Author ^ * ..LB-.. (^...7.j5. :K.2..k Title Imprint. 16—47372-2 OP ■ iillf' ic - » THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. A PARAPHRASE OF DR. KARL ROSENKRANZ'S PAEDAGOGIK ALS SYSTEINI. PAET T. CONTAINING ''THE NATURE, FORM, AND LIMITS OF EDUCATION,' WITH ANALYSIS AND COMMENTARY. By A]S^:^^A c. brackett. ST. LOUIS: G. I. JONES AND COMPANY. 1878. JOURNAL OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY. PUBLISHED QUARTERLY, IN ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI It is intended as a vehicle for such transhxtions, commentaries, and original articles as will best promote the interests of Speculative Philosophy in all its departments. TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION: Three dollars per volume; single number, 75 cents. Vols. I and II, bound in one volume, in muslin, will be sent by mail for $5.00. Vol. Ill, Vol. IV, Vol. V, Vol. Vl, Vol. VII, Vol. Vm, Vol. IX, Vol. X, Vol. XI, and Vol. XII, in muslin, $3.00 each. Back volumes (unbound) may be had at $2.00 per volume. To English subscribers the price is 16s per volume, 4s per number. All foreign subscribers should order through Messrs. Triibner & Co., 57 Ludgate Hill, London. All subscriptions (within the United States) should be addressed to the Editor, WM. T. HARRIS, Box 2398, St. Louis, Mo. CONTENTS OF THE TWELFTH VOLUME. Contents of No. 1. 1. Spencer's Definition of Mind. II. Hegel on S.vmbolic Art. III. The Nation ;niil the Commune. IV. The Science of Kdiication. V. Boole's L(ii;-ic:il .^Icthod. VI. Notes anil Discussions: — O) Sonnet to the \'fnus of Milo; (2) Emanuel Hvalgren's System; (3) Notes on Hcfrel and his Critics; (4) Sentences in Prose and Verse. Contents of No. 2. I. The AVoild as Force. II. Von Ilai-tnuinii on the True and False in Darwinism. III. Hegel on Classic Art. IV. Fichte's Criticism of Schelling. V. Christianity and the Clearing-up. VI. Schelling on the Historical Construc- tion of Christianity. VII. Notes and Discussions: — In Memo- riani. Contents of No. 3. I. Some Considerations on the Notion of Space. II. Brute and Human Intellect. III. Hegel on Classic Art. IV. The Science of Education. V. Fichte's Criticism of Schelling. VI. Notes and Discussions: — (1) Sentences in Prose and Verse ; (2) Spiritual Epigrams; (3) A Fragment of the " Semitic" Philosopoy; (4) Dr. Pflei- derer's Philosophy of Religion ; (5) On the Multiplicity of Conscious Beings; (6) Polycrates sends Ana- creon Five Talents. Contents of No. 4. I. Christianity and the Clearing-up. II. Scliiller's Ktliical studies. III. Jacobi and the Philosophy of Faith. I\'. Hegel on Komantic Art. V. Statement and Reduction of Syllogism. VI. Notes and Discussions: — (1) The Mor- al Purpose of Tourgueneff ; (2) Dr. Parson's Translation of Dante's Purgatorio. N. B.— Creen muslin covers for bindiivg tlie Journal can be had at 40 cents each (including postage). Any one sending for covers sliould specify whicli volume he wishes to l>ind, inas- much as the ninth is thicker than the others. Volumes I and II, bound together, are the same thickness with Vol. IX. THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. A PARAPHRASE OF DR. KARL ROSENKRANZ'S PAEDAGOGIK ALS SYSTEM. ^b;./ ^ \^\^ By anna C. BHACKETT ST. LOUIS: 0. I. JONES AND COMPANY 1878. Kiitered according to Acl of Congress, in (he year 1878, )>y WILLIAM T. IIAKUIS, 111 the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PREFACE. The translation of "Pedagogics as a Sj'stem " was prepared and published five years ago. The wide demand for it that has made itself known since that time, especial!}' in normal schools, has proved the value of such works in the domain of education. At the same time, the difficulty the students have always found in its»use — a diffi- culty inseparable from any translation of a German metaphysical treatise — has led us to the conviction that a paraphrase into a more easily understood form is a necessity, if the thought of Rosenkranz is to l)e appropriated by the very class who are most in need of it. As was remarked in the preface to the translation, we have in English no other work of similar size which contains so much that is valuable to those engaged in the work of education. It is no compendium of rules or formulas, but rather a systematic, logical treatment of the subject, in which the attention is, as it were, concentrated upon the whole problem of education, while that problem is allowed to work itself out before us. To paraphrase the text — or, rather, to translate it from the metaphysical language in Avhicli it at present appears into a language more easy of comprehension — without losing the real sig- nificance of the statements, is the task which is here luidertaken. Free illustrations and suggestions have l)een interwoven to give point and application to the thoughts and principles stated. This transla- tion, or paraphrase, follows the paragraphs of the original and of the first translation. The analysis of the whole work, as it appeared in the original translation, is appended at the end of the "Introduc- tion," as a guide to the student. THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATIOK INTRODUCTION. § 1, The science of Pedagogics ma}^ be called a secoiid- nry science, inasmuch as it derives its principles from others. In this respect it diflers from Mathematics, which is independ- ent. As it concerns the development of the human intelli- gence, it must wait upon Psychology for an understanding of that upon which it is to operate, and, as its means are to be sciences and arts, it must wait upon them for a knowledge of its materials. The science of Medicine, in like manner, is dependent on the sciences of Biology, Chemistry, Physics, etc. Moreover, as Medicine may have to deal with a healthy or unhealthy body, and may have it for its province to pre- serve or restore health, to assist a natural jjrocess (as in the case of a broken bone), or to destroy an unnatural one (as in the case of the removal of a tumor), the same variety of work is imposed upon Education.^ § 2. Since the rules of Pedagogics must l)e extremely flexible, so that they may be adapted to the great variety of minds, and since an infinite variety of circumstances may arise in their application, we find, as we should expect, in. all edu- cational literature room for ^widely differing opinions and the wildest theories : these numerous theories, each of which 1 The parallelism between these two sciences, Medicine and Education, is an ■obvious point, which every student will do well to consider. 6 TJie Science of Education. may have a strong influence for a season, only to be over- thrown and replaced by others.- It must be acknowledged that educational literature, as such, is not of a high order. It has its cant like religious literature. Many of its faults, however, are the result of honest eftbrt, on the part of teach- ers, to remedy existing defects, and the authors are, therefore, not harshly to be blamed. It is also to be remembered that the habit of giving reproof and advice is one fastened in them by the daily necessity of their professional work.^ § o. As the position of the teacher has ceased to be undervalued, there has been an additional impetus given to self-gloritication on his part, and this also — in connection with the fact that schools are no longer isolated as of old, but sub- ject to constant comparison and competition — leads to much careless theorizing among its teachers, especially in the literary iield. § 4. Pedagogics, because it deals with the human spirit, belongs, in a general classification of the sciences, to the philosophy of spirit, and in the philosophy of spirit it must be classified under the practical, and not the merely theoretical, division. For its problem is not merely to comprehend the nature of that with which it has to deal, the human spirit — • its problem is not merely to influence one mind (that of the pupil) by another (that of the teacher) — but to influence it in such a Avay as to i)roduce the mental freedom of the pupil. The problem is, therefore, not so much to obtain performed works as to excite mental activity. A creative process is required. The pupil is to l)e forced to go in certain beaten tracks, and yet he is to be so forced to go in these that he shall go of his own free will. All teaching which does not leave the mind of the pupil free is unworthy of the name. It is true that the teacher must understand the nature of mind, as 2 This will again remind the student of the theories of treatment in medicine in diseases which, in the seventeenth century, were treated only by bleeding and emetics, are now treated by nourishing food, and no medicines, etc. 3 The teacher will do well to consider the probable result of the constant asso- ciation with mental inferiors entailed by his work, and also to consider what counter-irritant is to be applied to balance, in his character, this unavoidable- tendency. The Science of Education. 7 he is to deal with mind, but when he has done this he has still his main principle of action unsolved ; for the (piestion is, knowing the nature of the mind, How shall he incite it to action, already predetermined in his own mind, without depriving the mind of the pupil of its own free action? How shall he restrain and guide, and yet not enslave? If, in classifying all sciences, as suggested at the beginning of this section, we should >c Avorked upon by the matter Avhich he is considering, and not too much hy the personal influence of the teacher through whom he receives it.^ § G. The utmost care is necessary lest experiments which have proved successful in certain cases should be generalized iuto rules, and a formal, dead creed, so to speak, should be iidopted. All professional experiences are valuable as mate- rial on which to base new conclusions and to make ncAv plans, but only for that use. Unless the day's work 'is, every day, a new creation, a fatal error has been made. •S 7. Pedasoo'ics as a science must consider Education — ( 1 ) In its general idea ; ( 2 ) In its diflerent phases ; (o) In the special systems arising from this general idea, acting under special circumstances at special times. ^ § 8. With regard to the First Part, we remark that by Edu- cation, in its general idea, Ave do not mean any mere history of IV'dao-ooics, nor can any historv of Pedagoo-ics be substituted for a systematic exposition of the underlyiug idea. § 9. The second division considers Education under three heads — as physical, intellectual, and moral — and forms, gen- erally, the principal part of all pedagogical treatises. In this part lies the greatest difficulty as to exact limita- tion. The ideas on these diAdsious are often undetined and apt to be confounded, and the detail of Avhich they are capa- \)\q is almost unlimited, for avc miiiht, under this head, speak "' The best educator is he who makes his pupils independent of himself. This implies on the teacher's part an ability to lose himself in his work, and a desire for the real growth of the pupil, independent of any personal fame of his own — H disinterestedness which places education on a level with the noblest occupations of man. '' See analysis. Tlte Science of Education. 9 of all kinds of special schools, such as those for war, art, mining, etc. § 10. In the Third Part we consider the different realizations of the one general idea of Pedagogics as it has developed itself under diflerent circumstances and in different ages of the world. The general idea is forced into different phases by the varying ph37sical, intellectual, and moral conditions of men. The result is the different systems, as shown in the analj^sis. The general idea is one. The view of the end to l)e obtained determines in each case the actualization of this idea. Hence the different systems of Education are each determined by the stand-point from which the general ideal is viewed. Proceed- ing in this manner, it might be possible to construct a history of Pedagogics, a 2»'iori, without reference to actual history, since all the possible systems might be inferred from the possible definite number of points of view. Each lower stand-point will lead to a higher, but it will not l)(' lost in it. Thus, where Education, for the sake of the nation,^ merges into the Education l)ased on Christianity, the form is not thereby destro3^ed, but, rather, in the transition iirst attains its full realization. The systems of Education which were based on the idea of the nation had, in the full- ness of time, outgrown their own limits, and needed a new form in order to contain their own true idea. The idea of the nation, as the highest principk^ gives way for that of Chris- tianity. A new life came to the old idea in what at first seemed to be its destruction. The idea of the nation was born again, and not destroyed, in Christianity. § 11. The final system, so far, is that of the present time, which thus is itself the fruit of all the past systems, as well as the seed of all S3^stems that are to be. The science of Pedagog- ics, in the consideration of the system of the present, thus again finds embodied the general, idea of education, and thus returns npon itself to the point from whence it set out. In the First and Second Parts there is already given the idea which domi- nates the system found thus necessarily existing in the present. '• Asiatic systems of Education have this basis (see § 178 of the original). 