Vid. Telephus. The 50 daugh- 
 ters of Teuthras, who became mothers by Her- 
 cules, are called Teuthrantia turba. Apollod. 
 2, c. 7, &c.—Paus.3, c. 25.--Ovid. Trist. 2, v. 
 19. Heroid. 9, Y.bl.—Hygin. fab. 100. 
 
 Thalassius, a beautiful young Roman, in the 
 reign of Romulus. At ths rape of the Sabines, 
 one of these virgins appeared remarkable for 
 beauty and elegance, and her ravisher, afraid of 
 many competitors, exclaimed as he carried her 
 away, that it was for Thalassius. The name 
 of Thalassius was no sooner mentioned, than 
 all were eager to preserve so beautiful a prize for 
 780 
 
 him. Their union was attended with so much 
 happiness, that it was ever after usual at Rome 
 to make use of the word Thalassius at nuptials, 
 and to wish those that were married the felici- 
 ty of Thalassius. He is supposed by some to 
 be the same as Hymen, as he was made a deity. 
 Plut. in Rom. — Martial. 3, ep. 92. — Liv. 1, c. 9. 
 
 Thalestria, or Thalestris, a queen of the 
 Amazons, who, accompanied by 300 women, 
 came 35 days' journey to meet Alexander in his 
 Asiatic conquests, to raise children by a man 
 whose fame was so great and courage so uncom- 
 mon. Curt. 6, c. 5. — Strab. 11. — Justin. 2, c. 4. 
 
 Thalia, one of the Muses, who presided over 
 festivals, and over pastoral and comic poetry. 
 She is represented leaning on a column, holding 
 a mask in her right hand, by which she is dis- 
 tinguished from her sisters, as also by a shep- 
 herd's crook. Her dress appears shorter, and 
 not so ornamented as that of the other Muses. 
 Herat. 4, Od. 6, v. ^b.—Mart. 9, ep. lb.— Plut. 
 in Symp. &c. — Virg. Ec. 6, v. 2. Vid. Charites. 
 
 Thamyras, or Thamyris, a celebrated musi- 
 cian of Thrace. His father's name was Phi- 
 lammon, and his mother's Agriope. He became 
 enamoured of the Muses, and challenged them 
 to a trial of skill. His challenge was accepted, 
 and it was mutually agreed that the conquered 
 should be totally at the disposal of his victorious 
 adversary. He was conquered, and the Muses 
 deprived him of his eyesight, and of his melo- 
 dious voice, and broke his lyre. His poetical 
 compositions are lost. Some accused him of 
 having first introduced into the world the un- 
 natural vice of which Socrates is accused. 
 Homer. 11. 2, v. 594, 1. 5, v. bm.— Apollod. 1, c. 
 3.— Ovid. Amor. 3, el. 7, v. 62, Art. Am. 3, 399. 
 — PoALs. 4, c. 33. 
 
 Tharops, the father of (Eager, to whom 
 Bacchus gave the kingdom of Thrace, after the 
 death of Lycurgus. Diod. 4. 
 
 Thasus, a son of Neptune, who went with 
 Cadmus to seek Europa. He built the town of 
 Thasus in Thrace. Some make him brother 
 of Cadmus. Apollod. 3, c. i. 
 
 Thaumantias, and Thaumantis, a name given 
 to Iris, the messenger of Juno, because she was 
 the daughter of Thaumas, the son of Oceanus 
 and Terra, by one of the Ocea ides. Hesiod. 
 Theog.— Virg. j^n. 9, v. b.— Ovid. Met. 4, v. 
 479, 1. 14, V. 845. 
 
 Thaumas, a son of Neptune and Terra, who 
 married Electra, one of the Oceanides, by whom 
 he had Iris and the Harpies, &c. Apollod. 1, c. 2. 
 
 Thea, a daughter of Uranus and Terra. She 
 married her brother Hyperion, by whom she 
 had the sun, the moon, Aurora, (fee. She is also 
 called Thia, Titsea, Rhea, Tethys, &c. 
 
 Theano. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Themis, I. a daughter of Coelus and Terra, 
 who married Jupiter against her own inclina- 
 tion. She became mother of Dice, Irene, Eu- 
 nomia, the Parcae and Horse ; and was the first 
 to whom the inhabitants of the earth raised tem- 
 ples. Her oracle was famous in Attica in the 
 age of Deucalion, who consulted it with great 
 solemnity, and was instructed how to repair the 
 loss of mankind. She was generally attended 
 by the Seasons. Among the moderns she is rep- 
 resented as holding a sword in one hand and 
 a pair of scales in the other. Ovid. Met. 1, v. 
 321. II. A daughter of Ilus, who married 
 
TH 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 TH 
 
 Capys, and became mother of Anchises. Apol- 
 lod. 3, c. 12. 
 
 Themisto, daughter of Hypsens, was the 
 third wife of Alhamas, king of Thebes, by 
 whom she had four sons, called Ptous, Leucon, 
 Schoeneus, and Erythroes. She endeavoured to 
 kill the children of Ino, her husband's second 
 wife, but she killed her own by means of Ino. 
 who lived in her house in the disguise of a ser- 
 vant-maid, and to whom she intrusted Jier 
 bloody intentions, upon which she destroyed 
 herself. Paus. 9, c. ^2>'i.—Apollod. 1, c. 9. 
 
 Theoglymenus, a soothsayer of Argolis, de- 
 scended from Melampus. His father's name 
 was Thestor. He foretold the speedy return of 
 Ulysses to Penelope and Telemachus. Homer. 
 Od. 15, V. 225, &ic.—Hygin. fab. 128. 
 
 Theodamas, or TmoDAMAs, a king of My- 
 sia, in Asia Minor. He was killed by Hercu- 
 les, because he refused to treat him and his son 
 Hyllus with hospitality. Ovid, in lb. v. 438. — 
 Apollod. 2, c. l.—Hygin. fab. 271. 
 
 Theonoe, I. a daughter of Thestor, sister to 
 Calchas. She was carried away by sea pirates, 
 and sold to Icarus, king of Caria, &c. Hygin. 
 
 fab. 190. II. A daughter of Proteus and a 
 
 Nereid, v/ho became enamoured of Canobus, 
 the pilot of a Trojan vessel, &c. 
 
 .Theophane, a daughter of Bisaltus, whom 
 Neptune changed into a sheep, to remove her 
 from her numerous suiters, and conveyed to the 
 island Crumissa. Of her was born the ram 
 with the golden fleece, which carried Phryxus 
 to Colchis. Ovid. Met. 6, v. 111.— Hygin. fab. 
 188. 
 
 Theorius, a surname of Apollo at Troezene, 
 where he had a very ancient temple. It signi- 
 fies clear-sighted. 
 
 Theritas, a surname of Mars in Laconia. 
 
 Thersander. Vid. Part IL 
 
 Thersites. Vid. Part IL 
 
 Theseus, king of Athens, and son of M^e- 
 us, by ^thra the daughter of Piitheus, was 
 one of the most celebrated of the heroes of an- 
 tiquity. He was educated at Troezene, in the 
 house of Pittheus, and as he was not publicly ac- 
 knowledged to be the son of the king of Athens, 
 he passed for the son of Neptune. When he 
 came to years of maturity, he was sent by his 
 mother to his father, and a sword was given 
 him by which he might make himself known 
 to ^geus in a private manner. Vid. Mgeus. 
 The road from Troszene to Athens was infest- 
 ed with robbers and wild beasts, and rendered 
 impassable ; but these obstacles were easily re- 
 moved by the courageous son of JEgeus. He 
 destroyed Corynetes, Synnis, Sciron, Cercyon, 
 Procrustes,andthecelebratedPha3a. At Athens, 
 however, his reception was not cordial ; Medea 
 lived there with ^Egeus, and as she knew that 
 her influence would fall to the ground if The- 
 seus were received by his father's house, she at- 
 tempted to destroy him before his arrival was 
 made public. JEgeus was himself to give the 
 cup of poison to this unknown stranger at a 
 feast, but the sight of his sword on the side of 
 Theseus, reminded him of his amours with 
 ^thra. He knew him to be his son, and the 
 people of Athens were glad to find that this il- 
 lustrious stranger, who had cleared Attica from 
 robbers and pirates, was the son of their mon- 
 arch. The Pallantides were all put to death 
 
 by the young prince. The bull of Marathon 
 next engaged the attention of Theseus. After 
 this, Theseus went to Crete among the seven 
 chosen youths whom the Athenians yearly sent 
 to be devoured by the Minotaur. The wish to 
 deliver his country from so dreadful a tribute 
 engaged him to undertake his expedition. He 
 was successful by means of Ariadne, the daugh- 
 ter of Minos, who was enamoured of him ; and 
 after he had escaped from the labyrinth with a 
 clew of thread, and killed the Minotaur, ( Vid. 
 Minotaurus,) he sailed from Crete with the six 
 boys and seven maidens whom his victory had 
 equally redeemed from death. In the island of 
 Naxos, where he was driven by the winds, he 
 had the meanness to abandon Ariadne, to whom 
 he was indebted for his safety. The rejoicings 
 which his return might have occasioned at 
 Athens were interrupted by the death of Mge- 
 us, who threw himself into the sea when he saw 
 his son's ship return with black sails, which 
 was the signal of ill success. Vid. jEgeus. His 
 accession to his father's throne was universally 
 applauded, B. C. 1235. The Athenians were 
 governed with mildness, andTheseusmade new 
 regulations and enacted new laws. The num- 
 ber of the inhabitants of Athens was increased 
 by the liberality of the monarch, religious wor- 
 ship was attended with more than usual solem- 
 nity, a court was instituted which had the care 
 of all civil afiairs, and Theseus made the gov- 
 ernment democratical, while he reserved for 
 himself only the command of the armies. The 
 fame which he had gained by his victories and 
 policy made his alliance courted ; but Pirithous, 
 king of the Lapithse, alone wished to gain his 
 friendship by meeting him in the field of battle. 
 He invaded the territories of Attica ; and when 
 Theseus had marched out to meet him, the two 
 enemies, struck at the sight of each other, rush- 
 ed between their two armies, to embrace one 
 another in the most cordial and affectionate 
 manner, and from that time began the most sin- 
 cere and admired friendship, which has become 
 proverbial. Theseus was present at the nuptials 
 of his friend, and was the most eager and coura- 
 geous of the Lapithse in the defence of Hippo- 
 damia, and her female attendants, against the 
 brutal attempts of the Centaurs. When Piri- 
 thous had lost Hippodamia, he agreed with 
 Theseus, whose wife Phaedra was also dead, to 
 carry away some of the daughters of the gods. 
 Their first attempt was upon Helen, the daugh- 
 ter of Leda, and after they had obtained this 
 beautiful prize, they cast lots, and she became 
 the property of Theseus. The Athenian mon- 
 arch intrusted her to the care of his mother 
 ^thra, at Aphidnge, till she was of nubile 
 years ; but the resentment of Castor and Pollux 
 soon obliged him to restore her safe into their 
 hands. Helen was but nine years old when 
 carried away by the two royal friends, and 
 Ovid introduces her in one of his epistles, say- 
 ing, Excepto redii passa timore nihil. Some 
 time after, Theseus assisted his friend in pro- 
 curing a wife, and they both descended into the 
 infernal regions to carry away Proserpine. 
 Pluto, apprized of their intentions, stopped 
 them. Pirithous was placed on his father's 
 wheel, and Theseus was tied to a huge stone, 
 on which he had sat to rest himself. Virgil 
 represents him in this eternal state of punish- 
 781 
 
TH 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 TH 
 
 ment, repeating to the shades in Tartarus the 
 
 words of Discile justiliam moniti, et non tem- 
 nere divos. Apollodorus, however, and others 
 declare, that he was not long detained in hell ; 
 when Hercules came to steal the dog Cerberus, 
 he tore him away from the stone, but with such 
 violence that his skin was left behind. The 
 same assistance was given to Pirithous; and 
 the two friends returned upon the earth by the 
 favour of Hercules, and the consent of the in- 
 fernal deities, not, however, without suffering 
 the most excruciating torments. During the 
 captivity of Theseus in the kingdom of Pluto, 
 Mnestheus, one of the descendants of Erech- 
 theus, ingratiated himself into the favour of the 
 people of Athens, and obtained the crown in 
 preference to the children of the absent mon- 
 arch. At his return, Theseus attempted to eject 
 the usurper, but to no purpose. The Athenians 
 had forgotten his many services, and he retired 
 with great mortification to the court of Lyco- 
 medes, king of the island of Scyros. After 
 paying him much attention, Lycomedes, either 
 jealous of his fame or bribed by the presents of 
 Mnestheus, carried him to a high rock, on pre- 
 tence of showing him the extent of his domin- 
 ions, and threw him down a deep precipice. 
 Some suppose that Theseus inadvertently fell 
 down this precipice, and that he was crushed 
 to death without receiving any violence from 
 Lycomedes. The children of Theseus, after 
 the death of Mnestheus, recovered the Athenian 
 throne ; and that the memory of their father 
 might not be without the honours due to a hero, 
 they brought his remains from Scyros, and gave 
 them a magnificent burial. They also raised 
 him statues and a temple, and festivals and 
 games were publicly instituted to commemorate 
 the actions of a hero who had rendered such 
 services to the people of Athens. These festi- 
 vals were still celebrated in the age of Pausa- 
 nias and Plutarch, about 1200 years after the 
 death of Theseus, The historians disagree 
 from the poets in their accounts about this hero, 
 and they all suppose, that, instead of attempting 
 to carry away the wife of Pluto, the two friends 
 wished to seduce a daughter of Aidoneus, king 
 of the Molossi. This daughter, as they say, 
 bore the name of Proserpine, and the dog which 
 kept the gates of the palace was called Cerberus ; 
 and hence perhaps arises the fiction of the poets. 
 Pirithous was torn to pieces by the dog, but 
 Theseus was confined in prison, from whence 
 he made his escape-, some time after, by the 
 assistance of Hercules, Some authors place 
 Theseus and his friend in the number of the 
 Argonauts, but they were both detained, either 
 in the infernal regions, or in the country of the 
 Molossi, in the time of Jason's expedition to 
 Colchis. Plut. in vita. — Apollod. 3. — Hijgin. 
 fab. 14 and 10—Paus. 1, c. 2, &c.— Ovid. Met. 
 7, V. 433. ]b. 412. Fast. 3, v. 473 and 491. 
 Heroid. — Diod. 1 and 4. — Lucan. 2, v. 612. — 
 Harrier. Od. 21, v. 293. — Hesiod. in Scut. Here. 
 —jElian. V. H. 4, c. b.—Stat. Tfieb. 5, v. 432. 
 — Propert. 3. — Lactant.ad Theb.Stat. — Philost. 
 Icon. 1. — Flacc. 2. — Apollon. 1. — Virg. JEn. 6, 
 v. C17. — Seneca, in Hippol. — Stat. Achill. 1, 
 
 Thespiades, a surname of the nine Muses, 
 because they were held in great veneration in 
 Thespia. 
 
 Thespis, a Greek poet of Attica, supposed by 
 782 
 
 some to be the inventor of tragedy, 536 years 
 before Christ, His representations were very 
 rustic and imperfect. He went from town to 
 town upon a cart, on which v/as elected a tem- 
 porary stage, where two actors, whose faces 
 were daubed with the lees of wine, entertained 
 the audience with choral songs, &c, Solon 
 was a great enemy to his dramatic representa- 
 tions. Horat. Art. P. 216.— Diod. 
 
 Thespius, a king of Thespia, in Boeotia, son 
 of Erechiheus, according to some authors. He 
 was desirous that his fifty daughters should 
 have children by Hercules, and therefore when 
 that hero was at his court he permitted him to 
 enjoy their company. This passes for the 13th 
 and most arduous of the labours of Hercules, 
 as the two following lines from the arcana 
 arcanissima indicate : — 
 
 Tertius hinc decimus labor est durissimus, una 
 Quinquaginta simul stiipravit node puellas. 
 
 All the daughters of Thespius brought male 
 children into the world, and some of them twins, 
 particularly Procris the eldest, and the young- 
 est. Some suppose that -one of the Thespiades 
 refused to admit Hercules to her arms, for which 
 the hero condemned her to pass all her life 
 in continual celibacy, and to become the priest- 
 ess of a temple he had at Thespia. The chil- 
 dren of the Thespiades, called Thespiadce, went 
 to Sardinia, where they made a settlement with 
 lolaus, the friend of their father. Thespius is 
 often confounded by ancient authors with Thes- 
 tius, though the latter lived in a different place, 
 and, as king of Pleuron, sent his sons to the 
 hunting of the Calydonian boar, Apollod. 2, c. 
 A.— Pans. 9, c. 26 and 27. -Plut. 
 
 Thestius, I. a king of Pleuron, and a son of 
 Parthaon, father to Toxeus, Plexippus, and 
 Althae. II. A king of Thespia. Vid. Thes- 
 pius. -The sons of Thestius, called Thes- 
 
 iiadcB, were killed by Meleager, at the chase of 
 the Calydonian boar. Apollod. 1, c. 7. 
 
 Thestor, a son of Idmon and Laothoe, father 
 to Calchas. From him Calchas is often called 
 Thestorides. Ovid. Met. 12, v. 19.— Stat. 1, 
 Ach. V. 497. — Apollon. 1, v. 239. — Homer. II. 
 
 1, V. m. 
 
 Thetis, one of the sea-deities, daughter of 
 Nereus, and Doris, often confounded with Te- 
 thys, her grandmother. She was courted by 
 Neptune and Jupiter; but when the gods were 
 informed that the son she should bring forth 
 must become greater than his father, their ad- 
 dresses were stopped, and Peleus, the son of 
 iEacus, was permitted to solicit her hand. Vid. 
 Peleus. Thetis became mother of several chil- 
 dren by Peleus, but all these she destroyed by 
 fire, in attempting to see whether they were im- 
 mortal. Achilles must have shared the same 
 fate, if Peleus had not snatched him from her 
 hand as she was going to repeat the cruel opera- 
 tion. She afterward rendered him invulner- 
 able, by plunging him in the waters of the Styx, 
 except that part of the heel by which she held 
 him. As Thetis well knew the fate of her son, 
 she attempted to remove him from the Trojan 
 war, by concealing him in the court of Lycome- 
 des. This was useless, he went with the rest of 
 the Greeks, The mother, still anxious for his 
 preservation, prevailed upon Vulcan to make 
 nira a suit of armour ; but when it was done, 
 
TI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 TI 
 
 sTie refused the god the favours which she had 
 promised him. When Achilles was killed by- 
 Paris, Thetis issued out of the sea with the 
 Nereides to mourn his death, and after she had 
 collected his ashes in a golden urn, she raised 
 a monument to his memory, and instituted fes- 
 tivals in his honour. Hesiod. IVieog. v. 244, 
 &c.—ApoUod. 1, c. 2 and 9, 1. 3. c. 13.— Hygin. 
 fab. 5i.— Homer. 11. 1, &c. Od. 24, v. 55.— 
 Pans. 5, c. 18, &c.— Ovid. Met. 11, fab. 7,'l. 
 12, fab. 1, &c. 
 
 Thedtis. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Thia, the mother of the sun, moon, and Au- 
 rora, by Hyperion. Vid. Thea. Hesiod. Theog. 
 V. 371. Vid. Part I. 
 
 Thisbe, a beautiful woman of Babylon. 
 Ovid.— Hygin. Vid. Pyramus, Part I. 
 
