WICKSON Class ■' ' ^'■' v'f Bnnk l^A./ . GopightN" COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT CALIFORNIA FRUITS CALIFORNIA FRUITS AND HOW TO GROW THEM FOURTH EDITION REVISED AND EXTENDED A Manual of Methods which have yielded the Greatest Success; with Lists of Varieties best adapted to the different districts of the State of California. BY EDWARD J.t^ WICKSON, A. M. Dean and Professor of Agriculture in the College of Agriculture of the University of California; Director and Hortic University Agricultural Experimeut Station; author of "California Vegetables in Garden and Field:" Editor Pacific Rural Press; member National Council of Horticulture^ etc. ' The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear, And verdant olives flourish round the year ; The balmy spirit of the western gale Eternal breathes on fruits untaught to fail ; Each dropping pear a following pear supplies, On apples, apples, figs on figs arise : The same mild season gives the blooms to blow. The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow." Pope's Horn. Odys. Bk. VII. ^ SAN FRANCISCO: THE PACIFIC RURAL PRESS, PUBLISHER 1909. Copyrighted, 1908, by Edward J. Wickson and The Pacific Rural Press. Published December, 1908. All rights reserved. LIBRARY of congress] Two CODies Received UEC 17 1906 ,A Oopyri»iit i(n CLASS O- COPY XXc, Wo, The Kruckeberg Press, Horticaltural Printers and Engravers Los Angeles, California LUTHER BURBANK. TO LUTHER BURBANK, OF SANTA ROSA, CALIFORNIA, Whose creative horticultural genius has by new coinage of " Blooming, ambrosial fruit of vegetable gold," amply requited the world's gift of the choicest flowers and fruits for the advancement and adornment of Cal- ifornia—thus bestowing new honors upon the State and new riches upon mankind — this work is cordially in- scribed as an exponent of esteem and appreciation. PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. THIS treatise on California fruit growing, which now appears in its fourth edition is in a way a reflection of the beginnings, the development, and the present greatness of the fruit industries of a State which leads all the States of the Union in the breadth and variety of horticultural production, as well as in the amount of capital invested therein, and the income derived from such investment. The first edition of the work, which appeared in 1889 as the result of several years diligent labor, reflected the historical mood which prevailed at that time, and gave much at- tention to details of early deeds and experiences which the pioneers, many of whom were at that time still active, considered the proper foundation for more extended efforts. The welcome which greeted the first edition was surprisingly appreciative, and in little more than a year the whole edition of two thousand copies was sold, chiefly vidthin the boundaries of the State. So sharp was the demand that the work was wholly reset, with some additions but otherwise with little change in the text, and the second edition appeared in 1891. This edition began to attract attention in other semi-tropical countries where people were desirous of growing fruits as Cali- fornia grew them, so that the work began to have a world sale, though in the limited way which is usually open to technical treatises. There was, however, a quiet time in California land and fruit planting investments in the early years of the last de- cade of the last century, and the second edition sold more slowly than the first, but still reached the end of the supply about 1897. By this time, so many changes had crept into California methods and so many points of view had changed, the writer himself gaining better insight and knowledge, that work began in 1898 upon a re- vision which nearly amounted to a complete rewriting, in the course of which his- torical matters were largely eliminated and fuller attention paid to details of methods which were becoming more rational and better suited to the great industry which had been fairly entereil upon. The third edition appeared in 1900, found a demand similar to that for the second edition, and was exhausted just before the San Fran- cisco fire of 1906, which destroyed all the material used in printing earlier editions, part of which it was intended to use in the present edition, and some new material specially collected for it. Immediately after the fire the demand for the book re- asserted itself but it was not possible to proceed at once with the work, although the writer continued the collection of data, and conducted systematic inquiries in order that up-to-date practices might be understood and correlated. In the spring of the present year arrangements were made by the author and his publishers. The Pacific PART FOUR : THE GRAPE. 25 The Grape Industry in California 231 26 Propagating and Planting Vines 233 27 Pruning and Care of the Vine 245 28 Grape Varieties in California 255 PART FIVE : SKMI-TROPICAI, FRUITS. 29 Date Culture in our Desert Areas 265 30 The Fig : the Grandest Fruit Tree of California 269 3 1 The Olive and its Growth in California 279 32 The Orange: King of California Fruit 294 33 The Pomelo or Grape Fruit in California 319 34 The Lemon and Minor Citrus Fruits 321 35 Standard Packs for Citrus Fruits 329 36 Minor Semi-Tropical Fruits in California 333 PART SIX : SMALL FRUITS. 37 Berries and Currants in California 343 PART SEVEN : NUTS 38 Nut Growing in California 357 PART EIGHT : FRUIT PRESERVATION. 39 Fruit Canning, Crystallizing and Preserving 373 PART NINE : FRUIT PROTECTION. 40 California Methods with Injurious Insects 387 41 Diseases of Trees and Vines 404 42 Suppression of Injurious Animals and Birds 410 43 Protection from Wind and Frost 413 PART TEN : MISCELLANEOUS. 44 utilization of Fruit Wastes 419 Topical Index 423 FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. The Calimyrna (Genuine Smyrna) Fig, in color natural size .Frontispiece Portrait of Luther Burbank (j From Oranges to Snow : a southern California scene 2.5 A block of one hundred thousand Seedling Citrus Trees 49 • English Walnut Seedlings 61- Citrus Tree budded to twenty-two different varieties 73 Apricot Thinning in the Santa Clara valley 105 Apricot Trees with and without Cultivation 113 Check System Irrigating a Walnut Grove in Summer 121. Check System Irrigating a Walnut Grove in Winter 129 ' Irrigating Cement Ditches with Division Gates I'ST' Machine for making Cement Pipe 145 "^ Irrigating an Orange Grove situated on a hillside . : 149 • Marshall's Red : a California Apple 161^ Cook's Seedling : a California Apple 169 Albright's Cling : a California Peach 193 McKevitt's Cling : a California Peach 201 The Plumcot, natural size 219 The Santa Rosa Plum, natural Size 220 The Formosa Plum, in natural colors 225 A Young Vineyard in the San Joaquin valley 241 The Gros Colman grape 256 .The Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) 267 Views of Calimyrna (Genuine Smyrna) Fig Orchards 273 Fig Drying on the Roeding Place in the San Joaquin valley 277 Four poDular varieties of the Olive 289 A perfectly grown budded Citrus tree 297 A typical Washington Navel Orange Grove 305 ' The Triumph Pomelo (Grape Fruit) 321 Two Lemon Groves : showing clean culture jnd a cover crop 325 The Victor Loquat : a California variety 337 The Loganberry : a California hybrid 353 The Paper Shell Pecan 369 California sunshine Evaporator with necessary buiWings 378 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Tins treatise has enjoyed from its first appearance, the most srenerous appreciation of Californians who have accepted it as the visible expression of their efforts, their sacrifices and their successes. They have in fact manifested toward the wort a generosity so warm that it has seemed to transcend patriotic regard and enter the higher region of affectionate feeling — some tokens of which the writer has numbered among the greatest joys of his life, and the strongest incentives to greater effort. In the progress of the revision and enrichment of the fourth edition it has been the intention of the writer to give personal credit in the text to those who have appeared to him as original sources of factor suggestion, but in making so many citations errors or omissions may have occured and for such lapses pardon is asked. The writer desires to especially acknowledge the generosity with which pictorial material has been placed at his disposal. He has been given freedom in his use of plant portraits, illus- trations of culture methods, etc., by horticultural institutions, by nurserymen and propagators, and by growers and fruit hand- lers in all parts of the state. Only a part of such material could be used but the same thanks belong to all whose tenders were received. Most available pictures were found in the rich collec- tions of Mr. R. M. Teague, who has at San Dimas, Los Angeles County, what is believed to be the greatest citrus tree nursery in the world. In deciduous lines heaviest draft was made upon the collection of Mr. George C. Roeding of Fresno, whose emi- nence both as a nurseryman and culturist will be obvious to any one who reads the text. Several excellent fruit portraits are taken from the publications of Mr. F. H. Wilson of the Fresno Nureries. Aside from such free use of private property the writer has probably over drawn his citizen's right to public property in the reproduction of plates and text engravings which are original with the United States Department of Agri- culture, and the Experiment Station of the University of Cali- fornia, in the lines along which the writer had the distinction of collaboration with these institutions. PART ONE: GENERAL. CALIFORNIA FRUITS CHAPTER I THE CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA AND ITS LOCAL MODIFICATIONS IX climatic conditions affecting horticulture we have in California almost an epitome of the whole United States, with added clim- atic characters peculiarly our own. We have high mountain valleys with wintry tempera- ture-conditions, where only hardy northern fruits can be grown ; we have hot valleys where the date palm confidently lifts its head to the fiery sunshine, while its feet are deeply planted in moist substrata beneath the sandy surface ; but we cannot claim tropical condi- tions, because our dry air denies vis many strictly tropical growths, although we have frostless sites for them. Intermediate be- tween the cold and snow of the mountains and the heat and sand of the desert, we have every describable modification and gradation, and, naturally, it is between these extremes that our richest inheritance of horticultural adaptation lies. When this breadth and scope of our horti- cultural adaptations is realized, it becomes ap- parent that an enumeration of the fruits we can grow successfully would be, in fact, a catalogue of the known fruits of the world, except those which are strictly tropical. Wherever there is a northern or southern departure from the equator sufficient to bring energy to mankind, or where the same is ac- complished by elevation upon tropical moun- tainside or plateau, there also are fruits which find a welcoming home in California, and are improved by the intelligent cultivation and selection which here prevail. (Jn the other hand, it has been abundantly demonstrated, during recent years, by oflScial awards at great exhibitions and by the sharp criteria of the markets as well, that the fruits of wintry regions are quite as much benefited by trans- fer to proper locations in California as are the people who come to grow them. From north and south alike, then, California makes grand acquisitions and includes within her area the adaptations of the whole country, with some which no other State possesses. But while this horticultural scope is claimed for the State as a whole, it is necessary to add that local adaptations within the State must be very narrowly drawn. Our greatest failures have followed ill choice of location for the' purpose intended. Whenever certain Cali- fornia fruits have been ill spoken of, they have been produced in the wrong places, or by ill-advised methods. It is possible, then, to produce both poor and perfect fruit of a given kind. It niay be said this can be done anywhere by the extremes of culture and neg- lect, but to this proposition it must be added that in California equally excellent methods and care may produce perfection in one place and the opposite in another. One who seeks to know California well must undertake to master both its horticultural greatness and littleness ; and so closely are these associated, and so narrow the belts of special adaptations, that there are many counties which have a range of products nearly as great as the State itself. Climatic Peculiarities 18 California Fruits : It is hard for the stranger to realize this. It is difficult for him to beHeve that the terms "northern" and "southern" have almost no horticultural significance in California ; that northern fruits reach perfection, under proper conditions, at the south, and vice versa ; that some regions of greatest rainfall have to irri- gate most frequently ; that some of greatest heat have sharpest valley frosts ; that some fruits can be successfully grown through a north and south distance of 500 miles, but cannot be successfully carried a few hundred feet of either less or greater elevation ; that on the same parallel of latitude within a hundred miles of distance, from coast to mountainside, one can continuously gather marketable Bartlett pears for three months — not to mention the second crop, which is often of account on the same trees in the same season. Through the multitude of local observa- tions, which seem perplexing and almost con- tradictory, it is possible to clearly discern certain general conditions, of both nature and culture, which may be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Californian. The climate of the Pacific Coast is de- scribed by the meteorologist as "insular or moderate," as contrasted with the "conti- nental or excessive" climate of the regions east of the Sierra Nevadas. The west coast of Europe is also insular in its climate. The northern limit of an annual mean tempera- ture of 50 degrees Fahr. is 50 degrees and 47 degrees of north latitude on western coasts of Europe and America respectively. But though there is this similarity in mean annual temperature, there is a decided advantage per- taining to our climate over that of west Europe in that our range of temperature is less ; that is. extremes of heat and cold are nearer together, and changes are therefore much less excessive. This characteristic of our local climates is due in the main to two great agencies, one active, bringing heat, the other passive, shielding us from arctic influ- ences. First : Our proximitv to the Pacific Ocean. Professor McAdie, who has charge of the San Francisco office of the United States Weather Bureau, says : "The prevailing drift of the surface air in temperate latitude is from west to east. Therefore the proximity of the Pacific, with its mean annual tempera- ture of 55 degrees . Fahr. serves to prevent large temperature changes, because of the water vapor and also because the air comes landward. Whenever the circulation is re- versed, temperatures vary." Second : Another agency contributing to the mild climate of the Pacific Coast consists in the mountain barriers upon our northern and eastern boundaries. It was Guyot who first called attention to , the fact that the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains reach the coast of Alaska and bend like a great arm around its western and southern shore, thus shutting oS or deflecting the polar winds that otherwise would flow down over the Pacific Coast States, while California has her own additional protection from the north in the mountain arch which has its keystone in Mount Shasta. CHIEF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND CLI- MATIC DIVISIONS OF CALIFORNIA. California is usually divided into three main areas and climates, each distinct in typical conditions and yet separated by regions, more or less wide, in which these conditions merge and influence each other. Dr. Robertson says* : Isothermal lines which normally run east and west are, as they near the Pacific, deflected north and south, and define three distinct climatic belts. These may be named coast, valley and mountain ; and while they resemble each other in having only two seasons, they are dissimilar in other respects. These differences depend upon the topography of the country, and are of degree rather than of kind; altitude, distance from the ocean, and situation with reference to moimtain chains, sivmg to each region its characteristic climate. How similar are the conditions which pre- vail in these belts may be learned from the data shown in the following table, which in- cludes points separated by nearly the whole length of the State, the difference in lati- tude of the extreme north and south points being seven or eight degrees. Thus, through a north or south distance great as that which separates the States of Georgia and New- York, similar climatic conditions prevail in California. In the following table the aver- ages are deduced from observations by the United States Weather Bureau observers for a Ions: series of vears : •Report of State Agricultural Society, 1S86, p. 322. How to Grow Them 19 Local Characteristics LOCATIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF DIFFERENT FRUITS. It is intended to describe as definitely as possible the locations suitable for the growth of different fruits in the special chapters given It is apparent then that the selection of locations for orchards must be made with a knowledge of special conditions governing the distribution of equal temperatures and other natural agencies contributing to the development of fruit. This distribution, as has been intimated, is not by straight lines, as Seasonable and extreme temperatures and average rainfall in various California regions from the records of the United States Weather Bureau to the close of 1907, STATIONS COUNTY Be COAST Eureka Humboldt San Francisco San Francisco. . San Jose Santa Clara King Cit.v Monterey Santa Barbara Santa Barbara . . Los Angeles Los Angeles San Diego San Diego VALLEY Redding Tehama Sacramento Sacramento Merced Merced Fresno Fresno Visalia Tulare FOOTHILL AND MESA Auburn Placer Redlands San Bernardino . 64 47 50 56 54 52 85 20 45.8 155 51 55 59 59 56 101 29 22.7 95 50 57 67 60 58 104 18 14.8 33H 49 57 66 60 58 114 15 10.8 130 55 58 65 63 60 100 28 16.6 293 55 60 70 65 62 109 28 15.6 93 55 59 68 63 61 101 32 9.4 552 47 60 80 64 63 117 18 36.2 71 47 59 72 62 60 108 19 19.9 173 49 61 79 65 63 120 16 10.3 293 47 60 79 64 63 114 20 9.2 334 46 59 78 62 61 113 17 9 8 1360 47 57 75 64 61 110 12 33.4 L352 52 61 77 65 64 113 25 14.8 to those fruits, but there are a few general conditions which should be outlined. In discussing the choice of location for an orchard it is not intended to speak geograph- ically. As has already been intimated, lati- tude, which is a prime factor in geography, is of exceedingly small account as an indication of horticultural adaptations in California. The fact becomes strikingly apparent when it is known that the apple and the orange, fruit kings whose kingdoms lie at opposite borders of the temperate zone, so far distant that one may be called semifrigid and the other semi- tropical, have in California utter disregard for the parallels of latitude, which set metes and bounds upon them in other lands, and flourish side by side, in suitable localities, from San Diego to Shasta. Impressive as this truth may be, it is not so startling as another fact, viz., that fruits, in suitable interior situations, ripen earlier at the north than at the south — a complete reversal of the tenets of the geog- rapher. in parallels of latitude, but by curves, which proceed in various directions, governed chiefly by topography. These are curves of tempera- ture, of rainfall, of elevation, of soil forma- tion and deposit. Geography retires from authority; topography and climatography govern. Let these ruling conditions be reviewed, then, briefly: First, as to general areas; second, with reference to special situations and locations. COAST CLIMATE. The chief characteristics of the coast are equable temperature, increasing southward ; summers cool and winters warm, as compared with the interior ; abundant rainfall, decreas- ing considerably southward ; a somewhat humid atmosphere, as compared with the in- terior ; frequent fogs or overcast skies ; pre- vailing westerly winds. The extension of coast influence toward the interior is governed by local topography. The Coast Climate 20 California Fruits : Coast valleys open to ocean winds are cooler and moister and demand hardier fruits than valleys sheltered by intervening ranges. Gaps and passes in the ranges are subject to winds of considerable force and low temperature, and are not generally favorable for fruit ; on the other hand, situations sheltered on the north and west favor growth of fruits even though quite near the coast. Sometimes a distance of a few miles, sometimes a wind- break of natural forest or of planted trees, so modifies coast influences that fruits do well. Elevation on the sides of coast valleys secures similar results. For example, the floor of the Pajaro Valley is well suited for apples, late pears, cherries, plums, prunes, and berries (except gooseberries), while on adjacent hill- sides peaches do well. In southern California, coast winds are warmer than in the upper half of the State, but coast influences intrude further, as a rule, because the hills near the coast in southern California are low ; the high ranges, answer- ing to the Coast Range of the upper part of the State, trending far into the interior. On the coast side of these ranges fruits ripen later than in sheltered interior points in the upper part of the State, but eastward of the mountains, where soil and moisture favor, or irrigation is practised, extra early locations have been found and are now being rapidly developed — in the Imperial and adjacent val- leys, for instance. Some of the horticultural eiTects of the con- ditions prevailing on the coast may be de- scribed as follows : Late Ripening of Fruits. — The late ripening of fruits west of the mountains in southern California has just been men- tioned. Intrusion of coast influences has the same effect in more marked degree at the north because the ocean winds are colder. Directly on the coast, at Pescadero, San Mateo County, for example, fruits ripen about a month later than in Santa Clara Valley, which is just across the Coast Range. Napa Valley, though about forty miles inland and sheltered by ranges of hills, still is sufficiently affected by coast influences to mature fruits considerably later than Vaca Valley, ten or fifteen miles further east, beyond a higher range, which completely bars out these in- fluences. Similar local effects are found in southern California. For instance, in Ventura County, 'in a canyon sixteen miles from the ocean, and at an elevation of si.xteen hundred feet, fruits ripen three weeks earlier than on the coast or in the valleys opening thereon. F.-\iLURE OF Cert.mn Fruits. — Though killing frosts are few directly on the coast, the deficiency in summer heat and sun- shine renders some fruits unsatisfactory. This is especially the case in the upper coast re- gion. Grapes and figs ripen imperfectly, while but a short distance back from the coast, in situations, sheltered by ridges parallel to the coast, they do well. Elevation sometimes pro- duces corresponding effects. Pests and Diseases. — Certain blights are more prevalent under coast conditions. The scab blight of the apple, the curl-leaf of the peach, and some other blights, are prev- alent on the coast and in coast valleys, on the river bottoms in the interior, and on the mountains, and less serious, or wholly absent, in the hot interior valleys. Some insects pre- fer the coast but thrive also in the interior, as hot dry wind is excluded by dense growth of the tree and the included air becomes moister above irrigated soil. A notable instance is the black scale, which, with the black smut which attends it, has long been a grievous pest of growers of olives and citrus fruits, and has recently become prevalent on deciduous fruit trees in some regions. Directly under coast influences, moss and lichens gather quickly and should be removed. Spraying with alkaline washes not only kills insects but cleans the bark from parasitic vegetable growth. Although fruit trees on the coast are not so subject to sunburn as in the in- terior, there is especial value in low heading to withstand winds ; there should also be plenty of room given the trees, that sunshine may have free access to warm the ground all around the tree, which may be undesirable in the interior. VALLEY CLIMATE. The characteristics of the interior valley climate are higher summer and lower win- ter temperatures than on the coast, the range of temperature being nearly the same both north and south ; rainfall abundant in the north and decreasing rapidly southward, so that as a rule the interior valleys in the How to Grow Them 21 Valley and Mountain Climate south half of the state require irrigation ; very dry air and ahnost constant sunshine, freedom from fogs and from dew in sum- mertime ; winds occasionally strong, hot, and dessicating in summer and cold in winter. Local Modifications. — The term "valley climate" is broad, and includes everything, from the coast to a certain elevation on the slope of the mountains. Certain small valleys protected from cold northerly winds and from fog-bearing westerly winds and open to the spring sunshine, have a forcing climate which produces the earliest maturing fruit of the season ; earlier not only than the coast and the mountain, as has been stated, but also somewhat earlier than adjacent locations in the broad, open valley. Slight elevation, even on the sides of small valleys, frequently secures freedom from winter frosts and ministers to early ripening. Elevation above sea-level on the rims of great valleys also secures similar re- sults and gives rise to thermal belts in which semi-tropical fruits are sucessfully growing even as far north as Shasta County. On the fioors of great valleys moderating influences are secured on the lee side of wide rivers and by planting on the river bank or on slightly elevated swells rather than on the level, open plain. The river bottom lands of the great valleys, though subject to se- vere frosts, are freer from the effects of dessicating winds than the open plains ; they are, however, more favorable to the spread of certain blights than the plains. Some of the horticultural effects of valley conditions are as follows : Early ripening and perfection of summer and autumn fruits, owing to continual sunshine and dry air ; forced maturity of certain fruits, as apples and pears, which destroys character and keeping quality ; injury from sunburn and hot winds in summer, which seriously affect both fruit and foliage of some varieties ; oc- casional injury to tender fruits (semi- tropicals) and to young trees of hardy fruits, which have been kept growing late in the season, from low temperature, which some- times is reached suddenly on the floor of the valleys ; freedom from some blights and in- sects which are prevalent on the coast, but not from others. Many of these minor trou- bles are, however, counterbalanced by the ear- liness, size, beauty, and quality of certain fruits, and by the most rapid and successful open-air drying of fruits, owing to high au- tumn temperature, the freedom from sum- mer fog, dew, and generally from rain dur- ing the drying season. FOOT-HILL CLBT.\TE. Foot-hill climate is usually considered as a modification of valley climate. It has been shown that up to about two thousand five hundred feet, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, the seasonal temperatures are quite like those of the valley, but the rain- fall increases about one inch for each hun- dred feet of elevation. There are, however, in the foot-hills, places where early spring heat and freedom from frost give very early ripening fruits, and other places at the same elevation where winter temperature drops below the valley minimum, and where late frosts also prevail. This is governed by local topography. In many of the small valleys among the foot-hills, both of the Sierra Ne- vada and the Coast Ranges, frosts are more severe than on the hills adjacent or in the broader valleys to which they are tributary. These small "protected valleys" are appar- ently warm and cozy for early blooming de- ciduous and citrus fruits, but are really very dangerous. They frequently have such narrow and obstructed openings that cold air is dammed up over their lower lands and frosts are more severe and later than in val- leys which have ample and free outlets and seem less protected. Of course the disposition of cold air to settle in low places and to flow down can- yons and creek-beds while the warm air rises and bathes the adjacent hillsides, has much to do with frost in the hollow and the freedom from it on the hills. The constant motion of the air on the slopes is also a preventive of frost, providing the general temperature is not too low. It is not uncommon to find in deeper valleys, protected against the west- ern wind, flecks of snow and a wintry chill, with dormant vegetation, while one thousand feet higher u]) the foliage is fast developing. MOUNTAIN CLIMATE. Above an elevation of two thousand five hundred to three thousand feet, conditions gradually intrude which resemble those of Activity of Fruit Trees 22 California Fruits wintry climates. The tender fruits, the apri- cot, peach, etc., become liable to winter injury and give irregular returns, or as greater ele- vation is attained, become wholly untrust- worthy. Early blooming of these fruits dur- ing warm spells which are followed by se- vere frosts, renders the trees unfruitful. At four thousand to four thousand five hundred feet the hardy apple and pear flourish, ripening late, and winter varieties possessing excellent keeping qualities. Here, however, winter killing of trees begins and locations even for hardy fruits have to he chosen with circumspection. There are elevated tracts of large extent among the Sierras where the common wild plum, choke-cherry, gooseberry, and Califor- nia chestnut are produced abundantly. April frosts have killed the fruit of those same plums, transplanted to lower ground, while those left in their natural situation were quite unharmed. It has been observed that these plum trees, with other fruits and nuts in their original positions, invariably occupy the broad tops of the great ridges instead of the sides and bottoms of ravines or narrow, pent-up valleys. Follow nature in the choice of or- chard sites (with due regard to a supply of moisture in the soil, either natural or arti- ficial) and little hazard attends the culture of the hardier fruits of our latitude among the highlands of the state than is incident to other seemingly more favored localities. The beauty and quality of these mountain fruits are proverbial. A RULE OF GENERAL APPLICATION. What has been thus suggested of the great variation of temperature conditions within narrow limits should lead to the conclusion that not only must the kind of fruit to plant be determined by local observation and ex- perience, but often varieties of these fruits must be chosen with reference to adapta- tion to local environment. For this reason it is impossible to compile tables of varieties suited for wide areas — and yet it is true that some varieties have shown themselves hardy and satisfactory under all conditions. These facts will be shown bv the discussion which will be given to each of the different fruits. REST AND ACTIVITY OF FRUIT TREES. Indication has already been made of re- gions adapted to the growth of early and of late fruits. There is, of course, difference in time of rest and of returning activity in blooming. On the mountains under wintry conditions the trees leaf out and bloom late, following more or less the habit of Eastern trees. In the foot-hills, the valleys, and the coast, there is less difference in time of rest and of leaf and bloom. Even in regions where there may be a month's difference in ripening of fruit, as, for example, in the Vacaville district, fifty miles inland, and in Berkeley, two miles from the bay shore, trees bloom almost at the same date. The differ- ence in ripening is due to the higher tempera- ture and fuller sunshine of the interior situ- ation, which have a forcing effect, while the low temperature and dull skies of the sum- mer on the coast retard maturity. The rest of the tree, in all save the moun- tain district, is not dependent upon the touch of frost. It comes rather from thirst than from cold. The immense weight of fruit, the vigorous growth of wood, and the ex- haustion of moisture from the soil by the draught of the roots to compass this growth, are the chief causes which bring the sere and yellow leaf in California. It is not frost, for the petunias may be blooming and the to- mato vines still green in the fields. But the time has come for a rest. The trees sleep ; but it is merely as a nap at midday ; the early rains wake them soon. The roots are active first, then the buds swell, and the blossoms burst forth — sometimes as early as January — the almond first heralding the advent of Cali- fornia springtime. Sometimes this season of rest is too short for the good of the tree or vine. The early rains, when followed by a spring-like tempera- ture, as sometimes happens, induce activity in the top as well as the root, and the tree is not in condition to withstand cold weather, which may follow. It is probable that such stimulated activity, suddenly checked, is re- sponsible for more ills to tree and vine than are usually attributed to it. How to Grow Them 23 Climate and Fruit Growing CHAPTER II. WHY THE CALIFORNIA CLIMATE FAVORS THE GROWTH OF FRUIT. JT WAS pointed out by the earliest students of meteorology, as related to horticulture, that perfect development of fruits depends upon certain atmospheric conditions, which are included in the term climate : First, tem- perature : second, light ; third, humidity or atmospheric moisture, — considered wholly apart from soil moisture. It was also shown that temperature and humidity should be equable, or as free as possible from excessive extremes or rapid changes. Obviously, the chief characteristics of the California climate are: First, freedom from extremes of low temperature ; second, an abundance of sunshine; and third, an atmos- phere with a low percentage of humidity. It will be interesting to introduce enough sta- tistics to demonstrate these claims, and to cite reasons why these conditions are of spe- cial value to the fruit grower. temperatures may prevent fruition without killing the plant. The first quality of the California climate to arrest the attention of fruit growers in the states east of the Rocky Mountains is the freedom from the ef- fects of extremely low winter temperatures, to which is due the deplorable failure, in the eastern and western states, of many of the fruit varieties from the west of Europe, and to escape which such zealous effort is now being so successfully put forth to secure hardy varieties of native and foreign origin. How slight is the injury from low tempera- tures in all parts of the state where fruit is largely grown mav be seen from the following compilation of extreme low temperatures at different points approximately at the same latitude on the coast, in the interior valleys, and on the foot-hills. These records will show any one familiar Lowest temperature at several California points. Coast and Coast Valleys Eureka Cape Mendocino Hj'desville Napa San Francisco San Jose Gilroy San Miguel Los .\ngeles San Diego Degrees above zero Interior Valleys Degrees above zero 20 Redding 18 28 Red Bluff 17 24 Oroville 20 20 Marysville 20 28 Sacramento 19 18 Merced 16 20 Fresno 20 17 Tulare Citv 14 28 Colton 22 32 Powav 21 Colfax . Auburn Porterville. Redlands . . Fall Brook. 16 12 22 2.5 27 THE OFFICE 'OF HEAT IN . FRUIT PRODUCTION. Temperature conditions may preclude the success of a fruit tree either by destroying it outright, by dwarfing it, or by prevent- ing it from setting or ripening its fruit. Ex- tremes of temperature accomplish the death of plants, and insufficient or excessive mean with winter killing of the leading orchard fruits that such disasters are not to be feared in the chief fruit regions of California. Local temperature is largely controlled by local con- ditions, as has been already pointed out, and in the districts named in the table there are special locations where the lowest tempera- ture probably differed a few degrees from the figures given. Summer in Different Regions 24 California Fruits NECESSITY OF ADEQUATE SUMMER HEAT. Passing beyond the freedom from winter killing, it maj._be remarked that the influence of certain degrees of heat upon the growth of the plant and the perfection of its fruit, has been the subject of much close observa- tion. Boussingault conducted careful experi- ments, and showed that a temperature above a certain minimum of heat is found necessary for germination, another for chemical modi- fication, and a third for flowering, a fourth for the ripening of seeds, a fifth for the elabo- ration of the saccharine juices, and a sixth for the development of aroma or bouquet. Originally the mean annual temperature was alone observed, and the polar limits of that, in addition to a summer and autumn sufficiently hot, it is indispensable that at a given period — that which follows the appear- ance of seeds — there should be a month the mean temperature of which does not fall be- low 66.2 degrees Fahr. As will appear preS' ently, this temperature test should not be taken alone, but it will serve as a standard to show one feature of the horticultural adap- tation of the California climate. Boussingault claims the need of 66.2 degrees Fahr. for a single month. To be sure to include this, the accompanying table gives the average summer temperature at the leading fruit-growing cen- ters named. These points are selected because the Eu- ropean varieties of the grape reach perfection in their vicinitv. The excess of heat above that Average summer temperature at various California points Coast and Coast Valley! Upper Lake Napa Livermore San Jose Hollister Santa Barbara Los Angeles San Diego Deeree Fahrenheit Interior Valleys Degrees Fahrenhei 86 Redding 80 65 Oroville 79 69 Marysville 78 67 Sacramento 72 Merced 79 65 Fresno 79 70 Tulare 78 68 Riverside 73 Foot-hills Elevation Fahr^nh Auburn 1,363 75 Colfax 2,421 76 Georgetown 2,500 85 Caliente 1,290 82 Fall Brook 700 68 Redlands 1,352 77 plants, it was presumed, could be thereby de- termined. More recently it was taught that the mean temperature of seasons is of more importance than that of the year, and it is believed that to the relative distribution of heat over the seasons rather than to the ab- solute amount received during the year, we are to attribute the fitness or unfitness of a region for the growth of certain kinds of vegetation. It is held in Europe that the mean heat of the cycle of vegetation of the vine must be at least 59 degrees Fahr., and that of the summer from 65 degrees to 66 degrees Fahr. It is stated to be impossible, for instance, to cultivate the vine upon the temperate table- lands of South America, where they enjoy a mean temperature of 62.6 degrees to 66.2 degrees Fahr., because these climates are characterized by a constancy of temperature, never rising to the higher heats necessary to the process of sugar forming, and the vine grows, and flourishes, but the grapes never become thoroughly ripe. Boussingault shows required, as is found at all the interior points mentioned in the table, results in a very high sugar percentage in the grapes, and contrib- utes to the ripening of a second and third crop, as will be noted presently. The su- perior length of the growing season in Cali- fornia, of course, is an important agency toward the same end. DIRECT SUNLIGHT ALSO A REQUISITE. Count de Gasparin was first to point out that not alone sufficient heat but abundance of continuous sunshine is a' requisite of per- fection in fruit growth and ripening, and on his authority may be based a claim of ex- ceptional value to the fruit grower in the months of cloudless skies which are charac- teristic of the California summer. ''The solar rays," says Gasparin, "do not only produce heat but bring us light, and the effects of the heat and light rays differ in a How to Grow Them 25 Normal Cloudiness very pronounced manner. Without light there grapes in a season, from later bloom on is no fructification ; it is not necessary that younger cane growth. This behavior is of the want of light should be complete that more value as a demonstration of climatic there should be a failure of fruits. In fact, conditions than otherwise for it is generally diffused light alone does not suffice for the better to produce the main crop alone than greater number of plants ; cultivated plants to undertake later ones. will not ripen their seed without the direct Another indication of excess of advantage rays of sun, and the longer they are deprived in the interior valley is found in the develop- of it the smaller the quantity which they will ment of high sugar contents, which is of di- mature."* rect value in raisin production. The same ten- Normal cloudiness at California and Eastern points. CALIFORNIA. March .\pril May June July .\uk Sept Oct Nov 'Vnionths'^ Red Bluff 4.4 4.2 3.6 1.9 1.0 0,7 1.3 2 4 3.4 2.5 Sacramento 3.9 3.5 2.7 1.5 5 0.4 1.1 2 2 8 2.0 San Francisco 4.8 4.3 4.2 3.8 4.3 4.3 3.5 3.3 3 8 4.0 Fresno.. 4.3 2.9 2.7 1.5 0.7 0.9 1.4 2.2 2.8 2.0 San Diego 4.8 4.4 5.3 4.8 4.3 3 9 3.7 3.8 3.3 4.2 EASTERN. Rochester, N. Y 6.6 5.4 5.2 4.9 4 6 4.6 4.9 6 7.6 5.5 New York, N. Y 5.5 5.3 5.2 4.9 5.0 4.9 4.7 4 9 5.2 5.0 Philadelphia, Pa 5.6 5.4 5.1 5 5.0 4.9 4.8 4.7 5.2 5.0 Baltimore, Md 54 5.1 5.1 4.9 48 4.9 4.7 4.6 4.9 4.9 Cleveland, Ohio 6.4 5.3 4.9 4 6 4.3 4.3 4.9 5.7 7.3 5.3 Grand Haven, Mich 6.2 5.4 4.8 4.6 3.8 4.0 4 4 5.6 7.5 5 1 Jacksonville, Fla 42 4.1 4.1 5.1 48 4.9 50 4.2 4.5 4.5 New Orleans, La 4.8 4.8 4.3 4 7 4.9 4.7 4.3 3.5 4 5 4.5 Again, referring to the grape, for in con- nection with the growth of this fruit the most careful researches have been made, Humboldt wrote: "If to give a potable wine the vine shuns the islands and nearly all seacoasts, even those of the West, the cause is not only in the moderate heat of summer upon the sea- shore, but it exists more in the difiference which there is between direct and diffused light ; between a clear sky, and one veiled with clouds. "§ It is noticeable that at the California coast points the average cloudiness is almost twice that of the interior valleys, while at the East the interior fruit regions of western New York, Ohio, and Michigan, have a greater average cloudiness than the Hudson River, New Jersey, and Delaware regions near the Atlantic seaboard. The average cloudiness in the Eastern fruit regions is rather more than twice as great as in the re- gions of California where most fruit is grown. This excess of advantage, as it may be termed, in connection with the high and protracted heat already mentioned, takes practical form in the successful ripening of a second and sometimes a third crop of these d'Agriculture. t. II, p. 96. 3S, t. I, p. 343. dency, though perhaps of less commercial value, is seen in the fact that some grapes which yield a good claret wine nearer the coast develop too much alcohol when grown in the interior. The advantage of California over Eastern and Southern fruit regions in the abundance of clear sunshine is shown in the adjacent table. Cloudiness is rated from o to lo, three observations daily, and the figures in the table are the averages from these daily obser- vations for a series of years, compiled from the records of the U. S. Weather Bureau. RELATION OF ATMOSPHERIC IIU- AIIDITY TO THE GROWTH OF TREES. There is another important condition of the climate of California which is intimately related to those which have been considered, and which is to be credited with no small influence in the perfection of our fruits, and that is the low percentage of humidity which our atmosphere contains. In California the percentage of humidity is high in the winter and low in the summer ; in the East the con- dition is just reversed. For this reason sum- mer heat is far more oppressive in the East Climatic Endowment 26 California Fruits than in California, and for the same reason certain serious fungoid diseases which pre- vail at the East, though found here in less injurious degree directly on the coast, are wholly unknown in the interior where the air is drier. The dry air also favors the access and action of light and heat, for Tyndall says that a sheet of vapor acts as a screen to the earth, being in a great measure im- pervious to heat. It is not necessary then that there should be clouds to lessen the chemical effects of sun heat in fruit ripening. Not only do clouds intercept sunshine, but water vapor in the air — when to the eve the sun is bright sunshine, and dry air — taken in connection with the fitness of the soil and the great length of the growing season, insure the char- acteristic excellence, of California fruit, and the early maturity, great growth, and abund- ant fruitage of our trees and vines. Heat, sunshine, dry air, and a rainless summer also minister directly to the curing of fruits in the open air. All things considered, it is doubtful whether any area in the world ex- cels California in possession of natural adap- tation to fruit production and preservation. A RECAPITULATION OF CALIFOR- NIA'S CLIMATIC ENDOWMENT. Normal relative humidity at Eastern and California points. EASTERN STATIONS. April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Jacksonville, Fla 72.3 73.0 77.6 78.6 80.9 82 9 79 8 82.2 Philadelphia, Pa 63 4 68.9 69.2 68 6 71.2 75.2 70.7 73 6 Rochester, N. Y 67.8 68.6 69.1 67.3 70.7 75.2 75.6 76.2 Grand Haven, Mich 70.9 714 73.7 69 73 1 75,0 75.7 79.1 St. Ivouis, Mo 63.7 67.8 68.8 66.3 67.3 70.2 65.9 71.1 New Orleans, La 76.0 74.2 78.1 78 3 78.8 77.3 74.0 79.4 Galveston, Tex 84.6 78.0 79.3 77.4 78.1 77.2 75.6 80.4 CAUFORNIA STATIONS. Ivos Angeles 73.1 75.2 73 75.4 76.2 72.9 74.3 66.6 Fresno 59.3 52.7 42.4 34.7 34.7 43.6 55.1 64 1 Sacramento 67.6 67.6 66.1 59.8 59.8 59.0 62 4 66 8 Red Bluff 61.9 56.8 43.7 35.6 35.3 43 6 51.6 60 7 1 months 78.3 70 1 71.3 73 5 67 6 78 78.5 73.3 48.3 63.6 48.8 as ever — can absorb a large quantity of the effective sun rays, and so retard fruit ripen- ing. Hence an apparently sunny country which has much invisible water vapor in the air, may prove defective in fruit-ripening quali- ties. It is true that air free from humidity al- lows rapid escape of heat by radiation as well as free access of it, and in dry air frost is more severe, but at the time of the greatest fruit growth, from June to October, radiation down to a frost point is prevented by other natural agencies. In the early spring and late autumn the humidity percentage rises again and checks radiation just at the time of the year when it is most desirable to have it checked. The accompanying table, compiled from the records of the United States Weather Bu- reau, shows the prevailing relative humidity in the East and South and in California. THE THREE POINTS COMBINED. The three great advantages of the Cali- fornia climate — abundant heat, continuous Through the multitude of local observa- tions, which seem perplexing and almost con- tradictory, it is possible to clearly discern certain general conditions of both nature and culture, which may be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Californian. Of these, perhaps the most striking is the length of the growing season. Take, for instance, the peach in a good peach region. The bloom may appear in February, followed by the grand foliage ex- panding to a leaf-size, marvelous to one un- used to such peach leaves. The shoots of new growth rush out with vigor, promised by such a leaf, and yet the fruit below expands as though it would burst its skin in rapid en- largement — and still it grows. The new shoot, apparently weary of its several feet of extension, stops for a rest, and then, re- viving, starts out its laterals — while still be- low the peach is growing. The laterals push out a foot or more — all carrying large, fresh leaves. While these are in full vigor, the fruit ripens, after having a full year's joint work of root and foliage, if it is a late variety. Is How to Grow Them 27 Climatic Endowment it any wonder it weighs a pound? But still the tree is active. It forms its terminal buds, and then all along the new main shoots and their laterals are formed the leaf and blos- som buds for the following year. Still the foliage holds green and active, if the moisture below be adequate, and the leaves seem loth to fall in the ninth month from the time of blooming. Is it any wonder California peaches are large and the trees require prun- ing and thinning to enable them to carry the weight produced in such a season of growth? And what has been said of the peach is true of other trees, according to their nature and habits. The trees themselves are more elo- quent of California's conditions for growth than descriptions or statistical tables can be made. But the quality of the light and heat, if the term is admissible, is a factor as well as their duration. The air, free, not alone from clouds, but from the insensible aqueous vapor wliich weakens sunshine in its effort to serve vegetation in a humid climate, has a clearness and brilliance from its aridity which makes each day of the long, growing season more than a day in other climates, and thus adds to the calendar length of the growing season. The surplus light and heat also act directly in the chemistry which proceeds in the tissues of the plant, and we have not only size, but quality, color, aroma — everything which makes the perfect fruit precious and beautiful be- 3'ond words. It is true that for commercial purposes it is not possible to allow this process to go too far, for its later effects are higher sweetness, accompanied by such juiciness that the fruit cannot endure transportation. But go to the tree to apply the only test which can fairly be put to a juicy fruit, and the demonstration of the service of clear, unobstructed sunshine through an adequate period is complete. But if this can not be done, place the judgment upon the mature peach carefully sun-dried and intelligently cooked, or upon the ripe peach skillfully canned, and the distinctive adapta- tions of California for fruit production will display themselves. But there are other agencies involved in the perfection of fruit than intensity and duration of light and heat. Without adequate mois- ture in the soil, the air which we have credited with such benign power in carrying heat and light for perfection of fruit would transmit the same as agencies for the destruction of the tree' which bears it. If this moisture comes from rainfall, it descends at the time of the year when the tree is least active, conse- quently is least retarded by a clouded sky and moisture-laden air, and least affected by atmospheric disturbances. Strong storm winds iind the tree with reefed sails, and able to en- dure pressure which would tear it to pieces if they came upon its grand spread of foliage on branches heavy with fruit. It is a priceless horticultural endowment that no tornado can pierce our protecting mountain-barriers, and that it is exceedingly rare that our local winds disturb the confident swaying of the branches and leaf movement beyond the activity which ministers to the sap flow. And if the adequate moisture is not from rainstorm, but by irriga- tion, the same facts remain, for the water reaches the tree without interrupting its aerial activity. Temperature is maintained, light is unobstructed, and the tree is refreshed with moisture without the chill and darkness which favor fungoid parasites. Of all the ways by which moisture could come to soils supporting fruit tree or vine, the natural by its time, and the artificial by its method, endow Cali- fornia with the best. The characteristics of the California climate which have been especially pointed out in this sketch are not propitious to fruit culture when they exist to excessive degree, as in some in- terior or continental climates. Local condi- tions of altitude, distance from the sea, and exposure to the sweep of arctic winds, induce sudden and great weather changes which are serious in their effects. Excessively low per- centage of atmospheric humidty, in connec- tion with dessicating wind, often produce greater evaporation from the leaves tlian the roots can supply. Excessively dry air admits a parching sun heat at one time, and at another facilitates radiation of heat, until the rapid decline in temperature makes killing frosts frequent. It is evident that California has these agencies constantly held in check by her insular situation and protecting en- vironment, and owes her wonderful adapta- tion to growth of tree and perfection of fruit not more to the possession of certain condi- tions than to the fact of their existence in moderation. California Fruit Soils 28 California Fruits : CHAPTER III. THE FRUIT SOILS OF CALIFORNIA. THE favoring characteristics of the Cahfor- nia climates, which have been described, find their fitting complement in the adaptation of the California soils to the perfect develop- ment of fruit-bearing tree and vine. In their wonderful variety and consequent great range of special adaptations within narrow limits of area, our soils also resemble our climates. As a man may sometimes find within the boundaries of an ordinary-sized farm such a difference of atmospheric conditions that the same fruit will thrive in one spot and not in another, so he may find differences in soil which will tend to produce the same results. For this reason the precise spot in which to plant any given fruit must be chosen with re- gard to both soil and exposure. In the chap- ters devoted to the several fruits, there will be an attempt made to describe the soil re- quirements of each, so that the inexperienced planter may not err seriously in choosing the location for each kind of fruit he desires to grow. While this is true, it will also appear in these special chapters that the choice of roots upon which to bud or graft gives the planter a certain latitude and independence. This is of greatest value in the planting of home orchards, or orchards for local markets, in regions where the soil is not what is usu- ally preferred for fruit production. With proper choice of stocks and wisdom and dili- gence in cultivation, one need hardly despair of growing good fruit on soil which will support any laudable plant growth. And yet in commercial orcharding, the secret of which is producing most abundantly and cheaply, too great attention can not be paid to choice of specially adapted soils. It is an interesting fact that more com- plete and exact knowledge exists of the soils of California than of any other State of the L^nion, and for this knowledge the public is indebted to E. W. Hilgard, Professor Emeri- tus of Agriculture, and Director of the Agri- cultural E.xperiment Stations of the University of California from 1875 to 1905. For the last thirty-three years he has given all the time he could spare from many other and pressing duties, to the examination, and, when needed, the analysis, of representative soil specimens, and to practical expositions of their nature, adaptations, and requirements in the event of exhaustion from too long cropping, and he has just published a general treatise entitled, "Soils: Their Formation, Properties, Composi- tion and Relations to Climate and Plant Growth in the Humid and Arid Regions," * which includes the results of his long study of California soils and climates. It is the purpose of the writer to set forth a few gen- eral characters of California fruit soils, with notes of their local occurrence, referring the reader to Prof. Hilgard's treatise for fuller exposition. Very extensive studies of California soils have been recently made under the direction of Dr. Milton Whitney, Chief of the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture, and a new classification and nomenclature of them, from his points of view, with extended maps of their occurrence, are to be found in the special reports of the Bureau. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF CALI- FORNIA SOILS. One of the most interesting and important recent achievements in soil investigation con- sists in demonstrating distinctive differences between soils formed under arid and under humid climatic conditions. In the develop- ment of this suljject certain distinctive char- acters of California soils clearly appear and they are of direct relation to the thrift, pro- ductiveness, treatment and longevity of fruit •Published by the Macmillan Company and sold by Pacific Rural Press of .San Francisco at ?4 post- paid. How to Grow Them 29 California Fruit Soils trees. These characters are : (a) lightness and consequent permeability and ease of cultiva- tion; (b) depth, admitting exceptional root extension and penetration ; and (c) richness, containing some kinds of plant food in con- siderably greater amounts than are found in the soils of humid regions. These character- istics, as demonstrated by Prof. Hilgard, may be outlined in this way with special reference to their relations to fruit growing. Lightness. — California soils predominantly exhibit the sandy, silty or pulverulent nature of all soils formed under arid conditions, save in case of pre-existing clay formations of former geological epochs, as well as slack- water deposits of the present epoch, all of which are substantially independent of cli- mate. While "sand" in the humid regions means virtually quartz grains only, in the arid country it means very largely grains and powder of the other soil-forming min- erals as well. While, therefore, in the humid region, sandy land as a rule means poor land, in the arid, on the contrary, sandy lands are at least as desirable as heavier ones, both on the score of high productive- ness, durability, and ease of cultivation, together with ready resistance to droutli. Depth. — Another point of great importance is that the difference between soil and sub- soil, which is so striking and important in regions of abundant rainfall, is largely oblit- erated in arid climates. Very commonly hardly a perceptible change of tint or tex- ture is found for depths of several feet ; and what is more important, material from such depths, when thrown on the surface often- times subserves the agricultural uses of a soil nearly or quite as well as the original sur- face soil. The unconcern with which irrigators proceed to level or otherwise grade their land, even though this may involve covering up large areas of surface soil with subsoil from several feet depth ; the rapidity with which the red loam of the placer mines of the Sierra Nevada foot-hills is re-covered with the natural forest growth of the region, etc., are examples familiar to the residents but surprising to newcomers, who are ac- customed to dread the upturning of the sub- soil as likely to deprive them of remunera- tive crops for several years, until the '"raw" subsoil has had time to be "vitalized" by the fallowing effect of the atmosphere, and to acquire the needful amount of humus or vegetable mold. Thus the surface soil, which in the humid regions supplies the bulk of the nourishment, becomes here of minor im- portance, serving chiefly as a mulch to pre- vent waste of moisture ; while the active process of nutrition occurs in the deeper por- tion of the soil stratum, whose composition, as well as condition of disintegration and aeration, is substantially the same as above. The second foot is rarely found to differ ma- terially from the first, even as to humus content ; for the latter, being almost exclu- sively derived from the humificatioh of roots, the leaves and herbage on the surface being mostly oxidized away under the intense heat of summer ; it not uncommonly happens in very porous soils that the first six inches of surface soil are poorer in humus than the second foot. Practical Results of Lightness .\nd Depth. — -The "lightness" and perviousness of the prevailing soils of the arid region permit of the penetration of roots to depths which in the humid region are inaccessible to them on account of the dense subsoils, which prevent the needful access of air. This deep pene- tration enables even annual plants to avail themselves directlv of the stores of moisture in the substrata, at depths which in the hu- mid region are scarcely reached save by the tap-roots of some perennials and trees ; while the latter themselves reach depths never ap- proached by them in the region of summer rains. Professor Hilgard has personally found the ends of the roots of grape-vines at a depth of twenty-three feet, in a gravelly clay-loam ; and from ten to fifteen feet are ordinary depths reached by the root system of fruit trees. Such depth of rooting, when conservation of moisture is secured by proper .surface cultivation, enables deciduous fruit trees to grow thriftily and bear fine fruit through six months of drouth while as many weeks of drouth may bring distress and loss of fruit to surface-rooting trees on the shal- low soils of the humid region. Richness. — The foregoing conditions are rendered the more significant and effective through the third characteristic of soils formed in arid climates. The average aggre- gate amounts of plant-food ingredients are markedly greater in the arid than in the hu- mid soils, wherever their derivation is at all California Fruit Soils 30 California Fruits generalized. Among the agriculturally im- portant ingredients contained in larger aver- age amounts in the arid soils than in the humid, lime stands foremost ; its percentage in soils not derived from calcarous forma- tions being from twelve to fourteen times greater in the arid than in the humid soils. Magnesia follows lime in this respect, but the average difference is only about half as great. The average content of potash in the arid soils exceeds that in the humid in about the pro- portion of one to three or four. But no such constant dift'erence exists in respect to phos- phoric acid. As regards humus, and the nitrogen of which it is the carrier and reser- voir, its amount is usually considerably less than in the humid soils ; but the total nitro- gen percentage does not differ widely, be- cause the humus of arid soils contains, on the average, from three to five times as much nitrogen as is found in the humus of humid soils, and therefore, the supply of soil nitrogen is very nearly the same in both re- gions, while from several causes, the humus- nitrogen of arid soils is more available to plants. CLASSIFICATION OF CALIFORNIA SOILS. Any attempt to classify the soils of Cali- fornia upon scientific lines or even to describe them in their wonderful variety, according to their geographical occurrence, would lead beyond the limitations of a treatise upon the practice of fruit growing. Rather let an at- tempt be made to designate certain grades of soil with brief characterization of their leading features as they are related to the growth of fruits. By such a course it may be made to appear that though the soils of the State are predominantly light, deep and rich and thus eminently fitted for fruit grow- ing, there are many degrees in the possession of these characters or any of them, in local soils, and upon this individual manifestation they rate all the way from perfection to de- fectiveness. Let a classification proceed then upon a descending scale. Light, Deep Loams. — Admixture of clay with enough coarse materials to secure per- meability to air and water, ease in cultiva- tion, deep root penetration and free drainage of surplus water, produces soil of the highest adaptability to the growth of fruit trees and vines. These soils are popularly known as loams. They are designated as sandy loams, medium loams and clay loams, according to the proportion of clay commingled with the sand or coarse materials. Professor Hilgard has devised the follow- ing nomenclature of soils based upon their content of clay: Sandy soils, less than 5 per cent of clay ; sandy loams, from 5 to 10 per cent ; ordinary or medium loams, from 10 to 15 per cent; clay loams, from 15 to 20 per cent ; clay soils, from 20 to 50 per cent of clay. The coarse materials are sand grains of various sizes or rock particles in various de- grees of disintegration. The fine materials are clay and rock powder, commonly desig- nated as fine silt. Loam soils may result from deposits by flowing water or may con- sist of debris but little removed from local rock disintegration. They include a wide variety of materials but agree in the posses- tion of striking adaptability to fruit culture. Some of the leading instances of such soils may be cited. Loams of the Valley Plains. — On the east side of the Sacramento Valley low ridges and swales at right angles to the river's course come in from the foot-hills, forming a gently undulating plain with a fall of from fifteen to twenty feet per mile, sometimes right up to the river channels. Nearly all the soils of the east side have a reddish tinge, showing the admixture of the red foot-hill soil and demonstrating, by the way, that all these lands are well drained. In cuts ten to twelve feet deep, made by the sloughs, the reddish plains loam is seen to reach from six to ten feet depth, being then underlaid by gravelly substrata. The width of this class of pro- fusely fertile valley land, east and west, varies considerably, according to the meanderings of the rivers. Away from the water courses, the higher lands of the valleys are largely red or yellow loams, sometimes clayey and difficult of cultivation unless taken just in the right condition, sometimes gravelly and apt to dry out unless the natural water supply is supplemented by irrigation, but mostly a free- working, fairly retentive, light loam, very satisfactory for some kinds of fruit. The soils of the San Joaquin Valley have, as a rule, a much greater admixture of sand How to Grow Them 31 Classificaton of Soils than those of the Sacramento \'alley ; there is also a more distinct subdivision of the valley lands into upland or "bench" lands, and lowland or alluvial lands proper. Upon the upland or plains soils, especially of Fresno and Tulare counties, wonderful progress in fruit-growing by irrigation has been made during the last few years. Though its summer aspect is most forbidding and al- most desert-like in lack of vegetation, the ap- plication of water has shown exceptional quick- ness of growth, early bearing, and lavish pro- ductiveness of tree and vine. These plains loams vary in appearance, and are from this fact locally named, "reddish loam," "white ash," and "sand hill." All are distinctly cal- careous. Even in the case of the latter, which is the lightest and made of almost 90 per cent of inert sand, it is so deep and has its plant food in such highly available con- dition that it is producing very large crops of fruits where there is no rise of the bottom water to prevent root penetration. In the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada there are some loose loams of light color resulting from the decomposition of granite, but they are as a rule inferior to the red foot-hill soils, which are more clayey, and will be mentioned among the clay loams later. The soils prevailing in the valley of south- ern California, from Redlands at its head to Los Angeles at its opening out toward the sea, consist chiefly of granitic sand, which at some points on the slopes forms the soil? exclusively, but everywhere constitutes a prominent ingredient of the valley and mesa lands. These mesa lands are conspicuous for their orange-red tint, and the red sandy loam of which they are composed, to depths varying from ten to as much as eighty feet, is evidently the choice soil for orange culture. It is manifest that at some remote epoch it filled the entire valley. Of the middle portion much has been washed away, but islands of it form red-land tracts of greater or less extent all over the region, traversed by and more or less commingled with, the granitic wash from the valleys and canyons of the Sierra Madre. The latter frequently consists largely of gravel, and were it not for the luxuriant natural vegetation borne by these gravel beds, few would have thought of de- voting them to the costlv experiment of orange planting, which, nevertheless, has proved eminently successful even on these un- promising-looking masses of debris. In the upper valley (San Bernardino Valley proper) the red loam is conspicuous, and gives its name to the flourishing city and citrus district of Redlands, on the terminal slope ; but the heavy flow of water from the upper canyons, notably from that of the Santa Ana River, has scoured it out of the valley itself, and left there, at least on the northern portion, gray and blackish granitic loams of great depth and productiveness, underlaid, and therefore underdrained, by the enormous gravel beds that hold the artesian water of this favored region. The reddish mesa soils prevail through the smaller Southern California valleys as well, and are similar in character, as they are de- rived from similar geological formations. Where the surface descends gradually to the seashore, and not in bluffs, there are, as in Los Angeles and Orange counties, coast flats several miles in width, where the soil is a dark-colored sandy loam, glistening with scales of mica, and more or less affected with alkali in the lower portions. Similar soils are found in tracts of greater or less extent up the coast as far as Santa Barbara at least. As a rule, these seashore lands are very pro- ductive, but fruits for them must be chosen with reference to their low level and exposure to coast influences. The light loams of the so-called desert re- gion of Southern California are not inferior in productive capacity to some of the best soils of the great valley, which it greatly re- sembles, save in the scarcity of humus, or vegetable matter. Only a detailed survey, however, can determine the tracts having an arable soil, as against those overrun by arid sand. The soil of the Colorado River bottom is highly productive, easily worked, being quite light. It is a highly calcareous soil, and now, as the water of the Colorado River has been made available for irrigation, is yielding rich returns for cultivation. The valleys of the seaward slope of the Coast Range have mostly gray, light, and silty, rather than sandv soils, quite similar in ap- pearance from \'entura to Humboldt county, though differing considerably in composition, those of the southern region being more cal- careous, and apparently richer in phosphoric acid; as the coast region consists for the most part of low ranges with intervening valleys, the valleys are, as a rule, small, Classification of Soils 32 California Fruits : though a few show considerable area. In such a country the soil surface shows wide diversity within smaller areas than on the vast stretches of the great interior valley ; consequently, so far as soil goes, the coast farms are often suited to a wider range of fruits than the interior valley farms of simi- lar size. ALLUVIAL OR SEDBIENTARY LOAMS. These soils have been considered from the earliest plantings by Americans as par ex- cellence the fruit soils of the great valley of central and northern California. They oc- cur along the courses of existing streams, and extend back to variable distances, until they merge into the valley loams, or adobes. These deposits are considerably higher than the present beds of the streams, and are sometimes described as '"next to river bottom." They consist of fine alluvium, with seldom any admixture of coarse materials. These river soils are usually very deep and they are natu- rally well drained. These deposits cross the valley in somewhat irregular courses ; they are of greater or less width according to the drainage area whence they have come. They vary also in depth, and taper down on either side to the level of the red loam or adobe upon which they have been deposited. Such strips are first cbosen by the fruit planters of the district in which they occur. In the valleys of the rivers cross- ing the eastern side of the San Joaquin Val- ley, there are, bordering the streams as well as Tulare Lake, considerable areas of brown to blackish loam varying from heavy to light, but for the most part easily tilled and ex- ceedingly rich. Considerable fruit has been grown for years on these situations, and some kinds do well on these bottoms which do not show adaptation to the plains. Some even of the higher lying portions of these "black lands" support thrifty orchards with- out irrigation. The wider stretches of allu- vial soils in the upper part of the valley, as in the Mussel Slough country and the Visalia region, for instance, are notably well adapted to fruit growing. The occasional intrusion of alkali, which must be carefullv avoided, is the chief obstacle to the general approval of these alluvial lands for fruit purposes. Soil of similar character is found in some small valleys consisting of an alluvial wash from the bordering hills which in some places reaches a depth of thirty feet or more without notable change in character. Such soils have proved very fertile and durable. The rich river bottom, adjacent to the beds of the main rivers and sloughs of the valley, has usually a dark, rich, and moist soil, easily tilled and not subject to baking and cracking. It is largely used for the growth of vegetables and alfalfa, but considerable areas have been planted with fruit trees, especially with pears, which do not suffer from submergence of their roots for considerable time. In the coast valleys of the State there are also very extensive- areas of alluvial soils which are largely used in fruit production, as well as upland loams formed in place by the disintegration of local rock formations. The famous fruit region extending from Oak- land southward nearly one hundred miles, including the Alameda and Santa Clara Val- leys, has very large areas of alluvial soil, ranging from deep, rich blackish loams used for vegetables and small fruits, to lighter loams resulting from intermixture of sedi- ment brought by streams from adjacent hill- sides with the clay of the valley bottom. It is to these deep, rich alluvial deposits that the region owes its great reputation in fruit lines. CLAY LOAAIS. Of loams containing sufficient clay to ren- der them somewhat heavv and tenacious, there is also a great variety in California. Their suitability for different fruits depends upon selection of roots adapted to their character and upon the depth and degree of retentive- ness of the soils themselves. They are more difficult of tillage than the free loams, but offer some compensation therefor in their richness and durability. Cl.'Vy Loams of the Foot-hills and Valley Border. — The soils of the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, throughout its course along the great valley, vary from a moderately clayev loam to a heavy, though not uncom- monly gravelly, often orange-red clay. This character seems to be sensibly the same, whether the soil be derived from the decom- position of the ancient slate bed-rock or di- rectly from the dark-colored granites, thus creating a presumption that the two rocks How to Grow Them 33 Defective Soils are closely related. The soils are highly charged with iron to the extent of from seven to over twelve per cent, which being finely divided, imparts to them the intense orange- red tint. The soils of the foot-hills agree with the soils of the valley in having a good percentage of lime, while the supply of potash and phosphates, as well as of organic matter, is smaller, and sometimes low, though never apparently inadequate for present productive- ness, in the presence of so much lime. Along the base of the foot-hills of the Si- erra there is in Fresno, Tulare, and part of Kern county, a narrow belt, irregular in width, of partly red and partly black clay or adobe, so highly calcareous as to break up, when dry, into small fragments, produ- cing a condition that has received the name "dry bog." It is upon this that the citrus orchards of the Porterville district are chiefly grown. A white, calcareous marl sometimes occurs beneath this soil at varying depths, pro- ducing chlorosis or yellowing of citrus leaves when reached by the roots. Westward of this "dry bog" land there is a belt of reddish or brown loam soils, corresponding to those simi- larly located in the Sacramento Valley, but generally more clayey, and hence frequently designated as adobe by contrast with the very sandy soils of the valley at large, although properly they should be classed sim- ply as clayey loams. This belt is eight to ten miles wide in middle Tulare county and nar- rows to the north and south. Here these lands have a gentle slope of ten to twenty feet per mile from the base of the foot-hills, and appear to be underlaid at a depth of twelve to fifteen feet by water-bearing gravel. The soil is a reddish, more or less sandy, loam, changing little in its aspect for several feet. Its adaptation to fruit is shown by the products of the Lindsay region. CLAY SOILS. Thus far a very small area of true adobe* soil has been employed in horticulture. There is a great difference in the character of what is known as adobe in different localities. Its color varies, as the popular terms "black waxy," "black," "brown," and "gray" adobe indicate. Its physical condition and chemical •This name has been erroneously applied to the loam commonly used in the construction of adobe houses. Agriculturally, it means "a heavy clay soil," such as could not be used in building. composition also vary greatly. The black adobe of the east side of the Sacramento Val- ley is easily tilled as compared with the gray adobe on the west side, which is very refrac- tory and often largely impregnated with al- kali. To render soil of adobe character useful for fruit growing, this tendency to dry out and crack, thus allowing evaporation from below as well as from the surface, must be overcome. The discussion of this point be- longs to the chapter on cultivation. Adobe soils are, as a rule, rich and durable and there- fore promise long fruitfuhiess to trees and vines with roots adapted to heavy soils, but difficulty of cultivation, excessive retention of water, and other evils are ahvays present. Some suggestions on the treatment of such soils will be given in the chapter on fertiliza- tion. DEFECTIVE SOILS. Although California soils are predominantly of the depth, lightness and richness best suited to the growth and hearing of fruit trees and vines, it should always be borne in mind that there are marked exceptions, and failure to observe this fact has resulted in considerable disappointment and loss. There is in California much land which is bad from a horticultural point of view and it is apt to occur even in the vicinity of lands of the highest excellence. It is, therefore, neces- sary to advise that the closest examination be made before investment be made in the plant- ing of fruits. Although there are instances of deficiency in plant food in California soils and consider- able areas of land sterile through excess of saline and alkaline salts, these are usually indicated by the local reputation of the tracts, if the newcomer will take pains to make in- quiry. It is rather the more obscure, subsoil conditions which lead to loss or failure, and they may be unknown even to men who have owned or farmed the land for years for ordinary field crops. These defects are, in the main, three: Hard-pan. — Good loams may be underlaid near the surface by hard-pan or by layers of heavy clay. These prevent root penetration ; they also limit moisture reception to the shal- low surface layer, which is apt to become water-logged for lack of drainage during the rainy season or by excessive irrigation, and Defective Soils 34 California Fruits to quickly lose its moisture by surface evapo- ration in the dry season, with no compensa- tion from the tight layer below. In such a situation, then, the plant may suffer severely from excess of water at one time of the year and lack of it at another. Such lands may serve well for some of the small fruits, but not for trees or vines. Under certain cir- cumstances the defects of these soils may be corrected, as will be suggested in the chap- ter on preparing lands for planting. Leachy Sub-soils. — Good loams are also occasionally underlaid by layers of coarse sand or gravel, through which water flows away beyond the reach of roots which will only make measured progress through such materials. Trees in such situations are apt to come into distress in the dry season and can only be comforted by frequency and vol- ume of irrigation and fertilization, which may be out of proportion to the returns they are able to make. Rise of Ground Water — Good fruit lands are also occasionally rendered defective by the rise of the ground water toward the surface so that only a shallow layer is left for root extension — the evil being aggravated by the fact that a temporary fall of the ground water induces deeper rooting, which a subsequent rise of the water destroys, and decay of the roots ensues. This trouble has occurred over large areas where excessive irrigation, or the course of leaky ditches, on higher lands, has filled the lower levels to such an extent that there is actual outcropping of swamps in the swales. The cure for these conditions is, ob- viously, drainage, which it is not always possi- ble to secure at a warranted outlay. Alkali. — Connected with this rise of the ground water the alkali evil may intrude. But little trouble arises from this cause in the high-lying, sandy tracts, where irrigation or the natural rainfall carries the soluble salts annuallv into the country drainage ; but in the low-lying and less pervious soils of swales and valley troughs, which are at the same time intrinsically the richest in available min- eral plant food, the accumulation frequently causes considerable trouble and difficulty.* Prospecting for Soil Defects. — The University Experiment Station at Berkeley, undertakes to advise planters concerning the character of the land they propose to use. For subterranean prospecting. Professor Hil- gard commends a steel rod not less than a quarter of an inch in diameter (round or square, preferably the latter), well pointed at one end, and provided at the other with a stout iron ring for the reception of a stout cross-handle, such as is used for post-hole augers. With such a prod, or sounding rod, not less than five feet in length, the explora- tion of the subsoil for hard-pan or dense clay layers becomes a matter of a few minutes. It is easy also to detect thus the presence of underlying layers of quicksand, gravel, or other loose materials through which irrigation water would waste, or which would prevent the rise of bottom water within the reach of plant roots, by the large interspaces between their grains. Any remaining doubts as to the nature of such underlying materials at par- ticular points can then quickly be solved by the use of a post-hole auger or by digging, as thorough inspection and the taking of sam- ples for each foot of depth may be found de- sirable. ♦Universitiy publications on alkaline soils and their treatment may be liad by application to Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Berkeley. How to Grow Them 35 California Wild Fruits CHAPTER IV. THE WILD FRUITS OF CALIFORNIA. THE wild fruits of California are numerous, and for the most part peculiar to the region, being either of local genera or local species of more widely distributed genera. Very few are identical with the wild fruits common to great areas of the continent. For this reason our wild fruits constitute a very interesting subject for botanical study, and they are now, perhaps more widely than ever before, attracting the attention of botanical pomologists. Viewed from the standpoint of practical pomology or horticulture, our wild fruits can not be claimed, on the whole, to have attained any very great importance. A few fruits, as will be noted further on, have demonstrated their culinary or house- hold value, and are locally sought for, but none have any notable commercial value. This may be due to the fact that some of our most delicious wild fruits are very exacting in their choice of conditions, and can not be moved far, even within the limits of our own State, and presumably would not take kindly to longer journeys. Another reason why we have made little of our own wild species is found in the fact that our climate favors the superior growth of the best improved fruits of nearly all parts of the world. Therefore, we have little oc- casion for recourse to the improvement of local wild fruits, because of superior hardiness and adaptation, as has been done in other parts of the country. Neither fruit planters nor propagators have given any special atten- tion to the wild growths, either for fruit or for stocks, although a beginning has been made in both these directions, which may ul- timately attain importance. The horticulture of California wild fruits is a thing of the future. The distribution of our wild fruits is de- termined by limitations of areas of similar climatic conditions. In a general way it may be said that fruits are most abundant in foot- hill and mountain regions, and that our great valleys have always been practically destitute of them, except along stream borders. These fruits are most abundant in the northern por- tion of the State, but some exist throughout the State, usually thriving at higher eleva- tions as they proceed southward. Oregon Crabapple (Pirus rivularis). — This fruit, though more abundant in the more northerly regions of the coast, as its name indicates, is found in the northwest counties of this State. It chooses a moist situation, becomes a tree fifteen to twenty-five feet high, shows white bloom, and red or yellow oblong fruit, about half an inch long. The flavor is rather acid, but the fruit is eaten by the Indians, and was sometimes used for jelly-making by early settlers. Wild Plum (Prunus subcordata). — This must be regarded as one of the most useful of our wild fruits. Even now, when the plum varieties of all the world have been introduced, residents in some of the Sierra regions, where an excellent variety (Kel- loggii) abounds, prefer it to the cultivated fruit, both for eating and preserving and jelly-making. The typical species is widely distributed over the mountainous regions of the State, and is a low shrub with white bloom and fruit three-quarters of an inch long, of red color and inferior pulp. The better va- riety has a narrower range, forms a larger shrub, and bears a yellow fruit, larger and better than the typical species. Some at- tempts have been made to improve this va- riety by cultivation and selection of seedlings, and the results are promising, as fruit has been shown at our fairs notably better than the wild gatherings. The roots have also been used to some extent as stocks, but seem to possess no marked advantage. The late Mr. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, reported that grafting an improved plum on the wild California Wild Fruits 36 California Fruits stock seems to cause the root to grow to much greater size than natural to it. Obser- vation upon grafted and non-grafted seed- Hngs in the same nursery row convinced him of this behavior. Other experimenters have condemned the stock because of dwarfing" and suckering. In early days the wild plums in the mining regions of the mountains were largely made use of and are highly praised by pioneers. Oso Berry (Nuttallia cerasiformis). — This fruit is sometimes called the "California false plum." It has a plum-like form, one- half inch long, and is of a rich, blue-black color, but is bitter, though not disagreeable to birds and animals, which feed upon it. The white bloom of the shrub has an almond odor. Used as a stock, the plum varieties grafted upon it have been dwarfed. Wild Cherries (Prunus sp.). — Quite a group of wild fruits come under this generic grouping, and they have marked and widely dififerent characteristics. The western Choke- cherry {Prunus dcinissa) closely resembles the Eastern choke-cherry, and bears its round, red, or dark purple fruit on a raceme. It is used for marmalade by housewives in the mountain districts. This species has proved of some utility both for its fruit and as a stock for grafting in early days when better cherrv stock was not available. Another species, Islay, (Prunus ilicifolia) has ever- green foliage, and is a useful hedge plant. Of species bearing fruit in umbels, or true cherry style, we have the Bitter Cherry, {Prunus eniar ginata) , which makes a hand- some tree, sometimes thirty feet high, but its oval, dark red fruit is quite bitter and as- tringent. The bush form bearing bright red fruit intensely bitter, is the variety Califor- nica. California Grape (Vitis Californica). — Along our streams the native grape-vine attains large size and fruits freely, the fruit resembling the "frost grape" of the East. The vine frequently covers and sometimes kills large trees with the density of its foliage. Some variation is reported in the species, but it is possible that some of the better kinds are seedlings from some imported species, bird planted. The species has attained some- thing of a reputation as a phyloxera-resist- ing root for grafting, but it has proved ex- acting in its choice of soils and situations, and otherwise not desirable, and some East- ern species are now relied upon for this service. Elderberry (S.'\.mbucus glauca). — The elderberry makes a fine tree in California, sometimes twenty feet or more in height, and with a trunk a foot and a half in diam- eter. The fruit is borne in large quantities and is used to some extent for preserves and pastry. Raspberries (Rubus sp.). — In the moun- tains of the eastern part of the State is a scarlet hemispherical berry of pleasant flavor, which is called '"thimbleberry" {Rubus parviflorus). It seems to have an advan- tage over a variety {vdutinus) of the same species which is found near the coast and has a dry, insipid fruit. Another raspberry, which is found in all hilly and mountainous regions, both on the coast and in the inter- ior is Rubus leucodermis. It resembles the black-cap raspberry of the Atlantic slope, except that it has yellowish-red fruit. This fruit is quite largely gathered for domestic uses, and some efforts have been made to cultivate the plants. Salmon Berry (Rubus spectabilis). — The beauty, size, and delicious flavor of this fruit are highly commended by all who have enjoyed it in the upper coast counties of California and farther northward. The plant makes a strong bush, five to ten feet high, and it delights in woods and shady banks of streams. The praise of all who know the fruit has led to frequent attempts to intro- duce the plant to warmer and drier parts of the State, but such efforts have thus far uni- formly failed. Wild Blackberry (Rubus vitifolius). — This fruit should perhaps be called a "dew- berry," as it has a trailing, or, at most, but partially raised stems, which extend from five to twenty feet. The plant occurs abundantly on banks of streams and other sufficiently moist locations, both in the coast and inter- ior regions of the State. Around the margin of Humboldt Bay, on land cleared by fire or axe, blackberries spring up abundantly on the denuded land. Tons of the fruit are said to remain after the local housewives have done their utmost in preserving and How to Grow Them 37 California \\'ild Fruits jelly-making. In the lowland region around Stockton considerable quantities are some- times gathered for sale. The fruit, which has been held in high repute ever since pioneer days, is oblong, black, and sweet. The species is variable, and the anomaly, a white blackberry, has been reported from Del Norte County. The native wild blackberry is one of the parents of the Loganberry and of some of Mr. Burbank's hybrids which are widely grown. Wild Strawberries (Fragaria sp.). — We have in California two Eastern species : Fra- garia vcsca and F. J'irginiana. Thus far these have only been reported from localities in the Sierra mountain region. Another, the sand strawberry, has been found identical with a South American species, Chilciisis, and it occurs along the coast, where the fruit is esteemed, and is sometimes abundant enough to gather in quantity. A fourth species, wood strawberry, is local, and is named Califoniica. It bears a small round fruit and is partial to the coast region. Re- cently some cultural attention has been given to the wild strawberries, and varieties worthy of propagation have been reported by growers resident in the Sierra region. Mr. Albert F. Etter of Ettersburg, Humboldt county, has secured notable results in crossing with the wild strawberry, as will be noted in the chapter on that fruit. Wild Gooseberries and Currants (Ribes sp.). — Some of our currant species are achiev- ing quite a reputation abroad as ornamental shrubs, but they bear insipid fruit. The fruit of Ribes tenuiflorum is, however, more agreeable, and is esteemed for jellies, etc., by dwellers in its region, which is the mountain region of the extreme north of the State. We also have a species (Bracteosuin) which has something of the black currant flavor and a fair-sized fruit, black with whitish bloom, and very sweet. There are also several species of Ribes which are classed with the gooseberries, but only three bear edible fruit. One of these (Ribes divaricatum) is peculiar to this coast; another (Ribes o.ryacanthoides) occurs at an elevation in the Sierra Nevada and thence extends eastward beyond the Rocky Mountains. The berries are small to medium, of pleasant flavor, and well armed with spines. Another species (Ribes leptanthum), com- mon in San Luis Obispo and Kern Counties, resembles the flavor of the cultivated goose- berry, and is free from spines. Cranberries and Huckleberries (Vac- ciNiUM sp.). — We have several species be- longing to the same botanical genus as the Eastern cranberry, but quite different from it both in growth of plant and character of fruit. The fruit of two species is reddish, but insipid. Other species (V. ovatiim, etc.) have dark blue or purple fruit. Some of these are locally esteemed, and the argu- ment drawn from them is that the cranberry of commerce would succeed. It should be stated, however, that the situations in which these plants thrive are not at all according to the requirements of the bog cranberry. A huckleberry (Vaccinimn ovatmn) is largely gathered in the redwood region of northern California, for canning and pie- making. The berries are juicy and delicious, and the preserved fruit has a very agreeable flavor. In one year as many as two thous- and boxes were profitably gathered on the hills of western Sonoma county. Other Berries.— There are many small, wild fruits, commonly designated as berries, which are of considerable botanical interest. The fruit, too, may be said to be edible, judg- ing by the taste of Indians, birds, and wild beasts, but not likely to be much more than ornamental in the eyes of white people. They may be briefly enumerated : The "manzanita" (Arctostaphylos man- zanita), the ''little apple" of the Spaniard bears a rather dry but sub-acid fruit. The "bear berry" (Arctostaphylos nva- ursi) is esteemed by the Indians both as food and medicine. The "western buffalo berry" (Shcpherdia argentea), has small acid edible fruits. The "salal" (a species of Gaultheria), small fruit, either red or purple, is also a favorite of the aborigines. Of "barberries" we have three species of Berberis. One aquifoHum, is called the "Oregon grape." chiefly notable for its hand- some bloom, which has been chosen the State flower of Oregon. The fruit is dark blue, and the root is said to be a febrifuge. Another species (nervosa) has a larger fruit, which is esteemed in cookerv ; and a third California Wild Fruits 38 California Fruits : species (pinnata) bears a small, pleasant- flavored fruit. It is the Lena amarilla of the Spanish Californians. Our "service berry" {Amelanchier alni- folia) is from a quarter to a third of an inch in diameter and of a purple color. The "lemon berry" is a fruit of Rhus iii- iegrifolia, and is coated with an acid exu- dation which is said to dissolve in water and make a pleasant drink. The fruit of Rhus trilobata is said to have both a sweet and an acid coating. The berries of the "toyon" or "tollon" (Heteromeles arbutifolia) , or "California holly," are said to be eaten by Indians, but they serve the white people a better purpose in Christmas decorations. The "jujube" of commerce (Zicyphus jujitba) has a local relative in Zizyphus parryi, which is, however, dry, and mealy, rather than juicy. The "beach strawberry," or "sea fig," is the fruit of M eseinbrianthemum aequilaterale, 2l relative of the ice-plant. The good-sized fruit is gathered along the sea-shore, and re- motely suggests a strawberry. Wild Olive (Forestieria Neo-mExicana). — This is a tall willow-like shrub, found in springy places on the borders of the Mojave Desert. It bears an abundance of small fruits which, from their botanical relationship to the olive, have attracted some attention. Experi- ments to determine its standing as a possible root for the olive have been suggested. Wild Nuts of Calieornia. — The wild nuts of California are of very little commercial importance. The wild almond (Prniins Andcrsonii) of the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada is chiefly of botanical interest, although some experiments are in progress in its use as a grafting stock for the sweet almond. The California filbert (Corylus Californkd), has none of the quality of the improved filberts nor even of the wild hazelnut. Our chestnut (Castanopsis chrys- ophylla) has a sweet kernel, but a hard shell, almost like a hazelnut ; its variety, scm- pervircns or Bush Chinquapin of the Sierra Nevada and dry Coast Range, is said to have a bitter flavored kernel. Our native walnut (Juglans Californica) is better in flavor than the Eastern black walnut, but its hard shell makes it of little commercial account in competition with better, cultivated nuts. The one native nut which is regularly sold in the local market is the "pinenut" — seeds of several species of Pacific Coast pines, partic- ularly the "Nevada Nut Pine" or "One-leaf Pinon." Their flavor is somewhat resinous, but is agreeable. The seeds of two species of palms, IVash- ingtonia filifcra and the Lower California Erythea armata, are sought for by the In- dians, who also eat the sweetish fruit of the Yucca Mojavcnsis, which somewhat resem- bles in shape the banana, and in flavor the fig, and is called the "wild date." The Indians also use the acorns of several species of California oaks as food, extracting the bitterness by soaking in water, and then making a rude bread of the acorn meal. The "jajoba," or "goat-nut,'' (Simmondsia Californica) is a low shrub, the fresh fruits of which, deprived of their seed-coats, are eaten like almonds, and when dried by fire and ground they are used as a beverage, in the form of tablets made up with sugar, or as a simple infusion. Fire-dried seeds contain 48.30 per cent of fatty matter ; the oil is suitable for food and of good quality, and possesses the immense advantage of not turning rancid. In Lower California it is prepared by boiling with water. The nuts of the California laurel were roasted bv the native tribes and esteemed a great delicacy. Further improvements in the preparation process may some day adapt them to the white man's tastes. C.'\CTus. — The common cactus {Opuntia Engelmanni) bears a sweet edible fruit which the Indians dry in large quantities for winter use. By long boiling they make a sauce, which, after slight fermentation, they consider especially nutritious and stimulating. The local species has been used by Mr. Bur- bank in some of his crossing to secure im- proved spineless fruits on plants of more vigorous growth and productiveness. How to Grow Them 39 California Mission Fruits CHAPTER V. CALIFORNIA MISSION FRUITS CULTIVATED fruits were first brought into California from the south. Mission work among the Indians of Lower California was actually begun by the establishment of the mission at Loreto by Salvatierra, October 19, 1697. The following years horses and cattle were brought from Mexico, and from this in- troduction came ultimately the vast herds which roamed the hills and plains of Cali- fornia. Probably the first seeds and plants of cultivated vegetables and fruits came about the same time, for there was a small garden and a few fruit trees at Loreto in 1701. But Loreto was not fitted for horticulture, and in the same year an expedition in charge of Father Ugarte, who is called the founder of agriculture in Lower California, crossed over the mountain to a more suitable location at the mission of ^'igge Biaundo, which had been destroyed some time before by hostile Indians. Ugarte restored the mission, made irrigating ditches, and planted fruit trees and vines. This effort was successful from a horticultural point of view, for in 1707 Ugarte made more wine than would suffice for mission use, and sent some to Mexico in exchange for other goods. Thus began the export trade in Cal- ifornia wine. The Jesuits continued their establishment of missions in Lower California until there were fifteen missions, at five of which there were vineyards, and presumably as many or more which had gardens with fruit trees. The variety of fruits grown in Lower Cali- fornia was small. They had figs, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, plantains, and some olives and dates. There were no North Eu- ropean fruits, with the exception of a few peaches, which, however, did not appear to thrive. The Jesuits were supplanted in Lower Cal- ifornia, in 1768, by the Franciscans. The Franciscans, led by Junipero Serra, at once pressed northward, and entered the territory which is now the State of California. Their first establishment was at San Diego, in 1769 Thence they proceeded northward, braving many perils, and undergoing great hardships, establishing missions through the coast region of the State. Credit is given to the secular head of the expedition to San Diego, Don Joseph de Galvez, representing the king of Spain, for ordering the carrying of seeds of fruits, grains, vegetables, and flowers into the new territory, and from the planting at San Diego the same varieties were taken to the twenty missions afterwards established. Kinds of Fruit at the Missions. — It is of no little interest to ascertain how great a variety of fruits was grown in these mission orchards. Vancouver, in 1792, found a fine orchard at Santa Clara, with apple, peach, pear, apricot, and fig trees, all thrifty and promising. He also describes at the mission of San Buena Ventura apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, and peaches and pome- granates. Robinson described the orchards connected with the Mission of San Gabriel as very extensive, having among their trees oranges, citrons, limes, apples, pears, peaches, pomegranates, and figs. There were also grapes in abundance. Edwin Bryant noticed at San Luis Obispo Mission the orange, fig, palm, olive, and grape. At the Mission San Jose he found an inclosure of fifteen or twenty acres, the whole of which was planted with trees and grape-vines. There were six hundred pear trees and a large number of apple and peach trees, all bearing fruit in great abundance and in full perfection. The quality of the pears he found excellent, but the apples and peaches indifferent. E. S. Capron, in a general enumeration of the fruits grown at the missions, includes cherries. Early Planting by Others than the Padres. — Though the earlier Spanish popu- lation had the example of successful horti- culture before them for half a century at the Decline of Mission Orchards 40 California Frnits : missions, they did not seem inclined to emulate the efforts of the padres upon their own grounds, except in occasional instances. Gen- eral Vallejo planted fruit trees in Sonoma Valley as early as 1830, and of his place it is said : "It is an old and well-cultivated place, well known in all the northern portion of Cal- ifornia while this State was still Mexican ter- ritory." Exceptions there were, also, at the south. The old fruit garden on the Cum- ulos Rancho, in Ventura County, has become famous. Fremont, writing of his observa- tions in 1846, says that among the arid, brush- covered hills south of San Diego he found little valleys converted by a single spring into crowded gardens, where pears, peaches, quinces, pomegranates, grapes, olives, and other fruits grew luxuriantly together. Scarcely had six years elapsed subsequent to the settlement of the pueblo of San Jose on its present site, before the inhabitants were enjoying the benefits of luxurious fruits. Be- fore 1805 more was grown than could be dis- posed of in its natural state. Decline oe the Mission Orchards. — The decline of most of the mission orchards and gardens followed the secularization of the es- tablishments in 1834. There were a few ex- ceptions, where the mission lands fell into en- terprising Spanish or American hands. Dur- ing the years of neglect, the more tender trees died, and the more hardy survived. The pear and the olive vied with the vine in withstand- ing drouth and the trampling and browsing of the cattle that roamed unmolested through the deserted gardens. These pears, as will be described presently, were turned to good ac- count by the early American settlers ; the olive and the vine furnished cuttings for most of the plantations made during the first twenty years or nTore of American occupation. But it seems that not all the mission or- chards were permitted to fall into decay after the secularization. In 1846 Bryant found at the Mission San Jose two gardens inclosed by high adobe walls. The area was from fifteen to twenty acres, all of which was plant- ed with fruit trees and vines. There were about six hundred pear trees and a large number of apple and peach trees, all bearing fruit in great abundance, the quality of the pears being excellent, the apples and peaches indifferent. Other visitors to some of the mission orchards between the events of secu- larization and American occupation speak of being regaled with pears and milk, a dish which seemed to them ambrosial after the weary journeys overland across the deserts, or after months of ship fare. Planting of Mission Fruits by Early Settlers — There were quite considerable plantations, chiefly of mission grapes and or- anges, by early settlers in the neighborhood of Los Angeles. General Bidweli saw in Los Angeles in 1845 the largest vineyards that he had seen in California, and the vines were the most thrifty. Wine was also abundant, — even the Angelica. Los Angeles had or- chards, also, mostly of oranges. The largest orange orchards at that time were those of Wolfskin, Carpenter, and Louis Vigne. Dur- ing recent years the modern city of Los An- geles has been built over and beyond them. Among the early planters of mission fruits in the northern part of the State was Yount, who planted vines in Napa Valley in 1838. and other fruits later. John Wolfskill, of Winters, saw grapes and peaches at Yount's in 1841, and J. M. Pleasant took peach pits from Yount's over into Pleasant's Val- ley, Solano County, in 1851. Dr. Marsh, on his place at the base of Mount Diablo, had, in 1842, a mission grape vineyard more than an acre in extent, and in good bearing. The vines were planted about 1838. Mr. Wolfskill planted a few vines on Putah Creek in 1842. Partial Revival of the Mission Fruit Gardens. — After the incoming of Americans in 1849 some of the old mission trees were se- cured by enterprising men, and made to re- new their youth by pruning, cultivation, and irrigation, that they might minister to the great demand for fruit which sprang up among the gold seekers. The trees richly reciprocated the care and attention given them and there still exist at the San Gabriel Mission old pear trees grafted over with im- proved varieties by W. M. Stockton in 1854. The first fruits offered for sale in San Fran- cisco markets were from the pear trees of Santa Clara and San Jose Missions, and from the mission grape-vines of the same localities, and of Los Angeles County. These grapes, packed in sawdust, came up the coast by steamer, and were then re-shipped to the min- ing camps, arriving for the most part in good condition, and were very popular. It is re- How to Grow Them 41 Russian Fruits corded that one thousand five hundred tons of these grapes were sent from Los Angeles County to San Francisco and the mines in 1852. Another instance in which thrift fol- lowed neglect is seen in the fact that, in 1858, Don Andres Pico, who succeeded to posses- sion of the orchard at the San Fernando Mis- sion, did a considerable business in drying pears and other fruits, using the labor of the Indians. At the present time vestiges of the old mis- sion orchards still remain, the pears and olives still bearing, and in some cases the old date palms guarding the desolate scenes, or standing as reminders of the old regime, while the new life of California is surging up around them. RUSSIAN FRUITS. The second introduction of cultivated fruits to California was by the Russians. The exrct date of their planting at Fort Ross on the ocean side in Mendocino County is not known, but is believed to have been as early as 181 2. The survivors of the original Russian plant- ing look "very old and mossy, and are not very thrifty, but still bear some fruit every year." They were planted too closely, and have undergone periods of neglect, no doubt. The trees are apple for the most part, but there were also cherries, and some of both fruits survive. The trees are all believed to have been grown from seed, and if this be true some fortunate results were obtained, for there is still grown in Green Valley, So- noma County, a medium-sized, bell-shaped apple, lightly striped with red, which is called the Fort Ross or Russian apple, and was probably propagated by grafts from the Fort Ross orchard. Seeds were also secured from this source for propagation of apple trees in early days in that section of the State. Improved Fruit Varieties 42 California Fruits : CHAPTER VI. INTRODUCTION OF NEW FRUIT VARIETIES. ■"T HE first cultivated fruits of the old era 1 came to California with the padres. The first fruits of the new era came with the American pioneers. Though not a little inquiry has been made, it is not yet possible to declare definitely who brought the first budded or grafted trees upon California soil. It is a tradition in the family of Martin Leiong, who came to California as a member of Stevenson's regiment in 1846, that he brought with him a small lot of French varieties of apples growing in a box, and that they were planted in Los Angeles. In the fall of 1849 W. H. Nash joined with R. L. Kilburn in ordering from a nursery in western New York a small box of thirty-six fruit trees, which, packed in moss, well sur- vived the journey around the Horn, arriving and being planted in Napa Valley in the spring of 1850. The shipment included Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Russet, Winesap, Red Romanite, Esopus Spitzenburg apples ; Bartlett and Seckel pears ; Black Tartarian and Napoleon Bigarreau cherries. Before this introduction of grafted fruit trees, and, indeed, for several years after- wards, there were many shipments of fruit- tree seeds from the eastern States to Cali- fornia. Mr. Barnett planted Kentucky seed as early as 1847 i" Napa County. T. K. Stewart brought to California with him, in 1848, about two hundred pounds of vegetable and fruit seeds, the latter including peach, pear and apple, all of which were planted on the American River, within the present limits of Sacramento, in the spring of 1849. At the same time he planted figs and olives, and, in 1 85 1, seeds of oranges. From all these he secured bearing trees. But these early efforts at improvement of California fruits were but faint forerunners of the zeal and enterprise which followed the great invasion by gold seekers. As soon as the first thought — to get gold directly from the soil — would admit the second — to get it indirectly, by agricultural and horticultural arts — there came a demand for something better than the wild fruits of the mountains, better and more abundant than the fruits from the mission orchards. At first everything in the line of fruit-tree seed which could be ob- tained was planted. Thus the immediate vi- cinity of the mines soon began to show grow- ing fruit trees. But seedlings of any kind would not satisfy the planters, and effort was put forth in every direction after grafted trees of the best varieties. Oregon had a few years the start of California as an inviting field for immigration, and the advantage also of winning the attention of those who went out, not as gold seekers, but as agricultural producers. Oregon had grafted trees in bear- ing, and nursery stock as well, about the time the demand sprang up for it in California. Its introduction was then, however, of very recent date. Up to 1847 the cultivated fruit of Oregon consisted of seedlings introduced by the Hudson Bay Company and by early settlers from the Mississippi Valley. In that year occurred the first considerable, if not the very first, introduction of grafted fruit upon the Pacific Coast. The story of that venture has been so often wrongly told that it is well to record its interesting incidents in the words of one quite near to the event, if not actually participating in it. Seth Lewelling, of Mil- waukee, Oregon, writes : In 1847 my brother, Henderson Lewelling, crossed the plains from Henry County, Iowa, to Oregon, bringing with him a pretty general variety of grafted fruits. He fitted up a wagon for the purpose, selec- ted small plants, and planted them in soil in the boxes and watered them to keep them alive. He told me that in some places he had to carry water a mile up the mountains to save his trees. When he arrived in Oregon, iate in the fall, he had something over three hundred plants alive. The same fall William Meek arrived in Oregon with a few varieties of fruit trees. He and my brother put their stock together, and commenced the first nursery of grafted fruits How to Grow Them 43 Improved Fruit Varieties on the Pacific Coast. It was situated five miles south of Portland, just below Milwaukee, on the east bank of the Willamette River. For want of seedling stock they could not increase their nursery much until, in 1850. my brother John and I crossed the plains, bringing with us some apple seed, which we planted that winter. We also found a gentleman named Pugh, in Washington County, Oregon, who had planted some apple seed in the spring of 1850, which had grown well, and we bought his stock. During the winter of 1850-51 we put in about twenty thousand grafts. In March, 1851, I went to Sacra- mento, taking with me a box of grafts of apple, pear, peach, plum and cherry, and sold them in Sacra- mento. I believe I have the honor of being the first to distribute grafted fruit in California. Other Early Introductions. — The intro- duction of grafted trees, for sale by Mr. Lew- elling in the spring of 1 85 1, was quickly followed by other commercial importations, and by shipirients by planters for their own use, so that the plantings of 1851-52 were quite large. Still there was great doubt as to the success of the trees. The late G. G. Briggs, after his great melon profits of 1851, went back to New York State for his family, and, returning to California, brought with him, as he says, "with no idea that they would suc- ceed, but as a reminder of home,'' fifty peach and a few apple and pear trees. To his sur- prise the trees grew well in 1852, and the next year blossomed and bore some of the best peaches he ever saw. The pears also bore some fine fruit the same year. Besides the introduction of grafted trees which have been mentioned there were others in 1852, for, at a fair held in San Francisco in 1853, there were several kinds of apples, grown by Isaac A. Morgan, of Bolinas, on trees planted the previous year. Apples were also shown from Napa. David Spence, of Monterey, showed the first almonds grown in California. During the winter of 1825-53 the distribution of grafted trees must have extend- ed widely over the State. Five dollars for a small tree was frequently paid at the nursery of Meek & Lewelling, in Milwaukee, Oregon, and the trees were carried overland into the mining districts of California, as well as brought to San Francisco for distribution through the valleys. Fruit Gardens, not Orchards. — It is in- teresting to note that much of the pioneer eflfort was expended upon fruit gardens rather than fruit orchards. Two ideas, at least, led in this direction. r)ne was the popular thought, which, however, was very early found to be erroneous, that frequent and cop- ious irrigation was essential to the growth of fruit in this dry climate. Another was the ambition, which was correct, both from a hor- ticultural and commercial point of view, to se- cure the fruit just as soon as possible, for the double purpose of determining what was adapted to the novel conditions, and to secure the magnificent prices which fruit commanded in the market. For these ends dwarfing stocks naturally suggested themselves, and were employed to an extent which seems won- derful when it is remembered that now hardly a fruit tree in the State is worked upon a dwarfing stock. Very early, say from '52 to '58, at San Jose, Oakland, Stockton and Sac- ramento, small areas, which would now only be considered respectable house lots, were turned to great profit with dwarf pear and apple trees. The place of Mr. Fountain, near Oakland, was called, in 1857, "The finest or- chard of dwarf trees in the State." It con- sisted of three acres set with one thousand six hundred apple and pear trees, all dwart from root grafts, two years old, and four feet high, and most of them in good bearing. He started the branches from the ground, pruning severely, and heading in during the winter. He claimed that dwarfing gave him better and larger fruit, and from two to three years sooner than with standard trees. He did not irrigate, but plowed frequently, four inches deep, up to the first of June. But though these dwarf-tree gardens were formally declared "to be the fashion,'' and though the list of stock of one Sacramento nurseryman, in 1858, included ninety-five stan- dard and eight thousand and sixty-eight dwarf pear trees for sale, the foundations of the greater orchards were early laid upon the basis of standard trees. Thus the Briggs' orchard, of one thousand acres, on the moist land of the Yuba, was planted with trees six- teen feet apart each way, and Mr. Lewelling, and other early planters 00 the rich lands of central Alameda County, adopted about the same distance. Quite in contrast, too, with the prevalence of dwarf trees, and contemporaneous with it, was the grand plan upon which the pioneer of pioneers. General Sutter, laid out his or- chard on Hock Farm, on the west bank of the Feather River, eight miles from its junc- tion with the Yuba, of which the following description was written about the time the trees were coming into bearing : The First OversupiDly 44 California Fruits : Several acres were set apart for an ornamental fruit orchard, the trees and shrubs being so arranged as to present a unique landscape garden, nearly every article in which is productive of fruit. The arrangement of the fruit trees is peculiar, a large portion of them being set on either side of the broad avenues opening through the extensive grounds in various directions, imparting to the whole an air of picturesque beauty seldom seen. But neither the narrow dwarf-tree garden plan nor the broad landscape-garden plan has survived. Neither of them harmonized with the commercial idea of orcharding — large pro- duction and economy of cultivation, and both are now but curiosities of the early horti- culture of California. Irrigation Abandoned. — The early aban- donment of dwarf trees suggests also the early abandonment of irrigation in the valleys of Northern California — as early as 1856. Fa- cilities which had been secured for irriga- tion of orchards were allowed to go unused, because it was seen that it was better not to use them. One case is reported in Napa County where means to furnish the orchard with thirty thousand gallons of water per day were allowed to lie idle. The substitution of cultivation for water, of course, attended this reform. The announcement of a practice, in 1856, "to plow deep, dig wide and deep holes for planting, and work the ground from Feb- ruary to July, allowing no grass or weeds to grow among the trees," shows that the thorough and clean culture, for which Cali- fornia is famous, is not a recent idea in our practice. Even the abandonment of the plow, and almost weekly use of the cultivator, was the practice of some growers in the San Jose district before i860. In fact, the descriptions of orchard management in that day include nearly the whole variety of methods which now prevail. The experience of the two de- cades has shown that irrigation facilities are more valuable even for deciduous fruits than was once thought possible. This proposition will be discussed in the chapter on irrigation. Early Wisdom and Enterprise. — It is evi- dent to anyone who studies the records, that California was very fortunate in numbering among the early settlers so many rnen with horticultural tastes, skill, and experience. The rapidity with which fruit trees were tnul- tiplied, and the confidence with which these early comers entered upon the nursery busi- ness, shows their training. Although there were many trees brought here from the East and from Europe, they constituted only a very small percentage of the plantings of the first few years, hut the orchards, with the ex- ception of a very small number of trees in- troduced to furnish grafting and budding stock, were the product of the soil. When this is borne in mind, it becomes all the more wonderful how so much could be done in a new country, in a distant part of the world, in so very short a time. It was an obser- vation which was put upon record as early as 1856, that "some varieties of fruit are much improved by change to this State, and some are not benefited." The test seems to have been that if a variety was not better than at the East, it should be discarded. The First Oversupply. — The wonderful stimulus given to the fruit interest by the results attained in growth and in marketing, soon induced larger plantings than the de- mand warranted. In 1857 it was publicly stated that "there are single farins in this State, containing each over half a million fruit trees in orchard and nursery — one per- son owning enough trees, when fully ma- tured, to produce as much fruit, other than grapes, as will be sold this year throughout our State. The day is not far distant when fruit will be an important crop for raising and fattening swine." This was, to a certain extent, a statement of a croaker, for planta- tions continued, rare varieties were brought from the East, the South, and from Europe; the growth of some fruits continued to be very profitable, and the nursery business, confined to fewer hands, was profitable also. The idea that quality rather than size should be striven for led to more discrimination in propagation and better treatment of trees. The decade from 1858 to 1868 was one of quiet in the fruit interest of California. Many of the too hastily and carelessly plant- ed trees died from lack of proper cultivation and pruning, and the borer wrought sad havoc. In i860 and 1861 there was serious depression. It is recorded that peaches were worth but one cent a pound, and many were allowed to go to waste as not worth gather- ing. The flood of 1862 destroyed many trees along the Sacramento River, and replanting was slow until prices began to improve, as thev did soon afterward. The rapid devel- opment of the mining interest in Nevada, and How to Grow Them 45 Fruit Interests in 190S the construction of roads across the Sierras, opened the way for the disposition of much fruit grown in the foot-hills and in the region around Sacramento. The imports of dried and canned fruits were large, and growers were exhorted to take steps to secure this trade for them- selves. Something was done in this direc- tion, for by 1867 the local product of canned fruit was equal to the demand. Drying did not advance so fast ; for two years later there were imports of six thousand barrels of dried apples, while the hundreds of thousands of bushels of the fruit were rotting under the trees in our orchards. The decade under review was also notable for the first appearance of cured raisins and prunes at the State fair of 1863. The raisins were from the Muscat of Alexandria grape, and the report states that so-called raisins ex- hibited previous to that time were merely dried grapes. Dr. J. Strentzel, of Martinez, was the first exhibitor of Muscat raisins, and he exhibited also dried grapes of four va- rieties to show the contrast between a raisin and a dried grape. J. R. Nickerson, of Pla- cer County, exhibited the dried prunes, which were of the German variety. Though this decade was one of uncertainty and doubt, there were rich lessons of ex- perience learned, and the foundations for coming greatness were well laid. Many of our leading lines of production trace their be- ginnings to this period, and their later de- velopments have been beyond any anticipa- tions then cherished. The New Era. — Another era in California may be marked as beginning with the year 1869, because then the first fresh fruits were sent East over the newly-opened overland line. The first, season's shipments amounted to thirty-three tons of pears, apples, grapes, and plums ; in 1870 seventy car-loads, or about seven hundred tons were sent. The Eastern shipment of fresh fruits be- gan its new era with the year 1886, when the first full train load of fifteen cars of fresh fruit from deciduous trees went overland. Shipping train loads of oranges from South- ern California began at an earlier date. During the present decade shipments of fruit and fruit products have increased until a very large aggregate in weight and value has been attained. The volume of shipments beyond State lines is shown by the statement on the next page compiled from the records of the State Board of Trade. The Fruit Interest in 1908. — The fruit interests of California now constitute the greatest single industry of California and the fruit output of California is far greater than that of any other State in the union. Nota- ble progress has been secured in planting, in the growth, preparation and marketing of the product, in the contest with injurious insects and plant diseases, and, in fact, in all things which contribute to success. It is true that there are problems still unsolved, and there have been grievious losses to individuals who have proceeded upon too great expectations or have erred in location for various fruits. Such mishaps will be less frequent in the future. At present there is a disposition to proceed more cautiously and to profit by the lessons which have been learned, many of which will be mentioned in their proper places in later chapters. Some dimensions of the present fruit inter- ests may be suggested by the following statis- tics which have been carefully compiled from reports of the supervisors of the counties sub- mitted to the State Agricultural Society in accordance with the law of 1905. These reports are published, unfortunately, without summaries, in the Report of the Society for 1906. The figures for a few counties which did not comply with the law are supplied from other sources. (See page 47.) The total acreage in 1898 was 542,399; since that year there has been a gain of nearly fifty-four per cent. It is interesting to estimate the total value of the annual products of California trees and vines using the best data and judgment avail- able. Valuation has advanced more than pro rata with increased acreage of improved market demand, due to better handling and distribution. These amounts, which are averages of several recent years, are of available surplus for distant shipment. They do not include the local consumption by two millions of fruit- loving people in California. California Fruit Shipments 46 California Fruits : < S 2; - o o ^ w Z O >< H cq Z Q Z m < fV. W > > m H w" r 1 H m rn O W U fl< H o P=< O o t/) H Z W S Ai to CD ^ ■)- X Tjl in X 1 03 IB 05 c^ : 05 (N -^ in 05 O CD CO . rH CO ^. ^. 