n H Class ^^ Book * 7g GopightN COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. A SYLLABUS OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION BY WILLIAM J. TAYLOR, Ph.D. BROOKLYN TRAINING SCHOOL FOR TEACHERS FORMERLY LECTURER ON THE HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION IN YALE UNIVERSITY >&& BOSTON, U.S.A. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 1909 V /\ J Copyright, 1909, By D. C. Heath & Co. ©&f a ' 5 - >}<^ SEP 24 J011 1909 PREFACE The present volume is the outgrowth of several years' experience in the use of the syllabus method in teaching the history of education. The syllabi were originally prepared in a somewhat elaborate form for use in graduate classes at Yale University. The teaching method used in the course at Yale combined extensive library reading with lectures. Subsequently the syllabi were revised and to some degree abridged for my classes in the Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, where they have been of service in directing and organizing the students' reading. They are now published in the belief that they will fill a wider field of usefulness in normal school and college classes. The student of the history of education is confronted by two serious obstacles. First, there is the difficulty of amass- ing and retaining a foundation of fact sufficient to support the broad generalizations that are needful if a course in the subject is to fulfill its function of emancipating the peda- gogical mind from petty prejudices and schoolroom idols. Second, there is the difficulty of organizing the facts, when once they are acquired, into a useful system of applicable knowledge. No one knows the extent of these difficulties until he has had the responsible office of guiding untraveled footsteps through the labyrinth constituting the history of education, within the time-limits imposed by the average normal school course. Yet unless a full array of facts is presented and adequately organized, such a course does not measure up to its educational possibilities. iv PREFACE It is as an adjunct to reading and an aid to logical organi- zation that this syllabus will prove most useful. In order to encourage as wide a range of reading as possible, page references to the most accessible text-books and reference books have been cited. The thought is that where a teacher prefers the text-book method, and relies on only one book, references to his favorite text will be found. But in case the teacher refers to several books, — the better method, in the author's judgment, — a sufficient number of references will be available to meet his needs. W. J. T. June 29, 1909. CONTENTS PART ONE. ORIENTAL EDUCATION PAGE iVegypt 3 II. China 4 III. India 4 IV. Judea 5 " V. Persia 5 PART TWO. GRiECO-ROMAN EDUCATION Greek Education I. Introductory Points 9 II. Primitp7e Education 9 III. Old Greek Education . io 1. The Spartan System io 2. The Old Athenian System " IV. New Greek Education (at Athens) 13 V. Greek Educational Theorists 14 1. Pythagoras *4 2. Socrates J 4 3. Xenophon J 5 4. Plato l6 5. Aristotle J 7 VI. Cosmopolitan Greek Education 19 VII, Aspects of Greek Culture having an Indirect Influ- ence upon Education 19 Roman Education I. Introductory Points 2I II. Primitive Education at Rome 23 v vi * CONTENTS PAGE III. Early Organization of Education under Greek Influ- ence 23 IV. Period of the Complete Dominance of Greek Influ- ence 24 V. The Decadent Period 25 VI. Educational Theorists 26 1. Cicero 26 2. Seneca 26 3. Quintilian 27 PART THREE. MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION I. Culture and the Early Church 31 II. The Monastic Type of Education 32 III. Nationalization of Ecclesiastical Education . . 33 IV. Development of Types of Secular Education during the Later Middle Ages . . . . . -34 1. Influence of the Crusades 34 2. Chivalry 35 3. Scholasticism 36 4. The University Movement 37 5. Mohammedan Culture in Contact with Mediaeval Education 38 6. Corporate Elementary Schools : Guild and Burgher Schools 38 PART FOUR. MODERN EDUCATION First. The Transition Period I. Historical Changes which influenced the Beginnings of Modern Education 43 II. The Humanistic Movement 45 1. Causes 46 2. Humanism in Italy 46 3. Humanism in Germany and the Netherlands ... 47 4. Humanism in England 47 III. The Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter Reformation 47 1. The Educational Aspects of the Protestant Reformation . 47 \/ CONTENTS vii PAGE 2. The Catholic Reaction against the Protestant Reforma- tion 49 a. The Jesuits 50 b. The Oratorians 50 c. The Jansenists 51 d. The Brethren of the Christian Schools . . . .51 Second. The Period of Educational Reform I. The Realistic Movement 52 1. Realism Defined 52 2. Rabelais 52 3. Ascham 53 4. Montaigne 53 5. Milton 54 6. Mulcaster 54 7. Ratke 55 II. The "Formal Discipline" Movement .... 56 1. Formal Discipline Defined 56 2. Locke 56 III. The Naturalistic Movement 57 1. Naturalism Defined 57 2. Bacon $8 3. Comenius 58 4. Rousseau 60 5. Basedow 61 IV. The Rationalistic Movement 62 1. Rationalism Defined 62 2. Kant 62 3. Fichte 63 V. The Psychological Movement 63 1. The Psychological Movement Defined .... 63 2. Pestalozzi 63 3. Herbart 65 4. Froebel 69 VI. The Utilitarian Movement 71 1. The Utilitarian Movement Defined 71 2. Spencer 71 viii CONTENTS Third. Contemporary Educational Theory PAGE I. The Sociological Conception 73 II. The Evolutionary Conception 75 Fourth. School Organization L Humanistic Schools 77 II. Realistic Schools 78 III. Naturalistic Schools 80 Fifth. National School Systems I. Germany 81 II. France 83 III. England 84 IV. The United States 86 Sixth. Education in the United States I. The Colonial Period 89 1. Virginia and the Southern Colonies 89 2. The New England Colonies 89 3. New York and the Middle Colonies 91 II. The National Period 93 1. Educational Development during the First Fifty Years of National History 94 2. The Educational Revival under the Leadership of Horace Mann 96 3. Organization of State Systems of Education 97 4. The United States Bureau of Education .... 97 5. Training of Teachers 98 6. Education of Women 98 7. Introduction of European Influences 99 APPENDICES Appendix A: Summary of the Principal Influences in Education beginning with the Renaissance 103 Appendix B: Summary of the Leading Facts in the Educational Development of New York State 129 CONTENTS IX Appendix C : Outlines of Modern Educational Classics Montaigne's Of the Education of Children Milton's A Tractate on Education Locke's Some Thoughts concerning Education . Rousseau's Amile, or Concerning Education Pestalozzi's Leonard and Gertrude . Spencer's Education : Intellectual, Moral, and Physical Index PAGE 134 134 135 136 136 137 138 139 PART ONE ORIENTAL EDUCATION SYLLABUS OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION ORIENTAL EDUCATION The Oriental nations were alike in the following respects : first, they were isolated ; second, they were exclusive ; third, they adhered to hard and fast social distinctions ; fourth, they held that wisdom comes either from the past or from a higher power that reveals itself through inspired persons ; fifth, they were ruled by a special class whose authority was sanctioned by tradition or a power higher than man ; sixth, religion and govern- ment were closely related. I. Egypt (4400-332 b.c). Kemp, 39-44; Painter, 33-38 (old edition, 32-36); Williams, 57-72 ; Seeley, 46-51 ; Davidson, 37-41 ; Laurie*, 11-48. 1. Geographical position: the Nile valley. Laurie, 11-12. 2. Religion and belief in a future life. Laurie, 14- 17, 19-20, 26-27, 2 9- 3. Social classes: priests; soldiers; other free men. Laurie, 33-37. 4. Education. Laurie, 41-47. A. The priests. B. Other professions: scribe; architect; physician ; soldier. 5. Literature: stories; poems; Bjmkofjj^e Dead. Laurie, 17-18, 20-26, 29-32. 3 4 HISTORY OF EDUCATION II. China (2200 b.c. to modern times). Kemp, 17-25; Painter, 11-18 (old edition, 9-15); Wil- liams, 33-45 ; Seeley, 20-28 ; Davidson, 41-45; Laurie, 103-151; Monroe, 17-49 {Brief Course, 11-19, 23-25). 1. Geographical isolation. Laurie, 104-105. 2. Religion : prominence of ancestor-worship. Laurie, 11 2-1 15. 3. Mental peculiarities. Laurie, n 5-1 20. 4. Education. Laurie, 120-145. A. School organization. Laurie, 134-145. B. State examination system. Laurie, 122- 134. 5. The great moralists : C®nfucius (55 1-478 B.C.); Mencius (372-289 b.c). 6. Literature : Four Books; Five Classics. Laurie, 108-110. III. India (Hindus) (2000 b.c to modern times). Kemp, 26-33 ; Painter, 18-23 (old edi- tion, 15-21); Williams, 50-56; Seeley, 2 9~35; Davidson, 56-66; Laurie, 156- 177; Monroe, Brief Course, 19-21; Com- payre, 2-6. 1. Religion. Laurie, 161-166. 2. Castes: priests (Brahmans); warriors; mer- chants; laborers (Sudras). Laurie, 159- 160. 3. Education. Laurie, 166-177. A. Elementary schools : teachers ; curriculum ; method. B. Advanced schools (parishads). ORIENTAL EDUCATION 5 4. Literature : Vedas {Rig-veda ; Mahabharata ; Ramayana) \j * IV- Judea (Hebrews or Jews) ( 1 500 b.c. to modern times). Kemp, 45-52 ; Painter, 27-33 (old edition, 26-32); Williams, 86-94; Seeley, 40-45 ; Davidson, 77-86 ; Laurie, 65-100; Monroe, Brief Course, 21-23; Compayre, 6-1 1. 1. Geographical location and historical sketch. Laurie, 65-70. 2. Religion : monotheistic ; Jehovah as law-giver and judge. Laurie, 70-76. 3. Government: theocratic (executing the re- vealed will of Jehovah). 4. Education. Laurie, 76-100. A. First period (1493-1043 B.C.): family; priesthood. Laurie, 78-80. B. Second period (1043-538 b.c): schools of the prophets. Laurie, 80-83. C. Third period (538 b.c. to birth of Christ): scribes ; synogogue. Laurie, 83-92. D. Fourth period (after birth of Christ) : rab- binical schools ; Talmudic education. Laurie, 92-100. 5. Literature: Old Testament ; Talmud. V. Persia (1000-331 b.c). Kemp, 34-38; Painter, 23-27 (old edition, 21-26); Williams, 73-80 ; Seeley, 36-39 ; Davidson, 66-74 ; Laurie, 178-195. 1. Geographical position. Laurie, 178-179. 6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 2. Religion : Zoroastrianism, — a dualistic religion (Ormazd, the source of good ; Ahriman, the source of evil). Laurie, 185-190. 3. Social organization. Laurie, 182. 4. Education. Laurie, 190-193. 5. Literature : Zend-Avesta. References. Kemp, History of Education ; Painter, History of Education (revised edition ; old edition also referred to) ; Williams, History of Ancient Education ; Seeley, History of Education; Davidson, History of Education; Laurie, Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education ; Monroe, Text-book in the History of Educa- tion ; Monroe, A Brief Course in the History of Educa- tion; Compayr6, History of Pedagogy. PART TWO GR^ECO-ROMAN EDUCATION GREEK EDUCATION The Greeks, the earliest European representatives of the Aryan race,' exhibit the following characteristics : first, their view of life was optimistic ; second, they as- sumed a fundamental harmony between man and nature ; third, they developed moral and religious notions on the basis of reason ; fourth, individual development in har- mony with social obligations was emphasized ; fifth, they manifested an unusual sense of beauty ; sixth, they encouraged progress. I. Introductory Points. i. Geography: mountains; long, broken coast line. 2. Branches of the race : ^Eolians (represented by the Thebans); Dorians (repre- sented by the Spartans); Ionians (rep- resented by the Athenians). 3. Government : the " city-state " (cities with small adjacent territory). 4. Civic virtues of the Greeks : wisdom (sophid) ; moderation (sophrosy?ie) ; grace {enkos- mia). 5. Religion. Laurie, 202-208. II. Primitive Education. 1. The Homeric age (1000-800 B.C.). Laurie, 197-199. 9 10 HISTORY OF EDUCATION A. Practical experience informally transmitted. B. Content of education. Monroe, 62-67 {Brief Course, 31-33)- a. Eloquence. Iliad, IX, 438 (Leaf, Lang, and Myers' tr., 174). b. Valor in battle. c. Skill in games. Iliad, XXIII, 260 ff. (Leaf, Lang, and Myers' tr., 458 f.). III. Old Greek Education (776-480 B.C.). 1. The Spartan system. Kemp, 57-62 ; Painter, 41-46 (old edition, 40-45) ; Williams, 95-106; Seeley, 68-73; Davidson, *4i- 51; Laurie, 228-248; Monroe, 70-79 {Brief Course, 34-40). A. The Spartan ideal as determined by social conditions. a. Situation of Sparta. Laurie, 228. b. The three classes : Spartans ; Periceci ; Helots. c. Laws of Lycurgus. Seeley, 72-73. B. The Spartan educational system. a. Infancy : 1-7. Laurie, 229. b. Childhood: 7-18. Laurie, 230-239. a. State training supervised by public officials. /3. Content: gymnastic; "music" (men- tal training). c. Youth: 18-30. Laurie, 239-243. a. " Budding youths " (inelleirenes) : 18-20. /3. Youths (eirenes) : 20-30. GREEK EDUCATION n 7. Content : cadet (ephebic) training in arms and citizenship. d. Manhood : period of full citizenship : after 30. a. The family and the state. /3. Communistic basis of Spartan society. e. Education of girls. Laurie, 244-247. C. Results of the Spartan system. Laurie, 247-248. 2. Old Athenian system. Kemp, 62-69 ; Painter, 55-63 (old edition, 49-56); Williams, 107-129; Seeley, 56-60; Davidson, *6o- 92 ; Laurie, 248-278 ; Monroe, 79-100 {Brief Course \ 40-52). A. The Athenian ideal. a. Individualism. b. Self-expression. a. Intellectual : philosophy and science. /5. Emotional : religion ; literature ; art. 7. Volitional : civic and military ac- tivity. c. Conception of virtue. a. Perfect m anhood through self-control. @. Perfectability through education. B. Organization. a. Branches of education. a. Gymnastic. /3. " Music " (in the wider Greek sense) for the soul, including music (in the modern sense) to purify the emotions and "letters" to. develop the intellect. b. Periods of education. 12 HISTORY OF EDUCATION a. Infancy : the nurse ; games ; play ; nursery rhymes; legends. Laurie, 249- 252. /3. Elementary education : after 7 ; boys only. 1) The pedagogue. Laurie, 253. 2) Mental education at the music school by the grammatist. Laurie, 253- 259. 3) Music (beginning at 13) by the citharist or music-master. 4) Physical training at the wres- tling-school (palczstra) by the gymnastic- master (pcedotribe).- Laurie, 264-267. 7. Advanced education. Laurie, 267, 270-274. 1) Physical training continued in public gymnasia. 2) Cadets (ephebi) : 18-20: military training ; ephebic oath. 3) Training in civic duties by free intercourse with older men. c. Female education. Laurie, 275-276. C. Method. a. Moral education and discipline. Laurie, 267-270, 274-275. b. Absence of pedagogical principles. Laurie, 276-277. D. The schools and the teacher. Laurie, 277-278. E. Results and comparison with the Spartan system. Laurie, 278-281. GREEK EDUCATION I 3 IV. New Greek Education (at Athens) (480-338 b.c). 1. Causes of the demand for a broader education. Laurie, 283-284; Monroe, 103-109. A. Expansion following defeat of Persia. a. Naval victory at Salamis (480 B.C.). b. Land victory at Plataea (479 B.C.). B. Ascendency of Athens among the Greek states (Age of Pericles: 461-431 B.C.). a. Government became democratic, in- creasing the demand for statesmen and orators. C. Contact with other races through war, travel, and colonization broadened the intellectual horizon. D. Inadequacy of religious and philosophical explanations. a. The consequent skepticism. 2. Changes from the Old Education. Laurie, 283-295. A. Demand for higher education, especially in literary and philosophical directions. Monroe, 109- no. B. The great sophists : Protagoras ; Gorgias ; Prodicus ; Hippias. Laurie, 284-287 ; Monroe, 110-114 (Brief Cotirse, 55-57). a. Individualism : doctrine that individual opinion is the standard of truth. b. What they professed to teach. a. The art of persuasion ( To make the worse the better reason). /3. Their use of rhetorical style and tricky argument. 14 HISTORY OF EDUCATION d. Their influence. Davidson, *ioi-io7; °8i-g6 ; Monroe, I io-i 17 (Brief Course, 55-59)- a. Less attention to physical and mili- tary training. /3. Political life regarded as an oppor- tunity for personal ambition rather than as a patriotic duty. C. Subjects added to the curriculum : gram- mar; rhetoric; disputation (dialectic); geometry; drawing. V. Greek Educational Theorists. 1. Pythagoras (580-500 B.C.). Kemp, 70-72 ; Painter, 46-50 (old edition, 45-49) ; Wil- liams, 141-152; Seeley, 73; Davidson, *52-59- A. The philosophical brotherhood at Crotona. a. Aim : to render the soul harmonious. b. Principles : number ; order ; harmony. c. Method : to memorize maxims. 2. Socrates (469-399 b.c). Kemp, 73-76; Painter, 63-67 (old edition, 56-60); Williams, 153-164; Seeley, 61-63; Davidson, *I07~H3; °I03-I27; Monroe, 122-130 {Brief Course, 60-63); Compayr£, 22-27. A. His character. B. Relation to the sophists. a. Agreed with them in their skepticism regarding the external world. b. Opposed their skepticism respecting the internal world of moral notions. GREEK EDUCATION 15 C. Educational aim. a. To emphasize the problems of con- duct. b. To develop moral concepts as a ground of moral action. c. The conception that to know the right is to do the right. D. The Socratic method. a. Self-examination in order to take stock of one's knowledge (note the likeness of this procedure to the formal step of preparation). b. Examination of others by the conversa- tional method (dialectic). a. Suggestive questioning (maieutic) to elicit the latent ideas of the modest and backward. /3. Ironical questioning (the Socratic irony) to overcome the stubborn opinions of the ignorant. c. The inductive development of the moral concept. d. The bond between teacher and learner : enthusiasm for moral truth (eros or in- tellectual emotion). E. Socrates' influence. a. On his contemporaries. b. On the development of Greek philos- ophy. c. On educational theory. Xenophon (434"357 °r later B.C.). Painter, 50-54 (old edition, 23-24); Davidson, 16 HISTORY OF EDUCATION *i 14-132; Monroe, Source Book, 35- 50, 120-128; Compayre, 34-36; Painter, *6i-82. A. Educational theory as presented in the Cyropcedia. a. Ostensibly the training of the Persian nobleman. b. Really an advocacy of the Spartan mili- tary training. B. Training of the housewife as given in the Economics. a. Domestic education by apprenticeship similar to that in vogue at Athens. 4. Plato (427-347 B.C.). Kemp, 77-78; Painter, 67-73 (old edition, 60-62); *7~32 ; Wil- liams, 165-175; Seeley, 63-65; David- son, *i33-i5o; °i28-i5i ; Monroe, 130- 146 {Brief Course, 63-68); * 129-264; Compayre, 27-34. A. Biography. B. Plato's philosophy : the Theory of Ideas. C. Plato's educational theory. a. As presented in the Republic. a. Conception of the ideal state. 1) Aim : to organize so as to permit perfect justice. 2) Form: intellectual aristocracy, ruled by philosophers. 3) Economic organization: a com- munism. 4) Social orders : rulers ; warriors ; producers. GREEK EDUCATION 17 /3. Education as a function of the state, i) The child belongs to the state. 2) Periods: childhood; youth; young manhood (20-30), a period for correlating knowledge; 30-35, a period for the study of philosophy. 3) Curriculum: gymnastic; culture studies ("music"), including literature, music, and the arts as preparatory sub- jects, and arithmetic, geometry, astron- omy, and harmony as special preparation for abstract thinking ; philosophy. 4) Education of women practically that of men. b. Modifications made in the Laws. a. The philosophical ruler replaced by hereditary monarchy. £. Education less like the Spartan and more like the Athenian system. 