 Thoas, I. a king of Taurica Chersonesus, in 
 the age of Orestes and Py lades. He would 
 have immolated these two celebrated strangers 
 on Diana's altars, according to the barbarous 
 customs of the country, had they not been de- 
 livered by Iphigenia. Vid. Iphigenia. Ac- 
 cording to some, Troas was the son of Borys- 
 
 thens. Ovid. Pont. 3, el. 2. II. A king 
 
 of Lemnos, son of Bacchus and Ariadne, the 
 daughter of Minos, and husband of Myrine. 
 He had been made king of Lemnos by Rhada- 
 manthus. He was still alive when the Lem- 
 nian women conspired to kill all the males in 
 the island, but his life was spared.by his only 
 daughter Hypsipyle, in whose favour he had 
 resigned the crown. Hypsipyle obliged her 
 father to depart secretly from Lemnos, to escape 
 from the fury of the women, and he arrived safe 
 in a neighbouring island, which some call Chios, 
 though many suppose that Thoas was assassin- 
 ated by the enraged females before he had left 
 Lemnos. Some mythologists confound the king 
 of Lemnos with that of Chersonesus, and sup- 
 pose that they were one and the same man. 
 According to their opinion, Thoas was very 
 young when he retired from Lemnos, and after 
 that he went to Taurica Chersonesus, where 
 he settled. Flacc. 8, v. 208.— Hygin. fab. 74, 
 120.— Ovid, in lb. 384. Heroid. 6, v. 114.— 
 Stat. Theb. 5, v. 262 and m&.—Apollon. Rhod. 
 1, V. 209 and 615. Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 6.— 
 
 Eurip. in Iphig. III. A son of Andremon 
 
 and Gorge, the daughter of CEneus. He went 
 to the Trojan war on 15 or rather 40 ships. 
 Homer. 11. 2, &c. — Dictys Cret. 1. — Hygin. 
 fab. 97. 
 
 Thoosa, a sea-nymph, daughter of Phorcys, 
 and mother of Polyphemus, by Neptune. He- 
 siod. Theog. V. 236. — Homer. Od. 1, v. 71. 
 
 Thoth, an Eg5^tian deity, the same as Mer- 
 cury. 
 
 Thriambus, one of the surnames of Bacchus. 
 
 Thuisto, one of the deities of the Germans. 
 Tacit. 
 
 Thyestes-. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Thymbrsus, a surname of Apollo. Virg. 
 G. 4, V. 323. ^n. 3, v. 85. Vid. Thymbra. 
 
 Thyone, a name given to Semele. 
 
 Thyoneus, a surname of Bacchus. 
 
 Tiberinus, son of Capetas, and king of Alba, 
 was drowned in the river Albula, which, on 
 that account, assumed the name of Tiberis, of 
 which he became the protecting god. Liv. 1, 
 c S.— Cicde Nat. D. 2, c. 20.— Varro de L. 
 L. 4, c. 5, &C.—OV. Fast. 2, v. 389, 1. 4, v. 47. 
 
 TiBURTUs, the founder of Tibur, often called 
 Tihurtia Mania. He was one of the sons of 
 Amphiaraus. Virg. JEn. 7, v. 670. 
 
 TiMANDRA, a daughter of Leda, sister to 
 Helen. She married Echemus of Arcadia. 
 
 TiPHYS, the pilot of the ship of the Argo- 
 nauts, was son of Hagnius, or, according to 
 some, of Phorbas. He died before the Argo- 
 nauts reached Colchis, at the court of Lycus in 
 the Propontis, and Erginus was chosen in his 
 place. Orph. — Apollod. 1, c. 9. — Apollon. — 
 Val. Flacc. — Pans. 9, c. 32. — Hygin. fab. 14 
 and 18. 
 
 TmEsiAS, a celebrated prophet of Thebes, son 
 of Everus and Chariclo. He lived to a great 
 age, which some authors have called as long as 
 seven generations of men, others six, and others 
 nine, during the time that Polydorus, Labdacus, 
 Laius, CEdipus, and his sons, sat on the throne 
 of Thebes. It is said that in his youth he found 
 two serpents on mount Cyllene, and that when 
 he struck them with a stick to separate them, 
 he found himself suddenly changed into a girl. 
 Seven years after he found again some serpents 
 together in the same manner, and he recovered 
 his original sex by striking them a second time 
 with his wand. When he was a woman, Ti- 
 resias had married, and it was from those rea- 
 sons, according to some of the ancients, that 
 Jupiter and Juno referred to his decision a dis- 
 pute in which the deities wished tb know which 
 of the sexes received greater pleasure from the 
 connubial state. Tiresias, who could speak from 
 actual experience, decided in favour of Jupiter, 
 and declared, that the pleasure which the female 
 received was ten times greater th>in that of the 
 male. Juno, who supported a different opinion, 
 and gave the superiority to the male sex, pun- 
 ished Tiresias by depriving him of his eyesight. 
 But this dreadful loss was in some measure re- 
 paired by Jupiter, who bestowed upon him the 
 gift of prophecy, and permitted him to live seven 
 times more than the rest of men. These causes 
 of the blindness of Tiresias,which are supported 
 by the authority of Ovid, Hyginus, and others, 
 are contradicted by Apollodorus, Callimachus, 
 Propertius, &c., who declared that this was in- 
 flicted upon him as a punishment, because he 
 had seen Minerva bathing in the fountain Hip- 
 pocrene, on the mount Helicon. Chariclo, who 
 accompanied Minerva, complained of the sever- 
 ity with which her son was treated ; but the god- 
 dess, who well knew that this was the irrevo- 
 cable punishment inflicted by Saturn on such 
 mortals as fix their eyes upon a goddess without 
 her consent, alleviated the misfortunes of Tire- 
 sias, by making him acquainted with futurity, 
 and giving him a stafi" which could conduct his 
 steps with as much safety as if he had the use 
 of his eyesight. During his lifetime Tiresias 
 was an infallible oracle to all Greece. The 
 generals, during the Theban war, consulted 
 him, and found his predictions verified. He 
 drew his prophecies sometimes from the flight 
 or language of birds, in which he was assisted 
 by his daughter Manto, and sometimes he drew 
 the manes from the infernal regions to know 
 futurity, with mystical ceremonies. He at last 
 died, after drinking the waters of a cold foun- 
 tain, which froze his blood. He was buried 
 with great pomp by the Thebans on mount Til- 
 phussus, and honoured as a god. His oracle 
 783 
 
Tl 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 TL 
 
 at Orchomenos was in universal esteem. Ho- 
 mer represented Ulysses as going to the infer- 
 nal regions to consult Tiresias concerning his 
 return to Ithaca. Apollod. 3, c. 6. — Theocrit. 
 Id. 24, V. 10.— Stat. Theb. 3, v. 96.—Hygin. fab, 
 75. — JEschyl. sep. ante Theb. — Sophocl. in (Edip. 
 tyr. — Pindar. Nem. \. — Diod. 4. — Homer. Od. 
 11. — Plut. in Symph. &c. — Paus. 9, c. 33. 
 
 TiRYNTmA, a name given to Alcmena, be- 
 cause she lived at Tirynthus. Ovid. Met. 6. 
 
 TisAMENES, or TisAMENUs, a king of Thebes, 
 son of Thersander and grandson of Polynices. 
 The furies, who continually persecuted the 
 house of CEdipus, permitted him to live in 
 tranquillity, but they tormented his son and 
 successor Autesion, and obliged him to retire 
 to Doris. Paus. 3, c. 5, 1. 9, c. 6. 
 
 TiSANDRUs, one of the Greeks concealed with 
 Ulysses in the wooden horse. Some supposed 
 him to be the same as Thersander, the son of 
 Polynices. Virg. jEn. 2, v. 261. 
 
 TisipHONE, I. one of the furies, daughter of 
 Nox and Acheron, who was the minister of 
 divine vengeance upon mankind, who visited 
 them with plagues and diseases, and punished 
 the wicked in Tartarus. She was represented 
 with a whip in her hand, serpents hung from 
 her head, and were wreathed round her arms 
 instead of bracelets. By Juno's direction she 
 attempted to prevent the landing of lo in Egypt, 
 but the god of the Nile repelled her, and ob- 
 liged her to retire to hell. Stat. Theb. 1, v. 59. 
 
 — Virg. G. 3, V. 552. jEn. 6, v. bbb.—Horat. 
 
 1, Stat. 8, V. 34. II. A daughter of Alcmaeon 
 
 and Manto. 
 
 TiTiEA, the mother of the Titans. She 
 is supposed to be the same as Thea, Rhea, 
 Terra, &c. 
 
 Titan, or Titanus, a son of Coelus and 
 Terra, brother to Saturn and Hyperion. He 
 was the eldest of the children of Coelus : but he 
 gave his brother Saturn the kingdom of the 
 world, provided he raised no male children. 
 When the birth of Jupiter was concealed, Titan 
 made war against Saturn, and with the assist- 
 ance of his brothers, the Titans, he imprisoned 
 him till he was replaced on his throne by his 
 son Jupiter, This tradition is recorded by 
 Lactantius, a Christian writer, who took it from 
 the dramatic compositions of Ennius, now lost. 
 None of the ancient mythologists, such as Apol- 
 lodorus, Hesiod, Hyginus, &c. have made men- 
 tion of Titan. Titan is a name applied to 
 Saturn by Orpheus and Lucian ; to the sun by 
 Virgil and Ovid; and to Prometheus by Juve- 
 nal. Ovid. Met. 1, vi. \0.—Juv. 14, v. 35.— 
 Diod. 5. — Paus. 2, c. 11. — Orpheus. Hymn. 13. 
 
 — Virg. ^n. 4, v. 119. 
 
 TiTANEs, a name given to the sons of Ccslus 
 and Terra. They were 45 in number, accord- 
 ing to the Egyptians. Apollodorus mentions 
 13, Hyginus 6, and Hesiod 20, among whom 
 are the Titanides. The most known of the 
 Titans are Saturn, Hyperion, Oceanus, Jape- 
 tus, Cottus, and Briareus, to whom Horace 
 adds Typhosus, Mimas, Porphyrion, Rhoetus, 
 and Enceladus, who are by other mythologists 
 reckoned among the giants. They were all of 
 a gigantic stature, and with proportionable 
 strength. They were treated with great cru- 
 elty by Ccelus, and confined in the bowels of 
 the earth, till their mother pitied their misfor- 
 784 
 
 tunes and armed them against their father. 
 Saturn with a scythe cut off the genitals of his 
 father, as he was going to unite himself to 
 Terra, and threw them into the sea, and from 
 the froth sprang a new deity called Venus ; as 
 also Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megsera, accord- 
 ing to Apollodorus. When Saturn succeeded 
 his father, he married Rhea ; but he devoured 
 all his male children, as he had been informed 
 by an oracle that he should be dethroned by 
 them as a punishment for his cruelty to his 
 father. • The wars of the Titans against the 
 gods are very celebrated in mythology. They 
 are often confounded with that of the giants ; 
 but it is to be observed, that the war of the 
 Titans was against Saturn, and that of the 
 giants against Jupiter. Hesiod. Theog. 135, &c. 
 — Apollod. 1, c. 1. — JEschyl. in Pomp. — Callim. 
 in Del. 17. — Diod. 1. — Hygin.pref.fab. 
 
 TiTANiA, a patronymic applied to Pyrrha, as 
 grand-daughter of Titan, and likewise to Diana. 
 Ovid. Met. 1, V. 395, 1. 2, &c. 
 
 Titanides, the daughters of CceIus and Terra, 
 reduced in number to six according to Orpheus. 
 The most celebrated were Tethys, Themis, 
 Dione, Thea, Mnemosyne, Ops, Cybele,-VevSta, 
 Phcebe, and Rhea. Hesiod. Theog. 135, &c. 
 — Apollod. 1, c. 1. 
 
 TiTHONUS, a son of Laomedon, king of Troy, 
 by Strymo, the daughter of the Scamander. 
 He was so beautiful that Aurora became ena- 
 moured of him, and carried him away. He 
 had by her Memnon and ^mathion. He 
 begged of Aurora to be immortal, and the god- 
 dess granted it; but as he had forgotten to ask 
 the vigour, youth, and beauty, which he then 
 enjoyed, he soon grew old, infirm, and decrepit; 
 and, as life became insupportable to him, he 
 prayed Aurora to remove him from the world. 
 As he could not die, the goddess changed him 
 into a cicada, or grasshopper. Apollod. 3, c. 
 5._FzV^. G. 1, V. Ml.—jEn. 4, v. 585, 1. 8, v. 
 ^SA.— Hesiod. Theog. 984:.— Diod. I.— Ovid. 
 Fast. 1, V. 461, 1. 9, v. 403.— Horat. 1, Od. 28, 
 1, 2, Od. 16, 
 
 TiTiA, a deity among the Milesians. 
 
 TiTYUs, a celebrated giant, son of Terra, or, 
 according to others, of Jupiter by Elara, the 
 daughter of Orchomenos. He M^as of such a 
 prodigious size, that his mother died in travail 
 after Jupiter had drawn her from the bowels 
 of the earth, where she had been concealed to 
 avoid the anger of Juno. Tityus attempted to 
 offer violence to Latona, but the goddess deliv- 
 ered herself from his importunities, by calling to 
 her assistance her children, who killed the giant 
 with their arrows. He was placed in hell, 
 where a serpent continually devoured his liver; 
 or, according to others, where vultures perpetu- 
 ally fed upon his entrails, which grew again as 
 soon as devoured. It is said that Tityus cover- 
 ed nine acres when stretched on the ground. 
 He had a small chapel with an altar in the is- 
 land of EubcEa. Apollod. 1. c. A.—Pind. Pyth. 
 A.— Homer. Od. 7, v. 325, 1. 11, v. blb.—Apol- 
 Ion. Ph. 1, v. 182, &c.— Virg. Mn. 6, v. 595, 
 —Horat. 3, od. 4, v. H.—Hygin. fab. 55.— 
 Ovid. Met. 4, V. Abl.— Tibull. 1, el. 3, v. 75. 
 
 Tlepolemus, a son of Hercules and Astyo- 
 chia, or, according to Pindar, of Astydamia. He 
 was born at Argos. He left his native country 
 after the accidental murder of Licymnius, and 
 
TR 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 TY 
 
 retired to Rhodes, by order of the oracle, where 
 he was chosen king as being one of the sons 
 of Hercules. He went to the Trojan war 
 with nine ships, and was killed by Sarpedon. 
 There were some festivals established at 
 Rhodes to his honour, called Tlepolemia in 
 which men and boys contended. The victors 
 were rewarded with poplar crowns. Homer. 11. 
 Apollod. 2, c. l.—Diod. 5. — Hygin. fab. 97. 
 
 Tmolus, a king of Lydia, who married Om- 
 phale, and was son of Sipylus and Chthonia. 
 He was killed by a bull. The mountain on 
 which he was buried bore his name. Apollod. 
 2, c. 6.— Quid Met. 11, fab. 1. Hygin. fab. 191. 
 Vid. Part I. 
 
 ToLUS, a man whose head was found in dig- 
 ging for the foundation of the capitol, in the 
 reign of Tarquin, whence the Romans con- 
 cluded that their city should become the head 
 or mistress of the world. 
 
 ToxEus, a son of CEneus, killed by Melea- 
 ger. 
 
 Triopas, or Triops, a son of Neptune by 
 Canace, the daughter of ^olus. He was fa- 
 ther of Iphimedia and of Erisichthon, who is 
 called on that account Triopeius, and hisdaugh- 
 ter Triopeis. Ovid. Met. 8, v. 754. — Apollod. 
 1, c. 7. 
 
 Triptolemus, a son of Oceanus and Terra, 
 or, according to some, of Trochilus, a priest of 
 Argos. According to the more received opinion 
 he was son of Celeus, king of Attica, by Neraea, 
 whom some have called Metanira, Cothonea, 
 Hyona, Melania, or Polymnia. He was born 
 at Eleusis in Attica, and was cured in his youth 
 of a severe illness by the care of Ceres, who had 
 been invited into the house of Celeus by the 
 monarch's children, as she travelled over the 
 country in quest of her daughter. To repay 
 the kindness of Celeus, the goddess took par- 
 ticular notice of his son. She fed him with ker 
 own milk,and placed him on burning coals dur- 
 ing the night, to destroy whatever particles of 
 mortality he had received from his parents. 
 The mother was astonished at the uncommon 
 growth of her son, and she had the curiosity to 
 watch Ceres. She disturbed the goddess by a 
 sudden cry, when Triptolemus was laid on the 
 burning ashes, and as Ceres was therefore un- 
 able to make him immortal, she taught him 
 agriculture, and rendered him serviceable to 
 mankind, by instructing him how to sow corn 
 and make bread. She also gave him her cha- 
 riot, which was drawn by two dragons ; and 
 in this celestial vehicle he travelled all over 
 the earth, and distributed corn to all the inhab- 
 itants of the world. In Scythia the favourite 
 of Ceres nearly lost his life ; but Lyncus, the 
 king of the country, who had conspired to mur- 
 der him, was changed into a lynx. At his re- 
 turn to Eleusis, Triptolemus restored Ceres 
 her chariot, and established the Eleusinian fes- 
 tivals and mysteries in honour of the deity. He 
 reigned for some time, and after death re- 
 ceived divine honcmrs. Some suppose that he 
 accompanied Bacchus in his Indian expedi- 
 tion. Diod. Hygin. fab. 147. — Paus. 2, c. 14, 
 J. 8, c. 4. — Justin. 2, c. 6. — Apollod. 1, c. 5. — 
 Callim. in Cer. ^.—Ovid. Met. 5, v. 646. 
 Fast. 4, V. 501. Trist. 3, eh 8, v. I . 
 
 Triton, a sea-deity, son of Neptune, by Am- 
 phitrite, or, according to some, by Celeno, or 
 
 Part III.— 5 G 
 
 Salacia. He was very powerful among the sea- 
 deities, and could calm the ocean and abate 
 storms at pleasure. He is generally represent- 
 ed as blowing a shell; his belly, above the 
 waist, is like that of a man, and below, a dol- 
 phin. Some represent him with the fore-feet 
 of a horse. Many of the sea-deities are called 
 Tritons, but the name is generally applied to 
 those only who are half men and half fish. 
 Apollod. 1, c. 4. — Hesiod. Theog. v. 930. — 
 Ovid. Met. 1, v. 333.— Cic. de Nat. D. 1, c. 28. 
 — Virg. jEn. 1, v. 148, 1. 6, v. 173. Paus. 9, 
 c. 20. Fi^.Partl. 
 
 Trivia, a surname given to Diana, because 
 she presided over all places where three roads 
 met. At the new moon the Athenians offered 
 her sacrifices, and a sumptuous entertainment, 
 which was generally distributed among the 
 poor. Virg. JEn. 6, v. 13, 1. 7, v. Hi.— Ovid. 
 Met. 2, V. 416. Fast. 1, v. 389. 
 
 Troilus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Trophonius. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Tros. Vid. Part II. 
 
 TuisTo, a deity of the Germans son of Ter- 
 ra, and the founder of the nation. Tacit, de 
 Germ. 2. 
 
 TuRNUS. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Tydeus, a son of CEneus, king of Calydon 
 and Periboea. He fled from his country after 
 the accidental murder of one of his friends, 
 and found a safe asylum in the'court of Adras- 
 tus, king of Argos, whose daughter Deiphyle 
 he married. When Adrastus wished to re- 
 place his son-in-law Polynices on the throne of 
 Thebes, Tydeus undertook to go and declare 
 war against Eteocles, who usurped the crown. 
 The reception he met provoked his resentment ; 
 he challenged Eteocles and his ofiicers to single 
 combat, and defeated them. On his return to 
 Argos, he slew 50 of the Thebans who had 
 conspired against his life and laid in ambush to 
 surprise him ; and only one of the number was 
 permitted to return to' Thebes, to bear the ti- 
 dings of the fate of his companions. He was 
 one of the seven chiefs uf the army of Adrastus, 
 and during the Theban war he behaved with 
 great courage. Many of the enemies expired 
 under his blows, till he was at last wounded by 
 Melanippus. Though the blow was fatal, Ty- 
 deus had the strength to dart at his enemy, and 
 to bring him to the ground, before he was car- 
 ried away from the fight l3y his companions. 
 At his own request the dead body of Melanip- 
 pus was brought to him, and after he had order- 
 ed the head to be cut off, he began to tear out 
 the brains with his teeth. The savage barba- 
 rity of Tydeus displeased Minerva, who was 
 coming to bring him relief, and to make him im- 
 mortal, and the goddess left him to his fate and 
 suffered him to die. He was buried at Argos, 
 where his monument was still to be seen in the 
 age of Pausanias. He was father to Diomedes. 
 Some suppose that the cause of his flight to 
 Argos was the murder of the son of Mel us, or, 
 according to others, of Alcathous his father's 
 brother, or perhaps his own brother Olenius. 
 Homer. 11. 4, v. 365, 2%!.— Apollod. 1, c. 8, 1. 
 3, c. 6. — JSschyl. Sept. ante Theb. — Paus. 9, 
 c. 18. — Diod. 2. — Eurip. in Sup. — Virg. Mn. 
 6, V. 419.— Ovid, in lb. 350, &c. 
 