10 The Science of Education. First Part, f Its Nature. In its General < Its Form. Idea. t Its Limits. Second Part. [ Physical. In its Special ■, Intellectual. Elements. Moral. Education. -J Passive. National. I '^<^"ve. Individual. (Tamil V . ■; Caste." . [Monkish fMiUtarv. I Priestly, [industrial [".Esthetic J Practical 1 Abstract [Individual Theocratic. China. India. Thibet. Persia. Egypt. Phtenicia. (Jreecc. Itome. \ Northern \ Barbarians Jews. Third Part. In its Particu- ■{ lar Systems. f Monkish. Chivalric. Humanita- rian. For Civil Life. For Special j Jesuitic. Callings. / Pietistic. To achieve an Ideal of Culture. The H u - manities. I The Phil- anthropic I Movements [For Free Citizenship. TJte Science of Education. 11 FIRST PART. The General Idea of Education. § 12. A full treatment of Pedagogics must distinguish — ( 1 ) The nature of Education ; ( 2 ) The form of Education ; (3) The limits of Education. /. — Jlte jyFature of Educcdion. § 13. The nature of Education is determined b}^ the nature of mind, the distino'uishino- mark of which is that it can be devel- oped only from within, and hy its ow]i activity. Mind is es- sentially free — i. e., it has the capacity for freedom — but it cannot be said to posses?? frcedoni till it has obtained it by its own voluntary eftbrt. Till then it cannot be truly said to be free. Education consists in enal)ling a human being to take possession of, and to develop himself by, his own efforts, and the work of the educator cannot be said to Ije done in any sense Avhero this is not accomplished. In general, we may say that the work of education consists in leading to a full development of all the inherent powers of the mind, and that its work is done when, in tliis way, the mind has attained perfect freedom, or the state in which alone it can be said to be truly itself.' The isolated human being can never become truly man. If such human beings (like the wild girl of the forest of Arden- nes) have been found, they have only proved to us that recip- rocal action with our fellow beings is necessary for the devel- ' The definition of freedom here implied is this: Mind is free when it knosw itself and wills its own laws. 12 The Science of Education. oi)ment of our powers. Caspar Haiiser, in his subterranean prison, will serve as an example of what man would be without men. One might sa}^ that this fact is typified by the first cry of the newly-born child. It is as if the first expression of its seeminglj^ independent life were a cry for help from others. On the side of nature the human being is at first quite helpless. § 14. Man is, therefore, the only proper object of education. It is true that we speak of the education of plants and of animals, but Ave instinctively apply other terms when we do so, for we say "raising" plants, and " training " animals. When we *' train " or " break " an animal, it is true that we do, by pain or pleasure, lead him into an exercise of a new activity. But the difference between this and Education consists in the fact that, though he possessed capacity, yet by no amount of asso- ciation with his kind would he ever have acquired this new development. It is as if we impress upon his plastic nature the imprint of our loftier nature, which imprint he takes iiiechanicall}^, and does not himself recognize it as his own internal nature. We train him for our recognition, not for his own. But, on the contrar}^ when we educate a human being, we onl}^ excite him to create for himself, and out of himself, that for which he would most earnestly strive had he any appreciation of it beforehand, and in proportion as he does appreciate it he recognizes it joj^fully as a part of himself, as his own inheritance, which he appropriates with a knowledge that it is his, or, rather, is a part of his own nature. He who speaks of "raising" human beings uses language which belongs onl}^ to the slave-dealer, to whom human beings are ouly cattle for labor, and whose property increases in value with the number. Are there no school-rooms where Education has ceased to have any meaning, and where physical pain is made to produce its only possible result — a mechanical, external repetition ? The school-rooms where the creative word — the only thing which can influence the mind — has ceased to be used as the means are only plantations, Avhcre human lieiugs are degraded to the position of lower animals. § 15. When we speak of the Education of the human The Science of Education. 18 race, we mean the gradual growth of the nations of the earth, as a whole, towards the realization of self-conscious freedom. Divine Providence is the teacher here. The means by which the development is effected are the various circumstances and actious of the dift'erent races of men, and the pupils are the nations. The unfolding of this great Education is generally treated of under the head of Philosophy of History. § 16. Education, however, in a more restricted sense, has to do with the shaping of the individual. Each one of us is to be educated by the laws of physical nature — by the rela- tions into which Ave come Avith the national life, in its laws, customs, etc., and by the circumstances which daily surround us. By the force of these we find our arljitrary will hemmed in, modified, and forced to take new channels and forms. We are too often unmindful of the power with which these forces are daily and hourly educating us — i. e., calling out our possi- bilities into real existence. If Ave set up our Avill in opposition to either of these ; if Ave act in opposition to the laws of nature ; if Ave seriously offend the laws, or even the customs, of the people among Avhom we live ; or if Ave despise our individual lot, Ave do so only to find ourselves crushed in the encounter. We only learn the impotence of the indi- vidual against these mighty poAvers ; and that discovery is, of itself, a part of our education. It is sometimes only by such severe means that God is revealed to the man Avho per- sistently misunderstands and defies His creation. All suffering- brought on ourselA'CS by our oavu violation of laws, Avhether natural, ethical, or divine, must be, lioAA';ever, thus recognized as the richest blessing. We do not mean to say that it is never alloAval)le for a man, in ol^edience to the highest hiAvs of his spiritual being, to break aAvay from the fetters of nature — to offend the ethical sense of his oavu people, or to struggle against the might of destiny. Reformers and martyrs Avould be examples of such, and our remarks above do not apply to them, but to the per\^erse, the frivolous, and the con- ceited ; to those who are seeking in their action, not the un- doubted Avill of God, Init their oavu individual Avill or caprice. § 17. But Ave generally use the Avord Education in a still 14 Tlte Science of Echication. narrower sense than either of these, for we mean by it the working of one individual mind upon or within another in some definite and premeditated Avay, so as to fit the pupil for life generally, or for some special pursuit. For this end the educator must be relatively finished in his own education, and the pupil must possess confidence in him, or docility. He must be teachable. That the work be successful, demands the very highest degree of talent, knowledge, skill, and pru- dence ; and any development is impossible if a well-founded authority be wanting in the educator, or docility on the part of the pupil. Education, in this narrowest and technical sense, is an out- growth of city or urban life. As long as men do not congre- gate in large cities, the three forces spoken of in § 16 — /. €., the forces of nature, national customs, and circum- stances — will be left to perform most of the work of Educa- tion ; but, in modern city life, the great complication of events, the uncertainty in the results — though careful fore- thought has been used — the immense development of indi- viduality, and the pressing need of various information, Ijreak the power of custom, and render a different method necessary. The larger the city is, the more free is the individual in it from the restraints of customs, the less subjected to curious criticism, and the more able is he to give play to his own idiosyncrasies. This, however, is a freedom which needs the counterpoise of a more exact training in conventionalities, if we would not -have it dangerous. Hence the rapid multipli- cation of educational institutions and systems in modern times ( one chief characteristic of which is the development of ur ban life). The ideal Telen.iachus of Fenelon difi'ers very much from the real Tclemachus of history. Fenelon proposed an education which trained a youtli to refiect, and to guide him- self by reason. The Telemachus of the heroic age followed the customs (" use and wont") of his times with naive obe- dience. The systems of Education once sufiicient do not serve the needs of modern life, any more than the defenses once sufiicient against hostile armies arc sufiicient against the new Aveapons adopted by modern warfare. The Science of Educaticm. 15 § 18. The problem with which modern Eclucatioii has to deal may be said, in general terms, to be the development in the individual soul of the indwelling Reason, both practical (as will) and theoretical (as intellect). To make a child good is only a part of Education ; we have also to develop his intelligence. The sciences of Ethics and Educa- tion are not the same. Again, we must not forget that no pupil is simply a human being, like every other human being; he is also an individual, and thus differs from every other one of the race. This is a point which must never be lost sight of by the educator. Human beings may be — nay, must be — educated in company, but they cannot be educated «imply in the mass. § 19. Education is to lead the pupil hy a graded series of exercises, previously arranged and prescribed by the edu- cator, to a detinite end. But these exercises must take on a peculiar form for each particular pupil under the special cii- curastances present. Hasty and inconsiderate work may, hy chance, accomplish much ; but no work which is not system- atic can advance and fashion him in conformity with his tanure, and such alone is to be called Education ; for Educa- tion implies l)oth a comprehension of the end to be attained and of the means necessary to compass that end. § 20. Culture, however, means more and more every year ; and, as the sum total of knowledge increases for man- kind, it l)ecomes necessary, in order to be a master in any one line, to devote one's self almost exclusively to that. Hence arises, for the teacher, the difficulty of preserving the unity and wholeness which are essential to a complete man. The prin- ciple of division of labor comes in. He who is a teacher by profession ])ecomes one-sided in his views ; and, as teaching divides and subdivides into specialities, this abnormal onc- sideness tends more and more to appear. Here we tind a par- allelism in the profession of Medicine, with a corresponding danger of narrowness; for that, too, is in a process of con- stant specialization, and the physician who treats nervous dis- eases is likely to be of the opinion that all trouble arises from that part of the organism, or, at least, that all remedies should 1(5 The Science of Education. be applied there. This tendency to one-sideness is inseparable from the progress of civilization and that of science and ai'ts. It contains, nevertheless, a danger of which no teacher should be nnwarned. An illustration is furnished by the microscope or telescope ; a higher power of the instrument implies a nar- rower field of view. To conceutrate our observation upon one point implies the shutting out of others. This diificulty with the teacher creates one for the pupil. In this view one might be inclined to judge that the life of the savage as compared with that of civilized man, or that of a member of a rural community as compared with that of an inhabitant of a city, were the more to be desired. The savage has his hut, his family, his cocoa-palm, his weapons, his pas- sions ; he fishes, hunts, amuses himself, adorns himself, and enjoys the consciousness that he is the center of a little world ; while the denizen of a city must often acknowledge that he is, so to speak, only one wheel of a gigantic machine. Is the life of the savage, therefore, more favorable to human develop- ment? The characteristic idea of modern civilization is : The development of the individual as the end for which the State exists. The great empires of Persia, Egypt, and ludia, wherein the individual was of value only as he ministered to the strength of the State, have given way to the modern nations, where individual freedom is pushed so far that the State seems only an instrument for the good of the individual. From being the supreme end of the individual, the State has become the means for his advancement into fi-eedom ; ami with this very exaltation of the value of the mere individual over the State, as such, there is inseparably connected the seem- ing destruction of the wholeness of the individual man. But the union of State and individual, which was in ancient times merely mechanical, has now become a living process, in which constant interaction gives rise to all the intellectual life of modern civilization. § 21. The work of Education being thus necessarily split up, we have the distinction between general and special schools. The work of the former is to give general develop- ment — what is considered essential for all men ; that of the Tlie Science of Education. 