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FRUIT Bearine Non-Bearing Total Acreage Apple 1,869,593 753,345 2,612,938 34,389 Apricot 2,314,325 365,961 2,680,286 33,503 Cherry 551,146 120,520 671,666 8,955 Fig 269,500 200,881 470,381 5,879 Lemon 1,336 225 2.50,185 1,586,410 19,830 Orange 8,085,644 2.290,505 10,376,149 129,701 Lime 2,960 750 3,710 37 Pomelo 23,576 5,090 28.655 358 —Olive 1,342,653 206.377 1,549,030 19,362 Peach 5,526,175 1,855.595 7,381,770 92,272 Nectarine 68,638 47,781 116,419 1,455 36,871 7,643 44,514 451 Pear 1,500,378 281,886 1 782,264 22,278 7,589,902 799,535 8 389,437 104,867 Plum 1,050,646 318,904 1,369,550 17,119 Almond 1,222,384 220,600 1,442,984 18,037 Walnut 669,557 327 312 966,869 33,217 4,434 1,935 6,369 159 Pecan 2,295 108 2,406 60 215,433 65,815 281,248 10.561 79 10,640 Totals 33,460,902* 8,054,913* 41,511,807 833,267 *Acreage of grapes and small fruit omitted. Valuation of a year's horticultural products. KINDS Fresh, deciduous Citrus Dried, deciduous Raisins Nuts Canned, deciduous Olive products Win e Brandy Total valuation. . . Pounds 2.30,167,200 908,166,800 236,958,600 125,000,000 14,000,000 180,000,000 Selling price per pound 2c. 2c. 6o. 4c. lOo. 5o. 2Ve.* 8e.t Value $ 4,603,344 18,16,3,376 14,217,516 5,000.000 1,400,000 9,000,000 500,000 6,000,000 1,500,000 $60,384,236 240,000,000 12,000,000 * Basis of 20c. per gal. t Basis of 60c. per gal. INFLUENCE OF THE FRUIT INDUS- TRIES UPON CALIFORNIA DE- VELOPMENT. Enlistment in California fruit growing has proved exceedingly satisfactory to tens of thousands of people in the various ways along which they have approached it. The fruit districts are full of cottage homes shel- tering families of those who have begun with small investments and have made a good livelihood, and often considerably more, from a few acres of fruits grown largely without expenditure for hired labor. The study of the needs of the tree or vine and ministering to them by personal effort has brought new health and new incentive to the worn and weary who have taken up outdoor life and activity in California fruit growing with a wise choice of location, land and fruits, for obviously in all investments one must be wise as well as willing. In large operations hundreds have notably succeeded by purchasing good land in large tracts at low rates and making ample invest- ment for its development and improvement. ■ Outlook of Industry 48 California Fruits : Some of the most delightful of our towns and villages have arisen as a direct result of such employment of capital. Well established communities, well churched and schooled, well provided for in local trade and transportation and widely known citizens, have followed in- vestment money and devoted effort in colony enterprises. Hundreds, also, have purchased large tracts of wild land and have developed fine estates for their own personal gratification, with thriving orchards of all kinds of fruits, rich pastures tenanted with improved livestock, parks, gardens and buildings comparable with the estates of the European nobility, except that California conditions favor freedom and variety in outdoor effort unknown in Europe, and command proportional interest and en- thusiasm. Estates for winter residences in California are exceptionally desirable, not only because of natural advantages and greater possibilities of development, but be- cause of the advanced standing of the State financially and socially. All of these lines of effort then — home- making in a small way, colony enterprise and private estate development — have yielded on the whole great satisfaction and success. Fruit growing has been the central idea in nearly all of them, but it is obvious that ac- tivity in any productive line begets opportu- nity for other lines, and so all branches of agriculture have advanced and the diversifi- cation is highly desirable. Opportunities in manufacture, trade and professional effort of all kinds have been quickly seized and de- veloped with much originality and success. Fruit growing has created them all and has in turn been advanced by all, for every ac- cumulation of capital promotes it. Success- ful toilers in all lines become planters. The ancestral delight of the race, to sit beneath one's own vine or fig tree, is nowhere more enthusiastically manifested than in California, and nowhere else does the emotion of com- fort in ownership yield such profound and protracted satisfaction. THE OUTLOOK OF THE INDUSTRY. The outlook for California fruits and fruit products involves considerations of much economic interest. Though the volume is al- ready large and there may be experienced now and then temporary dullness or depres- sion in this line or that, the business is on the whole brisk and profitable. There is such a wide range in the fruits grown and the products made from them, and such changes in local conditions in the many pur- chasing States and foreign countries with which Californians deal, that there must be some fluctuations in the values of some of the supplies offered in distant market. The re- sult is that first one fruit and then another one seems to be more or less profitable. The fact, however, that all are increasing in vol- ume and the total traffic brings each year more money to the State, is a demonstration of the standing of the collective output. Each year new markets are found, both at home and abroad, and the capacity of old centers of distribution is shown to be greater than anticipated. There is every reason to except that the products can be profitably mul- tiplied. There have been secured, largely through cooperative efforts of growers so many improvements in handling and trans- portation that distant shipment has become more safe and profitable and distribution far wider. It is reasonable to believe that further improvement in movement and reduction of cost will be realized and the per capita con- sumption in the populous parts of our own country proportionally advanced. In spite of all that wintry States can do for local supplies, California can find open markets before and after the short ripening season of the Eastern States for her early and late fruits, and can use her own midseason fruits in the drying and canning industries, though it is a fact that in the height of the Eastern fruit sea- son a considerable quantity of California fruit will command the highest prices be- cause of its exceptional size, beauty and keep- ing qualities. The citrus fruits, so long as they are allow-ed to remain under the favor- ing tariff which now exists, will continue to supply an American product of exceptional quality and freshness, while prunes, nuts, raisins and wines will not only do this, but will push forward into the trade of Europe, as they are now beginning to do in a most vigorous manner. A very significant report was made by one of the United States Con- suls in France recently that our canned and dried fruits were appearing on the shelves of all the provision shops of the smaller French to Grow Them 49 Orchard of the Pacific towns and were being freely sold without re- ducing the prices of the locally grown fruit. Practically the same thing could be said of points in Germany and other European coun- tries. The fact is that European countries cannot grow fruit enough to supply their own people and fruit has been largely a luxury. California dried fruits are being wel- comed by the great middle classes and are likely to become a staple of their diet. This explains the ultimate disposition of the large amounts now going direct from California to Europe. California's exports of high-class food sup- plies to European countries are likely to reach values like those of the wheat and bar- ley which we are now sending to that part of the world. The development of adjacent territory on the American continent and other Pacific countries may shape the future of Cal- ifornia as a fruit producing State in a wav which can at present only be dreamed about. It should be remembered that California has a unique character from a horticultural point of view. Not only does the State have a monopoly of semi-tropical conditions of the United States (excepting small parts of the Gulf States and Arizona), but California has comiliand of the whole of northwest America and the whole of northeast Asia, not only in the supply of semi-tropical fruits, but in early ripening of hardy fruits as well. California does not grow tropical fruits, as has already been conceded in Chapter J. They must come from the islands and the tropical south coast countries. Semi-tropical fruits are, however, vastly more important in commerce than tropical, and a region which successfully combines northern orchard fruits with the whole semi-tropical class commands the fruit trade of all accessible populous re- gions which have limited fruit capabilities. There are now four such regions witii the kind of population which makes for industrial ad- vancement — Southern Europe, South Africa, parts of Australia and California. As already shown, we are competing successfully with South Europe in the capacious markets of North Europe. South Africa and Australia are unfortunate in lying in the southern hemi- sphere which is mostly ocean wastes, and they are handicapped by tropic crossing in their nor- thern shipments, although the fact of opposite seasons may help them, and also us, in avoid- ing competition of trade which both desire. California will soon be less than half as far sea from European and Atlantic coast ports as at present, but California in the future will have less occasion for such distant re- courses. Prophets, far-seeing in world courses, declare that the Pacific ocean is to be the arena for commerce greater than the world has yet seen and the Pacific coast countries are to contain the greater part of the world's population. This greatest quartosphere with its superlative opportunities and activities will have California as its treasure house of fruits and fruit products. During the long winter the citrus fruits will aliford tonic and refresh- ment, and before hardy fruits bloom in north- ern climes the same fruits will appear from the early ripening districts of California. In this traffic California will not only be practi- cally without a competitor, but, sitting beside the sea, there will also be every advantage of water transportation and the sustaining ocean temperatures for the fruits in transit. California dried and canned fruits will ren- der acceptable diet even through the most Arctic stretches along which development may advance in North America and North Asia, while a succession of fresh fruits will flow to all Pacific ports throughout the year. Cali- fornia, too, will be the winter residence for all the North Pacific millionaires and the ha- ven of rest and recuperation for all who are worn by Artie cold or tropic heat throughout the great circle of the Pacific ocean. Here the arts will flourish, education attain its highest achievements and culture prevail. Then fruit growing both as a commercial en- terprise and as a hoine delight will attain value, volume and perfection, of which pres- ent achievements are but a faint foreshadow- PART TWO: CULTURAL. How to Grow Them 53 Clearing Land for Fruit CHAPTER VII. CLEARING LAND FOR FRL'IT. THE greater part of the orchard and vine- yard area of this State was naturally almost clear for planting. The removal of large trees, which paid the cost of the work in fire- wood, or the grubbing out of willows on some especially rich bottom land, was about the • extent of clearing which our earlier planters had to undertake, and many of them perhaps never had to. lift an ax. Still there has always been some clearing done, here and there, even since the earliest days, especially upon hill lands, the peculiar value of which for some fruits is generally recognized. The lands which need clearing are in the main the foot-hill slopes of the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada. In the south there is besides, sometimes, the debris of the desert flora to clear away when water is secured and the rich wilderness is subdued. This work is, however, so easily accomplished that it hardly rises to the dignity of "clearing," as under- stood by the Eastern mind. It is not possible in this connection to enumerate all of the great variety of shrubs and trees which the settler lays low in his clearing. The grand trees which figure most largely in lumbering operations are not met with as a rule in foot-hill clearings. The trees which the settler encounters are rather the degraded valley growths, which, though as- suming grand proportions in the valleys, be- come "scrubs"' amid the harsher environment of the hillsides. This is notably true of the oaks and of some other trees. Ch.\mis.al and Chaparr.m.. — Of true shrubs to be removed, it will only be possible to name a few of the most abundant. The common manzanita ( A rctostal^ltylos maiica- iiita) occurs on dr\- ridges everywhere, both on the coast and at great elevations, some- times only growing a few inches from the ground, sometimes rising eight or ten feet. Next to this, perhaps, the two terms which the land clearer has most to use are "chapar- ral" and "chamisal." To distinguish between them it may be said, however, that the terni chamisal properly applies to the shrub Adc- iiostoma fasciciilatum var. obtusifolium, which is abundant on dr\- soils in the Coast Ranges and more rarely in the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, often covering extensive areas with dense and almost impenetrable growth, pro- ducing an effect on the landscape like that of the heaths of the Old World. Another spe- cies, A. sparsifolium. with narrow, scatteretl leaves, is sometimes abundant on the moun- tains east of San Diego. By chaparral is generally meant shrubs of several species of Ccaiiothus, forming dense thickets and giving its name to certain soils on which it most abounds, both in the Sierra foot-hills and the hillsides of the Coast Range, where it is known as California lilac. The genus includes the ''flat brushes." as they are called, from their traiUng on the ground, or low, horizontal shoots. Other Small Growths. — Shrubs of fre- quent occurrence also are the jx)ison oak (i?/iMj diversiloba), chiefly on the north sides of hills in all parts of the State, but most abundant in the Coast Ranges, and other species of Rhus which are not poisonous : the hazel nut {Corylus rostrata). which has been mentioned in the chapter on wild fruits ; the buckthorns, several species of rhammiis. well distributed on the hillsides and mountains of the State. In some parts of the State there are also large areas of sage-brush or wormwood made up of several species of Artemisia, sage or chia, two species of Salvia, and the famous white and black sages of the bee-keepers, which are species of Aiidibertia. occurring chieflv on the mountains of Southern Cali- Cost of Clearing 54 California Fruits fornia. Add to these the spireas, the azaleas, the rhododendrons, the sweet-scented shrubs (Calycaiitliiis), etc., and include nearly all the wild fruit trees, bushes and vines men- tioned in a previous chapter, and one will gain the idea that though California is widely considered a bare State, the land clearer has a host of plants confronting him and disput- ing his right to the soil. Cost of ClE.xrixg. — The cost of clearing on the foot-hill slopes of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges is too variable to ad- mit of estimates except such as may be made on the spot by experienced persons. The cost varies, of course, according to the den- sity of the growth of trees and underbrush, and the rate of wages to be paid. Though in some cases higher cost is reached, probably as a rule the expense of clearing will be from $5.00 to $30.00 per acre, less whatever the fire- wood might be worth. In exceptional cases, where there is a large growth and a good wood market near by, the wood may pay the expense or more; even the roots of chaparral sometimes sell in our cities at $3.00 or $4.00 per cord. It sometimes happens that char- coal can be produced to advantage; in fact, there are now orchards upon land which was secured in the first instance for the charcoal to be made upon it. Usually, however, the clearing is an item of expense and must be reduced as much as possible by working in the most economical and effective way. Though in most cases of clearing by the actual settler himself the problem is merely one of muscle and persistence, some few hints may be given from the experience of others which may be useful. Spare time during the summer and fall can often be used to advan- tage with a sharp ax in trimming up the smal- ler trees, which are large enough to yield fencing material, and getting out posts from the redwoods and oaks, and rails and pickets from the pines. By thus using the waste ma- terial the settler can often get out enough fencing material to inclose his land and thus save considerable expense. Brush, too, which can not be made use of, can be lopped off — in short, all the sharp ax work can be done in a dry time. The actual clearing, however, should be done in winter, when the ground is wet and soft, and digging is easy or "snaking out" is possible. Parti.xl .\nd Thorough Cle.vrings. — Or- chards are planted on both partially and thoroughly cleared land. By the former prac- tice clearing enough is done to give space for the tree holes, the debris is burned up, and the trees planted. In this kind of work the stumps are left to be taken out at a convenient season, the object being to get fruit trees to growing as soon as possible. Where one is working with little more than his own muscle, and has no capital, this sort of planting is better, perhaps, than not planting at all, but it must be borne in mind that all subsequent work will be done at a great disadvantage, and as cultivation is likely to be very imper- fect, it would be a question whether in the end anything would be gained by such a plan. The encumbered character of the ground will, of course, prevent the use of the horse in cul- tivation until most of the stumps are removed. Aside from this, decaying stumps and roots in the soil often kill the young trees ; especially is this the case with old oak stumps. Clearing of land for orchard or vineyard is a very dififerent thing from clearing for pasture, as is done in the redwood region of the northwest Coast Ranges of the State, where the stumps are untouched ; the trees not taken by the lumberman are girdled and left a prey to decay and storms, and the brush slashed and burned every few years to prevent it from completely taking possession of the land. Clearing for fruit should be thorough, everything which will interfere with good cultivation removed ; roots grubbed so that as little shooting up as possible is se- cured ; the ground evened up to obviate stand- ing water, and, where needed, arrangements made for irrigation and ilrainage, as will be considered later. Remo\'.\l of Trees. — The first operation in clearing will be the removal of the trees. This can be partly done in the dry season if one has unemployed time. In such case the tree is felled and worked up into fire-wood and the stump left for subsequent treatment when the ground is moist. Unless there is idle time to employ, the whole work can, how- ever, be better done in the winter, for then the top of the tree may be made to help pull out its own roots. This is done sometimes by digging out the soil and cutting off the main lateral roots below the depth to which How to Grow Them 55 Removiiio- Shrubs the plow will reach. By thus reducing its anchorage fhe tree will topple over, or may be pulled over with a team and tackle, and it will usually lift out its stump quite effec- tively. A Steam Puui.Er. — An arrangement for tearing out trees without digging has been used to some extent in Santa Cruz County, which is said to handle redwood trees up to four feet in diameter successfully. It con- sists of a portable engine and a "puller,"' which is a windlass operated by steam, from which a wire cable is carried to the tree which is to be pulled down. A strong chain is put around the tree at a distance above the ground proportioned to its diameter in such a way as to give necessary leverage. The immensely strong hook at the end of the cable is attached to this chain and the cable is slowly wound upon the reel. The coil begins to grow taut, a dull creak and strain are heard as the roots begin to be torn from the earth. Two chains are used, a second tree being prepared while the first is falling, that no time may be lost. The cable is detached from the falling tree, and a horse draws it from amid the debris of fallen foliage to the next victim. The extraction of roots by this method of pulling is said to be very complete, and the earth is loosened to a considerable depth. Powerful traction engines, manufactured for hauling combined harvesters and steam plows, have also been very successfully used for the removal of large trees in land clear- HoRSE- Power Stump Pullers. — The use of horse-power devices for tree felling and .stump extraction has increased considerably of late. The one which has achieved good results is a local invention called the "Cali- fornia Stump Puller." It is simply a specially- designed capstan worked by one horse, with a wire cable five-eighths of an inch in diame- ter, an improved snatch block, chains, and a drafthook to unite the cable with the chains. Power is applied to the capstan with a sweep. It is calculated that with this device, properly adjusted, one horse is enabled to produce an effect equal to the capacity of 60 horses with- out it, and that a 1200-pound horse which can move a dead weight of one and a half tons for a short distance can move a dead weight of 90 tons with the devices employed in the machine. It is so rapidly adjustable that on one trial in Napa County eighteen stumps were pulled in eighteen minutes, long roots coming clear out of the ground with each stump. The Use of Powder. — Another means for the removal both of stumps and of growing trees which has come into quite wide use dur- ing the last few years, is high explosives, which have vastly cheapened the clearing of lands where either large trees or stumps have to be removed. Full instructions for the use of powder are furnished by the agents in San Francisco, and they often send an expert to start the work and give instruction if there is much to be done. It has been estimated that the cost of handling trees and stumps with explosives is less than one-fifth that by hand grubbing, and the ratio of saving in- creases as the trees are larger, as powder is cheaper than muscle. Removing Shrubs and Brush. — In the case of removing shrubs of a somewhat tall growth, the top is made to help out the roots. This is done either with a good strong rope or a chain. To do this requires two men and a pair of horses, and two chains, each ten or twelve feet long. A chain should be placed around the bush some distance above the ground, to give leverage. If the bush is not removed at the first pull, start the horses in the opposite direction. While the driver is unfastening the chain from the chaparral, the second man can place the other chain around another bush, and the one who gets through his work first should at once assist the other. In this way the horses are kept in constant employment, and neither of the men need lose a moment's time. This work should be done when the ground is thoroughly wet. Where manzanita grows somewhat upright, as it does on the hills north of the bay, the same methods of extraction can be employed with it, first slashing off enough to allow ad- justing the rope or chain a few feet above the ground. Where it grows lower, as, for ex- ample, on the hills of Santa Clara, the man- zanita brush is gone over with a roller so as to break it down, and then the land is burned over. The roller should be of the ordinary farm pattern, but rigged with a tiller (header fashion) so that the horses can push the rol- Burning of Debris 56 California Fruits ler and walk over the flattened brush. The only object of the rolling is to smash the brush down so that it will burn readily. When the brush is got rid of in this way, the plow is trusted to get rid of the roots. The plow should be of the pattern known as "prairie breaker," without coulter. Horses should be shod with a plate of sheet iron be- tween the shoe and hoof to prevent snagging, and not less than four of them used. Much of the Santa Clara County vine belt was cleared in that way. Of course this method only answers for the lighter-rooted growths; tough-rooted chaparrel, oak, holly, etc., must be grubbed out, unless the roots are snaked out by the tops, as has been described. ^Marketable Products of Clearing. — Whether any money can be made from the results of clearing depends altogether upon local markets for wood and charcoal and the cost of transportation to them. From clear- ings near large towns enough can be some- times had to pay for the work and hauling, and along railways wood can often be shipped with profit. This can only be learned by local inquiries. Charcoal Burning. — Charcoal can usual- ly be sold to advantage, and wood can some- times be profitably disposed of in this way when it can not be marketed for fuel. A considerable acreage of unprofitable fruit trees has been disposed of in this way receiitly. Charcoal is made from most kinds of wood, and sometimes stumps and large roots are charred. A simple process of charcoal burn- ing is given by an experienced burner as follows : To burn a pit of charcoal, tlie prime necessity is to perform the process of combustion with the least pos- sible contact with air. Select a suitable place not too far from the dwelling, because the operation must be watched from time to time by night as well as by day. It is not necessary to dig much of a "pit'' in the ground. Choose hard limbs of pine, spruce or whatever wood is most available of that kind. Dry, dead limbs, if not decayed, take for choice. Set them up wigwam fashion, close together, fitting them as well as they will allow, the apex forming the chimney. Be careful to keep that chim- ney free, because the fire should be there applied to brisk "kindling" as far down as possible. Build round and round, taking the precaution to lay three or four straight pieces, three or four inches in di- ameter, along the ground from the outside to the center. These may have to be withdrawn to promote tlie draught. The wood all being in place it is now required to cover it thoroughly. In the absence oi turf or sods, it must be thatched with leafy green boughs, or anything that will prevent the earth or dirt that is now heaped on from running through. Pack this soil covering carefully, exclude air as far as possi- ble, except when the port-holes referred to near the ground are needed. The direction of the wind will determine which ones are to be opened. When the fire — after a few hours, more or less, according to the materials — has got a good hold, close also the chimney. Visit the pit regularly night and day; lessen or increase the draught as may seem needed ; and in a week or ten days the two or three cords of wood should be turned into good hard coal. When uncovered, water or dirt should be thrown upon coal that is too lively when spread out on the ground. Cutting to Kill Brush. — Just when to cut to kill depends upon the character of the growth and of the season. One conclusion seems to be that with deciduous growths the best time to cut is when they have just made their most vigorous growth, and this is in the summer — but the month to be chosen for the work will depend upon the location, though August is generally selected as the best time. In the case of evergreens, the cutting should be just before the coldest weather, in which they are the nearest dormant. Evergreens, however, differ much in tenacity of life, for while most kinds are easily killed, the Califor- nia redwood will endure almost any abuse with ax or fire and still spring up repeatedly and persistently for 3'ears. The Use of Sheep on Sprouts. — On sprouting brush, there is, perhaps, no cheaper or more effective means of repression than sheep and goats. They are used after the top growth is cleared away instead of grub- bing, if one can wait, for by their persistent cutting down of growth, many small stumps and roots will decay enough in a year or two to be plowed out with a strong team and plow. Burning of the Debris. — However the trees and underbrush may be wrenched from the soil, fire is the final clearer. Where trees are to be worked up into fire-wood, it should be done as soon as they are felled, for the work is much less than after they become dry and hard. If it is not designed to break the land the first winter, the wood is left to sea- son and it becomes lighter and easier to handle. The brush and roots, if no use is to be made of them, can be left to lie on the How to Grow Them 57 Leveling and Draining clearing to dry out during the following sum- mer, and after the first fains of the following fall the whole area can be burned over. Such stumps as do not burn with the brush must be gathered in piles and re-fired. Burning before the first rain should not be attempted, unless it be in exceptional situations, because of the danger of communicating fire to the surrounding country, which is a standing danger in our dry climate. Under the present law it becomes necessary to secure permission from the State Forester at Sacramento before starting field fires in the dry season. After the rain, clean up the ground perfectly. First Crop ox a Cle.\ring. — It is the opinion of some clearers in the redwood re- gion that the soil is not fit for fruit trees the first year after the original growth is re- moved, and they grow a field crop the first year. They claim that peas are the best cor- rective of "redwood poisoning," and fortu- nately in the upper redwood district they have a climate well suited to the pea. Whether their theory is right or not, their practice is of advantage, because they get a better cul- tivation and aeration of the soil, and kill out much of the sprouting from the old roots, which is usually quite persistent in the moister parts of the State. Usually the tree and vine planter is in such haste to realize from his labor that he does not allow the first year to go for any side issue. Surface Leveling and Draining. — There is often occasion to clear the land of stone and rocks. The latter should be blasted out of the way so that the land may be clear for the plow and cultivator. Once in a while one will come upon a stone wall inclosing an or- chard in this State, as trim and true a wall as the most thrifty New England farmer can boast, but walls are not common. Our valley orchard lands are, as a rule, naturally as free from stone as they are from underbrush, but on the hills it is different. Probablv the best way to dispose of much of the stone is to dig trenches in the natural water runs, put in stone, cover with small brush, and then with soil deep enough so the plow will not reach the brush. This disposes of the stone for all time, and at the same time helps to drain the soil. Concerning other treatment of the land after the rubbish is removed, P. W. Butler writes as follows : When water runs are wide, lateral ditches should be cut extending entirely through the moist areas. If during the rainy season a nni is likely to have more water than can be conveyed properly through a covered trench, it should be left open and graded so that a team can cross it, and for fifteen feet on each side sow to red-top. In this way the land can be utilized that would be worthless for trees, and the red-top, that can be grown at a profit, will take the place of unsightly weeds, that would otherwise grow at the point that can not be cultivated. To distribute the work more evenly through the first year buildings can be erected, a well dug. and the trenching done in the dry season, while all the grubbing, leveling, plowing and planting must be done the following season, as soon as the ground is sufficiently moistened. .^.11 depressions where water would stand should be filled, and all fiat places should be graded until water will readily fiow off, and not be retained so near the surface of the ground as to cause it to become soured. This leveling can be be^t done by one man and a pair of horses. Plow the adjacent elevated land and scrape into the places to be filled. The land is now ready for plowing and should be done thoroughly, subsoiling to as great a depth as the removal of the stumps will allow. It is now well to go over the ground again with the scraper and level all the most elevated points so they can be readily reached by water in irrigating. Then cross-plow as deeply as possible without again sub- soiling, harrow and drag, and the ground will be ready to plant. Air. Butler writes with reference to the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, where irriga- tion must be practised. Where irrigation is not used, leveling, or rather grading, may be unnecessary, but it is often quite desirable that there may be no depressions to retain surplus water. The life of the trees and ease of cultivation may demand this unless the soil should be light and deep enough to allow free drainage. The Nursery 58 California Fruits CHAPTER VIII. NURSERY OPERATIONS IN CALIFORNIA. CALIFORXIA nurser_v stock is unrivaled in growth, health, and vigor. This is the verdict of all the visiting horticulturists, and has been formally declared by the victories of California tree growers at the World's Fairs held in this country, where the highest prem- iums were awarded to Californians in nearly all classes in which they exhibited since 1885. The quality of the trees which can be pur- chased at our nurseries, and the very reason- able rates at which they are sold make it little worth while for the orchard planter to try to grow his own trees. In fact, the investment called for to purchase a good assortment of well-grown trees will be one of the best which the orchard planter can make. The professional grower, if he is honest and enterprising, can give the pur- chaser the advantage of his experience and skill in the choice of stocks suited to his soil, varieties of fruit adapted to his situation, and be of assistance to him in other ways con- nected with his enterprise ; and such helps to an inexperienced planter or to a newcomer are very valuable. There may be, however, some reader who is distant from established nurseries, or possessed of limited means, who may like to use his spare time in growing his own trees, and to such suggestions are offered. There will, however, be very much which can be learned only by actual ex- perience. In the selection of location for a commer- cial nursery there are matters involved which it is not proposed to discuss. Attention will be paid rather to matters connected with what may be called a farm nursery. The first point will be the selection of a small piece of ground which oflfers proper soil, exposure, and, in some parts of the State, facilities for irrigation. Proper Soil for Ni'rsery. — The soil should be a mellow loam, easy of cultivation and not disposed to crust and crack. In all respects what one would choo.se as a rich, kind garden soil will answer well for the nursery. The soil should be moist, but thoroughly drained, either naturally or artificially, for time and labor will be largely wasted on a water-logged soil. In this respect a soil which might yield fair crops of some shallow-rooting vege- tables would not always be suitable for young trees, which, to do well, must have favorable conditions to send the roots to considerable depth. Good spots are often found in the rich loam along the banks of creeks, as in such situations one finds generally a deep alluvium, well drained by the creek. But such situations, if liable to overflow, should be rejected because standing water is not good for trees, and because the soil will be apt to be soaked with water and inaccessible just at the time when the trees should be lifted for transplanting to orchard. It is not always possible to find an ideal nursery spot on every ranch, but still trees may be well grown on less favorable places if attention is given to correcting natural defects. For example, if the soil be naturally heavy, it may be improved somewhat by repeated plowing and cultivation during the year before starting the trees. If it be an adobe, its mechanical condition may be greatly improved by the application of a top dressing of lime at the rate of six hundred to one thousand pounds of lime to the acre. For this purpose "lime waste," which contains both lime and wood ashes, can be had cheaply at the kilns. Old plaster which may have been left from house repairs is excellent. Even builders" lime would not be very expensive, for but little would be required for so small a plot of land as a farm nursery would need to cover. The lime will increase the amount of plant food in a heavv soil as well as render it more friable. Another way in which a small area of heavy soil may be improved is by the addition of sand. A few loads of sand, if it can be had near by, will remove the tendency to crack, and will act as mulch to prevent evaporation of moisture. If How to Grow Them 59 Situation and Exposure the soil be very loose and subject to too rapid drying out, the remedy will be moderate irrigation during the summer, but it should cease early enough to allow the young trees to ripen their wood before the frosts of autumn. Mulches of various light, fine materials, rotted straw and the like, may be used to advantage among the young seedlings in preventing drying out of the soil, if the plot is to be hand-worked, but such materials are apt to be in the way of neat, thorough, work with the horse. A mulch of sand, if available, is not open to this objection. In choosing soil for a nursery, a piece of land which has been in cultivation for garden or field crops is to be preferred over a newly- cleared piece. It is often the case that soil from which old stumps or shoots have re- cently been removed has become soured from the processes of decay iu the dead wood. Although the deposits of humus from decay of woody fiber tends to enrich the soil, after- wards certain acids are formed if the land lies without cultivation. These are not favorable to the growth of young roots, and a crop to which as much time is given as a crop of young trees, should not be placed upon it. This evil quality in the soil is removed by cultivation and aeration, or may be corrected by the application of lime. This state of soil is most complained of in con- nection with old stumps and roots of oak trees. SiTU.\TioN .'XND Exposure. — Warmth in the soil is necessary to a good growth, and a good year's growth is essential to the production of a satisfactory tree. Drainage contributes notably to the warmth of the soil. Exposure is also of importance. Plenty of sunshine and protection from cold winds are to be secured. Sometimes a little elevation is desirable. It would be a serious mistake to seek moist, low land if the piece lies at the bottom of a little valley or depression where the cold air settles during the night and frosts are frequent. In such cases choose higher ground. Of course, in broad, open valleys there is not this objection, for such season- able frosts as may be expected there are not injurious to deciduous nursery stock. The greatest nurseries in the State are in the open \a'-leys, not on the lowest ground, however, in all cases, but on what would be called good, rich valley land. There are. however, situations in the thermal belts in which the temperature does not fall low enough to check growth of deciduous trees and cause the leaves to drop. In such cases it has been found desirable to select lower and colder ground for the nursery of decid- uous trees. Prep.\r.\tiox of Nursery Ground. — The best preparation for nursery ground is the growth, the previous season, of a cultivated or hoed crop. This will secure frequent working of the soil, thorough pulverization of the clods, etc. The produce of the hoed crop should thus pay the cost of putting the land in good condition, at least. Where the retention of moisture is an object, as it really is in some parts of the State where the annual rainfall is sometimes small and no facilities for irri- gation provided, it will perhaps pay better in the end to keep the land iu bare fallow during the previous summer ; but there must be frequent and thorough cultivation, keeping the surface always mellow, or more moisture will be lost by evaporation than a hoed crop would require for its growth. Properly cultivated fallow soil will have moisture within a few inches of the surface, while unworked soil adjoining will be baked hard and dry to a depth of several feet. During the winter immediately preceding planting, the green stufif should be allowed to grow for a time, but should be plowed under before it gets high enough to interfere with perfect turning of smooth furrows. The decay of this green crop is of advantage to the soil. Another plowing in the spring, and a thorough harrowing, will leave the ground in good condition to receive the pits or root grafts as the case may be. In this plowing for nursery there should be deep work done and subsoiling, as will be more fully set forth under the head of preparing land for orchard, to which the reader is referred. Growth of Seedlings for the- Nursery. — The two chief ways 'of producing fruit trees are, first, from seedlings grown on the spot ; second, from buds and root grafts upon stock imported from the East or from abroad. First, as to the growth of seedlings : It is usual to take seeds from sources where thev can be collected with the least trouble. Seedlinp'S 60 California Fruits : Apple seeds are washed out from the pomace of the cider press ; apples and pears from the coring and peelings of canneries and drying establishments ; pits of the stone fruits are derived from the same source. Supplies can usually be purchased from such establishments at a moderate cost. The trouble is that from such supplies one is apt to get seeds and pits from all varieties, possessing different degrees of health and vigor. There is just as much to be gained from selecting the seed from which to grow good strong stocks for fruit trees as there is in selecting good garden or field seed. One can generally get good peach pits, for it is easy to have the order filled when the cannery is running on strong-grow- ing yellow varieties, for these are believed to be most vigorous, and yet some claim much preference for pits from vigorous seedling trees, and make extra efforts to secuie them. Wherever it is possible, and if one is only to produce a small lot of trees it is practicable, to select from the fruit the seeds for plant- ing. Not only is there great dift'erence in the strength of different varieties, but in- dividual trees vary greatly. If one is tak- ing seed from an old orchard to start his nursery with, he can take pains to get his seed from his strongest trees, and thus secure also that which is probably best adapted to his locality. Apple and Pear Seedlings. — For a small lot of apple and pear trees the seed can be best sown in boxes. Select plump pips and keep in moist sand, from the time they are taken from the fruit until sowing. Fill the boxes, which should be three or four inches deep, with good garden mold, cover, the seed about half an inch, and then cover the soil lightly with chaff or fine straw to prevent the surface from drying out. Be sure that the boxes have cracks or holes in the bottom for drainage, and the whole is kept moist but not wet. When the seedlings have grown to the height of three inches, they can be set out in the nursery rows as one would set out cabbage plants. Cherry Seedlings. — There are different ways of handling pits of stone fruits to pre- pare them for setting out in open ground, which will be described. The cherry is grown from pits of two wild varieties ; one is com- monly called the "Black Mazzard." It is the common wild cherry of the East, and is the original type of what are known as the Heart and Bigarreau types of cherries. The other is the "Mahaleb," a European wild species, which is used in the East where it thrives better than the Mazzard, as it is hardier stock. In this State the Mahaleb does not seem to have much dwarfing effect as trees on that stock in this State over twenty-five years old are twenty-five inches in diameter of trunk. The Mahaleb, however, ripens its wood earlier, and for this reason may be valuable in the colder parts of the State. It is also freer from root trouble by extremes of wetness and drouth in the soil and is largely used on low lands. The Mazzard is, however, chiefly used in California. Cherry stones are sometimes taken from the fully- ripened fruit, dried for two or three days, the stones cracked carefully and planted at once in good soil and kept properly moist. They will germinate soon and make a growth of a foot or so the first season. Such stocks are taken up for grafting in the winter and set out in nursery row the next spring. A better way of treating cherry is that given by W. W. Smith, of Vacaville: The fruit of the Mazzard should be allowed to get perfectly ripe on the tree, then gathered and let lie in a heap for three or four days, so that they may be partially or wholly freed from the pulp by wash- ing them in water. They should then be spread out in the shade and stirred frequently for about twenty- four hours. This will give the outside of the pit time to dry sufficiently to prevent molding, while the kernel itself will remain fresh and green. They should then be placed in moist (not wet) sand and kept so until the rains set in in the fall, when they can be planted in drills, in good, rich, mellow soil prepared the previous spring and kept clean of weeds through the summer, ready for the purpose. They should never be allowed to get perfectly dry; and the reason for it is that we have but little or no freez- reason for it is that we have but little or no freez- ing and thawing weather in this country to cause the pits to open ; but if they are kept constantly moist it answers the same purpose as freezing. The seeds of the Mahaleb cherry will sprout with less difficulty, but the same rules for keeping the Maz- zards will apply to them. Citrus Fruits. — The propagation of citrus fruits will be described in detail in Chapters XXXI I and XXXIII. The Larger Stone Fruits. — In handling- pits of the larger stone fruits, apricot, peach, plum, etc., the chief requisite is to prevent drying and great hardening of the pit. Some How to Grow Them 61 Nut Tree Seedlinofs plant iu the fall and trust to natural condi- tions to start the seedling in the spring, but this interferes with the cultivation of the ground, and leaves the seedling to grow in soil which has perhaps been puddled by heavy winter rains. There must also be much hand work done to clear the rows from weeds. It is much better to keep the pits from drying by covering with sand moderately moist, hasten the sprouting by appropriate treat- ment towards spring, and then plant out in thoroughly prepared soil, and they will make a satisfactory growth. The following method, by D. J. Parmele, of \'acaville, has given good results : Keep the pits out of the sun until the rains com- mence in the fall, then put them into a box about a foot deep with openings at the bottom for drainage, and scatter sand or fine earth through them, putting about two inches on top, and place them under the eaves of a building on the south side, where they will get well soaked every time it rains. If there should be a long dry spell during the winter, water them a little. About March they will open and sprout. Then take a plow and open a deep furrow in loose, mellow ground, and, with a hoe, pull about two-thirds of the dirt back into the furrow, break- ing the clods, and making it fine, the same as you would if you expected to plant onion seed there. Drop the sprouted pits in straight line, and cover two inches. On account of the extra work in pre- paring the ground, the trees will be large enough to bud in July. Another way is to spread out the pits on a smooth piece of ground and cover with sacks, and over these a layer of straw three or fotir inches thick to retain moisture. The pits may be planted out as soon as they crack open, although no harm will be done if they are allowed to lie until the sprouts are well out. Another method which has been especially recommended for treatment for almonds is the following : Lay boards upon the ground and cover them with an inch of sand ; spread on this a layer of almonds and then another inch of sand, and so on. Keep the pile wet, and in three weeks of warm weather they will burst open. Plant in drills one inch deep and put over them a light coat of rotten straw. If from any cause the pits have become quite dry, they should be soaked in water two or three days before planting. Nut Tree Seedlings. — In growing nut- tree seedlings much the same methods are followed as with pits of stone fruits. There are methods described in detail by California growers which should be given. As has been said, the nuts may be planted at any time after ripening, in the milder parts of the State, if the grower will undertake the greater care and cultivation. On some light soils where the rainfall is not excessive, this is not much trouble. Felix Gillet, of Ne- vada City, gives this as his method : The nuts may be planted as soon as gathered, though in Nevada City it is too cold to plant them in the fall, for the frost in winter would surely lift the nuts right out of the ground. For keeping and sprouting walnuts, I throw into the bottom of a bo.x \ one mch deep of sand, then a layer of nuts ; put in another inch of sand, and another layer of nuts, and so on to one or two inches from the top. Then water well with a sprinkler and water again during the winter whenever the sand gets too dry. The sand has to be pretty well saturated with water, especially from the first of January down to planting time, which is in February, March, or April, accord- ing to localities. ■ The latter part of March or first week in April is best for Nevada City. The nuts are planted in drills and covered to a depth of two to three inches. In propagating chestnuts it is always better to select for seed the largest, finest, and healthiest nuts; in the fail or beginning of winter the nuts have to be planted in a box of damp .■■■and, by layers, the box being kept in a cellar. The nuts may be stored in a hole in the open ground, a layer of chestnut leaves being first thrown in the bottom of the hole, on top of that a layer of nuts, then another layer of leaves, and so on to the top, which has to be properly covered with two or three inches of earth so as to prevent the frost injuring the nuts. In February or March, according to location, the nuts are taken out and planted in drills to a depth of three to four inches; less for smaller seed like Ameri- can chestnuts. In growing seedlings of English walnuts, Mr. J. Luther Bowers of Santa Clara has shown that water-soaking of nuts may make it unnecessary to undertake storage in damp sand, if the nuts are of the last crop. He describes the method as follows : "The nuts should be large and thin shelled and sh.ould l)e of last year's crop. To ascertain this, break a few and split the kernel open at the germ end, or the point where the root starts. If the meat of the kernel shows a clear white color they are of last year's crop, but if the flesh shows any discoloration they are old and will not germinate. I have often got hold of a lot that were mixed, old and new together. Never risk a lot of this kind, for failure will follow. After the nuts have been selected place them in some kind of tin vessel; a five-gallon oil can, with the top removed, is just the thing. Then cover them with hot water at not over no degrees F. Let them remain in this water for 24 Trees from Cuttines 62 California Fruits : hours and plant at once, keeping them in the water all the time. Do not let them become the least bit dry. and be snre the soil is moist, and pnt every nnt in with the sharp point exactly straight down. The root starts from this point and will go straight down, and if not molested will the first year be about three times the length of the top; that is. if the top grows one foot, the straight tap root will be three feet or more long, and will be from three-fourths to an inch thick where it grew out of the nut, tapering both up and down." Imported Seedlings. — A very large pro- portion of -some kinds of the cherry, pear and apple trees produced in this State are worked upon imported seedHng stocks. These stocks are cheap, convenient to handle, and are therefore popular. It is easy enough to grow peach, almond, apricot, and Myrobalan seed- lings, but small seeds, like apple and pear, often do not show up well in the spring, es- pecially if the soil is of a kind that crusts over with rain and sunshine. Therefore our nurserymen import these seedlings in the win- ter, plant them out, as has already been de- scribed, and bud in the following summer, grafting the next spring where the buds fail. If the seedlings are large when received, they are often root-grafted at once, and then one summer in the nursery gives a tree suit- able for planting out. These stocks are of better budding size during their first summer than California seedlings, which are apt to overgrow. ]\Iyrobalan plum seedlings were formerly imported to a large extent, but are now chiefly hoine-grown, and seedlings are used instead of cuttings, which formerly were em- ployed largely. This stock has secured great favor for pl'utns and prunes, and in some situations, for the apricot, as it is hardier against extreines of drouth and moisture. Prof. Newton B. Pierce, of Santa Ana, has discovered in California upon imported seed- lings a serious root-fungus which kills all kinds of orchard trees in Europe, and he advises the use of home-grown seedlings to escape this danger. Fruit Trees from Cuttings. — It is feasi- ble to grow a number of kinds of fruit trees from cuttings, but it is not desirable in many cases to do it. Trees grown from a graft or bud in a seedling root are much better. The root system of a seedling is naturally stronger and more symmetrical. The roots from a cutting start out at the bottom and spread out horizontally and irregularly. This style of a root system is expressively named "duck- foot roots,'' and they do not give the tree a deep, strong hold on the soil. Trees can. however, be multiplied very fast from cut- tings. Notable instances of this are the Myrobalan plum and the Leconte pear. Cut- tings of deciduous trees should be taken from well-matured wood of the previous season's growth, and planted in rows and in well- prepared soil, as has already been described for the sowing of fruit tree seeds. The cut- tings should be taken before the sap begins running in the winter. A cutting about ten inches long, four-fifths of its length buried in the ground, will answer. Be sure that the ground is firmed well at the base of the cutting, but keep the surface loose. Small wood is better than large, though, of course, the extreme ends of twigs should be rejected usually. Cultivation of cuttings is the same as that of seedlings, and budding, when the cuttings are to be used as stocks, is also governed by the same rules. The orange and lemon can be grown froin cuttings, but the work is done during the summer while the ground is warm. Cut from wood one or two years old ; set in open ground with partial shade and give plenty of water (dry ground is death to their ten- der roots), but be sure that there is free es- cape for surplus water. Cuttings started in the warm weather and given partial shade and plenty of irrigation are very apt to succeed. This method of growing these fruits is not, however, in wide use or favor. The propagation of the grape, olive and fig from cuttings will be considered in the chapters on those fruits. Pl.\nting Out in Nursery. — For plant- ing out in nursery, the term "spring" is given as the proper time, but in California it inust be remembered that spring is not any definite division of the year. "Spring weather" comes from the first of February to the first of May, according to the latitude or elevation or ex- posure resulting frorii local topography. Cher- ries may be ripe in Vaca Valley before fruit trees put out leaves in Modoc County ; and between these extremes there are advents of spring in other places according to the situation. These facts are more fully set forth in the chapter on climate. Spring must be How to Grow Them 63 Nursery Irrig-ation detected in the behavior of vegetation and not by the calendar. When the tree buds swell and the leaves appear, spring has come for that locality. But whether one can plant his nursery then or not will depend upon the character of the soil and the condition of the rainfall for that season. This varies much from year to year. As a rule, how- ever, in most parts where fruit is grown at present in large quantities, the heavy cold rains will be over by the first of February, and then nursery operations can commence if the soil is in good condition. If not, the planter must wait until the soil is dry enough to work nicely. There will, of course, be heavy rains after the first of February ; but they will only necessitate cultivation to loosen the soil, if the nursery ground is well situated for drainage, and if it is not it should not be used for this purpose. Supposing the ground has been deeply plowed and thoroughly harrowed, as has been already described, the laying out of the ground is the next operation. Everything should be done with a view to the use of the horse in cultivation. The rows should be laid out as straight as possible. Some use a plow furrow ; some an arrangement like a corn- marker, with two cultivator teeth set four feet apart ; some stretch a line, to get the pits or root grafts as true to it as possible, and some trust to the furrow for straightness. No rule can be laid down for means to be employed ; the result must depend upon the eye and skill of the individual. Some people can hardly shoot a straight line with a gun. Each must do the best he can in this respect. There is difference in practice as to distance between the rows in nursery. The usual dis- tance is four feet, but others claim that it is better to make the rows six feet apart, especially where no irrigation is practised, as this gives the young trees more room, and if the ground is kept thoroughly cultivated, as it should be. it gives the roots a greater supply of moisture to draw upon. In grow- ing a small lot of trees, where there is plenty of land, it is, of course, desirable to give them every advantage in the way of facilities for growth, but on the other hand, an over- grown tree is not desirable. Thrift and strength must be sought rather than size. At the ends of the rows spaces of about twelve feet should be left as turning-ground for the horse when cultivating, and as a road- way. The length of nursery rows depends upon the taste of the grower. It is con- venient to have alleys wide enough for a horse and cart at intervals of one hundred to three hundred feet, but in small nurseries the head- lands would probably give all the acces.s required. The depth for planting seeds and pits must be regulated by the size of the seed and the character of the soil, as is always laid down by the authorities, and in this State another condition must be made, and that is the cli- mate or weather conditions prevailing in the locality. Where the rainfall is generally light and the soil loose, seed must be planted deeper than where good spring showers are to be expected. In fine soils seeds must be planted shallower than in coarse, even with the same rainfall. Judgment and experience must dictate in this matter, and if a man has- no experience, he is pretty apt to get it. During the spring months the cultivator must be used as often as may be required to keep the weeds from getting too high, or the soil from becoming too densely packed by heavy rains, but the ground should never be worked when too wet. It requires some watchfulness and promptitude to use the cul- tivator just at the right time. Nursery Irrig.\tion. — In parts of the State where the rainfall is adequate, cultiva- tion thorough, the soil sufficiently retentive, and atmospheric conditions favorable, the seedling will make its growth without irriga- tion, and many nurseries are on ground not provided at all with irrigation facilities. In other parts of the State irrigation is neces- sary. Water should be applied sparingly, and yet enough to keep the seedling in healthy growing condition. This is shown by the leaves, which should not drop or curl. Excessive irrigation should be guarded against, because a soft, excessive growth is very un- desirable. Water is a good thing, and in some cases a very necessary thing, but the use of it should be wisely regulated. At bud- ding it is necessary that the sap should be free and the bark slip easily. To foster this condition it is sometimes desirable to give a W'atering a few days before budding com- mences. Water should be applied by running it through shallow furrows between the rows, and the cultivator should follow as soon as. the ground is dry enough to work freely. Buddine and Graftiug" 64 California Fruits : CHAPTER IX. MODERN METHODS OF BUDDING AND GRAFTING. IF THE nursery ground has been well worked and the seed properly handled, the growth of the seedling will be strong and rapid. If an early start was had and other conditions favorable, some kinds will be ready for budding in June, and the pro- duction of what are called "June buds," as will be described presently. In ordinary prac- tise, however, budding will come later, and the budding season extends from July to October. The weight of the budding of de- ciduous trees is generally done in August anil September. BUDDING. The process of budding, as employed on all the common fruit trees, is very simple. It consists in lifting the bark and inserting a bud from another tree in such a way that the inner bark of the bud shall come in con- tact with the layer of growing wood in the stock, and then it will be cjuickly knit to it by the new cell-growth if the bark is closed around the inserted bud closely enough to l)revcnt the air from drying the two sur- faces at the point of contact. In the engraving, a is the cutting or "bud stick'' from the tree of the kind into which it is desired to transform the seedling. This cutting is usually made from the growth of the present season, which has well-formed buds at the axils of the leaves, although in some cases older dormant buds may be used as will appear in the discussions of the dififercnt fruits. If buds are desired to mature early, pinch off the ends of the growing shoots from which they are to be taken. Suckers and so-called "water sprouts" should not be used, but rather well-formed wood from the branches of the tree. It is requisite that the buds be taken from a vigorous, healthy tree of the variety desired. Bud sticks can be carried or sent considerable distances if packed in damp moss or other material to prevent drying, but care must be taken not to enclose too much water or decay will be promoted. Fresh shoots in tight tin boxes without wet packing are safer and carry very long dis- tances. Sealing the ends with grafting wax is also a good precaution against drying out. Budding knives can be bought at all seed stores and cutlery establishments. They have a thin, round-ended blade at one end of the handle, and at the other end the bone is thinned down, or a bone blade inserted. The former is for cutting and the latter for lift- ing the bark of the stock into which the bud is to be placed. Armed with a bud stick and such a knife, the "hudder" starts in upon a row of seedlings. Bending the seedling over a little and holding it between his left arm and his left leg, he reaches down for a smooth place on the bark as near the ground as convenient to work, and makes a horizontal cut, and from that a perpendic- ular cut downwards towards the roots, as shown at b, in the engraving, with the bark slightly lifted and ready for the insertion of the bud. Next he cuts from his bud stick a bud, as shown at c. This carries with it, on the back, a small portion of the wood of the bud stick as well as the bud and bark. It was once claimed that this wood should be carefully dug out, but in budding most kinds of trees it is not necessary; in fact it may be better to leave it in ; such at any rate is the general practise. The point of the bud is now inserted at the opening at the top of the slit in the bark of the stock and pushed down into place, as shown in figure d. To handle the bud the part of the leaf stem which is left on is of material assistance. Nothing remains now but to apply the liga- ture v>hich is to hold down the bark around the bud. There are various ways of tying in the bud. Any way will do which holds down the bark closely, but not too tightly. Different materi- How to Grow Tlieni 65 Budding- and Grafting als are also used, soft cotton twine, stocking yarn, strips of cotton cloth, candle wicking, etc. The last-named is perhaps the best material, on all accounts, although strips of cheap calico bear evenly upon the bark and do verv good work. The use of twine is 1 A stick of bud wood. 2 Cutting the bud. Speedy, but the strands bearing upon a nar- row surface, and not being elastic, they are apt to do injury by cutting into the bark unless carefully watched and loosened. The fiber from basswood bark was formerly largely used, but has given place to the other materials named, which are more handily ob- tained. The buds must be examined about a week or ten days after insertion, and the liga- ture loosened, for otherwise it will cut into the rapidly-growing stock. Soiuetimes trees are badly injured by neglect in this particular. In making June buds, where immediate growth of the bud is desired, some growers make a hard knot with the cord around the stock, above the bud, and then use the loose ends to tie the bud. When the binding around the bud is loosened, the hard knot remains on the stock, girdles it, and forces the sap into the bud. Thin wire, known to nurserymen as ''label wire," is also used for this purpose. In going through the nursery row, all seedlings which are large enough are budded at once. In going through the row again to look to the bands, if the bud is seen to be fresh looking, it is considered to have "taken." In stocks where the first bud has dried up, another is inserted lower down. Sometimes seedlings which were too small to hold a bud at the first working over are given a bud later in the season, or left for taking up for root grafting in the winter. In nursery practice the budder does not stop to tie his buds, but is followed in the row by another man, who carries the tying material, and does this part of the work. The common method of budding thus de- scribed is used on all common orchard fruits. Special styles of budding for special fruits will be described in the chapters treating of those fruits. Usually the budded trees are allowed to stand in the nursery row with no other treat- ment that year than the insertion and care of the bud, the latter remaining dormant until the next spring. Then, as soon as the sap begins to swell the buds on the stock, the top is cut oft' down to about two inches above the bud, and all growth is kept oft' ex- cept that of the inserted bud. \\'hen that has grown out about twelve inches, the stub is cut off to about three-quarters of an inch or less from the bud, and the wood is quickly grown over by the bark. As there are apt to be dormant buds on the stock below the 3 Verlicle incision. 4 Transverse incision. inserted bud, the trees have to be examined from time to time, and all such suckers re- moved. This is the common practice with budded trees. Exceptions will be noticed presently in connection with definitions of different kinds of trees known to the trade. Buddino- and Graftinof 66 California Fruits : Spring Budding. — What has been said in reference to budding appHes to the use of dormant buds. It is also possible to work with what is called a "pushing bud." This process, as described by a distinguished French authority, consists of retarding the growth of the buds on the scions by burying them in the ground until the sap is starting well in the stock in the spring, and then putting them in, trimming off the top of the stock so as to force the bud into growth. In this way the grower of a rare variety may secure trees for planting out the following winter, or he may secure a stock of buds for fall budding, and thus multiply his stock of a desirable variety very rapidly. A modifi- cation of this method consists in taking buds in the spring when they have grown out even half an inch, and inserting them by the usual method of lifting the bark, when the sap is flowing well in the stock. Then cut off about half the stock, so as not to give the bud too much sap at first, and afterward, when it is seen to have taken well, the balance of the stock is cut off near the bud. This method gives a tree the first season and saves a year over dormant budding. Shade and pro- tection from drv wind are desirable. 5 Inserting the bud. 6 Inserted bud ready for tying. GRAFTING. The next process of propagation to be considered is that by grafting. Its success as with budding, consists in bringing the growing wood (inner bark or alburnum) of the scion into contact with the same layer of the stock. It can be applied to any part of the tree, from the topmost branch to the lowest root, as is the case when new trees are made from scions and root fragments. Thus grafting pertains both to the production of young trees for planting out and to the 7 Waxed cloth ready for twisting. 8 Waxed cloth tightly twisted. transformation of old trees bearing worthless fruit into producers of choice varieties. Grafting for the production of young trees is first in order. Instead of budding the seed- ling during the first summer of its growth, it may be allowed to complete its season's growth, and drop its leaves. When thus dor- mant the young trees are taken from the ground, the roots rinsed off with water if the ground is wet and sticky, or merely shaken free from clinging earth if in a dry time. Enough trees are dug at once to graft at a sitting. The grafting can be done at the work-bench in the tool-house or barn, and if one is pressed with other daylight work, it may be done by lamplight at the kitchen table, if the housewife can be conciliated for the inuss it will make. Care of Scions. — The scions should be previously selected, and whether taken from trees on the place or brought from near or distant sources away from the farm, should have been placed as soon as procured in moist earth on the north side of the house or other building, where they will keep cool and damp until one is ready to use them. At the East and in parts of this State where the ground is apt to freeze it is necessary How to Grow Them 67 Grafting' Wax to keep scions in the cellar with their butts covered with moist sand, but over most of the area of the State nothing more is needed than to put down in the earth at the base of a tree or on the north side of a building, with, perhaps, a box or barrel inverted over them to keep out mice and other intruders. Care must be taken not to let them dry up. If it is desirable for any reason to keep scions dormant long into the spring or sum- mer, of course storage in a cool cellar is better, for in the open ground the scions will burst into leaf after a warm spell of spring weather. In selecting wood for scions, as for bud sticks, never take water shoots or suckers that start from the body of the tree and push up through the older branches, but always give the preference to sound, fully- matured wood, at the ends of the lower or nearly horizontal branches. Careful experi- ments have shown that trees grown from such scions are more likely to take on a low, spreading habit than those from the central 9 Bud staked and tied. or upper branches. The scions should be tied in bundles with a stout cord ; and a piece of a shingle, with the name of the variety written plainly and deeply thereon, should be tied in with each bundle. Grafting Wax. — In grafting, a good grafting wax is requisite. The ingredients are mixed in different proportions by dif- ferent growers. A few recipes which are known to give good results are as follows : Two lbs. mutton tallow; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 lbs. resin. Two and one-fourth lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax; 3-4 of a lb. tallow. One lb. mutton tallow; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 lbs. resin. Two lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax; 1-4 lb. tallow, and a little linseed oil. Cleft Graft. Bark Graft. Two lbs. resin; i lb. beeswax, 21-2 lbs. linseed oil ; 4 tablespoonfuls turpentine. One lb. beeswax; 5 lbs. resin; I pint linseed oil; I oz. lampblack. One lb. beeswax; 5 lbs. resin; i pint linseed oil; i pint flour. All these mixtures are made with the aid of gentle heat, and during grafting the wax must be kept warm enough to applv easily with a small brush. To do this the wax dish may be kept on a hot brick, to be changed . for a fresh one as it cools, or, better still, is to heat the wax in an old fruit-can or something of that kind, inside another, which is partly full of warm water. A more capa- cious heater can be made by removing the top of a five-gallon oil can. and making a hole for draft on one side near the bottom. A slow fire can be kept going to heat the w-ax pot which is suspended from a rod across the top. A wire handle makes this outfit portable.. The wax should not be so hot as to run too easily, but just right to spread well. Cleft Grafting- 68 California Fruits : Grafting is greatly facilitated by the use of strips of waxed cloth or waxed paper, the latter being quite good enough for grafts, which are low enough to be protected by a ground covering; also for root grafts. This waxed paper is made by spreading a thin coat of wax, with a brush, upon tough, thin wrapping paper, cutting up the paper, when cold, with a sharp knife, on a board, into strips about an inch wide. Waxed cloth is made by dipping cheap cotton cloth into hot wax, pulling the pieces between the edges of two boards to take out as much wax as possi- ble, and when the cloth is cold, tearing it up into half-inch strips for small grafts or wider strips for larger drafts. When grafting is going on in-doors, these strips hanging near the stove are kept in good, soft con- dition for use. There are grafting preparations which do not require heating, but remain in a semi- fluid state, and then become very hard by contact with the air. The following is a popular French preparation : Melt one pound or resin oer a gentle fire. Add to it one ounce of beef tallow, and stir it well. Take it from tlie fire. l.?t it cool down a little, and then Wedge Graft. Saddle Graft. mix it with a tablespoonfnl of spirits of turpentine, and after that add about seven ounces of very strontj alcohol. The alcohol caols it down so rapidly that it W'iU be necessary to put it once more on the fire, stirring in constantly. Great care is necessary to avoid igniting the alcohol. This wa.x is easily prepared, and when well corked will keep for six months. It is put on the wounded part of the tree, very thin, and soon becomes as hard as stone. Thus it is valuable not only for grafting, but for covering the scars caused by removing limbs in pruning. When bench grafting is done by nurserymen, of course all appli- Whip Graff. Side Graft. ances are arranged for the speediest work, and wonderful results are attained by one man and a helper, even as many as three thousand root grafts of apple in ten hours. We are, however, merely discussing home practices. Cleft Grafting. — Where various-sized stocks are to be used, as will be the case with a bunch of home-grown seedlings, dif- ferent styles of grafting must be used. Where the stock is inuch larger than the scion, as is apt to be the case with California seedlings, the cleft graft will be sitnplest. Cut off the top smoothl}' above the root crown and then split the top of the stock, as shown in the engraving. Then prepare the scion by whittling it to wedge-shape at the lower end. Open the slit in the stock with a little wedge and insert the scion so that its inner bark matches with the inner bark of the stock, something as shown in the second figure. It does not matter whether How to Grow Them 69 Root Grafts the outside of the scion is flush with the outside of the stock or not ; the vital point is to get the growing layers, just inside the barks, in contact with each other, and, to be sure of this, it may be well to give the scion a slight diagonal pitch, for if the barks cross each other, this desirable contact is sure to be made. It is well to make the side of the wedge of the scion which goes nearer to the center of the stock a little thinner than the outside. A scion for a root graft is cut longer than for use in the top of the tree, for in plant- ing, the point of grafting is placed a little way under-ground. Such scions are usually cut with four or five buds. After the scion is in place, it only remains to wrap it closely with a piece of the waxed cloth or paper, in such a way that all the cut surfaces are cov- ered, extending the wrapper a little below the split in the root. Paint over the wrapper with warm wax put on with the brush, put a little on the top of the scion, and the graft is complete. Side Gr.\i?'Ting. — Another method which prevents splitting the stock is the side graft, shown in the accompanying figure. It con- sists in bending the stock to one side and cut- ting in diagonally with a thin-bladcd, sharp knife, a little more than half-way through the stock. Into this open cut insert the scion so that the inner barks touch ; then allowing the stock to straighten up, holds the scion firmly. Covering with a wax band drawn tight makes a good job, and such grafts make as good growth as the buds set the previous summer. This method can be used with stems or branches up to an inch in diameter, and is essentially the same, as will be men- tioned later, as a side graft for working over old trees. In this style of grafting, a stub of three inches or more may be left above the graft, and to this the graft can be tied to prevent blowing out if it makes a strong growth. Afterward the stub is cut back with a sloping cut and waxed or painted to prevent checking. Whip Grafting in the Stem. — Grafting above the root or in the stem of the stock when stock and scion are about the same size, is done by tongue or whip grafting. The accompanying sketch shows a whip graft in the stem of the stock. Grafts up to an inch in diameter can be made in this way, but it is generally used for smaller wood. Care must be taken to secure proper con- tacts of the iinier barks at least on one side of the stock. After pushing the parts together, a wax band holds them firmly in place, or the joint may be simply tied and painted over with wax. A Root Graft. — When the root stock and the scion are about the same size, the tongue graft is also used, as shown in the figure. In making this both the stock and scion are given a sloping cut of about the same length, and a secondary cut made in each. When the two are put together, the wood "tongues in," or interlocks as shown in the engraving. The object of this is to make more points of contact for the inner barks of root and scion, and at the same time to interlock the two more firmly. In putting the two together, if the stock is slightly larger than the scion, be sure to put the scion so that the inner bark contact is made, and this will bring the scion a little to one side of the center. Bind with the wax band, and paint with wax as in the case of the former graft. In large nursery practice expert grafters have come of late years to make this root graft without wax, merely tying in the graft. For amateur work at home it is much safer to use the wax. Grafting in the root, where the root is much larger than the scion, may be done without splitting the root by cutting or saw- ing out a triangular piece on the side of the root, cutting the scion to fit and trusting to a strong band to hold it in place. This graft is illustrated in the chapter on propagating the grape. It also works well with root grafting the walnut, and is used by some in ordinary top grafting on other trees. Planting out Root Grafts. — This root grafting can be done in the winter before it is time to plant out, and the grafts can be made a few at a time, as convenient. The grafts, then, as fast as prepared, should be bedded in moist sand in the cellar, and will make their contact firm, and even start to growing a little. In planting out in the nursery rows be sure the earth is firmed well around the root, otherwise many will be lost. Plant ten or twelve inches apart Nursery Pruning 70 California Fruits : in the rows. Keep the weeds down and the soil well cultivated and loose on the surface, and the first season's growth will give a tree fit for planting out in orchard in the coming winter. For irrigation the rules already given for the growth of seedlings for bud- ding will apply. PRUNING TREES IN NURSERY. As for other treatment of the trees (either from bud or root graft) in nursery during the first year, there is some difference of opinion and practise. If the young tree will be content to make a straight switch with good buds in the axils of the leaves, but no laterals thrown out, it will be in the best possible shape for planting in the orchard, and gives the planter a chance to make the head at whatever height suits him, and to secure uniformity through the orchard. All trees will not, however, be content with this growth, but will push out laterals all along the stem. Even in this case some let the whole growth go for the planter to treat as he thinks best. Another plan is to go over the nursery when the young stock is about two feet high and pinch back the laterals part way, but retaining the leaves nearest the stem to shade the stem. This pinching back is done from the ground up to a height of one to one and a half feet, and above that the growth is left to take its natural course, to be cut as desired when the head of the tree is formed. Pinching back develops buds near the stem and gives the planter a better chance to head the tree lower if he likes. Another practise which prevails to some ex- tent, is to pinch off the terminal bud when the young tree has reached a height of about two and a half or three feet in the nursery. This soon forces a growth of lateral branches, which are in turn pinched after they have grown out a couple of feet. The result is the formation of a head on a nursery tree the first year, and when such trees are planted in orchard they are merely cut back on tlie laterals, leaving the head as formed in the nursery. Such trees are difficult to handle in packing, and take much room in shipment. There may, however, be an advantage in such practice for the home grower if he is situated in parts of the State where the greatest sea- son's growth is attained. Orchard planters generally, however, prefer a June bud or a yearling of moderate growth, without later- als. CLASSES OF NURSERY STOCKS. The several classes of stock which are to be had from nurseries are as follows : Root Grafts. — These are seedling roots, or pieces of them on which scions of the desired variety have been grafted on the bench and the junction healed over in the cellar. No growth has yet started in the scion. If the tree planter wishes this kind of stock, he should plant it out in nursery row in the spring and remove the trees to orchard the following winter. June Buds. — For multiplying varieties very fast, buds are kept dormant in a cool place ; or, by pinching off the top shoots of the current year are forced to mature buds very early. These buds are put into seedling stocks as early in the season as possible. Af- ter budding, the top of the stock is girdled with knife or cord, or partly cut away, and growth is forced on the bud so as to give a small tree at the end of the first summer. This method of propagation is growing in popularity in this State, especially in the foot- hill districts where small trees are preferred for transplanting. Dormant Buds. — Trees are sold in dor- mant bud when they are lifted from the nur- sery and sent out before any growth has started on the inserted bud. The bud should be seen to be the color of healthy bark. Such trees should only be used when yearlings are not to be had and gain in time is very im- portant. Care must be constantly taken that growth starts from the right bud and that it be protected from breaking ofif by wind or animals. A considerable percentage of loss is usual and extra dormant buds should be planted in nursery row to fill vacancies. Yearling Trees. — These are trees which have made one season's growth from the bud or graft. Two-year-olds have made two sea- sons' growth, and so on. The proper way to count the life of a tree is from the starting of growth in the bud or graft, for this point is really the birth of the tree. WORKING OVER OLD TREES. Another operation which may be properly considered as a branch of propagation is the How to Grow Them 71 Buddinji Old Trees working over of old trees. There is much of this being done every year in this State. The old seedling fruits in the older settled parts of the State are being made to bear improved varieties ; trees of varieties illy adapted to pre- vailing conditions are changed into strong growing and productive sorts ; trees are changed from one fruit to another, when af- finity permits. This will be mentioned in the discussion of the .diiTerent fruits. Still another reason for working over is to secure more valuable and marketable varieties. Sometimes a mixed orchard is made to bear a straight line of one sort which is in demand, or when the grower finds he has too many trees of a single kind, which give him more fruit than he can conveniently handle when it all ripens at one time, he works in other varieties so as to get a succession of varieties adapted to his purpose, and thus secures a longer working season in which to dispose of them. This is especially the case in large orchards of apri- cots, peaches, and plums, when the grower depends upon drying his crop. Information concering the successive ripening of varieties can be gained from the special chapters on the different fruits. For all of these reasons. and others which need not be enumerated, the work of the propagator is continually go- ing on even in our large bearing orchards. As with young trees, so with old, transform- ing the character of the tree is done both by budding and grafting. Budding Old Tkees. — One way to prepare an old tree for budding is to cut back the branches severely during the latter part of the winter, which has the effect of forcing out new shoots around the head of the tree, and in these the buds of the desired variety are set in the summer, just as is done in budding nursery stock, except that the budding should be done rather earlier because the sap does not run as late. W'hen the shoots are budded, those being selected which are situated so as to give the best .symmetry to the new head, the shoots not budded are broken a foot or so from where they emerge from the old wood, and are allowed to hang until pruning-tinie. At the winter pruning the budded branches are topped off a little above the bud and when the new shoot starts it is often loosely tied to the stub of the old branch to prevent breaking out in the wind. When it gets strength, the stub is cut away smoothly to allow the wound to heal over. Another way is to insert the buds in the old bark at points where it is desirable to have the new branches start. This is some- times done by lifting the bark, as in ordinary budding, and slipping the bud under, some- times by what is called shield or plate bud- ding, which consists in removing a piece of the old bark entirely and putting in its place a piece of bark of the desired variety, having upon it a dormant bud. With plate budding it is necessary to be careful to have the in- serted bark just the size of the bared spot, and to wrap it more closely than when the hud is slipped under the bark of the stock. In all cases in budding old trees, care must be taken to get fully-matured buds, and it is well to take them from large shoots, which have a thicker and firmer bark than may be used in budding nursery stock. It is also desirable to be very sure that the buds are taken not only from a tree of the desired variety, but from a healthy, vigorous tree of that variety. In selecting buds, also, one must be sure that he gets leaf buds, and not fruit buds only. In taking buds from some kinds of bearing trees, of course, he may sometimes, to get well-ripened buds, be obliged to take both fruit and leaf buds together. This will work well if care is taken not to rub ofT the leaf bud. It is rather easier, however, to work with buds from young trees not yet in bearing if one can be sure that these trees are of the desired variety. Gr.'SiFTing Old Trees. — Old trees are also renewed by grafting. This is most generally done by the old process of "top grafting." The main stem or the larger branches are cut square off, and the scions, usually two, but four or more if in the trunk, are shaped and set into clefts in the stock as shown in the engraving. It is better to use limbs above the main fork, or head of the tree, than to graft in the trunk, if the old trees are of good size. The following description, which the writer borrows in part from some unknown source, will serve to guide novices in the mat- ter: Tlic outfit necessary for doing the work consists of a small, fine saw. a regular grafting knife, or a pocket-knife- with a long, straight, sharp blade, wax, Time for Graftiugf 12 California Fniits : light mallet, and a hard-wood narrow wedge. After selecting the limb to be grafted, saw it off — your own judgment will guide you as to best point, but before the saw gets quite through the limb, cut the bark on the under side of the limb to prevent the liability of peeling down. Next split the stub with knife and tnallet and in- sert the wedge in the center of the cleft to hold it open. It is usual to cut the scion with two buds, but sometimes better results are had by using scions with but a single bud. Whittle the scion wedge- shape, so that it fits nicely down into the cleft. To do this, hold it in the left hand with the bud at the ball of the thumb, then cut the side toward you; as will be natural, turn it over, and cut opposite side in the same way, making the wedge a very little thinner on the edge opposite the bud than the other. This will insure a firm pressure at the points where the bark of scion and stock meet. When set, the bud of the scion will be on line with the outer long portion of the graft. The point to be closely observed in adjustment is to have the inner or sap bark of the scion connected with the same of the stock. If a trifle too far in, or too far out, the work will be a failure. Some people set the graft a little out at the top and a little in at the bottom, so as to be sure of a connection at the crossing- point, but there will be firmer hold if there is a union the whole length. Our rule has been to have the wood of the scion come exactly parallel with the surface of the stock, and we seldom fail in getting firm adhesions and solid limbs, after years of growth. After the scions are set, and two should be put into one limb if large, carefully withdraw the wedge and apply the wax, so that every part of the wood and bark cut and split is well coated. In doing this use extreme care not to move the scions at all from their sittings. If the pinch of the stock is seen to be severe, a small wedge may beleft in the center to save the .scions from crushing. If there is a large cleft, it may be filled with damp clay before waxing over. Most grafting over of old trees is done by this method, using one or another of the wax preparations described upon a preceding page. If the ctit surface of the stock and the split is thoroughly waxed over as low as the bark is split, there is usually little trouble with the growth of the scion and the healing over of the stock. In the warmer valleys in the in- terior, the sun is often hot enough to melt the wax and cause it to run and bare the wood surfaces. This is prevented by dusting the wax thoroughly with brick-dtist well pow- dered ; but, by a little experiinenting with the recipes already given, one can secure a wax which will stand any heat likely to be en- countered. For grafting over trees by working upon the limbs, the neatest and surest work can be done by methods of grafting which do not require the splitting of the stock. There are various ways of doing this. One method is shown in the engraving on the ne.xt page, and consists in cutting the scion as shown, and in- serting it beneath the raised bark and then binding well with waxed bands, the prepara- tion of which has already been described. Another method is an application of what the French call oblique side grafting. It con- sists of making an oblique cut downward through the bark of the stock and for a dis- tance into the wood, using a chisel and mallet or even a strong knife. A saw and knife are also used for making this cut, as will be de- scribed in the chapter on the peach. A small form of side graft has already been shown earlier in this chapter. In it the scion is held in with a wax band. Some growers re- move the top of the stock with a sloping cut about half an inch above the scion, as shown in the engraving, and wrap the waxed band well around and over all the exposed surfaces. Others do not remove the whole of the limb until the scion has started well into growth, and then they cut down and pare the stock and cover with a band or with a wax that will not run in the sun. Several ingenious devices have been pat- ented by Californians tor securing uniformity in the incision in the stock and in shaping the scion, but it is so easy to succeed with ordi- nary tools that such inventions have never come into wide use. Machines for the bench grafting of vines have, however, been suc- cessfully employed to a certain extent but are not generally tised. TIMES FOR GRAFTING IN CALIFORNIA. There is nothing particularly new about the methods or means employed for grafting de- ciduous fruit trees in California, but the time at which the operation can be successfully done, and the condition of the scion, are dif- ferent froin those held to be necessary in other climates. It is not at all requisite that the scions should be carefully stored away to keep them in a dormant condition, nor that the grafter should haste to do his work in just such a state of sap-flow in the spring time. It was early discovered that grafting could be successfully done with growing scions, and that scions could be cut from one tree and set in another nearly at any time the grafter desired. Grafting is therefore possi- How to Grow Tliem 7i Time for Grafting ble much later in the season than is pre- scribed elsewhere, and it is also possible to begin earlier. In one of the largest apple and pear orchards in the State it is common to graft in December. The absence of freezing weather saves the graft from injury. As our trees start their flow of sap early, and often when the ground is too wet for comfortable orchard work, it is the practice of many to get their grafting and pruning done before the heavy mid-winter rains begin. The prac- tice of most growers is, however, to conform somewhat nearly to traditional methods, to do most of the grafting in the spring months, and to use dormant scions, the growth of which is retarded by heeling them in on the north side of a building, or keeping them in sand in the cellar, as the grower chooses. Of course it should be understood that there are parts of the State where the winter condi- tions are more nearly like those at the East, and practice has to conform to them. As to whether it is better to remove the whole top of the tree and graft all the limbs in one year, there is some difference of opin- ion. The prevailing practice is to graft over part of the limbs one year and the balance the following year ; or else to leave part of the top to shade the bark and take part of the sap flow until the grafts start out well, and then cut it away. When a large amount of grafting is to be done, the limbs may be cut oft' during the weeks preceding grafting. In this case, the cut should be made a foot or two above the grafting point and a second cut be made at this point, when ready to put in the scions. Whenever old bark is exposed by cutting back for grafting, thorough protection against sunburn must be provided. The simplest way to do this is to cover the exposed bark with good whitewash. By using thirty pounds of lime, four pounds tallow, and five pounds of salt with enought water to make it flow well, a tenacious whitewash can be secured. What has been said thus far relates especially to the working over of old trees of common deciduous fruits. Though much the same method wall succeed with some of the semi- tropical fruits and with nut trees, the discus- sion of their propagation and grafting over W'ill be deferred to the chapters devoted to them, and this will also give opportunity to describe methods especially adapted to these fruits. Preparation for Planting 74 California Frnits CHAPTER X. PREPARATION FOR ORCHARD PLANTING. THE two essentials in preparing land for trees or vines are deep and thorough cultivation, and provision for drainage, unless the situation is naturally well drained. Drain- age will be considered in connection with ir- rigation in another chapter. In this place, however, by way of emphasis, it may be re- marked that high land is not necessarily well drained, although the general feature of the surface may be an incline, nor is low land necessarily wet, although the surface may be apparently level. For horticultural purposes the drainage of the land must be considered on the' hillside as well as in the valley, for reasons which will be more fully set forth in the chapter on drainage. The preparation of land for fruit planting should begin with grading. In irrigated or- chards this is essential for the equal distri- bution of water. Even where irrigation is not anticipated, it is of decided advantage to smooth down hummocks and fill sags which are likely to collect water in the rainy season. As has been shown in Chapter III, this can be done on most California soils without dan- ger of uncovering a sterile subsoil. Some intimation of the method of grading is given at the close of Chapter VII. In preparation for the irrigated orchard, and irrigation is now widely employed even in regions where form- erly rainfall was the sole reliance, it is im- portant that accurate grading should be done and the use of the surveyor's level and grade stakes will be found very desirable. All mov- ing of soil should precede the general plowing. For the planting of orchard or vineyard the land must be put in as good tilth as pos- sible, and extra expenditure to secure this will be amply repaid in the after-growth of the trees and vines. If practicable, it will be all the better to have the process of prepara- tion begin a year before the trees or vines are to be set. This is true either with newly- cleared land, as has been described, or with old grain or pasture land which is to be used leaving the surface rough during the winter, facilitates the access of air to the lower layers of the soil, and in a certain sense may be said to sweeten and enliven it. Following in the furrow with a sub-soil plow is very desirable, either at the first plowing or later. Such treatment of old grain land breaks up the old hard-pan,* which has probably been formed by years of shallow culture. The preparation should continue during the following sum- mer, and can often be made both thorough and profitable by the growth of a summer "hoed crop," the culture of which will kill out many weeds and secure good pulveriza- tion of the soil. If no summer crop is grown, the land should be kept in cultivation by plow- ing the weeds under as long as the surface soil retains moisture enough to start them. A special advantagee of such summer-fallow in regions where the rainfall is apt to be short is that, by prevention of evaporation, the trees or vines set the following winter will have a good part of the rainfall of two seasons to grow with, and the result will often be very noticeable. If there are supplies of manure avail- able, as is often found in old corrals on our grain or stock farms, it is better to gather and apply this the winter before the planting of the trees. If this work is not done, then it should be left until after the trees are planted, and then be spread upon the surface during the winter, and plowed in after it has been in part leached into the soil by the rains. Ap- plication should be made evenly all over the surface and not massed around the roots of the trees, unless it is to be applied as a mulch to the surface after the spring cultivation is over, as will be considered later. If it is thought desirable to plant the land immediately after breaking up, put in the plows as early in the fall as it is possible to do deep work, that is, to plow to a depth of ten or twelve inches, or more. Harrow How to Grow Tliem 75 Marking- with Plow thoroughly. If it is still early, cross-plow for fruit. Thorough and deep breaking up as soon as practicable to plow in the fall, and also deeply when the land pulverizes well, and follow in the furrow with the subsoil plow, working to a depth of fourteen inches or more. For this kind of work good teams are needed, and the plow should be sharp and bright. If the work is hard for the team, set the plow so as to take less land, but do not sacrifice the depth. Harrow again thoroughly, and the land is ready for the trees or vines. Ax'oiDiNG De.\d Furrows. — Unless dead furrows can be used to advantage for surface drainage in case of heavy rain-storms, it will be of decided convenience in laying off to have the field free from them. This can. of course, be secured by beginning the final plowing at a line in the center of the field, turning all furrows inwards. In this case, too, if a right-hand plow is used, the team will always turn on unplowed land, and thus avoid trampling upon and packing the loose soil. The slight ridge in the center of the field formed by the first two furrows can be easily leveled by a couple of back furrows, and when properly harrowed the field will be found smooth as a floor for staking out for planting. LAYING OUT FOR PLANTING IN SQUARES. It is very desirable, both for convenience in cultivation and for the beauty of the orchard, that the trees should stand in straight lines, and care shsuld be taken to attain that end. Most orchards and vineyards in this State are laid out in squares ; that is, the rows of trees or vines are all at right angles to. each other, as shown in the accompanying sketch. This is the simplest arrangement ; and by some of our largest planters is held to be the best. It is true that the trees are not equidis- tant from each other in all directions, and that, theoretically at least, there is a portion of the ground unused — supposing that the roots occupy a circle, as do the branches. Practically, however, it may be doubted whether the hungry roots of well-grown trees or vines leave any portion of the soil unvisi- ted. There are also forms of double squares and alternating squares available for planting at long distances, with growths between, which are ultimately to be cut out, or for vines be- tween fruit trees. Such mixed planting is, however, but little practiced in California. \'ARIOUS WAYS OF MARKING FOR SQUARES. ;\Iarking With a Plow. — This method was used in laying off some large orchards in the Sacramento Valley. A common two- horse turning plow is rigged with a "mar- U 1^_ L U .Ir. U C ^%. ^ •% C % 4- ^ %-- iL % 4 t i- % C 4 C. c ^^ c % % q 't. (%_ t. % Trees planted on the square system. ker" — a light wooden bar extending at right angles from the beam, the bar being as long as the desired distance between the rows of trees. On the end of this bar a crosspiecc is fastened perpendicularly, so that it scratches along on the surface of the ground. The line of the first furrow has to be designated bv a Markiusf with Wire 76 California Fruits flag stake, to which the ploxyman proceeds. When this is done, the team is turned and sent back along the next row, the location of which has been fixed by the marker, and so on for the length of the field, the marker be- ing turned each time to indicate the next fur- row. Following the same course the other Way of the field leaves the trees to be planted at the intersection of the furrows. Measure and Sight. — Another method which is quite commonly used and answers a good purpose in small plantings is the combi- nation of measure and sight. The sighting k . .!-. ..... L- k .1;- .-■!- •-.."■u. .. \ .. ■•^. . : ...>. .;j^....; ..."%. h • ■ :.'^..... \.... . %... ■H- '.J :,. ■•■U .;... :V-,.^ .'.Mr. ..; '^ ^ ^ %. ^L ^ ^ C *1_ ^ %. C ^ ^ ^ ^ 4. C ^ %= € ^ c - ^.. k^ t^ c . 4^ f^M.T The Triangular or alternate system. stakes are usually plasterers' laths pointed at one end and whitewashed to make them more visible to the eye. In the use of these it is necessary to measure the distances and locate the laths to mark the ends of the rows all around the field. Then locate a line of laths across the field each way through the center, these laths occupying places which the trees of these two central rows will fill. After these are in place, measurement can be dis- pensed with, and the job can be finished by sighting through. The man on the ends of the rows has three laths to sight by in each row, and the stake driver places the stakes as directed by the sighter. Good location can be done this way if a man has a good eye and patience enough. Marking Off With a Wire. — A measur- ing wire or chain is, perhaps, the best means for getting accurate location of trees or vines. It is used either for setting in squares or in other arrangement, as will be described pres- ently. Measuring wires are made of annealed steel wire about one-eighth of an inch in di- ameter. The length varies according to the wishes of the user. If it is desired to lay off the plantation in blocks of one acre, the wire should be two hundred and eight feet nine inches long, for that is approximately the length of one side of a square inclosing an acre of ground. But some use a wire as long as three hundred feet, when the acre measure is of no consequence ; and others, in smaller plantings, make the wire just the length of the piece they have in hand. At each end of the wire is fixed a strong iron ring about one and one-half inches in diameter, to be slipped over stakes ; some use a larger ring, say three inches in diameter, because it is easier to handle in pulling taut. Along this wire, patches of solder are placed exactly at the distances desired between the rows of trees or vines, and to these places pieces of red cloth are sometimes fastened so that the points may be easily seen. Another style of measur- ing wires is made of small wire cable about a quarter of an inch in diameter, made of several strands of small wire. It is more flexible and less likely to become kinked than the large wire, and can be easily marked off to represent the distances, at which rows of different kinds of trees should be placed, by separating the strands a little at the desired points and inserting a little piece of red cloth, pressing the wires together again and tying firmly with a waxed thread to prevent slip- ping. In this way the same wire can be easily arranged for planting vines or for the trees requiring the greatest distance between, the rows. Another advantage of the cable is that any stretching can he taken up by retwisting. How to Grow Them 77 Finding^ a True Corner which can not be done with the stretching of a single wire. Another good style of planting wire is made of 2, 4 or 6 foot links of No. 12 steel wire (including the diameters of the small rings turned at each end of the link pieces). As all planting will probably be at multiple distances of these link-lengths, the cloth tags can be changed and the chain thus be marked for any desired distances. Finding a True Corner. — To use the measuring wire for laying out trees on the square, it is necessary first to get one corner true, and then a field of any size can be marked out accurately. Select the side of the field which is to serve as the base of the square and stretch the wire along that, say fifteen feet from the fence, which will give room enough to turn with the team in culti- vation or to drive along in picking-time. When the wire is thus stretched parallel with the boundary of the field, place a stake at each of the distance tags on the wire, and these stakes will represent the first row of trees or vines. To find a square corner, begin at the starting point and measure oflf sixty feet along this row with a tape line, and put a temporary stake, then from the starting- point measure ofT eighty feet as nearly at a right angle with the first line as can be judged with the eye, and run diagonally from this point the temporary sixty-foot stake. If the distance between these stakes is one hun- dred feet, then the corner is a right angle. Now, having the outside lines started at right angles to each other, one can proceed with the measuring wire and lay of? as large an area as he desires, if care is taken to have each line drawn parallel with the last, and all stakes accurately placed with the tags on the wire — providing the land is nearly level or on a uniform grade. In locating trees over un- even ground, the measurements will have to be made from tree to tree, with the tape line held as nearly to a level as possible. Rows ON HiLLLSiDEs. — Laying of? orchard or vineyard on hillside too steep to plow both ways, there is advantage sometimes in placing the rows up and down the hill nearly twice as far apart as the rows along the face of the hill. In planting trees thus the advantage to be gained is by enabling you to keep the team well up the hill; thereby you are able to plow or cultivate the trees close on the lower side of the rows. There is no difficulty in cultivating the upper side of the rows, for the plow or harrow is always below the team. If trees are planted as recommended, the team can be guided up the hill a little be- tween the rows, then allowed to drop down hill one step, and thus one can cultivate the trees close on the lower side. The same rule will apply to vines. QUINCUNX PLANTING. There is much confusion in the use of this term in this State. It is, in fact, made to k; !-■ i-. .....t--.. L J- : ''^ \' •■■u i '■ -■u ; '~k ; "■"'r : I '::1. ..NL ...':::ir. ..!/.-L.._ yi i \ \ ' ■■L- ! "■j^ : ^ ;\ ^ y '■-•\7- ...':': L ::::+-- ...■:.U.....,.l:t iv r ••V 1 ■ '^^ I ' •V '"'•^ I. '.:l. ...'::::L ... .".V.ir... ...'.■. ::i^ 'll ^ (t. <%. ^ c %^ •^■»-••■l^■ ^ ;■ ■^■■■- ■^■■'. u-:'"jil; C--\ y''M L -- L ;...,i:^i.':i..L.ir...';t:[::.j^ k'.T...j,., ...uj '\i:i \ U:""'U u ''L u-^-u l"- -u L..U.L..ui":i^.. .UJ.';-U. .U;,,.U;:.-.L.., ^L. ^^ 4=. ^ ^ C €. -C ^' '■^^ ^kt '^4. C C '4^ ^%. %. ^iL %. C 4. 'L C 4^4»CC.^^^%. ^L^ ^ %. %. ^ c c -^ C € ^:^ ^C C #^ it. 4. C4.-CCt^^C4.%= t.%. Splendor Giant Splendor Tenuant The Apple 158 California Fruits : CHAPTER XVII. THE APPLE IN CALIFORNIA. DURING the last decade notable progress has been made in apple growing m Cali- fornia The old idea that our conditions did not favor excellence in the apple has given way to full assurance that in wisely selected elevations and exposures the very highest points of size, beauty, flavor, keeping and shipping qualities are secured. Even before the wonderfully satisfactory test of both northern and south- ern California apples at the New Orleans World's Fair, it was clear that the right va- riety grown in the right place yields an apple in California than which a better can not be grown anywhere, and during the last hve years California early apples have been in sharp request for shipment to all regions of the Northwest and British Columbia, and California winter apples have been sold at the highest prices east of the Rocky Mountains and in Europe. Shipments beyond State lines of above one thousand and seven hundred and forty-four car-loads in 1905 testify to these facts. Localities for the Apple.— Speaking gen- erally, it may be laid down that the great val- leys of the interior are not well suited to the apple; also, there are some situations which are much better than others. In the early regions of the Sacramento Valley and foot- hills however, excellent early apples are profitably produced. In the great valley and lower foot-hill region of the State, the late apple usually lacks character and keeping quality. On the great plains the tree is liable to sunburn, or sun blight, as it is called_ Some varieties, because of the character ot their foliage, are less liable to this injury than others, and it is possible that this evil may be finally overcome by the selection of varieties with blight-proof foliage, as will be mentioned later. In the great valley, however, on the rich river-bottom land of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin and its tributaries, the apple roots deeplv. attains good size, bears good fruit, with 'fair keeping quality, while but a few miles away on the plains it is inferior. In the interior the region of adaptation to the apple lies at an elevation on the foot-hills on both the east and west rims of the great valley. Its limits are not well defined, but there are flourishing orchards at an elevation of about four thousand five hundred feet on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and from two thousand to three thousand five hundred feet is commonly regarded the best apple region of the mountains. The trees attain large size and bear heavily, and the fruit, of well-adapted varieties, is large, crisp, juicy and has exceptional keeping qualities. On the Tule River in Tulare County at an elevation of 4100 feet, eight-year-old Wine- saps have borne 300 pounds, \ellow New- town Pippins 250 pounds, and White Winter Pearmains 300 pounds per tree. At such ele- vations, however, there is constant danger of spring frost injury. Along the coast the apple succeeds well from end to end of the State, and very close to the ocean excellent fruit is produced on good soil. There is a certain advantage in elevation in the coast region as well as in the interior, but the advantage is not so marked nor is the required elevation so great. Coast valleys in the central and upper portion of the State, where the soil is suitable, produce most excellent apples, but even here the lower hill- sides with deep, well-drained soils, are, per- haps,' preferable to the floors of the valley. Departing from immediate coast influences and approaching the interior, with its greater heat and aridity, the greater elevation be- comes desirable. The apple, excepting the very earlv varieties, does not relish the forcing heat which brings such perfection to tne peach but to insure late ripening and long keeping, with accompanying crispness, juiciness, ana flavor, it must have atmospheric surroundings which favor slower development. Localities for apple growing in southern Cal- ifornia are to be chosen with much the same rules as in the upper parts of the State. As has How to Grow Them 159 Propagation of the Apple already been said, valleys in which coast condi- tions largely predominate produce good apples on suitable soils, but away from the coast, proper elevations must be sought, and they should be above the so-called thermal or frost- less belts. Good apples are grown on low lands near the coast in Los Angeles and Or- ange Counties. Sixty miles inland, in San Bernardino County, winter apples fail in the valleys, hut are most excellent at a sufficient elevation upon the slopes of the surrounding mountains or in elevated valleys like the Yu- caipe Valley above Redlands, where a Rome Beauty of excellent quality was grown in 1903 to a weight of twenty-seven ounces and a cir- cumference of fifteen inches. In the elevated interior of San Diego County, as in the Julian and Smith Mountain districts, excellent apples are produced in large quantities and profitably carried long distances. Second and Third-Crop Apples. — There is a peculiar behavior of the apple tree, most noticeable where winter temperature is mild- est, and that is blooming and fruiting out of season. In the case of early apples the sec- ond bloom may appear about the time the first fruit ripens and the third bloom when the second crop is half grown. Even such be- havior may he followed by regular blooming the following spring. Second crops of apples are not of amount nor regularity enough to be of much economic importance, as, the sec- ond crops of pears and grapes sometimes are. The third crop occasionally ripens. An in- stance is on record at Chino, San Bernardino County, where in 1903 a tree ripened its first fruit in June, and its last fruit was picked on Christmas day following. Such behavior, of course, indicates conditions ill suited to the apple. Exposures for the Apple. — The choice of exposure for an apple orchard may almost be inferred from what has been said about lo- calities. In regions with high summer tem- perature the apple will do best on cool, north- erly slopes, and this exposure becomes doubly desirable when the location has high temperature with only moderate annual rainfall, or where the soil is not well adapted to the reten- tion of moisture. With such prevailing condi- tions, the apple will be grateful for the cooler air and the greater moisture of the northerly slope. Where the temperature is moderately cool, and the rainfall adequate, the matter of exposure is of less account, and the grower can make the existence of the best soil the test of location of his orchard. At elevations on the sides of high ranges where late cold storms are liable to rush down from higher snow fields, protection from the usuaf course of such storms, or from the course of cold winds generally, must be sought ; and directly upon the coast, especially in the northern part of the State, in certain places where the peach does not usually succeed even the apple may need protection, and the benefit of all heat available, and then a southerly or southeast- erly exposure becomes desirable. The choice of exposure is thus seen to be largely a local question and to be determined by a knowledge of local conditions. A newcomer in a region can best learn these conditions by conference with older residents, or by personal observa- tion of older orchards. Soils for the Apple. — Experience with the apple in California confirms what has long been set forth as its choice of soils in older regions. If one avoid an extremely light, sandy soil on the one hand, and a very stiff clay or adobe on the other, he may plant apples on almost any soil which allows ex- tension of the roots to a considerable depth without reaching standing water. The apple thrives in a moist soil, but it must be well drained, naturally or otherwise. A soil which may be called best for the apple is a deep, rich, moist, calcareous loam, but the tree will thrive on coarser materials. The subsoil, whatever its nature, must be sound and open to the passage of moisture. The most un- favorable condition for the tree is a subsoil of clay which holds water. There is some difiference in varieties as to choice of soil. The Yellow Bellflower, for instance, will do well on a lighter soil than the Yellow New- town Pippin. PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE. The apple is chiefly propagated by root- grafting upon apple seedling roots either whole-roots or root pieces. Budding is also practised to a certain extent. For dwarf trees the Paradise stock is used. Repeated trials with working the apple on the pear, chiefly by top grafting, have secured growth of limited life but without fruiting. Care of the Apple Orchard 160 California Fruits : The resistance of certain roots to the wool- ly aphis has been fully demonstrated by local experience in the use of the Northern Spy and Winter Majetin, chiefly the former. Seedlings of Northern Spy cannot be relied upon as resistant to the woolly aphis. It is necessary to get a root actually grown from the Northern Spy wood. The best way to get a start is to buy some Northern Spy trees from some reputable nurseryman, specifying that they shall be Northern Spy root and top. With these resistant roots and wood growth for scions or cuttings can he grown. Resis- tant trees are made by root grafting the scion of the variety which it is desired to propagate upon a piece of Northern Spy root and then being careful that the scion does not send out roots of its own, but is wholly dependent upon the Northern Spy root. It is customary with nurserymen selling resistant trees to save the root pieces which are removed in digging and packing for subsequent propagation. It is also possible to get a resistant tree by starting from the cutting of a Northern Spy. To facilitate the rooting of these cuttings a small piece of any kind of apple root is put in by side graft near the bottom of the cut- ting. This acts as a starter, but the cutting will also make roots of itself. At the end of the first year then the cuttings are taken up, the piece of root used as a starter is cleanly cut away and the rooted cutting re- planted ; henceforth it is dependent upon its own roots and is resistant. The variety de- sired is then grafted in a little above the ground surface so that there will be no dan- ger of its making its own roots. By either of these processes it is more troublesome and takes more time to produce a tree with a re- sistant root than in the ordinary way, and for that reason trees on resistant roots are sold at a higher price. This may be the reason why resistant trees are not yet largely used in this state. Other suggestions applicable to the growth of young apple trees are given in Chapters VIII and IX. DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE. The apple is subject to various diseases and insect enemies which must be resolutely fought or they will render the trees unprof- itable. Chief of the diseases are the "pear blight'" and the apple scab, and the apple mil- dew. Of the insect enemies the codlin moth, the apple-leaf aphis, various leaf-eating cater- pillars and several scale insects must be kept in check and the latest approved means of reducing these troubles will be described in detail in later chapters. PLANTING AND CARE OF THE APPLE ORCHARD. The chapters on planting, and pruning con- tain suggestions to which the reader is re- ferred. Care should be taken to obtain trees with clean, healthy roots, not knotted and scarred by woolly aphis. Distance in Planting. — The distance be- tween the trees is of the highest importance. All the old apple orchards are overcrowded. More recently trees have been set at greater distances, and such planting is now generally advised. There is some difference of opinion as to proper distance, but certainly twenty- five to thirty feet is near enough, and some of the best new orchards have been planted at forty feet, the ground being used for a time with other crops or planted with early bear- ing trees, for which the soil is suited, between them. Pruning the Apple. — The manner of shaping fruit trees described in the chapter on pruning succeeds admirably with the apple. Yearling, trees are usually planted, and they are regularly pruned until proper form is se- cured. Mr. C. H. Rodgers, a leading apple grower of the Watsonville district, near the coast in central California, gives the following ex- cellent outline of a simple and economical, yet successful, method for apple tree building under ordinary conditions : First Year : On planting, cut the stem from 30 to 36 inches in height, with tlie ter- minal bud toward the southwest. In the spring, when growth begins, strip off all shoots from the ground up to about 20 inches. Above this point let all growth remain during the summer. If for any cause during early summer a bud does not start where wanted, a short transverse cut through the bark just above the bud will cause it to develop into a limb. Beginning of Second Year : Cut off all limbs except those selected to remain per- How to Grow Them 161 Cultivation and Irrigation nianently. Two, three, four, and not more than five limbs should be allowed to remain, the number depending on their position. It should be the aim to distribute them evenly on all sides, and to give all possible space be- tween limbs up and down the trunk. This latter precaution is to give room for expan- sion of limbs in after years. Cut back the limbs that are to remain, taking off from one- third to one-half of the previous season's growth. If the tree is of a spreading habit, and it is desired to have it grow erect, cut to inner buds. If desired to spread the top cut to outer buds. , Pieginning of Third Year : Allow two or three lateral limbs to remain on each of the main branches. Top the tree again, taking off from one-third to one-half the previous year's growth. Continue this method during the first four years, at which time the tree should begin to bear, and if surrounding con- ditions are favorable, it will prove strong, vigorous and capable of sustaining a heavy load of apples. The after treatment will con- sist mainly in keeping the top properly thinned. After coming into bearing there must be intelligent pruning according to the growth- habit of the variety. Some varieties, like the Yellow Bellflower, resent heavy pruning after coming into bearing, and slow growers like the Yellow Newtown Pippin, do not need it. On the other hand varieties, like the Winesap and Smith's Cider, are apt to make long slim branches and bear at the ends. This can be corrected by cutting back to secure more short shoots which will bear better fruit. Some vari- eties, like the Jonathan, will make plenty of short spurs under this treatment while others like Rome Beauty and Rhode Island Greening are persistent tip-bearers, but can be gradually drawn in without reducing the crop too much. The grower must study his varieties not only with reference to this but in forming the tree, cutting to an inside bud all varieties which naturally take a horizontal direction, and cutting to an outside bud varieties which iiave a tendency to send up tall, straight shoots. By thus throwing the new growth up- ward in the first case, and outward in the second, one can shape each kind to greater symmetry and strength for fruit carrying, and bring up all spreading varieties to a form which admits near approach of the plow and cultivator. This manner of shaping the tree must continue as long as seems necessary to secure a tree which will come to bearing age shapely and strong, and within reach. Bearing trees should not be allowed to carry too many branches, and pruning will largely consist of thinning out surplus shoots and re- moving interference between branches. It is not desirable to shorten-in the apple as is done with the apricot and peach. Summer pruning to reduce wood growth and promote bearing is practiced to a limited extent in some districts upon varieties in- clined to shy bearing. In regions of the most intense summer heat, less pruning is admissi- ble than in the coast and elevated regions. It is necessary that the foliage be dense to protect the tree and the fruit from sunburn. Nor does the tree seem to relish cutting back. Slight thinning out if the tree becomes too brushy, seems to be the best treatment in some of the hot valleys. Thinning the Fruit. — One of the most important items in the handling of an apple orchard is the faithful thinning out of the fruit of all varieties which are prone to over- bear, and this work is now regularly pro- vided for by the leading commercial growers. Only one apple should grow at a place and spacing of four to six inches is commended. Although this work is tedious and expensive, it is profitable, because of the improved price which can be had for the larger fruit which will be secured, and it is desirable in the effects of thinning on the tree. It will be relieved from the exhaustion of overbearing, induced to yield annual crops, and often saved from breaking down with a too heavy burden. CULTIV.