1) Education to be supervised by a state official. 2) Curriculum : birth to 3, training by nurse; 3-6, age of play; 6, sexes segregated; 6-10, gymnastic; 10-13, reading and writing ; 13-16, music; later, ' higher gymnastic, dancing, mathematical sciences, and religion. D. Plato's influence. a. Upon philosophy. b. Upon educational history. 5. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). Kemp, 79~8o; Painter, 73-77 (° ld edition, 62-65); 1 8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION *33-6o; Williams, 176-186; Seeley, 65- 67; Davidson, * 153-202; ° 152-176; Lau- rie, 295-300; Monroe, 146-160 {Brief Course, 68-73); ^265-294; Compayre, 36-40. A. Biography. B. Theory of the state. a. It exists for the promotion of well-being. a. Hence it must provide conditions necessary to well-being, one of which is education. C. Theory of education presented in the Poli- tics. a. Education is the foundation of various forms of state. b. Aim of education : temperate enjoyment of cultured and virtuous leisure. c. Periods : birth to 5, age of play ; 5-7, period of observation of pursuits to be followed later ; 7 to puberty ; puberty to 21. d. Curriculum. a. Practical subjects : reading; writing ; drawing. /3. Liberal subjects : music, as an amuse- ment, as modifying character, and as an occupation for leisure. D. Aristotle's influence. a. Upon philosophy. b. Upon science. c. Upon method. d. Upon educational history. GREEK EDUCATION 19 VI. Cosmopolitan Greek Education (338-146 b.c). Davidson, *205~2I3 ; ° 177-202 ; Monroe, \60-\7 2 {Brief Course, 73-78); *295~326. 1. The spread of Greek culture beyond the fron- tiers of Greece. A. Conquest of Greece by Philip of Macedon (Battle of Chseronea, 338 b.c). B. Expansion of the Macedonian Empire under Alexander the Great. a. Hellenization of the East and Egypt. 2. Graeco-Egyptian culture under the Ptolemies (323-30 B.C.). A. The University (Library and Museum) of Alexandria. B. Character of the Alexandrian learning. a. Advance in scientific directions. a. Euclid (323-283 B.C.). 13. Archimedes (287-212 b.c). 7. Ptolemy the Astronomer (?-i68 A.D.). VII. Aspects of Greek Culture having an indirect Influ- ence upon Education. 1. The national games: Olympian; Pythian; Nemean; Isthmian. 2. Literature and the drama. A. The Greeks either originated or developed the chief permanent forms of prose and poetry. 3. Art. 4. Philosophy. 5. Science. 20 HISTORY OF EDUCATION References. Davidson, * Aristotle and the Ancient Educational Ideals ; Davidson, ° The Education of the Greek People; Painter, * Great Pedagogical Essays ; Monroe, * Source Book of the History of Education: Greek and Roman Period. For other references consult the list following Oriental Education. ROMAN EDUCATION The Romans were the second Aryan race to develop a high type of civilization upon European soil. In a considerable measure they took up the work of develop- ing European culture where the Greeks left it. Their most important characteristics were as follows : first, they were practical rather than idealistic ; second, they were remarkable social organizers ; third, they respected law and social order; fourth, they exhibited unusual talent in assimilating other races to their own institu- tions, and in availing themselves of the best features in the institutions of conquered peoples ; fifth, though imitative rather than original in art, literature, and philosophy, they nevertheless contributed to the development of these fields by the selective assimilation of the efforts of other nations. I. Introductory Points. i. Geography of Rome and Italy as influencing the social life. 2. Social organization. Laurie, 309-315. A. Importance of the family. B. The classes. a. The plebeians or commons — at first without civil rights (until 300 B.C.). b. The patricians or nobles. 22 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 3. Religion. Laurie, 303-309. A. A nature-worship similar to that of the Greeks, only more abstract, developed along with the ancestor-worship. B. Later, the influence of Greek literature and religious thought modified the earlier Roman religion and assimilated it to the Greek mythology. 4. The Romans as the world's first great social organizers and law-givers. 5. Influence of the war spirit on Roman culture. A. Introduction of slavery. B. Growth of great landed estates, widening the breach between rich and poor. C. Widening area of Roman sovereignty. a. Early conquest of the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. b. Rome mistress of Italy by 266 B.C. c. Greece practically conquered by 168 B.C. (Battle of Pydna.) d. Corinth (Greece) and Carthage (Africa) destroyed, 146 B.C. ^./Western Asia Minor a province by 133 /b.c \f. Gaul (modern France) conquered by 50 B.C. g. At the time of the birth of Christ Rome was in practical possession of all south- ern Europe, western Asia, and most of northern Africa. h. Jerusalem destroyed in 70 a.d. u Britain overrun by 85 a.d. ROMAN EDUCATION 23 II. Primitive Education at Rome (about 500-300 b.c). Kemp, 84-85 ; Painter, 77-80 (old edition, 65-67); Williams, 187-200; Davidson, 106-108; Laurie, 319-323; Monroe, 176-193 {Brief Course, 81-88); *327-345 ; Compayre, 43-45- 1 . Economic type : the shepherd and husbandman. 2. Education entirely domestic. A. Moral and religious training through heroic legends. B. Patriotism taught by national hymns and songs. C. The boys learned farming and herding from the father. D. The girls learned household duties from the mother. E. Apprenticeship the method, imitation the psychological principle. 3. Citizenship as a continuance of education. 4. Literature : The Laws of the Twelve Tables. III. Early Organization of Education Under Greek In- fluence (about 300-146 b.c). Kemp, 85-87; Painter, 80-81 (old edition, 68- 69; Williams, 201-204; Seeley, 74-80; Davidson, 109; Laurie, 323-329; Mon- roe, 193-197 (Brief Course, 88-90); *346-370; Compayre, 45. 1. The coming of Greek slaves and freedmen to Rome, between 260 and 200 b.c, to open private schools. A. Spurius Carvilius opened the first school of which a record remains, 260 b.c 24 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 2. Earliest Latin literature. A. Laws of the Twelve Tables. B. Historical poem by Cnaius Naevius (writ- ten about 240 B.C.). C. Translation of Homer's Odyssey into Latin by Livius Andrpnicus (about the same date as Naevius's poem). 3. Kinds of schools. A. Elementary : the Indus y taught by the lit- erator (ludimagister), was like the Athenian didaskaleion {inusic-school), taught by the grammatist. a. Curriculum : alphabet ; conversational Greek ; writing ; arithmetic. B. Secondary : more advanced education was given by the literatus ( grammaticus). a. The first recorded was established by Livius Andronicus (about 250 B.C.). b. Curriculum : writing ; grammar ; read- ing and literature ; arithmetic ; geome- try ; astronomy ; geography ; music ; gymnastic. IV. Period of the Complete Dominance of Greek In- fluence (146 B.C. to 180 a.d.). Kemp, 88 ; Painter, 81-85 (old edition, 70-71) ; Williams, 204-233; Davidson, 110-111; Laurie, 330-335 ; Monroe, 197-206 (Brief Course, 90-95); * 37 'I -420. 1. With the fall of Corinth (146 b.c) Greece be- came a province of Rome and completely hellenized Roman intellectual life, the ROMAN EDUCATION 25 two peoples becoming in point of culture one. 2. Kinds of schools. A. Introduction of the pedagogue. B. The Indus and grammatical-school re- mained much the same as in the preced- ing period, though they were more completely organized. Laurie, 336-340. C. Higher education. a. Rhetorical-schools and the rhetor. Laurie, 341-343; 348-354- b. Philosophical schools. c. Libraries and universities. Laurie, 393- 394. 3. Development of Roman literature. A. The Ciceronian Era. B. The Augustan Age. C. The Silver Age. 4. Methods and discipline. Laurie, 343-344; 347-354- 5. Teachers and schoolhouses. Laurie, 344-346. 6. State support of education. Monroe, 204-206 {Brief Course , 94-95). V. The Decadent Period (180-476 a. d.). Laurie, 389- 401; Monroe, 208-218 {Brief Course, 96-99). 1. Degeneracy of Roman society due to wealth and debauchery. 2. Culture grew superficial in proportion as it grew more general. 3. Increased support of schools by the state. 26 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 4. Their extension to the provinces, especially Gaul. VI. Educational Theorists. 1. Cicero (107-43 b.c). Painter, 85-89 (old edi- tion, 71-73); *83-96; Williams, 237-240; Seeley, 81-84; Laurie, 350-352; Mon- roe, *42 1-444. A. The orator as the cultured type is empha- sized in the De Oratore. B. Cicero's pedagogy. a. Companions and environment to be carefully selected because early sense- impressions and play-activities develop habits. b. Hardships should be experienced in order to develop patience. c. The feelings need careful direction so as to develop a moral sense, a sense of honor, and laudable ambition. d. Memory should be cultivated by mne- monics and memorizing choice passages. e. The vocation should be chosen with ref- erence to the tastes and powers. f. Special training for the orator : expres- sion ; law ; history ; philosophy ; Greek. g. The moral aim in education should be made prominent. 2. Seneca (3 b.c. to 65 a.d.). Painter, 89-93 (old edition, 74-76); *97~ 1 02 ; Williams, 240- 244; Seeley, 84-86. A. In philosophy a stoic, his educational theo- ROMAN EDUCATION 27 4 ries were influenced by the doctrines of that school. B. Educational theory (found in his philo- sophical essays). a. Aim : character. b. Natural tendencies can in a considerable degree be modified. c. Discipline should be mild and relations between teacher and pupil harmonious. d. Example is better than precept. e. Education should fit for life's needs and duties. f. Concentration of effort the keynote to good results in learning. Quintilian (35-95 a.d.). Kemp, 88-89; Painter, 93-97 (old edition, 76-79); *I03-I24; Williams, 244-254; Seeley, 86-88 ; Da- vidson, *2i4-224; Laurie, 355-389; Monroe, 207-208 ; *445~509 ; Compayr6, 47-52 ; Browning, 26-34. A. Educational theories, presented in the Institutes of Oratory. a. Elementary education. a. Early training (Bk. I, i) : nurse ; pedagogue; parent. /3. Method (Bk. I, ii-iii): Greek be- fore Latin ; alphabet ; writing (tracing letter-forms cut in a board) ; reading (synthetic method) ; memorizing of max- ims and mottoes ; management of pupils ; public preferable to private education. b. Secondary (grammatical) education. 28 HISTORY OF EDUCATION a. Curriculum (Bk. I, x) : music ; geome- try ; astronomy. c. Higher education (Bks. II and XII) : philosophy ; rhetoric ; eloquence. References. Browning, Educational Theories. For other references consult the lists following Orien- tal and Greek Education. PART THREE MEDLEVAL EDUCATION MEDIEVAL EDUCATION This period represents the efforts of the Celtic and Teutonic branches of the Aryan race to develop a type of culture the fundamental principles of which were bor- rowed from the Hebrews. The religious and moral conceptions of the Middle Ages were of Jewish origin. These conceptions were, however, transmitted to the Celts and Teutons through the medium of the Graeco- Roman civilization. Hence many elements derived from classical culture modified the pure Hebraism in the process of transmission. The dominant thought throughout the period was that culture should take the form of moral and religious discipline. There was also another important conception : that society is an organi- zation under the control of a religious hierarchy having the prerogative of absolute jurisdiction over all cultural forces. I. Culture and the Early Church (to 529 a.d.). Kemp, 97-108; Painter, 102-118 (old edition, 80-93); *I43-I54; Williams, 39-54; Seeley, 89-115 ; Davidson, 121- 132; Laurie, 18-38; Monroe, 221-243; °ioi-iio; Compayre, 61-67. 1. Educational bearings of Christ's doctrines. 2. Tendency of the early Christians towards as- ceticism. 31 32 HISTORY OF EDUCATION A. Attitude toward Graeco-Roman (" pagan ") learning. a. Opinions of the Church Fathers : Clem- ent of Alexandria ; Tertullian ; Chrys- ostom ; Jerome ; Augustine. 3. First schools organized by the Christians. A. Teaching in the Apostolic Age. B. Catechetical schools (beginning about l80 A.D.). C. Early episcopal (cathedral) schools. 4. Abolition of philosophical schools by decree of the Emperor Justinian (529 a.d.). II. The Monastic Type of Education (5th to nth cen- turies a.d.). Kemp, 109-12 1 ; Painter, 1 18-122 (old edition, 99-104) ; Williams, 56-58; Seeley, 1 16-120; Davidson, *239~247 ; Laurie, 54-74 ; Monroe, 243- 274; ° 1 10-124; West, 4-27. 1. Parish (parochial) schools. 2. Cathedral schools. 3. The monasteries. A. Rise of monasticism. a. Saint Anthony's example. b. Cassian founded St. Victor (404 a.d.). c. St. Benedict founded the Benedictine order (529 a.d.). B. Famous monasteries : Monte Cassino (founded by St. Benedict), Italy ; Tours, France ; Fulda, Germany ; Wearmouth and Yarrow, England ; Iona, Scotland ; Armagh (founded by St. Patrick), Ireland. MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 33 C. Educational organization. a. Inner school for the oblati. b. Older school for the externi. c. The scriptorium and the copying of manuscripts. D. The curriculum. a. Elementary : alphabet; writing; reading and memorizing Latin psalter ; memoriz- ing Latin vocabulary ; Latin grammar ; singing church service ; elementary arith- metic. b. Trivium and quadrivium (Seven Lib- eral Arts). a. Trivium (secondary) : grammar ; rhetoric ; dialectic (logic). /3. Quadrivium (advanced) : arithmetic ; geometry ; astronomy ; music (dialectic was usually continued as an additional study). 4. Education of women. Kemp, 116; Painter, 129-130 (old edition, 111-112); Wil- liams, 59. III. Nationalization of Ecclesiastical Education (8th and 9th centuries a. d.). Kemp, 122-125 ; Painter, 122-125 (old edition, 104-106); *i 55-168; Williams, 62-90; Seeley, 125-131 ; Davidson, 151-158; Laurie, 39-53; Monroe, 274-279; °I25-I28 ; Compayre, 71-73; West, 1-3, 28-179. 1. Charlemagne and Alcuin's educational revival in Frankland. 34 HISTORY OF EDUCATION A. Religious education as the basis for the Frankish Empire. B. Alcuin as minister of education. C. The Palace School. D. Plans for reform of the church service and parochial instruction. a. Charlemagne's capitularies (proclama- tions) of 787, 789, and 802 a.d. 2. Alfred the Great's (849-901 a.d.) attempt to emulate Charlemagne in England. IV. Development of Types of Secular Education Dur- ing the Later Middle Ages (12th to 15th centuries a.d.). 1. Influence of the Crusades. (First Crusade begun in 1096; the Ninth and last in 1270 a.d.) Painter, 126 (old edition, 107); Williams, 108-110; Seeley, 136-138. A. Purpose : to rescue Christ's sepulcher and the Holy Land from the Saracens (Mohammedans). B. Cultural effects. a. Enlarged the mental horizon of the Christian peoples by bringing them into contact with strange customs and modes of thought. b. Stimulus to travel and commerce. c. Gave an impetus to chivalry. d. Brought European nations into contact with Saracen learning. C. Though initiated in furtherance of Chris- MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 35 tianity, the Crusades were largely a secular movement under the leadership of the great feudal lords. 2. Chivalry (nth to the 15th centuries a.d.). Kemp, 132-136; Painter, 126-128 (old edition, 107-110); Williams, 95-104; Seeley, 132-135; Monroe, 284-291; °i 4 7-i50. A. Character of chivalry: assertion of the claims of the natural man represented in the romantic figures of knight and lady in opposition to the ascetic ideal that dominated the churchman. B. The knight's code of service : love ; honor; loyalty ; piety. a. Minor virtues growing out of these : courtesy; obedience; prowess; respect for woman ; self-surrender. b. Influence of these ideals in determining the modern concepts of the gentleman and the lady. C. Training of the knight and lady. a. The Castle School. b. Periods. a. Page. /3. Squire. 7. The ceremony of knighting. c. Curriculum. a. The seven knightly accomplishments : swimming ; marksmanship ; horseman- ship ; swordsmanship ; hunting ; chess- playing; verse-making. 36 HISTORY OF EDUCATION fi. The accomplishments of the gen- tlewoman : horsemanship ; falconry ; needlework; playing on stringed instru- ments ; singing ; reading ; writing ; Latin ; French ; etiquette ; poetry ; reli- gion. D. Influence of chivalry upon the develop- ment of modern literature. a. The troubadours and trouveres of France. b. The minnesingers of Germany. c. The minstrels of the British Isles. 3. Scholasticism (9th to 14th centuries a.d.). Kemp, 126-129; Williams, 143-146; Seeley, 121-124; Davidson, 159-165; Monroe, 292-313; °I28-I38 ; Compayre, 74-75; * 1 8-23. A. Aim : a logical solution of theological prob- lems. B. The scholastic problems. a. The relation of faith and reason as media of truth. b. Doctrine of universals (the most general and abstract concepts). a. Realism: adherence to Plato's theory that universals (Platonic Ideas) are the only reals, and exist as archetypes (pat- terns) in the Divine Mind (" Universalia ante rem "). /3. Nominalism: adherence to Aristotle's doctrine that universals exist only in in- dividuals, and have no reality apart from them (" Universalia in re"). MEDIEVAL EDUCATION 37 7. Conceptualism: universals exist only as concepts produced by, and in, the human mind (" Universalia post rem "). C. Method : somewhat like the Socratic dialec- tic, employing Aristotle's logic in applica- tion to barren and impractical questions. D. Principal schoolmen (scholastics) : Erigena Q-886); Anselm (1033-1109); Abelard (1079-1142); Albertus Magnus (1 193— 1280); Thomas Aquinas (1225 ?- 1274); Bonaventura (1 221-1274). E. Results of scholasticism. 4. The university movement (12th to 15th cen- turies a.d.). Kemp, 138-144; Painter, 133-138 (old edition, 11 5-1 17); Williams, 113-161 ; Seeley, 139-142; Davidson, 166-174; Laurie, 91-293 ; Monroe, 313- 327; °I38-I47; Compayre, *3-306. A. Causes of the movement. B. Licentia docendi and studium generate. C. Charter : privileges and seal. D. Organization: nations; faculty; officers. E. Curriculum and method. F. Date of founding the principal mediaeval universities: Salerno, c. n 00; Bologna, 1 1 58; Oxford, c. 1 140; Paris, c. 11 80; Cambridge, 1200; Prague, 1348. G. Results of the university movement. a. Comparatively meager in method and curriculum. b. Served as types of later university organization. 38 HISTORY OF EDUCATION c. Broke the bondage of ecclesiastical con- trol over education. 5. Mohammedan (Saracen ; Moslim) culture in contact with mediaeval education (10th to 1 2th centuries a.d.). Kemp, 130- 132; Painter, 132-133 (old edition, 114); Williams, 110-112; Seeley, 143-147; Davidson, 133-150; Laurie, 88-90; Monroe, 331-334 5 ° 154-155- A. The Caliphs as patrons of learning. B. Influence of Aristotle's writings upon the Arabian scholars. C. Tendencies of their learning. a. Philosophical speculations tinged with mysticism. b. Scientific interest mingled with magic. D. Their schools and libraries in the cities of Moorish Spain. a. Places of free inquiry. b. Resort of Christian students to them. E. General result upon Christian thought : tended to free education from ecclesias- tical dominance. 