17 latter, to prepare for special callings. Xlie former should furnish a basis for the latter — i. e., the College should precede the Medical School, etc., and the High School the Normal. In the United States, owing to many causes, this is unfortu- nately not the ca'se. The difterence l)et\veen city and country life is important here. The teacher in a country school, and, still more, the private tutor or governess, must be able to teach many more things than the teacher in a graded school in the city, or the professor in a college or university. The danger on the one side is of superticiality, on the other of narrowness. § 22. The Education of any individual can be only rela- tively tinished. His possibilities are intinite. His actual realization of those possibilities must always remain far be- hind. The latter can only approximate to the former. It can never reach them. The term " tinishing an education " needs, therefore, some deiinitiou ; for, as a technical term, it has un- donbtedly a meaning. An immortal soul can never complete its development ; for, in so doing, it would give the lie to its own nature. We cannot speak })roperl3% however, of educat- ing an idiot. Such an unfortunate has no power of generali- zation, and no conscious personality. We can train him me- chanically, but we cannot educate him. This will hell) to illustrate the ditlerence, spoken of in § 14, between Educa- tion and Mechanical training. We obtain astonishing results, it is true, in onr schools for idiots, and yet we cannot fail to perceive that, after all, we have only an external result. We produce a mechanical per- formance of duties, and yet there seems to be no actual mental growth. It is an exogenous, and not an endogenous, gi'owth, to use the language of Botany.'' Continual repetition, under the most gentle patience, renders the movements easy, but, after all, they are only automatic, or what the physicians call reflex. We have the, same result })roduced in a less degree when we ** Perhaps, however slow tlie growth, there is real progress in liherating the imprisoned soul (?) 18 The Science of Education. attempt to teach an intelli_i!:cnt chikl something whicli is be- yond his active comprehension. A child may be tauglit to do or say almost anything by patient training, but, if what he is to say is Ijcj'^ond the power of his mental comprehension, and hence of his active assimilation, we are onFy training him as we train an animal (§ 14), and not educating him. We call such recitations parrot recitations, and, l)y our use of the word, express exactly in what position the pupils are placed. An idiot is only a case of permanently arrested development. What in the intelligent child is a passing phase is for the idiot a fixed state. We have idiots of all grades, as we have children of all ages. The al)ove observations must not be taken to mean that children should never be taught to perform operations in arith- metic which they do not, in cant phrase, " perfectly under- stand," or to learn poetry whose whole meaning the}' cannot fathom. Into this error many teachers have fallen. There can be no more profitable study for a teacher than to visit one of these numerous idiot schools. He finds the alpha- bet of his professional work there. As the philologist learns of the formation and growth of language by examining, not the perfectl}' formed languages, l)ut the dialects of savage tril)es, so with the teacher. In like manner more insight into the philosophy of teaching and of the nature of the mind can l)e ac(piired by teaching a class of children to read than in any other grade of work. //. — Tlte Form of Education. § 28. The general form of Education follows from the nature of mind. Mind is nothing but what it itself creates out of its own activity. It is, at first, mind as undeveloped or unconscious (in the main) ; but, secondly, it acquires the power of examining its own action, of considering itself as an object of attention, as if it were a quite foreign thing — i. e., it reflects (in this stage it is really ignorant that it is studying its own na- ture) ; and, finally, it l>ecomes conscious that this, which it had been examining, and of whose existence it is conscious, is its The Science of Education. 19 own self: It attains self-consciousness. It is throuo;h this estrangement from itself, given back to itself again and re- stored to unity, but it is no longer a simple, unconscious unity. In this third state only can it be said to be free — i. e.,to pos- sess itself. Education cannot create ; it can onl}- help to de- velop into reality the previously-existent possihilit}^ ; it can only help to bring forth to light the hidden life. § 24. All culture, in whatever line, must pass through these two stages of estrangement and of reunion ; the re- union l)eini>' not of two different thiiio-s, but the recoo-iiition of itself by thought, and its acceptance of itself as itself. And the more complete is the estrangement — i. e., the more per- fectly can the thought l)e made to view itself as a somewhat entirel}^ foreign to itself, to look upon it as a different and independent somewhat — the more complete and perfect will be its union with and acceptance of its object as one with itself when the recognition does tinally take place. Through culture we are led to this conscious possession of our own thought. Phito gives to the feeling, with which knoAvledge must necessarily beo'in, the name of wonder. But wonder is not knowledue ; it is only the iirst step towards it. It is the half-territied attention which the mind fixes on an ol)ject, and the half-ter- ror would be impossil)le did it not dimly fore1)0(le that it was something of its own nature at which it was lookino-. The child delights in stories of the far-off, the strange, and the wonderful. It is as if they hoped to find in these some solu- tion to themselves — a solution which they have, as it were, asked in vain of familiar scenes and objects. Their craving for such is the proof of how far their nature transcends all its known conditions. They are like adventurous explorers who push out to unknown regions in hopes of finding the freedom and wealth which lies only within themselves. They want to be told about things which thev never saw, such as terrible conflagrations, banditti life, wild animals, gray old ruins, Rob- inson Crusoes on far-oft", happy islands. They are irresistibly attracted by whatever is highly colored and dazzlingly lighted. The child prefers the story of Sinbad the Sailor to any tales of his own home and nation, l)ecause mind has this necessity 20 The Science of Education. of getting, as it were, outside of itself so as to obtain a view of itself. As the child grows to youth he is, from the same reasons, desirous of traveling. § 25. Work may be defined as the activity of the mind in a conscious concentration on, and absorption in, some object, with the purpose of acquiring or producing it. Play is the activity of the mind which gives itself up to surrounding ob- jects according to its own caprice, without any tiiought as to results. The Educator gives out work to tlie pu[)il, but he leaves him to himself in his play. § 2(). It is necessar}^ to draw a sharp line Ijctween work and play. If the Educator has not respect for work as an ac- tivity of great weight and importance, he not only spoils the relish of the pupil for play, which loses all its charm of free- dom when not set off by its antithesis of earnest lal)or, but he undermines in tin; pu})irs mind all respect for any real exist- ence. On the other hand, he who does not give to the cliild space, time, and opportunity for [)lay prevents the originality of his pupil from free development through the exercise of his creative ingenuity. Play sends the child l)ack to his work refreshed, because in it he loses himself without constraint and according to his own fancy, while in work he is required to yield himself up in a manner [)rescribed for him by another. Let the teacher watch his pupils Avhile at play if he would discover their individual peculiarities, for it is then that they unconsciously betray their real propensities. This tmtithesis of work and play runs through the entire life, the form only of play varying with years and occupations. To do what we please, as we please, and when we please, not for any reason, l)ut just because we please, remains play always. Children in their sports like nothing l)etter than to counterfeit what is to be the earnest work of their after-lives. The little girl phns with her dolls, and the boy plays he is a soldier and goes to mimic wars. It is, of course, an error to suppose that the play of a child is simpl}^ muscular. The lamb and the colt find their full en- joyment in capering aimlessly about the field. But to the child play would be incomplete which did not bring the mind The Science of Education. 21 into action. Children derive little enjoyment from pureh^ muscular exercise. They must at the same time have an ol)- ject requiring uiental action to attain it. A number of chil- dren set simply to run up and down a field would tire of the exercise in five minutes ; l)ut put a hall amongst them and set them to a game and they will be amused by it for hours. Exceptional mental development is always preceded, and is, indeed, produced l)y, an exceptional amount of exercise in the form of play on the part of the s[)eci;d faculties concerned. The peculiar tendencies exhibited in play are due to the large development of particular faculties, and the ultimate giant strengtii of a faculty is brought al)out by play. The genius is no doul)t born, not made : but, although born, it would dwin- dle away in infancy were it not for the constant exercise taken in play, which is as necessary for development as food for the maintenance of life. § 27. Work should never be treated as if it were l)lay, nor play as if it were work. Those whose work is creative activity of the mind may find recreation in the details of science; and those, again, whose vocation is scientific research can find rec- reation in the pi-actice of art in its different departments. What is work to one may thus be plav to another. This does not, however, contradict the first statement. § 28. It is the province of education so to accustom us to dif- ferent conditions or ways of thinking and acting that they shall no longer seem strange or foreign to us. AA'hen these have become, as we say, " natural " to us — when we find the ac- quired mode of thinking or acting just what our inclination leads us to adopt unconsciously, a Habit has been formed. A habit is, then, the identity of natural inclination with the spe- cial demands of any particular doing or suftering, and it is thus the external condition of all progress. As long as we re- quire the conscious act of our will to the performance of a deed, that deed is a somewhat foreign to ourselves, and not yet a part of ourselves. The practical work of the educator may thus be said to consist in leading the mind of the pu})il over certain lines of thought till it becomes " natural " or sponta- neous for him to 2:0 l)v that road. Much time is wasted in 22 Tlie Science of Education. schools where the pupil's mind is not led aright at first, for then he has to unlearn habits of thought which are already formed. The work of the teacher is to impress good methods of studying and thinking upon the minds of his pupils, rather than to communicate knowledge. § 29. It is, at first sight, entirely inclifierent what a Habit shall relate to — /. e., the point is to get the pupil into the way of forming hal)its, and it is not at first of so much moment Avhat habit is formed as that a habit is formed. But we can- not consider that there is anything morally neutral in the ab- stract, but only in the concrete, or in particular examples. An action may be of no moral significance to one man, and under certain circumstances, while to another man, or to the same man under difterent circumstances, it may have quite a differ- ent significance, or may possess an entirely op[)osite character. Appeal must be made, then, to the individual conscience of each one to decide what is and what is not permissil)le to that indi- vidual under the oiven circumstances. Education must make it its first aim to awaken in the pupil a sensitiveness to spirit- ual and ethical distinctions which knows that nothing is in its own nature morally insignifiant or indifferent, but shall recog- nize, even in things seemingly small, a universal human signifi- cance. But, yet, in relation to the highest interests of morality or the well-being of society, the pupil must be taught to subor- dinate without hesitation all that relates exclusively to his own personal comfort or welfare for the well-being of his fellow- men, or for moral rectitude. When we reffect upon habit, it at once assumes for us the character of useful or injurious. The consequences of a habit are not indifferent. Whatever action tends as a harmonious means to the realiza- tion of our purpose is desirable or advantageous, and Avhatever either partially contradicts or wholly destroys it is disad- vantageous. Advantage and disadvantage being, then, only relative terms, dependent upon the aim or purpose which we happen to have in view, a habit which may be advantageous to one man under certain circumstances may be disadvantageous to another man, or even to the same num, under other circum- TJie Science of Education. 