\TI0N .■\ND IRRIGATION. — All that has been urged in measures to secure ade- quate moisture supply has full force with the apple. Excepting the early varieties, it is a fruit with a long growing season and therefore requires continuous moisture to secure size and quality. Most California apples are grown on deep, retentive soils in regions of large rainfall and if this is conserved by thorough cultivation, good fruit can be secured. It is doubtless true that apples in even such places in California would sometimes he improved by irrigation just as they are in interior and mountain dis- tricts. Gathering and Sorting 162 California i:^'ruits : Fertilizers have been thus far but little used in California apple orchards but they are manifestly needed. There has arisen recently evidence of the unfinished character of the fruit in some dis- tricts because it has shown blemishes after picking and during shipment which cannot be attributed to any parasitic encroachment. This is probably due to some unfavorable condition in the local climate or to some other stress upon the tree which prevents it from doing perfect work. GATHERING AND STORING APPLES. The disposition in this State, as elsewhere, is to allow the fruit to hang too long upon the tree before gathering. It was long ago demonstrated that an apple for long-keeping must be picked a little in advance of full maturity. As late fall weather in California is so delightful, there is more temptation to delay the picking than where the approach of winter admonishes the grower to get his fruit under cover. Picking apples for ship- ment should be done just when the seeds be- gin to blacken and when the fruit yields to pressure. If left on until fully ripe, and the seeds all black, the fruit is apt not to keep well. This rule applies to fall apples for shipment to distant markets, or for apples to be stored at home. Mr. H. G. Keesling of Edenvale, Santa Clara county, gives a sketch of his way of handling apples on a small scale : In picking apples we insist on just as careful handling as in picking other fruits, and we find that the picking pail made of tin or light galvan- ized iron, holding about twelve quarts, or nearly twenty pounds of apples, is the best vessel to pick in, and we use them right through the season for cherries, apricots, peaches and even prunes. A pail of this size is not too heavy to handle even on high ladders, and it carries the fruit without bruis- ing. Otir plan is to pick and sort into boxes in the orchard. If a number of pickers are at work, then one or more men will do the sorting. As each picker fills his pail, he carries it a short distance to the sorting station, taking an empty one and returning to his work. The apples arc sorted out of the pails and very carefully examined. The perfect apples go into one box, seconds into another and culls into another. They are then loaded onto a truck or wagon with springs and hauled to the house. A good sorter will keep pails empty for several pickers, all of course depending on the crop, size of apples, etc. I put my winter apples in redwood boxes, which, when piled one on top of another, five or six high and close to- gether, and covered with canvas or muslin, are in a condition to keep their flavor and juiciness a long time. Storing apples in boxes saves a lot of work in handling if they are to be examined or sorted during the winter. Nearly all the ways of keeping winter apples have been tried in California. The main difficulty in keeping apples in good condition during the dry months of the autumn is the loss of moisture from the fruit by evaporation. This causes shrivelling and operates against long keeping. It has been found by experience that apples keep per- fectly until late in the spring by piling under the trees and covering with leaves, etc., al- lowing the rains to fall upon them. When dry north winds blow, the fruit should be sprinkled occasionally. They come out from the cover fresh, smooth, and plump, and for family use such rough storage will often an- swer a good purpose. For commercial storage, even on a small scale, however, good fruithouses are used. The requisites of such houses are an evenly cool temperature, moist air, and good ventilation, the fruit being open to free access of the air. In the moun- tains where stone is abundant excellent apple houses are made of it, which resist tempera- ture changes notably. Mr. Edward Berwick, of Monterey, apple grower of experience in the coast region, handles his fruit in this way : The apples are carefully hand-picked into baskets and at once transferred to ordinary apple boxes — just put in loose, not packed tight as for shipping. These boxes are hauled to the fruit house with as little jar as possible. This fruit house is built of rough boards (fastened on a heavy frame) with inch-thick battens covering the cracks, and rustic-nailed outside the battens, thus leaving an inch air-space between the boards and the rustic. It is of two stories — the upper devoted to tools and stores, the lower used for fruit, and arranged with shelves accordingly. This lower story has only an earthen floor. One object of this is to give as lodgement for rats or mice, the other is to serve as a means of maintaining a cool, damp atmosphere. To this end it is kept well watered m apple-keeping season; and, to avoid mildew or mold, it is also liberally sprinkled with ground sulphur. How to Grow Them 163 Summer and Fall Apples By day doors and windows are mostly kept sliiu, by night open ; this, of course, is to exclude the heat and allow free circulation of the cool night air. A rather more open house is used in the coast region of southern California, by Mr. T. W. Ward, of Carpinteria: It is a slat house made of strips 1x2 1-2 inches, put on one inch apart. The roof is similarly con- structed. There are two passages, on either side of which are two shelves, one above the other, i. e., eight in all. The shelves are made of slats placed one-half inch apart, with sides a foot high. The apples are spread on these shelves a foot or more deep. The floor is made of slats, and there are bins on this also. The fruit must receive a thorough sprinkling weekly, unless sufficient rain falls. The slats are close enough to prevent birds doing dainage, and the whole building is raised six inches from the ground. ! In the moutitain regions arrangements must be made for frost exclusion, — a con- sideration which does not apply to the valley and coast. PICKING AND PACKING APPLES ON A LARGE SCALE. Mr . C. H. Rodgers, a leading grower, and president of the Santa Cruz County horti- cultural commission, gives the best methods in his district as follows : In the matter of picking, experience has evolved a number of rules which should be strictly adhered to : (i.) Do not pull the apple off the tree. By so doing, the stem may be detached from the apple, thus making a second grade of what otherwise would be choice. The proper method of plucking the apple is to grasp it with the full hand, not with the fingers only, and by a gentle twist and lateral movement detach it with the stem attached. Especially must finger pressure be avoided in the picking, as bruises thereby produced injure the value. (2.) The apple must never be dropped into a re- ceptacle or from box to box, but should be trans- ferred as carefully as so many eggs. (3.) Under all circumstances use vehicles having springs in moving the fruit. Once within the packing-house the inore perishable varieties should be handled immediately and for- warded to market, while the long-keeping varieties, especially those intended for export, should be held at least a month before sorting and packing. This latter precaution enables the packer to discover and eliminate all diseased and defective fruit — a thing that would be iinpossible if the fruit were packed at an early date after picking. Three grades or qualities are recognized in the "trade"- — first, second and third. First grade in- cludes only perfect fruit. Second grade includes the fruit having a trivial surface blemish or stem absent. The third or cull class includes all wormy, badly bruised or skin-broken apples. Though grading for size varies somewhat in diflfer- ent localities, in the Watsonville district, the leading apple-producing center of the West, there are but three sizes recognized. These are 3 1-2, 4, and 4 1-2 tier. The unit of size is the 4-tier, which comprises all apples running from 25-8 to 31-4 inches in di- ameter, and derives the name from the fact that when packed in the bo.x there are four rows of four apples each, both vertically and horizontally across the end of the box. Apples in excess of 31-4 mclies are classed as 3 1-2 tier size. The third size, or 4 1-2- tier, includes those apples ranging between 2 1-4 and 2 5-8 inches in diameter. Both the 3 1-2-tier and 4 l-2-tier are packed in the manner known as "dia- mond" pack or "pear" pack. Apples smaller than 4 1-2 tier are thrown into the cull pile. The sorter ascer- tains the size by passing the apples through circular holes in a board. In this State the standard box is made of pine. Its measurements are 9 3-4 by 11 by 22 in., and it holds about 50 pounds of fruit. A modified bo.x of e.xtra thick material, reinforced by iron straps, is fre- quently used for export trade. Redwood boxes are used only for cheap grades of apples packed for the local market. After being sorted, the apples are passed to the packer, who, before placing them in the box, wraps each apple in a piece of paper prepared for the pur- pose. The apples must be so packed in the bo.x as to permit the nailing firmly of the lid at each end, and at the same time allow a gradual swell of about three-fourths of an inch at the middle of both top and bottom. Pn account of the resultant shape of the boxes, they can be stacked up with safety only on their sides. The packed boxes after being neatly labeled, are next transferred to the cars and stacked four or five tiers high. An air space of three or four feet is left between the top tier and the roof of the car, also the entire space between the doors is left vacant for the better circulation of air. The boxes, after being sys- tematically placed in the car, are so braced with tim- bers as to prevent any movement. The usual car- load consists of about 650 bo.xes. Refrigerator fruit cars are employed mainly for apple shipment, but no ice is used. Summer and Fall Apples. — In some re- gions noted for early maturing of fruit, it is profitable to grow early apples, providing there are facilities for reaching profitable avenues of trade. E.xcept to minister to some special local or distant trade which can be thus foreseen, it must be said that very early apples are hardly worth the attention of the commercial planter. These sorts are apt to come into direct contest with the magnificent peaches, grapes, and other summer and au- tumn fruits, and sufifer thereby. On the other hand the fall apples, chiefly the Yellow Bellflower and Gravenstein are so good and profitable in regions where they bear well thrt they are among the varieties Varieties for Cross Pollination 164 California Fruits which constitute our chief commercial reli- ance. Winter Apples. — For large ventures in apple growing, in localities carefully chosen for "especial adaptations, a few of the finest varieties of winter apples should generally be selected. It is the judgment of the most experienced apple growers, many of whom have old orchards including many varieties, that new plantations of winter apples should contain only about six sorts. Of these, in all parts of the State, two would be the Yellow Newtown Pippin and White Winter Pear- main ; the other four would vary in different parts of the State, as can be learned from the table which will follow. Apples for Long Shipment. — There has been for years quite an important trade in shipment of California apples to various ports in the South Pacific Ocean, and recently there has been a sharp demand for Califor- nia apples for shipment to the eastern states and England. The characteristic size, quality and keeping of the fniit, together with the size and style of package, have strongly commended the fruit. The center of this trade is Watsonville, in a coast valley, in the central part of the State. The two apples which are most popular are the Yellow Bell- flower and the Yellow Newtown Pippin. It For the Interior Valleys. — In choosing varieties for the hot valleys of the State those making a heavy leaf growth are to be preferred. The Spitzenburg, for example, is a failure in the valleys of the interior, though satisfactory at points on the valley borders. From experience already had it seems likely that some of the Russian varieties, with thick, large leaves, will prove best for such situa- tions. The behavior of the Astracans, the Duchess of Oldenburg, and others of Rus- sian origin, are illustrations of this fact. Other varieties have been on trial for several years, but no great distribution of them has yet been attained. SELECTION OF VARIETIES FOR CROSS-POLLINATION. Selection of varieties of the same bloom- ing season to secure whatever advantage there may be in cross-pollination to promote bearing arises chiefly with reference to White Winter Pearmain, which is sometimes very shy when grown alone. Association can be arranged with a number of our most popular varieties by consulting the following dates of blooming as prepared by Mr. Frederick Maskew based upon observations in the coast region of Los Angeles County. Blooming season of our most popular varieties. VARIETIES. First bloom White Winter Pearmain April 11 Red Astracan April 17 Bell Flower April 20 Fall Pippin April 20 Rhode Island Greening April 20 Kentucky Red Streak April 20 Early Harvest April 21 Shockly April 27 Fameuse April 27 Ben Davis April 29 Winesap May 5 Yellow Transparent May 5 None-such May 7 Missouri Pippin May 10 Alexander May 15 Smiths Cider May 15 Transcendent Crab Mar 30 Hyslop Crab April 1 1 Montreal Crab April 16 * Indicates that the variety is approved in the regit ** Most highly commended. is an interesting fact that these varieties by This is a later range of bloom than will be virtue of quality have overcome the popular found in many parts of the state, but the fervor for a red apple. same relation may be expected everywhere. Full bloom General fall of bloom. April 27 May 5 April 30 May 12 April 30 May 16 May 5 May 15 May 5 May lb May 10 May 20 May 6 Mav 12 May 15 May 20 May 15 May 22 May 15 May 23 Maj' 17 June May 16 June Mav 16 June May 20 June May 25 June Mav 25 June 6 April 7 April 22 April 22 April 30 April 24 May 7 designated. How to Grow Them 165 V'arieties Grown in California VARIETIES OF APPLES CHIEFLY GROWN IX CALIFORNIA. Of the hundreds of varieties tested in Cahfornia comparatively few are now grown, as has already been suggested. Those named below have been reported by growers as succeeding in localities named with the de- scription, or indicated in the table which will follow. The descriptions of the standard sorts are, in the main, condensed from Down- ing,* with local notes interpolated when thought necessary. The arrangement is, ap- proximat'^ly in the order of ripening. Carolina Red June (Southern). — Medium size oval, irregular, inclined to conic ; deep red covered with light bloom; stalk in small cavity; calyx closed; flesh white, tender, juicy, subacid; core rather large. Early Harvest (American). — Medium size, round- ish ; straw color with few faint white dots ; stalk half to three-fourths inch, slender, set in moderate cavity; caly.x in shallow basin; flesh very white, tender, crisp, pleasant. Early Straivberry (New York). — Medium size, roundish, narrowing towards the eye ; skin smooth, deep red on yellow ground; stalk one and a half inches, rather slender and uneven, in deep cavity ; caly-x small, in shallow basin ; flesh white, tinged with red ne.xt the skin, tender, subacid, sprightly. Red Astracan (Russian). — Large roundish; skin deep red, save greenish yellow in the shade ; pale white bloom ; stalk short, and deeply inserted ; calyx partially closed and set in slight basin ; flesh white, juicy and crisp, pleasant acid: tree hardy and vigorous, and an early bearer. The main reliance in California for an early apple. White Astracan (Russian). — Large, roundish; skin smooth and nearly white, with faint streaks of red, and covered with white bloom ; flesh white. Con- siderably grown in the Sacramento Valley and foot- hills for early shipment. Sometimes attains a weight of 2g ounces. Excellent in the Modesto district of the San Joaquin valley. Duchess of Oldenburg (Russian). — Large, round- ish, oblate ; yellow, streaked with red ; calyx large, nearly closed, set in wide, even hollow; flesh juicy, subacid. Gravenstein (German). — Large, rather flattened; a little one-sided or angular; broadest at base; stalk short, strong, deeply set ; calyx large, closed, in a large basin ; skin yellow, freely marked with light and deep red and orange; flesh tender, crisp, highly flavored, aromatic ; a strong-growing and heavily- bearing tree ; a standard fall apple in this State. Red Bietigheimer (German). — Large to very large, oblate, slightly conical, regular; smooth, whitish or. yellowish white, shaded with light and dark red, and purplish crimson in the sun; stalk short, rather stout; caly.x closed in large, deep, slightly corrugated basin ; flesh white, firm, juicy, brisk subacid. Maiden's Blush (New Jersey.) — Rather large, smooth regular; yellow, with evenly shaded red cheek ; stalk short, in rather wide, deep hollow ; calyx closed in moderate depression ; flesh white, tender, sprightly. Fall Pippin. — Very large, roundish, a Uttle flat- tened; stalk three-fourths inch, projecting consider- ably beyond the fruit (which distinguishes it from the Holland Pippin) ; calyx open, not very large, rather deeply sunk in round, narrow basin; skin smooth, yellowish green, becoming pure yellow; brownish blush and few scattered dots; flesh white tender, mellow, rich, aromatic. Alexander (Russian). — Very large, showy, conical, greenish yellow, streaked with red in shade, bright red in the sun ; calyx large, in deep basin ; stalk slender, long, in deep cavity; flesh yellowish white, crisp, tender, and juicy. Tree vigorous but not al- ways a good bearer. Gloria Mundi. — Very large, roundish, oblate; ribbed ; greenish yellow. A popular show apple on account of great size attained in this State. (See table.) Famcuse; syn. Snou' Apple (Canada). — Medium size, roundish, somewhat flattened ; deep crimson, nearly concealing pale yellowish ground ; flesh snowy white, tender, juicy, slight perfume; stalk slender, one-half inch, in narrow funnel-shaped cavity; calyx small, in shallow, rather narrow basin ; "tree vig- orous, with dark wood ; one of the finest dessert fruits ; succeeds particularly well in the foot-hills." — John Bid'cvell. King of Tompkins County. — Large, globular, angu- lar, inclining to conic ; yellowish, mostly shaded with red, striped and splashed with crimson ; stalk short and stout, in large, somewhat irregtilar cavity; calyx small, closed; flesh yellowish, rich juicy, vinous, aromatic ; chiefly grown in mountain regions. Rambo (Pennsylvania). — Medium to large, flat; yellowish white with pale yellow and red in the sun, with large, rough dots ; stalk long, rather slender, curved, deeply set ; calyx closed, in broad basin ; flesh greenish white. Reported a failure in some counties. Ben Davis. — Large, roundish, sides often unequal ; light red and deep red on yellowish ground; stalk medium, rather_ slender, in deep, narrow cavity; calyx partially open. Commended as a market apple by the Southern California Nurserymen's Associa- tion. Grown in the upper Sacramento Valley, some- times keeps until July i. Baldwin (Massachusetts). — Large, roundish, nar- rowing a little towards the eye ; deep bright red over a yellow ground ; few russet dots ; caly.x closed and set in narrow basin; stalk one-half to three- fourths inch, rather slender, set in deep, even cavity; flesh yellowish-white, crisp, juicy, subacid. Best in northern and elevated regions ; coloring varies greatly according to locality. Hoover (South Carolina). — Large, roundish, slightly oblique ; yellowish, mostly overspread with red. with conspicuous light dots; stalk rather long, in large cavity; calyx open in furrowed basin; flesh yellowish, juicy, crisp, acid. Varieties Grown in California 166 California Fruits Rhode Island Greening. — Large, roundish, a little flattened, pretty regular ; dark green, becoming yel- lowish green; calyx small, woolly, closed, in shallow basin ; stalk three-fourths inch, curved, thickest at the bottom ; flesh yellow, fine grained, tender, crisp, juicy, aromatic, slightly acid; tree healthy and the variety widely popular. Vandcvere : syn. Ncivton Spitsenburg. — Medium size, oblate, slightly conic ; fine yellow, washed with light red, striped and splashed with dark red and shaded with carmine in the sun ; light bloom and peculiar gray specks; stalk short, in wide cavity; calyx small, closed ; flesh yellow, rich, sprightly, vinous. Jonathan (New York). — Medium to large, round- ish, conical or tapering to the eye; light yellow nearly covered with red stripes and deep red in the sun ; stalk three-fourths of an inch, rather slender, in deep, regular cavity ; calyx in deep, broad basin ; tender, juicy, rich, vinous; a great favorite in Cali- fornia ; specially commended as a market apple by Southern California Nurserymen's Association ; keeps till midwinter. Winesap. — Medium size, roundish oblong; dark red with traces of yellow in the shade; stalk nearly an inch, slender, set in an irregular cavity ; calyx small, in regular basin ; flesh yellow, crisp, high, rich flavor ; largely grown ; tree a good bearer. Stayman H'inesap. — An old improvement on the Winesap now becoming more prominent. Some growers reporting favorably on Winesap have this variety which is larger and better and the tree a stronger grower and more productive. Approved by Mr. Frank Femmons of Madera county. Ortlcy; syn. JVhite BeUfloiver, etc. (New Jersey). ^Large, oblong, greenish yellow, becoming fine yel- low with slight blush ; stalk medium, slender, set in deep, acute cavity; calyx closed, set in abrupt corrugated basin; flesh white, fine-grained, juicy, subacid. Szi'aar (New York). — Large, roundish; golden yellow with numerous brown specks ; stalk slender, three-fourths inch, in very round cavity; caly.x small, greenish, set in shallow basin ; flesh yellowish, fine- grained ; very rich, aromatic flavor and spicy smell. Launicr. — Large, roundish, oblate, dark red, cov- ered with small dots ; stalk medium, cavity deep, regular ; caly.x small, closed, in medium furrowed l.iasin ; flesh white, sprightly, aromatic; a promising, late keeping variety. Yellow Bellflower (New Jersey). — Very large, oblong, irregular, tapering toward the eye; smooth; lemon color, with blush ; stalk long and slender, in deep cavity; calyx closed, in rather narrow basin; flesh tender, juicy, crisp, with sprightly, subacid flavor; keeps well into the winter; tree a strong grower and healthy; one of the universal favorites in California. Romanitc. — Small to medium, roundish conical, truncated ; yellow, mostly covered with clear, hand- some red ; indistinct light dots ; stalk slender ; calyx ■ in an abrupt basin ; flesh yellowish, fine-grained, juicy, pleasant, subacid. Esopus Spitsenburg (New York). — Large, oblong, tapering roundly to the eye ; smooth, nearly covered with rich, lively red, dotted with distinct yellowish russet dots ; on shaded side, yellowish ground with streaks and broken stripes of red ; stalk rather long, three-fourths inch, slender, projecting beyond the base and inserted in wide cavity; caly.x small and closed, in shallow basin; flesh yellow, rather firm crisp, juicy, with a delicious rich, brisk flavor. A largely grown variety ; tree a good, upright grower and healthy; fruit keeps fairly. Hyde King. — Very large, glistening golden yellow with blush, very handsome. Ripens Oct. 15 in Hum- boldt county. Approved by A. F. Etter. Smith's Cider (Pennsylvania). — Large, roundish, oblate conic ; yellow, shaded and striped with red, sparsely covered with gray dots; stalk slender, in deep, rather narrow cavity; calyx closed, in broad shallow basin; flesh whitish, juicy, crisp, acid; tree a strong grower, and fruit keeps till midwinter. Rome Beauty (Ohio). — Large, roundish, approach- ing conic; yellow, shaded and striped with bright red, sprinkled with light dots ; stalk one inch, in large, deep cavity; calyx partially closed, in deep, narrow basin; flesh yellowish, juicy, sprightly; frtiit keeps late. Particularly fine in the mountain valleys of Southern California. Missouri Pippin. (Missouri). — Large, roundish ob- late, slightly oblique, somewhat flattened at the ends ; shaded, striped and splashed with light and dark red, often quite dark in the sun ; many large and small gray dots ; stalk short, small ; cavity large, deep ; calyx closed or half open, basin rather abrupt deep, slightly corrugated ; flesh whitish, rather coarse, moderately juicy, subacid. Quite largely planted, but losing favor for lack of keeping quality in coast valleys. Nickajack (North Carolina). — Large, roundish to roundish oblate, slightly conic, sometimes oblique; yellowish, freely striped and splashed with red, many large dots; stalk short, in large cavity; calyx partly open; flesh yellowish, fair quality; reported a shy bearer in high altitudes. Northern Spy (New York). — Large, roundish, ob- late conical; pale yellow, purplish red stripes in the sun ; stalk three-fourths inch, slender, in wide, deep cavity; calyx small, closed; flesh white, mild, pleas- ant ; highly esteemed in a few localities, but aban- doned in others for shy bearing. White Winter Pearmain. — Large, roundish oblong conic, somewhat oblique ; pale yellow with slight blush, many minute brown dots ; stalk short in deep cavity; calyx nearly closed; flesh yellowish, tender, crisp, juicy, very pleasant subacid, e.xtra high flavor; grown everywhere, and fruit keeps late ; tree a strong grower and healthy. Lady (French). — Small, regularly formed, flat; smooth and glossy, with brilliant red cheek contrast- ing with lemon yellow ground ; flesh white, crisp, juicy and pleasant; chiefly used for ornamental pur- poses. Black Ben Davis. — Resembles Ben Davis in tree and fruit, except that the latter is deeper colored, more symmetrical and of better quality. Highly praised by Mr. Frank Femmons, Madera county. Delicious. — Resembling Bellflower ; yellow, almost covered with dark red; very mild acid, quality good; a late keeper. Also approved by Mr. Femmons. How to Grow Them 167 Tabular Showing of Adaptations Arkansas Beauty (Arkansas). — Medium to large, oblong conical, yellow and red stripes, fine, juicy, very good, subacid. Approved in Southern Cali- fornia. Rawles Janet (Virginia). — Medium to large, oblate conic, yellowish, shaded with red and striped with crimson; stalk short and thick, in broad, open cavity; calyx partially open, in shallow basin ; flesh yellow, tender, juicy, pleasant vinous flavor; tree healthy and prolific. Stark. — Large, roundish, inclined to conic ; some- times elongated, sometimes oblique ; greenish yellow, nearly covered with dark red and sprinkled with light and brown dots; stalk short, rather stout; calyx closed ; flesh yellowish. Yellozd' Newtown Pippin. — Large, roundish, oblate and oblique, more or less flattened ; yellow with brownish red cheek; stalk very short; flesh firm, crisp, juicy, and with very rich, high flavor. Gener- ally considered the best winter apple in California. CRAB APPLES. Hyslop. — Fruit large, growing in clusters ; round- ish ovate ; dark rich red. covered with thick blue bloom ; stalk long, slender ; calyx closed ; flesh yellowish. Large Red Siberian. — Roundish ovate with large and prominent calyx; pale red and yellow skin. Large Yellow Siberian. — Fruit similar in size to foregoing, roundish oval, flattened at base and crown ; light clear yellow, inclining to amber, with warm cheek. Transeendant. — Medium to large, roundish oval, flattened at the ends, slightly but regularly ribbed ; golden yellow, with rich, crimson cheek, or nearly covered with red ; delicate white bloom ; stalk long and slender, in open, deep cavity; calyx closed; flesh creamy, yellow. Montreal Beauty. — Large, roundish oblate; bright yellow, mostly covered and shaded with red ; one of the most beautiful of crab apples. Whitney's Crab. — Large, handsome, greenish yel- low, striped with crimson. CALIFORNLA SEEDLING APPLES. Skinner's Seedling (Name approved by California State Horticultural Society, November, 1887). Syn. Skinner's Pippin, Santa Clara King. — Originated with Judge H. C. Skinner, of San Jose. Fruit large to very large ; form oblate, conic, slightly mixed ; color rich lemon yellow, faintly striped with bright red ; flesh yellowish white, very tender, juicy, sprightly, mild subacid ; quality best. Season, September and October. Marshall's Red (Name approved by California State Horticultural Society, November, 1887). Syn. Red Bellflower, Marshall's Seedling. — Originated with J. L. Marshall. Brown's Valley, near Napa. Fruited first about 1877; introduced by Leonard Coates in 1884. The tree resembles Red June in habit of growth ; fruit large, same shape as Yellow Bellflower. but of same color as Red June ; quality very good ; flesh firm and fine-grained: aromatic, and slightly more acid than the Yellow Bellflower; tree, a very heavy bearer, and the fruit ripens in October in the bay region. Magoon. — Large, roundish oblong, deep red shad- ing to light red on yellow ground ; resembling Esopus Spitzenburg in form, flesh and flavor. Found in 1893 on place formerly occupied by S. E. Magoon near Ahwahnee. Named by Frank Femmons. Cook's Seedling; syn. Sonoma Seedling. — Brought to notice by O. B. Shaw, of Sonoma, as a seedling raised by David Cook from the seed of the Juneat- ing. Above medium size, pale yellow striped with red ; sharp acid flavor.. Not decidedly rich, but flavor full and acceptable. Excellent keeping qualities. Chiefly grown in S'onoma and Napa Counties. Lawton. — Seedling on place of Mrs. F. H. Lawton, one half mile north of Sebastopol, Sonoma county. More symmetrical than Belmont or Waxen. Very, promising show variety. Tabular Showing of Adaptations— -In preparation for this edition the writer under- took special inquiry to secure information from growers as to what their choice would be if they were to plant apples in 1907 as ex- plained in Chapter XVI. The result is a large shrinkage in the list of varieties which are now thought to be worth planting in the different parts of the State. An attempt is made to district the State for the apple, and for the other fruits which follow, in accordance with the scheme of climatic divisions described in Chapter I. This groups regions of nearest resemblance, and is more rational than any prescription according to county lines can be, for though some counties lie wholly in one climatic di- vision, many more counties extend through two, and some even through three, such di- visions. It is, therefore, a more promising proposition to encourage planters in any lo- cality to study their climatic adaptations, not with regard to county lines but rather as they are related to the conditions of elevation, ex- posure to ocean influences and other factors which characterize natural belts, or areas, of similar horticultural fitness. The only in- stances in which these agencies are grouped geographically, is in constituting southern California a division by itself. This is a rec- ognition of the fact that though in southern California coast and interior differences clear- ly exist, they were not so marked, until the development of the Colorado river region be- gan, as they are in the upper portions of the State, and there is consequently less marked contrast in suitability to various fruits. This concession to the south as sui generis also es- capes, or answers instead of a third division of coast valleys, for the older fruit districts of southern California have a mollified or Varieties Approved 168 California Fruits Apple varieties approved by California growers. Northerr Coast region. Central Coast region. Interior Mountain valleys vallevs Southen and and Californi foot-hills. plateau. Alexander Arkansas Beauty Arkansas Black Baldwin Ben Davis Bietigheimer Black Ben Davis Cook's Seedling Delicious Early Harvest Early Strawberry Esopus Spitzenburg Fall Pippin Fameuse Gravenstein Gloria Mundi Hoover Jonathan Langford Lawver Maiden's Blush Marshall's Red Missouri Pippin Nickajack Northern Spy Oldenburg Duchess Ortley Rawles' Janet Red Astracan Red June Red Pearniain Rhode Island Greening. . Romanite Rome Beauty Smith's Cider Skinner's Seedling Stark Stayman Winesap Swaar Tompkins King Vandevere Wagener Wealthy White Astracan White Winter Pearmain . Williams' Favorite Winesap Winter Banana Yellow Bellflower Yellow Newton Pippin.. Yellow Transparent York Imperial ' Indicates that the variety " Most highly commended. How to Grow Them 169 Varieties Approved subdued coast climate, their region of strictly interior valley and foot-hill climate being re- stricted by the fact that practically almost all their cultivated area, until recently, lay south and west of their high mountains. It is an interesting fact that the California coast cli- mates north and south show much greater contrasting conditions than do the interior valley regions, north and south, and south- ern California being so largely in the coast class could on this basis of wide coast vari- ations claim a distinctive designation, though it could hardly be granted on the comparison of interior valley characters throughout the State. Just what efifect the development of fruit growing in the great interior valley of southern California, which is irrigated from the Colorado river, will have upon the future re-classification of the horticultural divisions of the State cainiot now be determined for the planting of all kinds of fruit is but now beginning. The Apricot 170 California Fruits ; CHAPTER XVIII. CALIFORNIA THE HOME OF THE APRICOT. CALIFORNIA has nearly three miUion apricot trees which stand in the open air without protection of any kind and bear large, luscious fruit. That apricot trees can do this constitutes one of the unique fea- tures of California fruit growing and pro- claims it different from fruit growing in other States, for, excepting a few localities in other parts of the Pacific slope, California has a mon- opoly of commercial apricot growing, and no- where else in the world does the fruit attain such commercial importance. Although the apricot has been grown here from the earliest days of the American occupation, and though since the opening of the export trade in canned and dried fruits, the apricot has gained in popularity, the planting of apri- cot orchards has not proceeded recently with great rapidity, although indications are that our distant patrons are only just beginning to recognize the desirability of the fruit, and their demands will make it well-nigh impossi- ble for us to extend our production beyond profitable limits. The reason why the apri- cot has not kept pace with the advance of some other fruits in California is to be found in certain limitations of suitable area which will be mentioned presently. Though the apricot has some pests and diseases to contend with, they have thus far proved slight evils, and the tree is generally regarded as one of our healthiest and most vigorous, as it certainly is one of our most beautiful orchard trees. It is long-lived and attains great size. There are here and there groups of trees nearly half a century old which have a height of fifty feet; the main trunks like forest oaks, and the first branches or limbs twelve and fifteen inches through. The smaller limbs and foliage are at least fifty feet across ; a half dozen of them shade an acre of ground and they sometimes yield per tree a ton of fruit. But such trees do not meet orchard requirements and are only men- tioned to show what the tree may do when it has its own wav. The apricot is a rapid grower and an early and heavy bearer in California. In the in- terior and in the southern coast valleys it yields a paying crop during its third summer in the orchard, and from eight to fourteen tons to the acre was reached for several years in succession, in Judge Blackwood's old orchard of Royal apricots, in Alameda County. The trees, even of some varieties which are uncertain bearers, are large and vigorous growers, and have warranted the suggestion that there is a use for the apricot tree for a windbreak for the protection of pther trees. The trees may be planted near together in strong land and make a wind- 6reak that will pay its way without regard to such fruit as it may incidentally produce. Apricots are chiefly marketed as a dried fruit and the operation of drying will be de- scribed in the chapter devoted to such pro cesses. The amount used in canning is, in a year of full production, about one-quarter of that for drying, while the weight of fruit sold fresh to consumers, near and far, is about one-quarter of that used by the can- ners. The total product of apricots in 1905 ivas appro.ximately 175.000,000 pounds, fresh weight. LOCALITIES FOR THE APRICOT. In discussing localities for the apricot, reference is, of course, only made to its growth as a standard orchard tree without protection of any kind. It shows even in California that it does not forget the con- ditions which destroy its thrift elsewhere, for late frosts in our upper coast counties render it, as a rule, unprofitable. Speaking broadly, the quarter of the State lying north- ward of the Bay of San Francisco and west- ward of the high ridge of the Coast Range is n(/t suited for commercial apricot growing, though here and there there are places where bearing may be regular and abundant enough to make trees satisfactory for home gardens. How to Grow Them 171 Localities for the Apricot The mountain regions everywhere in the Slate above an elevation of about 1200 feet are also to be excluded. The lowest lands oi the great interior valleys, except here and th;re, where frosts are prevented by prox- imity of broad streams or by favoring air ci rrents, are unsuited for apricots, and the b( ttoms of small valleys whence cold air a nnot find drainage outlet, are also treach- eious. It is evident, then, that even in re- g.ons of general adaptation to the fruit, local discrimination must be exercised in selecting lands for apricots, and the occurrence of spring frosts, which are usually governed by topography, must be guarded against. This i i not the same problem which arises in the selection of land for citrus fruits, because ■'ipricots are not open to injury during Decem- ber, January and February, and consequently ihey may be successfully grown in places rtfhere winter temperatures might injure the evergreen trees of the citrus family. Still, next to the almond, the apricot is most liable to frost injury of all our deciduous tree fruits, and commercial success depends large- ly upon the selection of a proper place for them. The occurrence of even light frosts during the blooming and setting, or soon after, may strip the tree of its burden of fruit W'ithout injury to even the softest tis- sues of twig and leaf; consequently regular bearing of the apricot cannot be expected where the temperature is apt to fall four or five degrees below freezing point during the months of March and April, even though the duration of such temperature may be very brief. For this reason the area of California which is well suited to apricot growing is limited when compared with the great area of the State, though when counted by acres it is ample enough to supply all the fresh canned and dried apricots which the markets of the world can be expected to take at profit- able figures. It is often claimed that situations directly subject to ocean influences are best for the apricot. It is noted by many observers that the apricot "points its best branches to the ocean, in the very teeth of the constant breeze, and the landward limbs and twigs bend up and endeavor to reach in the same direction. Tliis is patent in every tree, and in the long orchard rows is very striking." This is taken to signify the special liking of the tree for the vicinitv of the coast. It is well enough to interpret it that way, providing one does not lose sight of the perfect success of the apricot in the interior as well. It is true that the fruit near the coast attains higher color, and the less rapid growth of the tree makes it somewhat easier to handle, but the earlier ripening in the interior, coupled with freedom from fog and constant sun- shine for drying, are points of the highest in- dustrial importance. The fact is that the apricot has a very wide range in California, and though the trees have been cut out at some points it has been chiefly because too frosty locations have been chosen or because some other fruit has seemed to be locally more desirable, for one reason or another. In some valleys in the upper part of the State opening directly to the ocean, there is sometimes complaint of the cracking of the fruit on the sunny side. The alternation of sunshine and fog seems to have something to do with this, for in favorable years, when fogs are few, the fruit is sound. Locations for early ripening of the apricot are to be chosen with reference to the in- fluence of topography, as laid down in Chapter I. In a general way, it may be said, in regions directly subject to coast influences, both in northern and southern California, the apricot is late. On the west side of the Sac- ramento Valley, on slightly elevated places, in small, hill-locked valleys, the earliest apri- cots have been grown for years.. Protected situations in the foot-hills of the Sierra Ne- vada, on the eastern rim of both the Sacra- mento and San Joaquin Valleys, share in the production of the earliest ripening fruit. There is, probably, about a month's difference in the ripening of the same variety in the earliest interior situations and in the coast valleys of both northern and southern Cali- fornia. In tlie interior of southern California, in irrigated situations, 011 the west side of the Colorado River and in adjacent parts of Ariz- ona, apricots rival in earliness the product of the famous valleys of interior northern California. Recently a measure of success with the apricot has been attained in irrigated sections of eastern Washington, Idaho and Utah. If winter temperatures are low enough to keep the tree dormant and yet not to injure fruit buds and frosts are absent after growth begins, success ought to be attainable. Planting the Apricot 172 California Frnits STOCKS AND SOILS FOR THE APRICOT. Because of the success with which tlie apricot can be budded on various stocks, it has a wide range in adaptation to different soils. Budded on the peach root it may be grown successfully on the light, warm, well- drained loams in which the peach delights. The peach root is, in fact, largely used for the apricot. It gives the tree cjuick growth and early fruiting, and the fact that the go- pher does not like the peach root is a con- sideration with some planters. In growing stock, pits of a strong-growing yellow peach are believed to yield more uniform and thrifty seedlings. For deep, rich, well-drained, loamy soils, the apricot on its own root makes a magnifi- cent tree. Apricot root's for budding are easily secured. The pits sprout as readily as corn. Sometimes, where cutting and drying are done in the orchard, the ground the next spring will be almost covered with a volunteer crop of seedling apricots. These little plants, taken up and set out in nursery rows in March, are ready for budding in June or July. Large numbers of trees are sometimes secured in this way. In the upper San Joaquin Valley there are situations in which the apricot seems more productive on its own roots than on the peach, and in the moister parts of the San Fernando and tributary valleys in southern California the apricot root has recently advanced in popu- larity. It is, however, rather more sensitive to soil-drouth than the peach root. When it is desired to grow the apricot in moister and heavier soils than have been described, or where a light soil is underlaid by a heavy, retentive subsoil, recourse should be had to the plum root. Only a non-suck- ering plum stock should be used. For this purpose the Myrobalan has been considerably used. Some growers complain that the root has a dwarfing effect on the tree, and object to its use. The manner of securing Myro- balan stocks has been described in the Chap- ter on propagation. Apricot on Almond. — The almond should as a rule be rejected as a stock for the apri- cot. Hundreds have tried it, and found that the scion never made a good union with the wood of the stock, but was knit to it only by the bark, and is, therefore, easily broken off by the wind. It may grow well and sometimes gets to be two or three inches in diameter before it breaks off, thus wasting much time for the orchardist. Whole or- chards worked in this way have been a loss and disappointment. A few growers, however, approve the almond and use it with the idea that it gives larger fruit. It has been claimed that the Royal apricot will take well on the almond seedling by root grafting, instead of budding, using the side graft. Cut off the top of the stock about four to six inches above ground, scrape away the dirt, bend the stock, and, with a sharp, thin knife, cut into the root to the center, making the cut perpendicular, so that the graft will be that way when inserted. The scion should be made wedge-shaped. After insertion, draw the loose earth around it, and the work is done until the graft has made a growth of eighteen to twenty-four inches. This is given as a record of experi- ence, hut still caution is urged against the use of the almond as stock for the apricot. The apricot may also be made to hold on the almond by double working, growing first a shoot from a peach or plum bud and then working an apricot bud higher up in the new shoot. In addition to the specifications of certain stocks for different soils, it may be remarked, in a general way, that the apricot seems to thrive better on a tolerably heavy soil, with enough sand to make it work easily, than on a very light soil. It does well on soil rather too heavy for the peach. It also enjoys moisture better and gives signs of distress unless its roots are fairly supplied all during the season, but it dislikes standing water and should not be planted on undrained situations PLANTING THE APRICOT. The apricot becomes a large tree in Cali- fornia, as has already been remarked, and it should be given plenty of room. Twenty- four feet each way is certainly a minimum distance for so large and long-lived a tree, and some orchards have been planted at thirty feet. If nearer planting is done it should be with reference to subsequent re- moval of part of the trees, which however is very seldom done. Twenty feet apart, with later removal of half the trees to double the How to Grow Them 173 Pruning the Apricot distance was proposed by H. D. Briggs, of Azuza, in this way : In setting out an orchard it seems advisable to double set the ground, as an apricot twelve to fifteen years old should have not less than 800 to 900 square feet of ground. This can easily be obtained by set- ting 20x20 feet; then when nine or ten years old remove every other tree, making them forty feet in the row, with rows twenty feet apart, of course, tak- ing them out diagonally. The trees will very quickly tell the orchardist when they are too thick. When the outside rows have twice the fruit of those inside, it is quite evident that the time spent in pruning, etc., on half of the trees is worse than wasted. I have cut roots 40 feet from a nine-year-old tree. The apricot makes such rapid growth and so much depends upon giving it proper form, as will be seen presently, that one year's growth is all that should be allowed in the nursery. Some growers would rather have a dormant bud than a two-year-old tree, and cases have been reported from , dormant buds outgrowing yearling trees planted at the same time in the same orchard. But in growing from a dormant bud in the orchard care should be taken to develop a short trunk, with properly-spaced branches, by pinching the side shoots near the ground. Trees started from dormant bud and allowed to branch from the ground, have developed very unsatisfactory form, and have, in some situations, lost their lower branches by the wind. The tree should have a low head, but a short trunk seems to give a better tree, and more elasticity to the branches. PRUNING THE APRICOT. Of all California orchard trees, the apricot seems most in need of the constant attention of the orchardist to give it proper shape and strength. It is a rampant grower, and in its zealous haste for size and fruitage it over- reaches itself and becomes the prey of specific gravity and wind force. Thousands of trees have been ruined by literally breaking to pieces with the weight of their fruit, and be- ing torn by winds of only ordinary velocity. Thousands more have been rescued froin such a fate by bolting the branches to each other. This excessive growth and consequent weak- ne-^s of the apricot is greater in some parts of the State than in others, because of the difference in degree of forcing conditions, but everywhere the apricot needs watchful- ness and timely aid in building up its strength. The general principles to be observed in se- curing branches strongly attached to a short trunk have already been discussed at length in the chapter on pruning. There has been a very marked change during the last few years of the pruning of the apricot. Summer pruning, immediately after the fruit is picked, has become much more general, and winter pruning has propor- tionally decreased. The new practice is cer- tainly more rational than the old. Young trees are winter pruned to promote low branching and short, stout limbs ; bearing trees are summer pruned to promote fruit bearing and check wood growth — the excess of bearing shoots being removed by thinning during the winter. The apricot tree bears upon old spurs, like the plum ; also upon the new wood, like the peach. This fact has to be borne in mind when winter thinning of the new growth is undertaken. A very clear record of procedure is given by J. B. Nefi", of Anaheim, Orange County, who built tip one of the best apricot orchards in the State as he describes. This orchard has been displaced to make way for English wal- nut trees which are more profitable in that district, but that was no fault of the pruning: Pruning the apricot requires some skill and con- siderable judgment, which can only be formed by experience and observation of the habits of the tree. Trees of four to five feet in height are preferable for planting, and when planted should be trimmed to a single stem and cut off at eighteen inches from the ground. These will throw out shoots vigorously and frequently two or three shoots from one bud. These shoots should be thinned out, leaving not more than four or five, no two of which should come from one bud. nor be directly opposite. The first shoot should start twelve inches from the ground, the others in such a man;ier as to divide the space and make the branches balance, leaving the top shoot to form the central part of the tree. It will be necessary to go over the trees several times the first year to remove shoots that may start where not wanted, but no general heading back should be done, as it tends to dwarf the tree ; though if some of the limbs are making an overgrowth they should be pinched back to keep the head balanced. The pruning of the second year should be done in January, as the tree will not be dormant until then, if it has been kept in a thriftv condition. The first year's growth should be cut back to within five to ten inches of the body of the tree, and all forks should be cut out. even if it necessitates forming a new head, as it is much better to lose some growth on a young tree than to take the risk of splitting down when the tree begins to bear fruit. When the shoots start for the second year's growth, take off all that come on the under side of the limbs and thin to one, two. or three, as may be needed to Thinning the Apricot 174 California Fruits : balance the tree, bearing in mind that an apricot tree inclines toward the coast breezes in this locality. The second year will require much more attention than the first year, in order to keep off suckers and all lateral growth that may start on the under side- of the new limbs, the object being to make the limbs grow as nearly upright as possible. The remark on heading back holds good for the second year also. The trees will become dormant earlier the second year than they did the first, but should not be trim- med earlier than December, and a month later is preferable, as the ends of the limbs are not exposed to the drying winds so long before the sap begins to f^ow and consequently will heal over better. The second year's growth should now be cut back to with- in fifteen to twenty inches of the old wood, except the central stem, which may be left twenty-four to thirty inches long, depending on the number of laterals it may have thrown out. When the new shoots start they should again be thinned down to two or three on each limb, and all taken off that tend to turn down or out at right angles, but do not take off the fruit spurs. The trees will need to be gone over about three times before July to remove suckers and lateral growth that may start on the lower side of the limbs, as the tendency in the third year is to make an im- mense growth of downward laterals, and these must be taken off so as to develop wood that is to be left for fruit. If the orchard is on good land and has been properly irrigated and cultivated, the trees should now be large enough to begin to yield fruit. The object in trimming during the first two years and the first half of the third year has been to grow a vigorous upright tree, with strong limbs, capable of carrying a heavy load of large fruit, and to get the fruit as close to the body of the tree as possible. There will be a few specimens of the fruit the third year, and as soon as these are gathered the trees should be summer pruned for the first time, care being taken that the land shall have been al- lowed to become moderately dry so that the trees may be partially dormant.- If the downward growth of the laterals has been kept cut off, all that remains to be done is to cut off about one-half of all this season's growth all over the tree, using the same judgment as before with reference to prevailing winds and symmetry of tree. If this is properly done and water at once turned on the orchard, a new growth will be made and the fruit buds for next year fully developed. The only pruning necessary in the following win- ter will be to take out any cross limbs and sprouts that may have been overlooked in the summer. After the trees begin to produce regular crops they will not grow so vigorously, and the numerous prun- ings of the first three years will not be necessary, as almost all can be done by summer pruning until the trees get so old that they need the old wood taken out. This can be more readily done without damage to the trees where from 24 to 30 limbs are grown, than in the old method of leaving only eight or ten large limbs. When it becomes necessary to take out old wood — as the best fruit grows on new wood — a few limbs can be taken out each year until a full top of new wood is again made. Winter Pruning. — The evident defect of many old apricot orchards is the failure of the low-bearing wood and the thicket of brush near the ends of long bare limbs. Such trees need renewal of the top by vigorous winter pruning, which should preferably be done toward the close of the dormant season rather than early in the winter as formerly. Old and unprofitable trees have been reclaimed in this way. Winter pruning is still the regular method in some parts of the State where the condi- tions do not favor excessive growth of the tree and where summer pruning does not seem to be called for. The practice is to re- move half or two-thirds of the new growth and thin out, by removing entirely enough new and old wood to prevent the tree from becoming thick and brushy. THINNING THE APRICOT. All free-fruiting varieties of the apricot must be thinned to secure size acceptable to purchasers. It is the experience of the oldest growers that though thinning is an expensive operation, it is very profitable. When half the fruit is taken off in thinning, the remain- der reaches as large aggregate weight as though the whole were allowed to mature, and the thintied fruit is worth about twice as much per pound. Even if less weight is secured, and in most cases the purpose should be to get less weight, the tree is spared the exhaustion of overbearing and the owner es capes a year of little or no fruit A discussion of this subject is given in a previous chapter. Where conditions are favorable, the tree will set more fruit than it can bring to full size, and for this reason thinning or spacing the fruit on the twigs by hand-picking, while the fruit is about the size of a pigeon's egg, is almost a universal practice among the best commercial growers. This is necessary to bring the individual fruits to the diameters required by canners or overland shippers, and which they scale in price according to size : Extras, 2^4 inches; No. i,. 2 inches; No. 2, i^ inches. Fruit of less size is hard of sale unless the crop happens to be very small. It has also been found that thinning to regulate size is quite as important when the fruit is to be dried by the grower as when sold as fresh fruit. How to Grow Them 175 Diseases of the Apricot IRRIGATION OF THE APRICOT. Whether the apricot shall be irrigated or not is answered in the chapter on irrigation. In many locations, with proper pruning, thin- ning and cultivation, perfectly satisfactory fruit can be grown with the usual rainfall. In others a single winter irrigation will sat- isfy all the needs of the tree ; in others a single irrigation just after fruit picking and summer pruning will carry the tree through. It is a fact, however, that as the trees ad- vance in age some supplement to the average rainfall is often desirable and in dry year? irrigation is the saving of two crops. Some idea of the amount of water used can be had from the chapter on irrigation. The fol- lowing account by Mr. Neff applies to his practice in Orange County, which is an aver- age situation as to rainfall and atmospheric humidity, and is as good a general statement as could be made : If rains are copious, winter irrigation may be dis- pensed with during the first two or three years after planting the orchard, but when the trees reach the age for bearing fruit the rain water should be sup- planted by irrigation water until the soil is thorough- ly wet 5 feet deep, and in order to have this, at least 20 inches of water, including rainfall, must be put on the land. Three irrigations should be given the trees during the first summer, but it is not necessary to wet more than a strip 5 or 6 feet wide along the tree rows. The orchard should have three irrigations during the second summer and a strip I2 feet wi'de should be watered, as the roots are reaching farther and the trees require a greater amount of water. The irrigation for the first two years should always be done before the trees show any want of water, so as to keep them growing vigorously. All the .space, between the trees should be watered the third year and afterward ; but two irrigations will be sufficient for the summer. The best time for the summer irrigation of bearing apricot trees is when the fruit is about half grown, which is usually about the second or third week in May. If well watered at this tiine the fruit grows to its largest, and has time to ripen slowly as the ground gradually dries, until it has all the sugar which will go into the fruit. An orchard in full bearing that has been well watered in the winter should now have as much as full lOO inches of water for two hours on each acre (equal to four acre-inches). The second irrigation should be given as soon as possible after the summer pruning is done, in order to start the trees growing and develop ths fruit buds for the next year. This will not require quite so much water as the irrigation in May, but ought to be as much as lOO inches of water for one hour on each acre. DISEASES OF THE APRICOT. Though the apricot tree, as has been said, is regarded as one of the healthiest fruit trees, it is subject to some maladies. Trees perish from being set in unsuitable situations, and in these cases, if the evil be stagnant water in the soil, or penetration to alkaline subsoil, the root shows it. Sometimes, how- ever, a branch or a whole tree withers and dies without apparent cause early in the summer, and while the root is still sound. The disease is evidently acute, but its cause is not known, nor a remedy proposed. It is an old trouble of the apricot, and not pe- culiar to California. The so-called "gum disease" sometimes causes injury to trees. The best treatment is to cut away the diseased part down to healthy wood and cover the wound with common lead and oil paint, put on sparingly so as not to flow over healthy bark. Sotne years certain varieties in particular are blackened at the pit and rendered un- salable, but the trouble has not thus far proved serious generally, except with certain varieties which have generally gone out of use for that reason. The worst injury to tree and fruit is done by what is called the "shot-hole fungus" (coryiicuni), from its perforations of the leaves as though by a charge from a shot- gun. It makes ugly scars on the fruit, which render it unsalable. The same disease also affects the leaves of cherries and plums. Thorough use of the Bordeaux mixture de- scribed in a later chapter will prevent this trouble. A disease which is prevalent in some dis- tricts of southern California is called ''black heart" ; a pith disease which sometimes does great injury. No treatment e.Kcept that of pruning back to healthy wood has thus far been proposed. Root knot is also a serious trouble of the apricot as of several other trees. It will be considered in the chapter devoted to diseases of fruit trees. Until recently the apricot has been gener- ally free from scale insects, and it is not af- fected by those species which are worst on some other fruit trees, but recently it has been seriously infested in some places with black and brown scales, which will be con- sidered in a later chapter. Varieties Approved 176 California Fruits : The ripe apricot is sometimes seriously assailed by the diabrotica, a small green beetle, with twelve black spots upon its wing covers. Driving the insects away with smoke smudges has been used to some extent. For- tunately, the insect only occasionally occurs in large numbers. VARIETIES OF THE APRICOT. Though nearly all standard varieties of the apricot have been introduced and planted in this State, comparatively few are found on Varieties approved by California growers. VARIETIES. Bergetti Blenheim Early Golden Early Moorpark Hemskirke Large Early Large Early Montgamet Luizet Moorpark Newcastle Oullin's Early Peach Royal Routier's Peach Spark's Mammoth St. Ambroise Tilton Wiggin's vSeedling Centra coast valleys 'm'^"°''h Southern ■foot'hms California the lists of the orchard planters. Many local seedlings have been brought to notice and propagated to some extent but are less used now than twelve years ago, and the disposi- tion is to restrict planting to a few old vari- eties. There is, however, still a need of new varieties combining size, quality and regular bearing. As with most other fruits, some varieties are found to succeed wherever con- ditions favor the fruit at all ; other varieties succeed in some regions and not in others. Our table of varieties for the diiTerent coun- ties shows this fact, and an attempt will be made to make the showing more explicit by notes in connection with the mention of each variety. In the following statement the arrangement is approximately in the order of ripening, and the descriptions are from Downing, with additions and changes to meet local observa- tion : VARIETIES OF FOREIGN ORIGIN. Large Early. — A French variety; fruit of medium size, rather oblong and compressed ; suture deep, skin slightly downy; pale orange in the shade, fine bright orange with a few ruddy spots in the sun ; flesh separating readily from the stone, orange color- ed, rich and juicy; kernel bitter. This variety is especially popular in the southern coast counties, but in most situations has proved an uncertain bearer. Ripens before Royal. Wiggins' Seedling. — Favored in Winter's district as best of early apricots; good size, fine color, solid red cheek, good bearer ; ten days earlier than Royal. Early Golden. — Origin unknown ; small, roundish oval, with suture well marked and extending half way around ; skin smooth, pale orange ; flesh yellow, mod- erately juicy and sweet, with very good flavor; sepa- rates from the stone. This variety is reported fav- orably from some counties, but generally otherwise, and is not largely grown. Ripens before Royal. Royal. — A French variety, and at the present time the leading California apricot. Of large size (when well thinned out), free stone, fine color and flavor, good bearer, and fruit ripens evenly, when well The Royal apricot. grown; a favorite with the canners and an excellent variety for drying. Fruit roundish, large, oval, slight- ly compressed ; skin dull yellow with orange cheek, very faintly tinged with red, and a shallow suture ; flesh pale orange, firm and juicy, with a rich vinous flavor. There is a variety somewhat grown in Sacramento and Solano Counties, sometimes called "White Roy- al," which is not liked by canners, because of its lack of color and flavor. Large Early Montgamet. — Large, orange yellow, reddish on sunny side, firm. Oullin's Early. — Early form of Peach apricot, large size, delicious flavor. Ripens in Amador County four weeks earlier than Peach. Luizet} — Large, oval, distinct suture, one side higher than the other; orange with crimson cheek; How to Grow Them 177 California Varieties flesh deep yellow, firm. rich. Especially approved in the upper San Joaquin. Bh-nhcim or Shipley. — This is a valuable variety in this State and seems to surpass Downing's descrip- tion both in vigor of tree and size of fruit. John Rock modifies Downing's description to suit Cali- fornia experience with this variety, as follows ; ''A very good variety, above medium, oval ; orange, with a deep yellow, juicy, and tolerably rich flesh; vigor- ous grower and regular, prolific bearer." This agrees perfectly with the behavior of the variety in the Uni- versity orchard at Berkeley, where it is the best of twenty varieties. It is not reported so constant a bearer in some other parts of the State. Fruit runs a little larger than the Royal, and is usually better distributed on the tree, but it must be well thinned. This v&riety has been approved by canners. Ripens a little later than the Royal. The Bergetti apricot. Early Moorfark. — Very popular in southern Cali- fornia, where its identity has been long in dispute, and is not yet fully determined. The Early Moor- park of Thomas Hogg is as follows : Roundish, in- clining to oval, with very deep suture on one side, extending from base to apex. Skin yellow, mottled, and dotted with crimson on the exposed side. Flesh in all respects resembling Moorpark. Stone oblong, with a covered channel along the back, which is per- vious. Kernel bitter. Ripens three weeks earlier than Moorpark, St. Ambroisc. — Large, early, compressed, deep yel- low, reddish on sunny side. Juicy, rich, and sugary, with firm flesh when grown in the interior ; apt to be coarse and to lack flavor near the coast. Con- demned by canners for not processing well, and by dryers for loss of weight and for white color around the pit. It has served well as a shipping variety. Bergetti. — An undetermined variety introduced by Mr. Bergetti and widely distributed under his name in the San Joaquin. Heinskirkc. — A fine English variety quite widely grown in California; ripens later than Royal, de- scribed by Downing as follows : "Fruit large, roun- dish, but considerably compressed or flattened on its sides ; skin orange, with red cheek ; flesh bright or- ange, tender, rather more juicy and sprightly than the Moorpark, with rich, luscious, plum-like flavor ; stone not perforate, rather small, and kernel bitter." Esteemed in California because the tree is more hardy and a more regular bearer than the Moorpark, and the fruit ripens evenly on both sides. Sometimes drops worse than other varieties. Peach. — A variety from Piedmont of the largest size, about two inches in diameter, roundish, rather flattened, and somewhat compressed on its sides, with a well-marked suture; skin yellow in the shade, but deep orange mottled with brown on the sunny side; flesh of a fine yellow, saffron color, juicy, rich, and high flavored ; stone can be penetrated like Moor- park and has bitter kernel. This is a very successful sort in the warmer parts of the State especially, and is a favorite in the Sacramento Valley. It ripens just ahead of the Moorpark. Moorpark. — A standard of excellence and an old variety which originated in England. Fruit large, roundish, about two inches and a quarter in diameter each way ; rather larger on one side of the suture than on the other ; skin orange in the shade, but deep orange or brownish red in the sun, marked with numerous dark specks and dots; flesh quite firm, bright orange, parting free from the stone, quite juicy, with a rich and luscious flavor; stone peculi- arly perforated along the back, where a pin may be pushed through ; kernel bitter. In California the Moorpark reaches grand size, but has the fault of ripening unevenly in most localities. The tree is tender and bears irregularly, which leads to its re- jection by most planters, though some growers cling to it because of its size and quality and occasional grand crops. The San Jose districts lead in the pro- duction of this variety, and in some parts of the Santa Clara Valley the Moorpark seems to ripen uniformly. The same behavior is reported from lo- calities in the upper San Joaquin Valley, where it also seems to be a more regular bearer. The va- riety is almost wholly rejected in Southern Cali- fornia. VARIETIES OF CALIFORNIA ORIGIN. Newcastle. — Originated with C. M. Silva & Son, of Newcastle, Placer County, in 1881 ; size medium, round, with spherical pit ; freestone ; not quite as large as the Royal, nor quite as rich in flavor, but more highly colored ; rather darker on the side to the sun. Early, regular and good bearer, a medium grower, being more upright than the Royal. Its time of ripening has been reported as seventeen days earlier than the Early Golden and twenty-five days earlier than the Royal. Routicr's Peach. — Originated with Hon. Joseph Routier. near Sacramento. Large, yellow in shade; deep orange, mottled or splashed with red in the sun ; flesh juicy and rich, high flavor and a good market . variety. Blooms a week later than peach. Very pop- ular in Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys. California Origin 178 California Fruits S/^arks' Mammoth. — Popular in Ventura County. Largest size, even larger than iMoorpark. pale yellow, very tender, juicy and sweet. Quite widely distrib- uted in southern California, but its bearing habit is in question. Tilton. — Chance seedling first noticed about i883 on place of J. E. Tilton, near Hanford, Kings County, and distinguished by regular bearing. Propagated and introduced by J. W. Bairstow of Hanford. Fruit large ; freestone ; symmetrical, ripening evenly and one week to ten days later than Royal. Tree vigorous and prolilic. Widely planted recently and very promising. Late Englchardt. — Chance seedling originating at La Crescenta. Propagated and introduced by W. B. Thome of Tropico. Large as Moorpark, ripening evenly and twenty-eight days later than Royal. Claimed by Mr. Thorne to be a very late bloomer and thus escaping frosts which caught all other va- rieties at similar elevations. Planted chiefly in Los .A.ngeles County. How to Grow Them 179 Localities for the Cherry CHAPTER XIX. REQUIREMENTS OF THE CHERRY. ALTHOUGH the amount of cherries grown in this State is small as com- pared with the aggregate weights of some other fruits, the cherry, from the growth of the tree and the size and quality of the product, is entitled to rank as one of the grand fruits of California. The size of the California-grown cherry is a matter of pride with residents, and a marvel to visitors. It is related that, many years ago, one of the most distinguished Eastern pomologists, who was taken to an Alameda County cherry or- chard during picking-time, could not recognize the varieties, though he had himself propa- gated and shipped to California the very trees which were bearing the fruit, the size of which so far surpassed all his mental standards. And quality is commensurate with size. Whatever disagreement there may be concerning the flavors of our other fruits as compared with Eastern, the richness and excellence of the California -cherry have never been impeached. Recently the ship- ment of cherries to eastern markets, the ex- tension of the canning interest, and the up- rising of a demand for maraschino-preserv- ing have considerably enlarged the oppor- tunity for profitable growth of the fruit. Famous Old Trees. — The longevity and productiveness of the cherry tree in this State is naturally of interest. Cherries were planted in some of the earliest settled parts of the State and are still in full vigor. One of the famous trees is a Black Tartarian, which was brought from France by Dr. L. E. Miller, and planted by him in 1854, on land afterwards owned by Robert Hector, in Placer County, just below Rattlesnake Bar, on the American River, about eight hundred feet above sea-level. It is described as above seventy feet in height, the branches covering a space between seventy and seventy-five feet in diameter. The trunk branches about si.x feet above the ground, and at that point has a girth of over ten feet. A close record of its crop, kept for a number of years when the tree was over thirty years of age, showed that it yielded from a ton to a ton and a half a year. Such trees are too large to be profitable, for the fruit has to be picked with the aid of extension ladders securely guyed, by men slung in swings from such ladders or the forks of the trees. At last reports there were about fifty of these large trees. Other large trees were to be seen near Woodside, San Mateo County, and near Oroville and Chico in Butte County, some of which have borne a ton of fruit in favorable LOCALITIES FOR THE CHERRY. In California there are many districts in which the cherry does not do well, and situ- ations for the fruit must therefore be selected with discrimination. The chief product is made in the coast valleys adjacent to the Bay of San Francisco, including its extension east of the Coast range, known as Suisun bay, for in all these regions there is a modi- fication of climate due to the influence of ocean temperature and moisture. Away from these influences the cherry also thrives on the alluvial bottoms of large rivers and their ti-ibutary creeks, both on the low lands of the valleys and the foothills, while on the broad valley plains and foothill slopes it is not usually satisfactory. In the mountain valleys cherries also thrive on suitable soils. In southern California at elevations where moisture is adequate and temperatures favor suitable winter dormancy of the trees, good cherries are profitably grown, while on the mesas and valleys below, where citrus fruits flourish, the cherry is an aggravation. How far atmospheric conditions which are bevond control influence the growth and fruitage of the cherry, can not yet be fully determined, but ample trial seems to demon- Soils for the Cherry ISO California Fruits strate the unsatisfactory character of the tree, manifested in small fruit and sun- burned foliage, on the plains of interior val- leys, although the soil is kept moist enough There is, however, still the chance of secur- ing varieties of the fruit which have been developed under conditions similar to those prevailing in the interior of California. The Russian cherries, which are largely grown in a region subject to high summer heat and dry air, will succeed in parts of California where the varieties originating in west Eu- rope fail. Though this was suggested long ago, the effort has not yet been made. SOILS FOR THE CHERRY. The cherry thrives in free, deep soil, in which water does not stand within about 15 feef from the surface. It delights in deep de- posits from old water courses, and does not dislike a moderate amount of sand. A loam underlaid by a sandy subsoil is acceptable, but a loam underlaid by clay has shown its unfitness by the early failure of the trees, while those on deep loam near by have re- mained vigorous and profitable. On the foot- hills it thrives in the light, mellow soil and fails in the tight clay either in soil or subsoil, as it does in the adobe of lower lands ; and yet a clay loam of no great depth upon a clay subsoil may grow good trees if the clay be so disposed that surplus water from win- ter rains can escape and water is at hand to guard against summer drouth. But this is merely a suggestion for garden growth of the cherry. Commercial orchards should have a good depth of sufficiently retentive soil. The great cherry trees which we have mentioned, are growing right on the bank of the American River, where the soil is a pure, sandy loam, in some places over sixty feet deep,' as proved by an old shaft once dug near the center of the orchard. But though the cherry dislikes a wet soil. it is particular about its water supply and insists upon enough, its requirements being greater than some other trees. During the dry years 1898 and 1899, trees came into distress where they had never suffered be- fore, and many large, valuable trees died. The only new condition they encountered was lack of soil moisture. It thus appears that while the cherry is undoubtedly injured by excess of water in the soil, it is still' very exacting in its requirement of an adequate supply. If this can not be retained in the soil by cultivation, irrigation must be re- sorted to. Thus the cherry growers in the famous Willows district, of San Jose, usually find it an advantage to give their trees an irrigation between the spring rains and the ripening of the fruit, and another irrigation after the fruit is gathered. Irregularity in the moisture supply also causes the cherry to bloom and fruit unsea- sonably. There has been bloom in October and ripe fruit in January, due to the fact that trees become dormant in late summer from soil-drouth. January cherries may be evi- dences of salubrity but they betoken poor horticulture. These facts show that the cherry must have enough water or it will not succeed. Sometimes young trees which have made a good summer growth die outright on leachy soils which dry out before the fall rains begin. On the other hand, there must not be exces- sive moisture in the soil either from irriga- tion or by moisture. Cherry trees in south- ern California, planted with orange trees and given similar irrigation, have failed utterly. Planting on naturally moist land in low places has also failed, and observed facts some time ago led to the conclusion that at the south the cherry should be planted on well-drained land, which could be irrigated (as the behavior of the tree indicated its need of water), rather than on naturally moist land, because of the likelihood of excessive moisture in such situations. More recent experience has declared mellow, well-drained soils of the higher lands well adapted to the cherry, and on such soils, when well cultivated, cherries have done well without irrigation at Pasadena, Pomona and elsewhere. The commercial cherry product of southern California comes, however, from mountain valleys and high plateaux — the chief regions being the Yucaipe Valley above Redlands and the Mesa Grande region in the interior of San Diego County. In California, as elsewhere, the Dukes and Morellos may succeed where the Hearts and Bigarreaux fail. The May Duke seems es- pecially hardy, and bears well in Nevada, where other sorts fail utterly. Del.wed Fruiting or Cherry Trees. — Though the cherry in favorable situations bears early, the grower, especially on strong, How to Grow Them 181 Propagation of the Cherry rich lands, will often have many years of disappointment from falling blossoms and fruit. During this time the trees will be making marvelous wood growth, and this ap- parently suppresses the fruiting function. Usually these trees will ultimately bear when their exuberant growth declines. They can be thrown into fruit sooner by allowing the trees to go uncultivated or by root pruning, digging a trench around about eight feet from the tree, and severing the roots thus encountered, or by summer pruning of twig ends. Because of this overgrowth, growers give such soil to the apple or the pear rather than the cherry. Sometimes the non-bearing of the cherry is inexplicable. Though every- thing seems to be right, and the blooms are profuse, the fruit will not stick. Unquestionably lack of bearing is due with certain cherries to lack of association of differ- ent varieties and cross fertilization. There is warrant for the claim that keeping bees in the vicinity of cherry orchards has increased the bearing. But varieties must be provided which will act as cross-pollinizers. The Royal Ann needs this assistance and will bear better when associated with Black Tar- tarian, Black Bigarreau, Bing and probably others. In Oregon tlie Deacon and Lambert are said to be good pollinizers for Royal Ann. EXPOSURES FOR THE CHERRY. Exposures for the cherry are chosen both with reference to protection from frost in- jury and to early ripening of the fruit. The cherry blooms early ; though hardly as ven- turesome as the apricot and almond. In protec- ted situations, guarded from cold northerly winds, and open to sunshine on the south and southeast, the fruit advances to maturity very rapidly. In Vaca Valley about a month of good weather after the blossoming will ripen an early cherry, and ripe cherries have been shipped as early as March 31. The pioneer cherry growers of Vaca \'alley went there from their old homes in Napa Valley, be- cause they could gather and market cherries in their new locations before the same vari- eties were ripe in Napa. They chose places protected on the north and west by steep hills. The two things to secure are, appar- ently, protection from the sweep of cold winds nn 1 elevation above the deposit of cold air. which occurs in depressed places. In localities where fruit ripens late, as near the coast, there is no need to seek forcing conditions, for the extra early varieties should not be planted except for family use. Early varieties are comparatively poor in quality, and will not sell profitably, as they will reach the market alongside of better later sorts from earlier districts. The place for the cherry in the later districts is on the most proper soil, according to the require- ments which have been laid down, avoiding, however, so far as possible, wind-swept spots, and seeking amelioration of direct ocean in- fluences by elevation or intervention of hills and windbreaks. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING THE CHERRY. In the chapter on propagation is given a successful method of growing cherry seed- lings. California cherry trees are almost ex- clusively propagated by budding on seedlings of the Black Alazzard. The Mahaleb root is more hardy than the Mazzard and is less subject to injury by soil saturation during the winter season. It is also more hardy against injury by summer drouth on shallow- soils* which is one of the causes of die-back of the cherry tree in some parts of the State. While there may be particular places in which the Mahaleb is the better root, the conclusions of fifty years' experience in Cali- fornia cherry growing, which approve the ^lazzard, are on the whole trustworthy. The Mazzard is a better grower and, where mois- ture conditions are fairly good, leaves little to be desired. The Mazzard, however, though credited with a dwarfing influence, does make a good sized tree under our con- ditions. Recently the Morello or sour cherry seedling, has found favor with some growers on the Sacramento River although it is in- hospitable to the buds of some varieties, like the Early Purple Greigne and Royal Ann, and double working has to be resorted to, which is expensive, both in outlay and time. The Black Tartarian takes well on the Mor- ello and other varieties can be budded upon the Tartarian top growth. The planting of the cherry is covered by the general considerations already given for the planting of orchards. The distance which cherries should be set apart is a disputed point among planters. When planted twenty Prunius the Cherry 182 California Fruits feet apart the trees have interlaced their branches when sixteen years old, and the spaces between the rows have been covered in like colonnades. In the Haywards re- gion the branches of twelve-year-old trees set' twenty-eight feet apart have nearly reached each other, though continually cut back. Much depends in the matter of dis- tance upon the manner of handling the trees. The trees can be grown much nearer together by continuous pruning than where the usual way of cutting back for the first few years and letting the tree take its natural growth after that, is followed. James E. Gedney, of Mesa Grande, San Diego County, practises close planting and cutting back which may work better on his upland than on deeper, moister soils. He says : I plant my trees twenty feet apart each way. My method is to plant thus closely and then keep my trees low, by cutting back every \-ear ; this facilitates gathering the fruit very much. I prefer this way to setting the trees farther apart and allowing them to attain too great a height. By the former method I secure fully as good, if not better, results per acre, to say nothing of the difference in gathering the fntit. Another advantage in keeping the trees headed low is that the wind does not affect them nearly as much as it does tall trees. The best distances are 24 or 28 feet on such deep soils as have been described as best befitting the tree and though one may fix his distance in planting according to the method of pruning he proposes to follow, he should remember that the cherry is natur- ally a large tree, and most old orchards are now overcrowded. As with other trees, orchard planters prefer trees with one year's growth on the bud in the nursery, because they usually get, then, a straight switch with well-developed buds all the way down, and the head can be formed as desired. For garden planting, older trees, properly pruned in the nursery, can he used to advantage. PRUNING THE CHERRY. All our best growers agree in the advan- tage of a low head for the cherry, and all aim to have the trunks of yoimg trees from the ground up to the limbs literally covered all around with leaves, which completely shelter the bark from the rays of the sun. In planting, therefore, the side buds are carefully preserved — not to be grown into branches, but to be cut or pinched back when they have come out a few inches, leaving just growth enough to clothe the tree with a covering of its own foliage. These spurs not only furnish leaves to shade the trunk, but soon become fruit spurs and bear well. Low He.ading with a Central Stem. — Some of the trees in the older orchards have been shaped by carrying up a leader with a regular system of side branches. Head back at planting to two feet, pinching off the shoots below the head as stated, and allow- ing the shoots which form the head to grow larger, but they too are all pinched except the leader, which is allowed to grow as long as it pleases during the summer. During fall or winter pruning cut back the leader to about twelve or sixteen inches from its start- ing point and cut back the side branches to about six or eight inches. This is done year after year, cutting back and thinning out the side shoots, pinching the laterals, and allowing the leader to grow, never inter- fering with it until the winter pruning, and always letting it predon]inate over the side shoots. By cutting short, wood is increased, but at the end of six years the tree goes intu iruit very rapidly. As the tree increases in fruit it decreases in wood, and by the time it is ten or twelve years old there will be but little cutting to do, except to shorten in and thin out, and this requires some judgment and experience, to know where to cut, how to cut, and when to cut. To shorten in, never cut down to an old fruit spur. It is very difficult to get healthy wood out of such ; but whenever you can find last year's wood, there you can cut with safety any- thing that is less than one inch in diameter. This system of pruning must be accompan- ied bv constant pinching during the sumiuer- time. It should commence when the lower shoots are about six inches long, and be fol- lowed up closely all through the growing season. Those on the trunk should never get longer than eight or ten inches, under any circumstances- After these are pinched, let the trees rest ten or fifteen days, or until the branches in the top get a good start. Then pinch everything clean btit the leader, in every main branch in the tree. The leader takes its own way all through the growing season, to prevent the effects of over-pinch- ing or checking growth. If only the side shoots are kept back, the leader or head of How to Grow Them 183 Grafting the Cherr}^ the branches receives the current or flow of sap and maintains and carries on Hfe and vitality in the tree. One object in pinching or spur pruning is to keep back surplus wood and create fruit spurs, throwing all the little twigs and branches into fruit, thereby utilizing all the wood the tree can produce, not allowing it to grow at the tree's ex- pense, and then have to cut it off. And another object in side-shoot pruning is to make the tree produce fine large cherries, al! closely nestled around the big wood, and no long, slim branches hanging down like weep- ing willow. All such branches are always more or less sunburnt on the top and full of worms, one of the evils tending to the destruction of the tree. This method is commended to those who like a tree with a central leader, and are willing to give their orchards such constant attention. Unless pinching and consequent multiplication of shoots and foliage is faith- fully followed such a tree is apt to become tall and rangy and to expose its bark all the way up to sunburn and borers. THE USUAL METHOD OF PRUNING THE CHERRY. As we have said, all cherry growers agree on low heading and on the advantage of pinching the lowest shoots as soon as they make a bunch of leaves. In forming the head, and in after treatment, the usual method is quite different from that we have described. It follows the vase or goblet form, which has been discussed at length in the chapter on pruning. Of the applica- tion of this method to the cherry, \V. \\'. Smith, in an address before the State Horti- cultural Society, said : The cherry ma}- be pruned the same as any other deciduous fruit tree until it is about five years old ; after that the less pruning the better, except when necessary to cut out a dead or crossing branch. Pruning the cherry is more or less likely to produce gum (and this, decay), and should be avoided as much as possible. Cherry trees, however, should be trained with low heads not to exceed eighteen inches from the ground to the first branches ; fifteen inches is better. From three to five branches are enough to form the head of the tree : all others should be removed early. Three are better than five; two makes a forked tree, which is likely to split down in after years. . .^t the end of the first season we have a neat lit- tle tree with three to five branches. During the fol- lowing winter these branches should be cut back to six to eight inches. The next season these should be allowed to produce two branches each (no more) ; then, at the end of the second season from planting out, we have a tree with from six to ten branches. The following winter the new growth should be cut back again to from twelve to eighteen inches — according to the amount of growth the tree makes — the less the growth the more you cut. The same process should be repeated the following winter, treating each branch as an individual tree, until the tree is about five years old ; it takes at least five years to get the head of a cherry well established. After this, as some varieties will persist in throwing out branches near the ground, they should be removed during the summer. At this age the tree, if well grown, will have top enough to shade its body from the sun, and there is no further need of branches on the main trunk. If necessary to remove large branches it should then be done in midsummer, as that is the only sea- son when the gum is not more or less exuded. We make it a rule to go over and dress up and prune our cherry orchard immediately after the crop is gathered — which in our part of the State is the last of Ma}-. All wounds made then by the removal of branches or otherwise will heal over the same sea- son. All large wounds made at any time, however, should be coated over with paint. The method thus described by Mr. Smith is that by which probably nine-tenths of the cherry trees of this State are shaped. In the cherr>' there should be the same ob- servation as to cutting inside and outside buds as with other trees ; in fact, the outside bud is the rule, because so many varieties make a directly upward growth. In remov- ing limbs, cutting to the collar or swelling at the base of the limb is especially impor- tant, also the covering of the wound to pre- want checking of the wood. GRAFTING 0\'ER THE CHERRY. Since canning of cherries began on a large scale, there has been a vastly increased demand for white cherries. The Royal .\nn (a local name for Napoleon Bigarreau) has been the favorite. Other white sorts are also used for canning. This rise in favor of the white cherries has vastly increased their proportionate production as compared with the choice black and red varieties, which are still popular as table fruit. It is the experience of growers that the cherry is grafted over as easily as the pear or apple, if the tree is healthy. In large trees as many as fifty or one hundred grafts may be set, choosing the sinaller limbs, even if you have to go pretty high in the tree. T. W. Cassidv. of Petaluma. used to advise Pests and Diseases 184 California Fruits : grafting before the sap begins to flow in the winter, or if niot done then, wait until the btids are well advanced or the tree in bloom. He has trees which were over thirty years old before they were re-headed, and they made fine tops of new and healthy wood, and produce abundantly. The cherry is in fact a very easy tree to graft by the usual top-grafting methods. PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE CHERRY. The disease of the cherry which is most heard of is the "gum," or overflow and con- densation of sap, which, if left to itself, often induces decay of adjacent bark and wood. Without attempting to explain the cause or causes of the unhealthy exudation, it may be said that prompt treatment of certain mani- festations is desirable, and in others the tree should be cleansed from the flow. Where the gum exudes on the side of trunk or limb, the thin outer bark should be pared away with a sharp knife, the accumulation of gum and sap removed, and the wound painted with lead and oil paint, or covered with grafting wax. Gum in the crotch should he cleanly brushed out when softened by the winter rains. If allowed to remain, it becomes sour and offensive and may injure the tree. In places where two or three limbs come out close together a kind of cup is formed, which will hold the gum from one year's end to another, and, in its soft state, leaves, sticks, cherry pits, dust, and dirt will stick and hang and sometimes the mass becomes very foul. By this collection also, a nest is made for all manner of insects, bugs and worms. Another evil in letting the gum stay on is, if rain does not wash it off clean, it runs down the trunk of the tree and makes the bark look bad, and if it is very thick on the bark when it dries, it will contract and crack the bark crosswise, and is very injurious to the tree. Gumming in the crotch can be largely avoided by starting the young cherry as ad- vocated in the chapter on pruning. Branches which emerge from the trunk at separate points and at wide angles seldom gum ; those which are crowded together or emerge at acute angles gum badly. In shaping young trees a gumming joint sometimes may be clearly cut out and those branches selected to remain which start out at a wider angle ; in older trees there is nothing to do biit keep the fork clean, as already described. There are cases reported in which gum- ming of old trees has been stopped by allow- ing the ground to lie uncultivated, weeds being cut down with the hoe. As a rule, however, the cherry thrives with good culti- vation. Die-BACK OF THE CiiERRY. — The dying back of cherry branches is more or less common in all regions, and the immediate cause thereof is not known. It is apparently sometimes a root trouble, as is the dying back of other fruit trees. This might have resulted from standing water in the winter in the soil, although the same condition may result from lack of sufficient moisture. Any- thing which causes destruction of the root hairs is apt to cause die-back and other forms of unthrift in the top. Early vegetative ac- tivity in the branch, followed by frost, seems also to occasion die-back in some cases. Fortunately, this can occur without injury to the rest of the tree, though it is some- times and in some places destructive to the tree in the end. The only treatment is re- moval of the affected wood, and if this can be done during the growing season, as soon as signs of injury appear, it is all the better. The Gopher. — One of the most dangerous foes of the cherry is the gopher, for he seldom takes less than the whole tree, young or old. Traces of his presence should be constantly watched for, and killing methods described in a later chapter adopted. If a tree is seen to wilt suddenly, the proba- bility is that a gopher has girdled it. Cover- ing the wound sometimes saves the tree, but not usually. Insects injuring the cherry will be men- tioned in a subsequent chapter. VARIETIES OF THE CHERRY. Many varieties of the cherry have been tested in this State, and many have been abandoned from one cause or another. Those most frequently starred in our table are the survivors in public esteem. As our re- ports have come from those who grow for market, possibly some sorts too tender for shipment, but excellent for family use, are How to Grow Them 185 Varieties approved omitted, but will be included in the de- scriptions which follow the table. The claims to value upon which a variety is judged are several : Extra earliness, an important con- sideration in early districts for shipment, and elsewhere for local sale or family use ; firmness to withstand mechanical injury by also wanting a natural division, really con- stitute but one class. In addition to the old standard varieties, a number of Pacific Coast seedlings have become popular, and others are very prom- ising. Special description of these seedlings will follow the standard sorts. Cherry varieties approved by California growers. VARIETY. Advance Bing Black Heart (Black Bigarreau) . Burr' s Seedling Centennial Chapman Cleveland Early Purple Guigne Elton Knight (Early) Lambert . . Lewelling ( Black Republican ) Mezel Napoleon ( Royal Ann ) Nonpariel Rockport Schmidt Spanish (Yellow) Tartarian ( Black ) Paul Wood (Governor) Buttner's Yellow Eugenie May Duke Morello Olivet Richmond Upper coast region. Central coast region. Interior Mountain valley and valleys and foot-hills. plateaux. ved in the region designated. jarring in transit and durability to escape decay during the long journey to distant markets ; firmness and fixed color to stand processing in the cannery, and to prevent coloring the juice; lateness to extend the cherry season. In classification of cherries it was origi- nally considered that there were four classes of cherries. The Hearts were the tender and half-tender sweet cherries, while the Bigar- reaux were the firm-fleshed ones ; but these have been so intermingled and blended to- gether by hybridization that no distinct line can now be drawn separating them. There is really but one class of these, whose main characteristic is the large, vigorous growth of the tree. The Duke and Morello cherries. BIGARREAU .'VND HEARTS. Early Lamauric. — Fruit large, dark purple ; flesh rich, juic}', excellent. Downing says a week earlier than Early Purple Guigne. Has proved the earliest cherry in the University collection at Berkeley, and in Vacaville district. Not fully tested as to regular bearing. Guigne Marbree. — "Fruit medium large, round, skin dark red; flesh purplish red, tender, juicy, deli- cate flavor."— GJ/Zf*. "A better bearer than Early Purple Guigne."— J'K. W. Smith. Baumann's May (Early Black Guigne). — Rather small, deep rich red. becoming rather dark when fully ripe; tender, juicy, tolerably sweet and good. Early Purple Guigne. — Small to medium size ; pur- ple ; tender, juicy, and sweet. This variety is con- sidered the earliest good cherry. It is reported a shy bearer in some localities. Belle d'Orleans. — -.Above medium size, roundish, heart-shaped ; whitish yellow, half covered with pale red, very juicy, sweet and excellent. \'arieties of the Clierrv 186 California Fruits Early IVhite Heart. — Below medium size, rather heart-shaped, skin dull whitish yellow, tinged and speckled with pale red in the sun ; flesh melting, sweet, and pleasant when fully ripe. IVhite Tartarian. — Fruit of medium size, obtuse heart-shaped; skin pale yellow; stalk slender; flesh whitish yellow; half tender and very sweet. American Heart. — Fruit pretty large, heart-shaped, often nearly four-sided and irregular in outline; borne in clusters ; flesh half tender ; skin strong and adhering to flesh. Werder's Early Black. — .\n early variety, moder- ately productive; tree vigorous, spreading; fruit large, black, tender, sweet and excellent. Knight's Early Black. — "Large, black, tender, juicy, rich, and excellent; high flavor; a shy bearer until ■ the trees attain age." Rockport Biggareau. — Large ; pale amber in the shade, light red in the sun ; half tender, sweet and good; a very excellent and handsome cherry; good bearer; highly esteemed for canning and shipping. Coe's Transparent. — Medium size ; pale amber, red and mottled next the sun ; tender, sweet and fine. Cleveland Bigarreau. — A thrifty, strong, spreading grower, and productive ; large ; clear red and yellow ; juicy, sweet, and rich. Black Tartarian. — Fruit of the largest size, bright purplish black. Flesh purplish, thick, juicy, very rich and delicious. Tree a remarkably vigorous, erect, and beautiful grower, and an immense bearer; the best of the black cherries. Governor Wood. — Large ; light yellow shaded with bright red ; flesh nearly tender, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious ; a vigorous grower and very productive. Elton. — Large, pointed ; pale yellow, nearly covered with light red; juicy, with a very rich and luscious flavor ; one of the best. Black Eagle. — A ver\- excellent English variety, ripening in June ; large size, deep purple, or nearly black; flesh deep purple, tender, with a rich, high- flavored juice. American Amber. — Fruit medium sized, roundish, heart-shaped ; skin thin, smooth, light amber, deli- cately mottled and overspread with bright red ; flesh tender and juicy, but not high flavored Yellow Spanish (Bigarreau Graffion). — Large; pale yellow, with red cheek in the sun ; flesh firm, juicy, and delicious; one of the best, most beautiful, and popular of all light-colored cherries. Me:el. Monstrcucse de (Great Bigarreau"). — .\ for- eign variety of the largest size; dark red or quite black; firm and juicy; late. Pontiac. — Large; dark purplish red; half tender, juicy, and agreeable. Burr's Seedling. — Large ; yellow, shaded with red ; sweet and rich ; vigorous and great bearer ; appar- ently does better near the coast than in the interior. Oxheart. — Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped ; skin dark red ; flesh red, half tender, with a pleasant juice of second quality. Xapoleon Bigarreau (Royal Ann). — A magnificent cherry of the largest size ; pale yellow, becoming amber in shade, richly dotted and spotted with deep red, and with a bright red cheek; flesh very firm, juicy and sweet. Tree a free grower and an enor- mous bearer. Tradescanf's Blackheart (Elkhorn, Black Bigar- reau.) — Large, heart-shaped; deep, glossy black; very solid and firm; dark purple, moderately juicy. Schmidt's Bigarreau. — "A new German variety lately introduced. The largest of all the Black Bi- garreau cherries. Skin of a deep black color; flesh dark and verv juicy, with a fine flavor." — John Bid- '(V//. DUKES AND MORELLOS. Early Richmond (Kentish). — An early, red, acid cherry; valuable for cooking early in the season. Eugenie. — Medium large ; heart-shaped ; amber red; good quality; early. • May Duke. — An old, well-known, excellent variety; large, dark red, juicy, sub-acid, rich. Arch Duke. — Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped; bright red becoming dark ; flesh light red, melting, juicy, rich, sub-acid flavor, very good; tree more upright and vigorous than ^Lay Duke. Late Duke. — Fruit large, flattened or obtuse, heart- shaped ; white, mottled with red, becoming rich dark red when ripe; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy; hangs long on the tree. Reine Hortense. — "It is one of the very largest of cherries; a beautiful, glossy red, or deep pink, when fully ripe : heart-shaped ; a universal bearer, and wheit hanging on the tree no fruit is more beautiful ; excellent for canning, but too soft and juicy for shipment." — IV. W. Smith. English Morcllo. — Large, dark red, nearly black; tender, juicy, rich, acid, productive and late. Guignc Noir Luisante (Black Spanish). — Fruit medium size, round, heart-shaped, glossy, blackish red; flesh reddish purple, tender, juicy, rich acid. Belle Magnifique. — Fruit large, roundish, inclined to heart-shape; skin a fine bright red; flesh juicy, tender, with sprightly sub-acid flavor ; one of the best of its class ; a fine table fruit when fully ripe. Buttner's y'etloK.: — Medium, roundish; clear yel- low ; firm ; late. PACIFIC COAST SEEDLINGS. Lczt'clling — Black Republican (Black Oregon). — "Seedling by S'eth Lewelling. Milwaukee, Oregon, from seed planted in i860; first fruited in orchard in 186^. Widely distributed in California. Large, black, sweet, with purple flesh ; ripens ten days after Black Tartarian." — James Shiiin. "Large, late black cherry, good flavor, long keeper ; dries and ships well. Seems to succeed better on foot-hills than in the valley." — Robert Williamson. "Supposed to be a cross between Napoleon Bigarreau and Black Tar- tarian, having the solid flesh of the former and the color of the latter; very late." — John Rock. "I am of the opinion that the Black Republican and Lincoln How to Grow Them 187 Cherries in Oregon came from the seed of the Black Eagle, but I have little idea of what variety they were crossed witli." — Seth Lewelling. Bing. — Originated by Seth Lewelling. from seed of Black Republican. "Fruit large, dark brown or black, very fine; late; a good shipping variety." — Seth Le- ti'clliiig. Tree vigorous, and foliage heavy. Fruit ripens so that trees can be cleaned at one picking. Centennial. — A seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau. raised by Mr. Henry Chapman, in Napa Valley, and fruited by him for the first time in 1876. Propa- gated and introduced by Leonard Coates. then of Napa, in 1885. It is larger than its parent, more oblate in form, and beautifully marbled and splashed with crimson on a pale yellow ground; exceptionally sweet and of remarkable keeping quality. Described by Committee of American Pomological Society (1885) as follows: "Size large, slightly oblate; am- ber, with dark crimson marbling; flesh firm, sweet, and rich; quality best; condition excellent (after crossing continent by mail), showing its good ship- ping qualities." The Centennial has been little plant- ed recently, because of superiority of Royal Ann. California Advance. — Originated by W. H. Chap- man, of Napa, propagated by Leonard Coates. then of Napa. Seedling of Early Purple Guigne. ripens one week earlier than its parent ; is larger and more obtuse, rounded form, and said to be a heavier bear- er ; dark purple turning black ; rich and sweet, and of good degree of firmness. The Oregon. — Seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, by H. W. Prettyman, of East Portland, and named by Oregon State Horticultural Societv in t888; described as larger than Napoleon ; firm ; dark red ; "fit to eat earlier than Napoleon, but coming to full ma- turity somewhat later." Introduced in 1888 by W. S. Failing. Portland. Lambert. — Seedling of J. H. Lambert. Milwaukee, Oregon. 1887 ; presented to Oregon State Horticultu- raK Society ; right to propagate sold to Oregon Nur- sery Co.. 1896, and introduced by this company; very large, roundish, heart-shaped ; stem long, slender, suture medium depth, acid; smooth, glossy, c'ark purplish red; flesh dark purplish red, firm; flavor rich, quality good. Ripens ten days to two weeks iifter Black Tartarian. Andrezcs. — Fruited French seedling about 1896 by C. N. Andrews, Redlands. Grown in mountain val- ley near Redlands. Apparently a fine shipping va- riety locally named after the grower. Paul. — Found by E. V. D. Paul of Ukiah on place purchased by him and previous owner could not account for its presence. Very large, black, mot- tled with dark red ; late ; remarkable shipping endur- ance demonstrated ; diploma at Oregon Cherry Fair. 1907. Propagated and introduced by Leonard Coates Co.. Morgan Hill. California. 1908. Non/'areil. — Originated at Vaca Valley Orchard; a fine, black, shipping cherry, owned by Earl Fruit Company of Vacaville and not distributed. Oregon has been prolific in originating new varieties of the cherry which are locally popular, but only a few have established themselves in California. The Peach 188 California Fniits : CHAPTER XX. THE PEACH: GREATEST OF CALIFORNIA DECIDUOUS FRUITS. UNTIL the great prune olanting passion of a decade ago the peach was the greatest deciduous fruit of California judged by the total number of trees in service. When the boom impression went forth that cured prunes could be put into sacks more cheaply than wheat, people took to planting prune orchards by the section all through the wheat districts of the great valley, and boom planters even carried the trees where no one would think of planting wheat — cutting up shallow-clay upland sheep pas- tures and even yucca sand wastes into prune- growing colonies. Under such planting prop- ositions it is little wonder our nurseries sold prune trees for twice the normal prices and still could not fill the demand. Figures of prune trees in orchard ruslied far beyond the peach figures. This overplanting of prunes naturally brought loss and disappoint- ment, and interest turned again to peach planting, so that now there is little differ- ence between the peach and the prune, as shown by statistics in Chapter VI. During the last three years the peach has had the call, the nurseries have had difficulty in keeping up with the planting demand for certain varieties, which will be discussed later, and the peach promises very soon to attain again its old position by possession of a greater acreage than is given to any other deciduous fruit. The peach was the first fruit to ripen on the improved trees brought here by the early American settlers, and the magnificence of the peach was consequently the key-note of the refrain which greeted the ears of the world in which the California gold cry was ringing early in the fifties. In fact, the gold from the mine and the gold from the tree were very nearly related. In old Coloma, where gold was discovered, there was a peach tree which bore four hundred and fifty peaches in 1854, which sold for $3.00 each, or $1,350 for the crop of one tree, and in 1855, six trees bore one thousand one hun- dred peaches, which sold for $1.00 each. Some of these pioneer trees are said to be still living and bearing fruit. LOXGENTTY OF THE PEACH IN CALIFORNIA. There are many other facts to establish the claim that the peach tree, if planted in a suitable soil and situation and cared for with any devotion and skill, is not a short- lived tree in California. California is too young to mark the limits of its duration, but there are instances in the earliest-settled places in the State, where peach trees above fifty years old are still vigorous and produc- tive. Some trees have, in fact, gone along in thrift until they have a bark below which looks like that of a forest tree, and a frame- work of main branches sound and stalwart throughout because they have never been allowed to sunburn until protected by their own roughness, and have never been pruned with an axe, and never lost a limb nor had a wound into which decay could penetrate and descend to the root. When the peach has a fair chance in its aerial parts and is in a soil which favors health of the roots, it shows itself to be very long lived in Cali- fornia. Where trees break to pieces and show decay wounds, they are in bad places and have suffered through natural stress or have been weakened by cultural errors. In favorable soils the peach is stronger and longer lived in the root than in the top, and sometimes triumphs over. neglect by dis- carding its old, wind-broken, sun-burned and bark-bound branches, and forms a new head of its own. Such renewal is sometimes very rapid. In the interior valley new shoots on a cut-back Muir tree have grown twelve feet in one season, with a thickness of one and one-half inches at the base. .Such shoots will bear the following summer. It is through this disposition to renewal of good How to Grow Them 189 Location for the Peach wood that the intelhgent system of pruning which is now prevalent, ministers to the longevity as well as the profitability of the tree, aiding it to constantly renew its youth by restraining its exuberance, and at the same time furnishing it sound new wood on which to grow its fruits and foliage. But while these are facts, there is some difference of opinion as to the point at which an old tree becomes less valuable than a young one. Along the Sacramento River some count about a dozen good crops as the limit, and thus replace the trees when about fifteen years of age. This is a point which may vary greatly, according to local conditions. Early Productiveness. — Quite as impor- tant as the longevity of the peach tree arc the facts of its rapid growth and early pro- ductiveness. It is the first of our fruit trees to attain size and yield a profitable crop. In localities best suited to its growth it will mature some fruit the second summer in the orchard if the small shoots are not pruned away from the main branches, and during the third summer averages of forty to fifty pounds per tree have been secured from considerable acreages. These facts are stated to show what the peach of good variety may do in a good situation and soil and with the best of care. Of course they are not to be taken as average results, although greater than those given are sometimes attained. For example, on the rich, alluvial land near Visalia, an Admiral Dewey yearling tree planted in March, 1904, had in October, 1905. attained these dimensions : near the ground the trunk was eleven and three-quarter inches in circumference, branching two feet from the ground it had four main branches, each seven inches in circumference ; height of tree, twelve feet ; spread of branches, ten feet. It grew near a crack in a cement ditch and so had all the moisture it could use, and being in a free, open soil was not impaired by standing water. As for possible productiveness of the peach, one Susquehanna tree in Kern County yielded twenty-seven forty-five pound picking-boxes — twelve hundred and fifteen pounds in one crop — about four times as much as good trees may average. LOCALITIES FOR THE PEACH. The peach has a wide range in California, and finds many districts suited to it in the several ways in which the trade delights in it. As compared with the apricot, the peach thrives in the sheltered valleys of the district north of the bay and west of the Coast range, in which the apricot is of little commercial moment : it yields those peerlessly beautiful "mountain peaches" from one to two thou- sand feet higher in the Sierra foot-hills than the apricot can be trusted; it goes everywhere in the lower foot-hills and over the great val- leys that the apricot will go, and beyond it also, because it is less restless in the spring and escapes some frosts which injure apri- cots. Counted from trees in orchard the peach is about three times as great as the apricot. Nearly every county in California reports the possession of peach trees. Above an elevation of four thousand feet on the sides of the Sierra Nevada, they may be subject to winter killing, and lower still careful choice of situation has to be made to avoid frosts at blooming-time — the peach in such places being subjected to some dangers which beset it in the eastern States. Below these points, however, lies the great fruit belt of the foot-hills of the Sierra, where the peach is the chief fruit grown and its excellence is proverbial. Size, beauty, richness, delicacy of flavor and firmness, which endures car- riage to the most distant markets, are all characteristics of the foot-hill peaches of California. In the great interior valleys of the State wherever proper condition of soil and water supply can be found, the peach also thrives, the tree making a wonderfully quick and large growth, and the fruit attaining great size. The San Joaquin \'alley is the greatest peach district of the State. In the small valleys on the west of the great valley and on the eastern slopes of the Coast Range, there are also extensive areas suited to the peach, and sheltered places on the eastern and western edges of the Sacra- mento \'alley have produced the earliest fruit for a long series of years. Recently the con- test for the earliest fruit of these districts, with the foot-hill district on the east side of the Sacramento Valley and special loca- tions in the upper San Joaquin Valley, has been quite close. Soils and Exposures 190 California Fruits : In the coast valleys, opening upon San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean, the peach is also a leading fruit. Its success is greatest, however, where good shelter is had from direct coast influences. Even where open to these influences, good peaches can be grown by choosing the smaller range of varieties, which do well by protecting the trees from harsh winds,' and by seeking elevation above depressed valleys, whose frosts are frequent. The occurrence of curl- leaf is a factor of much importance, which will be considered presently. In the coast counties north of the Russian River Valley the danger to the peach from unfavorable atmospheric conditions increases as one goes northward, and situations must be chosen with greater care. And yet by such exercise of care, peaches for home use and local mar- kets can be successfully grown. South of San Francisco Bay the coast in- fluences soften as you proceed southward, and the peach draws nearer to the ocean, choosing, however, elevations, and avoiding broad, wind-swept areas and narrow defiles where drafts and fogs are frequent. At considerable elevations, as on the Santa Cruz Mountains, some varieties of peaches are notably excellent. 