6. Corporate elementary schools : guild and burgher schools (nth to 14th centuries). Kemp, 136-137; Painter, 128-129 (old edition, 1 1 o- 1 1 1 ) ; Williams, 1 04- 1 08 ; Monroe, 338-339 5 °i 5^-1 57- A. These schools met a demand for a practical type of education suited to the needs of a commercial class. B. Thus they may be conceived as the early MEDIAEVAL EDUCATION 39 forerunner of the people's school (" com- mon-school " or public school) of modern times. References. Williams, History of Mediceval Education ; Laurie, Rise and Constitution of Universities ; Monroe, °A Brief Course in the History of Education ; West, Alctiin and the Rise of the Christian Schools ; Compayr6, * Abe- lard and the Origin and Early History of Universities. For other references consult the lists following Orien- tal, Greek, and Roman education. PART FOUR MODERN EDUCATION MODERN EDUCATION The modern period in education exhibits the develop- ment of the European nations which resulted from their assimilation of the chief contributions of antiquity and the Middle Ages. From the Hebrews had come the religion — by the beginning of the modern period pretty well modified to the Aryan race-temperament; from the Greeks the sense of proportion and the feeling for beauty ; from the Romans the legal and institutional aspects of civilization ; from the Middle Ages the view that life is disciplinary and preparatory, — therefore a trying of moral issues. The great nations of Europe had pretty definitely determined their boundaries. At the dawn of the modern period a new continent was dis- covered. The situation was propitious for the manifes- tation of the genius of the Aryan people — progress. Hence our study of modern education will bring us into a swift-moving current of progressive change. First : The Transition Period I. Historical Changes which Influenced the Beginnings of Modern Education. Kemp, 149-150, 153 ; Painter, 139 (old edition, 1 19-120) ; Williams, 16-25; Seeley, 148-15 1 ; Davidson, 175-179; Monroe, 351-357; * 160-163. 43 44 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 1. Revolt against the monastic ideal and the scholastic method of the Middle Ages. 2. Demand for religious latitude and personal freedom of belief. 3. Growth of the idea that human reason employed upon natural phenomena is the source of truth. A. This conception opened the way for the modern scientific spirit. 4. Decline of the feudal system, which was dis- placed by the modern conception of the responsibility of government to the governed. 5. Establishment of modern nations upon lines determined by the natural cleavage con- sequent upon the development of modern languages and literatures. 6. Substitution of the Copernican theory of the solar system (heliocentric, i.e. the sun the center) for the erroneous Ptolemaic theory (geocentric, i.e. the earth the center). A. Influence of the changed point of view upon religious thought. 7. Early attempts to substitute experiment and induction for dogmas and deduction. A. The monk, Roger Bacon (1214-c. 1294). 8. Great geographical discoveries. A. Marco Polo (1236-1324) and Sir John Mandeville (1 300-1 372) directed atten- tion to the Orient and aroused interest in a sea route thither. MODERN EDUCATION 45 B. Columbus discovered America (1492). C. Magellan circumnavigated the globe (15 19- 1521), proving the sphericity of the earth beyond all doubt. D. Early colonization in America (17th cen- tury). 9. Important inventions. A. Gunpowder (first authentic record of use in Europe dates from the early 14th century) : its use in war changed the tactical unit, and gave more place to generalship than to mere brute force of numbers. B. Mariner's compass (perfected and used by the 14th century): made navigation a science. C Printing by movable type begun (1438) by Gutenberg of Germany. a. The first complete printed book was a Bible, printed by Gutenberg at Mentz, Germany, in 1455. b. Printing was introduced into other Eu- ropean countries during the last third of the fifteenth century. II. The Humanistic Movement (Renaissance; Revival of Learning) (14th to 16th cenutries a.d.). Kemp, 149-161 ; Painter, 140- 153 (old edition, 120-135); Williams, 13- 14, 20-48, 56-65 ; Seeley, 148-163 ; Monroe, 357-400; *i63~i88; Compayre, 83-1 n; Browning, 35-50; Quick, 1-26. 46 HISTORY OF EDUCATION i. Causes. A. General : demand for a content of culture to take the place of the discarded mediae- val learning. a. Since there was no body of scientific doctrine, it was natural to turn to the past and seek this content in the classi- cal literatures. B. Specific : the taking of Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) by the Turks in 1453 forced the Greek scholars of that city to take refuge in Italy. a. Constantinople had for centuries been the repository of Greek texts, which were now transported to Italy. 2. Humanism in Italy. A. Pioneers of the movement: Dante (1265- 132 1 a.d.); Petrarch (1304- 13 74); Boc- caccio (1313-1375); Chrysoloras (1355- 1415). B. Political and ecclesiastical support of the movement. a. Cosimo de Medici (1 389-1464), and the Florentine renaissance. b. Tommaso Parentucelli (Pope Nicholas V) (1389-1455; pope, 1447-1455), the founder of the Vatican Library. c. yEneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II) (1405-1464; pope, 1458-1464). C. The humanistic educators of Italy. a. Vittorino da Feltre (1 379-1446). b. Petrus Paulus Vergerius (1349-?). MODERN EDUCATION 47 c. Battista Guarino (1434-1460). D. Effects of the Italian renaissance upon culture. 3. Humanism in Germany and the Netherlands. A. Pioneers of the movement among the Brethren of the Common Life. a. John Wessel (1420-1489). b. Rudolph Agricola (1443-1485). c. John Reuchlin (1455-1522). B. Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536). a. His efforts in behalf of classical scholar- ship. b. His writings on education. a. On the First Liberal Education of Children, ft. On the Order of Studies. C. Results : the German renaissance merged with the Protestant Reformation. 4. Humanism in England. A. Resort of Oxford students to Italy between 1450 and 1500. B. Erasmus in England. C. The great English humanists. a. Sir Thomas More (1478-1535). b. John Colet (1466-15 19). III. the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Coun- ter Reformation (16th and 17th centu- ries A.D.). 1 . The educational aspects of the Protestant Refor- mation. Kemp, 162-181; Painter, 153- 187 (old edition, 135-166); *i69~i86; 48 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Williams, 52-55, 91-106; Seeley, 164- 181; Monroe, 401-420,433-437; *i89~ 201, 207-212; Compayre, 11 2-1 20; Quick, 27-32. A. The Reformation an outgrowth of the de- mand for intellectual liberty manifested in the Renaissance. B. Educational work of Martin Luther (1483- 1546). a. His theological doctrine of justification by faith and works involved an en- lightened conscience ; hence involved education. b. Sketch of a state system to include primary schools, Latin schools, and universities. c. Circular letters and sermons. a. Letter to the Mayors and Aldermen of all the Cities of Germany in behalf of Christian Schools (1524). /3. Sermon on the Duty of sending Chil- dren to School (1530). C. Philip Melanchthon as an organizer of schools (1497- 1 560). a. Organization of schools under Melanch- thon's advice at Magdeburg (1524), Strassburg (1524), and Eisleben (1525). b. Saxony the first German state to organ- ize a system of schools under Melanch- thon's direction. a. Melanchthon as Visitor (inspector) to the schools and churches of Saxony. MODERN EDUCATION 49 ft. His suggestions presented in The Saxony School Plan ( 1528) . c. Melanchthon's text-books. D. John Sturm as the organizer of the German gymnasium (1507— 1589). a. His work as rector of the Strassburg gymnasium (1 537-1 582). a. His organization of classes and cur- riculum. b. Educational writings : Plan ; Classical Letters ; Examination. E Influence of the German Reformation upon secondary and university education. F. The English Reformation. a. Suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII (I536-I539)- b. Conversion of monastic schools into schools of the Church of England. c. Some great classical (" public ") schools founded as a result of the English Ref- ormation: Shrewsbury (is S l )y Westmin- ster (1560); Rugby (1567); Harrow (1571); Merchant Taylors' (1561); Char- terhouse (1609) ; Christ's Hospital (1619). d. The aristocratic tendency in English education dates from this period. 2. The Catholic reaction against the Protestant Reformation (the "Counter Reforma- tion."). Kemp, 184-192, 229-234; Painter, 187-194, 238-244 (old edition, 166-173,224-227); *i87-202; Williams, 113-117, 186-190, 242-247, 253-254, 50 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 352-353; Seeley, 182-189, 227-229; Davidson, 183-189; Monroe, 420-433, 437-439; *20i-207, 212-214; Com- payre, 138-163, 258-277; Browning, 1.18-134; Quick, 33-62, 172-196; Mun- roe, 124-147; Hughes, 1-294. A. The Jesuits (Society of Jesus) . (Organized in 1540.) a. Aim ; to check Protestantism by organ- izing a missionary and teaching order. b. Ignatius Loyola, the founder (1491- - 1556). c. The Jesuit system of schools. a. General similarity of the curriculum to that of the Protestant gymnasia. /3. Attention confined to secondary and collegiate instruction. 7. The Ratio Studiorum. 8. The two courses : Studia inferiora (5 to 7 years); Studia superior a (6 to 9 years) . e. Method : prelection ; erudition ; repe- tition ; disputation. ?. Emphasis of memory and emulation. 7). Class organization : decuricz ; acade- mies. 6. Special training of teachers both in subject-matter and practice. c. Language and literary form overem- phasized. B. The Oratorians (Oratory of Jesus). (Founded in France in 16 14.) MODERN EDUCATION 51 a. Devoted themselves to secondary edu- cation. b. Curriculum emphasized the vernacular, the sciences, history, and philosophy. c. Prepared mainly for the priesthood. d. Methods less rigid than those of the Jesuits. C. The Jansenists (Port Royal Schools). (Flourished from 1637-1661.) a. Founded by Duvergier de Hauranne (St. Cyran) (1 581-1643). b. Prominent members : La Fontaine (1621-1695); Arnauld(i6i2-i694); Pas- cal (1623-1662); Nicole (1625-1695). c. The Little Schools. a. Their realistic tendencies : vernacu- lar ; excursions ; natural methods. D. The Brethren of the Christian Schools. (Founded in 1684.) a. Jean Baptiste de la Salle, founder of the order (1651-1719). b. The Condtict of Schools. c. The " institutes " (schools) of the Order. a. Purpose : elementary instruction of the poorer classes. /3. Rigid rules, — especially that re- quiring silence on the part of both teachers and pupils. 7. Restrictive and repressive discipline. h. " Simultaneous " recitation (by classes) introduced as a novelty ; this required careful grading. 52 HISTORY OF EDUCATION e. Thorough theoretical and practical training of elementary teachers in their own normal schools. f. Curriculum: reading; writing; arith- metic ; religious instruction ; a little Latin. Second: The Period of Educational Reform I. The Realistic Movement (i 6th and 17th centuries A.D.). 1. Realism defined: Educational realism is the substitution of the study of things {the real and the practical ) for that of abstract ideas about things. 2. Francois Rabelais (1483-1553). Kemp, 194; Williams, 74-80; Seeley, 192-195; Mon- roe, 442-448; *2 1 5-2 19; Compayre, 91-100; Browning, 68-79; Quick, 63- 69; Munroe, 8-35. A. Satirized scholastic method and content of education. a. Writings which present his educational views. a. Life of Gargantua (Chs. xiii-xix and xxi-xxiv). /3. Heroic Deeds of Pantagruel (Chs. v-viii). B. Realistic tendencies. a. Aim : an all-round culture for efficiency through the medium of the classics and science. MODERN EDUCATION 53 b. Method: cultivation of the powers of observation ; enlistment of interest ; study made agreeable ; rote-learning avoided ; mild discipline. 3. Roger Ascham(i5i5--i 568). Kemp, 181-183 Painter, *228-239 ; Williams, 106-107 Seeley, 190-192 ; Monroe, 382-385 *i79-i8o; Browning, 85-90; Quick, 80-89; Ascham, The Scholemaster (Heath's Pedagogical Library). A. Work on education (first treatise on the subject in English): The Scholemaster. B. Aim : Latin to be studied for its content. C. Method: "double" translation (emphasiz- ing imitation). D. Discipline to be mild and based upon a sym- pathetic insight into the pupil's nature. E. Education to be tutorial. 4. Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (1 533-1 592). Kemp, 195-197; Painter, 196-200 (old edition, 175-179); *203-227; Williams, 80-90; Seeley, 195-198; Monroe, 455— 461; *22i-226; Compayre, ioo-iio; Browning, 79-85; Quick, 70-79; Mun- roe, 95-101 ; Montaigne, The Education of Children (Appleton's International Education Series). A . Works on education : Of the Education of Children; Of Pedantry ; Of the Affection of Fathers ; Of Habit ; History. B. Influenced particularly by ancient educa- tional theory and by Rabelais. 54 HISTORY OF EDUCATION C. Aim : to develop character and wisdom rather than knowledge. D. Method: tutorial instruction. E. Discipline should be mild and in accordance with child-nature. 5. John Milton (1608-1674). Kemp, 217; Painter, 207-213 (old edition, 188-194); *240-254; Williams, 191-202; Seeley 217-220; Monroe, 448-451; *2i9~22o; Browning, 90-102; Quick, 212-218; Milton, A Tractate on Education (Brown- ing, editor ; Pitt Press Series ; Cam- bridge University Press). A. Writing on education : A Tractate on Edu- cation. B. Often called a " verbal-realist " because he advocated the classics as a means of acquiring useful knowledge. C. Aim : " To know God aright, and out of that knowledge to love him, to imitate him " (Milton's Tractate). D. Emphasis upon military exercises as a means of physical training. E. Plan for an institution to include all grades from the primary to the university. F. Suggested, the testing of the pupil's ability by various types of activity. 6. Richard Mulcaster (153 1-161 1 ). Kemp, 2©o ; Williams, 107-113; Monree, 465-467; *230 ; Quick, 90-102 ; Mulcaster, Posi- tions (edited by R. H. Quick); Mul- caster, Elementarie (in Quick's edition MODERN EDUCATION 55 of the Positions ; see also Watson, Richard Mulcaster and his Elemen- tarie). A. Educational works : Positions ; Elemen- tarie. B. Practical experience as head master of Mer- chant Taylors' and St. Paul's Grammar schools. C. Educational theories. a. Vernacular should be taught before the classics. b. Teacher should study the child. c. Emphasis upon education according to nature : " The end of education and of training is to help nature to her perfection" d. Elementary education especially im- portant. e. School education preferable to tutorial instruction. f. Both sexes should be educated in both vernacular and the classics. g. Teachers should have special training for their profession. h. Cenferences should be held between parents and parents, and between teach- ers and parents. 7. Wolfgang Ratke (Ratich ; Ratichius) (1571— 1635). Kemp, 200-206 ; Painter, 213- 219 (old edition, 194-200) ; Williams, 154-162; Seeley, 209-211; Monroe, 478-480 ; * 237-238 ; Compayre, 121- 122; Browning, 5 1-56 ; Quick, 103-1 18. 56 HISTORY OF EDUCATION A. Educational works: Address to Princes; Methodic Nova. B. Aim : first, to save time by teaching the classics with the vernacular as the medium of instruction ; second, to render the Ger- man language uniform, thus bringing uniformity into religion and govern- ment ; third, to teach arts and sciences through the German. C. Educational experiment at Kothen and its failure. D. Chief principles. a. Follow the order of nature in presenting the lessons. b. Teach one thing at a time. c. Assure the results by repetition (drill). d. Use the vernacular in both earlier and later instruction. e. Avoid constraint in study. f. Avoid rote-learning (verbal memory). g. Things rather than words, i.e. language by objects. h. Individual experience rather than -au- thority. II. The "Formal Discipline" Movement (17th and 1 8th centuries). 1. Formal discipline denned: Formal discipline is the study of languages, facts, and tilings with a view to "forming " or disciplining the mind and body. 2. John Locke (1632-1704). Kemp, 218-221; MODERN EDUCATION 57 Painter, 230-238 (old edition, 213-223); *278-29 or Education (Payne's translation: The International Education Series ; or Worthington's translation of Steeg's edition of extracts : Heath's Pedagogical Library). A. Rousseau as an apostle of the " Enlighten- ment " movement. MODERN EDUCATION 6l B. His vagabond life, sentimentalism and insin- cerity. C. Works. a. Autobiographical: Confessions. b. Social. a. Origin of Inequality. /3. Social Contract. c. Educational. a. Entile, on V Education. • j3. Nouvelle Heloise. D. Influenced especially by Montaigne and Locke. E. Aim : " Let him {the pupil) first be a man" " To live is the business I wish to teach him" (quoted from the Emile). F. Most important principles. a. Follow nature : let nature be the teacher ; let nature furnish the subjects of study. b. Education should be an unbroken de- velopment. c. " Become good by doing good." G. Education of woman (Sophie) : to fit her to be man's helpmeet. H. Rousseau is the high priest of modern ele- mentary education (" new " education). 5. Johann Bernard Basedow (1723-1790). Kemp, 265-269 ; Painter, 274-279 (old edition, 256-261); Williams, 318-329; Seeley, 250-256; Monroe, 577-5^3; *297-300 ; Quick, 273-289. A. Attempted a practical experiment with Rousseau's theories. €2 HISTORY OF EDUCATION B. Educational works. a. Methodical Instruction, both in Natural and Biblical Religion. b. An Address to the Friends of Humanity and to Persons in Power, on Schools, on Education, and its Influence on Public Happiness. ■ c. Elementarwerk (Elementary Work) : an 1 8th century Orbis P ictus for children, combining the ideas of Bacon, Comenius, and Rousseau. C. Education of his infant daughter according to Rousseau's ideas. D. The P hilanthropinum and its failure. IV. The Rationalistic Movement (18th and 19th cen- turies). 1. Rationalism defined : Rationalism conceives of education as the process of developing man as a part of nature, through the agency of his natural environment, into a being con- trolled by a will which is motived by ra- tional ideals. 2. Immanuel Kant (1 724-1 804). Painter, 289-295; *340-35o; Williams, 309-317; Davidson, 220-223; Monroe, 595-596; Compayre, 332-338; Browning, 165-173; Churton, Kant on Education (Heath's Pedagogical Library.) A. Education includes : a. Nurture. b. Discipline. MODERN EDUCATION 63 c. Instruction. d. Moral training. B. Aim. a. Development. b. Self-realization (perfectionism). C. Moral culture consists in action according to maxims. a. True morality consists in action under internal motives (duty) rather than ex- ternal stimuli. 3. Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-18 14). A. Relation to Kant. B. Educational activity. a. Long career as a teacher of philosophy. C. Chief writings. a. Philosophical: Science of Knowledge ( Wis sense hafts lehre) . <_..- b. Popular : Address to the German Nation ; Vocation of the Scholar. D. The strong ethical tendency of his system : The mind creates its own moral world in a series of will-acts. V. The Psychological Movement (18th and 19th centuries). 1. The psychological movement defined: The psychological movement finds in an ex- amination of the unhampered mental processes of the child a key to method of teaching. 