23 stances. Education must, then, accustom the youth to consider for himself the expediency or inexpediency of any action in rehition to his own vocation in life. He must not form habits which will be inexpedient with regard to that. § 31. There is, however, an absolute distinction of habits as morally good and bad. From this absolute stand-point we must, after all, decide what is for us allowable or forbidden, what is expedient and what inexpedient. § 32. As to its form, habit may l)e either passive or active. By passive habit is meant a habit of composure which surveys undisturbed whatever vicissitudes, either external or internal, may fall to our lot, and nniintains itself superior to them all, never allowing its power of acting to be paralyzed by them. It is not, however, merely a stoical indifference, nor is it the com- posure which comes from inabilit}" to receive impressions — a sort of impassivity. It is that composure which is the highest result of power. Nor is it a selfish love of ease which inten- tioually withdraws itself from annoyances in order to remain undisturbed. It is not manifested because of a desire to be out of these vicissitudes. It is, while in them, to be not of them. It is the composure wdiich does not fret itself over what it cannot change. The soul that has ])uilt for itself this stronghold of freedom within itself may vividly experience joy and sorrow, pain and pleasure, and yet serenely know that it is intrenched in Avails which are inaccessible to their attacks, becanse it knows that it is infinitely superior to all that may chance or change. What is meant l)y active habit in distinction from passive habit is found in our external activity, as skill, facility, readiness of information, etc. It might be considered as the equipping of our inner selves for active contest with the external world ; while passive habit is the fortifying of our inner selves against the attack of the external world. The man who possesses habit in both these forms impresses him- self in many difierent ways on the outer world, while at the same time, and all the time, he preserves intact his personality from the constant assaults of the outer world. He handles both spear and shield. § 33. All education, in whatever line, must work by forming 24 The Science of Education. habits physical, mental, or moral. It might l)e said to consist in a conversion of actions which are at first voluntar}^ by means of repetition, into instructive actions which are per- formed, as Ave say, naturally — /. e., without any conscious voli- tion. We teach a child to walk, or he teaches himself to walk by a constant repetition of the action of the will upon the necessary muscles ; and, when the thinking brain hands over the mechan- ism to the trained spinal cord, the anxious, watchful look dis- appears from the face, and the child talks or laughs as he runs : then that part of his education is completed. Henceforth the at- tention that had been necessarj^ to manage the body in walking is freed for other work. This is only an ilhistration, easily un- derstood, of what takes place in all education. Mental and moral acts, thoughts, and feelings in the same way are, by repetition, converted into habits and become our nature ; and character, good or ))ad, is only the aggregate of our hal)its. AVhen we say a person has no character, we mean exactly this : that he has no fixed habits. But, as the great end of human life is freedom, he must ))e above even habit. He must not 1)6 wholly a machine of hal)its, and education must enable hiin to attain the power of breaking as well as of forming habits, so that he ukw, when desiralde, substitute one habit for another. For habits may be (§ 29), according to their nature, proper or impr()i)er, advantageous or disadvantageous, good or bad ; and, according to their form, may be (§ 32) either the acceptance of the external by the internal or the reaction of the internal upon the external. Tln'ough our freedom we must be able, not oul}^ to renounce any habit formed, but to form a new and l)etter one. Man should be su[)renie above all habits, wearing them as garments which the soul puts on and otf at will. It must so order them all as to secure for itself a constant progress of development into still greater freedom. In this higher view habits l)econie thus to our sight onlj^ necessary acconi- paninu'uts of imperf(!ct freedom. Can we conceive of God, who is [)erfect Freedom, as having any habits? We might say that, as a means toward the ever-more decided realization of the Good, we must form a habit of voluntarily nuUving and break- iuii" ort' habits. We must characterize as bad those habits which The Science of Education. 25 relate only to our personal convenience or enjoyment. They are often not essentiall}^ blameworthy, but there lies in them a hidden danger that they may allure us into luxury or effemi- nacy. It is a false and mechanical way of looking at the affair to suppose that a ha))it which had been formed l)y a certain number of repetitions can ije broken off b}' an equal number of refusals. We can never utterly renounce a habit which we decide to l)e undesirable for us except through de- cision and firmness. § o4. Education, then, must consider the preparation for authority and obedience (§ 17) ; for a rational ordering of one's actions according to universal [)rinci]:)les, and, at the same time, a preservation of individuality (§ 18); for work and play (§ 2r)) ; for habits of spontanciitv or originality (§ 28). To endeavor b}^ any set rules to harmonize in the pupil these o[)- posites will be a vain endeavor, and failure in tlie solution of the problem is quite possible by reason of the freedom of the pupil, of surrounding circumstances, or of mistakes on the part of the teacher, and the possibility of this negative result must, therefore, enter as an element of calculation into the work itself. All the dangers which may in any way thi'eaten the youth must be considered in advance, and he must be fortitied against them. While we should not intentionall}' expose the youth to temptation in order to prove his strength of resistance, neither should we, on the other hand, endeavor to seclude him from all chance of dangerous temptation. To do the former Avould l)e Satanic ; while to do the latter would be ridiculous, useless, and in fact dangerous in the highest degree, for tempta- tion conies more from within than from without, and an}^ secret inclination will in some way seek, or even create, its own op- portunity for gratification. The real safety from sin lies, not in seclusion of one's self from the world ^ — for all the elements of worldliness are innate in each individual — but in an occu- pying of the restless activity in other wa3S, in learning and dis- cipline ; these being varied as time goes on, according to the age and degree of proficiency. Not to crush out, but to direct. "When me they fly, I am the wings." — Emerson. 26 The /Science of Education. the child's activity, whether physical or mental, is the key to all real success in education. The sentiinentalisni which has, during the last few years, in this country (the United States), tended to diminish to so great an extent the actual work to be per- formed by our boys and girls, has set free a dangerous amount of energy whose new direction gives cause for grave alarm. To endeavor to prevent the youth from all free and individual relations with the real world, implies a never-ending watch kept over him. The consciousness of being thus " shadowed " destroys in the youth all elasticity of spirit, all confidence, and all originality. A constant feeling of, as it were, a detective police at his side obscures all sense of independent action, sys- tematically accustoming him to dependence. Though, as the tragic-comic story of Peter Schlemihl shows, the loss of a man's own shadow may involve him in a series of fatalities,^ yet to be "shadowed" constantly by a companion, as in the pedagog- ical system of the Jesuits, undermines all naturalness. And, if we endeavor to guard too strictly against what is evil and wrong, the pupil reacts, bringing all his intelligence into the service of his craft and cunning, till the would-be educator stands aghast at the discovery of such evil-doing as he had supposed impossible under his strict supervision. Within the circle of whatever rules it may be found necessary to draw around the young there must alwaj's be left space for freedom. Pupils should always be led to sec that all rules against which they^fret are only of their own creation ; and that as grave-stones mark the place where some one has fallen, so every law is only a record of some previous wrong-doing. The law " Thou shalt not kill " was not given till murder had been committed. In other words, the wrong deed preceded the law against it, and perfect obedience is the same as perfect freedom. No obe- dience except that which we gain from the pupil's own convic- tions has real educational significance. § 35. If there appears in the youth any decided deformity opposed to the ideal which we would create in him, we should at ^0 The story of Peter Schlemihl, by Chamisso, may be read in the English trans- lation published in "Hedge's German Prose Writers." TJie Science of Education. 27 once inquire into its history and origin. Tlie negative and positive are so closely related, and depend so intimately on each other, in our being that what appears to us to l)e neg- ligence, rudeness, immorality, foolishness, or oddity may arise from some real necessity of the pupil which in its process of development has only taken a wrong direction. § 36. If it should appear, on such examination, that the wrong action was the result of avoidable ignorance, of caprice, or willfulness on the part of the pupil, this calls for a simple pro- hibition on the part of the teacher, no reason being assigned. His authority must be sufficient for tlic pupil without any reason. When the fault is repeated, and the pupil is old enough to understand, then onl}^ should the grounds of the prohibition be stated with it. This should, however, be done in few words, and the educator must never allow himself to lose, in a doctrinal Icctui'e, the idea of discipline. If he do, the pupil will soon forget that it was his own misbehavior which was the cause of all the remarks. The statement of the reason must be honest, and must be presented to the youth on the side most easy for him to appreciate. False reasons are not only morally wrong, but they lead the mind astray. We also commit a grave error when we try to unfold to the youth all the possible consequences of his wrong act, for those possible consequences are too far otf to atlect his mind. The long lecture wearies him, especially if it be in a stereotj'ped form ; and with teachers who are fault-finding, and who like to hear themselves talk, this is apt to be the case. Still more unfortunate would it be if we really should atfect the lively imagination of a sensitive youth by our description of the wretchedness to Avhich his wrong-doing, if persisted in, might lead him, for then the conviction that he has already taken one step in that direction may produce in him a fear which in the future man may become terrible depression and lead to degradation. § 37. If to censure we add the threat of punishment, we have then what in common language is called scolding. If threats are made, the pupil must be made to feel that they will be faithfully executed according to the word. 28 TJie Science of E ducat ion. The threat of punishineiit is, howevei', to be uvoided ; for cir- cuinstaiices may arise which will render its fulfillment not only objectionable, but wrong, and the teacher will then find himself in the position of Herod and bound " for his oath's sake " to a course of action which no longer seems the best. Even the law in affixing a penalty to definite crimes allows a certain latitude in a maximum and minimum of awarded punishment. § 38. It is only after other means of reformation have been tried, and have failed, that punishment is justifiable for error, transgression, or vice. AA'hen our simple [)rohibition (§ 36), the statement of our reason for the prohibiti()n( § 3()), and threat of punishment (§ 37) have all failed, then [)unishment comes and intentionally inflicts pain on the youth in order to force him by this last means to a realization of his wrong-doing. And here the punishment must not be given for general bad conduct or for a perverse dis[)osition — those being vague generalities — but for a s})ecial act of wrong-doing at that time. He i^honld not be punished because he is naturalh' bad or because he is generall}' naughty, but for this one special and particular act which he has committed. Thus the punishment will act on the general disposition, not directly, but through this })articidar act, as a manifestation of the disposition. Then it will not accuse the innermost nature of the culprit. This way of punishment is not only demanded by justice, Init it is absolutely necessary in view of the fact of the sophistry inherent in human nature which is alwaj's busy in assigning various motives for its actions. If the child understands, then, that he is punished for that particular act which he knows himself to have committed, he cannot feel the bitter sense of injustice and misunderstanding which a punishment inflicted for general reasons, and which attributes to him a depravity of motives and intentions, so often engenders. § 39. Punishment as an educ^ational means must, neverthe- less, be always essentially corrective, since it seeks always to bring the youth to a comprehension of his wrong-doing and to a positive alteration in his behavior, and, hence, has for its aim to improve him." At the same time it is a sad testimony of the insufficiency of the means which have been previously tried. The Science of Education. 