'I'he general rule holds with the peach, as with other fruits, that coast influences retard ripening and the sea- son of the fruit is late. In some valleys and at elevations in south- ern California the peach is largely grown and high excellence attained while on the mesas and plains there is often too high a tem- perature which starts growth out of season and follows with dormancy and die-back when the tree ought to be most active. It has recently been demonstrated that varieties like Luken's Honey, descended from the Peen-to or flat peach of China, resist such irregularities better than the common sorts which are largely of Persian origin. SOILS AND EXPOSURES FOR THE PEACH. Though the suitability of soils for the peach can be somewhat extended by the choice of stock for budding upon, as will be considered presently, its range of soils is narrower than that of the apricot. The best peach soils are light, deep, sandy loams, rather dry than moist, but under all circumstances well drain- ed. It will thrive on land with a con- siderable mixture of coarse sand or gravel, providing it contain also needed elements of fertility ; for the rapid growth and heavy fruitage of the peach requires abundant nutrition. Though it accepts coarse materials both in soil and subsoil, it relishes fine sedi- ment and perhaps finds no more congenial location than in the deep, sandy loam, or sedimentary deposit bordering the creek beds of our warm valleys, and will send its roots deep to secure long life and abundant fruitage. Such soils, whether along existing streams or deposited by prehistoric water courses, which have left their mark by the elevated ridges of rich sediment above the prevailing valley soils, are warm, deep, and thoroughly drained, and delight the peach. Peaches are grown very successfully on what is called hard-pan land in some parts of Fresno County, providing the hard-pan is blasted as described in Chapter — . In these situations the hard-pan is near the surface and has a deep, free soil below it into which the roots can extend. At elevations on the hillsides there are free loams which result from decomposition of the underlying rocks, and on them the peach thrives, both where the soils them- selves are deep and where the underlying rock is loose and open, permeable by roots and affording escape for water. Success has been reported even when holes are partly excavated in these rotten focks, as in the soft sand rock on the hills east of Vaca Val- ley> or in the broken chalk rock in what is called Blackburn Gulch, near Santa Cruz. The superior warmth of such soils is sup- posed to minister to earlier ripening of the fruit, though the escape from cold air by elevation is no doubt a greater factor to the end. The influence of comparatively slight dif- ference in elevation is very marked. E. R. Thurber, of Pleasant's Valley, Solano Coimty, had for many years a plat of peach trees on a natural terrace about seventy-five feet higher than the general level of his orchard. On the terrace peaches ripen and are dis- posed of before the same varieties ripen in the orchard below. As in the valley a short distance to water is to be avoided, so on the hills too great percolation from higher levels is undesirable. How to Grow Them 19.1 Plantino' the Peach Of course natural defects of this kind can be corrected by adequate under-drainage. Still, though such be the general soil con- ditions best suited to the peach, the tree can be well grown for home use or local markets on somewhat heavier soil, providing there is good drainage, but drainage must be in- sisted upon, for thousands of trees have per- ished because planted in retentive soils with- out drainage. Alkaline soils which are usual- ly rather heavy should, however, be avoided, as the peach, when grown on its own roots, seems to be of all fruits most sensitive to alkali. As to exposures for the peach the same rules hold as for other fruits which are liable to injury when in bloom or young foliage. Thus low places where cold air settles should be avoided, also low gidches through which cold drafts prevail. In frosty situations an incline away from the morning sun will often allow the trees to escape serious injury. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING. The chapter on propagation gives the general method of growing and budding peach seedlings. In selecting pits, prefer- ence is usually given to those from strong- growing, yellow peaches, at least for work- ing on the same colored fruit, while others use pits of the Morris White, others the Strawberry, and others still will use only pits from vigorous seedling trees. In this State the peach is usually so healthy and vigorous, and the "yellows" not known, and less care may be needed in selecting pits ; still, there is certainly nothing lost by making every effort for a good stock.- The hard-shell sweet almond has long been used as a stock for the peach. It is held that it gives a hardier, stronger root, in dry soils especially. When it is desired to grow the peach on moister soil than suits its own roots, the St. Julian plum may be used. The Myro- balan has been used to some extent, but ex- perience generally does not favor any plum stock for the peach and our largest propa- gators have abandoned its use. The so-called "peach-almond" has often been urged as a stock for the peach but has been little used, probably because the straight peach and straight almond are so satisfactory and available. It is a fruit having the pit of a peach but the pericarp of an almond, that is tough and tasteless and disposed to split like an almond hull. Early in the fifties a chance hybrid of this sort appeared in the nursery of W. B. West, of Stockton, and its pits were used for nursery seedlings which, when budded to the peach, produced good trees. Trees bearing the peach-almond are found here and there over the State. Mr. Burbank has producd a hybrid of the W^ager peach and the Languedoc almond. Distance in Orchard. — Distance observed in planting peach orchards differs greatly, according to the views of different growers. Regarding the peach as a catch crop to plant between apricot, pear, cherry, walnut, fig or other slower-growing, larger trees, the trees may be set comparatively close ; that is, with the latter trees at thirty to forty feet, and alternate rows of peach planted quincvmx, and to be removed at the end of ten to fif- teen years. If the peach is to have the groimd to itself, some planters plant at eighteen feet in equilateral triangles, or twenty to twenty-four feet on the squares, the present tendency with the peach, as with other trees, being to give more room than was the custom a few years ago. Age of Trees. — In planting peach orchards yearling trees are generally used, although far more are planted in dormant bud than of any other kind of fruit trees. The reason for this is easily found in the disposition of the peach to make a tree the first year from the bud. It springs almost at once into a full outfit of laterals. Some growers em- ploy this disposition to form a head the first year in the nursery. Wlien the bud has grown out eighteen inches, pinch it oft' at the top and force out laterals, which make long growth the same season. When planted out in orchard the following winter, cut back to ten or twelve inches. In this any one can ' get a yearling with the equivalent of a two- year-old head on it. The common practice is, however, to let the growth from the bud proceed as it chooses, and when the year- ling is set in orchard, cut back to a single bud the laterals which are desired to form the head and removing others. If there is a dormant bud on the stem where a branch is desired and it is obstinate in not starting, a cross-cut through the bark just above it may concentrate pressure and force it out. Pruning the Peach 192 California Fruits : The development of form from a yearling branched in the nursery is illustrated in chap- ter on pruning. Recently preference has arisen for smaller trees for transplanting and, especially in the foot-hills, June buds, described in the chapter on propagation, are largely employed. Planting Dormant Buds. — The chapter on planting describes the planting of year- ling trees. The lifting of dormant buds from the home nursery and planting in orchard is described by P. W. Butler, of Placer County, as follows : Have the ground prepared and stakes placed in position in the orchard in early February, if possible, and begin the planting at once, while the trees are in dormant bud. Take no more trees from the nurs- ery than can be planted in half a day. Plow a fur- row on each side of the row, six inches from the trees, turning the soil from them, then two men with heavy spades or shovels, one on each side of the tree, can readily take it up without breaking many of the roots ; and what are so broken should be smoothly trimmed with a sharp knife. Place the trees in a tub of water, near where they are to be planted, and take from it only a few at a time. Put them in a basket or box and cover with wet sack, that they may be kept moist until placed in the ground. On planting, place the bud one inch below the level of the ground, but do not cover it until after it has grown to the height of a few inches. The stock should be cut off at the bud with a thin, sharp knife (and not with shears, as is often done, as the latter method will sometimes split the tree), when it will take in moisture and not heal readily. Some growers do not cut back the young seedling tree until growth has started out well on tile dormant bud. Rather more care is needed in handling dormant buds both in planting and in their youtig life in the orchard. Lookout must be kept for suckers and against injury in cultivation. Success with dormant buds is notable. In good hands they commonly out- grow yearlings planted at the same time, and the percentage of loss from failure of the bud to start is very small. Of course every bud should be examined before planting, to see that it has a healthy color. In the selection of peach trees for planting, a clean, healthy root only should be taken. During recent years there have been a good many young roots affected with knots or swellings from some obscure cause. Such trees should be burned. If planted, the knot sometimes grows to an enormous size and little or no top growth is made. PRUxNING THE PEACH. As has already been stated, the peach will carry a top of great fruiting longevity if the grower will do justice to the tree by regular shortening of the growth and forcing out new wood, upon which alone fruit is found. Not only does regular pruning do this, but it promotes longevity and vigor in the frame- work of the tree upon which these bearing shoots come. Left unpruned, the peach soon becomes bark-bound, and the bark itself be- comes hardened and brittle. Lower shoots are apt to give out, and the tree becomes an umbrella of foliage and fruit held aloft by bare branches bark-burned by the sun, invaded by borers, exuding gum, covered with moss and lichens — a picture of distress and un- profitability because its owner does not give vhe tree a chance to re-invigorate itself with large fresh leaves from the new wood which i,lone can carry them. As has been advised for other trees, the peach should be given a low head, developed hs described in the chapter on pruning. In its after-treatment, it has been the universal experience that constant "heading in" is es- sential to the strength and health of the tree. This also has been considered in an earlier chapter. Illustrations of the pertinence of these remarks are found in the practice of the most successful peach growers in all parts of the State. A few instances will be given : "The peach, fruiting only on wood of the previous year's growth, bears fruit farther away from the body of the tree each year, and the small shoots of from one-eighth to three-sixteenths in diameter begin to decline when the fruit is removed. To have healthy growth, all of these small branches must be removed the first winter following their fruiting, when there is a greater tendency to form small new growths, which may fruit the following season. In the peach, it will seldom be found necessary to remove any in- terior branches, except suckers, until they have pro- duced a crop, when they will begin to decline and should be removed. "I would certainly not cut peach trees back less than one-half of the new growth in the winter prun- ing, and our trees are getting too large for their age even with that amount of pruning. This has suggested, in other localities, summer pruning or shortening in, with success in some places. So far my own experience is favorable. It will be noticed on trees kept growing rapidly that the fruit buds are near the ends of the shoots, and it seems to take away too many of these buds to cut back one-half in the winter pruning, but by cutting back about one-half the new growth in August, fruit buds are developed lower down, and where they would not How to Grow Them 193 Irrigating the Peach be developed without the summer pruning." — H. Cul- bcrtson, El Cajon, San Diego County. "Prune the peach every year, cutting back and thinning out the center, using great care not to cut out too many of the little fruit shoots of new: wood growing on the main branches, but removing the slender branches of the old wood, leaving as many branches of the new growth as the tree will support. In this case judgment must be used as to what the tree will support. The soil may be wet or dry, rich or poor, the grower must be the judge. To grow small fruit, prune lightly; to grow large fruit, prune with care and judgment. To get this judgment you must have some practical experience. I prefer doing the work when the sap begins moving in the spring of the year. All cuts heal over better then and the pruner can see how the buds are setting and use his own judgment as to how much wood he wants to cut out." — R. C. Kells. Yuba City, Sutter County. "Cutting back the peach must be more severe, as the growth of the new wood diminishes. Not more than five or si.\ fruit buds should be left on a shoot, and if the fruit all sets, it must be also thinned. The trees should be trained low and their vigor en- couraged by permitting a reasonable amount of young shoots to grow around the lower part of the main limbs. When this method is continued sys- tematically every season, the trees will beai large crops of fruit, of good quality, for many years. When they are allowed to overbear for one or two seasons, the fruit will decrease in size, and soon be- come almost worthless; the trees will be enfeebled, and in consequence very liable to be attacked by disease. The only thing to be done in this case is to cut off the whole top of the tree, allowing it to form a new head. I have seen old peach orchards thns renovated, and the results are often very flattering, but it is far better not to allow them to get into a condition where this desperate remedy is necessary." — Leonard Coates, Nat>a. Cutting Back thh; Peach is Not Shear- ing.^— Some undertake the annual pruning of the peach by a shearing proees.s, treating a fruit tree as one would a hedge — cutting everything to a line. There has been a good deal of this done in California, but it is wrong nevertheless. Shortening in the new growth of the peach each year is proper prac- tice. It is the first step toward preventing overbearing of small, unmarketable fruit and saving the tree from profitless and injurious effort. Thinning the shoots by removing all but one when two or three start from the same point is also working toward large fruit and regular bearing in the tree. This short- ening and thinning of the new wood must also be followed by thinning of the young fruit just after the natural drop and it is seen that the tree carries too many. Proper pruning can not be done by shearing because it is apt to shorten the strong shoots too much and the weak shoots too little. Each shoot must be cut by itself according to its growth and its ability to carry more or less fruit. Shearing, too, does not thin out the shoots but continually multiplies them until the tree is full of brush as a hedge. THINNING PEACHES. Thinning out fruit on the peach tree is not only the secret of obtaining good, marketable fruit, but joins hands with pruning in pre- serving the health and future production of the tree. The importance of thinning has been urged in a previous chapter, but the following is a very strong statement, by Mr. Culbertson : In my own experience there is no single operation in connection with fruit growing of more impor- tance than thinning. The past season, in order to test the difference in expense of preparing large and small peaches for drying, I timed the cutting, and found it took double the time; hence, double the expense, which meant a difference of about $15 per ton of dried fruit. Add to this a difference of two cents per pound in price makes $55 per ton. Sup- pose an orchard under good treatment produces a ton of peaches tj) the acre, then $55 would represent the difference in profits. Unthinned or small fruit is certainly undesirable. As to how much thinning should be done there are diverse opinions. Some take offi one-half, others three-fourths. Some growers thin to meet a certain ideal, but find it difficult to explain in words. The common rule of leaving a specimen of fruit every four or six inches is a safe rule; that means many must come off. Different conditions of soils, climates and irrigation vary the amount to thin out more or less. l\Iore may be left where the tree is on land giving a strong, vigorous growth. In thinning peaches I have been practicing a meth- od that gives good results and is easily learned. The peach bears on three sizes of branches, that are one- eighth, three-sixteenths, and one-fourth of an inch in diameter. The first has two peaches, the second three, and the third four; this, of course, after there has been a judicious course of pruning and the trees under irrigation ; trees on dry land should have only one-half as many left. To reach this result often a dozen may have to come off, allowing only two to remain. The more there are the greater necessity for thinning. The time for thinning peaches is as soon as one can be sure which are likely to remain on the tree and which will drop of their own a(!cord. IRRIGATION OF THE PEACH. As the i^each is the greatest deciduous fruit of the interior valleys and foot-hills, it is also the deciduous fruit which is chiefly grown with irrigation. Most of the specific conclusions set forth in Chapter XV are Diseases of the Peach 194 California Fruits based upon experience with the peach and the reader is advised to consider them from that point of view. One of the most important points of success in irrigating the peach is to use enough water earlier in its growth so that apphcation need not be inade within about three weeks of ripening. Enough water before that will usually insure size on prop- erly thinned trees and the withholding of water near ripening will secure good quality. After the crop is gathered, irrigation can be resumed to continue the late summer growth for next year's fruit buds and to save the tree from injury during the long autumn drouth. WORKING OVER PEACH TREES. The fashion in peaches changes from time to time according to the demands of the canners or the market for dried fruit. The grower often finds varieties which he first selected, less healthy, less productive, or, for other reason, less desirable than others. There is, therefore, often occasion for work- ing over trees. Budding is often resorted to, buds being successfully set in^quite old wood, providing buds from well-matured wood are taken. Wood buds from young trees un- accompanied by fruit are best, but because of greater certainty of securing the variety desired, it is common to take wood and fruit buds together from bearing trees. A larger cut of bud and adjacent bark is taken when working in old bark than for use on seed- lings. When a branch is budded, it is some- times broken at a distance beyond the bud and allowed to hang, the idea being to fur- nish the bud some but not too much sap. Some growers thus bud and break part of the branches, allowing others to remain un- worked, to maintain the growing processes of the tree. These branches and those in which buds have not taken, are cut off and grafted the following spring. The almond is successfully grafted over with the peach, and this course has been followed with thousands of unproductive almonds. Grafting the Peach. — Grafting the peach by the ordinary top-grafting with a cleft graft seldom succeeds. A side graft with saw and knife is better. It is described by J. W. Mills, formerly of the University Branch Experiment Stations, in southern California, as follows : Saw grafting is rapidly taking the place of cleft grafting, for it does away with all difficulties aris- ing from splitting and there is no cavity left in the heart of the limb or tree. The process is to saw off the limb at the desired place as in cleft grafting, then saw across the corner and down the side at an angle of about 45 degrees and trim out with a sharp knife. Place the knife blade a little to one side of the saw cut, a little farther from the edge at the top than at the bottom, and by pressing on the knife the whole sides of the crevice will be trimmed smoothly at one stroke ; this operation repeated on the other side of the saw cut will make a neat notch in the end of a solid limb. By cutting a little deepen from the saw cut at the top than at the bottom, and if the amateur does not trim his scion at the right angle, he can insert it gently in the crevice or notch and see just where to trim. If he is so slow that the fresh cut shows signs of discoloration, he can make a fresh surface by placing his knife parallel to the edges and shaving ofT a thin slice. He still retains the same angle, but the scion will set a little deeper, which is no objection. By cutting a thin layer off the top of the stump next to the notch will show exactly where the inside layer of bark is. The inside bark of the scion must be even with the inside layer of the bark of the stump or limb that is being grafted. If the scion is inclined slightly out or in at the top, it will make a correct union at some point and be sure to grow. If the inclination is very slight the union will extend over considerable length and will make a inuch better start than if the union is at only one point, owing to the enlarged surface through which the sap is transmitted. One of the most im- portant points in grafting is to have good wax and go over the grafts a few days after they are put in and rewax them. DISEASES OF THE PEACH. CuRL-LfiAF. — The most prevalent trouble with the peach tree in California is the curl- leaf. It was noticed from the first planting of peach trees by Americans, nearly forty years ago, and free conjecture as to its cause was indulged in until it was shown to be a specific fungus, and its prevention by washes of fungicidal character demonstrated. The treatment will be described in the chap- ter on tree diseases. The facts of its occur- rence may be stated as follows': Curl-leaf is onuch more prevalent in some sections than others, and in one place than another in the same section, and some sec- tions are practically free from it. Some varieties are much more subject to curl-leaf than others ; generally speaking, some curl nearly everywhere, others curl in one place and not in another, others are practically free from curl in all situations. Curl-leaf occurs in various degrees. Mild cases do not seem to injure either tree or How to Grow Them 195 \'arieties of the Peach fruit ; severe cases destroy the fruit and sometimes the tree itself. The disease is ahnost always at its height when the young fruit is about the size of small peas. If the curl is "bad," the fruit will fall to the ground, there not being healthy leaves enough to afford the required support. If, however, the curl is moderate and partial, only a part and sometimes none of the fruit will be lost. The disease, as is well known, is of brief duration, say twelve to twenty days, after which the trees resume a healthy appearance in every respect, and if the fruit has been able to survive the ordeal, it also appears to grow and become as perfect as if no check had been given to its growth. But it is better to save the tree the burden of a new foliage growth. Mildew. — This disease, 'which occurs in the form of whitish felted patches on leaf and twig early in the spring, and finally affects the fruit, has long been troublesome in this State, and occurs on certain susceptible va- rieties in many localities from the coast to the Sierra foothills. Observation in this State has fully affirmed the statement of Downing, that the serrate, glandless-leaved varieties are liable, and those with good glands on the leaf stems are free. The conclusion would be that where mildew prevails, varieties with serrate, glandless leaves should be avoided. But it has been found that some glandless-leaved varieties, although subject to mildew, resist curl-leaf. Therefore it may be worth while to combat the mildew. This has been done effectually by treatment which will be described in a later chapter. As with curl-leaf, mildew is prevalent some years and slight in others. The most serious disease which has thus far stricken the peach in California is locally known as the "peach blight," the work of a shot-hole fungus (coryneuin). This also has been satisfactorily checked by spraying as will be described in the Chapter on Diseases of Trees and \'ines. A common trouble of the peach known as "split-pit," has recently been studied bv the California Experiment Station and the tenta- tive conclusion has been reached that split- pits are physiological phenomena and not caused by any disease germ. Whether this abnormal growth is due to weakness of vari- ety or to cultural conditions is not determined. It is true that varieties differ in amount of splitting, and selection is being made to some extent on that basis. VARIETIES OF THE PEACH. Nearly all varieties of the peach have been tried in California, and, as with other fruits, it has been found that varieties must be chosen wth reference to their success in special locations. Choice has also to be made according to the purpose of the grower, whether for early marketing, for sale to can- ners, for drying, or distant shipment or for late marketing. As with apples, there is little use of planting early varieties (unless it be for home or local use) except in very early regions. An early peach from a late region is killed by competition with better middle season sorts from the earlier regions. In an early region one can plant early, middle, and late varieties to advantage, and thus secure a very long-fruiting season. The peach season in interior districts begins at the first of June with the Alexander, and continues to the end of November with local seedlings — giving six months of peaches. Of course the very early and very late sorts are only of use for marketing as table fruit. The most important series is a fine succession of mid-season peaches, suitable either for canning, drying, or distant shipment. Such a selection can be made from the tables and descriptions which will be given later. Color is a most important item in the peach. While canners and Eastern shippers use the beautiful white peaches to advantage, the fashion for canning and drying is now strong in support of the yellow-fleshed cling- stone varieties. The yellow freestone peaches are also in greatest demand. The color about the pit is also an important point. Canners demand a peach, whether white or yellow, which is almost free from color at the pit, because the extraction of the red color dyes the juice ; in drying, the demand just now is for a yellow peach with a red center, because the colors give the dried fruit a more attrac- tive appearance. Of course there is a mar- ket for dried white peaches but the prefer- ence is for the yellow. A succession of yellow freestones very popular in the San Joaquin Valley is the fol- lowing: Foster, Wheatland, Elberta, Muir. Peach Varieties Approved 196 California Fruits Peach varieties approved by California growers. Upper Central Interior VARIETIES. coast coast valley and valleys. valleys. foot-hill. Alexander * * ^,« Amsden Albright Bergen Bilyeu Briggs' May California Cling Decker Early Charlotte Early Crawford Early York Elberta .... Foster George Fourth Georg^e's Late Cling Gen. Bidwell Globe Golden Cling (Sellers) Hale's Early Heath Cling Henrietta (Levy's) Honest Abe Honey (Lukens') Imperial Indian Blood Jones' Large Early LaGrange Late Crawford Lemon Cling Lovell McDevitt Cling McClish Cling McKevitt Cling Mary's Choice Morris' White Muir Newhall NichoU's Cling Oldmixon Free Orange Cling Peento Persian Cling Phillips' Cling Piquet's Late Runyon's Orange Cling Salway Smock Snow St. John Strawberry Stump Susquehanna Triumph Tuskena (Tuscan) Wheatland Wylie Cling Yellow Tuscany * Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. ** Most highly commended. ''^!:! * ::;:•: ....*. *l ::::•: ::::•: « * * ** ** ** ** ** * * * * * ** * ** * ** ** ■* ** * * * * * *« ** ** * * * * * * * ** ** * ** * * ^ I ....:. * ** ** * * * * * ** ** ** ** ::::■: ' ":' * * * ** ** ** ** ** * * * ■* ^ ■* * ::::•: ....*. * ** ** « * * ** * * * ** * * «* ** * ** * * * * , * * * ** ** * ■* ** ** ■* ^ * ...... "■■;;■ How to Grow Them 197 Peaches Grown in Salifornia Lovell, Late Crawford, Sahvay. A succes- sion of yellow clingstones is this : Tuskena, Seller's, Runyon's, McDewitt's, Henrietta, Phillips. The two most popular white clings in the same region are McKevitt's and Heath. In the enumeration following the table only those seedlings which are now com- mercially propagated are included. Many which were prominent ten years ago have been dropped by this test. The writer has record of many others some of them likely to rise to important place, which are reserved until after further trial. The following are the peaches chiefly grown in California, arranged approximately in the order of ripening: Brigg's Red May (California). — Originated as a chance seedling in nursery row, on the farm of John G. Briggs, on the Feather River, about one mile from Yuba City, about 1870. It was found to be about ten days earlier than the Early Tillotson, which was then the stand-by for an early peach. Fruit medium to large, round ; white skin with rich, red cheek; partially free, a standard early variety; subject to mildew. Jones' Large Early (New York). — Large, round- ish, flattened, white with deep crimson. Alexander (Illinois). — Most widely grown as best early variety. Fruit medium to large ; greenish white, nearly covered with deep red; flesh firm, juicy, and sweet; bears transportation well; pit is partly free. Triumph (Georgia). — Medium sized, early, yel- low, partial cling, very good. Ainsden (Missouri). — Resembles preceding, but averages smaller; claimed by some to be slightly earlier; rather less liable to curl-leaf. Honey (Lukens). — Medium, oblong pointed, white mottled carmine very sweet, related to Peen-to. Pecn-to. — Flat peach or saucer peach of China ; good in Southern California. Early Imperial (California). — Originated by W. W. Smith, Vacaville, and planted to secure a yel- low freestone earlier or larger than St. John. Most growers find it no improvement on St. John. Yelloiv St. John (New Orleans). — Earliest j'ellow peach ; averages smaller than Yellow Crawford, but cl.assed as large ; roundish, orange yellow with deep red cheek; juicy, sweet, and high flavored; freestone. Hale's Early (Ohio). — Medium to large, nearly round ; skin greenish, mostly covered and mottled with red when ripe; flesh white, melting, juicy, rich and sweet; fair for local market and shipping; wide- ly grown ; freestone. Strazi.'berry (New Jersey). — Medium size, oval; stem cavity deeply sunk ; suture extending half way round ; skin almost wholly inarbled with deep red ; flesh whitish, juicy, rich and delicate; tree healthy. Bergen's Yellow (New York). — Large, roundish; suture deep; orange yellow, red cheek; approved in Southern California. Foster (Massachusetts.) — L'niformly large, slight- ly flattened ; slight suture ; stem moderately depress- ed ; flesh yellow, very rich and juicy; color deep orange, dark red in the sun ; freestone ; tree hardy and productive ; very widely grown in California and popular. Ripens before Early Crawford, which it sometimes resembles, but is of better quality. Crawford's Early (New Jersey). — Very large, ob- long, swollen, point at the top prominent, suture shallow ; skin yellow, with red cheek ; flesh yellow, rich, and e.xcellent ; freestone; tree very healthy and productive ; probably the most largely planted variety in California. George the Fourth (New York), — Large, round, deeply divided by broad suture ; sides unequal ; skin pale yellowish white, dotted with red and red cheek ; flesh pale, red at pit, from which it parts freely; quality good. Sotnewhat troubled with curl-leaf. Snozi.' (Amerfcan). — Large, globular; skin clear, beautiful, almost wholly white ; flesh white to the free stone, juicy, rich and sprightly. Mary's Choice (New Jersey). — Large, yellow, re- sembling Early Crawford, but ripening later. Red Cheek Melocoton (.\merican). — Large, round- ish oval, swollen point at top ; yellow, with deep red cheek ; flesh yellow, red at stone, which is free, juicy, good flavor. Approved in Humboldt and San Benito Counties. Tuskena (Alabama or Mississippi). — Wrongly called "Tuscan" and "Tustin'' Cling in this State ; largely planted in interior valleys and foot-hills; very large yellow cling; the earliest fine cling variety; very valuable for early shipping. Ripens with Craw- ford's Early. Oldmixon Free (.\mcrican). — Large, roundish or slightly oval ; greenish or yellowish white, marbled with red; flesh white, tender, and excellent, juicy and rich ; high flavor. Honest Abe (California). — "Originated at Healds- burg, Sonoma County. Large, yellow, with red cheek; best quality; ripens between Crawford's Early and Late. Does not curl." — James Shinn. Morris White. — Large, oval ; skin white with creamy tint when fully ripe ; flesh white to the stone, which is free; melting, juicy, sweet, and rich; especially good for home use and canning; somewhat subject to curl-leaf. JVagcr (New York). — Limuou yellow tinged with red; flesh yellow, rich, juicy, sweet, and excellent, Iiaving much the appearance and flavor of apricots; stone small and free from the flesh ; quality best. Muir (California). — Originated as chance seed- ling on place of John Muir, near Silve>'\'ille, named and first propagated by G. W. Thissell, of Winters. Fruit large to very large ; perfect freestone ; flesh clear yellow, very dense, rich and sweet ; pit small ; tree a good bearer and strong grower, if on rich soil, to which it is best adapted; free from curl in Vaca- ville district ; fruit a good shipper and canner and Peaches Grown in California 198 California Fruits peculiarly adapted to drying because of exceptional sweetness and density of flesh ; yield, one pound dry from less than five pounds fresh. One of the best California seedlings. Claimed by some to be identi- cal with Wager. Muir variations with large flowers, with fruit like Muir but not splitting at pit, reported by W. A. Rosander, Kingsburg, A. S. Coon, Fresno, and H. R. Shaw. Selma. a dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and a rich, vinous flavor; ripens about one week before Crawford's Late; tree very hardy, healthy, vigorous, and not affected by curl ; freestone." — John Rock. Stump the World (New Jersey). — Large, strong; skin creamy white, with bright red cheek ; flesh white, juicy and high flavored. Commended for family nse by the Southern California Nurserymen's Associa- tion. Curls somewhat in some localities; freestone. The Lovell, a California seedling. Muir Cling by W. R. Fletcher, Green Valley, So- noma county. Commended by Green Valley Can- nery; propagated by A. F. Scheidecker, S'anta Rosa, 1907. Wheatland (New Yqrk). — Large, roundish; skin golden yellow, shaded with crimson ; flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, sweet, and of fine quality. Elberta (Georgia). — Very large; round-oval with deep suture; golden-yellow, faint red stripes; flesh yellow, fine, juicy, rich and sweet; tree prolific; per- fect freestone. Newhall (California). — "Originated with Sylvester Newhall, of San Jose. Very large ; skin yellow, with Crawford's Late (New Jersey). — Very large, round- ish, yellow with dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and melting; flavor rich and excellent; a pop- ular and widely-grown variety, but very subject to curl-leaf in some localities; freestone. Lemon Clingstone (South Carolina). — Large, lem- on-shaped or oblong, having large, projecting, swoll- en point like a lemon ; skin fine yellow ; flesh firm, yellow with sprightly, vinous subacid ; slightly red at the pit, which adheres firnjly. Orange Clingstone. — Large, round ; suture distinct- ly marked and extending nearly around the fruit; no swelling at ape.x, like Lemon Clingstone ; deep orange How to Grow Them 199 Peach Varieties in California color, with red cheek; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with rich flavor; somewhat subject to mildew. Though largely grown, this variety has been largely sup- planted by the following sub-varieties, which are seedlings from it. Seller's Golden Cling (California). — Originated on the farm of S. A. Sellers, Contra Costa County, and introduced by James Shinn. Very large, rich golden color ; tree healthy ; one of the very best of clings ; ripens with Late Crawford. yellow-fleshed, free from curl, hardy, vigorou.s, pro- ductive, superior for market or drying; planted more extensively in Santa Rosa Valley than in any other." — Luther Burbank.. Stilson (California). — "Originated at Marysville (?). Perfect in shape; very large; red cheek with crimson stripes; yellow-fleshed, more highly colored than Susquehanna ; table and market quality excel- lent ; ripens after Crawford's Late ; freestone" — P. W. Butler. Phillips' Cling, a California seedMng. Runyon's Orange Cling (California). — "Originated with Mr. Sol Runyon, on the Sacramento River. Superior to the common Orange Cling. Runyon's Orange Cling has globose glands, and is not subject to mildew like the common sort. Fruit very large, yellow, with a dark crimson cheek; rich, sugary, and vinous flavor. Highly esteemed and extensively planted in the Sacramento region and elsewhere." —John Rock. Niehol's Orange Cling (California). — Originated by Joseph Nichols, of Niles, introduced by James Shinn. Large, yellow, with purple cheek ; flesh yel- low and good. Tree healthy and a heavy bearer. Peck's Orange Cling (California.) — "Originated at Healdsburg, Sonoma County. Improved seedling of Orange Cling, of Downing. Large, handsome. .Susquehanna (Pennsylvania). — Large, nearly glob- ular; suture half round; skin rich yellow, nearly covered with red; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy, with rich, vinous flavor; freestone; tree healthy. Very widely distributed and popular. McCozvan's Cling (California). — Ori.ginated with Dr. McCowan, of Ukiah. Yellow cling; round, smooth outline; no suture; no red at pit, which is small ; flesh firm, fine-grained, and sweet ; not much subject to curl; fruit apt to run small unless care- fully thinned ; reported an irregular bearer in Ala- meda County ; liked by canners ; approved in Placer County. Lovell (California). — Originated as chance seed- ling with G. W. Thissell, and named by him in 1882; propagated by Leonard Coates, of Xapa. Yellow Peach Vatieties in California 200 Califoruia Fruits : freestone ; size uniformly large, almost perfectly round ; flesh fine, texture firm, solid, clear yellow to the pit; tree a good grower and bearer; superior for canning and shipping, and dries well. Said to curl in some places. "The richest peach I ever saw on a tray." — E. A. Bonine, Los Angeles County. The most popular yellow freestone for canning and drying. Sometimes reported as drying "heavier" than the Muir. McKevitt's Cling (California). — Originated as chance seedling in apricot orchard planted by M. R. Miller, on place owned later by A. McKevitt, Vaca Valley; named in 1882 by nurserymen who propagated it. A white clingstone ; flesh very firm, fine-grained, sugary, and rich, high flavor, white to the pit ; skin strong and fruit excellent for shipping or canning; tree remarkably strong in growth and free from disease. Widely distributed. McClish. — Yellow cling, grown in Sonoma County. Wylie Cling. — An old seedling by John Wylie, Green Valley, Sonoma County, increasing in popu- larity in northern Sonoma County as superior to Orange Cling in not splitting at the pit, and not dropping from the tree. A fine peach for canning and drying. General Bidivcll (California). — Originated from a shoot from a peach root upon which an apricot had grown and died, on Rancho Chico. Named by State Horticultural Society, September 4, 1886, and commended for cultivation. Ripens one week later than Late Crawford and ahead of Salway and Pic- quet's Late. About the shape of the Orange Cling, but larger ; very yellow with reddish cheek ; flesh very solid, juicv. and rich ; freestone and a small pit. California; syn. Edward's Cling (California). — "Originated in Sacramento. Very large, round, regu- lar ; orange, nearly covered with dark, rich red ; flesh deep vellow ; flavor delicate, rich vinous." — C. IV. Reed. Picqucl's Late (Georgia). — Large to very large; round, sometimes a little flattened, yellow, with red cheek ; flesh yellow, melting, sweet, rich and fra- grant; freestone; not subject to curl-leaf. Smock Freestone (New Jersey). — "Large yellow, mottled with red; moderately rich and juicy. A bet- ter drying peach than Salway."-;-iJ. A. Bonine. La Grange (New Jersey). — Large, oblong; green- ish white, some red on sunny side ; not desirable in coast regions; freestone. 5a/7t'a_v (English). — Large, roundish oblate; suture broad, deep, extending beyond the apex ; skin downy, creamy yellow, rich, clear, crimson cheek; flesh deep yellow, red at the pit; juicy, rich, sweet, vinous; freestone; a standard late peach in California; tree very healthy. Phillips' Cling (California). — Originated with Jo- seph Phillips, of Sutter County; propagated by J. T. Bogue, of Marysville. Fine large yellow cling, no color at pit. which is very small ; exceedingly rich and high-colored ; described by Mr. Skinner, superin- tendent Marysville Cannery, as the best peach he ever used. The most popular yellow clingstone. Ripens progressively so that picking can cover two weeks without falling from tree. Requires good land and ample moisture. Persian's Cling (California). — "Originated in Vi- salia, probably from seed of Heath Cling, and a few days earlier than its parent. Large ; clear white skin and flesh, the latter very sweet; commended for can- ning." — L H. Thomas, Tulare County. Heath (Maryland). — Described by Downing as the most delicious of all clingstones. Very large ; skin downy, creamy white, with faint blush of red ; flesh greenish white, very tender and juicy, with most luscious flavor ; best adapted to interior regions, or places free from curl. Stcadly (Missouri). — "Large to very large; white skin ; flesh white at the pit, firm, rich, and good flavor; freestone. Produces very heavy yield of dried fruit." — /. H. Thomas, Tulare County. George's Late Cling (California). — "Originated in Sacramento. Large ; white flesh, colored around the pit ; beautiful yellow color, striped and splashed with bright red ; a very heavy and uniform bearer ; a good shipper and at its season of ripening there is no peach grown in Placer County that yields the grower so much profit." — P. IV. Butler. Subject to mildew in some localities. Yellow Tuscany (Dura cini. Tuscany). — A very large yellow cling; propagated by G. Tosetti, form- erly of San Leandro ; tree a strong grower and free from curl-leaf, very productive. On the basis of its be- havior at the University Experiment Station at Po- mona, this variety has recently been largely planted in southern California. It is counted the best yel- low cling for canning in that section. Ripens with Lemon Cling. Albright's Cling (California). — "Originated with Mr. Albright, near Placerville. Very large ; yellow, with bright cheek; rarely equaled in quality and flavor. Described as larger, more highly colored, of better flavor, better shape, and the tree a more pro- lific bearer than the Orange Cling." — P. IV. Butler. Endures long shipment even after being well colored. McDcvitt C//)ig.— "Originated with Neal McDevitt, of Placer County. Uniformly large; rich, golden yel- low, becoming red when ripe ; flesh very firm and solid, superior in flavor; excellent shipper; tree good and regular bearer. Staley (California). — Very large; eleven and one- half inches in circumference; somewhat elongated and flattened laterally; rich, creamy white with very faint touches of light red; suture shallow, but almost continuous around the peach ; stone small and per- fectly free, cavity considerably longer than stone ; flesh white to the pit. very juicy, fine, tender; flavor delicious. Originated as sucker from peach root from which prune had been broken off in Selma, Fresno County. Ripens twenty days after Salway or four weeks after Susquehanna. A high-class white freestone. Introduced by F. M. Nevins, Selma. Levy's Late; syn. Henrietta (District of Columbia). — Above average size, yellow flesh, red cheek ; late ; clingstone. Very popular in San Joaquin Valley. r:%wj'smsiaet. How to Grow Tlieiu 201 Dates of Ripening Dates of ripening of leading varieties. The relative ripening of a large number of peach varieti Experiment Station, at Pomona, will be useful to planters sion of varieties, although of course the exact dates will not s. as noted at the University 1 determining proper succes- videly apply. June 16 June 17 June 17 July 15 Julv Julv 17 21 July 21 Jul> 25 3 5 5 VARIETY. First flower. Kull flower. Briggs' Red May March 4 March 24 Amsden's June March 8 March 25 Alexander March 17 March 3 1 Large Early York March 4 March 18 Yellow St. John March 4 March 12 Crawford's Early March 2 March 15 Foster .-. March 4 March 15 Oldmixon Free March 7 March IS Morris White March 4 March 15 Muir March 8 March 23 Susquehanna March 4 March 14 Crawford's Late March 2 March 14 Newhall March 4 March 14 Runyon's Orange Cling March 2 March 14 California Cling March 2 aiarch 16 Stump the World March 2 March 16 Lovell Feb. 28 March 9 Nichols' Orange Cling March 4 March 14 Seller's Cling March 2 March 14 McDevitt's Cling March 2 March 18 McKevitfs Cling March 2 March 19 Wilkins' Cling March 3 March 14 Indian Blood March 5 March 25 Yellow Tuscany Cling March 5 March 19 Lemon Cling March 14 April 1 Smock's Late Free March 4 March 1 8 Picquet's Late March 5 March 18 Staley's California March 2 March 15 Henrietta (Levy's) March 6 March 15 Heath's Cling. '. March 7 March 14 Salway March 7 March 9 Aug. Aug. Aug. Aug. 8 Aug. 8 Aug. 8 Aug. 12 Aug. 12 Aug. 13 Aug. 14 Aug. 14 Aug. 16 Aug. 19 Aug. 20 Aug. 20 Aug. 21 Aug. 21 Aug. 28 Sept. 1 Sept. 6 Sept. 15 Sept. 15 Sept. IS Bilyeu's Late October. — "Large ; greenish white Decker with red cheek; flesh whitish, freestone; tree a rapid ment. in grower and attains great size; prolific bearer; fruit Counties, ships well, and where it will mature no peach can fake its place ; does particularly well in the foot- hills."— P. W. Butler. ( California).- Vaca Valley, -Grown for eastern ship- and in Sutter and Butte The California Nectarine 202 California Fruits CHAPTER XXI. THE CALIFORNIA NECTARINE. THE nectarine reaches perfection under California conditions, as does its close relative, the peach. The fruit is, in fact, as Downing says, only a variety of the peach with a smooth skin ; only a distinct, accidental variety of the peach ; and this is rendered quite certain, since there are sev- eral well-known examples on record of both peaches and nectarines having been produced on the same branch. Nectarine pits usually produce nectarines again, but they occasion- ally produce peaches. Peach seeds occasion- ally produce nectarines ; the Boston variety originated from a peach stone.* All these facts which are recorded of the relation be- tween the peach and nectarine have been verified by California observation. The practice of growing nectarines is also exactly like that employed with the peach. It is propagated and pruned in the same ways, except that, as pointed out by Mr. Culbertson, the nectarine has more of a ten- dency to form short interior growths, and fruit buds are formed on the larger new growths, thus enabling the pruner to cut them back more closely, and yet have an abundance of fruit buds remain. The peach and nectarines are the same in natural ad- aptations and requirements, and in diseases, so that what has been given concerning the growth of the peach in this State has an apt application in the case of the nectarine. The success of the nectarine worked on almond stock, as lias been demonstrated by the experience of many, has led to the grafting over a good many unprofitable al- mond trees to nectarine, though this has not been done to the extent to which the French prune and some other plums have been worked on old almond stocks. CoMP.'\R.\Ti\T-: Production of N^^CT.\RINE AND Peach. — It mav be wondered, consider- *"DowninK\s Fruit and Fruit Tree= irg the similarity of the peach and the nec- tarine, why the former comes so near being our leading deciduous fruit and the latter is the least grown, but one, of all the temperate zone fruits, only the lowly quince being less in importance. The explanation is that the fruit buyer, both in California and at the East, prefers the peach, whether it be fresh, or canned, or dried, and some of those who have tried even a few acres of nectarines have found many occasions to wish the ground had been given to peaches.' How much of this preference is due to lack of knowledge of the nectarine, and how much to its somewhat difTerent flavor, it would be difficult to actually determine. It is true, however, that the nectarine is now advancing in popular favor. This has been prophesied for some years and seems now being slowly realized because of the wonderful excellence of the nectarine as grown in our interior valleys, and the passing beauty of the amber translucency of the dried nectarine, both when sun-dried and when produced by machine evaporators. The ex- cellence of the canned nectarine, has also figured in the anticipation! It is, however, qaestion.able how far this anticipation has been realized, for it is estimated that the amount of dried nectarines is less than two pqr cent, and of canned nectarines less than one-half of one per cent of the respective forms of peaches. Nor does the demand call for change in this proportion, for there is a slight advantage in the market value of the peach even in its great preoonderance of supply. Still, the price for dried nectarines has been better of late, but whether this is due to better appreciation or reduced production, is a question. It is true that during the last decade many nectarines have been rooted out to be replaced by peach trees, or have been grafted over into peaches. There are, however, some growers who are How to Grow Them 203 Varieties of the Nectarine confident that the nectarine will in the future rank much higher in the California fruit product. It would please growers and fruit driers and canners to popularize the nec- tarine, for its smooth skin makes it as easy to handle as an apricot, and the beauty of the product, which certainly exceeds that of the peach, and is rather more easily at- tained, is very gratifying to the producer. VARIETIES OF THE NECTARINE. Varieties of the nectarine, as of the peach, show different local adaptations, and are valued by growers accordingly. The vari- eties grown, are, however, comparatively few. The following have been found most satisfactory in California; the descriptions are somewhat condensed from Downing's treatise, modified to suit local growth, and arranged approximately in the order of the ripening of the varieties: Advance. — Large, round, green, marked with red and brown; flesh greenish white; rich and well fla- vored. The earliest to ripen. Lord Napier (English).— Large, pale crean: color with dark red cheek ; flesh white, melting, lender and juicy, separating freely from stone; lea/ glands reniform and flowers large. Especially commended as a heavy and regular bearer: pronounced best in flavor at Pomona li.xperiment Station. Doii'iiton (English).— Leaves with reniform glands ; flowers small : fruit large, roundish oval ; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek: llesh pale green, slightly red at the stone, which is free, melting, rich, and very good. Early Ncivington (English). — Leaves serrated without glands; flowers large; fruit large, roundish ovate, a little enlarged on one side, and terminating with an acute, swollen point ; skin pale green, but nearly covered with bright red and coated with thin bloom ; flesh greenish white, but deeo red at stone, which adheres closely, juicy, sugary, rich, and ex- cellent. Hardzvicke (English). — Leaves with globose glands ; fruit very large, roundish, inclining to oval ; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek; flesh pale green, slightly marked with red at the stone, melting, rich, and high-flavored ; freestone. This variety is a favorite in southern California ; de- scribed by the Southern California Nurserj'men's Association as being the only satisfactory bearer. 5oj/oji.— Raised from a peach, stone by T. Lewis, of Boston; tree hardy and productive; leaves with globose glands ; flowers small ; fruit large and hand- some, roundish oval, bright yellow, with deep red cheek; flesh yellow to the stone (which is small and pointed), sweet, though not rich, with pleasant and peculiar flavor; freestone; a general favorite in California. Nnv White; syn. Large White.— h^awts with reni- form glands; flowers large; fruit rather large, .nearly round; skin white with occasionally slight tinge of red; flesh white, tender, very juicy, with rich, vin- ous flavor; stone small and free; commended wher- ever nectarines are grown in California, and more freely planted than all other nectarines combined. 5/oHKiiV/?.— Originated in England from seed brought from Syria. Large, roundish oval, slightly heart-shaped at base; skin pale, greenish white, shaded into deep, rich violet in the sun; flesh white, tender, juicy, rich, sugary, and delicious. Humboldt. — Very large, bright orange yellow vig- orously marked with crimson, flesh orange, tender; juicy, and high flavored. Described as one of the best of the newer varieties. Ripens late. As the future for the nectarine seems to rest upon drying and canning of the fruit, the light-skinned, white or yellow-fleshed varieties without color at the stone, are most desirable. For drying there has been thus far a decided preference for freestone varieties, though possibly the present popularity of cling peaches for drying may extend to the clingstone nectarines. Much color, however, either in skin or flesh, will prevent the pro- duction of the beautiful translucent, amber hue of the dried nectarine, which is attractive to consumers. Color in the flesh is, of course, undesirable in canning, because of discolora- tion of the syrup. These facts have had much to do in fixing the popularity of the varieties named in the foregoing list. At present the largest orchards of nec- tarines are in interior valley locations, which are also fine peach counties and are per- fectly adapted fjoth to the growing of the fruit and to the open-air, sun-drying of it The Pear 204 California Fruits CHAPTER XXII. THE PEAR IN CALIFORNIA. THE oldest deciduous fruit trees in Cali- fornia are pear trees, as has already been stated in the account of fruits at the old missions, and some of the trees are still bearing, though it is a century and a third since their planting. Trees planted by pio- neers in the old mining districts have actually assumed semblance to adjacent oaks. Nota- ble instances are found in the Stillwater district of Shasta County and elsewhere. Near San Jose there is a tree over half a century old, with a trunk seven and a half feet around and yielding annually about fif- teen hundred pounds of fruit, some of which was exhibited at the Columbian Exposition. The pear withstands neglect and thrives in soils and situations which other fruit trees would rebel against. It defies drouth and excessive moisture, and patiently proceeds with its fruitage, even when the soil is trampled almost to rocky hardness by cattle, carrying its fruit and foliage aloft above their reach. And 3-et the pear repays care and good treatment, and receives them from Cali- fornia growers, for the pear has been one of our most profitable fruits. It is in demand for canning, for drying, and for distant shipment, and its long season and the slow ripening after picking allow deliberation in marketing, and admit of enjoying low rates for shipment by slow trains. One of the most striking demonstrations of the com- mercial suitability of the California pear is found in successful marketing in London. Solomons, who is called "London's greatest fruiterer," said in 1903 that California Bart- letts from Block of Santa Clara are the best in the world." Even after crossing the con- tinent they seemed to endure shipment across the Atlantic better than eastern pears. The pear has not the beauty of the peach, nor is its handling characterized by so much dash and spirit, but the production of favor- ite market varieties at a time when the mar- ket welcomes them, is about as well repaid as any effort of the California fruit grower. Some idea of the yield of thrifty trees in large numbers can be had from the report of 100 acres of Bartletts on the Cone ranch near Red Blufif, which in 1904 yielded 900 tons of fruit which sold at $30 per ton — a gross yield of $27,000 of which not more than $7,000 were required to pay for the year's care and harvesting, a net yield of $200 per acre. There are much higher fig- ures, of course, as the product of eight acres near Yuba City which yielded eighty tons in 1905, sold at $50 per ton -or a gross return of $500 per acre ; and 95 tons in 1906 at $36 per ton or $427 per acre. There are higher returns than this and, unfortunately, many that are much lower. The most obvious marks of the California pear are size and beauty. The most con- spicuous example is the Bartlett, which is the pear of California, judged by its popu- larity, fresh, canned and dried. When well grown, its size is grand, and its delicate color, aroma, and richness unsurpassed. What extreme in point of size has been reached is not known to the writer, but he saw at the San Jose Horticultural Fair, of 1886, thirteen Bartlett pears grown by A. E'lock, of Santa Clara, which weighed four- teen pounds, the heaviest of the group weigh- ing twenty-two and one-half ounces. Other pears have made standard sizes in Califor- nia far in advance of their records elsewhere. There was in 1870 a Pound pear sent from Sacramento to the late Marshall P. Wilder, president of the American Pomological So- ciety, which weighed four pounds nine ounces, and was reported by Colonel Wilder to be larger than anything previously re- corded in pear annals.* But California has recently done even better for a pear from near Marysville in 1904 is reported as nine *"Tiltou'.s Journal of Horticulture. March, 1871, p S7. An engraving of this fruit, natural size, was given in Pacific Rural Press, Nov. 8, 1873." How to Grow Them 205 Localities for the Pear inches high, sixteen inches around the base and five pounds in weight. Notes kept by the writer inchide five Vicar of Winkfields weighing four pounds eight ounces ; nine Easter Beurre weighing twenty-four and one-half pounds, the heaviest single specimen weighing two and three-fourths pounds ; thirty-five Beurre Clairgeau weigh- ing thirty-seven pounds, the heaviest one, nineteen ounces ; Seckel pears, nine and three-fourths inches in circumference — Down- ing's figures make the Seckel five and seven- eighths inches around. LOCALITIES FOR THE PEAR. The pear has a wider range than the apple in local adaptations. It does as well as the apple in the coast regions, if suitable vari- eties are grown ; it thrives far better than the apple in the interior valleys ; it rivals the apple in the ascent of the slope of the Sierra Nevada, and gains from the altitude, color and late keeping, as does the apple. By re- jecting a few naturally tender varieties, or by proper protection against the scab fungus (fusicladiitin dendriticum), in regions where its attacks are severe, one can grow pears al- most everywhere in California — providing pear blight can be held in check, as will be dis- cussed later. The choice of location is governed more by commercial considerations than by natural phenomena. The same facts which make the Bartlett the favorite variety with planters, also should regulate the choice of locality for growing it. These facts were expressed by the late C. W. Reed, of Sacramento, who was in his time one of the leading pear growers and shippers of the State, as follows : In the Sacramento Valley proper there is but one variety of pear that will justify extensive cultivation, viz., the Bartlett. While nearly all varieties may be grown successfully, and many varieties may be desir- able for home purposes, yet for profitable orchards we have to confine ourselves to this one variety, except in high altitudes, or localities where the fruit only matures very late. The reason for this will be bet- ter understood by the inexperienced if explained. The Bartlett pear having qualities that make it a universal favorite for shipping, canning, and for do- mestic market, no other variety is wanted while it is obtainable. With the difference in the time of its ripening in different localities that are adjacent, our markets are supplied with this variety about four months each season, viz., July, August, September, and October. While this pear is in the markets, any other variety to compete with it must sell at very low prices. It is not only the great demand the Bartlett pear has over the other varieties in the markets, but as a healthy grower and regular bearer it has no equal. [This was written before the introduction of the pear blight.] In higher altitudes, where pears will keep till the Bartlett has disappeared, other varieties may be quite profitable, although they can never be grown to any similar extent. Of course experienced pear growers, whose taste would soon cloy with a continuous diet of P.artletts, and who know fully the superior quality of other varieties which ripen soon after it, would dispute the position taken by Mr. Reed, but for present California taste and trade he is undoubtedly correct. As the canners and shippers and local consumers all call for Bartletts, and as they usually sell at the East for nearly twice the price of other varieties, the choice of location to secure a Bartlett, either very early or very late, is the part of wisdom, for either end of the season usually yields better prices than the middle. Some growers are even opening the Bartlett season by growing Clapp's Favorite, which sells well because it is taken for a Bartlett, and closing the season with the Winter Bart- lett, a local variety recently introduced. The earliest Bartletts come from the interior valley sometimes as early as the last week in June ; the next, from the valleys adjacent to the bay of San Francisco ; the next, from the higher foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada ; and the last, so far as present experience goes, although some coast and mountain situations are quite late, reach the market from the Vacaville district. It is an inter- esting fact that this district, which has long been famous for marketing the first early fruits, should also market very late ones. It is true, however, that early fruits hasten to maturity and late fruits are retarded. Late fruits push along until about midsummer, then stop growing for a inonth or two dur- ing the hottest weather, and afterwards pro- ceed on their course and finish up well. W. W. Smith, of Vaca Valley, has picked Bartletts as late as November 19, but that is unusually late. In years with heavy late spring rains the Bartlett ripens earlier in the A^aca Valley than in ordinary seasons, and when the fruit sells well in the East, the Bart- letts are gathered green and shipped all through the season, as their first growth usually makes them large enough for this purpose. Though the Bartlett is in wide favor, as stated, there is some pro'gress being made in Propagation and Planting 206 California Fruits: introducing other varieties, as will be stated in connection with the discussion of the adaptations of varieties. This substitution of other sorts is in part because the merit of others is being recognized, and in part be- cause in some regions some of them are healthier and more trustworthy bearers than the Bartlett. There is produced in some situations a "second crop" of Bartletts and of other vari- The Bartlett Pear. SOILS FOR THE PEAR. The pear, if it is not allowed to dry out entirely, will generally do well on shallow soil and over a tight, clay hard-pan, where most other fruits would be unsatisfactory or fail utterly. The trees will thrive in clay loams, and even in adobe, if properly culti- vated. In laying out fruit farms, which often include a variety of soils, even in compara- tively small area, the pears and plums (if on the right stock, as will be seen) should be set on the lower, moister, stiffer soil, and other fruits on the lighter, warmer, and better-drained portions. The pear, however, enjoys the better situation, though it will thrive on the poorer. The tree seems to attain its greater growth and heaviest bearing on the alluvial soils of the valleys and near the banks of rivers and streams. All pears will be later in maturing and have better keeping qualities if grown on a clay subsoil. Thus it appears that the pear will flourish whether the water is neai* or far from the surface. On wet land the apple is apt to die in a few years, or become worthless. On dry land the apple lives longer, but the fruit is small and tasteless. But the pear tree may bear good fruit, under the same conditions. It has been learned by experience that the pear will flourish on soil somewhat alkaline. At the University Agricultural Experiment Station at Tulare, this subject has been dem- onstrated in detail. It is shown that though the pear endures a certain amoimt of alkali its limit of endurance may be often exceeded and there is little warrant to select alkali soil for pears, unless it be to fill a space that would otherwise be vacant in the orchard. If it is not too alkaline the pears will thrive. If gypsum be used in planting, somewhat stronger alkali will be endured than otherwise. eties which is of account when pears are scarce and is sometimes dried with profit. For such fruit the bloom appears upon the tips of the shoots of the current season's growth. The fruit is sometimes coreless and has led to claims of "seedless pears." Bart- lett pears have actually been picked in the foothills above Peretz in Butte coiuity on February 25, 1905, and described as "fine, delicious and ripe." This fact must be re- garded as a token of local climatic salubrity and not of economic or pomological account. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING. ' The use of dwarfing stock for the pear has been nearly abandoned in this State, though in early years the quince was largely used. The most prominent orchard on quince stock is that of A. Block, of Santa Clara, where may be seen dwarf trees originally planted eight feet apart in squares, but now wider spaced by removing part of the trees ; the remainder doing exceedingly well under lib- eral manuring and irrigation. It is quite possible that, at least for gardens, there may How to Grow Them 207 Distance in Planting be in the future more use made of dwarf trees, but for commercial orchards there appears no need of dwarfing. The common conclusion is that it is better to have fewer trees and larger ones, but since the pear blight became an issue in this State the Anglers quince has been advocated as a means of maintaining a sound root and keeping the warfare above ground. The following varieties are commended for cultivation on quince stock as dwarfs, experience proving them vigorous growers and abundant bearers in suitable localities : Bartlett, Beurre Hardy, Doyenne du Cornice, Duchess d'Angouleme, Glout Morceau, Pound, lleurre Diel. \\'hite Doyenne, Easter Beurre, Winter Nelis, P. Barry, Winter Bartlett. But the pear is usually grown in California on its own roots ; that is upon imported French pear seedlings. It comes into bearing early enough, and is a long-lived tree unless badly attacked by blight. Trees are grown b\' either budding or grafting, as described in the chapter on that subject. Only good seed- ling roots should be used, and not suckers from old trees. The Japanese stock, so called, being seedlings of the Sand pear, of Asia, has been used to some extent, but no definite results reported. Propagation upon rooted cuttings of the Le Conte. which has a meas- urable resistance to the pear blight, has been advised for the purpose of securing less susceptible roots. Mr. M. B. Waite, orchard pathologist of the United States Department of Agriculture, has in progress a test of many cross-bred seedlings in the hope of reaching a hardier seedlings stock for pears than is now known. He also proposes top grafting the liartlett upon Winter Nelis. Seckel. Angou- leme, Lawson and other partially immune varieties to increase the chances of securing a somewhat resistant tree-body and sound roots. Fortunately the pear is readily grafted- over b_\- the common methods. DisT.\NCE IN Pl.\ntinc,. — If the pears are to have the whole ground, it is usual to plant from twent\- to twenty-four feet apart on the square. As the tree is slower to attain size and full bearing than the .stone fruits, and as it is a long-lived tree, the pears are sometimes set twenty-four feet with plums in quincunx. Peaches and apricots are also set between pears sometimes, when the soil chosen for pears suits them also. PRUNING. Usually the pear is grown in the vase form, as described in the general chapter on prun- ing. With regular, upright growers, heading low and cutting to outside buds results in a handsome, gently-spreading top, and effectu- ally curbs the disposition which some vari- eties, notably the Bartlett, have to run straight up with main branches crowded together. As with other fruit trees, the pear must be studied and pruning must be done with an understanding of the habit of the variety under treatment. Irregular and wayward growers, which, in windy places, also have their rambling disposition promoted by pre- vailing winds, often give the grower much perplexity. The general rules of cutting to an outside bud to spread the tree, to an inside bud to raise and concentrate it, and to an outside bud one year and an inside bud the next, if a limb is desired to continue in a cer- tain course, are all helpful to the pruner. But with some pears, of which the Winter Nelis is a conspicuous example, it is ex- ceedingly hard to shape the tree by these general rules, and some growers abandon all rules, merely shortening in where too great extension is seen, or to facilitate cultivation, and trust to shaping the tree when it shall have finished its rampant growing period. It will be interesting to cite a few methods of California pear grow'ers : "The Winter Nelis pear is an uncouth grower. Let the trees alone until they have borne a good, heavy crop, and the hmbs come down and spread out nicely; this will occur in five or si.x years after setting. This will give you an idea what you want to do with the balance of the top that is not borne down with the fruit. My plan is to cut straggling branches, thin out so that the branches will not wind around each other, but don't cut the top, for you will find that the more you cut the more wood you get. and after the tree conies into full bearing is plenty of time to head back." — A. Cadwcll, Pcta- liiina. "Our orchard is not in a very windy place, but still it is windy enough to throw our Nelis trees out of form. To get any regularity of shape, we cut off every year all the shoots growing low down on the leeward side, shortening in what are left as occasion may require, to an inside bud. On the wind- ward side we rarely cut any branch out. but shorten in a little to an outside bud, frequently being obliged to cut back a strong shoot to a lateral which is growing outward." — Leonard Coatcs. Na/'a. "It is hard to get a misshapen Winter Nelis tree into shape. Let the grower take his shears and go around the tree and examine the difficulty until he is conversant with it, and then commence to prune, not Blight of the Pear 208 California Fruits too heavily though. Cut the Hmbs that lean too far 'leewards back a little with an inside bud, and train all future limbs toward the weather side of the tree; .cut the limbs this year so that the coming buds will form limbs growing in the direction of the weather side of the tree. But use moderation and take your time for it. and don't cut too many big limbs off three-year-old trees — none, in fact, if it can be helped. In bringing limbs to proper place, I have found a piece of corn-stalk the required length for the in- tended place, inserted endwise between the limb and the body of the tree to be spread, to be a very good brace, easily made, and not likely to injure the tree." — T. E. Ozi'oi, Santa Cruz. These methods will suggest otliers by which one can bring the most irregular grower into shape. If the tree is cut at planting so as to form the head low, it may be safely left until bearing age for shaping. The tree naturally makes a viny growth of young wood, and the object of leaving it alone is that one limb holds the other more upright until the main limbs become large, or stif? enough to keep the shape : so they may be left, after being thinned out to form three to five limbs, as judgment may direct. Some trees will lie best with three or four, others five. The experience of pear pruning just cited has been secured in regions more or less sub- ject to coast influences. In the hot interior valleys, with the pear as with the apple, care inust be taken to prune so as not to open the tree too much to the sun, but to shorten in and thin out only so far as is consistent with maintaining a good covering of foliage. The pruning of bearing pear trees is much like that of the apple, to be detennined largely by the habit of the tree, and to se- cure a fair amount of fruit on branches with strength and stififness enough to sustain it. Summer pruning will promote fruiting either in a young or an old tree and some practice it to secure early bearing of young trees, but the common practice is winter pruning to secure strong wood and prevent overbearing. THINNING PEARS. It is quite important to attend to thinning the fruit on overloaded trees. Even the popu- lar Bartlett will often give fruit too small for profitable sale unless thinned. With pears, as other fruits, thinning should not be done until it is seen that the fruit is well set. Dropping off from natural causes some- times thins the crop quite enough. IRRIGATION OF THE PEAR. In some situations the pear needs irrigation, though it will endure drouth which would destroy most other fruit trees. There is no profit in small, tough fruit. As stated in the chapter on irrigation the wood growth and fruit show whether proper moisture needs are met or not. Early pears are advanced in development by irrigation in some parts of the State, and this is an important factor in their value. BLIGHT OF THE PEAR. Although California pear growers who came to the State endowed with eastern experience have always apprehended the intro- duction of the true pear blight and shivered every time they saw die-back or blackening on a pear branch, the probability is that all early reports of its entrance were misappre- hensions until the real scourge appeared in the San Joaquin valley about a decade ago. The rapidity with which trees began to be destroyed at that time manifested its habit in this State and warrants the conclusion that earlier troubles of the tree probably arose from other causes. In 1904, after having nearly wiped out bearing trees in the southern counties of the San Joaquin valley the disease began to devastate the orchards along the Sacramento river through the vast area of rich valley land which it traverses and on which is situated our most extensive pear acreage. In 1905 resolute warfare was made upon the blight, with a large appropriation of State funds, by the plant disease experts of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the California Agricultural Experi- ment Station, with the assistance of the local horticultural authorities. It was probably the greatest campaign ever made against a single tree disease although some insect war- fares have been greater. The outlines of the plans followed and the results attained are to be found in the publications of the insti- tutions engaged.* In a later chapter on Diseases of Trees and Vines, an outline of procedure against pear blight will be given. It is apprehended that neither paying crops nor living trees can be * Reports cf the California Commi.ssioners of Horticulture. 1901 to 1906. including Reports on California Fruit Growers Con- ventions for 1905-6-7, J. W. Jeffrey. Commissioner, Sacramento. Report of Plant Pathologist, University Experiment station. Berkeley. 1906. How to Grow Them 209 To Ripen Pears counted upon in the future unless the disease is successfully kept under control by success- ful fighting or by recourse to some form of natural immunity which can be discovered or developed by plant breeding. It is prob- able that pears cannot be grown in the future as cheaply and profitably as in the past and there is a certain amount of bravery or daring in pear investments at the present time. It is encouraging, however, to note that in California the disease- shows signs of rela.xing the virulence which characterized its first attacks and it is reasonable to believe that here as elsewhere it may he possible to have the blight and pears also. The reader must keep himself continually informed of the various phases of the problem as they will arise, by careful study of our excellent Cali- fornia horticultural journals and of later publications from the official sources which have been indicated. The very exuberance of the pear in Califor- nia seems to increase the virulence of the blight. The long growing season with its continual production of new soft tissue, the unseasonable bloom which attracts bees to bring new supplies of blight germs, the break of new shoots from root, trunk and main branches — all these make the tree sub- ject to repeated renewals of the disease in its most vulnerable parts. How far growth can be repressed by scant cultivation or by sum- mer pruning ; how far suppression of later shoots and blooms is practicable and whether the tree can be depleted so that it can only make fair sized fruit and no surplus soft tissue for blight invasion — all these are cul- tural problems which make pear growing very interesting to the enquiring mind. A Sonoma grower suggests that pruning may be used to control pear blight in the following man- ner: It is the natural tendency of the pear and apple while young to form fruiting spurs upon the body and larger branches of the tree. These fruiting spurs produce blossoms from year to year, which are in turn as liable to be visited b.y bees or other insects carrying the destructive spores of the disease as are the blossoms at the ends of the branches. It is evident, therefore, that a blossom situated upon the body or larger branches of a tree, becoming infected, would communicate the disease directly to the framework of the tree, with the result that it would be fatally in- jured : but if these fruiting spurs are all removed from the body and larger branches by pruning, the possibilities of infection in this way are overcome. The available means of gaining entrance to the tree by this para- site is confined to the smaller branches, which if aflfected can be cut away without severely injuring or disfiguring the tree. All suckers at the base of the tree should be removed at the point where they emerge from the trunk or the roots. The scab fungus which seriously aflfects some varieties, and notably the Winter Nelis, in the Coast region, is identical with the scab of the apple and will be mentioned in the chapter on tree diseases. Because of the liability of the Winter Nelis, to this disease, and because of its irregular bearing in the coast region, there have been many trees grafted over into varieties better suited to coast conditions. The Beurre Clairgeau, be- cause of its health, prolific bearing, and ac- ceptability to shippers, was largely introduced in this way, but it has not sold as well as expected. Ordinary' top grafting succeeds admirably with the pear. Clapp's Favorite and other varieties have also been worked upon Winter Xelis but they are apt to be more susceptible to blight than Winter Nelis so this old practice is now of less value than formerly. GATHERING AND RIPENING OF PEARS. Many pear growers make the common mis- take of allowing the fruit to hang too long on the tree, instead of gathering and ripen- ing in a cool, dark place. Pears should be picked at the first indication of ripeness, the first sign being a tendency of the stem to part from the spur when the pear is gently raised up. This test applies especially to the Bartlett. Picking at this stage and lay- ing away in the dark ripens up the Bartlett well. When picked at this stage and sent overland by slow freight, they ripen en route and the boxes open well on the Eastern mar- kets. There are a few varieties which shrivel if ripened under cover, but the rule is a good one, and the grower will soon note the exceptions. Many desirable varieties have, no doubt, been pronounced poor and in- sipid because allowed to ripen on the tree. To ripen well, pears should be packed in tight boxes or inclosed in drawers. They Varieties Approved 210 California Fruits: do not do as well as apples on shelves open to circulation of air. As already stated, the oily-skinned apple endures exposure and maintains a smooth, ruddy cheek and sound heart in spite of wind, rain, and rough weather. The pear under similar conditions decays rapidly. is more conspicuous here than at the east. It has been individually noted, however, that the White Doyenne is a good fertilizer for the Bartlett. The Winter Nelis is the one of the pears commercially worth growing which is most apt to be fruitless, but thus far association with other varieties has not Pear varieties approved by California growers. Upper Central VARIETIES. coast coast valleys. valleys. Angouleme, Duchess'd , « Anjou «,, ^ Bartlelt ,« ** Bloodgood Bosc , ^ B S. Fox ^, , Brandywine * Clairgeau * « Clapp's Favorite <,» , Cornice *, *.„ Dana's Hovey ,* »« Dearborn ^< Diel , . Easter Beurre ^^ ,, Emile d'Heyst , * Flemish Beauty ^ « Glout Morceau ^^ *, Hardy, Beurre ,, Howell * , Kieffer Lawson Louise, Bonne de Jersey- j, „ Madeleine <, Onondaga , , P. Barry ^^ t* Seckel ^, ,, Souv. du Congres ^. ^ Vicar of Winkfield , , Wilder, Karly White Doyenne j, ^, Winter Bartlett „ , Winter Nelis ^ „^, * Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. ** Most highly commended. Interior valley and foot-hill. POLLINATION OF PEARS. As very few varieties of pears are largely grown in California and as the Bartlett generally bears well when grown in large acreages by itself, the eastern claim that the Bartlett is self-sterile does not seem to be justified in California experience. Recent observations indicate that even at the east the Bartlett is self-fertile when conditions are favorable to setting of the fruit and self- sterile when they are otherwise. As con- ditions are usually favorable in California this may be the reason why its self-fertility been demonstrated to be a full remedy. For the assistance of those who desire to test pear pollination the following statement is made of the relative dates of bloom of a large number of varieties, based upon records kept in Tulare County : VARIETY. First bloom. Full bloom. Barry March 10 March 20 Bartlet March 14 March 24 Belle Lucrative March 14 March 26 Beurr^ Clairgeau March 11 March 22 Beurr^ d'.'^nianlis March 10 March 20 Beurr6 d'Anjou March 16 March 24 How to Grow Them 211 Varieties of the Pear VARIETY. First bloom. Full bloom. Beurr6 Diel March 20 March 30 Beurr6 Giffartl March 16 March 26 BeurrA Gristl'Hiver March 14 March 24 Beurr^ Hardy March IS March 28 Clapp's Favorite March 14 March 24 Colonel Wilder March 14 March 24 Counseiller de la Cour March 12 March 22 Dearborn's Seedling March 16 March 28 Doyenne d'Alencon March 18 March 28 Doyenne d'Et^ March 18 March 28 Doyenne du Cornice March 16 March 26 Duchesse d'Angouleme March 12 March 20 Easter Beurr6 March 14 March 20 Flemish Beautv March 20 March 30 Forelle ' March 2 March 10 Frederick Clapp March 16 March 26 Howell March 14 March 24 Jaminette March 12 March 22 Josephine deMalines March 12 March 22 Keifer's Hybrid March 2 March 10 Kennedy . ' March 14 March 24 Lawrence March 12 March 22 Lawson March 16 March 26 Le Conte Feb. 28 March 2 Louise Bonne de Jersey .... March 10 March 20 Seckel March 14 March 24 Sheldon March 18 March 28 Souvenir du Congr^s March 20 March 29 Swan's Orange March 14 March 24 Vernon March 8 March 19 White Doyenne March 14 March 24 Winter Nelis March 12 March 20 VARIETIES OF THE PEAR. Though large collections of famous Eastern and European pears have been brought to California, the peculiarity of the local mar- ket, and demand for canning and shipping has led to concentration upon very few sorts. The pears chiefly grown in California are the following, arranged approximately in the order of their ripening: Harvest; syn. Sugar Pear (American). — Small, roundish, pale yellow, brownish in sun, brown and green dots; flesh whitish, rather dry but sweet; tree upright, young wood olive yellow brown. Madeleine (French). — Medium, obovate pyriform, stalk long and slender, set on the side of a small swelling; pale yellowish green, rarely brownish blush; calyx small, in shallow, furrowed basin ; flesh white, juicy, delicate. Wilder Early (American). — Small to medium, yel- low with red cheek; sweet, and good. Recently in- troduced and profitable for local sale in San Diego County. Sliould not be confused with Col. Wilder, a California seedling which has gone out of use. Blondgood (New York). — Tree short, jointed, deep reddish brown wood; fruit medium turbinate, in- clining to obovate, thickening abruptly into stalk; yellow, sprinkled with russet dots ; caly.x strong, open, almost without depression ; stalk obliquely inserted, without depression, short, fleshy at its base ; flesh yellowish white, melting, sugary, aromatic; core small. Clapp's Favorite (Massachusetts). — Tree a strong grower ; young shoots dark reddish brown ; fruit large, slightly obtuse pyriform ; pale lemon yellow with brown dots; flesh fine, melting, juicy, with rich, sweet delicate, vinous flavor; resembles Bartlett, but lacks musky flavor. Dearborn's Seedling (Massachusetts). — Young shoots long, reddish brown ; under medium size ; roundish pyriform ; smooth, clear, light yellow, with few minute dots ; stalk slender set with very little depression ; calyx spreading in shallow basin ; flesh white, very juicy, melting, sprightly. Lazvson; syn. Comet (New York). — Medium to large, bright crimson on yellow ground ; flesh fine, rich and sweet. Souvenir du Congres (French). — Large to very large (exceeding Bartlett and Clapp's Favorite, to both of which it bears a strong resemblance) ; skin smooth, bright yellow when fully ripe, brilliant carmine in the sun ; flesh resembling Bartlett, but has not the musky flavor ; firm to the core ; tree a good grower, but somewhat subject to smut. Bartlett (English).— Tree a strong grower, early bearer, and healthy; fruit large, smooth, clear yellow, sometimes with delicate blush; stalk moderately long, stout and inserted in shallow cavity; calyx open; flesh white, fine grained, juicy, buttery, highly per- fumed (musky), vinous flavor. Beurre Hardy. — Large, long obovate, sometimes obscurely pyriform ; skin greenish with thin, brown russet; stalk an inch long; cavity small, uneven, oblique, basin shallow ; buttery, somewhat melting, rich, slightly subacid ; tree a strong grower. Flemish Beauty (Belgian). — Large, obovate, often obscurely tapering to the crown, very obtuse, sur- face slightly rough, with some reddish brown russet on pale yellow ground; flesh juicy, melting, and good if nicked early and ripened in the house. Seckel (Pennsylvania).— Rather small, regularly formed, obovate; brownish green, becoming dull yel- lowish brown, with russet red cheek; stalk slightly curved, and set in a trifling depression; cal>TC srnall and set in a very slight depression ; flesh whitish, butterv, very juicy and melting, with peculiarly rich, spicv flavor and aroma. Hourll (Connecticut). — Rather large, roundish pyriform, light waxen yellow, often with finely- shaded cheek thickly sprinkled with minute russet dots and some russet patches ; stalk medium, without cavity and sometimes lipped ; sometimes in small cav- ity; calyx open in large, uneven basin; flesh whitish, juicy, brisk, vinous. Duchess d' Angouleme (France). — Very large, ob- long obovate ; somewhat uneven, knobby surface ; dull greenish yellow, streaked and spotted with rus- set; stalk long, stout, bent, deeply set in irregular cavity; calyx set in somewhat knobby basin; flesh white, buttery, and juicy, with rich flavor. Louise Bonne of Jersey (France). — Large oblong pyriform. a little one-sided; glassy, pale green in shade, brownish red in the sun, numerous gray dots; stalk cur^-ed. rather obliquelv inserted, without de- pression, or with a fleshy, enlarged base; calyx open in a shallow uneven basin: flesh verv juicy, and melt- in?, rich, and excellent; vcn,' prolific. Beurre Diel (Belgium). — Large, varying from obo- vate to obtuse pyriform ; skin rather thick, lemon yellow, becoming orange yellow, marked with large Varieties of the Pear 212 California Fruits brown dots and marblings o{ russet ; stalk stout, curved in rather uneven cavity; calyx nearly closed, in slightly furrowed basin ; flesh yellowish white, a little coarse-grained near the core ; rich, sugary, buttery, delicious. While Doyenne; syn. rirgalicu (France). — Me- dium to large, regular, obovate ; smooth, clear pale yellow, sprinkled with small dots, sometimes red cheeked; stalk brown, little curved, in small round cavity; caly.x small, closed in shallow basin; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, rich, and high flavored. Beurrc Bosc (Belgium). — Large pyriform, a little imeven, often tapering long and gradually into the stalk ; skin pretty smooth, dark yellow, dots and streaks of cinnamon russet, slightly red on one side; stalk long, rather slender, curved; calyx short, in shallow basin ; flesh white, melting, buttery, rich, with slightly perfumed flavor. Onondaga; syn. Szvan's Orange (Connecticut). — Large, obtuse, oval pyriform, neck very short and obtuse, body large and tapering to obtuse apex ; flesh melting, sprightly, vinous. A vigorous,' up- right grower, healthy; yellow shoots; sells well in distant markets. Beurrc Clairgcau (France). — Large, pyriform. but with unequal sides ; yellow, shaded with orange and crimson, thickly covered with russet dots, sometimes sprinkled with russet ; stalk short, stout and fleshy, inserted by a lip at an inclination almost without de- pression; when lip is absent, the cavity is uneven; calyx open; flesh yellowish, buttery, juicy, granular, sugary, perfumed, vinous. A popular variety for local and distant markets. Beurre d'Anjou (France). — Large, obtuse pyri- form ; stem short, thick, and fleshy, in a cavity, sur- rounded by russet ; calyx small, open in small cavity, russetted ; skin greenish, sprinkled with russet, some- times shaded with dull crimson, brown and crimson dots; flesh whitish, not very fine, melting, juicy, brisk, vinous flavor, perfumed ; tree a fair grower, but somewhat affected by fungus. Dana's Hovey; syn. Winter Seckel (Massachu- setts), — Small, obovate, obtuse pyriform ; greenish yel- low or pale yellow, with much russet and brown dots; stalk rather short ; a little curved, set in slight cav- ity, sometimes lipped ; calyx open and basin small ; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, sweet, aromatic. Vicar of ll'inkficld (France). — Large and long py- riform ; pale yellow, fair and smooth, sometimes with brownish cheek and marked with small brown dots ; stalk slender, obliquely inserted without depression ; calyx large, open, set in a basin very slightly sunk; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, with good sprightly flavor. Doyenne du Coniice (France). — Large, varying, roundish pyriform, or broad, obtuse pyriform ; green- ish yellow becoming fine yellow, shaded with crimson, slightly marked with russet spots, and thickly sprinkled with russet dots : stalk short, stout, in- clined and set in shallow cavity, often russeted ; calyx small, open ; basin large, deep, and uneven ; flesh white, fine, melting, aromatic. Very profitable dur- ing last few years in eastern shipments. Gloiit Morceau (Flemish). — "Rather large, varying in form, but usually short pyriform. approaching ob- tuse oval; neck very short and obtuse; bodv \?v::'c and tapering towards crown ; often considerably rib- bed ; green, becoming pale greenish yellow; stalk stout, moderately sunk; calyx large; basin distinct, rather irregular ; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, melting, rich, sweet, and fine flavor," — /, /. Thomas. Block's Acme (California seedling, by A. Block, of Santa Clara). — Large and very handsome, surpass- ing Beurre Clairgeati in size and color; regularly formed, pyriform, skin pale yellow, covered with russet all over, which becomes a fine glowing red on the side exposed to the sun ; flesh white, crisp, and melting, juicy, sweet, and slightly musky; a pear that will rank foremost with our best shipping pears; reserved by originator for his own export trade. Winter Nclis (Belgium). — Medium, roundish, obo- vate, narrowed in near the stalk ; yellowish green, dotted with gray russet and a good deal covered with russet ; stalk rather long, bent, and set in nar- row cavity; calyx open in shallow basin; flesh yel- lowish, white, fine grained, buttery, very melting, and full of rich, sweet, aromatic juice. P. Barry (California seedling by B. S. Fox.) — Fruit large, elongated pyriform, a little obtuse; skin deep yellow, nearly covered with a rich golden russet ; stalk of medium length and thickness, set rather obliquely on a medium cavity, sometimes by a lip; flesh whitish, fine, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly vin- ous, and rich. "An early and prolific bearer. De- cember to January." — California Nursery Co. The pear, P. Barry, is recommended for planting, by the Southern California Nurserymen's Association. It is. to some extent, displacing the Winter Nelis as a more healthy tree and a more certain bearer. Eastor Beurre (France). — Large, roundish, obovate obtuse, often rather square in figure; yellowish green, sprinkled with many russet dots and some russet patches ; stalk rather short, stout, set in an abruptly sunken, obtuse cavity; calyx small, closed, but little sunk among plaited folds of angular basin ; flesh white, fine-grained, very buttery, melting, and juicy, sweet, rich flavor ; was successfully shipped from California to England as early as 1872. Pound. — Large, pyriform; yellowish-green with red cheek, esteemed for cooking; reaches enormous size in this State as already noted. Kieffer and Le Conte. — These pears, recently in- troduced as especially hardy varieties, are grown to a limited extent in all parts of the State, but are usually condemned as inferior to the Eu'-opeaii va- rieties which attain such excellence in this State. Crocker's Bartlctt (California). — Chance seedling on place of L. L. Crocker. Loomis, Placer County. Introduced by Mr. Crocker in 1902. Described in year book, iqo5. of U. S. Department of Agriculture ; medium to large, oblong, obovate, pyriform; rich golden yellow, somewhat russety; quality very good; keeps until March. Claimed to be blight-free and regularly productive. IVinter Bartlett (Oregon). — Chance seedling m a dooryard in Eugene. Oregon. Introduced Dy Ceo. C. Roeding of Fresno. Closely resembles Bartlett in shape and appearance and flavor but a little coarser ; ripens four months later than Bartlett in interior situations in California and promising as a winter pear. How to Grow Them 213 Localities for the Plum CHAPTER XXIII. PLUMS AND PRUNES.* THE plums of California are exceptionally fine in appearance and of high quality. Both tree and fruit have thus far escaped the parasites which have wrought greatest in- jur\f on the eastern side of the continent. The curculio has never been found here, and the "black knot,'' though detected in some of the indigenous species of the genus pni)iiis,f has never been observed in our or- chards. The tree sufifers, it is true, as do most other fruit trees, from various pests and diseases but their work is a light afflic- tion compared with the ravages of the cur- culio and black knot which Eastern phnn growers have to contend against. Including the large planting of the last few years, the plum stands first in point of number among the fruit trees of California, but, as noted in Chapter XX, the peach is a very close second. Of the plums, at least four-fifths are those varieties designated as prunes. This is, of course, owing to the profitable shipping de- mand for our prune product, while ordinary dried, pitted plums are expensive in produc- tion and do not always command good prices. There is, however, a large trade at the East in our fine plums in a fresh state. Some varieties stand shipment well, and are large, handsome and in some cases possessed of unique characters, resulting from Mr. Rur- bank's work with the Japanese species as will be noted later. Considerable shipments of fresh plums have been made from Cali- fornia to England. The maximum in plum profits is much like that with other fruits, for L. W. Leak, a Placer County grower, re- ported in igo6 a net return of $759 from an acre of "Hungarian prunes." * All prunes are pliinis, but aU plums are not prunes. A prune is a plum which can be dried without the removal of the pit without fermenting: the result beintr a fieshy pulp with a high degree of sweetness. All plums which will not do this are not prunes, even thouch the word may appear in their California common names. t Foim'l on pranus i^c.mi-sa, in Yosemite valley and in Coast ranee in Sm Mateo County, bv Dr. H W. Harknes. Report State Board of Horticulture. 1S.S3. pp. 54. 5S. By choosing varieties ripening in succes- sion, the plum season extends from May to December, thus enabling the California plum grower to strike the Eastern markets both early and late. It is on record, also, that second crop plums have ripened. In 1904 Judge Leib, of San Jose, sent to Luther Bur- bank, on December i, ripe fruit from a tree which ripened its first crop on July 4 of the same year. There is also a considerable demand for plums by the canners who do not use, how- ever, the varieties in chief demand for ship- ping. LOCALITIES FOR THE PLUM. The plum has an exceedingly wide range in California. The trees are thrifty and prof- itable even from the immediate vicinity of the coast, and in coast valleys, where the sea winds and fogs intrude, eastward across the great interior valleys, and upwards upon the sides of the Sierra Nevada. In the upper half of the State, at least, wherever there is sufficient moisture in the soil, good plums can be grown. The tree is quite hardy, but in situations open to sweep of the winds there has been found to be decided advan- tage in belts of sheltering trees for protec- tion. At some points subject to direct coast influences, there is sometimes loss by crack- ing of the fruit. It is seldom encountered in the interior valley, except near the rivers or in draws where the damp coast air makes its way through. It seems to be worst where there are marked diflferences in atmospheric humidity within short periods of time. Where the percentage is quite uniformly high or low there seems to be less trouble. Some years conditions usually restricted to more exposed coast situations prevail in the interior valley, and the result is unusual prevalence of mil- dew and other moist fungi and cracking of frrit also, though thev have no relation to Stocks and Soils 2i4 California Fruits : each other except that the same conditions favor both. Only certain varieties are thus affected, and they can be avoided where the trouble is found to exist. It was for a long time held that southern California was not adapted to the growth of the plum, but the experience of the last few years has shown that the conclusion was too broad. The "French prune" demonstrated its success adjacent to the coast in Santa Bar- bara County, and elsewhere, in the low, rich lands of the Santa Ana Valley, of Orange County, in the interior at various points on the rim of the San Gabriel Valley, in Los Angeles County, notably at Pomona, and still farther inland in the San Bernardino Valley, but the Southern California prune product is small because the land and water can be more profitably used for other fruits. There is, however, difficulty in some dry uplands where the tree is shy in fruiting and subject to serious giunming; but this is en- countered locally in all parts of the State. Irrigation does not. always overcome these troubles, and yet, no doubt, the arrangement of proper moisture conditions is important. The tree should be helped to make one good growth and to ripen its wood in the fall. To have growth checked by drouth and a second start made later in the season is not desirable. Still it must he admitted that prune plant- ing in the interior, proceeding with such ra- pidity, has encountered some soils and situ- ations in which bearing has not been alto- gether satisfactory. New planters should confer with older residents before making investments in prune planting in interior val- leys and foot-hills. All the foregoing observations are based upon the behavior of plums of European origin ; descendants of the primus domestica. One of the grandest contributions to the extension of the range of the plum in Cali- fornia was the introduction of the Asiatic species, primus triflora and simoni. Varieties of these species directly introduced or locally developed by Burbank and others, have proved productive in places where the domes- tica varieties were abandoned as shy or sterile. To estimate the value of these vari- eties one has only to visit the home fruit gar- dens of southern California or inspect the fruit stands of Los Angeles which are continuous exhibits of fine specimens of these varieties in their seasons. Even in places where the domestica varieties are largely grown the Asi- atic varieties are also prominent as is shown by the fact that the Wickson, a Burbank tri- flora-simoni hybrid, is the leading shipping plum of California, and shipping plums are chiefly grown in the central and northern regions of the State. Other notable Burbank plums of recent introduction will be included in the descriptions of varieties at the close of this chapter. SOILS AND STOCKS FOR THE PLUM. With the plum, as with the apricot, the subjects of soils and stocks are intimately related, but the whole matter has been won- derfully simplified by the experience of the last few years. This relief has come through the adoption of the myrobalan, or cherry plum {Prunus niyrobalana) as a general all- around stock for plums and prunes. Before this practice was taken up the effort to grow the plum on its own roots generally resulted in getting an orchard full of suckers, and to avoid this, plums were worked on peach roots wherever this root would succeed in the soil to be planted. But some varieties of plums do not take kindly to the peach, and then "double working" (putting first on the peach a plum which is known to take well and then on that plum wood the variety desired) was followed. The use of the myrobalan does away with the suckering nuisance and the need of double working. There was considerable discussion a few years ago as to what is the true myrobalan, and it must be acknowledged that some of the refined distinctions formerly claimed have been abandoned. Seedlings grown from the seed of the myrobalan vary as do other fruit seedlings, both in fruit and in foliage and habit of trees, and perhaps this fact has given rise to the distinction between "true" and "false" myrobalan, so called. Practice has proceeded without much reference to the discussion, and our nurserymen now have large, thrifty myrobalan trees from which they secure their seed supply. Growing stock from myrobalan cuttings is but little practiced. The myrobalan is now the accepted plum stock for California, except in light, alluvial, well drained soils, where, for the French prune, peach or almond may be preferred. Thoueh described bv some authorities as a How to Grow Them 215 Pruning: the French Prune dwarfing stock, it is found to be sufficiently free growing in California to suit all purposes, and to form a good foundation for full stan- dard trees, though the peach and almond roots in proper soils give a quicker and greater growth. Experience has shown that the myrobalan root thrives in this State both in low, moist, valley lands, in comparatively dry lands, and in stiff upland soils. In some soils especially adapted to the peach, peach roots are preferred as stock for the French prune, but, as already said, all plums can not be worked directly on the peach root, the Robe de Sergeant, Columbia, Yellow Egg, Washington, and Sugar Prune for example. Sometimes the bud or scion may make a large growth, but the two woods do not unite, and the trees break off sooner or later. Some work the plum on the apricot root, and report success when the soil suits the apricot root, and the gophers do not get at it. But it sometimes happens that the French prune parts from the apricot root even after growing some time upon it. There are, however, instances of the French prune thriving, and, apparently making good union with the apricot root and some of the softer wood varieties, like the Sugar Prune, take kindly to it. Some plums do well on the almond root and some do not. The French prune suc- ceeds admirably both when worked on young almond stocks and top grafted in old almond trees. Success is also reported with the Fellenberg on the almond. But the almond root is suited especially for warm, dry soils. Excellent results from the use of almond stock are reported from the interior valley and the Sierra foot-hills. Propagating by Sprouts.^ — The French practice of growing certain varieties of the plum by means of sprouts from the base of old trees has been successfully followed in this State by Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, and was strongh' commended by hiru as securing a tree which will not gum, which is one of the reasons why the same practice prevails in France. Sprouts growing at the foot of old and large trees, and but few are found to each tree, are taken off and planted close top- ther in a bed to make them root well, and the ensuing spring planted in nurserv rows, where thev are trained like any other trees, and transplanted where to remain, when branched. For this method it is necessary that the parent tree should be upon its own roots, else one is apt to get suckers from a wild stock. Sprout-grown trees cannot however be defended unless some special point like that claimed by Mr. Gillet can be attained by them. PLANTING AND PRUNING. As with other trees, there is difference of opinion as to the best distance apart for plum trees. The present tendency is toward wider planting; not nearer than twenty feet is the usual advice, and on rich land, twenty- two or twenty-four feet is better. The plum, in California, is a most rapid grower; six to ten feet from the bud or graft in a season, and about as much after the first winter's cutting back, is not at all un- usual. At this rate of progress, then, the tree soon runs up and away, in a spindling, sprawling fashion, unless severely cut back for the first few years. Neglected trees of some varieties show long, streaming branches, arching outward, and exposing the bark to sunburn (to which it is very sensitive), breaking the tree to pieces as the fruit gets weight, and, even if supported by props, breaking off at the bearing of the prop. This condition of the tree can only be obvi- ated by low heading and moderate cutting back each year, with due regard to limiting the amount of bearing wood to get large fruit. For such plum varieties the sugges- tions on forming the tree and subsequent treatment in the chapter on pruning will be found helpful. This reference to repressive treatment for brittle-wood plums is empha- sized by experience with the Sugar Prune of which Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan Hill says : "The sugar prune is a great hearer, but the tree must receive verj- diflferent pruning from the given the French prune. The annual growth must be shortened in every winter from one-half to two- thirds, and all laterals and fruit spurs must be cut back at every pruning. Of course, judicious thin- ning out of wood also needed. This will result in a very large, showy product for long-distance ship- ments, as fresh fruits, which have brought satis- factory returns." Pruning the French Prune. — Growers of the French prune, and other varieties of similar growth of strong and pliable wood, Cutting back Young Trees 216 California Fruits : have reached substantial agreement as to the best practice. The old method of cutting back bearing trees has been abandoned. Cutting back the young tree to secure suffi- cient low branching is followed by thinning of shoots from this low head so that the tree shall not become too dense or carry too much bearing wood. The strength in the head depends upon proper spacing and ar- rangement of the branches as insisted uiion branch from the top bud for a lengthening of the stem, and bring out more branches upon that the second year, and then dispense with its farther extention. The engravings on page 218 , show this method of developing the head of a young French prune. The tree was cut back at planting in orchard to a straight switch about eighteen inches high. At the end of the first summer this showed the form in the first picture, which is marked Young and old French Prune trees, never pruned and assuming natural form. in the chapter on pruning; and large, well- ripened fruit, which is essential to successful and profitable drying, is conditioned upon avoiding excess of branches and admission of sufficient light to the tree. A rather longer central stem is retained than in the old style, and a central stem throughout is admissible if one prefers it and does not desire to dispense with it as the first step toward securing a more open tree. Some retain the longer stem at planting : others cut back to eighteen inches, develop three side branches upon that and train the for the first winter priming. The second engraving shows the branching developed from this during the second summer's growth, also marked to. prune away some undesirable branches. Upon a tree of this form farther cutting back is not desirable as it has enough well-placed branches to form the tree. How long cutting back shall continue depends partly upon the locality and partly upon the notion of the owner. In interior localities the tree grows with great rapidity and branches more freely. During the third summer it will bear some fruit if not cut How to Grow Them 21: Grafting- the Plum back the previous winter and, where growth is so rapid, there is httle danger of injuring the tree by early bearing. In the coast valleys cutting back may continue another year, and fruiting be thus postponed a year to get another summer's freer wood growth. Though cutting back may properly cease early with the French prune, it is a great mistake to allow the trees to go unpruned. When to apply a rule or make an exception must be learned by observation and experi- ence. Some plums, like the Silver prune, have something of the growth habit of the peach, and this is also very true of some of the Japanese varieties. Cutting back in winter and pinching in summer are both useful facts in securing low'er branching and low-grow'ing fruit spurs. Young and old French Prune trees rationally pruned for number and spacing of branches. Removal of defective wood, prevention of branch crowding and overbearing are of the highest importance, as insisted upon in the chapter on pruning. SpEci.\l Study of \'.\rieties in Pkuning. — The points just advanced apply especially to the management of the French prune. In addition to what has been already said about the Sugar prune, the grower must be exhorted to study the habit of the variety he has to deal with. The general rules for handling trees with different habits of growth are applicable to a certain extent to the plum. Gk.m'Ting the 1'llm. — The plum has been grafted and regrafted in the constant effort to secure varieties promising superiority in vari- ous directions. Within the scope of their affinities plums graft easily by common top- grafting methods, and if the roots are strong the new growth is so rapid as to need special attention. Mr. Luther Bowers gives these hints about pruning such growths : "From practical experience I have found out that the Sugar prune wood should only be summer pruned and only cut while the shoots are tender, or so soft that the top can be pinched The Plumcot 218 California Fruits Pruning after first summer's growth in orchard. out; this will cause the top to be well After a graft is two years old I would never branched and this should be done at least cut the top off of a limb. If a tree gets too thick a top, I would cut out some of the main branches." THE PLUMCOTS. One of the most striking achievements of Mr. Burbank from the fruit grower's point of view is the cross of the plum and the apricot, which he has very fitly named the "plumcot.'' He has combined in a single fruit enough of the diverse characters of two fruits so that the ordinary observer can recognize the combination clearly and dis- tinguish the gift of each to it. Mr. Burbank has secured several such crosses, the first of which to be made public is the "Rutland," introduced by Mr. George C. Roeding in 1907. The fruit is about the size of an ordinary apricot with a deep purple velvety skin. One of its striking features is its brilliant red flesh possessed of a strong sub-acid flavor ren- dering it suitable for cooking, jellies and jams. When fully ripe, it is an excellent dessert fruit possessing an apricot-plum flavor. Ob- viously the amalgamation of the apricot and the plum must produce a fruit unique in character, hence its economic value is a matter still largely to be determined by its development and the exploitation of its uses. HOW A PRUNE QUEST DISTURBED THE PLUM FAMILY IN CALIFORNIA. Referring to the distinction between plums and prunes cited at the opening of this chap- ter, and to the extent and methods of the great prune industry of the State which will appear later, in Part Eight of this work, it may be stated here that the California prune product was obviously undertaken in emula- tion of the globe-trotting French prune, which had attained position as the leading com- mercial dried fruit of the world long before California arose in the horticultural horizon. Naturally, French settlers in California be- thought themselves of transplanting this great industry to their new home, and Mr. Louis Pellier introduced scions from the district of Agen to his place near San Jose in 1856. The product was good, and planting for a large output was entered upon, though slowly at first. There was disappointment over the Growth during second summer in orchard. twice during the first year of the graft. This system will avoid long, slender limbs. How to Grow Them 219 A Prune Quest fact that, while all fruits came surprisingly large in California, the dried prunes were smaller than the great French prunes in car- tons and cannisters which sold for great prices. Had we secured the true French prune: did they not have larger ones which thev were holding back from us? This was mispronunciation at the same time, for a prune which seemed to be too small and inferior. The dear people must have some- thing large, and they happened to mix a little German into the title which they manufac- tured, and offered trees of the "gros prune d'Agen." When shown that if the French The Plumcot. the great question of five decades ago. Some nurserymen of that day had spirits of enter- prise larger than their consciences. If the people demand larger prunes they must have them, surely. Because of the small average size of the prunes of Pellier's introduction, they christened that variety "petite prune d'Agen," which was subsequently corrupted into "petty prune" — a free translation and a had such a fruit it would probably be called "grande" and not "gros," because the French word "gros" is not a complimentary term, the propagators simply changed their geo- graphical base and declared : "This immense prune, just what you need to beat the French, is really German, and if you desire you may call it Hungarian prune." It of course did not matter much what it was called, because Large Sizes 220 California Fruits ; it did not come from either France or Hun- g;ary, but was the fine, old, large, light red, English plum, properly called Pond's Seed- ling, re-christened in California to meet a long-felt want. But it did not meet such a want ; it would not dry sweet nor fleshy, but became merely a skin and pit, with a the main, standard variety of French prune was concerned. But still we needed a variety which would run more to large sizes, and how to get it, with sweetness and flesh, characters which would resemble the best French product, was, and even now is, still a question. One of The Santa Rosa Plum sour streak between. Still the question per- sisted : Have we the true French prune ? It was definitely settled by the late W. B. West of Stockton, who visited France in 1878, and after close examination of the trees, announced that the variety grown in Califor- nia was really the prune d'Agen, and that we had made no mistake so far as srettina: the early introductions to meet this end is now generally known as Robe de Sergeant. Here again confusion attends the name. Robe de Sergeant is one of the synonyms of prune d'Agen, and yet the fruit we se- cured was different. Much discussion was given to the elucidation of this problem, and the conclusion seemed to be that the variety How to Grow Them 221 Pollination of Plums is grown in France, but in another district, and is generally considered inferior to the prune d'Agen. Still it runs larger, and has sold well, even though of distinctly different quality, and would probably have cut a much larger figure in California prune production if it had shown itself to be more free and regular in bearing. The same is true of the "prune d'ente, or Imperial epineuse," which has been quite widely planted, but because of shy bearing, especially when attacked by the thrips, as discussed upon another page of this book, and because of the difificulty in drying such a large prune which ripens rather late, this variety, of which so much was expected, has fallen into disfavor, and many which were grafted in have been graf- ted out again. Other introductions made much earlier, like the German and Italian, also fell out of the race very early, for shy bearing and for different flesh characters. Although the latter leads in Oregon and other States north of us, it is out of California calculations. The conclusion of the whole matter now is that we have never secured from abroad a better than the one which came 50 years ago — the true prune d'Agen. We have learned to grow it better, to seek places where it comes larger and in full quali- ty : to use irrigation when it is needed by the tree to do its best ; to guard against over- bearing by reducing the amount of bearing wood and excessive branching ; to strengthen the soil by fertilization, and to grade the fruit into sizes which commend themselves to dif- ferent demands. Here we are again, doing our main business at the old stand, but know- ing how to do it better. Have we anything more to e.xpect? Probably nothing from old varieties, for we have prospected them all from a prune-making point of view, taking Coe's Golden Drop plum, or its seedling, for the Silver Prune, and cancelling all others as possibly good plums for various uses, but not for prunes. Probably our only expectation lies along the line of plant breeding, although nothing to supplant the prune d'.\gen has yet been attained. The Giant prune is a large red plum ; several Oregon prunes are simply large red plums. The standard of sugar in the prune d'Agen as grown in California is from 15 to 23 per cent of sugar in the fresh juice, according to degree of ripeness and localities in which the fruit is grown. The sugar in Pond's Seedling and in the large red plums just named is less than 10 per cent — some- times very much less. But percentage of sugar in the juice is not the whole story; there are tissue or flesh characters which are essential also. Air. Burbank's Sugar prune answers the sugar requirement ; it is a free bearer and early ripening variety, and it dries easily though large ; but it has not the fine grain nor the distinctive flavor of the prune d'Agen, and it becomes a good plum for ship- ping and possibly for other plum purposes. But Mr. Burbank has many of the plum fam- The Wickson Plum. ily in training, and it would not be surpris- ing if he should announce at any time a variety educated fully up to the very defi- nite California requirements, which he fully understands. Others are also working at the problem, and the next generation of Cali- fornia prune growers may attain what the last and present have striven for. POLLINATION OF PLUMS. The shy bearing of certain plums is prob- ably due to lack of pollination, either through the self-sterility of the variety or lack of ac- ceptable pollinating agencies. Bearing can be induced in many cases, no doubt, by either planting or grafting-in of effective pollinat- ing varieties. But this is not always profit- able. For instance, there are many instances proving that the Tragedy can be brought to greater bearing by the presence of Clyman. but an early variety like the Clyman is not worth growing for sale in a late district. Upper Central Interior Mountain coast coast valley and valleys and valleys. valleys foothills plateau Approved Varieties 222 • California Fruits : though in an early district both are valuable quality; lacks flavor and cracks badly near the coast. as shippinc: plums and should be planted to- Climax (Burbank.)