 Tyndaridje, I. a patronymic of the chil- 
 dren of Tyndarus, as Castor, Pollux, Helen, 
 785 
 
VA 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 VE 
 
 &c. Ovid. Met. 8. II. A people of Colchis. 
 
 Tyndarus, sou of CEbalus and Gorgophone, 
 or, according to some, of Perieres. He was 
 king of Lacedsemon, and married the celebrated 
 Leda, who bore him Timandra, Philonoe, &c. 
 and also became mother of Pollux and Helen 
 by Jupiter. Vid. Leda, Castor, Pollux, Clytem- 
 nestra, &c. 
 
 Typh(Eus, or Typhon, a famous giant, son 
 of Tartarus and Terra, who had a hundred 
 heads like those of a serpent or a dragon. 
 Flames of devouring fire were darted from his 
 mouth and from his eyes, and he uttered horrid 
 yells, like the dissonant shrieks of different ani- 
 mals. He was no sooner born, than, to avenge 
 the death of his brothers the giants, he made 
 war against heaven. The father of the gods at 
 last put Typhceus to fight with his thunder- 
 bolt, and crushed him under mount jEina, in 
 the island of Sicily, or, according to some, 
 under the island Inarime. Typhosus became 
 father of Geryon, Cerberus, and Orthos, by his 
 union Mdth Echidna. Hygin. fab. 152 and 196. 
 — Ovid. Met. 5, v. 325. — JSschyl. sept, ante 
 Theb. — Hesiod. Theog. 820. — Homer. Hym. — 
 Herodot. 2, c. 156. 
 
 Typhon, I. a giant whom Juno produced by 
 striking the earth. Some of the poets make 
 him the same as the famous Typhoeus. Vid. 
 
 Typhceus. II. A brother of Osiris, who 
 
 married Nepthys. He laid snares for his bro- 
 ther during his expedition, and murdered him 
 at his return. The death of Osiris, was aven- 
 ged by his son Orus, and Typhon was put to 
 death. Vid Osiris. He was reckoned among 
 the Egyptians to be the cause of every evil, and 
 on that account generally represented as a wolf 
 and a crocodile. Plut. in Is. <^ Os. — Diod. 1, 
 
 Tyro, a beautiful nymph, daughter of Sal- 
 moneus, king of Elis and Alcidice. She was 
 treated with great severity by her mother-in- 
 law Sidero, and at last removed from her fa- 
 ther's house by her uncle Cretheus. She be- 
 came enamoured of the Enipeus ; and as she 
 often walked on the banks of the river, Nep- 
 tune assumed the shape of her favourite lover 
 and gained her afiections. She had two sons, 
 Pelias and Neleus, by Neptune, whom she ex- 
 posed, to conceal her incontinence from the 
 world. The children were preserved by shep- 
 herds, and when they had arrived to years of 
 maturity, they avenged their mother's injuries 
 by assassinating the cruel Sidero. Some time 
 after her amour with Neptune, Tyro married 
 her uncle Cretheus, by whom she had Amytha- 
 on, Pheres, and iEson. Tyro is often called 
 Salmonis from her father. Homer. Od. 11, v. 
 9,M.— Pindar. Pyth. i.—ApoUod. 1. c. 9.— 
 Diod. L—Provert. 1, el. 13, v. 20, 1. 2, el. 30, v. 
 51, 1. 3, el. 19,V. n.— Ovid. Am. 3, el. 6, v. 43. 
 —^lian. V. H. 12, e. 42. 
 
 TYRRHEUs,a shepherd of King Latinus, whose 
 stag being killed by the companions of Asca- 
 nius, was the first cause of war between ^Eneas 
 and the inhabitants of Latium. Hence the 
 word Tyrrheides. Virg. Mn. 7, v. 485. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vacuna, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
 over repose and leisure, as the word indicates 
 (vacareS. Her festivals were observed in the 
 786 
 
 month of December. Ovid. Fast. 6, v. 307. — 
 Horat. I, ep. 10, v. 49. 
 
 Vejovis, or Vejopiter, a deity of ill omen at 
 Rome. He had a temple on the Capitoline hill, 
 built by Romulus. Some suppose that he was 
 the same as Jupiter the infant, or in fie cradle, 
 because he was represented without thunder or 
 a sceptre, and had only by his side the great 
 Amalthsea, and the Cretan nymph who fed him 
 when young. Ovid. Past. 3, v. 430. 
 
 Venilia, a nymph, sister to Amata, and mo- 
 ther of Turnus by Daunus. Amphitrite, the 
 sea-goddess, is also called Venilia. Virg. JEn. 
 10, V. 16.— Ovid. Met. 14, v. S'Si.— Varro de 
 L. L. 4, c. 10. 
 
 Venti. The ancients, and especially the 
 Athenians, paid particular attention to the 
 winds, and offered them sacrifices as to deities, 
 intent upon the destruction of mankind, by con- 
 tinually causing storms, tempests, and earth- 
 quakes. The winds were represented in dif- 
 ferent attitudes and forms. The four principal 
 winds were, Eurus, the southeast, who is re- 
 presented as a young man flying with great im- 
 petuosity, and often appearing in a playsome 
 and wanton humour. Auster, the south wind, 
 appeared generally as an old man with" gray 
 hair, a gloomy eountenance,a head covered with 
 clouds, a sable vesture, and dusky wings. He 
 is the dispenser of rain, and of all heavy show- 
 ers. Zephyrus is represented as the mildest of 
 all the winds. He is young and gentle, and his 
 lap is filled with vernal flowers. He married 
 Flora the goddess, with whom he enjoyed the 
 most perfect felicity. Boreas, the north wind, 
 appears always rough and shivering. He is the 
 father of rain, snow, hail, and tempests, and is 
 always represented as surrounded with impene- 
 trable clouds. Those of inferior note were So- 
 lanus, whose name is seldom mentioned. He 
 appears as a young man, holding fruit in his 
 lap, such as peaches, oranges, &c. Africus, or 
 southwest, represented with black wings and 
 a melancholy countenance. Corns, or north- 
 west, drives clouds of snow before him ; and 
 Aquilo, the northeast, is equally dreadful in ap- 
 pearance. The winds, according to some my- 
 thologists, were confined in a large cave, of 
 which JEolus had the management, and with- 
 out this necessary precaution they would have 
 overturned the earth, and reduced every thing 
 to its original chaos. Virg. Mn. 1, v, 57, &c. 
 
 Venus, I. one of the most celebrated deities of 
 the ancients. She was the goddess of beauty, 
 the mother of love, the queen of laughter, the 
 mistress of graces and of pleasures, and the 
 patroness of courtesans. Some mythologists 
 speak of more than one Venus. Plato mentions 
 two, Venus Urania,the daughter of Uranus, and 
 Venus Popularia, the daughter of Jupiter and 
 Dione. Cicero speaks of four, a daughter of 
 Coelus and Light, one sprung from the froth of 
 the sea, a third, daughter of Jupiter and the 
 Nereid Diane, and a fourth born at Tyre, and 
 the same as the Astarte of the Syrians. Of 
 these, however, the Venus sprung from the froth 
 of the sea, after the mutilated part of the body 
 of Uranus had been thrown there by Saturn, is 
 the most known ; and of her in particular, an- 
 cient mythologists, as well as painters, make 
 mention. She arose from the sea near the island 
 of Cjrprus, or, according to Hesiod, of Cythera, 
 
VE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 VE 
 
 wliither she was V\ afied by the zephyrs, and re- 
 ceived on the seashore by the Seasons, daugh- 
 ters of Japiter and Them:s. She was soon aiier 
 carried to heaven, where all the gods admired 
 her beauty, and all the goddesses became jea- 
 lous of her personal charms. Jupiter gave her 
 in marriage to his ugly and deformed son 
 Vulcan. Her intrigue with Mars is the most 
 celebrated. She was caught in her lover's arms, 
 and exposed to the ridicule and laughter of all 
 the gods. Venus became mother of Hermione, 
 Cupid, and Anteros, by Mars ; by Mercury, she 
 had Hermaphroditus ; by Bacchus, Priapus; 
 and by Neptune, Kryx. Her great partiality 
 for Adonis made her abandon the seats of Ol3'm- 
 pus; and her regard for Anchises obliged her 
 often to visit the woods and solitary retreats of 
 mount Ida. The power of Venus over the 
 heart was supported and assisted by a celebrated 
 girdle, called zo7ie by the Greeks and cestus by 
 the Latins. This mysterious girdle gave beauty, 
 grace, and elegance, when worn even by the 
 most deformed ; it excited love and rekindled 
 extinguished flames. Juno herself was in- 
 debted to this powerful ornament to gain the 
 favours of Jupiter, and Venus, though herself 
 possessed of ever}' charm, no sooner put on her 
 cestus, than Vulcan, unable to resist the influ- 
 ence of love, forgot all the intrigues and infi- 
 delities of his wife, and fabricated arms even 
 for her illegitimate children. The contest of 
 Venus for the golden apple of Discord is well 
 known. She gained the prize over Pallas and 
 Juno, {Vid. Pans, Discordia,) and rewarded 
 her.impartial judge with the hand of the fairest 
 woman in the Avorld. The worship of Venus 
 was universally established ; statues and tem- 
 ples were erected to her in ever}' kingdom, and 
 the ancients were fond of paying homage to a 
 divinity who presided over generation, and by 
 whose influence alone mankind existed. In 
 her sacrifices, and in the festivals celebrated in 
 her honour, too much licentiousness prevailed, 
 and public prostitution was often a part of the 
 ceremony. Victims were seldom offered to her, 
 or her altars stained with blood, though we find 
 Aspasia making repeated sacrifices. No pigs, 
 however, or male animals were deemed accept- 
 able. The rose, the myrtle, and the apple, were 
 sacred to Venus, and'among birds, the dove, 
 the swan, and the sparrow, were her favourites ; 
 and among fishes, those called the aphya and 
 the lyccstomus. The goddess of beautv was rep- 
 resented among the ancients in different forms. 
 At Elis she appeared seated on a goat, with one 
 foot resting on a tortoise. At Sparta and Cvth- 
 era she was represented armed like Minerva, 
 and sometimes wearing chains on her feet. In 
 the temple of Jupiter Olympias she was repre- 
 sented by Phidias as rising from the sea, re- 
 ceived by love, and crowned by the goddess of 
 persuasion. At Cnidos, her statue, made by 
 Praxiteles, represented her naked, with one 
 hand hiding what modesty keeps concealed. 
 Her statue atElephantis was the same, with only 
 a naked Cupid by her side. In Sicyon she held 
 a poppy in one hand, and in the other an apple; 
 while on her head she had a crown, which ter- 
 minated in a point to intimate the pole. She is 
 generally represented with her son Cupid, on a 
 chariot drawn by doves, or at other times by 
 swans or sparrows. The surnames of the god- 
 
 dess are numerous, and only serve to show how 
 well established her worship was all over the 
 earth. She was called Cypria, because particu- 
 larly worshipped in the island of Cyprus, and in 
 that character she was ofien represented with a 
 beard, and with a sceptre in her hand, and the 
 body and dress of a female, whence she is called 
 duplex Amathusa by Catullus. She received 
 the name of Pa,pkia, because worshipped at 
 Paphos, where she had a temple with an altar, 
 on which rain never fell, though exposed in the 
 open air. Some of the ancients call her Apos- 
 tropliia, or Epistrophia: as also Venus Urania 
 and Venus Pandemos. The Cnidians raised 
 her teinples under the name of Venus Acrcca, 
 of Doris, and of Euplxa. In her temple under 
 the name of Euploea, at Cnidos, was the most 
 celebrated of her statues, being the most perfect 
 piece of Praxiteles. Venus was also surnamed 
 Cytheraa, because she was the chief deiiy of 
 Cythera; Philonimeis, because the queen of 
 laughter; Telessigarna, because she presided 
 over marriage ; Coliada, Colotis, or Colias, be- 
 cause v.'-orshipped on a promontory of the same 
 name in Attica ; Area, because armed like Mars ; 
 Verticordia, because she could turn the hearts 
 of women to cultivate chastity; Apuiaria, be- 
 cause she deceived; Calva, because she was 
 represented bald ; Eriajna,, because worshipped 
 at Eryx ; Etaira, because the patroness of cour- 
 tesans ; Acidalia, because of a fountain of Or- 
 chomenos; Ba.silea, because the queen of love; 
 Myrtea, because the myrtle was sacred to her; 
 Mechanitis, in allusion to the many artifices 
 practised in love, &c., &c. As the goddess of 
 the sea, because born in the bosom of the waters, 
 Venus was called Ponlia, Marina, Lymnesia, 
 Epipmitia, Pelagia, Saligenia, Pontogenia, 
 Aligenia, Thalassia, &c., and, as rising from 
 the sea, the name of Anadyomene, is applied to 
 her, and rendered immortal by the celebrated 
 painting of Apelles, wliich represented her as 
 issuing from the bosom of the waves, and wring- 
 ing her tresses on her shoulder. Vid. Ano.dy- 
 omene. Cic. d^ Nat. D. 2, c. 27, 1. 3, c. 22.-- 
 Orph. Hymn. 54. — Hesiod. Theog. — Sappho. — 
 Homer. Hymn, in Ven., &c. — Virg. JEn. 5, v. 
 800, &c.— Ovid. Her aid. 15, 16, 19, &c. 3Iet. 4, 
 fab. 5. &c. — Diod. 1 and 5. — Hvgin. fab. 94, 
 271.— PflMS. 2, c. 1, 1. 4, c. 30, "1. 5, c. 18.— 
 Martial. 6, ep. 13. — Eurip. in Hel. in Ipliig. in 
 Troad.—Plut. in Erotic. — Mlian. V. H. 12, c. 
 1. — Athen. 12, &c. — Catullus. — Lactant. de falsa 
 re. — Calnber. 11. — Lucian. dial., &c. — Slrab.l-i. 
 — Tacit. Ami. 3, &c.— Val. Max. 8, c. 11.— 
 
 Pli-n. 36.—Horat. 3. Od. 26, 1. 4, Od. 11, &c. 
 
 II. A planet, called by the Greeks Phosphorus, 
 and bv the Latins Ducifer, when it rises before 
 the sun,"but when it follows it, Hesperus or 
 Vesper. Cic. d£ Nat. 2, c. 20, in somn. Scip. 
 
 Veritas, (truth,) was not only personified by 
 the ancients, but also made a deit)', and called 
 the daughter of Saturn and the mother of Vir- 
 tue. She was represented like a young virgin, 
 dressed in white apparel, with all the marks of 
 youthful diflidence and modesty. Democritus 
 used to say that she hid herself at the bottom 
 of a well, to intimate the difficulty with which 
 she is found. 
 
 Verticordia. Vid. Venus. 
 
 Vertummts, a deity among the Romans, who 
 presided over the spring and over orchards, 
 787 
 
VI 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 UR 
 
 He endeavoured to gain the affections of the 
 goddess Pomona; and, to effect this, he assumed 
 the shape and dress of a fisherman, of a soldier, 
 a peasant, a reaper, &c., but all to no purpose, 
 till, under the form of an old woman, he pre- 
 vailed upon his mistress and married her. He is 
 generally represented as a young man crowned 
 with flowers, covered up to the waist, and hold- 
 ing in his right hand fruit, and a crown of 
 plenty in his left. Ovid. Met. 14, v. 642, &c. 
 — Proper t. 4, el. 2, v. 2.—Horat. 2, Sat. 7, v. 14. 
 
 Vesta, a goddess, daughter of Rhea and Sa- 
 turn, sister to Ceres and Juno. She is often 
 confounded by the mythologists with Rhea, 
 Ceres, Cybele, Proserpine, Hecate, and Tellus. 
 When considered as the mother of the gods, 
 she is the mother of Rhea and Saturn ; and 
 when considered as the patroness of the vestal 
 virgins and the goddess of fire, she is called the 
 daughter of Saturn and Rhea. Under this last 
 name she was worshipped by the Romans. 
 jlEneas was the first who introduced her mys- 
 teries into Italy, and Numa built her a temple, 
 where no males were permitted to go. The 
 Palladium of Troy was supposed to be pre- 
 served within her sanctuary, and a fire was 
 continually kept lighted by a certain number 
 of virgins, who had dedicated themselves to the 
 service of the goddess. Vid. Vestales. If the 
 fire of Vesta was ever extinguished, it was sup- 
 posed to threaten the republic with some sudden 
 calamity. The virgin by whose negligence it 
 had been extinguished was severely punished, 
 and It was kindled again by the rays of the 
 sun. The temple of Vesta was of a round 
 form, and the goddess was represented in a long 
 flowing robe, with a veil on her head, holding 
 m one hand a lamp, or a two-eared vessel, and 
 in the other a javelin, or sometimes a palladium. 
 On some medals she appears holding a drum 
 in one hand, and a small figure of victory in 
 the other. Hesiod. Theog. v. 454. — Cic. de Leg. 
 2, c. \±—Apollod. 1, c. \.— Virg. Mn. 2, v. 296. 
 — Diod. 5. — Ovid. Fast. 6.— l\ist. 3. — Val. 
 Max. 1, c. 1. — Plut. in Num. — Paus. 5, c. 14. 
 
 ViCA PoTA, a goddess at Rome, who presided 
 over victory (a vincere and potiri.) Liv. 2, c. 7. 
 
 Victoria, one of the deities of the Romans, 
 called by the Greeks Nice, supposed to be the 
 daughter of the giant Pallas, or Titan and Styx. 
 The goddess of Victory was sister to Strength 
 and Valour, and was one of the attendants of 
 Jupiter. She was greatly honoured by the 
 Greeks, particularly at Athens. Sylla raised 
 ner a temple at Rome, and instituted festivals 
 in her honour. She was represented with 
 v/ings, crowned with laurel, and holding the 
 branch of a palm-tree in her hand. A golden 
 statue of this goddess, weighing 320 pounds, 
 was presented to the Romans by Hiero, king 
 of Syracuse, and deposited in the temple of 
 Jupiter, on the Capitoline hill. Liv. 22. — Varro. 
 de L. L. — Hesiod. Theog. — Hygin. praf. fa}). 
 —Stiet. 
 
 ViRiPLACA, a goddess among the Romans who 
 presided over the peace of families, whence her 
 name, {virum placare.') If any quarrel hap- 
 pened between a man and his wife, they gene- 
 rally repaired to the temple of the goddess, 
 which was erected on the Palatine mount, and 
 came back reconciled. Va2. Max. c. 1. 
 
 Virtus. All virtues were made deities among 
 , . 788 
 
 the Romans. Marcellus erected two temples, 
 one to Virtue and the other to Honour. They 
 were built in such a manner, that to see the 
 temple of Honour it was necessary to pass 
 through that of Virtue ; a happy allegory among 
 a nation free and independent. The principal 
 virtues were distinguished each by their attire. 
 Prudence was known by her rule and her point- 
 ing to a globe at her feet ; Temperance fead a 
 bridle; Justice held an equal balance; and 
 Fortitude leant against her sword; Honesty 
 was clad in a transparent vest ; Modesty ap- 
 peared veiled ; Clemency wore an olive branch, 
 and Devotion threw incense upon an altar; 
 Tranquillity was seen to lean on a column ; 
 Health was known by her serpent. Liberty by 
 her cap, and Gayety by her myrtle. Cic. de N. 
 D. 2, c. 23. — Plant, in amph. prol. — Liv. 29, c. 
 \\.— Val. Max. 1, c. \.—Aug. de Civ. D. 4, c. 20. 
 