2. John Henry Pestalozzi (1746-1827). Kemp, 282-291 ; Painter, 295-306 (old edition, 64 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 266-278); *35 1-368; Williams, 330-3495 Seeley, 257-271; Davidson, 229-232; Monroe, 597-622; *307~3i9; Compayre, 417-445; Browning, 1 51-165; Quick, 290-383; Munroe, 179-195 ; DeGuimps, 1-432 ; Pinloche, ix-302 ; Pestalozzi, Leonard and Gertrude (abridged by Eva Channing: Heath's Pedagogical Li- brary) ; How Gertrude teaches her Chil- dren (Bardeen's Standard Teachers' Library) . A. Pestalozzi gathered up the currents of realism and naturalism in the earlier reformers and struggled to give them psychological justification. B. Most important writings. a. Leonard and Gertrude. b. How Gertrude teaches her Children. c. Evening Hour of a Hermit. C. Pestalozzi's experiments in social reform. a. Neuhof, the agricultural experiment (1771-1780). b. The Stanz Orphanage (1798-1799). D. Pestalozzi's experiments in educational reform. a. The Burgdorf school (1799- 1804). b. The Yverdon Institute (1805- 1825). E. Aim : to regenerate the poorer classes through elementary education and intel- ligent labor. F. Most important educational principles. a. Base teaching upon the natural order of MODERN EDUCATION 65 the unfolding of the child's physical and mental powers. b. Self -development is the result which the teacher should secure. This begins with sensations ; these develop into percepts ; the percepts are organized into concepts. Hence early education must rely largely upon objects, sense symbols, and other objective aids. c. The child's power of receiving impres- sions must be appealed to first, then his power of elaborating these impressions into concepts. d. In learning the child's mind naturally moves on in the following order. a. From near to remote. /3. From concrete to abstract. 7. From particular to general. 8. From known to unknown. e. The principal means of education are number, form, and language. G. Though disclaiming indebtedness to the earlier reformers so far as acquaintance with their writings is concerned, yet Pestalozzi absorbed much from them in an indirect way. Both Locke, whose conception of the mind he follows, and Comenius influenced him somewhat. But especially did he follow the concep- tion of naturalism held by Rousseau. 3. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1 776-1841). Kemp, 298-301; Painter, 315-322; 66 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Seeley, 278-283 ; Davidson, 232-235 ; Monroe, 622-639 ; * 319-329 ; Browning, 174-180; De Garmo, 3-98; Herbart, Pestalozzi's Idea of an A B C of Sense- perception (translated by Eckoff : Inter- national Education Series); The Science of Ediccation and The ^Esthetic Revela- tion of the World (translated by H. M. and E. Felkin); Outlines of Edtccational Doctrine (translated by Lange and De Garmo). A. Herbart may be regarded as the father of scientific pedagogics, developed upon a psychological basis. B. Herbart's educational career. a. As private tutor. b. Connection with Pestalozzi. c. As professor of philosophy. d. As conductor of a practice school or pedagogical seminary. C. Most important pedagogical writings. a. Pestalozzi' s Idea of an A B C of Sense- perception. b. The ^Esthetic Revelation of the World as the Chief Function of Education. c. Science of Education. d. Outlines of Educational Doctrine. D. Chief points in his educational doctrine. a. Pedagogy as a science to be founded upon an exact psychology. b. From the standpoint of education the mind's most important function is its MODERN EDUCATION 67 power to assimilate new experience to old, — to which is given the name of apperception. c. Herbart's metaphysics of mind — an heritage from Locke's empiricism — is as follows: mind is in the beginning a simple and unitary entity which has merely the power of receiving impres- sions (presentations) through the senses ; these impressions elaborate into ideas (experiences); out of the interaction of these mental contents the whole life of mind arises. This is a doctrine of a mechanics of ideas. d. The elaboration of the ideas as well as the presentations may be controlled by an external agency, i.e. the teacher. e. " Presentations " come to the mind in two forms : first, experiences with nature, elaborated into knowledge \ and second, experiences with one's fellows ("social intercourse "), elaborated into permanent forms of sympathy. f. The aim of education is ethical. The basis of experience necessary to realize this aim is acquired partly through the home relationships, but mainly through school instruction. A harmoni- ous organization of experience is pro- ductive of a state of moral approval resembling taste in matters of art or the perception of harmony in music. 68 HISTORY OF EDUCATION g. Since ideas are organized out of experi- ences or presentations, the pleasure or moral approval to which they give rise becomes a motive to (ethical) action. h. "Educative instruction" is possible through the fact that any new presenta- tion or experience is modified by its apperceptive mass of ideas (" circle of thought "), and that these ideas as thus organized determine conduct. i. Proper apperception is possible only on the supposition that an interest is estab- lished in the pupil's mind. This in- terest must reach out in many directions, so that it may aid in the apperceiving of manifold presentations or experiences ; it must be, to use Herbart's phrase, manysided interest. j. Method of instruction involves certain steps or stages, known as the formal steps, viz. clearness (sensing an individ- ual presentation), association (the com- bining of the new presentation with the apperceptive basis), system (the organi- zation of the general notion as part of the mind's permanent fund of knowl- edge), and method (the application of the general notion). k. Educative instruction is to take place through an organized curriculum, involv- ing both a " co?icentration " of teaching about certain subjects of the course, MODERN EDUCATION 69 and the "correlation" of the different branches one with another. E. Herbart was Chiefly influenced by Locke in his psychology, by Kant in his under- lying philosophical principles, and by Pestalozzi in his pedagogy. F. Herbart's influence has been strongest in Germany and (within the last fifteen years) in the United States. His most influential doctrines are manysided in- terest, the formal steps, and correla- tion. 4. Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1 782-1852). Kemp, 291-298; Painter, 306-315 (old edition, 278-288); ^369-382; Williams, 396-405 ; Seeley, 272-277 ; Davidson, 235-239; Monroe, 639-667; *329~342; Compayre, 447-465; Quick, 384-413; Munroe, 195-206; Bowen, 1-196 ; Froe- bel, Education of Man (Hailmann's trans- lation : International Education Series); Pedagogics of the Kindergarten ; Educa- tion by Development ; Autobiography (translated by Michaelis and Moore: Bardeen) ; The Songs and Music of Five - beVs Mother Play (arranged by Susan E. Blow). A. Froebel's life and educational career. B. Writings. a. Education of Man. b. Education by Development. c. Pedagogics of the Kindergarten. yo HISTORY OF EDUCATION d. Mother and Nursery Songs {Mutter- und Koselieder). C. Connection with Pestalozzi at Yverdon. D. Educational philosophy : " Education should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself and in himself, to peace with nature, aiid to unity with God." (Froebel, Education of Man.} a. This conception implies four things : first, self -development ; second, estab- lishment of social relations on an ethical basis ; third^ harmonious intercourse with nature ; fourth, an understanding of God as the unity back of man and the world. b. . This end can be realized only by a sys- tem of education which gives free play to self activity. a. Self-activity defined : " Self activity is activity determined by one's own mo- tives, arising out of one's own interests, and sustained by one's own power. . . . Such activity is in a way compelled, since it is in response to the inherent nature of being and of the individual ; but as the individual responds only in obedience to the force felt within his own nature, and not to one from without, such activity is free — it is self activity." (Monroe, A Brief Course in the History of Education, P- 3370 E. Origin of the Kindergarten: to connect the home and the school. MODERN EDUCATION 71 a. Its precursor was Comenius' Mother School. F. Froebel's principles are most definitely connected with the ideas enunciated by Comenius, Rousseau, and Pesta- lozzi. G. The Kindergarten idea is so much a part of the educational spirit of the age that it is difficult to estimate it. Suffice it to say that its methods and spirit seem des- tined to extend far beyond what is technically kindergarten instruction. VI. The Utilitarian Movement (19th century). 1. The utilitarian movement defined: The utili- tarian movement asserts that nature, in- cluding both the child's mind and the environment out of which it has evolved and to which it responds, makes the " use- ful" the criterion of education. 2. Herbert Spencer ( 1 820-1903). Painter, 335- 345; *399~4i8; Williams, 373-384; Monroe, 684-689; *354~358; Com- payre, 53^-556; Quick, 439-469; Spen- cer, Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. A. Educational work : Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. B. Aim : " To prepare us for complete living." (Spencer, Education.) C. The question of educational values (content of the curriculum). 72 HISTORY OF EDUCATION a. The criterion of the worth of knowledge is utility. b. The five grades of knowledge according to the standard of utility. a. Knowledge for direct self-preser- vation. /3. Knowledge for indirect self-preserva- tion {making a living). 7. Knowledge relative to the perpetua- tion of the species {rearing of offspring). 8. Knowledge for citizenship. e. Ornamental knowledge. c. Supreme value of science for all these purposes. D. Intellectual education. a. Principles underlying correct method. a. Simple to complex. j3. Concrete to abstract. 7. Empirical to rational, h. Epitomize race-evolution. e. Foster self-development. f. Promote happiness. E. Discipline. a. Natural (by consequences) to displace artificial punishment. b. Self-government to displace government by external authority. F. Physical education. a. Aim: the "robust animal." b. The maintenance of physical vigor should be viewed as a duty. G. Spencer was considerably influenced in his MODERN EDUCATION 73 conception of method by Pestalozzi. His utilitarianism reflects the spirit of Eng- lish empiricism from Locke onward. H. Spencer has been influential in placing science in the curriculum — especially throughout the English-speaking world. The great development of science within the last half-century has proved favor- able to his reputation. He has also done much to popularize the utilitarian stand- ard in education. Here again he has been assisted by modern commercialism. He has likewise been influential in sug- gesting the sociological conception of edu- cation, which is just now so prominent. Third : Contemporary Educational Theory Recent educational thought is eclectic ; that is, it pays due regard to the lessons of past experience as repre- sented in both theory and practice, while at the same time responding to the suggestions that come from recent scientific theory. This eclecticism makes classification of tendencies difficult, for to a certain degree it produces blending of outlines rather than cameo-like distinctness. However, certain dominant conceptions manifest them- selves clearly enough for classification. I. The Sociological Conception. 1. Meaning of this conception : Education is the means of preparing the child through the agencies furnished by the miniature social 74 HISTORY OF EDUCATION world of the school for the larger social life of the community. 2. Literature presenting this conception : Monroe, 706-746 ; * 369-398 ; Dewey, The School and Society ; Dutton, Social Phases of Education ; Henderson, Education and the Larger Life ; Dutton and Snedden, Administration of Public Education in the United States, Chs. iv, xxxi, and xxxii; Vincent, The Social Mind and Education ; Ward, Dynamic Sociology, Vol. II, Chs. x-xiv ; Home, The Phi- losophy of Education, Chs. iv and v ; Hall, Some Social Aspects of Education, Educ. Rev., 23 : 433; Sadler, The School in Some of its Relations to Social Or- ganization and to National Life, Educ. Rev., 29: 338; Paulding, The Public School as a Center of Community Life, Educ, Rev., 15: 147; Dewey, Are the Schools doing what the People want them to Do f Educ. Rev., 21 : 459; Hyde, The Social Mission of the Public School, Educ. Rev., 22 : 222. 3. Auguste Comte, the founder of the science of Sociology. 4. Lester F. Ward's conception of the social func- tion of education (cf . quotation from So- cial Dynamics in Monroe, supra). 5. Professor John Dewey's conception of the pur- pose of education as denned in social terms : " The process of remaking experi- MODERN EDUCATION 75 ence, giving it a more socialized value through individual experience, by giving the individtial better control over his own powers." 6. Sociological ideas of Pestalozzi and Froebel. II. The Evolutionary Conception. 1. Meaning of this conception : Education is con- scious evolution; that is, it is the attempt to control the process of developmental change in human society through an insight into past processes, a foresight of ends, and an adaptation of means. 2. Literature presenting this conception : O'Shea, Ediication as Adjustment ; Bagley, The Educative Process ; Home, The Philoso- phy of Education, Ch. ii (aside from these more systematic statements of the rela- tion between biological and social evolu- tion and education are the host of indirect contributions to educational theory, es- pecially from the field of psychology, that are decidedly colored by evolution- ary concepts). 3. Principles flowing from this conception. A . Civilized man is the highest but not the final product of evohctionary progress. B. Civilized man is the result of psychological rather than physiological evolution. C. Civilized man has in a measure substituted conscious for mechanical evolutionary pro- cesses. y6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION D. Civilized man thus substitutes for the uncon- scious "adaptation" of lower life-forms conscious processes of " adjustment." E. Civilized man adapts sub-human means to his needs in inve7itive activities, thus pro- ducing an artificial evolution of brute forces, inorganic and organic ; and also adjusts to physical and social environ- ment. F. The period of most advantageous adjustment is the period of plasticity — the educative period or youth. G. But since youth is also the period of inex- perience, maturity, that of acquired and classified experience {science), the adjust- ments of youth 7nust be made in accordance with the experience of maturity ; hence the need of teaching and education. H. Through the process of evolution all per- manent needs become institutionalized ; hence the school, which is the most de- veloped instrument of conscious evolution. 4. Close connection between the sociological and the evolutionary conceptions. A. As man increases his mastery over nature by invention and discovery, evolution for him will tend to become more and more a process in social adjustment. a. It follows as a corollary that the specific adjusting agency, the school, must antici- pate and fulfill social ends. MODERN EDUCATION yy * Fourth : School Organization I. Humanistic Schools. Monroe, 385-397, 416-439; * 1 80-1 87, 198-214; Kemp, 1 71-179; Painter, 164-165, 167-168, 169-170, 174-194 (old edition, 147, 152, 154-173); Williams, 26-48,94-106, 113-117; See- ley, 175-188; Compayre, 1 12-120. 1. Introduction of humanistic studies into the Italian, French, German, and English universities. A. Wittenberg (founded in 1502) was human- istic from the beginning. 2. Special schools for the nobility. A. Such schools in Italy. B. The Fiirstenschulen (Ritterakademieeri) (Schools for Nobles) in Germany. 3. Classical secondary schools. A. The German gymnasium. a. The typical German classical school, founded by Sturm, and still an important factor in German education. B. The English classical ("public") schools. a. During the 16th century the following famous English secondary schools were founded: St. Paul's (15 12); Shrewsbury (1551); Westminster (1560); Merchant Taylors' (1561); Rugby (1567); Harrow ( 1 5 7 1 ) ; Charterhouse ( 1 609). b. All these schools were founded under hu- manistic control and have conserved the " humanities " even to the present day. yS HISTORY OF EDUCATION C. Secondary ("inferior") and collegiate (" superior ") institutes of the Jesuits. 4. The Protestant Reformation and elementary- education. A. Luther's advocacy of a state system for the people. a. Melanchthon's work as an organizer. II. Realistic Schools. Monroe, 430-437, 496-502, 523-529; *2o6-2i4, 248-253, 266-270; Painter, 238-244, 257-263 (old edition, 224-227, 240-247); Williams, 186-190, 258-280; Seeley, 227-236; Compayre, 153-163, 258-277. I. Elementary education. A. The " Little Schools " of Port Royal (the Jansenists). a. While the methods were strict in con- formity with their belief in the child's native sinfulness, the subjects taught were of the realistic type. B. The Brethren of the Christian Schools. a. Provided elementary education for the poor. b. Pupils carefully graded by classes. c. Established training- and practice-schools to prepare teachers. C. Several of the German states followed the lead of Saxony and developed a complete system of schools, from elementary schools to gymnasien and universities, providing for compulsory attendance of MODERN EDUCATION 79 both boys and girls in the elementary schools. 2. Secondary schools. A. In Germany. a. The gymnasien continued to represent the humanistic tendencies, though with some little realistic modifications as to method. b. The founding of the Real Schools (Real- schnlen). a. Hecker founded the first Real School at Berlin in 1747, its curriculum including French, German, Latin, writing, drawing, architecture, arithmetic, geometry, mechan- ics, history, geography, ethics, and religion. c. Francke's (1 663-1 727) Institute at Halle (founded 1694). a. His purpose was philanthropic. £. Aim : practical preparation for life and religious influence. B. In England. a. " Academies " founded by the non-con- forming churches, following the sug- gestion made in Milton's Tractate on Education. a. The following subjects were repre- sented in the curricula of these institu- tions : French, Italian, Hebrew, rhetoric, English, logic, ethics, metaphysics, theology, anatomy, geography, algebra, geometry, history, economics, oratory, surveying, trigo- nometry, conic sections, shorthand. 80 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 3. The universities. A. At most of the higher institutions human- istic learning in support of theology was too firmly intrenched to make place for I realism. B. The University of Halle was founded in 1694 as a seat of realistic instruction ; hence it is in a sense the first modern university. a. It stood for Lehr- and Lernfreiheit (freedom of learning and teaching). C. In 1737 the University of Gottingen was founded under realistic auspices. D. English universities were slow to respond to change. III. Naturalistic Schools. Monroe, 474, 478-479, 486- 487, 492-494, 577-583, 621-622, 625, 659-673, 692-702, 722-727 ; *234, 237- 238, 240, 245-246, 296-300, 318-319, 320, 338-348, 360-368, 381-385 ; Kemp, 203-206, 210-21 1, 214, 249-250, 265- 272, 279-281, 294-296, 299; Painter, 215, 217, 222, 225, 227-228, 274, 276- 277, 278, 296, 31 1-3 1 2 (old edition, 196, 198, 204, 2ii, 258-259, 260, 283-284); Williams, 156-157, 166, 170-175, 321- 323,400-402; Seeley, 210, 215-216, 251- 254,275-277,280-281; Compayre, 127- 132, 343-412, 456-464, 514-527. 