— Large; very early; heart- gether. The pollination of plums has not shaped; deep red; flesh yellow. Popular for ship- P . 1 ii i- r .tu pins in places where it does not crack badly. been given as much attention as of other ciyman (California seedling introduced by Leon- fruits. ard Coates). — Large, roundish oblong, flattened; su- Pluins and Prunes approved by California growers VARIETIES Abundance Agen, Prune d' B I adshaw Burbank Chabot Climax Ciyman Coe's Late Red Columbia Damson Diamond Duane Purple German Prune Giant Golden Drop, Coe's Golden Prune Grand Duke Green Gage Hale Imperial Epineuse Imperial Gage Italian Prune Jefferson Kelsey Peach Pond (Hungarian) Red June Robe de Sergeant Royal Hative Satsuma Silver Simon Sugar Tragedy Washington Wickson Yellow Egg * Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. ** Most highly commended. VARIETIES OF PLUMS AND PRUNES. ture indistinct; mottled reddish purple, beautiful blue . . , , r . ... bloom; freestone; flesh firm, dry and sweet; prolific; As With other fruits, comparatively few the leading early plum for shipment. varieties of the pluni are largely grown in Red June (Japanese).— Medium to large, deep red California, and the list is continually being flesh light yellow, firm, good quality. The best of reduced. The following tabulation is the t'^e early Japanese plums. result of a very wide inquiry made during Tragedy (California seedling).— Medium to large, the vear 1007 suture shallow, wide and extending beyond apex; ■^ dark purple; flesh yellowish green, sweet and well Simon (Prunus Simoni) .—Medium to large, round- flavored; freestone. Very valuable for shipping from ish, flattened, with cavities at base and apex; brick ^^^^'-V regions in all parts of the State, red, small yellow spots; stalk stout and short; flesh Abundance (Japanese); syns. Yellozv-fleshed Bo- yellow, adhering to flattened pit ; largely grown for tan, Mikado of Hinclay. — Large, globular with point shipment in early interior regions where it has good at ape-x; cherry color covered with white bloom; How to Grow Them 223 Varieties of Plums and Prunes flesh j-ellow, juicy and rich. Popular for shipment from early regions. California Red (California seedling). — Introduced by J. T. Bogue, of Marysville. Large, light red, firm flesh and small pit. A good shipping plum. Peach (French, prune peche). — Very large round- ish oblate, regidar, flattened at ends; suture distinct, shallow ; color varying from salmon to light brown- ish red ; stalk very short, cavity narrow, shallow, flesh rather coarse, juicy, sprightly, free from the nearly round, very flat, much furrowed stone ; shoots smooth. A prominent variety for early eastern ship- ment. Royale Native (French). — Medium roundish, slightly wider at base; light purple, stalk half an inch long, stout, scarcely sunk ; flesh amber yellow, with rich, high flavor, nearly free from the small, flat- tened, ovate stone ; shoots very downy. Grown as an early market plum and for eastern shipment. BradshauK — Large, obovate, with obtuse suture on one side, sometimes with very slight neck; dark purple, with light blue bloom ; stalk three-fourths inch long; cavity narrow; flesh a little coarse, becom- ing light brownish purple, at first adhering, but be- coming nearly free when fully ripe; juicy, good, slightly acid; tree vigorous; shoots purple, smooth. Reported from Sacramento County as blooming late and seldom injured by frost. Not in high favor. Green Cage (French). — Rather small, round; su- ture faint green, becoming yellowish green, usually with reddish brown dots and network at base ; stalk half to three-fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh pale green, melting, juicy, exceedingly rich, and flavor excellent; shoots smooth. Burbank. — Tree imported from Japan by Luther Burbank. Named "Burbank" by Professor Van De- man. Tree usually vigorous, with strong, upright shoots, and large, rather broad leaves ; comes into bearing very early. Almost globular, being five and a half inches around horizontally, and five and five- eighths inches around vertically ; rich cherry red, slightly mottled with yellow and freely dotted with same tint; flesh deep yellow, juicv, very sweet, and of fine, somewhat peculiar, but very agreeable flavor ; pit is very small, three-fourths by a trifle over half an inch in diameter. Duane's Purple (New York). — Very large, oblong oval, longer on one side; slightly narrowed towards the stalk; reddish purple, bloom lilac; stalk three- fourths inch; slender; cavity narrow; flesh juicy, moderately sweet, and moderate flavor, mostly ad- hering to stone; shoots very downy and leaves large and downy beneath. Washington (New York). — Very large, roundish oval, suture obscure, distinct at base; yellowish green, faintly marbled, often with pale red blush ; stalk half to three-fourths inch; slightly downy; cavity w-ide, shallow ; flesh rather firm, sweet, mild, very rich and luscious, free from the pointed stone; shoots downy; very vigorous, Wichson. — A crossbred by Luther Burbank ; form suggests the Kelsey, but more symmetrical ; in ripen- ing, the color develops from a deep cherry red down to a rich claret as full ripeness is attained. The color is solid and uniform. The flesh is of amber tint, very juicy and translucent; the pit is small and shapely, the flavor is striking and agreeable, but likely to be deficient near the coast. The most popular shipping plum in the State. Yellow Egg; syns. Jl'hile Egg, White Magnum Bonum (English). — Very large, oval, narrow at ends, necked at base, suture distinct; stalk one inch, not sunk, surrounded by fleshy ring at insertion ; light yellow, bloom thin, white, flesh firm, rather acid until fully ripe, and then sweet, adheres to the pointed stone. Jefferson (New York). — Large, oval, base slightly narrowed, suture slight ; greenish yellow, becoming golden, with reddish cheek ; bloom thin, white ; stalk one inch, but little sunk or not at all ; flesh rich yel- low, very rich, juicy, high flavored and luscious, adheres partly to its long, pointed stone; shoots smooth ; tree a slow grower, but productive. Columbia (New York). — Very large, nearly globu- lar, one side slightly larger; brownish purple, red- dish brown where much shaded, with many fawn- colored dots ; bloom blue, copious ; stalk one inch, rather stout ; cavity small ; flesh orange, very rich and sweet, free from the stone, which is very small and compressed. Shoots downy, stout, blunt, spread- ing; leaves nearly round. Satsuma; syn. Blood Plum of Satsuma. — Intro- duced and first fruited in this country by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa. Described by Prof. H. E. Van Deman, U. S. Pomologist. as follows: "Leaves more lanceolate than those of Kelsey; fruit averages about two and a quarter inches in diameter, nearly round, and but slightly sutured on one side ; sur- face dark red, under a thick bloom; dots rather conspicuous and numerous; flesh dark purplish red, which has caused the name of 'Blood Plum of Sat- suma' to be given by some ; stone very small and pointed." Chiefly grown in Southern California. Red Magnum Bonum; syn. Red Egg. — Large, oval, tapering to the stalk; suture strong, one side swollen ; deep red in the sun ; slight bloom ; stalk one inch, slender, cavity narrow ; flesh greenish, coarse, sub- acid ; shoots smooth. Imperial Gage (New York). — Medium size, oval, suture distinct; stalk three-fourths inch, slightly hairy, evenly sunk; green, slightly tinged with yel- low, with marbled green stripes ; bloom copious and white; flesh greenish, juicy. meltin.g. rich, and de- licious, usually free from the oval, pointed stone; tree very vigorous and productive; shoots long, up- right, slightly downy; leaves with slight shade of blue. A popular canning variety. Damson (English). — Small, roundish oval; purple, with thick blue bloom ; melting, juicy, subacid. German Prune (Common Quetschc, Germany). — "This name has been applied in this State to nu- merous plums and prunes which are sold under it. The fruit of the true German prune is long oval, and swollen on one side ; skin purple, with thick blue bloom ; flesh firm, green, sweet, with a peculiar pleasant flavor; separates readily from the stone." — John Rock. Complaint is made in many localities of the tendency of the variety to drop before ripening, almost the whole crop sometimes dropping. Kelsey Japan. — Trees brought from Japan by the late Mr. Hough, of Vacaville, in 1870, and purchased by the late John Kelsey, of Berkeley, who propagated Varieties of Plums and Prunes 224 California Fruits and fruited them for several years. First wide dis- tribution was made by W. P. Hamnion & Co.. in 1874, who named the fruit after Mr. Kelsey. The follow- ing description is by H. E. Van Deman, U. S'. Pomol- ogist, from California and Florida specimens ; "Tree upright in growth, leaves narrow, twigs brownish gray. Fruit from one and a half to two and a half inches diameter, heart-shaped, with a distinct suture on one side from stem to apex ; stem is short, and set in a depression at the larger end ; colors mixed yellow and purple, which vary in depth, but rarely make a brilliant appearance, covered with a bloom; flesh yellow, very firm, and clings to the stone, which is rather small, and nearly always partly surrounded by a cavity; when fully ripe the quality is very good." Very widely grown ; is in less favor than formerly iiv interior valleys where color is not well developed. "Hungarian prime." . It is still marketed by these names both here and at the East. The true name is English Pond's Seedling. Fruit very large, ovate, slightly tapering to stalk ; skin thick, reddish violet, with numerous brown dots, and covered with hand- some bloom; rather coarse, juicy, sweet; a very showy fruit; tree a strong grower and prolific bearer; fruit has a tendency to double ; sells well in local and distant markets on its style and is largely grown. Giant. — Burbank seedling; very large, dark crim- son upon yellow ground ; flesh yellow, flavor good ; freestone. A shipping plum, disappointing as a dry- ing plum. Sfk'iidor. — Burbank seedling; medium size but larger than French prune; clear red, drying dark, docs not shake from the tree ; earlier than French prune. Robe de Sergeant. Where the fruit is of good color it is profitable for shipping and is highly regarded everywhere for do- mestic use. Quackcnbos (New York). — Large, oblong oval; deep purple; suture faint; stalk short, slightly sunk; slightly coarse, sprightly, sweet and subacid ; partly freestone. Victoria (English). — Large, obovate, suture dis- tinct ; color a fine light reddish purple ; stem half inch, cavity rather deep and narrow ; flesh yellow, pleasant; clingstone; next to Pond's Seedling in size, beauty, and productiveness. Hungarian Prune: English Pond's Seedling; Gros Prune d'Agcn (English). — This variety was brought to San Jose probably about 1856, and in some unac- countable way was first contrasted with the French prune and called the "great prune of Agen ;" after- wards, also in a mysterious wav, it took the name Prune d'Agen. Sugar. — Burbank seedling, introduced in 1898; large and sweet; sugar in fresh fruit 23.92 per cent; not a good prune but valuable for shipping; oval, slightly flattened ; dark purple with thick white bloom ; freestone. Imperial Ef'ineuse: syn. Clairac Mammoth. — Intro- duced in 1884 by Felix Gillet and in 1886 by John Rock. Described bj' Mr. Rock as follows : "Uni- formly large size, reddish or light purple, thin skin, sweet and high flavor." Described by Mr. Gillet: "Uniformly large, more oval than the French prune; nearly of the same color but somewhat lighter or reddish purple ; earlier than the French and with thinner skin." Fruit grown by Mr. Rock analyzed at the State University in 1898, showed 20.4 per cent of sugar against 18.53 P^f cent average of three analyses of French prune. Largely planted and grafted in, in the Santa Clara Valley, as a drying prune but irregular in bearing. How to Grow Them 225 Newer Varieties There has been quite wideh' planted another prune called Iinf'ciial which is very inferior in sugar con- tent and likely to prove much less satisfactory. Prune d' Agen; syn. Petite Prune d' Agen; French Prune, etc. — This is the drying prune at present most widely grown in this State. It is described by John Rock as follows : "Medium-sized, egg-shaped, violet purple, very sweet, rich and sugary; very prolific bearer." The first trees of the kind were grown by Louis Pellier, at San Jose, about the year 1857, the graft having been brought from France by his brother in December, 1856. The identify of this variety (which was first largely grown in the neigh- borhood of San Jose) with the variety chiefly grown in the French district tributary to Agen, was first announced by W. P.. West, of Stockton, in the year 1878. during his visit to France. Robe dc Sergeant. — Though this term is given in Downing as a synonym of Prune d'Agen, and seems also to be in French a synonym for the d'Ente "prunes ; another prune grown in this State from an importation by John Rock, is quite distinct from the foregoing. Mr. Rock describes the variety as fol- lows : "Fruit medium size, oval ; skin deep purple, approaching black, and covered with a thick blue bloom; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, and well-flavor- ed, sugary, rich and delicious, slightly adhering to the stone." This variety makes a larger, darker- colored dried prune than the Prune d'Agen, and has sold in some cases at a higher price. It has recently been in disfavor in coast valleys for defective bearing, but is more satisfactory* at some interior points. Bulgarian. — "An undetermined variety grown under this name, chiefly in the vicinity of Haywards, .'\Iameda County; above medium size; almost round; dark purple ; sweet and rich, with pleasant acid flavor ; tree a vigorous grower, and an early, regular, and profuse bearer." — John Rock. Coe's Golden Drop (English). — Very large, oval, suture distinct, one side more enlarged, necked ; light yellow, often dotted red to the sun ; stalk three- fourths inch, rather stifif; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and rich, closely adhering to the pointed stone; shoots smooth, rather glossy. A standard late va- riety for canning. Silver Prune (Oregon). — OriginatetJ with W. H. Prettyman, who says : "It is a seedling from Coe's Golden Drop, which it much resembles, but it is much more productive." Profitable as a bleached prune, but defective in bearing in some California districts. A red varietv bv bud variation is reported by Mr. J. G. Grundel of Alma. Golden Prune. — Originated from seed of Italian prune by Seth Lewelling. of Milwaukee, Oregon, and described by him as larger than Italian ; light golden color ; exquisite flavor ; dries beautifully. Bavay's Green Gage; syn. Reine Claude dc Bavay (French). — Large, round oval, greenish yellow, spot- ted with red, with small violet-colored longitudinal veins; flesh rather firm, juicy, sugary, rich, of fine quality, adhering slightly to the stone ; shoots smooth, leaves roundish, shining; a free-grower and very pro- ductive. Ickivorth Iniferatricc (English). — Large to me- dium, obovate, purple, with irregular streaks of fawn color; stalk medium; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, juicy, rich, mostly adhering to the rather small stone; shoots smootli ; very late, hangs long on the tree, and keeps well; endures long shipment well. Fcllenberg; syns. Large German Prune, Swiss Prune, Italian Prune. — Medium size, oval, pointed and tapering at both ends; suture small, distinct; dark purple, with dark blue bloom; stalk one inch, scarcely sunk; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, sweet, delicious, parts from the stone ; tree a free grower and very productive ; late, excellent for drying. But little grown in California, but largely in Oregon. Coe's Late Red; syn. Red St. Martin. — Size me- dium, roundish, suture distinct on one side; skin light purplish red, or dark red ; bloom thin, blue ; stalk three-fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh rather firm, crisp, rich, vinous ; very late ; shoots downy. LUTHER BURBANK'S NEWER VARI- ETIES. Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, has not only produced the leading shipping plum of California, as already stated, but he has six others in the list of twenty varieties which are chiefly grown as plums and prunes. Dur- ing the last few years he has introduced many other varieties not included in the foregoing list, which possess striking characters and some of which will become famous. They must, however, endure the test of trial and await later credit. Seedlings by other grow- ers are also undergoing a similar ordeal. Two of Air. Burbank's recent creations, in- troduced by Mr. George C. Roeding, are of striking characters, and are described as fol- lows : Santa Rosa. — "It is a fine grower, the wood is very tough and the limbs will not break. It is a sure, regular bearer and bears always most abund- antly. It does not have any oflf years. The fruit runs remarkably fine, even in size, and astonish- ingly smooth and clear of any defects. It is beautiful, delicious and a very fine carrier to East- ern markets. It will keep well in hot weather for a week after it is ripe, so there is no occasion to pick it half ripe in order to ship. T intend to plant it very largely myself, and to the exclusion of all other shipping plums." — S. F. Lcib. Formosa.-" Unusually large, thick, healthy, light green foliage ; strong, hard, wiry wood ; blooms with the Burbank and Abundance, and always escapes late spring frosts, and always bears profusely even when continuous rainy weather prevents full pol- lination in most other plums. No disease has ever found lodgment with Formosa. The fruit is of uniform size, averaging about six inches in circum- ference one way by eight the other. Fruit yellow with a pale bloom until nearly ripe, turning to a clear rich red. Flesh pale yellow, unusually firm, sweet, rich, delicious, with a delightful apricot flavor, nearly freestone. Formosa has been very tlioroughly tested for its keeping qualities, which are unequaled except by Santa Rosa. Wickson. Burbank, and a few others." — Luther Burbank. The Quince 226 California Fruits CHAPTER XXIV. THE QUINCE UNDER CALIFORNIA CONDITIONS. THE quince enjoys California conditions to the utmost, and rewards the grower with large crops of very large and beau- tiful fruit. A quince weighing a pound is no curiosity, and it is unlikely that any city of the world can show such fine quinces at such low prices as San Francisco. The lesson from this fact is that the fineness of the fruit, and the evident adaptation of the State to its growth, should not alone be considered by the planter. The local con- sumption of quinces is naturally small, and it is chiefly for home preserving and jelly making. The commercial jelly makers use apple juice as the basis of nearly all their jellies, only using a little quince for flavor- ing, and some housewives follow the same course. The hope for profitable sale of the fruit in large quantities must therefore rest on distant markets, and though those well acquainted with the growth and sale of the fruit in the cities of the Mississippi Valley, have predicted a great demand for the Cal- ifornia quince in that territory, experiences of shippers thus far have been varied, and not such as to induce the extension of our quince production, at present at least. But though the quince in California has at present narrow commercial limitations, a few trees should find a place in every orchard, for family use or for local sale. CULTURE OF THE QUINCE. The quince is readily grown from cuttings. Take good-sized shoots of well-matured wood of the current year's growth, after the leaves drop in the fall, and set out at once in nur- sery row in moist, alluvial soil, or in any loose soil which is well drained and can be kept moist enough by cultivation or irriga- tion. Quinces are planted at all distances apart, and are grown either as bushes or trees. Undoubtedly the best way is to plant about fourteen or sixteen feet apart, and prune into low standard tree form. This can be done much as already advised for other fruit trees. An annual cutting back of about half of the new growth, while forming the tree, will strengthen the trunk and limbs and pre- vent the running out of long leaders, which droop to the ground on all sides when laden with fruit, and are often broken by the weight and the wind. Owing to the dis- position of the quince to throw out several small shoots at a single point, it is advisable, when forming the tree, to remove all buds but one, just as the growth is starting. This will give one good, strong branch where it may be needed, instead of several weak ones. Pinching off shoots which start out too vig- orouslv, or at undesirable points is, of course, advisable. Soils for the Quince. — As the quince grows naturally in moist, though not wet, lands, many persons think it always does best in springy ground or along the banks of rivulets ; but though moist soils are prefer- able to dry, such positions are not essential to obtaining large crops of fine fruit. In fact, the quince, like most fruit trees, prefers a well-drained location, and does best on a soil which can be freely worked. It thrives when fanned by the ocean breeze and does fairly well in the interior, providing it has moisture enough in the soil, and in some situations will doubtless require summer ir- rigation. VARIETIES OF THE QUINCE. Though notably all varieties of the quince are introduced by our nurserymen and carried by them in small stock, most plantations are of the "apple" or "orange"' variety. The following may be enumerated, however, as growing in this State: How to Grow Them 227 Varieties of the Quince Apple or Orange. — Large; bright yellow; the best. August and September. Rea's Mammoth. — A very large and fine variety of the Orange quince; a strong grower and very pro- ductive. Smyrna. — Introduced from Smyrna in 1897 by George C. Roeding of Fresno; large, lemon yellow, The Chinese Quince. — A most extraordinary fruit, oblong, of immense size, often weighing from two to two and one-half pounds ; growth rapid and dis- tinct. IVest's Mammoth. — Originated by W. B. West, of Stockton, from seed received from Boston in 1853; of the Orange quince family; round; clear yellow; The Smyrna Quince. handsome, tender and delicious after cooking; keeps well; tree a strong grower, with heavy foliage. Pineapple. — Originated by Luther Burbank and dis- tributed by him in 1899; the result of a long effort to secure a quince which would cook tender like an apple. The name comes from its flavor, which is suggestive of the pineapple. Resembles Orange quince but is smoother and more globular. Portugal. — Very large, and fine flavor, turns a fine purple or deep crimson when cooked. very large ; fine flavor and for the class a very good keeper. Champion. — Fniit very large, fair and handsome; tree very productive, surpassing any other variety in this respect; bears abundantly when young; flesh cooks as tender as an apple, and without hard spots or cores ; flavor delicate, imparting an exquisite quince taste and odor to any fruit with which it is cooked. PART FOUR: THE GRAPE. How to Grow Them 231 The Grape Area CHAPTER XXV. THE GRAPE INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA. THE grape grows in all parts of Cal- ifornia, from near sea level on the coast to an elevation of 5000 feet or more on the mountains. It is contented, too, with nearly all fertile soils, from the deep valley loams, where the great fat, firm-fleshed grapes are grown for raisin and table grape shipments, to the shallow soils of the high foothill and mountain slopes, where the grapes are less in quantity, but of superior aromatic qualities. This wide adaptation gives an immense area suited for grape cul- ture, but the chief reason for the achievement and the promise of the grape in California is in the fact that the European species, Vitis vinifera, thrives, and thus the Californian grower has command of all that Europeans have accomplished in centuries by developing special varieties of the species for special purposes. The grapes of the States east of the Rocky mountains are only grown in Cal- ifornia in a small way because the European varieties are the only ones from which raisins can be made; they also furnish the world's wine and brandy, and they give size, beauty and shipping quality beyond all comparison with American varieties. Wherever wealthy Elastern connoisseurs choose grapes for their glass houses, they select European varieties ; the Californian grows his "hot house" grapes in the open air. He also grows most of them without the cost of trellising, because the European varieties generally will bear well in short-pruned bush form. California has a large acreage of grape vines, and plant- ing has been very active during the last few years, because good prices have prevailed, especially through the increased opportunity for fresh grape shipments. At the same time, new economic and commercial prob- lems are continually arising and the industry has to readjust itself to new conditions. Dis- cussion of such problems does not come with- in the scope of a cultural treatise like this. It is the duty of the grower to keep himself up to date on such subjects by faithful read- ing of California periodicals and by partici- pation in public assemblies in the grape in- terest. Concerning cultural difficulties, the protection of the vine from its enemies and problems in vinification, special researches are constantly pursued by the University Experi- ment Station at Berkeley and publications are furnished on application. The culture of the grape is one of the great branches of California horticulture. Its three chief divisions are: Grapes for the table, grapes for wine, and grapes for raisins. In all these branches the product has far ex- ceeded local requirements and has become an important item in the export trade of the State. The attainments of the industry can be roughly measured by the statistics of the shipments of grapes, raisins, wine and brandy, which are given at the close of Chapter VI. THE GRAPE AREA OF CALIFORNIA. The grape has a very wide range in Cal- ifornia. If the immediate seacoast and the higher altitudes on the mountains be ex- cepted, the grape may be planted with a good chance of success anywhere if soil and local topography be suitable. As has been shown in Chapter I, the vine can approach quite close to the ocean if some shelter from pre- vailing cool winds be afforded, and quite high on the mountains if one keeps out of de- pressions where late frosts are frequent. In planting the grape in doubtful situations much depends upon choice of jjroper varieties. For example, in the cool air of the coast region and the short summer of the higher altitudes, early maturing varieties must be the main reliance, for late sorts will not receive heat enough to bring them to full maturity. Away from immediate coast influences, and up to perhaps three thousand feet or more on the sides of the Sierra, the grape is success- fully grown both upon the floors of the val- The Grape Season 211 California Fruits leys and upon the hillsides. But there is stil! need of choice both of special locations and of varieties according to the purposes which the grower has in view. The coast valleys of the upper part of the State produce good table grapes, but they are unfavorable for the raisin industry because of the deficient sunshine and excessive atmospheric humidity of the autumn months. The best raisins are made in the dry, heated valleys of the in- terior, and the conditions which there develop the fullest quality in the raisin grape also de- velop the sugar in some kinds of wine grapes beyond a desirable percentage. Here again the choice of suitable varieties intrudes itself, for the varieties which yield light table wines in the coast valleys may yield heavy "heady" wines in the interior. Valleys, too, as a rule, although they yield larger crops of grapes and greater measure of wine than similar area on the hillsides, must yield the palm for quality to the warm soils of the slopes. And here enters the business proposition whether large amount and less quality is better than less amount and higher quality. To this there can be no general answer. It depends upon the disposition which is to be made of the crop, and the demand for it. The coloring of certain varieties is a mat- ter underlying their profitable production for fresh shipments and this is determined by local conditions concerning which the best information is actual observation of their effects. These few facts out of many which could be stated will serve to enforce the fact that wide as is the range of the grape, both localities and varieties for certain purposes must he intelligently chosen. Much has been learned during the last few years, but it will require the experience of another generation, perhaps, to make the matter clear. Soils for the Grape. — The grape will thrive on a great variety of soils, in fact, on any of those enumerated as fruit soils in Chapter III. There are thrifty vineyards ori the light, deep valley loams, on the heavy clayey loams, on adobe, and on the red soils of the foothills. Even on shallow soils the grape will do well if given sufficient moisture, and on rocky subsoils it thrives if there be crevices for the roots to penetrate, or if the rock be shattered to admit the roots to per- meable substrata. Standing water during the active period of the vine is, however, un- favorable to growth, and alkali is adverse to satisfactory results in wine making. Almost any soil which does not hold excess of water or is not tainted with alkali will do for the vine, although the plant appreciates good, deep soil, and will grow and bear fruit in proportion to its supply of it. Of course the economic question of ease of cultivation enters into the choice of soil for the grape, as for other fruits, but its claims are obvious and need not be enlarged upon. Length oe the Gr.-^pe Season. — By choice of early and late varieties the grape season extends over half a year in California, with- out recourse to artificial means of preserva- tion. Where the fall rains are not very pro- tracted, the late varieties sometimes remain in good condition on the vines until the win- ter pruning. Good grapes have been picked from the vines as late as the middle of Jan- uary. How to Grow Them 233 Growing Vines from Cuttings CHAPTER XXVI. PROPAGATING AND PLANTING VINES. THE grape is propagated from seed or by layers, or by cutting of various lengths, Growing from seed was somewhat resorted to in California to get stocks for resisting the phylloxera, but such wide variation in resistance occurred in seedlings that propa- gation by cuttings, of varieties demonstrated to be best in this regard, has become univer- sal. There is at present little disposition to grow grape seedlings in the hope of secur- ing better and hardier varieties, as is so largely done in other parts of the country. The vast numbers of varieties of the Euro- pean sf)ecies, vinifcra, which we have to draw from, makes the effort for new seedlings of little object. Growing Vines from Seed. — Seed is easily removed from the grapes by crushing the berries and stirring the pulp rapidly in water. From one pound of good, fresh seed one might get from two to three thousand seedlings. Some advocate sowing grape seed in the fall, just as it is taken from the fruit, but best results are usually obtained by spring sowing, after danger from frost is over. It is advisable to keep grape seed moist for some time before sowing. Seed soaked one week in w-ater. and afterward allowed to lie in a heap for three weeks germinates quickly, starting in ten days or two weeks after being put in the ground. Professor Husmann ad- vised pouring hot water on the seed and al- lowing it to cool, the seed remaining in the water for twelve hours, and after that it is kept for a week in a sack, exposed to the sun, and covered at night, the sack being moistened from time to time. The seed should be sown in the open ground, the soil having been worked deeply and finely, as for a garden. Sow the seed about an inch apart, in drills far enough from each other to admit the use of the cultivator in the summer : cover not to exceed an inch in depth, and after moderate pressing of the ground, cover the whole bed with rotten straw% which should be gradually removed as the sprouts appear above the ground. This mulch will not only retain moisture, but will prevent the surface from being crusted by heavy showers. Summer cultiva- tion with cultivator and hoe should be given. Growing Vines by L.wering. — This is an- other rnethod of multiplying vines which is but little employed in California, because it is so much easier to secure plants by cuttings, as the vinifcra species roots so readily. Lay- ering consists in bending down and burying one of the lower canes so as to facilitate top and root growth from each of the buds. To hold the cane in place, stakes are used, the trench being left open until the shoots grow out and then, by covering the roots are developed. The cane must rest in moist earth, and usually has to be watered artificial- ly, as well as treated to prevent evaporation. The following winter the cane is raised and a plant made at each node. Another use for layering is to fill a vacancy in the row, a cane being taken from the nearest living vine. In this case the layer must be set in a deep trench so as not to be torn out by the plow, and the layered cane is at once covered in with earth, all but one or two buds at the extremity, where the new vine is desired. Such a layer usually bears the second year and is then detached from the parent vine. Both the layers described are laid down early in the spring, before growth starts in the vine. Summer layers of the current season's growth are sometimes made, but are not usually satisfactory. Growing Vi.nes from Cl'TTing.s. — This is the prevailing method in tins State both to secure grafting stocks and to grow vines on their own roots. In growing from cut- tings, different policies are adopted, /. e.. Long Cuttings 234 California fruits placing the cuttings in permanent place in the vineyard, or rooting them in nursery to be afterward transferred to the vineyard as "rooted vines." First, the various kinds of cuttings will be considered, and their placing mentioned later. Growth from Single Eyes. — The use of single eyes or single buds, the shortest possi- ble form of cutting, is not large in California, but some growers have reported good results. The method is to prepare the cuttings with a half-inch or so of the cane on each side of a bud and plant them carefully, with the bud up- wards, in well-prepared soil, covering the cutting completely, but very little under the surface. Success depends upon retention of moisture in the surface soil to induce rooting, and mulching is advisable. The method of propagation, too, seems best adapted to the moister parts of the State, whence, in fact, most success with it has been reported. Be- sides economy of wood in getting a plant from each bud of the cane, which is sometimes an object, growing from single eyes is ad- vocated because of the satisfactory root sys- tem secured, which much resembles that of a seedling. The use of single eyes is obvious- ly better adapted to nursery than to field growth. The Use of Longer Cuttings.* — It was formerly considered good practice to leave a piece of old wood attached to the base of the cutting, on the ground that such cuttings always grew. This practice is now very generally abandoned, as it often gives rise to weak and diseased vines. The piece of old wood always decays finally, and the de- cay may spread into the trunk and roots of the vine. A good cutting should consist ex- clusively of one-year-old wood ; that is, the wood which has grown during the previous season. The form and length of the cuttings will depend on the use that is to be made of them. If they are to be used as scions for grafting they may be cut up in any way and of any length that is found convenient for handling and keeping them in good condition. If they are to be used for rooting either in the nursery or the vineyard it is most conveni- ent to cut them up into the exact lengths which are to be planted. The length will depend altogether on the soil and climate where they are to be planted. They should be of such a length that when planted the base of the cutting will be at the * Much of the followiiiK description of handling cuttings is taken bodily from the excellent University publications by Mr. F. T. Bioletti, viz: Circular 26. ".Selection and preparation of Vine CuttinpS." Bulletin'180. " Resistant Vineyards— grafting, planting, cultivation." Bulletin 193. "The Best Wine Grapes for California." etc. All these contain discussions of propagation methods, Properly made cuttings. level where the conditions are most favorable to root formation. If the base is too deep, it will be too wet and too cold to develop roots. Roots will start higher up and the bottom part will be wasted, or worse still, may decay and injure the vine. If the base is too near the surface the whole cutting may drv out and die before its roots have de- veloped sufficiently to supply it with water. How to Grow Them 235 Rooting Cuttings In the nioister soils of the cooler districts a cutting lo inches long is sufficient for direct planting in the vineyard. In the drier and warmer interior a 14-inch to 16-inch cutting is better, while in the driest soils of the warmest districts it is often necessary to have a cutting 18 to 20 inches long. For planting in the nursery a 12 or 14-inch cutting is about the most convenient. If the soil of the nursery is wet and cold more of the cutting should be left above ground; if, on the contrary, the soil tends to be hot and dry the cutting must be planted deeper and even covered up completely. It is not necessary, or possible, to make every cutting of exactly the same length, because they should all terminate at each end at a node. A vine cane consists of nodes where the buds are and internodes between the buds. The pith is interrupted at each node by a woody partition (called the "dia- phram") which extends through the cane at each bud. In making a cutting, therefore, we should cut exactly through a bud both at the top and at the bottom. This will leave the woody partitions, which will prevent decay at the bottom and drying out at the top. If removed, the pith in the upper inter- node will be exposed to alternate wetting and drying, and may decay, thus weakening or killing the bud below. In planting, the cutting should be placed with just one bud above the surface of the ground, as indicated by the dotted line in the accompanying engraving. It is a great mis- take to leave more than one bud out of the ground, as this increases the danger of drying out. M.\KiNG AND Caring for Cuttings. — Cut- tings can be taken from the vines at any time after the fall of the leaf and before the spring flow of sap begins. The earlier cuttings — those taken before January — are more likely to make a successful start and after-growth than those cut later in the season. It is common, however, to defer prepara- tion of cuttings till the pruning is done, be it early or late, and this will generally answer the purpose, if care be taken to secure the cuttings immediately at the pruning; but if the branches be allowed to lie upon the ground for days, exposed to sun, wind, or frost, before the cuttings are secured, their chances of growth are seriously lessened, and a good part of the failures in planting are due to such cuttings. Cuttings should be taken from short- jointed, well-ripened wood of the previous year's growth, cut squarely and smoothly as already described. Cuttings from the outer ends of long canes are not so likely to root, nor to grow so vigorously, as those from stronger wood, from three-eighths to five-eighths of an inch diameter generally. Keep them dormant until the time comes to set them in the vineyard, else the tender shoots may get broken. To keep them back, place them, at the pruning, in trenches, about as deep as the length of the cuttings, on the north side of a close board fence or a building, cover with loose earth, and over that throw some straw and boards. Take care that the trenches are in moist but not wet ground as too much moisture rots the cut- tings. If the ground has not been moist enough, and the cuttings seem dry or withered, plunge them in water to within three or four inches of their top, for a few days before setting, and do not let them dry again before planting. Rooting Cuttings in Nursery. — What has been written is in reference to cuttings designed for placing in permanent position in the vineyard, but, for the most part, applies as well to the preparation of cuttings for the nursery. For nursery treatment, however, shorter cuttings can be used than for field planting, because of the better cultivation and more generous moisture conditions which are usually provided. In preparation of ground for the rooting of vines and the planting of cuttings therein, the suggestions in Chapter VIII are directly applicable, as, to secure rooting of the cut- tings, there is just as great need for deep and fine working of the soil, pressing of it around the cutting, and for careful culture during the growing season, as there is for such treatment of fruit-tree seedling or root graft. It is just as necessary, too, that the rooted cuttings should be carefully lifted and guarded from drying out while on the way from the nursery to permanent place. The reader is, therefore, referred to Chapter VIII for suggestions on preparation, laying out, and care of nursery ground intended for the root- ing of grape cuttings. Budding and Grafting 236 California Fruits To secure vines upon resistant roots re- course has recently been made by some growers to the cutting-graft which will be mentioned presently. There is a growing tendency to use rooted vines instead of cuttings in planting out vineyard, for, although the former cost several 'times as much as the latter, either in the time of the grower or in cash outlay, the balance is believed to be usually on the other side, when the uniform stand and more satisfactory growth secured by rooted vines are considered. BUDDING AND GRAFTING THE GRAPE VINE. Working over the grape-vine is largely practiced in this State and is easily accom- plished. The occasion is twofold : Replacing undesirable varieties with those of better quality, or in better market demand, and in bringing the vinifera varieties upon roots which resist the attacks of the phylloxera. The employment of resistant stocks ha.s proved eminently satisfactory in this State, the resistant stock having been successfully installed even in the hole from which the dead vinifera root has been taken. For this reason resistant roots are largely relied upon in the planting of new vineyards in infested districts, and are also used to some extent in regions where the insect is not now found, by those who fear and desire to provide against its coming. And yet in the large planting of vineyard in the interior valley which has recently been undertaken very little attention has been paid to resistant roots. It is so cheap to proceed with simple cuttings of the variety desired, and the vine comes into hearing so soon, that most planters are willing to take the risk of infection with phylloxera for it may be long delayed and several profitable crops may be realized before its arrival. This is a question which each planter must answer for himself. Budding the Grape. — Buds can be readily made to grow in grape canes, though budding is not largely used. Success can he had with the same method of budding that is common with fruit trees as described in Chapter IX. Insert the bud (which is taken from a cane of the previous season's growth) in the spring as soon as the bark will slip well on the stock, and before the run of the sap is too strong Keep the cuttings in a cool place so their growth will be retarded, and then seize upon just the right condition of the stock, insert the bud under the bark of a cane of the previous season's growth, tie it around with a string, and the bud starts readily without further treatment. When its growth shows its ability to take the sap, the top of the stock is removed. Herbaceous budding is also practicable. It consists of taking buds from the current season's growth and working them upon canes also of current growth by the usual shield budding process. Mr. Thomas Casalegna of San Martin succeeds well with this under Budding from previous season's growth. these conditions : All buds put in from July 15 to August 15 start the same year, but may be injured by fall frosts. Those put in from August 15 to September 15 remain dormant until the following year, unless the stock is exceptionally vigorous. Budding is most successful in the month of August. The buds should be taken from canes which have reached the stage of maturity indicated by the ])ith turning white and just before the bark turns yellow. Gr.\FTing the \'inE. — Grafting in old vine roots is a simple operation, and is performed in various ways. The principles involved in vine grafting are similar to those affecting tree grafting, as described in Chapter IX. The processes employed are also similar, but the graft requires less binding and covering. How to Grow Them 237 Herbaceous Grafting- because it is usually made beneath the sur- face of the ground, and is, therefore, less subject to accident, exposure, and drying out. Grafting in the old Stump. — This is resorted to when the character of the vine- yard is to be changed. Out of the many ways for working into old stumps, one intro- duces the scion by a side cut into the stock without splitting across as shown at C C in the engraving on page 238. The earth is re- moved from the old vine down to its first lat- eral roots, and the top is sawed off cleanly a few inches above the first laterals. A cut is then Herbaceous buds which have taken hold. made into the side of the stump with a knife and mallet, as is shown in the figure. The scion is then cut long enough so that one bud will remain above ground when the sur- face is leveled again, the bottom of the scion being given an oblique wedge-shape, so as to fit the crevice in the stock. Some care is needed in shaping the wedge of the scion, so that the surfaces are in contact will give good results. If the cut is well made and the end of the scion so adjusted that the stock will pinch it when it is pushed into place, nothing more will be needed except to smear over the cut surface of the stump and the joint of the scion and stock with clay or with a mixture of two parts clay and one part fresh cow manure. If the scion is held firmly and sealed in with this mixture, it usually needs no tying, and the hole can be carefully filled with loose earth, with a strong stake to mark the place of the graft, and to which the new growth can be securely tied afterwards. Another common method of grafting be- neath the ground is to split the stump across its center, as is done in top-grafting fruit trees as shown in Chapter IX, and one or two scions inserted. If two are used and both grow, the weakly one is afterward suppressed. In this cross cleft graft some grafters rely upon the stock to hold the scion without tying, and daub it over with the clay mixture, care being taken to fill and cover the split in the stock to exclude water. Others put a ligature around the split stump, as shown in the engraving. Strips of cotton cloth an- swer well for this purpose. Tying offers better security' from knocking out the graft with the cultivator. In grafting into very tough old stumps, some growers leave a slim wedge of wood in the cleft with the scion to prevent the stock from closing too forcibly upon the scion. Side Gr.\fting. — Side grafting the vine is commended by some growers. It consists in inserting a graft by a cut into the side of the stock, the method being essentially the same as that employed with fruit trees, as described in Chapter IX, except that in side grafting the vine the top is not amputated, but is allowed to bear its crop and is then removed the following winter. The next summer the scion will bear a crop, and the vine is worked over without cessation in its hearing. Herb.\cEous Gr.\ftinc. — This term is ap- plied to a graft in which the scion of the cur- rent season's growth is set by a cleft graft into canes also of the current season's growth, while both scion and cane are elastic, but not too soft. The method has not been usually successful in this State, apparently because of the dryness of the summer air. Still some satisfactory results are reported. Mr. Casa- legna of Santa Clara county, whose success with herbaceous buds has been noted, does well also with soft-wood grafting by the Care of Scions 238 California Fruits": whip-graft method. He says it is most successful in June, provided the scions are hard enough. The pith must be white. In a strong-growing vineyard grafting may be knitting yarn, not with raffia. The season for herbaceous grafting will, of course, vary according to the locality. Hot weather immediately following the work is fatal to Methods of field grafting grape vines. nch A. Whip graft for stocks ^ to ^3 of ai B, BB. Whip graft for stocks =;i to % of ai C. CC. Cleft graft for stocks ?1 of an inch diameter, ch in diameter, diameter and for old stumps. done in July. The leaves are taken off the scions when they are cut. If they are to be used immediately they are placed in water ; if to be carried some distance they are placed in a wet sack. Tie the grafts with German most of the grafts. If two or three cool days follow the insertion of the scions he obtains an almost perfect stand. Care of Scions. — Scions should be kept cool and moist enough to prevent drying How to Grow Them 239 Resistant Varieties but not wet enough to cause decay, as has already been described in the keeping of cuttings. Time op Grafting. — Grafting into old vine stumps is done in February, March, and April in different parts of the State, March being the month usually chosen for the work. If a spring graft fails, the stump may be re- grafted in August or in the following spring. In regrafting, the stump is cut off again be- low the previous cleft. The time for the work lication of specific information which can be had by application to the Director. Resistant Varibties. — American wild vines are characterized by very marked differences in degree of resistance to phyllox- era, and especially in adaptability to soils. Not only do species differ in this respect, but varieties of the same species show widely different characteristics. As a result of the process of selection varieties have been se- cured which are far above the average of the Instances of successful herbaceous grafts. is when the sap has ceased flowing, usually from the first to the tenth of August. The recourse to resistant roots to escape the phylloxera has been attended with some disappointment because the wild roots at first widely used proved only partially re- sistant. Recently, in the main through em- ployment of French selected varieties of the American wild species, stocks with satis- factory resistance, larger growth and vigor and adaptation to different California soils have been secured. Notable success has been attained in the habilitation of vineyards on the basis of resistant roots. The University Experiment Station, at Berkeley, has main- tained leadership in this direction by pub- species in vigor of growth and development, degree of resistance and general suitability for resistant root purposes. The few varieties which have thus demonstrated particular excellence in France and have given notable indications of success in California, are pre- sented by Mr. Bioletti as follows : The varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability be most used in California are Rupestris St. George (du Lot), Riparia X Rupestris 3306, Riparia X Rupestris 3309, Riparia Solonis 1616, Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202, Aramon X Rupestris 2, Riparia gloire, and Riparia grande glabre. These are all varieties which have given excellent results for vears in Europe, and have all been tested French method of Rooting 240 California Fruits ' . J.-:~^ /.<■■■ %-^.._._..J^^" rt ^ rt 0) at IT! " ■" '" i a S >\Z ^ ^ u ^ ^ " 5 8 H -S 3 t^ ... •« 3 ■= „ fe « M " ^- s r g i; JJ w ^ 'a; o iJ w 13 O u rn " 1) ''^ oj **^ 3 ^ « 6 t; 2 w X TO OJ G •ti .t: 2 3 h ■S ■" . J3 C o M * ?^ 3 5 or r ^. 5i fe fe £ •"•7; n o ca ^ _ .^ *:;: ti *- - 3 " •£, be 3 a-g-O;^!; _S= o bf, c " ^ E jj ■5 s£ O.S2 b« in ^' 3 3 u 3 01 .tj O J3 V. '^ id ^ 'o - ^ .2 ■/, a "" 3 ^ •3 be^^ o,n How to Grow Them 241 The Cuttine Graft successfully in California. Among them arc varieties suitable for nearly all the vineyard soils of California, with perhaps the exception of some of the heavier clays. The Rupestris St. George is remarkably vigorous and grows very large, supporting the graft well even without stakes. It roots easily and makes excellent unions with most vinifera varieties. It is well suited to deep soils where its roots can penetrate. Its de- fects are that it is very subject to root-rot, especially in moist soils; it sutkers badly and it suffers from drought in shallow soils. Its great vigor produces coulure with some varieties and often necessitates long pruning. In moist or wet soils 1616 or 3306 have given better results in France and give indi- cations of doing equally well here. In drier soils 3309 will probably be found preferable. Aramon Rupestris No. 2 is suited to the same soils as Rupestris St. George, and does particularly well in extremely gravelly soils. It has some of the defects of the St. George and is moreover more difficult to graft, and its only advantage in California is that it is rather less susceptible to root-rot. There are no better resistant stocks than Riparia gloire and Riparia grande glabre, wherever they are put in soils that suit them. They do well, however, only in deep, rich, alluvial soils which are neither too wet nor too dry. Their grafts are the most produc- tive of all, and ripen their grapes from one to two weeks earlier than the grafts on St. George. Their principal defect is that they are very particular as to the soil, and they never grow quite as large as the scion. The gloire is the most vigorous, and the difference of diameter is less with this variety than with any other Riparia. The Mourvedre X Rujjestris 1202 is ex- tremely vigorous, roots and grafts easily, and is well adapted to rich, sandy and moist soils. In drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps not sufficient. The most promising varieties for general use at present seem to be the two hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris, 3306 and 3309. They have great resistance to the phylloxera, root and graft almost as easily as St. George, and are quite sufficiently vigorous to support any variety of vinifera. The former is more suited to the moister soils and wherever there is danger of root-rot, and the latter to the drier soils. In general, they are suited to a larger variety of soils and conditions than perhaps any other varieties. Riparia gloire should be planted only on rich, deep alluvial soil containing an abun- dance of plant food and humus, what would be called good garden land, such as river bank soil not liable to overflow. In most other soils Riparia X Rupestris 3306 is to be recommended, except those which are rather dry, where 3309 is to be preferred, or those which are very wet, where Solonis X Riparia 1616 is surer to give good results. The Cutting Gr.-\Ft. — Grafting the desired variety upon a resistant cutting, putting these cutting-grafts through a callusing bed and then planting the grafted cutting in nursery for rooting is an accepted French method which is being successfully employed in California. This has advantage in time gained and in securing a full stand of vines as compared with grafting upon cuttings already rooted in place in the vineyard though the latter has been successfully practiced. If cutting-grafts are placed directly in the nursery many will fail. For this reason it is always best, except at the extreme end of the grafting season, to "stratify" the grafts in a "callusing'' bed, where conditions of mois- ture, temperature, and aeration can be con- trolled. This callusing bed is usually a pile of clean sand placed on the south side of a wall or building surrounded by a board par- tition where there is no possibility of its be- coming too wet by the flow of water from a higher level or from an overhanging roof. It should be protected, if necessary, by a surrounding ditch. It should be furnished with a removable cover of canvas or boards to protect it from rain and to enable the tem- perature to be controlled by admission or ex- clusion of the sun's rays. A water-proof v^'agon-cover, black on one side and white on the other, is excellent for this purpose. The bottom of the callusing bed is first covered with 2 or 3 inches of sand. The bundles of grafts are then placed in a row along one end of the bed, and sand well filled in around them. The bundles should be placed in a slightly inclined position with the scions uppermost, and the sand should be dry enough so that it sifts in between the grafts in the bundle. The bundles of grafts Laving out the Vineyard 242 California Fruits are then covered up completely with sand, leaving it at least 2 inches deep above the top of the scion. There should be but little more moisture present for callusing than in the sand used for keeping the cuttings over winter. Too much moisture will stimulate the emission of roots and starting of buds without aiding the callus formation, which is a perfectly distinct process from the forma- tion of roots. An adjacent engraving shows the subse- quent rooting of cutting-grafts in the nur- sery. Grafting on Resistant Stocks after Rooting. — Grafting on resistant roots differs from working in old stumps in the size of the wood to be operated on, and in the fact that the graft must be set higher up because it is not desirable to have the scion strike roots of its own, for the obvious reason that depending on such roots would make the vine no longer resistant. The advantage of cover- ing the graft with earth is, however, still to be enjoyed, for the earth can be raised in a little mound around the graft, to be removed when the graft has taken well. For this rea- son grafting on resistant roots is usually done at or near the surface of the ground. The common cleft graft is used when the stock is large enough to give a split strong enough to hold in the scion. In grafting smaller stocks the whip graft is used both in making cutting-grafts and in grafting cuttings already rooted. This graft is vari- ously treated. It is covered with clay by some, by others with grafting wax ; but the common experience is that grafting wax makes too tight a joint, and holds in surplus sap, which begets disease. The use of a wax band specially adapted to ruling conditions has proved very successful, but the easiest and usually most satisfactory way is to wind with soft twine or raffia which will decay and loosen as the graft enlarges, but care must be taken to cut the band if it has not decayed at the time of transplanting. LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD. Vines are planted in rectangles, generally in squares, but sometimes at a less distance in the rows than the rows are from each other. The stakes which are to represent the future vines are in either case placed by the same methods of measuring or marking off. All the methods described for clearing and pre- paring lands, in Chapter \TI, and for laying oft' ground in squares, described in Chapter X, are applicable to vineyard ground. The measuring wire therein described is the means usually employed for laying ofif. A special contrivance which has been used to some ex- tent on level ground is thus described: The marker most in use is made in the form cf a sled, si.xteen, fourteen, or twelve feet long, with three runners so placed as to mark rows'eight, seven, or six feet wide. These runners should be made about three feet long, of some hard wood (Oregon pine will do), two inches thick and iirmly nailed to two planks placed upon them of the lengths first above named. Upon these should be bolted two strong pieces of joist in the form of wagon hounds projecting in front far enough to receive a stout pole like a wagon-tongue, well braced and fastened with an iron rod. Care must be taken that the motion of the machine is steady and true in all its parts. With a well-made marker, a gentle team, and a careful driver, excellent work may be done. Distance op Planting. — There is as much difference of opinion and practice in fixing the distance between vines as between orchard trees, but usually more room is given than - formerly. Planted in squares, the distance varies from seven to ten feet, with eight feet as most prevalent, taking- the State as a whole. Planting in rows is also adopted to some extent. Such plantations are made with the vines seven by ten or eight by ten feet, four and one-half by eleven feet, etc. There is great variation in the distances. Some advantages of the row system are as follows : Greater space to spread trays for raisin cur- ing; plowing can be done with double team and larger plows ; the brush can be gathered and burned between the rows instead of car- rying it to the avenues ; sulphur and mate- rials for spraying can be brought ii; by team to any part of the vineyard ; empty boxes can be distributed and filled ones gathered up without carrying, etc. Planting in rows rec- ommends itself not only for planting new vineyards, but also for changing old vineyards from seven by seven feet to three and one- half by fourteen feet, or from eight by eight feet to four by sixteen feet, giving opportu- nity to change from a vinifcra-rooi vineyard to a resistant-root vineyard. This can be ac- complished by planting resistant roots in the alternate rows to be preserved, right between the two old vines. Number of Vines to the Acre. — How- ever the vines be set, it is verv easy to calcu- How to Grow Them 243 Cuttings and Rooted Vines late the number of vines which an acre will accommodate. Multiply the distance in feet between the rows by the distance the plants are apart in the rows, and the product will be the number of square feet for each plant, which, divided into the number of feet in an acre (forty-three thousand five hundred and sixty), will give the number of plants to the acre. Avenues in the Vineyard.— For conven- ience of access with team and wagon there should always be avenues through the vine- yard. They are usually arranged so as to cut up the vineyard into blocks about twice as long as broad, if the vineyard be on level land. Of course, on hilly lands the avenues should be located for ease of hauling. The avenue is made by leaving out a row of vines, and, therefore, the exact size of the block will depend upon the distance between the rows. Some advise having not more than forty vines between the avenues. Planting in rows, with wide spaces between the rows, renders fewer avenues necessary. TLAXTIXG CUTTINGS AND ROOTED VINES. \'arious means are used for planting cut- tings. An essentia! condition to successful growth is to have the lower part of the cut- ting well embedded in the soil, as it will not root unless in close contact with the earth. To lack of care in this regard most failures are due, and for lack of surety that such contact is made the various contrivances for speedy planting, such as the planting bar, are widely condemned ; an excavation of the hole and refilling with fine surface earth, just as advised in Chapter XI, for planting orchard trees, is commended as the safest practice. Much, however, depends upon the soil. In loose, free soil such a use of bar or "sheep's- foot" as will be presently described may be satisfactory, while it would be impracticable on firmer soils, both because of the difficulty of insertion and because the packed condition caused by the forcing in would not favor root extension, and not desirable on shallow soils because the contact of the better surface soil with the bottom of the cutting will stimu- late the growth of the cutting, and is. there- fore, very desirable. The post-hole auger and a device for tak- ing out soil as a '"trier"' takes out a sample of cheese or butter, have also been used to some extent, but not widely, in making holes for cuttings. Other forms of dibbles for planting vine cuttings relate particularly to the setting of cutting-grafts in a light deeply-worked nur- sery soil, but may be also used to advantage in placing cuttings in the vineyard if the soil favors such a method. They are described by Mr. Bioletti as follows : Two of the best forms of nursery dibbles are shown in the engraving. The first. A, consists of a piece of round one-half-inch iron. i8 inches long, furnished with a wooden handle at one end and a curved double point with a V-shaped cleft in the other. The bot- tom node of the stock is caught in the cleft and the graft forced down to the desired depth. Unless the ground is very light the other dibble, B, is preferable. It consists of a sword-shaped piece of iron i8 to 20 inches long and 2 inches wide, furnished also with a handle. The usual way of using it is to press it into the ground to the desired depth, open the hole a little with a ' lateral thrust, withdraw it and insert the graft. The dibble is then pushed into the ground again at about an inch to one side of the graft and by another lateral thrust the earth is pressed tightly around the graft. This takes more time than is necessary with the other form of dibble, and unless done carefully there is danger of failing to make the soil close around the base of the stock, which is thus left surrounded by an air space. Grafts left in this way are apt to become moldy and fail to make good roots. The figure C is a plant- ing dibble to be used with hand and foot like a spade. All such contrivances are only suited to light soils which crumble and settle easily. On heavier soils, digging holes and placing the soil around the roots or the base of the cutting by hand is indispensable. Pl.vnting B.\r and SHEEP's-FooT.-^The following methods, described by Dr. Gustav Eisen as prevailing in the raisin districts of the San Joaquin Valley, on sandy, loamy soils, will well illustrate similar methods wherever followed : The planting bar consists of a bar of hard iron, sharpened at the lower end and fnrnished with a cross-handle at the other. The length of the bar is abont three and a half feet, width abont two and a half inches, and thickness a third to half an inch. If less than this the bar will bend. The planting is When to Plant 244 California Fruits done by pushing the bar perpendicularly in the ground. After withdrawing it, insert the cutting and push it down to the bottom. Fill up the hole by again inserting the bar in the ground close by and pressing the flat side against the hole. The sheep's-foot consists of a round rod with cross-handle at the upper end. The lower end of the rod is slightly flattened, bent, and forked. The \J l^ '■' i Dibbles for planting vine cuttings. planting is done by fitting the forked end over the butt-end bud of the cutting, and immediately pushing cutting and rod together to the desired depth in the soil. A slight twist is now given to the sheep's- foot. This loosens it from the cutting and allows it to be withdrawn. A tamp with the foot fills the hole. Great care must be taken in withdrawing the sheep's-foot, lest in doing so the cutting should be lifted also, and this will leave a fatal air chamber at the lower end. The slight twist given the rod before withdrawing loosens it and leaves the cutting undisturbed. FoF planting in dry situations some careful planters run water and fine earth into the hole made by the bar after inserting the cutting; others run in fine sand dry and then pour on water. In using water in this way one must take care that he does not use adobe earth, for a succeeding dry spell may bake it, and the cutting will be worse off than if not pud- dled. Planting Rooted Vines. — Planting rooted vines is governed by the same rules com- mended for planting trees in Chapter XI, so far as preparation of holes, care in plac- ing and firming the soil around the roots, etc., is concerned. In handling rooted vines there must be greater care in packing and trans- portation to prevent the roots froin drying, and in carrying to the field it is generally advised that the plants be kept in a pail or other receptacle with water. The vine roots are very small and tender, and success will largely depend upon good care of them. At planting all dead or injured roots should be trimmed away, healthy roots shortened so that they can be placed well in the hole, and the top reduced to a single cane cut back to two eyes. When to Plant. — The exact time to plant can not be stated, for the condition of the soil and the local season-points are the best guides. Planting can be done much later as a rule in the coast regions than in the inte- rior, because the soil is usually later in getting into good condition of mellowness and warmth, and the late rains are usually heavier. It is certainly not advisable to place cuttings in cold, wet soil, and dry soil will quickly destroy their vitality. The sugges- tions given in Chapter XI should be care- fully considered. The planter must use good judgment in choosing his time for planting, aided in forming it by the best local experi- ence he can get. Cultivation of Vineyard. — General sug- gestions concerning the cultivation of the vineyard have already been given in Chapter XIII. preceding. How to Grow Them 245 The First Year CHAPTER XXVII. PRUNING AND CARE OF THE VINE.* MOST of the varieties of vinifcra grown in California at present thrive under the short pruning system. There are exceptions, however, which will be noted later. The preva- lence of the short pruning system frees our growers from the expense and inconvenience of trellises. Though in the early years of the vines stakes are used, our older vines stand by themselves and are as independent of sup- ports as our fruit trees. The vines are, in fact, shaped upon something the same model as our fruit trees, the so-called "goblet form" of the French being our prototype. THE FIRST YEAR. During the summer of the year the vines are planted, no pruning or training of any kind is needed in most cases. For this reason it is nearly always unnecessary to stake the vines when they are planted. The only ex- ception to this is when strong-rooted vines are planted in a rich, moist soil in which they will make a very large growth the first year. In this case it is desirable, though not quite necessary, to stake the vines immediately after planting to adopt the method of summer treatment described below for the second year. In most cases it is best to allow all shoots to remain to feed the vine and to insure a good root growth the first year. Staking. — In the autumn or winter follow- ing planting, the vines should be staked, either before or after pruning, but in any case some time before the buds start in the spring. The kind of stake used will depend on the variety of vine and on the method of prun- ing to be ultimately adopted. For ordinary The detailed instructions and accompanyine illustrations in this chapter are taken from the excellent writings of Mr. F. T. Bioletti for the California Experiment Station, and embodv the teachings of lonu experience and wide observation. short-pruning, the stake should be of such length that, after being driven into the ground, sufficient will be below the surface to keep it firm and prevent its being loosened by the force of the wind acting on the vine which is tied to it, and sufficient above the surface to extend one or two inches above the height at which it is intended to head the vines. It should be from one and one- quarter to one and one-half inches square, according to the length. In firm ground, for small-growing vines such as Zinfandel, a stake i 1-4 by i 1-4 inches and 27 inches long will be sufficient. This will allow 15 inches to be driven into the ground and leave 12 inches above, which is enough for vines to be headed at 10 inches. If the ground is loose or sandy a 30-inch stake driven 18 inches into the ground will be needed. For strong-growing varieties, such as Carignane or Tokay, especially when planted in rich soil, a stake i 1-2 by i 1-2 inches and 36 inches long will be necessary, and 15 or 18 inches of this should be left above the ground. This will permit the head- ing of the vines at 15 inches. If the vines are to be trellised with one wire, a 36-inch stake driven 18 inches into the ground is the proper length. If two vires are to be used, a 48-inch stake will be needed, leaving 30 inches above the surface. If the vines are to be pruned long and the canes tied to the stake, a 3-foot stake will usually be needed, and this must be stronger, 2 by 2 inches square. This stake should be driven 2 feet into the ground. These dimensions are all smaller than are usual in California, but are quite sufficient for all practical purposes. The stake should be placed I to 2 inches from the vine on the side opposite to the prevailing heavy winds. The force of the wind will thus keep the vine pressed against the stake and the tying ma- terial is less liable to break. First Winter Pruninq- 246 California Fruits : First Winter Pruning. — In California, the young vines may be pruned at any time after the leaves have fallen, except in sections very subject to spring frosts, where it is some- times advisable to defer the pruning until after the top buds of the canes start. The way the vines are to be pruned will de- pend altogether on the growth they have made. If the growth has been small the tops are pruned exactly like rooted vines before plant- ing. All the canes are removed entirely, ex- cept the strongest, and this is cut back to two buds (see Fig. i, a). the stake. In this case the vine must be pruned like a weak vine — that is, thinned to one cane and this cane cut back to two buds. In no case should tzco canes of any length be left, and in all cases where it is impossible to obtain the full length of well-ripened wood for tying up, the cane should be cut back to two buds. It is very bad practice to leave some of the canes of intermediate length, as this causes the vines to head out at various heights and produces an irregularity of shape which can never be remedied and which inter- Fig. I. Treatment of an average vine during second season, a. Winter pruning. Any vines which have made a strong growth and possess at least one cane of which a sufficient length is well ripened may be pruned for tying up. All the canes are re- moved entirely, except the strongest, and this is cut back to lo, 15, or 18 inches, ac- cording to the height at which it is intended to head the vine (see Fig. 2, a). The top cut is made through a bud, just as in making cuttings. This will facilitate tying up and insure the healthy growth of the top bud. Sometimes, even when the vine has made sufficient growth, the canes are prostrate or crooked and none can be tied uo straight to feres with regular pruning, cultivation and other vineyard work. The idea to be kept in mind is to cut back each winter nearly to the ground — that is, to two buds — until a cane is produced with a length of well-ripened wood and good buds equal to the height at which the vine is to be headed. It is very important that this cane should be straight, healthy, and well-ripenetl, as it is from it that the trunk of the mature vine develops. All the vines on which a cane lias been left should be carefully tied up. Two ties will be needed in most cases. A half hitch should be made around the cane below the swelling left by the Inid which has been How to Grow Them 247 Second Year removed, and the cane tied firmly to the top of the stake. Another tie is made about half-way down the stake. The lower tie need not be very tig-ht, and in any case the tying material should not be passed completely around the cane, except above the top bud, or the vine will be strangled when it commences to grow (see Fig. 2, a). Any kind of string or twine, sufficiently strong to withstand the .pressure of the growing vine in a heavy wind, may be used. Binding twine, or a single strand of will be necessary to go over the vineyard four or five times to do the suckering, topping, and tying which are necessary. The shoots starting from the vines which have been cut back to two buds should be thinned to a single one. This thinning should be done as soon as possible in such a way that it is never necessary to remove a shoot more than 3 or 4 inches long (see Fig. i, b). If the thinning is deferred until the shoots are a foot or more long the vine will be weak- Fig. 2. Treatment of average vine during the third season, or of a vigorous vine during the second. vine pruned to one cane and lied to stake. Removal of sucker (S) and lower shoots (W) vine in summer at time of pinctiing. good baling rope, is suitable. No. 16 or 17 galvanized wire is preferred by some and is better than string, if care is taken to remove the bottom ties the following year before they strangle the vine. Wire is a little more ex- pensive and takes a little longer to put on than string, but holds the vines better and can be used for several years. SECOND YEAR. Summer Pruning. — The treatment during the second and third spring and summer is of great importance to the future welfare of the vine. A little judicious care at this period will avert manv troubles in later vears. It ened by the removal of so much foliage. If the thinning can not be done early, it is better not to do it at all. The object of this thinning is to throw all the force and growth of the vine into the cane which is to form finally the trunk of the vine. If it is done too late not only does the growth not go into this cane, but the vine is weakened so much that this cane does not grow so well as it would have done without thinning. The first thinning can be done with the first hoeing, and the second with the sucker- ing. The suckering consists of the removal of all shoots whicli come from below the ground. These also should be removed as Suckering and Topping 248 California Fruits : early as practicable, both to avoid weakening the vine Idv the removal of mature leaves and also because a young sucker is much more easily separated from the vine at this time. Every sucker must be cut or broken off at the point where it originates." If a little piece of the sucker is left, several new suckers will start at the same place. The more completely the suckering is done during the iirst two years, the less trouble in this respect there during the summer. Strong-growing vines in rich soil, however, should be topped. Topping. — The object of this is to force the shoot to send out laterals at the right height above the surface of the soil, to be used as spurs during the following year. This topping is an operation which requires a good deal of .judgment. If the topping is done too soon, laterals will not start, but a new ter- /J>^^ Fig. 3. Three-year-old vines after pruning. Average vine with two spurs. vigorous vines with three spurs, the lowest of which is to be removed the followi vigorous vine with three spurs. will be in later years. This is particularly true of grafted vines. A few weeks after the first tliinning, the single snoot which has been left will have grown 10 or 15 inches. At this length it should be tied up to the stake (see Fig. \, c). If this tying is neglected or deferred too long, a heavy wind is very liable to break off the whole shoot. A piece of string tied rather loosely about the middle of the shoot is all that is needed. If the vines are to be headed high (18 inches) another tie near the top of the stake may be necessary later. For vines which are making only a moder- ate growth this is all the treatment needed minal shoot will be formed. This is not a serious defect, however, but simply necessitates a second topping two or three weeks later. Neither will the laterals start if the topping is done too late, or if they start they will not mature, and the vine is weakened by the re- moval of foliage without any compensating advantage. Until experience has shown the proper time for the variety and locality, it is best to top when the shoot has grown to from 8 to 12 inches above the top of the stake, and if necessary top again later. The shoot should be topped within i or 2 inches of the top of the stake, if the stakes How to Grow Them 249 Third Year have been chosen and driven as advised above (see Fig. i, c). This will insure the growth of laterals just where they are needed for the next winter pruning. The vines on which a cane has been left and tied up during the preceding winter must be treated a little differently. The removal of underground shoots or suckers is the same. Instead of thinning out the shoots to a single one, as for the vines just described, all the shoots should be left to grow, except those too near the ground (see Fig. 2. b). Fig. 4. An ideal three-year-old vine after pruning. As a rule, all shoots between the ground and the middle of the stakes should be taken off. It is even more important that this should be done early than in the case de- scribed above. If the lower shoots are al- lowed to become large and then removed, not only is the vine weakened by the removal of mature leaves, but the stem of the vine is suddenly exposed to the direct rays of the hot sun and is very liable to injury. This injury does not show by a peeling off of the bark as with fruit trees, but by a general weaken- ing and dwarfing of the vine. The shoots coming from the upper half of the cane are to form the spurs for the fol- lowing winter pruning, and can often be left to grow without further treatment. If the growth is very rapid and succulent, however, it is necessary to pinch them, or the first heavy wind may break them of? (see Fig. 2, c). Pinching consists of the removal of i or 2 inches of growth at the extreme tip of the shoot. This delays the growth in k-ugth temporarily aiid gives the shoot time to strengthen its tissues before its length gives too much leverage to the wind. This pinch- ing usually has to be repeated at least once. Pinching may be replaced by topping a few weeks later, but the latter is somewhat weakening to the vine. In all summer pruning — that is, removal of green shoots and leaves — of young vines, two things should be kept in mind: First, that all summer pruning is weakening; sec- ond, that the object of summer pruning of young vines is to direct the growth as much as possible into those parts which are to be- come permanent portions of the mature vine. The weakening effect is almost nil if the shoots or tips are . removed when they are very small, but may be very serious if large shoots are removed or heavily topped. When a large shoot covered with leaves is removed it is a total loss to the vine. When a small shoot is removed the food materials which would have gone into that shoot are diverted to the shoots that remain, and the vigor and size of the latter are in- creased. THIRD YEAR. Winter Pruning. — After the leaves have fallen at the end of the third summer every vine should have a well-formed, straight stem with two, three, or more canes growing from the upper part, and the formation of the "head" or crown should commence. Any vines which have not been brought to this condition must be pruned like two or one- year-old vines, as the case may be. If the work up to this point has been well done, the formation of the head is a simple matter. It consists in leaving two. three, or four spurs, arranged as s\Tnmetrically as pos- sible near the top of the vine. The stronger the vine, as evidenced by the number, length. Lono- Pruninsf 250 California Fruits : and thickness of the canes, the larger the number of spurs and buds that should be left. A spur consists of the basal portion of a cane, and normally of two full internodes. This leaves two buds besides the base bud. The number of buds to leave on a spur de- pends on the strength or thickness of the cane from which the spur is made. A thin, or Fig. 5. Shewing method of bending fruit canes to insure growth of shoots froin replacing spurs. weak, cane should be cut back to one bud or even to the base bud. A strong cane, on the other hand, should be left with three buds besides the base bud. The pruning of each vine requires judg- ment, and it is impossible to give an inflexible rule to follow. The ideal of a perfect vine should be kept in mind and each vine pruned as nearly in accordance with this ideal as circumstances permit. Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 rep- resent nearly perfect three-year-old vines cotisisting of two or three symmetrically placed spurs of two buds each near the top of the stem. Sometimes it is necessary to leave a spur lower down (see Fig. 3, fc). This spur will be removed the following year after it has produced two or three bunches of grapes. Sometimes a vine may be very vigorous but have only two canes properly placed for mak- ing spurs. In this case the spurs should be left longer — three buds and even in ex- treme cases four buds long. In stump pruning there is a difference of practice as to low heading according to lo- cality. In the interior regions the vine is now headed almost at the surface of the ground ; in the coast regions there is usually a stump of one to two feet or more. As with trees so with vines, the practice is to prune to make lower heads than during the early years of California fruit growing. Long Pruning. — Some varieties grown for market and for raisin making do not thrive if pruned by the short-spur system. Notable among these are the Sultana, Sul- tanina, (Thompson's Seedless), Emperor and Sabalskanski. There are also a number of wine varieties which must be pruned long. Whatever the variety of vine and whatever the system of pruning to be ultiinately adopt- ed, the treatment for the first two and even three years is practically identical and is that which has already been described in detail. Long pruning admits of degrees, but it usually signifies using a five or six instead of a four-foot stake and leaving the selected canes from eighteen inches to three feet or longer instead of cutting back to two or three Inids, as in short pruning. These long canes are securely tied to the long stakes. With varieties needing long pruning the first two or three buds next the old wood do not bear fruit, hence the need of leaving buds farther removed from the old wood to secure it. This habit of the vine invites the practice of growing a long cane for fruit and at the same time providing for wood growth for the following year's fruiting by cutting another cane from the saine spur down to two or three buds. By this practice How to Gro\v Them 251 Different Methods the wood which has borne the fruit is cut back to a bud each winter and the cane which has grown only wood is pruned long for the fruit of the following summer. A modi- fication of the practice is to prune the canes- from some of the spurs long, and from other spurs short, thus making the spurs alternate from wood bearing to fruit bearing from year to year. Unless some method is adopted to promote the growth of strong canes from near the head of the vine, long pruning be- cvery year in a position where it can be util- izeil. The first consists in bending the fruit canes into a circle, as illustrated in Fig. 5. This diminishes the tendency of the sap of the vine to go to the end of the fruit canes. The consequence is that more shoots start on the lower parts of the fruit canes. All the shoots on these canes are made weaker and more fruitful by the bending, and at the same time the sap pressure is increased and causes strong shoots to start from the wood- Fig. 6. Showing method of pruning trellised Sultanina vines. comes unsatisfactory. According to the cominon way with those vines which are known to require longer canes for satisfactory bearing, such canes are selected when the vine is well established and two, three, four, or more canes four or five feet long are tied up vertically to a high stake. This process is repeated the next year and the next, and the result is, with the Sultanina at least, that after the second or third year all the bearing wood is at the top of the stake, and the vine must be pruned short again or suckers and watersprouts left as long canes. Neither way is satisfactory. Two methods have been successfully used to insure the growth of new fruit wood spurs left near the bases of the fruit canes. These shoots are used for fruit canes at the following winter pruning, and new wood spurs are then left for the next year. The tying and bending of the fruit canes require great care, and repeated suckering and removal of watersprouts are necessary to insure a strong growth of replacing canes on the wood spurs. This method can be used successfully only by skillful hands. The other method requires some forrti of trellis. The most practicable trellis is a wire stretched along the rows at about i 1-2 or 2 feet above the surface of the soil. For very vigorous vines in rich soil a second wire 12 inches above the first is advisable. Summer Care of Vines 252 California Fruits The pruning is the same as for the method just described. The fruit canes, however, instead of being bent in a circle and tied to the stake, are placed in a horizontal position and tied to the wire. The horizontal position has the same effect as curving in promoting the starting of more shoots on the fruit canes and the consequent production of more bunches of grapes. At the same time the buds on the wood spurs are forced to start, and not being shaded they tend to grow vig- orously. It is best to tie the shoots from the wood spurs in a vertical position to the stake, and they should not be topped. This sys- tem of pruning is not only theoretically cor- rect, but is easy to explain to pruners, and can be carried out much more perfectly than the first method with ordinary labor. Whatever system of winter pruning is adopted with the Sultanina, careful summer pruning, suckering, sprouting, and topping are necessary for the best results. This vari- ety has a tendency to send out large numbers of suckers from below ground and water- sprouts from the old wood. These shoots are usually sterile, grow vigorously, and unless removed in time divert the energies of the vine from the fruit and fruit shoots. Two or three times during the spring the vine- yard should be gone over carefully and all sterile shoots which are not needed to balance the vine or to replace weak or missing arms should be removed. This removal of shoots should be done in such a way that no shoot longer than 12 inches is ever removed. If the watersprouts are allowed to grow large their removal weakens the vine. The shoots which are to give fruit canes for the follow- ing year should not be topped. The shoots from the horizontal fruit canes on the trel- lises, however, will set their fruit better and are less likely to be broken by the wind if they are pinched or topped early. SUMMER PRUNING AND SUCKERING. Summer pruning or topping of bearing vines is usually practised. Some follow the pinching process, by which the terminal of the growing cane is nipped off with the thumb and finger when it has grown out about two feet. Others wait longer and then slash off the ends of the canes with a sickle. The tendency is to leave summer pruning until too late and to slash off wood indis- criminately, to the injury of the vine. Sum- mer pruning, if done early enough, and this would be while the growth is still soft at the point of removal, will induce the growth "of laterals and will shade and improve the fruit, and at the same time thicken the growth of the main cane and strengthen its connec- tion with the spur. Slashing of canes too late in the season deprives the fruit of the service of enough leaf surface for the elabora- tion of the sap, often seriously checks the growth of the vine, and in hot regions in- duces sunburn. The first summer pruning should be done soon after the bloom, but not during blooming. The second could take place whenever the canes or laterals extend beyond the length necessary to shade the grapes. Suckering is an important process and usually has to be attended to at least twice in the season. It consists in removing all shoots from old wood which are not provided for at the previous winter pruning. The growth of these suckers takes sap which should go to the other canes. All such shoots should be rubbed or pulled off while they are still soft ; if a sucker puts out at a point where it would be desirable to have a spur to balance the head of the vine, it should of course be allowed to grow, to be cut back to two buds the following winter. By such selection of suckers new spurs are secured to replace old and failing ones. GENERAL NOTES ON PRUNING. Longer or shorter pruning produces effects not only upon the amount and early ripening of the fruit of certain varieties, but upon quality, as shown in the wine. Such effects have to be discerned by local observation. It is a very difficult matter to lay down any rule for pruning a vineyard, so much depends on the age of the vines, the differ- ent varieties, and the quality of the soil. A basis on which to build a theory on the sub- ject might be found in and through an under- standing of the quantity of grapes that may be expected from a vine, as the secret of pruning is to keep a just medium between the production of grapes to the injury of the vine and its wood and an overproduction of wood to the detriment of the crop. In older vines a proportion should be maintained be- tween the vigor of the vines and the crop How to Grow Them 253 Diseases of the Vine desired ; each bud may be considered good for two bunches of grapes the ordinary size, and upon this estimate may be obtained. It must be borne in mind that the result of overloading the vine is detrimental to its vigor and health, while the reverse will not injure it, but will lessen the profits for that season, often giving greatly increased" re- turns in after years. Close attention should be given to the grow'th of the wood and fruit of the pre- ceding year. If the canes are very large and the bunches of grapes poor and there are many suckers, it indicates that more eyes are necessary. On the contrary, if the canes are small, and the buwches of grapes numer- ous and straggling, and the ripening not even, it indicates that the number of eyes left should be less. Pruning may be regulated to produce a good second crop of grapes or to prevent the formation of a second crop. The second crop is often desirable in raisin and table varieties, but undesirable in wine varieties. Attention should be paid to the tools used in pruning. Let the blades be kept sharp and thin ; large shears are very apt to bruise the wood more than small ones. Pruning is done after the fall of the leaves and before the swelling of the buds, usually in January and February. Early pruning has a tendency to make the vines start growth early, consequently in frosty situations prun- ing is often deferred till late in the winter — as late as the middle of March in some cases. In such situations it is advised to leave more buds at pruning, so if the frost kills the first first shoots there are buds below to make later growth. This practice has been followed with marked advantage in some regions liable to late spring frosts. The treatment of vines injured by spring frosts is clearly the immediate removal, by a sharp downward jerk, of the frosted shoots. P. C. Rossi, a large vineyardist, recites this experience, both in the San Joaquin and San- ta Rosa Valleys : We had all the vines affected by frost entirely stripped of the damaged shoots, and we had the pleas\ire of seeing that, in a short time after, all the dormant buds came out finely, with their regular two bunches of grapes ; therefore we have lost only one-third of the crop. In order to make careful experiment we left a row of vines untouched, and the result proved that the vines that were not stripped did not do as well as the others, as the dormant buds in luany cases did not come out, and those that came out were not healthy and strong, and hardly had any grapes. The damaged shoots that were not removed died gradually, and at the junction with the cane new shoots came out without any grapes at all. The result clearly proves that we will have fully two-thirds of the crop out of the frost-bitten vines which were stripped of the damaged canes, while we had hardly any first crop and only a second crop on the vines which were not attended to. DISEASES OF THE VINE. One of the most prevalent diseases of the vine in California is caused by a fungus which allfects leaves, canes, and berries, and is lo- cally known as "mildew." This disease is recognized by grayish white coloring of the affected leaves, which, as the disease pro- gresses, shrivel and dry up ; the young cane also blackens and dries, and the berries show whitish patches, which become darker colored and the berries crack open. The usual rem- edy for the trouble is finely-ground or sub- limed sulphur applied several times during the season, as will he described in the chap- ter on diseases of trees and vines. The Bordeaux Mixture and other copper preparations are sometimes useful upon grape-vines, as will be cited in the chapter on plant diseases. CouLURE. — A frequent misfortune of the vine, and for which no remedy is yet known, is coulure. a term signifying the failure of the fruit to set or to remain on the cluster. This occurs in varying degrees from the loss of a few berries to the almost complete clear- ing of fruit from the stem. It is worse with some varieties than others and in some lo- calities than others. The trouble is believed to arise from various causes. There is, also, occurring with more or less frequency, a reddening and death of the vine leaves, supposed to .be identical with the trouble known to the French as "rouge- ole.'' The leaves show light-colored spots at first, which afterward turn red and finally involve the whole leaf or cane, and sometimes the whole vine. It usually occurs in mid- summer, and is not necessarily fatal in its effects. Root Knot. — An evil occurring on the main stem of the vine, generally near the surface of the ground, is an excrescence of woody character commonly called "black knot." There has been much discussion as to the cause of this abnormal grow^th, without Anaheim Disease 254 California Fruits ■;• .>"'' ■ 1 %^#^'^ ' "^^f^^^^^^^L i " "' ^^^^^^^HHjHbP^ 9 «a>.^ •«jHL'lil^?aP^^'''^Hp^f i '^&S»Wi i 1 »^» '**^^H| ..M.itSI^^'^^i^SSSS^-H^ f ^'^mmS^ - / / /-^ E ""^' .'' •ii "i. ''s;'^-;- Instance of large bearing by long pruning. full agreement among observers. Some at- tribute the knots to injuries to the stump in cultivation, others to outbursts of sap which the short pruning system does not give top growth enough to dispose of, and to various other causes. This is analogous to the "crown knot" of fruit trees which will be mentioned in the chapter on plant diseases. Anaheim Disease. — There has prevailed for several years in California a mysterious disease of the vine known as the "Anaheim disease," because its evil work first appeared in that vicinity. It destroyed many thousand acres of vines and led to the abandonment of grape growing in some regions in south- ern California.* • The fullest statements concerninE its performance can be found in Bulletin No 2. U S. Dept. of Acriculture. Divison of Veg- etable Pathology, by Newton B. Pierce. 1S92, and Farmers' Bulletin No. 30. 1S95. Fortimately during recent years the trouble has been less aggressive but neither its nature nor satisfactory treatment has been fully demonstrated. The latest available information oncerning it and other troubles of the vine can be had by application to the University Experiment Station at Berkeley. How to Grow Them 255 Varieties of the Grape CHAPTER XXVIII. GRAPE VARIETIES IN CALIFORNIA. LARGE collections of grape varieties have been brought into California during the last forty-five years. They were sought in all grape countries, and from such wide experimental planting a few have survived in popular esteem and are now chiefly grown. The relative importance of the most popular table and raisin grapes is shown in the ac- companying tabulation of reports from grow- ers secured as described in Chapter XVI, re- lating to the relative standing of orchard fruit varieties. These growers were asked Grape varieties approved by California growers. Central Sacramento GR.\PES coast valley and valleys. foothills. Muscat, * »,j Tokay ^ ,, Cornichon ' , ^,^, Sultanina (Thompson) ^, ^^, Emperor f.^, Malaga „ ,^, Rose of Peru „,, Black Morocco « „ Verdal ^, Sultana ,, Mission » ^ Black Hamburg , ^ Black Ferrara . . .... , Gros Colman .... Zabalkanski .... Palomino „ ,j Sweetwater ^ ,,, Pierce f, .... Concord » .... Delaware , Niagara f, Campbell's Early .... Agawam .... .... • Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated. ** Most highly commended. Being derived from ditJerent countries, they came bearing many names. Some of these have been preserved, some wholly lost, and replaced with local appellations. The result is that our grape nomenclature is full of con- fusion. Some varieties have been identified by the means of the standard French grape literature ; others are apparently unknown to the compilers of that literature. It is, there- fore, impossible today to determine a number of our most popular table and shipping grapes, as well as some of the wine varieties. to name the grapes which they considered best worth planting in 1908. The last six named are grapes of popular eastern types. They are of exceedingly small commercial importance and are chiefly grown in Southern California : not because eastern varieties are better suited to local conditions there than in other ]iarts of the state but because there are more people who enjoy them. In order to characterize our leading table grapes, descriptions will be quoted from the best available local authorities, as follows : Varieties 256 California Fruits Early Black July, syns. Madeleine, Madeline Noir, etc. — "Leaves rather small, light green above and be- neath ; bnnches small and compact ; berries small. White July: syn. Luglienga. — "Vine strong-grow- ing and sensitive to frost ; leaves of medium size, deeply five-lobed, dark green, glabrous on both sides, Giu:. Colman. quite round; skin thick, black, covered with a blue sharply toothed, the terminal tooth of each lobe bloom; flavor moderately sweet, but not rich nor very long and acuminate; bunches of medium size, perfumed. The earliest grape, and chiefly valued for well filled; berries of medium size, oval, at first dessert on that account." — Hvatt. green, becoming yellow with overripeness, with How to Grow Them 257 Varieties thin skin, crisp, firm flesh, and agreeable flavor." — Bioletti. The Luglienga. which means July grape, is one of the earhest grapes known. Early Madeleine; syn. Madeleine Angevine.— "Moderate grower, with long-jointed, brown wood ; leaf medium, deeply lobed, dark green above, tomen- tose below; young points reddish, woolly, slender; bunch medium, compact, shouldered ; berry medium, oblong, yellowish green, transparent, rather thick skin, sweet and juicy. Vine a shy bearer when frost is prevalent." — Husmann. Chasselas Dore; syn. Fontainebleau, Sweetumter. — "A rather vigorous grower, with medium or some- what slender canes of a reddish-brown color; young shoots of garnet color, nearly or quite glabrous; leaves rather below average size, a little longer than wide, glabrous above and nearly so below, except for a few hairs on the main nerves, with well-marked sinuses, the petiolar one often closed, the petiole long, rather slender, and rose-colored ; bunches of medium or over-medium size, conico-cylindrical, sho\ildered. more or less compact: berries medium to large, with firm but tender skin, small seeds ; of delicate flavor and texture, at first crisp but be- coming soft with full maturity. The grapes are of a clear green color, tinged with a beautiful golden bronze where exposed to the sun." — Bioletti. Chassclas Rose. — Fruit resembling foregoing, ex- cept that both bunch and berries are usually smaller, and flavor is more pronounced. Chasselas Victoria. — "Vine vigorous, very short- jointed and brittle, and bears well with short prun- ing; wood grayish yellow, thick and strong; leaf light green, deeply lobed and shining; young shoots with numerous laterals ; bunch very large and heavy, often weighing five pounds, shouldered, very com- pact ; stem brown, very thick ; berry medium, round, pale lilac purple, with lilac bloom, juicy, vinous, re- freshing." — Husmann. Palomino; syn. Golden Chassclas. — "The vine quite largely grown as "Golden Chasselas" is un- doubtedly identical with the Listan, or Palomino." — Hilgard. Vine a fair grower; wood close- jointed ; leaf medium, oblong, deeply lobed, bright green above, grayish green and tomentose below; stem short, young points with reddish tint and woolly ; bunch large, conical, rather loose and shoul- dered ; berry round, full medium, sometimes flat, pale green with yellowish tinge; thin skin, juicy and sweet, resembling Chasselas." — Husmann. Black Malvoise. — "Vine a strong grower ; wood long-jointed, rather slender, light brown; leaf me- dium size, oval, rather evenly and deeply five-lobed ; basal sinus moderately open, with parallel sides, upper surface smooth, almost glabrous, lower surface lightly tomentose on the veins and veinlets ; bunches large, rather loose, branching; berries large, oblong, reddish black with faint bloom ; flesh juicy, flavor neutral." — Hilgard. Widely grown as an early table grape. Mission. — "This variety, grown at the old mis- sions, has never been determined, nor its exact source ascertained. It is by some regarded as a most delicious table grape. It can be found in small areas in every county of the State adapted to the grape. Vine a strong grower; wood short- jointed, dull dark brown to grayish; leaf above medium size, slightly oblong, with large, deeply-cut, compound teeth, basal sinus widely open, primary sinuses shallow and narrow, secondary sinuses ill-defined, smooth on both sides, light green below with light, scattered tomentum." — Hilgard. "Bunches slightly shouldered, loose, divided into many small, distinct lateral clusters; berries medium size, round, purple black, heavy bloom; exceedingly sweet, juicy, and delicious; seeds rather large; skin th.m."— Hyatt. Muscatel; syn. White Frontignan. — "Vine of me- dium size, with strong, spreading canes ; canes red- dish-brown, with short internodes; leaves of me- dium size, thin, five-lobed, glabrous, except for a few hairs on the lower side of the well-marked ribs; bunches long, cylindrical, regular, compact ; berries round, golden-yellow, becoming amber-colored, very sweet and of marked aroma. Ripens a little later than the Chasselas." — Bioletti. White Muscat of Alexandria.* — "Vine a short, rather straggling and bushy grower, well adapted to short stool pruning, as it forms rather a bush than a vine ; wood gray, with dark spots, short- jointed; leaf round, five-lobed, bright green above, lighter green below ; young shoots a bright green. The laterals produce a second and even a third crop; bunch long and loose, shouldered; berry ob- long, light yellov.- when fi\'' - mature, transparent, covered with white bloom, fleshy, with thick skin, very sweet and decidedly musky." — Husmann. The leading table grape of California. Rejected for irregular bearing on some mesa lands in southern .California. Muscatel Gordo Blanco. — "Muscatel Gordo Blanco has a closer bunch and rounder berry than the Mus- cat. The skin is softer and the pulp is not quite so hard. The berry inclines to be a little darker in color and not nearly so green when it is ripe, and I think not quite as long as the Muscat of .Alexandria. If the Muscat would set as well as the Muscatel, the difficulty would be obviated. One very important difference is that when you come to dry them, the Muscat of Alexandria loses the bloom very rapidly. The bloom comes off when you come to dry and pack them. But the Muscatel does not lose its bloom. The Muscat of Alexandria has to be dried a little more than the Muscatel to bring it into a keeping condition under the same con- dition of ripeness." — R. B. Blowers. "The growth of the Muscatel or Gordo Blanco vine is low and spreading, with no upright branches in the center; clusters heavy, and, when perfect, close and shouldered; berries round and large (the greatest circumference being at the center), a crease often being found at the apex of the berry; color green, or, when fully ripe, amber green or yellow. Distinguished from Muscat of Alexandria by low, depressed growth of vine, closer cluster. • There is mvich doubt about the White Muscat.s as grown in California. Some claim inability to distin£:uish between certain grapes of the Muscat type which are being grown in this State under distinctive names: others pronounce them clearly different varieties. The matter cannot be adjusted at present. Varieties 258 California Fruits rounder berries, and by thicker and finer bloom. The Muscatel is the choice raisin grape for the San Joaquin Valley, and for the interior generally." — Dr. Eisen. Huasco Muscat. — A variety brought from Chile, but after wide trial in California, seems not su- perior to the other White Muscat varieties pre- viously mentioned. Ttc; dense cluster is not well adapted to raisin making. It is held, however, to be less subject to coulure. Fehcr Scagos. — "Vine a strong grower and heavy bearer; branches erect but slender; leaves glossy, entire ; bunches medium to small, pointed, and solid ; berries greenish amber, medium oval, pointed, with thin skin and few stnall seeds ; flesh not firm, but dries well and makes a .good raisin." — Dr. Eiscn. Larga Bloom; syn. Uva Larga. — A variety of Muscat said to be named because of the length of its berries, but held by some growers to be in- distinguishable from Muscatel Gordo Blanco. An excellent raisin grape, but now chiefly grown as a table fruit in the Santa Cruz Mountains. JVIiifc Malaga. — "Vine a strong grower; wood reddish brown, short-jointed; leaf medium, leathery smooth, deeply lobed, light shining green above; bunch very large, loose, shouldered, long; stem long and flexible ; berry very large, oval, yellowish green, covered with white bloom ; thick skin, fleshy." — Husmann. Grown in southern California in situations where the Muscat does not do well ; also elsewhere as a table grape, and to some e.\- tent in San Joaquin Valley for raisins. Sultana: syn. Seedless Sultana. — "Vine vigorous, upright; leaves large, five-lobed, with rather large sinuses, light colored, and coarsely toothed; bunches large, long-cylindrical, with heavy shoulders or wings, well filled when not cultured, but not com-' pacted ; berries small, round firm and crisp, golden- yellow, and without seeds." — Bioletti. In California the variety is apt to have some seeds. It has more acid, and therefore greater piquancy of flavor, than Thompson's Seedless, but the latter has recently far outstripped it in popularity among growers. Thompson's Seedless. — Named by Sutter County Horticultural Society, after W. Thompson, Sr., of Yuba City, who procured the cutting in 1878, from Ellwanger & Barry, of Rochester, New York. It was by them described as "a grape from Constan- tinople, named Lady Decoverly." When it fruited in Sutter County, it was seen to be superior to the Sultana, and has been propagated largely. It was first widely distributed by J. P. Onstott of Yuba City, and others, and is now to be found in all parts of the State. The variety is described by Dr. Eisen as follows: "Oval; greenish-yellow; as large as a Sultana; seedless, with a thin skin; good, but not strong flavor, and without that acid which char- acterizes the Sultana grape and raisin ; bunches large or very large; vine an enormous bearer." Mr. Bioletti considers the variety identical with the Sultanina of Asia Minor, and gives this description : "Vine very vigorous and with large trunk and very long canes ; leaves glabrous on both sides, dark yellowish-green above and light below, generally three-lobed, with shallow sinuses, teeth short and obtuse, bunch large, conico-cvlindrical, well filled, on herbaceous peduncles; berries under medium, el- lipsoidal, crisp, of neutral flavor, with moderately thick skin of a fine golden-yellow color." Flame Tokay; syns. Flame-colored Tokay, Flam- ing Tokay. — "Vine a strong grower, large in all its proportions, wood, joints, leaves; wood dark brown, straight, with long joints ; leaves dark green, with a brownish tinge; lightly lobed; bunch- very large, sometimes weighing eight to nine pounds, moderately compact, shouldered ; berry very large, oblong, red, covered with fine lilac bloom ; fleshy and crackling, firm; ripens late." — Husmann. The leading ship- ping grape of the State, quality low. Defective in color in some localities. Black Hamburg. — "Bunches very large, from six to ten inches in length, very broad at the shoulders, tapering to a point gradually; berries very large, round, slightly inclining to oval ; skin rather thick, deep purple, very black at maturity; very sugary, juicy, and rich." — Hyatt. A very popular market grape. Rose of Peru; syn. Black Prince (?). — "Vine a strong grower, with dark brown, short-jointed wood; leaf deep green above, lighter green and tomentose below ; bunch very large, shouldered, rather loose ; berry round, large, black, with firm and crackling flesh, ripens rather late ; a very handsome and pro- ductive variety, of good quality, but not adapted for long shipment." — Husmann. Moscatello Fine; syns. Moscatcllo Nero, Black Muscat. — "Leaves of medium size, with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses, glabrous above, slightly downy below, and very hairy on the veins, teeth long and sharp ; bunches large to very large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical, and winged ; berries very large, on long, thin pedicels ; skin well colored, thin but tough; flesh soft and juicy, with delicate Mus- cat aroma. An excellent table grape. It is a heavy bearer, and produces very fine-looking bunches of dark colored grapes. Rather late." — Bioletti. Purple Damascus ; syn. Black Damascus. — "Vine a medium grower ; wood light brown striped with darker brown, short-jointed; leaf round, five-lobed, smooth, light green above, tomentose beneath ; stem reddish, large, long and woody; bunch large, loose, shouldered ; berry very large, oblong, dark blue, covered with lighter bloom, meaty, skin thick, ripens late." — Husmann. Purple Cornichon; syn. Black Coniiclion. — "Vine a heavy grower, with thick, light brown, short-jointed wood ; leaves large, longer than wide, deeply five- lobed, dark green above, and lighter and very hairy below, coarsely toothed, and with short, thick peti- ole ; bunches very large, loose, on long peduncles ; berries large, long, more or less curved, darkly colored and spotted, thick-skinned, and on long ped- icels. Desirable on account of its attractive ap- pearance, curious shape, excellent shipping qualities, and late ripening." — Bioletti. ll'liife Cornichon. — Resembles Purple Cornichon in shape and flavor, but has very thin and tender skin, which makes it better for the table, but poorer for shipping. Leaves not deeply cut; smooth on both sides. Emperor. — "Vine a strong, vigorous grower; leaves very large, with five shallow lobes, short, obtuse teeth, glabrous above, woolly beneath, light green in How to Grow Them 259 Eastern Grapes color; bunches very large, lona;, conical, loose, with large, dull purple, oval, firm berries." — Biolctti. An excellent shipping grape, largely grown by R. B. Blowers, of Woodland, Yolo County, by whom its merits were first announced. Pronounced unsatis- factory because of irregular setting and non-ripen- ing in localities near the coast in northern Cali- fornia, and generally, condemned in southern Cali- fornia. Seems best adapted to interior situations and is chiefly grown for shipping in the San Joaquin valley. Black Fcrrara. — A large black grape : large bunches ; berries cling well to the stem, thick- skinned, flavor superior. An excellent local market variet}* and long-distance shipper. Gros Cohnan; syn. Dodrchibi. — "Vine strong- growing, with dark brownish wood ; leaves very large, round, thick, very slightly lobed, shortly and bluntly toothed, glabrous above, close-woolly below ; bunches large, short, well filled, but not compact ; berries very large, round, dark blue, with thick but tender skin. Remarkable as having the largest ber- ries of any round berry variety known, and is prob- ably the handsomest black table grape grown. The grapes have good keeping qualities, except that they are liable to crack." — Biolctti. Black Morocco. — "Vine a strong grower, with thin, spreading canes ; leaves under medium size, very deeply five-lobed. even when very young, the younger leaves truncate at base, giving them a semicircular outline, with long, sharp teeth alternat- ing with very small ones, glabrous on both sides ; bunches very large, short, shouldered, and compact ; berries very large, round, often angular from com- pression, fleshy, of neutral flavor, dull purple color or colorless in the center of the bunch. Remark- able for the number of second-crop bunches which it produces on the laterals. Late in ripening and of very fine appearance ; a fairly good shipping grape, but difficult to pack on account of the size and rigid- ity of the bunches. The grapes are of an agreeable crispness, but lacking in flavor." — Biolctti. Vine quite subject to root knot. Vcrdal; Aspiran Blanc. — "Vine of medium vigor and rather hardy; canes somewhat slender and half erect; leaves of average size, glabrous on both sur- faces, except below near the axils of the main nerves, sinuses well marked and generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance of having five holes ; teeth long, unequal, and somewhat acuminate ; bunches large to very large, irregular long-conical, without any or with small shoulders, well-filled to compact; berries yellowish-green, large to very large, crisp, with thick but tender skin, agreeable, but without marked flavor." — Biolctti. Largely grown as a late table grape ; in good condition ; in some regions as late as November. Almcria. — "Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round and slightly or not at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and alternately large and small : bunches large, loose or compact, irregular conical ; berries from small to large, cylindrical, flattened on the ends, very hard and tasteless." — Biolctti. The grape cultivated at the L^niversity ex- periment stations under this name is one of the sev- eral varieties which are shipped in such large quan- tities from Malaga and Almeria packed in sand or cork-dust. The grapes ripen late and attain about 20.0 per cent of sugar. They have remarkable keep- ing qualities. Vine needs long pruning, and is only adapted to hot, interior situations. There are man}- other linifcra varieties which are grown to a limited extent either for raisins or for table use. Among these are the Canon Hall Muscat, the White Tokay, White Champion, Cinsaut, Zabalskanski, etc., for table use ; the White and Black Corinth, for drying. With grapes, as with other mar- ket fruits, the planter usually confines his attention to a very few popular kinds. E.^STERN GRAPES. Though many of the improved varieties of the grape species indigenous east of the Rockv Mountains, and of the hvbrids between The Isabella Regia. these species and the vinifcra. have been in- troduced in California, their growth for table fruit is almost of insignificant pro- portions, and does not constitute even a fe- Wine Grapes 260 California Fruits spectable fraction of one per cent of our grape area. The popular taste decidedly prefers the vinifera varieties. There is, how- ever, a variety believed to be of local origin, which is worthy of mention as follows : Isabella Rcgia. — "A remarkable, giant-leaved, and very prolific sport of the Isabella, originating by bud-variation with Mr. J. P. Pierce, of Santa Clara. The berries, like the leaves, are of extraordinary size, and when ripe the fruit is exceedingly sweet and strongly aromatic. It is, therefore, acceptable as a showy, perfumed table grape, much liked by some, but readily surfeiting those who are accustomed to the vinifera grapes. The berries are too soft for shipment to any distance, but all things considered, keep fairly." — Hilgard. Grown as the "California Concord" in the Los Angeles region. WINE GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA. Progress is being continually made in the propagation of varieties yielding wine, and in the manufacture thereof. The hosts of con- siderations involved in this effort are beyond the scope of this work and largely beyond the writer's knowledge. It is important, how- ever, to have an intelligent discussion of the suitability of varieties grown for this pur- pose, prepared by Mr. F. T. Bioletti, and representing his conclusions at the close of the year 1907, as follows : 1. Vineyard for sweet wine in the interior valleys. Red- Proportion. Grenache ^ Alicante Bouschet ^4 Tinta Maderia H white. Proportion. Palomino : ^2 Beba I4 Boal H The Grenache and Alicante Bouschet are heavy bearers with short pruning. The for- mer naturally takes a port flavor and the lat- ter insures sufficient color. The Tinta Ma- deira, when pruned properly, bears well and will increase the quality of the port wine. The Palomino is one of the heaviest and most regular bearers grown in California and is peculiarly suited for sherry making. It is the principal grape of the Span- ish sherry district. The Beba bears nearly or quite as well as the Palomino and is of rather better quality. Both bear with short pruning. The Boal hears good crops and gives a sweet wine of high quality. Vineyard for dry wine in the interior valleys. white. rroporliou. Valdepenyas ^ Lagrain ^4 St. Macaire ^4 Red. Proportion. Burger ^ West's White Prolific I4 Vernaccia Sarda ^4 The Valdepenyas has been growing for near- ly twenty years at the Tulare Experiment Station, and has always given regular and good crops with short pruning. The dry red wine made from it has been in every way satisfactory and much superior to that made from Bouschet, Zinfandel, or any of the varieties usually grown in the valley, and approaches more nearly than any other vari- ety the wines of the cooler localities. This variety has been planted to some extent in the cooler localities, where it is completely out of place. In Napa its bearing is un- satisfactory and its wine harsh. The vine needs a hot climate to bring out its best qualities. The Lagrain and St. Macaire are valuable on account of their intense color, which at Tulare is equal to that of the Bous- chets and is more stable. The St. Macaire is particularly recommended on account of its high acidity, which is extremely useful for the region. The Gros Mansenc retains its acid even better than the St. Macaire, and is also deeply colored, but it has not borne quite so well. The Burger has, fortunately, been planted extensively in the hotter parts of the interior, and probably no better choice could be made for the production of a cheap, light, neutral dry white wine in that region. Its acidity, which is excessive in the coast counties, is normal or even low in the interior. For this reason, and in order to give a little more character, it should be blended with such grapes as the West's White Prolific and the \''ernaccia Sarda, which retain their acidity at Tulare better than any other white grapes tested. How to Grow Them 261 Wine Grapes 3. Vineyard for drj- wine in the coast counties. Red Proportion. Petite Sirah H Beclan I4 Cabernet Sauvignon I4 White. Proportion. Semillon I2 Colombar ^4 Sauvignon blanc ^4 The conditions of soil and climate in the hills and valleys of the Coast Ranges are so varied that it is much more difficult to give recommendations that will be of general use than in the case of the interior valleys. In some parts of some of the valleys the soil is so rich and productive that it is possible to grow grapes as cheaply as in the interior The grapes recommended for the interior, how- ever, would not in most cases be suitable on the Coast, owing to the difference in climate. As a rule the grapes which are suitable to the hill slopes will do well in the valley, making up in quantity what they lose in quality. Of the many scores of red varieties which have been widely grown in this region, the Petite Sirah has undoubtedly given the most generally satisfactory results. Some growers are dissatisfied with its bearing, but most report that it produces as much as the Zin- fandel. Ungrafted. it requires long pruning. Its wine is of excellent quality but apt to be somewhat haf sh. This harshness can be avoid- ed by careful winemaking and by blending with a smooth variety such as the Beclan. The finest red wines which have ever been made in California are the product of the Cabernet Sauvignon. This variety, unfortunately, has been rejected almost everywhere on account of its light crops. Very satisfactory crops, however, can be obtained if care is taken in selecting cuttings for planting and a suitable system of pruning adopted. This variety, like most others, moreover, bears better when grafted on a suitable resistant stock. It is very much to be desired that a certain pro- portion of this variety should be planted in all the coast vineyards which are capable of producing a dry red wine of high quality. No white grape has given better results in both crop and quality than the Semillon. The Colombar (sometimes called the Sau- vignon vert) has also proved itself a regular bearer, and, while not of such high quality as the Semillon, it blends very well with that variety and serves to modify its aroma, which is sometimes excessive. The Sau- vignon blanc increases the quality of the wine, but like the Cabernet, Sauvignon requires careful cutting, selection and pruning to give- satisfactory crops. 