 ViTULA, a deity among the Romans who 
 presided over festivals and rejoicings. Ma- 
 crob. 3, c. 2. 
 
 Ulysses. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Unca, a surname of Minerva among the 
 Phoenicians and Thebans. 
 
 Unigena, a surname of Minerva, as sprung 
 of Jupiter alone. ' ' 
 
 Unxia, a surname of Juno, derived from un- 
 gere, to anoint, because it was usual among the 
 Romans for the bride to anoint the threshold of 
 her husband, and from this necessary ceremony 
 wives were called Unxores, and afterwards Ux- 
 ores, from Unxia, who presided over them. 
 Arnob. 3. 
 
 VoLUMN^ Fanum, a temple in Etruria, sacred 
 to the goddess Volumna, where the states of 
 the country used to assemble. Viterbo now 
 stands on the spot. Liv. 4, c. 23, 1. 5, c. 17. 1. 
 6, c. 2. 
 
 VoLUMNUs, and Volumna, two deities who 
 presided over the will. They were chiefly in- 
 voked at marriag-es, to preserve concord between 
 the husband and wife. They were particularly 
 worshipped by the Etrurians. Liv. 4, c. 61 . 
 
 VoLUPTAS, and Volupia, the goddess of sen- 
 sual pleasures, worshipped at Rome, where she 
 had a temple. She was represented as a young 
 and beautiful woman, well dressed, and ele- 
 gantly adorned, seated on a throne, and having 
 virtue under her feet. Cic. de N. D. 2, c. 23. 
 — Macrob. 1, c. 10. — Aug de Civ. D. 4, c. 8. 
 
 Upis, the father of one of the Dianas men- 
 tioned by the ancients, from v/hich circumstance 
 Diana herself is called Upis. Cic. de Nat. D. 
 3, c. 23. — Callim. in Dian. 
 
 Urania, one of the Muses, daughter of Jupi- 
 ter and Mnemosyne, who presided over astron- 
 omy. She is generally called mother of Linus 
 by Apollo, and of the god Hymena-us by Bac- 
 chus. She was represented as a young virgin 
 dressed in an azure-coloured robe. crowned with 
 stars, and holding a globe in her hands, and 
 having many mathematical instruments placed 
 round. Hesiod Theog. 77. — Apollod. 1, c. 2. — 
 
 Hygin. fab. 161. A surname of Venus, the 
 
 same as Celestial. She was supposed, in that 
 character, to preside over beauty and genera- 
 tion, and was called daughter of Uranus or 
 Coelus by the Light. Her temples In Asia, 
 Africa, Greece, and Italy, were numerous. 
 Plato, in Symp. — Cic. de Nat. Z). 3, c. 23.— 
 Paus. 1, c. 14, &c.. 1. 7, c. 26, &c. 
 
vu 
 
 IVIYTHOLOGY. 
 
 XU 
 
 Uranus, or Ouranus, a deity, the same as 
 Ccelus, the most ancient of all the gods. He 
 married Tithea, or the Earth, by whom he had 
 Ceus, Creus, Hyperion, Mnemosyne, Cottus, 
 Pha3be, Briareus, Thetis, Saturn, Giges, called 
 from their mother Titans. His children con- 
 spired against him, because he confined them 
 in the bosom of the earth, and his son Saturn 
 mutilated him, and drove him from his throne, 
 
 VuLCANTJS, a god of the ancients who pfesi- 
 ded over fire, and was the patron of all artists 
 who worked iron and metals. He was son of 
 Juno alone, who in this wished to imitate Jupi- 
 ter, who had produced Minerva from his brains. 
 According to Homer he was son of Jupiter and 
 Juno, and the mother was so disgusted with the 
 deformities of her son, that she threw him into 
 the sea as soon as born, where he remained for 
 nine years. According to the more received 
 opinion, Vulcan was educated in heaven with 
 the rest of the gods, but his father kicked him 
 down from Olympus, when he attempted to de- 
 liver his mother, who had been fastened by a 
 golden chain for her insolence. He was nine 
 days in coming from heaven upon earth, and 
 he fell in the island of Lemnos, where, accord- 
 ing to Lucian, the inhabitants seeing him in the 
 air, caught him in their arms. He, however, 
 broke his leg by the fall, and ever after remain- 
 ed lame of one foot. He fixed his residence in 
 Lemnos, where he built himself a palace, and 
 raised forges to work metals. The inhabitants 
 of the island became sensible of his industry, 
 and were taught all the useful arts which could 
 civilize their rude manners, and render them 
 serviceable to the good of society. The first 
 work of Vulcan was, accordingtosome,a throne 
 of gold with secret springs, which he presented 
 to his mother, to avenge himself for her want of 
 afiection towards him. Juno no sooner was seat- 
 ed on the throne than she found herself unable 
 to move. The gods attempted to deliver her by 
 breaking the chains which held her, but to no 
 purpose ; and Vulcan alone had the power to 
 set her at liberty, Bacchus intoxicated him, and 
 prevailed upon him to come to Olympus, where 
 he was reconciled to his parents. Vulcan has 
 been celebrated by the ancient poets for the in- 
 genious works and automatical figures which 
 he made; and many speak of two golden statues, 
 which not only seemed animated, but which 
 walked by his side, and even assisted him in the 
 working of metals. It is said, that at the request 
 of Jupiterhe made the first woman that ever ap- 
 peared on earth, well known under the name 
 of Pandora. Vid. Pandora. The Cyclops of 
 Sicily were his ministers and attendants ; and 
 with him they fabricated, not only the thunder- 
 bolts of Jupiter, but also arms for the gods and 
 the most celebrated heroes. His forges were 
 supposed to be undermount^Etna in the island 
 of Sicily, as well as in every part of the earth 
 where there were volcanoes. The most known 
 of the works of Vulcan which were presented 
 to mortals, are the arms of Achilles, those of 
 ^neas, the shield of Hercules described by 
 Hesiod, a collar given toHermione the wife of 
 Cadmus, and a sceptre which was in the pos- 
 session of Agamemnon king of Argos and My- 
 cenae. The collar proved fatal to all those that 
 wore it, but the sceptre, after the death of Aga- 
 memnon, was carefully preserved at Cheroncea, 
 
 and regarded as a divinity. The amours of 
 Vulcan are not numerous. He demanded Mi- 
 nerva from Jupiter, who had promised him in 
 marriage whatever goddess he should choose, 
 and when she refused his addresses, he attempt- 
 ed to offer her violence. Minerva resisted with 
 success, though there remained on her body 
 some marks of Vulcan's passion, which she 
 threw down upon earth wrapped up in wool. 
 Vid. Erichthonius. This disappointment in 
 his love was repaired by Jupiter, who gave 
 him one of the Graces. Venus is universally 
 acknowledged to have been the wife of Vulcan ; 
 her infidelity is well known, as well as her 
 amours with Mars, which were discovered by 
 Phoebus, and exposed to the gods by her own 
 husband. The worship of Vulcan was well 
 established, particularly in Egypt, at Athens 
 and at Rome. It was usual in the sacrifices 
 that were offered to him to burn the whole vic- 
 tim, and not reserve part of it as in the immola- 
 tions to the rest of the gods. A calf and a boar- 
 pig were the principal victims offered. Vulcan 
 was represented as covered with sweat, blowing 
 with his nervous arm the fires of his forges. 
 His breast was hairy, and his forehead was 
 blackened with smoke. Some represent him 
 lame and deformed, holding a hammer raised 
 in the air ready to strike; while with the other 
 hand he turns, with pincers, a thunderbolt on 
 his anvil, for which an eagle waits by his side to 
 carry it to Jupiter. He appears on some monu- 
 ments with a long beard, dishevelled hair, half 
 naked, and a small round cap on his head, while 
 he holds a hammer and pincers in his hand. 
 TheEgyptians represented him under the figure 
 of a monkey. Vulcan has received the names 
 of Mulciber, Pamphanes, Clytotechnes, Panda- 
 maior, Cyllopodes, Chalaipoda, &c., all expres- 
 sive of his lameness and his profession. He 
 was father of Cupid by Venus ; of Ciseculus. 
 Cecrops, Cacus, Periphetes, Cercyon, Ocrisia, 
 &c. Cicero speaks of more than one deity of 
 the name of Vulcan. One he calls son of Coe- 
 lus, and father of Apollo by Minerva ; the sec- 
 ond he mentions is son of the Nile, and called 
 Phtas by the Egyptians ; the third was the son 
 of Jupiter and Juno, and fixed his residence in 
 Lemnos ; and the fourth, who built his forges in 
 the Lipari islands, was son of Menalius. Vul- 
 can seems to have been admitted into heaven 
 more for ridicule than any other purpose; and 
 even his wife is represented as laughing at his 
 deformities, and mimicking his lameness to 
 gain the smiles of her lovers. He.". Theog. tf* in 
 Suet. Here. 140 and 2'^.—Apollod. 1, c. 3, &c. 
 —Homer. 11. 1, v. 57, and 1. 15, v. 18, 1. 11, v. 
 397, &c.—Diod. 5.— Pans. 1, c. 20, 1. 3, 17.— 
 Cic. de JVat. D. 3, c. 22.—HerodoL 2 and 3.— 
 Varro. de L. L. — Virg. Mn. 7, &c. 
 
 X. 
 
 XuTmjs, a son of Hellen, grandson of Deu- 
 calion. He was banished from Thessaly by his 
 brothers and came to Athens, where he married 
 Creusa, the daughter of King Erechtheus, by 
 whom he had Achaeus and Ion. He retired af- 
 ter the death of his father-in-law into Achaia, 
 where he died. According to some, he had no 
 children, but adopted Ion, the son whom Creusa, 
 before her marriage, had born to Apollo. 
 789 
 
ZE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ZY 
 
 ApoUod. I, c. 7. — Paus. 7, c. 1. — Eurip. in Ino. 
 1, sc. 1. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zacynthus. Vid. Part II. 
 
 Zethes, Zetes, or Zetus, a son of Boreas, 
 king of Thrace and Orithya,who accompanied, 
 with his brother Calais, the Argonauts to Col- 
 chis. In Bithynia, the two brothers, who are 
 represented with wings, delivered Phineus from 
 the continual persecution of the Harpies, and 
 drove these monsters as far as the islands called 
 Strophades, where at last they were stopped by 
 Iris, who promised them that Phineus should 
 no longer be tormented by them. They were 
 both killed, as some say, by Hercules, during the 
 Argonautic expedition, and were changed into 
 those winds which generally blow 8 or 10 days 
 before the dogstar appears, and are called Pro- 
 dromi by the Greeks. Their sister Cleopatra 
 married Phineus king of Bithynia. Orpheus. 
 Arg. — Apollod. 1, c. 9, 1. 3, c. 15. — Hygin. fab. 
 14.-^ Ovid. Met. 8, v. 1\Q.—Paus. 3, c. 18.— 
 Vol. Flaec. 
 
 Zetus, or Zethus, a son of Jupiter and An- 
 
 liope, brother to Amphion. Vid. Antiope. 
 
 Tne crown of Thebes was seized by the two 
 
 brothers, not only as the reward of this victory, 
 
 790 
 
 but as their inheritance, and Zethus surrounded 
 the capital of his dominions with a strong wall, 
 while his brother amused himself with playing 
 on his lyre. Music and verses were disagree- 
 able to Zethus, and according to some, he pre- 
 vailed upon his brother no longer to pursue so 
 unproductive a study. Hygin. fab. 7. — Paus. 
 
 2, c. 6, Slc— Apollod. 3, c. 5 and 10.~Horat. 1, 
 ep. 18,v. 41. 
 
 Zeds, a name of Jupiter among the Greeks, 
 expressive of his being the father of mankind, 
 and by whom all things live. Diod. 5. 
 
 Zedxippe, I. a daughter of Eridanus, mother 
 of Butes, one of the Argonauts, &c. Apollod. 
 
 3, c. 15. II. A daughter of Laomedon. She 
 
 married Sicyon, who after his father-in-law's 
 death, became king of that city of Peloponnesus 
 which from him has been called Sicyon. Paus. 
 2, c. 6. 
 
 ZosTERiA, a surname of Minerva. She had 
 two statues under that name in the city of 
 Thebes in Boeotia. The word signifies girt, 
 or armed for battle, words synonymous among 
 the ancients. Paus. 9, c. 17. — Homer. 11. 2, v. 
 478,1. 11, V. 15. 
 
 Zygia, a surname of Juno, because she pre- 
 sided over marriage, (a ^evywixi Jungd.) She 
 is the same as the PronuJ}a of the Latins. Pin- 
 dar. — Pollux. 3, c. 3. 
 
A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 
 
 From the Creation of the World to the fall of the Roman Empire in the west and in the east. 
 
 4004 
 2348 
 
 2247 
 2234 
 
 2089 
 2059 
 J 996 
 1856 
 
 1822 
 
 Before Christ.* 
 
 The world created in the 710th year of the Julian 
 period 
 
 The deluge 
 
 The tower of Babel built, and the confusion of lan- 
 guages 
 
 Celestial observations are first made at Babylon 
 
 The kingdom of Egypt is supposed to have begun 
 under Misraim, the son of Ham, and to have con- 
 tinued 1663 years, to the conquest of Cambyses 
 
 The kingdom of Sicyon established 
 
 The kingdom of Assyria begins 
 
 The birtn of Abraham 
 
 The kingdom of Argos established under Inachus 
 
 Memnon, the Egyptian, said to invent letters, 15 
 years before the reign of Phoroneus 
 
 The deluge of Ogyges, by which Attica remained 
 waste aoove 200 years, till the coming of Cecrops 
 
 Joseph sold into E^ypt by his brethren 
 
 The chronology ot the Arundelian Marbles begins 
 about this time, fixing here the arrival of Cecrops 
 in Attica, an epoch which other writers have 
 placed later by 26 years 
 
 Moses born 
 
 The kingdom of Athens begun under Cecrops, "who 
 came from Egypt with a colony of Saites. This 
 happened about 780 years before the first Olym- 
 piad 
 
 Scamander migrates from Crete, and begins the 
 kingdom of Iroy 
 
 The (feluge of Deucalion in Thessaly 
 
 The Panathena9a first celebrated at Athens 
 
 Cadmus com'eB into Greece, and builds the citadel of 
 Thebes 
 
 The first Olympic Games celebrated in Elis by the 
 Idsei Dactyli 
 
 The five books of Moses written in the land of Moab, 
 where he dies the following year, aged 110 
 
 Minos flourishes in Crete, and iron is found by the 
 Dactyli by the accidental burning of the woods of 
 Ida in Crete 
 
 The Eleusinian mysteries introduced at Athens by 
 Eumolpus 
 
 The Isthmian games first instituted by Sisyphus, 
 king of Corinth 
 
 The argonautic expedition. The first Pythian games 
 celebrated by Adrastus, king of Argos' 
 
 Gideon flourishes in Israel 
 
 The Theban war of the seven heroes against Eteo- 
 cles 
 
 Olympic games celebrated by Hercules 
 
 The rape of Helen by Theseus, and, 15 years after, 
 by Paris 
 
 Troy taken after a siege of 10 years. jEneas sails to 
 Italy 
 
 Alba Longa built by Ascanius 
 
 Migration of the .^olian colonies 
 
 The return of the Heraclidas into Peloponnesus, 80 
 years after the taking of Troy. Two years after, 
 they divide the Peloponnessus amon^ themselves : 
 and here, therefore, begins the kingdom of Lace- 
 daemon under Eurysthenus and Procles 
 
 Saul made king over Israel 
 
 The kingdom of Sicyon ended 
 
 The kingdom of Athens ends in the death of Codrus 
 
 The migration of the Ionian colonies from Greece, 
 and their settlement in Asia Minor 
 
 Dedication of Solomon's temple 
 
 Samos built 
 
 Division of the kingdom of Judah and Israel 
 
 Homer and Hesiod flourished about this time, ac- 
 cording to the Marbles 
 
 1582 
 1571 
 
 1556 
 
 1546 
 ]503 
 1495 
 
 1493 
 
 1453 
 
 1452 
 
 1406 
 
 1356 
 
 1326 
 
 1263 
 1245 
 
 1225 
 
 1222 
 
 1213 
 
 1184 
 1152 
 1124 
 
 1104 
 1095 
 1088 
 1070 
 
 1044 
 1004 
 986 
 975 
 
 907 
 
 Before Christ. 
 Elias the prophet taken up into heaven 896 
 
 Lycurgus, 42 years old, established his laws at La- 
 cedaimon, and, together with Iphitus and Cleos- 
 thenes, restores the Olympic games at Elis, about 
 108 years before the era which is commonly call- 
 ed the first Olympiad 884 
 Phidon, king of Argos, is supposed to have invented 
 scales and measures, and coined silver at ^gina. 
 Carthage built by Dido 869 
 Fall of the Assyrian empire by the death of Sardan- 
 
 apalus, an era placed 80 years earlier by Justin 820 
 The kingdom of Macedonia begins, and continues 
 
 646 years, till the battle of Pydna 814 
 
 The kingdom of Lydia begins and continues 249 
 
 years 797 
 
 The triremes first invented by the Corinthians 786 
 
 Tlie monarchical government abolished at Corinth, 
 
 and the Prytanes elected 797 
 
 Corcebus conquers at Olympia, in the 28th Olympiad 
 from the institution of Iphitus. This is vulgarly 
 called the first Olympiad, about 23 years before 
 the foundation of Rome 776 
 
 The Ephori introduced into the government of La- 
 
 cedasmon by Theopompus , 760 
 
 Isaiah begins to projihesy 757 
 
 The decennial archons begin at Athens, of which 
 
 Charops is the first 754 
 
 Rome built on the 20th of April, according to Varro, 
 
 in the year 3961 of the Julian period 753 
 
 The rape of the Sa bines 7.50 
 
 The era of Narbonassar king of Babylon begins 747 
 
 The first Messenian war begins, and continues 19 
 
 years, to the taking of Ithome 743 
 
 Syracuse built by a Corinthian colony 732 
 
 The kingdom of Israel finished by the takiiig of Sa- 
 maria by Salmanasar, king of Assyria. Ihe first 
 eclipse of the moon on record, March 19, accord- 
 in» to Ptolemy 721 
 
 Candaules murdered by Gyges, who succeeds to the 
 
 Lydian throne 718 
 
 Tarentum built by the Parthenians 707 
 
 Corcyra built by the Corinthians _ 703 
 
 The second Messenian war begins, and continues 14 
 years, to the taking of Ira, after a siege of 11 
 years. About this time flourished the poets Tyr- 
 taeus and Archiloclius 685 
 
 The government of Athens intrusted to annual ar- 
 chons 684 
 Alba destroyed 665 
 Cypselus usurps the government of Corinth, and 
 
 keeps it for 30 years C59 
 
 Byzantium built by a colony of Argives or Athenians 658 
 Cyrene built by Battus 630 
 
 The Scythians invade Asia Minor, of which they 
 
 Iieep possession for 28 years 624 
 
 Draco estabhshes his laws in Athens 623 
 
 The canal between the Nile and the Red Sea begun 
 
 by king Necho 610 
 
 Nineveh taken and destroyed by Cyaxares and his 
 
 allies • 606 
 
 The Phoenicians sail round Africa, by order of Ne- 
 cho. About this time flourished Arion, Pittacus, 
 Alcaeus, Sappho, &c. 604 
 
 The Scythians are expelled from Asia Minor by 
 
 Cyaxares 596 
 
 The Pythian games first established at Delphi. 
 About this time flourished Chilo, Anacharcis, 
 Thales, Epimenides, Solon, the prophet Ezekiel, 
 ^sop, Stersichorus 591 
 
 Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 9th of June, 
 
 after a siege of 18 months 587 
 
 * In the following Table, I have confined myself to the more easy and convenient eras of before, (B. C.) anil after, 
 (A. D.) Christ. For the sake of those, however, that do not wish the exclusion of the Julian period, it is necessary to 
 observe, that, as the first year of the Christian era always falls on the 4714th of the Julian years, the number required 
 either before or after Christ, will easily be discovered by the application of the rules of subtraction or addition. The 
 era from the foundation of Rome (A. U. C.) will be found witri the same facility, by recollecting that the city waa 
 built 753 years before Christ ; and the Olympiads can likewise be recurred to by the consideration, that the conquest 
 of Coroebus (B. C. 776,) forms the first Olympiad, and the Olympic games were celebrated after the revolution of 
 four years. 
 