1. In his New Atlantis Bacon suggests a research institution, named Solomon s House. MODERN EDUCATION 8 1 2. Ratke's institution at Kbthen. 3. Comenius's four grades of schools. A. The infant school. B. The vernacular school. C. The Latin school. D. The university. 4. Basedow's Philanthropinam. 5. Lancaster's and Bell's Monitorial Schools. 6. Froebel's Kindergarten. 7. Herbart's Pedagogical Seminar, and Practice School. Fifth : National School Systems I. Germany. Reports of the United States Commis- sioner of Education, 1901, Vol. I, 1 ff., 1906, Vol. I, 35-72 (contains the Prussian School Law of 1906), 1907, Vol. I, 169 ff., 1908, Vol. I,247ff.; Lexis, A General View of the History and Organization of Public Education in the German Empire (Berlin, 1904); Lexis, W. (editor), Das Unter- richtswesen im Deutschen Reich, 4 vols. (Berlin, 1904); Monroe, 729-731; *386- 388 ; Seeley, 289-295 ; Painter, 356-362 (old edition, 291-296); Kemp, 302-303, 323-324, 325-326, 344-345- 1. Administration: each state of the German Empire has its own administrative sys- tem, all such systems having the general aim to secure reasonable uniformity with sufficient elasticity to meet local condi- 82 HISTORY OF EDUCATION tions. The Prussian system as organized under the Law of 1906 is given as a type. A. The Royal Minister of Education. B. The Ministerial Councilors. C. Local administration. a. City school boards. b. Rural school boards. 2. Supervision : the teachers are not so closely supervised as in the United States, mainly because on the average they are much better trained. A. City inspectors. B. County inspectors. 3. Schools. A. Kindergartens. B. The common school ( Volksschule, Mittel- schule, Vorschule). a. These schools are gradually becoming absolutely free. C. Continuation schools. a. General continuation schools. b. Industrial continuation schools. c. Trade schools. d. Commercial schools. e. Agricultural schools. D. Secondary and collegiate schools. a. The higher classical school (Gymna- stum). b. The Latin-scientific higher school (Real- gymnasium). c. The non-classical higher school (Real- schule, Oberrealschule). MODERN EDUCATION 83 d. The advanced girls' school (Hohere Madchenschule, girls' gymnasien). E. Normal schools. F. Universities. 4. Education is compulsory from 6 to 14 for every school day. 5. Position, remuneration, and tenure of office of the teacher. II. France. Monroe, 731-733; *388-389; Seeley, 296-303 ; Painter, 363-37° ( old edition, 296-302); Kemp, 304-305, 325, 343-344- 1. Administration. A. The Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts. B. Departments of education. a. Primary. b. Secondary. c. Higher. C. Advisory boards. a. General. b. Departmental, one for each of the above-mentioned departments. D. Administrative divisions of the French Republic. a. The seventeen Academies. a. The academic councils (school boards). b. The ninety Departments. a. Their educational councils in charge of primary schools. 0. Their school inspectors. 84 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 7. Their normal schools. 8. The Arrondissements. 2. The schools. A. The maternal schools {Ecoles matemelles). a. Attendance from 2 to 6 years of age. B. The infant schools (Ecoles infantines). a. Attendance from 4 to 7 years of age. C. The primary schools. a. Lower (Ecoles primaires e'le'mentaires). a. Attendance from 6 to 13 years of age. b. Higher {Ecoles primaires superieures). a. Elementary review course of indefi- nite length. /3. High school course of five years. D. Normal schools. E. The fifteen state universities. 3. Education is compulsory from 6 to 13 for every school day. 4. Position, remuneration, and tenure of office of the teacher. III. England. Reports of the United States Commis- sioner of Education, 1902, Vol. I, 1001- 1068 (gives text of the Act of 1902), 1907, Vol. I, 74 ff., 1908, Vol. I, 175 ff. ; Balfour, Educational System of Great Britain and Ireland ; Monroe, 733-734 ; *389~39i; Painter, 37 J -377; Kemp, 305-307, 324-325, 338-340, 343- I. Administration. A. Central: The Board of Education. MODERN EDUCATION 85 a. Apportions government grants for edu- cation. b. Inspects the institutions sharing in these funds. c. Includes within its jurisdiction elemen- tary, secondary, and technical schools. B. Local : County Councils and Borough Councils. a. Receive and disburse their share of the government grants. b. Levy local taxes for the support of schools. c. Appoint an education committee to control purely scholastic affairs. a. A corps of " inspectors " form the official staff of advisers to this committee. 2. Schools. A. Elementary education. a. Public (popularly called " board " schools). a. Infant schools (ages 3-7). ft. Ordinary elementary schools (ages above 7). 7. Higher elementary schools (these overlap the ordinary ones, admitting pu- pils from the latter at ages 12 and over). b. Schools under denominational and pri- vate control (popularly referred to as " voluntary" schools); the former may participate in the government grants upon submitting to inspection and re- nouncing sectarian religious instruction. 86 HISTORY OF EDUCATION B. Secondary education. a. Under public control. a. Scholarships supplied by the coun- cils. /3. Secondary and evening schools. 7. Grants for equipment and mainte- nance of private secondary schools. b. The great " public " schools : Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester, etc. C. Special education. a. Teachers' training colleges. b. Technical schools. D. Higher education. a. "University colleges." b. The great universities : Oxford, Cam- bridge. 3. Education compulsory from 5 to 14. 4. Position, remuneration, and tenure of office of the teacher. IV. The United States. Monroe, 734-739; *39i-393 ; Seeley, 309-314; Painter, 391-394 (old edition, 320-325); Kemp, 310-31 1, 314-315,319-321,327-332,334,337-338, 345-348 ; Boone, Chs. vii, viii, ix, xi, xiii, xvii, xviii, xix; Dexter, Chs. xi, xii, xiii, xv, xviii, xx, xxi. 1. Administration. A. There is no national administrative organi- zation vested with legal authority over education. The function of such a cen- tral controlling agency is in some degree MODERN EDUCATION 87 discharged by the United States Bureau of Education, a bureau of the Department of the Interior. a. This bureau collects and issues statistics of education. b. It also issues annual reports containing in addition to the statistics valuable con- tributions on pertinent educational topics. B. State administration. a. The State Superintendent or Commis- sioner of Education. b. State Boards of Education. C. County administration. a. The County Superintendent of Schools. D. City administration. a. The Board of Education. b. The City Superintendent of Schools. 2. Supervision. A. General supervision. B. Supervision of special branches. C. Local supervision. a. The principal. b. Heads of departments. 3. The schools. A. The kindergarten. B. The elementary schools (eight grades). a. The primary grades (first to fourth grades). b. The intermediate grades (fifth and sixth grades). c. The grammar grades (seventh and eighth grades). HISTORY OF EDUCATION C. The secondary schools. a. Public high schools. a. Academic high schools. ft. Manual training high schools. 7. Commercial high schools. b. Endowed college preparatory schools and academies. c. Private academies and seminaries. D. Institutions for the preparation of teachers. a. City training schools for teachers. b. State normal schools. c. Training colleges and pedagogical de- partments of universities. d. Private normal schools. e. Institutes and teachers' associations. E. Colleges and universities. a. Privately endowed colleges and univer- sities. b. Denominational colleges. c. State universities. F. Professional and technological education. a. Law schools. b. Medical schools. c. Theological seminaries. d. Institutes of technology. e. Trades schools. Compulsory education between 7 or 8 and 13 or 14 is statutory in nearly all states. Position, remuneration, and tenure of office of the teacher. MODERN EDUCATION 89 Sixth : Education in the United States I. The Colonial Period (1619-1783). Monroe, 395- 397. 437, 500-501; *i86-i87, 211-212, 251-252; Painter, 378-385 (old edi- tion, 306-314); Williams, 247-252, 361- 365. 1. Virginia and the Southern Colonies. Boone, 12-14, 30-37, 58-60; Dexter, Chs. i, iv, 65-72, v, 73, xv, 234-237, xxi, 424- 426. A. Early efforts of the Church of England in behalf of missionary schools (beginning 1616). B. Land grant of fifteen thousand acres for an Episcopal college. C. Effect of the Indian massacre of 1622. D. The first legislation upon education in America passed by the General Assem- bly of Virginia in 1624. E. Schools founded by private bequest sprung up between 1634 and 1700. F. The College of William and Mary founded in 1693. G. Tardiness of the other Southern colonies in educational matters. 2. The New England colonies. Boone, 14-19, 20-30, 37-42, 44-53 5 Dexter, Chs. hi, v, 79-84> vi, 90-91, xv, 223-231, 237- 244, 259-261, 265-267, xxi, 424-428. A. Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies. Martin, Lectures I and II. 90 HISTORY OF EDUCATION a. The Boston Latin Grammar School (founded 1635). a. The school supported by subscrip- tions and land grants. /3. The attempt to make it a free school. 7. The headmastership of Ezekiel Cheever. b. Schools established at Charlestown (1636) and Salem (1637). c. Dorchester established (1639) the first school in America supported by direct taxation " upon the inhabitants of the town." d. Founding of Harvard College in 1636. a. Purpose : to educate a Christian ministry. /3. The bequest of John Harvard. e. The Massachusetts Law of 1647. a. The most important single legislative act in American educational history, establishing the precedent for our public school system. /3. Its main provisions. 1st, an elementary school for every fifty families. 2d, a grammar school for every one hundred families. 3d, such education may be supported by public tax. f. The tardiness of Plymouth Colony in establishing schools. MODERN EDUCATION 91 B. The Connecticut colonies. a. Rev. John Higginson opened the first school at Hartford in 1639. b. Schools in the New Haven Colony. a. Evidence points to a school as early as 1639. /3. The court enacted in 1641 that "our pastor, Mr. Davenport, together with the magistrates " establish a free school. Ezekiel Cheever was its teacher until 1650. c. The Connecticut Code of 1650. a. Provisions for schools identical wi^h those of the Massachusetts Law of 1647, viz. an elementary school for every fifty, and a grammar school for every one hundred, families, with the option of supporting them by public tax. (3. A common English education for their charges made compulsory upon the parents or guardians of children. d. Founding of Yale College in 1701. a. Purpose : to educate a Christian ministry. /3. The bequest of Elihu Yale. C. Relative tardiness of the other New Eng- land colonies in educational matters. 3. New York (New Netherlands) and the middle colonies. Boone, 9-12, 53-58, 70-77; Dexter, Chs. ii, iv, 57-67, v, 76-79, xv, 245-268, xxi, 429-430 ; Palmer, Ch. i. A. The establishment of the first school in 92 HISTORY OF EDUCATION the American colonies by the Dutch at New Amsterdam in 1633. a. Adam Roelandsen the first teacher. b. The first tax levy for school purposes was authorized in 1638. B. Later enactments affecting education. a. Peter Stuyvesant on becoming director- general (1647) urged the need of educa- tion. b. The establishment of a Latin school in 1659. C. After the surrender to the English (1664) education languished in New York, be- cause the governors were hostile toward the Dutch Reformed Church, under whose auspices the schools had been established and maintained. D. Revival of educational interests under the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (organized 1704). E. Founding of a free Latin school in 1732. F Founding of King's College (now Colum- bia) in 1754. G. Pennsylvania had ample provision for edu- cation in Penn's Frame of Government (promulgated in 1682) and in legislation dating about the same time. a. Founding of the Friends' Public School in 1689 at Philadelphia. a. This later grew into the famous Penn Charter School, which is still a flourishing institution. MODERN EDUCATION 93 b. Founding of a charitable academy at Franklin's suggestion (1749), which de- veloped into the University of Pennsyl- vania. H. New Jersey received the overflow from other colonies adjacent ; hence its schools originated from several sources. a. The earliest school was established by the Dutch at Bergen in 1619 or 1662. b. By 1669 the schools had fallen under the control of the English. c. Newark's first school was established in 1676. d. School laws were enacted in 1693 and 1695 by East Jersey authorizing the elec- tion of three men to have charge of schools. a. The collection of school tax could be enforced by the sale of property against which it was levied. e. Tennent's Log College (founded about 1727) became the basis for the later es- tablishment of Princeton College in 1746. f. Rutgers College (formerly Queen's Col- lege) was established by the Dutch Re- formed Church at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1766. II. The National Period (1783 to date). Monroe, 668-669, 671, 673, 693-697, 699-700, 701-702, 712-714, 723-729, 734-736, 94 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 743-744 5*343-344, 346, 347-348, 361- 363; 365-366, 367-368, 373-377, 382- 386, 391-393, 396-397 ; Painter, 385-395 (old edition, 314-325); Williams, 388-395, 407-413, 414-416. I. Educational development during the first fifty years of national history was slow, owing mainly to the impoverishment of the coun- try and to the direction of the people's energies toward practical issues. Boone, 61-78; Dexter, 77-79, 80-83, 84-86, 90-94; Martin, 90-134; Palmer, Chs. ii-xi. A. Prejudice against free education because the schools were regarded as "pauper schools." B. School legislation. a. The Regents of the University of the state of New York incorporated at the suggestion of Governor George Clinton (1784). b. The creation of school funds by New York. c. New York created the office of State Superintendent in 1812. d. The Public School Society of the City of New York chartered in 1805. a. It was in control of the schools of New York City for forty-eight years. e. Retrogressive legislation legalizing the district system was passed in Massachu- setts in 1789. MODERN EDUCATION 95 C. Rapid growth of the academy movement. D. Beginnings of education in the trans- Appa- lachian region. Dexter, Chs. viii, ix. a. Ohio incorporated the first academies in 1802 and passed the first public school law (based on that of New York) in 1 82 1 . b. Indiana enacted its first school law in 1824. c. Illinois incorporated three academies in 18 19, and provided by law for free schools in 1825. d. Michigan enacted a school law similar to the Massachusetts Law of 1647 in 1827. E. Establishment of school funds by state and national legislation. a. Connecticut (1795) established a school fund of $1,000,000 accruing from the sale of lands in the " Western Reserve." b. In 1786 New York set apart two lots in each township of unoccupied lands for school purposes and created a fund by the sale of a large amount of public lands in 1801. c. The "Ordinance of 1787," passed by Congress as a basis of organization of the Northwest Territory, provided that the central section of every township be reserved for the maintenance of public schools. d. In 1836 Congress distributed the sur- plus in the United States Treasury ($30,- 96 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 000,000) among the several states, and most of them used the revenue therefrom for public schools. F. Early school movements. a. The monitorial system of Lancaster in- troduced in 1805. b. The infant school movement (begun about 1825). c. The Fellenberg movement (beginning about 1825). 2. The educational revival under the leadership of Horace Mann (1 796-1 859) and Henry Barnard (181 1-1 900). Boone, 103-106; Dexter, Ch. viii ; Martin, Lee. iv ; Hinsdale, Chs. iii-vii. A. The Massachusetts State Board of Educa- tion (organized 1837). a. Horace Mann as its secretary (from 1837 to 1849). a. His campaign against the " district system " of common school control. /3. His plea for an adequate public fund. 7. His plea for normal schools and better prepared teachers. 8. His campaign for better and more sanitary schoolhouses. e. His visit to European schools and advocacy of more advanced methods. f. His Reports. B. The Connecticut State Board of Commis- sioners (organized 1838). MODERN EDUCATION 97 a. Henry Barnard as its secretary. a. His reports showed the need of organization and supervision. (3. He established teachers' meetings and institutes. 7. He founded and edited the Ameri- can Journal of Education. 3. Organization of state systems of education. A. In the Middle and Far West. Dexter Chs. viii, x. a. Elementary education. b. The development of public high schools. c. State universities. a. The Morrill Act (1862) apportioned to each state thirty thousand acres (or scrip to that amount) per representative and senator in Congress, subject to sale at $1.25 per acre, the proceeds to be used to found higher institutions in which were represented a technical and agricultural curriculum. /3. The following state universities origi- nated in this act : California, Illinois, Maine, Minnesota, Nebraska, Nevada, Ohio, West Virginia, Wyoming. B. In the Southern states. Dexter, Ch. ix ; Boone, Ch. xx. 4. The United States Bureau of Education (es- tablished in 1867). Dexter, 202; Boone, 308-311. A. Henry Barnard was the first United States Commissioner of Education. 98 HISTORY OF EDUCATION 5. Training of teachers. Boone, Chs. viii, ix; Dexter, Ch. xviii ; Luckey. A. Teachers' institutes. B. Teachers' reading circles. C. Normal schools. a. The pioneer work of Rev. James G. Carter. b. The work of Horace Mann in promot- ing normal schools. c. The establishment of the State Normal College at Albany, New York (1844). a. Its success under the presidency of David P. Page. d. The New Britain, Connecticut," State Normal School was established in 1849 with Henry Barnard as' principal.* e. The Oswego, New York, State Normal School (1861), under the principalship of Edward Sheldon, was a pioneer in intro- ducing Pestalozzian methods into the United States. *«%!>**. D. City training school for teachers. E. Pedagogical departments in colleges and universities. F. Colleges of education. G. Teachers' associations. a. City teachers' association^ b. State teachers' associations. c. The National Educational Association. 6. Education of women in the United States. Boone, 68-70, Ch. xxi; Dexter, Ch. xxi. A. The " Dame Schools " in colonial days. MODERN EDUCATION 99 B. Girls were at first taught in the public schools only during certain hours. C. The establishment of girls' seminaries and academies. a. Mrs. Emma Willard founded the Troy Female Seminary in 1821. D. Higher institutions for women. a. Miss Mary Lyon founded Mt. Holyoke Seminary in 1837; this institution de- veloped into Mt. Holyoke College (fully organized as a college in 1893). b. Eimira Female College (1855), the fi rst to graduate women with the same stand- ard as prevailed in men's colleges. c. Vassar College (1865). d. Smith College (1875). e. Wellesley College (1875). E. Coeducation in the West. 7. Introduction of European influences into the United States. A. The Pestalozzian movement. B. The Froebelian movement. a. Miss Elizabeth Peabody founded the first kindergarten in the public schools in 1870. b. For a time the kindergarten was con- sidered as an aim of philanthropic work and was introduced into several cities in this way. c. It was first permanently adopted as part of the public school system by St. Louis in 1873. d. Kindergarten training classes and schools. 100 HISTORY OF EDUCATION e. The work of Miss Susan Blow in eluci- dating Froebel's ideas. C. The Herbartian movement. a. Resort of American students of educa- tion to Professor Rein's seminary and practice school in connection with the University of Jena, Germany. b. Translation of Herbart's educational writings. c. Publication of books on methodology that are founded upon the Herbartian pedagogy. d. The " Herbart Club " (1892-1901). References. Williams, History of Modern Education ; Monroe, *A Brief Course in the History of Education ; Quick, Educational Reformers ; Munroe, The Educa- tional Ideal ' ; Hughes, Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits ; Monroe, W. S., Comenius and the Begin- nings of Educational Reform ; Laurie, Life and Works of Comenius ; Davidson, Rousseau and Education accord- ing to Nature ; De Guimps, Pestalozzi, His Life and Work ; Pinloche, Pestalozzi and the Foundation of the Modern Elementary School; De Garmo, Herbart and the Herbartians ; Bowen, Froebel and Education through S elf -activity ; Boone, Education in tJie United States; Dexter, History of Education in the United States ; Martin, Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School System ; Palmer, The New York Public School ; Luckey, The Professional Training of Teachers. For other references consult the lists following Ori- ental, Greek, Roman, and Mediaeval education. APPENDICES APPENDIX A SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL INFLUENCES IN EDUCATION BEGINNING WITH THE RENAISSANCE I. Leading humanists (14th, 15th, and first half of 16th centuries). A. Italy. 1. Petrarch (1304- 13 74), who popularized the classics and wrote Italian. 2. Boccaccio (13 13-1375), a Greek student and writer of Italian tales. 3. VlTTORINO DA FELTRE (1379-I446), who incorporated the classics in the curricu- lum and adopted the best features of clas- sical method. B. Germany and the Netherlands. 1. Rudolph Agricola(i443-i485), a brilliant classical scholar. 2. John Reuchlin (1455-1522), who intro- duced Hebrew study and Bible criticism into Germany, thus preparing for the Reformation. 3. Desiderius Erasmus (1467- 1536), who was the most remarkable classical scholar of his day, translated from Greek, edited the Greek New Testament, and satirized 103 04 HISTORY OF EDUCATION the pedantry of the mediaeval educa- tion. C England. i. John Colet (1466-15 19), who studied in Italy, introduced the humanistic move- ment at Oxford, and founded St. Paul's School (15 12). 2. Roger Ascham (15 15-1568), a celebrated tutor of Lady Jane Grey and Queen Elizabeth, author of " The Scholemas- ter," and advocate of gentler measures in discipline, and a new method of teach- ing Latin. II. Popularizers and organizers of education among the adherents of the Reformation ; in- fluences chiefly humanistic and religious (16th century). A. Martin Luther (1483-1546), who started the Protestant Reformation in Germany, and advocated state supervision for educa- tion (to be compulsory) in circular let- ters to public officials and in sermons to the people. His plan contemplated pri- mary schools for the people, Latin schools, and universities. B. Philip Melanchthon (1497- 15 60), the lieu- tenant of Luther in furthering his edu- cational projects, and the first great organizer of German schools. He be- came official school inspector and drew up the Saxony School Plan (1528), the APPENDIX A 105 first step toward a state school system in Germany. There were to be three classes — elementary, secondary, and advanced ; and mathematics, music, religion, rheto- ric, dialectic, and the classics were among the branches taught. Melanch- thon also did important work as pro- fessor, editing classics and writing text- books. C. Johann Sturm (1 507-1 589) made his contri- butions to educational history as rector of the Strasburg Gymnasium, which he de- veloped into the best classical school of his day. He developed a thoroughly organ- ized curriculum consisting of a gymnasial course of ten years, and an academic lecture course of five years. Piety, knowledge, and eloquence were his aims, and religious study, the classics, grammar, rhetoric, and logic, and some mathematics were the means of realiz- ing them. III. Teaching congregations (16th and 17th centu- ries), organized for the furtherance of education and missionary work within the Catholic Church. A. The Jesuits, organized in 1540 at the insti- gation of Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), were originally called the Society of Jesus. They provided carefully organ- ized collegiate instruction, given by 106 HISTORY OF EDUCATION specially trained teachers. Sturm was the model for their Inferior Course of five grades (Lower, Middle, Upper Gram- mar, Humanity, Rhetoric), which was followed by a Superior Course of two or three years in philosophy, supplemented by four to six years of theology. All parts of their work were outlined in great detail in the Ratio Studiorum, issued in 1599. The organization was inelastic, the supervision close. Rote study, emulation, and mere learning re- ceived too much emphasis. At the same time, the discipline was relatively mild, the lessons were short and definite, and the singleness and clearness of aim of the system secured remarkably accurate re- sults ; hence the Jesuit schools were unquestionably superior to other con- temporary forms of education in France. They are worthy of serious attention as a study in thoroughness and organization, as well as an example of the dangers of overemphasizing routine and emulation. As in the Strasburg Gymnasium under Sturm, religion, the classics, and the art of elegant expression were the chief ob- jects of their curriculum. B. The Port Royalists (1643- 1660), a ls° called Jansenists on account of their adherence to the anti- Jesuit reaction led by the Catholic bishop Jansen, were organized APPENDIX A 107 under the leadership of St. Cyran, in the belief that education is able to regenerate society. Their schools were called the Petites Ecoles (Little Schools). They provided education for any who might give signs of ability, emphasizing espe- cially primary training. They incorpo- rated in their practice many of the suggestions advocated by the educa- tional reformers. Classes were kept small, discipline was mild yet strict and effectual, the vernacular (French) was emphasized both by teaching in it and by texts written in it. Reading was taught by giving the sound-equivalents of the pronounced letters of words (" phonic " method), and the work was rendered pleasant by open-air lessons. Amuse- ments were used in instruction with good effect, but systematic physical training was neglected. Many of the Port Royal teachers wrote text-books, and their con- tributions to logic are particularly note- worthy. C. The Brethren of the Christian Schools (1684) was a teaching society founded by La Salle (165 1-1 7 19), who formulated the rules for its guidance in The Conduct of Schools. His purpose was to develop the order into a teaching body for the poor, and he provided both elementary instruction and technical training for com- IOS HISTORY OF EDUCATION mercial and industrial pursuits. Silence was observed as far as possible, all method was prescribed by rigid rule, but corporal punishment gave way to pen- ances. Simultaneous teaching of pupils arranged in grades was invented by La Salle. He followed the Jesuits in de- manding special preparation for his teachers, and to this end he opened a Seminary for Schoolmasters in 1685. Though the Brethren are subject to criticism for overemphasizing religious instruction, they deserve commendation for being among the first to give serious attention to practical branches, such as drawing, history, geography, bookkeep- ing, architecture, and physics. IV. The educational reformers (innovators) (1 6th- 1 8th centuries). A. France. 1. Francois Rabelais (1483-1553), the satir- ist of scholastic pedantry, the champion of the educational fruits of the renais- sance, and the forerunner of educational reform, wrote the Life of Gargantua and Heroic Deeds of Pantagruel (written about 1 534-1 535), in which he draws a graphic contrast in the education of Gargantua between the futility of scho- lastic educational methods and the wiser pedagogy of a natural method with the APPENDIX A 109 Greek and Latin classics as the basis of instruction. Rabelais was the first of the school of educational realists, and had an undeniable influence on Mon- taigne, Locke, and (indirectly) Rousseau. His demands included the use of the senses, the influence of nature in early training, gradual substitution of an im- proved method instead of sudden revo- lution (" Nature does not endure sudden changes witJwut great violence." — Rabe- lais), the use of suggestion and emula- tion, interest in physical environment, open-air exercise, the emphasis of the principle of self-activity, and gentle measures in discipline, fortified by a sympathetic relation between teacher and pupil. In a word, naturalism was to take the place of pedantry ; sympathy and understanding, that of harsh sup- pression. 2. Montaigne (1533-1592) wrote the Educa- tion of Children. In it he imitates Rab- elais in many points, among them being his contempt for scholastic pedantry. He had come under the influence of the renaissance respecting the subject-matter of the curriculum, but he took a decided step in advance in his advocacy of more rational method. He was a realist, as is shown by his emphasis of things before words, by his appeal for practical results, HO HISTORY OF EDUCATION and by his hearty recommendation of travel. He attributes great importance to history and biography as means of moral education, and cautions the teacher to study and sympathize with child na- ture. Language is to be learned by actual use rather than grammatical rule. The judgment is to be cultivated. Many other wise suggestions are urged, some of them but a reiteration of posi- tions taken by Rabelais. (See Introduc- tion to Rector's Montaigne s Education of Children, pp. 7-18.) 3. Jean Jacques Rousseau (171 2-1 778) was an apostle of a principle already in the minds of some of his predecessors in educational reform, but never previously so vigorously emphasized nor so consist- ently developed, — the principle, namely, that nature must play the chief role in a proper scheme of education. This is the central theme of the Emile, and by it the feasibility of Rousseau's project of educational reform, taken in its entirety, must be judged. Rousseau lays particu- lar stress on the training of the senses in observation, upon a careful insight into child nature, upon starting with the pupil's immediate environment in the natural sciences, and on a careful educa- tion of girls for the duties of wifehood and motherhood. Punishment is to be APPENDIX A III by the natural consequences, a certain de- gree of hardening is recommended, and the tutor is to direct and guide the pupil with a concealed hand, bringing him un- obtrusively into contact with nature in a manner that will secure the most benefit. During infancy (up to 5) there is to be little interference ; during childhood (5 to 12) the vegetative and animal func- tions are allowed free scope for devel- opment ; during boyhood intellectual acquisition is to go on and a trade to be learned; and during youth (15 to 20) the sentiments, the religious and the ethical impulses are to mature. Principles set forth by the earlier reformers (especially Montaigne and Locke) are in evidence on almost every page of the Emile ; but the exuberance of a vivid and logically un- trammeled imagination distorts many of them almost past recognition. Rous- seau may be classified as both naturalist and realist. B. England. 1. Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611) embod- ied the results of a long educational experience in two works of considerable merit, the Positions (1581) and the Ele- mentarie. Though recognizing three stages in education, viz. elementary training, the grammar school, and the university, he confines his remarks to 112 HISTORY OF EDUCATION the first in the belief that good pedagogi- cal methods are most important in the formative period. He suggests the early determination of the child's natural apti- tudes, and instruction with this in view. He insists on the supreme importance of the mother tongue, and includes drawing and music as branches of the early cur- riculum. He makes a plea for education of girls, and, still more remarkable con- sidering his early date, adduces many cogent arguments for institutions for the professional training of teachers. Alto- gether Mulcaster is a fitting herald of a new era in education. 2. John Milton (1608-1674) acknowledges the influence of Comenius in his Trac- tate on Education (1644). He criticises conditions in the England of his day, proposes to reform them by an institu- tion which shall embody the whole range of education from elementary training to university. He defines the purpose of education to be " to repair the mines of our first Parents by regaini?ig to know God aright." Studies, exercise, and diet are the matters over which education is to have jurisdiction. Latin should be studied more for its content and less from the dry, linguistic standpoint. The Italian pronunciation should be used. It is largely through the classics that APPENDIX A 113 other branches of the curriculum are to be mastered. Physical training is to be largely in the open air, and somewhat martial in character. Milton is a verbal realist 3. John Locke (1632-1704) published his Thoughts concerning Education in 1693. He was influenced by Montaigne and in turn influenced Rousseau (see Quick's edition of the Thoughts, pp. xlviii-liii and Rector's Montaigne's Education of Children, pp. 13-18). He advocated tutorial instruction, and wrote his book to bring about reform in the education of the English gentleman. He advocated the hardening process to extremes. His treatment of moral training is in the main good, and he makes a plea against the severe punishment too often found in the schools of his time. Locke devotes much attention to the subject of habit, as we should expect in view of his theory that the mind is at birth like a blank sheet of paper, and gets its form entirely through experience. Both corporal pun- ishment and rewards are unjustifiable. Manners are to be inculcated by example. There is relatively little that advances upon Montaigne in Locke's suggestions regarding intellectual education. Words are to be related with things as their symbols, — a position which classifies him 114 HISTORY OF EDUCATION among the realists. The English should receive the first attention, then French, then Latin. He advocated trade edu- cation even for the nobility. C. Germany. i. Wolfgang Ratke (Ratichius ; Ratich) ( 1 571-1635) does not interest us because of his absurd claims to have discovered a means of accomplishing unheard-of edu- cational results, but because he asserted some excellent truths along with much that was inexpedient. In his Methodus Nova and elsewhere are to be found the following principles : 1. Follow nature. 2. One thing at a time. 3. Assure the results by repetition. 4. Use the mother tongue as the subject of early instruction and in presenting the other branches of later instruction. 5. Do not use con- straint. 6. Do not learn by rote, but train the reasoning powers. 7. Primary instruction is a universal right. 8. Teach pupils to rely on personal experience rather than authority. 9. Rules must be verified by examples. 2, John Amos Comenius (1 592-1670) can be compared only to Pestalozzi in his influence in determining the theory upon which modern elementary education is based. This theory is that the child can be educated only by bringing him into first-hand contact with things, or at least APPENDIX A 115 with the symbols which come nearest to representing them (pictures). It is thus, he holds, that the child is to acquire his language, which should always be the mother tongue first and foremost. Co- menius's most influential works are the elementary text-book called Orbis Pictus (1657), which associates words, corre- sponding pictures, and related ideas in a very ingenious way (this is the first children's picture book, — the original of the long line of A B C-books and early readers which have followed); and the book on method called Didactica Magna (Great Didactic), published in 1657, which gives us in detail his educational theory. Education is to begin at birth and end at twenty-four. The first six years are to be spent in the mother school (home), where accurate use of the senses, correct speech, and moral lessons are to be the pupil's acquirements. The time from seven to twelve is to be devoted to the vernacular school (elementary), where reading and writing the mother tongue, drawing, arithmetic, civil government, history, and geography are in the curri- culum. From thirteen to eighteen is to be devoted to the Latin-school (gymnas- ium), where grammar, geometry, astron- omy, physics, rhetoric, logic, and ethics receive the chief attention. The univer- Il6 HISTORY OF EDUCATION sity course is to complete the student's career, offering an education that fits for the various professions or provides gen- eral culture. Aside from his important work in showing the way to proper elementary text-books, and in defining the broad principles of educational organization, we owe to Comenius the most lucid enunciation of the method and principles of modern elementary education made by any of the reformers. Indeed, it is no exaggeration to say that modern elementary education is but the expansion and practical application in elaborate detail of principles that he advocated. The most important of these are as follows : i. Education aims to prepare for complete living ; hence it should be universal. 2. Education should follow nature, and be adapted to the child's psychological development. 3. The condition of the mind depends upon that of the body; hence there must be provision for physical training. 4. The mother tongue should be first acquired, and then made the medium of all other instruction. 5. Nature must be studied that the child may learn to use his senses properly and to acquire knowl- edge at first hand. 6. Since early training of the instincts and habits is of supreme importance, the mother must be APPENDIX A 117 educated that her early work in this line may be good. 7. The curriculum must be enriched by practical branches such as geography and history. 8. The branches must be correlated into a single unit of thought (classification, etc.). 9. Teachers need special training. 10. Schools need better grading and supervision. 11. Languages must be taught for use, not as the basis of gram- matical study. Of these several princi- ples the teaching of the mother tongue, the use of objects and pictures, and the need of school organization and public support are the ones that speak most prominently of Comenius. It hardly need be said that realism was his educa- tional creed. Comenius was chiefly influenced by Ratke and Bacon, and was himself influential either directly or in- directly in shaping the views of Francke, Rousseau, Milton, Pestalozzi, and Froebel. V. Early experiments in educational organization dominated by reform principles (18th century). A. August Hermann Francke (1663-1 727) is a unique figure in the history of education on account of the remarkable organizing ability which he displayed. Convinced of the soundness of the main contentions of the reformers, and keenly alive to the Il8 HISTORY OF EDUCATION deplorable condition of the poor, he started with nothing but his vast energy and resourcefulness as a leader, and built up a philanthropic educational institution which is even to this day a monument to his name in the famous university town of Halle (Germany). Francke began in 1694 with a capital of a few thalers which he had collected in alms, and built out of this slender pittance an establishment that included at the time of his death the following : 1. A school for the poor. 2. A Latin school for the more prosperous. 3. A school for the nobility called the Pedagogium. 4. An orphans' home. 5. A training school for teachers. B. Johann Bernard Basedow (i 723-1 790) re- calls Ratke in the absurdity of his claims and his inability to substantiate them. He was a disciple of Rousseau's doctrine of naturalistic education, though he did not push it to the full logical extreme in the way that Rousseau did. After having tried the experiment of educating his daughter as is suggested in the Emile, he inaugurated the experiment in a far more elaborate way in the institution given the grandiloquent title of Philanthropinum. The project soon came to grief, perhaps more owing to the unwarrantable claims and unsuccessful management of its APPENDIX A II9 founder than to the inherent unsoundness of the principles that it strove to carry out. Its service consisted in calling attention to the artificial rearing of the average child of the better classes, and in pointing the way to a practical appli- cation of the best teachings of Rousseau. Basedow wrote a Book on Methods, and an Elementary Book, in the latter of which the influence of Comenius is shown on every page. VI. Educational reform from the psychological stand- point (last quarter of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries). A. John Henry Pestalozzi (1 746-1 827), to whom modern elementary education owes its existence, entered upon a career dedicated to regenerating the peasantry of Switzerland. After try- ing to accomplish this result by in- dustrial reforms (improved farming, industrial school, etc.) with no marked success, he came to the conclusion that a combination of industrial, moral, and intellectual education was best adapted to the needs of the poorer classes. As an agency for social regeneration su- perior even to the school, he deter- mined to seek the cooperation of the home, and when he organized schools connected with his various establish- 120 HISTORY OF EDUCATION ments, he planned them after the home. This central thought is espe- cially emphasized in his most influential work, the Leonard and Gertrude (1781). Pestalozzi began his experimental farm- ing at a small estate to which he gave the name of Neuhof. The experiment lasted from 1771 to about 1775, when the farm was converted into an indus- trial school in which he began his actual teaching. His connection with this project covered a span of only five years. The eighteen years between 1780 and 1798 were devoted to author- ship on educational subjects. Pestalozzi was hi charge of the orphanage at Stanz during 1798 to 1799, and we see here the first traces of the pedagogical method which he was later to mature. From 1799 to 1804 he was assistant in a school at Burgdorf, and here he carried out his ideas even to the extent of arousing the jealousy of the head- master. The best part of his life, that in which his most influential work oc- curred, was passed at a school at Yver- don, established according to his own ideas. He taught here from 1805 to 1825, and was visited by officials from Germany and elsewhere, who inspected his plans with a view to national adop- tion. Pestalozzi was no organizer; APPENDIX A 121 hence we can derive no lessons in school administration or school economy from him. His work, nevertheless, changed the whole face of primary education. His supreme purpose was to prepare men to be social and moral beings. The plain corollary of such an educational aim is state provision of schools. Another principle for which he stood is that the school must have about it more of the spirit and atmos- phere of the home, less of that of the barn. But the reason why Pestalozzi is the first of the line of reformers to base his contentions on a keen psycho- logical insight is that he maintained at all points, both in theory and in practice, that knowledge begins in sense-impressions (Anschauungen), and develops into general truth through mental elaboration. Aside from the principles just mentioned, the most important are as follows: I. Connect language with sense-objects. 2. Pro- ceed from the simple to the complex, developing steps that are psychologi- cally related. 3. Opportunity must be allowed after each step for the pupil to assimilate the knowledge. 4. The pupil's individuality must be preserved. 5. Education should aim not to cram the mind with information, 122 HISTORY OF EDUCATION but to develop character and power. It will be remarked that none of these propositions is absolutely novel. Hence Pestalozzi's claim to our gratitude lies not so much in their enunciation, as in his having shown the way to their concrete application. Comenius and Rousseau were perhaps the strongest influences in determining Pestalozzi's thinking, but he transcended both be- cause of the possession of that rarest of endowments, a great and sympa- thetic heart which pulsated instinctively to the weakness and dependence of childhood. B. Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (i 782-1 852) systematized the educational ideas that Pestalozzi had left in more or less chaotic form, emphasizing the latter's theory of the connection between the home and the school. This he was especially com- petent to do not only by reason of native fitness for the task, but also because he had the unusual opportunity of having spent some time as disciple of Pestalozzi at Yverdon. Froebel's mystical philoso- phy, expounded in the Education of Man, is of less interest to the general student of education than his practical work in developing the Kindergarten. One con- siderable section of this work, however, is devoted to a discussion of the topic of APPENDIX A 123 the relationship between the school and the family. It is this point, systemati- cally developed, and combined with the notion that play may be used by the teacher as an educative agency, that has furnished the groundwork of the whole Kindergarten movement. Froebel em- ployed certain systematic exercises in elaborating his ideas. The so-called gifts were devised for the acquirement of knowledge, the so-called occupation (in- cluding songs and games) for its motor expression. Among the former are the simple geometric solids (sphere, cube, etc.), which aid in analysis, synthesis, contrast, etc. ; among the latter the various forms of mat-weaving. C. Johann Friedrich Herbart ( 1 776- 1 84 1 ) ap- plied psychology to the development of method. He is hence regarded by many as the father of scientific pedagogy. He delivered lectures on this subject at the University of Konigsberg, where he founded a famous practice-school and pedagogical seminary. Aside from many works on psychological and philosophical subjects, he wrote a number on educa- tion, chief of which is the General Pedagogy ( A llgemeine Pddagogik). The moral side of education is most important for Herbart, and to secure the end of character or moral will he relies on his 124 HISTORY OF EDUCATION two fundamental principles of appercep- tion and interest. Apperception means that the new presentation shall get its ex- planation and elucidation by bringing it into connection with that part of past experience which has some likeness to it. As this part of experience is probably that which has greatest interest for one (as is shown by the very fact that it per- sists), it becomes evident that the new will gain meaning and interest (motive-power) by this association with the old. VII. Famous educators of the 19th century. A. Thomas Arnold (1 795-1 842) became head master of Rugby in 1828, and it is his work in administration and discipline in this famous English public school which has brought him prominently before the educational world. He expressed his educational views in sermons and in letters to friends. It was his belief that character is fully as much an aim of education as letters, and it was this view which shaped his administrative policy. Though a thorough advocate of the English notion that the education of a gentleman involves his careful training in the classics, he yet maintained that the pedantry that too often characterized Latin and Greek in the teaching at the English public schools should yield to a APPENDIX A 125 more interesting method. He would have geography taught as an adjunct to history. It was Dr. Arnold's personality that made him a power, and he illustrates the need of this rare quality in the teacher. B. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) was the most famous philosophical writer of England during the century just passed. Though he had little practical knowledge of education, either on its theoretical or its practical side, he was not backward in expressing his disapproval of the state of education in England during the middle decades of the last century. His contri- butions to the literature of education con- sist of four essays, originally published as magazine articles, and later printed in book form under the title, Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. The most significant of these discussions, considering the time that it was written, is the first, which attempts to determine the relative value of the several branches of human knowledge, in order to see which should be given the chief place in the curriculum. The worth of a thing is regarded by Spencer as fixed by its power to satisfy human needs. And these needs are those which contribute to self-preser- vation, which aid in rearing offspring, which minister to social relations, and 126 HISTORY OF EDUCATION which furnish occupations for leisure, — named here in the order of their impor- tance. Hence the several branches of human knowledge are important as they satisfy these needs. The trend of the argument is to put the sciences in place of the classics, which at one time usurped so much of the student's time. In moral education Spencer has some good sug- gestions, as when he advocates punish- ment by consequences. Nor can one quarrel with his views on physical edu- cation. Many of the views stated by Spencer are now accepted as common- places of school economy, and hence his work is no longer so influential as it once was. Nor can we find much that was really original. C. Horace Mann (1796-1859) would be gener- ally selected as the most prominent figure in American education. His work was that of a pioneer. His efforts aimed at two things, viz. better oganization and supervision of the elementary schools, and a more efficient and professionally trained teaching force. Born in Massa- chusetts, the son of poor but upright parents, making his graduation from an unusually successful college course at Brown University by his indomitable energy, Horace Mann's early life sug- gests to us the typical American charac- APPENDIX A 127 teristics of self-reliance and self-help. He chose law for his profession, and soon became interested in public affairs, serving from 1827 to 1837 in the Massa- chusetts Legislature. As President of the Massachusetts Senate during the session of 1837, he signed a bill consti- tuting a State Board of Education, whose duties were to collect returns from schools, to study the best methods, and to make reports on the condition of pub- lic elementary education in the Common- wealth, and to suggest means for its improvement. Mr. Mann at once be- came secretary of this Board, and served in this capacity until elected to the Lower House of Congress in 1848. It is to this period that we are indebted for his most significant services to the American public school. Mr. Mann's work in Massachusetts had several im- portant results: I. He aroused the public to a feeling of the need of schools supported by the people for the people. 2. He pointed to the necessity of the expansion of the schools both in num- bers and in curriculum. 3. He empha- sized the necessity of better organization and supervision, and did much to indi- cate the lines along which improvement was to be made. 4. He helped to edu- cate the taxpayer to the idea that it is 128 HISTORY OF EDUCATION the best economy to provide wisely and liberally for public education. 5. He called attention to the backward state of American schools in methods, as con- trasted with contemporary European education. 6. He championed the main- tenance of special schools for the pro- fessional training of teachers, and was the chief force in securing the first in this country for his native state. 7. He was almost a pioneer in creating Ameri- ca's distinctive contribution to educa- tional literature, viz. public school re- ports. D. Henry Barnard (1811-1900) was first sec- retary of the Connecticut State Board of Education. He called together the first body of American teachers ever assem- bled as a teachers' institute in 1839. He was the first United States Commissioner of Education, appointed when the Na- tional Bureau of Education was estab- lished in 1867. But Mr. Barnard's most permanent and widely useful work is founding and editing The American Journal of Education, founded in 1855, and running through thirty-one volumes up to 1 88 1. The journal has collected and rendered accessible an immense store of material, from all sources, and on all subjects from history of education to method. APPENDIX B SUMMARY OF THE LEADING FACTS IN THE EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEW YORK STATE I. In colonial times. A. Under the Dutch, the pioneers in elementary- common school education in America. The first official act (1629) related to ways and means of supplying a minister and school- master. First public school opened in 1633 ; a second one in 1652. Private schools also flourished during the 17th century. Schools supported by gifts, general taxation, and rat- able tuition fees. Towns reserved lots for school purposes (Flatbush, Brooklyn). B. Under the English, the governors, being aristo- cratic in training, generally opposed popular education. They required, (1) that instruc- tion be given in the English tongue, and (2) that all licenses to teach be obtained from the Archbishop of London, the Archbishop of Canterbury, or of themselves. Whatever was done for the schools seems to have been the result of the Dutch influence. Only three legislative acts were passed between 1664 and 1775, and all these referred to secondary and 129 130 HISTORY OF EDUCATION higher education. King's College (now Co- lumbia University) was founded in 1754. II. Under independence and statehood, New York claims primacy in two particulars, (1) the establishment of the first elementary common free schools, and (2) the development of an adequate state system of education. The fol- lowing agents and factors have been promi- nent in both particulars : — A. The Board of Regents (of the University of the State of New York) was created in 1784 by an act reorganizing King's College. In 1787 the duties of the Board were changed and en- larged. The Regents' Examinations began in 1828. Examinations in the preliminary branches began in 1864; in the advanced subjects in 1878. In 1889 the supervision of training classes and schools was transferred from the Regents to the Department of Public Instruction. In 1904 the Board was reor- ganized. B. Governor George Clinton (1) secured the reor- ganization of King's College and the crea- tion of the Board of Regents; (2) obtained an act creating the " Gospel and School Lands "; and (3) secured the passage of an act in 1795, appropriating $100,000 annually for five years for the support of common schools. This act became the corner stone of the state educa- tional system. C. Governor DeWitt Clinton (1) aided in the found- APPENDIX B 131 ing of the Public School Society in New York, and was its first president ; (2) favored legis- lation in behalf of the common schools; (3) recommended the establishment of a teachers' seminary; (4) advocated the adop- tion of the Lancastrian system of instruc- tion ; and (5) secured an appropriation in 1827 amounting to $150,000, for the " Litera- ture Fund" established the same year. D. Gideon Hawley, the first State Superintendent of Schools (18 1 3-182 1), produced order out of chaos by providing for the proper manage- ment of the school fund, by organizing the state into districts for better supervision, by lengthening the school year, by increasing the school attendance, and by setting in motion the intricate machinery of the State School System. E. Extent and manner of supervision. X 8i2 — office of State Superintendent and Town Commissioner of Common Schools created. !8i4 — inspectors from among the citizens ap- pointed to aid Town Commissioner. 1 82 1 — State Superintendency abolished and duties performed by the Secretary of State. I 84 I — deputy-superintendents (later called county superintendents) created. r 343 — town commissioners and inspectors abolished and Town Superintendent of Schools created. !847 — county superintendents abolished. 1854 — Department of Public Instruction estab- 132 HISTORY OF EDUCATION lished, the executive officer being the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 1856 — town superintendents abolished and commissioners reestablished. 1904 — Department of Public Instruction abol- ished, and a State Board of Education and office of Commissioner of Education estab- lished. F. School funds. 1. The Permanent School Fund, founded in 1805, obtained from the sale of public lands, etc. 2. The Literature Fund, established in 1827, maintained by annual appropriations by the State Legislature. 3. The United States Deposit Fund, established during Jackson's administration as President. New York's share was $4,014,520.71. 4. Free School Fund (money raised by public taxation), established about 1867. G. Professional preparation of teachers. 1826 — Teachers' Seminary recommended by Governor DeWitt Clinton. 1827 — establishment oi the Literature Fund for the preparation of teachers. 1834 — Regents authorized to expend part of Literature Fund, resulting in the establish- ment of "training classes." 