4. Vineyard for dry wine in the cooler parts of tlie coast counties. Red. Proportion. Beclan ^4 Blue Portuguese I4 white. Pioportion. Franken Riesling ^4 Johannisberg Riesling I4 In certain parts of the coast counties, owing to the frequent occurrence of ocean, fogs, many varieties of wine do not ripen their fruit properly. By a careful selection of varieties, however, good crops of well-ripened grapes may be obtained. It is in these lo- calities that the finest light wines, those most nearly resembling the wines of the Rhine, can be produced. The Beclan has shown itself especially suited to this region, and has the great ad- vantage of being very resistant to oidium. The Blue Portuguese is a good bearer, ripens easily, and blended with Beclan gives a good wine of Burgundy type. The best Riesling wines are grown near the coast and, undoubt- edly, profitable vineyards of the Rhine vari- eties can be grown in this region if proper methods of grape-growing and wine-making are adopted. Undoubtedly there are many excellent varieties of grapes that could be grown with profit which are not mentioned in the fore- going lists. The varieties mentioned are simply those which have given evidence of being most generally adapted to the more usual conditions. PART FIVE: SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS. How to Grow Them 265 Dates Grown in California CHAPTER XXIX. DATE CULTURE IN OUR DESERT AREAS. E\'ER since the arid, semitropical regions of the United States became known through the narratives of explorers, the date palm (Phoenix dactylifcra) has been pro- jected as a plant likely to demonstrate com- mercial value in America like that which it has held for centuries in the arid regions of Asia and Africa. This idea was also cher- ished even at an earlier date by the Spanish missionaries who brought the palm to Cal- ifornia, as will be described presently. Dur- ing the last decade the problem of introducing and establishing a date-growing industry has been taken up more seriously and syste- matically than ever before and must now be looked upon as approaching successful solu- tion. As, however, the undertaking is still in an experimental stage and appeals to rel- atively few people as a line of investment, no attempt will be made to discuss the date in detail. Instead, citation will be made of sources whence the reader who desires them can easily secure information of date-grow- ing methods in the old countries, discussion of their suitability to our conditions and suggestions of ways to enter upon date growing in California.* The date palm was brought to California by the padres, and the oldest date trees in the State are the survivors of their early plant- ings. Such trees are found at the San Diego Mission. They are conjectured to be more than a century old, and they have survived drouth and neglect, making unsuccessful effort at fruiting, for, according to common report, the fruit does not ripen, but whether owing to the unfavorable conditions indicated, or to lack of fertilization of the bloom, is not known. There are trees at Ventura, on the site of the garden of the old mission of * The Date I'alm and its Utilization In the Southwestern States, by Walter T. Swingle. Bulletin .S3. Bureau of Plant In- dustry, r. S. Dept. of Aer.. WashinRton. 1904. Date Varieties and Date Culture in Tunis, by T. H. Kearney, Bulletin 92, Ibid, 1906. Date Growing in Southern California, by S. C. Mason. Re- port of Riverside Fruit Groirers' Convention. State Horticultural Commissioner, Sacramento, 1908, San Buena \'entura, about forty feet in height and ten feet in circumference at the base, with long, graceful, fern-like leaves, which put forth about thirty feet from the ground. The ill success of these old trees in the direction of fruit bearing probably long pre- vented further attention to the date as a profitable growth. Still there were date palms grown from seed of the commercial date planted here and there for ornament or out of curiosity, and in due course of time the fruit appeared. The first public exhibi- tion of California dates known to the writer was made at the Mechanic's Institute Fair, in San Francisco, in September, 1877. The fruit was grown on the south bank of Putah Creek, the northern boundary of Solano County, the situation being slightly above the level of the plain of the Sacramento Val- ley, which lies east of it. The plants were grown by the late J. R. Wolfskill, from seed of commercial dates purchased in San Fran- cisco, and planted in 1858 or 1859. The seed germinated readily, and the young plants were set out in a row about one hundred feet south of Putah Creek, on a rich, fine, sandy loam, lying about twenty-five feet above the bed of the creek. The plants re- ceived good cultivation but no irrigation. This treatment was continued after the prop- erty passed into the hands of the late S. C. Wolfskill, the plants being allowed to remain in the row as originally planted, and they have attained great size, considering their crowded condition. They are approximately six feet apart, have trunks about two feet in diameter, and are twenty-five feet or more in height. Another hearing date palm stands about a mile eastward of the situation just de- scribed, near the residence of the late J. R. Wolfskill. It was grown from seed of the date of commerce, which was planted in 1863, and the tree bore its first fruit in 1880. Near it stands a taller date palm, which bears staminate bloom. This latter tree was orig- Propagation of the Date 266 California Fruits : inally one of the row previously described, and was successfully moved to its present situation after attaining considerable size. The fruit of the two bearing palms differs notably in appearance. That of the first-men- tioned tree is of bright yellow color and angular outline ; that of the second tree is wine red, with smooth surface. During recent years the date has fruited at many places in California and Arizona. There is little doubt that it will succeed in any of the interior regions which have a suffi- ciently high summer temperature, and even the so-called Colorado Desert may be dotted with groves of date palms, as portions of it now are with groves of the majestic fan palm of California. Soils and Waters for the Date. — Until recently the date palm has only been planted on good orchard land, but, according to ex- perience in date-growing countries, the tree does not require rich soil, but on the contrary, will thrive in a soil poor in humu.s — too poor and too purely mineral for any other fruit tree ; and it produces the finest and best- flavored dates, nourished by water too alka- line for man and beast to drink. These ob- servations warrant the trials of the tree which are now being made in situations not adapted to other fruits. PROPAGATION OF THE DATE. The date palm grows readily from the seeds of the dried date of commerce, and, as has been intimated, the trees now fruiting in this State have been obtained in this way. By the use of seed one gets, however, only seedlings, and the chance of thus securing a really fine variety is probably not greater than with other fruit-tree seedlings. In date- growing countries the best varieties are prop- agated by rooting the ofif-sets. sprouts, or suckers which appear at the base of the old palms. To secure the best foreign varieties such plants must be imported. The first suc- cessful enterprise of this kind was accom- plished in the summer of 1890 by the United States Department of Agriculture, under the direction of H. E. A-^an Deman, then chief of the Division of Pomology. The plants were divided between New Mexico, Arizona and California. The plants for California were sent to the Department of Agriculture of the University of California, and were planted at the experiment stations at Tulare and at Pomona, some of them being subsequently transplanted to the United States Date Gar- den at Mecca in the Colorado desert region. Upon fruiting a number of these plants, they seemed to be only seedlings and not the best foreign varieties, as represented. A full account of this efifort and its out- come is given in Bulletin 29, of the Arizona Experiment Station. The United States Department of Agri- culture undertook arrangements in 1899 for new importations, which were successfully made, but all that was anticipated in securing valuable varieties was not attained. Director R. H. Forbes, of the Arizona Experiment Station, writes in Timely Hints No. 72 (April, 1908) : "Several of the Old World varieties which have thus far fruited have failed to make good for various reasons. Some have re- quired a longer growing season to mature ; others have soured in damp or cool weather, and still others do not appeal to the American consumer. A few varieties have proved ac- ceptable in all respects, and to such as these we must look for future commercial develop- ments.'' Of the foreign varieties thus introduced the following have been produced in small commercial quantities : Rhars, Tedalla, Bir- ket el Haggi and Deglet Noor. Growing Palms from Seed. — Seeds taken from the dried dates of commerce germinate readily ; in fact, seedlings frequently appear in the gutters of unpaved streets where the seeds have been thrown during the rainy season. Director Forbes, of the Arizona Sta- tion, says that seeds will come up more promptly if first stratified. This may be done by taking a gasoline can or deep box and placing three inches of sand in the bottom after making a number of holes in it for drainage. The seeds are placed upon this layer and the can or box filled with sand, the whole then being put in a sheltered place and kept moist for three to six weeks, when the seeds will be soft and ready for prompt growth when planted. The seedlings may be started either in nursery rows for trans- planting after one to three years, or if fre- quent irrigations may be relied on, in the field where the trees are to remain. Dr. \V. T. Swingle, whose work on date growing has already been cited, gives the fol- How to Grow Them 267 Date Blossoms and Fruit i he l)ae I'jini I'hoenix daciylifera ). 1. Blossom. 2. Fruit. The Date Palm 268 California Fruits; lowing suggestions on the growing of seed- lings and their subsequent handhng to de- termine sex and to select bearing palms of desirable type: The seed should be planted rather thickly in well- drained beds of fertile soil, free from alkali. These beds should be watered frequently, as the young date seedlings need an abundance of moisture. If prop- erly cared for, the seedlings will reach a height of from 12 to i8 inches the first year and can be trans- planted into the permanent orchard the second year. These seedlings should be set out in rows about 30 feet apart and placed 5 or 6 feet apart in the row. Ordinarily field crops can be grown between the rows until long after the palms come into bearing. After three or four years, when* the young palms begin to flower, the male trees can be dug up and destroyed, thus thinning out about half of the trees. Then when the female trees come into fruit, those which yield decidedly inferior fruit can also be removed, so that finally about one-fourth of the original number of seedlings will be left standing. The spaces be- tween the seedlings will be irregular and offshoots can be taken from the best sorts and planted where the largest gaps occur. By preventing ofTshoots from growing on the poorer sorts they will yield more fruit and finally can be destroyed and replaced by offshoots from some of the better sorts. In this way, by de- grees, the orchard can be improved without expense for offshoots aside from the labor of planting them. Rooting Suckers. — Suckers taken off in warm weather and watered freely usually take root readily. Care should be taken not to let the plants dry. Director Forbes gives these points : Suckers should not be taken from the parent tree until they have attained a diameter of 5 to 6 inches and a weight of 15 to 20 pounds. Suckers should be removed by cutting in and down along the line of cleavage between them and the main trunk, with a strong chisel or a sharp flat-pointed bar. If possible the cut should be carried down so as to bring away at least one or two sound roots. The leaves should be closely pruned and for shipment the cut bases had better be protected against drying out by layer of wet moss or similar material. In planting, the sucker should be set in previ- ously irrigated and well settled soil to the depth of its greatest diameter, taking care that the center of the palm is not below the irrigating water level. For convenience in irrigating, a shallow basin of earth should be made about the sucker, in which, to lessen evaporation and the rise of alkali, a inulch of fine barnyard litter three or four inches deep should be spread. The soil about newlv transplanted suckers should he kept constantly wet by fre- quent irrigations. Suckers should be cut and transplanted April to August, inclusive, but not during or approaching cool weather. Be.\i?ing Age of the Date. — There is much difference in the ages at which the seedlings have come in fruit in the hands of different growers. Fruit has been reported on seedlings six years old and even on plants four years from the seed. Such early ma- turity must not, however, be generally ex- pected. Blooming of the D.\te. — The date palm is dioecious, and, its staminate (male) and pistillate (female) blooms appearing on dif- ferent trees, it requires the association of the two for perfect fruiting. Growing plants from seed, as already stated, leaves the grower in doubt as to the sex of his plants until they bloom. Usually one obtains a large preponderance of male plants. In propagating from suckers the new tree is of the same sex as the parent. It is advised to have about one male to twenty female trees. The pollen can he transported long distances and maintains its vitality for a long time. Artificial fertilization of the bloom of the bearing palm has been found of advantage in this State and was probably first practiced by J. R. Wolfskin. Though the staminate tree was but a few feet away from the pistil- late, the male bloom was broken in pieces and hung to the leaves of the female tree near to the pistillate flowers. It was found that the parts of the date cluster which are nearest to the suspended male blooms have more per- fect fruit than the more distant parts. Other California date growers have had similar ex- perience. In Winters the bearing palms bloom in April and May, and the fruit ripens in No- vember. Beauty of the Date Palm. — The date palm in fruit is a beautiful sight. The glau- cous green pinnate leaves arch outward. Between two of these emerge the bright orange-yellow polished fruit stalks, which divide into a spray of slender bright • yellow stems a foot or so in length ; and thickly set upon these in clusters are the various colored fruits covered with a rich bloom. It is a sight not easily forgotten by a lover of na- ture, and especially by one reared in a north- ern zone, the characteristic vegetation of wliich is so different. How to Grow Them 269 Localities for the Figf CHAPTER XXX. THE FIG: THE GRANDEST FRUIT TREE OF CALIFORNIA. THE lig is, perhaps, the grandest fruit tree of CaUfornia. Its majestic size and its symmetry make it a crown- ing feature of the landscape, and its dense foHage renders the wide space embow- ered by it a harbor of refuge from mid- summer heat, both for idlers and for the in- dustrious. On adjacent farms in Pleasant's Valley, Solano County, there are large fig groves ; one serves as a shelter for the pack- ers of fruit from the contiguous orcliard, and the other incloses and shades a croquet ground. Aleasurements of large trees are abundant, for old trees are numerous in the interior of the State, both in the valley and on the slopes of the Sierra foot-hills. At Knight's Ferry, in Stanislaus County, there is a fig tree sixty feet in height, with branches of such length as to shade a circle seventy feet in diameter. The trunk at the base is eleven feet around, and nine feet at a distance of three feet from the ground. A little higher the trunk divides into seven or eight large branches, each of which is nearly five feet in circumference. At thirty feet from the ground the limbs are seven and eight inches through. The largest grove is in the neigh- borhood of Knight's Ferry, and consists of fifteen massive black fig trees, which, though set sixty feet apart,' mingle their branches overhead and form a network through which, in the summer, hardly a beam of light can pass. Such groves are frequently seen in the older settled parts of the State. Perhaps the most interesting single fig tree is that on Rancho Chico. quite near the residence of General Bidwell. It was planted in 1856, and has attained a marvelous growth. One foot above the ground the trunk measures eleven feet in circumference: the widespreading branches have been trained toward the ground and, taking root there, banyan-like, they now form a wonderful inclosure over one hundred and fifty feet in diameter. The tree is loaded every year. The crop on these large trees is propor- tionate to their size and, entering their area in the morning during the ripening season, one can scarcely step without crushing figs, though the fruit may be gathered up each day and placed in the sun for drying. REGIONS SUITED FOR THE FIG. Though there are still many fine points to be determined as to what situations and con- ditions favor the production of the very finest figs, and there are indications that there is possibly much difference, it may be truly said that a very small part of the State is really unsuited to its growth. If one shuns the im- mediate coast of the upper part of the State, where the summer temperature is too low for successful ripening, and keeps below the alti- tude of the mountains where winter killing of the tree is possible, he can grow figs almost anywhere. Selections of varieties adapted to par- ticular situations has much to do with the suc- cess of the fig, as with other fruits, and, therefore, a broad statement of adaptability must be received with such an understanding. The intrusion of the coast influences borne eastward bv the winds of summer, as de- scribed in Chapter I, gives a night tempera- ture too low for ripening of some varieties, which turn sour upon the trees. Present in- dications are that the finest dried figs, having the thinnest skin and the nearest approach generally to the fig of Smyrna, the commer- cial standard for dried figs, will be produced in the drier portions of the valleys and foot- hills. Even in Southern California fig-sour- ing is quite prevalent, and selection of loca- tions must be circumspectly made. More time is requisite for the final demonstration Budding the Fig 270 California Fruits : of these matters, although years have already been devoted to the problem. SOILS FOR THE FIG. As it must be left with the future to de- termine the mooted point as to the influence of special situations upon the bearing of the fig, and the more minute characteristics of the fruit, so more experience is needed to demon- strate tlie comparative effects of dift'erent soils. It might seem, from the fact of the age of our trees in different parts of the State, that time enough had elapsed to determine these points, but it must be remembered that all our oldest trees are of the very hardy variety found at the missions, and conclusions drawn from them as to all varieties are unsafe. The fig will thrive in any soil that one would think of selecting for any of our com- mon orchard trees, and, in fact, the fig suc- ceeds on a wider range of soils than any one of them. One is safe in planting figs for family use, or for marketing, wherever the summer temperature is high enough to ripen the fruit well, and the winter temperature high enough to preserve the life of the tree. This applies merely to the successful growth of the fig; to secure ripening at a time when the fruit can be profitably sold for table use, IS another question. The selection of soils especially suitable to the production of the best figs for drying involves more considerations than rule in the growth of table fruit. For drying, the fig should attain a good size, but should not contain excess of moisture. In some parts of the State the first crop of figs in the sea- son has been found unfit for drying. The second, and, in some localities, the third crop, appearing later in the season, when the moisture supply of the soil is reduced, dry well. This condition of the first crop is, however, affected by local conditions, for there are places in the Sierra foot-hills where the soil moisture has to be replenished earlv in the season by irrigation to prevent even the first crop from falling prematurely, and sub- sequent irrigation brings to perfection the second and third crops. The fig tree needs plenty of moisture in the soil, but not too nuich. .-Xs with other fruits, if the soil does not retain the needed amount naturally, it must be supplied by irrigation wisely admin- istered. PROPAGATION OF THE FIG. The fig grows very readily from cuttings, and this is the chief method of propagation. Cuttings should be made while the tree is fully dormant, in the winter, of well-matured wood of the previous season's growth, giving preference to the stocky, short-jointed shoots, and making the cuttings about six to eight inches in length. The cut at the lower end should be made at the joint, or where solid wood is found. The planting and care of the cuttings is essentially the same as of vine cuttings, already described. If well made and cared for, a very satisfactory growth is made the first season, and the trees are ready for planting out in permanent place the fol- lowing season. Single Bud Cuttings. — If one desires to multiply a new variety very rapidly, single- eye cuttings will make plants. This is, also, analogous to single-eye grape cuttings, as al- ready described. Budding the Fig. — The foregoing means enable one to propagate a fig so rapidly that recourse is not had to budding, as in propa- gating other trees ; still, budding is feasible, either on small plants or on young shoots of old trees which it is desired to bud over. The fig may be budded by the common shield method, as used for ordinary fruit trees, and described in Chapter IX, but owing to the tendency of the fig bark to shrink in drying, the bud should be closely bound in with a narrow waxed band, to exclude the air. As the bark is thick, it is often desirable to cut out a little of the edges closest to the bud when in place. Another method of budding the fig is by annular or "ring budding," a method also relied upon with the walnut and chestnut. Annular budding is done in the fall. A cir- cular ring of bark is taken off from the stock by the aid of a budding knife, by running two circular cuts around the stock, and a longitudinal one between the two circular cuts ; the ring of bark taken off must be at least one inch wide, and from that up to two inches. A like ring of bark is taken off in the same manner from a scion of the variety to he budded in, and from a branch of the year, or preceding one, well in sap, and hav- ing about the same diameter as the stock. This ring should have on it one or two buds. How to Grow Them 271 The Grafting of the Fig It must fit exactly the space prepared on the stock, and more particularly at the lower circular cut, so that both barks will exactly unite at that point. \Mien the ring is too long, a little bit of it might be cut off with a bandage pretty firmly over the whole. After two or three weeks the bandage has to be taken off, and, in the ensuing spring, the top of the stock or limb is cut down three inches above the budding. Grafted Fig Tree protected with sacliing from sun burn. a very sharp knife till it fits well ; if the ring is too large for the stock, a longitudinal strip would be cut out, and if too narrow, such a strip, if with a bud on so much the better, will have to be used to fill up the empty space. One must be very careful while drawing the knife around the stock not to go too deep into the wood to injure the cambiuiu laver, or to weaken the stock. Tie Another way of working such trees is by "whistle budding," which is done in the sirring, when the sap is well up. The stock and scion must be both of the same size and well in sap. The top of the stock is cut down to several inches f roin the ground ; a circular ring of bark is then taken off, and a corresponding ring froin the scion, but without a longitudinal cut. is put in its place. Methods of Bark Graftine 212 California Fruits In inserting it care should be taken that the top of the stock, which is to receive the ring from the scion, be very smooth, and the latter is then easily pushed down around it and bandaged. In the case of the fig, it is especially desirable to use the latter method when the sap is up, because if the top of the stock is not removed, the exudation from Preparation of stock and scion for bark grafting the fig. above sours around the bud and prevents the union of stock and bud. To prepare an old tree for budding over, the limbs inay be cut back in February within two to six feet of the trunk, covering the ends with paint or grafting wax. Allow two shoots to start near the end of each of of these amputated limbs, and rub off all other shoots. Bud the shoots when they attain the thickness of one's finger, taking green buds from the growth it is desired to introduce, or let them grow and bud in the fall, which- ever is most convenient ; or bud in the grow- ing shoot, and rebud in the fall where buds have failed. Grafting the Fig. — The fig can be grafted by the cleft-graft method, as described in Chapter IX, but the cleft should be made to one side of the stub and not through the cen- tral pith. Especial care must be taken in ex- cluding the air. Fill the cleft between the scions with warm wax, which will run in and fill the cavity. Then bind the stock with wax bands, taking the greatest care to cover the exposed wood surface, the cut end of the bark (which in the fig is very prone to shrink and draw back), and as far down the stock as the bark has been split. Cut the shield from a limb of about V2 inch in di- ameter, length of shield about i}-2 inches, its thick- ness from 1-8 to 1-4 inch, and its bud near the mid- dle of the shield. Do not reinove the wood from behind the bud. Make a cut in the stock, through the bark and into the wood, its length and width a little greater than those of the shield. Insert the sliield into the cut, so that the inner bark of the top of the shield and cut will coincide, so that one side of shield and cut — and both sides, if practicable — will coincide. Place the flap of the cut over the shield (removing a part of the flap so the bud will not be covered), and -fasten flap, shield and stock together very firmly with twine, and protect them with paper tied around them. They may be grafted in that mode, whenever dormant buds are found, for the shields. Twenty-four shields were inserted at several times, during one spring, and there was only one failure. A inethod of bark grafting applied to the fig by George C. Roeding of Fresno and approved by him after several years of suc- cessful experience, affords an excellent way of grafting over large trees. It does away with splitting the stock and therefore hastens the barking-over of an amputation. The branches to be grafted are cut off within 18 to 24 inches from the point of divergence from the main body of the tree, allowing at least two branches to remain, one of which should be on the southwest, if possible, so that the grafts will be protected from the afternoon sun. After having sawed off the branches, the stumps neatly smoothed over, with a sharp knife, so as to have a clean, smooth surface, particularly along the edge, two, four or six scions should be placed on each stock, the number, of course, being regulated by the size of the stump. Cut out a V-shaped piece Views of Calimyrna ( Genuine Smyrna ) fig orchards. How to Grow Them 273 Planting and Pruning of bark, as shown in the engraving. The distance from the top of the stock to the point of the \' should be alxjut i 1-4 inches. Another method is to make sHghtly outward and downward cuts into the stub with a sharp knife, so as not to cause a split, but rather deep, clean cuts, into which the wedge- shaped scions are firmly pushed and a cord wound around the stub to hold all strongh- in place before waxing thoroughly. This form of grafting will be shown in the chapter on the walnut, for it is very successfully used on that tree also. The form of side-graft with a saw-cut as described in the chapter on the peach is also available. A form of bud-graft, that is, budding with a large shield into old bark, is also successful. Judge Rhodes of San Jose describes his method, both with the olive and the fig, in this way: Select a scion of the proper size, never be smaller than an ordinary lead pencil. As a rule scions from two-year-old wood, with ver>' little pith and with a diameter of about 1-2 inch, will give the best results. The scions should have a sloping cut at the lower end, with the bevel all on one side and not like a wedge. The bevel should be as long or a little longer than the \'-shaped opening in the stock and should fit snugly into this opening, so that the bark on both edges of the scion touches the bark of the stock. After the scions are placed, wrap tightly with five or SIX -ply cotton twine, and cover the wounds as well as the stub with liquid grafting wax. Wax the top of the scion to prevent dr>Mng out. If waxed cloth is used it must be re- moved before the warm weather sets in or the bark will be smothered and will die. After the scions have become well united, which takes from two to three months, the strings should be cut. This method of graft- ing can not be made successfulh' until the sap begins to flow, say from the latter part of February to the first of April. The scions should never be more than four.inches long. Seedling Figs. — Figs are readily grown from the imjxirted fig of commerce. Dr. Gustav Eisen of San Francisco, our leading writer on the fig. gives the following ex- plicit directions for growing the fig from seed : Cut open imported Smyrna figs ; wash out the seeds in warm water, those that float are empty and worth- less; those that sink arc generally fertile. Sow these in shallow boxes of sand and loam mixed, and place in a frame under glass. In three weeks they will be up and must be very sparingly watered. Set out next season in nursery row. In three years from the seed such plants will be found to bear. The tendency of the plants grown from Smyrna figs is to revert to the wild type, and there is a small chance of securing good varieties. First Summer's grovib of barb graft. PLAXTIXG AND PRUNING THE FIG. The chief point to observe in planting fig trees is to get them far enough apart, because of the great spread of branches which they attain. Of course they may be planted twentj' feet apart if the owner intends to remove alternate rows, but to plant at forty feet, or even farther apart, with other fruit trees or vines between, on the plan of alter- nate or double squares, described in Chapter X. would be the best way to lay out a fig or- chard — the intermediate growths to be re- moved as the figs require more room. Very handsome effects are produced by planting the figs along avenues to inclose orchards of other fruits. Fig trees are grand for shade around buildings, and wild or Capri figs are desirable to plant in this way for a purpose which will be mentioned later. In transplanting fig trees extra care must be taken to keep the roots from drj-ing. After planting, the stem must be diligently guarded Cultivation 274 California Fruits : Pruning the fig tree. 1 First year. 2 .Second yenv. .? •|'liinl : from sunburn, to which it is hablc in the warmer parts of the State. Pruning the Fig. — The tig requires very Httle pruning after its shape is outlined. There is difiference of opinion and practice as to the heiglit at which the head should be formed : some head nearly as low as already advised for common orchard trees ; others, having in mind the immense thickness at- tained by the limbs, and their disposition to droop, head as high as four to six feet, which is the better way to proceed when the trees are wide-spaced and expected to attain large size. In shaping the tree, branches should be brought out at a distance apart on the stem, so that there may be room for their expansion without crowding each other, and care should be taken not to leave too many main limbs. Three limbs, well placed around the stem, are enough. The branches putting out on the under side of these limbs should be sup- pressed, and those growing upright, or ob- liquely upright, retained. As the fig has pithy shoots it is very desirable to cover all cuts with paint or wax. After getting the general shape of the tree fixed, there is little need of pruning except to remove defective branches or those which will cross and inter- fere with each other and to prevent the in- terior of the tree from becoming too dense. It is better to remove branches entirely than to shorten them ; or, in shortening, always cut to a strong lateral. Stubs left at pruning are very undesirable in the fig. Cui.Ti\'.\TioN. — Young fig orchards are cul- tivated as are other fruit areas. Old trees which completely shade the ground are usually left to themselves, without cultivation, ex- cept cutting out v/eeds. Irrigation is gov- erned by local conditions, as already stated. In starting the orchard it is exceedingly im- portant that the young trees should not be allowed to suffer from drying out of the soil. r.i;.\KiNG Age of the Fig. — The fig often, and, perhaps, usually, begins its bearing very early, in the most favorable situations in this State. Some fruit is often had the second vear, and a crop worth handling the third year. Still, it is wiser not to calculate definitely upon such returns, for four or five }ears sometimes pass without a satisfactory crop. We have, also, instances of "barren fig How to Grow Them 275 Caprification trees," which persist in "dropping their un- timely figs," year after year, during their youth. How much of this is due to variety, and how much to locality, is not definitely known, but successful fruiting has been se- cured by grafting over barren trees, using scions from bearing trees growing adjacent to them. This has "no relation to the subject which will be next discussed. CAPRIFICATION.- Caprification consists of suspencUng the fruit of the wild or Capri fig in the l>ranches porters had not been deceived, and other efforts were made which resulted in other importations. These also cast to the ground their immature figs. Discussion turned then upon the fact of caprification — the necessity of having the fruit of the Capri or wild fig adjacent to the fruit of the Smyrna fig so that insects from the Capri might visit the fruit of the improved variety and pollinate its inclosed flowers, which, appearing upon the inner wall of an almost closed cavity, could not be reached by ordinary visiting insects. The wild trees had alreach' been introduced Cross section of Koeding's Capri Fig No. 3, Proficlii crop of the tree of improved variety, that the [jollen may be carried by an insect from the former to the latter. Until the present decade Cali- fornia has never been able to produce dried figs equal to the fig of commerce or the Smyrna fig. This was, at first, thought to be due to lack of the Smyrna variety. After painstaking eflfort this variety was introduced. Trees grew readily from the cuttings ; fruit appeared upon them and dropped before ma- turity. Doubt then arose as to whether im- * In a general treatise like this only a passing reference can be make to this subject which is perhaps the most interesting in the whole realm of entomo-hnrticulture. The fig grower should secure the following monographs : "Smyrna Fig Culture in the United States." b^ L. O. Howard Year book of V S. Dept of .\gr. for 1900; "The fig — its History, Culture and Curing." by GustavEisen. Bulletin No. 9, niv. of romology. f. S Dept. of Agr., 1901 : "The Smyrna Fig at Home and Abroad." hy George C. Roeding. Fresno. Cal.. 1903: "Some Points in the History of Caprification in the Life History of the Fig," by W. T. Swingle. Report of Riverside Fruit Growers' Convention. 1908 and were freely growing near the others, but this fact availed nothing — the figs fell just the same from the Smyrna trees. In 1890 Mr. (korge C. Roeding, of Fresno, essayed to demonstrate the fact that the lack of the pollination was the secret of failure, and he succeeded in introducing the Capri pollen into the eye of the Smyrna fig, and secured thereby the retention of such pollinated figs upon the trees, and when ripened and dried these had the Smyrna character. The demon- stration was complete that California could not grow Smyrna figs without the pollinating agency found to be essential to success in Smyrna. This agent is a minute wasp called the blastophaga— an insect so minute that it can make its way through the mesh of ordinarv cheese-cloth and can enter the Foes of the Fig^ 276 California Fruits : almost closed eye of the young fig — so minute that a magnifying glass is necessary to give one any clear idea of its outline. For years constant eflfort has been made by various parties to secure the introduction of this in- sect. Urgent appeals were made to the United States Department of Agriculture, after private undertakings failed, to secure the insect alive or otherwise in form for permanent residence. In April, 1899, the feat was accomplished, the blastophagas being received from Algiers as collected and for- warded by W. T. Swingle to Mr. Roeding. Their ofifspring appeared in large numbers during the summer and fall of the same year. On the basis of this achievement the com- mercial production of a true Smyrna fig in California began and has rapidly developed. Mr. Roeding gave his product the musical patronymic "Calimyrna," which now adheres also to the variety from which it is produced. To avail himself of the benefits of caprifi- cation, every grower of varieties which re- quire it must also grow suitable Capri figs and establish the insect in them. California nurserymen supply these and the insects also when the trees are of suitable age to receive them. FOES OF THE FIG. The fig is freer from insect pests than other fruit trees, and yet it is a mistake to consider it wholly free. The writer has seen the leaves well covered with a lecanium scale and has found a moth larva boring in the pith of the young shoots ; still, practically, the fig tree in California has not yet suffered from insects. The gophers have a pronounced appetite for fig roots, and their presence should be care- fully watched for. Swine have a liking for fig bark. The trees of the grand grove planted at Hock Farm, on the Feather River, by General Sutter, were completely girdled from the ground as high as a pig could reach by standing on its hind legs. Figs make good food for hogs, and plantations have been made with this in view, but if the hogs are to be harvesters, it will be well to protect the stems of the trees from them. VARIETIES CIF THE FIG. The fig presents what may he termed an aggravated example of the confused nomen- clature which pervades California fruits. Dr. Eisen has made a commendable effort to bring order out of chaos by a study of foreign records and locally-grown fruit, and has published a catalogue .of varieties chiefly grown in California, with descriptions of each in Bulletin 5 of the Division of Pomology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.* The following enumeration is largely restricted to varieties which have been commercially propa- gated : Adriatic. — Size, medium, roundish; neck medium; stalk short; ribs obscure; eye open, with red iris; skin very thin, greenish in the shade, yellowish in the sun ; pulp bright strawberry red or white, with violet streaks in the meat ; varies in quality accord- ing to location. This has been found very useful in California, 'but is not of fine flavor when dried. It requires rich soil, with considerable moisture and a very large percentage of lime. This variety is not identical with that known in Italy as Adriatic. Agen. — Medium size, roundish ; skin bright green, cracking longitudinally when ripe, showing white bands : flesh deep red, very rich ; a good bearer, but very late, requiring a long hot season. Angclique; syn. Angelica. — Medium, pyriform ; ribs prominent ; yellowish white ; pulp white, with rose- colored center; leaves five-lobed. A very good vari- ety in some of the coast valleys. Bardajic. — "Very large, cbovate, pyriform, long neck and stalk, skin very thin, grayish green ; pulp rich crimson, fine table fig and largest of S.myrna class." — liucding. Bcllona. — Large, pyriform, dark purple, red flesh, fine flavor when dried. Black Bulletin Sinyma. — Large, obtuse, pyriform, short neck, long stalk, light purple, flesh pink, lus- cious. Black Smyrna. — Small, globulur, short stem, pulp dark amber, good for home use. Bourjassotte, White; syn. Barnissottc, JVhitc. — Me- dium, round and somewhat flattened, eye large, sunk; skin waxy, green ; pulp bright red. A very fine fig. Tree very large. Brown Turkey. — Large, turbinate, pyriform, with hardly distinct neck; stalk short; apex flattened; ribs few ; slightly elevated ; eye medium, slightly open, scales large ; skin smooth, greenish to violet- brown in sun, with darker ribs ; pulp dark rosy red, quality good, and tree a good bearer. Brunswick is frequently confounded with this fig. A distinct variety is grown in Vacaville as Brown Turkey, which is named by Dr. Eisen "Warren." * ■\ much fuller discussion of fiq: varieties is to be found in nr. Eisen s Bulletin 9, .already cited. Many notes are made of thefruitine in the late John Rock's collection on the grounds of the California Nursery Co.. at Niles. Alameda County, of many introduced varieties which have not been commercially propagated in California. How to Grow Them 277 Varieties of the Fio- Brunszvick. — Verj' large, pyriform, with swollen cheeks, one of which is larger than the other; apex very obtuse; neck and stalk very short; ribs distinct, but not much elevated ; eye medium, open ; skin pale amber, with violet tint; pulp amber. An early, large fig, but with no flavor. Very common; requires rich, moist soil. Celeste. JVhitc. — Very small, amber; suitable for preserves. Celeste, Blue; syn. Violcttc. — Small, ovate, turbin- ate ; ribs few, but distinct, especially near apex ; eye raised, rough ; color dark violet amber, without red- dish blush ; bloom confined to the neck ; skin thin ; pulp deep rose ; meat atnber, sweet, but lacking in flavor. Checker Injur. — "Roundish, oblate, short neck, flesh reddish, skin greenish yellow, very thin, dries well." —Roeding. Col. de Signora Bianco. — Medium sized, pyriform ; long ribbed neck ; skin green, changing to yellow ; flesh deep red, very rich and luscious ; a strong grow- er; late, suited for a warm region. DaitfMne. — Large, round turbinate, purple with blue bloom ; flesh amber. Doree. — Medium, oblong, bright yellow, flesh rose- color. Dottato. — Medium ovate, pyriform ; neck well set ; stalk very short or none ; ribs low ; skin smooth ; eye mediuin; skin thin, yellowish green, meat white; pulp yellowish amber, sometimes with violet flush. One of the best figs for drying: tree a strong grower, requiring moist, rich soil. Lately introduced into California. Drap d'Or. — Large, pyriform, with very low neck and stalk; ribs elevated; ape.x obtuse and concave; color light violet-reddish amber, not dark ; pulp rosy red. A fig of very fine quality; especially useful for confections and Crystallizing; not identical with Brunswick. Du Roi. — Above medium; round, pyriform; stalk very short ; eye large or variable, with .scales stand- ing out ; skin smooth, pale bluish green ; pulp amber, with rosy streaks and exceedin.g!y minute seeds. Re- lated to Marscillnise and Athens, and one of the very best figs in California for drying. Early Violet. — Small to very small, round turbin- ate; neck distinct but short; .stalk medium to long; ribs distinct, elevated ; skin rough ; violet-brown, with thin penrl-colored bloom; pulp red. This variety bears almost continuously and is preferable to the Tschias and Celeste. Genoa. White. — ."Xbove mediuin, pyriform; neck small; stalk short; ribs indistinct; skin downy; eye very small ; skin pale olive-green ; pulp pale rose. One of the better figs, quite distinct from Marseil- laise. Gentile. — Very large; ovate pyriform; neck short but distinct ; stalk very short ; skin uneven, with ridges; eye ver\' large, open, with projecting scales; color greenish yellow, spotted with white ; pulp am- ber, streaked with rose ; seeds few but very large. Only the first crop of this variety ripens. It is of the San Pedro tribe. One of the best early figs. Grosse Grise Biferc. — Medium ovate pyriform; neck very short; stalk short; ribs distinct; eye small; skin downy, dark violet amber, pale olive in shade ; the bloom is separated by a distinct line from the ape.x ; pulp deep red. A tender, good fig. Hirtu du Japan. — Medium size, roundish with long stalks; skin very dark; flesh opaline; quality best; very prolific. Ischia, Black. — Small; neck short; stalk medium; skin smooth ; color dark violet black, greenish around the apex ; neck dark ; eye medium, open ; bloom thin, dark blue ; pulp red. Of fair quality but small size. Isehia, White. — Size below medium, round, with small neck ; stalk very short ; eye open ; skin smooth, bluish green, with brown flush ; pulp rosy red. Com- mon in California. Kassaba. — "Medium to large, globular, flattened, .short neck and stalk, pale green, pulp reddish, very sweet, dries well. Tree handsomest of Smyrna vari- eties." — Roeding. Ladaro. — Very large, oblong, pale yellow, brown cheek, flesh deep red. rich and sugary. Magdalen {Madeleine). — Below .medium, round; ribs distinct, rou.gb, disappearing around the eye; stalk longer than the fig, eye open, large ; skin green- ish yellow; pulp amber white. A very delicious fig, superior to the Tschias and Celeste. Not synonymous with Angelique. Marseillaise. Long. — Large, longer than wide; skin thick, with brownish shade ; pulp dull red. Re- quires moist soils. .A fair fig. which dries well. Not related to either Black or White Marseillaise. Marseillaise. White. — Medium ovate, pyriform; neck short ; stalk medium ; ribs numerous and dis- tinct ; apex flattened ; eye large, open ; skin downy, pale yellowish green, mottled with white ; pulp amber, with a few large seeds. One of the best figs for dry- ing. Requires sandy, rich soil. Mission, Black. — Medium to large, turbinate; neck long; stalk short; ribs distinct; eye prominent, open; skin rough, deen mahogany violet, with red flush ; pulp not fine, red but not bright or brownish amber ; sweet, but not high-flavored; common in the South- ern States, California and Mexico. The oldest fig in this country. Monaco Bianco; syn. JVhitc Monaco. — Lar.ge. rounded, turbinate, flattened, neck small but very dis- tinct ; ribs numerous; eye very open; skin dark bluish green, with thin Moom ; pulp dark-red rose. A most excellent fi.g for table, one of the best in Cali- fornia. Afoiiis.roui'a. — Globular, turbinate, flattened, dark violet, blue bloom, pulp red, soft and sweet. Paci^c JVhitc. — \n unknown varietv found grow- ing on a farm in Placer Countv. Medium size, fine- \'ariety of the Fig 27S California Fruits : grained, very sweet, dries well, but the skin is thicker and more tough than the imported fig. That and its small size are the only objections to it. It is quite widely distributed in southern California. Pastilicrc. — Large, 3 inches by i;j; elongated, pyri- form, with long neck ; stalk short ; eye closed, sur- rounded by an elevated iris; skin rough, hairy, with blue bloom ; pulp red. Fine for preserves. Rondc Noire. — Large, round, but irregular ; neck distinct, short : eye small ; skin smooth, waxy, dark violet brown ; pulp amber. Greatly to be recom- mended as a table fig. Is not related to Black Ischia or Osborn Prolific. Rondc ]'iolcttc Native. — Large, globular, with no neck ; glossy green, shaded violet brown ; eye large ; flesh amber, surrounding rose center. Rose Blanche. — Large, roundish, flattened : long stalk ; brown or white ground ; flesh bright red. Suita- ble for table and drying. Royal I'ineyard. — Medium, pyriform. long, slender neck; reddish brown, blue bloom; eye large, open; flesh bright red. San Pedro, White: syn. Brebas. — Very large, round, flattened at apex; stalk and neck short; eye open ; skin thick, tender, of a bright yellow color or greenish in the shade, without bloom ; pulp amber. A remarkable and handsome fig. Only the first crop matures without caprification. Suited only for tabic use. Requires moist, rich soil.' San Pedro. BlacI;. — Very large, elongated ovate, with no stalk, but with well-set neck; skin smootli. violet black with green neck ; pulp red, coppery, tint- ed violet. For table use. The largest fig known. Smyrna ( Fig of Commerce, Drying fig of Smyrna, Calimyrna). — Of several attempts to secure the true Smyrna fig, or the variety which produces the w^dl- known Smyrna fig of commerce, that made by the S:ui Francisco Bulletin, and managed by G. P. Ri.x'ford. has achieved most prominence, and is now generally con- ceded to have proved successful. Fourteen thousand cuttings were obtained .through United States Con- sul E. J. Smithers. in 1882. and a large part of these were distributed throughout the State. A later direct importation of fig cuttings from Smyrna was made by the Fancher Creek Nursery, of Fresno. These trees have already borne fruit, as has been described in a preceding paragraph on caprification. In the summer of 1890 cuttings imported from Smyrna by the L'nited States Department of Agriculture were sent to several parties in this State. As the fig in- sect has fully established itself, as described on a pre- vious page, this variety will establish itself as the leading drj-ing fig here as a Smyrna, and a verv im- portant industry will be established upon it. Other figs previously called Smyrna in this State are mis- named. I'erdal, R, the Mission has received fifty per cent more orders from planters than all other sorts combined. Several varieties * "Olive Pickliiiff, etc." by F. T. Bioktti. Circular 2''. I'ni- rsity Experiment Station, Berkeley. Cal. Varieties 290 California Fruits : at first popular have been abandoned because of an interior decay of the pulp. The follow- in'^ is the list of the varieties now favored m California on a commercial scale, arranged approximately in the order of their present popularity: Mission, Columella, Ascolano, Oblitza, Sevilkno Oblonga, Nevadillo, Uvana, Rubra, Pendiihna, Manzanillo, Liicques. Picholine d'Aix, These may be taken, then, as the varieties to which attention should be given. Uf sinn- ovate, oblique— sometimes very much so— the pit straight or slightly curved, fruit very variable in size growing singly or in clusters of two or three, or even five; time of ripening, late, m the coast region sometimes not before February, but gen- erally in December: in warm localities, m Novem- htr. Redding PichoUnc— Imported by the late B. B. Redding. A perfect oval in shape, ripens early, several weeks earlier than the common Mission ; dark purple or black when ripe; m picklmg the pulp loses the bitterness quickly, the fruit being very pleasant. This variety was propagated ex- tensively in the State, and. until fruiting, was sup- posed to be a large pickling variety, but it proved to be a small seedling— a shoot coming from the root below the graft. It has produced oil of good sion Olive of California (single Olive natural size). course the next few years' experience may produce marked changes in this list. The Mission Olive— By this name is signified the variety found growing at the old missions m California." Samples of the fruit and leaves sent by F Pohndorff to Don Jose de Hidalgo Toblada, a noted Spanish authority on the olive, led to the classing of our mission varieties with the Corni- cabra-Cornizuelo varieties of Spain, and its value was confirmed. It has long been known that the so-called Mission olive embraced several varieties, or sulj-varieties at least. Common or Broad-Leaved Mission Olive.— The variety of olive most generally known as the Mis- quality. The smallness of the fruit is its irrcme diablc defect. Picholine d'Aix. — Fruit medium, elongated, taper- ing toward apex which is pointed; reddish black when ripe. Picholine de St. C/ia /noi.— Oblong, reddish black; highly esteemed in France for quality when pickled. Oi/<7»g((.— Imported bv John Rock from France. An olive of a peculiar, club-like shape, being narrovj at the stem end, broad at the point, rounded and strongly oblique; generally pointed at both ends. The pulp loses its bitterness comparatively qviickly in pickling. This olive ripens quite early— at least How to Grow Til em 291 \'arieties -two to three weeks earlier Mission ; color, dark purple. than the Broad-leaved early, several weeks earlier than the I'road-lcaved Mission. The fruit grows on long stems. The „ , ,. r , ,• ■ , , P"'P parts readily with its bitterness, and is exceed- Pciidoulicr.—L3.rge. oval, slightly curved at apex ^„„\y rich when pickled. Excellent in the San Joa- ■ end; desirable for pickbng: early npenmg m Oc- tji,i„ Vallty both for oil and pickles. MaiizanUlo No. 2. — Imported by F. PohndorfT from Spain. As the name ("small apple") in- dicates, this variety is nearly round, with a pit of rounded oval shape, rather squarely cut ofif at the base. This variety ripens early — several weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission olive; the fruit grows generally singly on long stems. The Picholine, reduced. tober in the interior valley and in November in coast valleys. Mancanitto No. i. — Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain, large regular rounded oval ; pit straight, strongly pointed at the apex, nine-si.\teenths of an inch long, five-sixteenths of an inch thick. Ripens Gordal. — .'V popular pickling diuhi .size, earlv. Spain, Manzanillo Olive. Rtibyci — Imported by John Rock from France; ovate, slightly oblique, looks a good deal like a sinal! Mission olive; pit straight, pointed; ripens three to four weeks earlier than the common Mission variety; is of a jet black when ripe. This tree begins to fruit quite young, and is a prolific bearer. Very hardy and prolific even in dry. situations. .llroi'iolacca.- ble for oil. -Medium size, black, chietlv valua- Uz'cviii. — Imported by John Rock from France. Oval, re.gular, and rounded on both ends; pit straight, heavy, late ; later than the eonmion Mis- sion olive; color dark purple or black when ripe. The name, "grape-like," is well chosen, the fruit growing in clusters, as many as seven together, and in shape themselves resembling the grape. Very prolific. Varieties 292 California Fruits Pcndiilina. — Imported Ijy John Rock from France. An even, oval shape, ronnded at both ends, quits variable in size, many fruits remaining; small and undeveloped ; pit has small, sharp points often at both ends. Fruit grows in clusters of from two to five; the pulp parts very readily with its bit- terness. Larger and more ovate than Pendou- lier. Tree a strong grower ; fruit desirable both for oil and pickles. young; fruit shiny black, curved; product called "Crescent Olive." Ncvadillo Blanco. — Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain. Oval, slightly oblique, pointed, re- sembling somewhat a Mission, but is generally more elongated in proportion to its diameter than the latter; pit small, curved, and generally pointed at both ends; the fruit is borne in clusters of three Sevillano, or Queen Olive. Coluinbclla. Imported by John Rock from France. General form, broadly oval ; very even in size, remarkable for the peculiar pale yellow color which all the frut assumes before turning fully ripe and becoming dark purple ; pit small, strai.ght and sharp pointed; the pLilp contains little bitter- ness; flavor very rich; ripens late, later than the Broad-leaved Mission. Tree hardy in dry places and a prolific bearer. Polymorpha. — Imported by . John Rock from France. Very large, ovate, oblique, and pointed ; light colored ; pit square at the base, strongly point- ed at the apex; flesh firm; ripens very early; fruit grows on strong stems in clusters of two or three. Tree not a strong grower, but productive. Lncqucs. — A variety specially adapted for pickling, though producing oil of good quality ; strong-grow- ing tree and hardy ; sometimes shy bearer when Ascolano Olive. to five; ripening not much earlier than the Mission; a fine oil olive, largely planted, but disappointing in some regions as a shy bearer and subject to frost injury. Ot/(7.;Ta.— Imported by the late G. N. Milco from Dalmatia; resembles the Pendouher, andmaybeiden tical ; fine in the San Joaquin Valley; very large nval, but broad and rounded at both ends ; grows in clusters ; tree a good grower, hardy and pro- ductive; fruit excellent for pickles; ripens in No- vember in the interior — about the same as the Mis- ScviUano. — Recently largely planted as the vari- ety exported from Spain as the "Queen olive.'' The largest of all olives; only useful for pickling; when ripe, bluish black; clingstone. Tree a strong grow- er, leaves deep green, greenish white underneath. Described by Mr. Roeding as a regular bearer, liut requires deep, rich, well-drained soil and will not stand much cold. Ascolano. — "White olive of Ascoli." Very large, "large as a French prune and much like one in shape" (Biolctti). Excellent for pickles, but not desirable in color of either green or ripe pickles. The forep;oing enumeration and description of varieties is only partial and mainly restrict- ed to varieties which have been more or less largely planted. Many more have been ex- perimentally fruited, but the tendency is to concentrate on very few which have made good in California and there is far less in- terest in varieties than a quarter of a cen- tury ago. The following are the leading facts as to size, pit, and oil contents of the How to Grow Them 293 Averaees Determined varieties which have been most largely planted, and a few others : For this reason the do full justice to followins^ table may not ^onie varieties, but rcla- iiined at the Universilv of California. Number of Oil. percent. Olives Pit. per cent per pound. wliolc fruit. 111.6 17 2 17.56 157 3 17 3 19 21 106.6 14 7 16.94 398 2 23.0 16.18 205.1 25 5 13.71 196 1 17 9 18.58 179.4 18.7 13 34 114 6 16 6 15 59 157 1 13.7 18 63 719 17.1 15.85 72.8 17 5 14 70 112 5 16 3 16 37 262 7 2 .8 21.15 216.5 24 3 21.10 298 9 2.T 9 24.10 192 9 21.1 27.22 245.5 21 7 22 45 242.3 25 7 23.96 272.1 22.2 29.34 375.0 30.0 19 31 192.9 23 14.81 77.0 17.6 17 83 60.6 12.0 16.26 105 2 14 6 11.23 111.4 15.7 19.86 36.2 14.5 17.23 Mission Nevadillo Blanco. . . Manzanillo Redding Picholine. Uvaria Rubra Oblonga Colunibella Penduliiia Polymorpha Macrocarpa Regalis Correoiolo Razzo Frantoio Cucco Leccino Grossaio Palazzuolo Infrantoio Lucques Picholine Ascolano Oblitza Empeltre Sevillano It should be remembered that olives vary in size according to growing conditions which environ the tree, just as other fruits do. tively it should be accurate enough for most comparative uses. The Oranoe Industn 294 California Fruits : CHAPTER XXXII. THE ORANGE: KING OF CALIFORNIA FRUIT. T^HE orange leads all the fruits of C'alifor- * nia. Xear the dose of Chapter VI will he found the figures of numbers of trees, acreage and value of product shipped out of the state, upon which tiie supremacy of the orange rests. In view of this leadership it seems fitting to take a little wider range in the discussion of the significance of the or- ange in the development of California than has been indulged in the consideration of other fruits, and this is justified by the fact that the orange is the exponent of the horti- cultural resources of the state and its attri- butes in this direction are shared in varying degrees by the other fruits. The greatness of orange growing in California becomes, then, in various ways the token of our ad- vancement in one of the highest of the agri- cultural arts, and in the mastery of long-dis- tance commercial distribution of fresh fruits. These achievements are also a demonstration of the quality of our agricultural citizenshii).* THE ORANGE INDUSTRY OF THE WORLD. From the beginning the orange has reigned as king in the international fruit trade of the world. The grape has always been and is still, greater in the value of its contribution to commerce and in the distance it safely traverses, but the grape rules not as fruit, but through its manufactured products, while the orange carries its natural beauty, fra- grance and flavor unchanged around the world. From the earliest times the orange has not only been accepted in northern climes as a symbol of tropical and sub-tropical salu- brity and sumptuousness, but by its own distinctive characteristics as a fruit it has won recognition as befitting the highest uses * The Orange Industry "Encyclopedia .i orange trees. Though they will stand harsh treatment when in permanent place, they must be most carefully transplanted. Lifting from the nursery when the soil is too dry, exposure of the roots, or careless planting, will consign the tree to a slow, sickly growth, and often kill it outright. Cutting Back at Transplanting. — The rule of reducing the top to compensate for the loss of roots, is vital in moving orange trees, but sometimes cutting back is carried too far and subsequent growth is checked rather than promoted. Some growers cut back the young trees a little while before lifting them from the nursery. Some take off all leaves after planting out, and claim that growth starts sooner and more strongly, but it is doubtful whether defoliation is ad- visable, except in case of wilting, when it is necessary. Digging Holes ■ and Setting Trees. — The same considerations which require e.xtra care in lifting trees for nursery, rule in ]uitting them in permanent place. All au- thorities on the subject specify exceptional care in preparing the tree holes as a profit- able investment on the part of the planter. Large and deep holes are commended, provided the planting is being done in a deep, free soil. Deep holes would be more injurious than beneficial in a tight subsoil, unless drainage were furnished, but there are good orange trees now bearing in such place.s — good enough at least to be an orna- ment and acceptable fruit producers for family use. On large-scale planting in deeply pre pared soil, holes large enough to allow good spreading of the roots are sufficient. Handling the soil at planting has been fully described in Chapter XI, and the importance of bringing the soil into firm contact with the roots has been urged. The use of water in planting citrus fruit trees is especially desirable. Transplanting should he done just as the growth is starting in the late spring or early summer, and this is the opening of the dry season and rains can not be expected. Therefore when the roots are arranged and the top soil lightly tramped around them, water is run in the hole and the earth compacted around the roots by water settling. After the water has settled away, the hole is filled and the surface left loose to prevent evaporation. Pruning the Orange 312 California Fruits : These instructions apply to the planting out of trees which are taken up with long roots and puddled. In planting out balled trees, the sack is not removed, but after the tree is embedded in the earth, the tying rope is cut. The sack soon decays in the soil. Orange trees can be successfully trans- planted at different times of the year, but the best time, as just stated, is after the ground gets well warmed by the spring sun- shine. The date at which this condition arrives depends upon locality. Experience seems to indicate that the young orange PRUNING THE ORANGE. All the considerations urged in Chapter XII in favor of low-headed and strongly- branched trees apply to the orange, though the habit of the tree in growth and bearing requires different pruning policies. The orange tree is more disposed naturally to assume a good form than most other trees, and for this reason most experienced growers declare their belief in pruning as little as possible. This is unquestionably good policy providing attention enough is given to secur- '-r^U — Fg. 1 , Orange tree at planting in orchard, 3 feet high. Result of neglect in forming head. Better form secured by training. tree is in best condition to transplant just as the new growth is starting out, and pref- erably when it has not grown out more than two inches. Great care must be taken that transplanted orange trees do not become dry after planting. The methods of irrigation are described in Chapter XV. Good cultivation should also attend the orange from its first planting onward. This subject is fully discussed in Chapter XIII. ing a shapely and convenient tree, and to over- come the tendency in the young tree to run out very long shoots which result in unsym- metrical shoulders with hollows beneath tliem and obviate a weeping habit, which inter- feres with irrigation and cultivation and pre- vents the development of good bearing space above. It is so easy to bring the orange tree into good form by a little hard thinking about what shape is desirable and a little timely cutting and pinching to secure it. How to Grow Them 313 Necessary to Prune It has long been held that the orange tree should assume a compact wall of foliage. The interior of the tree being considered merely the framework to support this and pump sap into it. Recently the importance of removing dead wood from the center of the tree is being urged, even though the cost is considerable, and a rational thinning of branches to admit light and air in suffi- cient amount to secure good fruit nearer the center of the tree is also being advocated and practiced to some extent. All these Fig. 2. Branch form of orange before removing lower branches. progressive tendencies carry the orange nearer to the application of the principles of pruning which are discussed in detail in Chapter XII, including the rational recourse to more severe pruning or cutting back to induce a growth of new and stronger wood for subsequent bearing. In other cases cutting back of varieties inclined to make a rank wood growth, like the Valencia Late, to encourage a better supply of fruiting wood, is being advocated. It seems clear that there are important ends to be gained by more pruning of the orange tree, and by earnest thinking and close observation along this line. It has been held that it was necessary to prune the young tree to quite a high head at first to allow for the natural droop of the branches, and the result is seen in many Fig. 3. Good form of five-year-old orange tree. young trees with slim stems and umbrella- like tops. It is better to develop a stout stem by allowing for a time a low growth Fig. 4. Branch form of orange six months' after planting. upon it and then raise it later by removal of the lower growth which has done good service and outlived its usefulness. By wise underpruning it is possible not only to se- cure a shapely and convenient tree but The Drooping- Habit 314 California Frnits also to so train the lower growth that it shall present good, low bearing wood with- out groveling in the dust. Unquestionably the drooping habit of budded orange trees is largely due to their to prevent long branches from running out at random, and removing branches which may start strongly from near the base, the Fig. 5. Tendency of clipped branches to rise. treatment. A grower who does not believe in pruning allows the branches to extend too far horizontally, and the weight of the foliage and the early fruiting brings the branches to the ground. To relieve the lower branches of the young tree of a part of this weight will enable them to assume a better direction, and this slight relief at first will prevent much branch-sawing in later years. The young tree as it comes from the nursery usually starts upon an upright course. If stopped at about three feet it can be brought along to develop strong and well-arranged branches, much as has been described for deciduous fruit trees in Chapter XII. The adjacent engraving. Fig. i, shows a young tree in planting condition, stopped at three feet and needing only a slight cutting back of the laterals to be ready to begin its or- chard life. If young trees are transplanted short distances and at the right time they do not need so much cutting back as is commonly given them. If allowed to grow from the start shown in Fig. i, pruning only Fig. 6. Branch form of five-year old tree built down. tree will assume the branch-form shown in Fig. 2 and at from two to three years after planting in the orchard. At about this age the removal of lower branches begins, as they Fig. 7. Foliage form of five-year old tree. have served their purpose in shading the trunk and bearing the first fruit. These branches are removed one by one until, when the tree is five years in the orchard, it has lost all branches below the two-foot line except the one branch marked "a" of which the upright-growing part will be retained. The higher branches assume the more hori- zontal habit, too great out-shooting is re- How to Gro\\- Them 315 Later Pruning of the Orange pressed and at about five years orchard-age the tree attains a lieight of about twelve feet and is of the general form shown in Fig. 3. The next few months will bring its foliage to the ground to remain there or to be under-trimmed, as the notion of the grower may be. BUILDING DOWN AND NOT SAGGTN(i DOWN. It is perfectly feasible and rational to se- cure a good form of low tree without re- moval of large branches and without rely- ing upon the sag of the branches from a high head. It requires rather more watch- fulness and attention and study of the sub- ject than some growers desire to give, but the results when attained are very satisfac- tory. The method is that of J. H. Reed, of Riverside, and has been followed by him for a number of years with his own orchard and others of which he has had charge. It will be found readily intelligible with the help of the sketches. Mr. Reed would begin with a young nursery tree like that already shown in Fig. i. He does not believe in much cutting back before planting providing a fair amount of roots are left in the ball at transplanting. If the tree has been properly planted and cared for, it will soon begin to put out new growth, usually first along the stem, the strongest growth being lowest down. As many of these young branches along the stem as are not desired for perma- nent branches, are rubbed off, the earlier the better, at least before woody fiber is deposited in them. Mr. Reed rubs oft' promptly all below a point about two feet from the ground, if there is a prospect of getting sufiicient good branches above that point. If not he sayes them down to eight or even twelve inches lower if need be. Mr. Reed's idea is to build the head along a considerable length of the trunk and not have the branches bunched at the top, and this is the same idea that is urged in tb.e development of the trunk of the deciduous fruit tree in Chapter XII. He finds it impossible to do this in the nursery because if it is attempted to form a head 18 or 24 inches along the upper portion of the stem instead of one bunched near the top of it, the lower branches will appropriate most of the sap and the upper portion will not be well developed ; while if this upper story is well established in the nursery the lower por- tion can be built on wdthout detriment to the upper, if nutriment sufficient for both is fur- nished. Fig. 4 will show approximately the branch-form of the young tree at about six months from planting and the shoots with which the building-down is begim. The first step is to check the drooping habit. Upon this point Mr. Reed says : The common notion that the branch of the Navel orange naturally tends down is a mistake which grows out of the fact that in its rapid growth the new part of the stems and large leaves are so load- ed with sap that they pull the stems from their natural upright position, and, unless relieved, hold them there till the deposit of woody fiber fixes the branches in the drooping or unnatural posi- tion. If the tips of these rapidly growing branches, with their heavy leaves, be clipped at the right time, the branches will spring back to the erect position, w'here they will remain to send out new branchlets. It is wonderful how the orange tree can be molded like a thing of wax by pinching and clipping here and there, if done at the right time. Fig. 5 shows the result of this clipping 01 heavy shoots to allow them to assume a more upright growth and the encourage- ment of new shoots below the two-foot mark. Fig. 6 gives the branch-form of a five-year-old tree, with its lower story of bearing wood well developed, and Fig. 7 is the foliage-form of the same tree, about fifteen feet high, with its leaves and fruit reaching to the ground. As to how low the branches should be allowed, Mr. Reed says that until recently he has thought it best to keep the low'er branches clipped back so that the fruit would not touch the ground, but he is persuaded that it is better to let them come to the ground even if considerable fruit rests on it. He finds that many of the best orchardists do this, and claim that there are really less culls among the fruit on the ground than on the less-protected branches above. L.\TER Pruning of the Orange. — After the form of the orange is well established the aim should be to preserve a compact, symmetrical and convenient form. It is de- sirable that weak wood should be removed: dead interior branches, which have given up the struggle for the light, should also be re- moved. It is an appalling undertaking to get into the inside of an old orange tree and saw off and drag out the dead wood Washino-ton Navel Orang-e 316 California Fruits : but, as already stated, the conviction is growing that this should be done. Of the growing shoots there is a reasonable amount of thinning to be done. The clipping back of ambitious shoots multiplies laterals. There should be a good cover of leaves, but the crowding of leaves on leaves excludes light and air and weakens the tree by lessening the vigor of leaf action. Dead twigs which appear among good bearing shoots should always be removed. The gourmand shoots or suckers should be repressed, unless, by clipping, one can be turned into a branch where a branch is needed. DISEASES OF THE ORANGE. The orange is thus far subject to few dis- eases in California. The most grievous is the so-called gum disease, which is analo- gous to the gumming of other trees and will be discussed in the chapter treating of tree diseases. Cracking of the fruit is a trouble which has never been fully explained. There are several serious insect enemies of the orange, which will be discussed in the chapter on that subject. The "black smut," which makes leaves and fruit unsightly in some parts of the state, is a fungoid growth upon the exudations of insects, and can be prevented by removing its cause. VARIETIES OF THE ORANGE. Though many varieties of the orange have been introduced in California, but few are largely grown. During the last fifteen years there has been a pervading disposition to concentrate upon the Washington Navel, and, except to get other varieties either earlier or later to extend the season, there seems little reason to go beyond the Navel for commercial purposes. Not only have recent plantings been predominantly of this variety, but old trees of other kinds have beeen very largely budded over to it, and this work is still going on at a rapid rate. As already claimed in the opening pages of this chapter, the Washington Navel is the greatest commercial orange in the world. As it goes from California into the world's commerce it is a combined product of grow- er's skill and climatic conditions operating upon its own natural qualities and characters. Neither of these factors alone could achieve its present position. The navel mark is neither peculiar to it nor determinative of it, for there are other navels which are inferior here and our navel is inferior elsewhere ; and even in Bahia, whence it came, it has no such quality and standing, because in coming to California it passed from humid, tropical to arid, semi-tropical environment. As already suggested, the tropical orange is not in the same class with the semi-tropical from the point of view of commerce. Trade in tropical oranges is local or limited ; trade in semi-tropical oranges is world-reaching The orange produced in an arid, semi-trop- ical climate is dense and compact, firm and better in keeping and carrying characters. It is also of more sprightly flavor and richer composition. Those who are disposed to exalt the humid air orange for superior sweetness forget that the California orange, as compared, for instance, with the Florida product, has not less sugar but adds to it more acid ; being, in fact, not less sweet but more sour. As both sugar and acid are nutritive substances, the superiority of the California fruit from a dietary point of view is clear. Such an orange, enclosed in a thin skin of silky texture and beautiful finish, comes very close to an ideal upon which to found an industry. Although California has apparently no need for changes of type in oranges and has worked diligently and long for the attainment of the types which are at present supreme in her industry, there is still opportunity for improvement within the types. Such im- provement is probably to be attained not by hybridizing, but by selection. The Wash- ington Navel, like other members of the citrus family is keenly disposed to variation and some of its variations have been named ^nd propagated as the lists below will show. The pursuit of such and other improve- ments is now being systematically taken up at the Citrus Experiment Station at Riverside which is a branch of the Univer- sity of California Experiment Station at Berkeley. Of the few varieties which are now largely grown the following is the ripening season : Navel and Seedlings, November to May: Malta Blood, March to June; Mediterranean Sweets. April to July; St. Michaels, May to July ; \^alencia Late. June to September. How to Grow Them m: Oranee Varieties U'asltiitgtoit Navel (Bahia. Riverside Xavcl). — Fruit large, solid, and heavy ; skin smooth and of a very fine texture; very juicy; high flavored, with melting pulp; is practically seedless, only in ex- ceptional cases are seed found; tree is a good and prolific bearer, medium thorny, a rapid grower, although it does not attain a very large size ; bears when very young, commencing to bear as early as one year old from the bud ; ripens early. This variety was imported from Bahia, Brazil, in 1870, by Ml. W. Sanders, of the Department of Agri- Australian Navel. — A coarser type of the Navel in- troduced from Australia in 1874 by Lewis Wolfskill, of Los Angeles, and largely propagated formerly. It ha? now been practically abandoned for the Wash- ington Navel. It seems to be of more account at some points in the San Joaquin Valley than else- where. Valencia Late (Hart's Tardiff). — 'Medium size, oblong, pale yellow ; flesh rich, deep yellow, sprigl'.t- ly and crisp ; tree a strong grower, slightly thorny. Ripens late, and valuable for late shipping. i* \ -.«. .*1.-^ ^••-» :♦: ;^ I^A^^H^^ Washington Navel Orange. culture at Washington, and in 1874 two trees were received from Washington by Mrs. Tibbetts, of Riverside, Cal. Trees were also received about the same time by Alexander Craw, but the River- side trees were first in fruit, and the excellence or the variety being at once recognized, it was propagated rapidly and took the name Riverside Navel from the place where its characteristics were first made known. As it came to be grown largely in other districts as well, a broader name, Wash- ington Navel, recognizing its receipt from the na- tional capital, was adopted. There is much tendency to variation in the Wash- ington Navel, and sub-varieties are to be found in- volving departures in the direction of thinness and silkiness of rind, etc., as well as interior characters. The first to become prominent of these is Thomson's Improved Navel which A. C. Thomson, of Duarte, Los Angeles County, claimed to have produced by a process of propagation, but which is believed to be a natural variation. It is a very refined fruit; generally held to be too fine for ordinary handling- Two new variations, developed on the propagating grounds of the San Dimas Citrus nurseries of R- M. Teague are as follows : Golden Buckeye Navel. — Young wood, slender but strong; tree of striking appearance; fruit mark- ed with bands of deeper color, skin very smooth ; pulp aromatic with suggestion of pineapple flavor. Golden Nugget Navel. — Young wood willowy and slender, tree umbrageous; fniit smooth, solid, thin- skirmed, rather oblong and good size, rich golden color; pulp free from rag. and delicious. Malta Blood. — Fruit small to medium, oval; flesh fine texture and flavor, streaked and mottled with red; few seeds. The tree is' thornless and regular and heavy bearer. Ruby. — Medium size, roundish ; when ripe often reddened by deep red pulp within; juicy and spright- ly, often rather acid ; tree vigorous, thornless and a good bearer. Thomson's Improved Navel. Varieties 318 California Fruits Mediterranean Szneet — Fruit mediiun to large, pulp and skin of fine texture, very solid and few- seeds ; ripens late, often not until May or June- The tree is thornless and of dwarf habit of growth and is inclined to overbear. It was at one time the most widely-distributed variety in the State, next to the Washington Navel, but has recently been largely budded over. It was introduced and named by T. A. Garey. of Los Angeles. Dancy's Tangerine, or Kid Glove. — Leaves broad, fruit flat, small to medium, reddish; skin separating readily from the pulp; flesh juicy and aromatic. Satsunia (Unshiu Oonshiu.) — A considerable acreage of this variety, planted ten years ago on dwarfing stock, has availed very little commercially. At present tlierc is disposition to grow the variety The King Mandarin Orange. Paper Rind St. Michael. — Fruit small, round, very firm and very juicy; pale, thin skin; very elegant in appearance. It ripens late and keeps well on the trees as late as August; tree is of dwarf habit, me- dium thorny, a good bearer, and very desirable. Kuniquat (.Citrus Japonica). — Fruit very small, oblong or olive shaped, rind thick, yellow, smooth ; sweet-scented ; very little pulp ; containing many seeds; tree dwarf (a bush), a prolific bearer. Chief- Iv used for conserves. on sweet orange stock because of its earliness. Tree quite hardy, fruit irregular in size, but usually me- dium size, flattened; rind easily detached; fine tex- ture, sweet and nearly seedless. Mandarin^ Willoiit-Leaved. — Medium sized, flat- tened, deep yellow ; flesh dark orange, skin loose ; tree compact, ornamental- King. — Of the Mandarin class; large, rough skinned, skin and segments loose, pulp high flavored, sweet, aromatic. How to Grow Them 319 The Pomelo T CHAPTER XXXIII. THE POMELO OR GRAPE FRUIT IN CALIFORNIA. HIS citrus fruit achieved a very sudden was cut off by the serious frost injuries in interest in Cahfornia because of the prices Florida there arose a passion for planting t 4 "9 r^ :^ m ^ kA^ SV V 1 Bearing Habit of the Pomelo in California. commanded by Florida pomeloes about fifteen the trees in Cahfornia, and a considerable years ago. When this supply of eastern cities acreasjc was planted, and as the tree is The Grape Fruit 320 California Fruits very rapid grower and precocious in fruit- bearing, large shipments were made in 1898, but the resuhs were not satisfactory, and since that time, although pomeloes sometimes sell to good advantage, the demand is on the whole light and irregular. The local con- sumption of pomeloes in California is increas- ing but does not warrant much acreage. For these reasons early plantings have been largely grafted over to the orange. The fruit is a Shaddock (Citrus dccmnana). Varieties have been secured of smaller size and of blander flavor than the coarse, sour and acrid fruit which is suggested by its name. An effort has been made to secure the favorite varieties, and a large list has been planted in this State, but the fruit does not command the place at the East which was awarded to the Florida product. As a tree the pomelo most nearly resembles the orange and its culture is the same. As for varieties, California experience has been too brief and fitful to demonstrate particular value or adaptation in them. Among growers there is no wide agreement as to superiority from a commercial point of view. Amateurs can find many desirable sorts in our citrus nur- series. Mr. A. P. Griffith of Azusa is perhaps the most enthusiatic and confident of California growers that the pomelo grown in this State will attain wide popularity in the United States. His grove is now seven acres in extent, nearly all of the Nectar variety which is of the type which he believes should be grown to win public favor. He concludes that the market wants a fruit not smaller than 8o's and prefers to stop at 64's. A fruit flat-round that will cut up into two halves each of which will stand upright on a plate, cut side up, seems especially desirable. A fruit that is spherical or pear-shaped is not desired. There are several varieties whose similarity in type would seem to warrant including all under one name. These, with the ad- dition of the seedless, comprise all there is of intrinsic value among California pomelos. If all other varieties not of this type were budded over, and thus taken out of the market, Mr. Griffith believes the demand would increase. Of the follow- ing varieties, the first is propagated by Mr. Griffith and the others by Mr. R. M. Teague of the San Dimas Citrus Nurseries. Nectar. — A Florida seedling, grown at Duarte; flat-round, heavy; peel smooth and bright, pale-lemon color ; oil cells small and numerous ; flesh dens», firm texture, abundant juice, vinous, excellent, bit- teT-s.w€et element distinct ; few seed's and little rag ; sizes frojn 42 to 80 to the box. Imperial. — Medium to large, peel very smooth, inedium thin and of fine texture; little rag, juice abundant, fine aromatic flavor, good keeper and shipper. Tree upright and heavy bearer. Marsh Seedless. — Medium size, S2 to 64 to the box; thin rind; almost entirely seedless: flesh dark and rich, a late keeper and early and abundant bearer. Triumph. — Medium size peel smooth, clear, thin and fine grained; very juicy, heavy and good flavored; juice free from bitterness; very littl'j rag; an early and prolific bearer. \ ^(^«ii pf ^p ^^^^ ^1'..^ ' . ^<^^HKft. ^JiKj ■ ^ ^^i-^ JMB^, -^--:^.;-\. '.-8*.."' y^B^^^^ ,%T»r ^^ ij^^^jj r^ ^0|p^ ■J^^ "^^1^1^^ HBm^^u^Z'S ^\^*/^"^.- . ,' iSS?*'^- How to Grow Them 321 The Lemon CHAPTER XXXIV. THE LEMON AND MINOR CITRUS FRUITS. LEMON growing is a very unique and distinctive branch of California horti- culture, which in the present advancement of culture and preparation for the market, well illustrates the originality and invention which the California fruit grower has dis- played in his undertakings. Lemon growing in California is old because it arose at the old missions in the second century back of us, but successful lemon growing as a great industry is new and constantly assuming new phases. For the old seedling lemons were bad, and though enterprising growers soon learned that fact and set about getting better ones, it took years to secure them and to learn how to grow and handle them so that the Californian could displace the Sicilian fruit in the markets of the United States. Nor was time the only thing sacri- ficed — hundreds of thousands of dollars were lost before the California grower could put upon the market a good lemon, fit to stay good for a sufficient length of time. Un- » profitable plantings ; expensive curing houses, which did not cure well; countless experi- ments which yielded only loss and disap- pointment — all these are wrecks upon the rock of American lemon growing. Naturally Californians sought first to know how lemons were grown and handled abroad. At cost of great eiifort and outlay they learned practically nothing that they could do and a great deal that it was not neces- sary to do. Then they assumed a more rational mood — a disposition to discern what principles are involved in the problem, and to apply them in their own way according to conditions locally prevailing. Along this line grand success has been attained by a few masterful men conducting large lemon enter- prises or smaller undertakings of their own, while the mass of lemon planters, for one reason or another, have never reaped the reward they expected. On the whole, it may be said that lemon gfrowing- is a much harder and more exacting enterprise than orange growing, and for this reason many have new-topped their trees to oranges and thus escaped difficulties which they could not overcome. With the aid of the protective tariff the most resolute and capable have attained success, and now the California lemon is highly esteemed upon its merits everywhere. The tariff has somewhat reduced the effect of cheap labor in Italy and cheap water trans- portation from the Mediterranean region, and our lemons can sometimes compete with the foreign product not only in the west but even in the cities of the Atlantic seaboard. All this has been accomplished within two de- cades and it is a notable result. One measure of this fact may be found in the shipment of over three thousand five hundred car- loads during the season of 1906-7. The California lemon has however not yet attained mastery of American markets as the orange has, for there is a value of about four mil- lions of dollars in imported lemons while imported oranges are only worth one-fourth as much. It is manifest that the lemon should be encouraged with increased pro- tection to enable producers to push the issue of an American lemon for Americans to a successful termination. The best pack of California lemons has a uniformity of size, a finish of skin, a juici- ness and keen acidity which is unrivaled in the world. Numerous careful tests have been made of the California lemon in Atlantic cities in comparison with the best south European product, and the superiority of the American fruit has thus been demonstrated. SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE LEMON. The lemon does best in a practically frostless situation. Such places arc found in largest area in the southern half of the Propagating and Planting 322 California Fruits coast regions of California, but also exist at favoring elevations in the interior. The moderating influence of proximity to salt water, and the effect of local topography and environment, which give frost-free nooks or belts, are elements favoring the lemon grower. In such situations the lemon blooms and fruits continuously throughout the year. While the lemon requires a less extrenn of low temperature than the orange, it also thrives with a less extreme of high tem- perature and less duration of it. It appar- ently does not require as much heat to de- velop acid, which is the charm of the lemon, overcome by the proper storage and treatment of the fruit for sale, at a considerable interval after picking, as will be mentioned presently. But both the curing and storage of lemons are more easily secured in the more equable temperature and moister air of the coast region. The lemon delights in a sandy loam, and probably our best orchards are on such soil, but the trees thrive in other soils. There is a difference of opinion among growers as to what soil is to be especially sought for. There are profitable lemon orchards in southern California located upon deep clay Lemon tree with fruit near ground but capable of under-cultivation. as it does sugar, which is essential to an acceptable orange ; therefore, a coast situa- tion which may not yield a sweet orange may produce a good lemon, although it is a fact that in the southern coast region, vi'here the largest commercial production of lemons is now achieved, the orange also does well. Another advantage of the lower summer temperature is that the continuous ripening is not interfered with, as it is b}' high summer heat, which hastens maturity and brings the mass of the fruit to mar- ketable condition in the winter — a season when the demand for the lemon is very small. This objection is, however, being measurably loams, and even upon strong red clay soils. As with some other fruits, the choice of soil is, to a certain extent, governed by the stock on which the lemon is worked. PROPAGATING AND PLANTING. The prevailing stock for the lemon is the orange seedling either the sweet or sour stock, vmder the same conditions that each is preferred for the orange, the sour stock resisting measurably the effects of ill-drainage of heavy land or flat, low places. The orange root thrives on a greater variety of soils than the lemon, and produces a healthy How to Grow Them 323 PruniiiP; the Lemon lemon tree where the lemon on its own root would fail. The growth of orange seed- lings for budding has been described in the last chapter. If lemon seedlings are desired they may be grown in the same way. Plants either for permanent growth or for stocks for budding can be grown from cuttings, as explained in Chapter VIII. The budding of the lemon is practi- cally the same as of the orange, which has been described. An old tree can be changed orange, after it is well shaped, simply needs attention to encourage it to retain the bearing form to which it seems naturally disposed. The orange provides itself with satisfactory bearing wood," as a rule ; the lemon devotes itself, even when it is old enough to know better, to a rangy rambling wood growth with bearing wood upon the ends of willowy rods where it is swept about in the wind and burned in the sun, instead of nestling it neatly among the leaves as the orange does. Lemon tree under p.ruiK bring fruit a distance from the soil. from one variety to another by the methods described for the orange, and oranges can be worked into old lemon trees and good fruit secured if the lemon itself be growing upon an orange root, which is likely to be the case with trees planted during the last decade. Planting of the lemon is the same as that of the orange. The distance in planting varies from twenty to twenty-five feet. Irri- gation of lemon and orange trees is also similar. PRUNING THE LEMON. The pruning of the lemon is essentially different from that of the orange, because the habit of the tree is different. The lemon requires constant attention to bring it into g-ood bearincj form and keep it there ; tjic The rational proceeding with the lemon is, then, to develop it at first into a low, stocky and strong form, such as is described in Chapter XII for deciduous trees. This may be secured by pinching so as not to allow running out of long branches at first, or it may be secured by severe cutting back of the long growths of the young tree. In either case low branching will be secured. Make good selection from these branches to form a symmetrical tree and cut back the growth which comes upon them to cause it to branch in its turn. In this way plenty of good, strong wood is secured low down, and" with short distances between the laterals. Strong, upright shoots (wrongly called "suckers") which break out at points where liranches are not desired, should be rubbed Old Lemon Trees 324 California Fruits : off or cleanly cut away. Having secured about the right branching in about the right places no strong sprouts should be allowed, and the tree should be encouraged to make smaller laterals, which will be the bearing wood. It must be admitted, however, that this rational plan of restricting wood growth and directing the energies of the tree to fruit has in some cases been pursued too far and the tree has resented repression by diminished thrift. The pruner must allow freer growth of shoot to secure better foliage. according to its position and vigor — all these must be borne in mind by the lemon pruner. . It must also be remembered that the work must be resolutely continued and the tree always prevented from wild growth and kept down to bearing on the smaller twigs, which are promoted and retained for that purpose. The building-down process described for the young orange is easily applicable to the lemon. Old lemon trees which have been allowed to grow away into a long, rangy form and Lemon tree with medium amount of under-pruning. The pruning of the lemon as of other trees must always be pursued with judgment rather that by recipe. When the adequate growth of bearing wood within reach is borne in mind it appears that the pruning of the lemon in- volves many of the considerations urged in Chapter XII for deciduous fruits; the method of making a strong, short trunk, the ar- rangement of branches, the prevention of long growths, the encouragment of low, bearing twigs, the thinning of twigs to prevent the tree from becoming too dense, the points to be observed in cutting back, not by shearing but by treating each branch to bear fruit too high for profit, can be brought down to good form by severe cutting back and after-treatment of the new shoots, keeping the smaller horizontal growths and cutting out cleanly the strong upright shoots, or cutting them back if more branches are needed. The time for pruning the lemon depends upon the end in view ; if a young tree, to promote wood growth, prune at the opening of the growing season in the spring; in older trees, to repress growth and advance fruiting, prune in midsummer. When it is remembered that harvesting lemons is a continuous operation as will be stated presently, keeping the bearing wood Lemon orchard under clean culture. Winter view of lemon orchard with cover crop of vetches. How to Grow Them 325 Lemons for Marketing of the tree within easy reach is more im- perative from an economic point of view than with trees from which fewer pickings gathei the crop. Adjacent engravings give sug- gestive views of rationally controlled lemon trees. Pruning is also related to escaping infection of the fruit from the ground which will be discussed in the Chapter on Diseases of Trees and Vines. PREPARATION OF LEMONS FOR MARKETING. The lemon as taken from the tree is not in condition for marketing except to packers who wish to undertake the curing. To secure best results in quality and in keeping properties, the lemon should be carefully cut from the tree as soon as proper size is reached. To allow the fruit to hang upon the tree until lemon color is assumed, gives a lemon which is deficient in juice, oversized, apt to develop bitterness, and prone to decay. Two and five-sixteenth rings are used for winter pickings and 2 1-2 for spring and summer, never more than six weeks being allowed to elapse between pickings, and the fruit is usually picked once a month. By careful attention to this, desirable sizes and good-keeping stock are obtained. Neg- lect of this is the weak point of many of the lemon growers of California. Mr. C. C. Teague, manager of the Limoneira Com- pany of Santa Paula, Ventura County, the largest lemon growing concern in California, has made close examination of practice among lemon growers, and concludes that the carelessness with which picking is done is almost criminal. In grove after grove which he visited at least 50 per cent, of the values had been lost by allowing the fruit to hang on the tree too long. Not only on account of large sizes would it have to be discounted 50 cents per box, but the keeping quality of the lemon which is allowed to mature on the tree is never good. Good re- sults can not be obtained, even by the best methods of keeping lemons, unless the fruit is picked at the proper time and properly handled. Mr. Teague says a lemon should be handled as carefully as an egg. If gathered before the color begins to turn properly cured lemons may be kept for months, and they will improve in market qualities, by a thinning and toughening of the skin, and by increase of juice contents. This curing of the fruit, as it is called, is accomplished in many simple ways. If the fruit is gathered and placed in piles under the trees, where, with low-headed trees, it is completely shaded by the foliage, it processes well and comes out beautiful in color and excellent in quality, providing it is a good variety. Some have trusted wholly to this open-air curing under the trees, merely pro- tecting the fruit by a thin covering of straw,, or other light, dry materials. Others let the fruit lie a few days under the trees, carefully shaded from the sun, and place it in boxes or upon trays, and keep it months in a darkened fruit-house, providing venti- lation but guarding the fruit against draughts of air. Gathering the fruit while still green and packing with alternate layers of dry sand, has given excellent marketable fruit, but of course the handling of so much sand is too expensive nor is it at all necessary. Much attention has been given to lemon storage in southern California, and many curing and storage houses have been con- structed. Naturally there is great variation in design and method of operation. The essential conditions to be secured are exclu sion of light ; regulation of temperature , ample ventilation, under control, however, so as to prevent entrance of air which is too dry or too hot ; convenience and cheapness of handling, for the lemon is expensive in handling at best during the months of storage which is often desirable. Some of these conditions are relatively of much more im- portance in the interior than in the coast region, because heat and dry air reach oc- casionally extremes which are not experienced near the ocean which is a great regulator of temperature and atmospheric moisture. For these reasons a much simpler system of stor- age is now in large use in the coast district, while in the interior suitable special build- ings or basements are apparently necessary. Anyone entering upon lemon handling should certainly visit establishments now in satis- factory use and learn by careful observatioii of their suitability to his purposes. Near the coast, and so far toward the interior as ocean influences extend in ade- quate degree, the building of special curing houses has been abandoned and some quite expensive structures have been turned to Curiiip- the Lemon 326 California Fruits : other uses. An objection to liouse-storagt lies in tiie fact that the fruit is apt to lie massed in the house and that which is just picked given the same ventilation as that which has been in the house several months, when, as a matter of fact, lemons in different stages of curing require radically different treatment as regards ventilation. As a result of this treatment some of the fruit is usually wilted from receiving too much air, while the greater portion of it is badly decayed from receiving too little. The Limoneira Company was first to equip a house on the open air plan. The house is 300x100 feet. The flooring is 2-inch planking and the roof covered with gravel- paper roofing. The building has no sides whatever, allowing free circulation of air. The fruit for storage is put into regular shipping boxes, piled in blocks of ^CxD boxes. There is a double row of these blocks on either side of a 20-foot space which extends to the entire length of the building, and which answers the double purpose of a Packing Lemons for shipment. Shows also curing tents on both sides. Proper ventilation is the keynote of success in keeping lemons, and after extensive and expensive e.xperience along the old lines, Mr. Teague of the Limoneira Company, already cited, concluded that lemon handlers had been on the wrong track in believing a low temper- ature first in importance. If the ventilatioii is right the temperature will take care of itself. Mr. Teague decided that proper con- ditions for keeping lemons lie just between the points where they wilt and where they sweat, inducing neither if possible, for too much moisture induces decay and too little causes shriveling. The fragment of the stem left on the fruit by the cutter may be used as a test: if it adheres, the conditions are right for slow curing; if it detaches easily, the best keeping quality is not being secured. work room and an air space. The boxes are so piled as to permit of the circulation of aip around each box. Each block of fruit is covered by a canvas 10x10x20, made box shape by a canvas cover and four canvas- curtains on rollers, the openings at the cor- ners being closed by lacings as desirable. The ventilation is controlled by raising or lowering the canvas, and each block of fruii can be given exactly the ventilation that it requires, irrespective of the other fruit in the house. By this method 50 or 100 cars of fruit can be handled and kept in as good condition as if there was only one. Each block being numbered, a complete record of the lemons from each of the six sections of the ranch is kept froin the time it is picked until the fruit is shipped. The fruit How to Grow Them 327 Varieties of the Lemon is all washed in a lemon washing machine, and is piled up in the house wet, just as it comes from the machine. The canvas cov- ers are not dropped over it, however, until it is thoroughly dry. An idea of these curing tents can be had from an adjacent engraving which shows them on both sides of a central space which is used for packing the fruit in the shipping boxes. \\'ith proper curing facilities lemons picked in Novemlier and December may be kept until the following July. Later pickings may not keep so well and may be marketed first. C)f the finer points in lemon handling, however, there is much which must be learned by ex- perience. VARIETIES OF LEMONS FOR CALIFORNIA. During the earlier years of California lemon growing there were continuous efforts put forth to secure better lemon varieties. During the last decade three varieties have been accepted as satisfactory and nearly all others have been dropped. The three are Eureka, Lisbon, and Villa Franca, arranged according to present degree of popularity in southern California, where nearly the whole commercial product is now made, although some plantings have been undertaken farther north, chiefly in the citrus belt on the east side of the San Joaquin valley. Eureka. — A native of California, originated by C. R. Workman, at Los Angeles, from seed imported from Hamburg iai 1872, only one seed growing, from which buds were put by him on orange stock. Dis- tributed by T. A. Garey, of Los Angeles. Tree very free from thorns. Fruit medium size, sweet rind, a good keeper, few seeds; very popular, especially in coast regions. Less popular in the interior be- cause of scant foliage. Lisbon. — Imported from Portugal ; first grown by D. M. Burnhani, of Riverside. Fruit uniformly medium size, rather oblong, fine grain, thin sweet rind, strong acid ; few seeds ; a good keeper ; tree is a strong grower, with compact foliage, prolific bearer, but starts bearing late ; quite thorny, bui thorns decrease in size as the tree grows older. Popular at interior points especially. Villa Franca. — Imported from Europe. Medium size, oblong, slightly pointed at the blossom end, rind thin, without bitterness, acid, strong, juicy, nearly seedless. Tree thornless, branches spreading and somewhat drooping, foliage abundant; witiistands lower temperature than other imported varieties. THE LLMT The lime {Citrus medica acida) has proved much less hardy than the lemon. It has been killed in situations where the orange and lemon have not been injured. Unless adequate protection is thought worth the / Eureka Lemon. effort, there is little use in planting the lime, except in a frostless situation. Such locali- ties are found near the ocean in southern Cal- ifornia, and here and there at proper eleva- tion in the interior both north and south, still the growth of the lime must be counted very hazardous. Tliere is less inducement to ex- periment with the fruit from the fact that the Pacific Coast markets are well supplied with Mexican limes, usually at prices which leave no opportunity for competitors. Citrus Varieties 328 California Fruits : Limes are grown from seed, the variety usually coming true from seeed. The trees are small and are frequently grown in hedge form. The common variety is the Mexican. The. Imperial, a large, rather hardy variety is favorably reported by several growers. lections of citron trees imported from the Mediterranean region by the United States Department of Agriculture planted at several points in southern California. As yet no con- siderable product has been reached. There is, however, no cessation of interest, and Villa Franca. The three standard Eureka. lercial varieties of the le THE CITRON. This fruit (Citrus medica cedra) is little grown in California, although it is quite hardy and could be produced over a large area. The only use for the fruit, which re- sembles a monstrous lemon, is in its candied rind, and no one has deemed it worth while to push competition with the imported candied citron, though very fine experimental lots have been produced, and the interest of the fruit-preserving establishments in the product recurs periodically. There have been col- experimental planting continues, with a prospect of satisfactory attainment erelong. Samples of the candied article have been approved by experts as very satisfactory. ORNAMENTAL CITRUS SPECIES. There are grown in this State for curiosity or ornament various minor citrus species, Nincluding the Bergamot and the dwarf orna- mental sorts from Asia. There are, of course, the ornamental species grown by florists for their fragrant bloom. How to Grow Them 329 Standard Pack for Oranges. CHAPTER XXXV. STANDARD PACKS FOR CITRUS FRUITS. OBVIOUSLY a treatise on California fruit could contain them. Such a work will un- growing cannot adequately cover the doubtedly be undertaken at some future time complementary subject of packing and market- by the author or I)y another writer. Still ing which has such a wealth of details of poli- it seems very proper to give space to dia- cies and methods that only a separate volume grammatic arrangement of citrus fruits in ORANGES. standard ^0-pack, four layers. (For 4S-pack see Pomelo.) OCIO QiQ^ ^^jO^ ^l3l^O ^^^O^^j Q^^i ooo^ Q^OQ Standanl 96-pack, four layer.s.) Standard li!G-pack, five layers. Standard 112-pack, four layers. Standanl 17ti-paek, live layers. Standard Pack for Lemons 330 California Fruits : in standard 216-pack, six layers. Standard 324-pack, six layers. LEMONS. standard 210-pack, seven layers. .Standard 270-pack, five layers. Standard 240-pack, five layers Standard 300-pack, six layers How to Grow Them 331 Standard Pack for Pomelo Standaril 490-pack, seven layers. POMELO. standard r{lj-pack, three layers. Standard SO-pack, fonr layers Standard 4.S-pack, three layers. (Same for large offs, -iS-pack oranges. Standard !