29 We .should on no account aim to tenify the 3'outli by physical force, so that to avoid that he will letVain from doing the wrong or from repeating a wrong act alread}^ done. This would lead only to terrorism, and his growing strength would soon put him beyond its power and leave him without motive for refraining from evil. Punishment may have this effect in some degree, but it should, above all, be made to impress deeply upon his mind the eternal truth that the evil deed is never allowed in Clod's universe to act unrestrained and according to its oAvn will, but that the good and true is the only absolute power in the world, and that it is never at a loss to avenge any contradiction of its will and design. It may be questioned whether the moral teaching in our schools be not too negative in its measures ; whether it do not conHne itself too much to forbidding the commission of the wrong deed, and s[)end too little force in securing the per- formance of the right deed. Not a simple refraining from the Avrong, but an active doing of the right would be the better lesson to inculcate. In the laws of the state the ottice of punishment is first to satisfy justice,^ and onl}^ after this is done can the improve- ment of the criminal be considered. If government should proceed on the same basis as the educator, it would make a grave mistake, for it has to deal, not with children, but with adults, to whom it concedes the dignity of full responsil)ility for all their acts. It has not to consider the reasons, either psychological or ethical, which [)rompted the deed. The actual deed is what it has first of all to deal with, and only after that is considered and settled can it take into view any '^ That is, punishnient is retributive and not corrective. Justice requires that each man shall have the fruits of his own deeds ; in this it assumes tliat each and every man is free and self-determined. It proposes to treat each man as free, and as the rightful owner of his deed and its consequences. If he does a deed which is destructive to human rights, it shall destroy his rights and deprive him of property, personal freedom, or even of life. But corrective punishment assumes immaturity of development and consequent lack of freedom. It belongs to the period of nurture, and not to the period of maturity. The tendency in our schools is, however, to displace the forms of mere corrective punishment (cor- poral chastisement), and to substitute for them forms founded on retribution — e. g., deprivation of privileges. See sees. 42 and 43. 30 The Science of Education. mitii^ntino;' circumstances connected therewith, or any pecul- iarity of the individual. The educator, on the other hand, has to deal with those who are immature and only growing toward responsibility. As long as they are under the care of a teacher, he js at any rate partially account:d)le for what they do. We must never confound the nature of punishment in the State with that of punishment as an educational means. § 40. As to punishment, as with all other work in edncation, it can never be abstractly determined beforehand, l)utit must be regulated with a view to the individual pupil and his peculiar circumstances. What it shall be, and how and when adminis- tered, are problems which call for great ingenuity and tact ou the part of the educator. It must uever be forgotten that punishments var}^ in intensity at the will of the educator. He fixes the standard by which they are measured in the child's mind. AYhipping is actual physical pain, and an evil in itself to the child. But there are many other punishments which involve no physical pain, and the intensity of which, as felt by the child, varies according to an artificial standard in dif- ferent schools. "To sit under the clock" was a great pun- ishment in one of our public schools — not that the seat was not perfectly comfortable, l)ut that one was never sent there to sit unless for some grave misdemeanor. The teacher has the matter in his own hands, and it is well to remember this and to grade his punishments with much caution, so as to make all pass for their full value. In some schools even sus- pension is so common that it does not seem to the pupil a very terrible thing. " Familiarity breeds contempt," and fre- quency implies familiarity. A punishment seldom resorted to will always seem to the pupil to be severe. As we weaken, and in fact bankrupt, language hy an inordinate use of super- latives, so, also, do we weaken any punishment by its fre- quent repetition. Economy of resources should be always practiced. § 41. In general, we might say that, for very young children, corporal punishment is most appropriate ; for boys and girls, isolation ; and for older youth, something which appeals to the sense of honor. The Science of Education. 31 § 42. (1) Corporal punishment implies physical pain. Gen- erally it consists of a whipping, and this is perfectly justihable in case of persistent defiance of authority, of obstinate care- lessness, or of malicious evil-doing, so long or so often as the higher perceptions of the offender are closed against appeal. But it must not be administered too often, or with undue se- verity. To resort to deprivation of food is cruel. But, while we condemn the false view of seeing in the rod the only pana- cea for all embarrassing questions of discipline on the teach- er's part, we can have no sympathy for the sentimentality which assumes that the dignity of humanity is affected by a blow given to a child. It is wrong thus to confound self- conscioi,is humanity with child-humanity, for to the average child himself a blow is the most natural form of retribution, and that in which all other efforts at influence at last end , The fully grown man ought, certainly, not to be flogged, for this kind of punishment places him on a level with the child ; or, where it is barbarously inflicted, reduces him to the level of the l)rute, and thus absolutely does degrade him. In English schools the rod is said to l)e often used : if a pupil of the flrst class, who is never flogged, is put back into the second, he be- comes again subject to flogging. But, even if this be necessary in the schools, it certainly has no proper place in the army and navy. § 43. (2) To punish a })npil by isolation is to remove him temporarily from the society of his fellows. The boy or girl thus cut oft* from companionship, and forced to think only of himself, begins to understand how helpless he is in such a position. Time passes wearily, and he is soon eager to re- turn to the companionship of parents, brothers and sisters, teachers and fellow-students. But to leave a child entirely by himself without any super- vision, and perhaps in a dark room, is as wrong as to leave two or three together without supervision. It often happens when they are kept after school b}' themselves that they give the freest rein to their childish wantonness, and commit the wildest pranks . § 44. (3) Shutting children up in this way does not touch 32 The Science of Education. their sense of honor, and the punishment is soon forgotten, because it rehites only to certain particuhir phases of their behavior. But it is quite different when the pupil is isolated from his fellows on the ground that by his conduct he has violated the very principles which make civilized society possible, and is, therefore, no longer a proper member of it. This is a punishment which touches his sense of honor, for honor is the recognition of the individual hy others as their equal, and l)y his error, or by his crime, he had forfeited his right to be their equal, their peer, and has thus severed himself from them. The separation from them is thus only the external form of the real separation which he himself has brought to pass with- in his soul, and which his wrong-doing has only made clearly visible. This kind of punishment, thus touching the whole character of the youth and not easily forgotten, should be administered with the greatest caution lest a permanent loss of self-respect follow. When we think our wrong-doing to be eternal in its effects, we lose all power of effort for our own improvement. This sense of honor cannot be deveh)ped so well in family life, because in the family the ties of blood make all in a cer- tain sense equal, no matter what may be their conduct. He who has l)y wrong-doing severed himself from society is still a member of the family, and within its sacred circle is still be- loved, though it may be with bitter tears. No matter how wrong he may have been, he still can find there the deepest sympathy, for he is still father, brother, etc. It is in the con- tact of one family with another that the feeling of honor is first developed, and still more in the contact of the individual with an institution which is not bound to him by any natural ties, but is an organism entirely external to him. Thus, to the child, the school and the school-classes ofi'er a means of devel- opment which can never be found in the family. This fact is often overlooked by those who have the charge of the education of children. No home education, no private tutorship, can take the place of the school as an educational influence. For the first time in his life the child, on being The Science of Education. 33 sent to school, finds himself in a comnuniity where he is re- sponsible for his own deeds, and where he has no one to shield him. The rights of others for whom he has no special affec- tion are to be respected by him, and his own are to be de- fended. The knowledge gained at the school is by no means the most valnable acqnisition there obtained. It mnst never be forgotten b}^ the teacher that the school is an institution on an entirely different basis from the family, and that personal attachment is not the principle on which its rule can be rightly based . § 45. This gradation of punishment from physical pain, up through occasional isolation, to the touching of the innermost sense of honor is ver}^ carefully to be considered, both with regard to the different ages at which they are severally appro- priate and to the different discipline which they necessarily produce. Every punishment must, however, be always looked at as a means to some end, and is thus transitory in its nature. The pupil should always be conscious that it is painful to the teacher to punish him. Nothing can be more effectual as a means of cure for the wrong-doer than to perceive in the man- ner and tone of the voice, in the very delay with which the necessary punishment is administered, that he who punishes also suffers in order that the wrong-doer may ])e cured of his fault. The principle of vicarious suffering lies at the root of all spiritual healing. ///. — Tlie Limits of Education. § 4(5. As far as the external form of education is concerned, its limit is reached in the instrumentality of punishment in which we seek to turn the activity which has been employed in a wrong direction into its proper channel, to make the deed positive instead of negative, to substitute for the destructive deed one which shall be in harmony with the constructive forces of society. But education implies its real limits in its definition, which is to build up the individual into theoretical and practical Reason. When this work goes prop- erly on, the authority of the educator, as authority, necessarily 3 34 The Science of Education. loses, every day, some of its force, us the guiding principles come to form a part of the pupil's own character, instead of being super-imposed on him from without through the media- tion of the educator. What was authority becomes now ad- vice and example ; unreasoning and implicit obedience passes into gratitude and affection. The pupil wears oft" the rough edges of his crude individuality, which is transfigured, so to speak, into the universality and necessity of Reason, but with- out losing his identity in the process. Work becomes enjoy- ment, and Phi}^ is found only in a change of activity. The youth takes possession of himself, and may now be left to him- self. There are two widely differing views with regard to the limits of education ; one lays great stress on the powerlessness of the pupil and the great power of the teacher, and asserts that the teacher must create something out of the pupil. This view is often seen to have undesirabk^ results, where large mnnbers are to be educated together. It assumes that each pupil is only " a sample of the lot " on whom the teacher is to affix his stamp, as if they were different pieces of goods from some factory. Thus individuality is destroyed, and all reduced to one level, as in cloisters, ])arracks, and orphan asy- lums, where only one individual seems to exist. Sometimes it takes the form of a theory which holds that one can at will flog anything into or out of a pupil. This may be called a superstitious belief in the power of education. The opposite extreme may be found in that system which advocates a " se- vere letting alone," asserting that individuality is unconquer- able, and that often the most careful and circmnspect education fails of reaching its aim l)ecause the inherent nature of the vouth has fought against it with such force as to render abort- ive all opposing efforts. This idea of Pedagogy produces a sort of indifference about means and ends which would leave each individuality to grow as its own instinct and the chance influences of the world might direct. The latter view would, of course, preclude the possibility of any science of education, and make the youth only the sport of blind fate. The com- parative power of inherited tendencies and of educational aji- pliances is, however, one which every educator slioidd carefully The Science of Education. 