 791 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 The Isthmian games restored, and celebrated every 
 
 1st and 3d year of the Olympiads 582 
 
 Death of Jeremiah the prophet 577 
 
 The Nemsean games restored 5G8 
 
 The first comedy acted at Athens by Susarion and 
 
 Dolon 562 
 
 Pisistratus first usurped the sovereignty at Athens 560 
 
 Cyrus begins to reign. About this time flourished 
 Anaximenes, Bias, Anaximander, Phalaris, and 
 Cleobulus 559 
 
 Crcesus conquered by Cyrus. About this tim?. flou- 
 rished Theognis and Pherecydes 548 
 Marseilles built by the Phocseans. The age of Py- 
 thagoras, Simonides, Thespis, Xenophanes, and 
 Anacreon 539 
 Babylon taken by Cyrus 538 
 The return of the Jews by the edict of Cyrus, and 
 
 the rebuilding of the temple 536 
 
 The first tragedy acted at Athens on the wagon of 
 
 Thespis 535 
 
 Learning encouraged at Athens, and a public libra- 
 ry built 526 
 Egypt conquered by Cambyses 525 
 Polycrates, of Samos, put to death 5^ 
 Darius Hystaspes chosen king of Persia. About 
 this time flourished Confucius, the celebrated Chi- 
 nese philosopher 521 
 The tyranny of the Pisistratidae abolish'^d at Athens 510 
 The consular ojovernmest begins at Rome after the 
 expulsion ot the Tarquins, and continues inde- 
 pendent 461 years, till the battle of Pharsalia 509 
 Sardis taken by the Athenians and burnt, which be- 
 came afterwards the cause of the invasion of 
 Greece by the Persians. About this time flourish- 
 ed Heraclitus, Parmenides, Milo the wrestler, 
 Aristagoras, &c. 504 
 The first dictator, Lartius, created at Rome 498 
 The Roman i)opulace retire to mount Sacer 493 
 The battle of iVIarathon 490 
 The battles of Thermopylaj, August 7th, and Sala- 
 mis, October 20th. About this time flourished 
 ^schylus, Pindar, Charon, Anaxagoras, Zeuxis, 
 Aristides, &c. 480 
 The Persians defeated at PlatEea and Mycale on the 
 
 same day, 22d September 479 
 
 The 390 Fabii killed at Cremera, July 17th 477 
 
 Themistocles, accused of conspiracy, flies to Xerxes 471 
 The Persians defeated at Cyprus, and near the Eu- 
 
 rymedon 470 
 
 The third Messenian war begins, and continues 10 
 
 years 465 
 
 Egypt revolts from the Persians under Inarus, as- 
 sisted by the Athenians 463 
 The Romans send to Athens for Solon's laws. 
 About this time flourished Sophocles, Nehemiah 
 the prophet, Plato the comic poet, Aristarchus 
 the tragic, Leocrates, Thrasybulus, Pericles, Za- 
 leucus, &c. 454 
 The first sacred war concerning the temple of Delphi 448 
 The Athenians defeated at Cnseronea by the Boeo- 
 tians 447 
 Herodotus reads his history to the council of Athens, 
 and receives public honours in the 39th year of his 
 age. About this time flourished Empedocles, He- 
 lanicus, Euripides, Herodicus, Phidias, Artemo- 
 nes, Charondas, <fcc. 445 
 A colony sent to Thurium by the Athenians 444 
 Comedies prohibited at Athens, a restraint which re 
 
 mained in force for three years 440 
 
 A war between Corinth and Corcyra 439 
 
 Meton begins here his 19 years' cycle of the moon 432 
 The Peloponnesian war begins, May the 7th, and 
 continues about 27 years. About this time flour- 
 ished Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes, Meton, 
 Euctemon, Malachi, the last of the prophets, De- 
 mocritus, Georgias, Thucydides, Hippocrates, &c. 431 
 The history of the Old Testament finishes about this 
 
 time. A plague at Athens for five years 430 
 
 A peace of fifty years made between the Athenians 
 and Lacedaemonians, which is kept only during 
 six years and ten months, though each continued 
 at war with the other's allies 421 
 
 The scene of the Peloponnesian war changed to Si- 
 cily. The Agrarian law first moved at Rome 416 
 Egypt revolts from the Persians, and Amyrtaeus is 
 
 appointed king 414 
 
 The Carthaginians enter Sicily, where they destroy 
 Selinus and Himera, but they are repulsed by Her- 
 mocrates 409 
 
 The battle of ^gospotamos. The usurpation of 
 
 Dionysius 405 
 
 Athens taken by Lysander, 24th April, the end of 
 the Peloponnesian war, and the appointment of 
 30 tyrants over the conquered city. About this 
 time flourished Parrhasius, Protagoras, Lysias, 
 Agathon, Euclid, Cebes, Telestes, &c. 404 
 
 792 
 
 B. C 
 
 Cyrus the younger killed at Cunaxa. The glorious 
 retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, and the expulsion of 
 the 30 tyrants from Athens, by Thrasybulus 401 
 
 Socrates put to death 400 
 
 Agesilaus of Lacedaemon's expedition into Asia 
 against the Persians. The age of Xenophon, Cte- 
 sias, Zeuxis, Antisthenes, Lvagoras, Aristippus 
 of Cyrene, and Archytas 396 
 
 The Corinthian war begun by the alliance of the 
 Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, 
 against Lacedaemon 395 
 
 The Lacedaemonians, under Pisander, defeated by 
 Conon at Cnidus ; and a few days after, the allies 
 are defeated at Coronaea, by Agesilaus 394 
 
 The battle of A Ilia, Julv 17th, and the taking of 
 Rome by the Gauls " 390 
 
 Dionysius besieges Rhegium, and takes it after 11 
 months. About this time flourished Plato, Phi- 
 loxenus, Damon, Pythias, Iphicrates, fcc. 388 
 
 The Greek cities of Asia tributary to Persia, by the 
 peace of Antalcidas, between the Lacedaemo- 
 nians and Persians 387 
 
 The war of Cyprus finished by a treaty, after it had 
 
 continued two years 385 
 
 The Lacedaemonians defeated in a sea-fight at Nax- 
 os, September 20th, by Chabrias. About this 
 time flourished Philistus, Isaeus, Isocrates, Arete, 
 Philolaus, Diogenes the cynic, &-c. 377 
 
 Artaxerxes sends an army under Pharnabazus, with 
 20,000 Greeks, commanded by Iphicrates 374 
 
 The battle of Leuctra, July 8th, where the Lacede- 
 monians are defeated by Epaminondas, the gene- 
 ral of the Thebans 371 
 
 The Messenians, after a banishment of 300 years, 
 
 return to Peloponnesus 370 
 
 One of the consuls at Rome elected from the plebe- 
 ians 367 
 
 The battle of Mantinea, gained by Epaminondas, a 
 
 year after the death of Pelopidas 363 
 
 Agesilaus assists Tachos, king of Egypt. Some of 
 the governors of Lesser Asia revolt from Persia 362 
 
 The Athenians are defeated at Methone, the first 
 
 battle that Philip of Macedon ever won in Greece 360 
 
 Dionysius the younger is expelled from Syracuse by 
 Dion. The second Sacred War begins, on the 
 temple of Delphi being attacked by the Phoceans 357 
 
 Dion put to death, and Syracuse governed seven 
 years by tyrants. About this time flourished 
 Eudoxus, Lycurgus, Ibis, Theopompus, Ephorus, 
 Datames, Philomelus, &c. ■ 354 
 
 The Phoceans, under Onomarchus, are defeated in 
 
 Thessaly by Philip 353 
 
 Egypt is conquered by Ochus 350 
 
 The Sacred War is finished by Philip taking all the 
 
 cities of the Phoceans 348 
 
 Dionysius recovers the tyranny of Syracuse, after 10 
 
 years' banishment 347 
 
 Timoleon recovers Syracuse, and banishes the ty- 
 rant 343 
 
 The Carthaginians defeated by Timoleon near Agri- 
 gentum. About this time flourished Speusippus, 
 Protogenes, Aristotle, iEschines, Xenocrates, De- 
 mosthenes, Phocion, Mamercus, Icetas, Stilpo, 
 Demades 340 
 
 The battle of Cheronsea, August 2, where Philip de- 
 feats the Athenians and Thebans 338 
 
 Philip of Macedon killed by Pausanias. His son 
 Alexander, on the following year, enters Greece, 
 destroys Tnebes. &c. 336 
 
 The battle of Graiiicus, 22d of May 334 
 
 The battle of Issus in October 333 
 
 Tyre and Egypt conquered by the Macedonian 
 
 prince, and Alexandria built 332 
 
 The battle of Arbela, October 2d 331 
 
 Alexander's expedition against Poms. About this 
 time flourished Apelles, Callisthenes, Bagoas, 
 Parmenio, Philotas, Memnon, Dinocrates, Calip- 
 pus, Hyperides, Philetus, Lysippus, Menedemus, 
 &c. 327 
 
 Alexander dies on the 21st of April. His empire di- 
 vided into four kingdoms. The Samian war, and 
 the reign of the Ptolemies in Egypt 323 
 
 Polyperchon publishes a general liberty to all the 
 Greek cities. The age of Praxiteles, Crates, Theo- 
 phrastus, Menander, Demetrius, Dinarchus, Po- 
 femon, Neoptolcmus, Perdiccas, Leosthenes 320 
 
 Syracuse and Sicily usurped by Agathocles. Deme- 
 metrius Phalereus governs Athens for ten years 317 
 
 Eumenes delivered to Antigonus by his army 315 
 
 Seleucus takes Babylon, and here the beginning of 
 the era of the Seleucidae 312 
 
 The conquests of Agathocles in Africa 309 
 
 Democracy established at Athens by Demetrius Po- 
 liorcetes 307 
 
 The title of kings first assumed by the succeBSors of 
 Alexander 306 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 The battle of Ipsus, where Antigonus is defeated 
 
 and killed by rtolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and 
 
 Cassander. About this time flourished Zeno, 
 
 Pyrrho, Philemon, Megasthenes, Grantor, &c. 301 
 
 Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes, after a 
 
 year's siege 296 
 
 The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Cur- 
 sor, and the time first divided into hours 293 
 Seleucus, about this time, built about 40 cities in 
 Asia, which he peopled with different nations. 
 The age of Euclid the mathematician, Acesilaus, , 
 Epicurus, Bion, Timocharis, Erasistratus, Aristyl- 
 lus, Strato, Zenodotus, Arsinoe, Lachares, &c. 291 
 
 The Athenians revolt from Demetrius 287 
 
 Pyrrhus expelled from Macedon by Lysimachus 286 
 
 The Pharos of Alexandria built. The Septuagint 
 
 supposed to be translated about this time 284 
 
 Lysimachus defeated and killed by Seleucus. The 
 Tarentine war begins, and continues 10 years. 
 The Achaean league begins 281 
 
 Pyrrhus, of Epirus, goes to Italy, to assist the Taren- 
 tines 280 
 
 The Gauls, under Breraus, are cut to pieces near 
 the temple of Delphi. About this time flourished 
 Dionysius the astronomer, Sostratus, Theocritus, 
 Dionysius, Heracleotes, Philo, Aratus, Lycophron, 
 Perseeus-, &c. 278 
 
 Pyrrhus, defeated by Curius, retires to Epirus 274 
 
 The first coining of silver at Rome 269 
 
 Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatus, who keeps it 
 
 12 years 268 
 
 The first Punic war begins, and continues for 23 
 years. The chronology of the Arundelian Mar- 
 bles composed. About this time flourished Ly- 
 con. Crates, Berosus, Herraachus, Helenus, Clini- 
 as, Aristotimus, &c. 264 
 
 Antiochus Soter defeated at Sardis by Eumenes of 
 Per|;amus 262 
 
 The Carthaginian fleet defeated by Duilius 260 
 
 Regulus defeated by Xanthippus. Athens is restor- 
 
 to liberty by Antigonus 256 
 
 Aratus persuades the people of Sicyon to join the 
 Achasan league. About this time flourished Cle- 
 anthes. Homer junior, Manetho, Timseus, Calli- 
 machus, Zoilus, Duris, Neanthes, Ctesibius, So- 
 sibiu's, Hieronymus, Hanno, Laodice, Lysias, Ar- 
 iobarzanes 251 
 
 The Parthians under Arsaces, and the Bactrians un- 
 der Theodotus, revolt from the Macedonians 250 
 
 The sea-fight of Drepanum 249 
 
 The citadel of Corinth taken by Aratus, 12th «f Au- 
 gust 243 
 
 Agis, king of Sparta, put to death for attempting to 
 settle an Agrarian law. About this period flour- 
 ished Antigonus Carystius, Conon of Samos, Era- 
 tosthenes, Apollonius of Perga, Lacydes, Amil- 
 car, Agesilaus the ephor, &c. 241 
 
 Plays first acted at Rome, being those of Livius An- 
 
 dronicus 240 
 
 Amilcar passes with an army to Spain, with Anni- 
 
 bal his son 237 
 
 The temple of Janus shut at Rome, the first time 
 
 since Numa 235 
 
 The Sardinian war begins, and continues three 
 years 234 
 
 Oriffinal manuscripts of iEschylus, Euripides, and 
 Sophocles, lent by the Athenians to Ptolemy for a 
 pledge of 15 talents 233 
 
 The first divorce known at Rome, by Sp. Carvilius. 
 
 Sardinia and Corsica conquered 231 
 
 The Roman ambassadors first appeared at Athens 
 
 and Corinth 228 
 
 The war between Cleomenes and Aratus begins, 
 
 and continues for five years 227 
 
 The colossus of Rhodes thrown down by an earth- 
 quake. The Romans first cross the Po, pursuing 
 the Gauls, who had entered Italy. About this 
 time flourished Chrysippus, Polystratus, Euphori- 
 on, Archimedes, Valerius, Messala, 0. Naevius, 
 Aristarchus, Apollonius, Philocorus, Aristo Ceus, 
 Fabius Pictor, the first Roman historian, Phylar- 
 chus, Lysiades, Agro, &c. 224 
 
 The battle of Sellasia 222 
 
 The Social War between the .ffitolians and Achae- 
 
 ans, assisted by Philip 220 
 
 Saguntum taken by Annibal 219 
 
 The second Punic war begins, and continues 17 
 
 years 218 
 
 The battle of the lake Thrasymenus, and next year, 
 
 that of Cannoe, May 21 217 
 
 The Romans begin the auxiliary war against Philip. 
 in Epirus, which is continued by intervals for l4 
 years 214 
 
 Syracuse taken by Marcellus, after a siege of three 
 
 years 212 
 
 Philopoemen defeats Machinadas at Mantinea 208 
 
 Part 3.-5 H 
 
 B C 
 
 Asdrubal is defeated. About this time flourished 
 
 Plautus, Archagathus, Evander, Teleclus, Her- 
 
 mippus, Zeno, Sotion, Ennius, Hieronymus of 
 
 Syracuse, Tlepolemus, Epicydes 207 
 
 The battle of Zama 202 
 
 The first Macedonian war begins, and continues 
 
 near four years 200 
 
 The battle of Panius, where Antiochus defeats Sco- 
 
 pias 198 
 
 The battle of Cynoscephale, where Philip is defeated 197 
 The war of Antiochus the Great begins, and contin- 
 ues three years 192 
 Lacedaimon joined to the Achaean league by Philo- 
 poemen 191 
 The luxuries of Asia brought to Rome in the spoils 
 
 of Antiochus 189 
 
 The laws of Lycurgus abrogated for a while at 
 
 Sparta by Philopcemen 188 
 
 Antiochus the Great defeated and killed in Media. 
 About this time flourished Aristophanes of Byzan- 
 tium, Asclepiades, Tegula, C. Laelius, Aristony- 
 mus, Hegesinus, Diogenes the stoic, Critolaus, 
 Masinissa, the Scipios, the Gracchi, Thoas, &c. 187 
 A war which continues for one year, between Eu- 
 menes and Prusias, till the death of Annibal 184 
 Philopcemen defeated and killed by Dinocrates 183 
 Numa's books found in a stone coffin at Rome 179 
 Perseus sends his ambassadors to Carthage 175 
 Ptolemy's generals defeated by Antiochus, in a bat- 
 tle between Pelusium and Mount Cassius. The 
 second Macedonian war 171 
 The battle of Pydna, and the fall of the Macedonian 
 empire. About this period flourished Attains the 
 astronomer, Metrodorus, Terence, Crates, Polybi- 
 us, Pacuvius, Hipparchus, Heraclides, Carneades, 
 Aristarchus, &;c. 168 
 The first library erected at Rome, with books obtain- 
 ed from the plunder of Macedonia 167 
 Terence's Andria first acted at Rome . 166 
 Time measured out at Rome by a water machine, 
 invented by Scipio Nasica, 134 years after the in- 
 troduction of sun-dials 159 
 Andriscus, the Pseudophilip, assumes the royalty in 
 
 Macedon 152 
 
 Demetrius, king of Syria, defeated and killed by 
 
 Alexander Balas , 150 
 
 The third Punic war begins. Prusias, king of Bi- 
 
 thynia, put to death by his son Nicodemes 149 
 
 The Romans make war against the Achaeans, which 
 
 is finished the next year by Mummius 148 
 
 Carthage is destroyed by Scipio, and Corinth by 
 
 Mummius 147 
 
 Viriathus is defeated by Laehus, in Spain 146 
 
 The war of Numantia begins, and continues for 
 
 eight years 141 
 
 The Roman army, of 30,000, under Mancinus, is de- 
 feated by 4000 Numantines 138 
 Restoration of learning at Alexandria, and univer- 
 sal patronage offered to all learned men by Ptole- 
 my Physcon. The age of Satyrus, Aristobulus, 
 Lucius Acciusj Mnaceas, Antipater, Diodorus the 
 peripatetic, Nicander, Ctesibius, Sarpedon, Mi- 
 cipsa, &c. 137 
 The famous embassy of Scipio, Metellus, Mummius, 
 
 and Panaetius, into Egypt, Syria, and Greece 136 
 
 The history of the Apocrypha ends. The Servile 
 War in Sicily begins, and continues for three 
 years 135 
 
 Numantia taken. Pergamus annexed to the Roman 
 
 empire 133 
 
 Antiochus Sidetes killed by Phraates. Aristonicus 
 
 defeated by Perpenna 130 
 
 Demetrius Nicator defeated at Damascus by Alex- 
 ander Zebina 127 
 The Romans make war against the pirates of the 
 Baleares. Carthage is rebuilt by order of the Ro- 
 man senate 123 
 C. Gracchus kiued 121 
 Dalmatia conquered by Metellus 118 
 Cleo])atra assumes the government of Egypt. The 
 age of Erymnaeus, Athenion, Artemidoras, Clito- 
 machus, Apollonius, Herodicus, L. Cjelius, Cas- 
 tor, Menecrates, Lucilius, &c. 116 
 The Jiigurthine war begins, and continues for five .. 
 
 years 112 
 
 The famous sumptuary law at Rome, which limited 
 
 the expenses of eating every day 110 
 
 The Teutones and Cimbri begin the war against 
 
 Rome, and continue it for eight years 109 
 
 The Teutones defeat 80,000 Romans on the banks of 
 
 the Rhone 105 
 
 The Teutones defeated by C. Marius, at Aquae 
 
 Sextiae 102 
 
 The Cimbri defeated by Marius and Catulus 101 
 
 Dolabella conquers Lusitania 99 
 
 Cyrene left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans 97 
 
 793 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 The Social war begins, and continues three years, 
 
 till finished by Sylla 91 
 
 The Mithridatic war begins, and continues 26 years 89 
 The civil wars of Marias and Sylla begin, and con- 
 tinue six years 88 
 Sylla conquers Athens, and sends its valuable libra- 
 ries to Rome 86 
 Young Marius is defeated by Sylla, who is made 
 
 dictator 82 
 
 The death of Sylla. About this time flourished 
 Philo, Charmidas, Asclepiades, Appellicon, L. 
 Sisenna, Alexander Polyhistor, Plotius Gallus, 
 Diotimus, Zeno, Hortensius, Archias, Posidonius, 
 Geminus, &c. VS 
 
 Bithynia left by Nicomedes to the Romans 75 
 
 The Servile war, under Spartacus, begins, and two 
 years after, the rebel general is defeated and kill- 
 ed by Pompey and Crassus 73 
 Mithridates and Tigranes defeated by Lucullus 69 
 Mithridates conquered by Pompey in a night battle. 
 Crete is subdued by Metellus, after a war of two 
 years 66 
 The reign of the Seleucidae ends in Syria on the 
 
 conquest of the country by Pompey 65 
 
 Catiline's conspiracy detected by Cicero. Mithri- 
 dates kills himself 63 
 The first triumvirate in the persons of J. Caesar, 
 Pompey, and Crassus. About this time flourish- 
 ed Apollonius of Rhodes, Terentius Varro, Tyran- 
 nion, Aristodemus of Nysa, Lucretius, Dionysius, 
 the grammarian, Cicero, Antiochus, Spurinus, 
 Andronicus, Catullus, Sallust, Timagenes, Cratip- 
 pus, &c. 60 
 Cicero banished from Rome and recalled the next year 58 
 Caesar passes the Rhine, defeats the Germans, and 
 
 invades Britain 55 
 
 Crassus is killed by Surena in June 53 
 
 Civil war between Csesar and Pompey 50 
 
 The battle of Pharsalia about May 12th 48 
 
 Alexandria taken by Caesar 47 
 
 The war of Africa. Cato kills himself. This year 
 is called the year of Confusion, because the calen- 
 dar was corrected by Sosigenes, and the year 
 made to consist pf 15 months, or 445 days 46 
 
 The battle of Munda 45 
 
 Caesar murdered 44 
 
 The battle of Mutina. The second triumvirate in 
 Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus. Cicero put to 
 death. The age of Sosigenes, C. Nepos, Diodo- 
 rus Siculus, Trogus Pompey, Didymus the scho- 
 liast, Varo the poet, &c. 43 
 The battle of Philippi 42 
 Pacorus, general of Parthia, defeated by Ventidius, 
 14 years after the disgrace of Crassus, and on the 
 same day 39 
 Pompey the younger defeated in Sicily by Octavius 36 
 Octavius and Antony prepare for war 32 
 The battle of Actium 2d of September. The era of 
 
 the Roman emperors properly begins here 31 
 
 Alexandria taken, and Egypt reduced into a Ro- 
 man province 30 
 The title of Augustus given to Octavius 27 
 The Egyptians adopt the Julian year. About this 
 time flourished Virgil, Manilius, Dioscorides, Asi- 
 nius Pollio, Maecenas, Agrippa, Strabo, Horace, 
 Macer, Propcrtius, Livy, Musa, Tibullus, Ovid, 
 Pylades, Bathyllus, Varius, Tucca, Vitruvius, Sec. '25 
 The conspiracy of Muraena against Augustus 22 
 Augustus visits Greece and Asia 21 
 The Roman ensigns recovered from the Parthians 
 
 by Tiberius 20 
 
 The secular games celebrated at Rome 17 
 
 Lollius defeated by the Germans 16 
 
 The Rhaeti and Vindelici defeated by Drusus 15 
 
 The Pannonians conquered by Tiberius 12 
 
 Some of the German nations conquered by Drusus 11 
 
 Augustus corrects the calendar, by ordering the 
 twelve ensuing years to be without intercalation. 
 About this time flourished Damascenus, Hyginus, 
 Flaccus the grammarian, Dionysius of Halicar- 
 nassus, and Dionysius the geographer 8 
 
 Tiberius retires to Rhodes for seven years 6 
 
 Our Saviour is born four years before the vulgar 
 era, in the year 4709 of the Julian period, A. U. 
 C. 749, and the fourth of the 193d Olympiad 4 
 
 A. D. 
 Tiberius returns to Rome 2 
 
 The leap year corrected, having formerly been 
 
 every 3d year 4 
 
 Ovid banished to Tomos 9 
 
 Varus defeated and killed in Germany by Arminius 10 
 Augustus dies at Nola, August 19th, and is suc- 
 ceeded by Tiberius. The age of Phfedrus, Asini- 
 us Gallus, VelleiusPaterculus, Germanicus, Cor- 
 nel, Celsus, &c. 34 
 Twelve cities in Asia destroyed by an earthquake 17 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Germanicus poisoned by Piso, dies at Antioch 19 
 
 Tiberius goes to Caprese 26 
 
 Sejanus disgraced 31 
 
 Our Saviour crucified, Friday April 3d. This is 
 
 ■put four years earlier by some Chronoloffists 33 
 
 Tiberius dies at Misenum near Baice, March 16th, 
 and is succeeded by Caligula. About this period 
 flourished Valerius Maximus, Colomella, Pompo- 
 nius Mela, Appion, Philo Judieus, Artabanus, and 
 Ao^rippina 37 
 
 St. Paul converted to Christianity 36 
 
 St. Matthew writes his Gospel 39 
 
 The name of Christians first given at Antioch, to 
 
 the followp.rs of our Saviour 40 
 
 Caligula murdered by Chaereas, and succeeded by 
 
 Claudius 41 
 
 The expedition of Claudius into Britain 43 
 
 St. Mark writes his Gospel 44 
 
 Secular games celebrated at Rome 47 
 
 Caractacus carried in chains to Rome 51 
 
 Claudius succeeded by Nero 54 
 
 Agrippina put to death by her son Nero 59 
 
 First persecution against the Christians 64 
 
 Seneca, Lucan, and others put to death 65 
 
 Nero visits Greece. The Jewish war begins. The 
 ageof Persius, Q,. Curtius, Pliny the elder, Jose- 
 phus, Frontinus, Burrhus, Corbulo, Thrasea, Bo- 
 adicea, &c. 66 
 
 St. Peter and St. Paul put to death 67 
 
 Nero dies, and is succeeded by Galba 63 
 
 Galba put to death. Otho, defeated by Vitellius, 
 kills himself Vitellius is defeated by Vespasian's 
 army 69 
 
 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus " 70 
 
 The Parthians revolt 77 
 
 Death of Vespasian, and succession of Titus. Her- 
 culaneura and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption 
 of Mount Vesuvius, November 1st 79 
 
 Death of Titus, and succession of Domitian. The 
 age of Sil. Italicus, Martial, Apollon, Tyanaeus, 
 Valerius Flaccus, Solinus, Epictetus, Q,uinti!ian, 
 Lupus, Agricola, &c. 81 
 
 Capitoiine games instituted by Domitian, and cele- 
 brated every fourth year ■ 86 
 Secular games celebrated. The war with Dacia be- 
 gins and continues 15 years 88 
 Second persecution of the Christians 95 
 Domitian put to death by Stephanus, &-c. and suc- 
 ceeded by Nerva. Tlie age of Juvenal, Tacitus, 
 Statins, &c. . 96 
 Nerva dies, and is succeeded by Trajan 98 
 Pliny, proconsul of Bithynia, sends Trajan an ac- 
 count of the Christians 102 
 Dacia reduced to a Roman province 103 
 Trajan's expedition against Parthia. About this 
 time flourished Florus, Suetonius, Pliny junior, 
 Philo Byblius, Dion, Prusaus, Plutarch, <tc 106 
 Third persecution of the Christians 107 
 Trajan's column erected at Rome 114 
 Trajan dies and is succeeded by Adrian 117 
 Fourth persecution of the Christians 118 
 Adrian builds a wall in Britain 121 
 Adrian visits Asia and Egypt for seven years 126 
 He rebuilds Jerusalem, and raises there a temple to 
 
 Jupiter 130 
 
 The Jews rebel, and are defeated after a war of five 
 
 years, and all banished 131 
 
 Adrian dies, and is succeeded by Antoninus Pius. 
 In the reign of Adrian flourished Theon, Phavoii- 
 nus, Phlegon, Trallian, Aristides, Aquila, Salvius 
 Julian, Polycarp, Arrian, Ptolemy, <icc. 138 
 
 Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans, and Dacians 145 
 The worship of Serapis brought to Rome 146 
 
 Antoninus dies, and is succeeded by M. Aurelius and 
 L. Verus. the last of whom reigned nine years. 
 In the reign of Antoninus flourished Maximus Ty- 
 rius, Pausanias, Diophantes, Lucian, Hermoge- 
 nes, Polyaenus, Appian, Artemidorus, Justin the 
 martyr, Apuleius, &;c. 161 
 
 A war with Parthia, which continues three years 162 
 
 A war against the Marcomanni, which continues 
 
 five years 169 
 
 Another, which continues three years 177 
 
 M. Aurelius dies, and Commodus succeeds. In the 
 last reign flourished Galen, Athenagoras, Tatian, 
 Athena;us, Montanus, Diogenes Laertius 180 
 
 Commodus makes peace with the Germans 181 
 
 Commodus put to death by Martia and Laetus. He 
 is succeeded for a few months by Pertinax, who 
 is murdered, 193, and four rivals arise, Didius Ju- 
 lianus, Pescennius Niger, Severus, and Albinus. 
 Under Commodus flourished J. Pollux, Theodo- 
 tian, St. Irenaeus 192 
 
 Ni^er is defeated by Severus at Issus 194 
 
 Albinus defeated in Gaul, and killed at Lyons, Feb- 
 ruary 19th isa 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Severus conquers the Parthians 200 
 
 Fifth persecution against the Christians 202 
 
 Severus visits Britain, and two years after builds a 
 
 wall there across the Frith of Forth 207 
 
 Severus dies at York, and is succeeded by Caracal- 
 la and Geta. In his reign flourished Tertullian, 
 Minutius Felix, Papinianus, Clemens of Alexan- 
 dria, Philostratus, Plotianus, and Bulas 211 
 Geta killed by his brother Caracalla 212 
 The septuagint discovered. Caracalla murdered by 
 
 Macrinus. Flourished Oppian 217 
 
 Opilius Macrinus killed by the soldiers, and suc- 
 ceeded by Heliogabalus 218 
 Alexander Severus succeeds Heliogabalus. The 
 Goths then exacted an annual payment not to in- 
 vade or molest the Roman empire. The age of 
 Julius Africanus 222 
 The ArsacidsB of Parthia are conquered by Artax- 
 
 erxes, king of Media, and their empire destroyed 229 
 Alexander defeats the Persians 234 
 
 The sixth persecution against the Christians 235 
 
 Alexander killed, and succeeded by Maximinus. At 
 that time flourished Dion Cassius, Origen, and 
 Ammonius 235 
 
 The two Gordians succeed Maximinus, and are put 
 to death by Pupienus, who soon after is destroy- 
 ed, with Balbinus, by the soldiers of the younger 
 Gordian 236 
 
 Sabinianus defeated in Africa 240 
 
 Gordian marches against the Persians 242 
 
 He is put to death by Philip, who succeeds, and 
 makes peace with Sapor the next year. About 
 this time flourished Censorius and Gregory Thau- 
 matur^us ^4 
 
 Philip killed, and succeeded by Decius. Herodian 
 
 flourished 249 
 
 The seventh persecution against the Christians 250 
 
 Decius succeeded by Gallus 251 
 
 A great pestilence over the empire 252 
 
 Gallus dies, and is succeeded by .lEmilianus, Vale- 
 rianus, and Gallienus. In the reign of Gallus 
 flourislied St. Cyprian and Plotinus 254 
 
 The eighth persecution against the Christians 257 
 
 The empire is harassed by 30 tyrants successively 258 
 Valerian is taken by Sapor and flayed alive 260 
 
 Odenatus governs the east for Gallienus 264 
 
 The Scythians and Goths defeated by Cleodamus 
 
 and Athenaeus 267 
 
 Gallienus killed, and succeeded by Claudius. In 
 this reign flourished Longinus, Paulus, Samosate- 
 nus, &c. 268 
 
 Claudius conquers the Goths, and kills 300,000 of 
 
 them. Zenobia takes possession of Egypt 269 
 
 Aurelian succeeds 270 
 
 The ninth persecution against the Christians 272 
 
 Zenobia defeated by Aurelian at Edessa 273 
 
 Daeia ceded to the Barbarians by the emperor 274 
 
 Aurelian killed, and succeeded by Tacitus, who died 
 after a reign of six months, and was succeeded by 
 Florianus, and, two months after, by Probus 275 
 
 Probus makes an expedition into Gaul 277 
 
 He defeats the Persians in the east 280 
 
 Probus is put to death, and succeeded by Carus, and 
 
 his sons Carinus and Numerianus 282 
 
 Dioclesian succeeds 284 
 
 The empire attacked by the barbarians of the north. 
 Dioclesian takes Maximianus as his imperial col- 
 league 286 
 Britain recovered, after a tyrant's usurpation of ten 
 
 years. Alexandria taken by Dioclesian 296 
 
 The tenth persecution against the Christians, which 
 
 continues ten years 303 
 
 Dioclesian and Maximianus abdicate the empire, 
 and live in retirement, succeeded by Constantius 
 Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus, the two Cse- 
 sars. About this period flourished J. Capitolinus, 
 Arnobius, Gregory and Hermogenes, the lawyers, 
 .^lius Spartianus, Hierocles, Flavins Vopiscus, 
 TrebeUius Pollio, &c. 304 
 
 Constantius dies, and is succeeded by his son 306 
 
 At this time there were four emperors, Constantine, 
 
 Licinius, Maximianus, and Maxentius 308 
 
 Maxentius defeated and killed by Constantine 312 
 
 The emperor Constantine begins to favour the Chris- 
 tian religion 319 
 Licinius defeated and banished by Constantine 324 
 The first general Council of Nice, composed of 318 
 
 bishops, who sit from June 19 to August 25 325 
 
 The seat of the empire removed from Rome to Con- 
 stantinople 328 
 Constantinople solemnly dedicated by the emperor 
 
 on the 11th of May 330 
 
 Constantine orders all the heathen temples to be de- 
 stroyed 331 
 The d.eath of Constantine, and succession of his 
 three sons, Constantinus, Constans, and Constaa- 
 
 A.D 
 
 tins. In the reign of Constantine flourished Lao- 
 tantius, Athanasius, Arius, and Eusebius 337 
 
 Constantine the younger defeated and killed by Con- 
 stans at Aquileia 340 
 Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius 350 
 Gallus put to death by Constantius 354 
 One hundred and fifty cities of Greece and Asia 
 
 ruined by an earthquake 358 
 
 Constantius and Julian quarrel, and prepare for war ; 
 but the former dies the next year, and leaves the 
 latter sole emperor. About this period flourished 
 .^lius, Donatus, Eutropius, Libanius, Ammian, 
 Marcellinus, Jamblicus, St. Hilary, &c 360 
 
 Julian dies, and is succeeded by Jovian. In Juli- 
 an's reign flourished Gregory Nazianzen, Themis- 
 tius, Aurelius Victor, &c. 363 
 
 Upon the death of Jovian, and the succession ofVa- 
 lens and Valentinian, the empire is divided, the 
 former being emperor of the east, and the other of 
 the west 364 
 
 Gratian taken as partner in the western empire by 
 
 Valentinian 367 
 
 Firmus, tyrant of Africa, defeated 373 
 
 Valentinian the Second succeeds Valentinian the 
 
 First 375 
 
 The Goths permitted to settle in Thrace, on being 
 
 expelled by the Huns 376 
 
 Theodosius the Great succeeds Valens in the eastern 
 empire. The Lombards first leave Scandinavia 
 and defeat the Vandals 379 
 
 Gratian defeated and killed by Andrigathius 383 
 
 The tyrant Maximus defeated and put to death by 
 
 Theodosius 388 
 
 Eugenius usurps the western empire, and is, two 
 
 years after, defeated by Theodosius 392 
 
 Theodosius dies, and is succeeded by his sons, Ar- 
 cadius in the east, and Honorius in the west. In 
 the reign of Theodosius flourished Ausonius, Eu- 
 napius. Pappus, Theon, Prudentius, St. Austin, St. 
 Jerome, St. Ambrose, &;c. i 395 
 
 Gildo, defeated by his own brother, kills himself 398 
 
 Stilicho defeats 200,000 of the Goths at Fesula; 405 
 
 The Vandals, Alani, and Suevi, permitted to settle 
 
 in Spain and France by Honorius 406 
 
 Theodosius the Younger succeeds Arcadius in the 
 east, having Isdegerdes king of Persia, as his 
 guardian, appointed by his father 408 
 
 Rome plundered by Alaric, king of the Visigoths, 
 
 August 24th 410 
 
 The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain 412 
 
 The kingdom of the Burgundians is begun in Alsace 413 
 The Visigoths found a kingdom at Thoulouse 415 
 
 The Alani defeated and extirpated by the Goths 417 
 
 The kingdom of the French begins on the lower 
 
 Rhine 420 
 
 The death of Honorius, and succession of Valenti- 
 nian the Third. Under Honorius flourished Sul- 
 picius Severus, Macrobius, Anianus, Panodorus, 
 Stobaeus, Servius the commentator, Hypatia, Pe- 
 lagius, Synesius, Cyril, Orosius, Socrates, &.c. 423 
 
 Theodosius establishes public schools at Constanti- 
 nople, and attempts the restoration of learning 425 
 The Romans take leave of Britain and never return 426 
 Pannonia recovered from the Huns by the Romans. 
 
 The Vandals pass into Africa " 427 
 
 The French defeated by ^tius 428 
 
 The Theodosian code published 435 
 
 Genseric the Vandal takes Carthage, and begins the 
 
 kingdom of the Vandals in Africa 439 
 
 The Britons, abandoned by the Romans, make their 
 celebrated complaint to JEtius against the Picts 
 and Scots, and three years after the Saxons settle 
 in Britain upon the invitation of Vortigern 446 
 
 Attila, king of the Huns, ravages Europe 447 
 
 Theodosius the Second dies, and is succeeded by 
 Marcianus.- About this time flourished Zozimus, 
 Nestorius, Theodoret, Sozomen, Olympiodorus, &c. 450 
 The city of Venice first began to be known 452 
 
 Death of Valentinian the Third, who is succeeded 
 by Maximus for two months, by Avitus for ten, 
 and, after an interregnum of ten months, by Ma- 
 jorianus 454 
 
 Rome taken by Genseric in July. The kingdom of 
 
 Kent first established 4.'55 
 
 The Suevi defeated by Theodoric on the Ebro 450 
 
 Marcianus dies, and is succeeded by Leo, surnamed 
 the Thracian. Vortimer defeated by Hengist at 
 Crayford, in Kent 457 
 
 Severus succeeds in the western empire 461 
 
 The paschal cycle of 532 years invented by Victo- 
 
 rius of Aquitain 463 
 
 Anthemius succeeds in the western empire, after an 
 
 interregnum of two years 467 
 
 Olybrius succeeds Anthemius, and is succeeded, 
 the next year, by Glycerius, and Glycerius by 
 Nepos 472 
 
 795 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Nepos is succeeded by Augustulus. Leo junior, son 
 of Ariadne, though an infant, succeeds his grand- 
 father Leo in the eastern empire, and some months 
 after is succeeded by his father Zeno 474 
 
 The western empire is destroyed by Odoacer, king 
 of the Heruli, who assumes the title of king of 
 Italy. About that time flourished Eutyches, Pros- 
 per, Victorius, Sidonius, ApoUinaris 476 
 
 Constantinople partly destroyed by an earthquake, 
 which lasted 40 days at intervals 480 
 
 The battle of Soissons and victory of Clovis over Si- 
 
 agrius the Roman general 485 
 
 After the death of Zeno in the east, Ariadne married 
 Anastasius surnamed the Silentiary, who ascends 
 the vacant throne 491 
 
 Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, revolts about 
 this time, and conquers Italy from the Heruli. 
 About this time flourished Boethius and Symma- 
 chus 493 
 
 Christianity embraced in France by the baptism of 
 Clovis 496 
 
 The Burgundian laws published by king Gondebaud 501 
 
 Alaric defeated by Clovis at the battle of Vorcille 
 
 near Poictiers 507 
 
 Paris made the capital of the French dominions 510 
 
 Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose fleet 
 is burned with a brazen speculum by Proclus 514 
 
 The computing of time by the Christian era, intro- 
 duced first by Dionysius 516 
 
 Justin the First, a peasant of Dalmatia, makes him- 
 self emperor 518 
 
 Justinian the First, nephew of Justin, succeeds. 
 Under his glorious reign flourished Belisarius, Jor- 
 nandes, Paul the Silentiary, Simplicius, Dionysius, 
 Procopius, Proclus, Narses, &c. 527 
 
 Justinian publishes his celebrated code of laws, and, 
 
 four years after, his Dig'est 529 
 
 Conquest of Africa by Belisarius, and that of Rome 
 two years after 534 
 
 Italy is invaded by the Franks 538 
 
 The Roman consulship suppressed by Justinian 542 
 
 A great plague which arose in Africa, and desolat- 
 ed Asia and Europe 543 
 
 The beginning of the Turkish empire in Asia 545 
 
 Rome taken and pillaged by Totila 547 
 
 The manufacture of silk introduced from India into 
 
 Europe by monks 551 
 
 Defeat and death of Totila, the Gothic king of Italy 553 
 
 A dreadful plague over Africa, Asia, and Europe, 
 
 which continues for 50 years 558 
 
 Justin the Second, son or Vigilantia, the sister of 
 
 Justinian, succeeds 565 
 
 Part of Italy conquered by the Lombards from Pan- 
 
 nonia, who form a kingdom there 568 
 
 Tiberius the Second, an ofiicer of the imperial 
 guards, is adopted, and soon after succeeds 578 
 
 Latin ceases to be the language of Italy about this 
 time 581 
 
 Maurice, the Cappadocian, son-in-law of Tiberius, 
 succeeds 582 
 
 Gregory the First, surnamed the Great, fills St. Pe- 
 ter's chair at Rome. The few men of learning 
 who flourished the latter end of this century, were 
 Gildas, Agathias, Gregory of Tours, the father of 
 French history, Evagrius, and St. Augustin the 
 Monk 590 
 
 Augustin the Monk, with 40 others, comes to preach 
 
 Christianity in England 597 
 
 About this time the Saxon Heptarchy began in Eng- 
 land f J e » 600 
 
 Phocas, a simple centurion, is elected emperor, after 
 the revolt of the soldiers, and the murder of Mau- 
 rice and of his children 602 
 
 The power of the Popes begins to be established by 
 
 the concessions of Phocas 606 
 
 Heraclius, an officer in Africa, succeeds, after the 
 
 murder of the usurper Phocas 610 
 
 The conquests of Chosroes, king of Persia, in Syria, 
 Egypt, Asia Minor, and, afterwards, his siege of 
 Rome 611 
 
 The Persians take Jerusalem with the slaughter of 
 90,000 men, and the next year they overrun Africa 614 
 
 Mahomet, in his 53d year, flies from Mecca to Medi- 
 na, on Friday, July 16, which forms the first year 
 of the Hegira, the era of the Mahometans 622 
 
 Constantinople is besieged by the Persians and Arabs 626 
 
 Death of Mahomet 632 
 
 Jerusalem taken by the Saracens, and three years 
 after, Alexandria and its famous library destroy- 
 ed 637 
 Constantine the Third, son of Heraclius, in partner- 
 ship with Heracleonas, his brother by the same 
 father, assumes the imperial purple. Constan- 
 tine reigns 103 days, and after his death, his son. 
 Constantine's son Constans is declared emperor, 
 tuough Heracleonas, with his mother Martina, 
 
 796 
 
 A. D. 
 
 wished to continue in possession of the supreme 
 power 641 
 
 Cyprus taken by the Saracens 648 
 
 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus 653 
 
 Constantine the Fourth, surnamed Pogonatus, suc- 
 ceeds, on the murder of his father in Sicily 668 
 
 The Saracens ravage Sicily 669 
 
 Constantinople besieged by the Saracens, whose 
 fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire 673 
 
 Justinian the Second succeeds his father Constan- 
 tine. In his exile of 10 years, the purple was usur- 
 ped by Leontius and Absimerus Tiberius. His re- 
 storation happened 704. The only men of learn- 
 ing in this century were Secundus, Isidorus, The- 
 opnylactus, Geo. Pisides, Callinicus, and the ven- 
 erabl'e Bede 685 
 
 Pepin engrosses the power of the whole French 
 
 monarchy 690 
 
 Africa finally conquered by the Saracens 709 
 
 Bardanes, surnamed Philippicus, succeeds at Con- 
 stantinople, on the murder of Justinian 711 
 
 Spain is conquered by the Saracens. Accession of 
 Artetimus, or Anastasius the Second to the throne 713 
 
 Anastasius abdicates, and is succeeded by Theodo- 
 sius the Third, who, two years after, yields to the 
 superior influence of Leo the Third, the first of 
 the Isaurian dynasty 715 
 
 Second, but unsuccessful siege of Constantinople by 
 the Saracens 717 
 
 Tax called Peterpence begun by Ina, king of Wes- 
 
 sex, to support a college at Home 727 
 
 Saracens defeated by Charles Martel between Tours 
 
 and Poictiers, in October 732 
 
 Constantine the Fifth, surnamed Copronymus, suc- 
 ceeds his father Leo 741 
 
 Dreadful pestilence for three years over Europe and 
 
 Asia 746 
 
 The computation of years from the birth of Christ 
 
 first used in historical writings 748 
 
 Learning encouraged by the race of Abbas, caliph 
 
 of the Saracens 749 
 
 The Merovingian race of kings ends in France 750 
 
 Bagdad built, and made the capital of the Caliphs 
 of the house of Abbas 762 
 
 A violent frost for 150 days, from October to Febru- 
 ary 763 
 
 Monasteries dissolved in the east by Constantine 770 
 
 Pavia taken by CharlemagnCj which ends the king- 
 dom of the Lombards, alter a duration of 206 
 years 774 
 
 Leo the Fourth, son of Constantine, succeeds, and, 
 five years after, is succeeded by his wife Irene, 
 and his son Constantine the Sixth 775 
 
 Irene murders her son and reigns alone. The only 
 men of learning in this century were Johannes 
 Damascenus, Fredegaire, Alcuinus, Paulus Dia- 
 conus, and George the Monk 797 
 
 Charlemagne is crowned Emperor of Rome and of 
 the western empire. About this time the Popes 
 separate themselves from the princes of Constan- 
 tinople 800 
 
 Egbert ascends the throne of England, but the total 
 reduction of the Saxon heptarchy is not effected 
 till 26 years after 801 
 
 Nicephorus the First, great treasurer of the empire, 
 succeeds 802 
 
 Stauracius, son of Nicephorus, and Michael the 
 First, surnamed Rhangabe, the husband of Pro- 
 copio, sister of Stauracius, assume the purple 811 
 
 Leo the Fifth, the Armenian, though but an officer 
 of the palace, ascends the throne of Constantino- 
 ple 813 
 
 Learning encouraged among the Saracens by Al- 
 mamon, who made observations on the sun, &;c. 816 
 
 Michael the Second, the Thracian, surnamed the 
 Stammerer, succeeds, after the murder of Leo 821 
 
 The Saracens of Spain take Crete, which they call 
 Candia 823 
 
 The Almagest of Ptolemy translated into Arabic by 
 
 order of Almanon 827 
 
 Theophilus succeeds his father Michael 829 
 
 Origin of the Russian monarchy 839 
 
 Michael the Third succeeds his father Theophilus, 
 
 with his mother Theodora 842 
 
 The Normans get possession of some cities in France 853 
 
 Michael is murdered and succeeded by Basil the 
 First, the Macedonian 867 
 
 Clocks first brought to Constantinople from Venice 872 
 
 Basil is succeeded by his son Leo the Sixth, the phi- 
 losopher. In this century flourished Mesu6, the 
 Arabian physician, Eginhard, Eabanus, Albuma- 
 sar, Godescalchus, Hincmarus, Odo, Photius, John 
 Scotus, Anastasius the librarian, Alfraganus, Al- 
 bategni, Reginon, John Asser 886 
 
 Paris besieged by the Normans, and bravely defend- 
 ed by Bishop Goslin 887 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 Death oT Alfred, king of England, after a reign of 
 
 30 years 
 Alexander, brother of Leo, succeeds with his ne- 
 phew Constantine the Seventh, surnaraed Porphy- 
 ro^enitus 
 
 The Normans establish thennselves in France, under 
 Rollo 
 
 Eomanus the First, surnamed Lecapenus, general 
 of the fleet, usurps the throne, with his three sons, 
 Christopher, Stephen, and Constantine the Eighth 
 
 Fiefs established in France 
 
 Saracen empire divided by usurpation into seven 
 kingdoms 
 
 Naples seized by the eastern emperors 
 
 The sons of Romanus conspire against their father, 
 and the tumults this occasioned produced the re- 
 storation of Porphyrogenitus 
 
 Romanus the Second, son of Constantine the Se- 
 venth, by Helen, the daughter of Lecapenus, suc- 
 ceeds 
 
 Romanus poisoned by his wife Theophano, is suc- 
 ceeded by Nicephorus Phocas the Second, whom 
 the empress, unable to reign alone under the title 
 of protectress of her young children, had married 
 
 Italy conquered by Otho, and united to the German 
 empire 
 
 Nicephorus, at the instigation of Theophano, is 
 murdered by John Zimisces, who assumes the 
 purple 
 
 Basil the Second, and Constantine the Ninth, the 
 two sons of Romanus by Theophano, succeed on 
 the death of Zimices 
 
 The third or Capetian race of kings in France be- 
 gins July 3d 
 
 Arithmetical figures brought into Europe from Ara- 
 bia by the Saracens 
 
 The fempire of Germany first made elective by Otho 
 III. The learned men of this century were Eudes 
 de Cluni, Azophi, Lultprand, Alfarabius, Rhazes, 
 Geber, Abbo, Almoin, Gevbert 
 
 A general massacre of the Danes in England, Nov. 
 I3th 
 
 All old churches, about this time, rebuilt in a new 
 manner of architecture 
 
 Flanders inundated in consequence of a violent 
 Btorib 
 
 Constantine become sole emperor on the death of 
 his brother 
 
 Romanus the Third, surnamed Argyrus, a patrician, 
 succeeds, by marrying Zoe, tne "daughter of the 
 late monarch 
 
 Zoe, after prostituting herself to a Paphlagonian 
 money-lender, causes her husband Romanus to be 
 poisoned, and afterwards marries her favourite, 
 who ascends the throne under the name of Ali- 
 chael the Fourth 
 
 The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon begin 
 
 Zoe adopts for her son Michael the Fifth, the trade 
 of whose father (careening vessels) had procured 
 him the surname of Calaphates 
 
 Zoe, and her sister Theodora, are made sole em- 
 presses by the populace, but, after two months, 
 Zoe, though 60 years old, takes for her third hus- 
 band Constantine the Tenth, who succeeds 
 
 The Turks invade the Roman empire 
 
 After the death of Constantine, Theodora recovers 
 the sovereignty, and, 19 months after, adopts, as 
 her successor, Michael the Sixth, surnamed Stra- 
 tioticus 
 
 Isaac Commenus the First, chosen emperor by the 
 soldiers 
 
 Isaac abdicates, and when his brother refuses to 
 succeed him, he appoints his friend Constantine 
 the Eleventh, surnamed Ducas 
 
 Jerusalem conquered by the Turks from the Sara- 
 cens 
 
 The crown of England is transferred from the head 
 of Harold by the battle of Hastings, October the 
 14th, to WiUiam the Conqueror, duke of Nor- 
 mandy 
 
 On the death of Ducas his wife Eudocia, instead of 
 protecting his three sons, Michael, Andronicus, 
 and Constantine, usurps the sovereignty, and mar- 
 ries Romanus the Third, surnamed Diogenes 
 
 Romanus being taken prisoner by the Turks, the 
 three young princes ascend the throne, under the 
 name of Michael Parapinaces the Seventh, An- 
 dronicus the First, and Constantine the Twelfth 
 
 The general Nicephorus Botaniates the Third, as- 
 sumes the purple 
 
 Dooms-day book begun to be compiled from a gen- 
 eral survey of the estates of England, and finish- 
 ed in six years 
 
 Alexius Commenus the First, nephew of Isaac the 
 First, ascends the throne. His reign is rendered 
 illustrious by the pen of his daughter, the princess 
 
 A. D 
 
 900 
 
 911 
 
 912 
 
 919 
 ^23 
 
 936 
 942 
 
 945 
 959 
 
 963 
 964 
 
 969 
 
 975 
 987 
 991 
 
 996 
 1002 
 1005 
 1014 
 1025 
 
 1028 
 
 1034 
 1035 
 
 1041 
 
 1042 
 1050 
 
 1054 
 1057 
 
 1059 
 1065 
 
 1066 
 
 1067 
 
 1071 
 1078 
 
 1060 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Anna Commena. The Normans, under Robert of 
 
 Appulia, invade the eastern empire 1081 
 
 Asia Minor finally conquered by the Turks 1084 
 
 Accession of William the Second to the English 
 
 throne 1087 
 
 The first crusade 1096 
 
 Jerusalem taken by the crusaders 15th July. The 
 only learned men of this century were Avicenna, 
 Guy d'Arezzo, Glaber, Hermanus, Franco, Peter 
 Dafniani, Michael Celularius, Geo. Cedrenus, Be- 
 renger, PseJlus Marianus, Scotus, Arzachel, VVil- 
 liam of Spires, Suidas, Peter the Hermit, Sige- 
 bert 1099 
 
 Henry the First succeeds to the throne of England 1100 
 Learning revived at Cambridge 1110 
 
 John, or Calojohannes, son of Alexius, succeeds at 
 
 Constantinople 1118 
 
 Order of Knights Templar instituted 1118 
 
 Accession of Stephen to the English crown 1135 
 
 Manuel, son of John, succeeds at Constantinople 1143 
 The second crusade 1147 
 
 The canon law composed by Gratian, after 24 years' 
 
 labour 1151 
 
 The party names of Guelfs and Gibellines begin in 
 
 Italy 1154 
 
 Henry the Second succeeds in England 1154 
 
 The Teutonic order begins 1164 
 
 The conquest of Egypt by the Turks 11G9 
 
 The famous councU of Clarendon in England, Jan- 
 uary 25th. Conquest of Irelafid by Henry II. 1172 
 Dispensing of justice by circuits first established in 
 
 England 1176 
 
 Alexius the Second succeeds his father Manuel 1180 
 
 English laws digested by Glanville 1181 
 
 From the disorders of the government, on account 
 of the minority of Alexius, Andronicus, the grand- 
 son of the great Alexius, is named guardian, but 
 he murders Alexius, and ascends the throne 1183 
 
 Andronicus is cruelly put to death, and Isaac Ange- 
 lus, a descendant of the great Alexius by the fe- 
 male line, succeeds 1185 
 The third crusade, and siege of Acre 1188 
 Richard the First succeeds his father Henry in Eng- 
 land 1189 
 Saladin defeated by Richard of England in the bat- 
 tle of Ascalon . 1102 
 Alexius Angelus, brother of Isaac, revolts, and 
 usurps the sovereignty, by putting out the eyes of 
 the emperor 1195 
 John succeeds to the English throne. The learned 
 men of this century were, Peter Abelardj Anna 
 Commena, St. Bernard, Averroes, William of 
 Malmesbury, Peter Lombard, Otho Trisingensis, 
 Maimonides, Humenus, Wernerus, Gratian, Jeof- 
 frj of Monmouth, Tzetzes, Eustathius, John of 
 Salisbury, Simeon of Durham, Henry of Hunting- 
 don, Peter Comestor, Peter of Blois, Ranulph 
 Glanville, Roger Hoveden, Campanus, William of 
 Newburgh 
 Constantinople is besieged and taken by the Latins, 
 and Isaac is taken from his dungeon and replaced 
 on the throne with his son Alexius. This year is 
 remarkable for the fourth crusade 
 The father and son are murdered by Alexius Mour- 
 zoufle, and Constantinople is again besieged and 
 taken by the French and Venetians, who elect 
 Baldwin, count of Flanders, emperor of the east. 
 In the mean time, Theodore Lascaris makes him- 
 self emperor of Nice ; Alexius, grandson of the ty- 
 rant Andronicus, becomes emperor of Trebizond ; 
 and Michael, an illegitimate child of the Angeli, 
 founds an empire in Epirus 1204 
 The emperor Baldwin is defeated by the Bulgari- 
 ans, and next year is succeeded by his brother 
 Henry - 1205 
 Reign and conquest of the great Zingis Khan, first 
 emperor of the Moguls and Tartars, till the time 
 of his death, 1227 1206 
 Aristotle's works, imported from Constantinople, are 
 
 condemned by the council at Paris 1209 
 
 Magna Charta granted to the English barons by 
 
 king John J215 
 
 Henry the Third succeeds his father John on the En- 
 glish throne 1216 
 Peter of Courtenay, the husband of Volanda, sister 
 of the two last emperors, Baldwin and Henry, is 
 made emperor by the Latins 1217 
 Bobert, son of Peter Courtenay, succeeds 1221 
 Theodore Lascaris is succeeded on the throne of 
 
 Nice by his son-in-law, John Ducas Vataces 1222 
 
 John of Brienne, and Baldwin the Second, son of 
 
 Peter, succeeded on the throne of Constantinople 1229 
 The inquisition which had been begun 1204 is now 
 
 trusted to the Dominicans 1233 
 
 Baldwin alone 1237 
 
 Origin of the Ottomans 1240 
 
 797 
 
 1199 
 
 1203 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 The fifth crusade 1248 
 
 Astronomical tables composed by Alphonso the Ele- 
 venth of Castile 1253 
 
 Ducas Vataces is succeeded on the throne of Nice 
 by his son Theodore Lascaris the Second 1255 
 
 Lascaris succeeded by his son John Lascaris, a mi- 
 nor 1259 
 
 Michael Palffiologus, son of the sister of the queen of 
 Theodore Lascaris, ascends the throne, after the 
 murder of the young prince's guardian 1260 
 
 Constantinople is recovered fjom the Latins by the 
 
 Greek emperors of Nice 1261 
 
 Edward the First succeeds on the English throne 1272 
 
 The famous Mortmain act passes in England 1279 
 
 Eight thousand French murdered during the Sicilian 
 
 vespers, 20th of March 1282 
 
 Wales conquered by Edvsrard and annexed to Eng- 
 land 1283 
 
 Michael Pal^ologus dies, and his son Andronicus, 
 who had already reigned nine years conjointly 
 with his father, ascends the throne. The learned 
 men of this century are, Gervase, Diceto, Saxo, 
 Walter of Coventry, Accursius, Antony of Padua, 
 Alexander Halensis, William of Pans, Peter de 
 Vignes, Matthew Paris, Grosseteste, Albertus, 
 Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, John Joinville, 
 Roger Bacon, Cimabue, Durandus, Henry of 
 Ghent, Raymond LuUi, Jacob Voragine, Alber- 
 tet. Duns Scotus, Thebit 1293 
 
 A regular succession of English parliaments from 
 
 this time 1293 
 
 The Turkish empire begins in Bithynia 1298 
 
 The mariner's compass invented or improved by 
 
 Flavio 1302 
 
 The Swiss Cantons begin 1307 
 
 Edward the Second succeeds to the English crown 1307 
 
 Translation of the holy see to Avignon, which ali- 
 enation continues 68 years, till the return of Gre- 
 gory the Eleventh 1308 
 
 Andronicus adopts, as his colleagues, Manuel and 
 his grandson, the younger Andronicus. Manuel 
 dying, Andronicus revolts against his grandfather, 
 who abdicates 1320 
 
 Edward the Third succeeds in England 1327 
 
 First comet observed, whose course is described, 
 
 with exactness, in June 1337 
 
 About this time flourished Leo Pilatus, a Greek pro- 
 fessor at Florence, Barlaam, Petrarch, Boccace, 
 and Manuel Chrysoloras, where may be fixed the 
 era of the revival of Greek literature in Italy 1339 
 
 Andronicus is succeeded by his son John Pafeolo- 
 gus in the ninth year of his age. John Cantacu- 
 zene, who had been left guardian of the young 
 prince, assumes the purple. First passage of the 
 Turks into Europe 1341 
 
 The knights and burgesses of Parliament first sit in 
 the same house 1342 
 
 798 
 
 A.D 
 
 The battle of Crecy, August 26 1346 
 
 Seditions of Rienzi at Rome, and his elevation to 
 
 the tribuneship 1347 
 
 Order of the Garter in England established April 23 1349 
 The Turks first enter Europe 1352 
 
 Cantacuzene abdicates the purple 1355 
 
 The battle of Poictiers, September 19th 1356 
 
 Law pleadings altered from French into English as 
 a favour from Edward 111. to his people, in his 
 SOthyear 1362 
 
 Rise or Timour, or Tamerlane, to the throne of Sa- 
 marcand, and his extensive conquests till his 
 death, after a reign of 35 years 1370 
 
 Accession of Richard the Second to the English 
 
 throne 1377 
 
 Manuel succeeds his father John Palaeologus 1391 
 
 Accession of Henry the Fourth in England. The 
 learned men of this century were Peter Apono, 
 Flavio, Dante, Arnoldus Villa, Nicholas Lyra, 
 William Occam, Nicephoras, Gregoras, Leontius, 
 Pilatus, Matthew of Westminster, WicklifF, Fro- 
 issart, Nicholas Flamel, Chaucer 1399 
 
 Henry the Fourth is succeeded bv his son Henry the 
 
 Fifth ■ 1413 
 
 Battle of Agincourt, October 25th 1415 
 
 The island of Madeira, discovered by the Portuguese 1420 
 Henry the Sixth succeeds to the throne of England. 
 Constantinople is besieged by Amurath the Se- 
 cond, the Turkish emperor 1422 
 John PaloDologus the Second succeeds his father 
 
 Manuel 1/124 
 
 Cosmo de Medici recalled from banishment, and 
 
 rise of that family at Florence 1434 
 
 The famous pragmatic sanction settled in France 1439 
 Printing discovered at Mentz, and improved gradu- 
 ally in 22 years 1440 
 Constantine, one of the sons of Manuel, ascends the 
 
 throne after his brother John 1448 
 
 Mahomet the Second, emperor of the Turks, besie- 
 
 fes and takes Constantinople on the 29th of May. 
 'all of the eastern empire. The captivity of the 
 Greeks, and the extinction of the imperial families 
 of the Commeni and PalcBologi. Aoout this time 
 the house of York in England began to aspire to 
 the crown, and, by their ambitious views, to de- 
 luge the whole kingdom in blood. The learned 
 men of the 15th century were Chaucer, Leonard 
 Aretin, John Huss, Jerome of Prague, Poggio, 
 Flavins Blondus, Theodore Gaza, Frank Philel- 
 phus, Geo. Trapezuntius, Gemistus Pletho, Lau- 
 rentius Valla, John Guttemburg, John Faustus, 
 Peter Schoeffer, Wesselus, .(Eneas Sylvius, Bes- 
 sarion, Thomas a Kempis, Argyropulus, Regio- 
 montanus, Platina, A^ricola, Pontanus, Ficinus, 
 Lascaris, Annius of Viterbo, Morula, Savonarola, 
 Picus, Politian, Hermolaus, Alexander ab Alex- 
 andre, Demetrius Chalcondyles, &c. 1453 
 
TABLE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 
 OP 
 
 THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 Dactylus or digit 
 
 Doron 
 
 Lichas 
 
 Orthodoron 
 
 Spithame 
 
 Foot 
 
 Cubit (nvyjxri') 
 
 Pygon 
 
 Larger Cubit (tttjxvs) 
 
 Pace (opyvia) 
 
 Stadium 
 Milion 
 
 Grecian Measures of Length reduced to 
 
 English paces, feet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 805 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 6 
 4 
 5 
 
 m, 
 
 3 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 1 
 3 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 
 dec. 
 
 0218| 
 5546| 
 3101,^ 
 0656i 
 0875 
 5984| 
 109| 
 13125 
 525 
 5 
 
 
 Digitus transversus 
 
 Uncia 
 
 Paimos Minor 
 
 Pes 
 
 Palmipes 
 
 Cubitus 
 
 Gradus 
 
 Passus 
 
 Stadium 
 
 Milliare 
 
 Roman Measures of Length reduced to 
 
 English paces, feet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - - - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 967 
 
 in 
 
 
 dec. 
 7251 
 
 
 
 967 
 
 2 
 
 901 
 
 11 
 
 604 
 
 2 
 
 505 
 
 5 
 
 406 
 
 5 
 
 01 
 
 10 
 
 02 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Grecian square measures were the Plethron, or acre, containing 1444, as some say, 
 or as others report, 10,000 square feet ; the Aroura, which was half the Plethron. The 
 Aroura of the Egyptians was the square of 100 cubits. 
 
 The Roman square measure was the Jugerum, which, like their Libra and their As, was 
 divided into twelve parts, called Uncia, as the following table shows : 
 
 n 
 
 12 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 2. 
 
 2 
 5 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 T 
 
 I 
 1 2 
 
 As or 
 
 Deunx 
 
 Dextans 
 
 Dodrans 
 
 Bes 
 
 Septunx 
 
 I Semis 
 
 Q,uincunx 
 
 Triens 
 
 Quadrans 
 
 Sextans 
 
 Uncia 
 
 UncicB. 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 
 Square Scru- English Square 
 feet. pies, roods. poles. 
 
 28800 
 
 26400 
 
 24000 
 
 21600 
 
 19200 
 
 16800 
 
 14400 
 
 12000 
 
 9600 
 
 7200 
 
 4800 
 
 2400 
 
 288 
 
 264 
 
 240 
 
 216 
 
 192 
 
 168 
 
 144 
 
 120 
 
 96 
 
 72 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 34* 
 25 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 32 
 24 
 16 
 
 Square 
 feet. 
 
 250,05 
 183,85 
 117,64 
 
 51,42 
 257,46 
 191,25 
 125,03 
 
 58,82 
 264,85 
 198.64 
 132,43 
 
 66,21 
 
 N. B. The Actus Major 
 was 14,400 square feet, equal 
 to a Semis. The Clima was 
 3600 square feet, equal to a 
 sescuncia, or an uncia and a 
 lialf, and the acins minimus 
 was equal to a sextans. 
 
 The Roman as, or ces, was 
 called so because it was made 
 of brass. 
 
 799 
 
Attic Measures of capacity, for things liquid, reduced to the English Wine 
 
 Measure, 
 
 gals, pints. sol. mch. dec. 
 
 Cochlearion - - - - - lio ^ 0.356 -4 
 
 Cheme - - - - - ^V 0712 '| 
 
 Mystron ^V 089 A|- 
 
 Conche - - - . - _i^ 178 J-i 
 
 Cyathus ■ - - . ^ - ^i- 356 \^ 
 
 i 535 I 
 
 I ^ 141 I 
 
 Oxybaphon _ , - - 
 
 Cotyle ------ 
 
 Xestes - - - - ' - 1 
 
 Chous - - - - - -06 
 
 Metretes ----- 10 2 
 
 Attic Measures of capacity, for things dry, reduced to English Corn Measure. 
 
 Cochlearion - - - 
 
 Cyathus - - - - 
 
 Oxybaphon 
 
 Cotyle - - - - - 
 
 Xestus ------ 
 
 Choenix -' - - - - 
 
 Medimnus - - - - - 
 
 N. B. Besides this Medimnus, which is the Medicus, there was a Medimnus Gcorgicus, equal to six 
 Roman Modii. 
 
 pecks. 
 
 gals. 
 
 pints. 
 
 sol. inch. 
 
 dec. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 276/^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 763r 
 
 
 
 0- 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 144} 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 . 
 
 579 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 158 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 7051 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 501 
 
 Roman Measures of capacity, for things dry, reduced to English Corn Measure. 
 
 pecks, gals, pints, sol. inch. dec. 
 
 Ligula - 5^^^ 01 
 
 Cyathus - - - - - 
 
 Acetabulum . . - - - 
 
 Hemina - - - - - 
 
 Sextaria - . - - 
 
 Semimodius - - - - - • 
 
 Modius ------ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 9 
 
 
 
 04 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 06 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 Roman Measures of capacity, for things liquid, reduced to English Wine Measure. 
 
 gals. pis. sol. inch. dec. 
 
 Ligula - . - . . . ,V 1173% 
 
 Cyathus -j^ 469f 
 
 Acetabulum | 704^ 
 
 Quartarius - - - -^- - -0^1 409 
 
 Hemina ^ 2 818 
 
 Sextarius 1 5 636 
 
 Congius - - - - - - 7 4 942 
 
 Uma - 3 41 5 33 
 
 Amphora - - - . - - 7 1 10 66 
 
 Culeus . - - . . - - 143 3 II 095 
 
 N. B. The quadrantal is the same as the amphora. The Cadus Congiarins, and Dolium, denote no 
 certain measure. The Romans divided the Sextarius, Uke the libra, into 12 equal parts, called Cyathi, 
 and therefore their calices were called sextantes, quadrantes, irienies, &c. according to the numoer of 
 eyathi which they contained. 
 
 800 
 
Most ancient Grecian Weights reduced to English Troy Weight. 
 
 Drachma 
 
 Minse 
 
 Talentum 
 
 Ih. 
 
 oz. 
 
 dwt. 
 
 ffrs. 
 
 dee. 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 To 
 
 Less Ancient Grecian and Roman Weights reduced to English Troy Weight. 
 
 Lentes 
 
 SiliqusB 
 
 Obolus 
 
 Scriptulum 
 
 Drachma 
 
 Sextula 
 
 Sicilicus 
 
 Duella 
 
 Uncia 
 
 Libra 
 
 lb. 
 
 oz. 
 
 dwt. 
 
 gn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 dec. 
 
 8 5. 
 11,2 
 
 "25 
 
 'J 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 T 
 5 
 
 "f 
 
 1 
 
 N. B. The Roman ounce is the English a/voirdupois ounce, which was anciently divided into seven 
 denarii and eight drachrrue, and as they reckon their denarius equal to an Attic drachma, the Attic 
 weights were l-8th heavier than the corresponding weights among the Romans. 
 
 The Greeks divided their obolus into chalci and smaller proportions; some into six chalci, and every 
 chalcus into seven smaller parts; and others divided it into eight chalci, and each chalcus into eight parts. 
 
 The greater Weights reduced to English Troy Weight. 
 
 Libra - - - 
 
 Mina Attica communis 
 Mina Attica medica 
 Talentum Atticum commune 
 
 lb. 
 
 oz. 
 
 dwt. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 66 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 frs. 
 31 
 16f 
 lOf 
 17i- 
 
 N. B. Tfcere was also another Attic talent, which consisted of 80, or, according to some, of 100 mifus. 
 It must however be remembered, tliat every )7iina contains 100 drachmce, and every talent 60 minre. The 
 talents differ according to the different standard of their mince and drachmce, as the following table indi- 
 cates: 
 
 The Mina Egyptiaca 
 Ajitiochica 
 
 "1 Consists 
 
 Alexandrina Dioscoridis j mae. 
 
 I of Attic I 133| 
 CleopatrsB Ptolemaica f drach- j 144 
 
 1160 J 
 
 r 80 ^ 
 
 80 
 
 86f 
 
 f 1331^ Equivalent^ 
 to Eng- 
 lish troy 
 weight. 
 
 The Talentum ^Egyptiacum 
 Antiochicura 
 Ptolemaicum Cleo. 
 AlexandrisB 
 Insulaniun 
 AntiochisB 
 
 Consists 
 of Attic ^ 
 minae 
 
 96 
 120 
 360 
 
 Equivalent 
 • to Eng- 
 lish troy 
 freight. 
 
 lb. 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 oz. 
 5 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 86 8 
 
 86 8 
 
 93 11 
 
 104 
 
 130 1 
 
 390 3 
 
 divt. grs. 
 
 6 22f« 
 6 22ff 
 14 16|f 
 
 16 
 
 74 1 
 
 16 8 
 
 16 8 
 
 11 
 
 19 14 
 
 4 12 
 
 13 11 
 
 The value and proportion of the Grecian Coins. 
 
 Lepton 
 Chalcus 
 Dichalcus 
 Hemiobolus 
 Part III. 
 
 -5 1. 
 
 J. 
 
 
 
 
 801 
 
 03 1 
 
 2 7 
 
I. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1, 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Obolus . . . • . 
 
 Diobolus ........ 
 
 Tetrobolus ....... 
 
 Drachma - - . - . - 
 
 Didrachraon - - - . 
 
 Tetradrachmon Stater ...-., 
 Pentadrachmon ------ 
 
 N. B. The Drachma:, and the Didrachmon, were silver, the others generally of brass. The Tridrach- 
 mon, Triobolus, &c. were sometimes coined. The Drachmce and the Denarius, are here supposed to 
 be equal, though often the former exceeded in weight. 
 
 The gold com among the Greeks was the stater aureus, which weighed two Attic 
 Drachmce, or half the stater argenteus, and was worth 25 Attic Drachmce of silver, or /. s. d. 
 
 in English money - - - - - - - - -0 16 1^ 
 
 Or according to the proportion of gold to silver, at present - - - - 10 9* 
 
 T\\e Stater Cyzicenus eyi.ch^.VigeA ioY '2^ Axiic Drachmce, ov - - - -0181 
 
 The Stater Philippi and Stater Alexandri were of the same value. 
 
 The (S^a^er Z><zricMS, according to Josephus, was worth 50 Attic £>racAw<p, or - 1 12 31 
 
 The Stater Croesi was of the same value. 
 
 The value and proportion of the Roman Coins. 
 
 /. s. d. q. 
 
 Terentius - - - . ...000 OJ^ 
 
 Sembella - . . . - . li|^ 
 
 Libella, or As - . - v ..0003^ 
 
 Sestertius - - - - - - 001 3| 
 
 Quinarius, or Victoriatus - . -.-003 31 
 
 Denarius - .- - - . 0073 
 
 N. B. The Denarius, Victoriatus, Sestertius, and sometimes the As, were of silver, the others were 
 of brass. The Triens, Sextans, Uncia, Sextula, and Dupondius, were sometimes coined of brass. 
 
 The computation of Money among the Greeks, was by drachmae, as foLows: 
 
 1 Drachma - 
 
 10 Drachmae 
 100 Drachmae equal to a Mina 
 
 10 Minae 
 
 60 Minae equal to a Talent 
 
 10 Talents 
 100 Talents 
 
 I. 
 
 5. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 32 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 193 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 1937 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 19375 
 
 
 
 
 
 Among the Romans, the computation was by Sestertii Nummi, as, 
 
 ^ I. s. d. q. 
 
 A Sestertius - - - - - . 000 If 
 
 10 Sestertii 017 li 
 
 1000 Sestertii equal to one ) o 
 
 Sestertium \ 
 
 2 
 
 10 Sestertia - - - - - - - 60 14 7 
 
 100 Sestertia - - - - - 807 5 10 
 
 1000 Sestertia or decies Sestertium, (centies und.) or decies 
 
 centena millia nummum - - - . 8072 18 4 
 
 Centies vel centies H. S. - - - - 80729 3 4 
 
 MiUies H. S. 807291 13 4 
 
 Millies centies H. S. 888020 16 8 
 
 802 
 
The Mina Syra 
 Ptolemaica 
 Antiochica 
 Euboica 
 Babylonica 
 Attica major 
 Tyria 
 iEginsea 
 Rhodia 
 
 The Talentum Syrum 
 Ptolemaicum 
 Antiochicum 
 Euboicum 
 Babylonicum 
 Atticura majus 
 Tyrium 
 iEginsBum 
 Rhodium 
 iEgyptium 
 
 Was worth, of 
 "Attic drachmae 
 
 Was worth, of 
 'Attic Minse 
 
 25 
 
 33 1- 
 100 
 100 
 116 
 133i 
 1331 
 166f 
 166f 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 60 
 60 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 The Roman gold coin was the aureus, which generally weighed double the denarius. 
 The value of it, according to the first proportion of coinage mentioned by Pliny, was 
 Or according to the proportion of coinage at present - - - - 
 
 According to the decuple or proportion mentioned by Livy and Julius Pollux 
 According to Tacitus, as it was afterwards valued and exchanged for 25 denarii 
 
 I. s. d. 
 
 I' 
 
 14 3 
 
 10 9 
 
 
 12 11 
 
 
 16 1 
 
 3 
 
 The value of coin underwent many changes during the existence of, the Roman 
 republic, and stood, as Pliny mentions it, as follows : 
 
 In the reiffn of Servius 
 A. U. C. 490 
 A. U. C. 537 
 A. U. C. 586 
 
 The as weighed 
 of brass 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 V. 2 
 
 pound 
 ounces 
 ounce 
 ounce 
 
 A. U. C. 485 - - } The denarius ex- ^ 10 asses 
 
 A. U. C. 537 " - ) changed for ( 10 asses 
 
 A. U. C. 574, a scruple of gold was worth 20 sestertii; coined afterwards of the 
 
 pound of gold, 20 denarii aurei; and in Nero's reign, of the pound of gold, 45 
 
 denarii aurei. 
 
 N. B. In the above tables of money, it is to be observed, that the silver has been reckoned at Ss. and 
 gold at 4?. per ounce. 
 
 A talent of gold among the Jews was worth 5475?. and one of silver 342?. 3s. 9d. 
 
 The greater talent of the Romans was worth 99/. 6s. 8rf. and the less 60/. or, as some say, 75Z. and the 
 great talent 1125/. 
 
 The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some suppose it equivalent to an Attic 
 mina, or 3/. 4s. Id. It is used indifferently by ancient authors for ces, as, and mina, and was supposed to 
 consist of 100, or 9Q denarii. It is to be observed, that whenever the word pondo is joined to numbers, it 
 signifies the same as libra; but when it is used with other words, it bears the same signification as the 
 c-aOjxri or ofj-Kri of the Greeks, or the pondus of the Latins. The word nummus, when mendoned as a sum 
 of money, was supposed to be equivalent to a sestertius, and though the words sestertius and nummus are 
 often joined together, yet their signification is the same, and they intimate no more than either does se- 
 parately. 
 
 We must parricularly remark, that in reckoning their sesterces, the Romans had an art which can be 
 rendered intelligible by the observation of these rules: If a numeral noun agreed incase, gender, and 
 number, with the word sestertius, it denoted precisely as many sestertii, as for example, decern sestertii 
 was ten sestertii. If a numeral noun of another case was joined with the genitive plural o{ sestertius, it 
 denoted so many thousand, as decern sestertium signifies so many thousand sestertii. If the adverb nu- 
 meral was joined, it denoted so many hundred thousand, as decies sestertium was ten hundred thousand 
 sestertii. If the numeral adverb was put by itself, the signification was not altered; therefore decies, vi- 
 gesies, &!.c. in a sentence, imply as many hundred thousand sestertii, or hundred sesiertia, as if the word 
 sestertium was expressed. 
 
 The denarius, which was the chief silver coin used at Rome, received its name because it contained 
 denos ceris, ten asses. 
 
 The as is often expressed by an L. because it is one pound weight; and the sestertius, because it was 
 equivalent to two pound and a half of brass, is frequently denoted by H. S. or L. L. S. 
 
 The Roman libra contained twelve ounces of silver, and was worth about 3/. sterling. 
 
 The Roman talent was supposed to be equivalent to twenty-four sesiertia, or nearly 103/. sterling. 
 
 FINIS, 
 
 803