>H-pack, four layers. Standard Pack for Citrus Fruits 332 California Fruits Ijoxes both because it may be helpful to readers and for the suggestion it conveys that nothing but the most careful and syste- matic sizing and placing of fruits will serve a large and exacting trade. In this respect, this chapter may be taken as an exponent of the advanced methods of handling all fruits virithout which the present greatness of the fruit interests of California could never have been attained. Each of the foregoing diagrams gives the number of fruits of each size required to fill a box and the number of tiers in which they are placed. A standard orange box in California is 12x12x26 inches outside meas- urements with a fruit space 11^x113/2x24 inches, and its weight is usually estimated at 72 pounds. A standard California lemon box is 1054x14x27 inches outside measure- ments, divided also into two compartments. Pomelos are packed in the orange box, while the Tangerines, Mandarins and other kid glove varieties are packed in half boxes of the orange size, two of which are cleated together for shipment. In rare instances they are packed in quarter bo.xes, four being cleated together. A carload of packed oranges varies some in number of boxes in keeping with the size of the car. A 36-foot car will take 336 boxes, the 40- foot car 384 and the 42- foot 409. In lemons the 36-foot car will take 288 boxes, the 40- foot car 312 and the 42-foot car 336. When packed the boxes are placed on end two tiers high and six rows wide, with a space for ventilation between each and ev- ery box, made feasible by nailing small strips of lumber of sufficient strength crosswise of the car. In oranges the regular sizes are 126, 150, 176, 200, 216; small "off-sizes" 250, 324, 360; large "off-sizes" 64, 80, 96, 112. The rela- tive value of the different sizes in the regular trade is given by Mr. Powell, whose excel- lent publication on the marketing of oranges is cited in the chapter on that fruit, in this way : "A car of Washington Navel oranges may contain boxes of all the sizes. A car is called a "standard car" when it contains not more than ten per cent of each of the following sizes: 96, 112 and 250, and not over twenty per cent of the 126 size. The re- mainder of the car may be divided among the 150, 176, 200 and 216 sizes. If a car is sold to a dealer at a fixed price per box it is usual to allow a discount of 25 to 50 cents per box on the excess in the 96, 112, 126 and 250 sizes, and a discount of 50 cents per box on the 48, 64, 80, 288, 300, 324, 360 and 420 sizes. The rule concerning the sizes in a standard car may vary with the season, with the section and with the general size of the fruit taken as a whole. When oranges of either the large or small sizes are scarce, they are at a premium, and the proportion in a car may be raised without discount. How to Grow Them 333 The Banana CHAPTER XXXVI. MINOR SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS IN CALIFORNIA. A NUMBER of interesting fruits are now grown in this State which, for one rea- son or another, have not yet attained any great commercial importance ahhough some of them are advancing in popular esteem and likely to gain much higher place in the markets. Others will probably never be grown except for home use and garden or- nament. THE BANANA. The banana has been a favorite plant for experimental culture for many years, and though good fruit has been grown at va- rious points in the State, the culture is too hazardous to warrant large investment, and if this danger was not present, the abundant supplies available from the islands of the Pacific would probably reduce the profits to a narrow margin. The banana can be trusted only in protected situations and in small numbers which can be given special attention. With these conditions the banana may yield very acceptable fruit for home use and be an ornament to the garden, its beauty is. however, seriously impaired by winds, which whip its tender leaves into shreds and give the plant an unkempt appear- ance. The largest number of bananas are seen in Los Angeles and Santa Barbara, and one grower at an elevation near the latter place reports his table supplied daily throughout the year with the fruit of the Cavendish species which is the most commonly grown sort. The Yellow Martinique or Yellow Costa Rica, the Orenoco, the Hawaiian Lele, Hart's Choice, and a large-fruited variety known in Los Angeles County as the Baldwin, are also approved by growers. How to grow bananas in the garden, ac- cording to the experience of the late S. H. Oerrish, of Sacramento, is as follows : By experiment I liave found that the banana will live — if in a proper soil — without injury to the roots, at a temperature as low as sixteen degrees Fahr. ; the stalk will stand a temperature of twenty-five degrees without injury, and' the leaves are not wilted until the air is chilled, to thirty degrees. My method has been to supply the richest food for this gigantic plant and force it to its e.xtreme growth. Every one has old chip dirt, ashes, boots, shoes, clothes, and manure, which are often a nuisance. Dig a big hole, bury this up, in the centsr of the mass place ai pailful of sand, and plant the fresh bulb. This is to preserve the donnant plant from the wire-worms and insects, which will not attack the growing plant. As the plant grows, give it an abundance of water and all the slops of the house. Any kind of .manure, fresh or old, ashes, leaves, and vegetables will soon disappear and be absorbed by this gigantic king of plants. As the rainy season approaches, pile all the leaves and twigs of trees around the plants. It protects the bulbs and makes the soil rich for next season. THE CFIERIMOYER OR PERUVIAN CUSTARD APPLE. The oldest cherimoyer (Anona cherimolia) is growing in Santa Barbara. The fruit was introduced about fifty years ago, and the parent tree has for many years produced abundant fniit in such perfection that the seeds have readily germinated, and the trees thus propagated have been in successful bearing in several Santa Barbara gardens. The leaves are oval and pointed at both ends ; flowers solitary, very fragrant, and having a greenish color. Good specimens of the fruit are three or four inches in diameter, often beart-shaped, grayish brown or nearly black when fully ripe. The flesh, in which thirty or forty brown seeds are found, is soft, sweet, and pleasant to the taste, being most palat- able when near decay. Mr. L H. Cammack, of Whittier, describes the pulp as of the consistency of ice cream or a custard flavored with a blending of pineapples and bananas. If it has a fault it is too rich. Apparently it has no particular season for ripening, yet tlie best specimens seem to be found in Santa The Cherimover 334 California Fruits : Barbara in April and May. The cherimover is also found in gardens in San Diego and Los "Angeles Counties. It needs a well-pro- tected situation. The fruit has been marketed on a limited scale in Los Angeles, and larger plantations have been made, especially in the Cahuenga Valley, near Los Angeles. The plant comes true from seed and the tree bears in its fourth year, and should have as much room as an orange tree. Mr. C. P. from less than an inch in dianietcr np to six or eight inches. In size the tree averages about the same as the peach. The market is a good one, large fruit commanding $3 per dozen or more, while the smaller ones sell by the pound at a relatively lower price. THE CHCJCHO OR CHAYOTA. The chocho plant is fruiting in Santa Bar- bara County, for Mr. Kinton Stevens, of Montecito, who obtained the seed from Sa- Golden Russet Cherlmoyer. Taft, of Orange, points out the fact that much can be gained by selection and propa- gation from the most satisfactory trees, as follows : Cherimoyers found in the gardens of southern California are almost always seedlings, and generally shy bearers. There is but one named variety, so far as I am aware, the Golden Russet. This is very prolific and frequently attains large size. Specimens above one pound in weiglit are not uncommon. The quality is as good as any, but is variable owing to the season and time of ripening, much cold having a marked deteriorating effect. The normal shape is like that of the strawberry, and the variations frojn the normal are equally abundant ; in fact, in this respect the cheriniolia is quite extraordinary, as the same tree will have on it fully matured fruit moa. Scc/iiiiiii cdiilc is the botanical name of this plant, but it is perhaps better known as "choco," "chocho," chayota," and "Portu- guese squash." It belongs to the order cu- curbitacae, and is a perennial vine, resembling in growth and fruit our summer squash or vegetable marrow. It is a very prolific bear- er. Both the fruit and the great yam-like tuber are used as food by man and beast in the West Indies, where it is considered a wholesome article of diet. The roots often weigh as much as twenty pounds. They have a flavor similar to the yam, and are con- sidered a greater delicacy than the fruit, which in a raw state resembles the chestnut How to Grow Them 335 The Giiava ill flavor, and under favoraiale conditions weighs over three pounds. The proper way lo grow them is to plant the whole fruit, as they have but one seed, and they produce fruit in three months, tuider favorable con- (Jitions. THE GUA\'A. Two s])ecics of guava have been quite widely tried in this State — the strawberry guava (Psidiinii iattlcyajiiiiii) and the lemon Strawberry Guava. of a bright yellow, often with a red cheek. These variations are only what is naturally to be expected from seedlings, and almost no others have yet been planted. Mr. Taft has fruited cjuite a number, perhaps a hun- dred, and finds it to possess qualities which if properly selected and developed will cause it to equal the Strawberry guava in hardi- ness and flavor and early ripening. The guava grows quite readily from the seed, and grows from cuttings under glass. In regions of generous rainfall and on re- tentive soil it does not require irrigation, but it must have sufficient moisture at com- mand. A light loam seems best adapted to the shrub. THE FEIJOA. Along with the guava should be mentioned the Feijoa Sellowiana, a member also of the myrtle family. In habits of growth it is much the same as the guava and while the foliage is not so handsome, being of a generally silver gray effect, the flower is very showy. In May it sends forth a great profusion of blossoms, which may i)e called red, white and blue, unless one desires to be perfectly accurate, in which case the blue would have to be changed to inirple. The petals are unusually thick and fleshy and are very sweet to the taste. The highly perfumed fruit, about one and one- half to two inches or more in length, comes in November. The flavor is delicious, like the strawberry but lacking the acid. The seeds are very small, almost unnoticeable : quite a contrast in this respect to the guava. guava {FsidiuDi i:;iuiyaz'a ) . The former is the hardier, and, in fact, seems to be about as hardy as the orange, and it has fruited in widely-separated parts of the State ; the latter is quite tender, and is at present only grown in favorable places along our southern coast, and even there it is found inferior in quality and usefulness to the strawberry guava. Mr. C. v. Taft of Orange has confi- soils if well drained and cultivated. The plants can be set three by three or four by five feet, so as to allow cultivation both ways while the plants are young. Plants are secured from ''suckers," which come from the root, from "slips," which grow on the stem just below the "apple," and from "crowns" or the tufts of leaves at the top of the fruit. Suckers are said to bear in one year, and slips and crowns in two years. Strong suckers are best for planting, and they should be set out early in the spring as soon as the danger of cold weather is over. THE POMEGRANATE. This fruit (Punica granatum), famed in literature and art, is grown in various parts of the State, and certain amounts are profitably sold. The shrub or low tree, in good soil, will reach the height of twenty feet. It is a hardy plant, easy of propa- gation from seed or cutting. The beauty of the tree, not taking the fruit into account, lias caused it to be planted in many gardens. The Melon Tree 338 California Fruit! : Exposed to the raw sea winds it does not bloom well nor set with fruit, and is best adapted to the wanner regions of the in- terior, where it is an early and abundant bearer. The variety chiefly cultivated is a bright orange color, but there is found a large variety of them, varying from almost pure white with a faint blush, to dark red. A very striking variety, with deep red pulp, is grown by Mr. J. T. Bearss, of Tulare. The fruit ripens in the warmer parts of the State, north and south, in October. THE STRAWBERRY TREE. The Spanish madrono (Arbutus unedo) it now quite widely grown, chiefly as an ornamental shrub or tree. The growth is exceedingly beautiful if kept free from scale insects, the fruit ranging as it ripens through shades of yellow, orange, and deep red, and contrasting beautifully with the glossy evergreen foliage. The fruit is of pleasant flavor. MELON SHRUB. This plant ( Solatium Guatemalense) is a small, half-herbaceous shrub from the table-land of Guatemala. The fruit is yellow, splashed with violet, somewhat of the shape of the egg-plant, but is usually seedless, and is readily propagated from cuttings. There are thriving plants in many protected places in the State, and some fruit reaches the market, but few seem to like the flavor, which is somthing like a tomato and melon mixed. Its greatest use will probably be for salads. THE MELON TREE. The melon pawpaw {Carica papaya) has been widely introduced experimentally in this State, and many situations are found unfitted for its growth, but satisfactory fruiting has been secured at several places in southern California, especially if pro- tected the first year it will stand light frosts afterwards. With Mr. Cammack, at Whittier, Los Angeles County, it ripens fruit the third year from the seed — the fruit being pleasant to eat as one would a mush- room. The large fig-like leaves and the peculiar markings of the trunk make the tree a very striking object. THE PRICKLY PEAR. The tuna, or fruit of the cactus {Opuntia Z'ulgaris), is produced in nearly all parts of the State except on the mountains. It was one of the old mission fruits, and was en- joyed by the early mining population until better fruits were available. It is about as large as a medium-sized pear, and has a pleasant acid flavor if one succeeds in escap- ing the prickles in getting at the interior of the fruit. The tuna is still a commercial article in a small way. Plants are grown readily from cuttings of the fleshy leaves. Quite a distinction must now be made be- tween the foregoing and the smooth or spine- less fruits which are superior in quality as well as unarmed with prickles, and there- fore readily handled and eaten. Varieties more or less innocent in this respect were introduced from the Mediterranean region many years ago, and propagated to a limited extent. Recently Mr. Luther Burbank of Santa Rosa has undertaken special work with the cactus, both for fruiting and for- age purposes, and has attained remarkable results which are attracting wide attention, and upon which producing enterprises are being undertaken. THE ALLIGATOR PEAR. The avocado, or Aguacate of the Mexicans (Persca gratissinia) has proved hardy in sev- eral districts in the State, north and south. It is not likely that it will be satisfactory with- out high summer heat and freedom from heavy frosts. It is, however, one of the most promising of its class of fruits, as it is known to epicures, and its marketing at a high price reasonably assured. Mr. J. C. Harvey, of Los Angeles, gives this inter- esting account of it : It is a handsome evergreen tree, and, in the typical form, bears elUptical leaves from two and one-half to three inches in width, narrow toward the base, and about six inches long. In some varieties the new growth is of a reddish brown, ultimately becominour plow where the row is to be, twenty inches deep ; go along with a basket of plants, a four-foot lath and a shovel, and set a plant in this trench every four feet and fill the dirt around it with the shovel. If this trench is too deep in places for the length of the plant root, fill in with a little dirt: if not quite deep enough in places, scoop out a shovel- ful. Aim, in preparing the ground with plow and smoother, to leave it dishing each wa\' toward the row of young plants, so that irrigating water turned in at the upper end will run along the row of plants as in a trough. Aim to have the ground around the set plants a few inches below the general level of the land. After the plants are all set in a row, go dion^ with a rake if there are but a few plants, oi with a horse-hoe if there are many, and fill in the trench between the plants. It is a pleasure to set out plants in this way, and such deep, rich well-stirred soil delights the plant roots, so that they grow rapidly in every direction, and the plants throw up their heads in a manner entirely satis- factory to all concerned. If the ground is dry, or there is no rain soon after setting out the plants, irrigating water should be turned down the row or at least a quart or two of water poured around each plant ; then, before the soil hardens, stir it well with cultivator and hoe. All future care re- solves itself into frequent waterings and frequent stirrings of the soil. Allow no weeds to appear, and keep three inches of surface soil well loosened with the horse and hoes. These small fruits require frequent waterings, especially when forming fruit i'iid during the fruiting season. Cultivation. — Thorough cultivation of the surface soil is essential for retention of mois- ture. After the plants attain size, cultivation should be secured with as shallow-ctitting tools as possible so as to prevent injury to the roots, which not only weakens the plant, but increases the growth of suckers between the rows. A horse-hoe with a long knife running horizontally, or with duck-foot teeth, well sharpened, answers well in keeping the grotwd clear of weeds and suckers, and the surface loose. Due regard must, however, be paid to securing sufficient depth in this sur- face layer to prevent the soil beneath baking hard and. drying out, as discussed in the chap- ter on cultivation Frequency of cultivation depends upon irri- gation, for the cultivator nuist always follow the application of water. The spaces in the row which can not be reached with the culti- vator must be kept clean from weeds, and free from baking, by the use of the hoe. It is advisable that the cultivation be the cleanest possible, for moisture exhaustion by weeds^ can not be afforded. Pruning and Training. — There is a little difference in the way of training blackberries practiced in this State. Of course this does not include the "let alone" system, which is not followed by any good grower. The difference lies mainly in the use or disuse of artificial supports for the canes — the prevail- ing practice being to dispense with them. In either case the pruning of the canes is simi- How to Grow Them 345 Varieties of the Blackberr\- lar in kind but different in degree, for if no supports are used, the canes are headed lower. At planting out, cut back the cane to near the surface of the ground and mark the plant with a small stake. At first the top growth should not be checked, but when new canes grow out strongly they should be pinched at the tip to force out lateral branches for fruiting the next 3ear. Those who intend to tie canes to a stake or trellis let them attain a height of five or six feet before pinching off the te-minal bud ; those who intend to teach the cane to stand alone pinch when it is from two to four feet high. All agree to pinch of^ the ends of the lateral branches at about twelve inches from the main stem. This pinching of blackberry canes may be done by the watchful grower of a few plants, with the thumb and finger, but thrifty blackberry plants are such rapid cane growers that in large plantations cutting back is often done with a sickle or corn hook or sharp butcher-knite, .several times in the course of the summer. It is also advisable to thin out the suckers with the hoe while cutting out weeds, leaving only about as many as it is desired to have for fruit the next season. This method gives stout canes, with plenty of short side branches, well supplied with buds, which will send out fruiting shoots the following spring. If sup' ports are used, the four to six canes wh'ch are left to each stool are gathered within a loosely-drawn bale rope and tied to the stake ; or if a trellis is used, the branches are brought up to the wire or slat so that the *listance is about evenly divided between the •shoots. Though these systematic methods of sum- mer pruning are practiced and advocated by the most careful growers, it should be stated that there are large plantations which are conducted upon a more simple system. The pruning consists in cutting out old canes in the winter, and the only summer pruning IS slashing off these canes which interfere with cultivation. The canes are sometimes held up by tying bunches of them together with ropes. Of course this system costs less than the more careful one which has been described, and yields profit enough to induce adherence to it. No doubt quite as great weight of berries could be had from a smaller area by a better system of growing. After the leaves fall, the canes which have borne fruit during the summer are all cut off even with the surface of the ground witii long-handled pruning shears or with a short hooked knife with a long handle, and all debris removed from the rows. Application of Manure. — The blackberry loves very rich ground, and plenty of well- rotted stable manure or compost, as described in Chapter XIV, should be applied. It is a good plan to apply in a thick covering all over the ground and between the canes as soon as the patch is cleaned up in the fall. The early rains carry down the soluble parts of the manure, and later in the season the whole is plowed in between the rows, leaving a foot or more next the planto to be carefully forked in, as the digging fork does not cut the roots like the spade. Mulching. — The mulch, to keep the ground moist and to obviate summer cultiva- tion, is very satisfactory where it is thor- oughly done. Apply coarse manure or par- tially-rotted straw and the like, after the last spring cultivation, and use the hoe to keep dow'u weeds and suckers which come up between the rows. Some growers use mulch close to the canes, cultivating the remainder of the ground between the rows. Bearing Age and Longevity. — If black- berry plants are well treated the first year after planting out, there will be considerable fruit the following summer. How long the plants will bear satisfactorily depends, also, on situation and treatment. Sometimes the plants fail early ; even with good, generous treatment in good soil, the old stool becomes weak, the shoots are thin, and the fruit small. Some count about eight years as the profit- able age of the plant, and then cut out the plant? and give the land a change. Of course berry growers prepare for this by frequently making new plantations. Varieties op the Blackberry. — Compara- tively few kinds are largely grown. The Wil- son Jtiiiior, Lawton, and Kittatinny were formerly the prevailing kinds, ripening in the order named. The Erie is favored by some as a middle season variety. The Early Har- vest has been favorably reported by a number of growers. These have, however, been largely superseded by a renamed variety, Crandall's Early, which is the earliest of the improved varieties, and has a very long fruit- Improved Varieties 346 California Fruits r ing season. The fruit was named after Di. J. R. Crandall, of Auburn, who first fruited the variety from plants given him by a stranger haihng from Texas, and the proper name of the variety is probably Texas Early. It is a strong, vigorous, hardy plant, very productive, of firm, handsome berries ; re- sembles Lawton in canes, leaves, and flavor of fruit ; not given to sprouting from running roots. Another variety which has advanced in favor is the Oregon Evergreen, introduced ducing a fruit so large that it has been named "Mammoth" by its originator. The canes of the Mammoth are very peculiar, being very large and thickly covered with small, short spines. The canes start early in March, grow thick and stout until about five feet high. They then take on a running habit and grow from twenty-five to thirty feet in a season. Late in the fall the tips or stolons seek the ground and take root. The Mammoth is not an evergreen like its Texas parent, although it does not entirelv lose its leaves in winter. The Phenomenal Blackberry-Raspberry Hybrid. from Oregon but not native nor originated in that state. The late John Rock described it as follows : "Origin unknown ; beautiful ; cut-leaved foliage, which it retains during the winter; berries large, black, sweet, rich, and delicious. It continues to ripen from July to November, which makes it one of the best berries for family use." It loses size and quality notably on scant moisture. Some effort has been made to secure im- proved varieties of our native blackberry, and a most striking result has been secured by Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, by cross- ing the wild berry with Crandall's Early, pro- It begins to grow and flower very early in spring and ripens its fruit the last of May, some weeks earlier than the Lawton. The fruit is more acid than the Lawton, but, when perfectly ripe, is sweet and of superior flavor. When cooked or canned the flavor is identi- cal with the wild berry of California. This variety is often wrongly called "Black Logan- berry." The Himalaya is a blackberry of wonderful growth and prolificness, highly praised by amateurs but not yet fully made out from a commercial point of view. It is magnificent on a garden fence or trellis. How to Grow Them 347 Propagation of tlie Currant The Dewberry. — The improved varieties of the dewberry, or traiUng blackberry, are now quite widely known and highly praised. Some growers use trellises; others train the vines along rows on the ground surface. The following is the method of Mr. A. M. Hun- ger, of Fresno, and includes irrigation ar- rangements : For planting the Lucretia dewberry, prepare the gound by plowing deep and cultivating until the dirt is thoroughly pulverized. Set the plants about three inches deep and four feet apart, in rows, leaving a space of six feet between the rows. Plant between February 15 and March 15. Irrigate as often as once a month, always thoroup-hly cultivating after each irrigation. By so doing a sufficient growth is secured to produce a good crop the second year. Immediately after the first rainfall, generally in October, the vines should be pruned by cutting back within about si.xteen inches of the base of the vine. In February of the second year, plow between the rows with a small one-horse plow, turning the furrows toward the vines, but using a shield so as not to cover them. Follow immediately with a hoe, drawing the dirt up under the vines and forming a ridge- This ridge should be high enough to keep the vines up out of the water when irrigating. After this ridge is formed, water should be run quite often, as the dewberry requires a great deal of water to mature properly. The vines should be irrigated as often as three times at least during the spring. The fruit begins to ripen in Fresno about May 25, and continues about one month. The dew- terry roots readily from the tips without cover- ing if the soil is loose and moist. If many plants are desired it is advisable to cover slightly, and the tips will root as soon as the soil is moistened by the fall rains. The dewberry which has recently been most largely planted in central and southern Cali- fornia is known as the Gardena because of the prolificness and profitability of a patch grown by W. M. Gray of Gardena, Los Ange- les county. Its qualities are vigorous growth, hardiness, regular and profuse yield of large, earlv berries. THE CRANBERRY. Though attention has been given to experi- ments with the growth of the Cranberry in California for many years, it has not been demonstrated that the culture is successful or p'-ofitable. Cranberries have been produced, and the fruit shown at fairs, but beyond this nothing has yet been accomplished. It would seem to be a fair conclusion that even in the most moist regions our summer air is too dry to suit the plant. THE CURRANT. The currant reaches perfection in size and quality in parts of California adapted to its growth, but its area is comparatively small. The plant does not thrive in the dry, heated air of the interior either at the north or south. It does well near the coast, especially in the upper half of the State, and is grown for market chiefly, on lands adjacent to the bay of San Francisco. The comparatively cool and moist air of the ocean favors it, but even here the sunburn, which is the bane of its existence in the interior valleys, occasionally injures the fruit. Away from the coast, cur- rants are grown to a limited extent along the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, near their confluence, but not in the hot valleys whence they flow. On the foot-hills, too, where the plant has a northerly slope, or other cooling influence, and sufficiently moist soil, it will do moderately well. It is quite pos- sible that the currant may be satisfactorily grown for home use, or for local market in parts of the State where at present one does not find it, providing the moderating effect of elevation and northerly exposure, coupled with the shade of trees, be secured, but even then the hot north wind of the early summer may often injure the fruit. So far as the metropolitan market is concerned, it does not matter that the currant area is limited, for existing plantations produce all, and some- times more, than can be profitably disposed of at present. It is possible however that the future may show a larger demand, for the pure food laws are likely to prevent the fur- ther selling of apple jelly with a currant color and flavor under the name of currant jelly. Propagation.— The currant is readily grown from cuttings. As soon as the bush drops its leaves, and the ground is in con- dition, as to moisture, secure the cuttings a foot in length from straight wood of the last growth, and place them in nursery or in per- manent place, in good sandy or garden loam, deeply spaded and well broken up. Set the cutting firmly in the earth, six or seven inches deep. If they are to be trained as small trees, every bud below where the low- est limb is to start should be cut out — even to the end of the cutting underground — other- wise they will be continually throwing up suckers. If they are to grow as bushes, the natural and more productive form of the Pruning the Gooseberry 348 California Fruits : currant, set them as they are taken from the from one and a half to three tons to the parent bush. acre. Pl.'\nting and Care. — Currants are usually grown in rows about five or six feet apart, the plants standing two and a half or three feet apart in the rows. Most of the currant plantations are between orchard rows, the partial shade of the trees being considered desirable. It is claimed that currants do best when interplanted with cherry, apricot, apple, and pear, not so well when associated with plum and peach, and the almond is least de- sirable — possibly because the almond is often given less cultivation than the pulpy fruits or is grown on lighter, drier soils. The culti- vation is such as is usually given to the or- chard, except that in heavy soil the plow is not allowed to come near the cuttings the first season for fear of tearing them from their rooting. After the first year the plow is used in the winter and the cultivator in summer. Currants will repay generous applica- tions of well-rotted manure, and relish sufficient moisture in the soil. Where this can not be had from rainfall, and retained by cultivation and mulching, irrigation must be resorted to. Pruning. — If the currant is to be grown in tree form, the branches from the upper buds of the cutting should be shortened in at the end of the first summer, and branches growing horizontally should be removed. The weaker shoots in the head are thinned out, but not so much as to leave the top too open. If the plant is to grow as a bush, the only winter pruning will consist in removing dead wood, and thinning the new shoots as may seem desirable. Summer pinching of the new growth is desirable, as it causes the fruit to set closely and tends to a thick growth of foliage also, and this is necessary, for the bark is liable to sunburn, and the best fruit is that which is well sheltered by the leaves. Another advantage of the bush form is the less likelihood of killing by borers, which is imminent when the growth depends upon a single stem. Bearing. — The currant bears a quantity of excellent fruit the second year from the cutting, and reaches its fullest product about the fifth to the eighth year, when the yield in the Haywards region is said to range Varieties. — The Cherry currant is the prevailing variety, although the old sorts, the Red and White Dutch, the Red and White Grape, etc., are grown in some local- ities, and Fay's Prolific is approved by some growers. Pomona is one of the best of the newer red varieties and the old Fertile de Palluau is reported as doing better than others in hot, interior situations. Black cur- rants are but little grown, the market demand for them being very light. THE GOOSEBERRY. The gooseberry is another fruit with somewhat circumscribed area in this State. In localities which favor it, the fruit is often found very profitable, but the demand does not warrant any great increase of product. Though the gooseberry thrives in some situa- tions which do not suit the currant, they may both be described as averse to the hot and dry parts of the State. Still, for home use or local sale one can grow certain va- rieties of gooseberries successfully, by pro- tecting them from too great exposure to the sun, and by keeping the soil sufficiently rich and moist. The choice of varieties is of the greatest importance, as will be mentioned presently. At present the chief supplies of the gooseberry, as of the currant, are pro- duced in the country adjacent to San Fran- cisco Bay, though thriving and profitable plantations are found elsewhere near the coast, here and there in the interior, and at considerable elevations on the slope of the Sierra Nevada. Propagation, Pruning, etc. — The goose- berry is grown from cuttings, very much a.s already described for the currant. The common and the best method is to start the cuttings early in the winter, though some have succeeded with cuttings taken in the spring just as the new growth is starting out. Disbudding the lower part of the cut- ting if it is desired to train in tree form is also practiced with the gooseberry, but a smaller percentage of cuttings is found to grow after disbudding. Gooseberries are planted out and culti- vated as already described foe currants, and How to Grow Them 349 The Raspberry the requirements of the plant in soil, mois- ture, and manuring are much the same. If the gooseberry is to be grown in tree form, constant attention to removal of suckers is necessary; if in bush form, it will only be necessary to remove too old wood and to thin out the new shoots. Suck- ers should be removed clean from the Ftem, so as to eradicate the latent buds, and pulling off with a gloved hand, when the suckers become woody enough to withstand break- ing, is advised. As with the currant, the borer is a constant menace to the life of a gooseberry plant confined to a single stem. Diseases and Pests. — The gooseberry is subject to insect depredation both in wood and fruit and leaf. The prevailing trouble, however, and that which causes the failure of so many foreign kinds, is the mildew. To escape this nothing is usually done except to select varieties not subject to the disease, but susceptible varieties can be protected by spraying just as the leaves are opening and once a month afterwards with potassium sulphide half an ounce to the gallon of water. This does not stain nor poison the fruit. The cooler and moister the air the less the mildew. Varieties of the Gooseberry. — The American varieties. Downing and Houghton's Seedling, chiefly the latter, constituted for a long time the main varieties marketed in San Francisco. Early experiments with col- lections of English varieties showed that most of them were failures because of mil- dew ; still a few of the green and white sorts, notably the Whitesmith, have succeeded. The proportion of large berries now being mar- keted is much greater than formerly, and the superior price warrants especial effort to produce them. A large English variety, which was brought to California many years ago by the late John W. Dwindle, is now the most widely distributed large kind. Its true name was lost and it has been propagated under various names, viz.. Dwindle, Kelsey, New French ; but the name Berkeley, adopted by W. P. Hammon, in his wide distribution of it in 1884, now prevails. It is large and hand- some, very prolific, ripens early, and is usually free from mildew. The Champion, an Oregon seedling grown by Seth Le welling, is medium sized, very smooth, and thick fleshed, the seeds being few and small. They are entirely free from mildew, and are clean, bright, and beautiful. The Columbus, a New York variety, is large and of good quality and resists mildew well. THE MULBERRY. Nearly all varieties of the mulberry have been introduced in California and grown rapidly and thriftily. Most attention has been paid to those varieties most suitable for feeding silk-worms, but the fruiting varie- ties are also grown here, though the fruit has assumed no commercial importance. The mulberry is grown readily from cuttings. The fruiting varieties thus far chiefly distributed are the Downing Everbearing, the Persian, the New American, the Russian, and the Black Mulberry of Spain. All these bear large and desirable fruit. The last named, introduced by Felix Gillett, of Nevada City, is grown quite widely. The mulberry has a long season ; the Persian ripens in Tulare the last of May and continuously thereafter until October. THE RASPBERRY. The raspberry is another of the great small fruits of California. It thrives over a great area of the State ; in fact, there are few situations in which it cannot be grown with at least a measure ot success if proper attention is given to retention of moisture in the surface soil, and to giving the plants partial shade in the heated valleys, and the cooler ex- posures in the foot-hills. The raspberry, skillfully pruned and generously fed and cared for, is almost a constant bearer, as has already been intimated. It is a continual delight in the home garden, and always brings a high average rate in local and metropolitan mar- kets. " The culture of the raspberry is in the main like that of the blackberry, as already de- scribed. The red varieties, which are the kinds almost exclusively grown in this State, are propagated by suckers and root cut- tings like the blackberry, but the. "black caps" are propagated by layering the cane tips during the growing season. Bending down a cane with its branches and covering lightly with soil and with a light mulch to retain moisture, will result in free rooting of Blackberry-Raspberry Hybrids 350 California Fruits : the buried parts, and one can sometimes secure a dozen plants by the layering of a single cane with its laterals. Ihe pruning of the raspberry is also by the renewal system, as advised for the blackberry. The topping off of new canes, when they reach about three feet in height, the subsequent pinching of the laterals which are thus forced out, the resolute thinning out of sprouts so that but three or four strong canes or allowed from one root, the faithful repression of all weeds, the maintenance of a loose surface layer of the soil by very shal- low cultivation, the free application of ma- nure and of water unless a continually moist condition near the surface can be se- cured by cultivation and mulching, — all these are among the essentials of cultivation which will secure abundant fruit and a long bearing season. However, as has already been stated with regard to blackberries, there are large plantations which pursue a less careful system of cultivation especially in the moder- ate heat and drouth of the coast district. Continuous bearing of the raspberry may be secured in those varieties which endure the treatment, by cutting out a cane as soon as its fruit is gathered, the force of the plant being then devoted to the fruiting of a second cane, which has previously been pinched, and a third shoot is pinched and allowed to mature its wood to carry over and bear the first crop of the following year. A succession of sprouts is gained by pinch- ing off the tips of some as soon as they have grown up a few inches, which results in the growth of later shoots lower on the stems. In this way a succession of fruit is obtained. The Cuthbert and other strong-growing varieties, after the pinching at about three feet from the ground, will send out laterals which will bear late in the fall, and the same cane will bear a crop early in the following spring, when its career is ended and it should be removed. Raspberries are planted about three feet apart in rows, and the rows about six feet apart. They can be well grown nearer together than is required for blackberries. Varieties of the Raspberry. — The old varieties have been largely replaced by the Cuthbert, which is the universally popular and mo=t largely-planted sort, having been found trustworthy as a grower and as a free and constant bearer. The good points of the Cuthbert, as representing the experience of many California growers, include the fol- lowing: A profuse grower, with healthy and rich foliage, which protects fruit from sun- burn ; an excellent bearer with the fruit well distributed through the bush ; the fruit comes off easily, and does not crumble, is of fine flavor, and ships well. The Herstine, Fran- conia. King and Marlboro varieties are grown to a limited extent ; and the Barter, a re- named variety, the identity of which is un- kuQwn, has always retained a degree of popularity in the foothill region of Placer County, where it first appeared. The Black Cap varieties thrive fairly in most parts of the State, but do not sell well in the markets, and are only grown for home use. The golden or yellow raspberries are also out of favor because they are shy bearers and cut no figure in the California product. Blackberry-Raspberry Hybrids. — Two crosses of California origin have been widely distributed and have demonstrated great value. The Loganberry was originated by Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, and is a cross between the California wild blackberry and a red raspberry, thought to be the red Ant- werp. It was a chance hybrid developed by growing plants from the seed of the wild blackberry in 1881. The plant was multiplied by its originator and fruited for more than ten years, plants being meantime given to Mr. James Waters, of Watsonville, who grew it on a commercial scale and was gratified at the results of his marketing of the fruit. The variety was first given to the public through the University of Cali- fornia in 1893 and has since then been propagated by nurserymen and sold in large quantities. It has proved a most valuable fruit in all parts of California, and has commanded the attention of pomologists and growers all over the world. The Loganberry is an exceedingly robust grower, and has unique foliage and cane growth as well as fruit. The fruit is strikingly large and handsome ; sometimes an inch and a quarter long, with the shape of a blackberry, and sometimes the hue of a dark red raspberry. Its fiavor is unique and peculiar, and gives to many tastes suggestions of the combi- How to Grow Them 351 The Strawberry nation of blackberry and raspberry flavors. The culture of the Loganberry is like that of the dewberry — both in growth and propa- gation, rooting readily from cane tips without covering, unless many plants are desired and then a covered cane will root at each joint. The Phenomenal is a hybrid which has recently been largely grown for a trade which prefers a less sharp acid than that of the Loganberry. It is one of the notable achievements of Mr. Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, and is a cross between the California dewberry and a red raspberry. It is exceedingly large, bright crimson, very productive and of delicious flavor. The fruit comes in large clusters and single berries have weighed four to the ounce. In shinpiiig it holds shape and color well. The Primus is another blackberry-raspbeiry hybrid, by Mr. Burbank. It is described as like a raspberry in color and shape, though much larger, many specimens attaining a length of an inch and a half by three-quarters of an inch in diameter. It has a larger and softer pulp core or center than the black- berry, and does not come off the stem like a cap as a raspberry, but it is a little more tart and is best cooked. It ripens early and the plant yields well. It has been widely distributed and is popular for home use, softness and danger of crushing on the core in picking seem to be defects for com- mercial growing. It is a little earlier than Phenomenal. It has a trailing habit. THE STRAWBERRY. "Strawberries all the year round" is the trite expression by which the charms of the California climate are characterized. It is no fiction, for in the wonderfully-even climate of regions adjacent to the coast and in thermal belts in the interior, the straw- berry plant blooms and bears almost con- tinuously, providing proper moisture condi- tions are maintained in the soil. There are, however, more or less well-defined crops, and "strawberries all the year" does not mean a uniform supply ; nor does it mean that everywhere in California can one expect such constant fruiting. In the very hot interior situations the plant rebels against the atmospheric conditions of midsummer, even though the ground be moist ; and in frosty places the plant becomes dormant during the wintry portion of the year. The conditions of constant growth and bearing are moderation of temperature and of atmos- pheric and soil moisture throughout the year. SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE STRAWBERRY. Bearing in mind the conditions described, the strawberry can be grown anywhere in California. The native species, as mentioned in Chapter V', flourish from the sand of the ocean beach to the rich valleys of the Sierra, just below the line of perpetual snow, and the deduction is that wherever fertile soil and sweet water can be brought together in California, the strawberry will reward the grower. Strawberries do well on a variety of soils, but as a rule a deep, moist, loamy soil will yield best results. Boggy or swampy spots should be avoided unless drainage is provided, and in this way most excellent strawberry ground may sometimes be secured. Land which will produce good potatoes or corn will generally yield good results with strawberries, provided irrigation is furnished. In many regions the plants will hardly sur- vive the summer without irrigation, and everywhere a succession of crops during the season depends upon irrigation. It is the common experience that light, warm soils yield the earliest and highest-flavored berries, and heavy soils the later and larger ones ; but the size of the berry depends more upon the supply of available moisture, and im- mense fruit can be produced on loose, open soils by free irrigation. And yet the heavier soil, both because of its usually superior fertility and retention of moisture, is pre- ferred for the strawberry. The largest pro- ducing regions for the San Francisco market in the Santa Clara and Pajaro Valleys are comprised mainly of low-lying, heavy valley soils, naturally moist and rich, and furnished with abundant water supply for irrigation. And yet in southern California the chief market crops are produced upon light sandy loams with water equal to the needs of the plants upon such a footing. It must be remembered that the strawberry is a shallow- rooting plant and must have moisture re- tained near the surface. Some loose soils. Propagating the Strawberry 352 California Fruits : especially on uplands, are almost out of the question for strawberry growmg. They are so leachy that they will not hold moisture near the surface though one should stand with a hose and almost continually pour it on. The plants would also dry up though the water were running near by in a ditch. To grow strawberries it is often an advantage to have a shallow loam over a clay or hard- pan, for then the tight layer below will pre- vent the escape of the water below the reach of the roots. If this canrot be had, the best way to grow strawberries on leachy soils for home use is to mulch and sprinkle. Propag.\tion of the Strawberry. — Seed- lings undertaken in the hope of originating valuable new varieties ar6 easily grown by taking off the outside layer of the choicest berries, which carries with it the small, yellow- seeds. Wash these from the skin and cover them slightly in a sandy soil partially shaded and kept moist by sprinkling, or a light mulch, and the plants are readily grown. As with seedlings of other fruits, few, if any, will be found superior to the parent variety. Plants for setting out are secured by taking off the small growths rooted from runners. The strongest plants are those nearest to the parent plant. When these are allowed to root in small pots plunged into the soil, they are called "pot-grown," and are superior for planting out, but they are not largely used in this State. When plants of any variety are desired for new beds or fields, a row or more are allowed to send out runners during the summer, and these are fit for taking up and replanting the following winter or spring. Laying off Ground for Strawberries. — The essentials are deep and thorough pul- verization of the soil and grading of the surface so that water will flow slowly in the ditches. Suggestions as to location of grade lines may be found in Chapter XV. The inclination which answers for water distribu- tion may be very slight ; about two inches to the hundred feet answers on the level lands of the Pajaro Valley, while in the foot- hills much greater fall is made use of, and on hillsides rows are located on contour lines and not in straight lines. A grade of three and three-quarters inches to the hundred feet is sometimes used. The triangle de- scribed in Chapter XV can be used to fix the grades. Of course, in grading the field it is often necessary to give adjacent blocks opposite inclinations to provide for the return of the water. On hillsides, where the water is car- ried down a ridge to a flume, it is usual to keep the water always running away from the flume, and only enough is taken out to reach to the ends of the small ditches. A grade of six inches to the rod is practicable for hillside irrigation, but of course only a small flow of water is employed. There are various ways of laying out strawberry beds and plantations. Some give flat cultivation and lay out in single rows two and a half to three and a half feet apart, and in some districts flat culture is unquestionably the best. Others lay out in double rows about two feet apart, and be- tween each pair of rows the soil from the center is di^wn up to each side, making a low ridge or level a little higher than the surface on which the plants are set. This levee serves as a walk betwen the beds and holds back the water upon the bed when irrigated by flooding. Another, and the generally-adopted plan, is to have the plants in double rows on a slight ridge, while be- tween the beds is a furrow which serves as a \\ alk and for irrigation. This is accom- plished by throwing up the soil with the plow into ridges about two feet wide, with a double furrow between. On the sides of these ridges the plants are set, and often on the top of the ridge between the rows of strawberries a single row of onions or lettuce, or some other vegetable, is grown the first year. In irrigation the water is drawn up from the trenches by the roots and by capil- lary attraction, and the upper surface does not bake as it would by flooding if the soil be heavy. In hoeing out weeds and in fruit gathering, the workman walks in the ditch and does not pack the soil around the plant by tramping. This is the best method for laying out for large plantations. The rows are a uniform distance apart across the fleld, whether the space between be a ridge or a ditch. The method of making the beds a little lower than the general sur- face of the ground, answers best on free, open soils with perfect drainage. Cultiva- tion can be reduced by covering the de- pressed surface of the bed with mulch of The Loganberry (natural size), a California Hybrid. How to Grow Them 353 Care of the Strawberry fine, clean litter, such as chaff, cut straw, etc. This retains moisture and gives the berry a clean surface to rest on. Such a bed is an excellent arrangement for the home garden. In all arrangements the plants are set at less distances in the rows than the rows are from each other. Probably the prevail- ing distance is one foot betweei: the plants ; the range is from eight to eighteen inches in the practice ot different growers, and determined, of course, largely by the habit of the variety. A vine like the Sharpless, with a spreading growth and long fruit stems needs, perhaps, the sixteen inches which some growers give it, while the smaller more com- pact, Longworth Prolific, may do well w-ith half that distance. Strawberry plant showing perfect root system. Plantinx Strawberries. — Strawberry plants are set out either in spring or fall. or at any time in the winter w-hen the ground is warm and in good condition. In the {irier parts of the State, early fall or winter planting is more essential than elsewhere. Tf the ground is dry, water should always be used in planting. This may be given by thorough irrigation of the ground before planting, or a little water may be used in setting each plant. At planting it is usually best to remove all leaves from the plant, shorten the roots to three inches or less, and be sure the plants do not dry while planting progresses. As with handling root- ed grape-vines, it is advisable to carry around the plants in a vessel which has water in it. If the plants have been received by mail, they are invigorated by soaking in water a few hours before planting. In setting the plants, scoop out a little excavation with the hand or a trc-vel, spread the roots well, cover with fine, soil, being sure that the crown of the p'ant shall not be below the surface when the soil is level- ed. Too many strawberry plants are buriea, not planted. Some plant very rapidlv by using a dibble to make a hole, into which the roots are dropped and soil pressed around them by using the dibble alongside; others set the plants on the side of the furrow, trusting to the next furrow to complete the covering. Nearly all ways succeed if the plant is not set too deeply and the ground is mofjt at planting and not allowed to dry out afterwards — providing good, strong plants are used. In buying plants it is often poor economy to buy the cheapest. Stamixate and Pistillate. — In associ- ating varieties be sure the pistillate varieties are not set by themselves. Some sorts have perfect flowers and are self- fertilizing; others have only the pistillate element in the bloom and must have the staminate adjacent in another variety. All the varieties largely grown in California have perfect flowers, though some pistillate sorts have been locally approved. Care of the Strawberry Plantation. — Herein lies the secret of success with the strawberry. Neglect has led to disappoint- ment and condemnation of the strawberry, where intelligent care would have rendered it a constant delight. The cheap elements of proper care may be thus enumerated : Retention of moisture very near the sur- face by careful, shallow cultivation or by mulching, persistent destruction of weeds, and compensation for summer evaporation by frequent irrigation. The plants during the bearing season should never be allowed to show any leaf-shriveling from drouth. Frequencv of irrigation depends upon local conditions. Irrigation at intervals of four to ten days, according to the soil, are the outlines of prevailing practice. Constant removal of runners from all plants except those it is desired to multiply to furnish new plants or to fill the rows. Pinching of runners should always accom- pany picking or hoeing of weeds, and on the srarden bed there can be no excuse for neg- Varieties of the Strawberry 354 California Fruits "• lect in this respect. The young plants should be faithfully freed from runners to strengthen them up for bearing. Though, as already stated, strawberries may in some locations be had all winter, it is better practice, as a general rule, to lay the plants away for a rest. The market season in the regions supplying the San Francisco market extends from April to December, and fruit is continuously shipped during that period. At the approach of win ter in the last-named month, it is usual to go over the beds with a sickle, cutting off the old crops of leaves close to the root crown, carefully cleaning up the plantation for the heavy rains. In most cases it will be a great advantagre then to cover over all with a light coat of good manure, which the winter rains will leach down in to the soils. The result of the fall clipping and enriching will be an early and strong start of the plant in the spring, and a most abundant fruitage. Duration of the Plant.xtion. — Straw- berry plants well cared for and not visited by insect pests, have a long, productive, and profitable life in California. Twelve-year-old plants are sometimes reported as still pro- ducing abundantly. It is customary to count from five to eight years as the profitable life of a plant, though some growers replant after two bearing years. Varieties of the Strawberry. — Though all new varieties are tried by California growers, and quite a number may be con- sidered successful either for market or for home use, only a very few may be said to be widely grown. In the Watsonville district, which largely supplies San Francisco, the Melinda, which some growers hold to be indistinguishable from the Dollar, is chiefly grown, with Brandywine as a distant second. In the Florin district, near Sacramento, grow- ing berries to ship all through the northern states of the coast and eastward to Colorado, the Dollar is grown almost exclusively, with a few Jessies for extra early. In the districts near Los Angeles, the Brandywine prevails. It is best for shipping and is held to be sweeter than at the east and next to it, in the commercial fields at the south, is Lady Thomson. The Arizona Everbearing is de- clining in popularity although still favored by amateurs for home use. Three old kinds which still hold favor for home use and local sale are the Longworth Prolific, the Sharpless, and the Monarch of the West. The Sharpless is the most widely grown ; the Monarch shows better size and color in southern California and on the Sierra foot-hills than in the regions adjacent to San Francisco, although it is still grown therein to some extent. The Longworth is an old favorite, early, productive, and hardy, and its style has become very popular in the markets. Wilson's Albany also holds favor. It has been demonstrated that varieties show marked difference in behavior in differ- ent soils and situations. In planting for mar- ket or home use the planter will be safe in making his largest plantations of the varie- ties commended by leading growers and well informed nurserymen, and at the same time he should put out experimental plants ot other varieties. The most notable work for new varieties in California is being pursued by Albert F. Etter of Briceland, Humboldt county. He is crossing cultivated varieties with local wild species and is thus introducing factors not employed hitherto with results which promise to be notable. His first named var- iety is Rose Ettersburg, which is a cross of a third generation Sharpless x Parry with a novel type of Fragaria Chiloensis. It has remarkable drouth resistance and thrift on poor soils. The blossoms are often as large as a silver dollar, the berries large, often i 1-2 inches in diameter, and blush pink in color. Single stocks from sets 18 months out meas*- ured 22 inches high and over 10 feet in circumference. Mr. Etter's work is described in detail in the Pacific Rural Press for August 22 and 29 and September 5 and 19, 1908 and is very interesting. PART SEVEN: NUTS. How to Grow Them 357 The Almond CHAPTER XXXVIII. NUT GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. TWO nuts have risen to large commercial importance in California ; The English walnut and the almond. (Jther nuts than these, except peanuts, have never attained great acreage, although several have succeeded and promise to become popular. The commercial production of almonds and walnuts in California during the last thirteen vears has been as follows, in tons of 2000 lbs : Year Almonds Walnuts 1895 825 2310 1896 1605 4115 1897 2375 3985 189^ 450 5060 1899 2320 5530 1900 2710 5430 1901 1560 6910 1902 3270 8520 1903 3200 5500 1904 800 7590 1905 2125 5750 1906 900 6125 1907 750 6500 The walnuts are chiefly grown in Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles and Orange counties in Southern California. The al- monds are from interior counties in the cen tral regions of the state. Reasons for the extreme fluctuations in production will be suggested by the discussion of each nut which will follow. THE ALAIOND. The almond has an interesting history in California, but it can be outlined in a few sentences. The importation of the best European varieties began very early, and a number of them had been planted in 1853. They proved irregular bearers, though the trees grew thriftily and in some cases showed fruit very soon after planting. The barren almond trees were largely grafted into prunes or made into firewood and the conclusion was reached that to secure regularity and abundance in fruiting, locations for almond orchards must be sought with the utmost care, and that the secret of success lay in the lo- cation. After that local seedlings seemed to demonstrate their value in regular crops, and in characteristics and qualities su- perior to foreign kinds. Large planting was then undertaken on the ground that the choice of soil and situation, and the selection of trustworthy varieties, are both factors of success, but that possibly more lay in the choice of variety than of location. This belief led to wide planting in locations now seen to be unfitted by reason of frosts and losses were again encountered. Now it seems to be fully demonstrated that no matter what variety is planted, locations for the almond must be selected with great care. It has also been demonstrated that association of varie- ties promotes pollination and satisfactory bearing. SiTU-\Tioxs .-\ND Soils for the Almond. — Almonds are now doing best on the higher lands in coast valleys, free from fogs and protected from direct winds, but subject to tempered breezes : also at various points in the interior valleys and foot-hills. The general proposition that low lands in small valleys should be avoided, and bench or hill- side situations preferred, seems to be a safe one. Lands directly upon the coast have not proved satisfactory. In the large interior valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, almonds are successfully grown on flat valley lands but little lifted above sea level and from such plains the chief product comes. \\'hy almonds are safer on the low lands of a great valley than of a small valley is ex- plained by the discussion on page 21. The almond prefers a loose, light, warm soil, and heavy, poorly-drained soils should be avoided. Though they need moisture cnougli to make good, thrifty growth they How to Grow Them 358 Hulling and Bleaching will produce good crops on soils that are too light or dry to grow satisfactory peaches, apricots, nectarines, cherries, or similar pulpy fruit. The almond is, however, a very deep- rooting tree, and may succeed by reaching deeply for moisture rather than by denying itself, as some think. The tree certainly suffers and is barren from drouth in some cases. Propagating, Planting, and Pruning.— The almond is propagated from seedlings grown as described in Chapter VIII, and budded as described in Chapter IX. The almond root is preferred, though the peach answers well. The apricot root should be avoided. For planting out, trees in dormant bud are very successful if given proper care. Yearling trees are, on the whole, best, and usually those which have made a moderate instead of a very large growth are to be preferred. The almond makes a compara- tively large tree and should have plenty of room — not less than twenty-four feet apart (though some plantations are made at twenty feet), and thirty feet is better. Old almond trees are readily worked over to other varieties by grafting and by budding into new shoots forced out by cutting oft large branches. Methods with the peach described on page 194 are applicable to the almond. The pruning of the almond is very simple. The tree should be headed low and pruned during the first three years, as described in Chapter XII, to secure a shapely, strong tree. After the third year little pruning is required except to thin out objectionable branches by winter pruning. There is danger of allowing the trees to become too dense. Shortening in, as practiced with the peach, is sometimes proposed for the almond, for the thrift of the tree and the size of the nut, but growers have not had courage enough to assume the increased cost of production which would be involved. The cultivation of the almond orchard is the same as commended for other fruit trees, and as the trees are often planted in naturally dry soils, the greater care in cultivation is needed to retain sufficient moisture to give good size to the nuts. In certain locations, of course, irrigation will be necessary, but usually a light rainfall will answer if good cultivation is given. Gathering, Hulling, and Bleaching.— Almonds are gathered by spreading canvas under the tree and shaking the branches separately ; the few nuts remaining can be displaced by striking with a light stick. The gathering should be done after the hulls have burst open, but should not be delayed until the nuts are badly discolored. Discoloration of the nut depends upon local atmospheric conditions and is worst in regions subject to moist winds or fogs from the ocean, and they often extend considerable distances into the interior valleys. On dry plateaux adja- cent to the Mojave Desert perfectly bright almonds are produced naturally, but at these elevations frost injuries are frequent and notable. Hulling is done with machines devised for that purpose. There are several in use and recently great capacity and cheapness of oper- ation have been attained. For the greater part of the almond product bleaching is apparently demanded by market requirements. Sulphur should not be applied until the nut is thoroughly dry, or else the fumes will penetrate it, and not only spoil its flavor, but will destroy its germinating power. The nuts are dried by exposure to sun on platforms or trays, and in dewy places should be covered during the night. After being well dried, sprinkle the nuts sufficiently to moisten the shell surface only and apply sul- phur fumes. Various home-made contri- vances are used for bleaching, such as piling up several of the slat-bottom trays one upon another, placing around them sides made of boards so as to hook together at the corners, cover the top with a damp canvas, and burn the sulphur in a hole in the ground below the bottom tray. Webster Treat, formerly a large grower of almonds, describes his sulphuring-house for almonds : My bleaching-liouse is about twenty-five feet by eight feet, and I generally put in about four thou- sand pounds of almonds and e,\pose them to sulphur fumes for three or four hours. The house is board- ed with tongue and groove flooring, inside and out, and roofed witli well-laid shingles, and has a flue about two feet hi-jh on the apex, to help draft the sulphur smoke up. The floor is of one-by-three- inch stuff, set up edgewise, three-eighths of an inch apart, or just wid" enough to admit the fumes from the sulphur burning below, and narrow enough How to Grow Them 359 Varieties mostly grown to prevent the nuts from falling through. The floor is about two and one-half feet above the ground, and the lower space is boarded up with tongue and groove also and fitted with small doors every five feet, so that the sulphur pans can be placed under- neath the floor. Sulphur fumes are applied until the nut.s are of a light yellowish color ; the proper shade is to be learned by securing approved samples from some trustworthy dealer. Pollination and Late Blooming. — The advantage of cross pollination between dif- ferent varieties and the surer bearing of late blooming varieties are related subjects which are worthy of close attention. Mr. J. P. Dargitz of Acampo, San Joaquin, a large grower, has pointed out that, according to his observation as a rule all the paper-shells are deficient in pollen, and will not bear well if planted alone and he concludes that the only two which warrant planting in his sec- tion are the Nonpareil and the Ne Plus Ultra. The latter is not a very good nut, and needs much more moisture than the other. The Nonpareil will give good results if planted with some other variety as pollenizer. It is one of the very best of nuts and is well worth planting. Mr. Dargitz regards the Texas Prolific the very best pollenizer, and when planted in alternate rows with the Nonpareil will cause it to set fruit freely in spite of the fact that the Nonpareil begins blooming two weeks earlier than the Texas but still has bloom to catch the Texas pollen when it is ready. This late blooming of the Texas places it in the same class for surety with Drake's Seedling. Both nuts are medium soft shell and small but are being largely chosen be- cause of sure bearing and large product. As to the relative return per sack, Mr. Dargitz says: The Nonpareil at 14 cents per pound, the Drake Seedling at 1 1 cents per pound, and the Te.xas Pro- lific at 10 cents per pound, will each bring about $10.50 per standard sack; the IXL at 13 cents per pound about $9 per sack, and the Ne Plus Ultra at 12 cents per poun not as good probably as those raised on higher land. They require no irrigation, except on very sandy land, where some have found it profitable; but, a.= a usual thing, when irrigated the groiuid is liabic to get hard, making the nuts crooked, ill-shaped, and many times coloring them. Cultivation. — Peanuts should be cultivated about the same as corn, not allowing any weeds to grow in them, keeping the ground loose and mellow, and when the spikes begin to form, they should not be disturbed. If they are, it causes the nuts to blight or not fill out. The blooms do not require to be covered. Harvesting. — Peanuts should he h-irvsted when ripe, and not allowed to stand too long, in hopes that the last ones set out will fill out and ripen, as you lose more than you gain. The little ones spoil the sale of the crop, and many are left in the ground that get over-ripe. Peanuts should be cut or plowed out and thrown into windrows, nuts down, and let lie a week or ten days, and then sacked, as the best nuts are cured in that way, and they do not mold so badly, and cure a better color. They must not be allowed to get wet. The tops are good feed if stored away in a shed for winter use. All kinds of stock like them, and small nuts can be left on the vines. They make the best f hicken feed. An av- erage yield is about twenty-five to thirty sacks to the acre, forty pounds to a sack, but many have raised fifty sacks, with extra care and good land well adapted to peanuts. THE PECAN. The pecan, by rapid growth, early fruiting, and general thrift, seem.s to be the member of the hickory family best fitted for California conditions. A tree grown from a nut planted by J. R. Wolfskin, "on Putah Creek, in 1878 was. when twenty-five years old, over fifty feet high, with a trunk twelve inches in diameter, growing luxuriantly and bearing freelv. Still older trees, also verv satisfac- tory in growth and bearing, are to be seen at Chico and Visalia. The pecan, though grown for thirty years by dif?erent parties around the bay of San Francisco, either does not bear or keeps the nuts hanging on until sometimes they sprout on the tree. The wider extrenies in temperature or in htimidity in the interior seem to teach the tree better habits of growth, and rest and moist lowlands in the great valleys seem best for pecan plant- ing. As yet, California has no marketable product of pecans but the total number of trees in ♦^he state is insignificant. Pecan trees grow readily from the nuts if these are fresh. Planters should secure nuts of selected varieties (for there is a great difference in size and quality) direct from growers in the southern States, and plant as soon as received, in the earlv winter. 01 if conditions are not favorable for planting, the nuts should be stored as described in Chapter VIII. Nuts planted in good nursery ground in rows as there suggested, and cov- ered about two inches or a little deeper in dry, loose soil, and then mulched to retain moisture, will germinate freely. The trees should be transplanted to permanent place at the end of the first year and then usually the taproot can be retained, as some growers deem very desirable ; if the trees are to be put in permanent place later they should be transplanted in the nursery and the taproot cut of¥. The nuts can, of course, be planted at once m permanent place if one will take the extra trouble necessary to properly care for thern. THE PISTACHIO. The pistachio nut (Pisfachia vera) was introduced u number of years ago but no results have beei. reported. The species upon its own root makes a low shrub and is slow 'if growth. We have also imported the Pistachia terebinthus, from which is derived the "chio turpentine," the stock the true pistachio is grafted upon in Europe and which is growing thriftily at several points! in the State. The pistachio needs more time to de- clare its California career. THE ENGLISH OR PERSIAN WALNUT. The nut which is signified in California wlicn the term walnut is used, is the English Budding the Walnut 362 California Fruits : walnut or Madeira nut (Juglans regia) and its many varieties. This tree makes a grand growth in California. Specimens are seen here and there, which, at about twenty year.'; of age are from fifty to sixty feet in height, with a spread of branches of forty to sixty feet, and in some cases bearing four to eight hundred pounds of nuts. Much larger and older trees can be found in the coast and in- terior valleys of central California where the nut was first planted, although, as has already been stated, the nut has thus far been pro- duced in large quantities only in regions ad- jacent to the coast in southern California. The equable temperature and moisture of the southern coast seems to specially favor the nut, but it must not be inferred that success can only be attained in such situations. A number of French varieties, which have been widely enough distributed to test their growth, have been found to thrive in many situations where the old Los Angeles variety is a fail- ure, and there is at present quite a disposi- tion to larger plantings of the walnut in all California valleys, either as a sole occupant of the land or as border trees around fruit or- chards. At the South the walnut area has largely increased in those situations where the tree shows most satisfactory bearing qualities, and newer varieties of California origin, like the Improved Soft Shell, constitute most of the present area. In all untried places, or in all places where the old Los Angeles Wal- nut has failed, trial should be made of the hardy French varieties, which will be de- scribed farther on. Recently considerable planting has been done in the coast and in- terior valleys and foot-hills of central Cali- fornia upon the quite fully demonstrated suc- cess of these varieties. It is, however, very desirable to secure satisfactory depth and retentiveness, without excess of water, in the soil. The walnut abhors drouth as well as standing water. Soils for the Walnut. — The walnut makes most rapid growth upon a deep, rich, moist, loamy soil, and shows its appreciation of good things of the earth as do other fruit trees, and yet it attains satisfactory size and bearing in less favorable situations. Thriv- ing trees can be found in the clays and de- composed granite soils of the foot-hills, as well as in the valley silts and loams. Ade- quate moisture must, however, be had, and the walnut can not be commended for dry, neglected places nor for soils which over- lie leachy subsoils described on page 34. Propagation. — The walnut tree grows readily from nuts treated as described in Chapter VIII. In the main the use of seed- lings has hitherto prevailed, and the nut has been looked upon as coming sufficiently true from seed. Recently, however, this has changed rapidly, and grafting to secure a high, uniform grade and to secure fruitful- ness in spite of the blight is commanding wide attention. Excellent results have been obtained by using the California black walnut as a stock for the English walnut, and in that case budding or grafting must be resorted to. Many instances of the success of the English walnut on our native stock might be cited, but the most notable tree known to the writer is to be seen on the grounds of John R. Wolfskin, on Putah Creek, in So- lano County. He put in a bud in 1875 and the tree has reached immense size and large product. Since then many large native black walnuts have been top-grafted with the En- glish walnut with notable success, not only in orchards, but along highways where the native black walnut has been planted for shade and ornament. Budding the Walnut. — In working on the native California seedling stocks, Mr. Clowes, of Stockton, buds by the common method, removing the wood from the inside of the plate of bark, as advised for the or- ange. Twig buds as used with the olive are also successful, and ring budding works well on shoots of a year's growth, which have at least attained the thickness of the middle fin- ger. Mr. Gillet advises that the buds should be set at the base of these shoots where the wood is perfectly round. The bandage should pass above and below the bud so that the bark under it may be pressed down close upon the stock, and this is more surely gained by shaving off the base of the leaf stem, below the bud, about to the point where it would separate' when the leaf naturally falls of. Mr. A. W. Keith, of Selnia, has hit upon a very interesting method of preparing wal- nut buds. In taking a fresh bud from the new growth of the walnut he found the How to Grow Them 363 Grafting the Walnut large leaf stem a serious impediment in firmly placing a shield bud upon the cambium of the stock and binding it there. Shaving it away with a knife left too much exposed tissue. If the leaf stem would drop ofif as it does when mature and leave a healed-over scar, the result would be a flat surface with only the bud protruding, and this could be easily bound in place so as to exclude the air. He tried cutting off the compound leaf, leaving a stub of an inch or so, and was de- Grafted walnut in orchard of Mr. J. B. Netf. lighted to find that a stub thus left became dry and parted from the stem just as a mature leaf does in the autumn. By cutting off the leaves in this way about August 15, the stubs part readily before September i, and then he takes off clean, flat buds and uses them just as he does in budding the peach, except that he leaves no wood behind the bud. He takes rather a large shield and puts it under the bark of the stock through a "T" cut, then wraps well with a strip of cheese cloth and waxes over the cloth with ordinary grafting wax. The wrapping is applied so as to cover inost of the bark slit, evervthing beyond being waxed over. The bud is then allowed to remain dormant until the follow- ing spring. ?'.'r. f^ennington of V'acaville has been very successful in budding b)' cutting buds in the regular shield form, about i 1-4 inches long, cut from branches 1-2 to .3-4 inch in diameter, so as to get wide buds with but little wood left in them. He also prefers to have stocks large, and considers a stock I 1-2 inches in diameter not too large. He uses ordinary budding twine for tying, but does not use wax to cover the incisions. Says it is best to put off bud- ding as late as it is possible to get a good Same tree six months later. flow of sap, as then the weather is likely to be cooler, which is an important factor, and the growing season is about finished, which will allow the twine to be left in place all winter, w-hich he considers advis- able. Buds are more apt to succeed when pushed upward from the cross-cut than downward from it. The cuts would then be an inverted "T." No preparation of the budding wood is made, except that mature buds are taken. About go per cent of the buds placed are said to grow. Grafting the Walnut. — Grafting into black walnut seedling root can also be well done by a triangular cut into the edge of the Working over old trees 364 California Frnits : root stump, as described for grafting into \vhen the s[)lit is not made through the pith, grape-vine stumps. In the case of the wahiut, but at one side : the scions should be whit- close binding with a wax band is desirable. tied so as to show as little pith as pos- Yearling seedling Black Walnuts grown on moist, subirrigated land. Large walnut trees can be worked over either by budding or grafting. If by bud- ding, the large limbs are cut back in the winter, and in autumn following, buds are put in, as just described, on as many of the new shoots as may be desired. In grafting, the common cleft graft is used with a degree of success jiarticularly sible. This is done by cutting down to a point at one side and not in the center of the .scion. Care should be taken to cover all exposed surfaces. Grafting over is desirable either for sub- stituting a better variety of English walnut, or for working over a California black wal- nut into an Euplish variety, and as much How to Grow Them 365 Side Grafts attention is now being paid to blight resistant, interest is sharpened in grafting methods. Mr. J. B. Neff, of Anaheim, who has look- ed into the subject deeply and worked over many old trees gives the following practi- cal suggestions on this work : Walnut grafting by modified cleft graft. If the trees are from three to five inches in di- ameter they may be cut off at about four feet above the ground and below the branches, then four or five scions may be placed in one stock, or three of- four of the branches may be cut back to within ID to 24 inches of the trunk and two to three scions placed in each. All the other branches should be removed from the trunk. Old trees of from 12 to 20 years should have the branches cut at places where they are from three to six inches in diameter, and from five to eight stubs left, which will be from three to six feet in length and should have as many as six scions in the large stubs, the other branches being removed be- fore the scions are put in place. In sawing large brandies it is necessary to make two cuts, the first being some distance above or out- side the final cut, to prevent splitting the stub, or the trunk, when the severed part falls. The scions should always be of solid, mature wood, that is, with as small pith as can be had readily, and must have good living buds. Each scion should be about one-quarter inch in diameter and have at least two buds. The growth having buds close to- gether is best, as shorter scions can be used. To receive the scions use a heavy butcher knife and mallet to split the stubs, placing the knife across the stub as if a chip one-half to tive-eighths-inch thick was to be taken off. Then depress the handle of the knife to an angle of 30 to 45 degrees and split the edge down to 2% to 3 inches, allowing the knife to reach the farther side of the stub, but not making the split entirely across the stub. Open the cleft with an iron wedge Y2 to %-inch wide and thickest on one edge, placing the thickest edge to- ward the outside. Trim the cleft in the stub with a sharp knife so it will be smooth. Then cut the scion so as to fit perfectly and place it so the inner bark (the cambium layer) of both will be on the same line, or at least will cross twice, then remove the wedge and put hot wa.x over all the cuts on both stock and scion at once. The scions should be examined frequently and any excessive flow of sap wiped off, and the stub re-covered with wax as soon as dry. Excessive flow of sap for several weeks will cause the loss of the scions as the callus cannot form in water. This may be controlled by boring one-fourth inch holes in the body of the tree near the ground. Three or four Side graft made with a saw-cut. Enlargement can be prevented by slitting the bark below it. holes four inches deep will be sufficient to control the flow of the largest trees. No damage is done to the body of the tree as the holes soon grow over. The last two wax formulas on page 67 are largely used in walnut grafting. For grafting in the stems of seedlings or in the smaller branches of young trees a side graft as described on page 69 is successfully used as are also several styles of cleft grafting. One which is used by Mr. R. Wiltz and others at San Jose consists in splitting a short stub of- a sinall branch which has been cut about four inches from its attachment to a larger branch or stem. Planting Walnut Orchards 366 California Fruits In this case the split can only extend to the closely knit wood in the crotch and the scion is pushed down strongly to the bot- tom of such a split and it is held tightly. The two pieces of the deep split are not cut away but are allowed to protect the short scion which is between them and if buds start on these pieces they are allowed to grow a little to keep the stock from dying which is usually done the fourth or fifth year. Two-year-old trees are generally pre- ferred, but walnut trees of many times that age can be successfully transplanted if the work is carefully done. Walnut trees are usually set forty feet in squares, though some give the large-growing varieties fifty feet. Planting in hexagonals at forty-five feet distance gives very satisfactory re- Split Grafting the Walnut by Mr. Geo. Payne, of Santa Clzra. back. When the scion starts well they are removed. Planting Walnut Orchards. — There is much difference in practice in planting out walnut trees in permanent place. Some advocate the use of trees two or three years from the seed, getting as much of the tap- root as possible ; others allow the tree to re- main in nursery until it throws out laterals, suits. Some growers plant in squares at thirty feet distance, intending to remove al- ternate trees as they crowd each other, first cutting back, for a time, the trees which are finally to be removed. Intercultures with the Walnuts. — In the southern walnut regions it is common to grew beans, squashes, etc., between the rows of trees until the latter reach bearing age ; How to Grow Them 367 Harvesting Walnuts root crops which attract gophers should be avoided. Inter-planting of smaller, early- fruiting trees is also practiced to a con- siderable extent. Pruning the Walnut. — The walnut is usually headed higher than ordinary orchard trees, but preference is now given to start- ing the first branch at about four feet from the ground instead of six feet as formerly. All the pruning needed is in shaping the tree as described for the fig. Upward trend of the branches should be secured, some- times by cutting out the shoots which grow downward, sometimes by tying them up for a time to the central stem until they are stiff enough to retain this posi- tion. Placing branches on the stem according to the principles advanced in Chapter XII, should be borne in mind. The stem should be protected from sun- burn until the foliage accomplishes this. Whenever shoots are killed back by sun- burn or by frost, they should be cut oft' cleanly below the black mark which shows how far the injury has extended. If this is done, the die-back down the branch is usually prevented. Bloom and Be^vring of the Walnut. — The walnut has its staminate and pistillate blooms separate, but both occur on the same tree. Successful fruiting depends upon the ap- pearance of these two forms of bloom, with- out too great interval of time, and although there seems to be quite a retention of vital- ity, the lack of bearing of some varieties has been found to be due to the fact that the catkins disappeared too long before the pistil- late bloom was sufficiently developed to re- ceive the pollen. The 'bearing age of the walnut depends upon the variety. Some of the French va- rieties are very precocious and have borne fruit in nursery row at two and three years old, but the pistillate blooms were then fertilized from catkins growing on older trees. The practical bearing age of the seedling English walnut in this State may be rated at six to eight years, according to the variety. Trees grafted with scions from bearing trees fruit much sooner. Harvesting Walnuts. — Gathering wal- nuts is done in different ways ; some gather them from the srround at intervals durinp- the months of September and October ; others use poles and clean the trees at one opera- tion ; some go over the ground three times ; first, picking up what have fallen ; second, picking up what have fallen, and striking the limbs lightly to dislodge others which are ripest ; third, picking up again and then knocking off all that remain on the trees. In this way gathering lasts a month or six weeks. Walnuts, after gathering, are usually treated as described by F. E. Kellogg, of Santa Barbara County : As fast as gathered the nuts are placed in slat- bottomed trays, 6x3 feet, by six inches deep, about fifty pounds in a tray, wliere they are allowed to dry for three or four days, being thoroughly shaken up once or twice a day. If the weather is very hot, they should be dried in the shade. When the nuts are dry they are passed through an inclined revolv- ing grader, making about twelve revolutions per min- ute, having a one-inch mesh wire screen, and all that fall through this are called "seconds." The lower end of the grader dips into a vat of water, thorough- ly wetting the nuts and washing them to a certain extent — entirely sufficient for paper shells and soft shells, and usually enough for hard shells. A sys- tem of buckets attached to the drum of the grader then elevates the nuts to a chute, which discharges them into a large bo.x 4x4x8 feet high, with an in- clined slat bottom two and one-half feet above the ground. While in this box, they are subjected to the fumes of sulphur for twenty to thirty minutes for the purpose of improving the color. The sec- ond grade walnuts are also put through the washing and sulphuring process. The nuts are next drawn off from the bleachers into the drying trays, piled one on top of the other, to prevent the sun from shining directly on the nuts, and remain there for ten or twelve hours, until the nuts are thorough- ly dried off. The trays are then emptied into a hopper, from which the nuts are drawn off into bags containing something over one hundred pounds each; the bags are securely sewed up and stamped with the producer's brand, and the nuts are ready for shipment. Col. A. S. Heath, of Carpinteria, uses a moist bleach and a drier afterward, as fol- lows : When the nuts leave the rotary washer they are entirely free of hulls and clean. They are taken to the bleaching boxes, and here subjected to the very minimum amount of sulphur necessary, and cold steam, being in the bleachers about one hour. From the bleachers they are taken to the steam drier. In the drier are 100 drawers, each canable of hold- ing 40 to SO pounds of walnuts. These drawers have wire bottoms to allow the heat to pass through them. In the basement beneath the drier Mr. Heath has some modern furnaces constructed, and during the course of the drying about T30 degrees of heat is maintained. The nuts are kept under this heat for eight hours. During the drying it is possible to Varieties of the Walnut 368 California Fruits watch the progress by pulling out drawers for m spection. Dipping Instead of Sulphuring. — Sul- phuring often injures the flavor of the kernel and dipping is commg into wide use. The follov'tis: fornv.ila has been furnished to growers by the University Experiment Station : Six pounds bleaching powder (aiso called chloride of lime), twelve pounds sal-soda, fifty gallons water. Dissolve the bleaching powder in about four gallons of water, stirring till dissolved. Dissolve the sal- soda in about four gallons of water. Add one solir- tion to the other and stir well ; let the carbonate of lime settle to the bottom and draw off the clear liq- uor and add water to make a total of fifty gallons. Put the nuts in large dipping box or lath crate, \mmerse in the fluid, and then add one and one- fourth pounds of fifty per cent sulphuric acid and agitate by raising and lowering the dipping box. The bleach should be reached in five to ten seconds, and the nuts are then washed in clear water and put out to dry. Of course to employ this process cheap- ly, specially contrived dipping appliances are used. The same liquor can be used with new batches of nuts so long as the proper effect is produced, and small additions of acid will prolong the efficiency of the liquor. Since the foregoing method was published certain California courts have decided that the process is covered by a patent previously issued and controlled by the Anderson-Barn- grover Co., of San Jose, who demand a royalty for its use. The walnut growers employed Prof. Stabler, of the University oi Southern California, in Los Angeles, to devise a new process in the public interest. His early results indicate that by running an electric current through a four per cent solution of common salt ("four pounds of salt to one hundred pounds of water) the chlorine is set free from the soda and becomes available for bleaching. It is possible also that the electric current may exert bleaching action of its own. Varieties of the Walnut. — Of walnuts of California origin there are two classes, which are called "hard" and "soft" shell, but the accepted commercial product is largely com- posed of the soft-shell class. Several va- rieties of French walnuts are now being widely distributed. An attempt will be made to give some of the distinctive points of each variety mentioned : Common English Walnut: Los Angeles Nut. etc. — This is the ordinary English walnut of commerce. It was planted at an early day in Los Angeles County, but is now largely replaced by the Improved Soft S'hell. Santa Barbara Soft Shell; Sexton's Soft Shell. — Originated by Joseph Sexton, who gives this account of its origin and characteristics : "The winter of 1867 I bought in San Francisco a large sack of Eng- lish walnuts. I raised about one thousand trees that season, and planted two hundred of them the following spring, in orchard form, at Goleta. Sixty of them proved to be the soft-shell variety. The soft shell is a little later in starting in the spring than the common nut, and blooms about ten days later. It commences to fruit at six years old from the seed, and some have been known to fruit af. young as the fourth year. The hard shell com- mences to fruit about the ninth year, and bears full crops alternate years. The soft shell is not as strong a grower as the other walnut; it being so prolific retards its growth. It is a superior nut; the kernel is white. The shell is thin, rendering them easily broken by the hand, at the same time strong enough to bear transportation to any part of the United States." l-ord's Improved Soft Shell — C. \V. Ford, of Santa Ana, propagated an "Improved Soft Shell," gained by selection from the variety of Joseph Sex- ton, which has been largely planted. Santa Rosa. — A seedling by Luther Burbank, which has been distributed quite widely; ^lut by variation in its seedling, its character is somewhat ill-defined and the name is applied to several types, some of which are less desirable than the one receiving the name. Proeparturiens. — Introduced in California in 1871, by the late Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, and after- ward by other parties, and widely distributed. Its chief characteristic, as its name indicates, is early bearing. It blooins from two to four weeks later than the common Los Angeles seedling ; it shows both kinds of bloom simultaneously, and has the characteristics of ripening its wood well, and is a good nut, but it has been little planted recently be- cause of its disposition to run to small sizes. Mayette. — This variety chiefly constitutes the im- ported Grenoble walnuts. It is large, roundiSh, with a broad base, on which the nut will sit up ; shell thin and white ; kernel full and rich ; a good bearer and late bloomer; local Mayette seedlings are being named ; one is the "San Jose." liy R. Wiltz of San Jose. Concord. — S'eedling of Cluster : of the Mayette type, grown by Messrs. Westgate and Hutchinson of Concord from seedling tree by Felix Gillet. Introduced by Mr. Leonard Coates in 1908. Franquctte. — This French variety has risen to great favor and has been largely planted upon the successful experience of Mrs. Emily M. Vrooman. of Santa Rosa, and the extensive effort at its dis- tribution by the Oregon Nursery Co., of Salem, Ore. It is a large, elongate-oval nut with shell rather thick and kernel of high quality. It is a late bloomer. Paper shell Pecan. Single nut to the left natural si: How to Grow Them 369 New California Varieties Other French Varieties. — Other French varieties introduced by Mr. Gillett and others incUide the fol- lowing: The Chister, which fruits, as its name in- dicates, in long bunches, sometimes as many as fif- teen in a bunch ; otherwise the tree resembles the common English walnut. The Pari.;ienne is a beau- tiful variety, the nut large, broad, and shapely ; the tree blooms very late. All the foregoing varieties and the Franquette, Serotina, Barthere Mesange. Gant and Chaberte, were introduced by Mr. Gillet, in 1871. Kaghazi. — A variety called Kaghazi was grown and propagated for several years by the late James Shinn, of Niles. who described it as follows : "Very much larger than the ordinary kinds, and thinner shelled. The tree is late in putting out leaves and blossoms, and is, therefore, especially good for places that are in danger of late frosts.'' Japanese Walnut; Juglans Sieboldiana — -This species, native of the north of Japan, was introduced to California about i860, and a tree grown from seed planted about that time is growing at the Tower House, in Shasta County. Recently the good points of the tree have been more widely recognized. The fol- lowing excellent description is by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa : "This species is found growing wild in the mountains of northern Japan, and is, without doubt, as hardy as an oak. The leaves are of im- mense size, and a charming shade of green. The nuts, which are produced in extreme abundance, grow in clusters of fifteen or twenty, have a shell thicker than the English walnut, but not as thick as the black walnut, very much resembling pecan nuts. The meat is sweet, of the very best quality, flavor like butternut, but less oily, and much superior. The trees grow with great vigor, assume a vey hand- some form, need no pruning, mature early, bear young, and are more regular and productive than the English walnut." The nut has an exceedingly hard shell and does not rate commercially with the popular varieties of the English walnut. NEW CALIFORNIA VARIETIES. Since the walnut blight invaded the com- mercial orchards and resisted all remedies tried against it, great interest has arisen in particular trees which bore well in spite ol the disease. As California has such a large acreage of seedling trees there was a full opportunity for the full manifestation of such resistance and a wide field in which to exer- cise the art of selection. The result is that many trees were found which are profitable even when the blight is worst, and such trees are being given distinct varietal names. The progress of this work should be watched in the publications of the University Experi- ment Station at Berkeley, for the experts at its branch laboratory and trial grounds in the walnut region of Southern California, at Whittier, Los Angeles county, are largely engaged in this work. Individual growers are alert at selection within their own or- chards and the prospect is that a general escape from the blight and the establishment in our local pomology of a group of es- pecially desiralsle varieties will be ere long be attained. PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION. How to Grow Them 373 Preserving' Fruits CHAPTER XXXIX. FRUIT CANNING, CRYSTALLIZING, AND DRYING. THE preservation of fruit in various ways for home use and distant shipment, is one of the leading industries of CaHfornia, em- ploying a large amount of capital and labor, and distributing a vast amount of money among our people. These facts can be best emphasized by statements of the product of 1906, in the leading methods of preserva- tion, by canning and drying. Canned Fruit Product of 1906 Table fruits, 2i2-lb. cans, 24 per case.. . 2,60.'i,790 Pie fruits, 1-gal. cans, 12 per case 503,4:S5 Tatal..74,621,400 2i2-lb cans, or 3,109,225 The relative use of different fruits is as follows : Cases Apples 80 850 Apricots 397,3.n0 Cherries, black 18.700 Cherries, white 123,825 Figs 10.125 Grapes 98.075 Nectarines : 5,000 Pears 565. ( 00 Peaches, freestone 845.2."'0 Peaches, clingstone 6.'i9 500 Plums 193,550 Quinces 1.50 Strawberries 22,280 Raspberries 21.895 Blackberries 68,675 THE CANNING INDUSTRY. California stands first in the United States in the value of canned and dried fruits produced and in the amount of money as wages paid for labor in fruit canning and curing establishments. In point of cap- ital invested therein California is credited by the United States census office in 1905 with a t tal of ten and one quarter million dollars ; thus standing second only to New York, which has ten and one half millions. The style and capacity of the establishments is characteristically Calif ornian because Cali- fornia's ten millions are invested in 184 concerns, while New York has 565 con- cerns ; only a quarter of a million more value in three times as many outfits. Fruit canning began in California about fifty years ago, but during the last three decades has attained its greatness, and is still promising much wider extension. The proc- ess is simple, and yet is attended at every point, from the purchase of the fruit to the sale of the product, with operations which require experience, wisdom, and good judg- ment. It will be obviously impossible to give in print a guide to the pursuit of such an industry. The principles involved in the process of commercial canning are, of course, the same as rule in the old kitchen processes, but to secure uniformity and cheapness of product a vast number of manipulations and labor-saving appliances have been devised. These begin with the manufacture of cans and attend the pro- duct to the end, and the realization of the commercial and uniform production which they assure involves the employment of large capital and the keenest business ability. The canning interest has, therefore, segre- gated itself more and more widely from the growing interest. Orchard canning on a small scale which was once thought feas- ible has passed out of sight except as it is seen to lie in the foundations of a few of the smaller canneries which have been built upon it. It seems clear now that as a rule the fruit grower's duty to the canning inter- est ceases with the production of acceptable fruit unless individuals or associations can command capital enough to enter the field on equal vantage with the large commercia' canneries. Capital is flowing toward the busi- ness ; the field for the product seems to be constantly expanding, and canning centers are Crystallized Fruit 374 California Fruits multiplying throughout the State wherever ample supplies of good fruits and vegetables are available. Varieties for Canning. — The table pre- viously given showing the fruits which enter in various amounts into the canned product gives a general idea of what fruits should be planted to minister to the canner's de- mand. As to varieties, it is not easy to make a general prescription, because the choice differs somewhat with different localities. It is a good idea for the new. planter to consult with owners of adjacent bearing orchards and to secure from the nearest canneries lists of varieties which are accept- able to them. CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS. Progress is being continually made in the production of candied, crystalHzed, or glace fruits, but the product is not a large one. Special establishments are now doing this work in Los Angeles, San Jose, and San Francisco. They have processes which are the result of considerable experimentation, and they do not make them public. To others the way lies open to similar experimentation. The general theory and an outline of practice as given by J. J. Pratt, an experienced proc- essor, is as follows : The theory is to extract the juice from the fruit, and replace it with sugar syrup, which, upon harden- ing, preserves the fruit from decay, and at the same time retains the natural shape of the fruit. All kinds of fruit are capable of being preserved under this process. Though the method is very simple, there is a certain skill required that is acquired only by practise. The several successive steps in the process are about as follows : First, the same care in selecting and grading the fruit should be taken as for canning; that is, the fruit should all be of one size, and as near the same ripeness as possible. The exact degree of ripeness is of great importance, which is at that stage when fruit is best for canning; peaches, pears, etc., are pared and cut in halves, as for canning; plums, cherries, etc., are pitted. The fruit, having thus been carefully prepared, is put into a basket, or a bucket tvith a perforated bottom, and immersed in boiling water. The object of this is to dilute and extract the juice of the fruit. The length of time the fruit is immersed is the most important part of the process. If left too long, it is overcooked, and becomes soft; if not immersed long enough, the juice is not suffi- ciently extracted, which prevents a perfect absorption of the sugar. After the fruit has been thus scalded and allowed to cool, it can again be assorted as to softness. The next step is the syrup, which is made- of white sugar and water. The softer the fruit, the heavier the syrup required. Ordinarily about seventy de- grees. Balling's saccharometer, is about the proper weight for the syrup. The fruit is then placed in earthen pans, and cov- ered with the syrup, where it is left to remain about a week. The sugar enters the fruit and dis- places what juice remained after the scalding pro- cess. The fruit now requires careful watching, as fer- mentation will soon take place, and when this has reached a certain stage, the fruit and syrup are heated to a boiling degree, which checks the fer- mentation. This heating process should be repeated as often as necessary for about six weeks. The fruit is then taken out of the syrup, and washed in clean water, and it is then ready to be either glaced or crystallized, as the operator may wish. If glaced, the fruit is dipped in thick sugar syrup and left to harden quickly in the open air. If it is to be crystallized, dip in the same kind of syrup, but allow to cool and harden slowly, thus causing the sugar which covers the fruit to crystal- lize. The fruit is now ready for bo.xing and ship- ping. Fruit thus prepared will keep in any climate and stand transportation. Thus far the crystallized fruit produced in California has sold well. There is a considerable importation of French fruit to the United States, which may be displaced by the California product, and the business commends itself to those who have ingenuity, patience, and capital enough to enable them to experiment and wait for future success. The California producer has the advantage of an abundance of very fine fruit at a low price, but he carries a handicap in the high cost of transportation and of labor. CALIFORNIA DRIED FRUIT INDUSTRY. A special census of the fruit-preserving . manufactures of the United States in 1905 shows not only that California stands first in the dried fruit industry, but that the product (excluding raisins) was in that year valued at about fourteen million dollars and was over eighty-eight per cent of the whole national product. An adjacent tabula- tion compiled from the records of the Califor- nia State Board of Trade gives interesting details of this product for a number of years. As suggested on page 26, it is the func- tion of the sunshine and dry air of Califor- nia not only to bring vigorous growth to the tree and vine and carry the fruit of both to fullness of size, beauty and quality, but to continue its beneficent action until the How to Grow Thei 375 Cured Fruit Products fruit, which is not required b)' the trade in fresh ripeness, is given imperishable form, in which its beauty, flavors, aromas and nutritive quahties remain available to delight and nourish mankind until the following year's sunshine wins from the earth another supply of fresh ripeness. There are many parts of the earth where good fruit is grown : there are few where conditions pro- ducing such fruit continue to accomplish its preservation, as they do in California, very important in many ways to have it clearly understood that, except to an insigni- ficant extent, California fruit drying is not undertaken to save wastes or to get some- thing from fruit which is not suited to higher uses. Second. As our cured fruits are a primary and not a by-product, it becomes intelligible why such free investment is made in acres of well-made trays ; in tram- Product of California Cured Fruits in Tons— 1900 to 190"; Year Peaches Apricots .\pples Pears Plums Nec- tarines Grapes Figs Prunes Raisins 1900 17,170 14,000 3,150 7,275 1,950 435 240 2,000 87,000 47,167 1901 14,755 7,776 3,225 3,290 1,725 317 180 3,260 40,000 37,125 1902 25,210 18,762 4,875 2,625 1,280 455 188 3,625 98,5(0 54,375 1903 16,075 10,500 1,800 2,325 1,435 317 205 3,000 82,500 60,000 1904 11,500 8,500 1,500 1,750 1,150 210 170 2,850 67,500 37,500 1905 17,500 19,250 3.250 1,750 930 185 193 3,625 37,500 43,750 1906 11,250 3,250 2,750 3,500 1,100 170 200 3,375 90,000 47,500 1907 12,000 1,500 1,500 500 750 137 188 3,000 40,000 60,000 Total 125,460 83,538 22,050 23,015 10,320 2,226 1,564 24,735 543,000 387,417 Average 15,694 10,442 2,756 2,877 1,260 278 195 3,092 67,875 48,427 and this climatic endowment of the State yields an annual income of something like twenty millions of dollars, as the years run. In connection with this notable factor of our horticultural endowment, certain facts of its utilization and its significance should be clearly understood not only by those who actually employ it in their business, but by those who desire to properly appre- ciate the industrial resources of the State. First. Cured fruits in California are a pri- mary and not a secondary or by-product. It is true, of course, that curing fruit does, to a limited extent, save from loss fruit which shippers and canners are not at the time paying profitable prices for, and it is true also that the recourse to curing frees growers from helpless dependence upon fresh . fruit buyers. But this does not mean that curing is a way of getting something from refuse fruit, not suited for other purposes. It should be taken as evidence that, for the most part, grades of fruit which are cured are the same which are also available for higher uses when prices are right. It is ways and turntables for their movement from the shelter of convenient cutting or dipping and spreading houses ; in capacious apartments and mechanical devices for giving the cut fruit its bath in sulphur fumes to preserve natural colors and to prevent fer- mentation and insect invasion ; in the care- fully prepared drying floors ; in well-fitted packing houses. Such investment has reach- ed millions of dollars in the aggregate, and the standing of cured fruits as primary products is the justification of such out- lay. Third. The provision of such equipment is not alone evidence of the standing of the industry; it constitutes an obligation upon producers to put out a product which shall be true to its opportunity as a primary product, and not merely a makeshift to prevent loss or waste. Thirty years ago California dried fruit was a makeshift, and a disgracefully poor one. As enterprise and investment proceeded it was soon seen that style and quality alone could requite them. Next it was discerned that fruit for Sunshine Drying 376 California Fruits : curing, to command profitable prices, must be as good as fruit for any other high pur- pose, as has been suggested. It was then beHeved that to secure handsome cured fruit which should only be relieved of its excess of water and still retain color, flavor and winning beauty, could only Be produced in machine-evaporators with artificial heat, and a few years were given to invention, purchase and rejection of all such devices except as occasional refuges when the California climate forgets itself. When the demonstra- tion came that with proper pre-treatment California sunshine and dry air would pro- duce notably fine evaporated fruits without houses and furnaces, cured fruits entered upon their career as primary products, and planting to produce them began. Fourth. The obligations upon producers, to make their output worthy of such stand- ing, extend to the whole process of growing and curing. The fruit must be well grown, and fruit for curing should have size and quality which make it first class for other purposes, with the added excellence of being somewhat more mature, because it is not required to stand hauling and shipment. It should, however, be carefully handled to escape bruising, because discolorations are blemishes. It must be cleanly cut for removal of pit or core, because trimness, neatness and shapeliness are all essential to beauty. Before it reaches exposure to the protecting fumes of sulphur, it must be often saved from darkening by handling in water, when the nature of the fruit is such as to require it. It must be carefully and evenly spread upon the trays, especially if it be a cut fruit, so that no interference can pre- vent each piece from reaching its best estate. Sulphuring must be adequate, and yet not excessive, for sulphuring is a pro- tecting and not a resurrecting process ; it is not to improve bad fruit, but to keep good fruit from becoming bad. The fruit must be sufficiently dried and yet not over-dried, and during the process must be protected from dust by the situation and character of the ground used, even if such protection costs trouble and outlay. Although the sun drying of fruit may be a simple process, so many little arts, methods and appliances are continually being intro- duced to facilitate work or improve the product, that one can learn much by visiting the different fruit regions during the drying season. Such a course is commended to growers who contemplate large drying opera- tions, for suggestions of great economic importance can be secured. The notes of practice which can be given in this connec- tion must be brief and general. Trays for Drying. — The greater part of the fruit, including raisins, is placed upon trays for exposure to the sun. There is great variation in the size of the trays. The common small tray is made of one-half-inch sugar-pine lumber two feet wide and three feet long, the boards forming it being held together by nailing to a cleat on each end, one by one and a quarter inches, and a lath or narrow piece of half-inch stuff is nailed over the ends of the boards, thus stiffening the tray and aiding to prevent warping. A cross-section of such a tray is shown at A. A large tray which is used by some grow- ers is four feet square, and is made of slats three-eighths of an inch thick, and one and a half inches wide, the slats being nailed to three cross %lats three-eighths of an inch thick and three inches wide, and the ends nailed to a narrow strip one-half inch thick by three-quarters of an inch wide on the other side. A cross-section of this tray is shown at B. Since large drying yards have been sup- plied with tramways and trucks for moving the fruit instead of hand carriage, larger trays, three feet by six or three feet by eight, have been largely employed. These tramways lead from the cutting sheds to the sulphur boxes and thence to various parts of the large drying grounds, making it possible to handle large amounts of fruit at a minimum cost. PuoTivCTiNG Fruit from Dew. — In the interior there is seldom any deposit of dew in the drying season, but occasionally there are early rains before the drying sea- son is over. The fruit is then protected by piling the trays one upon another, in which operation the thick cleats serve a good pur- pose. In dewy regions the trays are piled at night, or cloth or paper is sometimes stretched over the fruit, thus reducing the How to Grow Them 377 Drying Floors discoloration resulting from deposits of mois- ture upon it. Drying Floors. — For the most part the trays are laid directly on the ground, but sometimes a staging of posts and rails is built to support them, about twenty inches from the ground. The drying trays are sometimes distributed through the orchard or vineyard, thus drying the fruit with as little carrying as possible. Others clear off a large space outside the plantation and spread the trays where full sunshine can be obtained. Drying spaces should be selected at a distance from traveled roads, to prevent the deposit of dust on the fruit. Spaces used for drying are often idle the rest of the year and are weed-covered and rains come there is another cutting crop, making three crops a year, a ton at each cutting. So something is made from the space and the dust problem is solved, which means clean fruit and better prices. Grading. — It is of great advantage in drying to have all the fruit on a tray of approximately the same size, and grading before cutting is advisable. Machines are now made which accomplish this very cheaply and quickly.* Cutting-Sheds. — Shelter of some kind is always provided for the fruit-cutters. Some- times it is only a temporary bower made of poles and beams upon which tree branches are spread as a thatch ; sometimes open-side sheds with boarded roof, and sometimes a &= =^ Cross-section of drying irays. unsightly during the rainy season, or are cultivated for grain-hay which loosens the surface and deepens the dust. When one has water for irrigation it is often practi- cable to reduce dust and secure an amount of desirable feed or hay by putting the piece down in alfalfa. Mr. P. F. Gannon of Yolo county proceeded in this way. He lowered the tramway tracks to the ground level, and turned up a furrow on the sides to hold the water from flooding the adjacent ground. In the fall, after the fruit-drying was over, he flooded the space, which is a little over half an acre (125 by 225 feet). Then it was disked both ways and leveled and harrowed and planted to alfalfa before the rains. The land was moist at the time and the seed came up and the plants grew more or less through the winter. In April he cut the first crop. Just before the space is needed for a drying yard, make another cutting, about June 20, cutting it down close and raking it clean. The yard is then ready for the trays and fruit. When the drying season is over the yard is cleared, and the space then is as clean as a clay floor, from being used so much. In three weeks the top of the ground is green all over, and before the finished fruit-house is built, two stories high, the lower story opening with large doors on the north side, and with a large loft above, where the dried fruit can be sweated, packed, and stored for sale. The climate is such that almost any shelter which suits the taste and purse of the producer will answer the purpose. Sulphuring. — The regulations promulgat- ed under the pure food law enacted by Con- gress in 1906 established an arbitrary limit to the percentage of sulphur compounds in evaporated fruits, which was shown by pro- ducers to be destructive to their industry, and otherwise unwarranted and unreasonable. As a result of their protest the enforcement of such regulations was indefinitely postponed, pending the results of scientific investigation which began in 1908. From the point of view of the California producer it must be held that before the em- ployment of the sulphur process, California cured fruits were suitable only to the lowest culinary uses. They were of undesirable color, devoid of natural flavor, offensive by *See under "plums and prunes." page 381. Sulphuring 378 California Fruits content of insect life. They had no value which would induce production and no dis- cernible future. Placing the trays of freshly cut fruit in boxes or small "houses," with the fumes of burning sulphur, made it pos- sible to preserve its natural color and flavor during the evaporation of its surplus moisture in the clear sunshine and dry air of the California summer. It also prevented sour- protect the fruit, it facilitates evaporation so that about one-half less time is required therefor. Not the least important bearing of this fact is the feasibility of curing fruits in larger pieces. The grand half-peaches, half-apricots, half-pears of the California cured fruits are the direct result of the sul- phur process. Without it the fruit must be cut into small sections or ribbons, which in jv.iporator with accessory buildings. A .suggestive view of a drying outfit of a small fruit farm. The fruit is cut in the shed with can in the boxes in the back ground, which have the gallows-like supports for the counter balances of the di and forth from shed to sulphur box and thence to dr>ing floor by horse and tram car. ing, which with some fruits is otherwise not preventable in such open air drying, and it protected the fruit from insect attack during the drying process. By the use of sulphur and by no other agency has it been possible to lift the production of cured fruits of cer- tain kinds from a low-value hap-hazard by- product to a primary product for which Californians have planted orchards, con- structed packing houses and made a name in the world's markets. The action of sulphuring is not alone to cooking break down into an uninviting mass, while, with the sulphuring, it is ordinary practice to produce the splendid halves with their natural color so preserved that they lie in cut glass dishes in suggestive semblance to the finest product of the canners, and are secured at a fraction of the cost. There are various contrivances for the application of sulphur fumes to the freshly- cut fruit. Some are small for hand carriage of trays : some are large and the trays are wheeled into them upon trucks. The most How to Grow Thei 379 Packing- Dried Fruits common is a bottomless cabinet about five or six feet high, of a width equal to the length of the tray and a depth a little more than the width of the tray. The cabinet has a door the whole width of one side, and on the sides within cleats are nailed so that the trays of fruit slip in like drawers into a bureau. Some push in the trays so that the bottom one leaves a little space at the back, the next a little space at the front, and so on, that the fumes may be forced by the draft to pass between the trays back and forward. The essentials seem to be open holes or dampers in the bottom and top of the cabinet so that the fumes from the sulphur burning at the bottom may be thoroughly distributed through the interior, and then all openings are tightly closed. To secure a tight chamber the door has its edge felted and the cabinet is made of matched lumber. The sulphur is usually put on a shovel or iron pot, and it is ignited by a hot coal, or a hot iron, or it is thrown on paper of which the edges are set on fire, or a little alcohol is put on the sulphur and lighted, etc. The sulphur is usually burned in a pit in the ground under the cabi- net. The application of sulphur must be watchfully and carefully made, and the ex- posure of the fruit should only be long enough to accomplish the end desired. The exposure required differs with dift'erent fruits, and with the same fruits in different condi- tions, as must be learned by experience. Grading and Cleaning. — After the fruit is sufficiently dried (and it is impossible to describe how this point may be recognized except by the experienced touch), it is gath- ered from the trays into large boxes and taken to the fruit house. Some growers put it into a revolving drum of punctured sheet iron, which rubs the pieces together and separates it from dust, etc., which falls out through the apertures as the drum revolves. Others empty the fruit upon a large wire- cloth table and pick it over, grading it accord- ing to size and color, and at the same time the dust and small articles of foreign matter fall through the wire cloth. The fanning mill for cleaning grain may also be used for rapid separation of dirt, leaves, etc., with proper arrangement of metal screens. Sweating. — All fruit, if stored in mass after drying, becomes moist. This action should take place before packing. To facili- tate it, the fruit is put in piles on the floor of the fruit-house and turned occasionally with a scoop shovel ; or, if allowed to sweat in boxes, the fruit is occasionally poured from one box to another. The sweating equalizes the moisture throughout the mass. Some large producers have sweat-rooms with tight walls, which preserve an even temperature. No fruit should be packed before ''going through the sweat." If this is not done, discoloration and injury will result. Dipping before Packing. — All fruits ex- cept prunes can be packed in good condition without dipping, provided the fruit is not overdried. Eft'orts should be made to take up the fruit when it is just sufficiently cured to prevent subsequent fermentation. If taken from the trays in the heat of the day and covered so that the fruit moth can not reach it there is little danger of worms. The highest grades of fruit are made in this way. If, however, the fruit has been overdried or neglected, it can be dipped in boiling water to kill eggs of vermin and to make the fruit a little more pliable for the press. The dip- ping should be done quickly, and the fruit allowed to drain and then lie in a dark room, carefully covered, for twenty-four hours be- fore packing. Packing. — To open well, packages of dried fruit should be "faced." The many fine arts of paper lining, etc., must be learned by observation. Flatten some fair specimens of the fruit to be packed (and reference is especially made to such fruits as apricots, peaches, and nectarines) by running them through a clothes' wringer or similar pair of rollers set to flatten but not crush the fruit. Do not face with better fruit than the pack- age is to contain. It is a fraud which will not in the end be profitable. Lay the flat- tened fruit (cup side down) neatly in the bottom of the box. Fill the box until it reaches the amount the box is to contain, and then apply the press until the bottom can be nailed on. Invert the box and put on the label or brand; the bottom then becomes the top. Many different kinds of boxes are used. A very good size is made of seasoned pine, six inches deep by nine inches wide by fifteen inches long, inside measurements, and it will hold twenty-five pounds of fruit. Fig Drying 380 California Fruits METHODS WITH DIFFERENT FRUITS As already intimated, it will be impossible to enter minutely into the operations of dry- •ingand packing on a commercial scale, or even to notice all the small and ingenious arts by which the work is facilitated. Any one who contemplates production on a large scale should personally visit leading regions and inform himself by inquiry and observa- tion. Such an education will save mistakes, which may cost many times more than the expense of getting it. California producers are usually quite willing to show visitors the methods they employ. Though this is the better way of proceeding, a few general hints will be given of methods with different fruits. Apples. — There seems little use of drying apples unless a very light-colored, handsome product can be turned out. This can be done by sulphuring as soon as cut, and sun drying in a dry region, or by the use of a machine evaporator in regions of greater atmospheric humidity. Recently the product has largely increased in such large producing regions as the Pajaro valley, and new labor saving devices are being continually introduced. Apricots. — Apricots for drying should be fully ripe but not soft enough to be mushy. By the use of sulphur and sun heat, an amber- colored, semitranslucent fruit is obtained. The prevailing method of gathering is to shake down the fruit upon sheets, but the best product is hand picked. Pit the fruit by a clean cut completely around in the su- ture; do not cut part way round and then tear apart — a clean-cut edge is essential. Put on the trays with the skin down, or with the cup up, as it is sometimes described; sulphur, and then put in the sun. About three days of interior-valley sunshine will finish the apricots. Apricots will vield on the average one pound of dried fruit to five pounds of fresh. Berries and Cherries. — These fruits are only dried in the sun in small quantities for local sale, and ordinary farm-house methods are employed. Figs.* The fruit may be carefully picked from the tree so as to secure the whole of the stem, when the fruit is fully ripe, as is known *A special illustrated account of handling dried fies in Cali- fornia is civen in "The Smyrna Fig at Home and Abroad." by Georee C. Roeding. Fresno. Cal. by the seaming or slight shriveling of the skin. In drying the common black fig from large trees, however, the fruit is generally gathered from the ground, which is cleaned and smooth- ed before the crop ripens. In drying black figs the fruit is placed on trays and in most cases exposed to the sun, but some foot-hill growers maintain the advantage of drying in the shade. The figs should not be allowed to dry hard. When sufficiently cured, put in sweat-boxes for several days, and when ready to pack dip in boiling salt water, or, as is the practice of some producers, dip in a thin syrup, boiling hot. In either method a good, pliable condition and handsome coloi are obtained. In drying white figs many sulphur the fruit from fifteen minutes to an hour before putting out on the trays. Figs which dry slowly have to be turned several times during the drying, and those which are apt to run juice are placed so that the eye is raised a little until the juice is thickened. The white figs are also put in sweat-boxes and dipped in hot salt water before packing. In packing, the figs are often flattened and drawn out by the hand. Such manipulation gives the fig a lighter and more translucent appearance. The time required in drying figs is usually from five to eight or ten days, according to location and weather. The fruit does not cure evenly, and those which are finished (as determined by sight and touch — to be learned by experience) are picked from the trays, and others given more time. Pears.- — The dried pear product is increas- ing, and, as with apples, only a light-colored product is profitable. These are made by sulphuring and sun drying, or by the use of the machine drier. For sun drying the fruit of medium size is halved, the large fruit being quartered. Peaches. — Peaches are sun dried in much the same way as apricots, already described. Take the fruit when it is fully ripe, but not mushy: cut cleanly all around to extract the pit and put on trays cup side up; get into the sulphur box as soon as possible after cutting. Peaches are dried both peeled and unpeeled, but drying without peeling is chieflv done. Peeling is done with the small paring machines or with a knife. Peeling with lye has been generally abandoned be- cause of discoloration of the fruit after pack- ing, although it can be successfully done by How to Grew Them 381 Prune Curing frequently changing the lye and using ample quantities of fresh water for rinsing after dipping. Clingstone peaches are successfully handled with curved knives and spoon-shaped pitters in conjunction wit'i ordinary fruit knives. Different styles are carried at the general stores in the fruit ditricts, and individuals differ widely in their preferences. The weight of dried peaches which can be obtained from a certain weight of fresh fruit, depends upon the variety ; some varieties yield at least a third more than others, and clings yield more than freestones as a rule. Dry-fleshed peaches, like the Muir, yield one pound dry from four or five pounds fresh, while other more juicy fruit may require six or seven pounds. Nectarines. — Nectarines are handled like peaches ; the production of translucent amber fruit in the sun depends upon the skilful use of sulphur. Plums and Prunes. — Our pitted plums, which are an acid fruit, are meeting with more favor than formerly, and the product is increasing. Pitting is done by hand or by the use of foot-power "pitters." More rapid and capacious machines are being brought out by inventors. Prunes are one of our greatest and most promising products. Several varieties which dry sweet with the pit in are used in making prunes, as already stated in Chapter XXITI, but the prevailing variety is the Prune d'Agen. Prunes are gathered by shaking from the trees, usually upon sheets spread beneath. Several gatherings are made by light shak- ings which cause only the ripe specimens to fail. Prunes are usually graded before drying, and various home-made contrivances are em- ployed. Some use inclined planes of ad- justable slats, the grader being thus available for other fruits than prunes ; the large fruit rolls along into receptacles at the bottom, while the small fruit falls through into other receptacles. Other grading devices are made with wire screens or riddles of different sizes of mesh. Some of them work on the princi- ple of a fanning mill, three to four riddles, placed above one another, each with a slight incline, and a spout on the side where each grade drops into a box. Some have a long riddle, say twelve feet long, with three differ- ent sizes of wire screen on it. This riddle is hung upon four ropes with an incline ; the prunes are thrown in the higher end, and by shaking it they roll down and fall through the holes into boxes underneath. The first piece of screen should be small, to let only stems and dirt through, and no prunes. This long hanging screen is also used to grade prunes after drying. There are now several excellent manufactured fruit graders on sale in this State. Their work is very satisfactory, and they have largely displaced home-made contrivances. The next step in the process is dipping in lye to thin and crack the skin, which facili- tates the escape of moisture in the drying process. In the large caldron lye is made with one pound of concentrated lye to each twenty gallons of water, and kept boiling hot. The fruit is put into wire baskets or galvanized pails with perforated sides and bottoms, and dipped in the boiling lye for about a minute, or until the skin has a wrinkled appearance, then the basket is plunged into clean cold water to rinse off the lye. This rinsing water must be frequently changed, for it soon becomes very alkaline. Some be- gin with a stronger lye solution, one pound to ten gallons of water, claiming that a very short dip in stronger lye is better than long exposure in a weaker solution. After this dipping, the prunes arc placed on trays. In the sun the prune dries sufficiently in from one to two weeks, according to the situation and weather. A process of puncturing the skin of the prunes by causing them to roll over needle points has also been employed to some ex- tent. There are now manufactured very capacious appliances for continuous dipping, rinsing, puncturing and spreading on the trays so that the fruit is handled in large quantities at a minimum cost. In no branch of our fruit industry perhaps has there been greater advance in labor-saving devices than in prune handling. When sufficiently dried the prunes arc put through the "sweat," which takes from several days to two or three weeks, and then are ready for grading, finishing, and packing. In grading, the prunes are separ- ated by the use of a grader, as already described, into a number of grades, the largest, forty prunes to the pound, and so on, fiftv, sixty, etc.. to the smallest, which may Raisin Industry 382 California Fruits : run one hundred or more to the pound. Finishing consists in exposing to steam, in dipping in clear hot water, or hot sugar syrup, or in dipping in boiled juice of ripe prunes, or peaches or apples, etc. Although there is a great variety of materials used for ''glossing" prunes by different producers, the prevailing practice is to rely upon hot water, to which pure glycerine is added at the rate of one pound to twenty gallons. Some growers also add a little brine (having first dissolved the salt and skimmed ofif the impurities). This final hot dip kills insect eggs, and the fruit, after drying ofif away from the access of insects, should be packed tightly in boxes. The following explicit hints on the curing of prunes are based upon wide experience and observation in the Santa Clara valley: Be sure to allow the prunes to obtain all of the sugar they can from the trees by hanging until they drop of their own accord. Do not pick up until prunes are soft to the touch. These two rules are productive of nice black prunes. They may not be black when gathered in the bins but will color with age, without any foreign coloring matter. Do not keep prunes in bo.xes overnight. They go through a sweat, and do not make a first quality of dried fruit, and take much longer to dry. It is better to let the prunes lie on the ground under the tree for several days than to let the picked prunes lie in the boxes over one night. The dipping fluid must be kept at the boiling point and no prunes put in unless it is boiling. It is not a matter of how strong the lye is, but how hot is the water. On the trays prunes will either dry or ferment. Unless the dip is hot enough the prune v/ill not immediately commence to dry, but will, in a few days, become a chocolate color and re- fuse to drv, sometimes a few on a tray, often half and sometimes nearly all. If the water is at the boiling point all through the dip, two pounds of Ive to the too gallons of water may be sufficient. If the water is not boiling ten pounds of lye to the 100 gallons of water may be required. Weather conditions govern the time prunes should remain on the traj'. Grasp a handful of prunes and give them a gentle squeeze and open the hand quickly, if the prunes separate they are ready to stack the trays and the fruit should be placed in the bin be- fore it rattles on the trays. When the prunes are sufficiently dry put them in a dry place where it will not rain on them, but do not prevent the air from getting to them. Let the wind' have free access until the rains set in, then close doors and make the house as snug as you can. In making bins, be sure the boards are dry and the bins well above ground, or you will have trouble. Do not let prunes get damaged by rain. For dipping before packing, some use a brine dip — about five pounds of salt to too gallons of water is about right. This salt dip can be used more safely for prunes than for peaches or other pitted fruit, as in some instances it has attracted mois- ture and caused mold. As to the respective results of a salt solution and glycerine solution, the salt seems to be a cleansing process, which leaves the skin of the fruit in a bright, clear condition and brings out the blue bloom, which is desirable. The glycerine is more of a syrupy or glossy nature, and on prunes that are inclined to be reddish this solu- tion can be used to advantage. A common method of treating prunes is to use the small prunes and suspend them in the steam-heated tank of the An- derson dipper, where they cannot come in contact with the steam (which causes the skin and meat of the prune to turn dark), dissolve out the juice, thus forming a dip liquor, and this is quite extensively used. Raisins. — The varieties of grapes used for raisins are described in Chapter XXVIII. The production of raisins has reached such an e.xtent, and employs so much skill and capital, that the processes employed to facilitate the curing and packing are so various that a description of them can not be attempted. Besides, an excellent special treatise has been written on this subject.