1843 — first State Teachers' Institute held at Ithaca. 1844 — first State Normal School opened at Al- bany (became State Normal College in 1890). APPENDIX B 133 1863 — Oswego Normal School opened. 1870 — New York Normal College opened. 1889 — training classes transferred from the Board of Regents to the Department of Public Instruction. 1904 — training schools put in charge of the Third Deputy Commissioner of Education. APPENDIX C OUTLINES OF MODERN EDUCATIONAL CLASSICS References are to the following editions : Montaigne, The Education of Children (translated and edited by Rector). Appleton : International Education Series. Milton, A Tractate on Education (edited by Browning). Cam- bridge University Press : Pitt Press Series. Locke, Some Thoughts concerning Education (edited by Quick). Cambridge University Press : Pitt Press Series. Rousseau, Emile, or Concerning Education (extracts by Steeg). D. C. Heath & Co. : Heath's Pedagogical Library. Pestalozzi, Leoiiard and Gertrude (translated and abridged by Channing). D. C. Heath & Co. : Heath's Pedagogical Library. Spencer, Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. D. Apple- ton & Co. Montaigne's Educational Theory The Education of Children I. Introduction. Biography, pp. 1-6. Relation to Locke and Rousseau, pp. 13-17. Montaigne's Essays, published 1580-1588. Locke's Some Thoughts concerning Education, published 1693. Rousseau's Emile, published 1762. Modern educational views anticipated by Montaigne, p. 18. II. Of the Education of Children, pp. 19-85. Insight into Montaigne's habits of thought, pp. 19-23. Respect for the classics, showing humanistic influences. 134 APPENDIX C 135 Proper training of children difficult, pp. 24, 25. Education limited to the nobility and private (tutorial), pp. 26-29. Method : cultivate judgment rather than memory, pp. 29-34. Value of travel and history to develop broadmindedness, pp. 34, 42-48. Danger of parents spoiling children, pp. 35, 37, 3%- Realism shown in the suggestion that the world of men and manners be the text-book, and that the educational aim be practical, pp. 46-50. Study to be rendered interesting and pleasant, pp. 50-53, 61-63. Inculcation of virtue: practice, not theory, pp. 54, 55. A child's ability to be the criterion of his education, pp. 56-58. The pupil not to be a bookworm, p. 58. Wisdom, manners, and tact practical aims of education, pp. 63-66. All learning should result in action, pp. 66-68. "Things to precede words," pp. 68-71. Affectation and pedantry criticised, pp. 68, 74, 75. Montaigne's own education, pp. 77-85. Milton's Educational Theory A Tractate on Education Introduction on Milton as a reformer, pp. xi-xxv. Milton's statement of his purpose, pp. 1-3. The aim of education, pp. 3, 4. Importance of languages, p. 4. Futility of mediaeval methods, p. 5. The better method, pp. 5-7. A liberal education defined, p. 8. Age limits : 12-21, p. 8. Plan of an educational institution including school and university, pp. 8, 9. Curriculum, 9-17. Grammar : rules and pronunciation, pp. 9, 10. Reading of books on educational theory, p. 10. Mathematics, p. n. 136 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Writers on agriculture, p. 11. Greek begun, p. 12. Other practical subjects, pp. 12, 13. Religion, ethics, and law, pp. 13-15. Hebrew, p. 15. History, the drama, and eloquence, pp. 15-17. Physical exercises, pp. 17-23. Use of weapons, p. 18. Wrestling, p. 19. Music, pp. 19, 20. Military maneuvers, pp. 20, 21. Excursions and walks, p. 21. Locke's Educational Theory Some Thoughts concerning Education Aim of education, §§ 1, 33. Aim of this work, § 6. Hardening, §§ 4, 5. Man is what education makes him, §§ 32, 217. Discipline, §§ 43-65 ; 72-87. Choice of a tutor, §§ 88-94. Importance of habit, §§ 10, 18, 66, 127. Imitation of companions, § 70. Use of games, §§ 130, 149-154. The course of study, §§ 155-195- Recreations, §§ 196-200. Learning a trade, §§ 201-21 1. Value of travel, §§ 212-215. Rousseau's Educational Theory Emile, or Concerning Education Aim of education, pp. 11-15. Earliest period, pp. 24-30. Children over-taught, pp. 39-42. Love due to children, pp. 42-44. Reasoning to be postponed, pp. 52-54. APPENDIX C 137 Sense of ownership, pp. 63-67. Moral education, pp. 68-74. The memory, pp. 77-80. Sense-training, pp. 96-113. Result at 12, pp. 113-119. Age of study, pp. 121-123, 128-132, 138-147, 155-157- Pestalozzi's Educational Theory Leonard and Gertrude I. Principal characters of the story and what they typify. A. Gertrude : the idea that social^ reform is to spring from woman's activity within the sphere of the home. B. Leonard : the idea that a naturally weak moral character may gather strength from feminine influence, even though the bonds of habit are pretty well forged. C. Leonard and Gertrude's children : the influence of good moral instruction on the young. D. Arner : the beneficent arm of just government mitigating the hardships of the poor. E. Hummel : the element of evil in human society and the harm it does. II. Scene : the village of Bonnal typifies human society, first in the state in which Pestalozzi found it, and second, after re- generation through industry, moral order, and practical education. III. Chapters of the story that unfold Pestalozzi's educational views. A. Moral influence of the proper home spirit. Chs. IV, VIII, XXIII. B. Gertrude's Sabbath with her children as exemplifying moral and religious instruction. Ch. X. C. Contrast between the moral effects of domestic order and disorder. Ch. XVI. D. Gertrude's method of teaching. Chs. XVII (toward end), XXV. E. Regeneration of society through domestic order and skilled (educated) industry. Chs. XXII, XXXI, XXXII ; pp. 174 (middle), 178, 179. 138 HISTORY OF EDUCATION Spencer's Educational Theory Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical I. The question of educational values (the problem of the cur- riculum) . A. Culture (ornamental) vs. utility, pp. 1-12. B. Order of value of kinds of knowledge : self-preservation (13-27) ; gaining a livelihood (27-39) 5 rearing of off- spring (40-51) ; citizenship (51-59) ; ornamental knowl- edge (59~ 6 3)- C. Supreme value of science, pp. 63-87. II. The question of method (problem of pedagogical procedure). A. Contemporary methods criticised, pp. 88-101. B. Value of the following Pestalozzian principles : simple to complex (115) ; concrete to abstract (116-117) ; race de- velopment in knowledge the cue to individual's develop- ment (117-119) ; empirical to rational (1 19-120) ; educa- tion to be by self-development, i.e. self-instruction or self-evolution (120-122, 155-157) ; pleasurable excite- ment of happy activity in the pupil (122-124, 157-161). C . Order of education in infancy and early childhood : sense- culture (124-128); object-lessons and observation (128- 138) ; drawing (138-147) ; elementary geometry (147- 153). III. Moral education (Ch. Ill), emphasizing natural as opposed to artificial punishment (punishment by consequences). IV. Physical training (Ch. IV). INDEX This Index is subdivided into an Index of Titles, an Index of Names, and an Index of Subjects. Topics not listed under one heading may be found by consulting the other headings. INDEX OF TITLES Reference books and text-books are not included. Address to Princes (Ratke), 56. Address to the Friends of Humanity and to Persons in Power, on Schools, on Education, and its Influence on Public Happiness, An (Basedow), 62. Address to the German Nation (Fichte), 63. Advancement of Learning (Bacon), 58. ^Esthetic Revelation of the World as the Chief Function of Education, The (Herbart), 66. Affection of Fathers, Of the (Mon- taigne), 53. American Journal of Education, The (Barnard), 97, 128. Atrium [Interior-court] (Comenius),5o. Book of the Dead (Egypt), 3. Capitularies (Charlemagne), 34. Classical Letters (Sturm), 49. Conduct of Schools, The (La Salle), 5 1 . io 7- Conduct of the Understanding (Locke), 57- Confessions (Rousseau), 61. Cyropozdia (Xenophon), 16. De Oratore [On Oratory] (Cicero), 26. Economics (Xenophon), 16. Education, On [Ueber Padagogik] (Kant), 62. Education by Development (Froebel), 69. Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical (Spencer), 71, 125. Outline of, 138. Education of Children, Of the (Mon- taigne), 53, 109. Outiine of, 134, 135. Education of Man (Froebel), 69, 122. Elementarie (Mulcaster), 54, 55, in. Elementarwerk [Elementary Book] , (Basedow), 62, 119. Emile, or Education (Rousseau), 60, 61, no, in. Outline of, 136, 137. Essay concerning Human Understand- ing (Locke), 57. Evening Hour of a Hermit (Pesta- lozzi), 64. Examination (Sturm), 49. First Liberal Education of Children, On the (Erasmus), 47. Five Classics (China), 4. Four Books (China), 4. General Pedagogy [Allgemeine Pada- gogik] (Herbart), 123. Great Didactic, The [Didactica Magna] (Comenius), 58, 59, 115. Habit, Of (Montaigne), 53. Heroic Deeds ofPantagruel (Rabelais), 52, 108. History (Montaigne), 53. How Gertrude teaches her Children (Pestalozzi), 64. Iliad (Homer), 10. Instauratio Magna [Great Instaura- tion] (Bacon), 58, 59. Institutes of Oratory (Quintilian), 27. 141 142 INDEX Janua Linguarum Reserata [The Gate of Tongues Unlocked] (Co- menius), 59. Laws (Plato), 17. Laws of the Twelve Tables (Rome), 23, 24. Leonard and Gertrude (Pestalozzi), 64, 120. Outline of, 137. Letters to the Mayors and Aldermen of all the Cities of Germany in be- half of Christian Schools (Luther), 48. Life of Gargantua (Rabelais), 52, 108. Methodical Instruction, both in Natu- ral and Biblical Religion (Base- dow), 62, 119. Methodus Nova [New Method] (Ratke), 56, 114. Mutter- und Koselieder [Mother and Nursery Songs] (Froebel), 70. Nouvelle Heloise (Rousseau), 61. Novum Organum (Bacon), 58. Odyssey (Latin translation by Livius Andronicus), 24. Old Testament (Judea), 5. Orbis (Sensualium) Pictus [The World of Sense-objects Illustrated] (Comenius), 59, 115. Order of Studies, On the (Erasmus), 47- Origin of Inequality (Rousseau), 61. Outlines of Educational Doctrine (Herbart), 66. Pedagogics of the Kindergarten (Froe- bel), 69. Pedantry, Of (Montaigne), 53. Pestalozzi' s Idea of an A B C of Sense- perception (Herbart), 66. Plan (Sturm), 49. Politics (Aristotle), 18. Positions (Mulcaster), 54, 55, in. Ratio Studiorum [Plan of Studies] (Jesuits), 50. Republic (Plato), 16. Saxony School Plan, The (Melanch- thon), 49, 104. Scholemaster, The (Ascham), 53, 104. School of Infancy, The (Comenius), 59- Science of Education (Herbart), 66. Science of Knowledge [Wissenschafts- lehre] (Fichte), 63. Sermon on the Duty of sending Chil- dren to School (Luther), 48. Social Contract (Rousseau), 61. Some Thoughts concerning Educa- tion (Locke), 57, 113. Outline of, 136. Talmud (Judea), 5. Tractate on Education, A (Milton), 54, "2. Outline of , 135, 136. Vedas (India), 5. Vestibulum [Entrance-hall] (Come- nius), 59. Vocation of the Scholar (Fichte), 63. Zend-Avesta (Persia), 6. INDEX OF NAMES Only names of persons are included. Where several page references are given, the most important are in bold-faced type. Abelard, 37. Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, 46. Agricola, Rudolph, 47, 103. Albertus Magnus, 37. Alcuin, 33, 34. Alexander the Great, 19. Alfred the Great, 34. Anselm, Saint, 37. Anthony, Saint, 32. Aquinas, Saint Thomas, 37. Archimedes, 19. Aristotle, 17 f ., 36, 38. Arnauld, 51. Arnold, Thomas, 124 f. Ascham, Roger, 53, 104. Augustine, Saint, 32. Bacon, Sir Francis, 58, 117. Bacon, Roger, 44. Barnard, Henry, 96 f., 98, 128. Basedow, Johann Bernard, 61 f., 81, 118 f. Bell, 81. Benedict, Saint, 32. Blow, Susan, 100. Boccaccio, 46, 103. Bonaventura, 37. Carter, James G., 98. Cassian, 32. Charlemagne, 33 f. Cheever, Ezekiel, 90, 91. Christ, 31. Chrysoloras, 46. Chrysostom, Saint, 32. Cicero, 26. Clement of Alexandria, 32. Clinton, Governor DeWitt, 130 f ., 132. Clinton, Governor George, 94, 130. Cnaius Naevius, 24. Colet, John, 47, 104. Columbus, Christopher, 45. Comenius, John Amos, 58 ff., 65, 71, 81, 112, 114 ff., 119, 122. Comte, Auguste, 74. Confucius, 4. Cyran, Saint (see Duvergier de Hauranne). Dante, 46. Davenport, John, 91. Dewey, John, 74 f . Duvergier de Hauranne, 51. Erasmus, Desiderius, 47, 103 f. Erigena, 37. Euclid, 19. Feltre, Vittorino da, 46, 103. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 63. Francke, August Hermann, 79, 117 f. Franklin, Benjamin, 93. Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm, 69 ff.. 75, 81, 117, 122 f. Gorgias, 13. Guarino, Battista, 47. Gutenberg, 45. Harvard, John, 90. Hawley, Gideon, 131. Hecker, 79. Henry VIII, 49- Herbart, Johann Friedrich, 65 ff., 81, 100, 123 f . 143 144 INDEX Higginson, John, 91. Hippias, 13. Jansen, 106. Jerome, Saint, 32. Justinian, Emperor, 32. Kant, Immanuel, 62 f ., 69. La Fontaine, 51. Lancaster, Joseph, 81, 96. La Salle, Jean Baptiste de, 51, 107 f. Livius Andronicus, 24. Locke, John, 56 f., 65, 67, 69, 73, 109, in, 113 f., 136. Loyola, Ignatius, 50, 105. Luther, Martin, 48, 78, 104. Lycurgus, 10. Lyon, Mary, 99. Magellan, 45. Mandeville, Sir John, 44. Mann, Horace, 96, 126 ff. Marco Polo, 44. Medici, Cosimo de, 46. Melanchthon, Philip, 48 f., 78, 104 f. Mencius, 4. Milton, John, 54, 112 f., 117, 135 f. Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de, 53 f ., 109 f., in, 113, 134 f. More, Sir Thomas, 47. Mulcaster, Richard, 54 f., in f. Nicholas V, Pope (see Parentucelli). Nicole, 51. Page, David P., 98. Parentucelli, Tommaso, 46. Pascal, 51. Patrick, Saint, 32. Peabody, Elizabeth, 99. Penn, William, 92. Pericles, 13. Pestalozzi, John Henry, 63 ff., 66, 69, 7°> 7 1 . 73> 75. ™7» "9 S-, 122, 137- Petrarch, 46, 103. Philip of Macedon, 19. Pius II, Pope (see Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini). Plato, 16 f., 36. Prodicus, 13. Protagoras, 13. Ptolemies, 19. Ptolemy the Astronomer, 19. Pythagoras, 14. Quintilian, 27 f. Rabelais, Francois, 52 f., 108 f., no. Ratich [Ratichius] (see Ratke). Ratke, Wolfgang, 55 f., 81 , 114, 117. Rein, Professor Wilhelm, 100. Reuchlin, John, 47, 103. Roelandsen, Adam, 92. Rousseau, Jean- Jacques, 60 f., 65, 71, 109, no f., 113, 117, 118, 119, 122, 136 f. Seneca, 26 f. Sheldon, Edward, 98. Socrates, 14 f. Spencer, Herbert, 71 ff., 125 f., 138. Spurius Carvilius, 23. Sturm, John, 49, 77, 105. Stuyvesant, Peter, 92. Tertullian, 32. Vergerius, Petrus Paulus, 46. Verulam, Lord (see Bacon, Sir Francis). Ward, Lester F., 74. Wessel, John, 47. Willard, Emma, 99. Xenophon, 15 f. Yale, Elihu, 91. INDEX OF SUBJECTS Aim of education, statements of, 14, 15, 18, 27, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 61, 63, 64, 67, 70, 71. Apperception, 67. Apprenticeship, 23. Asceticism, 31. Athenian education, Old, n f. New, 13 f. Benedictine order, 32. Brethren of the Christian Schools, 5 1 f . Burgher schools, 38. Castle school, 35. Catechetical school, 32. Cathedral school, 32. Chinese education, 4. Chivalric education, 35. Church fathers, 32. Citharist (see Music-master). Concentration, theory of, 68. Conceptualism, 37. Correlation, theory of, 69. Cosmopolitan Greek education, 19. Counter-reformation (see Jesuit edu- cation). Crusades, 34 f . Curriculum, 4, 10, 11 f., 13, 17, 18, 23, 24, 28, 33, 35 f., 37, 49. 5 1 . 52, 59 i-, 72. Didaskaleion (see Music-school). Disputation (see Jesuit education). Double-translation, 53. Early Christian education, 31 f. Educational principles, statements of, 26, 27, 53, 54, 55. 56, 57, 60, 61, 64 f., 66 f., 70, 72. Educational theory, Greek (see Aristotle, Plato, Pythag- oras, Socrates, the Sophists, Xenophon). Roman (see Cicero, Quintilian, Seneca). Modern (see Ascham, Comenius, Froebel, Herbart, Kant, Locke, Milton, Montaigne, Mulcaster, Pestalozzi, Rabelais, Ratke, Rous- seau, Spencer). Educational values, 71 f. Education of women (see Female education). Educative instruction, 68. Egyptian education, 3. England, School system of, 84 ff. English public schools, 49, 77. Enlightenment movement, 60. Ephebic training, 11, 12. Episcopal schools (see Cathedral school). Erudition (see Jesuit education). Evolutionary conception, 75 f. Female education, 11, 12, 17, 3^, 61, 98 f. Formal discipline defined, 56. Formal discipline movement, 56 f. Formal steps, 68. France, School system of, 83 f. Germany, School system of, 81 ff. Government, types of, 5, 9, 16. Grammatical-school, 25. Grammaticus (see Literatus). Grammatist, 12. Greek drama, 19. Greek education, 9 ff . Greek games, 19. 145 146 INDEX Guild schools, 38. Gymnasium, Greek, 12. German, 49, 77. Gymnastic, 10, 17. Gymnastic-master, 12. Habit, 57. Hebrew education (see Jewish edu- cation). Hindu education, 4 f. Humanistic movement, 45 f. Humanistic schools, 77. India (see Hindu education). Inner school, 33. Jansenists, 51. Jesuit education, 50. Jewish education, 5. Judea (see Jewish education). Kindergarten, 70 f., 99 f. Literator, 24. Literature, 3, 4, 5, 6, 19, 24, 25, 36. Literatus, 24. Ludimagister (see Literator). Ludus, 24. Many-sided interest, 68. Mediaeval education, 31 flf. Mediaeval universities, 37 f. Modern education, 43 ff . Mohammedan culture, 38. Monastic education, 32. Monasticism, 32. Music, 10, 11, 17, 18, 33. Music-master, 12. Music-school, 12. National school systems, 81-88. Naturalism defined, 57. Naturalistic movement, 57 ff. Naturalistic schools, 80 f . Natural punishment, 72. New York State (see Summary of education in the State of New York). Nominalism, 36. Oratorians, 50 f . Oratory of Jesus (see Oratorians). Outer school, 33. Outlines of Modern Educational Classics, 134-138. Paedotribe (see Gymnastic-master). Palace school, 34. Palaestra (see Wrestling-school). Pansophic scheme, 59 f. Parishad, 4. Parish school, 32. Parochial school (see Parish school). Pedagogical seminary, 66. Pedagogue, 12, 25. Persian education, 5 f. Philanthropinum, 62. Philosophical schools, 14 ff., 25. Prelection (see Jesuit education). Priest, 3, 5. Primitive education, in Greece, 9 f . in Rome, 23. Psychological movement, 63 ff . definition of, 63. Punishment by consequences Natural punishment). Quadrivium, 33. (see Rationalistic movement, 62 f. defined, 62. Realism, scholastic, 36. modern, defined, 52. Realistic movement, 52 ff. Realistic schools, 78 ff. Religion, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 17, 22. Reformation, Protestant, 47 ff. in England, 49. Renaissance (see Humanistic move- ment). Repetition (see Jesuit education). Revival of Learning (see Humanistic movement). Rhetor, 25. Rhetorical school, 25. Roman education, 21 ff. Scholasticism, 36 f. INDEX 147 Scholastic (see Schoolmen). School funds, 94, 95, 96, 97. Schoolmen, 37. Schools of the prophets, 5. Scribe, 3, 5. Self -activity, 70. Self-development, 65, 70, 72. Self-government, 72. Simultaneous instruction, 51. Social organization, 3, 4, 6, 10, 21, 22. Society of Jesus (see Jesuit education). Sociological conception, 73 ff . Sophist, 13. Spartan education, 10 f. Summary of education in the State of New York, 129-133. Summary of modern education, 103- 128. Synagogue, 5. Systems of education (see Chinese education, Egyptian education, Greek education, Hindu educa- tion, Jewish education, Mediaeval education, Modern education, National school systems, Sum- mary of education in the State of New York). Training of teachers, 50, 52, 55, 66, 78, 98. Trivium, 33. Tutorial instruction, 53, 54, 55, 57. United States, school system of, 86 ff . Historical sketch of education in the, 89-100. Universals, 36. Utilitarian movement, 71 f. definition of, 71. Wrestling-school, 12.