35 study. Much careless generalizjitiou has been made on this topic, and opinion is too often based upon some one instance where accurate observation of methods and intluences have been wanting. § 47. Education has necessarily a definite, subjective limit in the individuality of the- youth, for it can develop in him only that which exists in him as a possibility. It can lead and assist, but it has no power to create. What nature has denied to a man education cannot give him, any more than it can on the other hand annihilate his original gifts, though it may suppress, distort, and measurably destroy them. And yet it is impossible to decide what is the real essence of a man's indi- viduality until he has left behind him the years of growth, because it is not till then that he fully attains conscious possession of himself. Moreover, at this critical time many traits which were supposed to be characteristic may prove themselves not to be so by disap[)earing, while long-slumbering and nnsuspected talents may crop out. AVhatever has been forced upon a child, though not in harmony Avith his individu- ality, Avhatever has been driven into \\\\\\ without having been actively accepted by him, or having had a definite relation to his culture — will remain perhaps, but only as an external foreign ornament, only as a parasitic growth which weakens the force of his real nature. But we must distinguish from these little affectations which arise from a misconception of the limits of individuality that effort of imitation which children and young i)eople often exhibit in trving to co})y in their own actions those pecidiarities which thej^ observe and admire in perfectly-developed [)ersons with whom they may come in contact. They see a reality which corres[)onds to their own possibility, and the presentiment of a like or a similar attainment stirs them to imitation, although this external imitation may be sometimes disagreeal)le or ridiculous to the lookers-on. AVe ought not to censure it too severely, remem- bering that it springs from a positive striving towards true culture, and needs only to l)e pro[)erly directed, and never to be roughly put down. § 48. The objective limit of education consists in the means 36 Tlie Science of Education. which can be applied for it. That the capacity for culture should exist is the first condition of success, but it is none the less necessur}^ that it be cultivated. But how much cultivation shall be given to it must depend in very great degree on the means which are practicable, and this will undoubtedly again depend on the worldly possessions and character of the family to which the pupil belongs. If he comes of a cultivated and refined family, he will have a great advantage at the start over his less favored comrades ; and, with regard to many of the arts and sciences, this limitation of education is of o-reat sio:nificance. But the means alone will not answer. Without natural capac- ity, all the educational api)aratus possible is of no avail. On the other hand, real talent often accomplishes incredible feats with very limited means ; and, if the way is only once open, makes of itself a center of attraction which draws to itself as with magnetic power the necessary means. Moral culture is, however, from its very nature, raised above such de[)endence. If we fix our thought on the subjective limit — that of indi- vidualit}^ (§ 47) — we detect the ground for that indifference which lays little stress on education (§ 46, end). If, on the other hand, Ave concentrate our attention on the means of cul- ture, we shall perceive the reason of the other extreme spoken of — of that pedagogical despotism (§ 46) which fancies that it is able to prescribe and enforce at will upon the pupil any culture whatever, without regard to his special characteristics. § 49. Education comes to its absolute limit when the pupil has apprehended the prol)lem which he is to solve, has com- prehended the means which are at his disposal, and has acquired the necessary skill in using them. The true educator seeks to render himself unnecessary b}^ the complete emancipation of the youth. lie works always towards the independence of the pu})!!, and always with the design of withdrawing so soon as he shall have reached this stand-point, and of leaving him to the full responsibility for his own deeds. To endeavor to hold him in the position of a pupil after this time has been reached would be to contradict the very essence of education, which must find its result in the independent maturity of the youth. The inequality which formerly existed between pupil and TJie Science of Education. 37 teacher is now removed, and nothing l)econies more oppressive to the former than any endeavor to force npon him the an- thority from which, in reality, his own efforts have freed him. But the nndne hastenino- of this ennmcipation is as l)ad an error as an effort after dehiy. The question as to whether a person is really ready for independent action — as to whether his education is finished — may be settled in much the same way in education as in politics. AVhen any people has pro- gressed so far as to put the question whether they are ready for freedom, it ceases to be a question ; for, without the inner consciousness of freedom itself, the question would never have occurred to them. § 50. But, although the pu[)il may rightly now l)e freed from the hands of instructors, and no longer obtain his culture through them, it is l)y no means to be understood that he is not to go on with the work himself. He is now to educate himself. Each must plan out for himself the ideal toward which he must daily strive. In this [)rocess of self-transformation a friend may aid by advice and example, l)ut he cannot educate, for the act of educating necessardy implies inequality between teacher and pupil. The human necessity for companionship gives rise to societies of different kinds, in which we may, per- haps, say that there is some approach to educating their mem- bers, the necessary inequality being supplied l)y various grades and orders. They presupi)ose education in the usual sense of the word, but they wish to bring about an education in a higher sense, and, therefore, they veil the last form of their ideal in mystery and secrecy. By the term Pliilister the Germans indicate the man of a civilized state who lives on, contented with himself and devoid of any impulse towards further self-culture. To one who is always aspiring after an Ideal, such a one cannot but be repul- sive. But how mau}^ are they who do not, sooner or later, in mature life, crystallize, as it were, so that any active life, any new progress, is to them inq)ossible? ANALYSIS AND COMMENTARY. § 1. Pedagogics is not a complete, independent science by itself. It borrows the resnlts of other sciences [e. g., it presupposes the science of Rights, treating of the institutions of the family and civil society, as well as of the State ; it presupposes the science of anthro- pology, in which is treated the relations of the human mind to nature. Nature conditions the development of the individual human being. But the history of the individual and the history of the race presents a continual emancipation from nature, and a continual growth into freedom, i. e., into ability to know himself and to realize himself in the world by making the matter and forces of the world his instruments and tools. Anthropology shows us how man as a natural being — i. e., as having a body — is limited. There is climate, involving heat and cold and moisture, the seasons of the year, etc. ; there is organic growth, involving birtli. growth, reproduction, and deca}'^ ; there is race, involving the limitations of heredity ; there is the telluric life of the planet and the circulation of the forces of the solar sys- tem, whence arise the processes of sleeping, waking, dreaming, and kindred phenomena; there is the emotional nature of man, involving his feelings, passions, instincts, and desires ; then there are the five senses, and their conditions. Then, there is the science of phenom- enology, treating of the steps by which mind rises from the stage of mere feeling and sense-perception to that of self-consciousness, i. e., to a recognition of mind as true substance, and of matter as mere phenomenon created V)y Mind (God). Then, there is psychol- ogy, including the treatment of the stages of activity of mind, as so-called "faculties" of the mind, e. r/., attention, sense-perception, imagination, conception, understanding, judgment, reason, and the like. Ps3'chology is generally made (by English writers) to include, also, what is here called anthropology and phenomenology. After [isychol- ogy, there is the science of ethics, or of morals and customs ; then, the Science of Rights, already mentioned ; then. Theology, or the Science of Religion, and, after all these, there is Pliilosophy, or the Science of Science. Now, it is clear that the Science of Education ti'eats of the process of development, by and through which man, as a merely The Science of Education. 39 natural being, becomes spirit, or self-conscious mind ; hence, it presupposes all the sciences named, and will be defective if it ignores nature, or mind, or any stage or process of either, especially An- thropology, Plienonienology, Ps3'chology, Ethics, Eights, ^Esthetics, or Science of Art and Literature, Religion, or Philosophy']. § 2. The scope of pedagogics being so broad, anddts presuppositions so vast, its limits are not well defined, and its treatises are very apt to lack logical sequence and conclusion ; and, indeed, frequently to be mere collections of unjustified and unexplained assumptions, dogmatically set forth. Hence the low repute of pedagogical litera- ture as a whole. § 3. Moreover, education furnisl)es a special vocation, that of teaching. (All vocations are specializing — being cut off, as it were, from the total life of man. The "division of labor" requires that each individual sliall concentrate his endeavors and be a ixirt of the whole). § 4. Pedagogics, as a special science, belongs to the collection of sciences (already described, in commenting on § 1) inf;luded under the philosophy of Spirit or Mind, and more particularly to that part of it which relates to the will (ethics and science of rights, rather than to the part relating to the intellect and feeling, as anthropology, phenomenology, psychology, aesthetics, and religion. "Theoretical" relates to the intellect^ "practical" relates to the wili, U\ this phil- osophy). The province of practical philosophy is the investigation of the nature of freedom, and the process of securing it by self- emancipation from nature. Pedagogics involves the conscious exer- tion of influence on the part of the will of the teacher upon the will of the pupil, with a purpose in view — that of inducing the pupil to form certain prescribed habits, and adopt prescribed views and in- clinations. The entire science of mind (as above shown), is pre- supposed by the science of education, and must be kept constantly in view as a guiding light. The institution of the family (treated in practical philosophy) is the starting-point of education, and without this institution properly realized, education would find no solid foundation. The right to be educated on the part of children, and the duty to educate on the part of parents, are reciprocal ; and there is no family life so poor and rudimentary that it does not furnish the most important elements of education — no matter what the subse- quent influence of the school, the vocation, and the state. § 5. Pedagogics as science, distinguished from the same as an art: the former containing the abstract general treatment, and the latter 40 The Science of Education. taking into consideration all the conditions of concrete individuality, e. g., the peculiarities of the teacher and the pupil, and all the local circumstances, and the power of adaptation known as "tact." § 6. The special conditions and peculiarities, considered in educa- tion as an art, may be formulated and reduced to system, but they should not be introduced as a part of the science of education. § 7. Pedagogics has three parts: first, it considers the idea and nature of education, and arrives at its true definition ; second, it pre- sents and describes the special provinces into which the entire field of education is divided ; third, it considers the historical evolution of education by the human race, and the individual systems of educa- tion that have arisen, flourished, and decayed, and their special func- tions in the life of man. § 8. The scope of the first part is easy to define. The history of pedagogics, of course, contains all the ideas or definitions of the nature of education ; but it must not for that reason be substituted for the scientific investigation of the nature of education, which alone should constitute this first part (and the history of education be reserved for the third part). § 9. The second part includes a discussion of the threefold nature of man as body, intellect, and will. The difficulty in this part of the science is very great, because of its dependence upon other sciences (e. g., upon physiology, anthropology, etc.), and because of the temptation to go into details (e. g., in the practical department, to consider the endless varieties of schools for arts and trades). § 10. The third part contains the exposition of the various national standpoints furnished (in the hl&tory of the world) for the bases of particular systems of education. In each of these S3steras will be found the general idea underlying all education, but it will be found existing under special modifications, which have arisen through its application to the phj'sical, intellectual, and ethical conditions of the people. But we can deduce the essential features of the differ- ent systems that may appear in histor}^, for there are only a limited number of systems possil)le. Eacii lower form finds itself comple- mented in some higher form, and its function and purpose then become manifest. The sj^stems of "national" education {i. e., Asiatic sys- tems, in which the individuality of each person is swallowed up in the substantiality of the national idea — just as the individual waves get lost in the ocean on whose surface they arise) find their complete ex- planation in the systems of education that arise in Christianity (the preservation of human life being the object of the nation, it follows The Science of Education. 41 that when realized abstractly or exclusively, it absorbs and annuls the mental independence of its subjects, and thus contradicts itself by destroying the essence of what it undertakes to preserve, i. e., life (soul, mind) ; but within Christianity the principle of the state is found so modified that it is consistent with the infinite, untram- melled development of the individual, intellectually and morally, and thus not only life is saved, but spiritual, free life is attainable for each and for all). § 11. The history of pedagogy ends with the present system as the latest one. As science sees the future ideally contained in the present, it is bound to comprehend the latest system as a realization (though imperfect) of the ideal system of education. Hence, the system, as scientifically treated in the first part of our work, is the system with which the third part of our vrork ends. § 12. The nature of education, its form, its limits, are now to be investigated. (§§ 13-50.) § 13. The nature of education determined by the nature of Mind or Spirit, whose activity is always devoted to realizing for itself what it is potentially — to becoming conscious of its possibilities, and to getting them under the control of its will. Mind is potentially free. Education is the means by which man seeks to realize in man his possibilities (to develop the possibilities of the race in each indi- vidual). Hence, education has freedom for its object. § 14. Man is the only being capable of education, in the sense above defined, because the only conscious being. He must know himself ideally, and then realize his ideal self, in order to become actually free. The animals not the plants ma}'^ be trained^ or culti- vated, but, as devoid of self-consciousness (even the highest animals not getting above impressions, not reaching ideas, not seizing gen- eral or al)stract thoughts), they are not realized for themselves, but only for us. (That is, they do not know their ideal as we do.) § 15. Education, taken in its widest compass, is the education of the human race by Divine Providence. § 16. In a narrower sense, education is applied to the shaping of the individual, so that his caprice and arbitrariness shall give place to rational habits and views, in harmony with nature and ethical cus- toms. He must not abuse nature, nor slight the ethical code of his people, nor despise the gifts of Providence (whether for weal or woe), unless he is willing to be crushed in the collision with these more substantial elements. § 17. In the narrowest, but most usual application of the terra, 42 Tlie Science of Education. we understand by " education " the influence of the individual upon the individual, exerted with the object of developing his powers in a conscious and methodical manner, either generally or in special directions, the educator being relativel3' mature, and exercising authority over the relatively immature pupil. Without authority on the one hand and obedience on the other, education would lack its ethical basis — a neglect of the will-training could not be com- pensated for by any amount of knowledge or smartness. § 18. The general province of education includes the development of the individual into the theoretical and practical reason immanent in him. The definition which limits education to the development of the individual into ethical customs (obedience to morality, social conventionalities, and the laws of the state — Hegel's definition is here referred to : " The object of education is to make men ethical ") is not comprehensive enough, because it ignores the side of the intel- lect, and takes note only of the toill. The individual should not only be man in general (as he is through the adoption of moral and ethical forms — which are general forms, customs, or laws, and thus the forms imposed by the ivill of the race), but he should also be a self-conscious subject, a particular individual (man, through his intellect, exists for himself as an individual, while through his general habits and customs he loses his individuality and spontaneity). § 19. Education has a definite object in view and it proceeds by grades of progress toward it. The systematic tendency is essential to all education, properly so called. § 20. Division of labor has become requisite in the higher spheres of teaching. The growing multiplicity of branches of knov/ledge creates the necessity for the specialist as teacher. With this tendency to specialties it becomes more and more difficult to preserve what is so essential to the pupil — his rounded human culture and s^mmetr^'' of development. The citizen of modern civilization sometimes appears to be an artificial product by the side of the versatility of the savage man. § 21. From this necessity of the division of labor in modern times there arises the demand for two kinds of educational institutions — those devoted to general education (common schools, colleges, etc.), and special schools (for agriculture, medicine, mechanic arts, etc). § 22. The infinite i)ossibility of culture for the individual leaves, of course, his actual accomplishment a mere approximation to a complete education. Born idiots are excluded from the possibility of education, because the lack of universal ideas in their consciousness The Science of Education. 43 precludes to that class of unfortunates anything beyond a mere mechanical training. § 23. Spirit, or mind, makes its own nature ; it is what it pro- duces — a self-result. From this follows the/(>?-m of education. It commences with ( 1 ) undeveloped mind — that of the infant — wherein nearly all is potential, and but little is actualized; (2) its first stage of development is self-estrangement — it is absorbed in the observa- tion of objects around it; (3) but it discovers laws and principles (universality) in external nature, and finally identifies them with rea- son — it comes to recognize itself in nature — to recognize conscious mind as the creator and preserver of the external world — and thus becomes at home in nature. Education does not create, but it eman- cipates. § 24. This process of self-estrangement and its removal belongs to all culture. The mind must fix its attention upon whai is foi'eign to it, and penetrate its disguise. It will discover its own substance under the seeming alien being. Wonder is the accompaniment of this stage of estrangement. The love of travel and adventure arises from this basis. § 25. Labor is distinguished from play : The former concentrates its energies on some object, with the purpose of making it conform to its will and purpose ; pla}- occupies itself with its object according to its caprice and arbiti-ariness, and has no care for the results or pro- ducts of its activity ; work is prescribed by authority, while play is necessarily spontaneous. § 26. Work and Play: the distinction between tliem. In play the child feels that he has entire control over the object with which he is dealing, both in respect to its existence and the object for which it exists. His arbitrary will may change both with perfect impunity, since all dei)ends upon his caprice ; he exercises his powers in play ac- cording to his natural proclivities, and therein finds scope to devel- ope his own individuality. In work, on the contrary, he must have respect for the object with which he deals. It must be held sacred against his caprice, must not be destroyed nor injured in any way, and its object must likewise be respected. His own personal inclinations must be entirely subordinated, and the business that he is at work upon must be carried forward in accordance with its own ends and aims, and without reference to his own feelings in the matter. Thus work teaches the pupil the lesson of self-sacrifice (the right of superiority which the general interest possesses over the particular), while play develops his personal idiosyncrasy. 44 The Science of Education. § 27. Without play, the child would become more and more a ma- chine, and lose all freshness and spontaneity — all originality. With- out work, he would develop into a monster of caprice and arbitrari- ness. From the fact that man must learn to combine with man, in order that the individual may avail himself of the experience and labors of his fellow-men, self-sacrifice for the sake of combination is the great lesson of life. But as this sliould be voluntary self-sacrifice, education must train the child equally in the two directions of spon- taneity and obedience. The educated man finds recreation in change of work. § 28. Education seeks to assimilate its object — to make what was alien and strange to the pupil into something familiar and habitual to him. [The ])upil is to attack, one after the other, the foreign realms in the world of nature and man, and conquer them for his own, so that he can be "' at home " in them. It is the necessary condition of all grovvth, all culture, that one widens his own individuality by this conquest of new provinces alien to him. By this the individual transcends the narrow limits of particularity and becomes generic — the individual becomes the species. A good definition of education is this: it is the process by which the individual man elevates himself to the species.] § 29. (1) Therefore, the first requirement in education is that the pupil shall acquire the habit of subordinating his likes and dislikes to the attainment of a rational object. It is necessary that he shall acquire this indifference to his own pleasure, even by employing his powers on that which does not ap- peal to his interest in the remotest degree. § 30. Habit soon makes us familiar with those subjects which seemed so remote from our personal interest, and they become agree- able to us. The objects, too, assume a new interest upon nearer ap- proach, as being useful or injurious to us. That is useful which serves VIS as a means for the realization of a rational purpose; injurious, if it hinders such realization. It happens that objects are useful in one sense and injurious in another, and vice versa. Education must make the pupil capable of deciding on the usefulness of an object, by reference to its effect on his permanent vocation in life. § 31. But good and evil are the ethical distinctions wliicli furnish the absolute standard to which to refer the question of the usefulness of objects and actions. § 32. (2) Habit is (a) passive, or (b) active. The passive habit s that wiiich gives us the power to retain our equipoise of mind in the The Science of Education. 45 midst of a world of changes (pleasure and pain, grief and joy, etc). The active habit gives us skill, presence of mind, tact in emergen- cies, etc. § 33. (3) Education deals altogether with the formation of habits. For it aims to make some condition or form of activity into a second nature for the pupil. But this involves, also, the breaking up of previ- ous habits. This power to break up habits, as well as to form them, is necessary to the freedom of the individual. § 34. Education deals with these complementary relations (an- titheses): (a) authority and obedience; (b) rationality {general forms) and individuality ; (c) work and play ; (d) habit (general cus- tom) and spontaneity. The development and reconciliation of these opposite sides in the pupil's character, so that they become his second nature, removes the phase of constraint which at first accompanies the formal inculcation of rules, and the performance of prescribed tasks. The freedom of tlie pupil is the ultimate object to be kept in view, but a too early use of freedom may work injury to the pupil. To remove a pupil from all temptation would be to remove possi- bilities of growth in strength to resist it ; on the other hand, to ex- pose him needlessly to temptation is fiendish. § 35. Defoi'raities of character in the pupil should be carefully traced back to their origin, so that they may be explained by their history. Only by comprehending the historic growth of an organic defect are we able to prescribe tlie best remedies. § 36. If the negative behavior of the pupil (his bad behavior) results from ignorance due to his own neglect, or to his wilfulness, it should be met directl}' b}' an act of authority on the part of the teacher (and without an appeal to reason). An appeal should be made to the understanding of the pupil only when he is somewhat mature, or shows by his repetition of the offence that his proclivity is deep-seated, and requires an array of all good influences to rein- force his feeble resolutions to amend. § 37. Reproof, accompanied bj- threats of punishment, is apt to de- generate into scolding. § 38. After the failure of other means, punishment should be resorted to. Inasmuch as the punishment should be for the pur- pose of making the pupil realize that it is the consequence of his deed returning on himself, it should always be administered for some pai'ticular act of his, and this should be specified. The "overt act" is the only thing which a man can be held account- able for in a court of justice ; although it is true that the harboring 46 The Science of Education. of evil thoughts or intentions is a sin, yet it is not a crime until realized in an overt act. § 40. Punishment sliould be regulated, not by abstract rules, but in view of the particular case and its attending circumstances. § 41. Sex and age of pupil should be regarded in prescribing the mode and degree of punishment. Corporal punishment is best for pupils who are ver}'^ immature in mind ; wlien they are more developed they may be punished by any imposed restraint upon their free wills which will isolate them from the ordinary routine followed by their fellow-pupils. (Deprivation of the right to do as others do is a wholesome species of punishment for those old or mature enough to feel its effects, for it tends to secure respect for the regular tasks by elevating them to the rank of rights and privileges.) For young men and women, the punishment should be of a kind that is based on a sense of honor. § 42. (1) Corporal punishment should be properly administered by means of the rod, subduing wilful defiance by the application of force. § 43. (2) Isolation makes the pupil realize a sense of his depend- ence upon human society, and upon the expression of this dependence b}' cooperation in the common tasks. Pupils should not be shut up in a darkroom, nor removed from the personal supervision of the teacher. (To shut up two or more in a room without supervision is not isola- tion, but association ; only it is association for mischief, and not for study. ) § 44. (3) Punishment based on the sense of honor may or may not be based on isolation. It implies a state of maturity on the part of the pupil. Through his offence the pupil has destroyed his equality with his fellows, and has in reality, in his inmost nature, isolated himself from them. Corporal punishment is external, but it may be accompanied with a keen sense of dishonor. Isolation, also, may, to a pupil, who is sensitive to honor, be a severe blow to self-respect. But a punishment founded entirely on the sense of honor would be wholly internal, and have no external discomfort attached to it. § 45. The necessity of carefully adapting the punishment to the age and maturity of the pupil, renders it the most difficult part of the teacher's duties. It is essential that the air and manner of the teacher who punishes should be that of one who acts from a sense of painful duty, and not from any delight in being the cause of suffer- ing. Not personal likes and dislikes, but the rational necessity which The Science of Education. 47 is over teacher and pupil alike, causes the infliction of pain on the pupil. § 46. Punishment is the final topic to be considered under the head of "Form of Education." In the act of punishment the teacher abandons the legitimate prov- ince of education, which seeks to make the pupil rational or obedient to what is reasonable, as a habit, and from his own free will. The pupil is punished in order that he may be made to conform to the rational, by the application of constraint. Another will is substituted for the jHipii's, and good behavior is produced, but not by the pupil's free act. While education finds a negative limit in punishment, it finds a positive limit in the accomplishment of its legitimate object, which is the emancipation of the pupil from the state of imbecility, as regards mental and moral self-control, into tlie ability to direct himself rationally. When the pupil has acquired the discipline which enables him to direct his studies properly, and to control his inclina- tions in such a manner as to pursue his work regularly, the teacher is no longer needed for him — he becomes his own teacher. There may be two extreme views on this subject — the one tending towards the negative extreme of requiring the teacher to do every- thing for the pupil, substituting his will for that of the pupil, and the other view tending to the positive extreme, and leaving everything to the pupil, even before his will is trained into habits of self-control, or his mind provided with the necessary elementary branches requisite for the prosecution of further stnd3\ § 47. (1) The subjective limit of education (on the negative side) is to be found in the individuality of the pupil — the limit to his natural capacity. § 48. (2) The objective limit to education lies in the amount of time that the person may devote to his training. It, therefore, depends largely upon wealth, or other fortunate circumstances. § 49. (3) The absolute limit of education is the positive limit (see § 46), beyond which the youth passes into freedom from the school, as a necessary instrumentality for further culture. § 50. The pre-arranged pattern-making work of the school is now done, but self-education may and should go on indefinitely, and will go on if the education of the school has really arrived at its " abso- lute " limit — i. e., has fitted the pupil for self-education. Emanci- pation from the school does not emancipate one from learning through his fellow-men. Man's spiritual life is one depending ui)on cooperation with his fellow-men. Each must avail himself of the 48 The Science of Education. experience of his fellow-men, and in turn communicate his own experience to the common fund of the race. Thus each lives the life of the whole, and all live for each. School-education gives the pupil the instrumentalities with which to enable him to participate in this fund of experience — this common life of the race. After school- education comes the still more valuable education, which, however, without the school, would be in a great measure impossible. ERRATA. 2 26. Last two paragraphs should be within quotation marks, being from an English author. 2 29. The second and third paragraphs belong to ^ 30. — the numbering being omitted. 2 33. Line four — "instructive" should be "intuitive." A PARAPHRASE Di Dr J lUO. T/z.^ translation of this valuahle work ivas pub- lished in 1872, and has met ivitli a wide and hospitable I'eception. The present Paraphrase and Analysis has been undertaken with a view to pre- sent the thoughts of the author in a more popular form, and thus make them accessible to a still larger public. Ihis work makes a pav^phlet of J^8 pages, which may be had separate or bound with the Translation of Pedagogics. PRICE PREPAID BY MAIL: For Paraphrase, Part I., pamphlet, 50 cents. For Pedagogics as a System, with the Para- phrase as an appendix, in one volume, bound in musliji, $1.50. Address, WM. T. HARRIS, - Box 2398, St. Louis, Mo. THE JOURNAL OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY. PUBLISHED QUARTERLY, IN ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI. It is intended as a vehicle for such transUitions, commentaries, and original articles as will best promote the interests of Speculative Philosophy in all its departments. TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION: Three dollars per volume ; single number, 75 cents. Vols. I and II, bound in one volume, in muslin, will be sent by mail for $5.00. Vol. Ill, Vol. IV, Vol. V, Vol. VI, Vol. Vn, Vol. Vin, Vol. IX, Vol. X, Vol. XI, and Vol. XII, in muslin, $3.00 each. Back volumes (unbound) may be had at $2.00 per volume. To English subscribers the price is 16s per volume, 4s per number. All foreign subscribers should order through Messrs. Triibner & Co., 57 Ludgate Hill, London. All subscriptions (within the United States) should be addressed to the Editor, •WM. T. HARRIS, Box 2398, St. Louis, Mo. CONTENTS OF THE TWELFTH VOLUME. Contents of No. 1. I. Spencer's Definition of Mind. II. Hegel on Symbolic Art. III. The Nation and the Commune. IV. The Science of Education. V. Boole's Logical Method. VI. Notes and Discussions: — a) Sonnet to the Venus of Milo ; (2) Emanuel Hvalgren's System; (3) Notes on Hegel and his Critics; (4) Sentences in Prose and Verse. Contents of No. 2. I. The World as Force. II. Von Hartmann on the True and False in Darwinism. III. Hegel on Classic Art. IV. Fichte's Criticism of Schelling. V. Christianity and the Clearing- up. VI. Schelling on the Historical Construc- tion of Christianity. VII. Notes and Discussions: —In Memo- riam. Contents of No. 3. I. Some Considerations on the Notion of Space. II. Brute and Human Intellect. III. Hegel on Classic Art. IV. The Science of Education. V. Fichte's Criticism of Schelling. VI. Notes and Discussions: — (1) Sentences in Prose and Verse ; (2) Spiritual Epigrams; (3) A Fragment of the " Semitic" Philosopoy; (4) Dr. Pllei- derer's Philosophy of Religion ; (5) On the Multiplicity of Conscious Beings; (6) Polycrates sends Ana- creon Five Talents. Contents of No. 4. I. Christianity and the Clearing- up. II. Schiller's Ethical Studies. III. Jacobi anil fho Philosojihy of Faith. IV. Hegel on RouKuUic Art. V. Statement and Reduction of Syllogism. VI. Notes and Discussions: — (I) The Mor- al Purpose of Tourguenetf ; (2) Dr. Parson's Translation of Dante's Purgatorio. N. B.— Green muslin covers for binding the Journal can be had at 40 cents each (including postage). Any one sending for covers should specify which volume he wishes to bind, inas- much as the ninth is thicker than the others. Volumes I and II, bound together, are the same thickness with Vol. IX. THE SCIENCE EDUCATIO]^; OR :^^ Translated by A/ma U. Brackett from the German of CarL Rosenkranz, Professor af Philosophy at the University of Konigsberg. This work recommends itself to the thinking student of Education as tha clearest and most systematic exposition of the Philosophy ot Education. Its author, who has filled for forty years the chair of Philosophy at the Uuiversit-v of Konigsberg, is, in the best sense of that terra, an eclectic. Thoroughly ac- quainted with the present and past developments in Philosophy, both German and Greek, he has done very nuicli to make the deepest insights ot Hegel and Kant accessible to the popular reader. Especially in classilicatioa his genius appears to best advantage; the learned and profound work of Professor Schmid on the History of Pedagogics follows the scheme of division and classification set forth in this work of Rosenkranz. It is not voluminous, but suggestive in its minutest details. To the student of Psychology it is unusually interesting, as exhibiting the unfolding of the stages of mind in connection with the periods of life, and, besides this, a more complete sketch of the national development of these stages in the history of the world. In the latter respect, it forms an outline of the PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY. THIS BOOK IS RECOMMENDED I. To teachers who desire to gain an insight, by private study, into the princi- ples underlying their profession. [[. To Normal Schools as a text-book on the Theory and History of Education, or as a book of reference. III. To the private student of Sociology, for whom it w'll possess special value as unfolding the principles of social and political development in History. PRICE PRE-PAID BY MAIL. Bound neatly in green muslin, $1.50 per copy. Bound in paper cover, (uncut,) $1 .00 pe.r copy. 3^»A discount of one-third will be made from these prices if six copies oi more are ordered at a time. Addres? WM. T. HARRIS, Box 2398, St. Louis, Mo. Scheme of Classification of Pedagogics as a System. Education i iu its General idea Part I. in its Special Elements Part II. in its Particular Systems Part III. its Nature its Form its Limits Physical Intellectual Moral National Passive Active Individual C Family Caste . . Monkish . f Military . ■{ Priestly . I (. Industrial r ^Esthetic J Practical . I Abstract In (. dividual . China. . India. . Thibet. Persia. Egypt. PhaMiicia. Greece. Rome. j Northern ( Barbarians. Tlieocratic Jews. Monkish Humanita- rian Chivalric r for Special (Jesuitic. Callings I pietistic. i, tor Civil Life ■{ to achieve an 1 Weal of Cul- I ture fThe Huma- nities. The Philan- throi)ic, .Movcin't. (. for Free Citizenshii). This work makes a neat volume of about one hundred and fifty pages, and is arranged methodical Ij-, and divided into sections in such a manner as to fit it most admirably for a text-book for Normal Schools. As such it might profitably occupy the place in the course of study usually devoted to Mental Philosophy and Tlieory and Art of Teaching. It is emphatically a book for profound study — a book that Avill continually grow in appreciation the more it is studied. "While it is a compend of the entire subject, covering as it does, frst, a treatment of the nature, form, and limits of Education; secondly, its special elements, physical, intellectual, and moral; th'rdhj, a philosophic survey of the history of Education in all parts of the world; — on tlie other hanl, it is not so voluminous as to oblige the teacher to us3 it in n frag- mentary manner. It is just what a text-book ought to be — full of suggestions. ^ ^ si™ ^ .'w Hi' I "^' li „^ 1