* However, in beginning the commercial pro- duction of raisins, one should visit the raisin farms and packing-houses during the harvest. The following description by T. C. White, of Fresno, gives an outline of prac- tise in the vineyard: In Fresno picking commences about the first of September, although there have been seasons when it occurred as early as the 20th of August. The grapes under no circumstances should be picked for raisins until they are ripe. There are three ways by which to ascertain this fact : First, by the color, which should be a light amber; second, by the taste; and third, by the saccharometer, which is by far the most accurate. A grape may be ripe, and not have the proper color, when grown entirely in the shade. The juice of the grape should contain at least twenty-five per cent saccharine, to produce a good raisin. The method of drying is with trays placed upon the ground. The almost entire absence of dew in our locality greatly facilitates this method. The trays are usually twenty-four by twenty-six inches, which hold about twenty pounds of fruit, and should produce from six to seven pounds of raisins. The product of a vineyard depends largely upon its age and favorable conditions, varying from two to nine tons of grapes per acre. The trays are distributed along the sides of the roads, from which they are taken by the pickers as they are needed. As the grapes are picked from the vines, all imperfect berries, sticks, and dead leaves are removed from the bunches, which are then placed upon the trays, right side up. A cluster has what How to Grow them 383 Grape Syrup is called a right and a wrong side, the wrong side having more of the stems exposed than the right side. Great care should be used in picking, so as to handle the bunches only by the stem. If the berries come in contact with the hands, some of the bloom will be removed, which will injure the appearance of the raisins. The trays are placed, after filling, be- tween the vines, one end being elevated so that the grapes may receive the more direct rays of the sun. Too rapid drying is not desirable. The grapes are left upon the trays until about two-thirds dry, which, with us, will be from si.K to eight days. They are then turned. This is accomplished by placing an empty tray on top of the one filled with partially- dried raisins, and turning them both over. Then take off the upper or original tray, and you have the raisins turned without handjng or damage. After turning, curing will proceed more rapidly, and fre- quently is completed in four or five days. During this time they should be carefully watched to pre- vent any from becoming too dry. When it is found they are dry enough, the trays are gatherd and stack- ed one upon another as high as convenient for the sorting which follows. This protects them from the sun and prevents overdrying. Stacking should be attended to early in the morning, while the stems and berries are slightly moist and cool from the night air, as they will retain this moisture after being transferred to the sweat-boxes, and assist in quick- ening the sweating process. As the raisins are taken off the trays, some of the berries on the bunch will be dry enough and a few will not be sufficiently cured. To remove the moist ones would destroy the appearance of the cluster, and to leave them out longer would shrivel the dry ones, hence the sweat-box. The moisture is diffused through the box, some being absorbed by the dry raisins, and the stems also taking their share are thus rendered tough and pliable and easily manipu- lated when ready for packing. Sorting and grading require great care and judg- ment, and although a tedious process, it greatly fa- cilitates rapid packing. The sweat-box is a little larger than the tray and about eight inches deep, and contains about one hundred and twenty-five pounds of raisins. Heavy manila paper is used in the sweat-boxes, one sheet being placed in the bottom, and three or four more at equal distances as the filling progresses. The object of the paper is to prevent the tangling of the stems and consequent breaking of the bunches when removed for packing. The sorters have three sweat-boxes, one for the first, second and third qualities, as the grade will justify. The bunches should be handled by the stem and placed carefully in the sweat-boxes to avoid breaking the stems, thereby destroying the symmetry of the clusters. Any found to be too damp are re- turned to the trays and left a day or two longer in the sun. To ascertain if the fruit is perfectly cured, take a raisin between the thumb and forefinger and roll it gently until softened, when either jelly or water will exude from the stem end — if water, it re- quires further drying. When the boxes are filled, they are taken to the equalizer. This should be built of brick or adobe, and as near air-tight as possible, but provided with windows to allow venti- lation when necessary. The windows should have shutters to keep it dark. The filled boxes are placed one exactly above another to a convenient height, and should remain from ten to twenty days or more, when they will have passed through the sweating process. When the raisins are sufficiently equalized, the sweat-boxes are removed to the packing-room, which is provided with tables, presses, scales, etc. The foregoing relates to the preparation of the standard clusters. Loose raisins are now being produced in increasing quantities. Loose Muscatels are prepared by being put through the stemmer and grader. The stemmer removes the berries from the stems, and the grader, by separating according to size, determines the grade. During the last few years the seeding of raisins has in- creased rapidly, and large establishments for this work, with very ingenious machinery, have been erected. Seeded raisins promise to constitute a considerable portion of the product. A considerable quantity of dipped raisins are also made of the Sultana and Thomp- son seedless grapes and of loose or inferior Muscatels. A lye dip of about one pound ot potash to twelve gallons of water is used, and the solution is kept boiling hot. The ripe fruit is dipped for an instant, then plunged in fresh water for a thorough rins- ing, and then placed on the trays. During warm, dry weather in the interior, the rai- sins are dried in the shade by leaving the trays in piles, but if cooler, moister weather prevails, the trays must be spread out. The product is a handsome amber color. An oil dip has been profitably used with Thompson's Seedless : One quart olive oil ; ^4 pound Greenbank soda and 3 quarts water are made into an emulsion, and then reduced with 10 gallons water in the dipping tank, adding more soda to get lye-strength enough to cut the skins, and more soda has to be added from time to time to keep up the strength. The grapes are dipped in this solution and sul- phured to the proper color. GRAPE SYRUP. The manufacture of grape syrup, which was formerly of considerable prominence ■ as a means of disposing of wine grapes, has recently received less attention because of low prices in competition with the vast amount of syrup available from the sugar refineries. PART NINE: PRUIT PROTECTION. How to Grow Them 387 Classes of Insects CHAPTER XL. CALIFORNIA METHODS WITH INJURIOUS INSECTS. THE California climate, which so favors tree and vine by a long, mild, growing season also enables some insects to multiply much more rapidly than they do in wintry climes; some having several distinct broods, others carrying on the work of reproduction and destruction of plants nearly the year round. The difficulties of the problem of the control of injurious insects are con- stantly being increased because new pests, in spite of the most careful efforts to keep them outside our boundaries, occasionally find their way into our orchards and vine- yards. Furthermore native species, feed- ing, unnoticed perhaps, upon wild growths have found, in certain instances, that culti- vated plants offer to them most satisfactory food and then suddenly become a factor in the horticulturists' problem Undoubtedly parasitic and predaceous insects preying upon the injurious species found in the fruit plantations are of assis- tance, in greater or lesser measure, in reduc- ing the pests, and this service is being promoted by the introduction of beneficial insects from other parts of the world. There are many of our native species of insects, also syrphus and ichneumon flies, lady birds, etc., that are valuable in this regard. Other factors also, such as untoward weather- conditions at the time of hatching, bacterial and fungous diseases of insects, etc., assist the horticulturist in his warfare against in- jurious insects. It is also a fact that Cali- fornia conditions have demanded and favor- ed the development of ways and means for the suppression of orchard and vineyard pests, and methods and appliances have been invented which have demonstrated notable efficiency and value. While the literature upon the subject of insect pests in California is quite extensive. *I am indebted to Mr W. T. Clatke. assistant professor of Horticultural of the University of California. Berkely. for care- ful revision and extension of this chapter. much of it is beyond the reach of the gen- eral reader. Nevertheless there are a number of publications which should be secured and studied by every fruit grower. These are' the bulletins and reports of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of California, at Berkeley ; of the State Board of Horticulture, at Sacramento; and of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture, at Washington. A most useful addition to the horticulturist's library will be found in Kellogg's "American ' Insects," published by Harvey Holt and Company, New York. This excellent work of Professor Vernon Kellogg, of Stanford University, is particularly valuable because of its California observations and point of view. Furthermore as the study of the pests and the invention of means for their destruction are continually progressing one can only keep himself up to date and enable himself to profit by improvements, by diligent reading of California periodicals devoted to practical horticulture. CLASSES OF INSECTS. In order to arrange injurious insects in classes in a popular way, the grouping here will be based upon the character of the work they do. This arrangement has been followed by other writers and is perhaps better than attempting to group the insects which prey upon any single tree or plant, because injurious insects seldom restrict themselves to a single food plant. There- fore the grouping will be as follows : (i) Insects destroying foliage; (2) Insects upon the bark or upon the surface of leaf and fruit; (3) Insects boring into the twig, stem or root; (4) Insects boring into the pulp of fruits. Cut Worms and Ariny Worms 388 California Fruits : INSECTS DESTROYING FOLIAGE. Cut Worms and Army Worms.* — These are the larvae of Noctuid moths, which often become abundant over limited areas and do much damage to trees and plants. Cut worms and Army worms are terms applied to the same insects in California. In ordi- nary years they are not present in sufficient numbers to cause much concern, and in such years they are known simply as cut worms. When all conditions are favorable, however, ■certain species develop in enormous numbers and having exhausted the food supply where Army worm (Hetiophila unipuncta) they breed, they begin to migrate or march, cofnmonly in a definite direction, as an army in search of new food. When they thus appear in such large numbers and take on the migrating habit they are called army worms. Some of the caterpillars have the habit of climliing up vines and trees and eating off the buds in the early spring. These are called climbing cut worms. Others remain at or near the surface of the ground and feed by cutting off the plants at this point. They are more commonly found in the grass lands, but very frequently attack cultivated crops, particularly on land that was in grass the previous year. •Adapted from Bulletin 192. Acr. Kxp. Station. Uiiiversitv California. Berkeley. Of the methods used to protect trees and plants from cut worms, poisoned bait is probably the most common. This con- sists of bran and molasses or other sweet substance poisoned with arsenic and dis- tributed in handfuls about the plants. The proportions are as follows : forty pounds of bran, two gallons of cheap molasses, and five pounds of arsenic. Cheap glycerine may be used to prevent the mixture from drying. This will be eaten by the worms in prefer- ence, usually, to the plants which it is desired to protect. Cut worms and army worms may also be captured by means of traps. Because of their habit of feeding at night and remaining concealed during the day, pieces of boards may be placed on the ground around the growth to be protected and these may be turned over during the day and the worms killed. In case of outbreaks of army worms the most important and successful means of fighting them is to keep them out of the or- chard or vineyard entirely. This can be successfully done if they are discovered in time, or if already in one portion they can be kept from spreading over the rest of the jiroperty. They travel in immense numbers in a definite direction, coming generally from an adjoining or nearby grain field. If a fur- row is plowed along the side of the place to be protected it will effectively step their progress. This furrow should be plowed a , deep as possible, with the vertical side next to the field to be protected. It can be further trimmed with a spade, iireferably cutting under slightly, making a smooth sur- face, over which few if any, of the worms will make their way. Above this shoulder fine pulverized earth should slope as abruptly upward as possible. If any of the worms succeed in climbing up over the smooth surface made by the spade they will be prettv sure to fall back as they reach this fine loose earth in an attempt to ascend over the projecting shoulder. Postholes should be dug on the straight edge of the furrow every fifteen or twenty feet. The worms in failing to scale the vertical side of the furrow will crawl alonsr in the bot- tom and fall into these holes. Here thev mav be killed bv pouring in a little crude oil. or by pouring in a little distillate and How to Grow Tliem 389 Red Humped Caterpillars dropping in a match, thus burning them, or the holes filled in and others dug. They may also be killed in the furrow by sprinkling them with kerosene or by pouring a strip of crude oil along the furrow. Canker Worms. — These are destructive leaf-feeding caterpillars, commonly known also as inch-worms, loopers or measuring worms, because of the peculiar loopirig gait by which they move about. The male moths are slender bodied and have broad thin wings, while the females are wingless, heavy- bodied creatures. and tack the top edge close to the trunk of the tree over a bandage of cloth which is put on first to make the joint tight. The lower edge should flare out about an inch from the tree all around. This trap will need rather frequent cleaning while the moths are active. Tent Cateri^illars. — Several species of hairy caterpillars called "tent caterpillars," or "web worms," from their spinning covers of cobweb-like material, under which they take shelter in large colonies ; but one, at least, of the group docs not spin a web, ^if^^l^ While these caterpillars can in large meas- ure be controlled by spraying with lead arsenate or Paris green, it is by far the best to use the trap method of control and avoid having them upon the trees at all. The trap method depends for its success upon the fact that the wingless female moth upon emerging from her cocoon in the ground immediately crawls up the trunk of the nearby tree and places her eggs upon the twigs. Ry trapping the females on their way up into the trees no eggs can be placed near the foliage and the caterpillars hatching from them can do no damage. The traps are made thus : Take No. i6 or No. 14 wire cloth in strips six inches wide, draw though it lives in clusters on the tree. The worms can be killed by cutting oS and burning the twig holding the cluster or by burning the colonies in place with a torch on the end of a pole, or by spraying the foliage with lead arsenate or Paris green. The pest can be reduced while pruning by carefully collecting and burning the egg clusters, which encircle the twig. Red-Humped Caterpillar. — Striped cat- erpillars, not hairy, but having two rows of black spines along the back, also living in clusters ; of reddish color with yellow and white lines ; a short distance back of the red head of the caterpillar is a red hump Leaf-Eating- Beetles 390 California Fruits : on which are four black spines ; black spines are also scattered over the body, but smaller than those on the back. Spray with lead arsenate or Paris green, or cut off and burn colonies. Caterpillar op Tussock Moth. — A con- spicuous caterpillar with four short, brush- like tufts on its back, and two long, black plumes at the front, and one at the rear of the body — see engraving. This leaf- eater is found on apple, pear, plum, and sometimes on other fruit trees, also on the walnut and oak. The caterpillars are pecu- liarly resistant to arsenical sprays and cannot be successfully controlled by these. The larva spins a cocoon sometimes in the fold of a leaf, more commonly in crotches or rough places on the bark, or even on adjacent iDuildings or fences, and the female, after emerging from the cocoon, deposits her eggs upon the outside of it. The engravings show caterpillars and their peculiar mark- ings. The insect is fortunately very freely parasitized in the egg form and prevented from wide injury. It can be controlled by destroying the egg masses during pruning, as they are white and very conspicuous.* Pear and Cherry Slug. — A small, slimy, dark-colored worm, with the fore part of the body notably larger than the rear part, eat- ing the upper surface of the leaves but not usually making holes through them. The insect can be checked by throwing fine road dust or air-slacked lime over the tree, which cakes upon the slime of the worm and de- stroys it. On a large scale an arsenate of lead or Paris green spray is best. Saw-Fly Worms. — There are several lar- vae of saw-flies which do much injury to pear trees, currants, etc., by eating the whole leaf substance except the larger ribs. The worms are small, not slimy like the ]iear slug, the one infesting the pear being about half an inch when fully grown. Its general appearance and work are shown by the engravings. The most available remedy is an arsenate of lead or Paris green spray. Large Caterpillars on Grape-vines.! — The grape-vine is often seriously injured by the attacks of very large leaf-eating worms two inches and upwards in length, sometimes with a large horn, or spine, some- times without. They are larvae of several species of Sphinx moths or hawk-moths. The worms when new hatched can be killed by an arsenical spray or by hand-picking. The numbers of worms can be reduced by killing the large moths which are abundant at night- fall on beds of verbenas, or other garden flow- ers. These worms are related to other large caterpillars which feed on tobacco, tomatoes, etc. Leaf-Eating Beetles. — There are many beetles, large and small, which infest grape leaves. They can all be reduced by the use of arsenate of lead or Paris green, or those which drop to the ground when dis- turbed may be collected in large numbers on sheets spread below. *See Bulletin 183. University of California, Collese of Agri- culture. tSee BuHetin 192 University of California. Agricultural Experimental Station. How to Grow Them 391 Vine Hoppers The most notable of these because of its evil work in the central part of the State, and because the grub destroys the roots of the vine causing it to be called the "grape root worm," and the beetle riddles the leaves and young fruit. It is Adoxus vitis and a special study of it has been plants. The attack on leaves and buds causes them to wither and fall off. Indeed complete defoliation may follow their attack. When thrips infest fruit blossoms the essential parts are eaten off by the insects and the attacked blossom sets no fruit. Much damage is done by this insect and thorough investi- The tussock-moth I, made by Professor H. J. Quayle, of the gations are now under way looking to the University Experiment Station, the results development of practical means for its of which are published in Bulletin 195 control. of the station and remedies suggested. Our pictures will enable the reader to recog- nize the beetle and its work. The beetle is about one-fifth of an inch in length and is black or brown. INSECTS UPON BARK OR SURFACE OF LEAVES OR FRUIT. Leaf LicE.^ — Leaves of fruit trees, especial- ly the apple and plum, are sometimes almost covered with lice or aphides of different colors, from light green to black, some in- dividuals having wings and some wingless. Available remedies for all these leaf lice are the kerosene emulsions which will be given later as summer washes for scale in- sects, with a spray nozzle which sends spray upwards, so as to reach the under sides of the leaves. Very often these pests are apparently cleared out by lady-birds and other insects which devour them. The en- graving shows the general form of the aphis tribe. Thrips. — Very minute insects infesting Vine Hoppers. — Very minute, yellowish, buds, leaves and blossoms of pears, prunes, jumping insects infesting grape-vines very cherries, peaches and many other trees and early in the season, and multiplying rapidly. Larvae of tussock-inoth feeding on apple foliage and fruil Grasshoppers 392 California Fruits The vine hopper ( often called incorrectly the vine thrips) is the most widely distributed and most uniformly present of all the grape insects occurring in the State. It occurs in injurious numbers, however, chiefly in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. It is also present in the coast counties, but rarely in sufficient numbers to do much injury. Another larger species {Tettigonia atropunc- tata) occurs in these localities and sometimes does considerable injury in the early part of the season. The principal injury caused by \\ Adull ot the grape -greatly enlarged. this insect is due to the extraction of the plant juices. These are sucked out by means of a sharp beak or proboscis, which is in- serted into the plant tissues. The most satisfactory method of control is in the use of a hopper cage to be used in the early spring when the young shoots of the vine are about four or five inches long. The hopper cage, shown in an adjacent en- graving, consists of a framework of laths over which is tacked a double layer of mos- quito wire netting or a single 20-mesh wire screen. The bottom consists of a shallow pan or tray made by turning up about an inch of the edges of a sheet of light galvanized iron. One entire side of the cage is left open, and there is a V-shaped opening in the tray at the bottom which allows the cage to be pushed over the vine. The base of the V- shaped opening in the bottom is padded with leather and the vine is bumped and the hop- pers jarred off, at the same time that the cage is being swung into position. The sides of thiC cage and the tray at the bottom are smeared with crude oil, and the hoppers as they are jarred ofif are caught in the oil. If there is a breeze blowing the cage can be operated with the open side facing the wind and practically no hoppers will escape. If, however, the day is calm and warm and the hoppers are particularly active a curtain can readily be dropped over the open side as the cage is pushed onto the vine, and it will prevent any from escaping. The V-shaped opening which might allow hoppers to drop to the ground in front of the vine can be covered with canvas, as follows : Take two pieces of canvas about the shape of the opening and a little wider. Double this once on itself and between the two ' layers sew in pieces of three-fourths inch rubber tubing transversely. These are then firmly tacked on the sides of the opening as shown in the engraving. This will allow '.he cage to be pushed in on the vine and the fle.xibility of the tubing will bring the canvas immediately into position again. This with the curtain in front, shuts ofif all possibility of escape. False Chinch-Bugs. — Small, grayish- brown insects (about one-eighth of an inch long when fully grown), which injure the vine leaves. They drop to the ground when the vine is disturbed, and may be caught as just described for vine hoppers. Gr.'VSSHOPPEks. — These pests often invade orchard and vineyard, and sometimes kill the plants outright by completely defoliating them. This plague has been successfully met by the use of the arsenic and bran remedy, prepared as follows: Forty pounds of bran, two gallons of cheap syrup, five pounds of arsenic, mi.xed soft with water ; a table- spoonful thrown by the side of each vine or tree. If placed on shingles about the vineyard, much of the poison not eaten may be afterward gathered up and saved.* *For the protection of nurseries, orchards, and vineyards it is often necessary to resort to various devices for excluding the prasshonper. or for de-tro\in« them upon adioininn tields. Publications describing such devices are Bulletins 142. 170 and 192, University Hxperiraental Station, Berkeley. How to Grow Them 393 Red Spiders and Mites Red Spider and Other Mites. — Very bag at the end of a pole. Sulphur sprays minute insects, usually discernible only with have been found most eflfective in control- the aid of a magnifier, sometimes destroy the ling the red spider. The ingredients of the leaves, causing them to lose their color sulphur sprays are as prepared as follows : Grape leaf showine tha vork of the adoxus beelk-. and health by their inroads upon the leaf surface. The recj spider and yellow mite are conspicuous examples ; they infest nearly all orchard trees, especially the almond, prune, and plum. The eggs of the red spi- der are ruby-red globules, as seen with the magnifier, and are deposited in vast numbers upon the bark of the tree, and leave a red color upon the finger if it is rubbed over them. The eggs are very hard to kill, and treatment is most elifective when applied in the spring and summer after the mites are hatched out. The popular remedy is a thor- ough dusting of the trees with sulphur. On a large scale the sulphur is applied in a cloud by means of a modification of the broad-cast barley sower. On a small scale it may be applied with a bellows as for grape-vines, or shaken from a cheese-cloth Flour Paste. — Take one pound of wheat flour to one gallon of water. Place the fi&ur in a box with a screen bottom (common win- dow screening), and pour the water through it, until all the flour has been washed into the receiving vessel. It will then be finely divided and free from lumps. The mixture should then be brought to the boiling point, being stirred constantly, thus forming a thin paste, without lumps. The paste is conveniently made in 20-gallon lots, using the common 25-gallon kettles so often found on California ranches ; if large kettles are not available, the paste can be boiled in less water and then diluted to the above proportions before cooling. The paste should be strained before using. Sulfid of Potash Stock Solution. — Granu- lated, or powdered concentrated lye, 15 The Wooley Aphis 394. California Fruits pounds; sulphur, i8 pounds; water to make 20 gallons. Stir the sulphur and lye togeth- er in a vessel which will allow plenty of room for boiling. When well mixed, add about one pint of water, placing it in a slight hollow in the mixture, and stir in slowly. The mixture spraying after the danger of rains is over, the minimum amount of sulphur is sufficient. Phylloxera. — This pest of the grape-vine is closely allied to the aphides, and lives both upon the root and leaf, though in this State the root type prevails and the leaf form is seldom seen. No remedy has yet been found effectual, but escape is had by using roots resisting the insects, as described in Chapter XXVI. The insects are reco.gnized, by the Hawk Moth la iPhilampeles achemon Drury.) Hawk moth IPhilampeles achemon Drury.) aid of a magnifier, as minute yellow lice, chiefly on the rootlets. Full account of the ... , . , , , ., ^ . insect is given in Bulletin IQ2, University of will soon begin to melt and boil, formins' a r^ i-r • tt • <. c^ i- , „ ., J. ^., , .... ' s , California Experiment Station, red fluid ; stir until the boiling ceases, and then add water to make 20 gallons. This The Wooly Aphis. — A louse of dark stock solution will keep for awhile, or indefi- red color, occurring in groups, covered with nitely when protected from the air. a woolly substance which exudes from the Preparation of the Spray Mixture with Sulfid of Potash. — Place 10 to 15 pounds of sublimed sulphur, or 14 to 20 pounds of ground sulphur in the spray tank with 4 gal- lons of flour paste and i to 2 gallons of the sulfid of potash stock solution ; add water to make 100 gallons. For summer or spring botlies of the insects. The woolly aphis is an almost universal pest of the apple, though as shown by experience, some varieties are practically exempt from it. As the pest lives both upon root and top, its annihilation is impossible, but it may be reduced so that the fruitfulness and vigor of the tree are not How to Grow Them 395 San Jose Scale impaired. The use of wood ashes around the tree close to the trunk has been beneficial. Removing the earth from the root-crown and applying from two to five pounds of tobacco in gasoline or benzine, but the oil should not be allowed to spread upon the bark. Lady- birds often clear away the wooly aphis, after reproduction has fallen below the normal, Wingless partheno-genetic fe Winged male. Forms of Leaf Aphis— greatly enlarged. Wingless Female dust — a refuse from cigar factories — destroys the insects at this point and prolongs the effective life of the tree. The insect on the The vine hopper cage. branches and twigs can be reduced by spraying with the summer washes soon to be given for scale insects, or the clusters of the insect can be touched with a swab dipped from th° tree above ground. Some attention is being given to trial of resistant roots and it is likely that such roots will be generally used here as in Australia. How such trees are grown is described on page i6o. Scale Insects. — This is a large group of pests which occasion greater loss and trouble to our fruit growers than all other pests combined. There are many species, and no orchard tree is exempt from the attacks of one or more of them, though some trees are apparently more popular with the pests than others. The fruit grower should study their life history and classification as laid down in the works on entomology. It will only be Ijossible in this connection to introduce a few engravings, by which some of the most promi- nent pests can be recognized, and to give some of the remedies which are now being most successfully employed against them. San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus). — This was formerly one of the worst and most widespread of the species of scales preying on deciduous fruit trees in California, but at present, owing to the energetic war that fruit growers have had to wage against it, has become of minor importance, and, in fact, has practically disappeared from some regions where it was formerly most injurious. The work of this species is generally readily dis- tinguished from other species of scale by the red blotches which are formed wherever it stings any part of the tree — either branch. Citrus Tree Scale 396 California Fruits leaf, or fruit. These red blolchei are more pronounced in some varieties than in others. When the scales are present in large numbers, it causes a complete discoloration of the bark clear to the sap-wood. This scale has its preference among the deciduous fruits. The apricot and certain varieties of cherries and plums are but little affected. ^^^UiVfci^ Root form of Phylloxera. A healthy root; b, root on which the lice are working, repre- senting the knots and swellings caused by their punctures: c. root deserted hy lice and beginniny to deca\ : rf. d, (I, show how the lice appear on the larger roots: e. the nymph: f/. winged female. After Riley. The Greedy Scale {Aspidiotiis raj^ax). — This species affects many kinds of trees, de- ciduous as well as evergreens. Scale, about one-sixteenth of an inch in length; form, ovoid ; color, drab ; female, bright yellow. This insect is found in many places along the coast. It is distinguishable easily from the Aspidiottis pcniiciosiis by its whitish-yellow color, contrasting with the dark color of the latter. Generally this scale has only one brood in the season, and, as compared with the San Jose scale, it is of little danger, owing to its slow-breeding propensities. Oyster Shell Scale of Apple (Lcpido- saphcs uliiii). — This scale affects the apple chiefly, although sometimes the pear also. Owing to the thickness of the armor, it is one of the most difficult of the scales to exterminate. It is easily recognized by its long curved form. Rose and Berry Scale (Aulacaspis rosae). — This scale has such striking forms that it can be readily recognized. The round white scale is that of the female, the elongated one with ridges is the male. The rose scale in- fests, besides roses, various fruit bushes, especially blackberries and raspberries. Rem- edy : For raspberries and blackberries the cutting down of the canes to the ground should be adopted, and the stumps sprayed or washed with kerosene emulsion, recom- mended under the head of general remedies for scale insects. Oleander Scale. (Aspidiotns hederac. — This scale is small, flat, yellowish-white. It affects a great many trees, especially ever- greens. Lemon trees become badly aft'ected, and the fruit is sometimes completely covered. The olive is also subject, and the fruit of the olive when infested does not mature well, and wherever a scale is found, a green blotch makes its appearance. Red Scale of Orange and Lemon (Chrysomplialcs aurantii). — This scale affects citrus trees in both the coast and interior regions. The scale fully grown is one-twelfth of an inch or a little more in diameter, center yellow, margin light brown. The appearance of trees infested with this pest is very strik- ing, very much resembling those diseased from other causes, such as bad drainage, the leaf presenting a mottled appearance, a light blotch around the scale contrasting with the natural green of the leaf. The branches are but little troubled, but the fruit, like the leaf, becomes completely covered with the insects. An orange tree infested with this scale gradu- ally becomes sickly and languishes. Other Citrus Tree Scales. — Two scales more recently brought into this State from Florida are the "purple scale," Lepidosaphes hcskii. and the "long scale," Lepidosaphes gloverii. The red and purple scales of citrus trees are only treated successfully by fumi- gation with 'hydrocyanic acid gas. This treat- ment is an elaborate one, requiring special appliances which are fully illustrated and How to Grow Them 397 Brown Apricot Scale described in Bulletins 122, 152 and Circular II, which can be had free by application to the Agricultural Experiment Station at Berkeley. The Black Scale {Saissctia olcae). — This scale is almost a universal pest, especially in regions adjacent to the coast, though it has recently demonstrated its ability to endure interior valley conditions. It affects citrus fruit trees and some deciduous trees as well, and a fungus growing on its exudation causes the black smut, which renders tree and fruit unsightly ; but this smut accompanies other The black scale iSaissetia oleae.) scale insects as well as this one. It is especi- ally troublesome on the olive, and will quickly spread to ornamental plants and vines in the garden. It is a very difficult scale to subdue. On citrus trees the fumigation method is the only practical recourse. On deciduous fruits it requires both winter and summer spraying to hold it in check. In spite of the fact that immense numbers are killed by parasites, and perhaps by fungi as well, it is still a grievous pest, and should be fought unceasingly. twelfth to one-seventh of an inch ; color, dark brown on convex part, and a lighter brown surrounding margin ; it has two in- dentations on each side, and one on posterior end. This scale prefers to collect on the un- der sides of the leaves along the midrib, the upper sides being covered with smut. It for- tunately is usually held in check by natural agencies. Brown apricot scale {Eulecanium aTtneniacum.) Brown Apricot Scale. — The apricot tree, though defying the most ruinous scales of some other trees, is beset by certain scales. The black scale is one and the brown apricot scale another. The brown apricot scale {Eulccanium Anneniaciini) is boat-shaped; when reaching maturity, wrinkled ; the color is a shiny brown, darker in the center, lighter at the edges. A full-sized scale has a length Hemispherical scale [Saisietia hemispherical,) Soft Oilvxge Scale (Coccus Hcsperi- duni). — This scale is a pest of citrus trees the world over. The scale is ovoid, a little wider at one end than the other ; length, from one- of a quarter of an inch, and a width of one- eighth of an inch. This scale attacks nearly all kinds of deciduous fruits, but especially the prune and apricot. It is a very hardy scale, and the remarks about the black scale apply to it also. Mealy Bugs 398 California Fruits ; Other Lecaniums.- — There are several other scales on fruit trees: The filbert scale {hemisphericiim) , which is common in green- houses and occurs to limited extent on citrus Frosty scale [Eulecaniam pruinosan.) trees; the frosted scale {pruinosum), very large, oval and convex, covered with dense, whitish bloom, occurs on deciduous fruit trees. Cottony Cushion Scale or Fluted Scale (Iccrya purchasi). — This promised at one time to be the most grievous of all scales in its rapid increase and wide range of food Mealy Bugs. — Closely allied to the scales are the mealy bugs (species of dactylopius), soft and of a pale pink color, generally cov- ered with a whitish mealy powder, hence the name. The common species is found in nearly every greenhouse in the world, and in California climate lives in the open air on many kinds of plants, and has at various times proved quite troublesome. Unless checked by natural enemies, the mealy bugs multiply very rapidly, and mass themselves in the corners of the leaves. The plants turn A common outfit in California for cooking the lime, sulphur and salt. plants, but it was speedily reduced by an Australian ladybird, A'oz'ius (Vedalia) cardi- nalis, introduced by Albert Koebele, with such success that specimens were for a nutn- ber of years rarely seen, but have recently become abundant in some localities. black from the fungus growth growing on the honeydew, and the bush presents the same appearance as a scale-infested plant. With the aid of a magnifier the appearance of the mealy bugs, as different froin scales can be readily recognized. How to Grow Them 399 Insect Boring Remedies for Scale Insects. — Though most of the scale insects are attacked by para- sitic and predaceous insects, as already stated, these natural agencies have generally not proved rapid enough to cope with the increase of the scales, and insecticides have to be employed to save the fruit and trees. There is a vast number of these washes, many of which will do good work if thoroughly applied, which is usually the secret of suc- cess. A few which have proved of special value will be given herewith: A WINTER WASH FOR DECIDUOUS TREES WHEN LEAFLESS. Lime Salt and Sulphur Remedy.— T\\c following formula has been used with great success through- out the State : Lime 30 pounds Sulfur 20 pounds Salt 10 pounds Water 60 gallons For preparing the wash two vats or boilers are necessarj', and if the spraying is to be done on a large scale, one of these at least should hold a couple of hundred gallons. If but a small number of trees are to be treated, ordinary iron kettles will an- swer the purpose. Of course, the preferable way of cooking the wash is by means of live steam. First place two or three inches of water in the boiler, and to this add the sulphur, which has previ- ously been made into a paste by mixing with hot water in order to remove the lumps, or sift the dry sulphur through a mosquito wire-netting and stir it thoroughly. Then add about one-fourth of the lime, and when the violent boiling has ceased add another fourth, and so on until the required amount of lime has been added. Hot water should be added with the lime as needed, so as to make the mixture of a creamy consistency. Too much water will "drown" the lime, while on the other hand too little will cause incomplete slaking of the lime. In this way the heat generated by the slaking of the lime is taken advantage of, and by adding the sulphur first plenty of time is given for removing the lumps. By the time the lime is thoroughly slaked the fire should continue the boiling, so that the time of boiling begins with the addition of the lime. The salt and about one-fourth of the water should now be added, and the whole boiled from one to two hours, keeping it frequently stirred in the meantime. At the end of this period screen into the spray tank and add the necessary amount of hot water, and apply to the trees hot. The wash when properly made is a heavy reddish-brown liquid, very caustic and having a strong sulphur odor. The heavier materials settle upon standing, leaving a lighter liquid both in color and weight. Stock solutions of lime-sulphur compound are now being furnished ready for dilution by California manufacturers. WASHES FOR ALL TREES WHEN IN LEAF. Kerosene Emulsion. — Take kerosene, two gallons ; common soap, or whale-oil soap, one-half pound; water, one gallon. Dissolve the soap in the water and add it boiling hot to the kerosene. Churn the mixture by means of a force pump and spray nozzle for five or ten minutes. The emulsion, if perfect, forms a cream which thickens on cooling. Dilute before using, one part of the emulsion with nine parts of cold water. To obtain this emulsion in proper form violent agitation is necessary, the time required depending upon the violence of the agita- tion and temperature of the mixture. Professor Cook's formula is this : "Dissolve in two quarts of water one-fourth pound of hard soap by heating to the boiling point, then add one pint of kerosene oil and stir violently from three to five minutes." This is best done by use of the force pump. This mixes the oil permanently, so that it will never sepa- rate. Add seven pints of water and the wash is ready for use. Resin Soap. — Take ten pounds of resin, one and and one-half pints of fish oil, three pounds of caustic soda (76 per cent), and enough water to make fifty gallons. Place all the ingredients together in the boiler with water enough to cover them three or four inches. Boil one-half hour, or until the com- pound resembles very black coffee. Dilute to one- third the final bulk with hot water, or, if cold water is used, add very slowly over the fire, making a stock mixture to be diluted to the full amount as used. When spraying, the mixture should be perfectly fluid and without sediment. This mix- ture can be used twice or three times as strong on deciduous trees when dormant. INSECTS BORING IN TWIG, STEM, OR ROOT. Peach Twig-Borer or Peach Worm*. — This larva is probably the most serious insect pest that the California peach grower has had to contend with. The creature hibernates as a young larva in burrows in the crotches of the tree. As soon as the tree begins to grow in the spring the larva becomes active, eats its way out of its winter home and bores into the new growing twigs causing them to wither and die. Later generations of the worm attack the fruit and from the two. forms of attack much loss may accrue to the orchardist. Destruction of the larvae in their winter burrows overcomes all damage froin these pests. This can be accomplished by spraying with the lime, sulphur and salt compound (see with the lime, sulphur and salt compound in the late winter or very early spring. Experimental Peach Crown- Borer 400 California Fruits : The Common Borer. — An insect which has done vast injury in this State "is the "flat-headed apple borer" {chrysobothris fem- orata). It affects chiefly apples, peaches and plums, etc., which have been injured by sun- burn. It is a pale-colored grub with a brown head, the forepart of the body being greatly flattened. The matured beetle is greenish black or bronze colored, copper colored on the under side. If any tree receives any damage to the bark, either by sunburn or other causes, the borer is sure to find it, and it works itself into the tree, its castings being the only guide to its presence. The best remedy is preven- tion by protection from sunburn, as described in Chapter XI. Whenever a borer is -emoved, the debris and dead wood should be entirely Peach [wig showing winter burrow, natural size. cleaned out and the smooth surface left, tak- ing care to preserve the bark as much as possible. Then the wound should be smeared over with grafting wax, and a rag tied about it. In this manner young trees have been saved, but if seriously attacked, it is better to put in a sound tree and protect it. Sun-Scald Borer. — Another borer which delights in sunburned trees is a minute beetle, making a burrow hardly larger than a pin- hole. It js known as the sun-scald beetle (Xylobonis xylographtis). The remedy, as in the former case, is to prevent injury to the bark, for this precedes the attack of the beetle. The Olive Twig-Borer. — A reddish brown beetle boring into twigs of olive and other orchard trees, and grape canes, at the axils of the leaves. It is Polycaoii confertiis, and it breeds in decaying logs and stumps and old grape-vines, apparently visiting the fruit trees merely to gratify its appetite. Its work is not fatal to the tree, but unless proper prun- ing and attention be afterwards given, it may spoil the shape of a young tree. Remove the affected branches below the burrows of the beetle, or if it would be difficult to re- place a branch, see that the beetle is destroyed and the entrance to the hole stopped up — this to prevent decay and a weak branch follow- ing. Spraying with ill-smelling solutions may prevent their attack, but the insect has not been sufficiently abundant to invite serious effort thus far. Peach Crown-Borer. — A grub boring into peach trees just below the ground surface, its presence being shown by copious gumming. The insect, which has become quite trouble- some in Santa Clara County, resembles the Eastern crown-borer of the peach, but is a distinct species {Sanninoidea opalcsccns). The best methods of suppressing this insect are three. A preventive treatment consists in coating the base of the tree a few inches below the surface and a foot above with a whitewash, with a pint of coal tar to each five pounds of quicklime, put in while the lime is slaking. This should be done in April. A killing treatment which has proved effec- rive and safe to the tree is carbon bisulphide,- when wisely used. Mr. Ehrhorn gives these precautions : Carbon bisulphide should not be applied when the soil is wet or just before a rain, nor just after cutting out borers and putting on lime and other preventives. Avoid putting it on the bark of the tree. Procure a machine oiler which will hold about How to Grow Them 401 The Apple Worm eight ounces of carbon bisnlphide, remove the soil around the trunk of the tree about six inches wide and six inches deep, being sure to detach all soil adhering to the trunk of the tree. After this is done, fill in this space with loose soil to the level again. Now .squirt the liquid a few times from one to one and one-half inches away from the bark around the tree, and cover immediately with six inches of soil. Borers have been killed in from twenty hours to three days ; after they are found to be dead, the soil should be removed from around the trees so that any remaining fumes of bisulphide can be dis- sipated. The method in most general use is known as the "worming process.'' This consists essentially in carefully cutting out and killing the individual bor- ers. Special tools have been devised for this work. pests of the State. It preys chiefly upon the apple and pear, but the quince and otlier large fruits are sometimes invaded by it. The first moths appear at some time after the blossoming of the apple, and deposit their eggs on the young fruit, or an adjacent leaves. The young worm hatches in from seven to ten days, generally seeks the eye or calyx, and eats its way into the fruit, and in twenty days its full growth is attain- ed, and it goes out through the side of the apple, and, by means of its spinnaret. reaches the ground or some large branch. If landed on the ground, it usually seeks the trunk. A nearly full-g: Magnified four dii A full description of these processes can be found in Bulletin 143, University of California, College of Agriculture. Strawberry Root-Borer. — The larva of another clear-winged moth (Aegeria impro' pria), boring into the root of the strawberry plants, found in various portions of the State, and doing considerable damage, forcing the growers to resort to replanting much earlier than otherwise would be necessary. Flooding the vines has a great tendency to kill out the worms, and if the water was retained, say four or five days during the winter, all over the plants, doubtless all the larvae would be killed. Currant and Gooseberky Borer. — A white worm eating out the central pith of currant and gooseberry plants — the larva of another clear-winged moth {Aegeria tipiili- formis). Spraying with whale-oil soap after the crop is gathered, pruning out and burning in the fall of all old wood which can be spared, will reduce the evil. INSECTS DEVOURING THE PULP OF FRUITS. The Apple Worm. — The codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) is one of the great which it ascends and soon finds a hiding- place under the loose bark, where it spins its cocoon, and in eight or ten days comes forth a moth, ready to lay eggs anew. The egg is laid all over the fruit, and especially at a point where two fruits touch. Usually we have in this State two broods, at least, but sometimes three, and, naturally, if un- checked, the increase from the first to the last is enormous. The worms escaping from the fruit in the fall hibernate as larvae tin- der the loose bark of the tree, or iti store- houses, or in any available dry place. On the basis of long experience in the Watsonville district Mr. W. H. Volck, county entomologist, gives the following outline of operations against the apple worm : There are two broods in a season. The first develops from worms that have wintered over in protected places both above and in the ground. The moths of the first generation begin emerging in .Vpril. but very few eggs are laid before the middle of May. In this locality egg-laying is then continuous until the last of June. The full-grown worms of the first generation after emerging from the apples seek some hiding place where they may rest for a few days, transforming into pupa and then into full-grown moths. Ants and Yellow Jackets 402 California Fruits The moths of the second generation hegin laying eggs early in August and may continue to do so as late as October or November. It is the worms of the second generation tiiat do the greatest amount of damage. The codling moth lays its eggs on the surface of the leaves and fruit. The eggs are about the size of a small pin-head, circular and flat. The color varies from white to pink and red. These eggs are easily seen when the observer knows what to look for. The young worms hatch from the eggs about ten days after laying, and then begin crawling about in search of fruit to burrow into. This short period between the hatching of the egg and the entrance into the apple is the only time that spraying opera- tions can prove effective. It is clearly impossible to accomplish an3'thing by the use of sprays that will only kill by contact, for such sprays would have to be applied nearly every day. The spraying opera- tion must then leave a deposit of some substance on the fruit that will kill the worms when they attempt to burrow through the rind. The only substance now known that answers these require- ments are the compounds of arsenic. Arsenic is, however, poisonous to plants and must be applied with caution. The arsenic compound used must be entirely insoluble in water, and not subject to weathering, in order that it shall be perfectly safe. The wet fogs of the Pajaro valley summers give arsenical spray compounds a very severe test and it has been found that only the best quality of arsenate of lead is able to stand it. Arsenate of lead may do very severe burning, however, if it is not of the proper quality. It is a well known fact that a large percentage of the worms of the first generation 'enter at the blossom ends of the apples. This part is protected or more or less closed over by the leaves of the calyx. The calyx cups close very shortly after the petals fall, and so it is advised by the best authorities to spray as soon after the falling of the blossoms as possible in order to leave a deposit of poison there. In the Pajaro valley and adjoining sections weather conditions often prevent spraying at this time, but where possible to apply, the calyx cup spraying is advised. Good results have been obtained by spraying in the early part of May, which is considerably after the calyx cups have closed. Spraying at this time gives much the same effect as the calyx cup applica- tion, especially where it is applied with proper thoroughness. This early spraying is applied before any worms have appeared and is intended merely to have the poison in readiness for the insects when thev do come. The first codling moth spraying should contain Bordeaux Mixture as a precaution against the scab : Bordeaux Mixture — Copper sulphate 3 pounds, lime 4 pounds, water 50 gallons. Arsenate of Lead — Use 2.V2 to 3 pounds of ar- senate of lead to each 50 gallons of Bordeaux. The Bordeaux Mixture should be prepared first, and enough space left in the tank to allow for the addition of the arsenate of lead and the water re- quired to mix it. The second spraying should be applied from the last of May to the first ten days in June, and is intended to augment the effect of the first spraying by further covering the rapidly expanding fruit. For this spraying use 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. No Bordeaux should be used with this spraying, for the previous sprayings containing Bordeaux will have controlled the scab, and the further use of the f\mgicide is likely to russet the apples. Very few eggs are laid during July, so if the second spraying has been applied about the first of June it should suffice to control the first genera- tion attack. The second generation worms begin to appear about the first of August, so a spraying is due at this time. For the third spraying, use 2 pounds of ar- senate of lead to 50 gallons of water. If the apples are to remain on the trees through September they should receive another spraying about t!ie first of this month. For the fourth spraying, if the other three have been applied according to directions, use 1% pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water. The schedule of sprayings above laid out should control the codling moth under average conditions, and even where the insect is extremely abundant should yield 95 per cent, clean fruit. The codling moth is much affected by weather conditions, and if there is a large amount of cold fog during the summer the damage will be much reduced. The Peach Worm. — As already stated, the larva of the peach moth, which early in the spring bores into the twigs, is sometimes found later in the season in the flesh of the peach. Hence the importance of saving the fruit by proper winter treatment of the hiber- natina: worms. ANTS AND YELLOW JACKETS. These insects are often of serious trouble during fruit drying. Ants are inost effectually disposed of by slightly opening their holes in the ground by thrusting down a crowbar and pouring in a couple of ounces of carbon bi- sulphide and closing again with earth. Yel- low jackets also nest in the ground in old squirrel or gopher holes, and they too can be suffocated with carbon bisulphide or by pour- ing in gasoline or kerosene and firing it. Hornets which nest in trees are troublesome, but are much less numerous than the cave- dwelling species. To destroy yellow jackets by trapping and poison is also feasible. W. F. ]\Ioycr, of Napa, proceeds in this way : Make a thin fruit syrup by mashing the boiling ripe fruit, strain it and add a little sugar. Place How to Grow Tlieiii 403 Disinfecting Nursery Stock the syrup dishes on the drying groinid where the "jackets" are thickest. When the top of the syrup is covered with drowned and drowning "jackets," scoop them out w'ith the hand, and crush them with the foot. They won't sting unless you pinch them. .\s the syrup evaporates fill up the dishes with water. If a day or two should elapse when no fruit is cut, he sure the traps are well cared for, as they will swarm around them thicker than ever, espi ially if the weather is hot. For dishes to place the .yrup in, cut kerosene cans so as to make two can . each about six and one-half inches deep. Poisoning to carry destruction to the young brood is also practicable. Dr. J. H. Miller, of San Leanclro, savefl his fruit in this way : I bought half a dozen beef livers, five pounds of arsenious acid and several pounds of baling wire. Cutting the liver into pieces as large as a man's fist, I put them into a hot solution of arsenious acid, and, bending the wire into a hook at each end, I suspended the pieces from the lower limbs of trees all around my drying-ground. The fruit was soon deserted, and the little insects busily working at the fragrant liver. The insects carried pieces of the liver to their nests, and besides causing the death of those that had been destroying my fruit, the next generation of yellow jackets was also destroyed, and so complete was the destruction that there were not enough of the little pests in that neighborhood the following year to require a repetition of the treat- ment. There is no risk in so using the poison, for the yellow jackets will not return to the fruit, and- liees will not go near the meat. The Di.abrotic.x. — A light green beetle witli twelve spots on his back (Diabrolica sornr). is sometimes very injurious to early fruit, by eating into it when ripe. The insect also eats leaves and blossoms. As the insect attacks the fruit just as it is ready to pick, it is impossible to apply any disagreeable or poisonous spray. Sometimes the insects are driven away by dense smoke from fires in and around the orchard. The. Dried Fruit Worm.— Dried fruit is often seriously injured after packing, by a small worm, larva of a moth not yet deter- mined. The eggs are deposited on the fruil cither while drying or while in the packing- house, or through the cloth of the sacks, or seams of the package. The eggs may be killed on the fruit before packing, by dipping in boiling water, or by heating in an oven and after that preventing the access of the moth. Infested fruit can also be treated by bisulphide vapor, the method being the same as described for nursery stock below. DISINFECTING NL'RSERY STOCK. Cuttings, scions, young trees and vines, etc.. can be freed from insects by inclosing in a tight box or cask and placing a saucerful of carbon bisulphide on the top of them, cover- ing it with canvas or any tight-fitting cover. The bisulphide vapor will destroy all insect life in forty minutes. Disinfecting such materials on a larger scale may be done in this way : Use square canvas sheets, si.xteen to twenty feet in diameter, made of the best ducking, double stitch- ed and then painted with boiled linseed oil to make it gas proof. The canvas must be perfectly dr\ before it is rolled up, or it is liable to be destroyed by spontaneous comlnistion. To fumigate evergreen stock use one ounce of cyanide of potassium (in lumps, not pulverized), one fluid ounce of com- mercial sulphuric acid, and two fluid ounces of water to one hundred cubic feet of enclosed sp;ioe. For deciduous and hardy trees, when dormant, use one-fourth more of each of the above. When the canvas has been placed over the stock to be fumigated, prepare the charge. Take a three or four-gallon glazed eartlicnware jar, into which pour the necessary quantity of water, then the sulphuric acid, and place it well luider the canvas, the edges of which are secured with soil or in some way .so as to prevent the gas escaping, with the exception ot the edge immediately in front of the jar. The proper amount of cyanide of potassium is then drop- ped into the jar from a long scoop, and the teni is immediately closed, and remains so fiu- one hour. It is hoped that this chapter will convey useful hints in the warfare against insects. Whenever questions arise which are not met thereby, appeal should be made to the L'ni- versity Ex])eriment Station at P.erkeley. Leaf Spotting 404 California Fruits CHAPTER XLI. DISEASES OF TREES AND VINES. A FEW suggestions concerning pathological conditions which arise in trees and vines and prescription of treatment and remedies may be helpful : First, diseases demonstrat- ed to be caused by fungi and bacteria; second, abnormal conditions, of which the causes are not vet clear. Effect of mildew on young growth of grape vine. Powdery Mildews. — Fungi which bring upon the leaf surface the appearance of a whitish powder and afterwards cause the leaf to curl and dry without producing marked swelling, perforation or discoloration, can be checked by the use of sulphur. The chief of these is the mildew of the grape, the mildew of the apple, appearing chiefly on the young growth, etc. The way to use sulphur for these fungi is to throw finely ground or sublimed sulphur on the young fo- liage at the first sign of the trouble, either bv hand or with suitable machinery which is fully discussed in Bulletin i86 of the California Experiment Station. Leaf-Spotting, Puncturing or Deform- ing Fungi. — These classes are usually dis- tinguishable by the results they produce. The mildew of the peach produces dense, whitish patches on the leaves and growing fruit ; the curl-leaf fungus of the peach pro- duces swellings and contortions of the leaf ; the scab of the apple and pear produces first a smoky appearance on the leaf and after- wards causes black scabby patches on the fruit and on the young twigs ; the slot-hole fungus of the apricot, plum, cherry, and .ilmond cuts roundish holes in the leaves as though a shotgun had been discharged through the foliage, and then, in the case of the apricot, produces roundish, dark red pustules on the fruit ; the brown rot which attacks both twigs and fruit of apricots, prune, blackberry, etc., produce eruptions on plums and peaches ; the rust fungi of the the under sides of the leaves, first of a yellowish or orange color, changing to dark iDrown or black, and causing the leaf to fall. These fungi are only slightly, if at all, checked by the dry sulphur treatment, and are best subdued by the use of copper solutions : Tlic Bordeaux Mixture. — Lime, four pounds; blue- stone (sulphate of copper), four pounds; water, forty gallons. Use part of the water to slake the lime and dissolve the bluestone, which should be done in separate vessels. The bluestone should not be put in a metal vessel. If put into a bag and suspended near the surface of the water, it will dis- solve more readily, or hot water may be used in making the solution. Both should be cold when mixed, and the resultant mixture will be a beauti- ful blue wash. If mixed hot, a black compound (copper o.xide) is produced, which reduces the value of the wash. After thorough mixing of the solu- tions, water should be added to bring the bulk up to forty gallons. This is safe to use on foliage. It may be used much stronger when trees are dor- How to Grow Them 405 Toadstool Destruction mant, — as strong as ten pon"'!'^ of lime and ten pounds of bluestone to lu, . , gallons of water to kill spores of fungi on the bark, but the chief advantage of the stronger mixture is not directly in spore-killing but in the longer resistance to removal by rains. This winter treatment is a successful pre- ventive of curl-leaf on the peach, shot-hole on the apricot, scab on the apple and pear, rust on the prune, etc. In the case of the peach blight, which is an invasion of the young bark by the shot-hole fungus, an autumn spraying is imperative to protect the Mixture, viz. : Copper carbonate, four ounces ; ammonia, forty ounces ; water forty gallons. The usual way of making this wash is to dissolve copper carbonate in ammonia, and then dilute. If the carbonate is not fully dissolved before the water is added, it can not be further dissolved, and not only is the carbonate wasted, but the fluid will not be up to standard strength. It is well, there- fore, to give the ammonia ample time to act, say over night, before adding the water. The lime, salt and sulphur mixture, as al- readv prescribed for scale insects in the Machine ready to sulphur the vines for mildew on the University farm. dormant twigs.* When the fungus survives winter treatment or when it attacks the fruit, as in the case of the apricot particularly, or the leaf in the peach, there should follow the weaker Bordeaux in the spring or summer, as early as indications of the dis- eases may appear. In spraying for apple and pear scab, the addition of five pounds of lead arsenate to each one hundred gallons of the Bordeau.x Mi.xture makes the appli- cation answer also for the codlin moth, as described in the preceding chapter. When it is desirable to use a fungicide on fruit near the picking season, or on orna- mental plants, which would be disfigured with the lime wash, the ammoniacal copper car- bonate may be substituted for the Bordeaux preceding chapter, is an active fungicide for winter use. It is sometimes a satisfactory curl-leaf preventive in the interior valleys especially. Toadstool Desthlction. — Trees are often destroyed through invasion by toadstool fungi from the decaying roots or wood with which their roots come in contact. The injury is often not detected imtil the tree is ruined and it is too late for treatment. If only part is affected, the disease may sometimes be arrested by cutting away the diseased parts and disinfection of the exposed tissue with the Bordeaux Mixture. Moss, Lichens, etc., on the Bark. — It has been clearly shown by investigation at the University Experiment Station that the growth of moss, etc., upon the bark of fruit trees is a decided injury. .\11 trees should Diseases not Traceable 406 California Fruits be assisted to maintain clean, health)- l)ark. This is accomplished by the use of the lime, salt and sulphur mixture already prescribed for scale insects. It can also be done by winter spraying with caustic soda or potash, une ]iound to six gallons of water. bacterium, has so far resisted treatment. The disea.se is recognized by black sunken spots on the hull of the young walnut ; gen- erally worst at the blossom end and usually first seen there early in the season ; later the s])ots run together and encompass consid- Effect of brown rot on fruit and twigs of apricots. Ulights .\ni) Dicc.ws. — There are several lilights which are traceable to bacteria, para- sitic growths which are not discernible as are the fungi, and not usually amenable to spray treatment, because they exist wholly within the tissues of the plant and are not reached by applications. The blights of the pear, the black heart of the apricot, the olive tuberculosis, etc., are instances. Cut- ting back to healthy wood (with tools dipped after each cut in corrosive sublimate, one part to one thousand parts of water), and burning all removed parts is the best treat- ment which can at present be prescribed. The walnut blight, demonstrated by Newton I'.. Pierce, of Santa .\na, to be caused bv a crable areas of the surface. As the disease ]jrogresses the nut is transformed into a hateful black mass and is utterly destroyed. The disease also affects the leaves and young- wood. The recourse seems to be toward re- sistant varieties, as stated in the chapter on the walnut. Lemon I\ot. a fungus disease destructive to the fruit in the orchard and during cnring or in trai-isit, is fully expounded in Bulletin }i)0 (if the L'niversity Experii-nent Station. DISR.XSES XOT TRACEABLE To PARASITIC GROWTHS. 'inhere are a number of proininent troubles which are not traceable to parasitic invasion How to Grow ThfUi 407 Sour Sap i)f any kiiul. aiul \L-t may lit- in ^nnie caso promoted by l)acterial >jrn\vth invited by precediiisj' conditions. to ^I'ow anil then ibe young growth shrivels. Severe cutting l)ack of the top to reduce evaporation until the roots can restore their The peach blight — twijjs from sprayed and unsprayed trees. SoL'k S.'\i'. — There is a t'ernieiitation of tlie sap, quite noticealile by its odor, wliich may be found in all parts of the tree, from the root to the topmost twigs ; sometimes in one part and not in another. Sour sap in the root is generally due to standing water in the soil, and the remedy is drain- age. Trees thus affected make an effort feeding fibers is the only treatment of the tree, ani.1 its success depends upon the ex- tent of the root injury. Sour sap may also be caused in the branches by the occurrence of frost after the sap flow has actually started. Cutting back the diseased parts, as soon as discovered, to sound wood, is the ])ro])er treatment. Root Knots 408 California Fruits Die-Back. — Dying back of twigs or branches may occur without parasitic inva- sion through root-weakness or partial fail- ure. It may be due to standing water or to lack of soil moisture, either of which will destroy the root-hairs and bring the tree into distress. The treatment is cutting back to sound wood and correcting the soil con- ditions, either by irrigation or drainage, as one or the other may be needed to advance vigorous growth in the tree. fully demonstrated as yet and the University Plant Disease Laboratory, at Whittier, is undertaking careful and wide studies of which the results will appear in the Uni- versity bulletins. When there is an out- break of ginn where it can be treated it is desirable to cleanly remove all the un- healthy bark — cutting clean to sound bark and covering the wound with paint or wax to exclude the air. Tuberculosis of the olive. GuM.MOSis. — This is a convenient term to designate the gimiming which is seen on many kinds of trees. As has been said of die-back, gumming may result from ex- cess of water or of drouth in the soil. Gum- ming is, therefore, not considered in itself a disease, but rather an indication of con- ditions unfavorable to the thrifty growth of the tree. It has been usually found by investigation that trees in perfect condition of health, with the moisture just enough and not excessive, are not troubled with gumming; but there are cases in which this statement does not wholly apply. There is very much in this connection which is not M 1 " i£.' ' jiH^HI 1 1 L J pi^^ '" .^ Crown knot on peach just hi-low ground. Root Knots. — These are excrescences upon the roots or at the root crown of various trees and of grape-vines, and they have been a serious trouble in this State for a good many years. Some of the knots have been studied by experts in plant pathology and the cause of the trouble demonstrated to be a fungus and the disease infectious. A satisfactory treatment has, however, been discovered. If the knot has not increased in size sufficientlv to seriously interfere with How to Grow Them 409 Bacterial Blig-ht the growth of the tree it can be smoothly and filling the hole with bluestone solution, removed, the wound treated with the Bor- hut some trees have been killed in this way. Effect upon the nuts of the bacterial blight of walnuts. deaux Mixture, and the knot will not lUucstone can be used with least danger reappear at the same place. Success has also when the tree is dormant, been had with Iiorina: a hole into the knot Rabit Fences 41(1 California Fniits CHAPTER XLli. SUPPRESSION OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS AND BIRDS. Tl 1 K beasts of the Held and the fowls of the air are sometimes such grievous tres- passers upon the fruit plantation that pro- tection has to be sought against them. The animals which figure in this evil work are mainly species of rodcntia. some of them burrowers, as, for example, the ground-squir- rel and gopher ; others, surface dwellers, like the hare or jackass rabbit. Occasionally there is injury done by deer in the orchard and vineyard, and coons in the melon patch, but these larger animals may usually be left to the hiuiters and the dogs. RABBITS. Though there are three species prevalent, iKiiic are burrowers. This fact has led to united efforts at their suppression by driving them, with mounted horsemen, from a wide stretch of country into a narrow, fenced inclosure, where they are killed with clubs. During the last few years tens of thousands have been killed in this way, and comparatively few are now found in the localities where the method has been adopted. Still, however, there are plenty at large to vex the fruit planter, and he must protect himself against them. Rabbit Fences. — The surest protection agains rabbits is a fence which prevents their entrance, and many miles of such fence have been built in this State. Several styles pre- vail. The ordinary board fence, with the boards running horizontally, is made rabbit - proof by placing the lower boards close to- gether, with openings of but about two inches between them. A barbed wire, with barbs about two and one-half inches apart, can be used to advantage by running it along at or a little below the surface of the ground to prevent scratching under. The cost of board fences has led to the use of barbed wire and wire nettings, or of perpendicular slats interwoven with wire Such materials are sold in large quantities. .\ very effective combination of barbed wire and netting, which is used in the upper San Joaquin N'alle)-, is described as follows : The tall posts are regular split redwood posts. The intermediate small ones are made by sawing in two the regular posts and splitting them into eight small posts, or rather, large stakes. The netting is of galvanii^ed wire, No. 19 gauge, and one and one- half inch inesh. This netting is stapled to the posts and stakes on the inside, or toward the field. Thi,"^ is of prime importance, as it will not serve the purpose if it is placed on the outside. The bot- tom of the netting is to come down to the ground. and the ground must be left hard, and not plowed to prevent burrowing or scratching the dirt from underneath, which can be easily done if the dirt is softened up. It is not at all necessary to set the net- ting below the ground. In the sketch are shown three barbed wires, with barbs two and a half inches apart. These wires must be placed on the out- side of the posts. This position is also a prime necessity. The lower wire is stretched just clear of the surface of the gound. The middle wire is one inch higher than the top of the netting, and the top wire, which is intended only as against cattle, is at a height suitable for the purpose. The rabbit- proof portion is comprised in the netting and the two lower wires. Hence, if cattle are not feared, and rabbits are the only foe, the top wire can be dispensed with, and the posts can be all short with a greater proportion of stakes, having only enough stout posts to stand the strain of the wires. The dieory of this construction is that a rabbit can only pass the fence over the top or under the bottom of the netting, and this is effectually prevented by the barbed wires, which tear the animal if it attempts either to leap or climb over or to scratch under. Smears Distasteful to Rabbits. — Where the expense of a fence can not be assumed, measurable protection can be had by sprin- kling the leaves or smearing the stems of plants with substances distasteful to the animals, which are quite dainty in this respect. Commercial aloes, one pound to four gallons of water, both sprinkled on leaves and painted on the bark, gives a bit- ter taste, which repels rabbits. A tea made by steeping quassia chips is said to pro- duce the same effect. Rancid grease, liquid manure, putrescent flesh or blood, have been How to Cirow Them 411 Ciophers approved as a daub tor tree- truiik>. but the efficacy is only of limited duration. Rabbit Poison. — Pieces of watermelon, cantaloupe, or other vegetable of which they are very fond, may be poisoned with strychnine and then scattered around the orchard. Rabbits will not touch the bark as long as they can find this bait, and one meal i,i effective, for the rabbit never gets far away from it. The same results can be ob- tained by the following mixture. To one hundred pounds of wheat take nine gallon-. a few graui> eacli hole : should be placed in Take strychnine, one onnce; cyanide of potassinm. line and one-half ounces; eggs, one dozen; honey, one pint ; vinegar, one and one-half pints ; wheat or harley, thirty pounds. Dissolve strychnine in the vinegar; and yon will have to pulverize it in the vinegar, or it will gather into a hinip. See that it is all dissolved. Dissolve tlie cyanide of potassium in a little water. Beat the eggs. Mix all the in- gredients together thoroughly before adding to tlie l)arley. Let it stand twenty-four hours, mixing often. Spread to dry before using, as it will mold if put awav wet. A r.ibbit-rroot fence in successful use in ilic San Jcaguin Vaile of water and one pound of phosphorus, one pound of sugar, and one ounce of oil of rhodium. Heat the water, to boiling point and let it stand all night. Next morning stir in flour sufficient to make a sort of paste. The rabbits eat it with avidity if scattered about. Another preparation is half a teaspoonful of powdered strychnine, two teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and four of granulated sugar. Put all in a tin box and shake vvell. Pour in small heaps on a board. It hardens into a solid mass. They lick it for the salt, and the sugar disguises the ])oison, which kills great numbers. GROUND-SQUIRRELS. Ground-squirrels are poisoned by the use of the poisoned wheats which are sold in the markets, or by use of bisulphide of carbon, or "smokers," which are arranged to force smoke into the holes. A small (juantity of bisulphide of carbon poured into the hole, and the hole closed with dirt, is probably the most effective squirrel killer, when the ground is wet, so that the vapor is held in the burrow. Smokers are also most effective when the soil is moist. When the ground is dry, poison is the best means of reducing squirrels. The following is an exceedingly effective preparation, of which To keep scjuirrels frcjui gnawing fruit trees, or climbing and getting the fruit, tying a newspaper around the trunk of the tree, letting the |)aper extend out four inches at the upper edges, is said to be effective. The rattle of the paper when the squirrels attempt to get over it will frighten them. GOPHERS. Gophers can often be destroyed by the use of poisoned wheat, especially prepared with a little oil of rhodium, which seems to be very attractive to all rodents. Pieces of fruits or vegetable, or the succulent stems of alfalfa, into which a few grains of strych- nine have been inserted by making a cut with a knife-blade and then squeezing it together again, are also handy conveyors of death to gophers. There are two ways to put poisoned materials into a gopher runway. One is to look for fresh open holes and put in the poison as far as possible with a long-handled spoon ; another is to take a round, pointed stick and shove it into the ground near the gopher mounds until it strikes their runway, then drop in the poison- ed bait. Close up the hole with some grass ; level down mounds, so that if the poison does not kill all the gophers, you will soon dis cover their new mounds. If there are manv Destructive Birds 412 California Fruits : mounds, put the poison in a number of places. Bisulphide of carbon is also successfully used in killing gophers, while the ground is wet, using an injector which is furnished with the poison to force the vapor through the long burrows. Trapping Gophers. — Some are very suc- cessful in using gopher traps, of which there are several styles sold. Gophers come to the surface in the night, and generally close their holes soon after daybreak. They frequently emerge again about noon, and a third time late in the afternoon. It is best to set the trap in an open hole ; still, the holes may be opened if the dirt is still fresh, with a good prospect of the gopher's return. Therefore, the trapper may make his rounds three times a day, as above indicated. Care should be exercised in preparing the hole for the insertion of the trap, a straight hole for a distance of at least ten inches, with no lateral branches, otherwise the gopher in pushing out the dirt will likely enough thrust the trap to one side, cover it up, or spring it, without being exposed to its grasp. The trapper should be supplied with at least two varieties of traps — one for the larger go- phers, and the other for the smaller ones. The common iron gopher trap, which springs downward, is excellent for the former, and the small wire trap, which springs upward, is generally successful with the latter. The size of the hole is indicative of the size of the gopher. Either trap should be inserted nearly its full length into the hole, pressed down firmly, and a little dirt piled at the outer end to prevent its being easily pushed out. After the trap is set, it is well to cover the opening with some grass or weeds. Sometimes the holes require a little en- larging, but care should be taken to make the fit as close as possible, that the body of the gopher may be kept near the center, and thus more exposed to the prongs of the trap. In the fourth place, the trapper should have a small spade and a little gouge-shaped in- strument for trimming the hole. Gopher Pitfalls. — If gophers are abun- dant, large numbers can be captured in this way : Dig a trench around the orchard or vineyard about the width of a spade and from fourteen to sixteen inches deep. In the bottom of the ditches, about a hundred feet apart, sink five-gallon oil cans, leaving the tops level with the ditch bottom. The gophers migrate in the night, and in at- tempting to come into the inclosure will fall into the ditch and then run along the bottom until they drop into the cans. Of course the ditch must not be wider than the cans. As many as fifteen live gophers have ben found in one can. The cats soon learn to help themselves out of the cans. The ditch must be kept clean, and if any roads cross the tract, set up a board at night, to compel the gophers to tumble in the ditch. This ditch should be constructed about the first of June, when the outside feed begins to dry up, and the pests rush for the culti- vated ground. With such protection from the outside, and the use of poison and traps inside, the trees and vines can be saved. DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS. Fruit growers generally appreciate the value of insectivorous birds, but there are feathered pests which do such ruinous work in disbudding the trees in spring-time, and in destroying ripe fruit, that protective meas- ures have to be adopted against them. The so-called "California linnet," which is not a linnet, but a finch (Carpodacus frontalis), a persistent destroyer of buds, and the English sparrow, infamous the world over, are probably the most grievous pests, though there are other destructive birds, including the beautiful California quail, which is protected bv law, and yet must be destroyed in some parts of the State or the grape crop must be abandoned. For the killing of the smaller birds poison is usually employed, and it is best administered in water. Poisoned water made of one-eighth ounce of strychnine to three gallons of water and placed in shallow tin pans in the trees, has been widely approved. Cutting oranges in halves, spreading strych- nine over the cut surface and empaling the half oranges on twigs high up in the apricot trees, has destroyed hundreds of linnets Some advocate the use of the shotgun, No. 30 caliber, with a small charge of good powder and No. 10 shot. As many as five hundred linnets have been killed in two days. The advantage of this plan is that one kills linnets and not other birds, while poison kills both friends and foes. How to Grow Them 413 Wind and Frosts CHAPTER XLIIl. PROTECTION FROM WIND AND FROSTS. Tl UJL'GH tile climate of California renders unnecessary the protection against rigor- ous weather which fruit growers in some othei parts of the world have to provide, there is often advantage in securing shelter from winds and protection from late frosts. The general subject of forest planting in California, and the effect of preservation and extension of our forest area upon our fruit industries, has received the attention of our best-informed growers. The planting of shelter belts at intervals across our broad valleys at right angles to the courses of pre- vailing or most violent winds, has also been urged with great force. These greater enter- prises and projects are beyond the scope of this treatise. It is rather concerning the planting of trees to shelter individual posses- sions that a few suggestions will be offered. It has been already remarked that on the immediate coast the successful growth ol fruit will sometimes be wholly dependent upon proper shelter from prevailing winds, and in regions farther from the ocean the topography may induce strong currents ot air which will illy affect trees and vines. In all such places the fruit grower should plant windbreaks, and will find himself well repaid for the ground they occupy, by the successful production on the protected area. In the interior valleys there is also need of shelter from occasional high winds which may visit the orchards either in summer or winter, and prove destructive both to trees and fruit. In some cases long lines of shelter- ing trees have been cut down because they affected the fruiting of orchard trees planted too near them, and afterwards the losses through lack of protection were far greater than would have been incurred by retaining them. What Ki.\d oi" Trick.s to Pi.a.xt. — This is a question concerning which there is much to be learned. Data is accumulating in tlie growth of trees planted to test their suita- bility, and the future planter will have more certain ground to proceed upon than is now available. Mention will be made, however, of a few trees, which are now most widely grown. The most widely-planted shelter tree is ihe Eucalyptus globulus, or Australian blue gum. It is a rapid grower and voracious feeder, and wonderful for root extension, for which it has been roundly abused. It is doubtful, however, whether we have a better tree for high growth, and consequent large area over which its shelter will be felt. It is deficient in undergrowth, and if a close screen is de- sired, the planting of eucalyptus and Monte- rey cypress {Cnprcssus macrocarpa) is a common practice. The latter also attains good height, but its broad, thick base fills the gaps between the bare stems of the gum trees. Another tree which has often been planted with the blue gum, to supply a tliick, low growth, is the pepper tree {Schiitus uiollc). It is also grown in rows by itself. It makes a dense head, grows rapidly, and flourishes without much care. Trees planted eighteen feet apart will soon come together and make a dense wall of very beautiful, bright, light-green foliage. The pepper is not only a good windbreak, but also an ex- cellent dust-catcher. Unlike most trees which are used for this purpose, it does not become laden with dust. The leaves are smooth and glossy, and therefore repel the dust ])articles, which, stopped in their flight by the dense foliage of the tree, instead of clinging to it drop to the ground. The growth of the pepper tree near the coast is much slower than that of the Monterey cypress. The eucalyptus and the c)-press for the coast, and the eucalyptus and pepper for the interior valleys, make, probably, as per- fect a w-all of foliage all the year round as can be had. The blue gum is, however, some- what subject to frost killing, especially when young, and in very frosty places is objected Protection from Frosts 414 California Fruits: to on that account. A number of otlic-r species of eucalyptus are now l)eing planted, and are being foimd more hardy than ihc blue gum. The rostrala. nuiis, polyant/wma, aiuygdalina, z'iiniiialis and others are of tiiis character.* The Monterey pine [Piitiis irsignis) i> a rapid, high-growing tree, and, though a native of the coast, has proved itself well adapted to the interior valleys of the central portion of the State. Its foliage is dense for a pine, and its shelter, therefore, the more complete. A native white cedar ( FAbocedrus dccurrcns) has also been employed as a shelter tree in the San Joaquin Valley, and is commended as a rapid grower in the interior as on the coast. Its ability to stand drouih. heat and frost is said to exceed that of any of the conifers of the seacoast. It stands well in the most exposed situations, as its roots run very deep into the earth and it is claimed that it does not sap the fertility from the soil around its base, as with the blue gum. It is also said to be less sub- ject to frost injury than the Monterex cypress and pine. All the foregoing are evergreen trees, and therefore afford protection summer and winter alike. Of deciduous trees there are many which may be well employed. The California black walnut makes a very satisfactory growth both in the interior and mpoii the coast, and is largely used for roadside plant- ing. The California broad-leaved maple (Acer macrophylla) is very beautiful, rapi>I in growth, and dense in foliage, and the same is true of the box elder (Acer uegrundo). but probably both trees are especially suited to the coast regions. Of the poplars, the Carolina (Popiilus iiionilifera) is best, be- cause of its breadth, density of folia.ge, and comparative freedom from suckering. The locust (Robiuia pscitdacacia) is used to some extent, but its suckering is very objectionable. Quite a number of the larger-growing de- ciduous fruit trees are used to some extent along the exterior lines of orchards for the protection of the inclosure. The fig, the walnut, the chestnut, seedling almonds, and apricots are especially cominended for such use. *Eucalyptu.s planting has and our aKficultural journals subject. Publications can'alsc .Sacramento and the t^niv Berkeley. recentb- been ordel\ promoted are full of information on the be had from the State Foiester. ■rsitv Experiment Station al (ikowixc, Tki-:i-:s from Seed. — Much that has been said in Chapter VIII will be sug- gestive to one who desires to grow his own shelter trees from seed. Trees from small seeds are best grown in boxes, and in many cases, as with eucalyptus and cypress es- pecially, do best when put in permanent place when quite small. Whether put at once in permanent place, or in nursery, the land should be deeply worked and the young plant well planted and cared for. CuLTi\ATioN OF ShElter TreEs. — If one desires rapid growth of shelter tree.^-, they should be cultivated the first few years as thoroughly as an orchard. Much disappoint- ment results from allowing roadside trees to shift for themselves in a hard, dry soil. With such treatment the root extension is naturally most rapid into cultivated orchard ground, which is undesirable. Cultivate and enrich the roadside, and the tree will grow chiefly on the waste land. At the same time the roadside will be prevented from produc- ing vast quantities of weed seed, to be blown over the fence, and the place will have a name for neatness, which is too rare even in Calif(irnia. PROTECTION FROM FROSTS. Much attention has been given during recent years to the protection of citrus fruits as they approach maturity, and of deciduous fruits as they are starting on their growth, from occasional fall of the mercury a few degrees below the freezing point. It has been shown by ample experience that fruits may escape injury by a temperature of 28 degrees if the ground surface is wet and the exposure be but of short duration. Fruit has, there- fore, been saved by irrigation, while that over dry ground has been nipped by the same temperature. About the same result has been secured by checking radiation of heat by cov- ering the orchard or vineyard with a cloud of smoke. Roth these protective measures fail when the temperature falls a few degrees below 28 degrees or when such freezing tem- perature is continued several hours. During the last fifteen years, at Riverside, systematic invention and trial of frost prevention ha.- jjroceeded, and the satisfactory results of one device is thus described by Mr. E. W. Holmes : Sritisfactory results have been gained by the use of soft coal, liinned in wire baskets su.spended under How to Grow Them 415 Uuniino- Crude Oil 1)1- iK-twccn llic trc-LS. Wlicn twenty to forty of tliosc to tlie acre were used, wc occasionally raised tne temperature from three to five degrees. More has been claimed ; but this is all that I am sure has been achieved. However, in a section where the temperature would not go below twenty-five or twenty-six degrees for a few hours, this method was ample. The outfit costs about ten cents a basket, or four dollars an acre if forty baskets are used, and the coal about two and one-half dollars an acre per night. The objection is the labor of replenishing the baskets in case of their being used the second night, because even if kerosene is poured upon the kindling, it is no easy task to light four hundred tires with a torch. Four men will be required to do this in proper time. Still, this is the system more generally approved here, and because definite and certain results have been achieved through it. Other effective device.s are pots for hurninrv crude oil, stoves for burning briquettes ot inflammable material, etc. The best accounts not only of the conditions favoring the occur- rence of frosts, but the details of frost-fend- ing methods are given in the publications of Professor A. C Mc.Adie. U. S. \\'eather Bu- reau. .Merchants' Exchange. San l>"rancisco, which are available on application to him. These resources have been chiefly resorted to for protection of citrus fruits, the value of which as the crop is maturing will warrant the cost. With deciduous fruits thus far only smoke and steam clouds from burning piles of damp rubbish have been employed, except in irrigated regions where, if frost threatens while the ground is dry, the limited efficacy of running water is resorted to. There is ample field for farther experiment in all lines of frost ])revention. Where there is trouble from early activity of deciduous trees, the trees may be kept dor- mant for a limited time by winter spraying witii whitewash, which reflects heat and thus prevents activity. Experiment has shown that heat upon the aerial parts of the tree starts the growth ; it does not come from the roots as was formerly sup])osed. PART TEN: MISCELLANEOUS. How to Grow Them 419 The \'alue of Fruits, Etc. CHAPTER XLIV. UTILIZING OF FRUIT WASTES. SOME prot^ress has been recently attained in the secnring of horticultural by-pro- ducts from various kinds of fruit wastes. There is a considerable product of cream of tartar from the pomace and lees of the wineries in central California. In Southern California citric acid factories have to some extent used lemons rejected in packing, and some other by-products of citrus fruits have been secured The disposition of waste fruit by growers must, however, always lie chiefly in the line of feeding animals unless de-natured alcohol enterprises should arise to consume it at prices to pay something more than cost of handling. Refuse fresh fruits of all kinds, and especially refuse dried fruits have nutri- tive value which should not be lost. A state- ment of tlic value of various fruits as com- Comparative Value of Fruit.s, and Hay, Grains, Meals, Etc. lOU POIINDS KRUIT KQUIVALENT TO POUNDS OF is FRESH FRUIT.S Apples 84 Oranges 33 Pears 40 Plums 50 Prunes 46 Apricots 40 Nectarines 43 Figs 50 Grapes 50 Watermelons 22 Nutmeg Melons 19 DRIED FRUITS Dried prunes 175 Dried apricots 194 Dried peaches 190 Dried figs iHtJ Raisins 216 20 24 15 15 17 16 18 16 13 9 13 19 23 14 14 16 15 17 15 12 8 12 23 30 17 18 20 19 20 19 15 11 15 30 36 22 24 25 24 26 24 20 14 20 27 33 20 22 23 22 24 22 18 13 18 23 29 17 18 20 19 20 19 15 11 15 26 30 19 20 22 21 23 21 17 12 17 30 37 23 24 26 25 27 25 20 14 20 30 37 23 24 26 25 27 25 20 14 20 13 16 10 10 11 11 12 11 8 6 H 11 13 8 9 9 it 10 9 7 5 7 104 125 78 82 88 84 92 84 67 48 68 115 138 86 90 97 93 102 93 74 53 76 113 135 85 88 95 91 100 91 72 51 74 110 132 83 S5 93 89 97 89 71 50 72 128 153 97 100 108 103 111 103 82 59 84 in small quantities. Vinegar from wine and cider are, of course, made here as everywhere in fruit coimtries. There has arisen also a profitable e.xport demand for fruit pits and apricot and peach pits, which formerly were burned, are now selling profitably — machinery for cheap e.x- traction of the kernels having been contrived by California inventors. The kernels are bought by agents of European manufacturers of oils and essences. pared with various cattle foods has been pre- ]iared by Prof. M. E. JaflPa, of the University Experiment Station, in the table upon the next page. A good average of the pitted fresh fruits is represented by prunes. Using the equiva- lents in the table below for computation, it a]j])ears that if wheat bran costs $15 per ton, fresh prunes would be worth as a substitute $3 per ton ; likewise, if cottonseed meal is ■selling for $21 per ton, the prune value would Dried Fruits as Stock Feed 420 California Fruits be about $2.75. At the market price of oat hay, the figure for fresh prunes should be nearly $3 per ton. The dried fruits naturally rank far above the fresh material as stock feed. Of the dried fruits represented in the table, raisins lead in food value; containing one and one- fourth to one and one-half times the nutritive ingredients of alfalfa and oat hays, respec- tively; 100 pounds of the fruit being prac- tically equal to the same quantity of grain, but to only eighty-two and fifty-nine pounds respectively of rice bran and cotton-seed meal. Dried apricots rank slightly lower than raisins, because they contain more water. Apricots are, however, of equal value as a feeding stuff with wheat bran and almond hulls about half as much as alfalfa hay, bran or middings. Prune-fed or raisin-fed pork is indeed an accomplished fact in California. As to the acceptability of the fruit diet to the hog what could be more pertinent and more fitting appendix to this treatise than this little tale? It is stated that Mr. Balaam, of Farmersville, used to have a pet pig that ran under the fig trees near the house. When the fruit began to drop, he ate figs and rested in the shade until he finally grew too fat to move about to gather the sweet morsels. By this time his owner became so much interested in the case as to carry him his regular figs three times daily. Gradually he grew so fat that his eyes closed entirely and he was blind and helpless. TOPICAL INDEX. INDEX. Acorns, edible 38 Alkaline Soils 34 Alligator Pear 338 Almond, The 357 growing from seed 60 hulling and bleaching 358 pollination 359 propagation 358 pruning 359 situations and soils 357 wild 38 varieties 359 Animals, injurious 410 Ants, killing 402 Apple in California 158 aphis resistant 160 aphis woolly 394 drying ' 380 exposures for 159 gathering 162 irrigation ., 161 localities for 1 58 mildew 404 mission 39 native crab 35 planting, distance 160 picking and packing 163 pollination 1O4 propagation 159 pruning 160 scab or smut 404 second crop 1 59 seedlings, growing 60 shipping 163 soils for 159 Southern California 164 storehouse for i6j summer and fall 163 table of varieties 168 thinning 161 varieties 165 when to pick 162 winter 164 worm 40 1 Varieties : Iiitriiducrd. Alexander 165 Baldwin 165 Ben Davis 165 Arkansas Beauty 167 Arkansas Black 168 Black Ben Davis 166 Carolina Red June 165 Delicious 166 Duchess of Oldenburg 165 Early Harvest 165 Early Strawberry 165 Esopus Spitzenburg 166 Kail I'lppui 165 Fameuse 165 Gloria Mundi 165 Gravenstein 165 Hoover 165 Hyde King 166 Jonathan 16^1 King of Tompkins County 165 Lady 166 Lawyer i65 Langford 168 Maiden's Blush 165 Missouri Pippin 166 .Xeicton Sfitzcuburg 166 Nickajack 166 Northern Spy 160, 166 Ortley ' 166 Rambo 165 Rawlcs Janet 167 Red Astracan 165 Red Bietigheimer 165 Red Pearmain 168 Rhode Island Greening 166 Romanite 166 Rome Beauty 166 Smith's Cider 166 Snow 165 Stark 167 Stayman Winesap 166 Swaar 166 Vandevere 166 Wagener 168 Wealthy 168 White Astracan 165 White Bellf lower ' l66 White Winter Pearmain 166 Wiilliams Favorite t68 Winesap 166 Winter Banana 168 Yellow Bellflower 166 Yellow Transparent 168 Yellow Newtown Pippin 167 York Imperial 168 Lawton 167 V.-kRlETiES: Califoniiun. Cook's Seedling 167 Marshall's Red 167 Magoon 167 Skinner's Seedling 167 V.\HiETiES : Crabs. Hyslop 167 Large Red Siberian 167 Large Yellow Siberian 167 Montreal Beauty .'.167 Transcendant 167 Whitney's 167 Page Ai)ricut 170 climatic requirements 171 diseases of 175 distances for 172 drying 380 exposures for 171 growing seedlings 61 irrigation 175 localities for 170 mission 39 old trees 170 on almond root 172 planting 172 pruning 173 shot-hole fungus 175 stocks and soils for 172 table of varieties 176 thinning 174 Varieties: Introduced. Bergetti 177 Blenheim 177 Earh- Golden 176 Early Moorpark 177 Hemskirke 177 Large Early 177 Large Early Montgamet 176 Luizet 176 Moorpark 177 Oullin's Early 176 Peach 177 Royal 176 Shipley I77 St. Ambroise 177 Varieties: Califoniian. Englehardt 1/8 Newcastle i77 Routier's Peach I77 Spark's Maminoth 178 Tilton 178 Wiggins' Seedling 176 Army Worms 38S Atmospheric humidity 25 Banana, The 333 Barberry, native 37 Bear berry 37 Berries and currants 343 Birds, poisoning 410 Blackberry, The 343 cultivation 344 Blasting for planting 81 distances for 344 longevity of 345 propagation 344 pruning 344 wild 36 Varieties: Introduced. Crandall's Early 345 Evergreen 346 Kittatinny 345 Lawton 345 Wilson MS Page Varieties: i'alifornian. Himalaya 34*^ IVIammotli Z4> Borers 88, 400 Bones, treatment of 1 1/ Bordeaux Mixture 404 Budding, common method 64 June 70 over old trees 71 spring 66 Bud, cutting to a 103 Buds, dormant 7° Buffalo berry i7 Burbank's varieties i5S> 219. 220. 224, 225, 351 Cactus fruits 38, 338 Canned fruit product 373 Canker worms 388 Canning industry 373 Caterpillars 388, 390 Chain for hexoganal laying out 80 Chamisal and chaparral S3 Charcoal making S6 Cherimoyer 333 Cherry 179 delayed fruiting of 180 distances for 182 exposures for 181 gum disease 184 grafting, the 183 localities for I79 moisture requirements 180 old trees I79 pests and diseases 184 pruning the 182 seedlings growing 61 slug 390 soils for the 180 stocks for the 180, 181 table of varieties 185 wild 36 Varieties : Introdticed. American Amber 186 American Heart 186 Arch Duke 186 Baumann's May 185 Belle d'Orleans 185 Belle Magnifique 186 Black Eagle 186 Black Tartarian 186 Burr's Seedling 186 Cleveland Bigarreau 186 Coe's Transparent 1S6 Early Lamaurie 185 Early Purple Guigne 185 Early Richmond 186 Early White Heart 186 Elton 186 English Morello 186 Eugenie 186 Governor Wood 186 425 Pace Guigne Marbree 185 Guigne Noir Luisante 186 Knight's Early Black 186 Late Duke 1S6 May Duke 186 Monstrueuse dc Mesel 186 Napoleon Bigarreau 186 Oxheart 186 Pontiac 186 Reine Hortense 186 Rockport Bigarreau 186 Royal Ann 186 Schmidt's Bigarreau 186 Tradescant's Black Heart 186 Werder's Early Black 186 White Tartarian 186 Yellow Spanish 186 Varieties : Pacific Coast. Andrews 187 Bing 187 Black Republican 226 California Advance 187 Centennial 187 Lambert 187 Lewelling 186 Nonpareil 187 Oregon 187 Chain for laying off 80 Chestnut, The 360 seedlings 61 wild 38 Choco or Cavota 3^4 Citron, The " 3^28 Clearing land for fruit 53 brushy 53, 55 cost of 54 grading 57 steam puller 55 stump puller 55 with powder 55 time to cut to kill 56 Climate, divisions of California 18 of California, characteristics of. . . . :■•■•. 17, 26 of California, why mild 18 foot-hill ' 21 mountain 21 coast ig vallej' 20 value of 23, 27 Cloudiness, east and west 25 Coast pests and diseases 20 Codlin moth 401 Composting 119 Corner, to find true 77 Cranberries 347 wild 37 Crops between trees or vines 109 Crystallizing fruit 374 Cultivation 107 hillside ni I'aKe methods of no purposes of 107 shallow, results of 108 summer 113 to retain moisture 108 without plowing 113 Currants 347 culture of 348 regions for 347 varieties grown 348 wild 37 Custard apple 333 Cutworms 388 Cuttings, fruit trees from 62 Dates 265 at the missions 265 bearing age of 268 bearing in Solano County 265 blooming of 268 first fruit 265 from seed 266 from suckers 268 propagation of 266 requirements of 266 transplanting 268 Dewberry 347 Diabroticas 403 Die-back 408 Dormant buds 70 Drainage desirable 57 Dried fruits (see fruits) 374 boxes for 380 covering 377 cutting sheds 378 dipping 380 drying floors 377 grading and cleaning 378 packing 380 product of 375 sulphuring 378 sweating 379 trays for ^yy worm 380 Elderberries 36 Evaporated Fruits 375 Evaporator, sunshine 378 Fertilizers in California 115 caution in use of 121 for trees and vines 116 methods of applying 121 value of green 122 when necessary T15 sources of nitrogen 118 sources of pho.sphoric acid 117 sources of potash i iS Feijoa Sellowiana 33s Fig ?6^ bearing age 274 Inidding 270 caprification 275 drying 380 Pane foes of 2/6 for pigs 420 from cuttings 270 from seeds 273 grafting 271. 272 mission 39 planting and pruning 273 regions for 269 size of old trees 260 soils for 269, 270 VarjetiEs : Adriatic 270 Agen 276 Angelique 276 Bardajic 276 Ballona 276 Black Bulletin 276 Black Smyrna 276 Bourjassotte 276 Brown Turkey 276 Brunswick 277 Calimyrna 278 Celeste Blue 277 Celeste Wliite 277 Checker Injur 277 Col. de Signora 277 Dauphine 2T/ Doree 277 Dottato 277 Drap d'or 277 Du Roi 277 Early Violet 277 (ienoa White 277 Gentile 277 Crosse Grise Bifere 277 Hirtu du Japon 277 Ischia. Black 277 Tschia, White 277 Kassaba 277 Ladaro 277 Magdalen .• 277 Marseillaise 277 Mission 277 Monaco Bianco 277 Mouissouna 277 Pacific White 277 Pastiliere 278 Ronde Noire 278 Ronde Violette 278 Rose Blanche 278 Roval Vineyard 278 San Pedro, White 278 San Pedro, Black 278 Smyrna 278 Verdal, Round 278 Verdal Longue 278 White Endich 278 Zimitza 278 Filbert growing 360 wild 38 Frosts, protection from 414 l''ruit cultivation 107 Fruit gardens, early 45 Fruit industries, infiuence of 47 Fruit industries, outlook of 48 Fruit interest, extent of 47 Fruit thinning 104 Fruit tree acreage 47 I'ruit products, value of 47 Fruits, crystallizing 374 drying 374 drying floors 377 graders 378 grafted, first in California 42 locations for ig value as stock food 419 Fruit shipments, eastern 44. 45. 46 Fruit trees, dwarf 43 Fruits, commercial varieties 155 I'ruits, locations for 19 Fruits, native 35 Goat nut, or jajoba 38 Gooseberry, The 348 culture of 348 requirements of 349 Varieties : Introduced. Berkeley 349 Champion 349 Columbus 349 Downing 349 Houghton 349 wild 37 (iophers, killing 411 pitfall for 412 trapping 412 Grafting 67 bark 67. 272 cleft 67 root 69 side 69 top 71 whip 6g wax for 67 72 waxed bands 68 Graft, time to 72 Grafts, planting out 69 Granadiila 335 Grape, area of 231 budding 236 conditions of ripening 24 cutting grafts 241 dibbles for planting 244 diseases of 253 distance 242 from cuttings 2.33, 234 from layers 233 from seed 233 frost injuries 253 grafting 236, 237, 238, 239, 242 insects 392 industry 231 length of season 232 mildew number per acre planting devices planting in rows products 46. pruning 245. 246, pruning, long pruning, short resistant rooting in nursery 235. 240, soils for ■ stakes, twine, etc suckering sulphuring summer pnming 247. syrup trellising varieties wild wine, varieties of Varieties: Introduced. Almeria Black Corinth Black Cornichon . . . Black Ferrara Black Hamburg Black Malvoisc Black Morocco Black Muscat Canon Hall Muscat Chasselas de FontaiuL-bleau Chasselas Rose Chasselas Victorin Cinsaut . . , Early Black JuK Early Madeleim- Emperor Feher Szagos Flame Tokay Golden Chassel.i-^ . . Gros Colman . . . Huasco Muscat . . Larga Bloom . Luglienga Mission .i9. Moscatello Fino Muscat of Alexandria Muscatel Muscatel Gordo Blanco Muscat Frontignan Palomino Purple Cornichon Purple Damascus Rose of Peru Sabalskanski Swcctiuatcr Sultana Sultanina Thompson's Seedless Verdal White Cliampion 2S7 257 257 258 25S 2^S 250 257 2=18 258 25« 2SS I'aue Whue Cornichon 258 White July 256 White Malaga 258 White Tokay 259 V'ariETiES : Calif ornian. Isabella Regia 250, 260 Varieties: Wine. Alicante Bouschct 260 Beba 260 Beclan 261 Blue Portuguese 261 Boal 260 Burger 260 Cabernet Sauvignon 261 Columhar 261 Franken Riesling 261 Grenache 260 Johannisberg Riesling 261 Lagrain 260 Pettle Sirah 261 Sauvignon Blanc 25l St. Macaire 260 Tinta Madeira .260 Valdepenyas . 260 Vernaccia Sarda 260 West's White Proliiic 260 Grasshoppers, killing i<)2 Growing season, long 26 Guava, The .IV^ Varieties : Discussed Strawberry . . 335. Lemon . 335 Gummosis .408 Gypsum, uses of 118 Hard-pan, breaking up 81 Heat, deficient on coast 19 importance of 23 summer, records of 24 Heeling in young trees 84 Hexagonal planting 78 Hillside, rows on 77 use of triangle on 80 Huckleberries, wild 37 Humidity, atmospheric 25 deficient 27 east and west .26 excessive .27 Insects, injurious 387 Irrigation 124 distributing manure by 121 ditches 140. 146 drainage and 1 .=> i evils of excessive 125 flooding 133 for citrus fruits 126. 129 for deciduous fruits 127, 129 llumc building for 144 liillside J40 how much 1 25 in early days 44 in basins 137 Page in furrows 138 leveling for 57 locating contour lines 141 manure with irrigation water 121 manuria value of 121 methods of i33 nursery 63 objections answered 124 relation to cultivation 131, I33 relation to rainfall 128 relation to soil 129 relation to tillage 130 reservoirs, small 14" running ditches for I47 subirrigation 150 suggestions for 150 summer 133 taken from ditches 140 wells and pumps for 149 wheels for 148 when desirable 124. 132 winter 132 Jajoba 38 Jujube of commerce 3i6 Jujube, native 38 Kai Apple 34° Laying out land for fruit 74 Leaf lice 39i Lemon, The 321 curing 325 packing 330 planting and pruning 323 propagation 322 situations and soils for 321 Varieties: Introduced. Eureka 327 Lisbon 327 Villa Franca 327 Lemon berrv 38 Lice, leaf 3Qi Lime, The 327 Varieties: Introduced. Mexican 328 Imperial 328 Lime, uses of 112 Loganberry 359 Loquat. The 336 Varieties ; Calif ornian. Advance 336 Blush 336 Commercial 336 Pineapple 336 Premier .336 Victor 33C> Manure, care of 119 green 122 sheep, use of 120, 121 Manuring at planting 87 Manzanita berries 37 Map of orchard and vineyard 88 Marls 118 Page Mealy bugs 398 Melon shrub 338 Melon tree 338 Mildew 404 Mission fruits 39 Moisture lost by weed growth 108 retained by cultivation 107 Morning Glory, killing 114 Moss, removing 405 Mulberry, The 349 Mulching, after planting 88 Mulching as substitute for cultivation 88 Nectarine '202 compared with peach 202 dried 202, 381 future of 203 Varieties: Introduced. Advance 203 Boston 203 Downton 203 Early Newington 203 Hardwicke 203 Humboldt 203 Lord Napier 203 New White 203 Stanwick 203 Nitrogen for fruits 118 Nursery 58 budding and grafting 66. 67 classes of nursery stock 70 growing seedlings 59 imported seedlings 62 irrigation 63 laying out and planting 63 pruning in 70 selection of site for 58, 59 soil, preparation of 58. 59 soil, proper for 58 trees, ages of 70 trees, digging 84 trees, disinfecting 403 trees, selecting 83 when to plant 85 Nuts growing in California 357 growing from seed 61 wild 38 Olives 279 at old missions 39 budding 281 canning 289 climate for 279 from cuttings 280 from seed 280 grafting 282 localities for 279 oil making 279, 286, 293 oil yield of varieties 293 planting 283 preferred varieties 289 pruning 283 Page |)ickling 279. 288 small cuttings 281 soils for 279 truncheons 280 twig borer 400 wild 38 Varieties: Introduced. Ascolano 290, 292 Atroviolacea 291 Columbella 290, 292 Gordal 291 Lucques 290, 292 Manzanillo 290. 291 Mission 290 Nevadillo Blanco 290, 292 Oblonga 290 Oblitza 290, 292 Pendulina 290, 292 Pendoulier 291 Picholine d' Aix 290 Picholine de ot. Chamas 290 Polymorpha 292 Redding Picholine 290 Rubra 290, 291 Sevillano 290, 292 Uvaria 290, 291 Orchard land, preparation of 81 laying out in squares 75 alternating squares 75 double squares 75 measure and sight 7(1 measuring wire 76 quincunx planting 77 time for planting 85 Orange 294 all the year from California 295 budding and grafting 308 California regions discussed . .295, 297 conditions for citrus fruits 301 diseases 316 distances for 310 from cuttings 304 from layers 304 from seed 304 in central California 297 in southern California 295 mission 39 nu rsery 307 packing 329 planting in orchard 310 product 296 pruning 312 ripening first at the north 303 seedlings, care of 308 situation and soils for 303 superiority of semi-tropical 204 transplanting 310 world's industry 294 Varieties : Discussed Australian Navel 317 Bahia 317 Golden Buckeye 317 Golden Nugget 317 King 318 Kumquat 318 St. Michael 318 Maltese Blood 317 Mandarin 318 Mediterranean Sweet 318 Paper Rind St. Michael 31S Riz'crsidc Xinrl 317 Ruby 317 Satsuma 318 Tangerine 318 Thompson's Navel 317 Valencia Late 317 Washington Navel 317 Orchard planting 74 Oregon grape 37 Oso berry 36 Pacific fruit varieties 156 Palm nuts 38 Peach 188 age at planting 191 approved lists of 196 blooming of varieties 201 curl-leaf 194 diseases 405 distance in planting 191 dormant buds 191, 192 drying 381 early bearing 189 grafting 19.) growing season of 26 irrigation 193 localities for 189 longevity of 188 mildew 194 mission 39 moth 399 "peach almond" iqi pitting clings 381 propagation 191 pruning 97, 102, 192 ripening of varieties 201 root borer 400 seedlings 60 soils for 1 90 stocks for 191 table of varieties 195. ig6 thinning 193 Varieties: Introduced. Alexander 107 Amsden 197 Bergen's Yellow 107 Bilyeu's Late October 20i Crawford's Early 197 Crawford's Late 198 Early Charlotte ig6 Earlv York 19') Elberta 19S Foster 197 PaKe George Fourth I97 Globe 195 Hale's Early igr Hardy Yellow Tuscany ->oo Heath joo Henrietta 200 Honey ig7 Indian Blood 196 Jones' Large Early I97 La Grange 20u Lemon Clingstone 19''^ Levy's Late 200 Luken's Honey 19'' Mary's Choice 197 Morris White 197 Oldmixon Free I97 Orange Clingstone 19S Peento i97 Picquet's Late 200 Red Cheek Melocoton I97 Sal way 200 Smock Free 200 S"now 197 Strawberry 197 Steadly .' 200 Stump the World 19*^ Susquehanna 19"^ Triumph I97 Tuskena T97 Wager I97 Wheatland 19S Yellow St. John I07 Varieties: Caiifontiaii. Albright's Cling 200 Briggs' Red May 197 California 20'! Decker 201 Early Imperial I97 Edward's Cling 200 General Bidwell 200 Cieorge's Late Cling 200 Honest Abe 19" Lovell 19') McClish 200 McCowan's Cling 19!' Muir 197 Muir Cling 198 McDevit's Cling 20u McKevilt's Cling 200 Newball u>'^ Nichol's Orange Cling 19S Peck's Orange Cling iq8 Persian's Cling 200 Phillips' Cling 200 Runvon's Orange Cling 198 Sellers' Golden Cling 19!^ Staley 2on Stilson 198 Wylie Cling 200 Yellow Tuscany 200 Peanut growing .?6o Pear 204 Bartlett, why popular 205 blight 207, 209 characteristics in California 205 diseases 209 distances for the 207 drying 38' dwarf 207 for alkali soil 252 irrigation 20S largest on record 208 localities for 205 mission 39. 4c on quince stock 207 pollination 211 propagation of 206 pruning 207 seedlings, growing 60 slug 390 soils for 206 storing and ripening 209 tables of varieties 210. 211 thinning 208 Varieties : Introduced. Bartlett 2 Beurre Bosc 2 Beurre Clairgeau 2 Buerre d'Anjou 2 Beurre Diel 2 Beurre Hardy 2 Bloodgood 2 Clapp's Favorite 2 Comet 2 Dana's Hovey 2 Dearborn's Seedling 2 Doyenne du Comice 2 Duchess d'Angouleme 2 Easter Beurre 2 Flemish Beauty 2 Glout Morceau 2 Harvest 2 Howell 2 Kieffer 2 Lawson 2 Louise Bonne de Jersey 2 Madeline 2 Onondaga 2 Pound 2 Seckel 2 Souvenir du Congress 2 Vicar of Winkfield 2 White Dovenne 2 Wilder Eai-ly 2 Winter Bartlett 2 Winter Nelis 2 Varieties : Calif ornian Block's Acme 2 P. Barry 2 Crocker's Bartlett 2 Winter Bartlett 2 Pear. Alligator 3, Page Pecan, The 361 Persimmon, Japanese 33'^ Persimmon. Virginian 336 Persimmons, curing 337 Phenomenal herry 351 Phosphates 117 Pineapple 337 Pine nuts 38 Pistachio, The 361 Planting, conditions favoring 85 bar for setting 82 cutting back after 89 depth of 87 digging holes for 82 laying off for 74 mulching 88 operation of 83, 85 preparing land for 74, 81 speed in 86 time for 85 use of manure 87 use of water 87 Plowing, devices for in orchard and vineyard 1 1 1 on hillside in to break hard-pan 1 1 1 Plow, laying off with 74 Pliuns and prunes 213 California false 36 confusion in names 213, 218 definition of a prune 213 drying 381 errors in planting 188 from the root 21 j in southern California 214 length of season 213 localities for 213 mission 39 myrobalan 214 planting / 215 pollination 221 propagation 215 pruning the 216 seedlings 60 stocks and soils 214 table of varieties 222 wild 35 Varieties : Introduced. Abundance 222 Agen, Prune d' 225 Bavay's Green Gage 225 Blood 223 Bradshaw 223 Bulgarian 225 Burbank 223 Chabot 222 Columbia 223 Coe's Golden Drop 225 Coe's Late Red 225 Damson 223 Diamond 222 I'aKC Duane's Purple 223 Fellenberg 225 German prune 223 Grand Duke 222 Green Gage 223 Grossc Prune d' Ai^cn. . .219,224, 275 Hale 222 Hungarian prune 224 Ickworth Imperatrice 225 Imperial Epineuse 224 1 mperial Gage 223 Italian prune 277 Jefferson 223 Kelsey Japan 223 Peach 223 Petite Prune d' Agen . . .219, 225, 276 Pond's Seedling 224 Prune d'Agen 219, 225 Prunus Simoni 222 Quackenbos 224 Red June . . . . ? 222 Red Egg 223 Red Magnuin Bonum 223 Robe de Sergeant 224, 22.S Ro.val Hative 223 Satsunia 223 Simon 222 Victoria 224 Washington 223 Yellow Egg 223 V.\RIETIES : PaciHc Coast. Burbank's Creations 218, 225 California Red 223 Climax 222 Clyman 222 Formosa 225 Giant 224 Golden Prune 225 Santa Rosa 225 Silver prune 225 Splendor 224 Sugar prune 224 Tragedy prune 222 Plumcot, The 219 Pomcgran;itc. The 337 Pomelo 319 Wlickson 223 Varieties : Imperial 320 Marsh Seedless 320 Nectar 320 Triumph 320 Packing 33' Potash 117 Prickly Pear 38, 338 Prune curing 382 Pruning 90 Bearing Trec^ 57 California style 92 effects of 91 gathering bnish 104 Page influenced bj' location 92 low, advantages of 90 nursery 70 prunings as fertilizer 120 purposes of 90 saws, California 103 times for 99 tools 103 to renew old trees loi vase form, securing 93, 94 wounds, covering 103 Quince ' 226 demand for 226 propagation 226 pruning 226 soils for 226 Varietiess Introduced Apple 227 Champion 227 ' Chinese ^ 227 Orange 227 Portugal 227 Rea's Mammoth 227 Smyrna 227 Varieties : Calif ornian. Pineapple 227 West's Mammoth 227 Quincunx planting 77 Rabbit fences 411 Rabbits, destroying 410 poisons for 411 smears for 410 Rainfall, records of ig Raisin making 45, 382 Raspberry, The 349 black-caps 350 culture of 349 hybrids 3S0 pruning 350 varieties, popular 350 wild 36 Red Spider 393 Root rot 405 Root-knots 408 Russian introduction of fruits . . .41, 408 Salal 37 Salmon berry 36 Scale Insects 395 black .. 397 brown apricot 397 cottony cushion 398 pear 396 orange, red 396 orange, soft 397 oyster shell 396 rose and berry 396 San Jose 395 remedies for 399 Salmon berry 136 Sapota. white 339 Scions, care of 68 Pace selection of 68 Sea Fig 38 Seed, growing trees from 60 Seedlings, imported 60 Septuple laying off 78 Service Berry 38 Small fruits 343 Soils for fruits 28 adobe 33 alkali 34 alluvial 32 bed-rock or hard-pan 33 characteristics of California 29 classification of .'30 clay , 32 defective 33 desert 31 examination of 34 granitic 31 loams 30 mesa 31 plains 31 red 31 river bottom 32 sedimentary or silty 32 shallow, blasting 81 Sour sap 407 Spider, red 393 Squares, laying off in 75 Squirrels, destroying 411 Strawberry 351 care of 353 continuous bearing 354 irrigating 353 laying out for 352 planting 353 propagation 352 situations and soils 351 varieties, popular 354 wild 37, 354 Strawberry tree 338 Sunburn, protection from 73, 88, 400 Sunlight, value of direct 24 Sunshine, evaporating 375 Sunshine, records of 25 Temperature, lowest 23 Temperature, records of 19 Thinning fruit 104 Tomato tree 339 Toyon 38 Trees, activity and rest of 22 heeling in 84 selecting 83 Tree-setters 82, 83 Triangle for laying out 80 Tuna fruit 338 Tussock moth 389 Varieties: Tabular shoiving of ...157 Vine hoppers 391 Walnut, black 38 Walnut. English 361 433 Page bacteriosis or blight 406, 409 bleaching 30/ blossoms of 307 budding 302 culture and soils 302 gathering and drying 307 grafting ■ •■ -302 growing seedlings 01. 304 propagation and planting 362, 300 pruning 307 Varieties : Common or Los Angeles 300 Concord 368 Franquette 3o8 French varieties 3o8 Japanese 309 Kaghazi 309 Page Santa Rosa 368 Mayette 308 Soft Shell 368 Weed killing by cultivation 114 Weeds, evaporation by 108 Whitewash against sunburn 73. 88 Wild fruits of California 35 Windbreaks 4i3 trees for 4I3 Wine grapes 200 Winery refuse as manure 120 Winter-killing, unknown 23 Wire, measuring 70 Wooly aphis 394 Wounds, covering i03 Yellow jackets, killing 402 CEC i? »9°3 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS