Class £ - tf Book i i GopyrigM .. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/forgingofironsteOOrich i FORGING OF IEON AND STEEL A TEXT BOOK FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS IN COLLEGES, SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND THE SHOP BY WILLIAM ALLYN RICHARDS, B.S. in M.E. PRINCIPAL OF THE GRANT VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA FORMERLY SUPERVISOR, MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL, ROCKFORD, ILL. AND INSTRUCTOR IN FORGE, FOUNDRY, AND MACHINE PRACTICE IN THE UNIVERSITY HIGH SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 387 ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 25 Park Place 1915 ^ COPYRIGHT, I9IS, BY D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY #•/"* OCT -4 1915 ©CU411767 PREFACE In the preparation of this book, the author has en- deavored to treat the forging of iron and steel, and the hardening and tempering of tool steel, simply enough for the High School boy and at the same time thor- oughly and systematically enough for the veteran smith. A chapter has been introduced on the history of for- ging since it is thought to be of interest to all engaged in the work of forging metals. Another chapter on the manufacture of Iron and Steel has been inserted because it is believed that the workman should have some knowl- edge of the metals, and how they are obtained. It is not thought necessary or advisable to go deeply into the subject of metallurgy, or to introduce metallurgical theory. No attempt to treat specific exercises has been made; the aim has been to bring out principles. All the methods used toward this end have been thoroughly tried out dur- ing ten years of experience in teaching and supervising Manual Training. Those wishing a course of study by which to work, or to use in outlining such a plan, will find in the Appendix a course of study which the author has tried out successfully with several hundred pupils in high school, and with students in college. In order to obtain the best information possible, the author has consulted nearly every book published on the subject. He has found much of value in the following: The American Steel Worker, by E. R. Markham; Prac- tical Blacksmithing , by M. T. Richardson; A Text Book iv PREFACE of Elementary Metallurgy, by Arthur H. Heorns; Metal- lurgy of Iron and Steel, by Bradley Stoughton; Notes on Iron, Steel and Alloys, by Forrest R. Jones; A Hand- book of Art Smithing, by Franz Sales Meyer; The Smithy and Forge, by W. J. E. Crane; Smith's Work, by Paul N. Hasluck; Forging, by John Lord Bacon. Acknowledgment is here made of the use of these and other publications. W. A. R. February 15, 1915 CONTENTS Introduction. — Forging, Drawing out, Upsetting, Shaping, Bending, Punching, Welding, Hardening, Annealing, Brazing 1 CHAPTER I Historic Use of Iron and Steel. — Early Period (Egyptian, Grecian, Roman), Architectural and Domestic Uses, Romanesque Period, Gothic Period, German Work, Baroque Period, Rococo Period, Deterioration of Art Iron Work 4 CHAPTER II Iron and Steel. — Cast Iron, Pig Iron, Steel, Wrought Iron, Harmful Impurities, Hot Short, Red Short, Cold Short, Fuel and Fluxes, Ores (Magnetite, Red Hematite, Brown Hematite), Calcining or Roast. Reduction and Refining of Ores (Blast Furnaces, Wrought Iron, Dry Puddling, Wet Puddling, Mild Steel, Open Hearth Process, Sieman's Regenerative Furnace, Sieman's-Martin, Bessemer Steel). Ingot Molds, Tool or Crucible Steel, Rolling Mill. Ques- tions for Review 16 CHAPTER III Equipment. — General Tools (Forges, Blowers, Bellows, Anvil, Power Shears, Swage Block, Mandrel, Bench, Vice, Drill Press). Hand Tools (Hammer, Sledge, Tongs, Chisels, Punches, Set Hammer, Flatter, Swage, Fuller, Hardie, Miscellaneous) 34 CHAPTER IV Fuel and Fires. — Fuel, Tests, Charcoal, Fire, Plain Open Fire, Side Banked Fire, Hollow Fire. Questions for Review 50 vi CONTENTS CHAPTER V Drawing Down and Upsetting. — Position at the Anvil, Sledge, Drawing Down to a Square Bar, to Round, Upsetting. Questions for Review 56 CHAPTER VI Bending and Twisting. — Flat Bend, Bending to U, Ring Bending, Eye Bending, Hook, Edge Bend, Bending Plates, Twisting. Questions for Review 68 CHAPTER VII Splitting, Punching and Riveting. — Splitting with a Cold Chisel, Splitting with a Saw, Splitting with a Hot Chisel, Punching, Hand Punches, Riveting. Questions for Review 77 CHAPTER VIII The Uses of Blacksmiths' Tools. — Fullering, Swages, Swage Blocks, Operations, Flatter, Set Hammer, Heading Tool, Floor Heading Tool. Questions for Review 84 CHAPTER IX Welding. — Welding, Procedure, Hammer Refining, Fluxes, Cases of Welding (Lap Weld, Chain Link, Collar, Washer), Two Piece Welding (Bolt Head, Split Welds, Butt Weld, Jump Weld, Angle Weld, Tee Weld), Scarfing Steel, Welding Steel to Iron, Welding Steel. Questions for Review 91 CHAPTER X Electric, Autogenous and Thermit Welding. — Arc Welding, Resistance Welding, Butt Welding, Lap Welding, Spot Welding, Point Welding, Ridge Welding, T, L and X Welding, Chain Welding. Autogenous Welding, High Pressure System, Low Pressure System, Oxyacetylene Building-Up, Oxyacetylene Cutting. Thermit Welding by Fusion, Thermit Welding by Plasticity. Thermit Welding of Castings, Thermit Strengthening of Castings. Welding with Liquid Fuel. Questions for Review 108 CONTENTS vii CHAPTER XI Brazing. — Hard Soldering, Principles of Brazing, Flux, Spelter, Preparing Pieces, Cleaning, Methods of Fitting, Heating, Brazing Furnaces, Gasoline Torch, Blowpipe, Hot Tongs, Brazing by Immersion, Cast Iron, Questions for Review 121 CHAPTER XII Tool Steel. — Temper, Point, Furnacqs, Lead Bath, Cyanide Bath, Uniformally Heating, Gas Torch, Bunsen Burner, Heating Bath, Location of the Furnace, Heating Tool Steel, Drawing Temper, Rules for Heating, Reheating, Annealing, Don'ts for Annealing, Graphic Representation of Changes in Carbon Steel, Hardening Baths (Brine, Oils, Acids), Flowing Water, Tempering Colors, Methods of Hardening, Case One (Diamond Point, Side Tool, etc.), Case Two (Taps, Drills, Reamers, Shank Milling Cutters, End Mills, T-Slotters, etc.), Hammer, Thread Cutting Dies, Spring Dies, Solid Dies, Counter Bore, Ring Gages, Press Dies, Tempering in Oil, Thin Articles, Springs, Pack Hardening, Case Hardening, Potassium Ferrocyanide Method, Charcoal Method, Straightening Bent Work. Questions for Review 127 CHAPTER XIII High Speed Tool Steel. — The Working of High Speed Tool Steel, Annealing, Grinding, Hardening and Tempering, Specially Formed Tools. Questions for Review 155 CHAPTER XIV Art Iron- Work. — Tools, Operations (Embossing, Spinning, Chasing, Etching), Methods of Joining (Wedge Folding), Twisting, Scroll, Spindle Shape Spiral, Interlacings, Leaves and Ornaments, General Procedure. Questions for Review 159 CHAPTER XV Steam and Power Hammers. — Operation, Compressed Air, Foundations, Tools, Uses of Various Tools, Taper Work, Bending or Offsetting, Drawing Out, Upsetting, Press. Questions for Review' 168 viii CONTENTS CHAPTER XVI Calculations. — Case A (Chain Link, Arc of Circles, Square Bend), Case B (Weight of a Forging). Questions for Review 178 APPENDIX 183 INDEX 215 FOKGING OF IRON AND STEEL INTRODUCTION Forging is the process of shaping hot iron or steel by means of a hand hammer, a power hammer, or a press. This process of shaping may involve any one or all of the following operations: 1. Drawing out. 2. Upsetting. 3. Shaping. 4. Bending. 5. Punching, cutting and splitting. 6. Welding. 7. Hardening and tempering of steel. 8. Annealing steel. 9. Brazing. 1. Drawing out consists of lengthening metal by blows from a hammer, by rolling it between rolls, or by press- ing it in a press usually operated by hydraulic power. The shape of the cross section of the metal may or may not be changed in the process. A square section may be made round, a round section made square or hex- agonal. 2. Upsetting is the reverse of drawing out. It consists of shortening the length of the piece of metal and increas- ing the cross section by use of the hammer or press. What was said of the shape of the cross section under drawing out remains equally true in upsetting. 2 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 3. Shaping or changing the cross section of the piece of metal is also accomplished by means of either the hammer or press. This operation usually combines the first two. 4. Bending is done with the tools already mentioned. It is performed on any shaped piece of metal. Usually one side of the piece is stretched, while the other is com- pressed or upset. 5. Punching, splitting and cutting are operations very similar to one another. Punching is making holes of any shape. They usually are round, square, or ellip- tical, and are made by driving a punch of the proper size and section through the metal by means of blows or pressure. Splitting and cutting are accomplished by driving a chisel through the metal; splitting is usually lengthwise of the piece, and cutting, crosswise, to sever the stock. 6. Welding is the uniting by force of two or more pieces of metal, or the two ends of a single piece (bent so as to meet), while heated to such a high temperature that they are plastic, thus allowing their fibers to be joined together. This requires a nice and contempo- raneous adjustment of the heat in the parts to be welded. The surfaces must be clean. 7. Hardening and tempering are performed on tool or crucible steel. Hardening is accomplished by the sudden cooling of steel that has been heated to a very definite temperature. 1 The degree of hardness depends upon the chemical content of the steel and the rapidity with which it is cooled. Tempering is the slightly soften- ing or toughening of a piece of hardened steel, by the 1 Steel will harden at all temperatures above that of a very dull red; but there is one definite temperature that is correct. This correct temperature and its variation with different steels will be taken up in the text. INTRODUCTION 3 process of again heating it to some certain temperature — usually determined by the color of the oxide the heat produces, — and cooling it to prevent further softening. 8. Annealing is the softening of a piece of hardened steel by heating it to a definite temperature and then allowing it to cool slowly so that it can be worked with cutting tools or by other means. 9. Brazing is the joining together of two or more pieces of metal by means of a brass spelter or one of silver. All of these operations require special heating, which processes must be learned. The work must be done rapidly while the metal is hot, and the operations must be stopped before the temperature has fallen too low. These matters, as well as how to hold the metal and the hammer, how to strike — whether lightly or heavily, rapidly or deliberately — and what particular tool to use, will be discussed in the chapters which follow. CHAPTER I HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL The working of iron and steel is unquestionably one of the oldest of arts. It is known that iron was pro- duced and used at a very early date, probably in pre- historic times. Early Uses: In the Bible (Gen. iv, 22) we read of Tubal-cain, son of Lamech and Zillah, as " an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." We can properly call Tubal-cain and these early metal workers smiths, even though they sometimes worked in brass, as their principal work was the making of armor. We find abundant references to show that this earliest of trades was held to be highly important. In I Samuel xiii, 19, we find, "Now there was no smith found throughout all the land of Israel: for the Philistines said, Lest the Hebrews make them swords or spears;" and we find that Nebuchadnezzar followed the same course among the Jews (II Kings, xxiv, 14), "And he carried away all Jerusalem, and all the princes, and all the craftsmen and smiths; none remained, save the poorest sort of the people of the land." Jeremiah xxiv, 1, also states that Nebuchadnezzar carried away the car- penters and smiths. The extent to which the work of these early smiths was carried can be seen from the following references to the Old Testament: Axes, Deut. xix, 5; II Kings vi, 5; stonecutters' tools, Deut. xxvii, 5; armor, coats of HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL mail and weapons of war, I Samuel xvii, 7-38; iron bedsteads, Deut. iii, 11; iron pens, Ezek. iv, 3. We know little about the early smiths and their work, or their method of working the iron. An Egyptian wall painting (Fig. 1), probably gives as reliable an idea as can be found. The fire was built in a slightly depressed place in the ground; a forced draft was given to the fires by an at- r^U Fig. 1 tendant on either side, who worked bellows which were placed on the ground in such a manner that they would blow the fire. The attendants worked these bellows by standing on them, alternately throwing their weight from one foot to the other and pulling up the bellows with a rope as the weight was relieved, thus permitting the instruments to be emptied and filled alternately. The little figure opposite the smith's head was probably for fuel or water. The use made of iron by the early Egyptians is a de- batable point, for some writers maintain that the Egyp- tians must have used it in war; while some claim that it was used merely as a precious metal. Egyptian speci- mens found in tombs and elsewhere are so few that the proof is slight. Recently discovered Egyptian iron finger 6 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL rings and other articles of personal adornment imply that this metal was scarce and of great value. On the other hand, some of the articles unearthed are an iron- bladed adze with an ivory handle, a thin fragment of wrought iron plate found in an air passage of the Great Pyramid, and an iron blade of a falchion discovered under a Sphinx at Karnac. These articles imply that the metal was somewhat abundant. Herodotus, the Greek historian, thinks that iron was used generally by the Egyptians for weapons as early as the seventh century b.c. He believes this because when the Carians and Ionians invaded Egypt they were armed with brass and bronze weapons, and an Egyp- tian, who had never seen arms made of these alloys, ran to inform the king, Psammetichus, of the matter. In Egypt, very few iron weapons have been found, however, whereas many of brass and of bronze have been un- earthed. This may be explained, in part, by the fact that iron rusts more than brass or bronze and by the supposition that the brass and bronze weapons belonged to the invading armies. Iron was known in Assyria and Babylon also. Exca- vations have brought to light various articles, such as weapons, finger rings, bracelets, chains, hammers, knives and saws. An iron store, the contents of which weighed approximately 385 tons, identified as unwrought ingots, was found at Korsbad. These ingots are pointed at both ends, with a hole near one end, probably so that they might be strung together and more easily transported. Iron came into use early in Palestine and Phoenicia, also in China, Japan, Persia, and India. It is claimed by the Chinese that steel was invented about 2000 b.c. and that the Indian steel was known fully as early. The early Greeks and Romans were acquainted with iron, and with them, as with the Egyptians, the first HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 7 iron probably was of meteoric origin. That bronze was used before iron is recognized by Greek and Roman writers. Hesiod arid Homer, Greek poets, have written of bronze, iron and steel. Iron objects have been dis- interred at Troy and Mycene. The welding and solder- ing of iron is said to have been invented by Glaucos of Chios, about 600 b.c. Not only weapons of war were made of iron and steel but also crude farm implements. Iron was used also for ornamental vases and statues. At Delphi, a vessel of silver with a fancifully wrought iron base is described. Hercules is said to have had a helmet of steel and a sword of iron; and Saturn, a steel reaping hook. Diamachus wrote in the fourth century that different kinds of steel were then produced in various places. The best came from Chalybes and India, although steel from Lydia and Laconia was noted. Anvils, pincers, hammers and even the bellows pictured on Grecian vases are similar to those used now. The early history of the Romans tells us that they were familiar with this metal. Many iron articles have been found in Etruscan and in Roman graves at Pompeii, Vulci, and other places. In many instances, the utensils, weapons, and articles for use were of iron, while those for ornamentation were brass or bronze. It is probable that the early Romans obtained most of their iron from the island of Elba, but after acquiring the sovereignty of the world, they probably mined and manufactured iron in their provinces of Carinthia, Spain, and on the Rhine, where it is presumed that they found well-estab- lished industries. In brief, the Greeks and Romans knew iron and its use. They produced it in open hearths or ovens with the assistance of a natural wind draft or bellows, which sometimes produced a material similar to wrought iron and sometimes, steel. 8 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL Architectural and Domestic Uses. — During about the tenth century, iron and smiths' work began to be put to architectural and domestic uses. As a rule, the hammer and anvil were the only tools used in producing the artistic specimens which have been handed down to us. We must also consider that the smith of this time had not rolled materials of every form and size which are now obtainable, but that each rod, wire or sheet had to be wrought by himself. We must admit that these modern conveniences have not added to the ar- tistic nature of the product of the smith, but rather have taken away from it. Not only did manual labor produce a better iron than do mechanical operations of the present time, but the outward appearances were more original and interesting than those of machine production, although the latter is without question more exact and neat in appearance. As machinery came into use, hours of labor shortened, and products cheapened, with the result that large objects could be produced as well as small ones. In early times the smith was compelled to confine most of his labors to small articles, but even when large pieces were under- taken the results were very remarkable. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the work produced by the smith for architectural purposes ob- tained great importance. Herein the church also became interested and called for ornaments for doors and gate- ways, window fastenings, chests, and hanging candelabra. Hearth furniture, fire-dogs, wall anchors, and door- knockers were used in castles and other buildings. Romanesque Period. — The smiths' work of the Ro- manesque period presents very little beauty in external appearance, but by full and heavy forms it gives the impression of great stability. They followed the simple style of the architecture and the ornaments of the time. HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 9 Fig. 2 The richest work of this period was produced just before the transition to the Gothic period of Architecture, and is found in door fittings in which case the iron is spread over large flat surfaces. This was probably at first to hold the narrow boards together, but later to furnish the decoration. Thus we find the simple hinge of the first part of the period succeeded by scrolls spread- ing all over the door. Some charac- teristics of the Romanesque iron-work are the slit bars and the scrolled parts (Fig. 2), separate bars welded into complex ones and ornaments forged in swages. This work was all forged out of one whole piece of metal or if separate parts were forged they were welded together, so that screws and rivets were not used to hold the parts together. Bonds or ties, however, were used to some extent (Fig. 3). Gothic Period. — Many changes were noticed in the Gothic period. Instead of a forging out of one piece, or pieces forged and welded together, the work consisted of many sepa- rate forgings which were riveted to the principal parts. There was made a change in the leaves as the bars were flattened to thin sheets at the ends and cut to shape. Bending, stamping or embossing were also introduced, as were twisted bars. Several tools, such as graving tools, punches and chisels, were added 10 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL Fig. 4 to those already in use. The productions became richer and more elaborate, until Gothic art reached its height, when very elaborate articles were made, such as chande- liers, lanterns and iron fur- niture. Fancy keys (Fig. 4) were made and hung on a background of colored cloth or leather to bring out the effects. The credit of hav- ing made the first attempts to beautify iron with paint and at the same time to preserve it against rust is given to the middle ages. Renaissance Period. — Following the Gothic period is that of the Renaissance, although Gothic details were not rare up to the fifteenth century or even beyond it. In the southern countries of Europe, the wrought ironwork of this period was very simple in appearance, the ornamen- tation being flat and pro- duced by punching (Fig. 5), but in the Northern countries greater richness was developed. During this period, the use of wrought iron greatly in- creased and many new articles were introduced, such as reading-desks, wash-stands, towel hold- ers, door grills, brackets, signs, weathercocks and utensils of the most varied kinds. It was during the renaissance that the production of weapons reached its perfection. Cast iron was also intro- Fig. 5 HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 11 duced, although it was limited almost entirely to fire backs and stove plate. The master armorers of Augsburg, Nuremberg and Munich attained great fame at this time. The most costly suits of armor in the museums of Paris, Madrid and Vienna came from the forges of these cities. The designs were furnished by Schwarz, Hirschvogel, Miehich, Floetner, Aldegrever, Durer, Wohlgemuth and Holbein, the most distinguished artists of the time. These masters added engraving and etching to the earlier arts of em- bossing and encrusting armor with precious metals. Be- sides armor they made exquisite shields and sworcl-hilts, also domestic utensils, tools, instruments of torture, strong boxes, statuettes carved from the solid, and even a throne which was presented to Rudolph II by the Augsburgers in 1574. German Work. — German iron-work is particularly worthy of study, not only because it is beautiful; but also because it enjoyed a boundless prosperity without a break, from the thirteenth century until the invasion of the first Napoleon, except during the Thirty Years' War. This is exceptional because in Spain, France, Eng- land, Italy and the Low Countries, the working of iron ebbed and flowed according to the prosperity of the countries. Blacksmithing was practised from the Rhine to the limits of Austria and from Denmark to Italy, and the greatest variety of articles was produced. Little is known of the work of the early Teutons. The iron hinges and guards on the Romanesque doors, which have with- stood time, show a striking resemblance to the work of central France, while others are patterned after the more carefully designed swagework of Paris. Not until the thirteenth century did the German blacksmiths show independent design. At this time in Marburg, Magdeburg and other places they began using 12 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL elegant, branching strapwork ending in peculiar fleur de lis and vine leaves, which, work was a German modi- fication of the French design. This breaking away from the French designs progressed during the next two cen- turies. The results were a distinct German design in which always appeared the vine, tracery, and fleur de lis. In Cologne, on the eve of the Renaissance, about two hundred years later, a new type of work appeared with the thistle as a base for the design (Fig. 6), origi- nated by a family of smiths named Matsys, which produced the cele- brated Antwerp well cover. The thistle combined with tracery was in vogue until displaced by Renais- sance ornament. Baroque Period. — In the " baro- que" period the striving after pomp and grandeur produced some very large pieces of elaborate work used mostly in the service of courts and princes. The term, baroque, is un- derstood to mean oval. In this particular style the spirals are squeezed together so as to form ovals, and also are ornamented with foliage (Fig. 7). As this style was used by the architects almost exclusively in the buildings of the Society of Jesus, it is often called the Jesuit style. Some of the changes from earlier periods are: Round bars gave place to square ones; bars that heretofore were threaded through each other were changed to halv- ing and oversetting; forgings were placed on sheet-iron backings (Fig. 8); leaves became bolder, and rosettes Fig. 6 HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 13 and acanthus husks were used in profusion. The styles for the large pieces were less uniform in appearance than during the Renaissance and earlier periods, since the efforts were spent on the prominent parts, and the less Fig- 7 important places were left almost bare or filled with straight bars. The treatment of small articles was similar though less striking. The art of casting was becoming better known; therefore parts that were formerly made of wrought iron were made of other materials, and we find the smith's work diminishing. Rococo Period. — In the eighteenth century came a style known as the rococo. The word "rococo" is derived from "rocaille," which means grotto or shell work. The Fig. 8 work of this period was very dainty and artistic. The strong heavy grilled windows of the earlier periods gradu- ally became less numerous, probably due to the fact that since the times were less dangerous than before, their use 14 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL was unnecessary. Balustrades and balcony railings put in an appearance, as well as large iron gates for churches, palaces and parks. The demand for sign brackets and signs for guilds increased. Wrought iron gained more popularity in this line than ever before. The disappear- ance of straight lines is a particular feature of this period; they were used only when it was absolutely necessary. In place of these we find wild scrollwork. The acanthus similar to that once used in the Gothic was again brought out but the foliage was more crinkled. Fig. 9 It was evident that the idea was to avoid flat surfaces and to put life into the work in a simple way. Festoons, sprays and garlands were put in every vacant or empty space (Fig. 9). Deterioration of Art Iron-work. — At the beginning of the reign of Louis XIV in France, the rococo designs had reached their height and the demand for artistic forgework took a turn backward to the more simple style. Grills were made of antique scrolls with inter- woven and flowery borders of small stiff design. Wreaths with many bows and ribbons were placed in elliptically shaped shields. This degeneration of art forgework con- tinued down to the first of the nineteenth century. Then for three-quarters of a century little attention was given to it. But, twenty or thirty years ago, in Germany and some other countries, considerable interest sprang up and work is now produced equal to that of any of the old smiths. It is characteristic of our time, due to the HISTORIC USE OF IRON AND STEEL 15 machine-made tools, rivets and a large variety of rolled shapes. Transition. — While the work of the smith as a pro- ducer of art degenerated, the smith as a producer of tools for the shop and field improved, and now since the introduction of machinery that calls for hardened steel parts and for drop and pressed forgings, the smith with his knowledge of metals and how they should be heated has in the main passed to a work of far greater practi- cal value, though not so artistic CHAPTER II IRON AND STEEL The purpose of this chapter is briefly to explain the production of iron and steel and to point out some of their characteristics. It is thought best not to introduce a theoretical discussion of metallurgy. KINDS OF IRON Iron is an element. As used commercially, it is never entirely free from impurities, some of which have a use- ful influence and others a harmful one. The presence of useful impurities in the iron and the method of obtain- ing the metal from the ores gives rise to three general classes of iron: i.e., cast iron (pig iron), steel and wrought iron. There are two characteristics common to all of the above classes, i.e., all contain iron to the extent of 92% or more, and all contain the element carbon, as the next most important constituent. Pig Iron is the raw form of iron just as it comes from the blast furnace. Almost all iron and steel are reduced from the ore to the form of pig iron, and are then refined by various processes into the cast iron, steel or wrought iron. Cast Iron is the most impure form in which iron metal is used. It is weak and brittle; it cannot be heated and forged. To be shaped it must be melted and cast in IRON AND STEEL 17 molds, or machined with cutting tools. The per cent of impurities in cast iron varies between wide limits as can be seen from the following table : Analyses of Cast Iron J G. C. C. C. T. C. Si. Mn. P. . S. 2.73 0.G6 3.39 2.42 1.00 0.31 0.04 2.83 0.79 3.58 1.59 0.79 0.485 0.08 3.75 0.85 0.50 0.45 0.05 Steel. — Steel is the name given to various compounds of iron and small quantities of carbon, silicon, manga- nese, sulphur, and phosphorus. It is purer and stronger than cast iron and can be shaped either by being melted and cast into molds or by being forged. Special steels contain, in addition to the impurities mentioned, definite proportions of chromium, tungsten, manganese, nickel, vanadium, and wolfram. In general, steel is classified according to its amount of carbon, as follows: soft steel, having less than 0.3%; medium steel, having from 0.3% to 0.75%; and hard steel, having from 0.75% to 1.50%. Wrought Iron. — Wrought iron is the purest com- mercial form of iron. It is similar to very low carbon steel, except that it is not produced by being melted and cast in molds, and that it is always forged to the desired shape. It rarely contains more than 0.12% of carbon. It is produced by the refining of pig iron by a process known as puddling. Harmful Impurities. — The impurities in iron and steel that are harmful are sulphur, arsenic, and phosphorus. Sulphur causes the metal under the hammer to crack or 1 G. C. is Graphite Carbon, C. C. Combined Carbon, T. C. Total Carbon. The other terms have their regular chemical sig- nificance. 18 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL crumble, when worked hot, while phosphorus causes it to crack or crumble when worked cold. Hot Short or Red Short. — When impurities, such as sulphur and arsenic, render the metal unworkable at a red heat, it is said to be red short,- and when unworkable at a welding heat it is hot short. Cold Short. — The phosphorus impurity will cause iron to crack when it is worked or hammered while cold. Iron in this condition is said to be cold short. FUEL — FLUXES AND ORES Iron is mined in the form of oxides or carbonates. All of these ores generally are mixed with earthy and other impurities in widely varying proportions, and must be re- duced by means of heat, thus making the use of various fuels and fluxes necessary. Fuels. — The fuels which are used for reducing iron ores are, chiefly, as follows: charcoal, anthracite, and coke. The purer these fuels are the better will be the iron produced, other things being equal. Fluxes. — A flux is a substance which is added to metalliferous bodies and unites with the foreign matter, to form a slag which is fusible. The flux to be employed will vary with the nature and amount of the impurities in the ore. Thus iron ores containing silicate of alumina need a flux of lime. Fluor spar is used as flux for sul- phates of barium, calcium, and strontium. Ores. — The ores which are used chiefly in the pro- duction of iron are the oxides of iron. They are here briefly described. Magnetite (Fe 3 4 ) when pure contains 72.41 % of iron. It is the richest and purest iron ore. Swedish iron is made from it. Red Hematite (Fe 2 3 ) is a rich, red-colored ore con- taining 70% of iron. It is the most plentiful and IRON AND STEEL 19 widely distributed iron ore, and is the principal ore from which bessemer steel is made. Brown Hematite (2 Fe 2 3 -f- 3 H 2 0) is red hematite chemically combined with water. When pure it contains 59.97 % of iron. Calcining or Roasting. — Before iron ore can be used as iron, it must be reduced to the metallic state by the process of smelting. Ores, such as the carbonate and sulphide ores, which contain much volatile matter, are calcined, i.e., heated slowly to a temperature below that of fusion, in order to drive off the volatile matter. In this manner the carbonate ore, Fe2C0 3 , is changed to Fe 2 3 . The sulphide ore, FeS 2 , is acted upon in a similar manner. The calcining is performed by placing the ore, together with the proper amount of fuel, in heaps in the open air or in roasting kilns. The fuel is ignited and the whole mass gradually heated. Water is driven off as steam, and the carbon dioxide (C0 2 ) and sulphur (S) go off as gases. Roasting in kilns is more satisfactory than in heaps, since the kilns can be worked continuously, for they are shaped like a large foundry cupola. REDUCTION AND REFINING OF ORES The Blast Furnace. — The first operation in the refin- ing of iron ore is performed in the blast furnace (Fig. 10). The product is called either cast or pig iron. The fur- nace consists of a vertical shaft of iron or steel plate from 40 to 100 feet high, — the standard height ranging from 75 to 85 feet, — which is lined with a refractory material, •thus leaving an interior circular space from 12 to 30 feet at its largest diameter, which maximum diameter is just below mid-height. From this region, the walls con- tract gradually in both upwards and downwards. 20 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL The lower sloping portion is called the boshes. This terminates at the top of a cylindrical portion called the crucible, the bottom of which is called the hearth. The furnace is filled by placing the fuel, ore, and / ^ <7y/? -flux in the hopper (A), and then low- ering the bell (B). Alternate layers of fuel, flux, and ore fill the furnace to the top of the melt- ing zone. Air is supplied under pressure of from fifteen to twenty-five pounds per square inch through a blast main or bustle pipe (C), which encircles the lower part of the furnace (Fig. 10). Smaller pipes connect the bustle pipe with the in- terior of the fur- nace through tuyeres (T), near the top of the crucible. The air passes up through the furnace, thus supplying oxygen for combustion. The gases pass off through a gas main at the top of the furnace, later to be used in the hot-blast stoves, for power in engines, or under boilers. The metallic iron Fig. 10 IRON AND STEEL 21 and slags 1 both descend as liquids to the bottom and accumulate in the crucible (the light slag on top) until they are tapped off. The iron is tapped off at intervals at (F) and the slag at the cinder notch (G). The action of the blast furnace is as follows: As the fuel is con- sumed at the bottom the charge moves slowly downward and its temperature is constantly increased. The ore becomes roasted into either Fe 2 3 or Fe 3 4 . The lime- stone is changed to lime by giving up carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), and the fuel is burned either to carbon monoxide (CO) or carbon dioxide. This CO2 formed in these reac- tions, coming in contact with the fuel, is decomposed into CO and 0. The lime unites with the silica and alumina, forming a double silicate of aluminum and lime, which is melted in the lower part of the furnace. The iron oxide (Fe 2 3 ) freed from its impurities, coming in contact with the carbon monoxide (CO), gives up its (0), forming carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), and free iron. The iron, as it passes down into the hotter parts of the fur- nace, is in a spongy condition, in which state it readily absorbs carbon from the incandescent fuel. By this car- burization, the melting point of the iron is lowered so that it becomes melted and runs to the crucible as cast iron, and there accumulates till drawn off. The slag flows toward the bottom of the furnace, but being lighter than the iron, floats on it and is tapped off at a higher level. The air blast, before it reaches the furnace, is heated by passing through the hot-blast stoves (Fig. 11), which are heated by the gases from the furnaces. The stoves are used in pairs, so that one can be heated while the other is heating the blast. Wrought iron, the purest commercial form of iron, is 1 The substance resulting from the fusing together of the flux and the impurities in the ore. 22 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL made by clecarburizing pig iron by a process called Puddling in a furnace called a Puddling Furnace (Fig. 12). Such a furnace consists of a horizontal concave hearth B, covered by a low arched roof, which reverber- ates heat upon the iron to be re- fined, which heat is produced by the combustion of a gaseous fuel in the space be- tween the roof and the hearth. This results in burning out nearly all the carbon, silicon, and manganese, and some of the phosphorus and sulphur. There are two puddlingpro- cesses, the dry and wet. In each, the opera- tion is composed of three periods — fusion, robbling, 1 and forming the blooms. Dry Puddling. — In this process, white or refined iron is chiefly used. The charge consists of about 4 cwt. of metal and some rich slags. This is partially melted, in about half an hour, to a pasty mass. The mass is then 1 Robbling is the moving of the mass by means of the tools of the puddler. AIR in LET. Fig. 11 IRON AND STEEL 23 :^\\\^\s^ stirred with an iron bar in order to expose all of the parts to the oxidizing influence of the air. As the im- purities are removed, the iron becomes less fusible, and requires that the temperature be greatly increased to keep the iron liquid, but as it is not, the particles begin to solidify. The particles of iron are worked together into balls, weigh- ing about 80 lbs., by the "pud- dlers," with a "puddle bar." Wet Puddling. — Wet puddling has succeeded the dry method, as the preliminary refining is there- by dispensed with. The pigs used in wet pud- dling are siliceous or strongly car- burized. The bed and Fig. 12 sides of a modern puddling furnace are lined with re- fractory materials., such as mill scale or rich ore, which are rich in oxygen. When the iron is melted, it is acted upon by two oxidizing influences, the air and the iron oxide. The operation is shorter and the product more uniform than in the dry puddling process, since the robbling is more vigorous. The slags thus formed take up oxygen from the air, causing FeO to change to Fe 3 4 , and this oxidizes the impurities in the iron, silicon and manganese being acted upon first, then phosphorus, sulphur, and carbon. 24 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL While carbon is being oxidized, carbonic oxide is formed, which bubbles to the surface, thus producing what is called the boiling stage. The entire mass is in a state of violent agitation. As the impurities are removed the iron gradually comes to nature, or solidifies, and is worked into balls as in the process of dry puddling. These balls are sponge-like masses of wrought iron, the interstices of which are filled with, liquid slag. After they are taken from the furnace, they are raised to a welding heat, the slag is squeezed out, and the metal welded into blooms with a hammer or squeezer. Then they are passed through rolls and shaped into merchant bars. MILD STEEL Open Hearth Process. — In this process pig iron is melted and to it is added wrought iron or cold steel scrap. The. furnace used is the Sieman's Regenerative Furnace (Fig. 13). It is a gas-fired furnace, using either natural or producer gas, which is made to give a very much higher temperature by being heated or regenerated before burning. The furnace has a hearth (A), covered over with a low flat roof to reverberate the heat. There are at least two passageways on either side, one at (R) for air and the other at (S) for gas, each connecting with a separate regenerator filled with fire-brick, which are laid with small openings between them to allow the pas- sage of gas and air. The gas and the air enter the fur- nace flues on the same side of the hearth, each going through its own regenerator compartment to the ter- minals, where they mix and burn over the hearth in the combustion chamber (B). The hot gases of combustion pass out through the passages on the side opposite to that of the other set of regenerators and in so doing heat the checker work (as the bricks are called) to a very IRON AND STEEL 25 high temperature. When one side has become hot and the other has cooled, the flow of gas and air is reversed, /tir Cf«S awi^uiiiiNi ^ let rasa \> mmm ^ % mm X ma him § isipeiw ^ vamw S % m M i i __ 7 _ j—^ 1 / ,-^\Q,rF/u\& \ . «^T i ' i ; i f i i i \ *T vr 'J .0 will roll by each other as at ^6 (c). This, repeated many times, develops cracks. Fig. 93 illustrates the steps in drawing from round to 64 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL round: (a) shows the original stock, first the section is reduced to a square, the sides (6) of which should measure slightly less than the diameter (c) of the piece desired. 1 The four corners are now hammered so as to make the section octagonal. These corners are hammered into eight more sides; and so on, until the section is round. When drawing down to a round point, one must follow the same course. The end should be drawn to a square pyramid of proper size and length and then rounded by being hammered first to four corners, then to eight, etc. The point always must be kept hot, or it will split. In drawing down the iron should be heated to a bright red and not hammered after it reaches a dull red, except in finishing, when it is ham- mered with light blows from a dull red to a black. UPSETTING Upsetting or jumping up is the reverse operation of draw- ing down; a piece is shortened in length and the cross- section increased in one dimension or more. Upsetting is a slower and more laborious process than drawing down. There are several methods of upsetting. The proper one to use depends large- ly upon the shape and size of the work. If the piece is short it is gen- erally stood on end on the anvil and the upper end is struck with a hammer (Fig. 94). Pieces small in 1 As the sides bulge out somewhat when the corners are flattened. DRAWING DOWN AND UPSETTING 65 cross section relative to their length as a piece of f" round 8" or 12" long, which is to be upset on the end, should be held flat on the anvil by the tongs, so that the end of the piece to be upset projects over the edge about Y i where it can be struck a sharp blow with the hammer. By resting the piece on the face of the anvil, the tendency to bend is greatly lessened. The handle of the tongs should be pressed tightly against the left leg, to prevent a backward movement of the work to increase the efficiency of the blows. Pieces of larger size are upset by being bumped repeatedly upon the face of the anvil (Fig. 95) or upon a plate of cast iron set in the floor along- side of the anvil. An- other way is to lay the piece upon the anvil face or swing it in a chain, hold the end with both hands and strike the other end with a sledge or a Fig. 95 Fie. 96 swinging monkey (Fig. 96). Many heats are often re- quired to jump up a moderate mass of metal, and the 66 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL result is that the dimensions are not very exact. The upset metal, in spite of much care in localizing the heat to the place wanted, is unequal and without sharp shoulders; hence to allow for drawing back to the desired form and size considerably more must be upset than is needed. Upsetting tends to separate the fibers of the metal. It is therefore necessary that the work be done at a welding heat. Pieces of any length will tend to bend when being upset and should be straightened as soon as a bend starts, because additional blows will simply bend the stock more and produce no upsetting. The blows must be heavy enough to work the metal the entire distance that is to be upset, in order that the section may remain uniform through- out. If it is found that the ends are spreading faster than the center of the stock, they can be so cooled that when struck with the hammer they will remain unchanged while the hot middle part is worked. This can be repeated till the piece has become uniform in section. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW Describe the position of the smith at the anvil. How should the hammer be held? How many ways of striking with a sledge are there? Describe each. How is the hammer held for light, finishing blows? What is drawing out? What is upsetting? How should a round piece be drawn down? If in working a square piece it gets diamond shape, how can it be made square again? When and how is the pene of the hammer used in draw- ing out? What is the action of the pene? When is the horn of the anvu used? Why? What effect has the crown on the anvil face in drawing out? When do we use the flat face of the hammer? Describe drawing down a square bar. A rectangular bar. How do you change from a rectangle to a square and vice versa? How DRAWING DOWN AND UPSETTING 67 many sides need be hit with the hammer in drawing down a square? How are short pieces upset? Long, heavy ones? Long, light ones? If- the ends upset faster than the middle, what can be done to work the middle up? How heavy a blow is needed in upsetting? What is a swinging monkey? Will the metal upset evenly? CHAPTER VI BENDING AND TWISTING Bending and twisting are very important, but com- paratively simple. Curves and rings of light section are easily bent over the horn or round edge of the anvil, or around a suitable mandrel. With heavy sections bending blocks are neces- sary. It is easier to bend bar iron flatwise than edge- wise. Along the center of the bar (a-a) (Fig. 97) or the neutral axis, as it is called, the bending is performed without stretching or shortening the fibers, but on the convex side of this neutral axis all the fibers are stretched. The greater the distance is from (a-a), the greater the extension. Again, all the fibers on the concave side are shortened or compressed and the greater the distance, the greater the compression; therefore, the greater the distance (b) the more the work that must be done in the extension and compression. Also the metal tends to wrinkle or buckle and must be kept straight by hammering. Flat Bend. — Bending a piece of iron the flat way to some angle is the most simple case of bending. Suppose a piece of rectangular iron is to be. bent to a right angle, the corner (a) (Fig. 99) to be left rounded. The iron is heated to a bright red heat at the place where the bend is to be made, rested on the face of the anvil with the BENDING AND TWISTING 69 Fig. 98 heated place over the round edge (Fig. 98), and the pro- jecting edge hit with the hammer at (6) and (c) (Figs. 98-99), till the piece is brought to the desired angle as shown by the dotted lines. 1 It is then trued up on the face of the anvil. The piece can often be bent more easily if a sledge is held as shown in Fig. 98. Bending to "U" is done by heat- ing the piece at the place where bending is desired and the portion. that will be taken up in the bend, placing the piece with the center of the heated portion over that part of the horn where the diameter is about the same as the diameter of the bend desired, and striking the free end until it is bent to a right angle as shown in Fig. 101. End (a) is grasped in the tongs and (6) bent in a similar way. The piece is next placed on the face of the anvil and struck at (c). If one end should be slightly longer than the other, stand the longer end on Fig. 99 1 After the piece has been bent to an angle of 110° to 120° it is often easier to finish the bend with less danger of injuring the piece by holding and striking, as shown at (a) in Fig. 100. If one leg is a little long, it can be shortened by making the bend sharper as shown at (b) in Fig. 100. 70 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL Fig. 100 the face of the anvil as at (a) in Fig. 102 and strike as indicated by the arrow. Ring Bending. — After the proper amount of stock has been cut off, 1 about half its length is heated to a dark red and placed over the horn of the anvil, as in Fig. 102, and bent down by being struck in the direction of the arrow. The bending is con- tinued by advancing the piece across the horn and striking as before. This process is continued until about one-half of the piece is bent; then the other end is heated and bent similarly. When bending a piece to form a ring or similar shape, never strike directly over the horn but a little in advance of the sup- port, otherwise . c the stock will be marred or ham- mered out of shape. If the ring is to be welded, the ends will have to be scarfed as explain- ed in the chapter on Welding. If it is to be unwelded but with ends flush as (a) in Fig. 103, each end will have to be beveled as at (b) in Fig. 103, by an amount determined by practice. Eye Bending. — If an eye like (a) (Fig. 104) is wanted, the length of the stock necessary to form the eye is de- 1 See calculations for ring, Chapter XVI. Fig. 101 BENDING AND TWISTING 71 termined. Then the piece is heated at a point as described above and shown at (b) (Fig. 104). The piece is next heated at the end and placed over the horn and Fig. 102 /* a Fie. 103 bent, as shown at (c) and (d), in much the same way as was the ring (Fig. 102). The eye is then closed by bring- ing down the end, to form as shown at (a), and by hold- ing and striking as at (a) and (6) (Fig. 105). To close the eye in properly it may be necessary to place the piece in positions (a) and (b) two or three times and to make the center line of the stem pass through the center of the eye (a) (Fig 104), and likewise to round the eye it may be necessary to place the piece over the horn as shown at (c) (Fig. 105). Hook. — A hook is bent somewhat simi- larly. It is bent at right angles (b) (Fig. 104), placed over the horn (a Fig. 104 (Fig. 106), and with fur- ther blows carried around to the position indicated by 72 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL the dotted line. The bend in the end of the hook is produced over the edge of the anvil (6) (Fig. 106). Edge Bend with Square Forged Corner. — This is an especially diffi- cult piece to make without having cracks form as shown at (a) (Fig. 107). The stock is full- ered 1 and drawn down as shown at (6) in Fig. 107, the projection shown at (c) left where the corner is to be, is heated almost to a white heat, and bent over the round part of the anvil face to an angle of 110° or 120° (Fig. 108). It will be well to have a helper hold a Fig. 105 Fig. 106 sledge on the piece so that the edge of the sledge is directly over the edge of the anvil. The bending can be done by placing the work in the vise, but this is not recommended as the stock is likely to be cut. The stock is reheated at the bend by being placed in the fire 1 See Chapter VIII for description of fullering. BENDING AND TWISTING 73 as in Fig. 109, and the corner is worked up square by a series of blows given as follows: The work is placed over the anvil, as in Fig. 108, but so that the inside of Fig. 107 the bend is not allowed to touch the corner of the anvil; struck as indicated by the arrow; turned, end for end, and struck again; placed on the face of the anvil as (a) in Fig. 108; and struck on the ends. These blows are to be repeated, with occasionally a blow to bring the piece nearer to a right angle, until a sharp corner is made on the outside and the piece is nearly at a right angle. The corner can now be finished by standing the piece on end and strik- ing as indicated by the arrow in Fig. 110 and finally closing in to the exact right angle. In all this work the corner must be kept at a good heat; the angle must be more than 90° at all times with a small fillet on the inside. Never let it get into the position shown at (d) (Fig. 107) or the metal will lap over and pro- duce a crack as at (a), or a cold shut as at (e). The piece should be finished all over with a flatter. A bend with a square corner as shown at (a) (Fig. 107) can be forged without being fullered and drawn clown. All other operations Fig. 108 Fig. 109 74 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL Fig. 110 are the same as described above; but the process is more difficult. Bending Plates. — In bending large work to various outlines many devices are used, such as cast iron templates, or bending blocks. Their design and contruction are a matter of cost. When only a few simple pieces are to be bent the cost of even a simple block would be prohibitive, but when many pieces are wanted all alike, elaborate blocks may be made. Fig. Ill shows a block for bending flat bars. It can be made for any radius or even for differently shaped curves, and the working edge (a) can be made with a T or L section; so that "shapes" also can be bent. The block consists of a heavy cast-iron plate of the desired shape with a means suitable for fastening it to a bench or leveling block. The end of the piece to be bent is held in the groove (a) by the clips (b), which are fastened to the plate by bolts or pins in some of the holes Fig. Ill and by the pin (c), slipped through the slots in (6). As the piece is bent more clips are added, which process holds it to the block until the required amount of the piece is bent to the required shape. Fig. 112 shows a bending block for general work, fitted with a screw. Upon this block bars can be straightened or bent at most any shape. The block is pierced with numerous circular and slotted BENDING AND TWISTING 75 holes, which receive pins to form the necessary supports for the piece in bending. At (a) is a block securely fastened to the plate, in which is a thread to move the screw (6) in or out to put pres- sure on the work. In operation the plate is very simple. Pins are placed in the holes, the piece is forced be- tween them, and is bent to the desired shape. The screw is useful in straight- ening stock and is used as follows: „ Pins are placed in holes (c), the • r. — I D r—i i :"::,) L__) oO u.° a 6 o o'° 1 — 1 ■m CT3 i — > C=3 o c rv n era '0° o 1 — 1 o o °Q CZi a ■ a C—l piece to be straightened placed so that it bears against these pins, with the bowed side to the screw, and Fig. 112 pressure applied through the screw till the piece is straight. Numerous devices for bending special forms can be made and attached to this form of plate. Twisting. — To make the twist as shown in Fig. 113, lay off the portion to be twisted and lightly center punch at each end. If the stock is light enough to be twisted without heating, place it in a vise with one punch mark just above the jaws, the rest of the stock extending above. Then with a wrench that fits tightly, grasp the stock just above the second punch mark and give the piece the de- sired number of turns. If the left hand is used to back up the wrench it aids in keeping the stock straight. When the stock is large and needs heating the procedure is the same. The stock must be heated uniformly and the work performed quickly, or the cold vise and wrench will extract heat from the stock near the place where it is held, and results in an uneven twist, since the hotter portion will turn more easily, giving a shorter 76 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL twist. It is also hard to keep the piece from bending as the wrench cannot always be backed up by the left hand owing to the heat. When the piece comes out crooked it can be straightened without marring by heating it to a dull red, and hammering it between two hardwood boards. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW How are curves and rings bent? What should be used for heavy stock? What is the neutral axis? How is the metal disposed of that is bulged out by compressing in making a bend? Describe how to make a flat bend. Describe bending to a U. How is a ring bent? Why should the piece never be struck directly over the horn? Why is the piece first bent to a right angle in making an eye bend? In the edge bend, why is it easier to make the piece by the first method described? Why must the inside corner be kept away from the edge of the anvil after it is first bent? Why in making the edge bend, must the piece always be kept at an angle greater than a right angle till the corner has been forged sharp? What are bending plates? When is it profitable to use them? De- scribe how they are used. Describe the operation of twisting. Why must one work fast when twisting a piece of hot iron? Why can a piece of cold iron be twisted more evenly than hot? CHAPTER VII SPLITTING, PUNCHING, AND RIVETING SPLITTING Splitting is done by hand with an ordinary hand chisel, with a hack saw, and by power with a slitting shear or slitting saw. The methods of splitting by hand are the only ones which are described in this work. Splitting with the Hot Chisel. — The heated piece is placed on the cutting block (a) (Fig. 114), the chisel held by the smith on the place where the cut is to be made, and struck by the helper with the sledge till the stock is cut through. Unless the stock is very thick, it is well to cut through all the way from one side. The piece can be held on the hardie and the chisel on the stock directly above (6) (Fig. 114), but this is more difficult. Before stock is split, it Fig. 114 a i is necessary to punch or to drill a small hole at the place that will be the end of the split. In Fig. 115 (a) shows the hole and the dotted line is where the piece is to be split. Light pieces are most easily split in a vise with 78 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL an ordinary cold chisel, as shown in Fig. 116. The piece is set in the vise, so that the place selected for the split is flush with the top of the jaws, the cutting edge of the chisel being held on the top of the vise, and driven with the hammer against the work, so that the back jaw of the vise and the chisel act as shear blades to cut or split the stock. The method of splitting with a hack saw is the same as that of ripping a board held in a vise. With reference to Fig. 117, no further explanation is Fig. 116 necessary. PUNCHING Punching is an important operation in the forge shop, though the introduction of the drill press has lessened its use somewhat. There are many cases where the punch is desirable, as in punching eyes for hammer handles. There are both hand and power punches which will make holes of almost any section. Power Punch. — The operation of the power punch is very simple. The piece to be punched is held under the punch and a lever pressed down with the foot. This throws a clutch which starts 1§ ' the gears; the punch descends and penetrates the piece. Hand punches are commonly of two kinds. That shown in Fig. 118 is held in the left hand of the smith and driven into the stock with a hand hammer. That SPLITTING, PUNCHING, AND RIVETING 79 shown in Fig. 55 is held by the handle in the right hand, similarly as the chisel in Fig. 114, and is driven into the work, with the sledge by a helper. The punch (Fig. 118) is used for small holes in thin iron. It is made from octagonal steel, eight or - 4 K=^=~ r~ ; r-r\*^ BB- ten inches long. The °^-» end is forged tapering to the same shape but slightly smaller on the end than the desired hole. The end should be perfectly flat and at right angle to the center line, as in Fig. 118. As the operation of punching is the same with either punch, a description of the use of one will answer. The iron should be heated to a bright red or almost a white heat, and laid flat on the face of the anvil, the punch placed in position and held to the work firmly with the hand, and driven a little over half through (a) (Fig. 119). This compresses the metal underneath the punch and either raises a slight bulge on the un- der side of the bar, or makes a darkened spot the shape of the end of the punch. The piece is now turned over and the lg ' punch placed on this bulged or dark spot (&) (Fig. 119). The punch is again driven about halfway through (c), and then the work is moved over the punch hole in the end of the anvil and the punch driven through. The slug is thus driven out and the hole (rf) results. The piece now has a hole through it, as shown at (e), but if the stock is narrow it likely will be bulged as shown at (/). This bulge must be hammered back to the original width of the bar, with- 80 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL out making the hole elliptical by leaving the punch in the hole. In this operation, the punch must be changed from one side of the hole to the other, or the hole will be tapered the same as the punch. The punch must not be driven all the way through from one side, or the result will be a tapered hole and the stock will be bulged on the under side as shown at (g), which will make the work look rough, no matter how much one tries to remedy the defect by hammering the bulge back. On thick work, and especially on steel, the punch can be prevented from sticking by placing a little coal dust in the hole just after it is started. The punch must be dipped in water occasionally to cool the end, or it will soften and bulge and thus rivet itself in the hole as shown at (h), making it almost impossible to remove it. RIVETING Riveting is the joining together of two or more pieces of metal by another piece of metal called a rivet, — - which is inserted through holes in the pieces to be joined; after which the ends of the rivet are flattened down (as shown in Fig. 120) If to prevent its coming out. Rivets are designated by the shape of their heads as (Fig. 121); (a) round head, (b) con- ical head, (c) countersink, (d) pan head, etc. The conical head rivet has the least cross-sectional area to resist the strain, and the pan head the most. The joints are spoken of as lap or butt joints and as single, double, etc., according to the way the joints are made and to the number of rows of rivets. Fig. 122 shows a butt and Fig. 123 a lap joint. The distance between the centers of two rivets adjacent in a row is called the pitch. SPLITTING, PUNCHING, AND RIVETING 81 The way in which a rivet is driven depends upon the purpose of the rivet. If it is to make a tight joint or seam, the pieces are brought together into their proper position. The rivet is heated to a full red heat, passed through the hole previouslj* punched or drilled, held in place by a dolly-bar 1 or rested on the anvil according to the nature of the work, and then driven with heavy blows to upset the stem and fill the hole. The head is afterward rounded to the shape de- sired. The quicker the riveting is done the more heat is left in it and hence the greater the amount of con- traction, after the riveting is finished, to draw the plates together. If the rivet is to fill the irregularities of a punched hole, it should, when heated, be as good a fit in the hole as pos- Fi §- 123 sible. If the rivet is to hold two pieces together like a pair of tongs, where there must be movement, the rivet is struck light blows which spread out the end to the de- sired shape but does not upset the stem. The heads of rivets are usually finished in a cupping tool (Fig. 57) , After the head has been hammered into shape, l^^ lllll l^ usually with the pene of the hammer, the cupping tool is placed over the rivet head and struck a few blows with the face of the hammer. Riveting on structural and boiler work is usually done with a pneumatic riveter. The effect which the taper in a punched hole has 1 A dolly-bar is a heavy piece of iron 18" to 2' long, which is held against a rivet to act as an anvil so as to upset the rivet and form the head. 82 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL upon a riveted joint depends upon the manner in which the plates are brought together. In Fig. 124 at (a) are two holes with the large end of the taper on the outside, and the effect is the same as a slight counter- sink, causing the rivet to draw the plates together. It is evident that this desirable method will make a tight joint. It has two drawbacks, however: punching from opposite sides is difficult; in making repairs it is hard to remove the old rivet without injury to the plates. At (6) are shown plates placed together with the large diameter of the holes inside. This is bad, since the tendency in driving the rivet will be to spread the plates apart. This rivet would also be hard to remove for repairs, (c) shows the plates both punched from one side. This will make it hard to drive the rivet and get a tight joint and the rivet will also be hard to remove from side (x). But it can be easily removed from side (y), if it is accessible. At (d) are shown cases where the rivets do not come fair. In these cases the rivets bend in driving and the result is that they do not fill the hole. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW What are the ordinary ways of splitting stock? Describe a hot chisel. How is it used? Why is the small hole needed at the end of the place where the split is to be? How are light pieces split in the vise? Why is punching better on some classes of work than drilling? Describe the method of punching a hole through a piece of iron. Why must the hole be punched from both sides? Why must the punch be left in the hole when the bulged sides are hammered back? Why must the punch be changed from one side to the other in hammering back the bulged sides? Why must the punch be dipped in water often while it is used? How is the punch prevented from sticking in deep holes? What will happen if the end of the punch is allowed to get soft? What is riveting? What is a rivet? How are rivets named? Give the names. What is meant by pitch, double riveting, butt and lap joints? What is a SPLITTING, PUNCHING, AND RIVETING 83 dolly-bar? Why should riveting be done hot when a tight joint is to be made? Why are light hammer blows used when a pair of tongs are riveted? Why is a cupping tool used? What is the effect if the large diameters of punched holes are on the outsides? on the insides? one inside and one outside? If the holes do not come fair? CHAPTER VIII THE USES OF BLACKSMITHS' TOOLS FULLERING The fullers (Figs. 66-67) are used to change the direc- tion of the fibers of iron (without cutting) where it is to be reduced in section, or to widen stock. Fig. 125 (a) shows the use of the top fuller alone in making a de- pression in a piece of tool steel preparatory to making a lathe tool. The steel is held on the face of the anvil and the fuller is held on the steel at the proper place, while the helper strikes the ful- ler with a sledge which causes it to sink into the steel. Fig. 125 (6) Fig. 125 shows the use of both the top and bottom fuller in position for forming shoulders. In this case the ends are to remain at their original size and the part (c) between the fuller marks is to be reduced and rounded. The operation is as follows: place the bottom fuller in the hardie hole and heat the iron to a good red heat; hold it on the fuller at the place where the shoulder is to be (the top fuller is now held on the iron directly over and parallel to the bottom fuller) x and strike the 1 Caution: Hold the top fuller so that it will be parallel in both planes with the bottom one. THE USES OF BLACKSMITHS' TOOLS 85 top fuller with a sledge. The stock must be turned repeatedly from one side to the other in order to have the two fuller marks the same depths: the two fullers are scarcely ever of exactly the same ra- dius, and the sharper one cuts the faster. By the turning of the piece each side is brought for an equal time into contact with the sharper fuller. Fig. 126 shows another use of the fuller; namely, that of spreading a piece of iron or steel. For this use the fuller is held in an in- clined position and driven with a sledge, as indicated by the arrows, which forces the metal as shown in the figure. Fig. 126 illustrates the use of the fuller for both shouldering and spreading. When forging a piece to shape a block of proper length is taken and first ful- lered with the top fuller, as shown at (a) in Fig. 125, the piece results as shown in Fig. 127. The fuller is next applied as shown in Fig. 126. Fig. 126 Fig. 127 SWAGES Swages shown in Figs. 61 and 62 are used for finishing work. Swages for round work may be semicircular, as (a) Fig. 128, or V-shaped, as (6) in Fig. 128. The semicircular swage makes the neater, more nearly circular job, but is more apt to forge the work hollow as explained under drawing out, page 63, Chapter V. For this reason the circular form is used on small work and for finishing; while on large work Fig. 128 86 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL and under the power hammer, the V-form is used to bring the work down to size, which is then finished in the semicircular swage. The spring swage (Fig. 63) is used on light work when the hand hammer alone is used, as the top swage guides itself so that the smith, holding the work in one hand and the hammer in the other, is enabled to use the swage without the aid of a helper. The spring swage is also used under the power hammer, for the same reason. The holes of circular swages are always made to a larger radius than the radius of the work; also they are never half-circles. On small sizes they are about two-thirds of a semi- circle and on large sizes less. This is necessary so that the hole between the two swages when placed together will be oval, and thus prevents the swages from wedging upon the work. The V-shaped swages are, as stated before, for drawing- down work, while the round are for finishing, and should not be used except for the last finishing touches. A novice will find the swage a rather hard tool to use. He usually can get better work with his hand hammer. Swage-blocks (Fig. 31) should be constructed so that the holes (a) passing through them are true circles or squares and the sides parallel the full length of the hole. The recesses (6) should be less than semicircles, as in the case of hand swages. The slots at (c) should be parallel throughout their length but should taper in depth, to be narrowest at the bottom. Operations. — The bottom swage is placed in the hardie hole, the work laid in the groove, the top swage Fig. 129 . placed on the work directly over the bottom swage and struck light rapid blows by the helper using the sledge, while the smith moves the piece back- THE USES OF BLACKSMITHS' TOOLS 87 wards and forwards and revolves it at each blow. Care must be taken that the grooves always remain parallel, and that the work never is placed in swages where the radius of the grooves is not larger than the work. The grooves on the edges of the swage-blocks are used as bottom Fi°\ 130 swages. The holes are for various purposes; such as to true up stock by passing it through them and shaping and turning edges as in Fig. 129, and to bend pipe (Fig. 130). FLATTER The Flatter (Fig. 59) is used to finish flat surfaces, just as swages are used to finish round surfaces. The anvil takes the place of the bottom swage as a bottom flatter. Its use and that of the set hammer are so nearly the same, that the description to be given for the set hammer will answer for both. SET HAMMER The Set Hammer (Fig. 58) is used to set down square shoulders on work similarly to the way the fuller is used for rounded corners. It is also used to forge pieces that cannot be reached with the hand hammer, and often in place of a flatter. Fig. 131 shows the use of the set hammer on setting down stock so as to leave the stem-reinforcing shoulder. The stock was originally all of the same thickness. The set hammer is placed on the piece so that its edge is in line with the side of the stem, and given a blow with the sledge. It is then moved to the other side of the stem and given another blow. The piece is then held at the place indicated by the arrow (a) and the end of the stem is set down. At (6) Fig. 131 is shown the way the head is spread and narrowed by use of the set hammer. FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL Fig. 131 These two operations must be alternated till the head is as desired. Heading Tool. — Heading tools are of two types, the hand heading tool (Fig. 72) and the floor head- ing tool (Fig. 132). They are used to shape and finish heads on bolts and similar articles, or collars on shafts. The hand tool is used as follows: a sufficient amount of metal is jumped up at the desired position ; say, at the end of the stem as in making a bolt; heated to a red or almost white heat; placed in the tool (Fig. 133); and struck a few good blows with a hand hammer or sledge (according to the size of the work), to flatten out the head (a) and work the under side to a flat face with a sharp corner (6). After one or two blows are struck the stock should be removed from the tool and examined to see whether the stem and the head are concentric. If they are not, the head can be shifted by striking it in the direc- tion it should be moved as indicated by the arrow at (c). Then the piece is re- moved from the tool and brought to shape on the face of the anvil (Fig. 134). The head as it leaves the heading tool is round, as shown at (a); it is struck a good hard blow, indicated by the arrow, lg ' to flatten its two faces, as shown at (b). It is then rolled over to the position (c) and struck, as shown by the arrow. This leaves it square, as at (d). When it THE USES OF BLACKSMITHS' TOOLS 89 Fig. 133 is being shaped (Fig. 134) the head probably will be- come too thick and the other dimensions too small. In this case the piece must be placed in the tool and hammered to the cor- rect dimensions. The blows that shape the head must be heavy enough to work the entire head or it will become cupped (Fig. 135). When the tool is placed over the hardie hole, care must be taken that the stem of the piece which is being worked does not touch the anvil as at (d) (Fig. 133), or the stem will be injured. The Floor Heading Tool (Fig. 132) consists of a base (e) and a casting (g) connected by two uprights (/). The upper casting is constructed to receive a har- dened steel die (c) which can be changed for each di- ameter of stem desired and thus the tool is adapted to a wide range of work. At (a) is a lever on which the end of the stem rests when the head is upset. It is also used for forcing the piece out of the tool. This tool is a combi- nation upsetting and heading tool. The piece (a), which can be set at any desired position in the space (6), is placed so that the distance from the top of the die (c) to the top face of (a) is the length of the required bolt. The stock must be cut just the right length (determined by calculations). The portion that will project above Fig. 134 90 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL the tool is heated to a white heat. The stock is placed in the tool, the heated portion up, and is given heavy blows with hammer or sledge, which will upset and head the piece at the same time. After the second or third blow it should be examined to see if the head is concentric with the stem, and if not, it should be made so, as described above. Care must be taken to keep the stem below the die straight, and not to let the end that rests on (a) become burred or it will become too large to pass through the die. The piece can be removed by striking the lever (a). QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW Describe a fuller and tell what it is used for. What is the action of a fuller in spreading stock? Describe a swage and tell its use. What are circular swages used for? What are V-shaped ones for? Why are circular swages made larger than the work to be finished in them? Why are they always less than a half-circle? What is a spring swage and what is its use? Describe swage-blocks and tell their use. Describe the operation of using a swage. What is a flatter? Give some of its uses. What is a set hammer? Give its uses. What is a heading tool? What is it used for? How many kinds of heading tools are there? What is the advantage of the floor heading tool? How can the head be moved in case it is not concentric with the stem. CHAPTER IX HAND WELDING We have learned the process of shaping iron and are prepared to take up the study of joining two or more of these pieces or the ends of a piece by the process of welding. Welding. — ■ Welding consists of heating to a welding heat (or nearly to the point of fusion) two or more pieces of iron or steel, 1 at the places where the joint is to be made, and uniting them by pressure or by quick sharp hammer blows. The exact temperature of the welding heat in wrought iron and steel is not known, but when it is reached, wrought iron and steel become pasty, so that they will stick to similarly heated pieces when placed in contact. Heated beyond this point, the iron will burn, giving off scintillating sparks. 2 When wrought iron has reached the welding heat it has a dazzling white appearance, and when exposed to the air it makes a slight hissing noise and gives off the bright sparks of burning iron. Soft steel becomes grayish white, and tool steel, bright yellow. As stated above, the metal becomes waxlike or semifluid, a condition in which the particles of the separate pieces come into the same close contact as those 1 The two ends of a single piece bent to form a ring or chain link, etc., are here considered as two pieces. 2 Often small pieces of iron or scale get into the fire and burn, giving off scintillating sparks, which is misleading to the smith. This can and should be avoided by keeping the fire clean and deep. 92 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL of the solid bar, as they are welded or hammered to- gether. Only such metals can be welded as gradually become softer and softer with increase of heat or those that change slowly from the solid to the liquid state; the greater the range of this semifluid temperature, the more easy is the process of welding. Metals that remain hard up to the crumbling or melting point cannot be welded. The difficulty in welding is to heat the metal properly and to keep it clean and free from scale. It is absolutely necessary that the fire be kept clean, and that its depth be great enough to prevent, as far as possible, oxidation of the metal which results in a dirty heat (that is, the metal will have cinders and dirt adhering to it which will prevent the particles of metal from coming in con- tact so as to join or weld). Depressions that will pocket air between the pieces will have like effect. The pieces that are to be welded are usually "up set," or enlarged at the places where they are to join, to allow for un- avoidable drawing out in the making of the weld and in the subsequent hammering (hammer refining) to refine the grain (which is carried on until the pieces are at a low red heat). Hammer Refining. — The object of this after-hammer- ing is to break up the coarse crystals that are formed by the high temperature, which can be done by hammering or finishing at a dull red temperature, thereby giving the finished piece a fine strong grain. This finishing to produce the fine grain is called "hammer refining." Care in hammer-refining and proper welding will keep the metal at and close to the weld nearly as strong as the orginal bar. But there will nearly always be a point not far from the weld that has been overheated and has not been hammer refined which will remain a weak place in the work. HAND WELDING 93 Fluxes. — The higher the iron is heated the easier it will take up oxygen and form scale. Scale will prevent a weld whether formed in the fire or in the time con- sumed in taking the pieces from the fire and placing them together. At the temperature of welding scale is formed very rapidly, so a flux is used to prevent its formation or to dissolve it. When irons of different composition are to be welded together, a flux is needed to prevent the metal that reaches its welding temperature first from oxidizing. This flux will melt and cover the parts to be welded, preventing the formation of scale and dissolving that already formed. When the pieces are placed together and hammered this flux is forced out and the pieces are allowed to join. The fluxes generally used are sand, borax, or a mixture of borax and some substance, as sal ammoniac. Most all special welding compounds have borax as their base. Sand makes a good flux for wrought iron but is of little use with steel. It acts by uniting with the oxide to form a fusible silicate. When steel is being welded, borax or a mixture of borax and sal ammoniac is to be preferred. With this flux, iron scale dissolves at a comparatively low tem- perature and in this fluid condition can be squeezed out of the way; while if the flux were not used, the iron would have to be subjected to a higher heat to melt the scale. With ordinary wrought iron a heat that will melt the scale can easily be reached without the use of a flux, but with certain machine steel and all tool steel a tem- perature high enough to melt the oxide would burn the steel. Borax contains water which should be driven off. This dehydrated borax forms what is called borax glass, which when pulverized makes an excellent flux. Sal ammoniac added to borax in the proportion of 1 part sal ammoniac to 4 parts of borax will act better than borax alone, es- 94 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL pecially on tool steel. The flux acts merely to protect the surfaces from oxidation and to dissolve the scale, therefore it must not be imagined that it acts in any way like a cement or that welds cannot be made without its use, for with due care to prevent the dirt and oxide they can. The Procedure. — The process of welding is very sim- ple, but it is one to which too much care cannot be given. As previously stated the fire must be clean and deep, for unless the fire is exactly right the pieces cannot be heated sufficiently or kept free from dirt and scale. If the metal is insufficiently heated or is dirty (covered with scale or slag) no amount of hammering will cause the pieces to join. Again, if the iron is heated too hot, it will burn and become useless, for burned iron will not weld. In welding, everything must be in readiness; the anvil must be clean and nothing in the way, and the hammer laid in a convenient place and in correct position to deliver the blow. The tongs should fit the work tightly and be so held that no changes will be neces- sary to place the pieces in proper contact. The iron is heated slowly 1 at first until it is at a uniform tempera- ture throughout and then the blast is increased until the welding temperature is reached, then it is taken from the fire and the oxide dissolved off. usually by dip- ping the metals in a flux and returned to the fire for an instant. When the pieces are at the proper heat one must work rapidly: the blast is shut off (when power blower is used); the pieces are taken from the fire, given a sharp 1 If it is heated too rapidly the outside will be at a welding temperature while the interior remains too cold. If it is taken from the fire in this condition it will not weld, because the surface will be cooled below and the welding point by transfer of heat to the interior and by radiation to the air. HAND WELDING 95 rap on the edge of the forge or anvil horn to knock off the dirt, placed in position, and hammered rapidly till all parts are stuck. After the first blow which joins the pieces the thin parts should next be struck to complete the weld, for they lose their heat more rapidly than the thick. If the pieces do not stick at the first or second blow do not continue hammering, as it will only get them out of shape. When two pieces are at a proper welding heat they will stick when touched together. CASES OF WELDING Lap Weld. — The easiest weld to make is that where the two ends of a single piece are to be welded together to form a chain link, ring, or the like. This is a lap weld, so called since the ends are lapped over each other. Making a Chain Link. — The first step is to bend the iron to a "Li- shaped piece, care being taken to. make the legs of even length. The piece is held in the tongs at the bend of theU. The two ends are heated to a good red and scarfed. The scarf is the rough- ened bevel made where the pieces lap. It is made by placing the stock on the end of the anvil face where it joins the cutting block (a) (Fig. 136) and by giving it one blow. The piece is then moved towards the horn a slight distance and struck another blow. This is con- tinued until the corner is reached. Each blow must be enough heavier than the last so that a bevel will be produced. These blows will make a series of little steps Fig. 136 96 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL 14--^. Fig. 137 and draw the piece down to a point (a) (Fig. 137). The piece is now turned over and the operation repeated on the other leg. Then it is placed over the small part of the horn and bent as shown at (6) and (c), care being taken to ' keep the space some- what angular rather than round as at the other end. This angle should be as sharp as possible and yet fit over the horn without spreading. The points of the scarfs should project slightly. The reason for keeping this end angular can readily be seen from Fig. 138. In each case the portion below the line must be exposed to the welding heat. At (a) more stock is below the line: therefore more is liable to injury. The lapped portion of the link is now placed in the fire and a weld- ing heat taken. If the stock is Norway iron, no flux need be used, but if of some inferior grade the ends should be dipped in the flux as soon as it is a bright red and then placed in the fire till at the point of fusion or till a few sparks of burning iron appear. The smith, hammer in hand, should shut off the blast, re- move the piece to the face of the anvil, strike a sharp blow on each side of the weld as at (6) and immediately place it over the horn as at (c), so as to weld the end. It is again removed to the face of the anvil and held as shown at (d) and hammered as indicated by the arrow so as to stick and finish the in- side. With rapid work this can all be clone with one heat. A beginner will probably need two or three; as he should reheat just as soon as there is tendency not to weld, or the iron has cooled below a white heat, for additional hammering will only reduce or thin the HAND WELDING 97 stock and make a weak weld. The blows struck on the sides when the piece is first removed from the fire should be as heavy as the piece will stand without flattening the stock. A second link is made up in the same manner, and these are joined by a third link scarfed and bent as were the first two; only before being closed the two finished links are slipped on as in Fig. 139. The third link is then welded as above described. This will be found much harder, however, as the finished links will insist on lg " getting in the way. To make a chain, sections of three links should be made up and then each section joined by an additional link. The fire must be kept clean and deep and the pieces when heating well cov- ered with coke. The links should be turned often so that both sides will be heated evenly. An- other way to make the scarf is to place the link on the face of the anvil after it has been bent to the U-shape and bevel it with the pene of the hammer, as in Fig. 140. 1 Collar. — The collar presents a lap weld with flat stock. The length of the lap should be about one and a half times the thickness of the stock. The scarf should be slightly curved in both directions, as shown in Fig. 141 to make the center of the scarf the lg " highest point. In this way a pocket that would hold slag or air is avoided. In making the scarf the ends are upset 1 The author is partial to this method. Fig. 140 98 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL Fig. 142 a little. The piece is then placed on the anvil and beveled as shown at (a) Fig. 142, and finished by rounding with the pene as at (b). It must be remembered that the scarfs are to be made on op- posite sides of the stock. Fig. 143 shows the ring bent ready for welding. The piece is heated (as in welding a chain link) and all precautions taken to keep the fire clean and deep. - Care must be taken to heat the piece slowly so that it will be heated through. The piece should be welded over the horn and special atten- tion given to the thin edge at the ends of the lap, for they cool very rapidly. Washer or Flat Ring. — Fig. 144 shows the stock scarfed and ready to bend. It is up- set at the ends and at the same time beveled to an angle of from twenty to thirty degrees. At the first end, the scarf (which is made with the pene of the hammer) , is almost full stock thick- ness on the edge that is to be the inside of the washer and tapers to the outside, the width of the scarf increasing from about f" at the inside corner to about 1" on the outside edge. On the second end, the scarf is on the oppo- site side of the piece and the full stock Fie. 143 Fig. 144 thickness is on the side that is to be the outside of the washer. The wide part of the scarf is also on this edge. The scarf should be rounded in the middle to allow HAND WELDING 99 the escape of slag, air, etc. A great deal of care must be taken when the stock is bent, to keep it at a red or almost white heat, lest the outside edge crack as in Fig. 145, due to the stretching. The piece is heated for the weld with the same care as described for the other welds. The weld- ing is done on the face of the anvil, the thin lg ' edges being taken care of first. After the weld has been made the piece is reheated and placed over the horn to true the outside edge. In all of these welds the blows are regulated to the size of the stock. TWO-PIECE WELDING Bolt Head. — This two-piece weld is about as easy as a single-piece weld, for it is essentially one piece at the time of welding. The stem is up- set slightly, (a) (Fig. 146). The upset part should be about the same diameter throughout and the distance (a) a little longer than the collar that is to be welded on. The collar is made from stock of the proper size or it can be drawn down from larger. In this case assume it is to be for the head of a small bolt and that |" round stock is to be used for the collar. Draw down square a portion long enough to reach around the upset part of the stem, and scarf Fig. 147 or taper the end as shown at (6). Bend this squared portion as in (c) to fit tightly around the upset portion of (a), and cut off as indicated by the dotted line. Fig. 146 100 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL ties* Fig. 148 Close in the end and place the collar on the stem as at (d). Bring all up to a welding heat, heating slowly to bring the stem to a proper temperature without burning the ring; place them on the face of the anvil and weld ; and finish the rough-looking, irregular top and bottom of the head, by taking another welding heat and dropping the bolt in a heading tool and weld- ing these irregular parts into the head. The head is now in condition to be shaped as desired. Collars (Fig. 147) are welded in a similar manner and finished in a collar' swage (Fig. 65). This weld is difficult as it re- quires considerable skill to get the heat at the proper place, without burning the ends of the shaft. Split Welds. — Thin pieces that require welding, even though they may be of the proper temperature while in the fire, cool off so rapidly that by the time they can be placed on the anvil they are too cool to weld. This difficulty can be overcome greatly, as follows: split the pieces for about §", bend up one part and bend down the other, scarf each split part properly as for a lap weld (a) (Fig. 148), place the pieces together and close down the ends as in (6). The joined pieces can now be heated as a single piece and placed on the face of the anvil and welded; a flux should be used to keep the ends from burning. This method, is used also in welding spring steel. Fig. 149 shows another type of split weld used on heavy stock. Fig. 149 HAND WELDING 101 Fie. 150 The ends of each piece are upset. One end is scarfed or pointed as at (a) with the side of the bar bulged just back of the joint, while the other end is split and sharpened as at (b). The lips (c) must be longer than the point of (a) so that they will extend well over the bulge. Piece (a) is driven into (b) and the lips (c-c) closed down over the bulge in (a) to keep the pieces from slipping. The pieces are now ready to be heated and welded. Care must be taken with the heat- ing to raise the temperature slowly and to use a good flux to prevent the lips (c-c) from burning. The piece is placed on the face of the anvil and welded. Lap Weld with Two Pieces. — The ends of the stock are upset and the scarfs are made in a similar way to those for the flat ring. Fig. 150 shows the pieces. The main difficulty with this weld is in handling the pieces. They are placed in the fire scarf side down in as nearly the same position as possible so that both will be brought to the proper temperature at the same time. The hammer is placed in a conveni- ent position on the heel of the anvil. When heated the pieces are grasped to be laid on the anvil with the scarf side of Flg- 151 the piece held with the right hand up and the one held by the left down. They are given a rap on the horn of the anvil to free them from dirt and placed as shown in Fig. 151, the 102 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL right hand piece lying on the anvil, the end coming about to the middle of the face, and the left-hand piece resting on the edge of the anvil, the scarf being directly over — r . . . p r ,- ... i 142 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL Light straw 430° F. Dark " 470° F. Brown 490° F. Brown with purple spots 510° F. Purple '~ 530° F. Light blue 550° F. Dark " 600° F. Methods of Hardening. — Articles to be hardened generally can be divided into two classes: Class one, those only dipped partly into the cooling bath, the heat in the unplunged portion flowing to the hardened or cooled portion and thereby reheating and drawing the temper; Class two, those to be dipped entirely into the cooling bath and the temper afterwards drawn by some method of reheating. The details of the methods used in each class are almost as varied as the work to be hardened. A few examples will be given which will indicate how to proceed in simple cases. CLASS ONE Chisels, punches, most lathe and planer tools, and articles requiring a hard cutting point or edge and a tough shock-resisting body, generally fall under class 1. The cold chisel will furnish a good example of this class and will be studied in detail. By any of the heating methods, generally in the forges, the piece is .a heated to the proper temperature to a point in- dicated by the line (a) (Fig. 172), about 3" from the end and is dipped to about 2" from the end as indicated by the line (6) into a cooling bath (water) till cold. The chisel should be moved slightly up and down in the bath to counteract the tendency to crack at g- 172 -the W ater line, and also back and forth or around in a circle so that the steam formed will have CARBON TOOL STEEL 143 a chance to escape and allow the bath to come into direct contact with the tool. When the part in the bath is cool, the chisel is removed and the cooled portion polished with an emery stick 1 to remove the black oxide (Fig. 173). This will allow the tem- pering colors to be seen which indicate when the temper is drawn to the desired point. This draw- ing of the temper is ac- complished by allowing the heat in the portion of the chisel back of the water line (6) (Fig. 172) to flow to the cooled por- tion, there to heat and Fig. 173 soften it. This heating will cause the tempering colors to appear; First, the light straw near the water line will appear, and as this moves toward the point the others will appear in order, — dark straw, brown, brown with purple spots, purple, light blue, and dark blue. When the purple or the light blue has reached the cutting edge of the chisel, all further drawing is stopped by plunging the chisel in the bath until it is cool. Should the chisel be cooled so much at the first dipping that there is not heat enough left to draw the temper the required amount, it can be reheated by being held over the fire. Care should be exercised not to have the tem- pering heat too high or the colors will run too fast and be too close together. In this case the chisel should be dipped again and withdrawn quickly, to take away 1 An emery stick is made by gluing emery-cloth to a stick or by covering the stick with glue and sprinkling with emery. 144 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL some of the heat and cause the balance to flow more slowly. Diamond Point (Lathe Tool). — Fig. 174 shows how a Fig. 174 diamond point tool should be dipped; and Fig. 175, how it should be polished. Most of the other lathe took should be dipped in a similar manner, and polished the same as the cold chisel on one of the faces extending back from the cutting edge. Side or Facing Tool. — Fig. 176 shows a method of dipping a side tool for a lathe, which is about the ex- Fig. 176 Fig. 177 treme of class 1. As can be seen from the figure, only a very small portion of the tool with which to draw the temper is left undipped. This tool is often dipped com- pletely and then the temper drawn by placing it on a heated block of iron (Fig. 177). CARBON TOOL STEEL 145 CLASS TWO Taps, Drills, Reamers and Similar Tools should be heated to the refining temperature, in a muffle furnace or in an iron pipe placed in the forge fire (Fig. 178), Fig. 178 and then plunged into the cooling bath and completely submerged. They must be moved around until cold to insure close contact with the bath. These tools must be dipped as nearly vertically as possible to prevent warping. Before the tem- per is drawn the scale in the grooves of the taps must be re- moved, by means of an emery stick or other means, and the surface of the drills and reamers polished so that the colors can be seen. The temper is then drawn by the tools being held in a red-hot ring (Fig. 179) or in the gas-pipe again, without allowing it to touch, or by Fie. 179 146 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL Fig. 180 its being moved around in heated sand till drawn to the proper color, which is a straw. Shank Milling Cutters if required to be hard all over are treated just as taps, but if the shank is to be left soft, they should be dipped to the dotted line (Fig. 180) and held in the bath at this point until the shank is cool. The tem- per of the cutting part is then drawn as described under Taps. End Mills are treated like the shank milling cutters except when they have deep recesses in the ends such case they should be dipped with the holes up (Fig. 181) and the tem- per drawn as in taps. If the shank is required to be soft, some special device can be used, as illustrated in Fig. 182. Here a sleeve that fits the shank loosely when cold is heated, slipped over it and held there till the shank is drawn the required amount. The cutter part should be held in water to prevent the heat running down and drawing the temper in it; care should be taken also not to get the heated sleeve too far or too tight on to the shank, as it will shrink in cool- ing and grip the tool so that it cannot be removed. T'slotters should have an iron wire (a) (Fig. 183), as this prevents cracking where Fig. 181 Fig. 182 the head joins the neck, since it delays the cooling at this point. The cooling should be done by dipping the piece all over and drawing the temper by reheating the shank as was the end mill, or it can be hardened as CARBON TOOL STEEL 147 under class 1. In any event the heat should run from .the shank to leave the neck blue and the cutting teeth a straw. Half Round Reamers are treated in the same way as other reamers except that instead of being dipped vertically they should be held at an angle (Fig. 184), the curved side down, to prevent warping. The shape of the piece will determine the angle at which the piece must be dipped. Knowledge of this angle must be gained by experience. Milling Cutters should be heated in a muffle furnace or iron tube which has a flat bottom, but if neither is to be had a hollow fire will lg * answer. They should be dipped endwise and completely submerged. If the cutter is large, it should be taken from the water before it is entirely cool and the cool- Wire /<"" Su*/oend/r>£ Fig. 184 ing should be finished in oil. Fig. ^ig. 185 185 shows a convenient way to dip cutters. The washer should not be any larger than necessary to hold the cutter, for it hinders the cooling where it touches the cutter. The temper is drawn by heating a round bar that is slightly smaller than the hole in the cutter, slipping the previously polished cutter on to the bar and revolving it slowly till it is drawn to the proper color at the teeth, usually a straw or brown. 148 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL Fig. 186 Hammer. — A hammer should be hard on the face and pene, and tough through the eye portion. The eye can be kept soft by packing it in clay or wrapping it in asbestos yarn to pre- vent its heating to a hardening tem- perature. The author's method is to heat the hammer uniformly all over to the hardening heat, and in place of dipping the whole hammer the pene is held half submerged in a cup of water, while a stream of cold water plays on the face till the whole hammer is cold (Fig. 186). This will leave the ham- mer in ideal condition, for there is no drawing of temper to be done and before heating there is no bother in covering the parts required to be soft. There should be something in the bottom 6f the cup for the pene to rest on so that the center of the ball will be flush with the edge of the cup. A hammer can be hardened by dipping it all over, and the temper drawn at the eye by placing in the eye a hot iron the shape of the eye. This method is used when the colors are desired for show. Thread Cutting Dies. — Rec- tangular dies made in halves should be heated in a muffle and The temper is drawn, after Fig. 187 Fig. 188 hardened in water or oil polishing (Fig. 187). Spring Dies are tempered as shown by (Fig. 188) CARBON TOOL STEEL 149 Fig. 189 Solid, Round, or Square Dies are hardened in the same way as other dies. The temper can be drawn best by- placing the die in a heated iron frame (Fig. 189); this will allow the heat to flow equally from the periphery of the die toward the center, till the proper color is reached at the cutting teeth. Care must be taken that the frame is large enough to fit the dies loosely when cool so that it will not contract and grip the die as it cools. Counter Bores (Fig. 190) having a deep center hole as at (a) and other articles having holes that do not need to be hardened 1 are heated for hardening and tempering after filling the holes with clay. The counterbore should be heated to the lowest heat that will cause it to harden and then it should be dipped into lukewarm water. The temper can be drawn from the shank as in class 1. Ring Gages. — If they can be hardened all over and ground to size and shape 1 the pieces can be dipped in water with the hole directly over or under a faucet so that a stream of water can be forced through the hole and the temper drawn by mov- ing it in heated sand. If the hole lg ' ' only requires hardening, Fig. 191, taken from "The American Steel Worker," shows clearly a most excellent 1 Round pieces have a tendency to become elliptical. Fig. 190 150 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL method. Here a stream of water is forced through the hole in the gage, cooling and hardening the sides. The gage is protected from the effects of the water at all other parts by the surrounding block and washer; which protected parts cool slowly and remain soft. The bulk of the gage, remaining soft, allows the hole to remain true in size and shape. Pieces with Holes near One Edge should be dipped slowly and have the hole enter the cooling bath last. Press Dies or Drop Forge Dies that require the working face to be very hard and the bulk of the block tough to resist shocks should be dipped in water at about 60° F., for a minute or so, and then raised and played upon by a stream of water that will cover the face of the die, until the block is cool. To remove all internal strains it is well to reheat the die in hot water after it is hard- ened. Tempering in Oil. — When it is not necessary to show the temper color, articles can be tempered very quickly by dipping them in oil maintained at the required tempering temperature, secured by regulating the fire so that a thermometer placed in the oil will stand at the temperature which will produce the temper desired, say 630° F. if we wish to have the piece tough. The piece is dipped into the oil and held there till it is the same tem- perature as the bath, when it is withdrawn and cooled in water. !N"umerous small articles can be placed in a wire basket and together heated in the oil and then cooled. Thin Articles, like knife blades and slitting saws, that are likely to warp in hardening, are cooled between two heavy blocks of iron. The pieces should be heated by being laid on a hot plate or on the bottom of a muffle. When heated the pieces are placed on one of the blocks which has been previously treated with lard, raw linseed CARBON TOOL STEEL 151 oil, or tallow, and the other plate similarly treated is placed on top as quickly as possible and left until the pieces are cold. Saws should be picked up by the center hole to avoid spoiling the teeth. Special tongs can be made for this purpose. Springs are first hardened by being plunged into oil or tallow and then the temper is drawn. The most common method of drawing the temper is to burn off the oil that adheres to the spring and then to dip it into water to stop further drawing. In large work it may be necessary to burn oil on it two or three times. This process is known as flashing. With springs of unequal section the temper is drawn in oil heated to 560° to 630° F. Care must be taken to prevent the oil from catching fire. Small springs are sometimes covered with charcoal dust and the temper is drawn by burning off this dust. Pack-Hardening. — ■ By this method articles can be given an extremely hard surface when dipped in oil, with little change in shape and but slight danger of cracking. The method is to pack the articles to be hardened into a mixture of granulated charcoal and charred leather (the use of bone is not advisable on account of the phosphorus it contains) , into boxes in a manner similar to that in pack- ing for pack-annealing, heat the box and contents to the refining temperature, and plunge the heated pieces into oil to cool. When the pieces have reached the proper temperature it can be told by wires as described before. Case-Hardening. — The surface of wrought iron or mild steel can be made exceedingly hard while the in- terior retains all the strength and toughness of the original piece. This process of making the outside or skin of wrought iron or mild steel into a hardened form of steel is called case-hardening. It can be done in two ways — by dipping in melted potassium ferrocyanide, or by packing in charcoal or bone.- 152 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL Potassium Ferrocyanide Method. — This method is used when rapid work is required. It does not produce as deep a coating of steel as the other method, but is convenient and rapid. If much work is to be done the potassium ferrocyanide is melted in an iron pot; the iron is heated to a red, dipped into the melted cyanide, heated again to the refining temperature, and plunged into water. When but one or two pieces are to be hardened, the iron is heated to a bright red, and pow- dered potassium ferrocyanide is sprinkled on the parts to be hardened. The heat in the iron- will cause the cyanide to melt and cover all parts of the piece where hardening is desired. The piece is then reheated to the refining temperature and is dipped into water. Packing in Charcoal Method. — The pieces to be hardened are packed into an iron box with an equal mixture, by measurement, of granulated wood charcoal and raw bone. The packing is done as described under pack-annealing. Test wires should be used to tell when the pieces are raised to the proper heat (a good red) to absorb the carbon, and the time should be counted from 'that point. The time the box should be left in the furnace depends upon the material and the size of the work. Pieces \" thick should stay about 2 hours. Fair-sized work requiring a hard but not very deep coating can be left 5 hours. As a rule a coating about \" deep can be obtained in from 15 to 18 hours. When the pieces have been heated the set length of time, the box is withdrawn from the fire and the pieces plunged into water as quickly as possible. The pieces can be colored by being allowed to fall from the box into the water, a distance of 12 to 16 inches. Straightening Bent Tools. — Sometimes tools will warp in hardening. They can be straightened by placing the pieces between the centers of a lathe with the bowed CARBON TOOL STEEL 153 side towards the tool-post. A piece of iron should be placed in the post so that it will bear on the tool when the transverse feed is moved forward (Fig. 192). The tool is covered with oil and heated with a flame from a Bunsen burner with a wing top, till the oil begins to smoke; then pressure is applied to the tool with the transverse feed until the lg ' tool is bent slightly in the other direction, then removed and cooled. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW How does machinery and tool steel differ from wrought iron? What are the two principal classes of steel? How do they differ when dipped into water at a high heat? What is meant by temper? What is the principal hardening element in tool steel? What is meant by point? Why is heating one of the most important parts of the hardener's duties? What must be looked out for in heating tool steel? Why does charcoal make a good fuel? Why is a muffle furnace best for heating tool steel? Why is an open forge good for heating tool steel when it is afterwards to be turned in a lathe? Why must tool steel be heated uniformly? Name the principal heating baths. Why must they be pure? What effect has sulphur on the steel? What are the disadvantages of the lead baths? The cyanide? What are the advantages of each? Why should the baths be heated so that the fumes cannot enter the room? Describe a furnace used for a cyanide bath. How is the gas torch used for heating small pieces? Where should they be located and how? Why is their location important in obtaining uniform results? What effect has heating on the grain of tool steel? When steel is being hardened why should the lowest possi- ble heat be used? What causes the temperature to vary? What is the decalescence point? What takes place in steel heated above or below this point? Give a method for determining the proper temperature at which to harden a piece of steel. What is drawing temper? Give rules for heating. Why should steel be dipped on a rising temperature and never on a falling temperature? What is reheating? Why is it used? What is annealing? How 154 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL many ways are there of annealing? Describe each. Give the rules for annealing. Make a diagram showing the effects on the size of grain and the kind of carbon produced by heating steel to different temperatures and slowly and rapidly cooling from these different temperatures. What are hardening baths? Name some. What is the advantage of their use? How are they used? With what class of work are they used? What advantage is oil on the surface of the water in a hardening bath? Why is flowing water sometimes used? What are tempering colors? How are they produced? What do they indicate? How many classes of harden- ing? Where does the heat for drawing temper come from in each case? Describe tempering in oil. What advantage? How are springs tempered? What is pack-hardening? What is case-hard- ening? How many methods? How do we case-harden with ferro-potassium cyanide? How is case-hardening done by packing in charcoal? How is bent work straightened? CHAPTER XIII HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEEL Carbon and Self-hardening or Air-hardening Steels. — The difference between ordinary carbon steel and self- or air-hardening steel is as follows: Tools made from the former first are hardened by being heated to redness and then suddenly plunged into water, and then tempered by some method of reheating to the desired tempering point and cooled again; whereas, self- or air-hardening steels acquire a definite degree of hardness whether cooled rapidly or slowly. Hence, tools made from this steel need only to be forged to shape, the temper being obtained by simply allowing them to cool in the air. The property of self-hardening makes tools that are made of this steel able to stand high temperatures while cutting without reducing the hardness of the tool. High-speed Steel. — It has been discovered recently that steels containing chromium and tungsten, known as High Speed steels, when rapidly heated to a white heat and then cooled steadily in a current of air, have their endurance increased wonderfully. These steels are capable of taking such heavy cuts and at such rapid speed that the tool will actually be- come red-hot. Herein is the distinction between carbon steel and the high-speed or self-hardening kinds. Tools made from the former, if so heated by working, would become soft and useless by having their cutting edge rapidly worn away, while the high-speed tools similarly heated are unharmed. 156 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL High-speed steel when annealed by certain perfected processes can be machined easily so that it can be utilized to make cutters and similar tools. The greatest ad- vantage, however, possessed by this steel over the carbon steel is that there is very little danger of loss in the hardening bath, where so many costly tools are ruined, for it is only necessary to reheat such a steel and cool it in an air blast to cause it to regain the hardness it possessed before annealing. The Working of High-Speed Tool Steel. 1 — The for- ging of a high-speed tool should be done at a good yellow heat, 1850° F., and should never be done below a bright red. It is better to reheat the tool several times than to work it below a bright red in one heat. After forging, the point of the tool should be cooled in lime or ashes. The tool should not be plunged directly into the hot fire but should be heated gradually. When the tool is hardened, the nose of the tool is heated slowly, in a muffle, to 1650° F., or to a bright red and then rapidly to 2000° F., or to a white heat. After this the tool is cooled in an air blast, or, if intended for the cutting of soft materials, it may be cooled slowly by being set in a dry place. Then the tool, after grinding, will be ready for use. Annealing. — To anneal the steel it is heated in a muffle to a temperature of from about 1300° to 1500° F. and kept in the muffle at this temperature for two hours; then it is slowly cooled in ashes. Grinding. — The way in which tools are ground is of considerable importance, for if not properly followed it may injure the tool permanently by causing it to crack, etc. The best and soundest steels are often ruined in this way: 1 Most high-speed steels require special methods of treatment that are best obtained from the manufacturer. HIGH-SPEED TOOL STEEL 157 High-speed steels should be ground on a well-selected wet sand stone and the pressure should be produced by hand. If tools must be ground on an emery-wheel it is best to grind them roughly to shape before hardening. When this is done they will require very little grinding after hardening, which can be done with slight frictional heating so that the temper will not be drawn in any way, or the cutting efficiency impaired. When grinding tools on a wet emery-wheel, if much pressure is applied, the heat generated by friction will heat the tool to such a degree that the water playing on the steel will cause it to crack. Hardening and Tempering Specially Formed Tools. — When such tools as milling cutters, taps, screw-cutting dies, reamers, and other tools which do not permit of being ground to shape after hardening, are made from high-speed steel, they must be hardened and tempered, as follows : They should be heated in a specially arranged muffle furnace which consists of two chambers lined with fire-clay. The furnace should be gas, or oil-fired and so constructed that the gas and air enter through a series of burners at the back to produce a temperature of 2200° F. that may be steadily maintained in the lower chamber, while the upper chamber can be kept at a much lower temperature. The operation is as follows: The tools are first placed upon the top of the furnace until they become warmed through, placed into the upper chamber and uniformly heated to a temperature of 1500° F. (a bright red heat), and then placed into the lower chambers, where they remain until heated to 2200° F., or till the cutting edges show a bright yellow heat, at which temperature the surface appears glazed or greasy. The cutters, while the edges are still sharp and uninjured, are withdrawn and revolved in an air blast until the red has disap- 158 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL peared. When the cutter has cooled to the point that will just permit it to be handled, it should be plunged into tallow heated to 200° F. The temperature of the tallow is then raised to 520° F., when the cutter is removed and plunged into cold oil. If the cutter is large, it can be allowed to cool to the normal tempera- ture in the tallow. If an air blast is not available, small cutters may be hardened by being plunged into oil from the yellow heat. Another very good method of tempering is by means of a specially arranged gas and air stove. The articles to be tempered are placed in the stove and heated to a temperature of 500 to 600° F. Then the, gas is shut off and the furnace and contents allowed to cool slowly. It is highly important that the initial heating be done slowly and thoroughly or the pieces are likely to be spoiled by warping or cracking due to unequal expansion. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW What is carbon steel? What is air hardening steel? What is high speed steel? Tell how each differs. Tell how to harden and temper tools made from high speed steel. Describe the working of high speed steel in the forge fire. Describe the annealing of high speed steel. Describe the grinding of high speed steel. CHAPTER XIV ART IRON-WORK Ornamental or art iron-work is so varied that it is impossible in a short chapter to take up more than a ■Sauce -/o an StoAe Htrntess Sinj'e Horned £)ooo% ffo>ned Fig. 193 few of the fundamentals. Therefore, only the more commonly recurring details will be described. Tools. — The tools used in art iron-work include all of the forge-shop tools, various small anvils, stakes and 160 FORGING OF IRON AND STEEL hammers (Fig. 193), small hand and tail vises (Fig. 194), flat and round nose pliers (Fig. 195), a large assortment of chisels (Fig. 196), and chasing or repousse tools (Fig. Fig. 194 197). The shop Fie. 195 should be supplied with files of all sizes and shapes ; such as flat, triangular, square, round, knife, half round, and entering or cross files (elliptical). Taps, dies, reamers, drills, and broaches are also much used. OPERATIONS All of the regular forging operations lend themselves to art smithing; such as flattening, upsetting, drawing out, and welding. The fuller and especially the swage find much application, while bending and welding are the principal parts of the work. Embossing, or punching, out bosses (rounded bumps), is done in two ways. The metal is driven out with swages while hot or on thin work while cold, by resting it on wood or lead and using the pene of the hammer. Large bosses or saucer-shaped projections are hammered out cold, in wood, lead, or pitch when the metal is thin, and when thick the metal is heated and the work done on the swage-block. This is accomplished with the pene of the hammer, by starting at the center and working toward the outside to stretch the metal and force it into the depression. By moving and turning the work, the desired shape can be made. ART IRON WORK 161 i«taam Hfl /n length. Five inches of this §" square portion is then to be cut off on the hardie and both ends trued. The finished piece (Fig. 1 A) must be smooth, true to size, square in section and straight. Operation. Is fully covered in Chapter V, page 62. Example 2. Upsetting. — Stock, Norway iron \" x ¥ X 5" long. Explanation. The piece is to be upset to 3" in length. The finished exercise (Fig. 2 A) must be sound, square, uniform in section, straight and smooth. Determine by calculation the length of the sides x. Operation. Is fully covered in Chapter V, page 64. 184 APPENDIX •8 A □3 c4 L_] A COURSE OF EXERCISES 185 Caution. Have the stock at a white or welding heat. Do not work it after it has cooled below a bright red. Strike squarely on the stock and have it rest squarely on the anvil. Hold tightly in a pair of tongs that fit the piece. If the piece bends, straighten it at once. (Further blows will not upset but will cause it to bend more.) If the ends upset more rapidly than the middle, cool them slightly by rapidly placing first one end in water and then the other. If this is not done rapidly the body of the stock will be cooled. Fig. 2 B shows method of cooling. Example 3. Drawing out to Various Sections. — Stock, Norway Iron \" round, 6" long. Explanation. The round section is to be drawn down to a square, the square to an octagon, and the octagon to a round point. The completed exercises must agree with Fig. 3 A. Operation. True one end so it will be at right angles with the length of the stock, and make a light center punch mark 2" from this end. Holding the trued end in the tongs bring the punch mark over the round edge of the anvil and strike one blow. (Fig. 3 B) . Make a quarter turn and repeat the blow. Continue turning and striking until four fuller marks are made. (Fig. 3 B). From these marks draw the stock down to f" square. Lay off 4" from the trued end and mark the four corners as just described for the sides and produce the octagon by hammering down the corners. Again lay off 6" from the trued end and draw out the point, first to a square (Fig. 3 C) and then to a round (Fig. 3D). If there is excess length, cut off as shown in Fig. 3 E. Example 4. Bending. — Stock, Norway Iron f " round, 11" long. Explanation. Each end of the stock is to be bent so that the piece will form the figure "8" shown in Fig. 186 APPENDIX 4 A. The finished exercise must be smooth, true to dimensions, and lie flat. Operation. True both ends as described for upsetting long pieces, page 65. Lightly center punch at the exact center. - Bend the end as de- scribed, page 71. Caution. As there is little opportunity to smooth the work by hammering, the stock must not be heated hot enough to scale at any time. Never strike the stock directly over the anvil as that will flatten the stock and have no bending effect. Example 5. Bending to Circle. — Stock, Mild Steel f " diameter, 7§" long. Explanation. The piece is to be bent to a circle. The finished piece (Fig. 5 A) must be free from hammer Vino marks, a true circle and lie flat, and the ends must be parallel where they meet. Operation. Bevel the ends as shown at Fig. 5 B and bend as directed on page 71. Example 6. Gate Hook. — (Twisting.) Stock, Mild Steel |" diameter, 4f" long. * •"■ Explanation. The finished piece must be smooth and agree with the form and dimensions shown in Fig. 6 A. Operation. Draw down each end of the stock as shown- in Fig. 6 B and bend as described on page 72. Caution. In making the bends be careful not to strike the iron directly over the anvil. After the stock has been fastened in the vise for twisting, the work must A COURSE OF EXERCISES 187 be done rapidly, for the vise absorbs heat from the stock near it which will cause the twist to be uneven. Keep the stock as straight as possible while twisting. Example 7. Staple. — Stock, Mild Steel f " diameter, 3f" long. Explanation. The finished piece is to be a well-shaped staple true to the dimensions (Fig. 7 A). The points must be even and " in wind." Operation. Shape the points, and then bend as ex- plained on page 69. Caution. Care must be used in heating the stock so as not to burn it, as small stock heats very rapidly. Example 8. Flat Bend and Punching. — Stock, Mild Steel §" X 1 X 6". Explanation. The stock is to be bent to a right angle and holes for screws punched and counter punched. The piece must be smoothly finished, the legs at right angles and of correct length and all holes true to dimensions (Fig. 8 A). Operation. The piece is bent as explained on pages 68 and 69 and the holes punched as shown on page 79. 7/F. 188 APPENDIX Explanation. La u\ j£n J), hole. Vl£-+A 8# Example 9. Fuller Piece. — (Forging for tap wrench.) Stock, Norway Iron \" x 1" X 4". The stock is to be fullered with top and bottom fullers, the por- tion between the fuller marks to have the cor- ners rounded, and the arms (a and h) drawn out to a round section and to the dimensions given in Fig. 9 A. Operation. The fullering is explained on page 84 and the drawing out on page 62. Example 10. Door Pull. — (Fuller and set hammer piece.) Stock, Norway Iron |" x 1" X 5". Explanation. The stock is fullered 1" from each end and the part in between drawn down to a round section, Q> the ends shaped, holes punched for screws and the center part bent to proper shape. The piece must be true to dimensions (Fig. 10 A) and filed to a blue. Operation. The fullering is done with a top and bottom fuller as explained on page 84. The ends are set down with the set-hammer as explained on page 87 and given the pear shape with the hand- hammer. A COURSE OF EXERCISES 189 Filing to a Blue. Heat the piece to a dull red and rapidly file it all over until the blue (oxide) color appears. Then cool in water. >|We., /o/i Example 11. Hammock Hook. — Stock, Norway Iron A" X 1" X 21". Explanation. A strong well-shaped hook is to be made having a smooth finish and true to dimensions (Fig. 11 A). Operations. The piece is fullered at the middle with top and bottom fuller (page 84) and one end drawn out to |" round (page 63). The other end is set down and spread out with the set-hammer as explained on page 87. To form the ball, place on the anvil so that 190 APPENDIX the stem projects about f" and with a set-hammer, set down as shown in Fig. 11 B, to the shape shown in Fig. 11 C. The ball is then made as shown in Fig. 11 D and 11 E. The holes punched and the piece bent to shape. Example 12. Split Piece. — Stock, Norway Iron \" X 1" X 3". Explanation. to form a fork /Z/t The stock is to be split and opened out The taper must be uniform, the piece smoothly finished and true to dimensions (Fig. 12 A). Operation. The stock should be laid out and fullered (page 84) as shown in Fig. 12 B and split as explained on page 77 and the parts drawn out (page 62). The exercise admits of wide variation in design. Such articles as hooks, oar- locks for boats, and spurs are suggested. The number and length of the tines can be increased and a pitch fork or rake be made. Example 13. Weldless Ring. — Stock, Norway Iron Y x l" x 3". Explanation. The stock is to be split and opened to form a ring, true to dimensions (Fig. 13 A), smooth and free from cracks. Operation. Upset the ends so they will be wider but no thicker than the original stock (Fig. 13 B) and round the ends as shown by dotted lines. If the piece is held on the horn of the anvil near the point while the ends are being rounded the piece will be fullered at the middle as shown in 13 C and should leave the piece about the correct size, but if it is still too wide through the A COURSE OF EXERCISES 191 center, fuller with a f" top and bottom fuller to dimen- sions in Fig. 13 C. Punch holes (a) and split as shown /3D /3£ JUv a in Fig. 13 C. See page 77. Open by driving a punch through the split. Place on the horn and bring to the circular shape as shown in Fig. 13 D and 13 E. Example 14. Edge Bend. — Stock, ¥ x 1" X 6|" Norway Iron. Explanation. The stock is to be bent edgewise to a right angle with a sharp cor- ner on the outer side, which is the essential feature of the exercise. The finished piece must not have any cracks in the corner and must be true to dimensions. Fig. 14 A. Operations. All steps are fully explained on pages 72 and 73. Example 15. Grab Hook. — Stock, (O Nh /4 R Norway Iron 8 * 192 APPENDIX Explanation. Stock to be finished to form hook with punched eye. It must be smoothly finished and agree with the dimensions in Fig. 15 A. CS Sj> f'H Operation. Upset one end to f" square (Fig. 15 B). Flatten this upset portion to §" thick (Fig. 15 C) and round end as indicated by the dotted lines, punch \" hole for eye (Fig. 15 C). Complete eye by hammering stock A COURSE OF EXERCISES 193 around the hole to a circular section over the horn (Fig. 15 D), swinging the stock backward and forward and up and down as shown by arrows in Fig. 15 D. Draw out the other end to a blunt point as indicated by the dotted lines (Fig. 15 C). Bend the eye and point back (Fig. 15 E). Bend to the required hook shape. If the sharp edges become flattened in bending they can be brought back to shape on the horn. Example 16. Nail. — Stock, Norway Iron f " round, about H" or 2" long. Explanation. This exercise is to give practice in the use (0 /6 B /6/7 /6C of the heading tool. To get the stem and head concen- tric make to form shown in Fig. 16 A. Operation. Draw out about 1\" of the stock with set-hammer as shown in Fig. 16 B to the form shown in Fig. 16 C and round so it will just pass into the heading tool. Then make head following the directions given on page 88. Note. The point should be made before the head is formed. Example 17. Hexagon Head Bolt. — Stock, Mild Steel ¥ round, 6j" long. Explanation. The finished piece shown by Fig. 17 A must be to size and dimensions, the stem must be 194 APPENDIX straight and at right angles to the head and concentric with it. If the proper amount of stock is not secured in the head, the proper thickness should be maintained at the expense of the other dimensions. /in Operation. Follow the directions on page 88 to make the head and on pages 88 and 89 for shaping it. Example 18. Square Nut. — Stock, Norway Iron f " xl". Explanation. The square nut shown by Fig. 18 A is to be made. In case there is too much stock, obtain the proper thickness at the expense of the other dimen- sions. Adjacent sides must be at right angles to each other and at right angles to the faces. Operation. Punch §" hole in the exact center of the piece. Place on mandrel (Fig. 18 B) and with heavy blows bring to size and shape. To true the faces hold in narrow tongs (Fig. 18 C). Example 19. Hexagonal Nut. — Stock, Norway Iron f" X 1" any convenient length. A COURSE OF EXERCISES 195 Explanation. The nut is to be finished to size and shape shown in Fig. 19 A. Faces to be at right angles to the sides, and the sides to form a perfect hexagon. Operation. Cut the stock as shown by Fig. 19 B, bend as shown by Fig. 19 C while quite hot, and strike a heavy blow to produce the form shown by Fig. 19 D. Bend as shown by Fig. 19 E and strike to produce the form Fig. 19 F. Punch and break from stock and finish on mandrel. Example 20. Ice Tongs. — Stock, Norway Iron f " x §" x 14" (2 pieces). Explanation. The stock is to be drawn with sledge (or power hammer) to approxi- mately the size shown in Fig. 20 B and finished to exact size with hammer, flatter and swage. The handle and blade should be bent to shape, the hole punched and the parts riveted together to form a well-shaped strong pair of ice tongs. Operation. Draw out enough of one end to r V diameter which will stretch to lOf" long. Draw out the balance of the B and smooth with flatter. Smooth with swage- stock to dimensions in 20 Bend handle as shown 196 APPENDIX in 20 C, shape blades, punch eye and rivet and case- harden the points. Example 21. Welding. — Stock, Norway Iron f" X 1" x 24" long. Explanation. The stock is folded to make three thicknesses and welded to a solid piece and brought n n Z03 down to f" square section. To test the weld Fig. 21 A is made after cutting off the imperfect ends. (The rest of the bar can be used for Example 26.) Operation. Lay off as shown in 21 B, fold as in 21 C, and weld. Bring down to f" square section. Cut off imperfect ends, fuller with top and bottom fullers \\" from end and draw down to §" square. (See 21 A.) A COURSE OF EXERCISES 197 Lay off center portion 1§" and fuller all around the stock. Draw down to \" round and then form hexagon. Cut off excess stock so as to have the piece the correct length. « P D *- /£ — t- >:-4 CfJ Q3 Ztf? ax: Z//3 ^ 7£ £ %i c Example 22. Chain Link. — Stock, Norway Iron f" diameter, 6§" long. Explanation. Three links of a chain are to be made for Example 22 but before handing in for credit the three exercises following are made and joined to them by additional links. Operation. Fully explained on page 95. •OQQ c •OCO 4 Example 23. Ring. — Stock, Norway Iron f " diameter, W long. Explanation. A ring is to be made, trued up and joined to Example 22 with an additional link of dimen- sions of 22 A. 198 APPENDIX Operation. Proceed exactly as when working the link. After welding make as nearly circular as possible on the horn of the anvil and true on the large mandrel. Join to Example 22 with additional link. Z4-B Z4-R 2*C Afanc/re/ C-* 6 \ Hnvil \ \ Anvil \ d 2+D 14? Z4G Example 24. Swivel. — Stock, Norway Iron f" x f" x 3|" and f" round 5" long. Explanation. A swivel is to be made (Fig. 24 A) and added to the Example 22 with an additional link. A COURSE OF EXERCISES 199 Operation. Center punch at the exact center of the stock and fuller on one side f" deep and so the part remaining between the fuller marks will measure a full f" square (Fig. 24 B). With top and bottom fullers, fuller yV' deep on the adjacent sides, the same distance from the center. Draw out the ends to f" round. Drill hole (a) (Fig. 24 C). Heat white hot and place on special mandrel (Fig. 24 D), and bend the rounded parts r\ <£ Z5R a BZ7£ ZS3 >«5* *J- (a) as indicated by the dotted lines, and round the portion (b) by hammering the corners. Smooth faces (c) and (d) with a file. To Make the Eye. Place the f" round stock in a swage and hammer each end to half round until drawn out 1§". (Fig. 24 E). Bend as shown by Fig. 24 F. Take welding heat on part (a) (Fig. 24 F) and weld, striking close to the eye first. Draw to f" round. Cut 200 APPENDIX off end (a) so that about \" will project through the swivel and rivet. When riveting hold the eye in the vise. Turn the swivel to keep it from being riveted too /"-> tightly. Cut off the ends (a) (Fig. 24 D), so they will measure 3^" from face (d) and scarf and weld like a chain link. Join to chain with an additional link. Example 25. Hook (Welded Eye). — Stock, Norway Iron \" diameter, 9|" long. Z1R Explanation. A hook (Fig. 25 A) with a welded eye is to be made and joined to the swivel with a chain link. A COURSE OF EXERCISES 201 -g- 4 V Operation. Draw down one end to T V round and 4f" long. Draw out the other end to a blunt point (Fig. 25 B). Scarf the T V" end (Fig. 25 C). Bend the stock at (a) (Fig. 25 B) and form eye as explained on page 71. Take a welding heat where the end joins the stem, care being taken not to burn the eye or stem, and weld. Shape the hook to form Fig. 25 A and join to the swivel with link. Example 26. Collar. — Norway Iron, f" X 1" X 10". Explanation. The stock is to be welded to form a collar of dimensions given in Fig. 26 A. Operation. Is fully explained on page 97. Example 27. Washer. — Stock, Nor- way Iron f" x 1" X 10". Explanation. The stock is to be made into a washer with perfect weld, dimensions given in Fig. 27 A. Operation. Is fully explained on page 98. Example 28. Bolt (Welded Head). — Stock, Norway Iron, Y diameter, 5" long; and \" round, any con- venient length. Explanation. A bolt (Fig. 28 A) is to be made by welding a head to the stem. Operation. Is fully explained on page 99. Example 29. Two Piece Weld. — Stock, Norway Iron 2 pieces \" diameter, 6" long. Explanation. The two pieces are to be scarfed and welded so as to form a single straight piece of uniform section throughout. Operation of welding is fully explained on page 101. The piece should be finished in the swage. ZQR 202 APPENDIX Example 30. Angle Weld. — Stock, Norway Iron one piece ¥ X 1" X 31*, one piece \" xl"x 4f". Explanation. This ex- ercise gives practice in welding two pieces at right angles to each other. The weld must be sound and must agree with Fig. 30 A. Operation of welding is fully explained on page 103. Finish all over with flatter. Example 31. Tee-Weld. — Stock, Norway Iron, one piece |" x 1" X 5" and one f" x 1" X 4". Explanation. This exercise while similar to Ex. 30 is more difficult to weld. The finished Tee should agree with Fig. 31 A, in form and dimensions. Operation is explained on page 104. Example 32. Blacksmith's Tongs. — Stock, Mild Steel two pieces f" x f" X 13". Explanation. Each piece is to be finished to dimen- sions (Fig. 32 A) and these , r "" ' J-+-1 > \ -A ^ ■< 3o n X % N / 3 pieces riveted together to form a pair of tongs. Operation. Upset one end (Fig. 32 B) and fuller (Fig. 32 C). Draw out jaw with sledge (Fig. 32 D). This will leave the piece as shown by Fig. 32 E. Fuller again as shown by 32 F, and the dotted lines (Fig. 32 E). Draw out the handle, with sledge (or power hammer), (Fig. 32 G) to shape shown by Fig 32 H. Punch hole for f" rivet as shown at (b) zm A COURSE OF EXERCISES 203 (Fig. 32 H). Fuller as shown at (a) (Fig. 32 H). Finish by drawing the handle to dimensions in Fig. 32 A and rivet the two pieces together. / It 313 ill I* 71-r l*'««fr« 3ZD i^3B { 32 C 1 3ZE \ SI edge Example 33. Center Punch. — Stock, Octagon Tool Steel |" x 3|". 204 APPENDIX Operation. Shape end (6) (Fig. 33 A) to dimensions first, then end (a) grind to a point and harden and temper, 1 as explained on page 142. Caution. In working tool steel great care must be observed not to get it too hot or to hammer it too cold (See directions in Chapter XII). "itS! *! f»)(D 33/? Example 34. Cold Chisel. — Stock, Octagon Tool Steel f" x 6". Operation. Shape head end as shown in Fig. 34 A. Lay off 2j" from the other end and shape the blade to dimensions (Fig. 34 A). In drawing the blade, lay the stock so that one of its faces will lie flat on the anvil and strike fairly on the upper face. Turn the work occasionally while drawing to keep it straight.- Harden and temper as described on page 142. 3+R Example 35. Cape Chisel. — Stock, Octagon Tool Steel f" x 6'. Operation. Shape end (b) to dimensions (Fig. 35 A). Lay off 1\" from the other end and shape the blade. 1 For proper temperature or color to draw temper to, see Appendix, Table I. A COURSE OF EXERCISES 205 In forming the blade fuller to the lines (a-a) Fig. 35 B. Care must be taken to have the notches the same depth, "0 -J?V and width, and exactly opposite each other, and not as shown in Fig. 35 C. The sides are now drawn out by 206 APPENDIX using a hand-hammer, flatter or sledge. Harden and temper like the cold-chisel. 37*2 Example 36. Round Nose Tool. — Stock, Tool Steel V X 1" X 5". Operation. Hold the stock over the anvil as shown at 36 B, f" from one end and sledge as indicated by the arrow to the shape shown by the dotted lines. Hold over the edge of the anvil (Fig. 36 C) maAe fo^e of A>o/ ///ce ihte /il 36B b and hit as indicated by the arrow to the position shown by the dotted lines. Taper the sides to the di- A COURSE OF EXERCISES 207 mensions shown in Fig. 36 A and harden and temper as explained on page 143. Example 37. Thread Tool. — Stock, Tool Steel tf x 1" x 6". Operation. Same steps as above for Round Nose Tool, but shape to the dimensions of Fig. 37 A. Harden and temper as for round nose. Example 38. Boring Tool. — Stock, Tool Steel ¥ x 1" X 5". Operation Fuller one edge about half through the stock (Fig. 38 B). Draw out end as shown by dotted lines. Bend cutting end and finish to dimensions (Fig. 38 A). Harden and temper as tools above. Note. For some work larger or smaller necks will be needed so it is well to forge tools to different dimensions. Example 39. Diamond Point. — Stock, Tool Steel ¥ X 1" X 6". Operation. Fuller about f" deep, Y from one end (Fig. 39 B). Sledge to shape shown by Fig. 39 A, 208 APPENDIX holding as indicated by Fig. 39 C. Harden and temper as directed on page 144. Example 40. Parting Tool. — Stock, Tool Steel \" x 1" x 6". Operation. Fuller half through on one side §" from one end (Fig. 40 B). Draw out to dimensions shown by Fig. 40 A as indicated by Fig. 40 C. Harden and temper like diamond point. I'M mo, Railroad Economics. (Science Series No. 59.) . . . .i5mo, Wrought Iron Bridge Members. (Science Series No. 60.) i6mo, Robson, J. 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